UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS

LIBRARY

SrbCiAL
COLLECTIONS ;
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108
P54
V.2

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MEMOIRS ^yy.

OF THE > V/%^

PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY

FOR PROMOTING AG R ICU LTJJ R E,

CONTAINING

COMMUNICATIONS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS
IN

HUSBANDRY & RURAL AFFAIRS.

TO WHICH IS ADDED,

AT THE REQUEST OF THE SOCffiTY,

''AGRICULTURAL IJ^'QUIRIES OjY PLAISTER OF PARISH

VOL. IL

" Let us cultivate the ground, that the poor, as well as the rich, may be filled ; and happinss^
' and peace be established throughout our bonlcrs."'

Tentanda Via est, qiui nos quoque possiinus tollere Humo :•

PUBLISHED BY JOHNSON & "WARNER, AND SOLD AT THEIR BOOK STORKS,
IN PHILADELPHIA, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, AND LEXINGTON KENTUCKY.

PRINTED BY JANE AITKEN.

1811.

PS3 vX

DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, to wit .

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the second day of Januaiy in
the thirty fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America,,
A. D. 1811. Johnson & Warner of the said District, have deposited in this
Office, the Title of a Book, the Right whereof they claim as Proprietors,
in the words following-, to luit :

" Memohs of the Philadelphia Society for promoting" Agriculture. Con-
staining Communications on various Subjects in Husbandry and Rural Af-
'' fairs. To which is added at the request of the Society, Agricultural In-
" quiiies on Plaister of Paris, Vol. 11.

" Let us cultivate the ground, that the poor, as well as the rich, may be
" filled i and happiness and peace be established throughout our borders."
" Tentanda via est, qua nos quoque possimus toUere Humo :

In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, intituled,
"An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of
Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies,
during the times therein mentioned" And also to the Act, entitled "An
Act, supplementary to an Act, entitled *' An Act for the encouragement of
Leaniing, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Au-
thors and Proprietors of such Copies, dvu'ing the time therein mentioned,"
and extending the benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engravin"-,
t»nd etching historical and other prints."

D. CALDWELL,

Cleri of the District of .Peniisylvanta.

PREFACE

AT length we have completed another volume, which
will be a proo; of our perseverance ; with whatever other
consequences it may be attended. In it will be found many-
useful pieces of information^ though novelty may not at-
tract the merely curious inquirer. To practical men, the
developement of old operations, tested by experience, are
more important, than new discoveries : yet some of evei>
these will be seen. Nothing injures agriculture more than
whimsical novelties ; except bigotted adherence to old and
bad habits. It should be the aim of all agricultural publica-
tions, to record and promulgate good practices j and to ex-
tinguish, by practical and well ascertained facts, the mischiefs,
or insufficiency, of old and inveterately bad customs. New
discoveries seldom occur : but when they are known, they
should be examined with care, and received with caution ;
but without prejudice. When tested by experience, they should
be added to the store of profitable lessons j and explained
and enforced by intelligence and industry. Agriculture,
like the Common Law, is more indebted, lor its best principles,
to precedents founded on wisdom and experience, than it is
to the presumed improvements ot theorists, and speculative
experimenters. This is enough for us to concede, to those
who receive every thing zvritt en with d strust and hesitation;
and suppose that none are acquainted with husbandry, but
those who hold the handles ot the plough. To those who
began with theories, originating in ingenious and speculative
opinions, philosophy, and the arts and sciences, are highly in-
debted for some of their best principles. Pursuits with the fatu-=

3-^lU^

iv Preface,

ous view to the discovery of the philosopher's stone, or other
dreams of alchymists to achieve the transmutation of metals,
have originated some of the most important facts, now known
and practised upon. No small portion of agricultural improve-
ment now flourishes under the discoveries of men, deemed,
bv prejudice, equally wild and visionary. This should therefore
warn practical farmers against the ruinous foes to their own
prosperity, — ^the incredulity and prejudice with which they
receive (if they take the trouble to read them) -written com-
miinications : and those more especially, which contain che-
mical and philosophical principles, applied to the art of prac-
tical husbandr)- ; from which agriculture derives most essen-
tial advantages.

Having, with the most affectionate attachment, addressed
ourselves to practical farmers ; we take the liberty, most re-
spectfully, to say a few words, to those of our fellow-citizens
who ai-e not immediately employed in husbandry ; while they
prosper on the produce of the toils and anxieties of husband-
men. They celebrate and enjoy in tlieir feasts, v/ith great
ardour and approbation, the blessings of agriculture ; and
place it in alphabetical order, as it is in fact, as the first of
arts. But here ends their zeal. Not through defect of patriot-
ism, but through want of conviction, that more than their good
wishes are required. Yet agriculturists are thankful for this
testimony in their praise ; and gratified by the libations plente-
ously poured out in honour of their art. While commerce,
which is but its hand-maid, receives highly profitable, though
not always sufficient, attentions, (and so it ought, as its interests
and those of husbandr^^are indissolubly united) agriculture,
its foundation, is left to find its own auxiliaries and security ;
and must, unassisted, take its chance for progress and prospe-
rity. Legislative attention is scantily afforded ; and private
aid is little seen, or felt. If a few zealous individuals step
forward, to stimulate and advance its interests, they are left to
consume their zeal by its own efforts. These are slow in their

Preface, v

operations, and not promptly influential in their effects. Indivi-
duals are thus discouraged from forming associations, for agri-
cultural purposes. We believe there are few of the kind, in
activity, to the southward of Pennsylvania. We deplore this
state of things, not as it respects ourselves ; for xve presume
on no claims to peculiar support or attention ; nor have we
the vanity to identify ourselves with the subject of our in-
stitution. The observations are general, and too well founded,
We, 'tis true, have made an effort, hitherto ineffectual, to in-
crease our numbers and our funds. Although it has not had
its effect, we trust that, when understood and more generally
known, it will yet be successful. The plan is in the volume,
and submitted to our fellow citizens, for their consideration.
■ It will be seen that our correspondents, however personally
respectable, are not extensively increased. This has forced
on some of our members, the necessity of repeated efforts,
to add to our stock of information. They, most willingly,
would have given place to others, had they came forward to
afford their assistance. We mention not these circumstances
in a style of complaint ; but as facts, in support of our asser-
tions; and with the hope, that more desirable prospects Vvdll
soon open, to gratify our wishes.

We shall patiently wait for convictions of its importance,
and essential use to all their prosperity, to impress the sub-
ject of our endeavours on the minds of our fellow citizens.
If our efforts produce no immediate effects ; we shall be
content, that, with the best intentions, we " cast our bread
upon the waters" to be " found," bv those for whose ser-
vice we disinterestedly exert ourselves, "after many days."

We, however, flatter ourselves, that our humble efforts have
not been entirely vain and unproductive. On the contrary,
we are persuaded, that important benefits have accrued. But
the extent of them cannot be otherwise than limited, and not
generally influential ; v/hjle they flow from the endeavours

vi Preface.

. .. ■ ^

of a few. We arc abundantly happy to perceive, every
%vhere, agiicultural improvement ; growing even under the
praise-worthy skill and labours oi' unconnected individuals ;
not enjoying the advantages, which a knowledge of the suc-
cess o'" others, in approved practices, would impart. Yet, un-
less a general spirit of systematical improvement can be
roused, the progress must be slovv^. We see the extent of the
ground ; but feel ourselves inadequate to the occupation of '
it. When speculation, and a thirst for instant gain, find ob-
jects of employment tending to immediate . profit, real or
fanciful, ardour in the pursuit is rapid and active. But when
results are produced by combinations not strikingly apparent,
we are not disappointed when we find, that much time and
pains are required, to produce general attention, and salutary
conviction.

It is vain to say, that agriculture is sufficiently encouraged,
by those who take off and consume, or deal in, its products.
This may be said of any other branch of labour, art, employ.
ment, or pursuit. It has been found, in all ages and coun-
tries, that the cultivators of the soil require peculiar atten-
tion to instruction in their own art. Genius, learning, pa-
triotism, wealth and power, have been, from the remotest
times, employed in their encouragement. This encourage-
ment has ever been deemed the most honourable, and the
brightest ornament, to the characters of those who bestow^ed it.

The wise and good leader of the patriots of his day, who
v/as an instrument, in the hands of heaven and his country,
to lay the foundations of our present prosperity (unexam-
pled in other regions of our globe, though deplorable and
vexatious casualities, unjust and oppressive trespasses, and
inortifying interruptions, too o/ten lop its exuberancesj
was, in addition to his other virtues, distinguished for his
ardent devotion to the interests of agriculture ; and de^
lighted in its practical pursuits. He has erected lor himself,
a MONUMENT to his fame, in the happiness of his country.

Preface, vli

JEvery field, smiling under the toils and economy of the hus-
bandman^— every sail wafting the treasures of commerce, —
every tabric raised by wealth and taste, for comfort and
convenience, — or splendor and enjoyment,; — all the blessings
which religious or civil institutions shed around them, — all
the products of the useful, or elegant, arts, — and, — ^the ce-
ment and security of the whole,— the freedom and indepen-
dence of our country, — are the rich and invaluable materials,
of which this monument is composed ; — and agriculture

IS ITS BASE.

This capacious monumental pyramid, — ^thus splendidly
ornamented, — visible to all the civilized world, — limit-
ed in its site, only by the territorial boundaries of our
nation, — ^has, inimitably, anticipated the faltering chissel of
the tardy sculptor. Unless the desolating volcano of dis-
cord, should whelm his and our beloved country, in its ex-
terminating lava, it will, through ages yet to come, defy the
tooth, and the ravages, of time.

Fame, long the faithful eulogist of the atchievements of
our departed military chief, and those of the brave and
patriotic band, — his companions in arms, — ^now intermits its
clangors, or lays aside, her justly boastful and far-sounding
trump. She attires herself in the peaceful garb, and is
decked with the emblems, of Ceres. Admiring this stupen-
dous memorial of the civic virtues of the father of his
country, and his venerated compatriots, she displays them
for imitation. She hovers o'er its pinnacle, or visits its
apartments ; and encourages, by recitals of Washington's
precepts and example, our own citizens, in the ways of well-
doing. She invites, — not the ambitious, the visionary, or the
restless and disappointed ; but the worthy and ingenious, of all
descriptions and countries ; — and peculiarly the industrious
and sober husbandman and artizan, — from the trou'bles and
oppressions which afBict them, mthe desolated and subjugat-
ed portions of Europe, She allures, without anxious or un-

viii Preface,

dignified solicitation, yet with sympathy and welcome, the
heavy laden, to lay down their burthens ; and here take, —
not indolent rest, but, — active, profitable, and useful em-
ployment. To this she entices, urges, and animates, by dis-
playing the benefits derived from it, to all engaged in the
culture of our fields ; as well as to those who sul)sist and
prosper on the fruits of the husbandman's toils. She awa-
kens their attention, and rouses their emulation and exertion,
by casting enlivening rays, from the uplifted Torch of
Ceres, on the exuberant Horn of plenty ; — continually
diffusing its blessings, and therefore constantly requiring to be
replenished and supplied.

Public gratitude, hitherto lingering and dilatory, may,
even thus late, rouse the government of our nation; — grown
great and prosperous, on the fruits of the virtues and labours
of our admired and lamented hero and patriot. The effu-
sions of patriotism may yet rescue our country, from the
stain of unpardonable and impolitic neglect, by animating
private citizens to raise to his memory, a monument, ho-
nourable to them ; though (however highly decorated) less
brilliant than that He had founded, for his country and himself.
Should this desirable event occur, — let the fact be recorded,
on the most conspicuous of its tablets, — that " the encour-
agement OF agricultural improvement, and informa-
tion, was among the favourite wishes of his heart.'^

CONTENTS

Page.

A?i Act to incorporate the Philadelphia Society^ for

promoting Agriculture^ - - - - ix

Article Tenth altered^ - - - - xi

Officers of the Society for \^\\^ - - xiji

New members elected^ - - - - ibid

Honorary members^ - - - - - xiv

Address of the Society to their fellow citizens^ xv

CONTENTS OF THE MEMOIRS.

I. Some hints concerning Lime^ occasioned by read-
ing Darwin^ s Phytologia^ by John Lang^ - - 1

II. On Harrowijig Wheat in the springs by John
Lang^ - ' - - - 9

III. On Peach Trees, by Wm. Phillips, - - 12

IV. On Onions, by TFm. Phillips, - - 17

V. On Onions, by John Lang, - - 19

VI. On Live Hedges, by Abednigo Robinsoji, 24

VII. On Disease of Swijie, by J, P, De Gruchy, 28

VIII. Colonel Pickering on Hedges, - - 34

IX. On Hoven Cattle, by John Steele, - - 39

XX

CONTENTS.

Page.

X. Observations, by K. Peters, - - 41

XL Relative to Hedges, by Paul Cooper, - - 44

XII. O71 Corn, by Joseph Lyman, - - 46

XIII. On Gypsum, by John Taylor, - - 51

XIV. Observations on Col. Taylor's letter, by R,
Peters, - - - - - 63

XV. On Gypsum, by John Taylor, - . - 75

XVI. On Fruit and Fruit Trees, by Samuel
Preston, - - - - - 79

XVII. On Apple Trees and Grafting, by S,
Preston, - - - - - 89

X\^III. On Virginia Husbandry, by John Tayloe, 100

XIX. Remarks, - - - 103

XX. On Leeched Ashes as a manure, by Thomas
Xexvbold, - - . 105

XXI. On Bees, by S. H Smith, - - 107

XXII. Plan for establishi?ig a Manufactory of
Agricultural Instruments ; and a Warehouse
and Repository for receivi?ig and vending theniy

by Richard Peters, - - - 113

XXIII. Extirpation of Wild Garlick, by Alger-
non Roberts, - - - 120

XXIV. Observations, by Richard Peters, - 122

XXV. The Field Pea, by Richard Peters, - 132

XXVI. On Garlick, by Paul Busti, - - 134

XXVII. On Moles, by Dr. Barton, - - 137

XXVIII. Foreign Grain sent for seed, A new
plough and experiments therewith at Dreville
the seat of Daniel Parker, Esq. near Paris, by
John Armstrong, - 140

CONTENTS,

Page.

XXIX. Eulogium on Wnu TFest^ by James Mease ^

. M.B. - - - . 147

XXX. On Mildew^ hy Timothy Pickerings 164

XXXI. Some thoughts upon Mildew, by a A^exv-
Englandman, - - - - 166

XXXII. On Salt as a manure^' by Richard Pe-
ters, - . - - _ 173

XXXIII. On Tough Sod, Star oj Bethlehem,

and Blue Bottle, by Richard Peters, - 178

XXXIV. Some observations -on Fruit Trees, by
Edward Garrigues, Obsei^vations thereon, 183

XXXV. On Oat Pasture and Improvement of
Soils, by iniliam Youngs - - 186

XXXVI. 071 Soiling Cattle: mixed cultivation of
Corn and Potatoes, by John Lorain, - - 200

XXXVII. The Efficacy of Sulphur on vegeta-
tion, by Richard Peters, - - 206

XXXVIII. Tunis, Broad' tailed. Mountain- Sheep,

by Richard Peters, - - 211

XXXIX. On Tunis Mountain Sheep- Wool, 240
XL. Breeding In and In, - - 245
XLI. On Sheep 'Jcilling Dogs, by Richard Peters, 247
XLII. Explanation of the Plate ^ - - 254
XLIII. Extract from the Essay on Sheep-— their

varieties y ^c, - - - 257

XLIV. Proofs of the originality and high estima-
tion of Broad- tailed Sheep, by Richard Peters, i
XLV. Heads of Lease for Richard Peters^ s Bel-

tnont Farm, - - - 260

XL VI. Heads of Richard Peters'' s Leases to Ten-
ants on Shares, Extracted from the Lease of
Belmont Farm, . . .- 263

CONTENTS.

Page.

266

XLVIL Covenants to perform articles before
enumerated ; and some additions and explana-
tions^ - - -
XL VIII. On Liming Land, by Richard Peters, 272
XLIX. On Wheat, by Z. Hollingsworth, - 288
L. Deterioration of Grain, by Richard Peters, • 290
LI. Advantages of Agricultural Tours. On Gle-
ditsia Triacanthos, or Honey Locust, Hedges,
by William Raxvle, - - ^ - 291
LI I. On Liming Land, by John Lang, - 299
LIU. Analysis of American Limestone, by James

Cutbush, chemist and apothecary, - 305

LIV. Monsieur Thouin^s Letter, sent with a Box

of Seeds, - - - - • - - 308

LV. Directions for the Purchaser ofJocelin'^s Pa-
tent Pruning- Shears, - - - - 310

LVI. On Soiling Cattle on Broom Corn^ and Gui-
nea Corn as Green Food for Cattle, by John
Ijoroin, - - - - - -313

LVII. Remarks on the Culture of the Guinea Corn

or Rolens Spicatus, by C. Drayton, Jun, 316

LVIII. Profit of Soiling Cattle, by John J.orain, 319
LIX. On a Wool Micrometer, by Richard Peters, 325
LX. Directions for using the Micrometer, - 329
LXI. Farther remarks on mixed crops of Corn and

Potatoes, by John Lorain, - - - 330
LXIL On Soiling Cattle, by John Ijorain, - 338
LXI II. On the Salivary De fluxions in Horses, by

William Young, A, Perlee and W, Bakhvin, 350
LXIV. Changes of Timber and Plants. Races of

Animals Extinct, by Richard Peters, - 357

CONTENTS.

Agricidtiiral Inquiries on Plaister of Paris, hij Richard
Peters Esq.

SELECTIONS IN APPENDIX,

Page.

I. On Hedging, by Thomas Main, District of

Cohunhia, - - - . - - - 2

II. Method of Stabbing Hoven Cattle, by W.
Wallis Mason, of Goodrest lodge, near fFa?^ick, 43

III. On Planting Corn, by John Lyman^ - 47

PLATES.

\. Draveil Plough, - - - - 140

IL Tunis Sheep, - - - -- 211

CUTS.

I. Patent Pruning Sheai's, - - - 312

II. TFool Micrometer, - - - - 328

III. Trocar. - .... - 46

%

AN ACT,

TO INCORPORATE THE

PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY,
FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.

WHEREAS a number of persons desirous of promo-
tine; agriculture m this country, have tor that purpose asso-
ciated themselves in the city of Philadelfhia, and it is the
manifest interest of free governments to cherish and encourage
institutions o' such a nature : There lore,

Sect. I. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre^
sentatives of the Connionzuealth of Pennsylvania in General As'
$embly met^ and it is hereby enacted by authority of thesamCy
That the persons v/ho now constitute the Philadelphia society,
for promoting agriculture, or who shall hereafter be admitted
members o' the sam.^, shall be, and hereby are declared to be a
body politic and corporate ior the term of ten years, from and
after the passing ol this act, by the name and style of," The
Philadelphia Society for promotmg Agriculture," to have
succession, to plead and be impleaded, sue and be sued, in
all courts of record or elsewhere, and be capable to take,
hold and enjoy lands, tenements and hereditaments, goods
and chattels, and the same from time to time to sell, grant,
demise alien and dispose of, to use a common seal, and to
alter or renew the same at pleasure : provided th^it the clear
yearly value of the real estate by them held shall at no time
exceed the sum of three thousand dollars.

b

Act of Incorporation.

Sect. II. And be it further enacted by the authority afore-
said, That the officers of the said corporation shall consist of
a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary, and such
other officers as the said corporation may think necessary,
who shall be elected annually or otherwise as the rules and
by laws of the corporation may direct.

Sect. III. And be it further enacted by the authority
aforesaid. That the said corporation when convened, upon
due notice given to the members by public advertisement
or otherwise, shall have power and authority to make ordain
and establish such, and so many rules, by-laws and ordinan-
ces relating to the times of meeting, the admission of mem-
bers the powers and duties of the officers thereof, and the
ordering of the other concerns of the said corporation, as
they may deem necessary and proper : provided. That no
rule, by-law or ordinance as aforesaid, shall be valid if incon-
sistent with the constitution and laws of this state or of the
United States.

Sect. IV. And he it further enacted by the authority
aforesaiu. That the present officers of the said society shall
continue in their respective stations until an election shall be
made under this act, and the rules by-laws and ordinances
now in force, not inconsistent with the constitution and laws
of this state, or of the United States, shall be good and valid
until altered amended or abrogated by the corporation,

JAMES ENGLE,

Speaker of the House of Representatives,

P. C. LANE,

Speaker of the Senate,

Approved — the fourteenth day of February, one thousand
eight hundred and nine :

SIMON SNYDER.

At the Annual Meeting January 1810, the 10th Law of
the Society^ was altered as follows ,*■—

ARTICLE X.

THE members of the society shall be distinguished into
resident^ honorary and contributing members.

Resident members shall consist of persons residing with-
in a convenient distance, to attend the meetings of the Socie-
ty at Philadelphia ; and these are defined to be such, only as
at the time of election, reside within ten miles of the said
city, on either side of the Delaware. All members of agri-
cultural societies, in other states and countries, with whom
we shall correspond ; and all persons of this state, and of
other states and countries, who shall be elected by us for the
purpose, shall be honorary inembers ; and are hereby invited
to assist at our meetings, whenever they come to Philadel-
phia. Strangers who desire to be present, as auditors, may
be introduced by a resident member.

Honorary contributing meinbers are of the description
hereafter mentioned.

Every citizen contributing, and paying into the hands of
the treasurer, a sum not less than Fifty Dollars, may be
elected, agreeably to the rules, an honorary member ; with-
out regard to place of residence. Those who thus laudably
enable us to extend the usefulness of the society, and pro-
mote its objects, are invited to assist at our meetings. They
will be styled honorary contributing members.

All donations and bequests for general purposes, shall be
faithfully used ; and regular accounts kept of their applica-
tion.

adi The Tenth Article Altered.

Such doaations or bequests as are given, granted, made
or devised, on terms directing their being used in, or applied
to, any particular branch or branches of husbandry, or rural
CEConomy -, or subjects connected therewith, shall, with all
due fidelity, be so used or applied. And if they, or any
of them, shall not be, at the time, sufficient to accomplish ihe
object designated, in whole or in part, they and every of
them, shall be placed in a situation, if practicable, to accu-
mulate ; until by additions of other means, the object inten-
ded can be effectuated.

The names, and amount and description of donations, of
aH citizens contributing pecuniary or other donations, o any
amount or description whatever, shall be registered, in a roll
kept for that special purpose. They will merit and receive
the thanks of the society, for the patriotism and public spirit,
evinced by their thus affording the means of accomplishing
the objects of our institution.

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY FOR 1811.

President— RICH.4JID PETERS.
Vice President— GEORGE CLYMER.

Treasurer— SAMUEL HODGDON.
Secret ARY--J AMES MEASE M. D.

COMMITTEE OF CORRESPONDENCE.

RICHARD PETERS.
GEORGE CLYMER.
JAMES MEASE M. D.
JOSEPH CLOUD.
JOHN VAUGHAN.

Members elected since the publication of the first volume.

Resident,

Abraham M'Garrigues, Philadelphia.

Reuben Haines, ditto

William Esher, ditto

George Esher, ditto

Theophilus Harris, ditto

Charles Lewis, ditto

John Lorain, ditto

Monsieur De Lormerie, ditto

J. B. M'Kean, ditto

P. M'Kell, ditto

George Kinnard, ditto

EUiston Perot, ditto

Charles Wister, ditto

David Caldwell, ditto

James Cutbush, chemist and apothecary, ditto

xiv New Members,

Honorary Members.

Dauiel Buckley, Lancaster County Pennsylvania.
Samuel D. Ingham, Bucks County, ditto

A. M'Calister, near Harrisburg, ditto

John Morrison, Jenkin town, ditto

David Moore, Chester County, ditto

Samuel West Chester County, ditto

Benjamin Hobhouse, President of Bath and west of En-
gland agricultural society.
Robert Barclay, of Berry Hill, Essex England*
Benjamin Waddington, Bath, ditto

John Cox. Burlington. County, N. Jersey.
John Nicholas Van Eys, Amsterdam.
John Armstrong, late minister of U. S. to France.
Monsieur de Cubieres near Paris.
Daniel Parker, ditto

Andrew F. Michaux, Paris.

Monsieur Thouin, Professor of Agriculture, national Mu-
seum Paris.

Benjamin Ives Gillman, Marietta, Ohio.
Monsieur Sylvester, Secretaiy to Agricultural Society,
Paris.

The following Members were omitted in vol. 1st, among
those elected previously to 1805.

Dr. Benjamin S. Barton, Professor of Natural History,
Materia Medica and Botany, in the University of Pennsyl-
vania.

^ Mr. Samuel Vaughan, of Jamaica.

* Mr. Charles Vaughan, ditto.

The following were omitted among the members elected
since the publication of the last volume.

C. N. Buck, Philadelphia.
Ralph Eddowes, ditto.

* Edward Duffield, Lower Dublin, Philadelphia county,
^ Thomas Moore, Montgomery county Maryland,

At the last annual meeting of the Agricultural Society,
February 1810, a gold medal, value fifty dollars, was
unanimously voted to John Taylor Esq. of Caroline county,
Virginia ; for his great exertions in raising live hedges ;
of which an account is given in the first volume of the So-
ciety's Memoirs.

[ XV ]

The following was published, with the foregoing Mtera-
tion oj the iOth Law of the Society.

Address of the Society to their Fellow Citizens,

THE Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture
have now nearly completed six years, since their revival from
a state of inactivity into which they had fallen. The causes,
which produced their former torpor, are not entirely remo-
ved. A zeal for the objects of their association, among the
inhabitants of this opulent, commercial, and manufacturing
city, has not appeared in the extent expected. There exists
among the citizens a mistaken opinion, that it is necessary
for every member of our society to be an agriculturalist,
either in practice or theory. Moderate contribution of either
money or time, and patronage afforded to the means of en-
creasing agricultural knowledge and practice, are the primary
requisites. These are within the power of most citizens,
whatever may be their occupations. The citizens of Phila-
delphia, are exceeded by those of no other part of the Uni-
ted States, in talents and capacity to promote the prosperity
of their country by encouragements to agriculture ; — the
foundation upon which the public happiness, comforts and
support are erected. There is no part of the United States,
in which such talents and capacity, can be more effectually
and beneficially employed, for the mutual prosperity of both
city and country. We have neither the presumption nor the
inclination to assume the office of censors ; nor do we deem
ourselves entitled to lead the public opinion ; nor to mention
any thing in a style, either of couiplaint or solicitation. Our
association is voluntary, our pursuits neither interested nor
selfish, and our efforts zealous, but, from necessity, limited
and inadequate. More efficient talents, and greater numbers

XVI

Address to the Citizens,

of active members, must be added, before our objects caa be
attained. An increase of funds is also indispensable. We
take the liberty of enumerating, briefly, some of the objects
at which we aim ; and we have published the act of incorpo-
ration, which the Legislature have been pleased to grant to
us ; that those who desire to give their assistance, through
us, to the all important subject of our association, may judge
for themselves. They will perceive, that we are now in a
legal capacity to receive donations, and to hold and secure
property, for the purposes of our institution. The design, and
means of accomplishing it, may be seen in the first volume
of our memoirs ; the publication whereof has made no small
deduction from our scanty funds.

1. We wish to receive and promulgate agricultural infor-
mation and intelligence both theoretical and practical ; pre-
ferring always the latter. In this object we have received
very flattering encouragement ; both in our own country, and
by the attentions of Societies and Individuals of other
Countries.

2. We have proposed Premiums to stimulate and encour-
age our agricultural fellov/ citizens, in that laudable emu-
lation, which gives vigour and effect to the efforts of indi-
viduals in every branch of agriculture, and the arts and
manufactures of which it is the source.

3. We desire to promote the establishment of a manufac-
tory of agricultural implements, and of every instrument,
and utensil required in operations connected with the prac-
tice of any, and every, branch of husbandry. Also, as part
of this establishment, a W^are Room for the exhibition and
sale, when approved and stamped under proper regulations,
of all such Implements, instruments and utensils. And also
for exposing to view, models and drafts, plans and projects
for improvements in husbandry and rural ceconomy.

4. A Pattern Farm^ on which every experiment in hus-
bandry may be made, and approved practice introduced.

Address to the Citizens^ xvii

Every probable theory may be herein brought to a practical
test; its uses shewn, or its fallacy detected. This would
become a school for disseminating agricultural knowledge ;
by means far more influential and instructive, than any here-
tofore devised.

5. A Veterinary Institution, for investigations into the
diseases of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine ; and preven-
tives and remedies ; as the means to gain and promulgate
the knowledge of both diseases and cures. Of such, espe-
cially, as are common, or peculiar to our climate and country,

6. To promote the formation of similar societies through
the state : and (if required) to co-operate with them in every
endeavour, to forward the objects of our own and their
establishments.

Some of these views may be, and now certainly are, in
the extent contemplated, beyond our present powers and pe-
cuniary means. But we must be satisfied with having at-
tempted the beginning of a plan, which may hereafter be
accomplished, however distant the period of success, may now
appear. That period may be wonderfully accelerated by the
aid and exertion, our fellow citizens have it in their power
amply to afford. We indulge an ardent hope, that the impor-
tance of a subject, in which we all are deeply interested, will
be more generally seen, and more highly appreciated.

Richard Peters, President,
James Mease, Secretary*
February y 1810.

MEMOIRS

OF THE

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF

PHILADELPHIA,

Some hints concerning Lime^ occasioned by reading Dar-
zifin^s Phytologia, By Jolm Lang,

Read August 9th, 1808.

WE have for some time past heard much talk about
two varieties of lime, the one useful or favourable to
the growth of vegetables, when used as a manure ; the
other hurtful or pernicious, and therefore not to be
used for that purpose ; the first is termed calcarious,
the other magnesian lime.

The first notice we have of this magnesian lime is
from a communication of Mr. Tennant, published in
the London Philosophical Transactions.

This is doubtless a subject of great importance to
farmers, and in my opinion deserves to be more fully
investigated. If all lime which contains magnesia is
only useless as a manure, it must be of great importance
to our farmers to be informed how they may be able to
distinguish this from the calcarious lime ; but much
more so if it is as Mr. Tennant says, .destructive to

VOL. II. A

On Lime,

veo-ctation, and that it diminishes ih^ fertility of the soil.
The distinguishing characteristics of these two varieties
of lime, mentioned by Mr. Tennant, it would seem,
can only be discovered either by analysing, (which pro-
cess farmers are generally ignorant of;) or by making
experiments by applying it to the soil. It is said that
magnesian lime when used in too great quantities ren-
ders the soil less fertile, and wherever a heap of it has
been left on one spot, vegetation will be prevented for
many years ; while of the other sort of lime, a large
quantity is never to be found injurious ; and that the
spots which are entirely covered with it, become re-
markably fertile, instead of being rendered barren.

From thf^ above statement it would appear that by far
the greatest proportion of all the limes used either in
this country or in Europe are of the magnesian kind,
or in other words must contain a certain proportion of
magnesia. For my own part I have never seen pure
calcarious lime, unless that made from calcined shells
may be denominated such ; though I must own I am
not chemist enough to be able to discover the magne-
sian lime, except by its effects upon the soil, as above
described by Mr. Tennant, and Dr. Darwin. The dis-
tinctions w^hich some farmers make, of hot and mild
lime, Mr. Tennant believes to mean magnesian and cal-
carious lime. And the Doctor says he is informed that
the magnesian lime is preferred in architecture, and is
said to go further in making mortar, &c. If this is the
case I think it will be admitted that all the lime used in
the United States, either for building or manure, is of
the hot or magnesian kind ;^ as it is well known diat the
lime of this country is generally stronger and of course

0?i Lime,

will go further in making mortar, or as a manure for
land than English lime. Were our farmers in this
country to discover lime of so mild a quality that this-
tles and grass would grow up through the sides of the
heaps of it; but at the same time it would require three
loads of this lime to produce the same effects upon
their land, as two loads of the lime now in use, I think
they would surely prefer the latter to the former.
Our farmers know very well that wherever they lay
their lime heaps, every particle of grass or other ve-
getables will be destroyed ; and that the spots on which
it lay will not bear any crop for a year or two after, un-
less they are careful to remove it so clean, that no more
shall remain on these spots, than the same proportion
which they spread over the rest of the field. They
likewise know that if they should leave their lime heaps
exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, to succes-
sive frosts and thaws, rains and snows, &c. it would in
time become as mild as the calcarious lime described
by Mr. Tennant. But then it would be useless for
mortar, and for land it would be like some medicines
of which the chief recommendation is that if they do no
good, they will at least do no harm ; and for that rea-
son they commonly cover the heaps over with sods, or
straw, &:c. till the land is prepared for putting it on.
Our farmers likewise know that poor land will not bear
so much lime as rich land, and that if they should by
mistake over4ime their land, the succeeding crops will
rather be hurt than benefited by it ; and in such cases
there is no remedy but either to give the field a dress-
ing with dung, or let it lay a year or two till the heat of
the lime is partly given out, and then it will have its

On Lime,

effect. From this I conclude that lime must act as a
stimulant, and that the quantity applied to the land
ought to bear an exact proportion to the carbonic, or
vegetable matters contained in the soil. It is well
known that stimulants used in small quantities are in
some cases very useful in the animal economy, but in
great quantities they will destroy animal life.

I would not by any means presume to call in ques-
tion the results of Mr. Tennant's or Dr. Black's expe-
riments ; on the contrary, I am rather inclined to be-
lieve, that all stone lime contains a greater or lesser
proportion of magnesia ; but that the lime which con-
tains the greatest proportion of that earth, is totally un-
fit to be used upon land as a maimre, I think, deserves
a second consideration.

Dr. Darwin observes that the substance called chalk-
stone is almost wholly magnesia ; now I know from
experience that chalk-stone land is tlie most kindly to
all sorts of grain of any soil I am acquainted with, and
will bear a longer succession of severe cropping before
it is exhausted. But perhaps it is the process of calci-
nation which gives to the magnesia that caustic quality
which renders it so hurtful to vegetation, as Mr. Ten-
nant found by his experiments, that thirty or forty
grains of lime did not retard the growth of seeds, more
than thiee or four of calcined magnesia. From which
Dr. Darwin concludes, that, as both injure vegetation
in large quantities, they may both assist vegetation in
small ones.

Consistent with the Doctor's remark I would just ob-
serve, that there are many substances which make rich
manures, when used in small quantities ; for instance

On Lime,

1 have seen very great crops of barley got by sowing
the land with pigeon's dang, as thin as we sow rye,
and harrowing it in along with the seed barley ; where-
as had it been put upon the land as thick, or half as
thick as we would put stable or barn-yard dung, it
would as effectually destroy all vegetation as hot lime
used to excess. The same remarks will apply to the
dung of all kinds of domestic fowls, also to human
dung and urine, so much valued in China. Common
salt has often been recommended as a great assistant to
the growth of vegetables when used in small quanti-
ties, whereas it is well known that the excessive use of
it will render land totally barren.

It will be admitted on all hands that all animal and
vegetable matters contained in the soil, must undergo
a decomposition by some means or other, so that be-
ing thereby reduced to such a state as to be easily so-
luble in water, they may be readily absorbed by the
tender roots, by some termed the mouths of plants.
That the roots of plants naturally possess to a consider-
able degree the power of producing this decomposition,
I have had occasion more than once to observe, in the
case of planting potatoes with woollen rags instead of
dung. I have seen fine crops of potatoes raised by
dropping a small piece of woollen rag,* not larger than

^ Before the revolution war, I collected many cart loads
of taylor's rags, chiefly woollen. Some I had cut in small
pieces ; others were ploughed in, as they came from the
shops ; after having been scattered by hand so as barely to
cover the surface of about three acres of loamy land, much
worn. I had a remai^kably fine crop of potatots^ succeeded

On Lime,

the hand, in the furrow along with every sett of the
potatoes when planted, and I have observed when the
potatoes were gathered in the fall, that, in every instance
where a potatoe plant had failed to vegetate, the rag was
turned up intire, very little damaged by being buried
under ground ; whereas on the other hand, not the
smallest vestage of the rags w^re to be seen in any part
of the ground where the plants had succeeded and
grown to perfection. Only I observed in some instances
where the rag had been uncommonly large, a white
mouldiness upon the soil about the roots of such plants,
which seemed to me an indication that more nutritious
matter had been formed than could be absorbed by the
roots. Besides I observed the palms or tops of such
plants were always large, and of luxurious growth, while
the potatoes at the root were small and not fully ripe. .
But there are other animal and vegetable substances
which require more powerful solvents to prepare them
for the food of plants ; such substances must be decom-
posed either by means of the putrid fermentation, or
bv the application of hot lime, 8n:c. But while the pu-

by a great crop of wheat. On this clover was sowed. It
lay for many years without other manure except plaister, in
green grass after the clover. The effects of the rags con-
tinued longer than those of any manure I ever experienced ;
and I think the part of the field on which the rags were
strewed, is the best spot in it to this day. It has been all
limed, dunged and plaistered alike from time to time ; and
the soil of the whole field is similar in all parts.

R. Peters.
:\Iarch 2rth, 1810.

On Lime.

trid fermentation is going on, it is exceedingly noxious
to vegetation, as we may see by the bad effects of putrid
or stagnant water upon the roots of tender plants ; while
on the other hand, hot lime will check the progress of
putrefaction, and at the same time very quickly effect
the decomposition of various bodies; thereby preparing
sweet and wholesome juices, whether they consist of
carbon, phosphorus, oils, or alkali, or compounds of all
or either of these. And I conceive if the lime meet
with a sufficient quantity of such substances as it in this
manner acts upon, it will by mixing with such juices,
thus prepared, be thereby deprived of its caustic qua-
lity, in the same or somewhat similar manner to that
whereby magnesia or chalk blunts, or sheaths the points
of the sharp particles of acids. But if the lime does not
meet with a sufficient quantity of carbonic or other
matters in the soil to act upon, so that its caustic qua-
lity may be completely overcome, then in such case it
will act upon the tender roots of the growing plants, in
the same manner as it acts upon grass or other vegeta-
bles when laid in heaps on the surface. And this is in
my opinion the cause why lime in some instances is
hurtful, instead of being beneficial to land.

Rags chopped, and sown by hand, and ploughed in three
months belore sowing wheat or barley, the quantity six to
ten hundred weight per acre, are used in England with
success. In Kent they spread a ton per acre every third vear
for hops. As they hold moisture, they are adapted for dry
gravelly or chalky soils, and succeed best in dry seasons. — ■
Gleanings of husbandry*

J. Mease.

8 On Lime.

Upon the whole, I think instead of troubling our
farmers about distinguishing the different qualities of
magnesian and calcarious lime, it will be better to
advise them to use lime sparingly on poor land, and at
the same time to use every exertion to increase their
dung and compost heaps, whereby their land will be
prepared for the application of lime, not only with safe-
ty, but great advantage.

This npte refers to the * in page second.

^ Since writing the above, I am informed that there is in
Marlborough township, Chester county in this state, a mild
lime which answers well on land. But it is a notorious fact,
that the great body of improvers, use hot or caustic lime with
success ; but clover ought always to be sown with the first
crop. And though in some instances the grain crop may seemi
little benefited or even injured by the lime, the clover and
suc<:eeding crops will shew its effects.

J, Lang.

[ 9 ]

On Harrowing JVheat in the spring. By John Lang.

Read January 12th, 1809.

A paper lately appeared in the Aurora, which was
likewise published a few days ago by Mr. Poulson,
intitled an accidental improvement in agriculture. The
subject was the advantages which might be derived
from harrowing grain at certain periods of its growth,
which had been discovered by harrowing a piece of
oats, for the purpose of covering grass seeds. But the
place is not mentioned, nor the person by whom the
discovery was made. The writer concludes by ob-
serving that this discovery may be of use as an advan-
tageous mode of hoeing in broadcast husbandry.

I remember many years ago of reading a very well
written paper on this subject in some periodical publica-
tion, I think it might possibly be Dr. Anderson's "Bee."
This writer besides detailing the results of sundry ex-
periments, gives likewise the rationale (as the French
say) in something like the following words. " In every
instance where the soil has been finely pulverised, whe-
ther by harrowing, or frost, or by any other means ; if
heavy rains succeed, and afterwards dry weather, a hard
and compact crust or cake is formed all over the sur-
face, in which the young plants of wheat, rye, barley,
or oats &c. stand fixed as if they were growing out of
a brick wall, and by pressing against their tender sides
prevent the expansion of their parts."

Another effect is, that this hard crust or cake prevents
the free access of light and air to the roots so necessary to

VOL. II, B

10 Oji Harroxving Wheat,

produce the vegetable fermentation ; besides this crust
or cake by being completely deprived of its aqueous
particles, become m.ore contracted than the stratum im-
mediately under it, hence it becomes divided by innu-
merable cracks or openings, into which multitudes of
insects enter and find safe lodgings under the hard
crust, where they remain secure from the scorching
rays of the sun &c. through the day, and come up
through the cracks or openings at night, to prey upon
the tender plants, and return to their lodgements when
the sun begins to be troublesome in the morning. But
by passing a light harrow over the grain in the spring,
as soon as the ground is so much hardened as to bear
the horses feet without sinking, the young plants are
relieved from that unnatural pressure, a free access is
given to the light, and air to the roots ; by stirring up
the soil a new fermentation is produced, and the little
insects are dislodged from their subten^anean habita-
tions, all their operations disconcerted, and they left
to perish by the influence of the sun and weather. By
this operation the grain in a few days acquires a fresh
vigour, equal if not superior to w^hat might be pro-
duced by a top dressing.

This writer likewise expatiates upon the great advan-
tage of harrowing summer fallows after every plough-
ing, by which he says one half the ploughings may be
saved, and the intention of the operation much better
effected. He observes that if the soil derives any rich-
ness from the atmosphere it must be while it is in a
state of fermentation, and harrowing is the best m^ans
for producing that effect ; besides the seeds of annual
weeds cannot be destroyed till they first vegetate, but

On Harrowing Wheat, 1 1

by repeated ploughings and harrowing each time, all
the seeds which may be in the soil being brought to
vegetate, will be completely destroyed.

I have often advised some of my friends in the coun-
try, to try this method of harrowing their grain. — I
reasoned with them by analogy from the well known
practice of harrowing their meadows in the spring ; if
the operation of harrowing grass meadows causes the
grass to assume a dark green colour and vigorous
growth, why may not the same effect be expected upon
the grain. I have often thought that by repeated ex^
periments of this kind, accompanied with minute ob-
servations, the hessian fly at certain periods of its exist-
ence, might be much disconcerted, if not destroyed ;
at any rate by giving the grain a start, it might out-
reach in some measure the depredations of the fly.

My friends would listen to my reasoning, and even
acquiesce with my ideas, but when I enquired if they
had made the trial, the excuse was they had not got a
light harrow, or they had too much work to spare time
for experiments, so hard is it to introduce any improve-
ment though ever so valuable. But I am fully convinced
that if the practice were to become general, the effects
would be found equal if not superior to the valuable
effects which have been produced by plaister of Paris,
See our Memoirs^ vol, I, page 88,

[ 1^ ]

V On Peach Trees. By miliam Phillips.

Read July 14th, 1809.

Riversdale, November 23cl, 1809.
Sir,

From a desire to promote the cultivation of fine fruit,
and a belief that every publication of experiments that
are attended with success, may at least have the happy
effect of stimulating others in the pursuit of so desira-
ble an object and eventually perfect it, I am induced to
relate to you my mode of cultivating peach trees, as
well as that pursued by others as far as they have come
under my observation, together with the effects.

Seven years past when I took possession of Rivers-
dale farm, I planted 30 peach trees in a grass lot which
had not been ploughed for at least twenty years, and
was very tough and bound. The first and second year
they did not grow the least, and appeared as if they
would soon die ; my gardener wished to cut them down
as he thought them not worth removing, but I pre-
ferred trying an experiment with them ; which was to
throw about half a peck of well slacked lime (which had
been exposed to the weather several months) round
each, the following spring I was agreeably surprised
with their very thrifty appearance they bore as many
fine peaches as they could support, and though the
ground had not been dug it was perfectly loose four
feet in circumference round them : they grew very
much tliat year, and have continued to produce me a

On Peach Trees,

great crop every j^ear since, which increases with their
size, and they are now large trees. Since the first year
I have had the ground annually dug about four feet in
circumference round them, and I do not find the worms
have attacked them yet ; from accident two trees were
neglected for two years after I limed the first, they
scarcely bore a leaf; the ground was so hard as to be
impenetrable to the roots. I have had lime thrown
round them since, and they have recovered and borne
some fine peaches, and will I believe grow to a good
size ; the success of this experiment having convinced
me that I could successfully raise peach trees on grass
ground, I have been induced to plant out upwards of
eight hundred in a field that will be alternately in grain
and grass, some of which bore very fine fruit last sum-
mer. Although the ground has been in clover since the
trees were planted, they have a very healthy appearance,
and bid fair to be very durable, but that, time only can
ascertain, for my own part I am perfectly satisfied if
they bring me only four good crops, for the trees are
then worth nearly as much for fire wood as I pay for
the young ones. I would recommend digging round
the trees once a year it mixes the lime with the earth,
much to the improvement of the soil ; fresh slacked
lime will not answer, as I have known a young orchard
entirely destroyed by it, which has caused an opinion
to prevail that lime in any way is prejudicial, and I was
cautioned by old farmers from using it; but in the wav
I used it, after it had been deprived of its excessive heat
by a long exposure to the weather, I am very certain
of its producing the most beneficial effects on all kinds
of trees. I have applied it to upwards of fifteen hun-

14 On Peach Trees.

dred apple and pear trees, besides the peaches, all of
which evince its good effects : a load of forty bushels,
after being exposed to the weather from October, till
June served for about eighteen hundred trees.

I have now given the result of my experiments, and
will relate to you what has come under my observation.
An ingenious farmer, Mr. Ashton, in my neighbour-
hood a few years past, planted three hundred peach
trees on about three acres of ground ; I saw them last
summer, they were very thriving, and he lately in-
formed me he had gathered about five hundred bushels
of good fruit and sold them readily on the ground at a
dollar and fifty cents per bushel, he adopted no other
mode to bring them to perfection than ploughing : he
informed me that he had raised a crop of Indian com
on the ground every year since he planted the trees,
and that without manuring, but the ground was in
good order when he planted them. Thus, by the trifling
labour of planting the trees which he raised from the
stone, even without being inoculated, he obtained more
money from those three acres than his whole farm
would have rented for, and that too without losing one
year's crop from the ground, the faithful cultivation of
which in procuring other crops insured him success in
his crop of fruit. Thus you see the peach when con-
stantly cultivated will succeed without lime or any ma-
nure ; though in grass grounds I am confident they
would not.

With respect to plumbs and nectarines I have tryed
various experiments without success, and though I have
about fifty trees which are healthy, blossom well and
bring tlieir fruit to a considerable size, yet they all drop

On Peach Trees* 15

before they come to perfection: and I have never got one
nectarine except from a young tree planted in the fall
which yielded me fourteen fine nectarines the ensuing-
summer; since when I have not had another, and I find
the older my trees are, the more they are infested with
insects, from which I conclude that were they attacked
on their first appearance, by destroying the eggs in the
fallen fruit, or otherwise, it might prevent their increase
and eventually destroy them. — For several years my fa^
mily have been supplied with the finest plumbs by a
neighbour, who is the only person I know of who has
had uniform success with them, last year while his trees
were in full bearing, 1 carefully examined them, particu-
larly as respected their culture and local situation, and
I found that no uncommon pains had been taken with
them ; on the contrary, they appeared neglected as was
evident from the numerous dead and broken limbs that
hung about them, and that the very great success he
had, could only be attributed to their situation, which
was at the place where his hogs laid, and were fed ; he
told me that the hogs never let a plumb that had fallen
remain many minutes undevoured, and thereby de-
stroyed the insects that hung about, and the eggs that
were deposited in them, though of late there had appear-
ed but few insects about the trees.

How easy would it be to inclose a piece of ground
for the purpose of feeding hogs in, which if planted with
the best plumb trees, might be made to yield more
profit than twenty times the same ground would in grain
or grass, when it is considered the enormous price that
fr\ut commands, no doubt owing to the difficulty of

i5 On Peach Trees,

raising, which I am confident might be surmounted by
the above mode.

I should now apologize for trespassing on your pa-
tience, were I not certain that your real zeal in similar
pursuits would render it unnecessary, and remain

Yours sincerely,

William Phillips.*
Dr. James Mease.

* The success of the fruit on trees in the plantation
frequented by hog'S^ is evidently owing to the destruction by
them of the curculiones. See Dr. Tilton's letter, vol. I, page
isr. Mr. Phillips's farm is near the Delaware. Peaches ge-
nerally thrive best near rivers; and especially those of brack-
ish water. Digging round all trees is highly beneficial. See
]Mr. Coxe's letter, vol. I, page 217. The lime promotes heal-
thv vegetation, but when the worm, or curcidioiies get pos-
session, they are not affected by lime. These latter are the
master-foes to all fruit. The fallen fruit is their nursery,
and w^hatever destroys that, is their enemy. Cherries and
other common fruits are in such plenty, that the banishment
or extirpation of the ciu-cid'io is an event more anxiously ta
be wished, than expected. They avoid moist atmosphere and
salt air, on the borders of rivers or the sea. In cities and towns
they do not delight.

This is a bold and laudable experiment made by Mr. P.
on this short lived tl-ee. The result we shall be anxious to
know. We have unwilling doubts as to duration.

L n ]

On Onions. By JFilliam Phillips.
Read February- 14th, 1809.

Philadelphia January loth, 1809.
Sir,

Some years past upon a journey through Connecti-
cut, I was surprised at the ver}* great difference between
their mode of cuhivating onions, and that usually pur-
sued in Pennsylvania; and was forcibly struck with the
superior advantages of theirs, which enabled them to
raise prodigious quantities ; for it was not uncommon
to see fields of ten acres occupied by them. — Since that
time I have frequently proposed to the gardeners around
this city, to try an experiment upon their mode of cul-
ture, \\ hich is, to sow the seed so thin that they may
stand at the distances at which they plant their young
onions (called seed onions) which mode I was impress-
ed \dth a belief, would bring them to perfection in one
year, as it does in Connecticut, our summers being as
long, and I believe the climate as congenial to them as
that of the state just mentioned ; they however univer.
sally objected, asserting that they would not obtain
their full growth in one year, though I could not find
that any one had really ascertained it. I was there-
fore induced myself to try the experiment. — Four years
past I had a piece of ground prepared in the usual
mode and season, and sowed the seed about three in-
ches apart, (which I found could not be done with re-
gularity in any other mode than putting the seeds in a
bottle, which was afterwards corked and a quill fixed

VOL. II. C

18 On Onions.

through the cork, which enabled the gardener to drop it
with facility equi distant.) The ground was attended
to as usual.

The result was, that I had as good a crop of onions,
and as large as what was gathered from an adjoining
bed that had been planted with small onions in the old
mode, with this difference only, that they were a few
days later, which was a material objection, as ours ob-
tain a superiority by reaching a foreign market, before
those of Connecticut. It then occurred to me, that that
obstacle might be overcome by sowing the onion seed
in September, after a crop of peas, beans, or any early
vegetable or grain, was taken off. Therefore the next
fall, I had a large spot of ground prepared and sowed it
the second week in September ; they attained a good
size that fall, and were tended as other onions next
spring, and I had the satisfaction to find them as early,
large and numerous as any produced that season, and
generally the largest I had ever raised ; since when I
have pursued no other mode, and have not failed except
in one bed which the gardener had neglected sowing
until the middle of October, which I found was too late,
a part of them being thrown out by the frost, as they
had not obtained a sufficient hold of the ground.

The comparative advantage of this, over the old mode
of culture, must be very evident, as it is a saving of
nearly half the labour as well as time.

By the old mode they must be sowed and gathered,
planted out the next year, and again gathered, two years
occupation of ground, as also a lapse of two years be-
fore the farmer receives his reward for labour.

On Onions. 19

By the mode recommended, one sowing and one ga-
thering only are required, the ground is occupied but
one year, when the farmer can receive his compensa-
tion— which in duration is equal to a crop of wheat or
rye. — With a hope that this experiment may be attend-
ed with equal success by others,

I remain yours sincerely,

William Phillips.

Dr. James Mease,

Secretary y Agric. Society^ Philad,

On Onions* By John Lang,
Read March 14th.

Philadelphia, March Uth, 1809.

Sir,

I think it was an observation of Dean Swift that the
man who improves one acre of land so as to produce
as much as two acres did before, deserves better of his
country than all the race of politicians put together.
Upon the same principle the traveller who carefully ob-
serves the various modes of culture of any particular
plant, and attempts to introduce an improvement
(though ever so trifling) into his own country, is a good
member of society.

Our member Mr. Phillips was surprised to find that
in Connecticut, onions were brought to full perfection in
one season ; whereas in Pennsylvania two seasons are
required. I was no less surprised than Mr. Phillips

20 On Onions.

when I came first to Pennsylvania, to find that onions
required two seasons to perfect their growth, in a coun-
try where I found vegetation in general so much more
rapid than I had been accustomed to see it in my na-
tive country, and in a country too where the climate is
so much better, and the summers longer than in Scot-
land. I immediately conclu(ied that this must be ac-
counted for from the absurd mode of culture which
had been introduced by the first settlers of the country,
and its continuance owing to the great difficulty which
I have always observed in rooting out old habits. I
inquired of gardeners and others for their opinion on
this subject, but got little or no satisfaction. I then
determined to try the mode which I had always seen
practised in Scotland, and which I myself had followed
for many years. The result was, my onions were much
smaller than those which I used to raise in Scotland ;
and though, inferior in size to those raised in two sea-
sons here, they were harder and better for keeping over
winter. I did not observe the circumstance which Mr.
Phillips mentions of their coming some days later, as
I only raised them for the use of my own family.

After I had lived in this country a few years, I had
occasion to observe that the great heat and dry weather
which generally sets in here about the first of July, and
continues till the middle of September, has a great ten-
dency to disconcert the intentions of many European
plants, particularly those of them which have small fi-
brous roots, and go but a small way into the soil in
search of food. These when the moisture is so com-
pletely evaporated, and the soil becomes so very dry,
either perish entirely, or assume a premature ripeness.

On Onions. 21

For instance the daisy, which grows wild in great pro-
fusion in the pasture grounds in Scotland, cannot be
kept alive here but with the greatest care. The oats
of this country where they ripen in a few days, pro-
duce a poor, thin,, shrivelly grain, compared with those
of the North of Europe where they require as many
weeks to ripen as days here. The onion likewise is a
plant whose small fibrous roots reach but a short way
into the soil, and of course is soon dried up ; besides
it is a plant which requires a great quantity of nourish-
ment, and for that reason must not only have a very
rich soil, but a constant supply of moisture to bring it
to full maturity.

The potatoes of this country likewise when the dry
weather sets in, generally assume a premature ripeness,
and if showers afterwards occur, the bulbs being al-
ready hardened, do not swell any more, but take what
is called the second growth. This I conceive to be
chiefly owing to an error in the prevailing mode of cul-
ture, which I think I have completely obviated by a
different mode I have practised, and which I shall
make the subject of a future memoir.

Here I would beg leave to observe farther, that most
of the land in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia being
alluvial or made ground, it acts like a filter for draw-
ing off the moisture which should nourish plants ; be-
sides there exists a stratum of sand at different degrees
of depth, which must attract the water, and assist the
filtration ; (this circumstance together with the burning
hot sun which prevails here in the latter part of sum-
mer completely deprives many plants of moisture, ex-
cept such as have long tap roots, or strong fangs which

22 On Onions,

go a great way into the ground ; ) whereas in the case
of primitive ground where the sub stratum is in many
instances almost impervious to water, the moisture is
much longer retained in the soil.

I have never been in Connecticut, but I was some
weeks in September 1797 very near the borders of that
state, in the state of New- York. I there observed the
climate to be considerably different from that of Penn-
sylvania ; in particular the pasture was greatly superior.
This was an evidence to me that the soil was not apt to
be so quickly deprived of moisture. Perhaps this majf
be partly owing to its nearer vicinity to the ocean, and
this may be one cause why Connecticut is better adapted
to the culture of onions than Pennsylvania. The mode
of cultivating onions in Scotland was as follows : the
ground intended for that purpose was very w^ell ma-
nured in the fall with rich old rotten dung, care being
taken that it contained no seeds of weeds or grass, ^ this
is well turned in and left so for the winter. In the
the month of March following it is dug again and
smoothly raked, and at the same time formed into beds
two feet wide and of a reasonable length, with alleys be-
tween for the convenience of hand weeding, on these
beds the seed is sown broadcast. My method for sow-
ing it equally, was to wet the seed with a little water,
and shake upon it pounded chalk or whiting, roll it in
the whiting and spread it out to dry. By this means I
could see the seeds distinctly where they fell on the

* I have often heard it said that in Holland where onions
are raised in great perfection, they generally use the dung
from privies for this reason.

On Onions. 23

ground, and could thereby judge of its proper thick-
ness. If any part of them was observed to be too thick
when growing, part of them were culled out for pot
herbs, and the rest left for a crop.

I still think the above mode deserves farther trials
here, if the ground were made previously rich enough,
the seed early sown, and properly tended.

I am Sir respectfully yours,

John Lang-

Dr. James Mease.

[ 24 ]

On Live Hedges.
Read May 9th, 1809.

New 'Hampshire, Stratham, April 6th, 1809.

Gentlemen,

I saw in the Portsmouth Oracle, an advertisement
by the Agricultural Society of Philadelphia in 1806,
soliciting information in the art of agriculture ; and
having been ten years in the farming line, I have tried
many experiments in almost every branch that our cli-
mate and soil will admit. From your advertisement live
fences appeared to be of great importance in your views.
I have been making them more or less every year since
I have farmed, with some variations as to the mode.
When I purchased my farm there were a number of
the English willows on it ; old ones had been cut off
and young ones had shot out, so that I could get a
plenty of stakes : I set many hundred rods of these
willow stakes on different soils and in different forms ;
in the mean time I raised nurseries of poplars which I
supposed I should prefer to the willows : I think it not
worth while to give the whole particulars of the willows,
as I think poplar far exceeds them for making live
fence. I have set out the poplar intending them for
posts when large enough ; I have set many hundred
rods in this order ; some are large enough to nail to. I
intend topping of them when I nail boards to them,
that they may be the more firm and steady ; I think
there are many advantages in these sorts of posts. The
poplar I believe is so well known in the United States,

On Live Hedges* 25

I need not recommend them. I will only observe, that
they are the most easy tree to propagate of any known ;
that they are suited to almost any kind of soil ; a shovel
full of manure is as beneficial to them as to a hill of
corn. Before 1 saw your advertisement, I had laid out
the following method for making live fence : last sea-
son I tried the experiment with I think the greatest suc-
cess. I laid up a mound two or three feet high in the
following manner : I took square spades and shovels,
and cut out the sod in squares as deep as it would hold
together, as much a slant as I wished to carry up the
sides of the mound, laying it with care as you would
lay brick, breaking joints, heaving in the loose dirt as
the nature of the business requires. I made a trench
on each side of the mound in course three or four feet
wide and one deep, and left about one foot each side of
the mound of the sward, unbroken to support the
mound. I left the mound when completed about two
feet wide on top and a little dishing ; I laid on top of the
mound manure and mixed it with the loam, I beat the
sides of the mound with spades to even and harden it
together ; I then took poplar limbs and shoots not mate-
rial which, sufficiently long to reach from the top to the
bottom of the mound, that is to the old surface, leaving
them three or four inches out : if long enough to top
they will do better ; I sort them ; I take a suitable stick
and make holes at six inches distance along the top and
middle of the mound, I set the cuttings in them : a
temporary fence is necessary if exposed to creatures,
on each side. By experience I found the cions rooted
from top to bottom. I think it best to lay the manure
to the bottom of the mound. I view the manure to be

VOL. II. D

26 On Live Hedges.

very essential. This experiment was made on very-
light sandy soil. It is now almost a year since I made
the experiment, and it is very promising : the frost is
now out, and the mound remains perfectly firm and
whole : the cions started earlier than those that were set
out before and had root, and continued growing
through the season. We experienced a considerable
drought in August and September, but it did not affect
them in the least : they grew from three to four feet
high, leaving all their shoots on : I prefer leaving the
shoots on as they will grow the stronger, and will make
the better hedge : if one chance to die, the limbs will
fill up the vacancy, though there was not one of mine
died excepting a few which were girdled by a large
dung worm, which I supposed was occasioned by lay-
ing the manure on top : I would recommend keeping
the weeds from the top of the mound. The calculations
I make on this kind of fence are these : In the first
place, it is the most ornamental of any I ever saw, or
can conceive of ; 2d. It will come to perfection sooner
than any other live fence ; 3d. It will be by the high
way on loose soil, a means to harden the way by the
shade and roots ; 4th. It will be comfortable for the tra-
veller both summer and winter. I calculated very great
advantages from it in the winter season, as it will break
the winds, prevent the snows blowing in drifts ; the
trees will attract the sun : it will be much warmer in
winter as well as cooler in the summer by the shade.
I make a great calculation on the growth of this fence
for fuel : a few hundred rods will support a family with
it for fire-wood. I have made a similar kind of fence
where there was not sod to support the mound up a

On Live Hedges. 27

ridge ; set them in the same order as above, it flourished
very well ; but will require longer nursing, and will not
stop the small animals so complete as the other. I cal-
culate the hedge on the mound will be sufficient fence
in three years from the time set out ; the lower kind in
five or six. Two good men will lay up ten rods in a
day of the mound. I expect to make one or two hun-
dred rods this season. I was going to let it rest one
year more before I informed you ; but in considering
the matter I thought if you should approve of the me-
thod you would like to try the experiment or to recom-
mend it this season, if any further information is wanted,
or any proof I will give it with the greatest pleasure,

Abednbgo Robinson.

Society of Agriculture^ Philadelphia,

t 28 ]

On Diseases of Swine.
Read June 13th, 1809.

Northumberland 2\st, March 1809.

Siry

A friend lent me a few days ago the first volume of the
Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for promoting
agriculture : — I have perused it with much pleasure ; —
it will no doubt encourage those interested in agricul-
tural pursuits to make the communications which the
society invite. — Observing in the preface, that the soci-
ety call particularly for information " on the diseases
of our domeetic Shimals," — I cannot refrain from giving
you an account of the diseases which within my know-
ledge have attended an animal, that few writers have
thought worth while to notice ; but which Dr. Rush,
in his admirable introductory Lecture, (published by
the society,) has rescued from that state of obscurity
and neglect under which it had so long lain dormant :
you will readily perceive, I mean the hog. — I wish the
information 1 am about to give may be acceptable to
the society, but I own my chief object in writing is in
the hope, that it may induce others to come forward,
and supply information on a subject on which it has
either not h^txx fashionable to treat, or perhaps from the
mistaken idea (to quote the words of Dr. Rush) " that
the hog like the miser, can do good only when he
dits." — 1 have generally in my pens from 100 to 250
of those animals : they are of course subject to diseases ;
one with which I was most troubled was a disorder that

On Diseases qfSxv'me, 29

I believe might be called the staggers, it attacked them
generally in the month of September : the hog would
all at once turn round very rapidly, and if assistance was
not at hand, would in less than half an hour, die. It
seldom happened that one alone was attacked, six, eight,
or a dozen would be seized in the same way in the
course of a few hours : they were immediately bled
under the ear and at the tail ; some sweet milk and brim-
stone were given to them ; and on which they were af-
terwards fed till they were well, or died ; a few reco-
vered, but a greater number died ; this however was
the only remedy that I knew of, until the year 1803,
when a young man who had lately arrived from Wales
and who was then working in my still house, put into
my hands an old pamphlet, the title page of which was
nearly torn off, but it was printed, I think, in the year
1706 or 1707, and was composed of receipts for the
cure of animals ; there was described a malady among
hogs, which I was satisfied was the same as my swine
were attacked with and the cure pointed out was as fol-
lows. " You will see a bare knob in the roof of the
mouth, cut it and let it bleed, take the powder of loam
and salt, rub it with it, and then give him a little piss
and he will mend." (I give it you in the authors own
language.) Every year my pens were more or less sub-
ject to this disorder ; and since it came to my knowledge
I have invaribly followed this prescription, with certain
success, for where I used to lose six I do not now lose
more than one : but although the pigs recover they
never thrive so well after such an attack. The causes
which this author gives for the disorder, I cannot apply
to my pens, he says, " the staggers, in hogs proceeds

30 On Diseases of Swine,

from corrupted blood, arising from lying wet : through
filthy rotten litter and want of meat." My hogs lay dry,
they are never in want of meat, and have fresh litter
given to them when the pens are cleaned out : which
they are usually three times a week. It should be ob-
served that my largest or oldest hogs have never been
attacked by this disorder : it is confined to those of
middle size, say pigs from eight to ten or eleven
months old.

In the fall of 1807, a disorder broke out among the
larger hogs ; it was not confined to my pens alone, but
it was an epidemic which raged among the swine
throughout this part of the country, and it progressed so
rapidly among mine, that I expected at one time to have
lost nearly the whole of them : the people in the neigh-
bourhood called the disorder the sore throat, — A hog
would come up to the trough, eat, apparently in good
health, and in ten minutes after, be dead : and those
which were attacked were the finest hogs in the pen :
their food was good and they had plenty of running wa-
ter to wallow in, (a thing absolutely necessary in the
summer season,) — I had several of them opened, but
did not discover any particular cause for such a sudden
exit^ except a trifling swelling in the wind pipe and black
pustules on the tongue. — A friend and neighbour sent
me a late volume of the Museum Rusticum and of the
Farmers Magazine ; in the latter, vol. 3, page 105, I
found the disorder tolerably well described as far as te
appearance in the hogs I opened : but they call it measles,
which I am certain was not the disorder ; as I found
however my old medicine for the sore throat : — bleeding
and nitre ; — and a diet of sweet milk, had no good effect,

On Diseases of Swine. 31

I thought I might as well administer to the diseased
animals the medicine which the magazine recommend-
ed,— antimony. — I began with great confidence in the
medicine from the high character given of its virtues in
several late English publications ; I dosed two or three
and they certainly did not die so speedily as under the
other regimen : in the course of a few hours five or six
more shewed symptoms of disease, I applied the same
specific; but unfortunately they went from bad to worse,
so that in two or three days I had only the skins left of
thirteen very fine hogs ; early one morning the four-
teenth took sick and symptoms of immediate dissolution
appeared on him : — I determined however to give no
more medicine — I merely bled him under the ear and
in the tail : — he bled freely — I then had him carried
out (for he was unable to walk) to a clover field ; he
was put down, but he could not stand ; I observed how-
ever though he was laying down that he began to bite
off the heads of clover (which stood very rank) voraci-
ously ; I left him without much hope of his recovery,
but still with the appearance of more favourable symp-
toms : — I came home to my breakfast, after which I
again went out to the field and found to my great sur-
prise the hog walking about and still feeding on the
clover : — in two days he was perfectly recovered :
that is, he fed with as much avidity as any hog at the
trough. Finding the favourable change in this hog, I
instantly turned my whole stock (about 180) on clover,
of which I then had a five acre field nearly ready to cut
the second time ; the sacrifice was well repaid, for from
that instant I had no more sick hogs. — Last year, about
the middle of August which is the time sickness has

32 On Diseases of Swine.

usually began among my swine, I turned out my whole
stock on a luxuriant clover field ; and in consequence
there ^vas neither staggers or sore throat among them :
no sickness and no deaths. Until the last year I have
never passed the fall season without losing some and I
therefore intend (as long as I find it to answer, to pur-
sue the same plan of turning the hogs on clover each
succeeding year : I hope the same favourable result may-
be the consequence.

I differ with you with respect to sour wash being
" the most grateful and alimentary to swine," in En-
gland, I know such an opinion prevails ; but in this
climate, I am certain, mine eat most and thrive best
while it is sweet. I occasionally give them *' a little
salt to their porridge,^^ ^'' dry rotten wood^"* is a good
thing, but I will take the liberty to mention what I
think a better : we have three blacksmiths in this town,
and my hogs eat up all the ashes or cinders they make :
we haul it into the pens by cart loads, and the hogs will
as you observe by the rotten wood, devour this at
times with more avidity then their ordinary food.

When the hogs are put up to fat I do not find it ne-
cessary to give them grit of any kind : the corn appears
♦ to me to answer every purpose : perhaps it is owing to
' their having heretofore been accustomed to the wash ;
for when once upon com they will not touch the ashes
they formerly eat with so much apparent relish. About
five weeks before they are to be killed they are put
upon corn, and as much is thrown to them three times
a day as they will eat ; it is always given to them in the
ear, for having been accustomed to the wash : mastica-

On Diseases of Swine. 33

tion is a novelty and no doubt a pleasure to them ; and I
think it makes the fat the more solid.

If you think this communication will be worthy of
the notice of the society, please to lay it before them ;
but if not, let it remain entre nous, and believe me with
great respect and esteem,

Dear Sir

Your most obedient,

J. P. De Gruchy.^

Hon. Richard Peters Esq.

President Agric. Soc, Philad.

* My experience has uniformly been favourable to the sour
wash (not acetous) both for health and economy ; much less
grain or meal will suffice ; and its fermentation with water
fixes the saccharine quality, so essential to nutrition. Salt
is often given. I never pen my hogs in hot weather. Mr.
D. G. is on a great scale ; and must do it. His still wash
may require to be sweet ; under the circumstances in which
his swine are placed. His chopped grain has undergone fer-
mentation, before distillation ; and I know his intelligence on
the subject. In summer my hogs chiefly run on clover. Swine
feeding on clover in the fields, will thrive wonderfully ; when
those (confined or not) fed on cut clover, will fall away. My
use of rotten wood, continues to answer every purpose intend-
ed by its being given. I am much gratified, by the information
that there are other substances answering, the same end.

R. Peters.

VOL. JJ. E

C 34 ]

Colonel Pickering, on Hedges.
Read June 13th, 1809.

TFashington^ June Ist, 1809.

Dear Sir, *

In a letter which I put into the mail yesterday, I asked
you some questions, and made some requests and ob-
servations, which occurred on the perusal of the Me-
moirs of the Philadelphia Society of Agriculture : but I
believe I omitted to speak of live hedges.

When I dwelt at Wyoming, and saw the havoc of
fences by freshes in the Susquehannah, the importance
of live fences struck me forcibly ; and had I continued
there, should doubtless have commenced their introduc-
tion. When in 1800 I went into the back parts of the
state, away from bottom land, I thought of your hem-
lock hedge, of which you have given me the history,
substantially, as now recited in the memoirs. It appear-
ed to be a perfect fence, easily formed, and with this
advantage, that (as I supposed) no domestic animal
would brouse it. In this view I mentioned it to some
settlers in that quarter. But they told me that sheep
would eat hemlock. Cattle also, I now know, will taste
it. But so they (sheep particularly) will eat the thorn; on
which when young and in hedges, if accessible to sheep,
they commit such depredations, that Lord Kaims says he
could hardly refrain from murmuring against Provi-
dence.

More than twenty years ago I read Anderson's Es-
says on Agriculture, and I well remember his firinci-

On Hedges.

pies; the only rational ones I ever saw, for making thorn
hedges. I have mentioned them to several persons who
are cultivating hedges : but they do not give themselves
the trouble to examine them: they let their gardeners take
their own course. You will find his directions, I think, in
his first volume. I have recited them in substance to Mr.
Main, and added that his other countryman. Lord Kaims,
had suggested a like mode of training a thorn hedge. Mr.
Main had not heard of either Anderson or Lord Kaims.
Yet he is distinguished for his intelligence. Mr. Main's
hedges I have repeatedly seen. If, as you mention, he pro-
poses in his pamphlet, to slope the sides of his hedges, ta-
pering them upwards, I have forgotten it. His own, how-
ever are not so formed. He sets the plants only six or se-
ven inches asunder, so that when well grown, the stems
alone would form a fence. I have a thousand of Main's
hedge thorns, which I shall set in corresponding rows
eventually to form the fences of the avenue from a pub-
lic road to my house ; and I shall train them according
to Anderson's directions ; of which an essential one is,
not to cut the top of the stem until it has acquired suf-
ficient stability to resist even a bull. Till then, the sides
only are to be pruned, or sheared^ and in slopes upwards
to the heighth of four and a half or five feet, to preserve
the side shoots down to the ground. For if, like your
hemlock hedge, they will retain the lower branches,
when the sides are pruned perpendicularly, much more
will they do it when the sides are sloped, and give them
a perfect exposure to the sun, air, rains and dews.

From what I had occasionally read of English thorn
hedges, I doubted their constituting complete fences —
I doubted the more, because it seemed to be a common

36 On Hedges.

practice to introduce trees into them. And Lord Kaims
expressly says, he never saw a good hedge in England*

Mr. Bordley handsomely compliments the planters
of some hedges in the Delaware state. They probably
made a good appearance when young : but I have seen
them repeatedly within the last six years ; and in my
eye they possess neither beauty nor efficiency. They
consisted, in fact, of thorn trees twelve or fifteen feet
high, with bushy tops and naked stems, and gaps in-
numerable. In that condition I viewed them as nui-
sances. They occupied much ground, and required
many posts and rails, (which, shaded and long remaining
wet with rains, would soon become rotten,) to fill the
gaps. Within two or three years past, the proprietors
of some of those hedges have found some labourers,
(I believe English hedgers) who have plashed and top-
ped the trees ; and interweaving them with the stems
and stakes, have made good fences for so long time as
the dead wood will last.

Mr. Main, in his pamphlet, refers to M^Mahon's
directions for raising thorns from haws — a process re-
quiring a preparation of a year and a half prior to the
sowing of the haws. But in the autumn of 1807, in con-
versing with an English gardener, here, (Theophilus
Holt J I found that the haws would vegetate the first
spring. He showed me a bed of seedings which had
grown from the haws of 1806. I desired him to gather
me a quantity of haws of the hedge thorn cultivated by
Mr. Main, (they are to be found scattered in every part
of the city) which you call cratcegus corf/c^a, and to mix
them with earth and keep them until the ensuing spring.
Then he sent them to me in a box (remaining mingled

On Hedges*

in the same earth,) and I forwarded them in a vessel to
Salem. I did not reach home till near the middle of
May ; and my son Henry, occupied in other business,
and forgetting them, they remained in the box till about
the 20th, when I opened it, and to my regret, found
all the haws had not only sprouted, but sent out thin
radicles so far, and were so entangled in the earth, that
it was impossible to separate without destroying them ;
so that out of perhaps two thousand or more, five plants
only survived and grew. It was a satisfaction however
to have the certainty that this sort of thorn, at least
would grow the first spring. Holt said that in England
the white thorn did not vegetate till the second. I men^
tioned this fact to Mr. Main, a few days since. He ad-
mitted that they would sometimes grow the first spring,
but that sometimes they failed.

Seven years ago, I told a relation in New-Hampshire,
who, wanting rocks, was obliged to fence his fields
with rails and boards, that he could form hedges in his
light land even with white pine — which abounded. — •
The young trees (not crouded together) sent out long
limbs near the ground, and regularly upwards, in a
suitable slope ; they only required clipping to multiply
the branches. — The European Larch (of which I have
forty or fifty that are from four to six feet high, and
many of which last year bore cones,) are admirably
adapted for hedges. They send out numerous branches
from their stems from the ground upward, and will grow
well on poor land. Dr. Anderson, (third volume of his
Essays on Agriculture,) says that they grow fastest in
the poorest soil, and bleakest exposures. They may be
pruned at anv time in the summer ; ^nd such as I have

38 • On Hedges,

pruned in June, close to the stems, have had the wounds
entirely covered by autumn. They differ a little from
the American Larch, having larger leaves and cones.
From the high character given of the European Larch
by Dr. Anderson, I was induced to import from En-
gland those I have. Probably you will think his ac-
count rather exaggerated. The cones of the American
Larch, (which are plenty in Maine, and not unfrequent
in Essex county,) when just grown, are very beautiful,
both white, (or pale green,) and purple, the latter espe-
cially.

The seeds of apples from the cider press, (common
crabs, or ungrafted fruit) will produce trees bearing,
when young, spurs or sharp pointed as the spines of
thorns. These trees might be selected for hedges ; and
perhaps no shrub or tree would make better. Bronzed
every summer and kept low as I have seen single trees
in permanent pastures, they form an impenetrable mass
of Umbs, and so close, that a bird could not find his
way through them.

Very truly yours,

Timothy Pickering.

Richard Peters Esq.

C 39 3

Oji Hoven Cattle, By John Steele,

Read August 1809.

As the President in the communication on hoven
cattle, with which he has favoured the society, has re-
ferred them to the Museum Rusticum, I beg leave to
submit to their consideration some remarks on the pa*
pers inserted in that pubhcation by Mr. John W. Baker.
I deem this the more important, since the errors and
inconsistencies of this writer, with respect to the seat of
the disease, the necessity of piercing the gut to let the
wind escape, and the little fear that should be enter-
tained of wounding the intestine, appear to have been
adopted by the President ; and may, whilst sanctioned
by his name, be productive of injurious consequences
in those parts of the country where the introduction of
clover is recent, and where little experience of the treat-
ment of hoven cattle has been consequently acquired.

That the first stomach which contains the crude ali-
ment, previously to undergoing the process of regurgita-
tion, is the principle seat of the disorder, is evinced, not
only by the relief afforded by natural eructation, and by
the extraction of the fixed air through a flexible tube
introduced through the oesophagus, but also by pierc-
ing the paunch in the most prominent place between
the hip bone and the short rib on the left side, which is
the ordinary method. — In the last case a considerable
quantity of vegetable matter in a high state bf fermen-
tation generally obtrudes through the orifice, but I never
witnessed anv emissiion of wind from the abdomen. — •

40 0?i Hoven Cattle.

Indeed in extreme cases, the cavity of the belly is so
much diminished by the distention of the paunch, as to
render it probable, that the air therein contained if any
there be, has no^gency in the production of the disease.

The pressure of the first stomach or paunch, against
the interior integument of the abdomen, probably led
Mr. Baker to mistake that ventricle for the cavity of
the belly, and gave rise to his erroneous opinions on
the subject. Although I do not conceive any danger of
wounding the intestine, can arise from piercing the ani-
mal in the most prominent part of the belly, its various
convolutions being confined to the opposite side, yet I
will venture to remark, that I think wounds inflicted
in that extremely tender part are attended with more
danger than Mr. Baker and the President seem to im-
ply. An eminent medical writer says, if one of the
bowels be slightly cut, the edges of the wound retract
equally ; and if it be penetrated or cut through, they
curl themselves back so as to invelope the upper part
and the inside is thus completely turned outward.

If this high authority had not been sufficient to con-
vince me that wounds in the intestines are much to be
feared ; my experience would, for I have in reiterated
instances known wounds in the bowels of cattle, inflict-
ed by accident, to prove fatal.

Ardent spirits given to hoven cattle in doses of about
a pint, diluted with water, in conformity to the direc-
tions of Dr. Darwin in his Zoonomia, frequently
proves efficacious in the first stages of the disease, but
I question whether any remedy in the last stages of it.
is equal to piercing the paunch.

On Hoven Cattle^ 41

A description of the flexible tube above alluded to,
is to be found in Rowlin's Cow Doctor, a work which
has obtained considerable celebrity in Great Britain.

John D. Steele.
A^ear Downingstown, lOth June 1809.

Dr. James Mease.

OBSERVATIONS.

Mr. yohn Wynn Baker was one as much confided in,
for his integrity and veracity, and was as laudably useful in
practical experience on the subjects he profess-ed to know, as
any person of his day. He enjoyed the patronage and esteem
of the most respectable characters of his time. Whether his
anatomical knowledge was as accurate, as was his informa-
tion upon other subjects, it is not essential to discuss. I always
receive information with thankfulness ; and wish those qualifi-
ed in this much neglected branch, of the veterinaiy art, would
pay more attention to it. A desire to communicate what I con-
ceive useful, often impels me to treat on subjects which I find
not generally known ; though perhaps by many better under-
stood. In this case I do not believe I have mentioned any thing
new. For facts falling under my own observation I can vouch :
As to theories^ I leave them to the learned. — The facts menti-
oned by Mr. Baker are indubitable ; and have been frequent-
ly verified. There is certainly greater safety in piercing the
beast on the left side, between the hind rib and the hip-bone,
as directed in page 6, of our first vol. Mr. Steel agrees in the
necessity and efficacy of penetrating the paunch. His appre-
hensions as to other parts, may have some foundation, but
are much exaggerated. His endeavours to rectify errors are
praise-worthy. But it would be much to be lamented, if any
VOL. II. F

42 Observations,

alarms should deter from a remedy which in multitudes of in-
stances, has saved valuable beasts from otherwise inevitable
death. The risk of the incision in any part of the belly, or sides,
cannot be greater than that of the disease, if left to its fatal pro-
gress. Let all dangerous parts be avoided ; but let no fears
prevent the surest of all remedies. As to the alarm about
wounding the intestines, I have conversed with one of the
most eminent of our physicians,* and a deservedly celebrated
surgeon,! w^ho is generally acknowledged to be at the head of
his profession. They agree that although it is best to avoid
them, yet that wounds of the intestines, are, by no means^
often attended with the consequences, or dangers, which hav&
excited Mr Steele's apprehensions.

Dr. Darwin's flexible tube (and the same thing has been
long ago mentioned by Dr. Munroe) is doubtless very pro-
per. But little is known of its comparative superiority. A far-
mer would never think of providing it ; but knives are always
at hand. The use of this tube, shews that air is the cause
of the disease, when confined and elastic. Potash^ in the early
stages, has been found very efficacious, given in drenches or
balls, in quantities of not more than quarter or half an ounce
at a dose, at intervals, 'till its effects are produced. Any alkali
neutralizes the gas, or elastic air, which would occasion death*
To prevent the viscera being abraded, raw linseed or other oil^
may be given.

However scientific may be Mr. Steele's reasoning as to
the interior of the animal, I avoid controversies (even if I
were qualified to sustam them,) on subjects whereof facts are
the best expositors. I will not therefore agitate this question;
or perplex it with discussions about locality, or speculate
as to die nature of the disease, or the air generating from
the cause of it ; and occasioning the dangerous malady. It
is enough to observe, that in general, those whose cattle meet

Dr. Rush. f Dr. Physick-

Observations > 43

with these critical attacks, have neither time nor capacity to
reason about the structure of animals, in p^rts either visible
or hidden. If they theorize on the subject, fear and hesita-
tion are the result—and the beast dies, before their conclu-
sion is formed. The violent explosions of wind, issuing from
the orifice after incision, may not have occurred under Mr.
Steele's observation, but the fact can be proved by many wit-
nesses. Nor would it^be a difficult task to produce cattle now
perfectly sound, and in high health, which haVe been pierced
for, and cured of the disease, in other parts than those gene-
rally known to be the most safe. If a perforation or incision
fails in the part recommended ; — I repeat^— that no danger
apprehended from wounding the intestines, can be put in
competiton with the certainty of death^ unless this kind of
relief is boldly and instantly applied. Country people want
stimulus and support in such undertakings ; and not addi-
tions to their natural hesitations. And the chances are more
against the beast not being pierced at all, than its being done
in a wrong place. In an instance falling under my own no-
tice, the account given by Mr. Baker was read, after the ope-
ration and effect were over. Every one present declared, that
had he been a witness to the whole process of disease and
remedy, he could not more exactly have described every
symptom and circumstance then actually exhibited, tn one
instance a small tin candle mould, and in another a hollow
piece of elder, was inserted into the orifice ; to prevent its
closing, and the exterior and interior incisions from being
displaced^ in the way described by Mr Baker^

I am aware that zeal misapplied produces many irrepara-
ble mischiefs^ both in the small and great concerns of the
world. But I am so confident on this subject, that I hesitate
not, to confirm all I have said, in the communication upon
which Mr. Steele has (no doubt from the best motives) ani^
madverted.

RichaUd Peters*

[ 44 ]

Relative to Hedges. By Paul Cooper.

Read December 13th, 1808.

Woodbury, N. J. August Uh, 1808.
Esteemed Friend,

At thy request I have made some additional remarks
on Hedges. — I was surprised to see in the transactions
of your society, the apple tree, and the walnut recom-
mended for live fences : such plants as are easily propa-
gated from cuttings must be preferred, I have found it
difficult to get the walnut to live one year after setting
out, the sweet gum or linn, grows fast, bears plashing
very well, is very easily cultivated, and makes a suffici-
ent fence in a few years. The sour gum in low land will
also in a few years make a very good fence : the white
mulberry, the button wood or plane tree,* grows rapidly,
is easily propagated from cuttings, or seeds, and makes
excellent fire wood equal to hickory ; this is important
to have growing, and to get fire wood out of our fence
from time to time ; in some situations and soils the
thorn may not be injured by insects, I would however
by all means make the trial. I find in some parts of my
farm the thorn grows very well, plants set out in 1802
by properly cutting the tops from year to year in order
to produce a sufficiency of horizontal shoots, were in
1807 a sufficient and handsome fence without plash-
ing. In other parts of the same farm, I should not have
a fence in twenty years of the thorn, but in this last soil

* Plat anus occidentalis, L,

Relative to Hedges* 45

the sweet gum would thrive admirably, or the plane
tree.

I have tried the red cedar : cattle are remarkablv
fond of twisting it and destroying it with their horns.

The willow in low grounds does very well; the Georgia
poplar is very easily raised from cuttings, grows admi-
rably even in very sandy soils, and from the trials 1
have made, appears likely to succeed very well. — The
white thorn is often exceedingly injured by a worm or
some kind of insect that kills the bark all around near
the surface ; I was discouraged from raising any more
from the seed, although the insect did not kill the roots,
yet so much dead wood looks very unhandsome : but
the Viburnum Prunifolium L. or black haw, throws out
many horizontal shoots, and is a remarkable hardy plant.
I never saw it in the least injured by insects ; it grows
very plentifully in our woods, and may be raised in any
quantity from seeds. I dig it up and set it out in the
same manner that we do the thorn, and I understand
since my propagating it, that others have recommended
it. A number of the plants I have mentioned would
thrive very well in a variety of soils, where the thorn
would not answer any good purpose, and it must always
be of consequence to choose plants suitable to the dif-
ferent soils on our farms.

Thy respectful friend.

Paul Cooper.
Dr. James Mease,

C 46 ]

On Corn. By Joseph Lyman.

Read April 11th, 1809.

Hatfield, February Wth, 1809.
Sir,

Your letter of 30th, January, reached me early in
February. I embrace the first leisure hour to attend to
the contents. My publication of 1796,* is not at hand
and it is uncertain whether I could find it. I know not
whether I stated in that publication the condition in
which my field was at the time of my seeding it with
Indian com. If not, it would be proper that you should
know, that it had been previously, manured in a high
degree, and the preceding year, if I recollect right, was
cultivated with a crop of tobacco by persons to whom I
leased it. With what I should call a slovenly cultiva-
tion, the 180 rods produced 2600 pounds of merchant-
able tobacco, and with due attention, might have pro-
duced hundreds more.

The next year after the tobacco crop, I took it into
my own management, and improved it for Indian corn,
according to the statement you have seen. As to the
result there stated, it ought to be considered that the
measurement of the produce was immediately after
harvest ; probably it would have been eight or ten per
cent less, had it been delayed until February or March.

* For the piece alluded to. See the appendix.

On Corn, 47

The year succeeding my crop of Indian corn, I tilled
the field I believe without any manure, and sowed it
with barley and clover seed. The product was very
great. A gentleman who had been an agriculturalist in
Great Britain, viewed the barley when it had just head-
ed, and told me that he had seen no field of barley in
England superior to it. The crop by its own weight,
and a heavy rain, fell, and by being badly lodged, was
diminished, yet it was very considerable. I did not mea-^
sure it, but it was I believe about 40 bushels per acre.
The ground has been in grass ever since.

This same year 1797, I planted another field with
Indian corn in my second method, viz. in rows of cus-
tomary width, three or four feet apart, and in hills two
con» in a hill, about eighteen inches apart.

This was to reduce the labour by the assistance of
the corn harrow. This field was suckered three times
as in the preceding year. But the land itself was not so
good as the other field, nor had it been so richly manur-
ed. However, allowing for these disadvantages, the
produce was, I believe as great as in the preceding year.
But while the stalk was in full size, and in a full state
about the time of setting for ears, a heavy tempest pros-
trated the whole, as it did other fields planted in the
usual way. And although the crop was valuable, and
more than I had expected, yet it by no means equalled the
product of the former year. Yet I should say, that as
far as the crops progressed, without any uncommon
interruption, it was a good voucher for that particular
method of cultivating Indian corn. In the mode of cuJ-
tivating, especially my first mode of planting in squares
of two feet ; creeping under the plants on the ground^

48 On Corn.

to sucker the stalks, was very irksome to my boys, and
the price of labour rising at this time out of a due pro-
portion, and my other employments engrossing my time,
I did not pursue the experiment. Since that time I have
chiefly improved my small portion of land by letting it
to others.

My neighbours are generally farmers, and are called
good farmers in the old fashioned way ; but they have
too much land to invite them to make experiments, and
to spend the summer upon a few acres. I do not know
that any of them have tried the methods which my pub-
lication prescribed. They saw and admired the result
of my experiment, but either for want of help or for
want of zeal in making experiments, they went on in
the old track — raising 20 or 30 bushels on an acre. —
They had as many acres as they could improve without
employing any additional labour on two or three acres,
which would have filled their cribs, as full as they are
commonly filled from ten or twelve. I have not omitted
to pursue the method stated in my publication, from the
slightest conviction that there is any error or defect hi
the system, but merely from my not being employed in
farming, as my stated business. Too much of my time
would be engrossed to pursue the course effectually. —
Want of leisure and capital, prevented my course of ex-
periments, in such a manner as the importance of the
subject demanded. — My publication was designed to
invite farmers of property, and practical husbandmen,
to pursue the experiment. And I am persuaded that
they might pursue it to as great advantage, as my pub-
lication supposes. Not looking much to my little por-
tion of land, and unable to procure labourers at a rea-

On Com, 49

sonable price, or to oversee them if procured, 1 have
committed my fields to other hands on lease. But were
agriculture my line of regular employment, I should
take the course I did in 1796, for the greater part of
my corn land.

May I be permitted to suggest the great utility of
wood ashes, in raising Indian corn ? What my family
do not want for domestic use, I generally apply as ma-
nure for Indian corn, by putting a handfull round each
hill, after the first hoeing. — (We hoe four times.) I
have observed the effects repeatedly, until I am satisfied
that upon almost every kind of land one bushel of ashes
will produce an additional bushel of Indian com. — I
have tried wood ashes and gypsum upon corn in the same
field, and the field thought to be friendly to gypsum ;
the ashes have been less expensive and quite as pro-
ductive.— I once sowed four acres of very poor land,
with three bushels of flaxseed. — Upon two acres I
strewed eight bushels of ashes. The ground which had
the ashes produced 100 pounds of flax more than the
other. While on the ground, the eye perceived but a
slight difference in the two different parts of the field.
But I found the harl much better. This I attributed to
the ashes in killing the insects which prey on the roots
of flax, after it has attained its size, and before it has
procured its coat. Speaking of wood ashes, I will men-
tion another experiment. — I turned up an acre of sward,
and planted it with Indian corn. I applied after the first
hoeing about ten bushels of ashes (which is a profuse
and unusual allowance :) but before the field was ashed,
my labourers had nearly exhausted the ashes — I direct-

VOL. II, G

50 On Corn.

ed them to leave a portion of the field ; they left ground
in it, without ashes.

At harvest, the ground manured with ashes, produced
two or three times the quantity of the better land which
I had neglected. — The one yielding, I should say, as
much as fifty bushels per acre, the other not more than
twenty. Ashes sprinkled on land lately turned up from
sward, are most decidedly the most productive manure
which I have tried. After Indian corn, ashes are most
useful hi ensuring a good crop of flax, both harl and
seed. In laying land down to grass I have found barley
the best crop. It is early off* the ground, and gives great
facilities to the tender clover to gain a firm root before
winter. Flax has commonly been preferred,* as the
crop with which to sow clover, but it comes of the
ground late ; it is spread on the ground and imprisons
the clover still longer ; and the pulling of the flax rends
and disturbs the roots of clover and exposes it to death
the next winter.

I do not know sir, that I have met your wishes in
this letter. — If I have exceeded those wishes by the in-
troduction of extraneous matter, you w411 be candid
enough to excuse it and to carry it to the account of
my sincere desire to promote the beneficial purposes
of your institution.

With due esteem I am sir.

Your humble servant,

Joseph Lyman.
Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Agric, Soc, Philad.

* This alludes to his own vicinity.

C 51 ]

The following letters though not written for public view,
yet contain much matter which should not be lost.
They are therefore thought worthy of being inserted
among the transactions of the society*

On Gypsum,

Read June 13th, 1809.

Fort Royal, Virginia, January 30th, 1809.

Dear Sir,

I have postponed answering your two obliging letters
of May last, hitherto, lest the very great pleasure of
your correspondence, should seduce me to be trouble-
some, in the number or length of my letters ; and I fear
you will allow my apology to be a good one, before you
get to the end of this.

Your warning against a reliance on gypsum, and ne-
glecting manure, induces me to give you an idea of my
practices respecting both, in hopes of obtaining your
corrections. For many years I have enclosed all my ara-
ble land at each farm, in one enclosure, and excluded
grazing entirely, leaving the whole vegetable matter the
land produces, to return, taking a crop of corn and one
of wheat, every three or four years. To increase vege-
table cover I sow large fields of clover, cutting only a
small proportion for seed and for feeding green. These
are treated with plaister, and the clover is plowed in dry,
when the field comes into culture. It is cheaper to
plough it in dry than green, on account of the different
seasons of the year for the operations ; and however

52 On Gypsum,

contrary to theory it may be, my experiments have not
satisfied me that it is less nutritive to the earth, espe-
cially when well clothed with these vegetables until to-
wards the end of the winter. This cover added to the
exclusion of the hoof, keeps its pores open longer in
winter to the action of the atmosphere, than ploughing
itself ; and defends it against sun as well as frost, whilst
ploughing exposes it to both, my idea is, that this sys-
tem is fitted for a combination with gypsum, and that
such a combination may possibly succeed without the
aid of manure. If so, it may be useful towards diminish-
ing the deficiency of that article, for I agree with you,
that nothing can be a complete substitute for it. To
make the experiment fairly, I have set aside 200 acres,
half to be cultivated in corn yearly, half to lie unculti-
vated and ungrazed, and the whole to receive an annual
dressing of three pecks of plaister to the acre. The repe-
tition of the culture being too quick for a perennial
plant, I use the bird-foot clover as we commonly call it,
to raise clothing for the land, having found that the
plaister operated as powerfully on that as on red clover.
This grass rises early, dies soon in the summer, abounds
in seed so as to set the land thick the following year, af-
fords a good cover, and nourishes a second annual, the
crab grass,* which springs through it the latter end of
the summer, and gives a fresh cover to the earth. This
experiment of combining the use of plaister with enclos-
ing has hitherto been very flattering.

As to corn stalks, for about 26 years past I have re-

* Syntherisma Serotina L,

J

On Gypsum, 53

duced all mine to food, litter and manure. But my ex-
periments reject the use of cutting boxes, after trying
the best for a long time, on account of the expence and
inutility of the labour. The expence on a very small
farm is not seen ; on a very large one, it is felt at once.
On mine, the removal of stalks, straw, corn shucks,
cobs and tops to the places of consumption, is nearly
sufficient for the winter's work. To cut the stalks and
straw, would employ the whole labour of the farm. If a
good farmer ought to have a vast surplus of dry vege-
table matter for litter, beyond What is necessary for food,
why should this expence be incurred ? Is it not cheaper
to feed in waste, and let the waste go for litter ? It is
with difficulty I reduce this coarse food to manure and
apply it in the spring. If the stock is increased and
made to eat it, the manure is diminished, and the addi-
tional stock is soon killed by the want of a dry warm
bed, and a deficiency of summer pasturage.

I find corn stalks gradually became less valuable as
food and litter, the longer they stand, therefore I begin
to use them as soon as I begin to gather corn, by remov-
ing every day the weather will permit, about eight or
ten heavy waggon loads, into the stable yard and farm
pen ; keeping a parcel near each to resort to in less
quantity when the weather is bad. Horses and mules
thrive better at this crisis, than at any other time of the
year. Whether the saccharine juice of the stalk agrees
better with them, or whether it is owing to their being
able to masticate more of it than the cow, who is chiefly
confined to stripping it, they seem to thrive better on
this food than horned cattle. Between two and three
thousand load of manure is made on the farm I live on,

54 On Gypsum.

chiefly of corn stalks. It accumulates in the yards until
the winter is over, and is never disturbed until the mo-
ment it is to be used. This is always in April immedi-
ately after the corn, save what is to occupy the land to
be manured, is planted. The manure is carried out,
spread on land fallowed in winter, that it may separate
easily and mix well with the coarse manure ; a bushel
of plaister to the acre is sown on it after it is spread, and
it is ploughed in, all on the same day. I have frequently
for experiment, left my manure longer periods to rot,
undisturbed — made up into large dunghills — mixed
and unmixed with earth — covered and uncovered, and
in all have suffered a loss of labour and manure, in pro-
portion to the deviation from my present practice.
When manure is suffered to lie to a second year, I
think its loss exceeds a moiety. The best instrument
for raising and scattering this coarse manure which I
have seen, is a hoe, in its eye, shape, helve and dimen-
sion, precisely like what is called here a hilling hoe, but
having three strong prongs in place of a blade. These
prongs pierce the manure by the fall of this forked hoe,
it is taken up without stooping, in as large a parcel as
the labourer can manage, and sliaken into the waggon
by suffering the helve of the hoe to fall gently on its top
piece.

You ask me the cause of the black heads of wheat
in the forvvard kinds I sent you. They are frequent with
us. And the forward is more liable to them, than the
later wheat. But in no instance have I known them to
produce a material injury to the crop. The infected
heads perish young, and communicate no distemper to
their neighbours ; and the number is never consider-

On Gypsum* 55

able. Like the rust and other disorders of that kind, I
suppose it to proceed from repletion. Most of my lands
being flat, I ha\'e observed that those disorders might
be infallibly produced artificially, by graduating mois-
ture alone for their attainment, and trusting to the sea-
son for heat ; and the remedies I use are, to plough very
deep when I sow my wheat ; nevertheless covering it
shallow, and to lay the land in ridges the width of the
corn rows, with a deep and narrow furrow between
them. Wheat seems to me to resist these maladies, in
proportion to its forwardness, because it is less exposed
to the combination of heat with moisture. Early kinds
are the resource against the one ; draining off rain wa-
ter by furrows and deep ploughing, seem to me to be
the best resource against the other.

A few of the experiments I have made with gypsum
are mentioned, to take a chance for adding a fact to your
information on that subject.

1803. March 15th. Oats and clover, both just up,
plaistered them at one bushel to the acre ; three weeks
after, plaistered them again with the same quantity.
Upon both occasions left the richest portion of the plat
unplaistered. This only produced one third, both of
oats and clover, of the plaistered land.

April. Mixed or rotted a bushel of plaister with as
much seed corn, keeping it wet whilst planting. With
such rotted seed planted a field of 40 acres, except eight
rows through the centre which were unplaistered. The
land poor. The inferiority of these eight rows was visi-
ble, from the moment the corn was up, to its being ga-
thered.

56 On Gypsum,

1804. April. Rolled the seed corn of two hundred
acres in like manner, leaving eight rows across the field,
so as to intersect with flat, hilly, sandy, stiff, rich and
poor land. Their inferiority was so visible, that from an
eminence in the field, a stranger could point out the
eight rows from the time the corn was three inches
high, until it was all in tassel. In this the eight rows
were a week later than the plaistered corn. The plais-
tered corn stood the best, was forwardest, and produced
the greatest crop. Its fodder dried about ten days sooner.

1805. April. Plaistered as above the seed corn of
30 acres of rich moist land, leaving eight rows. Corn
injured by too much rain. No difference between the
eight rows and the rest.

May 7th. Replanted my corn on the high land, which
had been much destroyed by mice, moles and birds,
mixing two quarts of tar well, with one bushel of seed
corn, and then plaistering it as above. The best reme-
dy I ever tried against those evils, and the plaister as
usual, accelerated and benefited the corn.

April 25th. Plaistered three bushels on three acres of
clover just up, sown alone on land half manured with
coarse manure. K good crop.

May 9th. Seven bushels on seven acres of forward
wheat and clover. Wheat heading ; land thin ; the
clover exceeded what such land had usually produced.
No benefit to the wheat.

May lOth. Six bushels on six acres of very bad clover
sown last spring. Clover just beginning to bloom. The
season became moist, and it improved into a fine crop.

May 10th. Last spring I left an unplaistered strip of
20 feet wide quite across a field of clover. It was all cut

On Gypsum. 57

except this strip, which was so bad as not to be worth
cutting. This spring on this day (clover beginning to
bloom) the strip was still much inferior to the adjoining
clover, which was good. I plaistered it at a bushel to
the acre, leaving the rest of the field unplaistered. It
equalled the adjoined clover in one month.

May 16th. Sowed 23 bushels on 23 acres of corn in a
large field. Ploughed in part immediately, harrowed in
part, and left part on the surface ten days before it was
worked in. Corn four inches high. Weather moist.
No difference between the three divisions. The seed of
the whole field had been rolled. These 23 acres exceed-
ed the adjoining corn 25 per cent : its blades and tops
also dried sooner.

June 15th. Plaistered at three bushels to the acre a
strip of goose grass or English grass — no effect on land
or grass.

August 10th. Sowed 50 acres of thin sandy land in
corn at the time, in clover, and 40 bushels of plaister on
the seed, harrowing both lightly in. A moderate show-
er in four days, succeeded by a severe drought. Clover
sprouted and chiefly perished. A good cover of bird-
foot clover followed land so visibly improved, that a
stranger could mark the line of the plaistering by the
growth. That and the adjoining land in corn in 1808.
The difference visible in favour of the plaistered land.

September 17th, to the 5th, of October. Sowed 88
busliels of yellow latter bearded wheat ; 171 of forward,
mixing half a bushel of plaister with one of wheat, a
little wetted. One bushel of forward, and three pecks
of latter wheat were sown to an acre. All among
corn. Two slips of 30 feet each were left across the

VOL» II. H

58 On Gypsum.

field, in ^vhichunplaistered wheat was sown. Where the
kind was sandy, the unplaistered wheat was best, owing
to the great growth of bird-loot clover among the plais-
tered. This discovered the eifect of gypsum on that an-
nual grass. Where this grass did not appear, there was
no difference between the plaistered and unplaistered
wheat. From the spring of 1806 to this time, the un-
plaistered slips have been distinctly marked, by a vast
inferiority of the weeds and grass naturally produced.

November 23d. Sowed three bushels of plaister on
one and an half acres of wheat, left unplaistered for
the purpose in the field last mentioned, on the surface.
A^'eather moist. No effect on the wheat, on the ground,
or in the growth to this day, though the plaister was of
the same kind with that used in the last experiment.

1806, March and April. Sowed 200 acres of clover
with plaister, at different times when the w^eather was
dry, moist, windy and still, part at three pecks — a
bushel and five pecks to the acre, leaving a slip of
20 feet wide across a field, to ascertain the goodness
of the plaister, which was of a hard white kind,
that hitherto used being soft and streaked. The clover
in this strip was bad, on each side of it, fine. No ap-
[)arent difference was produced by weather, quantity,
or times of sowing. The whole crop far surpassed in
goodness v»hatever such lands had produced before,
except the slip, as to which Pharaoh's dream seemed
reversed.

April and May. Rolled all my seed corn as usual,
leaving slips unplaistered. An excessive drought. No
difference between these slips and the rest of the field.
The following year when that grass grew, tufts of luxu-

On Gypsum* 59

riant bird-foot clover, designated the exact spots where
the plaistered corn had been planted.

April 23d. Sowed 16 bushels of plaister on eight acres
of oats and clover, just up, intending to have a great
crop, and leaving a slip. Land naturally fine and high-
ly manured. Drought as above, excessive. Oats bad.
No difference between the slip and the rest* Clover kill-
ed. Land ploughed up in September and put in wheat.
Clover sown in 1807 on the wheat. A heavy crop of
wheat, clover plaistered in March 1808, at a bushel to
the acre ; crop very great. No inferiority in the slip un-
plaistered in 1806.

1807, March 1st, to 12th. Sowed clover seed on
one hundred acres in wheat, and 80 bushels of plaister
the sowers of the latter following those of the former.
Left a strip of 20 feet. Weather dry, moist, windy or
calm, and for two days of the sowing a snow two inches
or less, deep, on the ground. Land stiif, rich, poor or
sandy, and of several intermediate qualities. The clover
came up better than any I ever sowed on the surface,
the strip was a little, and but a little inferior to the ad-
joining clover, which I attribute to its receiving some
plaister from the effect of a high wind. The whole field
received three pecks to the acre in 1808, and was the
best piece of high land grass of the size I ever saw.
The wheat received no benefit.

March 10th. Sowed 40 bushels of plaister on 60 acres
of poor land, cultivated in corn (Indian) last year, and well
set with bird-foot clover, leaving an unplaistered slip.
Weather dry and windy. Effect vast. Strip visible to an
inch, as far off as you could distinguish grass. The bird-

60 On Gypswn.

foot clover died, and a crop of crab grass shot up
through it, and furnished a second cover to the land.

1807 and 1808. In these two years all my corn ground
as it was broken up or listed has been plaistered broad-
cast, with from three pecks to a bushel to the acre, and
directly ploughed in, and both the seed corn and seed
wheat have been rolled bushel to bushel. In both, the
crops have greatly exceeded what the fields have ever
before produced. That cultivated last year has doubled
any former product. But they have been aided in spots
with manure, and the years were uncommonly fruitful.
AH the manure carried out in these two years has been
sprinkled with plaister when spread before being plough-
ed in, and several fields of the bird-foot clover have been
plaistered. The results conform to those already men-
tioned.

1808, February. Plaistered four ridges of highland
meadow oat at a bushel to the acre. No effect.

Some of the inferences I make from these experiments
are, that gypsum should be worked into the earth ; that
half a bushel or less to an acre, worked in, will im-
prove land considerably ; that drought can defeat its ef-
fects upon corn, but not upon the land, if it is covered;
that the weather is of no consequence at the moment it
is sown, though the subsequent season is of great ; that
it may vastly improve red clover even as late as May ;
that it increases the effects of coarse manure ; that a
quantity less than half a bushel to an acre, is in some
cases as effectual, as a much larger one; that excessive
moisture or excessive drought destroys its effect ; that
its effect is more likely to be destroyed, when sprinkled
irsn the surface, than when mixed ^vith the earth ; that

On Gypsum* 61

sowing it broadcast among Indian corn after it is
up, may improve the crop 25 per cent : that sown in
June it may not improve English grass ; that sown in
August and covered, it may improve the land, though
drought succeeds ; that sown on wheat in November,
it may neither benefit the wheat nor land ; that about
three pecks to the acre immediately sprinkled on clover
seed sown on the surface, may cause it to come up, live,
and thrive better ; that a similar quantity sown on the
surface in March may treble the burden of bird-foot
clover ; that sown broadcast from the 1st of January in
breaking up or listing corn ground, the same quantity
will probably add considerably to the crop ; and that it
may not improve the high land meadow oat if sown in
February.

I have witheld experiments tending to prove the uti-
lity of combining enclosing with the use of gypsum,
because they are yet defective ; and some others, on ac-
count of the length of this letter.

If my poor experiments can in the least degree ad-
vance the laudable design of your institution, I shall be
always willing both to communicate them, and that you
should either select extracts, or suppress them as you
please. I expect this year to complete a project for drain-
ing 200 or 300 acres of land, subject to tide water, musk-
xats, and a creek having two mills on it above. It is a
considerable work for a farmer, and has been conduct-
ed at very little expence. Would a circumstantial ac-
count of it be agreeable, should it succeed ?

I have been obliged to use the common names of se-
veral grasses, from an ignorance of the botanical. Some
of them have not I believe been named by the adepts

^2 On Gypsum,

in that science, and I have no botanical vocabular}- to
look into for the others. Such names I know fluctuate
and are often different, in different districts ; if those I
have used should be unintelligible, I will upon knowing
it, try to explain them. I am with great respect, Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

John Taylor.

Dr. James Mease.

[ 63 ]

Observations on Colonel Taylor^ s Letter, by R, Peters,

Belmont March ISth, 1809.

Dear Sir,

I return you Colonel Taylor's letter, which I have
read with the same pleasure all his communications in-
spire. His letters cannot be too long ; I wish those of
equal ability to give information (if many such there be,
among those devoted to agricultural occupations) would
take half the pains, either to establish facts or to commu-
nicate them. His mode of substituting the clothing of
its own surface, in place of artificial, or factitious ma-
nures, is new to us, on the scale he exhibits. The dif-
ference of the vegetation, ploughed in dry or succulent,
has always, with me, been in favour of the latter gready.
But w^hen I compare my relatively small husbandry,
with his expansive performances, over so vast a surface,
I feel like a dwarf along side of a giant : conscious of
some powers, according to weight and inches, — but
lost in comparative inferiority. Yet, after all, the prin-
ciples of small or large husbandry, though they may dif-
fer as to the extent of application, are the same. And
my opinions, suited to my capabilities, have always been
in favour of the " exiguum colito,'^^ I think there is more
gained by it, in proportion. If I can get as I have done,
from 30 to 50 bushels of wheat oft* a few acres — sup-
pose 20 — I gain more than the southern farmers do oft'
100 ; both in product, and saving expence. But they
have slaves individually fed and cloathed cheaply, and
paid no wages. The drones, — the old — the young — the

o4 Ohseroations on Colonel Taylor's Letter,

sick — the vitious — and the idle — consume, however,
no small portion of the earnings of the workers. The
latter their owners must employ ; for the more they
work, the quieter they keep them. Therefore all sys-
tems are good or indifferent, according to existing cir-
cumstances.

I have always been of opinion, and so I long ago
mentioned to you as plainly as I dared — that your corn
stalk cutter was an expensive bauble; if used on a
great scale on an extensive farm. You see even the la-
bour of slaves, is thrown away in this tedious operation.
It can only be useful where forage is scarce ; and la-
bour applied when tiiere is nothing else to do. — And
when is that interval, on even a Pennsylvania Farm ?

The maxim of our grazing farmers, on uplands here,
is ; " the more cattle, the more grass, and the more fer-
tility." Arthur Young says — " the more sheep the more
fertility, and suppHes of food." I have never yet found
this verified — est modus in rebus — JVilliatn PFest, with
the addition of his top dressing, went the nearest to
prove it as to cattle. He bought no manure but lime,
and ploughed none : — but the hoof and the tooth were
in eternal activity. In no country is there finer or better
grass, than constantly covered his fields.

The bird' foot clover^ eo nomine^ I do not know. But
being, no doubt a vai*iety of the trefoil^ the plaister ope-
rates with it. Mr. Taylofs ideas, as to old dungy are
similar to my own ; but I have never liked applica-
tions of it in a fermenting state, in light soils. Weeds,
Mr. T. does not seem to care about. I have been just
reading some discussions, in the late British agricultu-
ral magazines They go to prove " that the heavier the

Observations on Colonel Taylor'' s Letter, 65

crop (no matter of what) the richer the land is left ;
the grain thrives best through tap rooted grass." I give
this as their idea — for Mr. Taylor's experiment, '' Sep-
tember 17th to 5th October" [and many might be ad-
ded] disprove one, at least of their principles. The
wheat was worst among the plaistered bird-foot clover
[_"- whyy^'] They say, that " vegetable cover excludes
heat, and admits light ; and these are distinct elemen-
tary substances, though generally found together.
Light, with hydrogen and carbon (the materials of oil J
is the vivyfying power of vegetation ; but radiant heat
is hostile. Enough light is admitted under the cover,
and radiant heat is excluded." Although it cannot be
denied that light is essential to the life and growth of
plants, which can be raised to maturity in caves, by
lamp light, it does not fertilize the soil. They do not
make allowance, either, for the exhaustion of a heavy-
crop. What will they say to Mr. Taylor's dead cover of
cedar Sec ; or to a door, or board, lying on the surface ;
and fertilizing ; by preventing evaporation, and the ex-
traction by the sun [or a crop] of w^hat the air impreg-
nates ? And yet admitting, not light but, the acidified
gases, carbon he, which create and support vegetable

^ To the " wAz/" of Mr. T. I have no decisive or techni-
cal answer. Probably, the under crop of grass prevents from
perspiration, and stagnates in the lower joints of the wheats
stalks, more juices than can circulate through the plant*
There are gi'eater demands for food, by both plants^ than the
earth can supply. The strongest and most forward plant ob-
tains the mastery. Thick and strong wheat, often choaks clo-
ver. H, P,

VOL. II. I

66 Observations on Colonel Taylofs Letter.

existence. Theories sink under facts ; and I depend on
the latter. Young grass does no harm. But I have lost
crops by plaistering clover ; and throwing up luxuriant
vegetation under wheat.

You must get Dr. Seybert, or some other chemist,
to inform how to discover the quantity of the sulphuric
acid in plaister. It is good or bad, according to the
proportion of this acid contained in it. My way has
been to heat it in a dry pot ; and judge by the ebullition.
But I now take it as I can get it. I find hard or soft
stone very little different in effect ; though it makes a
great odds in pulverization. The colour is given by
metals — most commonly — by iron. It is a sulphat ; —
and its distinguishing characteristic is the sulphuric
acid. If Mr. T. would keep this in view, and attend to
the principles I have mentioned often, both in the
" agricultural inquiries" and in our memoirs, he would,
with his great industry, and agricultural, as well as
other capacities, help us all in developing causes. The
half bushel, doing as much as any quantity, is account-
ed for on these principles. Our pupil will soon be our
master. He wants no instruction. His facts agree with
my experience, ever smctgi/psum was used here. With
wheat or other culmiferous chaff-bearing crops, I never
found it anywise efficient : except that rolling the seed
in it gives an impetus to the first spring or shooting of
the plant. I wdsh Mr. T. would gradually banish the
heterodox custom of maize with wheat, in the same field.
But the southern farmers will never listen to this Penn*
sylvanianisme. We meet the fate of all preachers against
inveterate habits.

Observations on Colonel Taylor^ s Letter, 67

I have always found scattering plaister over the whole
of a corn field, better, than partial applications to hills.
Covered or not, I have not found much, if any differ-
ence. I have sowed it on the snow in February, and as
late as June, or July, with equal success. Season and
casual circumstances, no doubt, concurred. I should
think that covering would be the best for a corn field.
It brings it in contact with the roots of the plant, as
they spread.

I wish Mr. T. would send us his results and mode
of draining. Every thing from him is valuable.

You can easily inform him of our mode of manufac-
turing plaister. Nothing can be more perfect ; and you
know how to describe it. You may send this letter ;
or pick out of it any thing you please.*

I am much afraid of Mr. Taylor's experiment on
his 200 acres half kept in corn — and half in ungrazed
clover — both plaistered. It will most assuredly fail on
the corn ground, though it will succeed on the other
part. No doubt the vegetable matter in the latter, will
constantly give activity and pabulum for the sulphuric
acid. But what will be in the corned part for it to work
on ? The more pulverization by constant tillage, the
less the plaister will operate ; because the vegetable
matter is perpetually dissipated. I have often mentioned

* Colonel T. in aletter February 16th, 1810, to Dr. Mease,
explains his practice, which had been misunderstood. It is
a bold, and it is to be wished it may be a succesful experi-
ment. The ameliorating the soil, by the decay and accumulation
of vegetable matter from its own surface, has succeeded on a
smaller scale ; but in a longer time.

68 Observations on Colonel Taylofs Letter,

the fact, too, of the necessity of change of crop from the
following example of its contrary ; because it was very
remarkable, though not singular. A neighbour of mine,
rich and stift'in opinion, (and not like Mr. T. receiving
graciously all information) added to my long catalogue
of facts on this subject. He would not believe my doc-
trine (nor will many others) about change of crops. He
said dung w^ould do every thing. He planted Indian
corn, and plaistered it for seven or eight years, in the
same field. In his last effort he highly dunged the field.
He saw it gradually dwindle, 'till it came to a small
bamboo. It is a great exhauster, added to the other ob-
jection. He continued apparently incredulous ; and
thought of his field, as one in a consumption does of
himself: who does not believe he is dying, though on his
last legs. He changed his crop, however, from con-
viction : but he said it was " because he was tired of
seeing always the same plant." He sowed wheat ; and
had the finest crop, he ever raised. This had the bene-
fit of his dung ; which wants no co-operator. But plais-
ter is not a noun substantive. Nor is a plant too long
kept in the same field. — Alternation and vegetable ma-
nure may favourably interrupt the continuity of crop. —
A plant kept too long in the same field is not assisted
by frequent repetition, or quantity, of manure. It must
have a change. Gorging with dung, is as little benefi-
cial to a plant, as overabundant food to an individual,
cursed with a canine appetite. He eats much — digests
litde — and dies. If there is any exception, it is grass ;

Obsei-vations on Colonel Taylor'' s Letter, 69

which, however, is always changing its species on the
oldest leys, in whole or in part.^

I see Mn T. does not approve of exposure of sur-
face, even in winter, 1 have read and heard much, in
the dispute between the falloxvists and anti fallowists.
The results, in my mind, have been much like many of
our public disputes. You end with as little conviction
as you begin. From long and reiterated practice for

* What TidPs drill husbandry may prove against this long
indulged, though not singular opinion, I cannot say. The drill
husbandry is much in vogue again in England ; though Tull
had been lonpf, as sailors term it- — under the weather. — I con-
tend not for dogmas or theories. But I speak from uniform
observation as to mijsdj\ without impeaching the experience
or judgment of others. TuU's ideas were, that, by frequent
stirring and culture and changing his drills, he could success-
fully cultivate the same plant. In the same field, for any length
of time with httle or no manure. There seems -^ fashion in
husbandrs^, as in all other human affairs. It will be seen that
a IMr. Gregg, hereafter mentioned, succeeded in reversing
the culture which had been used on his farm, for half a cen-
tury. 'Tis not unlikely that when he passes away, somebody
will reverse his practice. It is not surprising that in smaller
operations such vicissitudes should occur. In naval tactics,
magna componere parvis^ Mr. Gregg's countrymen succeed by
breaking the line, [their own first and then that of their enemy,]
though many old victories were gained, when it was the fashion
to keep it compact. Their too successful antagonist wins, and
desolates, ^V/(is, regardless of the labours ol' the husbandman,
by reversing, or despismg, all the tactics, which had given to
preceding conquerors, what was once considered, deathless
fame. R. P,

70 Observations on Colonel Taylofs Letter,

more than 40 years, I have invariably found fall and
tvinter ploughing, and exposure XoXhc winter frosts, and
temperature, with all its vicissitudes, most salutary and
profitable to all succeeding crops. To Indian corn most
strikingly. In the season of winter the earth, which is
more the place of deposit and store-house for the food
of plants, than the nourishment and support of them in
itself, receives every thing and parts with nothing. Even,
summer fallowing for killing weeds, and opening mouths
to receive the nutriment for future crops from the air,
if the stirring be frequent, is highly beneficial; — though
I have met with some facts which have staggered me on
that point. In England, I believe, the fallowists have
the majority on their side. I nevertheless, believe in all
that can be said about permanent and long cover ; and
in the efficacy of covering crops. I have wrote too
much now, to allow me time to give what I conceive
reasons for such opinions ; nor do I deny that there are
some soils, which may afford exceptions. You know I
do not deal in paradoxes, or fine spun theories ; howe-
ver these may appear. The practice o^ fall ploughing is
here approved by all intelligent practical men.

The best way for colonel T. would be to try a few
acres ; and not speculate about it ;^ not in wet clay soil.

* " Not in wet clay soil.'*'* — I did not mean to say, that,
in such ground, fall and winter ploughing should be excluded.
JCothing can be better if well managed ; and the field thrown
up in narrow ridges, to dry and drain. I have known plais-
ter succeed on clay, when thus freed from moisture. This
Itind of soil has a tendency to consolidate, and bake, or harden
into a crust, on the surface. And the more so, if ploughed

Observations on Colonel Taylor^ s Letter, 71
— One trial may not be enough, he will discover rea-

in broad and flat lands. Frequent ploughing does not seem
always to answer on this, as well as on lighter soils, unless
it be ridged, and thrown up to drain. I feared that, in the
first essay, the proper mode would not be adopted. It is
on this soil only, in this country^ that fresh dung, can be
recommended, if it be in any case preferable. Arthur Toung^
in his address to the British board of agriculture, (1809,)
speaks in strong terms of approbation, of the practice of ap-
plying ^r^^A dung; and quotes the authority of professor
Davy^ for its great and important efficacy, chetnically consi-
dered. It would be well to make experiments on all soils ;
and obtain lacts and results. For inyself^ I can answer, that
on light soils^ I have tried it repeatedly, with evident disad-
vantage, though I am not a friend, to over-rotted dung.

There is a communication from Thomas Gregg Esq, to the
British board of agriculture. May 20th, 1809, of his mode
of managing a farm of 240 acres : of heavy, wet clay land,
in Hertfordshire, England. It is well worthy the attention of
eur farmers on such lands. Though his husbandry is on the
^rill system, which we are not in the habit of practising, yet

much of his management might be profitably introduced

He ploughs but once in the year. And that in the autuma
and winter; and then ploughs in his dung, which remains
undisturbed by the plough, (his allowance ten loads td the
acre,) and therefore, he says, a less quantity has more effici«
ency. The surface is kept clean, friable, stirred throughout, and
free from baking, by the scarijier and harrow, which prepare
for, and cover all his crops ; which, where they are of simi-
lar grain, are not greater, to the acre, than our own, with good
farming. Of the instruments, plates are given. The scarijier
is not unlike my cleaning harroxvs ; but more adapted to his
use. Mine are for lighter work, in loamy soils, with only one
wheel, in the beams by which they are drawn, to regulate

'2 Observations on Colonel Taylor^ s Letter.

sons, by facts. And no one can turn them to better ac-

dfpths. I can multiply or diminish the number of hoes at
pleasure ; and work them at two, three, or six inches deep.
I have them with three, and as far as twelve hoes, of differ-
ent sizes, to stir from two to three and four feet in breadth.
Of Mr. Ciregg's crops, there is a constant succession, so that
his ground is never naked, and exposed to exhalation and
exhaustion, by the sun. Before ploughing, he uses a marker
to trace, or lay out his field ; so as to be ploughed in five
and a half feet ridges, with a drain between them. His whole
admirable economy, rotations, and changes of crops are de-
tailed. He has cleared annually, ^f 1117 lis. Sterling on an
average ol six vears : whereas it had cleared before his taking
the farm only / 230, annually. He reversed all the old regime
of this farm, under which it had been managed for 50 years.
Including £ 240 rent, his annual expence is £ 1367 9s. Ster-
ling ; S 6071 48 cents of our money, which would buy here
a good farm.

But it is well worth the notice of an American farmer^ if
he should complain (as is often the case) of his public bur-
thens— that ]Mr. Gregg* stVi}i\Q is ^"72, his poor rate, £60, ^nd
his highway dutij, only £ 6 — being an annual incumbrance,
beside imperceptible taxes of £ 138 Sterling,=613 dollars of
our money.' — And tithe, poor ratc,2C[\C\ highway charges were
the same, when the produce and profits, were at the lowest
rates. Their turnpikes and canals, very numerous, supersede
the necessity of high road taxes. An example which is lauda-
bly operating on us.

English farming recjuires to be in a superior style, to afford
its annual burthens. But these stimulate exertion, and call
forth the powers of the mind, as well as corporeal employ-
ment. I wish no such stimulants here ; though of taxes for
the poor fairly entitled to public support, and for making and
repairing roads, if justly applied, no complaint should ever

Observations on Colonel Taylor'' s Letter, 73

count ; I wish I could get such a person as Colonel T.
to establish in his own domain a little pattern farm ;
where he could (as he would) pursue, on a small scale,
the best systems of neat and improved husbandry. This
would be a school and example, for his own benefit, and
great amusement ; as well as for imitation by his neigh-

be made. It Is probably, however, owing to the ease with
which our wants are well supplied, and a competence obtain-
ed, and, of course, so i^w paupers, and all taxes light, that
our agriculture is not better. We do not feel that necessity,
which is not onlv the spur to exertion, but, according to the
trite adage, the mother of invention : we are assuredly ad-
vancing, commendably and profitably, in most branches of our
husbandry. Long may we continue to possess the salutary
and substantial enjoyments derived from it ! Obtained, His
true, by an inferior style of cultivation and economy ; but
without the painful feelings, which not only the amount, but
the subjects^ of tzvo of these heavy annual contributions, would
excite.— -Not because the ministers of religion should be des-
titute of decorous and plentiful support ; or the poor be com-
fortless, or ill supplied. But because we are accustomed to
choose our own pastors ; and take our own modes of support-
ing Mem and no others. We have not the numbers of poor, in
proportion to population, to demand such contributions, or af-
flict our sympathies. TFars, either of necessity or ambition,
or too extensive manufactures, have not yet withdrawn our
people from extending the cultivation of our soil, however
in artificially ; nor most deplorably increased, the numbers on
©ur poor list. Should it ever happen that these consequences
attend manufactures, it will be a warning that they are car-
ried too far.

R^ Peters.
VOL. II. j:

74 Observations on Colonel Taylor'' s Letter.

hours. His slaves might here be taught, by selections ;
and when taught, turned on his common farms, im-
proved m themselves, and exemplary to others. But the
southern gentlemen object to mixing slaves of different
habits together. It has I believe, never been systema-
tically tried.

Yours very truly,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

I think the magotty bay bean operates like Mr. Taylor's
bird-foot clover, in some respects. It fertilizes by cover, and
rotting down its vegetation continually. It seeds plentifully j
and renews itself constantly. For I'ght sandy soils it has been
much used in Maryland ; and elsewhere. But it is only fit
to prepare for grain crops ; which it wonderfully assists. It
excludes clover and other grasses, by keeping the sole posses-
sion of any ground it once fully occupies. Being a legume,
it does not exhaust. We have tried it some years ago ; but
disliked it, as being injurious to the clover system. Cattle
and sheep feed on it : and it is good where nothing better is
to be had. It grows on light and barren soils, where better
products will not thrive,

R. P.

[ 75 ]

On Gyp§um»

Read June 13th, 1809.

Virginia^ Port Royal February lOth, 1810,

Dear Sir,

Both Judge Peters and yourself have mistaken my
experiment, respecting a field in corn, and another in
bird-foot clover, owing no doubt to the obscurity of my
language. These fields are not permanently occupied
by either plant, but alternately by both. One field pro-
duces a crop of corn, and the other being enclosed, re-
ceives the benefit of a crop of ungrazed vegetable mat-
ter. The succeeding year the ungrazed field is taxed
with the crop of corn, and the corn field fed with the
ungrazed vegetable. Both fields receive annually a
bushel of plaister to the acre ; in one it is sown upon the
bird- foot clover in March or April, and in the other
ploughed in at its fallow. The object is to ascertain
whether an annual bushel of plaister to an acre, com-
bined with a biennial relinquishment to the soil of its
natural vegetable product, will enable it to be severely
cropt every other year without impoverishment, or with
an addition to its fertility. The first effect would suffice
to check an evil, every where demonstrating the wretch-
ed state of our agriculture ; the second would be a
cheap and expeditious mode of improving the soil, even
where the state of agriculture is good. If doubts had not
been again excited by the seasonableness of the last
year as to rain, my convictions would have been settled

76 On Gypswn.

both as to this experiment, and also as to the efficacy of
plaister. The trial corn field produced double its cus-
tomary crop. Near 300 acres in corn on my farm, not
twenty of which were manured, almost averaged thirty
bushels. A double crop also. But 1 shall record and
transmit to you the result of a more complete trial. In
the mean time, Mr. Roberts's experiment* so accurately
accords with my observations and hopes, that it affords
me much encouragement.

The progress you are making in the improvement of
sheep, is at present the first object of public interest, but
it will not be speedily, if at all, that the country below
the mountains south of the Susquehannah will rival you.
We have here neither buyers nor manufacturers of
wool, (the household excepted) of any moment. Its
usual price is about 17 cents, and w^e cannot grow it in
our dry climate on exhausted lands, at less than double
the price you can afford it at. These considerations shew
you that success does not yet appear to us through the
magnifying end of the telescope.

The perusal of Judge Peters's letter has afforded me
great pleasure.

Of sundry suggestions in his letter I shall certainly
avail myself. As to a few, my doubts remain. The
maxim *' the more cattle, the more grass" may be
thus conjugated. " Cattle produce grass — grass produ-
ces cattle— and cattle will subsist men ; and so the sys-

* A mode pursued by Job Roberts, on a particular worn
out field, had been stated to Mr. Taylor. — See Robert's Penn-
sylvania Farmer, page 208.

J. M.

On Gypsiun. 77

tern of Malthus is overturned, more easily than the sys-
tem of Malthus overturned the system of Godwin."
' " The heavier the erop no matter of what ^ the richer
the land is left, though the crop is taken oJJ^" From this
fact stated by judge Peters, I infer, " that the heavier
the crop, ?io matter ofruhat^ the richer the land is left,
if the crop is not taken q^" If a heavy crop of weeds or
crab grass (no matter of what) would lea^'e the land
richer though taken off, it will I suppose enrich it still
more, when restored to the eartli. By the fertility of
the surface of the earth of uncultivated countries, and
of long enclosed spots, our attention is drawn, to vege-
table matter. The famous experiment of the willow,
with many others, proves that vegetables draw much of
their food from air and water. Whatever of these tran-
sient elements, vegetaljles can catch and bestow on the
earth, elaborated into a durable manure, seems to me to
be a particular acquisition drawn from an inexhaustible
treasury. It is however, not the small neat husbandry
of which the judge is so justly enamoured, and which
may be preferable in well peopled regions, but one cal-
culated to improve a great space of worn out land slow-
ly and at small expence. Weeds and grasses of all kinds
undoubtedly injure the crops with which they grow,
yet we sow clover with wheat. In seasons favourable to
its growth, I have seen it injure wheat materially. It is
for the purpose of replenishing the earth with vegetable
matter that we do this. The stuljble and roots, tht^ litter
it produces or saves when fed away (such as straw and
stalks) conspire to furnish the recruiting pabulum.
Weeds and grasses of all kinds left on the surface or
ploughed in, like wheat straw, are supposed by the en-

78 On Gypsum.

closing system to afford this pabulum ; nor will they
prevent a clean culture, if their vegetating periods are
attended to. Is it certain that an annual plant sprouting
late in the spring, and suddenly covering the earth after
wheat is reaped, may not be made as useful as a peren-
nial one ?

The object of a pattern farm mentioned by Judge
Peters, is the exact object to which I am aspiring ; but
it is pursued rather on a large than a small scale, be-
cause it is necessary to combine considerable profit with
the experiment, for the subsistence of my family ; to
face the objection that my system is fit only to create
a pretty garden at great ex pence ; and to allure men by
exhibiting the most powerful temptation in my own ac-
tual success to imitate the example. A draining expe-
riment upon the point of being finished, will soon deve-
lope it in all its parts, and if it should then satisfy my
own judgment, and meet with the approbation of others,
I will give you the best account I can of such items as
may be embraced by the design of the society.

I am very respectfully, Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

John Taylor.

Dr. James Mease.

I

C 79 ]

On Fruit and Fruit Trees,
Read June 13th, 1809.

Stockport^ Wayne County ^ April Sth^ 1809.
For the Philadelphia Society for proinoting Agricul-
ture ^c.

Gentlemen^

It is with pleasure that I see your publication* of the
21st, last Month, requesting answers to sundry queries
respecting the cultivation of fruit trees.

* The following publication is alluded to :

The agricultural society of Philadelphia, desirous to collect
facts on the subject of fruit and fruit trees^ will be much
obliged by answers to any or all of the following queries. As
their object is to obtain and promulgate iniormation relative
to fruit and fruit trees, the best adapted to our climate and
circumstances, they hope those of their fellow citizens, wh©
have experience in their culture, will favour them with their
assistance in a design of general utility.

1. What kind of fruits are the greatest and most certain
bearers ?

2. Which are those coming soonest to perfection, and times
of blooming and ripening of those within your knowledge ?

3. Which are the hardiest, and most easily propagated ;
and the diiferent modes of culture ; and the times and man-
ner of planting and propagating, both as respects season and
state of sap I

80 Oji Fruit and Fruit Trees,

And as you justly observe, it is not expected that one
individual may be able to answer all the queries ; per-
haps it may also on the other hand be difficult to pro-

4. What enemies assail fruits, and modes of destroying
them, or guards against them ?

5. Modes of recovering decayed trees, which are most sub-
ject to injury, and the best means of preventing diseases or
decay ?

6. What soils, and what manures or dressings are proper
for the respective kinds of fruit trees, and their proper as-
pects : in what situations do they thrive most, and what are
general causes of injury or decay ?

7. What trees require the tree-knife, and which are best
left entirely to nature ?

8. What fruits will bear gathering before maturity, so as
to ripen in the house, or under other cover ; and the best
mode of preserving ripe fruit for use ?

9. What insects or vermin are enemies to fruit, and the
means of repelling, or destro}'ing them?

10. How long since the bitter-rot first seized the Vandever,
and house apples ? Is there any mode of prevention, or has
situation or soil any influence on the disease ?

11. Apples generally fell off the trees in great numbers be-
fore maturity, last autumn near Philadelphia. In many no
mark of decay appeared. What is the cause of this early fal-
ling and what the means of prevention ?

It not being expected that any individual will be ena-
abled to answer all these queries, it will be seen that it is left
to each correspondent who will be pleased to attend to them,
to give in.ormatioii as to that species within his knowledge.
Communications to the secretary of the society will be grate-
fully received.

On Fruit and Fruit Trees. 81

pose queries, the answers to which, would include all
the useful information the subject would admit.

For upwards of the last 30 years, of my life, I have
taken great pleasure in paying attention to the raising
of fruit trees ; and if any observations that I have been
able to make, prove of service to my fellow citizens, I
shall have a pleasure in communicating them.

I shall not attempt a regular answer to your queries ;
yet pay some regard to your arrangement, confining
myself principally to the apple tree,

I consider the apple the greatest and most certain
kind to bear ; yet not raised so soon as a peach tree by
perhaps 10 years, before they produce much fruit.

I consider apples under all their varieties, the length
of time they may be preserved, and the many uses
made of them, not only the most valuable of all our
kind of fruits ; but perhaps of more real value to the
people in general than all the other fruits.

The apple is the hardiest kind of fruit tree, and the
easiest raised of any that I am acquainted with ; yet
perhaps they require the most time to raise.

I have planted several orchards, and have not expe-
rienced any material difference in my success as to their
growing well ; whether planted in the fall or spring,
or at any time in the winter, provided there is no frost
in the ground : I believe any time when there are no
leaves on the young trees, w^ill answer equally well to
plant them.

This idea of transplanting fruit trees at any time
when they are destitute of leaves, is not an original dis^
covery of mine ; but was communicated to me by let-

VOL. II. L

82 On Fruit and Fruit Trees.

ter, many years ago by the learned and ingenious Chan-
cellor Livingston.

The greatest enemy to fruit trees in this part of the
country, is the catter pillar. My mode of destroying them
is to go early in the morning, and twist their nests out
of the trees with a stick or pole, which I find is readily
done ; and that it is negligence or rather laziness in a
farmer, to suffer his orchard to be much hurt by catter-
pillars.

The loose gravelly soil^ I consider from all my observa-
tions, best suited for an apple orchard ; and that a high
■dnd air 1/ situation produces the largest fairest fruit. — A
north aspect is most secure from the late frosts in the
spring, as the trees do not come forward so early.

The best manure that I have experienced for the ap-
ple tree, is horse du7ig and litter, to keep the ground
round the tree loose, and free from sod.

I generally prune all my kinds of fruit trees: whether
any kinds answer better without, I have not experienced.

I have been acquainted with the bitter-rot in Fande-
vers, and some other apples for at least 40 years, and
have endeavoured to discover the cause and prevention^
which I considered that I had done, as follows.

I had observed that rot to prevail most in wet damp
seasons, and on trees with the thickest closest tops and
least exposed to a free air.

I considered it a kind of mildew or mould, that pene-
trated the skin of some kinds of apples more than
others ; as I have discovered on the skin of other kinds
of apples (when that rot prevailed) large black spots.

On Fruit and Fruit Trees. 83

If such was the real cause, then perhaps the pruning
the trees, or raising them in dry airy situations, would
be of advantage.

But about this time last year, two very intelligent
gentlemen from near Boston, lodged at my house
and among other topicks of conversation, those of or-
chards and the bitter-rot were introduced. — One of
them informed me, that he had discovered ** the true
cause of the bitter-rot, and a safe and easy mode to pre-
vent it; — that it was occasioned by a certain kind of a
worm on the body of the tree, between the wood and
the bark ; and that a safe and easy mode was to peal all
the bark off the bodies of the trees, on the longest day
in the year ; which he said he had frequently done : that
it did not kill or injure the trees, but that they grew
much better for it ; — and that it effectually prevented
the bitter-rot."

I was surprised at this account, as I had no idea of
a tree living with the bark peeled off, in the hot dry sea-
son, yet they appeared worthy of credit.

Therefore I resolved to sacrifice one tree to the expe-
riment, and on the 20th day of last June, about one
o'clock, in hot clear weather, I pealed a tree on which
there were apples, and had been subject to the bitter-rot.
I took all the bark off from the roots to up among the
limbs, fully expecting in two days to see it withered
and dead, — between the wood and bark I found many
of those worms, and discovered that there was a pulp
or glutinous substancewYiioh had grown that year between
the wood and the bark, and adhered to the wood. I went
faithfully every day to see my tree wither^ but was dis-
appointed ; it appeared to grow and thrive the better^

84 On Fruit and Fruit Trees*

and this glutinous substance to harden, and has since
grown into a perfect bark, the apples hung on as the
other trees, and no bitter-rot on them as had been some
years before.

I relate the facts as they are, and hope that others of
more knowledge and judgment, may improve on the
experiment. I intend myself to make further trials.

These facts I communicated in a letter to my wor-
thy and ingenious friend Doctor B, S. Barton, and gave
it as my opinion, that the ap.nual growth of the tree at
that season is of such an age, as to be in an optio7ial
state to either form wood or bark, as the necessity of the
tree may require ; how much earlier the operation ought
to be performed in more southern climates, must be
tested by experience.^'

I have lost several good trees by those worms ; — they
first kill the bark, then a speedy rot takes place in the
wood, and they blow down with storms : and according
to my observations, ail trees in a declining state are
much more subject to the hitter-rot, than those in a
more flourishing condition.

Some experiments and observations I have made iiv
regard to raishig orchards and preserving of apples, I
presume may prove vrorthy the attention of the public.

The common practice in raising apple trees is to graft
or inoculate them when small in tlie nursery near the
ground : this does not appear to my experience to be
the best way, as I have two large orchards of trees
raised in that way, bearing the best kinds of fruit, and

* See Medical Repository ot New- York, vols. 3d, and 4th,
for :.in account Oi the utility of barking fruit trees.

J. M.

On Fruit and Fruit Trees. 85

I observe that such trees only bear fruit every other
ye^ and then generally more full and heavily loaded,
than the natural strength or substance of the tree can
bring to full size and maturity ; and such trees when so
heavily loaded, are subject to split and break down in
storms.

The next year the orchard if ever so large, produces
very little fruit ; — the trees appear to be exhausted, and
on the decline ; — too great a load of apples also inclines
them to the bitter-rot and other defects.

I have found it by experience to be a much better
way, to let my trees grow in the nursery and plant them
out as natural fruit ; — then when they begin to bear,
I go round in the Ml and mark such as I disapprove of
the fruit, and graft them in the limbs the next spring ;
and such are the best and most steady bearing trees that
I have : they produce a reasonable equal quantity of ap-
ples every year, and much larger and fairer than such
trees of the same kind of apple, that irregularly bear
every other year.

Another advantage by this mode is, that we are still
obtaining some new valuable kinds of apples, and when
we graft them regularly in the nursery, perhaps often
cut off as good or better fruit than we place on.

All our very best kinds of grafted fruits were origi-
nally natural^ and perhaps if this mode was more gene-
rally pursued, many more new and valuable kinds would
be discovered.

Perhaps one of the very finest and most useful apples
that we now have, is the New England seek no further
(so called;) tlie original tree I am informed, grew up in

86 On Fruit and Fruit Trees,

a fence row, and first began to bear during the Ameri-
can revolution. *%

The best mode that I have experienced to preserve
winter apples, is to let them hang on the trees as long
as safe from frosts ; in that time such as are most for-
ward to rot will have generally fallen off ; then to gather
them carefully without bruising, and spread them for
some days, to dry thoroughly, in an airy chamber : —
then carefully assort and pack them in casks in a cellar,
where they will not freeze : — in the spring after the
freezing weather is past, spread them again in the cham-
ber, and let them have plenty of air ; during the time the
apple trees are in blossom, they will rot abundantly more
than at any other ; and must often be carefully assorted
and spread very thin : such as survive this their pro*
bationary period^ until after the fall of the blossoms, in-
cline to wither a little, and keep without much more
rotting.

I have had some of my finest and largest New Eng-
land seek no furthers, sound and delicious on the 15th
of September ; — at which time the same trees on which
they grew, were again loaded with another crop of the
same kind of apples, sufficiently grown and matured
for common use.

Thus with care and attention, the American farmer
may supply his family with green apples every day in
the year. — I have done it on this farm, where about 20
years ago, I cut down the first tree. — iMost of the farms
through the country, abound with great numbers of
scrubby natural apple trees around the fences, which
the owners consider of little value ; were they trimmed
np, and grafted, they would be of great value, and bear

On Fruit and Fruit Trees. 87

as good fruit in three or four years, as any new trees
that would require 10 or 12 years, to raise.

If an accidental discovery which I think I made last
spring, upon full experiment, prove as efficacious as it ap-
peared to me, it will be worth a million of money to the
union ; it is to prevent the late frosts in the spring from
killing the apples when the trees are in blossom.

Last spring I sow^d plaister of Paris under some of
my apple trees; when in blossom, there came a severe,
late frost, that nearly killed all my blossoms, unless on
the trees where I sowed the plaister, and they alone
hung full of apples in the autumn.*

It is a well known fact, that plaister has an attractive
quality, and draws the moisture out of the atmosphere;
as on grass or grain, where it is sown, there is a much
heavier dew, which remains longer in the day than where
none has been strewed.

If such is its quality to attract moisture from the at-
mosphere, why not the particles of frost from the blos-
soms on the trees ?

I wish to recommend the experiment to all farmers,
who wish to preserve their fruit from the danger of late
frosts.

You mention that last season the apples near Phila-
delphia fell off the trees prematurely ; I had not known

* This fact has been observed by others ; moisture will
keep off frost, common salt has had this effect, when scattered
round trees. A straw rope, with one end twisted round the
fruit tree, and the other immersed in a tub of water, conveys
moisture and repels frosts. — See Anderson's Recreations,
vol. 1st, and Domestic Encyclopaedia, Am, edit. art. "Frost."

88 On Fruit and Fruit Trees.

before, that the circumstance had been noticed by any
person except myself. My apples most generally fell off'
in the same way before they attained maturity : on ex-
amining them, they appeared sound on the outside ; but
on cutting them open, there was a dark soft streak in
all such as had fallen oft', some depth within the skin ;
which soon turned to a rot : this led me to gather such
as had not fallen off* the trees, sooner than I otherwise
would ; I took all my former precautions to save them
through the winter but in vain, they all rotted before
spring ; the decay began in the same dark streak below
the skin.

It is a singular circumstance which I have not known
before, neither can I account for the cause, unless some-
thing singular in the season. — I wish to hear the sen-
timents and observations of gentlemen in different parts,
of the state, on the subject.

I consider the best mode of raising fruit, particularly
apples a primary object for our citizens in general, and
as knowledge on the subject can only be obtained from
observations and a communication of sentiments from
different parts.

I am gentlemen

Your friend respectfully,

Samuel Preston,
Dr. James Mease.

C 89 ]

On Apple Trees and Grafting,
Head November 9th, 1809.

Stockport TFayiie County^ August 22rf, 1809,

Respected Friend^

Thy acceptable favour of the 26th June last, came
duly to hand ; the various cares of a large harvest, and
this very uncommonly wet season, hath diverted my at«
tention from a more timely answer.

My only object in corresponding on the subject at this
advanced period of a laborious life, is to endeavour to
afford some hints and observations to be improved upon
by others, for public benefit.

American agriculture I consider as yet in the cradle %
and perhaps horticulture or the raising trees hath been
the branch most neglected, although deemed an honour^
able study amongst the ancients \ we read that king So^
lomon when in his greatest wisdom and glory, " spake
of trees from the cedars of Lebanon, to the hysop that
springetb out of the wall."

Chronologists suppose Homer to have been much
older than Solomon, and in the most beautiful episode
of all his works, when Ulysses went to make himself
known to his father, Homer describes the venerable old
king Laertes, busily employed in cultivating his treesp
The fertile genius of Homer on this occasion, had a free
and full choice of all kinds of employment for the ^mimt

VOL. II, M

90 On Apple Trees and Grafting,

king. Yet he chose the cultivating of fruit trees as most
honourable.

Then why is the subject so much neglected in our
young and rising empire ; the sinews and wealth, if not
support thereof, is agriculture or cultivating our mother
earth, and such was the first employment of original
man.

I consider that he who raises a valuable fruit tree for
the benefit and repast of succeeding ages, erects an ho-
nourable mausoleum to his memory.

I am free to say, that I fully believe the apple tree to
have been a native of America, well known and used by
the Indians before the discovery of Columbus : this idea
may perhaps be new to many, and I think worthy of the
most accurate investigation ; and perhaps in this age
since the decease of the original settlers, may be more
difficult to ascertain : the longer therefore the subject is
delayed, the greater the difficulty, and I feel a kind of
American desire, to have it fully investigated before our
present more aged citizens depart.

I wish to give a candid statement of facts that have
come to my knowledge, to shew why I have formed the
opinion of the apple tree being a real native of America.

I was bom and bred in Bucks county in this state,
and almost fifty years ago, I remember the far famed
Toivnseyid apple tree ; — it was then by far much larger
in diameter, height, its limbs extended further than any
apple tree that I have ever seen : — at the time of my
acquaintance with it I was young, and used to pass near
it when going to mill, as it stood alone in a field.

Perhaps it is now near 40 years since I saw that tree,
in which time so many objects have floated in succes-

On Apple Trees and Grafting. 91

sioii before my mind, that I cannot rely on my memory
to give an accurate account of its dimensions : but think
from the best of my recollection, that it must have been
upwards of four feet in diameter; the quantity of apples
it bore, was enormous, perhaps too incredible to relate ;
it stood on a high airy situation, aiid in a light poor
stony soil; which I consider most favourable to the lon-
gevity of the apple tree : the size and colour of the ap-
ples nearly resemble the vandever ; — they are neither
sweet nor sour, but of a most delicious rich taste and
high flavour ; easy to bake or cook ; they ripen in a pe-
culiar manner, some very early, and then drop oflT;
while others succeed them, and at my father's, we have
kept some of the later growth until apples came again,
the next summer.

The proprieter of this valuable and useful curiosity,
was one Stephen Townsend, an aged amiable and bene-
volent man ; the tree stood near a public road, and all
travellers had free access: I remember hearing him say,
that when his grandfather first took up that place, it was
a very large apple tree standing in an Indian clearing ;
his grandfather was Richard Townsend^ mentioned in
Robert Proud^s history of Pennsylvania.

I also remember when very young, to have heard
some of the most aged respectable, and informed people
the neighbourhood afforded, say, that tree must be
much older than Columbus ; that was before I knew the
meaning of Columbus ; the proprietor Stephen Toxvn-
5^;2c/ freely permitted access to his tree ; by all descrip-
tions of people : and it was most highly esteemed, more
particularly by the friendly Indians, many families of

92 On Apple Trees and Graftirif^.

whom then lived in the neighbourhood ; they used all
to frequent it and carry off blankets full of apples.

A very aged Squaw amongst them who from senio-
rity ^^^as deemed either their priestess or queen^ quite
gray headed, and who pretended to remember JVilliam
Penn, used to say, that when the Indians sold their land
they did not sell their good old apple ti'ee^ therefore they
claimed the apples, and had no opposition from the pro-
prietor ; the Indians almost worshipped that tree, and
I remember hearing the aged squaw say, that when the
'' Great Spirit made that apple tree for poor Indians, he
made the apples ripe all summer;" — they had a tra-
dition amongst them, that the tree was older than the
European settlementy and I am fully inclined to believe
their ideas correct :— sometime past I was informed by
a friend of mine living near where the tree stood, that
it became hollow, and hath been dead and gone for
some years past ; my worthy father taught me before
seven years old to graft an apple tree, which art I have
practised very largely, being the only person within 50
miles round that understood it, and have taught it to
many people in this country.

The first pence I ever earned when young, was by
grafting apple trees for our neighbours ; 1 then took
grafts off the far famed Toivnsend tree : since I raised
trees in this country from the seeds and began to graft,
my greatest desire was to obtain grafts of that kind. I
therefore wrote to a much younger brother living in the
neighbourhood to make all diligent enquiry through the
neighbourhood for a tree of that kind, he did so, and
found one w^hich the owners assured him was the real
kind, yet it w^as on the decline. This confirms me in thy

O?! Apple Trees and Grafting. 93

idea, that a graft from an old tree makes a short lived
tree. However late in the season, he sent me some
cions, and I proceeded next day to graft them, all of
which grew and are yet growing ; they have for several
years borne apples, and are the genuine ancient Town-
send apple, I graft from them every year, and had in-
tended to do it before I received thy kind information,
lest that valuable kind of apple should again be in
danger of being lost.

My second reason for thinking the apple grew spon-
taneously in America, is, that the next largest apple
trees that I ever saw in my travels, was on the old In-
dian settlements in Menesink above the blue mountains,
viz. at Nicholas Depuis, Paquarry^ Shappanack^ and se-
veral other old towns.

John Lukens^ the former surveyor general, imder
whom I acted as deputy, near the latter part of his time,
made an enquiry of me respecting the large old apple
trees in Menesink opposite Depui*s large island, and I
well remember, he said, that when a small boy, he ac-
companied Nicholas Scull there to make the first sur-
veys above the mountain : — and that Nicholas Scull ad-
mired the very large and ancient apple trees, and then
gave it as his opinion that they were much older than
the European settlements, as there were none in all the
vicinity of Philadelphia near their age or size.

The observations of men of such sense and under-
standing as Nicholas Scull and John Lukens, are cer-
tainly worthy of weight.

I also remember that Nicholas Depuis Esquire de-
ceased, the former proprietor of those ancient trees, ex-
pressed to me as his opinion, that the native Indians

94 On Apple Trees and Grafting.

must certainly have understood either grafting or ino-
culation, long before the white people came among
them ; — as seven of the largest and oldest trees on his
farm standing compact together, all bore the same kind
of apple ; and he then considered those trees far older
than the European settlement of America. — I well re-
member the kind of apple : they were very excellent,
a large long red delicious winter apple ; — I believe that
those trees are now all decayed and gone.

Another reason why I consider the apple tree spon-
taneous to this country, is, I have seen apple trees said
to have been imported from Europe, by the first set-
tlers, not as large or of as old appearance as those men-
tioned, by several generations of trees.

As I ha\ e had great experience in crown grafting,
and consider it far the most valuable mode of propaga-
tion, I will offer a few remarks.

The season I prefer, is late in the spring, but before
the sap starts to loosen the bark, yet I have several
times practised it with success, after the trees were fully
green ; but in that case, care is required not to loosen
the bark.

In regard to binding up my graft, I use nothing but
simple potter's clay, well worked, of which I put on
plenty, and endeavour to press it round the stock below
the split, so as to be water tight and retain all the sap
that issues from the stock to nourish the graft.

The stocks often split rough or with a twist; my prac-
tice is to shave them out smooth with the point of a
knife, that the sides thereof and the graft may make a
joint.

On Apple Trees and Grafting, 95

In cutting grafts off a tree, I prefer taking one only
of each limb, that is that I may have the bilge or joint
between the two years growths, to shave and set in the
stock ; — that bilge is curly and porous, more readily
catches the sap from the stock, and I find by experience
will grow more the first season than any other graft taken
from that limb ; if there is no such bilge or joint on
my graft, I shave it with a bud outward, that there
may be a crook in the sap of the graft, more certainly to
catch the sap of the stock : by observing these simple
natural rules, I have set in one season upwards of 400
grafts, and not had more than two to fail ; — and have
also readily instructed many people ignorant of the
business.

In grafting peaches, cherries or plumbs, in all which
the outside bark of the stock runs round, there is another
caution necessary in the splitting the stock, or the bark
will tear rough and the graft die ; that is, to enter the
knife in the top of the stock, so far as to just strain the
bark but not to tear it, I then take the sharp point of
another knife, and split the bark down on each side the
stock, just where I expect the stock to split, then pro-
ceed exactly as for the apple, and I find them to grow
equally certain and well : — my apple grafts set in the
limbs of trees generally bear the third year ; I have
several times for experiment taken grafts at same
time, off bearing trees, and off grafts that had been set
the year before of the same kind of fruit, and grafted
them the same day in different limbs of the same tree,
and cannot discover any difference in their time of bear-
ing ; — yet some kinds of fruit do not bear as early as
others.

96 On Apple Trees and Grafting.

The best time or mode of cutting or transporting of
grafts a great distance, is a subject worthy investigation:
I have made a variety of experiments, and the result ra-
ther bewilders me than otherwise, I will relate some
facts and desire further information from those of more
knowledge and experience.

1st. I have frequently had apple grafts sent to me
during the winter, from different parts of New England ;
my practice hath been on receiving them, to lay them
on the earthern floor of the cellar, — cover them with
earth until grafting time, and they have always grown
well.

2d. Some years ago, I received in the latter part
of winter, some plumb grafts (from Esopus) that had
actually been imported from Holland ; they appeared
perfectly dry and dead ; — I buried them in the cellar,
grafted them in the spring, and they all grew, and bore
fruit the third year.

3d. Several years ago I was from home, and calling
to see an acquaintance, he informed me, that he had
some grafts in his nursery of the French pomme roi
or king apple, which an acquaintance of his in Rhode
Island had imported from the south of France ; I was
anxious to obtain a cutting; it was then the 15th day of
September and dry warm weather, he gave me a twig,
about nine inches long in full leaf; I returned home two
days journey, ^vith it in my pocket ; when I reached
home it was withered, I laid it on the grass in my gar-
den, and turned a sod over it; there it lay until grafting
time, I then took it out, cut it into six short pieces, set
them, and they all lived and bore fruit the third year.

On Apple Trees and Grafting. 97

4th. I was in Lancaster about the 10th October, and
obtained some valuable cuttings from my friend Timo-
thy Matlack Esqr. I took them home carefully, and laid
them under a sod, as I had done the pomme roi : at graft-
ing time I took them up, they all appeared rotten in the
bark, and I could not prevail on one to grow.

5th. The grafts of my Townsend apples were cut and
sent me in the month of June, after the leaves were
nearly of full size; they were withered in conveying up-
wards of 130 miles ; I grafted them the latter part of
June in trees in full leaf, and yet all grew and are yet
growing.

6th. In June last year, for experiment, after the leaves
were about fully grown, I cut off and grafted a large tree
in the limbs, taking my grafts out of the orchard also in
full leaf: I had 11 stocks, and set 22 grafts, of 22 dif-
ferent kinds of apple ; and never had grafts to grow
better.

7th. About the middle of last March, I was in the
city of Albany, and called on my friend Peter Yeates
Esquire, for a variety of cuttings from his far famed
fruits : he gave them cheerfully, I wrapped them up
in the most careful manner, took them home, and buried
them in my cellar as formerly ; at grafting time they all
appeared to be decaying under the bark, I set them with
all possible care, but only succeeded in two apple grafts.

As to this season it hath been the most cold and wet
ever known ; attended with heavy fogs and dews : our
grass and oats grew very large ; wheat better than we
expected ; of Indian corn I presume there will be none
to ripen, and even plaister of Paris would not bring it
forward.

VOL. II. N

98 071 Apple Trees and Grafting.

My apples are nearly all blasted and fallen off, not
with frosts but cold wet rains ; some I observed fell
off before others, according as I presume to the delicacy
of their constitutions ; my pomme roi fell first.

Those that hung best were the New England seek
no furthers y and the noted Townsend apples; can this be
owing to their being natural fruit of the country ?

I am respectfully your friend,
Samuel Preston.*

* Mr. Preston having had great experience in orchards,
we give publicity to his information with pleasure. We can-
not accord in his conclusion, though the facts of longevity
of the old apple trees are curious. The crab apple alone we
believe to be a native. There is no trace in our forests of
other apples ; which are found always in settlements^ either
of the Indians, or their successors. The peach though called
perszca^ from its being brought from Persia into Europe^ — we
believe is also a native of the southern regions of our conti-
nent ; where it is found growing wild and spontaneously in
great varieties in the forests ; most commonly near streams,
the sea, or great waters.

We by no means make the assertion j but it would not be
a more visionary conjecture, that, if the apples mentioned
were not imported by Europeans, they might have been
brought from Tartary^ or those parts of the other continent
from whence our aborigines wandered. The facts are too
isolated and few, to draw from them any solid conclusions.
The pijrus malus^ or apple, as we see it in our orchards, is said,
by botanists, to be an improved variety of the crab or
wilding. Accident may have produced some, and careful cul-
tivation others, of the 40 or 50 varieties we possess. But that

On Apple Trees and Grafting. 99

N. B. The appearance of the apple trees that I totally
stripped of bark last year, is not such this summer as to
encourage me in a large practice ; yet they are both
growing, have apples on and a new bark, but the leaves
are more of a yellow than the other trees. I have freely
devoted them for a fair experiment, and shall watch
them closely.

I have seen in a New York newspaper, an imperfect
advertisement of a book, teaching a sure and easy mode
to make the limbs of the apple tree grow as certain as
a tree with roots.

If this discovery hath really been made, I consider
it the most valuable of any of the present age.

S. Preston.

such accidents here, or cultivation in the hands of our sava-
ges, who have not multiplied instances of skill in that way,
in other parts of our continent, have produced the species
mentioned by our correspondent, we are not disposed to be-
lieve, without farther prool's than those he has (not uninterest-
ingly) exhibited. There is, nevertheless, no impossibility in
the circumstance. We have the crab or wildings in as great
plenty, and variety, in its native character, as can be found in
any country. Perhaps the novelty of the suggestion, may ope-
rate on our doubts. We shall be obliged by information of
any other facts, if any there be, on this subject, from other
parts of our country.

C 100 ]

Oft Virginia Husbandry.

Read August, 1809.

Dear Sir,

Agreeably to your request I embrace my first lei-
sure of acknowledging your favour of the 22d. of Fe-
bruary, and replying thereto as the various subjects oc-
cur. First, you mention plaister of Paris, of which I do
not make general use, particularly on my low lands,
where I have not found it to succeed. I sometimes use
it on my highlands, where it answers tolerably well par-
ticularly with clover, though I do not cultivate this crop
upon a large scale, yet I have some at each of my farms
for the purpose of feeding it, when half cured, to my
horses, and other work team, through the summer.

My general rotation of crops is corn and wheat, the
latter succeeding the former, on the same field, the size
of which varies of course according to the size of the
farm, for some of the fields or shifts as they are termed
here are four hundred acres, whilst others are no more
than oiie hundred upon the different farms, the number
of shifts which is generally three, depends in some mea-
sure on circumstances and cultivation, as also depends
the kind of plough ; of late 1 have been in the habit of
making mixed crops, com, wheat, tobacco, cotton, oats,
rye, pease, beans, v%:c. 1 seed from three pecks to a
bushel of wheat to an acre, and reap from ten to fifteen
bushels, and my corn grovmd produces from three to
six barrels per ac^^e, though this again is variable, ac-
cording to soil and seasons. I have never yet made any

On Virginia Husbandry, 101

accurate estimate of the expence of timber fences, mean-
ing sawed post and railing, which I have had for some
years back, and I am highly in favour of, for though
they come high in the beginning, yet I think them the
cheapest in the end, as I suppose with tolerable care,
they would last fifteen or twenty years. The staking and
wattleing is also an expensive fence, but looks neat, and
is of considerable duration, say from six to ten years,
when well done with trimmed cedar brush, or cedar
poles interwoven on the stakes; which last kind of fence
I have of late been in the habit of making.

The cedar succeeds tolerable well here, though we
have not yet any live fences in this vicinage. The stock
on my farms are, cattle, sheep, and hogs, though the
former succeed tolerably well, I think the latter does
best. As I generally kill on my estate, from fifty to sixty
thousand pounds of pork annually. The hogs arepenned^
and fed on corn and vegetables, for six or eight weeks
before the killing season. We have an abundance of na-
tive manure, in our low ground-marshes, yet such is
the routine of my cropping, the extent of the farms,
and certain hands appointed to each, I cannot find lei-
sure or means to collect it. I make no artificial manure,
except what is made by my cattle in farm yards, which
I keep highly littered with straw, marsh hay, corn stalks,
&c. through the winter, and spring, and during the
summer I have moveable pens, in which 1 put my cattle
at night ; these I generally place on my light lands, by
which they shortly become equal to tliose of superior
native quality. Our pastures are not sufficiently luxu-
riant here to make grazing for market an object ; yti I
have always tolerable good grass beef in the fall, which is

102 On Virginia Husbandry,

*■■■■•-• — j-

rarely sold, but distributed among my overseers, and
people: that which comes to my own table is stalled for
a few months, and fed with corn-fodder, (corn blades
and tops,) clover and vegetables. We have but few in-
stances of the hollow horn here, though immediately on
the south side of Rappahannock, there is a distemper the
nature and origin of which is not yet known, and proves
very fatal to cattle. On my plantations generally, I work
horses, oxen and mules ; the latter, which I greatly pre-
fer, are by far the most numerous, the oxen that are
used for heavy burthens, are worked with a common
voke and bow ; the few that plough work in a collar,
and are geared some what like horses. — I do not drill
my grain, but generally cover it with the plough, fol-
lowed by the hand hoe, to make a finish ; it is generally
put in, in September amongst the corn as it stands on
the field. I fallow my land in the fall. When I plant my
corn in the spring, I plough deep or shallow, though I
prefer the former, according to the soil. — ^ Orchards sue-
ceed tolerably well here, though I think the peach pre-
ferable to the apple for produce. — I have no particular
defence for either, except to have the trees looked over,
and pruned once a year. I have no doubt but Colonel
Taylor's mode of recovering his land, by its own nui-
sances may be a good one ; but then he can raise very
little or no stock.

Most respectfully I remain

Your obedient servant,

John Tayloe.
June Sth, 1809.
Richard Peters Esc^-

On Virginia Husbandry. 103

REMARKS.

With a view to obtain an accurate account of Virgi-
nia farming and rural ceconomy, a number of queries,
embracing a great variety of subjects, were submitted
to Colonel Tayloe, He has been so obliging as to return,
for answer, the foregoing letter. The general husbandry
of Virginia, will be tolerably well understood by its pe-
rusal. It may be said without any intention to censure,
that it is much to be regretted, that both the mode and
results are not better. Yet we believe those of Colonel
Tayloe are among the best in that state. His fall and
winter ploughing is highly commendable ; but the In-
dian corn and wheat together on the same field, cannot
be approved. The very limited use of the clover hus-
bandry, and the neglect of native manures, are much to
be lamented. We are highly gratified to find that the
product of the grazing branch of Colonel Tayloe's ceco-
nomy is applied, in part, to the comfortable subsistence
of his slaves. But, with his ample means, and intelli-
gence, a great extent could be given to this profita-
ble business ; at less expence of labour and exhaustion
of soil, than culture with the plough. He is content
with abundance in the aggregate ; though the details
might, by subdivisions of immense property into less
farms, and among more proprietors, be more profitably
and systematically managed. Without any reference
to our ideas of slavery, as being contrary to what we
conceive right ; it is questionable whether husbandry
carried on by numerous slaves, is even profitable, when
compared with farming by white labourers. Those who
possess the former are under the necessity of accomo-

104 On Virginia Husbandry.

dating their systems to existing circumstances. The
large proprietors of southern lands, are compelled to
make the best use of the means they have. Being no
advocates for agrarian laxvs, and feeling no spirit of in-
tolerance on the subject of slavery, as it respects our
southern fellow-citizens, who are slave holders, what-
ever may be our opinions on the abstract question, we
rejoice in the amelioration we believe now exists in the
condition of the southern slaves : and we are always
gratified when we find their labour turned to the most
profitable uses, by the proprietors of large and extensive
farms ; which, under present circumstances, could not
be cultivated without them. Substitutes of white labour-
ers are impracticable, under the state of population in
our country generally ; as well as under the local cir»
cumstances of the southern districts of our union.

C 105 ]

On Leeched Ashes as a Manure, By Thomas Nexvbold

of New Jersey, M. C,

Rea4 August 15th, 1809.

JVashington, June llth 1809c

Sir,

I received yours of the 3d instant, and can assure you
my talents as a farmer have been much over-rated. — I
will however proceed to answer your several queries
as well as I am able. The soil I have used the leeched or
drawn ashes on, is a gravelly loam : and so far as I have
been able to discover, that manure answers best for
clover and Indian corn : it also answers very well for
wheat and rye ; but is not equal to stable manure for
either of the latter crops, I have used ashes generally
on an open fallow, put on at the time of seeding, and
ploughed in with the seed ; I have put it on after the
grain has been sown, with very good success, but prefer
the other method, Gypsum will answer little or no pur-
pose to grass on ashed land ; from that circumstance I
infer that they partake more or less of the same qua^
lities. — I think as near as can be ascertained by the eye,
I have taken oft' of land that had been ashed, and had
produced a crop of wheat, and two crops of clover, ^5
or 40 bushels of corn per acre, and that without any
other help than the single dressing of ashes. The land
was so poor before, I am confident it would not have

VOL. IT, g

106 0?i Leeched Ashes.

produced five bushels per acre. — As near as I can
guess, I put 150 bushels of ashes to the acre.

With sentiments of esteem,

I remain your friend, h.c,

Thomas Newbold.*

Dr. James Mease.

* Thankful for all communications, and wishing to collect
facts, we enternot into discussions about theories, further than
these facts require support or rectification. The component
parts of ashes, and those of the plaister of Paris, are entirely va-.
riant in their leading characters. But that there is no hostility
between the two substances, has been proved by long and re-
peated experience. Mr. Newbold may not have succeeded in
the application o! plaister, to ground on which ashes had been
strewed. Yet in general, success has attended this practice,
with most people, within our knowledge, invariably. It was
confidently asserted, and :or a long time believed, in Eng-
land, that plaister would not succeed on limed lands. And
so, until repeated exper'ence had proved the error of
both opinions^ was it believed, as to ashed fields. But there
is no doubt now that plaister operates well, both with lime
and ashes^ if there is any vegetable or animal matter in the
ground for the gypsum to operate upon ; — ior, what is the
exact cause oi its operation is yet a theory.

C 107 1

On Bees. By S, H, Smith, of JVashington.

Read October 9th, 180^.

Dear Sir^

At length I have seized an hour to impart to you our
experience relative to the raising of bees. Living in the
country, with very indifferent black ink, I occasionly
use red, extracted from poke berry, of which this is a
specimen, I am inclined to think it will stand ; and it
certainly has the advantage of facilitating the motion of
the pen, — to me no small inducement to prefer it.

I am respectfully.

Your friend,

Samuel H. Smith. ^

Sidney, September 22c/, 1809.

On the 16th of May 1808, a young swarm left an
old hive ; we had a hive prepared agreeably to the di-
rections of the Encycloi:asclia, into which we put them.
The new hive (which we wilUcall the first) was placed
on a bench below a tree in a court yard full of clover
and flowers, and encompassed by a wood. On the 16th
of June the new hive sent out a swarm, which was

'^The letter and communication written with the extract
from the poke, ( Phytolacca J is a beautirul red and promises to
be perman :nt. It would be well to obta n, and promulgate the
mode of extracting and fixing the colour.

108 On Bees,

placed in a hive of the same construction and on the
same bench, which we will designate as the second. We
examined the first hive by gently raising the lid, and
found it completely filled. We then proceeded, accord-
ing to the directions of the Encyclopaedia, to take off
the upper box, which was done with very little injury
to the bees. Had it been done at night, or early in the
morning, or had tobacco smoke been previously ap-
plied, scarcely a bee would have been killed. We car-
ried away the upper box, and in the mean time threw a
cloth over the hive, until having emptied the box, we
replaced it in its original situation on the top of the hive.
The bees immediately went to work to repair their
cells, and clear away the honey which ran down the hive,
and proved fatal to a great number of them. The box
taken out was three inches deep, was filled with white,
transparent, delicious honey, not a cell discoloured, and
entirely free from young bees, or bee-bread. In the
next box below, most of the cells were filled with
young bees in the chrysalis state ; while the third and
lowest box was principally filled with wax, containing
few bees and but little honey. When we left the country,
which was about the last of October, the bees had again
nearly filled the upper box,

A month after the swarming of the first hive, the 15th
of July, we examined the second, and found it filled
from top to bottom, we took off the upper box in the
prescribed mode, which by being done at night, freed
us from all trouble, only six or seven of the bees beiiig
destroyed. We were satisfied with finding it filled with
honey of equal freshness, purity and whiteness.

On Bees. 109

In the former instances, we had accidentally replaced
the emptied box on the top of the hive, contrary to the
directions of the Encyclopasdia, which require it placed
at the bottom, and the remaining boxes taken successive-
ly from, the top. In this instance, following the instructions
of the Encyclopaedia, we ordered the hive to be gently
raised from the bench, intending to place the emptied
box beneath it. This was accordingly done, but to our
surprize, the whole contents were left on the bench, and
the bees flew away in every direction. We cleared the
bench, and re-instated the empty hive in its former con-
dition, replacing the empty box on the top, with but
faint hopes, however, that the bees would return to it
after being thus disturbed and pillaged. But, contrary
to our fears^ they soon began to collect on the bench,
and had the next morning by sun rise, all ascended into
the hive, where they were busily at work. A few days
after, this hive was stolen, but the thief finding no honey
in it threw it down. In this state we found it the next
morning, and the poor bees in a cluster on the grass
close by it. We brought it home and replaced it on
the bench, we then spread a white cloth on the ground
by the bees, with a piece of honey on it, the bees soon
crawled on the cloth, which we took up by its four cor-
ners, carried home, and spread on the bench where the
hive stood, mto which they returned and resumed their
labours.

During the present year we have invariably pursued
the same course, always replacing the empty box on the
top of the hive, with the like success.

The directions, given in the Encyclopedia, must
have arisen for the want of an accurate observation of

110 On Bees.

the ceconomy of a hive, which, from the accidental cir-
cumstances stated, the suggestions to which they led,,
and the interesting nature of the subject itself, we were
induced to examine with very minute attention. Thi^
instructed us that the bees appropriate the top of the
hive exclusively to pure honey, intended probably en-
tirely for their food in winter, as they carefully close
the cells as they fill them. The middle of the hive is
their nursery, which is filled with bees- in their various
stages from a little maggot at the bottom of the cell, to
a large maggot that completely fills it, and to that chang-
ing into the chrysalis state where it is no longer fed.
In this state they are shut up, the mouths of the cells be-
ing closed with wax, where they remain until they are
perfect bees. The change appears to be very gradual ;
for we examined at least an hundred cells, and found
them from the maggot just shut up, to where the honey-
parts of the bee begin to appear, though still white, to
where the bodies turn to a darker colour, to where the
whole body changes ; to where at last the bee is found
alive and perfect, but still enclosed. Whether they extri-
cate themselves, or whether their prison door is opened
bv the older bees is not certain, though from the obser-
vations we made, the latter is most probable. In the case
stated where the contents of the hive fell out, we found
several of the cakes filled with bees, most of which had
just awakened from their chrysalis or torpid state, but
were still prisoners. We opened a great many of their
cells with a needle but with all our care, we injured the
young bee, which so completely filled the cell th t the
point of a needle found no room. We then thought of
laying the comb thus filled, on a dish by the side of the

On Bees, 111

hive, which being done, it was soon covered by the old
bees. The day being extremely hot, our attention wa^
for some time withdrawn ; but on examining them in
the evening, we found the cells all open, and the prison-
ers escaped, which leads to the opinion that they were
liberated by the old bees.

From these facts it would seem, that the division of
the hive into four boxes is useless, the upper box be-
ing the only one that contains honey fit for use. Even
the removal of this is prejudicial to the bees, as the cut-
ting through the comb causes the honey to stream
down, by which a great number of the bees are drowned.

It may here be not improper to mention a method
communicated by Mr. Coles, (secretary to the late
president U. S.) who says that in the western section of
Virginia, where he resides, they raise large quantities of
bees ; and that from the peculiar construction of the
hives used, they are enabled to take a great deal of
honey without disturbing any of the bees, who conse-
quently multiply with unusual rapidity. The hive is
composed of two boxes ; the lower one is about one
foot wide, and three feet high, with a close cover in
which there are four holes, one at each corner, large
enough for the bees to pass up into the superior box,
which is about a foot in every direction, and is without
a bottom. Into this the bees ascend, and fill it always
once, and sometimes twice during the summer, with
pure honey ; while in the lower box they deposit their
eggs, rear their young and store their wax. This box is
never disturbed except when wax is wanted. The upper
box by being carefully slid oft', is taken without a single
bee^ or ev»n breaking the comb. These hives are kept

112 On Bees.

in a house the door of which is never opened except
when honey is wanted. They are placed on shelves,
with their Uttle doors adjusted to a corresponding aper-
ture in the wall of the house, through which the bees
pass.

S. H. Sc

September 22c/, 1809.

C 113 ]

Plan for establishing a Manufactory of Agricultural Iiu
struments ; and a Warehouse and Repository for re*
ceiving and vending them. By Richard Peters.

I have long seen, and desired to remedy, the defects in
the agricultural instruments, in common use throughout
our country. If any are found (as many of the common
implements are) either intrinsically good, or on a valu«
able and efficient plan, they are not easily multiplied,
or readily obtained. The workmanship is often faith*"
lessly performed; and the materials are frequently
worthless. If a mechanick is celebrated for his skill, ancj
and succeeds in the execution of any particular article,
he has more demands than he can fairly supply ; and is,
too often, seduced into negligence and forfeiture of
character, by using unseasoned timber and other infe-
rior materials, and slighting his work, to encrease ov
support his business and profit. And yet, in general^
the farming utensils and implements in our state are,
as I believe, superior to any others in the United
States. Few workmen, with the JDest inclinations, have
opportunities of seeing perfect models ; either of new
instruments, or of improvements on those already in
use. No manufactory of agricultural instruments in gene*
ral, exists ; and much embarrassment, delay and diffi-
culty, are found in the collection from various and dis^
tant places, and from workmen of various character and
capacity, of all the implements of husbandry required
for even common operations. The inventions of inge-
iiious men of our own country, are, for the most part,
confined to narrow districts where they are used ; and

VOL. II, t

1 14 Mamifactory of Agricultural Instruments.

many valuable foreign instruments are little known
among us. Some are introduced from abroad, and
found complicated, expensive and inapplicable to the
state of our agricultural circumstances. The best and
most eligible instruments are those on simple princi-
ples and construction ; faithfully made and easily re-
paired.

I wish to suggest to the society, the following sketch
of a plan ; which, if well executed, may be extensively
beneficial.

1st. That a manufactory of agricultural ijistruments
be established ; under the patronage of the society.

In this may be made every implement of husbandry
for the common, or, if required, extraordinary opera-
tions in our agriculture ; on the best plans and con-
struction. Those newly invented, or used in foreign
countries, if approved on trial, may also be manufac-
tured, in addition to those generally known. But none
are to be sold without having passed under the inspec-
tion of a person or persons a])pointed by the society ;
and stamped as the society shall direct.

2d. A -warehouse for the reception and sale of all agri-
cultural instruments, made at the manufactory, obtained
by the director for sale, or sent there to be disposed of
on commission.

This would draw together every kind of implement
worthy of attention ; either imported, made at the ma-
nufactory, or in any part of the city, in the towns, or
other parts of this state, or the neighbouring states. It
will become a highly useful place of exhUntion, of every
species of farming utensils, and of all articles used on

Manufactory of Agricultural Instruments 115

£irms, including those for the dairy, and every branch
connected with husbandry : examinations of their con-
structions and utihty, and inspections of their quaUties,
may be made by direction of the society, and, if ap-
proved, they may be stamped ; and thereby recom-
mended.

Models may also here be deposited, for inspection
and imitation.

Here, an assortment of every implement wanted, may
be at once obtained, and the kind and quality ensured,
so far as the society can be reasonably expected to be
responsible, with the common care and attention of its
members ; who can spare from their necessar}^ voca-
tions, only a portion of their time.

It is not intended that the society shall be subject to
any losses, or enjoy any profits. A person well recom-
mended for his intelligence, integrity and mechanical
talents, (but removeable for incompetency or misbe-
haviour) must be procured ; v^^ho, for his own benefit,
will undertake the management and direction of the
manufactory, as well as of the collection and sales of
all articles. If, added to other requisite qualifications,
he has some agricultural knowledge and propensities,
his capacity for the employment will be the more per-
fect. He may associate with him others, skilled, or ne-
cessary, in any branch or branches, if he (as he no doubt
will perceive it to be) finds it convenient or proper.
But he must be subject to such rules, as shall be mu-
tually agreed on. These rules will be calculated only for
the credit and usefulness of the establishment ; and he
will find it his interest to comply with them. On a for-

116 Manufactory of Agricultural Instrument'}^

tunate choice of the person charged with the directioiij
the success of the plan almost entirely depends.

It may most probably be necessary, that some pecu-
liiary assistance (oil such terms as circumstances re-
quire and justify) should be afforded in the commence-
ment of the plan. — Therefore a subscription (either on
loan^ contribution to our stock or funds, or in some way-
most likely to succeed) may be promoted ; so as to ob*
tain from public spirited individuals, a sum not exceed-
ing dollars. This is to be applied under
the direction of the society. Every practicable care will
be had that it be used faithfully, and employed profit-
ably and safely ; and possibly it may be so managed as
to obtain an interest for the subscribers^ who must,
ho\vever, take their risk on this subject ; the society
to be only responsible for using their best endeavours.
Being now incorporated, we can more legally and cor-
rectly receive, dispose of, and manage, whatever funds
may be furnished to us, for the purposes of our insti-
tution.

This wealthy and flourishing city has become one of
extensive and various manufactures, as well as of
commerce. In the former it is less rivalled, than in the
latter* The plan herein proposed will add, in no small
dt^gree, to its celebrity and advantages, if success at-
tends the establishment. The interests of our city, as
well as those of other parts of the state, should induce
|)eciuiuary and other encouragement, even from those not
directly engaged in, for all are consequentially benefitted
by^ the agricultural improvement, and rural prosperity
oi' our country. 1 hese are the immediate objects of our
association. In their accomplishment we may enter*

Manufactory of Agricultural Instruments. 117

tain (as all our endeavours are gratuitous, and personally-
disinterested; well founded hopes, of being encouraged
and assisted by the patriotism and public spirit of our
fellow-citizens.

Such a manufactory, with its warehouse and reposi-
tory, once in operation on an extensive plan, will give
employment and profit to numerous workmen of almost
every description. It will not be necessary that all these
should work in the manufactory. — They may,- in their
own work-shops, wheresoever sifuated, complete in-
struments according to models furnished, or agreeably
to their own ideas, and send them for sale, or vend them
to the director ; so as to afford them a profit, and to
him a reasonable advance.

To the Agriculturists of our own, and of every
other state (and to those of the southern states particu-
larly, where the demand is great, and where few or no
instruments of husbandry are made) most important ad-
Vantages will be derived. They will be certain of finding
at one place, a general assortment of the implements they
require; and have the most probable assurance of the good
quality and construction, of the articles they order. En-
couragement, by extensive demand, will induce fidelity
and integrity in the director; whose emoluments will en-
crease and continue so long as he maintains his reputation;
as well for the construction, workmanship and materials
of the articles he supplies, as for the moderate rates at
which tney are obtained. Audit may rationally be ex-
pected, that they can be aflforded on the best terms, when
the demand warrants the enij loyment of a capital not
usually within the means of work a len, or dealers on a
small scale. Among the benefits to be derived from the

118 Manufactory of Agricultural Instruments*

commandof capital, the providing the best timber, and
waiting for its being seasoned before it is used, as well
as the selection of other materials of prime quality and
at reasonable prices, are of the first importance. Emu-
lation will be created in and forced upon, workmen not
connected with the manufactorj' . They will be under
the necessity of attending to the quality of work made
and sold by themselves ; or if sent to the warehouse and
exhibition rooms for sale, they will be careful that its
quality and construction will stand the test of inspec-
tion ; and entitle it to the stamp of the society. This the
laudable pride of some, and the interest of all, will in-
duce them to value ; and care should be taken that it
be judiciously, as well as impartially applied or with*
held.

To the ingenious, industrious and faithful workmen
of all trades connected with agriculture; and to the in-
ventors of, and improvers on, instruments employed in
husbandry; the repository for exhibition and sale will
be incalculably beneficial.

In whatever light this subject may be viewed, by
those who have not paid to it the necessary attention,
the profitable extent to which such a plan and establish-
ment may be carried, is almost incredibly great. But
prudence and necessity warn us, that in its origin the
measures should be suited to the means ; which in the
outset cannot be expected to be any wise competent to
its full perfection. If success and good management
attend its progress, its own operations will produce and
ensure the means and facilities of enlarging it, to any
extent tlie demand requires. This demand is now pro-
digiously great, and is constantly encreasing with the

Manufactory of Agricultural Instruments. 1 19

population and improvement of our country. Multitu-
dinous bodies seldom succeed in such pursuits ; but
this manufactory and warehouse will combine the ad-
vantages arising from the countenance, assistance and
encouragement, we can afford ; and those accruing
from private enterprize and industry, stimulated by
profit and reward to individual exertion.

Richard Peters.

Belmont, July 1 5th 1809.

The ware room could be made, in addition to its othex»
uses, a place for receiving and distributing all kinds oi grCitn
and seeds, either sent or procured from other countries, or col-
lected in our own. Their diffusion might be effected by sales ;
or, when justifiable, gratuitously. All specimens of e'^r^/z^, or
any native substances calculated for manures, or other agricul-
tural purposes, might therein be exhibited.

The society, not having funds to carry on the plan proposed,
have given to it their decided approbation, but could do n^
more ; save that they have promulgated it, for general infor-
mation. No person has yet dared to carry it into effect. The
society know too well the ineificacy of attempts at extensive
manufactiires, by bodies of men composed as they are, of citi-
zens, whose time is indispensibly devoted to their private
concerns. Enterprising individuals, assisted by patronage and
encouragement, succeed best in such undertakings; when their
own emolument stimulates exertion. And the plan is formed,
under this view of the subject. It is confidently believed,
and earnestly wished, that some person, competent and inge-
nious, wHl e'er long see its advantages, and undertake its
Execution.

R. P.

[ 120 ]

Extirpation of JVild Garlick, By Richard Peters,
Read December 11th, 1809.

Belmont, November '29th, 1809,

Sir,

As we have no communication on the subject of de»
stroying Garlick, I have copied one, miade to our agri-
cultural society of Blockley and Merion, by my very
attentive and respectable neighbour, Algernon Roberts,
It proves the efficiency of repetitions of plaister of
Paris, in addition to the object inducing its being made.

" In the spring of 1802, I planted a field of about 15
acres with Indian corn ; in the succeeding fall I limed
it, with 40 bushels per acre. The following spring
(1803) I planted it again with Indian corn. It produced
a very poor crop ; which I attributed more to a want
of proper cultivation, than any other cause. — The sue*
ceeding sprii g ( 1 804) I sowed the field with oats. After
getting off the oats, 1 ploughed down the stubble, har-
rowed well, and sowed the ground with clover seed-
The season being very dry, the seed did not take to
answer my expectations. I next spring (1805) sowed
the field with oats ; and after harrowing in the oats, I
sowed two bushels of clover seed, and then rolled the
ground. — The seed took exceeding well ; and that fall
produced a good crop of pasture. In the spring of 1806,
I sowed the field, with 29 bushels of plaister, and it pro-
duced pasture fully to my expectation. In the spring
of 1807, I sowed 22 bushels of plaister, and the pasture

On mid Gartick. 121

continued much as the preceding season. In the spring
of 1808, I omitted sowing it with plaister ; and thought
the pasture that season rather declining. I this spring
(1809 J sowed the field with 30 bushels of plaister ; and
find the pasture improved, when compared to last season*
I have no doubt many will censure the foregoing, as
an execrable rotation ; and as such reject it. My rea-
son for adopting it was, that I knew the soil — a gritty
gravel — well adapted to clover and plaister ; and being
much infested with garlick, I determined to try a suc-
cession of spring crops, to destroy the garlick ; and the
event has fully answered my expectation. The soil be-
ing well adapted to clover, it continues to be the pre-
vailing crop ; upon which the plaister has had, and con-
tinues yet to have, an exceeding good effect. And this
I have found invariably to be the case, as long as clover
continues to be the prevailing grass. But in all other
cases, when other grasses subdue the clover, I find the
application of plaister to be of small effect J*^ " August,
1809."*

* This is generally found to be so ; by long experience. It
will appear hereafter, that in Europe^ the like results occur*
Among other proofs, are the experiments of M. Berardy here*
after ir^serted.

B. P.

VOL. II, o

122 On Wild GarlicL

OBSERVATIONS.

A spring oat crop, sowed early, in the fallow intended
for wheat, is, by very many, believed to be the antidote
against garlick. Although I am opposed, in general, to
sowing oats on light soils ; and especially if they imme-
diately precede a wheat crop ; I am not among the
number, of those (if any there be) who will censure Mr.
Roberts's course of crops, as " an execrable rotation."
I see not that, for his object, he could have pursued a
better. There were two crops of Indian corn, two of
oats, and four of clover, plaistered generally. If he had
fall-ploughed every autumn, v/hile his field was in til-
lage, his object of destroying garlick, would have been
the sooner accompHshed , and other advantages would
have been gained. Successions, year after year, of the
same kind of grain, are not justifiable, nor profitable.
But his object was not so much for the crop, as for its
agency in the conquest of his enemy. Frequent stirring
for corn, and early ploughing for oats, were his means
of destruction of the pest he aimed to extirpate. My
experience for 40 years, has convinced me that the ear-
ly ploughing in the spring, and most especially if it
succeeds a Jfill plough? ?ig, is the remedy; and the oats
gain the credit. Among its disadvantages, oats has one
benefit intermixed. It compels early ploughing. Facts
are, I know, pro and con, on this subject — But it is dif-
ficult to judge of relations of fiicts, without knowing
concomitant circumstances. And many of these are
undesignedly, and without attending to their bearing on
the point, omitted. The desire to get a crop, to pay for
labour and expence immediately, warps the judgment.

On mid Garlkk. 1^3

Remote benefits are seldom contemplated. It is not easy
to abandon habits ; and it seems that bad ones lay the
fastest hold. A neighbour (the late Mr. Thomas George)
had a field near to both Mr. Roberts and myself in ;
which he planted Indian corn, for many successive
years. In vain I endeavoured to dissuade him from
such injurious repetitions. Corn is an exhauster ; — '^ he
could remedy this by dung ;" — but his remedy failed as
to the corn ; though he enriched his field. The corn,
year after year, dwindled, till it had a stalk like small
bamboos^ and ears of the size oi nubbins ; many whereof
were entirely barren. He practically convinced himself
(an expensive mode of argument) and abandoned the
practice; which, he said, was supported by many instan-
ces of success. He never ya// ploughed m this field, nor
fallowed with the opening of the spring there, though
he did so in other fields. This field may be now view-
ed, and it will exhibit a plentiful cover of garlick ; the
repeated succession of Indian corn crops notwithstand-
ing. Yet his field was not impoverished ; for, by chang-
ing his course, a fine crop of wheat succeeded his aban-
donment of the Indian corn culture.^ — In many parts
of his agricultural operations, Mr. George had correct

^ This having been the most decided proof of the neces-
sity of change oi crops I have known, I have mentioned it
on several occasions. But, so far from its having been the
only instance, that it is but one among very great numbers I
have seen, and could enumerate ; though none have occurred
jso strongly marked, because not so pertinaciously continued*

R. P.

124 On mid Gartick.

ideas. *^ He gave me many facts as to the effects of early
'ploughing, with a view to turn up garlick in its tender

* I have been frequently a witness of Mr. George's bold
and successful attempts at ridding his pasture fields or gar-
lick^ by hand weeding, in moist weather. I have seen, at va-^
rious times, tons of it thus collected. He said he could subdue
it so, as that it did not ieculate his butter ; and he was doubly
repaid, by the increased price, and ready sale of that arti-
cle, when it was generally tainted in the market. Being
often obliged to pass one of his large heaps of garlick, I had
the curiosity to attend to its progress, in its fermentation and
putreiaction. The factor was almost insupportable ; and far
exceeded any effluvia from animal putreiaction. It resembled
in my sensation, a combination of the strongest extract of Asa-
fcstiday with the most pungent volatile salt. — Some one, who
has the propensities of SmoUet's Lismahago^ with objects
more meritorious and useful, might discover, in the wild
garlick, properties, valuable either in medicine, the arts, or
manufactures ; to balance its mischiefs and abominations.

Mr. George's weeders each carried home, at noon, his wal-
let or basket full of garlick ; which was thrown into the
horse troughs, and greedily eaten by the %vorking horses. He
said it was not only nutritious, but gave them spirit and vi-
gour, to perform the remainder oi their daily task. Occupants
oi garlicky lands, who are too often, in the spring, short of
forage ; find the early pasture of the garlick both useful,
healthy, and indispensably necessary for their stock. Al-
though it is at first laxative, it finally becomes regularly
nutritive j and cattle and sheep thrive on it. Change of pas-
ture^ or dry food, for a few days, (or as some say, forty eight
hours) will take off the taint from their flesh.

I have never seen m new lands, the garlick, or wild onion.
Its bulb resembles the latter ; being indistinctly lamellated,
though chiefly solid ; and not divided into cloves like the

0?! mid Garlick. 125

state, when just beginning to shoot ; and, by this means,
to backen or destroy it. He believed that it was the
ploughing, and not the oats, which produced the effect.
But, having a large dairy, fed in the winter with oats
and corn, ground together in certain proportions, he
was of the sect of oat farmers ; and of course found
reasons to justify the practice. An oat fallow, he allow-
ed, required more dung than common, to restore what
the oats had exhausted. But he said, '^ with plenty of
lime and dung one can farm as he pleases." However
true this may be, the question still remains to be solved.
— What is the best course for those to pursue, who
either have, or have not, this plenty of lime and dung ?
For myself I answer — not to sow an exhausting crop of
oats, to be succeeded by another culmiferous* crop

former. Its head contains a multitude oi cloved seeds : and, on
this account most resembles the bulbs of the alliian or gar-
lick. But these seeds are entirely different from those of the
onion. It is destructively prolifick ; lor several bulbs will be
formed from one clove of the head.

There is an old tradition, that the Swedes first imported
and sowed it here, for early pasture, — But I have always
believed it to be a spontaneous native product ; the compa-
nion, if not the offspring of poverty ; originating in worn and
exhausted lands, Swedes having been early settlers, their
lands were the first exhausted j and in them the garlick made
its first appearance, of course.

R. P.

^ Cidmiferous crops are those of grain enclosed in chaffy
husks. They are fibrous rooted and exhausting. They give
little to the earth ; and draw from it the stores of vegetable
ibod, which it had collected.

1^6 On mid Garlick.

of winter grain— the most valuable but the most
dominant exhauster — A further practical answer, is at-
tempted in what follow^s hereafter*

Mr. Roberts, wliose farming and management is ge-
nerally exemplary, candidly gives the preference to an
open fallow ; though he has been in the habit of sowing
wheat after oats. See our memoirs, page 100. But not
having, for several past seasons, had encouraging wheat
crops, he has this year sow^n on an open or clear fallow.
Killing garlick and his demand for oats, form his apo-
logy for sowing them heretofore.

Wheat greatly exhausts ; but it occupies the ground
long, and draws its supplies, gradually, and extensively.
Its roots delight to penetrate and spread, beneath the
soil stirred by the plough. It does not injure the vege-
table mould like oats ; — rapid in their growth, with shal-
low and superficial roots, numerous and peculiarly
fibrous. When cut for hay, oats do not in any great de-
gree exhaust: nor does any crop till it perfects its seed.

I have now a fme field (small but well tilled) of wheat.
Two years ago it was so infested w4th garlick, that the
hay, in winter, was unfit for my cows ; as it gave their
milk a most disgusting taste. In 1807 I gave it a fall
ploughing; and in the spring of 1808 I ploughed it
again ; as early as the frost permitted. At the usual
time (the beginning of May) I planted liidian corn ;
which I so well attended, that not a weed was to be
seen. My crop of corn was remarkably abundant ;
though the season was unfavourable. I cut oft' the corn
stalks, and hauled them into the barn yard, as 1 usually do,
for manure. — 1 fall ploughed it again ; and limed light-
ly. Wishing to cover my fallow in the spring, and, by

On fVild Garlick. 127

an example, to intice the oat farmers to intermit their
inveterate habits, I procured Albany peas, sowed them
broadcast, and harrowed them in ; after which I rolled
them. I was obliged to send to New York for my seed,
which occasioned delay; and, although I ploughed early,
I sowed a month too late ; not getting any seed into the
ground until the middle of May. I had succeeded with
peas many years ago ; but had forgotten the requisite
quantity of seed to the acre. I sowed txvo bushels to the
acre; whereas three^ had been formerly my usual quan-
tity. They came up even and looked remarkably well,
till the pods appeared; when heavy rains laid them, and
my expectations were disappointed. I lost my crop of
peas ; but I did not lose the benefit of their cover.
Two acres of the same field were highly dunged, and
planted with potatoes ; whereof I had a plentiful crop,
which came off early : I sowed wheat in the potatoe
ground, ten days before my pea fallow was ready. A
remarkable dry season prevented my sowing in the time
I wished. During the drought, I gave an extraordinary
ploughing to cover and protect a moderate dressing of

* I have now a very promising crop of the field pea. I
sowed it early, with three bushels to the acre. Next ye^r, I
will, on part, sow four bushels. We have had the greatest
drought, for two months, I ever recollect at this season of the
year. Yet my peas (plaistered,) have continued to thrive.
Most fortunate rains have now given them every advantage ;
though in a more favourable season, they would have beeij
more forward.

R. P,
\Sth June 1810.

128 On fVild Garlick.

well rotted dung, on the pea fallow. About the middle
of October, I harrowed in my wheat ; sowed on it timo-
thy seed, and rolled it in. With all the advantage of
earlier seeding, the wheat on the potatoe ground is in-
ferior to that on the pea fallow ; though both look well.*
The garlick is apparently destroyed on the whole field.
I could in the winter, have collected many bushels
of dead bulbs of garlick ; which had been exposed, by
the harrows, after the fall ploughings. In this way I have
cleared many a field of the garlick, which infested them
at the time. But in three years (often in two) the seed,
which had been lying torpid, vegetated ; and produced a
new crop of pests. By attacking these with a fall, and
an early spring ploughing, I have banished the garlick
for many succeeding years. My present flattering ap-
pearance may turn out fallacious ; I therefore will post,
pone my Te Deiim till I am certain of victory. It seems
as \^ garlicJf^ once rooting itself generally in a field, gains
an endless possession in the soil. Like a chymical com-
pound (which according to a recent discovery, can ne-
ver be so decomposed as that ^U its parts will be com-
pletely separated) in a greater or less degree, it forever

* Every expectation I had formed respecting the wheat
on the pea fallow, is confirmed. It far exceeds that on the po-
tatoe ground. There has been a long drought ; yet the pea
fallow wheat is nearly as good, as a crop in a favourable season.
I have drilled wheat (hoed) superior to it ; but it is among the
best broadcast wheat, I have seen this season. No garlick
yet appears in the iield.

R P

1 5th June 1810.

On Wild Garlick. 129

infests and adheres. Scattering bulbs, to continue the
succession, will remain covered by the plough, and out
of the reach of destruction.

I have a field adjacent preparing for a similar course ;
and shall repeat my experiments of leguminous*
cover. I am much mistaken if my campaigns against
the garlick, are not equally successful with those of my
worthy neighbour. My object has been, as I now believe,
accomplished in a shorter time ; with less exhaustion
and better culture. It will be perceived that I rely, for
extirpating garlick, on my frequent fall and early spring
ploughings. A winter crop intervening prevents repe-
titions of the ploughings ; and impedes the entire over-
throw of a crippled adversary. It gives time to the gar-
lick to recover its vigour.

The loss of my peas is of much less consequence,
than my failure in setting a profitable example. For
such failures confirm prejudices in others ; though I
shall not be in the least discouraged, in my object of
substituting beneficial for exhausting covers. — It is in
support of this object only, that I am induced to say —

* Leguminous plants are those whose seeds are enclosed in
pods. — Every species of the pea and pulse kind are Legumes,
They shade and cover ; their tap, or main roots strike deep ;
and do not prey upon and exhaust the vegetable mould, as
do plants shallow set, and entirely fibrous. Exposing to the
influences of the atmosphere, surfaces porous and extensive,
they draw from the air their chief supplies. They probably
give to the earth, a balance beyond their receipts from it j
which, by their shade and cover, they enable it to retain.

R. P.

VOL. II, R

130 On JVild Garlick.

that I shall not meet with my usual success in my wheat
crop; if it does not far exceed that of any oat farmer's.
On the pea fallow, I am particularly confident ; and
will throw into the scale of competition against me, all
loss in the pea crop. Accidents and misfortunes disap-
point the best founded hopes. But these alike assail the
crops of others, as well as mine. Independent of the
views of the subject as they relate to the extirpation of
garlick, I am convinced, by long experience, that, with
fall and early spring ploughings, more will be gained
in the winter grain without oats on the fallow, than the
crop of the latter grain is worth, in a general course of
seasons and prices. It is in my opinion, though a very
common, yet not the less injurious mistake; that the
operation of breaking up or ploughing for a winter crop,
is the last performed in the fore part of the season when
it should be the first. Before either ley or stalk fields
(as those are called w^hich have had corn in the pre-,
ceding season) are turned up, the garlick and weeds of
all kinds grow strong and unconquerable. — They are
easily killed, if attacked by early ploughing. It has been
my constant habit to plough early, deep, and often. I
never sow wheat with less than four ploughings ; and
three are the usual number with most other farmers. I
have never yet failed to perceive the great advantage of
ploughing in the fall. This operation should in general
be the deepest, i. e. from five to seven inches ; because
the raw or barren earth turned up to the winter, is ame-
liorated by exposure in that season without exhaustion;
which is not the case with naked summer fallows. — But
the fall ploughing of a garlick ley should be shallow, i. e.
not to exceed three or four inches ; and it should be

On JVild Garlick. 131

harrowed in the direction of the furrows ; that the bulbvS
may be the more loosened from the sod, and entirely
exposed to the frosts and thaws.

If the course here recommended is not perfect ; rt is
nevertheless the best I know to be in the power of com-
mon farmers. — Denshiring^ or paring and burnings is an
effectual mode to eradicate all pests in the sod. But
this is not likely to be resorted to, in the present state
of things. Trench ploughing is also a sure mode ; as I
can, from repeated experience, attest.

Graziers and large dealers, may extirpate garlick by
great numbers of cattle, winter fed on their ground.
The late Mr. William Jones succeeded in this way, at
Garlick Hallm the neck. The poaching and tramping
the sod, as well as fertilizing the soil by the droppings
from, and the laying down of, cattle, afford the remedy.
But this mode is attainable by a few people only.

Garlick grows in poor and exhausted soils generally ;
but, like all robbers, it does not spare the rich. It is
propagated by the seed and bulbs, or roots. When th$
parent bulbs, or old roots, are destroyed, the seed, in
two or three years, will produce another race of pests ;
as if it were intended vindictively to punish the de-
stroyer of their predecessors. But as soon as this vile
progeny appears, they should at once be assailed ; and,
being tender and weak, they are the more easily over-
come, by a fall and early spring ploughing. A variable
winter of severe frosts, with intervals of thaws, and a
late spring, with frosty and chilly damp nights, and oc-
casionally w^arm days, are favourable to the destruction
of the bulbs, exposed to such vicissitudes. These ob-
servations are extended beyond my original intention.

132 On TVild Garlick,

I was induced, by a practical conviction, to gratify a de-
sire to show, that the object is most profitably and
promptly attainable, by a course of husbandry which
ameliorates, instead of exhausting, the soil.

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Agric. Soc. PhUad^

The Field-Pea.

There is a very general mistake, in this part of the
country, respecting the culture of the jield-pea. It is
supposed to require much labour, and it is conceived
that they must be sown in drills, and stuck. True it is
that, like beans ^ when sowed in drills, and hoed, they pro»
duce more abundantly ; and so will any plant. But there
is no more expence, or labour, in the usual mode of cul-
tivation, than with oats. They are sown in broadcast ;
and harrowed in, in the direction of the furrows. When
ripe they are cut with the scythe, or that and the cradle,
if they stand up well ; raked up when dry, and stacked,
or housed. They are threshed in the common way ; and
cleaned in the common fan, nothing is equal to them
for rotting a sod ; and in Europe they are often sown
on a ley, with one ploughing; for the purpose of rotting
it, as well as for the crop. They delight in light soils,
the most ; but will grow in others. They are as certain
a crop, as the grains in common use. Pease often fail,
as do other crops. But when appearances are against

On Wild Garlick. 13:

them, they may be ploughed in, as green manure, to
profitable account. When they perfect their crop, or
when ploughed in, they do not fail to meliorate the soil.
Beans are best, for heavy soils ; but they do not often
succeed here. Pease are in great demand, for ships pro-
visions, or exportation; when split, or whole. Chopped
or ground for cattle, they exceed oats, either for milk,
or fatting. Hogs are fond of them ; and they may be
given to fatting, or stock swine. But the former must
be finished off with Indian corn ; which makes the ba-
con of this country superior to that of Europe. Horses
are fed on pease in England, and other countries.

R. Peters.

C 134 ]

On Garlick. By Paul Busti*
Read January 9th, 1810.

Blockleif s Retreat \st January 1810.

Sir,

Wishing to make it appear, that the importance of
communicating the results of practical experiences, is
the most useful manner of disseminating among the
farmers, the knowledge of the precious art of agriculture.
I venture to submit the observations I made on the best
mode of extirpating the nauseous plant, that poisons so
many of the fields in our neighbourhood :

The Garlick.

\\^en in 1806, I bought Parkinson's estate, and
found the hills beyond the creek so much infested with
that pestiferous vegetable, that unable to convert into
palatable bread the wheat and rye which the tenant then
resident on the place divided with me, I used the whole
of my share for feeding the cattle. The next year I
resolved to try whether I could destroy it. I met with
no certain advice by consulting my neighbours, as their
opinions were quite in opposition together. On two hills
where in 1806 grain was raised, and clover sown, I
pursued a different method. On one I caused a quan-
tity of plaister to be spread, thinking that the quick
vegetation of the red clover, would suffocate and stifle
the garlick. The other hill was early in the spring
ploughed and prepared for Indian corn.

On Garlick. 135

No benefit whatever having been derived from hast-
ening the vegetation of the clover, (for the gariick re-
ceived hkewise advantage from the plaister ;) I set in
1808, a man about pulling the bulbs before the seeds
were ripened. Six cart loads of plants having been
pulled up, I thought to have gained the point ; and in
the fall of that year I manured and ploughed the ground;
throw^ing in rye seed, in the proportion of two bushels
per acre. In reaping, I soon discovered that the enemy
was far from being overpowered. The quality of my rye
made me condemn it to the use of the stables. I met
with a better success on the hill, where the corn had
been planted in rows. Many garlick stalks came up,
but were cut down and overturned by the plough in
dressing. Few escaped unhurt. Determined however,
that none should remain, and convinced, by the simple
reasonings of plain good sense, that a frequent stirring
of the ground must prove the best check upon the
growth of any vegetable ; I converted in the spring of
1808, the corn into a potatoe field, adding a good deal
of manure. I may with truth boast, to have perfectly
succeeded in subduing the garlick. For among the lye
harvested this year from that spot, not a single seed of
garlick was discoverable. From the dissertation of
Judge Peters on garlick, lately inserted in Poulson's
paper, I have however learned to be diffident of my com-
plete victory. It may happen, that some bulbs or seeds
still remain sculking among the clover and other gras-
ses sown amidst the rye. Should this be the case, it
will soon be discovered next spring ; and, if so, I intend
to go over again the same rotation of crops, not doubt*-

136 On Gar lick.

ing that if in completing one, I have had reason to think
I had got the palm of triumph, my efforts will be crown-
ed with full success after a second rotation.

I have the honour to remain,
Sir, your most obedient servant,
Paul Busti.

Dr. James Mease.

[ 137 ]

On Moles, By Dr, Barton.

Read January, 9th, 1810.

Dear Sir,

I have lately perused, with not a little satisfaction, in
one of the British Agricultural Magazines, some obser-
vations on the utility of moles. It is well known to
you, that the mole has, by most writers, been consi-
dered as a very pernicious quadruped ; and that the
business of mole-catching in England is not an unpro-
fitable one to those who follow it. The observations to
which I allude, have nearly convinced me, that the com-
mon mole of Europe, is upon the whole more beneficial
than pernicious to the labours of the agriculturist. To
the garden it is acknowledged, that the mole does
prove injurious.

The common mole of the United States, which Lin-
naeus denominates, for want of better information con-
cerning itj Sorex aquaticiis, is specifically distinct from
the mole of Europe. But the two animals are, in many
essential respects, — as of structure, appearance, way of
life, food Sec, nearly allied. Almost every one believes,
that our mole, which I have no doubt infests or visits
your ground, for it is very common along the Schuyl-
kill,— that the common mole of Pennsylvania, is a very
pernicious animal. I wish you could turn the attention
of some of the members of the agricultural society to
this subject. It is one of no small consequence. I great-
ly doubt if this mole be so pernicious as is imagined.
1 have long entertained doubts on the subject. I suspect

VOL. II. s

138 On Moles.

that it will be found to render more service than to do
mischief ; I mean in our larger fields. When it gets
into gardens, it may do much mischief. But even here,
if I do not greatly mistake, the evils which have been
ascribed to this little animal, have been much exagger-
ated. I could show you, that it even does some good
in the gardens.

Should you, or any other member of the society,
deem it worthy of yoUr attention to inquire into the cor-
rectness of the general notion, that our mole is a veiy
pernicious animal, I hope you will be careful to specify
the animal to which your observations may refer. We
have, at least, two species of moles near Philadelphia,
which are in many respects, different ; I mean the So-
rex aquaticus about which I am most concerned, and
the species called by our farmers, the "star-nose-mole,'*
or Sorex cristatus. Confining myself to the former spe-
cies, much the most common, let me ask the following
questions: viz.

1. What kind of grounds are most frequented by this
animal ? Is it ever found in the wetter meadows ?

2. What vegetables does it chiefly consume ? Does
it injure the roots of the red-clover? Does it ever in-
jure the Indian corn ?

3. What insects does it eat ? Does it not devour
grubs, and other larvce^ of beetles, Sec.

4. In what way does it prove most injurious ?

5. By loosening the earth, and thereby enabling the
radicles of different plants to progress with more faci-
lity ; and by devouring a portion of the radicles which
it meets with, does not the mole of the United States,
do quite as much good as harm ?

OnMoles. 139

6. At what season of the year does the mole bring
forth her young ? Or has she not at least, two litters in
the year ? What is the number of young produced by
a single pair, in the year ?

7. May we not, by preserving moles from unneces-
sary destruction, turn their beautiful fur to useful pur-
poses in the United States ?

I am, dear Sir,

Very respectfully, yours, &c.
B. S. Barton.
December 19 th, 1809.
Richard Peters Esq.

I 140 i

Foi'eign grain sent for seed. — 4 new plough and eX'
periments therewith^ at Draveil the seat of Daniel
Parker Esq. near Paris. By John Armstrong.

Read January 9th, 1810.

Paris, 2d November 1809.

Dear Sir^

The little box which will be delivered with this let-
ter, contains three species of grain and one of grass
seed, which I do not remember to have seen in the
United States.

Number 1. Is a wheat which from its uncommon
productiveness, as well in grain as in straw, is called
le hie d^ abundance. It is said to be of African origin,
and is sometimes called Egyptian wheat.

Number 2. Is a rye of excellent quality, giving a
flour little inferior to that from wheat. One bushel of
this grain weighs 64 pounds, and its straw, like that
of the preceding article, is very stout and nearly solid.

Number 3. Is a barley called here Vorge fromenter
or wheat barley, from its resemblance to some species
of wheat. An acre will give as many bushels of this
as of any other species of barley ; and a bushel of this
species, will give considerably more flour than the same
quantity of any other species.

Number 4. Is the seed of the Sain-foin of Nor-
mandy, which gives as many hay-cuttings as Lucerne,
and a tolerable after grass for pasturing cattle.

To these I add the drawings of a new invented
plough, and a minute of work, which I last spring, saw

On Foreign Grain. 141

it perform at Dravcil, the seat of our countryman
Daniel Parker. My own opinion is, that in hght and
level lands, this instrument will supersede the use of
all others of the same name.*

Committing these worthy foreigners to your protec-
tion and patronage, and hoping that like our own pota-
toe, they may improve by translation.

I am dear sir.

Yours truly,

John Armstrong.
Richard Peters Esq.

P. S. Having an un-occupied corner in the box, I fill it
with one of these adopted sons, which does no discredit
to his parentage. Its present weight is two pounds and
a quarter. The field in which it grew contained twelve
acres and a half, and gave 10,000 Boisseaus (20 pounds
each) 100 of the largest, weighed 200 pounds, the one
I send was the second, or third, in point of size. This
gigantic race is called the champion, and is not inferior
to any of the family, for the uses of the table.

=* Nothing can be more grateful or patriotic, than the ex-
ertions of our citizens, in whatever station or pursuit they
are occupied abroad, to add to the prosperity of their coun-
try, the knowledge of agricultural improvement, by trans-
mitting models or drafts of usetul or new implements, or
valuable grains, seeds or plants — General Armstrong is en-
titled to much praise on this account. The grain and grass
seeds will be faithiuUy attended to, and the results reported.

The Egyptian wheat has most generally failed, though re-
peatedly sown here.

142 On Foreign Grain.

Extract from the Farm-hook of Braved^ October
2>lst 1809.

A statement of the force required for the working of
the several ploughs underwritten ; determined by es-
says, made at Draveil on the same piece of land, a san-
dy loam, with the Dynonemetre of Regnier :

The ordinary French plough, 563 pounds.

The Rotheram plough with wheels, 427.

Small's improved Rotheram swing plough, 396.

The rye is a most valuable desideratum ; if it suits our
climate. It shall be sedulously nurtured. Crops of rye, in
many parts of our country, have failed for several years past.
It will be a most happy relief, if some new species should
bring back our former success with a grain which formerly
was the surest of all crops.

The barley some of our society have cultivated, but with-
out much flattering success. In Scotland and other European
countries it grows abundantly.

The saintfoin, (cocks head) Hedasyrum Onobyrkhis L: is the
most valuable of all its tribe, where it can be raised to matu-
rity. It is the tenderest of all grasses, and requires the clean-
est farming, till it arrives at three years old ; and thereafter
it is the hardiest and most durable. Many unsuccessful at-
tempts have been made here to bring it to perfection. And
yet it grows in Europe luxuriantly, where no other valuable
grass will thrive. It delights in light dry and chalky soils,
wherein its roots penetrate to great depths and distances —
placed beyond all injuries from frosts, or vicissitudes of
season. It is a beautiful flower, in the pleasure garden.

The species oi potato e is not unknown here. Although care-
fully guarded, it rotted on the passage. Its exterior was only
preserved, so as to shew its size, and excite regret. It must be
a most valuable root j and should be procured and cultivated.

On Foreign Grain. 143

Guillaume's plough, for which he obtained the pre-
mium from the French agricultural board, 240.

Note. The three first ploughs are worked with three
horses and one man, the latter with two horses and one
man.

The furrows were taken nine inches wide, and five
inches deep.

Mr. Parker's double furrow plough, 500.

The two furrows 24 inches wide, and five inches deep,
and the plough worked with three horses and one man.

The comm,encement of working with this double
furrow plough was in March last. On the 21st of May,
an essay was made to ascertain the quantity of ground,
which could be ploughed with it in a given time.

A piece of land, 860 feet (French measure) long, and
24 feet wide, making 51 perches, (containing each perch
20 feet square, amounting to 20,412 feet English mea-
sure, half an English acre,) was ploughed in an hour,
including two stoppages of the plough of six minutes,
to change a bolt. The furrows were five inches deep,
and 12 inches wide ; the 24 feet, being ploughed by
24 furrov/s, or six turns of the plough. It was worked
by three horses and one man, the ploughman having
the reins of the horses.

A field of strong land, which was sown in 1806 with
wheat, and gave 30 English bushels to the acre, w^as
sown in April last with buck- wheat, which was plough-
ed in, the latter end of July for manure ; has been
ploughed with two double furrowed ploughs, for wheat
this month (October;) it contains 25 acres, and was
ploughed in six days, and one third of the seventh day
for one plough to finish the two ends. This work

144 On Foreign Grain and Ploughs,

would have taken with the common mode of ploughing,
for two ordinary ploughs, 12 days and an half, making
an actual saving of a half in men and horses, both as
to time and labour, and the work equally well done.*

Experiments have proved, that where the fall of rain
is 20 inches per annum, as in the vicinity of Paris, the
component parts of the earth for wheat, should be on
50 parts, 25 parts silex, 15 parts calcarious, 10 parts
vegetable and animal matter, and argil.

The earth of a field on the banks of the Seine, six
leagues from Paris, at Draveil, has been analysed, and
found to contain as follows :

Silex, - - . 25. 3

Calcarious matter, - - 14. 4

Water, Vegetable and Animal Matter, 8. 75

Oxide de fer, - - 0. 75

Alumine, - - 0. 57

Oxide de Manganese, - - 0. 01

Sulfate de Potasse, - - 0. 01

Loss, - ' 0. 21

50.

. * The motive for furnishing the draft of Mr. Parker's
plough, merits and obtains our thanks. The results, and his
course of crops, are highly exemplary.

It will be seen that the plough which has obtained so
much approbation in France, has been worked against the
best English and French ploughs ; and is deemed superior
to them. This being the case, apparently, it cannot be ac-
counted an unfounded assertion, that the ploughs of this
country, esteemed and used here by good farmers, are equal
to those of Europe. They are superior in simplicity of con-

On Foreign Gy'ain. 145

This field had been in culture the preceding years
as follows :

1802, Wheat, after being pastured with sheep.

1803, Rye.

1804, Oats, with this crop the farmers lease finished.

1805, Carrots and Parsnips, for cattle.

1806, Vetches.

struction, and quickness of movement ; and in efficiency
most midoubtedly equal. The improved East Jersey one
shared plough, with one man and three horses a breast, has
performed and commonly accomplishes, all that the JDraveil
plough has done, with its two shares. Tv/o acres per diem,
at any depth from four to seven inches, is common work.
Nor is it singular, for a smart American ploughman, with a
well constructed common plough and two horses, to turn
up one acre and an half per day. Two acres, and two an half,
have frequently been ploughed in a day, with ploughs now
very common through our country. All complexity of wheels,
additional shares, and machinery, are out of use j and
deemed incumbrances.

The American toothed sickle is better than any imported.
Although in general they reap well, and use the toothed
sickle ; yet whole counties in England, where their agricul-
ture and management is nearer perfection than in other
European countries, have the smooth edged hook for reaping.
This cuts as it enters ; and scatters the grain, before it can
be griped by the reaper. Here such management is unknown.

Our scythe and cradle, is far superior to any implement
of the kind, used in England j though they have there such
instruments.

Our necessities under the scarcity of labour, have intro-
duced simplicity in all our operations. It would be as singu-
lar to see wheels and driver? and multiplied shares to our
VOL. II. X

146 Oil Foreign Grain.

1807, Wheat, 30 English bushels to the acre.

1808, Winter Oats and Rye, for pasture for sheep.

1809, Suck- Wheat &c. as above stated in the work-
ings of the double ploughs.

ploughs, and excite as much curjosity as would the total
abandonment of them in Europe. There is no advantage over
the single, in the double shared plough, in the separation of
the sod, or earth. The best breaking up three horse ploughs,
with single shares of 20 and 22 inches in width, elevate the
sod or earth, so as that it breaks to pieces in its fall and
tuiTiing; and a furrow can scarcely be discerned. Mr. Par-
ker's double plough takes only 24 inches in width, with both
its shares. Under our agricultural inferiority in too many
instances, it is tortunate that we have some things for con-
solation. It is o^ no essential importance to enquire whether
they were invented, improved, or adopted, by us.

Our great disadvantage is, that it is difficult to collect, and
have taithiully made, implements of our best kinds. Many
are bad enough, both in construction and workmanship. A
plan ior establishing a manufactory of, and ware-room for
exhibiting receiving and vending, the best implements of
husbandry, has been promulgated, which, we indulge the hope
will be encouraged.

C 147 ]

Eulogium on William West. By James Mease M, Z).
Read February 13th, 1810.

Posthumous honors, whether they consisted in mo-
numents, or in praise, have generally been confined to
persons who have occupied the first ranks in civil so-
ciety, or who have distinguished themselves by their
military exploits or literary talents. Their examples for
these reasons, are necessarily limited in their influence,
because only a small number of persons can derive be-
nefit from imitating them. Examples of virtue, indus-
try, knowledge and usefulness, taken from the humble
walks of life, are calculated to be far more beneficial in
society, because a great majority of mankind are in a
situation to be benefitted by them. Of this class, the
cultivators of the earth are by far the most numerous.
The retired life of an humble agriculturist, does not in-
deed admit of a display of eloquence, nor would such
a display suit the speaker ; but it is hoped, that a few
traits in the life of one of them, will prove interesting,
particularly to a society founded for the purpose of pro-
moting knowledge, economy, and the improvement of
the profession of which he was so distinguished a
member.

The venerable subject of this tribute of respect
was born in the county of Delaware, a few miles from
the farm he owned at the time of his death. He was
the elder brother of the celebrated Benjamin West,
who has done so much honor to himself, and to the
state which gave him birth, by his talent, as an histo-

148 Eulogium on TVilliam West.

rical painter in England.* The first years of his youth
were employed on the plantation of his father, and at a
proper age, he was put apprentice to a mechanic in the
city of Philadelphia, — an oak cooper, at which busi-
ness he continued until his 40th year, when he deter-
mined to become a farmer. The place he purchased,
consisted of upwards of 100 acres, and although by na-
ture of an excellent soil,t yet it had been so far ex-
hausted, as to be incompetent to the maintainance of
the owner, few and simple as his wants must necessarily
have been.

* The family of Mr. West is traced as far back as Ed-
ward the third, in whose wars they distinguished themselves*
One of his ancestors Colonel James West, after having sig-
nalized himseli' in the battle of Worcester on the side of the
republicans, embraced the pacific principles of friends. The
grand parents of Mr, West emigrated with William Penn t»
this country.

I The farm is situak^d in a tract of land about three quar-
ters of a mile wide, which is remarkable for abounding in blue
rocks of a veiy hard nature, and which when broken appear
of the colour of newly cast metal ; hence it is called pot
metal rock ; the composition of the soil o- this tract is so good
as to be proverbial, and in a field of a farm through which
the vein partly runs, the* difference in the appearance of the
grain or grass on each side the line may be seen to a foot or
two. The rock is the amphibole^ or gr nsteiii of minerali-
gists. The fact is mentioned with a view to give an oppor-
tunity of ascertaining whether any such connex'on betweea
fertility, and the presence oi this stone takes place in other
districts.

Eitlogiiim on TFilliam West. 149

The business of farming may be said to have been
new to Mr. West, for although he had a general idea
of the common operations of husbandry, yet he must
have been very deficient with respect to the various
minor details upon which so much of the success and
profit of a farm depend. The land he bought was al-
most a common : there being scarcely a fence of
strength sufficient to keep out whatever animal chose
to walk over his fields and they were covered with
briars and weeds of every kind. In these respects his
farm was not singular. All the agricultural operations
of the district were the reverse of what they ought to
have been, and of what they now are. — There is still
much room for improvement.

After fencing his land, by substantial inclosures, and
clearing it of weeds, briars, and wild hedge-rows, he
looked around for information, as to the best mode of
conducting his farm. He saw cattle half starved in
winter for want of food, and pinched with cold from
deficient shelter, and but poorly fed even in summer.
Grass was the result of the spontaneous, though scanty
production of the soil after the crop of grain was taken
off, or in a few cases, of natural rough meadow, or wa-
tered fields, but as the first of those resources was not
in the power of all, and as the latter, if within their
command, was neglected from indolence, or ignorance
of the benefit to be derived from it, or of the method
of effecting the improvement, the provision of hay was
necessarily extremely poor : the consequence was, that
the stock kept was small in number, or if the vanity of
sliewing a large stock infected the farmer, they were of
course Uut half nourished. In either case, manure was

150 Eulogium on William West.

scantily made. Successive crops of grain exhausted
the ground : the slovenly practice of sowing wheat or
rye among the standing Indian corn was universal, and
the cultivation of artificial grasses especially of that great
fertilizer red clover^ which has done so much for Penn-
sylvania, was unknown. The cattle were therefore per-
mitted to wander over the fields to pick up the slender
provision afforded by nature, or to browse upon young
twigs in the woods, to the certain destruction of the
gro^ving timber : grazing at that time was solely con-
fined to the rich natural meadows on the peninsula,
between the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill, and many
farmers depended entirely upon them for the supply
of their winter beef, and even for part of the hay
for their live stock. In short, he found that the whole
management of a farm was pursued not upon fixed
principles, but in a random manner ; the object appear-
ing to be, to obtain as much from the land as possible,
without regard to the preservation or improvement of
the powers of the soil. With those facts before him, the
prospect was extremely discouraging. He did not
pretend to any knowledge in farming; but what he saAv
and learnt were sufncient to convince him that practices
which neither enriched the farmer nor the land, could
not be the most eligible, and he therefore determined
not to adopt them, and as he could derive no informa^
tion from his neighbours, he read what books he could
procure on farming, and for the rest he depended upon
his own judgment. At the day alluded to, the science
of agriculture was at a low ebb in every part of the
European and American world : the useful spirit for
diffusing information by means of books, was not ex-

Eulogium on William West, 151

cited in this country, and even in Europe, scarcely any
works of much note had appeared on agriculture, ex-
cept those of Du Hamel, De Lisle and Tull. The me-
rit of Mr. West was therefore the greater, because with-
out the numerous helps which the modern farmer may
have recourse to, derived from the works of these who
have detailed the result of their experience, or from the
good examples of their neighbours, he ventured to alter
a bad system, and to establish a new one which the
experience of near half a century in this country has
shewn to be correct, and which has added to the pe-
cuniary resources, and agricultural reputation of our
State.

The chief part of the cultivated land in Pennsylvania,
was in a course of tillage, and grain commanded but a
small price. The business of grazing as already stated,
was confined to a small district, and the inquiries he
made satisfied him as to the superior profit arising
therefrom, when compared to tillage. From this cir-
cumstance therefore as well as from a partiality for that
pleasing branch of husbandry ; he resolved as soon as
circumstances would permit, to lay down his land to
grass. — What an undertaking at that time ! and how
was this to be accomplished ? the introduction of red
clover had taken place only a few years before, and
with the exception of a few districts, was confined to
the vicinity of Philadelphia: for prejudice, the great
enemy to all improvements, had opposed its progress
among the cultivators of the soil. The great advantages
however of this valuable grass, derived from the im-
mense burthen which it produced, were soon seen by
Mr. West, and he determined to avail himself of them.

152 Eulo^ium on JVilliam JVest,

Its fertilizing effects were the result of subsequent ex-
perience, the knowledge of which from the recent and
partial use of the plant was yet to be acquired. Clover
was therefore sown, and his fields soon bloomed with
the novel exotic, affording him treble the quantity of
hay, that ever had been known to grow in the vicinity,
upon the same quantity of ground. But clover, valu-
able as it proved to him, and as it still is, he knew requi-
red to be renewed, and a permanent pasture was the ob-
ject he aimed at, for he held it as a principle that every
country was blessed by a native permanent pasture grass.
How therefore was this to be obtained ? it occurred to
him that a visit to the peninsula, where native grasses
abounded, and an examination of the soil on which they
grew, might teach him something on the subject. He
there saw that the whole soil was alluvial, and of course
very rich, that luxuriant natural grass clothed the fields,
and that the only manuring which they obtained, con-
sisted of the droppings of the cattle; here then were the
principles upon v>hich the improvement was to be
grounded. Manure was applied as equally as possible,
to the surface of a rich bottom. Philosophically con-
cluding that like causes must produce like effects, he
determined to imitate the practice, and the result proved
the accuracy of his deduction. The first object there-
fore to be attended to, was to bring his soil if possible,
to the desirable state of fertility of the alluvial district,
and this he knew could only be accomplished, by the
accumulation of manure. How therefore was this great
desideratum to be obtained, and how increased? It was
clear that the wandering of the cattle over the fields and
roads or in the woods, could not add to the stock of

Eidogkim on William West. 153

tliis great requisite; for in the one case it would be les-
sened in quantity, and diminished in quality by the
action of the elements upon it ; and in the other, it
would be totally lost. He therefore confined his cattle
to the barn yard, during the winter, and to increase the
quantity of manure, he, in the first instance plentifully
strewed the yard with leaves from his woods, while the
scanty crop of straw, corn blades and corn stalks, which
his first course yielded, assisted in supplying food.

The sites of the old fences he had removed, the
earth under the wild hedge rows which he had previ-
ously grubbed, were ploughed up, and together with
that taken from the ditches he dug or cleaned out, were
formed into composts containing a large proportion of
lime ; while every species of offal and vegetable matter
about the dwelling house, and innumerable weeds while
yet unripe, were added to the contents of the barn yard.
He provided against drought by leading a spring from
a considerable distance along his high lands, so as to
irrigate at pleasure some of his largest fields. The
precious v/ater from the barn yard, which even to this
day, is either entirely lost, or permitted by most farm-
ers to run off in wasteful profusion over a particular
field, was confined by the construction of the yard, and
forced to increase the riches of the fresh materials v/hich
were continually in progress to the fertilizing heap.
To all his grass grounds, previously cleansed of peren-
nial weeds by fallow crops, he applied a compost ma-
nure early in the spring, always observing to accommo-
dating it to the nature of the soil. He had the satisfac-
tion to see the complete success of the practice. For
as the artificial grasses declined, the permanent native

VOL. II. tJ

154 Eidogium on William West,

green grass* took their place, and only required a repe-
tition of the practice, which caused its appearance, to in-
sure its continuance ; and for many years he exhibited
the only instance in the county, of an intire sward of
green grass upon an upland farm, and of fields which
had not been disturbed by a plough for upwards of
thirty years.

The alteration of the farming system of William
West, from the random plans of the country, did not
fail to be noticed by his neighbours, and in some of
them to excite animadversions ; and as in every instance
of deviation from prevalent customs or practices, pre-
dictions of failure without hesitation, and with great
confidence were generally made. The event however,
proved the incorrectness of their predictions. In the
short space of three years, his supply of provender was
so great as to enable him to sell hay to a farmer who
possessed a much larger tract of land than his own, and
who had indulged himself most in objections upon
" the town-man's farming." The people of the vicinity
saw with astonishment, field after field, covered with
heavy pasture, which formerly were distinguished by
the great supply to the young people of fine blackber-
ries ; and in a few yccirs, they were surprised to see
40 head of cattle brought to a farm to graze, which had
scarcely ever afforded a bare support to ten head before ;
but they wondered still more when those cattle were
^successively led to the capital by the butcher, and more-
over were informed, that a large dairy and farming stock
were supported duriiig the same season. Such a change

* Poa viridis of Dr. JMuhlenbcrg.

Eulogium on TVilliam JFest. 155

could not fail of exciting more remarks than his deviating
from the common agricultural system of the country,
had formerly produced. — In the one case, some little
pride was mortified, at seeing the successful practice of
a citizen, in the improvement of land by courses which
were so opposite to what farmers thought could not be
altered for the better, or the adoption of measures which
had either never reached their ears, or were slighted,
from prejudice, or neglected from want of industry ; in
the other, the more feeling principle of interest operated
to the production of remark, and to a gradual change of
their agricultural operations. This change he lived to
see eflected, not only in his immediate neighbourhood,
but in more remote places, and to behold farms, nay
whole districts, brought from a state of poverty to a de-
gree of high cultivation, by following the example he
had long before set.

We are too apt to estimate the value of improve-
ments, in a degree disproportionate to their value, when
the theory that explains their success, or the practice
of them has become familiar to us. We wonder that
what is so easily accomplished, and is so simple, should
have been so long concealed from us, or have been so
recently adopted, and this remark will apply with par-
ticular force to the present occasion. The practice of
producing a fine sward upon upland farms, by the ap-
plication of manure to the surface, now appears so sim-
ple that it strikes us with astonishment, the thought did
not occur to others at a more early period ; but this
wonder will cease when it is known that even to this day
in many parts of the country, the benefit of it remains
yet to be discovered. Men who believe the system of

156 Eidogium on JFU^m JVest.

farming they pursue, admits of no alteration for the bet-
ter, will of course despise all information derived from
agricultural publications; and those who deem it a mis-
apphcation of time, or who are afraid that it will be
deemed an acknowledgment of their own inferiority to
go expressly to view the farms of others, will of course
long continue in the practices of their forefathers, how-
ever erroneous, and adopt all suggested improvements
with caution and reluctance.

It was indicative of Mr. West's disposition to im-
prove, and an evidence of his freedom from prejudice,
that he at a very early period adopted the use of gyp-
sum as a manure ; conscious that he had much to learn,
he was always on the search for information, and he no
sooner heard of the beneficial effects, which had been
experienced from that singular substance on some of
the city lots, then he made further inquiry respecting it,
and saw and heard enough to satisfy him as to its uti-
lity. Without therefore hesitating as many did, because
he could not account for the theory of its operation, he
resolved upon its use. The first season convinced him
that it was a most important acquisition to the farmer
and the experience of every subsequent year confirmed
him in the opinion he at first had adopted. He defended
it against the futile and weak objection which he fre-
quently heard urged against it, that it acted upon vege-
tables like ardent spirits upon the human body, and like
them must finally exhaust the powers of the land : he
w^ould remind its opponents of the means wdiich it fur-
nished of adding to the vigour of the soil by means of
the great quantities of manure afforded by the addi-
tional number of cattle, which could be maintained from

JEuIogium on William West* 157

the grass it produced, and which would tend far more
to invigorate the soil, than the gypsum would to exhaust
it. Much of the fertility to which his farm had reach-
ed, he ascribed to the use of that important substance,
and his continued confidence in its powers occasioned
the general and extensive use of it in his neighbourhood.
The result of his experience with respect to its effects
on grass, may be seen in the publication of the President
of our society, and his remarks shew that he had a cor-
rect notion of the points essential to the production of
its full eifects, and explain the want of success which
sometimes follows its application to land.

The paper alluded to contains the only literary tes-
timonial of his attention to agriculture.* He was fre-
quently importuned by his friends, to give to the world,
a statement of the improvements he had effected, and of
his practice in general, but he as constantly declined to

* This backwardness to give to the public a detail of the
progress of his improvements, which arose solely from his
diffidence, is the more to be regretted, in as much as they
would have been highly instructive to a young farmer. Few
practical men are fond of committing themselves on paper.
Neither Bakewell, the well known English improver of live
stock, or Klyiogg the Swiss, ever communicated their improve-
ments to the world. But Mr. West did not like the former
character, wish to conceal his operations, nor like the latter
undervalue written Information : on the contrary he set a
just estimate upon all instruction whether oral or recorded,
and often regretted the contempt in which our agriculturists
in general held all information, except what is derived from
their own limited circle of observation.

158 Eulof^ium on JVilliam JVest.

comply.* His uniform answer was *' come and see, I
can inform you more by conversation in a few hoars,
and by a walk over the farm, than by writing volumes."
A visit to his farm was well repaid. The inquirer found
always a hospitable reception, a pleasant companion,
and saw every thing about the land bearing the strong-
est marks of industry, care and skill. The most luxu-
riant grass, the native production of the soil, every
where met the eye ; not a weed was to be seen ; the
fences in the most perfect order, a compost bed ready
prepared or in preparation in the field next to be dres-
sed, and every improvement effected in the most sub-
stantial manner, as if he had been just entering the farm
early in life. His industry was indeed encreasing ; for
he held it as a point of duty, '' in every man who oc-
cupies land to endeavour as far as capable to keep it
in an improving state, for the benefit of himself, his
connections, the public, and posterity, and he who
can make an addition or improvement though small to
what is already known, would be doing more good than
giving alms all the days of his life."t But although
he did not v. rite for the public, he was always ready to
serve it, and was often applied to for the purpose of
viewing and selecting ilirms for those who wished to
settle in the county, or called to give advice to begin-
ners, a duty which he always cheerfully performed.

The construction of his stables, and the accommo-
dations for his cattle, all designed by himself, are supe-

=* Mr. West had drawn up the oudine of a communication
to the British board of Agriculture, but did not finish it.
I Address to the board oi agriculture.

Eulogium on JVilliam West. 159

rior to most I have seen, and his stalls are referred to
as models worthy of imitation, in two respectable
British agricultural publications.*

Hitherto I have spoken of Mr. West only as a farmer.
It is now necessary I should mention his merits as a
man and a member of society. In these important cha-
racters he acted a part no less distinguished. He was
scrupulously exact and honourable in all his dealings,
and possessed a delicacy of feeling, and nice sense of
honor, which we too often see wanting in men who
maintain a reputation in the world. He abhorred every
thing bordering on meanness or narrowness of conduct,
and could not refrain from expressing his disapproba-
tion, when informed of actions that partook of either.
No man ever possessed a fairer claim to the amiable
title of a good neighbour, and no man took more plea-
sure in bringing about a reconciliation between those
families whose friendship or good understanding had
been suspended. In the delicate and often trying situ-
ation of a divider of estates, a duty to which he was
often appointed to perform, he acted with a sense of
justice that always gave satisfaction. Whatever was
done by him, was the result of full deliberation and
honest impartiality, and therefore was cheerfully sub-
mitted to, however contrary to expectation and the
wishes of a party. His benevolence and liberality were
alike free as prompt, and I may add disinterested in
the highest degree. More than one farm has been pur-
chased by his assistance, and numerous instances are

Complete Grazier, and Edinburgh Farmer's Magazine.

160 Eulogium on William West.

known to me of ample pecuniary loans, without the
smallest compensation. Against this he was principled.
He had known the advantage himself of some capital,
in the commencement of his agricultural operations, and
therefore freely advanced it when convenient to those
proper objects whose necessities induced an application
to him. He was of a cheerful disposition, and delighted
in society, to which he contributed a great share of its
charms ; for he expressed himself with an accuracy of
language, and precision of style, far above what might
have been expected from one, whose education had
been so much neglected in early life. He possessed a
considerable talent for poetry, and has often in my hear-
ing recited some of his compositions, which for ima-
gery, and ease of versification, would have done credit
to many whose fame stands high in the list of poets.
He possessed all the plainness of the religious society to
which he belonged, and of which he was an exemplary
member, joined to the manners of the well bred gen-
tleman.

The confidence that his fellow citizens reposed in him
was repeatedly shewn, by his frequent election as a
member of the legislature of this state. The compli-
ment was the more honorable because it was never so-
licited. He seldom engaged in debates of the house;
in a few instances however, he was induced to deliver
his sentiments, and acquitted himself in so masterly a
manner, as to convince his hearers, that if his natural ta-
lents had been cultivated at an early period, he would

Eiilogium on William West. 161

have distinguished himself as a public speaker,* as
iriuch as he did in the peaceful occupation of an im-
prover of land. The board of agriculture of England
havina; heard of his superior farm mauogement, paid
him the compliment of electing him an honorary mem-
ber of their institution, shortly after its establishment.

Mr. West attained the great age of nearly 84. —
His mental faculties retained their full vigour to tnt last
year of his life. By an irresistible msl inct of our na-
tures, old age in any one commands respect. But this
resp. ct is combined with veneration, when ive associate
the sight of grey hairs, and oiher remarks of the decay
of the body, with ideas of virtue and eminent usefu.iicss
in an honourable occupation. Such were the feelings
which the presence of Mr. West excited in everv one
who saw him, whether upon his farm, by his lire .^ide,
upon the road, or in ccm{)any. The review of a long
and innocent life is always pkasanu but when the mind
in its retrospect upon past years, sees every one filled
with labours for the benefit of country, flimiiy and
friends, the sensations excited by it are more than plea-
sant,— they are truly delightful. But Mr. West had

* In one case, he replied, at the particular request of his
friends, to an eminent counsellor in the house, and gave so
clear a view of the subject in a short speech that the question
was carried on the side he espoused, by a very large majority.
His opponent, afterwards requested that the subject might
undergo a private debate before six gentlemen oi the bar.
The proposal was agreed to, and on the discussion o ihe
question, the vote of the umpires was unanimous in. tavoi.u'
©f Mr. West.

VOL. II. X

162 Eulogium on William West.

enjoyments of another kind in the evening of his life.
They did not consist in viewing territories acquired by-
fraud or force, or fields stained with human blood.
They were of a higher nature ; they consisted in con-
templating trophies of his conquests over barrenness,
briars and thorns, in fields covered with the means of
encreasing the subsistence and numbers of men and
beasts, and in beholding the progress of improve-
ments through the country, upon upland farms, of
which he had set the example and in the tranquillity re-
sulting from a well. spent life.

After an illness of some weeks, which he bore with
great composure, he calmly resigned his breath on the
6th December 1808.

If in ancient times, the birth day of that man was
deemed worthy of celebration who first pressed the
grape, and taught man the use of its intoxicating juice ;
surely the memory of our own countryman will be held
in grateful remembrance by posterity, when it shall be
known, that he greatly contributed to increase the solid
riches not only of our stale, but also the wealth and com-
fort of the farmer, which of late are so apparent, by the
agricultural improvements he introduced, and by shew-
ing how the earth may be made to produce a greater
increase by the judicious application of labour. — In the
domestic circle, we dwell with pleasing satisfaction
upon the recollection of those departed friends, who have
endeared themselves to us by good offices, virtues,
and the kind courtesies of life ; the patriotic mind will
derive still greater pleasure from the consideration, that
a long and active existence had been spent in labours
calculated to promote the interest of the community at

Eulogium on William West, 163

large, by improvements in a calling particularly suited
to the genius and habits of the people ; and the friend
to religion and morality will feel happy in the know-
ledge of the fact, that with such great personal merit,
the respected subject of this tribute was strict in the
discharge of every duty, to that being from whom
all goodness flows.

C 1^4 1

On Mildew, By Timothy Pickering.
Read March 13th, 1810.

Washington^ January \st^ 1810.

Dear Sir^

li: a conversation with vou on mildews, I mentioned
a short but ver) ingenious dissertation on that subject,
which I had often quoted on the hke occasion, and
which I promised to send 3^ou. It was pubUshed in a
Boston newspaper in the year 1 768 ; and the papers
for the year being bound in a volume, it was fortunately
preserved. A few days since I received the inclosed
copy, transcribed at my request. It gives the only sa-
tisfactory solution of the phenomenon of mildews that
I have ever met with. Sir Joseph Bankes's discoveries
(admitting their reality) did not abate mv faith in the
correctness of the " New- England-man's" theory. Sir
Joseph's (to the naked eye) invisible seeds of Jungi,
find, in the extravasated juices of the leaves and stalks
of grain, a bed adapted to their nature, in which they
vegetate. Those seeds, floating in the air, and striking
against the clammy juices of those plants, would of
course be there held fast aud take root.

If you have visited the woods of Pennsylvania in the
spring, you must have noticed the rusty appearance of
the sap (particularly I think of the sugar-maple) oozing
from the stumps of trees felled not long before, and co-
vering the tops and sides of the stumps. Of the same
colour, you know, is the newly extravasated sap on the

On Mildew. 165

stalks of wheat and other grain when struck by the
mildew.

\^ou have seen many statements by American (and
I beheve British) agriculturists, of w^heat being reaped
while the grain w^as soft and milky, and the plants still
green, or greenish ; which nevertheless produced, if
not a full sized, yet a tolerably plump kernel, and yield-
ed a very fine and uncommonly white flour. It has been
as often said by the same agriculturists, that by such
early reaping of grain, on the first appearance of mildew j
you may obtain a valuable though not an abundant
crop ; the sap in the stalks continuing its natural
course to the heads : whereas if the same grain remain-
ed uncut, the seeds would be shrivelled, and often give
chaflT only instead of flour. — How is this to be account-
ed for ? The answer which has occurred to me, and
which I will now state, while it furnishes an explana-
tion of the declared fact, goes to confirm the theory of
my country man in the paper inclosed. It is this :

The stalks of grain being severed from their roots,
the source of the malady is cut off*. The vessels of the
stalks are no longer distended by a superabundance of
sap ascending from the heated soil — they cease to re-
ceive any. The bursted vessels, through the wide
breaches in which, the sap, in its rapid ascent, was rush-
ing, naturally close ; and the sap already received into
the stalks (further aided perhaps by dews) pursues its
gentle course to the heads, and fills the grain.

The writer's remark, that grain in old fields which
have been often dunged, is frequently mildewed, while
that on new land escapes (for which, on his h; pothesis,
he assigns a natural reason,) comes in support of your

166 On Mildew,

opinion, that long and new dung is injurious to grain-
erops.

I promised to give you an account of my experi-
ments in cultivating the common field-peas, some
twenty years ago at Wyoming, in which they were en-
tirely free from bugs : but this I must postpone for the
present.

I am, dear sir,

Faithfully yours

Timothy Pickering.

RicHAiiu Peters Esq.

Fiwn a Boston Newspaper printed in March 1768.

Some Thoughts upon Mildews.

As the public are now, on all sides, calling upon
every one to communicate his observations upon any
thing which relates to agriculture ; perceiving in read-
ing M. Duhamel's husbandry, that there are a great
variety of opinions, about the nature and cause of mil-
dews upon grain, even among the most celebrated gen-
tlemen farmers in Europe ; and desirous, if possible, to
contribute my mite towards any useful discovery ; I
have ventured to shew my opinion, founded on such
observations as fully satisfy myself; as it appears to
me perfectly to correspond \w\Xh facts ; and in a natural
and easy way to account for every appearance and ef-
fect of that disorder in grain.

On Mildew. 167

My fixed opinion then is, and long has been (in
which I since find I agree with the famous M. Chateau-
Vieux) that the powder which fornns the rust, called
mildews, is the extravasated juice of the plants dried by
the sun, upon the stalk.

My reasons are these, 1st. The grain, we see, re-
ceives no more nourishment after it is violently struck.
2d. On a careful inspection, it appears that some of
these rusty blisters are actually under the outer coat or
skin of the stalk, and do not appear to have any com-
munication from without, others are only split in the
middle, some more and some less, and the rust appears
on the outside more or less according to the opening.
3d. The learned Mr. Tillet (Duhamel tells us) with a
good microscope, actually saw the juice issuing from
these small openings, over which he still perceived some
pieces of the membrane which imperfectly covered
them. This methinks must give occular demonstration.
But the two former satisfied me, the second especially
appeared demonstrative.

The true cause of this extravasation is next to be in-
quired into. This no writer that I know of has hinted.
I take it to be this, a sudden obstruction of the juices of
the plant, by a very cool night, after several days and
nightsof very warm weather.

By a continued heat, the earth is warmed to a great
degree, and all nature invigorated ; this occasions a
great ascent of the juices, so that every vessel is full
(as in an animal of a plethorick habit when all know
there is most danger of the vessels bursting ;) a sudden
cold ensuing at this critical season chills the tender

168 On Mildew.

stalk, and most where it is slenderest, and there brings
on a stagnation.

But the earth, being deeply warmed by the long and
intense heat, not cooling so soon as the stalk, continues
the violent ascent of the juices as before ; and if there
be an obstruction or stoppage above, in the slenderest
part of the stalk, what must, what can be the conse-
quence of this but an extravasation^ or that the vessels
burst ?

That in fact mildews in New- England always come
in cool nights, after intense and continued heats, I am
sure from near 40 years observation, and from these
symptoms I have often known a mildew prognosticated
by observing persons, in the evening preceding.

Such a cold, succeeding heat, every philosopher, and
almost every man, knows will occasion a great dew\
And this no doubt is the reason why this rust has been
ascribed to the deiv and called nielderv or mildew.
Whereas I suppose it was the cold, properly speaking,
which occasioned both ; and that the dew had no other
effect in occasioning the rust than, as by hanging on the
stalk, it may incrccise the chill.

Another fact which, I think, confirms this hypothesis
is this : that the thin leaves and the slenderest parts of
the stalk are si ways first affected : on the stalk the spots
first appear just below the ear. Here the stalk being
smallest and the vessels narrowest, is the first stoppage
by the chill, as might be expected. x\nd accordingly
just below this the first eruption appears ; and so lower
and lower, till, without relief, it covers the w-hole and
entirely ruins the grain if not already filled.

On Mildew. 169

It is another well known fact, that grounds in our
new settlements are much less exposed to mildews than
in our old plantations which have been often dunged.
The reason of this is plain upon this hypothesis, for
dung heaps are known in summer, to receive and retain
a much greater degree of heat than common earth.

There can be no doubt therefore, but that dunged
lands do the same in proportion to the dung, especially
the new dung, laid upon them. And if so, it must oc-
casion a more violent ascent of the juices, and so the
stalk will be proportionably in more danger of bursting,
and of an extravasation of the juices, upon a sudden
chill in the stalk.

Another fact commonly observed is, that high grounds
are not so exposed to mildews as lower. The reasons
are plain upon this hypothesis^ 1st. Because there is
not so much difference bet a een the weather in the day
and night on high grounds, as in the lower. 2d. Because
the greater motion of the air in the high land, may in
some measure prevent the stagnation of the juices.

But most of these things are very hard to account
for, upon any other hypothesis I have ever seen.

Upon this plan too, an high wind will be likely to
prevent a mildew ; and accordingly, I think, they are
never known to come in a windy night, though cold.
And a shower, or a rope passed over the fields, at this
time may do some service : as the washing and cleans-
ing a sore on an animal, or as any kind of motion in
case of stagnation of the blood and juices of our bo-
dies.

But though I take this, for the reasons given, to be
the true cause of what are called mildews ; from the

VOL. II. Y

170 ^n Mildew,

knowledge of which, it has been hoped some remedy
might be investigated ; yet here I must own my igno-
rance ; and leave it to some more happy genius to bless
mankind with a remedy^ if providence permits any.

I am not certain of any worth mentioning : but pre-
suming upon the candour of mankind for my good in-
tention, whether I do any real service or not — I would
just hint at two or three things.

1st. If the unhappy night or nights can be prognos-
ticated from the symptoms abovementioned, possibly a
rope moving over the field, and stirring the grain all
the night might be of some service, though I think
shaking off the dew in the morning can be of but little,
or 2d. In the woods where brush is plenty, the burning
of heaps of brush on, the windward side, so that the
smoke shall pass over the field, and soften the air, might
very probably be of service.

Or if by any means our land could be kept strong
enough to produce the grain most exposed to mildews
without dung (or only very old dung were used) I have
no doubt, but it would be of great service from the
experience of our new settlements, where, so far as I
can learn, they rarely have mildews to hurt them, as I
hinted before.

But as our mildews in New-England most commonly
come about the beginning of July, the only thing wc
can depend upon at present, is the using every method

On Mildew. 171

to bring forward our grain as early as possible that it
may htfull and ripe before the common mildews come.

A New-England-man".*.

* I never knew who was the author of this theory of mil-
dews ; but am inclined to think it was Peter Oliver Esq.
then a judge of the Superior Court of Massachusetts. Two
or three years after its publication, I became acquainted with
him. He lived in the country, and was fond of agricultural
enquiries and pursuits. To him also, I believe, the public
was indebted for a second edition of the Reverend Dr. El-
liot's essays on field husbandry, written more than sixty-
years ago ; the earliest American production on the subject.

T. P.

1st, January 1810.

It is agreeable to know, that our countryman has long since
anticipated the ideas of the modern agriculturalists of Europe,
The fiequent injurious effects of new dung upon grain, espe-
cially wheat, are now fully ascertained, and were mentioned
in our first volume, in the paper on " smut in wheat."

The proposition of the rope to agitate the grain, and shake
off the dew, has been recently proposed by British agricultu-
ral writers.

J. M.

[ 172 ]

Notes^ on Alildeiv.

I cannot reconcile to my ideas of the well known intelli-
gence oi the celebrated Arthur 7'oung^ his eulogy on the
*' use of long fresh du7ig^ in preference to that zvhich is rotteni*"*
but by presuming that its failure in success here, is owing to
the difference of climate. See his lecture, read before the
British board of agriculture, May 26th, 1809. Pages 46, 47;
where he says, " were the practice general^ it zvould add above
20 millions Sterling to the produce of the kingdom." Could
I hazard the imputation of presumption, in setting up my
limited experience against an authority so truly respectable,
I should doubt the soundness of his calculation, even in En-
gland ; but in our country, and especially on loamy and light
lands^ I should directly reverse his position. As Mr. Davy
has joined in the sentiment, it must be chymically right. But
from every observation I have made here, either on my own,
or the lands of others similar to mine, I cannot hesitate to
say, that, in this country, it would be agriculturally wrong.
If it ever succeeds it must so do, in w^et, cold, clays^ It will
be recollected, that I always distinguish between hot^ long and
fresh dung, and that sufficiently prepared, by a due fermen-
tation and putrefaction, before it is applied. Over-rotted dung^
I never approved of. There are, however, here, advocates
for long, fresh, dung. I have seen the most vigorous vegeta-
tion layed ; or end in blight, smut, or mildew ; and their
grounds filled with weeds and vermin.

R. Peters.

C 173 ]

On Salt as a Manure. By Richard Peters.
Read March 13th, 1810.

Belmont February I5th, 1809.
Sir,

As agricultural occurrences turn up, I mention them,
that we may preserve them ; for use, or consideration.
A Mr. George Heddof Frederick county Virginia, call-
ed on me with a little pamphlet he has published ; en-
titled '* A late discovery &c. relative to fertilizing poor
and exhausted lands," &:c. I found this ''^late discovery y"^
consisted in the use of common salt as a manure, applied
in small quantities. His means of discovery were, at first
the accidental observations of the moisture produced
by salt in the driest seasons ; and the great resort of
earth worms, to places on which pickle or salt had been
thrown. I know that those worms are attracted to such
places ; but if they remain but a short time there, they
die. I told him, that when a boy, it was my habit to
sprinkle salt, or salt and water, in dry seasons, to cause
the assemblage of earth worms, and furnish myself widi
bait for angling ; and I was never disappointed. I re-
lated my frequent experiments with salt, on acres divid-
ed into square perches, at rates from 20 pounds to half
a bushel per acre : and my frequent top dressings in
every way.^ And although I found the smaller quanti-

^ These experiments were made, and often repeated, more
than 30 years ago. Occasionally I have since tried some of
them. But I have never been encouraged to pursue the prac-
tice to any great extent.

R. P.

174 Oil Salt as a Manure*

ties the most successful, I had still doubts about its ge-
neral utility, as a manure of any certain efficacy. 1 read
to him, from page 171 of our memoirs, the opinion I
there give in these words. " It is not well ascertained
that common salt fmuriat of soda J is a manure. If it is,
it acts by its septic quality, when applied in small quan-
ties." His exclamation was — " Then it is a manure,
and acts as thou hast supposed," 1 know it by nume-
rous facts, and profitable experiments." He is not a
farmer by profession ; and his pamphlet shews him not
to be acquainted with principles of the art. His theories
are hetertdox and whimsical. Among other impro-
prieties, he proposes the mixture of salt with gypsum; —
decidedly ruinous to both. He has a small farm; but is a
mechanic; — I think in wire work. His facts are worthy
of attention. He ploughs in the fall ; or, if practicable,
in the winter, and early in the spring. There he falls in
with my experience ; and probably this may be the se-
cret^ in a great measure, of part of his success. The
strewing the salt must be before vegetation begins in
the spring ; and never to exceed one bushel per acre,
either in substance or diluted with water, and mixed
with two bushels of " virgin mould where fallen trees
had lain and rotted, or from marshy land, or slackened
ashes." The compound must be dry and friable. His
average per acre seems to be three pecks of salt, mixed
in the compound, so as to facilitate its being the better
and more equally strewed. He applies it to all vegetable
products ; whether on the farm, or in the garden. And
he gives instances of happy effects in the orchard ; and
on all fruit trees. He deepens his spots where Indian
corn is planted ; and puts therein a table spoonful of

On Salt as a Manure. 175

salt, or an handful of the mixture. He is a friend to mo-
derate steeping of grain in weak salt and water, for
seed ; but not to brines, strong, or long continued, as
steeps. He has applied the salt, or mixture, to cotton^
with great success ; and says, '' The same mixture will
answer equally well for wheat, rye, corn and tobacco."
Also hemp and and flax are benefitted by either the salt
alone, or the mixture. It does not succeed on clay soils,
not well pulverized. He gives instances of great im-
provement by sowing a bushel of salt per acre, or that
quantity in his compound, on grass lands. He told me
that Lord Fairfax in Firginia practised this many years
ago on timothy grass, and doubled its product ; as he
was informed by an old servant of that nobleman. I
give you this account from his pamphlet, and conversa-
tion. He reprobates all applications of salt in large
quantities; as being as injurious, as are the smaller por-
tions beneficial. He top dresses with salt, or the com-
pound, at the rate mentioned, all crops of either spring
or winter grain ; and prefers strewing it in moist wea-
ther. He says that others in his neighbourhood are in
the practice, which is gaining much credit among those
who adopt it. I think it best to make trial of his sug-
gestions, though his panacea seems good for too many
things *, and have no reason, fi^om his appearance^ to
doubt the verity of his facts. Be they ever so apparent-
ly improbable, the experiment will cost litde, of either
labour or expence. The gantelope I ran, in early life,
under the lash of prejudice, when, almost alone, I began
to disseminate the uses and efficacy of small quantities
qS. plaister of Paris ; has taught me never to treat with
neglect or contempt, relations of experiments in hus-

176 On Salt as a Manure.

bandry ; though they may appear improbable, or be un-
accountable : especially when the test is easy, and
cheap. Lord Dimdonald condemns salt in large quan-
tities ; but mentions the profitable use oi sea water ; in
which there is only one bushel and an half of salt to the
ton. Darwin is opposed to the use of salt as a manure.
Nothing can exceed the improvement made by the hay
of our salt marshes, applied as manure. Plaister will not
succeed, where this hay is used.

An old farm -servant reminds me of a remarkable
fact. He was employed in my experiments with salt ;
and scattered it in broad stripes across fields, in various
quantities. The salted stripes were visible at great dis-
tances, especially in winter ; being free from hoar frosts,
or slight snows ; when all other parts were covered. Nor ,
would severe frosts operate so much on them, as on other
parts. They continued open, dry, and free from frost,
when all the surrounding grounds w^re deeply and firm-
ly frozen. He says I strewed salt around fruit trees ;
to keep off frosts, and increase their vigor. But in some
cases, having salted too heavily, the trees were injured.
In others, it appeared to be very salutary.

I am. Sir,
Your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease.
Secretary of the Phllad, Soc, for promoting Agrictdture,

[ 177 3

Notes,

Salt has long since been used as a manure, and various
accounts are before the public, of the success attending it.
Flax especially is greatly benefitted by a slight quantity.

J. M.

I have (in this early part of the season,) spread salt in
the way, and in the quantities mentioned l^y Mr. Redd, on
every species of crop, both grass and grain. We have had
an unfavourable spring owing to a long drought. I have per-
ceived no effect, good or bad, from all or any of the applica-
tions of salt. On my wheat I had some appearance of bene-
fit, but it was not decidedly clear. So that if it succeeds
with others, I have my usual bad luck. It is my intention
to repeat the experiment.

R. P.

Juhj tSth, 1810.

VOL. II.

C 178 ]

On Tough Sod, Star of Bethlehem ^'^ and Bhie Bottle.
By Richard Peters Esq.

Read March 13th, 1810.

In the autumn of 1808, 1 ploughed my little trenched
field, in which I raised the hemp (mentioned in our
Memoirs, page 244,) from five to seven inches deep.
The sod was tough ; and the surface much bound. I
treated it as I have been accustomed to deal with simi-
lar soddy leys. I harrowed it frequently in the fall, and,
in open weather, in the winter, in the direction of the
furrows, to expose the garlick, and fill all openings ad-
mitting too great influxes of air. To close them, and
consolidate the mass, I rolled it well ; and thus it layed
through the winter. The spiky-roller, an implement too
little known or used in this country, and without whicJi
no farmer of heavy or clay lands can do justice to his
husbandry, would have been the best for this operation;
though in light lands it is only occasionally required.

Those who do not follow my practice in old leys
newly broken up, object to fall ploughing ; because, in
the spring after fall ploughing, they cross-plough, and
turn up the sod with all its pests and adhesion. This I
never do, but harrow it well and often ; sometimes with
a harrow, furnished with numerous hoes instead of tines,
for my spring crop. I marked out the field in squares
for Indian corn, and planted at the usual time; not dis-
turbing the sod, except in a small part of the field, here-

* Ornithogallum umhellatuw*

On Star of Bethlehem and Blue Bottle. 179

after noticed. The corn thus treated does not, at first,
grow so vigorously as in the common way. But as soon
as the roots have penetrated the rotting sod, and mixed
with the putrefying vegetable substances, the plant is
wonderfully rapid in its increase, and in its improvement
in colour and vigour. When the corn requires plough-
ing, the sod is completely decayed, and becomes a
manure.

I was truly mortified by the discovery in this field, of
a new enemy, which defies all my efforts to subdue it.
Mixed with some compost, made, in part, of the clean-
ings of my garden, which had been spread several years,
were a few bulbs of that most destructive and uncon-
querable pest — the star 'hyacinth^ or wake o\lays^ as it
is vulgarly termed — from which the increase has be-
come ruinously great. It has resisted the attacks of two
winter exposures ; and I can now pick off the surface,
the bulbs unhurt, although those of the garlick are de-
stroyed in their immediate vicinity. I have left no en-
deavour for their extermination untried. Intermixed
with them are many of the garden blue-bottle ; also a
nuisance almost as indestructible, though not so pro-
lific. It is dangerous to mix the cleanings or ofials of
gardens, with composts intended for the fields. Flowers
innocent and grateful in the parterre, are often pests in
the field. But the one now mentioned, does not always
thus originate. I have brought this subject into view,
to gain more than gwe information. On inquiry I am
told, that thousands of acres, through the country, are

^ Star of Bethkhevu'^lO o'clock.

180 On Star of Bethlehem,

rendered worthless by this agriculturally vile plant.
Botanically I find it a favorite with our highly intel-
ligent member, professor Barton ; who looks only at
its good qualities ; with which I am willing to dispense,
if it could be entirely rooted out of our country. I
know nothing but paring and burnings that will subdue
this foe. This I should have done ; but my public en-
gagements, at the proper season abstructed me from
such employment. This practice being unknown here
I wished personally to superintend it ; to prevent (as
much as in me lay) failure exciting prejudices against it.
In the spring of 1809, 1 determined not to be outdone ;
and took the resolution to hand weed an acre of the
worst part of my field. I turned in the plough ; and had
a man, to lead boys, in hand weeding after the plough
and harrow ; but could not get through above half the
acre. From this I collected, in repeated ploughings and
harrowings, at least one hundred and fifty bushels of
bulbs ; estimated on a computation of the loads of a
measured cart body. I should have persevered ; but
the boys grew tired and abandoned the task.

Until my disaster, I had no idea of the extent to
which this destroyer has spread it ravages. I hear of it
from numerous quarters of the old settlements of our
state. It has even been indulged, in grass grounds and
meadows. Those who admired its insidiously modest
and bloomy whiteness, did not perceive the ruinous
pleasure they enjoyed. It exhausts far hty ond garlick ;
though it does not nauseate the crops. Meadows and
fields, once fertile and productive, are rendered by it
barren and worthless. I earnestly wish that our fl\rmers
would take the alarm, in due time to arrest the progress

Usefulness of Rotting of Sod, 181

of this very destructive plant ; which has hitherto been
too much overlooked and disregarded. All I can do,
until I pursue farther means and experiments, which I
shall not omit, is to give solemn warning I

In my attempts to detach the roots from my field,
and assist the weeders by frequent stirrings with the
plough and harrow, I have a confirmation of the useful-
ness of my practice of rotting the sod. In the spot so
often ploughed, the old vegetation dried, and perished
uselessly, and the Indian corn was strikingly inferior
to that on the rest of the field. The whole crop, al-
though at first unpromising, was abundant ; and ex-
ceeded the general rate of crops of my tenants and neigh-
bours. The season was not very favourable for corn.
My field remained remarkably clean, and free from
weeds — an advantage attending this mode of treating
soddy grass- grounds. The corn stalks having been car-
ried into the barn yard, the field is now winter- fallowed
and limed ; in preparation for field pease, potatoes, and
other ameliorating crops to precede wheat. It is in fine
tilth ; and all the former cover of grasses, and other
common vegetation (with the exception before stated)
entirely rotted, and mixed throughout the ground mel-
lowed by the culture, and very promising in its colour
and loose texture. The garlick I do not fear ; but too
many of the other bulbs remain to annoy me. An ea7'ly
spring ploughing will, under its present fitness for it,
be highly serviceable, and complete its tiltli. This will

182 Usefulness of Rotting of SocL

now do as much good, as one immediately succeeding
the first fall ploughing, would have done mischief.

Richard Peters.
Behnont, February 19th, 1810.

To the Philadelphia Soeieti/ for promoting Agriculture,

I know other farmers who practice rotting* a sod, to this
effect ; though not exactly in this mode. I have heard of none
who can destroy completely the bulbous pests. If any there
are, they cannot do a greater service than they will render,
by communicating their practice.

R. P.

April 2d, 1810. Several clusters of the bulbs of the
Star- Hyacinth, which have been exposed on a flat stone
(with no earth but the small portion which adhered to
them) to all the winter frosts ; are now vigorously
shooting ; uninjured by all the past inclement season.
Having been informed that sheep would eat these bulbs,
I turned in my flock, when the ground was covered
with them. But they will not touch them ; nor will
swine.

R. P.

These clusters remained alive until the beginning of May;
when thev perished,

R. P.

C 183 ]

Some Observations on Fruit Trees, By Edxvard Garri-
gues. Of Kingsess.

Read March 13th, 1810.

On the 6th day of the 5th month, 1803, the frost was
so severe as to destroy the tender shoots of the apple
trees, which at that time had extended about four inches,
and the fruit as large as a sm.all hickory nut ; this frost
being succeeded on the following night by a heavy fall
of snow, so as to break the branches of many tender or
soft kinds of wood, — left but a slender hope of fruit for
the succeeding autumn ; but, contrary to my expec-
tation, one of my orchards produced at the time of ga-
thering, 60 barrels of good pippins, and about 1000
gallons of best cider, while the other orchard which is
nearly adjoining at the corners, did not produce one
peck of apples either of summer or winter fruit, al-
though of the same kinds of fruit as the first mentioned
orchard. This excited some attention to the circum-
stance attending the cold, which came from the north-
east, and their being some shelter from that wind af-
forded the orchard which produced fruit ; induced the
belief, that when the east wind prevails, and the or-
chards are exposed to its biting effects while in bloom
or the fruit but small, more danger attends the expected
crop, than from colder weather from other quarters. I
would therefore prefer planting some kind of shelter,
to orchards, which may be exposed to the east winds,
as an expedient to counteract, its baneful influence.

Would it not be found expedient to take off a large
part of the superfluous wood, that often overloads our

184 Observations on Fruit Trees.

peach trees, as well as the frequent superabundant fruit
that is often afforded at the same time, so that frequently
where there is no worm in the root, the tree is prema-
turely exhausted by over- bearing of wood and fruit?
Having planted some of the finest peaches that I ever
saw growing, and while loaded with a very promising
crop, by a sudden gust of wind, during a thunder storm,
one of them was completely stripped of all its limbs —
after which it put out, and the succeeding season, while
all its companions in years were dwindling by their ex-
cess of bearing the preceding year, this one proved and
continued for several years a good bearer, of the red
rare ripe kind.

We may observe by the flowering almond and di*
vers other shrubs or trees, that when nature offers an
exuberant crop, that the plant, or roots are so enfeebled
thereby, as to exhibit some doubts of the surviving of
the plant or tree ; this induces me to suppose that we
frequently blame the worm, as a known ravager of the
peach trees, when perhaps, very many of them die by
our want of attention to them. I have (as yet in vain)
attempted to stimulate some of my friends in East Jer-
sey, to attempt a peach orchard in the sandy pine lands,
which I have great reason to believe would amply re-
pay all cost for the essay, by aftbrding perhaps the
finest fruit, known to us, in this western world.

Thou will readily observe my dear friend this hasty
sketch is only offered, as hints for the excitement of
some who may be disposed to appreciate the advantages
of good fruit ; not only for themselves, but believing
when not abused by distillation, a blessing to our fa-
voured country ; hoping that some of your society will

Observations on Fruit Trees. 185

continue to favor others in differ rent situations of life,
with the result of their experience for the general good.
I subscribe myself, thy assured friend,

Edward Garrigues.*
Kingsess Farm, 2d month 23(1, 1810.
Dr. James Mease.

^ Mr. Garrigues's communication is acceptable in itself,
as well as because it is among the very lew attentions paid to
our earnest desire to gain and promulgate information on
die subject of fruit and iVuit trees. European books will not
suffice to satisiy our minds ; because our climate and circum-
stances vary from those of the other hemisphere. There is
no greater mistake, in any country, than cutting down woods
or hedge roivs, which afford shelters against bleak and noxious
wnids. Millar in his Gardener's Dictionary, has some ex-
cellent remarks on this subject. The J act oi the utility of
shelter, mentioned by Mr, G. has been •requently observed,
but seldom in so remarkable a degree. His fact as to the
peach tree, accidentally stripped oi its branches, deserves at-
tention. There are so many mis-ortunes attending this species
ot tree, and so much has been in vain attempted to establish
some general rules for its culture, that we hesitate to pro-
nounce any decided opinion. Some have asserted that the
knii'e should never be applied ; while others support the ne-
cessity of the iree use of it. It will be seen in our first volume,
that, to the southward, where it flourishes extensively, it is
chiefly left to nature. And it is most probable, that it will
be very difficult to establish any certain rules, by which this
short lived tree can be cultivated here, with well founded ex-
pectation oi profit or duration.

See our first volume, pages, 11, 15, 17, 21, 120, 183, 273.

R. P.

VOL. II. A a

[ 186 ]

On Oat Pasture and Improvement of Soils, By William
To ling. Of Delaivare.

Read March 13th, 1810.

Rockland Farm, March 9th, 1810.

Sir,

In compliance with your request, made a consider-
able time ago, I have inclosed a narrative of the oat
pasture ; and several circumstances under which it has
been introduced, with immediate advantage, to the live
stock and worn fields.

I have endeavoured to copy it from the fields them-
selves ; I have however, designedly as it were gone
back, to give another view, of some circumstances
which are deemed important, and not with a view to
overcome your patience, but to remove doubts, and
introduce the experiments before you, in a different
point of view. The inferences respecting the advan-
tages, or use of the oat pasture, have been, and still may
be deemed a whimsical expedient to spend money ; it
may be ridiculed by others. But as it has outlived, and
overgrown every thing of that nature here, there is some
hope, that it may become indigenous elsewhere : it has
been weighed for years under hopes and fears. Not
that I dread criticisms, made under circumstances
which offer a hearing, in private, and before the public
tribunal, on equal ground, foot by foot, with the critic.
It would give satii^faction to convince, or to be con-
vinced. Improvement is the goal towards which I bend

On Oat Pasture, ^c. 187

my course. If a new path shall be pointed out, and
which has with greater advantage been trodden for seve-
ral years, and with a greater number of simple facts
to recommend it ; it will be cheerfully followed. Other-
wise the course now beaten by some years experience,
cannot be abandoned.

I am most respectfully yours,

William Young,

George Clymer, Esc^.

Vice-President ofthePhilacL Soc, for promoting Agric.

It is generally acknowledged, that the best land may
be reduced to sterility, from an injudicious rotation of
crops. It remains in a great measure to be proved,
whether a farm, which from bad management had been
rendered barren, can be restored to its pristine fertility,
by a treatment, not beyond the reach of every farmer,
(nor without the farm) who possesses the land, free
from incumbrances, which are nearly equal to the sup-
posed value of his worn out farm.

When an enquirer examines the publications of those,
who have given the results of their experiments; it ap-
pears not only practicable, but easy : frequently how-
ever, some circumstance is not mentioned in the com-
munication, or some thing not attended to by the reader,
who intends to make the same successful experiments,
but fails, from the causes stated.

388 On Oat Pasture^

The Rockland farm, exhibited a subject for experi-
ment, as it had not only been reduced by cropping, but
geneially, became a common for every animal, to take
what remained of the scanty natural, but coarse her-
bage : having read in various books the result of sow-
ing plaister and clover, it was presumed, that sowing
plaister and clover, would be the extent of the expen-
ces, required to fertilize the fields, in a few years ; — a
few experiments, proved that the plaister and clover
seed were both lost, as no one could at any season of
the } ear, point out what field, or upon what part of any
field they had been deposited, unless where the briars
and bushes had been eradicated.

It should however have been mentioned, that the soil
was generally a cold or heavy clay, some blue, white,
light brown and a few spots of red clay, loaded with
hard blue stone and rocks, chiefly quartz, mixed with
iron, and copper. Some of the experiments were made
with plaister, oihers were made by top dressing with
lime, at the rate of twenty-five, to thirty bushels per
acre : the lime was brought 20 or 25 miles from the
kiln, and laid on the field at 25 cents per bushel : it
w^as formed into a bed of about half a foot thick and
covered with earth, ploughed and thrown over it, before
it was slacked, that all the phosphoric principle disen-
gaged by the water, might be united with the earth
which covered it ; a heavy harrow was afterwards passed
over it, so soon as the shell was reduced to powder ;
the bed of liaie and earth, Avas then frequently turned
by the plough and harrow, until the whole assumed,
the appearance, and sukII, of soapers ashes, containing
about ten parts of common soil, to one of lime. It was

And Improvement of Soils, 189

then carted, and spread regularly over the field, and in
every instance it gave a return of clover, equal to ten
load of stable manure to the acre. The idea of mixing
the lime and earth, was suggested from spreading the re-
fuse mortar of lime and sand gathered from about build-
ings and laid upon the field, the eftect of which I observed
was more immediate than any equal quantity of lime :
though mixtures of lime and earth, were equally so, — in
both cases, the lime was completely pulverized, and
the sand and earth, broke up the communication of
lime with lime, and the succeeding rains carried the
fertilizing principle of the lime, as from a sieve, into
the soil where it was spread, — it completely divided
the soil, rendering that open and w^arm, which before
was compact, and too cold for the roots of the grain to
live in.

The whole soil which before felt dead under foot,
became so elastic that persons of observation by walk-
ing over the field in the night, distinctly told how far
the lime and earth compost extended. The colour of
the soil was likewise changed into that of chocolate.

These effects presented several ideas, which had not
occurred to me before: viz. That any thing which would
separate the particles of the soil, and admit the air, would
render these cold and heavy clays, warm and fertile ;
— that the free intercourse of air, would carry off the
acid ; to meet this, ploughing in the fall was adopted,
and found successful ; one half of a field six years ago
was ploughed in the winter, the other half ploughed in
the spring, that part w^hich was ploughed in the spring,
has never brought grain, or grass, equal to the other.
It should have been observed, that the field had not

190 On Oat Pasture,

been ploughed for upwards of 20 years, and of course
a j^eat body of rubbish and roots were ploughed in,
after the briar-hook and grubbing-hoe had smoothed
the surface. Spreading of manure in the autumn, from
the compost bed, has also been introduced with uni-
versal success, both upon grain and grass fields, the
lye or salts, of the manure, being carried into the soil
by the rains upon the breaking up of the frosts, which
have in some measure prepared the soil to receive it.
High agricultural authorities, even bottomed on accu-
rate observation, are opposed to the practice of spread-
ing out manure in autumn ; am^ongst these we find the
justly celebrated Lord Kaims, in his gentleman farmer,
a work upon first principles, and deservedly of the high-
est authority. A departure from his judgment is only
to be allowed, where facts would censure silence ; nor
should his name have been mentioned, unless to avoid
the charge of writing without attending to Vv^hat has
been said on that subject ; it is no conclusive objection
that " the strength of the manures, will be carried off
by winter rains, or exhausted by the frost :" are not
the warm showers more so, and are not the exhalations
more copious in a warm than in a cold temperature ; is
the descending of the sap in trees no mionitor, as to the
season for spreading out manures, and about the ope-
rations of nature, for renewing, and invigorating, the
process of vegetation.

Briar-bushes, and all vegetable substances have been
covered up with earth, rotted and used with the same
success, as stable manure, and so far, and so long, as
they separate parts of the soil and admit the air, they
fertilize and change the colour of the mould. These

And Improvement of Soils. 191

experiments tested by frequent repetition, have laid a
foundation for experiments less expensive, and equally
fertilizing, for the production of grass, and grain. —
Ploughing and sowings for the purpose of producing pas-
ture^ and accumulation of vegetable soil have been adopt-
ed: for this purpose wheat, rye, Indian corn, (maize,)
buckwheat and oats have been sown upon fields plough-
ed, which were incapable of producing any crop ; none
of those grains, have produced pasture and vegetable
soil equally valuable, to that from the oats : where the
others have failed, its roots have pierced^ disarmed and
vanquished the inhospitable soil and rendered it fertile ;
the winter ploughing is continued, and the oats are
thrown in, as early as the season will allow, sometimes
even in February, either upon what has been ploughed
in autumn, or in the fields which were in corn the pre-
ceding year, or in pasture oats, the preceding fall. In
general they afford early pasture, and when they are
reploughed in July and August, and sown again with
oats, they furnish excellent pasture from early in Sep-
tember, until late in December, during that season when
all other pasture is generally dried up. The first sowing
of oats only gives about two months pasture, but the
roots and remaining herbage affords a manure for the
second sowing, and this always yields four months valu-
able pasture, — which no other course known to me will
afford. In September, October, November and Decem-
ber,— considerable attention is required, to preserve the
young clover, which the field will be able to raise in
the second year of the oat pasture : if sown ^vith the
oats in the spring, the cattle should never be put in
while the ground is too moist, as they would destroy and

192 On Oat Pasture,

tread it into the soil; and sometimes dry seasons are also
highly injurious to the clover. When the clover is sown
with the second sowing of oats, the same care is re-
quired to prevent its being trodden in by rhe live stock,
for this purpose it is always necessary to have a spare
field of old pasture, which they will feed upon in wet
weather, and which they would not relish in dry wea-
ther. To guard against a dry season it is most proper
never to pasture the oats, where the clover is sown, so
much, as to prevent the herbage of the oats from giving
shade to the clover. So soon as a field will produce
clover luxuriantly, there is no farmer at a loss how to
make his field as rich as he pleases and having got
tliem into good heart, it will be his interest to put them
in such rotation, as shall increase the vegetable soil and
consequent fertility oF his fields.

It is almost unnecessary, to mention, what will make
its way to the understanding of every farmer, viz. The
many advantages gained from treating his barren field
in this way.

1st. Early and late sweet pasture from such fields,
which otherwise produced a scanty course herbage un-
palatable to every animal.

2d. Immediate reward for his labour ; the stock are
supported by it within two months from the time seed
is sown : the two returns give six months green food ;
he is not however to depend upon it for all his summer
pasture.

3d. Perhaps it is one of the most effectual means to root
out garlick, because what have escaped the plough in
the spring, are eaten down with the pasture from the
first sowing of oats and prevented from going into seed :

And Improvement 6f Soils. 193

the ploughing in July and Augubt expose so many of
its bulbs to the sun that few shoots cire to be icund in
oats sown for fall pasture.

4th. It is an easy and profitable way of clearing grain-
fields from every species of injurious weeds; as it will
convert them into vegetable soil, and enable the farmer
to raise whatever grain or grass he shall judge most
suitable to the soil.

5th. It will save the expence of a fruitless summer
fallow, and the green herbage will aid the dairy.

6th. It enriches the farm from within itself, and no
expence is required beyond the reach of any farmer :
by rising one hour earlier, and working one hour later
than usual, for two weeks, he may plough, and sow
two acres, as an experiment. The pasture will recom-
pence his labour, while his soil is greatly improved ; it
is equally evident, tliat the fertility of the soil is ac-
quired, partly from the roots of the oats, opening the
soil and introducing the air, and warmth, of the sun,
and partly, froj]^ accession of vegetable soil, produced
from the decomposed roots of such pasturage ; but
even before the roots are converted into soil, they pro-
duce the most beneficial effects. Those from the spring
sowing, retain the moisture, and supply the summer sow-
ing with it. The roots from the fall pasturage, being full
of sap, introduce winter frosts every where, into the soil,
which sw^elling with the congealation, separates the parti-
cles ; for it is to be observed, that roots while the stem is
eaten down by the stalk, do not become hard but are
more numerous, than when the plant is matured into
grain. It is however necessary to sow at least double
the quantity of seed, to that required for crops of grain,

VOL. II. B b

194 On Oat Pasture^

the pasture being so much the thicker, and the increase
of vegetable soil from the decayed roots so much the
greater.

It is not to be expected, that one or two repetitions
of the series of oat pasture, will make the soil equally
rich as a common dressing of stable manure, which
from a farm of 100 acres, will not in general extend
over more than 10 or 15 acres ; this gives to one acre
nearly the vegetable soil produced from seven or 10
acres. — It is to be remembered, that the object pro-
posed was to render worn out, or barren fields produc-
tive ; and in no case have I found a field, vvhich was
not after two years oat pasture, capable of producing
clover, and receiving the gypsum w^ith evident advan-
tage. So soon as a field produces clover, no one is at a
loss, how to produce advantageous crops afterwards.
It is in every ones power, to estimate what the plough-
ing and seeding per acre of oat pasture will cost, and
according to circumstances, so will the expences be,
but in general where the expences are high, the value
of the pasture is equally so, and if even granted that the
cost of ploughing, and seeding, shall be double in va-
lue to the pasture produced, let the comparative value
of the field be fairly estimated, before the course was
begun, a waste, or worn out field, and what it is now,
^vhen the course is completed and laid down in clover,
timothy or orchard grass.

It will be of the first importance to have at least two
fields, otherwise if the cattle are constantly upon the
same field it will not be found so productive, and in
wet weather, they should be turned into some field
where the herbage was too hard in dry weather. It will

A7id Improvement of Soils. 195

be eaten greedily by the cattle after they have been sa-
tiated with the soft blades of the oats ; under this ma-
nagement, beeves have been fatted for family use and
taken off in December, without any grain. It is ob-
served that the oats scour at first, but the free use of
salt, readily corrects the complaint, and in no pasture
do they rise faster in flesh ; and the juices of their meat
uncommonly grateful.

The fields which have been in corn the preceding
year, have also been sown in the spring ; without being
reploughed, and have done equally well, except upon
heavy clays, when the spring has commenced \\\x\\
heavy rains, which have rendered the soil too compact
to be opened, even with a heavy brake harrow, drawn
by four horses. The fields from the oat pasture the
foregoing autumn, have also been sown, without re-
ploughing, when the spring has set in without much
rain, after severe frost : not only the oat pasture, but
also the clover sown therewith, have answered well.

Oats have also been sown amongst the hills, and
drills of corn, after it has received the last dressing. It
has succeeded, without any visible injury to the corn,
provided, care has been taken not to injure the roots,
by the plough or harrow at the time the oats were
sown.

It has been enquired, are not all crops of oats ex-
hausting, if so, how can two sowings of oats in the
same year, render the soil fertile ? it is granted, if oats
shall be matured into seed they will certainly exhaust,
but if cut off, while in the blade, they, and all culmi-
ferous plants, will fertilize. The experiment was made
with lucliaa corn, sown broad-cast, cut twice and car-

19^ 071 Oat Pasture^

ricd to the stable, and a crop of turnips taken oft' the
ground die same season : the manure was laid on before
the corn was sown, but none was given when the turnip
seed was put in.

Another way in which oats fertilize, appears to be
from increase of vegetable soil ; this is within the view
of every observer ; the remains of the pasture ploughed
in, particularly in July and August is speedily decom-
posed, its tenderness and moisture aiding the dissolu-
tion. But dry stubble and husky roots are difficultly
decomposed, nor do they produce so much carbonic
or coaliy matter in the soli, which chemists say decom-
poses the water, and produce the air required to pro-
mote vegetation. As the vegetable is produced from
air and water, and not from earth, which seems to be
no more than the laboratory where the process of vege-
tation commences, and finally serves as a matrix to hold
one . part of the plant, while the other parts are raised
aloft, in quest of superior aid, to complete the inscru-
table operations of the vegetable fabric.

It has also been enquired, will this process of oat
pasture fertilize every where ? it is answered, that
where the soil and climate are the same, the effects will
be the same also. A description has been given of the
soils, where the experiments were made, and are still
going on. If experiments of the same nature shall be
made upon a different soil, and climate, the result will
be different, and more or less favourable, according to
circumstances, and for which the practice now men-
tioned, cannot in justice be rendered accountable. If
iriy shoe fit my foot, I am warranted to say, it will suit
a foot 01 the same size, and shape every where ; let no

Ajid Improvement of Soils. 197

one conclude, that it will fit a foot of larger or less size
or different form, but I must confess that passing over
things equally obvious, I have run into numerous and
expensive errors.

But when if is enquired upon what evidence it is to
be received — the reply is at hand,living evidences, are
at the command of every one who chooses to make die
trial, let him however, be on his guard, against suffer-
ing himself to take a crop in place of the spring pasture
oats.

If it shall still be enquired, how does the oat pasture
fertilize? It may be also observed that the constant ver-
dure and green herbage prevent the rays of the sun
from parcliing the soil and depriving of its moisture and
air, both of which are highly necessary to vegetation.
The double portion of juicy vegetable matter arising
from the two crops of pasture in the same summer, be-
ing every where united with die common soil partly
mechanically and partly chemically, renders the soil
capable of retaining sufficient moisture and elastic air,
to make it open and warm, and by w4iich the soil does
not'only become thicker by going downward, but ac-
tually expands, or rises, so as to give a furrow, con-
siderably deeper, than formerly, over immoveable
rocks. Some years ago, a field in view of the farm-
house, marked the broad rocks, during the course of
every crop ; they are now covered with so much soil,
that they are seldom observed. The two ploughings
also contribute to the increase of the air in the soil,
without which no soil can be fruitful, there being no
vegetation in vacuo. Tull's horse hoeing husbandry,
was introduced under the idea, that the pabulum of

198 On Oat Pasture,

plants was pulverised earth ; the fact daily before us
is, that pulverized earth, retains the ?noistiire and mV,
as the handmaids of vegetation, some experiments have
lately been made, the results of which favor these re-
marks, viz. " that soils afforded quantities of air by
distillation, somewhat corresponding to the ratios of
their values. ^^

Inclosed I have sent soils in ihe state they were found>
before the courses mentioned were introduced.

No. 1. A sample of the unimproved soil about three
inches deep.

No. 2. A sample of the same soil four inches deep,
improved by the lime compost two years.

No. 3. A sample two inches deep from the field in
its exhausted state.

No. 4. A sample three inches deep from the same
field, which was once sown in pasture oats, and has been
one year in gi'ass sown after the oats, which did not take
well, partly owing to the late season when it was sown ;
and partly owing to the seed having been injured, and
the soil still cold.

No. 5. A sample two inches from an exhausted field.

No. 6. A sample four inches from the same field
after pasture oats, which was followed by wheat, a poor
crop, and succeeded by oats a middling crop, with
clover which yielded a considerable swarth last season :

And Improvement of Soils, 199

when the clover is ploughed in, it will be followed by
pasture oats.*^

^ The samples of soils sent by Mr. Young, exhibited the
most marked difference. The progress from absolute ster-
rility, to rich mould, might be traced by the appearance of
colour in the several parcels. I with great pleasure bear tes-
timony on the subject of Mr. Young's improvements. In the
years 1806 and 1808, I saw cattle feeding in good pasture
and good crops of grain, and grass growing in fields, which
in 1 804, I thought totally irreclaimable from briars, garlick
roots, and original poverty of soil. Where manure is at hand,
and capital in the possession of the cultivator to purchase it^
any soil may be rendered fertile ; but Mr. Young affords
the best example of good farming, viz. enriching a naturally
poor soil, and restoring fertility to exhausted land, by re-
turning thereto its own produce raised with the least possible
expence.

J. M.

C 200 ]

On Soiling Cattle : mixed cultivation of Corji and Pota-
toes. By John Lorain.

Read July 10th, 1810.

Tackoney, 2\st May 1810.

Sir,

I received yours of the 14th instant, and consider
myself highly honoured by your board, but am obliged
to decline an attendance on your meetings, as my family
who are very lonely situated, would not feel easy were I
absent at night.

I regret exceedingly that my peculiar situation, pre-
vents an intercourse with gentlemen who have added
reading, reflection, and experiment to long practical in-
formation. Books and the practice of common farmers
have heretofore been my only resource, the latter are
too generally in hostility, with every thing that increases
labour or expence, and it is extremely difficult to glean
Vv^hat will best suit the soil and climate of my farm, from
the former.

I shall go on to make the most attentive use of such
information as I can obtain, and should any thing wor-
thv of record occur in my practice, it shall be com-
municated to you.

I am now trying to fat 27 young healthy steers, rising
up from about five to eight or nine hundred pounds,
also seven three year old runts and a cow, by soiling
them in yards where they have shelter from sun and rain,
and good spring water at will : fresh grass is also given
them twice a day under my own inspection. For two

On Soiling Cattle. , 20 i

years past I have not succeeded owing as 1 suppose to
deficiency of speargrass, they improved as fast as ex-
pected until the second cut of clover, which caused a
frothing from the mouth and they w^ould scarcely eat
sufficient to keep them alive. The economy of feeding
in this way, has not been exaggerated by reputable
European writers, in this I think 1 cannot be mistaken,
as correct accounts are kept for every field, and trans-
action of my hxYxn.

One man and a boy of tweh'e years old feeds the
above, together with six liorses and three milch cows,
one bull and a large ox that has grain, and where the
grass is good the work is not hard; the manure is worth
more than their labour, and although Dr. Anderson's
mode of making hay under cover, may be rather visi-
onary on an extensive scale, here it may be beneficially
practised, and not a fork-full lost by over feeding.

Last spring 1 planted ten acres of Indian corn, the
rows eight feet three inches distant, hills or rather clus-
ters at eighteen inches on the rows; and but three plants
suffered to grow in each. Between the corn, two rows of
potatoes unplanted two feet three inches apart; eight acres
were dunged on the sod mostly clover, the other two
spread with tolerable rich mould; produce 430 3-4 bush-
elscorn,and 848 bushels of potatoes. This productthough
not contemptable was far below my expectation, and can
be accounted; for, the plan was novel to iny ploughman,
and I could be but little with him, a great deal of the corn
was removed after up, to make room for the plough,
much left standing with too little room, to the great injury
of both crops, and either from the backwardness of the
s^eason or some other cause a consideral:)le quantity re-

VOL. II. c c

202 On Soiling Cattle*

planted, and the last ploughing of three acres be nig coo
deep, while the ground was wet, it baked and turned
yellow in a few days^ this produced short corn and nub-
bins generally, except the ridges hereafter explained,
they stood the test of this ordeal and although one of
them planted too close to the potatoes, had but little soil
left on one side, yet it flourished and produced plenti-
fuilv : many rows were planted in the w ater furrows,
made when the potatoes were put in, and yielded nub-
bins only, the replanted and removed gave fodder. 1 do
not regret the loss sustained, by the clearing out fur-
rows, as it led to valuable information, they naturally
introduced ridges, in other parts of the fields, and here
a double quantity of soil and dung was concentered
under die corn, and it was luxuriant; one of those rows
was cut and carefully set up bj' itself in my lawn,
husked and measured in December, and yielded at
the rate of 66 bushels per acre, and of one ton six
hundred and thirteen weight of fodder, viz. blades,
husks and tops, and one ton and seven hundred weight
of stalks, excellent litter for the yard. — This was a
beautiful shaded summer fallow; eight acres are now in
wheat, seeded with sixteen bushels, and at least equal to
any I have seen this season; the other two ploughed in the
fall in one-bout ridges, and seeded in spring with six
bushels barley, is really handsome except about one
quarter of an acre of cold relentive clay, which has suf-
fered by the drought.

1 have planted this spring 13 acres in corn and pota-
toes, the former on five and a half feet ridges, two rows
on each ridge, 12 inches a part along the rows and the
same distance triangular across, two plants to be left

Mixed Culture of Potatoes and Corn, 203

? »> ■ ' ■ ■ . . ..,,■■ ,_j^^

in each cluster. Between the corn ridges are planted on
beds five and a half feet wide, two double rows of pota-
toes, vacancy between them two feet tw^o inches, the
double rows eight inches a part, straight and triangular
like the corn ; this leaves ten feet tour inches between
the double rows of corn for sun and air. 1 have never
known a very large crop of corn without a great many
plants, and if those can be better arranged with valuable
crops of other kinds growing on the same ground, it
will be an object, and it is strikingly obvious that the
outside plants of a field are much the best, when not
incommoded by fencing &^c. Those grounds were
ploughed in one-bout ridges in the fall, twice ploughed
and \\ell harrowed in the spring, manured at the rate
of 64 loads* of farm yard dung per acre, each load 32

'^ I have frequently planted Indian corn in single rows
eight feet asunder, and dropped single corns, two feet distant
from each other in the rov/s ; so as to stand in single plants.
Th's mode was suggested to me by General Washington^
who told me he had great success in it. When the corn was
ridged, potatoes were planted in the cleaning out furrows ;
which were filled with rotted dung ; and closed by two fur-
rows backed over the potatoes by the plough. 1 have had
repeatedly 40 to 50 bushels of shelled corn, and 100 to 150
bushels of potatoes, to the acre. The roots oi the corn ran
into the dung, and received every benefit. I never had a
nubbin ; as the stalks in general had each no less than three,
and the most four, peri'ect and large ears. In weight the crop
alwavs exceeded the best corn cultivated in the common way;
whatever number of bushels there might be. The culture
must be clean, and the stirrings frequent.

.204 Mixed Culture of Corn and Potatoes.

cubical feet measured in the field, after being settled by
the driving one half applied to die corn, the other half to
potatoes; to avoid poaching the potatoe rows, the dung
assigned them was hauled and dropped on the corn rows,
and from thence spread on the potatoes, which were re-
gularly placed in holes sunk by an indenting roller, one
and three quarter inches below the surface, and covered
by the plough securing a depth of loose soil underneath
as well as the light covering of dung and soil above ;
after this the corn rows were well pulverized with a
hoe harrow, when the dung was hauled and spread, they
were ridged up and the sides of the ridges harrowed, and
the tops flattened with a harrow without tines the holes
made with an indenting roller two and a half inches
deep, in which the corn was planted and covered with
hand hoes ; the potatoes are generally up with a rich
broad leaf and strong stem, most of them harrowed with
a folding harrow, an excellent tool, cleaning and pulve-
rising the soil quite up to the stems of the plants ; the

I wait the result of such bold and heavy dunging on ivhectt.
It is far beyond any thing I have known. I never could get
wheat to stand till it came to the sickle, or with heads filled,
or clear from smut or other diseases, after half the quantity
of dung menlioned by Mr. Lorain was applied. But as my
manure (dung) is always moderately fermented and putrefied,
I cannot calculate what is the proportion of strength, or quan-
tity, compared to Mr. Lorain^ s muck ; as I suppose it to be.

If ever fresh dung, applied in any thing like such quan-
tities, succeeds, with a wheat crop ; it must be after summer
crops have subdued its bad qualities, and effects.

R. P.

On Soiling Cattk, 205

plough will immediately follow to earth them up, — the
com is just peeping out of the ground it being designed
that the potatoes should take the lead.

And am with respect, yours &c.

John Lorain.
Dr. James MEASEe

C 206 ]

Read July 10th, 1810.
Sir]

The following contains a confirmation of the opinion
I have always held, as to the operative principle of the
plaister of Paris. It will be seen in my '* agricultural
inquiries on plaister of Paris,'''' published in 1797, that
I therein mentioned, as a conjecture, what reiterated
experiment has since proved. I translate from the
French^ a sketch of the memoir e on the subject, sent
to me by a friend. It contains information worthy of
being promulgated ; though much of it is here, more
confirmatory than new, as to the plaister. But I do not
recollect that any experiments have been made with
SULPHUR, for the purposes stated in the memoire,

Richard Peters.
20th June, 1810.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Agric* Soc. Fhilad.

The efficacy of sulphur on vegetation.

" ^ ]\i e M 01 r E of M. B E R A R D t/ic elder a trader at
p o N T - L I E u L E s L E MANS, and member of the society
of that town^ treating on the use of plaister or gyp-
sum, employed as a manure; containing observations
curious and useful in agriculture ^

"il/. j^d-mr^ observed, with admiration, in many jour-
nies on the borders of the lake of Geneva, in Savoy^

On the Vegetative Efficacy of Sulphur. 207

and elsewhere, the excellent crops of clover plaistered ;
and was astonished at the prodigious effects of that
manure ; considering the small quantity used. But
although the mode in which that substance acts upon
vegetation, has remained, and will always be a mystery ;
the thoughts which M, Berard has expressed on the
composition of the gyps^ and his appropriate conclusions,
have not been useless to himself, or destitute of benefit
to the art of husbandry.

"il/. Berard having seen in chemical books, that the
analysis of the gypsum produced much of the sulpJiuric
acid^ combined with lime and other calcareous earths ;
and, calculating its quantity, he saw that this manure
owed its wonderful efficacy to the sulykuric acid;
in a proper state of combination to promote vegetation.
This acid entering into the composition of animal and
vegetable matter employed as manure, was to him a
confirmation of the opinion he had adopted, of the pow-
er of this agent in the work of vegetation.

"The fertility of the lands abounding in volcanic mat-
ter, as in the neighbourhood of Catanea in Sicily^ near
Naples &c. where the soil is evidently combined with
the ashes of the volcano, or of decomposed lava, afforded
a strong proof of the vegetative virtue of sulphur.

"After these reflections, M. Berard caused brimstone
to be pounded and sifted ; and mixed it with ashes ^ to
render the sowing easy. Having spread this powder on
clover and lucerne^ on wheat, and natural grasSy he
waited the effect. It was surprising on the lucerne and
clover; but little perceptible on the wheat and natural

208 On the Fegetative Efficacy of Sulphur,

grass. ^ Repeated experiments gave the same results.
It was particularly remarkable, that its effect was the
most prompt, when, after its application, a shower of
rain fell : without doubt, because moisture aids and
developes the sulphuric principles. Let the powder or
the gyps be employed, the result is always the same.

" It appears, that wt may conchide from this, that sul-
phur^ is one of the greatest stimulants to vegetation.
Let this be admitted, and we perceive the numerous
advantages of this discovery, to the agriculture of coun-
tries wherein sulphur is common. We already have
shew^n the benefit of sulphur for artificial meadows.
Many proofs have demonstrated, that it singularly pro-
motes the vigor of the olive tree. Perhaps the same ad-
vantages may be derived to other fruit trees. It is
knowai that countries abounding in sulphur produce
the sti ongest wines. We may conclude from this,f that
bij introducing the sulphur^ in a convenient proportion^
in the compost of dung, earthy and sand, which commonly
furnishes the manure for vines ; and suffering the whole

^ I have never derived any benefit from plaister on wheat
and natural grass. Some have told me that they have pro-
fitably applied it to xvheat ; but I have never seen any instances
of it ; save that plaister on moistened or steeped seed wheat
(if it be not steeped in brine) has been useful, in giving the
plant a vigorous shoot, in its early stages.

R. P.

f This agrees with my frequent practice of introducing
plaister^ instead of lime^ into dung and compost heaps. See
volume first, page 283.

R. P.

On the Vegetative Efficacy of Sulphur. 209.

"■■■^ ■ nig

to ferment, we shall ameliorate the nature of the vines ;
and produce the quality of those grapes, which are cul-
tivated on grounds filled with volcanic matter. It is, at
least, worth the experiment.'* [Extracted from the An-
nals of Arts and Manufactures. 1 809. ]

I have, on garden plants, long and freely used flour
of sulphur (on melon vines particularly) to destroy or
expel the grubs and flies. I have perceived them to
thrive, but attributed their vigour to their being freed
from annoyances. I have also used sulphur water on
fruit trees ; to banish or destroy aphides. I plaister
most plants; and therefore have supposed, that the
gypsum alone had benefitted them. A small infusion of
oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) in a large proportion of
water, promotes vegetation in, and banishes insects
from, garden plants. It would be well to make some
experiments with the sulphur alone ; or combined as the
memoire mentions, on a variety of plants : on those of
the trefoil tribe especially. I do not see why the sul-
phur, in substance, should not produce effects similar
to those of its derivative — sulphuric acid. But plaister
is, with us, cheaper ; and in greater plenty.

Richard Peters.

In page 98, agricultural ENquiRiES on plaister of
PARIS, X iiention —

" If Iiigenhausz's ideas of the almost magical powers of the
oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) on vegetation be just, in any
vol. II. D d

210 On the Vegetative Efficacy of Sulphur.

important degree, the siilp/iut'ic acid may ht considered either
in itself, or as it sets other active agents at work, the main
spring of operation in piaister. It is commonly used by che-
mists to separate the carbonic, and all other acids, from their
combinations, wh rever they are found. The earth, accord-
ing to the theories before stated, is constantly filled with the
carbonic acid, by furnishing carbon to the air it inhales. It is
found in calcareous substances, with which, in great varieties,
the earth abounds ; it exists in, or is produced by, the roots
of decaying or decayed vegetables, trees, and all animal or
vegetable manures. I therefore thmk it a corollary fairly to
be drawn from this theory, and the actual analysis of the gyps^
that it is this sulphuric or vitriolic acid which constitutes its
operative principle, £^c," — And see volume first, page 158.
I have since ascertained by a variety ox practical tests, to
mv satisfaction, that this opinion was well founded. Alter
separating the vitriolic acid, the other parts of the piaister
are inoperative ; and have no effect v/natever on vegetation.
As to my conjectures about the mode of its operation, they
yet remain mere conjectures ; though practical effects are be-
yond all doubt. I believe also that, " the mode in which that
substance acts upon vegetation, has remained, and will always
be, a mystery,'^'* Why it acts on some plants, and not on others,
is as mysterious and inexplicable, as is its mode of acting
on those whereon it produces invariable and wonderful effects.
We know what will assist its operation ; and can supply
artificially v/hat it does not find, or has exhausted, in the
earth. And this is enough for us to know ; for all practical
uses.

R. P*

w^^

C 211 1

Tu Nis,-Broad'tailedy'Mowitaw,-SiiEEv. By Richard

Peters.

Read May, 8th 1810.

It will be seen in the first volume of our Memoirs,
that I obtained the original stock of these sheep from
Colonel PzVy^-^nw^, then secretary of state; to whom they
were sent by William Eaton Esq. when consul of the
Lnited States, at Tunis, For this estimable proof of
his patriotism, he merits the thanks of all who profit by
its advantages. I deemed myself bound, though no
terms were made with me, to distribute many of their
progeny gratuitously ; and gave away lambs, for several
years, with a view to encourage and spread the breed.
My pastures w^ere overburthened with ewes, sent to
my rams when no charge was made. Those v/ho re-
ceived the benefit, were not sufficiently conscious of
its value ; save that they found the broad- tail excited
curiosity ; and procured a ready sale for the lambs.
The original ram, after I had bred from him some ex-
cellent sheep, was sent, for his own, and the use of the
farmers of Lancaster county, to my late friend General
Hand, I was offered what was then deemed a high price
for the ram, by some victuallers ; who wished to breed
lambs for the market ; but I did not think it consistent
with my ideas of propriety to accept it. Nor did I wish
the lambs killed ; and my object of increasing the num-
bers, and spreading the breed, defeated. I gave up the
management of my farm to a tenant, on shares ; and
with it the full blooded sheep. Neither he, nor those

212 On Tunis Sheep.

succeeding him, held the sheep in proper estimation ;
though every eudeavour was made to impress it upon
them. The lambs were sold, year after year, to the
butchers ; at the prices, or nearly so, given for those
bred from common sheep. It is only very lately that
the present tenant has discovered their value, by the
demand for them ; which is now much greater than can
be supplied. This demand is created by the experience
of those who have been convinced, by their own obser-
vation, of their superior excellence. My flock is so
reduced, that, in a pecuniary point of view, this late
conviction of the value of this breed, is to me of very
little importance. My tenant is now taking some pains
to recover his lost time and opportunity. I am happy
to know, that others have been more careful to
preserve this highly valuable race. I mention these, and
other, circumstances, to account for these sheep not be-
mg very extensively known and estimated, for a length
of time.

My endeavours at getting the sheep into credit, were,
for a long time, very unpromising. I had insensibility
as well as prejudice to combat ; nor do I believe
them yet entirely overcome. The trouble I now give to
the society, by a long, though just, detail of the character
and qualities of these valuable sheep, is my last effort
to remove and conquer what remains of this insensibility
and prejudice. Experience in the affairs of the world
too often shews, that whatever intrinsic merit a saleable
article may possess ; the p?'ice in the market is the crite-
rion by which its value is generally estimated. It is not
unhkely that my object of spreading this breed of sheep,
and inducing care and attention to them, would have

0)1 Tunis Sheep. 2L

been (taking mankind as we find them) more effectually
accomplished, by demanding large sums for even the few
I could have sold, or hired out as tups, at high prices.
If any new proofs of this view of the subject were want-
ing, the daily instances of purchases, at prices novel and
astonishing in this country^ made of another highly valu-
able race of sheep, would afford them.^ The zeal now
prevalent for the breeding this, or any other, estimable
addition to our stock of domestic animals, did not ex-
ist at the time the Tunis sheep made their first ap-
pearance. I am highly gratified by present prospects

* A \)dAY oi Me7'inos have been recently sold at S 3000. I
never knew a pair of Tunisians sell tor more than S 100; and
most commonly for half the sum. Whatever may, in practice,
be proved by the Hudibrastic calculation, —

. " What is WORTH, in any things

" But so much MONEY, as 't%uiU bring .?"

few farmers could sustain a loss to the amount of prices now
demanded for full blooded Merinos. A do^y in a few mi-
nutes; and disease^ in a few days, would ruin, or materially
injure, a farmer of common circumstances. Whether these
prices be high, or low, I pass no opinion. Yet bounds should
be set, to desires for profit. And this must be left to regulate
itself. The Merinos have had able and fortunate patrons ;
but their character abroad has mainly promoted their credit
here ; while the Tiniisians^ with no assistance from fo-
reign reputation, and even contending against prejudices,
as well as insensibility to their value, have principally ad-
vanced themselves. When, however, the former were of-
fered for sale, at first, near Philadelphia, their merits were
so unknown, or overlooked, that their lambs were sold to the
butchers, for lack of other purchasers ; though the sheep
were then offered at moderate prices.

214 On Tunis Sheep,

on this subject. I am by no means desirous that it
should be repressed in its application to the favourite
race of sheep, now endeavoured, almost exclusively, to
be brought into fashion. I am fuiiy impressed with the
value of Merino wool. No other wool, within my know-
ledge, can, compete with it. Nor do I mean in any way
to lessen the estimation in which the Spanish sheep of
this breed, are held. I say of this breed (in which there
i;re varieties, some whereof are much inferior to others)
because in Spaiii^ there are sheep of as coarse carcase
and wool, as any of the worst we have. And it is well
known, that the mutton of all breeds there, is so in-
diiferent, that the tables of the weakhy are supplied
from Barbarij : wool oi valuable breeds, being the pri-
mary object, is no doubt the cause of inattention to the
other uses of sheep ; added to other circumstances.

Our country is extensive enough for many different
races ; and some, in parts of this, as in all other coun-
tries, may thrive where others will not. In South Caro-
lina the Tunis sheep, o'otained from my stock, are pre-
ferred to all others. In Engiand^ imd other sheep- coun-
tries, that some breeds are better adapted to local circum-
stances than others, is verified indisputably ; as will be
seen in the acccurits of their best writers ; though sheep
may be indigenated, w ith proper care, in any country.
In Enp-land I have never heard of the Tu?2is mountain
sheep. Their writers do not mention it ; though they
have broad-tailed sheep ; and I am persuaded this spe-
cies is there unknown. I therefore wish that the Tunis-
BROAD-TAiLED-MouNTAiN-sHEEr, may have its share
of attention; without interfering with the views of those
who prefer others. I have mentioned emphatically their

On Tunis Sheep. 215

specific distinction, because the broad-tailed African
sheep in general, so far as my knowledge extends, are
much inferior to these. All I have known (except some
Persian sheep J with broad tails, have been an unprofitable
race ; though no doubt, as they occupy so great a por-
tion of the habitable globe, there must be, among them,
many valuable kinds.

My experience and observations as to the Tiwis
sheep, are founded on a kjiowledge of diem for a period
of thirteen years. The l.)enefits arising from their propa-
gation have accrued, in the greatest degree, to others.
For it may be seen, that my advantages — except
in the real pleasure, and solid satisfaction I derive to
myself from even the partial success of my eftbrts —
have been small indeed. 1 see no cause to claim any
merit over others, on this account. Reasonable emolu-
ment is the just reward, of all who risk or labour in laud-
able pursuits. I do not aim at establishing this on the
depretiation of other good breeds ; being only desirous
that it should take its proper rank among them.

There should be varieties of races and kinds ; to suit
not only local circumstances, but also different objects,
for which they are intended. I believe with Culley (on
live stock: page 153,) ''that breed is the best that
brings the most prolit, in jieece and carcase together^
from the same ground, in equal times.'' I do not hesi-
tate to avow my persuasion, that the Tunis mountain
sheep will, in the long run, compete with any, in this
view of the subject. The temporary price of better
wool, with ail that has been said of its presumed sta-
bility, does not alter my opinion. Plenty or scarcity of
an article, and shifting demand for it, operate on price.

215 On Tu7iis Sheep,

These are circumstances perpetually fluctuating. That
breed is most generally desirable which is best suited
to all common circumstances ; and requires no more
care and attention, than good common farmers can, and
will, bestow.

I have never seen better home-made cloth, than the
selected parts of the Tunis fleeces, and especially the cut
next the pelt, will afford. Some of them will bear three
cuts, of about an inch and an half to two inches long,
each. Many of the fleeces, are of this description ; and
more are short and fine. Of worsted and fleecy hosiery,
I have not seen any other wool produce superior fa-
brics, for common use. For the latter, the cut next
the pelt has been used. I have seen some fleeces appa-
rently y^/rry next the pelt, like beaver ; but consisting
of very fine-fibred wool.

The mutton^ is known to be among the finest and
best in our market. The proportion of flesh to size
of the animal, is, I think, remarkably great. There is
little offal in this sheep. It is, when pure, hornless ;
and its bones are small. It lays the fat on profitable
points. Though it does not shew the suet on the kid-
neys, as much as do some other sheep, yet the fat is mix-
ed with the flesh ; which is of the most inviting colour ;
and marbled in a striking degree. Its tail (which I have
known, Vihen prepared for cooking, to weigh from six
to eight pounds) \i properly dressed^ is a feast for an epi-
cure. The tail of a young beaver, which I have enjoyed
when I dared to indulge in such food, (when free from a
fishy or sedgy taint, to which, at certain seasons, the
flesh of amphibious animals is subject,) is the only rival
I know.

On Tunis Sheep. 217

The following additional account of these sheep, can
be verified, by myself, and others who have gained a
practical knowledge of them.

1. The Tunis sheep are better set with rvool, than
any others generally known here. The Merino may
be an exception; but it remains for experiment, in a
common course of keeping sheep, by farmers here.
There is no part of its body uncovered. It does not
shed its wool like common sheep : so that I have never
seen a ragged Tunis sheep, where the blood of the stock
predominated. If the wool of the mixed breed is de-
ciduous ; it shews that the sheep partakes of the cross,
more than the stock. I have known one kept unshorn
for a year after the fleece might have been taken off;
and the fleece continued entire and thriving ; and the
sheep remained in high health. But I would not re-
commend this, as an eligible practice. For very fine
fabrics, the Merino wool can be used alone ; and such
are only within the purchase of the wealthy. It is most
generally mixed with fine wool of other fleeces ; and it
is in such case, worked to most profit. The Tunis wool
is sufficient for all common purposes ; and can be ap-
plied without mixture with other wool, to more uses
than that of the Merino, or any other sheep generally
known here. The average weight of fleeces is from five
to five and a half, and I have known some flocks to
average six pounds ; I speak of a selected flock, well fed,
and attended to with care. From individual sheep of
the full blood, I have shorn eight, nine, and ten pounds.
I mean, in this estimate, washed wool ; or from sheep
washed before shearing. I have generally (but not al-
ways) practised this ; and I have never found any difj-

VOL. II, E G

218 On Tunis Sheep,

advantage, either as to cleanness of wool or health of the
sheep. In the crosses, pains should be taken to select
breeders of the best forms and fleeces. From careless-
ness in this respect, many persons have injured the cha-
racter of this sheep, and its fleece. It is as vain to ex-
pect good fleeces from a starved, neglected, or ill as-
sorted, flock ; as it is to count on a good crop, from a
poor, and ill managed field. I am convinced that the
wool of this sheep has never been properly known or
appreciated; the mutton having been the object. I have
now as fine, and as white, home-made blankets, and
have seen as fine flannel, made from the white wool of
spotted fleeces, as those made of any other wool usually
devoted to such purposes ; there being always as much
white wool, as will answer for every fabric requiring
it. In the dressing of blankets and flannels, we are yet
much behind the Europeans.

2. They are hardy ; and will bear either cold or heat,
better than any others within my knowledge. I have,
on a small scale, (never less in number than one or two
score ; and frequently from 80 to 100) had an interest
in, and kept, sheep, of every breed known in this
country, for a period of 45 years — some breeds recent-
ly introduced, and the Merino, excepted. I never knew
a hardier sheep, than are those of the Tunis breed.
Were I to point out (in my estimation) the proper form,
size, and valuable points and qualities of a sheep, I could
not more justly designate them, than by exactly de-
scribing my old ram caramelli.

3. They fatten with less food, and much quicker,
thati any other sheep. That other sheep become as fat,
I know : but more time and food are required, so to

On Tunis Sheep. 219

make them. They will bear to be kept fat, without be-
ing diseased, far beyond any others within my know-
ledge. The carcase is heavy, but not coarse ; as are
many other sheep of large sizes. The heaviest ewe of
this breed I have known weighed 182 pounds alive,
when sheared. Her fleece, clean washed, weighed eight
and one half pounds, she was half blood. A half bred
ram, a twin, at 18 months old, weighed 214 pounds.*
4. Their character is that of gentleness and quie-
tude. And they live in heahh, vigour, and usefulness,
to greater ages than other sheep. I never saw a breachy
Tunis sheep. Some exceptions there may be, but they

* Although I have mentioned the sizes and weight of
sheep, and facts as they respect the mutton, I do not value
the large sheep the most. I have always found that mode-
rately sized sheep, of any breed well fleeced, are the most
profitable. One of the finest, and proportionately heaviest
fleeced and superior fleshed wethers, of the full blooded Tunis
breed, weighed 18 pounds the quarter. He was stunted in his
growth, by an accident when a lamb. I do not admire very-
fat mutton, of any breed. The Tunis ewes are the smallest ;
and generally carry the finest fibred fleeces. I have long been
convinced, that large cattle are the least profitable. Middle-
sized horses^ are to be preferred.

I think it a great mistake in crossing, to prefer sheep of
large sizes ; though, no doubt, some respect is to be paid
to this circumstance. The qualities of fleece, flesh, temper,
hardihood, healthfulness, and tendency to feed well and ceco-
nomically, are more important than size. The largest sheep
have generally the coarsest wool, and most indiff'erent mut-
ton. The full bred Tunis sheep are naturally of sizes the
most eligible. The old ram was reasonably large j and much
above the size of common sheep.

22© On Tunis Sheep.

are rare. Yet they are not inactive ; but use sufficient
exercise for health, without wandering and fickleness as
to pastures. In these they are not overnice ; and will
keep in good condition, upon coarser and less food,
than any sheep I am acquainted with.

5. Their general healthfulness enables them to re-
tain their fleeces. A diseased Tunis sheep is rare ;
even in a mixed fiock, in which other sheep have been
subject to every disease known in that animal. I have
had them disordered in the feet, with \\\t fouls, but not
the foot rot. If the hoofs of sheep are examined, there
will be found a small openhig, near and above the fore
part of the cleft. It is the mouth of a duct, running
up the shank ; and calculated for the emission of a mu.
cilaginous oil, which lubricates, supports and assists in
the growth and renewal of the corneous parts of the
hoof. Perhaps it is also a drain for humours, which,
when confined, become morbid and peccant. If this
closes, the disease appears.-^ Examine well, and rub
briskly the parts together. Assist the opening of the
duct, and the discharge of the morbid and stagnated
matter, in every way. Poke juice, I have found effi-
cacious. Few are acquainted with this part of the ani-
mal structure, though, I believe, all cloven-footed ani-
mals are thus formed. Swine have the duct, in the hin-

* Worms are often lound in this duct, and in the shanks of
common sheep. None have ever been discovered in the
shank, or in this duct, of the Tunis sheep. Probably because
the ^voolh"less of the part kept off the insect which generates
these worms ; if so they originate. The disease I call the
fouls in the Tunis sheep, is occasioned by coagulated mat-
ter, and not worms, in this duct. . ^

On Tunis Sheep, 221

der part of the leg. Cattle in the cleft ; which when dis-
eased, is lacerated often by a hair rope drawn between
the clefts; when gentler means would effect the purpose.

6. A Tunis tup couples with a ewe of other breeds
with more certainty of eifect, than a tup of the common
species, with a Tunis ewe. The broad tail is the im-
pediment. This must be managed by an adroit pander.
I have known frequent failures in projected crosses, ow-
ing to inattention in this particular. But the Tunis tup
finds no difficulty with a ewe of his ow^n race. However
w^himsical it may ajifpear, the colour of the tongue of
any breed, is said to be important in the selection of a
tup. The third georgick of Firgil records the fact ;
which I have seen verified in several instances. I give
Dryden's translation of the passage.

** Even tho* a snowy ram thou shalt behold,
Prefer him not in haste, for husband to th}- fold.
But search his mouth ; and if a swarthy tongue
Is underneath his humid palate hung-,
Reject him ; lest he darken all thy fiock ;
And substitute another from thy stock."

If this should seem to some improbable, it will be no
difficult task for the incredulous, to avoid the black
tongue ; — lest, per chance, the denunciation of Virgil
may turn out well founded.

7. The tail is the true test of purity of blood ; and
horns are a bad symptom ; especially if large. The tufts
on the thighs, and crest, or forelock, are also marks of
blood.

Those who find this race preferable, under all its
circumstances, must balance advantages and compara-
tive defects. It is, like the Merino, a peculiar genus and
race of sheep. Those who value them must reconcile
themselves to coloured w^ool ; though the greatest pro-

222 On Tunis Sheep.

portion is white. But I have not found, that whiteness
is the criterion of quality or fineness ; and I have often
found the tawney^ the finest wool. Every part, of every
colour, but black, will take dyes, equal to any wool of
any species. Whiteness is therefore of little substantial
importance, or benefit. If the Merino wool had no
other excellencies, real or fanciful, its whiteness or
cleanliness would not recommend it ; as it is not, so far
as I have seen, remarkable for either. We must take
things as God made them ; if we would have them ac-
cording to their kind. Art as often fails, as succeeds,
in attempts to ameliorate. The lambs of the Tunis breed
are white ^ recl^ tawney, bluish^ and black; — but the few-
est of the latter. All (except the black) grow white in
the general colour of the fleece, though most com-
monly coloured in spots ; and either tawney or black
generally marks the cheeks and shanks ; and sometimes
the whole head and face. A perfectly white Tunisian^ is as
much deteriorated by this singularity of departure from
stock, as is an Albino negro ^ who is an Anomaly in the
African race of men. I have seen some nearly white
sheep, of this breed, and tolerably high blooded, after
three or four crosses with this object ; but I never liked
them the better for this circumstance ; which 1 always
considered a departure from blood and race. The
whiteness of fleece was obtained from the sires, or dams,
of the crosses. The sire commonly gives the character
to the progeny. I would not, however, be understood
to say, that mixtures, or crosses, with well selected
sheep of other kinds, are prejudicial. On the contrary,
I have had, and have seen with others, fine sheep
of half» three quarters and seven eighths blood. But

On Tunis Sheep. 223

not all of these crosses (especially where white fleece is
the object) shew the tail in perfection ; and I think
many are deficient in some of the best qualities of the
sheep; and that in proportion to defect of tail, and white-
ness of fleece.

A neighbour, who has, I believe, been accustomed
to, or acquainted with, the modes of managing sheep
in Ireland, and has great merit in preserving the Tunis
breed (obtained from my stock) in high perfection ;
avers, that, by attentive selections, and proper manage-
ment, he can have Tunis sheep, as white as any others.
He succeeds better than I have done ; — and believes
what he wishes. — But I perceive, in spots, a cast of
tawney tinge, or a departure from blood, in those he
deems perfectly white. A strong propensity to believe,
wonderfully assists our faith. — A most worthy country-
man of his, has often, with fervor and solemnity, as-
sured me ; — and he believed it — that the efrgs of Ire-
land were the whitest in the world 1 He despised them
as an esculent, if the shell had not, what he called, the
Irish mark; — that is, — in English, — pure white, — with-
out any mark at all. — He held nothing in greater abo-
mination than a dyed, — or what he called a pie-bald,
caster egg. It was in vain that one attempted to per-
suade him that the interior of all eggs was alike ; so far
as depended on tints or colour of shell. — De gustibus
non est disputandum, — So I have no controversy widi
those who do not fancy the wool, — or, if they so please,
the mutton, of a coloured sheep.

Richard Peters.
Belmont, May 3d, 1810.

To the Philad. Soc, for promoting Agrictdture,

224 On Tunis Sheep,

POSTSCRIPT.

When I made the foregoing communication, I had
not read Chancellor Livingstones account of broad- tailed
sheep; in his essay pages 27 & seq. He has my
sincere thanks, and is entitled to the acknowledgments
of all farmers, for much valuable information promul-
ged in this essay ; however widely I may differ in
opinion on some points. My accidentally meeting with
the essay, has compelled me to pursue further, a sub-
ject I had conceived closed.

By my perusal of it I am satisfied, that he is entirely
unacquainted with the sheep I have mentioned. If he
had not so been, I know his candour too well to suppose,
he would have omitted to make them an exception to
the worthless and spurious race he has described. To
the character and qualities of my sheep, his description
is a perfect contrast. It would furnish, in the hands of
a pupil of Hogarth^ not even a tolerable caricature.
Those Mr. Livingston pourtrays are not, as he asserts,
an original race ; but one produced by nature in a spor-
tive freak ; assisted, as he alledges, by " the art of
man ;" who took an undue advantage of her aberration,
which afibrded *' a basis whereon to engraft his whims."

The Tunis 7nountain sheep are as much, in my belief,
the bona fide and unsophisticated descendants of an ori-
ginal stock, as are the portions of the human race in-
habiting the regions wherein they are found. They are
therefore not comprehended in the account he gives
of the hybridous intruders into animal existence. If
they were even a sportive production, it would have
been a most fortunate gambol ; for it would have added

On Tunis Sheep. 225

a most valuable item to the catalogue of domestic ani-
mals. 1 claim the exclusion of the Tunis sheep from
his zoography.

1. Because in Mr. Livingston's Lusus JVatunv, all
the fat of the hinder parts is in the tail. — In the Tunis
sheep, it is well, and generally, distributed through the
whole carcase.

2. In his Hybrids^ the caudical fat (for in my recol-
lection he mentions no other, in any quantity) is, in
warm climates, oily and soft, and, when melted, will
not again indurate. In the natural Tunis sheep, all the
fat is capable of resuming its hardness after melting. I
have never seen more solid, whiter, or finer mutton
tallow, in all states of atmospheric temperature, than
the fat of this sheep affords.

The speculations of a mind so ingenious and instruc-
tive, excited by a laudable desire to inform (though
there may be some fanciful flights) I leave on their
own merits. I believe professed naturalists know little
more than I do, of these, or other secrets of nature.
The celebrated Buffon is not without a quantum sufficit^
of what the French call *' les Egarements de I' Esprit,'''^ —
visionary wanderings.

The protuberated tail of the Tunis sheep, composed
of " delicate esculent," and not of soft fat, as a mere
*' repository," and which Mr. Livingston calls *' an
excressence and deformity," was, no doubt, bestowed
for wise purposes. By what I have mentioned of the
difficulty attending the coupling of a common tup with
a Tunis ewe, it would seern^ that this guard was given
to her, and other broad tailed sheep, to prevent mixture
with a different species of animal j which the author of

VOL. II, F f

226 On Tunis Sheep,

nature uniformly interdicts. To the ram, it is furnished,
that it may descend to the progeny. Perhaps also to
prevent the introduction of worms, or progeny of in-
sects, which may, in a pecuUar degree and manner, in-
fest sheep in warm climates ; in which the sheep of
every variety, are generally broad-tailed.

The intestines, and all other parts, of these sheep are
remarkably clear of the kind, or any other species, of
worm ; or the knobs, found in the entrails, and other
parts, of sheep of other breeds. See Mr. Capjiers ac-
count of these worms. Vol. 1. pages, 133, 4.

I have seen ingenious and speculative opinions, con-
cerning, what may as well be called an *' excres-
cence and deformity," — the protuberance on the back
of the camel; — another African animal. This bunch is
greater or less, accordingly as the animal is generally
fat or lean. The broad- tail of the sheep encreases or
diminishes in size, in proportion to the general state of
the fat in the carcase. But neither the bunch, nor the
broad-tail, is the " repository of all the fat." I never
knew it alledged that the bunch was produced by na-
ture in a sportive fit ; or owed its origin to "the art of
man." For its being placed where it is, I do not pretend
to account. Human reason only exposes its own defici-
encies, when it attempts to account for unaccountable
things. This appears in more important subjects, than
those of the broad -tails of sheep, or the bunches of
camels.

I should not have deemed it necessary to annex the
following certificates, which might have been muhi.

On Tunis Sheep, 227

plied ; but since erroneous opinions have been formed,
and published, I wish the facts I have stated may be
ascertained by the testimony of practical men. Mr.
Livingston, whose zeal, talents and instructive intel-
ligence in general, I highly respect, has unwittingly,
degraded the whole dynasty of the broad- tails, stock and
branch, from their rank in the scale of created beings ;
though they have, from the beginning of time, had
undisputed possession of two quarters of the globe,
and a part of the third ; to wit, of Asia, Africa, and
part of Europe. I have endeavoured to introduce some
of them, to the acquaintance of those who inhabit the
fourth quarter of the world. Mr. Livingston would
have excepted, had he been acquainted with it, this
branch of the family ; and would have been among the
-first to welcome it to this place of refuge ; from the
disgraceful society of its illegitimate and unnatural
African collateral relations : for such those must be, to
whom his description applies.^

^ Has Nugce in Seria ducunt : however trifling these
things may be in themselves, they lead to serious con-
sequences ; they revive, or create and foster, unwarrant-
able prejudices. When I sent the ram to Lancaster county,
the Germans, there, would not, at first permit any con-
nection with their ewes. General Hand was obliged to
buy thirty or forty ewes, to set an example. The Ger-
mans considered it an unnatural intercourse — "- verhiu-
pffung umiaturliche '^'—and they stiled Sultan,or Caramellt,
an oudandish-mongrel-brute ;— " ausl'dndisches iinvernlmff-
tig-es Maul-thier:' But when the Philadelphia butchers
sought for the lambs, and good prices were given lor them
and the wool, they altered their opinions ; and the stranger

228 On Tunis Sheep,

Even the broad-tail, which Mr. Livingston considers
** an excrescence and deformity," I have not viewed in
any disgusting aspect. The representations in the plate,
are faithful portraits ; taken from sheep now in my pos-
session. From these my opinion — or if it be so con-
strued— -fancy — may be judged.

Although not overmuch of a stoick^ I should, were it
not that old prejudices maybe again revived, and operate
unfavourably, have imitated, on behalf of my sheep, had
they been even specially mentioned, the complacency and
silence, recommended by one of that sect, I think, ^j&?V-
tetus. This disciple of Zeno advises those of us bipeds,
who may be misrepresented and disparaged, to l)e con-
tent in our consciousness of its being unmerited: because
we are to presume [a la mode de la secte des stocciens)
that some imaginary characters, and not ourselves^ are
aimed at. This philosophic apathy would, no doubt,
be really Greek to men of ticklish tempers ; though en-

became a great favorite. Their interests only, can conquer
their prejudices. When I first endeavoured (36 or 37 years
ago) to introduce among them the platster of Paris ^ their
incredulity and prejudices were strong. Some calender-macher
told them, it attracted thunder and lightning ! and made
rich gathers, by its first operations ; but poor children, by
its final exhaustion of the soil. — Their children, now, know
better. 1 lament their prejudices ; but highly esteem them^
for many good qualities.

That a cultivated mind, and those ignorant of all culture,
save that ot the ground, should unite in the same erroneous
opinion as to the sheep, proves nothing, but the meeting of
two extremes.

R. ?•

On Tunis Sheep, 229

forced in language more generally understood, than that
of this impenetrably patient old Phrijgian,

Their long and peculiarly laping ears are, to me, the
only ungraceful parts of these sheep. Most sheep have,
more or less, the lap - ear ; but I think none others so
remarkably. I have seen an old conjecture, which I
believe Mr. Livingston has adopted, ascribing it to
confidence in their security under the protection of
man ; who guards them, when domesticated, from their
enemies ; and supersedes the necessity of listening —
erectis auribus — to impending dangers. Whether there
be, or not, any thing in the structure of the ear, shew-
mg that it was originally formed to be erect ; I, who
am not a professed naturalist, but one of the lai-gens,
will not presume to determine. I am satisfied with
knowing, that these sheep have lap -ears and broad tails :
and, believing that the Almighty had so formed them,
in the original creation of the stock, I am content.
That their pendulous ears are owing to an acquired
habit of security and confidence ; or of settled compli-
ment and submission ; produced by a similar temper
(to compare small things with great) with that which
induces the dousing of pendants, or dropping of peeks,
to friends or superiors at sea, — as if reason and instinct
evidenced like propensities, — I am not prepared pe-
remptorily to decide : though some naturalists seem to
have no difficulties on such subjects. I am less puzzled
when I believe, that their creator, for wise purposes, so
fashioned them.

No animal is more timid than the sheep ; and none
have more frequent occasions to be so. Dogs are their
eternal foes ; and dogs (lap-eared dogs among the worst)

230 On Twiis Sheep*

are the companions of their protector, — man ; and are
always near them. Dogs, 'tis true, are often tutored to
guard them ; as Arabia?! robbers are engaged to protect
Caravans^ from other banditti. But among dogs, their
foes far out number their friends. Wolves are forever
prowling after them, in all countries. Yet every where
they lap their ears ; though every where, there are un-
ceasing occasions for erecting them ; were the capacity
of so doing in their nature. It does not appear that their
causes of apprehension, cease with domestication.

I have dilated on this subject, not merely for the sake
of discussion ; but to prevent (as far as in my small
powers lies) the lap -ear sharing the fate of the broad-
tail: and (as a guardian to my dumb wards,) to rescue
the animal from the imputation of not being one of
God's creatures, *' brought forth after its A^mJ,"— but
a factitious product " whimsically" formed by the in-
tervention of " the art of man." — And yet, I feel a little
ashamed of taking any pains to prove, what seems self-
evident.^

Richard Peters.
May 22d, 1810.

* It is as difficult as vain, to oppose serious refutation to
fanciful conjecture. I have therefore, as much as possible,
avoided it. Those the best qualified in grave and logical dis-
cussions would only excite a smile, by applying them in op-
position to Lord Monhoddo's phantasm of the human taiU
No one would gravely combat an hypothetical assertion, that,
because a negro appears a variety of the human species, he
is an hybridous African animal. Indeed, those of this race
have been treated as if it really were so : save that the " art

Note, on Tunis Sheep* 2^31

of man" has been, most flagitiously, employed, not in their
formation, but in their destruction. In the quarter of the
globe inhabited by this variety of men, varieties of animals
are so numerous, that some not seen before are said, by a
traveller, frequently to present themselves. Some men, and
some sheep, have zuool ; while others, both men and sheep,
have hair* There the colour of the human skin has every
tint, -rom white to black. The ears of some quadrupeds
are almost perpendicularly erect ; while others are invete-
rately pendant ; being from one to two feet long. Such is the
Mambrina^ or Syrian goat. While the Ourang Outang^ the
head of the family of Simice^ is entirely without a tail ; the
Papiones have short stumps. One more inclined than I am
to indulge conjecture, might, with no small degree of plausi-
bility, suppose, that this precedent set by nature afforded the
hint to those who introduced the practice of docking the tails
of sheep. One of the Cercopithcci^ or tail-bearers, (a nume-
rous branch) called Midas from the " monstrosity" of his
ears, has a tail said to be three, and often four times, as
long as his body. No person would believe (although
all of this genus are pre-eminent among mimicks. — Imi-
tator es — servum pecus — J that the first followed the ex-
ample of Lord Monhoddo* s man ; and, by some artful
contrivance, cast a tail he once possessed ; or that the lat-
ter had the faculty, by some kind of instinctive ductility,
of running altogether into length, instead oi protuberance of
tail. And yet I cannot perceive why art, turnmg to its
advantage the playfulness of nature, may not root out and
abolish, oy incontinently extend, as well as protuberate and
store with materials for '' plenty of grease for the toilet and
the kitchen," the tails of whole races of animals and their de-
scendants. Provided always that the fact, of its having been
done in either case, can be established. It would be in the
Simice tribe only, that one would look for and expect, " mon-
strosities, sports and whims, excrescences and deformities."

232 Note, on Tunis Sheep.

No class o animals exhibits a more curious and extensive
variety than that of the Simiit, With whatever contempt,
disgust, or levity, they may be commonly regarded, they
afford one of the strongest instances of countless diversities,
both as to forms and capacities, to be found, in any one
species, in the animal kingdom.

it is better to take things as they are, without speculating
in unsatisfactory' hypothesis ; to which estimable men, of
otherwise highly useful talents and propensities, too fre-
quently addict themselves. Nature^ in sober truth, is only
secondary ; and regulated by

The universal cause.

Who " acts to one end, but acts by various laws."

The omnipotence, wisdom, and goodness of the creator, are
shewn in nothing more wonderfully, than in the endless va-
riety of his works. We are not therefore to consider as un-
natural, what is to us uncommon. All things were created
perfect in their kinds. Animals (to fit them lor dispersion to
replenish the earth) were suited in their forms and systems,
to the spheres in which they were respectively to live and
move. Anomalous varieties are exceptions ; produced by cli-
mate, accidental mixtures, and sometimes, 'tis true, by the
intervention of the art of man. But these, and especially the
latter, are limited in their extent and duration ; and do not
spread over vast regions of the earth ; nor uniformly pervade
whole species, and successive races and generations.

11th August 1810. I have never known 'till this day, that
some Tunis sheep have been brought into Virginia, or the
Columbia district, five or six years ago, by Commodore Baron,
I congratulate those who possess them on this acquisition.
I earnestly wish they may be more sensible of their value,
than have been those on v/hom I had the task of operating.

A''ot€, on Tunis Sheep, 233

in the commencement of my endeavours to spread them
through our country. By this time the qualities of these sheep
must be known to the Virginians ; to whom I shall be obliged
by information of their success. They will (if their sheep be
of the race I have mentioned) smile, or be surprised, at my
taking pains to describe its properties ; or deeming it ne-
cessary to subdue prejudices against a valuable animal, which
carries in itself its own recommendation ; and requires only
to be well known to ensure estimation. I hope the Vh'ginia
sheep are similar to mine. Tunis sheep have varieties, good
and bad, like those of all countries.

The mild winters and early vegetation of Virginia, and
especially of a grass called, I think, oat g-rass in their lower
country, will enable the planters there, to go into the sheep
business with great advantages. I believe many of them are
convinced, that no change in their rural economy can be for
the worse ; in some parts of their country. It is indiiferent to
me what breed of sheep they adopt, if it be a good one. They
will soon if they do not already know it, discover that race
which best suits the climate and circumstances of their
country.

R. P.

VOL. II. G g

234 Certificates and other Proofs.

Certificates ; and other Proofs.

We have followed the trade of 'Oictuallers, in the Philadel-
phia market, 25 years. We have killed very many sheep ;
of all breeds commonly sold in that market. The subscriber,
William Rusk^ has confined his business, to the killing and
vending sheep and calves^ for the most part ; and has killed
many hundreds of sheep, in ever}" year. We are well ac-
quainted with Judge Peters's Tunis breed of sheep ; origi-
nating from his stock, but purchased by us from several
farmers. They are the best sheep, compared with the gene-
ral run of that animal, in the Philadelphia market. We have
killed and sold them, for about seven years. They fat in the
flesh, and on the ribs far superior to most others. The rough
fat is as great in quantity as any common sheep ; it being
most distributed in the flesh. They fat with less food, and
are the most healthy, of any sheep we ever knew. The lambs
sell the highest of any in the market ; and are the most
sought after. We never met zvith an unsound sheep^ in all our
knowledge, of this breed. We have not kept an exact ac-
count of weights. We killed a ram oi one year old, better
than half blood, weighed 23 pounds a quarter, well furnished
with rough fat. A ewe three quarters blood — two shears —
20 pounds a quarter. A spring lamb bought of Edward
George, 14 and a halt pounds a quarter — killed the 10th of
June ; 20 pounds of gut fat in the ewe. Major Reybold in
Delaware county, bought a three quarter ram of this breed
from us. He weighed, alive, 214 pounds. The wool of the
full, or high blood, or when crossed with good fleeced sheep,
is in great estimation ; and yields more to the fleece, the
flock through ; than any other breed we have been acquaint-
ed with. Witness our hands, 16th May, 1810. Signed,

George LenTiZ.
William Rusk.
Test, John Thomas,

On Tunis Sheep. 235

These victuallers, and others, vouch for another fact. The
Tunis lambs and sheep, under, or arriving at, yearlings, fstt
as fast as any others at maturity.

I have been a victualler in the Philadelphia market very
many years. (Above 30) I kill as good, and as many sheep
of all breeds, as most butchers in the market. The vending
of mutton is my chief employment. I have seen the certificate
of George Lentz and William Rusk^ relative to the Tunis
sheep from Judge Peters's stock. My experience of the
general character, weight, and fatting of the sheep, agrees
with theirs. Save that I have known some sheep, especially
some of the Leicester breed from Jersey, lay on fat as well.
The lambs are always fine ; and the fat as well dispersed
through the carcase of the sheep, as any other breed I have
met with. The fat is always white ; and the colour of the
meat, the best of any mutton I know. Witness my hand,
21st May 1810. Signed,

Joseph Groff.

Test, Thomas Bones.

Mr. Groff farther observed — That the hind quarters al-
ways weighed peculiarly the heaviest. This was accounted
for by the weight of the tail. Few aged wethers have been
killed J the fine rams having been kept for breeders j and toa
many of the lambs killed.

236 Certificates and other Proofs.

Copy of a Letter from Major Fhiliv Reybold, Grazier and
Victualler; to Richard Peters.

I have been brought up to, and followed, the trade of a
victualler, and have attended the market in Philadelphia, for
myself, sixteen years and upwards. I think I have killed as
many sheep, as most victuallers that have attended this mar-
ket. I am, however, sure, that I have killed more of the
broad-tailed, or, as they are called, Tunis breed of sheep,
than any other person. I have killed upwards of two thou-
sand of the latter. I have killed the Merino; and the Bake-
tvell and WalVs breed, originally from England ; the St.
"Johns ; and all the various other kinds of sheep : and I am
decidedly of opinion, that the Tunis breed is preferable to all
others, for the goodness of meat. They fatten on the ribs, and
through the flesh, better than any others ; and the meat is
superior in flavour ; and will sell, to judges of good meat,
more ready than other mutton, or lamb. The lamb is sought
after in preference to all others. I have known them to be
put with other sheep, at many times, and at various seasons
of the year, to pasture, to fatten ; and, in every instance, the
Tunis sheep fattened the most speedy. It is a great mistake
that they fatten only in the tail. They fatten in all parts. It
is not confined to any particular part of their body. The
sheep are uncommonly healthy.

I have slaughtered half blooded, and three quarter
blooded lambs j many of them weighed 14 and 15 pounds
the quarter.

It is a fact, that these sheep, at a year old, fatten as well
as other sheep at a more advanced age.^'s' And I have so

* All experienced f;irmers, graziers unci victuallers, know, that it is a
rare quality in young- animals, either sheep or cattle, to fat in any degree
equal to those ag-ed- The food, in others than the Tunis breed, encreases
the growth and size, without adding to the fat ; in any important pro-
portion. R. P.

Certificates and other Proofs, 237

great an opinion of their goodness, and of the advantage to
graziers to breed from them, that I have taken a number of
them to the grazing farm in Delcnvare state ; for the purpose
of breeding from them.

Philip Reybold.
Maij 22d, 1810.

I certify that I have in my flock, a Timis, three quarter
blooded ewe, in perfect health, fat ; weighing 175 pounds, her
fleece off". She was got by Judge Peters's original, ram Cara-
melli^ and is now rising nine years old ; has never been sick
or diseased in any way, and in 1808 weighed 192 pounds ;
after shearing eight and three quarters pounds of washed
wool. None of my sheep of this breed, except oije w^ho was
injured by eating Laurel^ were ever in the least subject to
any complaint, usual with sheep ; during the nine years that
I have raised annually from 20 to 40 lambs of this breed:
although in my flock, I have constantly had common sheep
affected with the several diseases incident to that animal,
I have this day examined the ewe first mentioned. She has
not cast a tooth ; and has now eight teeth, as perfectly sound,
and as well set in the gum, as a common sheep at lour years
old.^ Signed,

Thomas Bones.
Witness^ Charles Ross,

Samuel Breck.
Lansdoxvn F arm ^ Bloc kley toxvnship^ yuly 11th, 1810.

* It is well known to farmers, and sheep breeders, that, in place of
lambs teeth, a sheep in its second year, g-ets two teeth ; in its third it has
four ; after three years old it has six ; and in its fifth year, eig'lit teeth ;
when its mouth is full. Very soon after all its teeth are perfect, the mouth
begins to break. Most sheep begin to fail in the mouth at six years old ,-

238 On Tunis Sheep.

I have taken the liberty, with a worthy and intelligent
correspondent John Gibbes Esq. of Charleston^ who is
among the most respectable planters in South Carolina^
to extract from his letter to me, dated 18th June last, —
the following paragraphs. I had sent from my little farm
flock, and purchased irom others, for my Carolina friends,
within the two or three years last past, a number of fine
Tunis sheep, of various grades of blood, from fifteen
sixteenths, to half blood. They had notice of my opinions and
experience, as to colour of fleece ; either from myself di-
rectly, or through John Vaughan Esq. who transacted the
business for them. But to indulge habits, in them, of predi-
lection for white wool, I was obliged to select some sheep,
not perfectly agreeable to my own judgment.

R. R

yuhj7th,1^10.

'' I am so much pleased with these sheep, that I have again
^' written to Mr. Vaughan to send me four ewes and three
*•• ram lambs, if they can be obtained of the three quarter-
"■ blood ; and choice short legged sheep ; and have requested
" him to procure one of the ram lambs, or a ram, of the best
*' blood possible. These sheep are much spoken of in Carolina^

tlioug-h many not 'till seven : few remain full mouthed at eight years old.
I never saw one of the common sheep entirely free from some blemish ;.
but have known the greatest number, at that age, destitute of several
teeth ; and witli mouths in very bad condition ; though they will feed
tolerably. It is rai'e for them to breed after seven or eight : though there
are instances of it, at nine or ten. It is very uncommon for sheep to have
strong and healthy lambs after eight years of age ; this being what may
be called the age of a sheep ; as it respects health, vigour and usefulness.
The Tunis sheep is the only exception known to me. Mr. Bones's certifi-^
cate will apply to all the breed. As to diseases of sheep, the catalogue
would be very small, if all flocks consisted of this race.

R. P.

On Tunis Sheep. 239

" and are generally approved of; and I am very desirous to
" procure a ram as near to the true breed as possible. My
" object is not profit ; but to gratify a delight I enjoy in see-
" ing fine sheep : and this breed appears better calculated for
'' our climate, than any race I have met with, either in En-
" rope or America,

" The form of the ram I have received is remarkably fine ;
" but the ewe is too long in the legs ; and does not sulfici-
" ently bear the marks of the Tunisian breed. I now per-
" ceive my error in attending too much to colour j as tlie
" mottled sheep which have arrived in Carolina^ are observed
" to be, invariably, superior to the white sheep ; both in form
" and fleece. This difference I presume, arises from their
" nearer approach to the true breed. The zvhite resemble
" our native sheep."

It has become, I perceive by Mr. Gibbes's letters, a cus-
tom, to send, coast wise, in large quantities, the wool of
southern flocks, to Philadelphia (and perhaps to other manu-
facturing cities and places) to be made up into cloth for their
house servants and field slaves ; similar to what are called
the best plains ; and it is done to their satisfaction. Let the
Carolina gentlemen select out of the finer parts of the best
Tunis fleeces (as I have done) wool for their own wearing,
I will be responsible that their coats will not be disgraced in
a comparison with any cloth (if well manufactured, and this
oan be done) of the best wool of this country. The Merino
cloth I always except,

R, P.

June 7th, ISIO.

[ ' 240 ]

On Tunis Mountain Sheep — wool.

That I may complete the account of this sheep, I
shall, as opportunity offers, collect and communicate
facts respecting the wool: but, I fear, too few have suffi-
ciently attended to it ; the mutton having been the prin-
cipal object. This has been a mistake almost as gross, as
its opposite extreme, of making the use of the animal,
for the most part, if not entirely, to consist in bearing
a crop of wool. Most undoubtedly this is an important
faculty ; but it should be combined with other quali-
ties. The eaters^ in a general convention, would far
outvote the mere manufacturers. The side of the great
majority would be that — of fine mutton and a comfort-
able coat — in preference to a very superior garment,
and proportionately inferior esculent. Very fine wool,
and prime mutton are rarely, if ever, found together..
If they can be combined, as it is alleged they may. —
it is "a consummation devoutly to be wished." — And
the experiment is well worthy our unbiassed attention,
and best endeavours.

The great body of farmers (however it may be with
a few) will find their account under present circum-
stances, in the sheep, whose carcase both for quality and
size, is always in demand for the market ; and its wool
sufficient in fineness and plenty, for all purposes com-
monly required ; of whatever breed it may be. Few
'Pennsylvania farmers could, or would, keep a flock,
merely for the fleece. It is the general custom, to cull
the flock after shearing ; and sell the fat sheep to but-
chers. No temptation of wool, w^ould induce many to

On Tunis Mountain Sheep — wool. 241

change this habit : especially those whose pastures are
luxuriant, and fatten the sheep quickly. Flocks, on
pastures overstocked, are thinned, by sales of those fat,
and of store sheep, for others to feed. Habits, good or
bad, are not easily discontinued. If flocks for fine wool,
can be made a special J.:jusiness, none can wish more
sincerely than I do, for its accomplishment. To pre-
serve them, other good breeds should be encouraged.*
When this plan is extensively executed, millions of
acres, at this time called barrens, will be converted into
sheep walks. They now throw up, in cleared spots,
white clover in abundance. The difficulty will be
winter food, for large flocks; or, what is more unattain-
able, early spring succulent fodder, when they most re-

* In Great Britain, there are fourteen distinct varieties of
sheep, some of them as indifferent as any we have. It would
be an usei'ul inquiry, if measures for ascertaining and distin-
guishing the varieties of sheep in our country, were taken.
In all breeds, the wool should be an object of great attention,
but it has been too much neglected. Breeds might easily be
kept distinct, and not (as they too often are) indiscrimi-
nately mixed. The long wool and the short, the fleeces being-
applicable to different fabrics and uses, might, with no diffi-
culty and a little care, be always kept from mixture ; and
each brought to its appropriate perfection. If it be thought,
as no doubt it will, that I have been prolix and too minute,
let others condense their accounts of breeds and qualities of
sheep. So that,v/hen every information is gained, a fair compe-
tition and emulation may be excited. This will effectually im-
prove all breeds, and greatly conduce to the public prosperity.
In England, and all countries, particular breeds have the run of
the day, get out of fashion, and yield to fortunate competitors.
VPL. II. H h

242 ' Mr. Duponfs Factory.

quire it. Our winters, and other circumstances, forbid
turnip- culture, in the extent practiced in Europe.

I have recently had much gratification in visiting the
establishment of Messrs. Dupont 8>c Co. (near Wilming-
ton Delaware) for the manufacture of gun-powder. Mr.
Dupont will do our country irri|jortant service, while he
gains, for himself and his associates, well earned repu-
tation, by bringing to perfection a nationally interesting
manufactory, on a very extensive scale. It is not with-
out some knowledge of the subject, (to which my public
duty called my attention during our revolutionary con-
test) that I express my conviction, that these works
are well worthy of national patronage ; though, fortu-
nately, their proprietors, by their own efforts, will en-
sure success ; now they have overcome the difficulties,
which, heretofore, they have encountered. It would do
honour, in any country, to those who should found
and conduct, such an establishment.

That he may, in some degree, balance the mischiefs,
in which the lethal means of destruction he furnishes,
involve mankind ; Mr. Dupont (in connection with the
company) is commencing a work for their comfort and
preservation. It is a Idivg^ factor i/^ for woollen and cotton
fabrics; to be conducted under the charge of his brother.
As much to set an example, as to assist his views in ma-
nufacturing, he is (in conjunction with Mr. Bauduy^ one
of his partners, who has some fine sheep on another
farm) beginning a plan for establishing a flock of me-
rinos; in which he has made very promising progress.
His ram Don Pedro^^ is of the perfect breed, and his

^ The projecting occiput of the merino head, behind the
cars and horns, (of which latter offal^ it has a plentiful sup-

Remarks on Form of Merinos, 243

" ' ' ' ' ' ' !■ I HI ' .1 ^

wool far exceeds any I have seen (for others may be equal

ply) and the dexvlap^ or pendulous skin under the neck and
throat, are marks of blood and race. I cannot conjecture why
these should have been overlooked or Ibrgotten, when the
broad-tail was called a sport of nature. I saw in Don Pedro^
the first perfect merino sheep, I had ever attentively examin-
ed, when stripped of its fleece. If the merino should be of
African origin (as some suppose) nature, in that quarter, is
singularly playful ; and addicted to strange pranks in the ani-
mal kingdom : if it be really so, that broad-tails^ bunches ^pro-
tuberant occipita and sheep's dewlaps^ are her sporting amuse-
ments : and I see not that she should be confined to any one,
(if so they are) of these eccentric fantasies. — But the truth is,
that in Africa there are more original indigenous varieties of
animcds and plants^ than in any other quarter of the globe. It
was the scene of primitive creation; and not of nature's sports.
It is common, I perceive, to dock the tails of merino sheep.
A question of Mr. Dupont's — " Whether I thought that of
the Tunis sheep could be safely cut off?" (which he asked
with a view to its facilitating the crossing a ewe with his ram)
reminded me of an omission in my remarks on this sheep.
The configuration of the under part of the Tunis tail, assists
in carrying off the excrement ; so as not to foul the wool ;
and to pieserve a general cleanliness in the hinder parts.*—
This sheep rarely scours ; as do common sheep on succu-
lent pastures ; owing to weak or diseased bowels. The ope-
ration of excision, of the whole tail, would not be safe ;
nor do the reasons exist, as to this, which induce the dock-
ing other sheep. We sometimes cut off the supplementary
curl or tail, below the fleshy protuberance. This may be done
with perfect safety, though it disfigures the tail, and is not
essential to cleanliness. Crossing can be accomplished with no
great difficulty, but it requires some management. It is fre-
quently effected, ^y^thout any auxiliary means, with a Tuni$
ewe.— R. P.

244 Comparison of Tunis and Merino Wool.

to it) except that from Mr. Livingston's stock. 1 enter
into no comparisons on this subject ; not professing to
have sufficient quaUfications for it. The celebrity of Col.
Humphreys'* s sheep and wool, is generally known. But
I have never seen any of his prime sheep, nor their
wool ; though I have seen many of the mixed breed
from his stock. I had with me at Mr. Duponfs, sam-
ples of the Tunis wool ; which I had the opportunity
there of comparing with several specimens of the 7nerino
fleeces, from several quarters. W ith Mr. Diipoiifs wool,
mine will bear no comparison. But I was myself sur-
prised to find, that the wool of the ewe No. 2, in the
plate, will compete with, and is considered by those
who are judges, as fine in its fibre as, that of a sample
of real merino wool, oft' a sheep imported into New- York
from Spain ; and offered, with several others, for sale ;
at the price of 1500 dollars each. I should once have
thought my own, and more particularly this merino
wool, of a very extraordinary degree of fineness. But it
required very little discernment, to distinguish the dif-
ference, in favor of Mr. Duponfs wool. I know mine
(when justice is done to a flock, in selection and keep-
ing) to be evidently superior to most, and equal to any,
of the wool I have compared it with, except the me*
rino. 1 have sent herewith samples, by which my opi-
nion may be tested. And yet the Tunis wool is by many,
held in disrepute ; because those who have these pre-
judices, have met with fleeces from crosses with coarse
woolcd sheep. I have myself seen multitudes of morti-
fying instances of this kind of inattention ; and especially
where large, or white, sheep, were the objects of crossing.
It is far from my intention, to hold up this wool, as
to fineness, on any equality with a good merino fleece.

Breeding In and In, 245

■•' • ' " ' ~~^

But I wish to rescue it from mistaken and groundless
objections, and to establish it as a most valuable house-
hold material ; as well as for general purposes required
in a woollen manufactory.

Breeding in and in

Mr. Dupont believes (as do others) that he can, for
any length of time, continue the race, in size and pu-
rity, by breeding in and hu As my experience, on the
scale with which I have been acquainted, both in my
own attempts to preserve the blood and breed of sheep,
and other domestic animals, as well as in the practice
I have observed in other farmers, has been otherwise ;
I requested him to continue crossing and bringing up
the blood in that way — as a branch — in combination
with his plan of breeding from the same family. But
he seems to prefer the latter exclusively ; though he is
now, from necessity, obliged to cross. I never enforce
for the sake of mere argument and persistence, any
opinion of mine. I am free to grant, that if selections
of breeders of the same race, are made from several
extensive flocks ; and the better if locality be distant (as
was done in collecting, ameliorating and continuing the
Rambouillet flock) much more certainty would exist.
Perhaps permanency in blood and qualities, as well as
size, would be ensured. The next best step, where the
flock is small and fixed to a spot, would be to kill off',
or sell to butchers, as I have often done, all inferior
sheep and lambs, (and a good mutton sheep is on this
account preferable) and keep none but the most promis-
ing for breeders. Probably selecting in a very large Jlock

246 Breedht^ In a?id In

't>

of the same race, though it may be stationary as to place
where it is kept, the best and most promising (of both
sexes) for breeders which should have no intercourse
with inferior sheep, would effect the purpose. I could
enumerate many instances (some very recent) occurring
under my own observation and that of others, in my own
and neighbours uock's, where interchanging our sheep
with distant farmers, for one or two seasons, has, in a most
evident degree, materially improved the subjects of such
changes, in fleece and every other respect. But where
the parent stock is confined to a few, kept for a length
of time on the same spot ; I never could, with all the
care I could take, prevent degeneracy in the full-blood-
ed progeny of the direct line, after a few descents, the
number of such descents being uncertain ; and not go-
verned, as to this effect, by any fixed rules. The dete-
rioration frequently, but not always, shews itself in the
third or fourth descent ; when, in the same number,
the blood, size and fleece, brought up by judicious
crossings, are approaching to perfection. It has been
almost invariably so, in cases falling under my obser-
vation ; and these have been numerous. To some of
thiose \vho are of a contrary opinion, I am ready to yield,
in doubtful, speculative, or abstract questions ; but I
cannot, in this, be so compliant, as to abandon the re-
peated evidence of my senses.

Richard Peters.
Jujie Sth, 1810.

I never heard of any difficulties or accidents in z/f^/zz;?^, oc-
curring with Tunis ewes. They are broad and roomy in the
quarters ; stand wide on their hind legs, and, being strong
and healthy, they have easy birtlis. R» P«

[ 247 J

On SIiBep-killing Dogs. By Richard Peters.

Read August 14th, 1810.

Since my communication respecting the Tunis sheep ^
and their woo/, my flock has been attacked, and much
injured, by dogs ; the flock having been imprudently
left during the night, by my tenant, in a frontier field $
instead of being penned, near home, at nights, as should
be done by every careful keeper of sheep. Caution is
not always fortunate, but it should always be awake.

A single dog will commit extensive ravages ; but
most frequently dogs prowl in pairs, or greater num-
bers. The flagitious sagacity of dogs is almost incre-
dible, when they are addicted to sheep-killing. They
often kill both in the day and night ; but more com-
monly in the grey of the morning, as do the humaji
savages of our wilderness. Of this vice, when it is once
fixed, they are never cured while living : death is the
only effectual remedy. When a dog has set his devoted
victims, he frequently collects confederates, to assist in
the slaughter. They adroidy pierce the jugular vein,
and gorge themselves with blood. They will not at first
devour the flesh, if there is blood sufficient to glut
them. They leave the carcases for a second repast, on
returning to the fi^ld of carnage. In this second expe-
dition, they expose themselves to the revenge of a
watchful marksman ; and are often shot, while on their
march, or feeding on the dead bodies. They do not
always return, but seek for more victims ; ^preferring
another feast of blood, to the ffesh of those already ^ain.

248 Ofi Sheep-killing Dogs.

The flesh is rendered worthless by their rabid bite, and
rapidly putrefies.

A gentleman, from Maryland, informed me, that, in
his neighbourhood, a dog-trap was constructed, of strong
common fence rails, and so formed, that dogs can enter
(inclined poles being placed outside, as gang-ways)
but cannot escape. It is a strong pen, raised eight or
ten feet high, and horizontally covered with heavy
rails, except a small opening in the centre, through
which a dog leaps down. It is baited with dead, or
worthless living, sheep. Recently, near his residence,
seveji dogs were, in one night, caught in this trap. They
had killed, in that neighbourhood, within the ten days
preceding, 130 sheep.

A flock, after being worried by dogs, does not soon
recover from the panic excited by their misfortune.
But in time they become tranquil ; though, at first,
the distant bark, but more the sight, of any dog afilicts
them with dismay. Their consternation, for a time, imi-
tates, in an humble degree, that of Milton'' s victims to
more fearful and merited vengeance ; when

" Horror on them fell.

And horrid sjmpathy."

But I do not perceive, in my dicomfited flock, that the
lap-ear is in the least erected, under their continual ap-
prehensions. Their ears (which chey project frequently,
but do not much elevate) still remain pendant ; yet, if
they have any consciousness on the subject, they must
feel a conviction, that their protector- /tza/z — has not
been vigilant in his guardianship. Their legs have the
most sympathy with their fears, when a dog presents
himself to their view. Though generally quiescent, yet^

On Sheep-killing Dogs. 249

on such occasions, as well as in their sportive frolicks,
they decidedly prove, that " the shepherd who first ob-
served this Lusus Naturae^'* had none of this race '* in
his ilock.'^ So far are they from being " unwieldy''''
that, when terrified or playful (operated upon by differ-
ent stimuli) they are (as were of old the Gadites, who,
being of the same country, pi'ohably were masters of
flocks, if they were as wise as they were valiant, com-
posed of this race, being of the same country J "swift as
the roes on the mountains." But it often happens that
sheep in their flight, however rapid at times, face fre-
quently round ; and, torpid with fear, await destruction.
A spirit for extending profitably our attention to the
raising this highly useful animal the sheep, appearing
now to be alive in all quarters of our country, it is our
interest, as well as a duty we owe to the community,
to be assistant in every way ; and particularly to the
execution of the laws on the subject. It is in the power
of every body to assist ; positively or negatively. No
unnecessary dogs should be kept. If numbers were les-
sened, those retained would be well fed ; and few or
none compelled to wander in search of prey. Not only
sheep killings but diseases and madness in dogs are fre-
quently eft'ects, either immediate or consequent, of
keen and long continued hunger ; which stimulates to
gorging voraciously on whatever esculent they find ;
and not seldom on putrid and unwholesome food. The
rabid and feverish thirst for blood, is a species of mania ;
and it is sometimes the forerunner of complete canine
madness. Sheep -killers can often be distinguished by
a sharp and wild yell ; very different from the tones
of other dosrs.

VOL. II. I i

250 Pennsylvania Dog-Law,

Our dog-law is a good one; and it does not exclude tlic
remedy, at common law, against a person keeping a dog
knowing him to be addicted to sheep-killing. Our act
imposes a tax on dogs. For one dog it is light, for a se-
cond, kept by the same person, or in the same family, it is
heavier ; and it is so increased for a third, or a greater
number, as to amount, if not to a prohibition, at least to a
check, on the unreasonable multiplication of the num-
bers of dogs. The tax is paid into the county treasury.
The value of sheep killed by dogs is ascertained by the
persons chosen, in every township, for the settlement of
township accounts ; and paid out of the county treasury,
on the certificates of the appraisers. The balance re-
maining, after the demands on the fund are satisfied, is
to be laid out, by the county commissioners, for the
purchase of merino^ or other good sheep ; to be distri-
buted, for the benefit of farmers, in a mode prescribed.
In the city, the tax is applied in relief of the poor rates.
Those who are notified that their dogs have killed
sheep, must kill them ; or subject themselves to con-
sequences.

This law is intended for the protection of valuable
property ; and to encourage the breed of the best ra-
ces of sheep. Appraisers should enter into its spirit
and meaning, by just valuations of sheep killed by
dogs. If they make no distinction between good and
ordinary breeds, one great object of die law is defeated.
Speculating and capricious price should not, 'tis true,
be the criterion : but a reasonable and current one, for
the kinddi sheep, and its use to the owner, while living,
should certainly be the rule. Instead of viewing the
subject in this light, I have been informed of some in-

On Sheep-killing Dogs, 251

stances, where the vahie of a number of sheep, of an
estimable and uncommon race, was fixed at the price
butchers would give, for common sheep devoted to the
knife.

Many dogs are faithful and useful animals, essentially-
necessary to the safety of our property, — even that of
our sheep, — to our innocent and healthful amusements,
— and to many profitable pursuits. There should be no
hue and cry, or ill founded prejudices, indiscriminately
raised against them. But they are kept in too great
numbers, and of breeds, in many instances, worthless ;
and many, being ill fed and hungry at home, are com-
pelled to prowl for sustenance.'^ It should be made dis-
graceful and uncivic, in those who keep supernumerary,
worthless, or starved dogs. They injure society, by ex-
posing the persons of their fellow- citizens to disease and
death ; and their property to plunder and destruction,
when such dogs become mad, or ravenous beasts of
prey. No person should hesitate to sacrifice a vile and
vicious dog ; but, on the contrary, should assist in
detecting and punishing his enormities. Many dogs
will, however, chase sheep from wantonness, or ill

^ A baker's man was serving bread to a family in the city,
at a house in which I was at the time. He had with hun
three large dogs ; and I expressed my surprise at the number.
He said thei/ were not the whole of those kept by his
master ; who had, — ^big and lit le, — eleven, — I asked how
he could support such a number ? the reply was — " easy
enough ; — they supplied themselves through the town ; —
and often brought home some pretty good things J^''

R. P,

252 On Sheep-killing Dogs,

temper, Avho have not the vice of sheep-killing. —
They should be at once chastised, checked and watch-
ed; as it may lead to vicious habits.* But I have
known dogs worry, and even bite sheep, as they would
tresspassing hogs, or cattle, who are not to be number-
ed among the blood-sucking (for this is the test) gang
of sheep-killers.

A great number of my friends, through life, having
been sportsmen^ I would very unwillingly offend those
who occasionally devote diemselves to the amusements
of the field. I have never disregarded the old saying —
"love me, love my dog." — But truth compels me to say,
that I have found among sporting-dogs, some of the
w^orst enemies to sheep. Hounds are the most atrocious;
and some pointers, spaniels and other water dogs — bad.
I join in detesting curs and mongrels, they benig pro-
verbially vagrants and sheep- killers.

How to regulate the keeping of dogs, so as not to les-
sen their benefits, while we are correcting their abuses,
is a difficult task. In Great Britain, their varieties of
dogs exactly equal in number that of their varieties of
sheep ; yet, I believe, fewer hijuries occur from dogs ;
owing to a strong sense of the value of sheep induc-
ing more care, and more strict attention to the execu-

^ A young dog, having wantonly bitten and mangled a
large lamb, so that it died, was muzzled by one of my ser-
vants, and tied to the dead lamb, for a day and a night, and
severely beaten. He was entirely cured of his propensity
for chasing sheep j and would never afterwards approach

them.

R. P.

0;z Sheep -killing Dogs. 253

tion of the laws. It would be beneficial to collect the
regulations, whatever they may be, of all countries on
this subject ; and epitomise, into a little code, such as
are applicable to our circumstances.

Richard Peters.
June lU/z, 1810.

To the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture.

[ 254 ]

ExrpL A NATION of the Plate.

No. 1. A three quarter blooded ram — four years old—
cliieily white fleeced. White face — cheeks and legs, tawney.
A handsome, healthy, vigorous tup. If there are any objec-
tions to him, they are, with me, that his fleece is too white
for the breed ; though his other characteristic marks are
good. These sheep were drawn when the fleeces were of
three months growth. When full fleeced the anatomy, figure
and points cannot be correctly shewn. On this account, I
rejected drawings of them taken when unshorn.

2. A full blooded ewe rising five years old, — a fine heal-
thy sheep ; from the original ewe Sdima^ and a full blooded
ram. Cheeks black — face and fleece (with some dusky spots)
generally white- — legs swarthy. In every point an exact like-
ness of her dam; who was in her 12th year when the lamb
was dropped.

Selhna^ in the year 1804, had her teeth in full perfection ;
and a mouth equal to any sheep at five years old. It has been
gradually breaking since ; she has now some teeth, and feeds
well. I think her mouth is now as good as those of common
sheep, at half her age. She is now in her 1 7th year ; in perfect
health, and retains her fleece ; though it is much lighter than
it was a few years ago, and in its fibre not as fine.* She has
not in general been attentively kept, but has borne neglect
without injury. She has never been diseased in anyway;
though she has constantly ran in mixed flocks, v/herein al-

* Although these sheep will endure longer in health and qualities than

others ; and, while their numbers were few, it \yas necessary to preserve

the stock, I do not approve of keeping- aged sheep too long.

R. P.

Explanation of the Plate. %BS

most every disease, incident to sheep, has been frequent. She
had lambs in 1807 and 1808, but, being lambed in an incle-
ment season, they died. One of them was not a healthy
lamb.

The old ram died, in Lancaster county, at about 15 years
old, in health and vigour, by an accident in some rencounter.
He must have been out of luck; for I have seen him in a furious
and awful conflict, in which he finally defeated a powerful
young bull, in my farm yard, after a bitter contest of half an
hour's continuance. Though he received some bad flesh
wounds, he eluded every attempt to toss him ; and, at every
fair opportunity, gave tremendous proofs of his being, lite-
rally, an animated battering ram, I had determined to shoot
the bull, though a valuable one, to save the ram; as they could
not be separated. While I went for a musket, the victory was
decided by the bull's retreat. He was generally gentle, good
tempered and playful, though sometimes rough in his plea-
santry. But when enfuriated, he was fearfully ferocious. He
had a mode, like deer, of striking with his fore-foot ; so that
the fiercest dog I had, dreaded and avoided him. He once
saved a flock, by making battle against a dog, 'till a rescue
arrived. All fled, but his partner Selhna ; who, fixed to his
fate, stood aloof, at a small distance from the combatants,
not willing to desert her companion, to whom she was at-
tached by habit and instinctive affection.

I have mentioned these traits of character, in the original
pair, because they descend, though not always thus strongly
marked, to all the race ; when care is taken of the crosses,
and justice is done to the flocks.

o. A three quarter ewe, six years old. Generally white,
with some tawney spots. Head, face, cheeks, and legs, tawney.
Remarkably handsome ; with all the points and qualities of
the breed.

256 Explanation of the Plate.

4. and 5. The tails of the ram and ewe reversed. Those
of the ewes are always the smallest ; as are the ewes them-
selves.

Many of this race are mottled or spotted with brown or
tawney. The fewest have black spots ; some are black en-
tirely ;«— but in no greater proportion than other breeds.

I regret that I have (impelled by a desire to serve the
interests of others) conceived myself under the necessity of
so much enlarging on the subject of these useful domestic
animals ; which to many may appear not worth the pains.
I am well aware that a very few lines, containing results of
great pecuniary profits, would have carried stronger convic-
tions, than a volume of other facts, or descriptions, written
by a much abler pen than mine. It their value had been
earlier and more generally known and attended to, I could
have drawn together very important pecuniary inducements.
If, even under all untoward circumstances, facts of profit
could be collected ; I should not fear to assert, that the
amount would magnetically attract those, in whom emolu-
ment is the sole and dominant propensit}^

R. Peters.

I 257 3

It would give me much more pleasure, and to ever}'' farmer
much more profitable instruction, to assist in dijOfusing the
useful and valuable productions of Mr. Livingston, upon
subjects beneficial to our agriculture and rural ceconomy ;
to the prosperity whereof, his example, as well as precepts,
have most essentially contributed. I think it just, however,
that if I have misconceived what he has written, I may be
corrected by his own words*

R. P.

Extract from the Essay 07i sheep — their varieties ^c*
Pages, 27, 28.

" The race of sheep that I shall next notice is one that is
more extensively diffused than any otlier^ since it is found
throughout Asia and a great part of Alrica, as well as
through the north-eastern parts of Europe. I reter to the
broad-tailed sheep, (Ovis aries lati-caudataj These differ as
the ordinary European race in the nature of their covering.
In Madagascar, and some other hot climates, they are Aairz/, at
the Cape of Good-Hope they are covered with coarse harsh
wool ; in the Levant their wool is extremely fine, or in other
words, they are adapted to the necessities of the people by
whom they have been changed from their wild to their domes-
tic state. These sheep are generally larger than those of
Europe^ in which circumstance only, and the form and size
of their tails they differ from them. The broad-tailed sheep
are of three species. In the one the tail is not only broad,
but long, and so weighty, that the shepherds are compelled
to place two little wheels under it, to enable the sheep to drag
it. These tails are said sometimes to weigh from forty to

VOL. lU K k

25S Extract from Mr. Livi?igston's Essay on Sheep.

fifty pounds. Another species have the tail broad and flat,
but not very long, covered with wool above, but smooth
below, and divided by a furrow into two lobes of flesh j these
are also said to weigh above thirty pounds : I should not
however estimate the weight of those which I saw in the
Menagerie at Paris, at more than ten or twelve pounds. In^
some species a small thin tail projects from the center of this
fieshy excrescence. The composition of this excrescence is
said to be a mixture of flesh with a great proportion oi fat,
and to be a very delicate food ; hut the animal has little
other fat^ the tail being in him the repository of that fat
-which lays about the loins of other sheep. In cold climates
the fat of the tail resonbles suet ; but in warm ones, as at the
Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar &c. it is so soft that when
melted it will not harden again. The inhabitants mix it with
tallow in certain proportions, when it assumes the consistency
of hogs lard^ and is then eaten like butter, or used for culinary
purposes. Naturalists imagine that this excrescence is owing to
some circumstances in the food of the sheep, which makes the
fat fall dozunfrom the loin into the taily and thus occasions this
monstrosity. I do not, however, think this probable, since the
prodigious extent of country through which this race is pro^
pagatedy must render the food as various as the climates in
which they are bred. I rather think that it owes its origin to
the art of man^ grounded on some of those sports of nature^
which in all domestic animals, afford a basis whereon to en-
graft his xvhimsP

28. 29. " It may be asked to what end would man culti-
vate this deformity^ and that too through so extensive a re-
gion as to forbid our attributing it to whim or fashion ? may
nol the shepherd who first observed this Liisus Naturae in his
flock have concluded, that he had made a veiy valuable ac-
quisition, since he jiot only had a sheep that gave him as
much wooly milk or fesh as the rest of his flock, but a taily
which, in addition^ gave him a comfortable meal, or what is

Extract from Mr, Livingstones Essay on Sheep. 259

still more valuable among" savages^ plenty of grease for his
toilet and his kitchen. This circumstance alone would make
him attentive to cherish and propagate the deformity ; and
the rather as he must soon have found that it was attended
with another important advantage ; the sheep being more
unwieldy^ would be less apt to stray or return to its savage
state ; an object of considerable importance in the early state
of society.

C i 3

Proofs of the OriginaHty^ and high Estimation^ of Broad-
tailed Sheep,

Having found, for some years past, that old xvine is not to
me the milk of old age^ I have contented niyseli under the
privation ; but have not parted with a moderate share of re-
lish ^or old books. The oldest and the best of all books, and
the commentaries of some of its most instructive annotators,
afford most satisfactory proofs of the originality of the broad-
tailed sheep. The discovery of the animal, or its uses, were
not left to the fortuitous observation of an ignorant shepherd;
nor was the tail devoted to '-^ the toilet and the kitchen," of the
occasional tenant of a mud-built hovel. The learned, splendid,
and instructive work of sche'uchzer, entituled '*• physic a sa-
cra," printed at Ulm in Germany nearly 80 years ago, will fur-
nish to those who have the curiosity to turn to it, a full account
of the ovES LATicAUD^.^ In the platcs cciv. ccv.Tom. i,
pages 232, 3, there are drawings oi these sheep (one very
like my ewe No. 2) and of the ceremonies in placing the
tails on the altars, by the priests of the Israelites. These
plates would do credit to a modern engraver. They are in-
tended to elucidate his learned commentary on the 22 verse,
of chapter 29, of Exodus, The whole work is calculated to
prove the agreement in the accounts given by the sacred
writers, with what is known in modern times, in natural his-
tory, and the arts and sciences ; whereof this extensive and
amusing work, embraces the whole circle of knowledge in his
time.

The words in our translation are, " and thou shalt take of
the ram, the fat and the rump ;" which Scheuchzer translates
from the Hebrew " Tolles quoque adipem de ariete, et can-
dam,"*"* " Thou shait take the fat of the ram and its tailJ**

* BioaU-iaileci sheep.

The high Estimation of Broad-tailed Sheep. ii

• ' •" ' " •••" ' i'

The Israelites y^^YQ expressly enjoined to select the best parts
of the victims for the sacrifices ; but he cites Tertullian t6
reproach the Pagans^ who placed on the altars ol their false
gods the worthless parts, and reserved the best ior them-
selves ; contrary to their own sense of propriety. He shews
that the sheep of Syria^ Arabia^ Persia and the African
sheep generally, were of the broad-tailed race ; and that the
tails of other sheep were not worthy of consecration. The
Hebrew word for the Laticauda is nbK — Aliah ; but that for
the tails of other animals is i:r — Zanab ; and the modern Ara-
bians preserve the same distinction. In Greek versions, the
word oa(^lv^ and not ks^hoo-, or «f<x, is used ior the Laticauda, He
describes the varieties of the Lauticaudce ; and adds — *' sunt
hujus modi caudae delicatissimus cibus."—- The tails of these
sheep are the most delicate food : — and as such were worthy of
being devoted to the altar, — to fulfill the express injunctions of
the scriptures. He produces authority from ancient writers to
shew, that, according to the Jewish customs and rites, these
Laticaudce^ being '•'■partes opimas victhnarxim^'^ (the richest
parts of the victims) were thus devoted. So that we find a
more dignified and pious use for the Laticauda than that
of furnishing " plenty of grease for the toilet and the kitchen,"
of a squalid tender of sheep.

Under the old dispensation, the Israelites were bound to
sacrifice the best parts of the victims : but xve are now only
called upon to lay on the altar, (not in honour of our creator,
but for our own purification) the worst parts of ourselves.
And notwithstanding it is a religious and moral duty, to sacri-
fice, among those parts, an unwarrantable thirst for gain ; yet
this selfish indulgence sometimes benefits society; although the
sophisms of the author of the " Fable of the Bees^"* are not
generally justified. The high prices obtained for merinos have
roused American enterprize. This crouds into our ports, and
plentifully adds to the wealth of our country (procured from
the wrecks of the fortunes of their former European proprie-

iii The high Estimation of Broad-tailed Sheep.

',,1. ' ■ ■■ ■ ■ ...

tors) those most valuable animals ; a small number whereof
had been, here, in the hands oi a very few persons. It would
now be as difficult as unnecessary, to enumerate the indivi-
duals who possess them. Instead of its being a rarity for
me to see fine sheep of this breed, they have already become
familiar : and that by an accumulation so rapid, as to appear
a kind of magical delusion. Accessions must continue to ar-
rive ; for speculation is alive and active* Their depressed
owners must part with precarious property ; and the patriots
of Spain willingly assist in thinnmg their country, of these
subjects of monopolies, which have long been its scourge. —
The laws and regulations in Spain^ on the subject of sheep ^
have ever been oppressive on the people, and injurious to the
agriculture of the country. The flocks and the system will dis-
solve together. Whatever may be the final fate of that country, it
will be, for a long time, too much disturbed, to suffer the flocks,
or the system, to remain on their former establishments.

Regaled as I have been by my excursion among the meri-
nos^ I return, however, not only with undiminished, but with
increased pleasure, to my Tunisians ; and the old author who
celebrates their progenitors. He cites Herodotus b. 3. c. 115.
Aristotle's account of Syria^ Hist : b. 8. c. 28. Diodorus b. 2.
Pliny b, 8. c. 48 ; and other antient authors (several whereof
I have examined) as proofs of the description and good quali-
ties of this race of sheep, in times the most remote. We, in
our day, have the opportunity o: testing, hy easy and agreeable
experiment^ the verity of these old authors. We may com-
pare them, too, with the more humble, but equally just,
proofs from the practical witnesses I have produced. I took
Scheuchzer'^s advice. He tells us " that to explain such texts,
and others like them, we must not only enter the store-
houses of grammatical and other learning, but we must go
into the slaughter-houses oi the butchers ; — " intra?ida lani-
onum laboratoria^'' as well as into more elevated anatomical
theatres.

The high Estimation of Broad-tailed Sheep, iV

The carcass (which is as much entitled to celebrity for
its mutton, as is the merino fleece for its filament) must not
be forgotten. It wants no other proofs of its excellence, but
the " intranda lanionum laboratoria." Yet we may find such
proois now, as well as in ages the most ancient; and by tes-
timony the most convincing. The flesh of all victims sacri-
ficed ;or sin, were wholly the perquisites of the priests of the
Israelites ; save when sacrifices were made for their own, and
the sins oi the whole congregation. In other sacrifices, desig-
nated parts, or portions, were assigned to them. Priests, in all
ages, have been practical judges ot g'ood living-; and, when they
can righteously obtain it, are now so. I say not this to the dis-
paragement of modern priests, for no one respects them more
than I do ; nor is any one better satisfied than I am, that
those who serve at the altar should live well by it. The
divine author of the regulation, which demanded sacrifices of
of the ^'•adipein et partes opimas^'^ ordained, that the victims,
of course, should be of the fattest and best animals. Worthless
perquisites might have induced Pagan temptations, to lead
astray the Israelitish ministers at the altars. The richest parts
'tis true, were devoted ; but for their repasts^ food sufficiently
inviting remained. Only the fat which could be easily sepa-
rated (see Leviticus, iii. 16.) was the Lord's; (Humphreys's
annotations 233) but " that which was intermixed with it, the
Jews ate freely of : the Gentiles also devoted the fat to their
gods." — But in their feasts on the carcasses, the latter in-
dulged in the most obscene and sinful orgies ; and thought
their gods partook of their gluttony and revels.

In Leviticus, chapter 22, and other passages of scripture, it
will appear, that the off"erings of beasts consisted only of
beeves, sheep^ and goats. For burnt- oflfer in gs the males were
exclusively devoted ; but for sin and peace-off"erings, females
might be used. They were to be without blemish, i. e. hybri-
dous mixture, deformity^ dise^Lse, or unclQ^nness. The cawi or
omentum, and other separable rich and fatty parts, being holy
when dedicated to the altar, it was indispensable, that the ani-

The hi^h Estimation of Broad-tailed Sheep.

mals ^rom which they were required should be tat. These
sheep C Laticaudce J then, were peculiarly fitted for holy victims;
the carcasses being rich and lat, and the tails being formed not
only as '•'• partes opiuice^'* but as guards against unnatural mix-
tures with other animals. The cleanness and freedom from
disease and vermin, established in their original nature, and,
in a former part of these communications, proved to be now
continued in the race, perpetuate the goodness and bounty
of the creator ; who gives to us, in our day, what, in the pri-
mitive ages, and under the old dispensation, he had devoted
to himself: not as things which could of themselves delight
him ; but as testimonies offered in his worship, and proofs of
homage and submission to his will.

Those who are not fatigued by the subject (as I confess
begins to be my own case) ma}' prolong their patience, and
read (perhaps not unprofitably) the following translation of
a passage from Scheuchzer Tom. 1, page 231.

After enjoining us to devote to the worship of God, our
best affections, pure hearts, and all the precious propensities
of our nature and systems, he adds

" So in sacrifices was the fat^ which is the most valuable
fluid of the body, Adeps means a juice or fluid, fat, oleagin-
ous, congested in certain strainers fsacculis^J and therein,
after many elaborate and curious processes, secreted in a
manner highly useful to the animal system. This is the es-
sence of the nutritive juices, or rather a superfluous nutri-
tive fluid, which ivheii aliment is deficient^ f.oxvs hack to re-
cruit the mass of blood and other parts of the system. This
.not only throws light on the text we have undertaken to ex-
plain, but on others before cited ; according to the idiom of
the language of eastern people. The God of Israel would

* Cells of the mnnHrana adipose.

The high Estimation of Broad'tailed Sheep. \\

not leave to discretion or caprice, what parts should be of-
fered in sacrifices ; but determined himself to select and en-
join them.

Scheuchzer was a celebrated physician and naturalist. His
account oifat clearly refutes (if it wanted refutation, other
than its evident improbability) the idea, that the fat of any
animal can reside exclusively in any particular part, while
other parts are meagre, and " aliment therein deficient.'* It
rvould Jioxv hack into the system^ to recruit and sustain it.
Whatever may be the modern definition of the term adeps^
it is well known that fat animals will live the longest, with-
out any, or slender supplies of food. It is found in fact, that
the tails of these sheep are small and flaccid, when the animal
is generally lean. So that the tail cannot be (agreeably to the
nature and structure of animals) neither in fat nor lean sheep,
" the repository of all the fat," or any great proportion of it.
And I know experimentally^ that the Tunis tail (or Al'ieK)
consists, in its interior, much of rich mucilage^ without an
undue proportion of fat.

A view of the Tunis sheep, or any other of the pure and
choice races of the Laticandce^ would supersede all necessity
for any other refutation of this groundless opinion. It is only
to those who have not seen or feasted on them, and have
conceived prejudices, originating in misinformation, or want
of sufficient reflection, that these observations can be, in an
important degree, necessary or useful. Having long aban-
doned rich food, I leave to others the experiment and enjoy-
ment of it.

Richard Peters^
September 25th, 1810.

I have lately compared some of my Twus wool, hastily plucked from the backs of the sheep,
jttith many neatly displayed samples off fine sheep of the English breeds in New-Jersey; whereof
that of tjie south doivn wris tlie h^st. iMy best wool was the softest; and fiaest ia the filament.

[ 260 ]

Heads of Lease for Richard Peters'' s Belmont Farm^

Read 14th, August 1810.

Belmont^ June ll^A, 1810.
Dear Sir,

Being frequently called on for my lease, by those who
wish to let farms on shares, I thought it would conduce
to the information of all who were desirous to make
such leases, to send to the society the heads of my lease.
If they think proper, the enclosed may be published
with our memoirs.

One tenant, on my Bull farm ^ has lived 15 or 16
years, under the terms stated in these heads or extracts.
He has brought up reputably a large family ; and has
got much before hand^ according to the country phrase-
ology. Several tenants, on my Belmont estate, have
lived five, six, and seven years, under this lease ; and
all have thriven. I have not been rigorous in enforcing
my priveleges ; or holding them very strictly to all
parts of their contract. But I am satisfied that I have
done myself none, and them little good, by this laxity.
Small objects may be neglected ; but every tenant is
the better and more exact and regular, by being kept
to his agreement. Relaxations, from motives of libe-
rality, may be occasionally granted. But I have found
in all instances, that though at first accepted 2i% favours^
they are claimed thereafter as rights. There must how-
ever, be confidence and liberality on both sides ; or
such a lease will be a source of constant, and vexatious
altercation.

Lease of a Farm^ on Shares* 261

I believe it to have been occasioned as much by habit,
as from conviction of its eligibility, that I have con-
tinued so long letting my farms on shares. I think
more can be made in this way, if the landlord is strict
and prying. But this has not been my course. I find
that those who want watching the most, affect to be
the most offended at even necessary and just investi-
gation. In general I have lived with my tenants more
agreeably (though perhaps not so profitably) than one
who would hold a tighter hand.

The specific share received by the landlord is much
the more easily paid or delivered by the tenant, in fre-
quent portions, and, with short accounts. Such leases
are favourable to tenants, in the highest degree ; as the
landlord partakes of all risks and losses by casualties
and bad crops. One who has a money rent to pay,
must pay it under all circumstances, of good or bad
seasons, good or ill luck. I should prefer a money rent;
if such could be justly fixed. But I have found great
difficulties in ascertaining its amount ; or getting te-
nants who would pay it. On the whole, though not
satisfied in many things, I find myself as well as most
who have let farms on money rents ; and than some
much better. The advantages and disadvantages of mv
lease, balance one another ; so that on long trial, I find
nothing hard or unjust ; taken all together. Circum-
stances must vary contracts : but I think my plan and
its details, must be generally useful, to all who desire
similar agreements. It will be the more to be depended
on, on account of its being tested by long experience ;
and cannot fail of furnishing outline ; tliough the parts

262 Lease of a Farm, on Shares,

may be variously filled up, accordingly as objects and
circumstances require.

I have not ventured, with a new tenant, to give a
lease for more than three years. Trials of temper,
industry, and management, are as necessary, in this
kind of co-partnership, as is integrity. Those who have
given any tolerable satisfaction, have always remained.
Several have held over under the terms, without actual
renewal of the lease, for many years. And these terms
have been kept (never as exactly as they should have
been) as well without as with the renewal of the instru-
ment. A perfectly good tenant in this country, where
property is so easily acquired, is so rare ; that I have
generally found it prudent to be patient with one who
was not absolutely bad ; and to be easy, under many
things I did not approve, with one above mediocrity.

Yours truly,

Richard Peters.

Dr. James Mease.

Secretary of the Philad, Sac, for promoting Agricidtiire,

C 263 3

Heads of Richard Petersh Leases to Tenants, on Shares,

Extracted from the Lease for Belmont Farm,

The legal form, is such as is common in leases re-
serving rent in money. — The specific share, or the
produce of it in cash, when Richard Peters directs or
consents to its sale, is subject to the legal modes of
recovery ; and its safety insured, by its being a lien on
the tenants property.

1. ^ht premises set on shares 2iYQ^ clearly described.
Reservations of such parts of the farm, mansion house
&c. as are thought proper by the landlord are made.
The tenanfs house and barn &c. are at a distance from
the mansion house ; to prevent inconvenient inter-
ferences, and sources of petty contests.

2. A fixed quantity of dung^ from the tenant's muck
heap, may be taken if the landlord chooses. Also straw,
not exceeding an eighth part of the whole.

3. The landlord is to put all post and rail fences , and
the tenant all xvorm fences ^ in good repair.^ The tenant
to hale all materials, found by Richard Peters, for both.
The materials for the latter, and posts for the former, to
be taken out of the landlord's woods : for worm fences
and repairs of post fences, (after being put by landlord
in good order) at the tenant's expence, or by his labour.

* This applies to the first period when the tenant arrives.:
Afterwards he is bound to keep the fences in repair as they
require it. It would be inadmissible and unjust, to let them
rot down, and call on the landlord for entire new fences.

264 Lease of a Farm, on Shares,

If the tenant leaves the farm at the end of one year, he is
to be allowed a reasonable compensation for the repairs
of worm fences. Fences to be left in good repair.

4. The tenant is to hale to Philadelphia twenty cords
o^ fire wood, cut and corded at the landlord's expence,
at a stipulated price for hauling. If the landlord choos-
es, he 7nay use the farm team, for hauling the whole
or any part.

5. The landlord to have the use of a pair of oxen ;
(furnished by him, and supported on the farm) when
he thinks proper.

6. Pasture is to be allowed to the landlord, for a fixed
number of horses and coxvs ; when he chooses to turn
in the number stipulated, or any part.

7. Allotments of proportions of all taxes are made.
In general half to be paid by each. So of ferriage and
pikage ; for transportation on joint account.

8. Neither the tenant, nor his family, are to pass
through the reserved parts of the farm, without the
landlord's consent.

9. Fire wood allowed for two fires ; one whereof
shall be in a stove. Dead and fallen timber, and tops
off trees cut for rails and posts, to be first taken ; and
every kind of economy, as to timber, duly to be ex-
ercised. The part of the wood land for tenant's fire
wood, is designated by the landlord.*

10. No lights to be used, about the barn or stacks. If
this be done, the tenant is held answerable for conse-
quences.

^' It would be better to fix the quantity of fire wood, or
its equivalent, \i it be just that any should be allowed.

Lease of a Farm^ on Shares. 265

11. The tenant is to procure, and sow clover seed
and plaister of Paris. The landlord to pay half the cost
of purchase. The tenant must leave the fields of winter
grain sown or not with clover seed^ as he finds or not
those on the farm, on his arrival, so sown, or not.

12. The landlord may kill or sell his share of lambsy
or fat sheep ; and so may the tenant. But the stock;
agreed on must be kept complete, at joint expence.
Ten wethers may be added by the landlord for his sole
use, to run with the flock in summer, if he so chooses ;
to be winter fatted at his own expence. Wool equally
divided, and losses equally borne ; unless occurring
through tenant's negligence, or fault.

13. A fixed number of swine, the landlord's sole pro-
perty, are to run, in summer with the farm stock.

14. When the landlord shall require the use of the
farm team, it shall be driven by the tenant, or some

person by him appointed. [But this is only occasion-
ally ; and must not obstruct the business of the farm,
in the season when larn\ing operations require the
horses.]

15. The tenant to be allowed to take away as much
hai/ and straw as he brings on the farm ; and no more.
The carrying off hay, straw, dung, or ashes, is prohi-
bited ; with the foregoing exception.

16. No stock to be kept for the exclusive benefit of
the tenant, all, for sale or use, to be for joint account.
Expence for covering horses, joint.

VOL. II. L 1

266 Lease of a Farm^ on Shares,

Covenants to perform articles before enumerated;
and some additions and explanations.

1. Relates to fences. Landlord to direct how fields
are to be dwided, if such divisions are found necessary.
All new division fences, directed by landlord, must be
made at his expence. Fences being put in good repair,
the tenant shall so keep them ; the landlord finding
materials as aforesaid, to be hauled by the tenant from
any place not exceeding five miles distant. Buildings
delivered in good repair are to be so kept by the tenant;
accidents by fire, not occurring through negligence or
fault, excepted.

2. Tenant to pay taxes in first instance ; and land-
lord to allow the part allotted to him.

3. Landlord to pay for all manure hauled by tenant
from other places ; but landlord to decide on price.
Tenant to use all possible care and diligence, to make
and collect manure on the farm.

4. The tenant is to do all the work on the farm at his
sole expence. To find all implements of husbandry ; and
articles necessary for the dairy. He shall sell and dis-
}>ose of such products as are mutually agreed to be
sold ; accounting for proceeds : and sell landlord's
share, or part thereof if so directed, as to any article or
thing.

5. Manure to be laid on places only, agreed on by
mutual consent. The fields cultivated^ quantity^ and
species of grain sown, and the general husbandry to be
fixed by both parties : and no cropping, or cultivation^
but such as shall be mutually agreed on.

Lease of a Farm^ on Shares. 267

6. The grain and other products, usually so mea-
sured, are to be divided by the bushel (such excepted as
are agreed to be sold and the proceeds divided) and
delivered into landlord'' s granary on the farm ^ or hauled
by tenant, if landlord so requires, to any mill or place
not exceeding five miles distance. Indian corn, first
divided, and stored in the cob ; but it shall be shelled
or threshed by the tenant, when landlord requires. Half
the fax to be delivered from the swingle. No grain to
be stored, or kept by the tenant in the dwelliftg house,

7. Landlord to find, or, at his option, pay for, one
half of all seed; whether for the garden- truck, roots,
or grain,

8. Landlord's share shall be delivered, or at his option
safely stored; and properly sheltered and preserved ^ or
sold and proceeds accounted for by tenant, if landlord
so require it.

9. Landlord is to receive one halfo^ all grain, butter,
or other products, and all increase of stock ; or, if sold,
one half of the proceeds, for all things raised on or
agreed to be sold off, the farm. Nothing, produced or
supported by the farm, is to be raised made or grown
[in the operations of agriculture, grazing, dairy, or
other products of husbandry and rural economy] but
for joint benefit ; and to be equally shared between the
parties. If bees are kept, honey, wax or profits, to be
divided ; the stock originally to be furnished at joint
expence.

10. Tenant to have out of the garxlen, what he wants
for his family use. The residue to be sold ; and pro-
ceeds divided.

268 Lease of a Farm^ on Shares.

11. The number and species of stock to be mutually
agreed on by both parties ; which is to be increased
or diminished, according to circumstances. No cattle,
horses, or sheep^ to be taken or kept on the farm, but
with mutual consent, and for joint benefit.

12. The tenant shall do no business other than that
required for the farm ; and such as may, by mutual
consent, be connected therewith. If it be agreed to
graze, or deal in, cattle, original stock to be at joint
expence, but all care, labour, Sec. to be done and taken
by tenant.

13. Risk of stock, horses excepted, falls on both par-
ties alike : save loss accruing from fault or negligence
of tenant. Colts dropped raised or brought on farm, to
be at joint risk and for mutual benefit.

14. No inmates or lodgers to be taken in by tenant.

15. Tenant to use every endeavour to destroy all
noxious weeds, briars, bushes ; and put and keep the
grounds in the best order.

16. The farm horses or team, &:c. shall not be used
for any other purposes than those of the farm, without
landlord's consent : save for the accommodation and
convenience of the tenant and his family.

17. Tenant not to sell any timber. Only the cleared
land rented ; but tenant may have the range of the
woods, if young timber, subject to injury, be not on
the part depastured. No btone quarries opened, or to be
opened, are within the lease, but reserved ; and pas-
sages to and from them.

18. All stock whether for dairy or grazing are joint
property, laid in at joint expence and for joint profit.
But taiant finds the horses at his expence and risk.

Lease of a Farm^ on Shares. 269

They are supported with pasture and hay from joint
produce ; but not with short feed. Landlord finds and
runs risk of a pair of working oxen. Tenant has the
use of them, when landlord does not require them.

19. Tenant shall plant and preserve from injury of
cattle Sec. fruit trees purchased by landlord. No cattle
or horses to be turned into orchards, without landlord'^s
consent.

20. No hogs to rim at large without rings or nails.
If damage done by them or those of others, tenant shall
immediately repair it. [Grass grounds shall not be pas-
tured too late in the fall, nor too early in the spring, so
as to injure future crops.]

21. If lime be put on the last year of the term, (or
the first year, if tenant leaves the place at the end of it)
and tenant receives no adequate benefit, — compensation
is to be made for hauling. The landlord is to pay cost
at the kiln^ for all lime hauled by the tenant.

22. All the hay to be expended for joint benefit, as
well as the offals of the dairy for support of the stocks
Landlord finds feed for his share of hogs, when penned
for fatting ; or he may have them divided before put-
ting up, and sell or feed his share. When jointly fatted,
pork to be divided by weight, or sold and proceeds
divided ; or landlord's share sold for his benefit.

23. Cyder to be made by tenant ; landlord finding
vessels for his share ; which shall be delivered either
at the mansion house; or hauled to the city at landlord's
option. If landlord chooses his share of apples in whole
or part, tenant ^hall hand-pick, and deliver them, as be-
fore stated.

270 Lease of a Farm, on Shares.

24. Possession to be delivered at the end of the term.
The usual mode, with a new tenant, is to make the
iirst year one of probation. Either party may give no-
tice to the other, three months before the end of the
first year, of his intention to dissolve the agreement.
The lease is personal ; and does not survive to repre-
sentatives in case of death ; save until the expiration of
the year in which the tenant dies. All crops go to re-
presentatives ; subject to the terms of the lease, and
stock to be divided. The lease cannot be assigned,
without landlord's consent.

25. The landlord's share is exempt from debts of,
or sales hy^ tenant unauthorized : and may be distrained
and taken ; if not delivered on demand or otherwise.
And the landlord is to have^^^ ingress and egress at his
pleasure into and upon the farm, buildings, and premi-
ses. If tenant leaves the farm, or dies, before reaping
the benefit of any manure he has hauled, compensation
is to be made. All differences to be left to referrees, mu-
tually chosen.

26. It is declared and agreed, that the leading objects
<^n this farm, are those of cattle and dairy. All cultiva-
tion is to be carried on with a view to these objects ;
and to such others as will produce profit in the Phila-
delphia market. The raising of grain, is always to be
considered as subordinate and secondary to the end on
which the agreement is founded.

[ 271 3

NotCy On Lease of a Farm^ on Shares,

It is understood and practised, that timber found by land-
lord out of his woods, is standing timber ; selected with his
approbation. Stocky being always proportioned to the forage,
shall be supported by the tenant. The landlord is not bound
to support the joint stock either wholly or partially.

The tenant, having the care and charge of the stocky is
solely answerable for tresspasses, if any committed by horses,
(Tattle, hogs, &c.

[ 27S ]

On Liming Land. By Richard Peters.
Read August 14th, 1810.

The relation to the society in which I am placed by
them, impels me to bring to their notice, many sub-
jects, which I should not otherwise conceive myself
bound to discuss. When no attention appears to be
paid by others, to an important point, I venture to
supply, however inadequately, the deficiency. This
must be my apology for so often troubling them with
my thoughts on topics, to which others, if so inclined,
could do more ample justice. We have not a solitary
communication upon the practice of liming lands;
though carried to very great extent in our state. In no
country is lime in more abundance ^ nor can it be
of better quality. Chemical and theoretical accounts
of it, may be found in many books. There are good
writers on its properties, as they apply to agriculture.
But we find in those writers, many positions and
remarks, both theoretical and practical, unsuitable to
the climate and circumstances of this country. It is
more a topic for curiosity than practical use, with com-
mon farmers, to enter into its composition chemically ;
though to those who turn to profitable account such
inquiries, they are indeed highly beneficial. I leave all
theories ; — and wish to call the attention of the society
to its practical uses. It would be very desirable to fall
on means to acquire every information from those who
can, from experience, give it ; and multitudes of our ^
fellow citizens have the capacity to afford the fullest

On Liming Land. 273

satisfaction, in every point of practice required. It is
more necessary to excite the inclinations of many of
them to communicate their practical knowledge, than
it is to give them instruction ; as this substance has, in
many districts of our country, now become one applied
in common course. It is annually becoming dearer to
the farmers in old settlements ; and especially in the
vicinity of the city and large tomis ; owing to the de-
mand of this material for buildings, and the scarcity of
timber for fuel. From twelve to fourteen cords of wood
are consumed, in burning one kiln of Ume of six hundred
bushels. The quarries are inexhaustible. No other fuel
equals wood for this purpose ; as we may see by com-
parison of ours with the lime of our coal countries
where it is tinged and discoloured ; and vitiated by the
sulphur of the fossil coal used in its calcination. It
would be on these accounts desirable to offer a pre-
mium, or, in some way, to encourage improvements
in the construction of lime kilns ; to save the consump-
tion of fuel.* Coked coal might, where timber is ex-
hausted, supply the place of wood.

* In our western country , pit-coal^ and limestone, of the first
quality, are generally, and in great plenty, found on the same
spot, in strata of from four to six feet in depth, or thickness,
respectively ; above or under each other, as they happen to
be naturally placed. Coal may be as easily charred or coked
(and much in the same way) as wood burnt into charcoal.
In that country, furnished with such abundant means in all
quarters, ?nfin?z/ac^wr(?6>, are rising, and may increase, with time
and population, to an incalculable extent. Cheapness of pro-
duce will forward them. Domestic markets will be created,
VOL. II. M m

274 On Liming Land.

The quantity, per acre, proper for soils of different
textures is by no means fixed ; either here or in Eu-

to stimulate and reward the labours of husbandry : and thus
the inconveniencies of the distance from the ocean, will be
amply compensated. Although wood (to preserve which they
take no care) may be now in plenty, the coal will be in the
greatest demand. Most of the heavy materials used in the
Staffordshire (English) potteries^ placed where they are
principally on account of the coal for fuel in many parts of
that coal country, are transported from a distance of 100
miles and upwards. Steam (in our western country) must
be substituted for water powers, where the streams fail for
several months in the year, beyond the western mountains.

I have had kilns of lime burnt on my Belmont farm,
(which is on the tide water of the Schuylkill) from limestone
brought down the river, through the great falls, in a boat
carrying 12 to 15 tons. Enterprising persons might establish,
on a large scale, some plan of this kind. The kilns might be
erected on the tide waters ; and wood, or sea coal, for fuel,
brought thereto, at a small expence. A profitable business
might be thus established. A sufficient stock of stone for the
season, could be transported, while the upper waters were
boatable. The city being supplied wholly or partially from
these kilns with lime, the country would have it in greater
plenty, for agricultural purposes.

It is to be much regretted, that the lower, or Norristown,
canal scheme has been interrupted, or failed. I have no doubt,
however, but that, at no distant period, this canal will be com-
pleted ; or one will be carried on the western side of the
Schuylkill ; where I have been always of opinion (and so was
the most intelligent hydraulic engineer we have had here)
that it will be found to be the easiest, and least expensively
practicable. 3Iarble^ limestone^ lime^ soap-stone (as well as

On Liming Land, 275

rope. I have been surprised, by what I have myself
seen, and more by the accounts I have read in Euro-
pean books, at the great, and to us incredible, quanti-
ties of lime allowed by Europeans to an acre. Ours is
the statute acre of 160 perches. The common com-
puted acres of Europe differ in contents ; so that it
is difficult always to understand what is meant by
writers, even in England, by the term acre. But
the lime of Europe, applied in the quantity of 160
bushels to a statute acre of 160 perches, at one dress-
ing, must either be of inferior strength and quality to
ours ; or there must be a vast difference in the ef-
fects of climate. As to soils of most countries, they
are much alike. There is not, on our globe, better nor
worse land, with all the intermediate gradations, than
can be found here. It is composed of all the varieties
of materials, generally found in soils of other countries ;
though no accurate analysis, of quantities and propor-
tions of these materials, has been made. It would be
highly useful, that geological explorations and inquiries
should be more generally prosecuted throughout our

building stone) in inexhaustible plenty, could, by this means,
be supplied ; and delivered in the city for domestic purposes,
or exportation.

Since this communication I am informed, that a plan for
burning lime on the tide waters of the Schuylkill, is com-
menced. It has my sincere wishes for its success.

R, P.
^Oth Aiigustj 1810.

276 On Liming Land.

country. Every farmer should analyze his own soil ;^
that he may be the better enabled to cultivate to advan-

^ There is an excellent treatise, " on the analysis of soils
connected with their improvement," by the celebrated Pro-
fessor Davy^ chemical Professor to the British board of agri-
culture. This might be read with instruction by one versed
in such subjects ; and rendered more intelligible to practical
farmers ; though I think it sufficiently plain in the most ne-
cessary directions. Our extract from Lord Dundonald in
vol. 1. is highly worthy attention, and can easily be practised
upon.

The use of analyses of soils is very properly stated to be,
for the purpose of enabling us to find and supply the defect
of proportion in the primitive earths. Mr. Davy truly ob-
serves—

" In supplying animal or vegetable manure, a temporary
food only is provided tor plants, which is in all cases exhaust-
ed by means of a certain number of crops ; but when a soil
is rendered oi the best possible constitution and texture, with
regard to its earthy parts, its fertility may be considered as
permanently established. It becomes capable of attracting a
very large porti{3n of vegetabl nourishment from the atmos-
phere, and of producing its crops with comparatively little
labour and expence."

It was to encourage our farmers and others in pursuits,
having this object in view, that we offered our first premium,
in 1806, for " ascertaining the component parts of arable
land." This (and most others oi our endeavours to promote
a spirit of improvement) has been too little attended to. — •
While farmers are regretting the want of dung\ lime^ and other
artificial supplies, they overlook materials for permanently
fertilizing their fields, to he found on their own farms.

R. P.

On Liming Land. 277

tage, by knowing its texture, and applying the manure
the most suitable to it. Three hundred bushels
(Winchester ) of lime, have been, at one time, spread
on an acre, in England ! Half of that quantity, laid on at
once here, would ruin any acre of land within my know-
ledge. I mean a worn acre taken up for amelioration and
recovery. Land reduced to sterility, by bad farming
and over- cropping, is like the stomach of an animal in a
state of debility. It must be recovered by gentle means
applied repeatedly, and at proper intervals. Too much
food is as destructive to the animal, as over-liming is to
the impoverished land ; whatever may have been the
original stamina of the one, or qualities of the other.
It is essential to know what quantity per acre, is
advantageous and proper here ; and the most bene-
ficial modes of using it. When I began, in the early
part of my life, to lay on lime, I was advised that
the lime would spend itself as much if no culture
were carried on, as it would by the severest cropping.
I soon found that limed lands required as much care
and good management, as others. The lime may sink,
or part with its qualities ; but severe cropping and bad
systems, injure limed, as much as other soils ; and, I
think, leave them in a state more difficult to recover.
I have myself experienced this, when I overlimed or
overfarmed, from want of proper information. I there-
fore suspect, that the lands said, in many places, to be
lime-sick^ must have been badly managed, and over-
worked. And yet in some parts of our country wherein
they have discontinued the use of lime, after having
long applied it (perhaps in too great quantities) there
are good farmers. I believe land requires a change,

278 On Litning Land.

after a certain time, of manure as well as of crop ;
though either may be, after proper intervals and with
suitable auxiliaries, again introduced with equal bene-
fit. I do not know enough of facts, relating to liine-sick
lands, to give an opinion : and this is one among other
reasons, why I wish the society to promote inquiries.

I believe it is generally known and agreed, that the
poorer the land, either naturally or by wearing, the less
lime it will bear. So that 25 bushels will benefit, where
50 would injure. Ziime, being in itself no manure, must
find, in the earth, or in the air, something to act upon,
or co-operate with. And, that it may have constant
communication with the atmosphere, it should be kept
near the surface ; both in its first application, and by
deepening the ploughings to bring it up when it sinks.
I have made much use of it, in every way, and in great
quantities, for a long course of years. My soil is vari-
ous ; but generally a kindly loam, mixed with mica
(isinglass) and in parts sand, as well as clay. The sur-
face is of every description, as to exposure, hill and
vale. It had been much worn in some parts ; and I
have cleared off, from time to time, a considerable por-
tion of the timber. So that I have had all kinds of soil
to operate upon. I have generally begun with 40
bushels (sometimes 50, and often 30 and 35) to the acre.
I prefer it to be laid in half bushel-heaps, and water-
slaked. But I frequently cover these little heaps with,
earth, and leave it thus to slake ; closing the cracks
carefully, as they appear. Sometimes I leave it through
the winter, in large heaps of 40 or 50 bushels (accord-
ingly as I determine the quantity per acre) well pro-
tected by earth and sod. I choose, when practicable,

0?! Liming Land. 279

to spread it in the autumn ; and either plough or har-
row it in. The next season I take only a summer crop.
Indian corn I think the best ; as its culture mixes the
lime most effectually with the soil. I have most fre-
quently put lime on in the spring ; and I have cropped
fields with winter- grain, when limed in the same sea-
son. I have sometimes succeeded with rye ; but when
wheat was sown on land fresh limed, I have invariably
suffered by mildew, smut, rust, or blight. I scarcely
remember an instance to the contrary. The crop is
retarded in its maturation, by the lime : and though it
shew^s a deep verdure, and large heads ; the former is
as deceptive as the blush of a hectic ; and the latter
seldom, or never fill,* Yet in some European books, I

^ It would seem that the fresh lime, acting on the sub-
stances in the earth with ruinous energy, pressed on the plant
more food than it could digest or contain ; and produced
death by a fatal plethora. With a good glass one can plainly
discern the bursting of the vessels and the extravasation of
the sap, with all their consequences. The grain is shrivelled,
though the plant, until its catastrophe, appears to thrive. If
winter crops on fresh limed lands come to maturity, they
ripen late ; and their risks of mildev/ are increased. I have
observed this, even when dung is used with fresh lime. But
with lime alone on exhausted lands, where little or no vege-
table or animal matter is found in the soil, I have seen wheat
a starved and worthless plant. Summer crops only should be
sown on land fresh limed ; and Indian corn is the most suit-
able. When I repeat the liming, as I have generally done
with a greater quantity than that first applied, I commonly
take a crop of Indian corn in the year before wheat; to kill
the lime, according to the country phrase. The corn, being

280 On Liming Land.

see it recommended, to plough or harrow in the grain
and Hme together. I have never approved of dunging
the ground at the time of liming ; having made compa-
rative experiments. My course has been, to lime, —
take a summer crop, — fall- plough, — and, the next year,
an open fallow, or a covering, but inexhausting, spring-
crop, preparatory to dunging for wheat. In this course
I have invariably had success ; and therefore prefer it
to any other. I have, when the field came in course
again (in three or four years) limed ; and thus repeated
the applications to 120, and in one field, to 160 bushels
to the acre ; including all repetitions of liming, at dif-
ferent, and distant, periods. I have known 80 bushels
to the acre (put on, at once, on such land as mine) in-

a gigantic plant requiring large supplies, will thrive on all the.
food that lime can furnish or prepare.

When I began to lime (45 years ago) I had no practical
instructor ; for it was a novelty in my neighbourhood. I
have lost whole fields of wheat on limed lands sown the first
season of liming, in a few days after the deceptions verdure
of the plant had induced me to count on a plentiful crop.
The same fields produced clover in abundance. In their next
turn for wheat (and especially if assisted by a light dunging)
they amply retributed my former disappointment. My suc-
cess was much increased after I used plaister on the clover
crops ; which ameliorated the soil, and furnished vegetable
matter for the lime. A moderate liming, (say 30 to 40
bushels to the acre) harrowed in on fall ploughed ground,
and laying exposed through the winter, will part with most of
its caustic qualities, and do with dung the succeeding spring,
or autumn. But it would be much better to intermit whcatf
for another year.

On Liming Land. 281

jure the field for several years ; or until recovered by
dung, or green manures ploughed in. It is said that
clay will bear the heaviest liming. So that climate,
strength and quality of lime, (I mean stone-lime, as ours
generally is) differ widely in this, from those of other
countries.

Farmers of what are called strong lands, have told
me, that eighty bushels per acre, on the first appli-
cation, were but a moderate allowance. But I have
ever believed that it would have been better to lay
on forty or fifty bushels in the beginning ; and in-
crease, by repetitions, after proper intervals. Strong
lands are precipitated into debility by over stimulation,
as strong men, or other animals, are enfeebled by ex-
cess, or over exertion. Some of our strongest lands
are now thus reduced to a situation to be no longer
benefitted by lime. In lime- stone countries, where lime
is obtained on easy terms, I have known it spread with-
out rule, or attention to exact quantity. I always pre-
dicted, that repentance would, one day, follow when
too late, this agricultural enormity.

In Europe, lime is heavily spread on a tough old grass
lay ; and it meliorates the grass, so as to render it high-
ly palatable to cattle, and hastens their fatting. It lies
thus, twelve months (having been put on in the au-
tumn) and the field is then ploughed, and taken up for
a course of crops ; preparatory to being laid down again
in grass. In this way, it is alleged, and it seems rea-
sonable, that land will bear the heaviest liming ; espe-
cially if it be a strong clay ; though it is known to be-
nefit lighter soils the most.

VOL. II. N n

282 On Liming Land.

Lime on clay has never succeeded with me, to any-
profitable extent. The idea of its durably warming cold
clayey land, is unfounded. Heat is disengaged, when
water or moisture solidifies, while lime is slaking;
but it becomes shortly thereafter, a cold substance.^

^ Moss or a green fungus, such as is seen on damp north
walls, stones, or on the butts of trees growing in cold soils,
will be often found on the ridges of limed lands, in great
plenty. I have considered this as a sign of coldness, rather
tiian heat, in the lime. I have conceived that hot, dry, and
light soils were benefitted and corrected, by the cool and bind-
ing quality of the lime ; as well as by its attracting and re-
taining moisture ; independent of its other qualities. Mosses
are found in all kinds of land, and especially in wet and cold
soils. I think they abound on limed lands, in by far the
greatest quantities.

See Mr. Lajig^s observations on i.tmp. — page 1 ; which
are well worth attention. I unwillingly meddle with conjec-
tures, however plausible they may seem ; leaving them in
better hands. It is known however, to every body, that limey
after parting with its fixed air, thirsts for its recovery. I
therefore believe with Mr. Lang (page 7) that it preys on
the plant, for lack of other supplies ; and attracts all the
carbonic acid it can obtain. And this is its process, rather
than durably warming the land. Heat is not disengaged
while it recovers its fixed air, as it is when it parts with it.
Dung gives it the pabulum it wants, both for its caustic and
attractive qualities ; — so do vegetable substances found in
the earth ; — of which poor and exhausted land affords the
fewest ; and therefore will bear the least lime. This fact I
know ;■ — its theory I will not insist on j — ^lime certainly (espe-
cially when applied fresh) retards maturation ; and exposes
the wheat crop to injvny, if not to ruin. I have repeatedly

On Liming Land 283

Its particles are too small and fine to keep asunder
those of the clay ; and such things as produce this ef-
fect are the only proper auxiliaries for clay land. Gravel,
sand, shells, unburnt limestone, are better than lime.
In clay ridged and drained, and kept dry and friable,
lime may be serviceable.

I have spread lime on a clover lay, and suffered it to
remain on the surface, through a winter ; then plough-
ed ; and the lime being well incorporated b}^ heavy
drags or harrows, I have found it a very advantageous
mode. I have always preferred, in this and every other
mode of application, laying on the lime, and mixing it
thoroughly with the soil by frequent stirrings, without
dung. I have repeatedly observed, that fresh lime and
stable manure, put on together, are by no means so ef-
ficacious, as when the latter is applied in the season suc-
ceeding the liming : green manures, with fresh lime,

found that dung, in equal quantities, put on the year of liming,
is very inferior in profitable effects to that applied in the year
succeeding the laying on the lime. In the contemporaneous
application with lime, part of the dung is consumed, and
goes to balance, or remedy, an evil : instead of wholly ope-
rating to effect a positive good; as it does when the lime,
by losing its causticity and predatory qualities, is prepared
to co-operate with the dung, in the salutary and beneficial
purposes intended by their combined application.

The lime, when it has spent its noxious activity, operates as a
mild solvent. It attracts, and, elaborates the acids in the
dung, and the vegetable or other substances in the earth ;
and prepares them to enter the plant, and to become its
food and essential nourishment.

R. P.

284 On Liming Land,

do better. Lime, like salt, in very small quantities is
septic^ and may with dung be useful : but in the quan-
tities usually applied, it must be injurious, on chemical
principles, and in fact, to both the land and dung ;
which hXX^Y flatters in its effect on the crop, compared
to one with lime alone ; as dung will always shew itself
in a greater or less degree ; but it will shew and act
most effectually, when it is not neutralized or con-
sumed by fresh lime.

The varieties of our lime, as to strength or compo-
sition, for either masonry or agricultural uses, have
been very little attended to. It would be important that
some simple test or trial of the qualities of lime, should
be established and promulgated. I know that there is
in practical result, a great difference in the effects of
equal quantities in bulk, measured, or weighed ; and the
lightest is commonly the best. This I supposed was
owing to its being better burnt ; so as to have less core.
It is but recently, that this subject has been, in Europe,
minutely examined. Some kinds of lime have been
found, there, so composed, as to be prejudicial to agri-
cultural operations. Here lime differs widely in effects,
on land or crops ; so as to require greater quantities
of one kind, than of another. I have found it so, in
mortar.*

*' In a conversation v/ith Mr. Lang, I found that he had,
very meritoriously and usefully, continued his investigations
on the anal\ses of the lime of this country. He believes that
the greater part of ours is the magnesian lime ; and that it
is not attended with those deleterious effects attributed, hy

On Limmg Land. 285

It will be perceived, that I have avoided, (as much
as possible,) technical disquisition. If I have not men-

English writers, to lime mixed with inagncsicu If some pa-
triotic chemists would assist us in analyzing hme from every
quarter of our country, great advantages would be derived to
agriculture. We volunteer our services ; and so must che-
mists. Our limestone is of great varieties of texture, colour
and composition.

Without knowing the composition of the lime which gave
rise to my observations in the text, which are grounded on
facts within my own knowledge, I am now satisfied that where
the 'greater quantities were required, the hme was mild lime,
I remember since Mr. Lang mentioned the subject, many
instances where the lime soon exhausted all its powers. And
I have always found that small quantities of strong, (or ac-
cording to Mr. Lang's ideas, magnesian) lime were more
serviceable and much more durable, than larger quantities of
that which must have been of the mild species. From one
lime-burner I always had what I called weak lime ; and dis-
continued dealing with him. The discovery of the compo-
nent parts of our lime generally, would diminish the surprise
I always feel when I read or hear of the vast quantities ap-
plied to land in Europe ; and it would, account for the small
quantity of our lime, proper for our land. The Europeans
must use what is called mild lime ; and we the strong or mag-
nesian kind. Their lime cannot be many degrees stronger
than chalk ; which also being a species of lime, contains the
cretaceous or carbonic acid. Should our investigations of lime,
proved by practical tests, turn out as now supposed, we shall
correct another European error, on the subject of lime. It
was long believed in England, that lime and gypsum were
hostile. Yet they knew that the gyps is itself a sulphate of
lime ; and therefore that it ought to have appeared reason-

286 On Liming Land,

tioned any thing new to experienced farmers, or others
acquainted with the subject, I have, at least, endea-
voured to set an example ; so as to invite their com-
municating what they know to be instructive. Putting
a subject in requisition, always rouses attention ; and
draws forth useful facts ; and discussion conveying in-
struction, which would otherwise remain hidden, or
confined to the knowledge of a few individuals. What
may be familiar to experienced agriculturists, is never-
theless highly acceptable, and essentially instructive, to
those who want practical knowledge.

Richard Peteks.
2d July 1810.

To the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture.

able, as we find it in fact, that there is no hostiiit}7^. It is most
probable, that the sulphuric acid of the gyps, being the strong-
est, while the carbonic is the weakest, expels it, — sets it free
to act on the plant, — and repels farther supplies of fixed air-
taking possession of the lime.

As to the point — whether the lime we commonly use is
or is not of the magnesian species, it yet depends on more
extensive examinations than have, in this early stage of inqui-
ry, been made, before a decisive opinion can be formed. So
far as the experiment Mr. Lang mentions reaches, the proof
appears strong. And if specimens of the limestone in other
quarters produce, when analyzed, the like results, the point
will be indisputably decided.

R. P.
September 17 th, 1810.

See hereafter Mr. Lang's communication.

[ 287 ]

Elkton, June 24th, 1810,
Read August 14th, 1810.

Gentlemen,

A few years ago, I informed you of a distemper in
jny wheat, which I call a decay in the root, others call
it sedge wheat. This malady continues with an increas-
ing spread.

From information that on land where the red chaff
had been destroyed, the white wheat would succeed,
by sowing it the next rotation of crops.

Last fall I tried the experiment, on about two acres,
in a field that had been destroyed three years ago, by
sowing part of the land that had been affected with red
chaff and part with white wheat. The red chaff lan-
guid : white recovering.

From about the 15th of March to the middle of May,
the whole appeared nearly dead, or what is generally call-
ed sedge wheat. At present the white wheat is making
considerable progress; and if it ripens clear of rust, may
be half a crop, while the red chaff, dont seem to recover.
As there must be a cause for effects, my hypothesis, or
reasoning on this subject is, that it is well known that
tlie red chaff bearded wheat, dont stool or throw up as
many stalks from the root, as other wheat, it requires
more seed to produce a crop equally thick, of course,
may not put out as many side roots, but depends more
on the main tap root for nourishment.

The tap root being injured, prevents its recovering,
us other wheats do. This may be the cause of tlie red

288 On Wheat.

chafF, being injured by this pernicious insect, more
than other wheat. Hoping some abler hand may make
farther discoveries, on this pernicious insect. It appears
all sorts of wheat are exactly alike, but the bearded
dont recover as other wheats do. Rye is proof against it.

Your most humble servant,

Z. HOLLINGSWORTH."^

To the PhilacL Agric, Society.

*' Conceiving then, as I now do, that the malady in the
wheat was occasioned by insects ; soon after Mr. Hollings-^
wortfi's information to the society. (See our first volume
124, 5.) I wrote to him, suggesting some experiments for the
destruction of these very pernicious vermin, of which we
have no complete entomological description. I proposed
that, on a small scale, every endeavour should be made to
find out the means of their destruction. But I see not that
any thing has been attempted ; and therefore conclude that
my suggestions were deemed unimportant.

1. The best remedy would be to discontinue, by general
consent of a neighbourhood infested with the worm, or in-
sect, the culture, of wheat. It may be an indication of na-
ture, that a change of crops is indispensable. And they may
as well do willingly, that to which necessity will compel.

2. I proposed fall, or winter, ploughing; and frequent win-
ter harrowing ; to expose the worm, or larvae of the insect,
to the severity of frosts.

3. To lime lands infested ; and to spread salt (Marine)
plaister of Paris, or any other substance known to destroy
insects or worms.

4. To try experiments on the living worm, or insect, be
it a moth, beetle, fly, or in whatsoever shape the enemy may.

Nofe^ on Wheat. 289

in any stage of its existence, be found ; to discover what will
kill, or banish it. The change of one species of wheat for
another, does not seem effectually to answer the purpose. I
have thrown in my mite towards the relief of those who suf-
fer ; let other members of the society contribute their assist-
ance. The ravages of those insects are not abated ; and may
spread to places, wherein their appearance is the least ex-
pected. The Hessian fy began its desolating march, at a
great distance from us : but its progress, though slow,
brought a scourge, which will never cease to chastise us.
It compels us, however, into good husbandry : as the only
means of resisting it. The southern " decay of the rooty'' most
certainly owing to insects, may oblige the farmers af^icted
with this misfortune, to banish many bad habits, such as
sowing wheat among Indian corn, and labouring over a vast
surface, for very little proportionate profit, &c. It appears
by the papers published in the pages following Mr. Hol-
lingsworth's former letter, that I am not singular in my
opinion of the cause of the misfortune he complains of. Its
appearing the most " xvhere land is 7nanured xvitk scrapings
about doorSy or ivhere old buildings^ fodder -houses j^ stacks of
hay'''' have been ; is, to me, a decided proof, that insects,
bred in such nurseries for them, are the enemies to be sub-
dued. If manure, from the places described, must be used^
let it (and the earth which had been the site of buildings,
fodder-houses, stacks, &c.) be composted ; and mixed with
lime, salt, or plaister ; as advised in our former volume.
Mere change of one wheat for another, will not eventually
cure the evil. Nothing likely to succeed should be left un-
tried. Those who have access to them, might (as is done on
the sea shores of New-Jersey) spread the hay, grass or sedge
of salt marshes, sea weeds, or even salt water. These are
hostile to worms or insects ; and are in themselves powerful
manures. See vol. 1, pages 171, 2, 322.

R. Peters.

VOL. II. O O

C 290 ]

Deterioration of Grain.
Read August, 14th, 1810.

Permit me to mention what with me, has always
borne some analogy to my experience, with respect to
animals kept long on the same farm. I mention, in our
1 vol. pages 214, 15. the Mandane corn, I had it, for
two seasons, on my table in perfection on the 4th and
5th, days of July. It is now a large, though at first, a
dwarf plant. It is just setting to ear, and not so forward
as e/^ier early corn. I pursued, in every particular, Mr.
Cooper'^ s directions, as to my seed and planting dis-
tant from other corn. But it turns out exactly as I pre-
dicted, page 215. ^' This corn will, in a course of time,
change its nature, and assimilate with our own. I never
had any seed that did not change, with all the care I
could take." Mr. Cooper has great luck, as well as
great judgment, in his more successful practice. I am
mortified under the truth of my prediction ; though
such mortifications are not new to me. This change in
my corn has occurred sooner than usual in such cases.

Mr. George Bickham informs me, that he had the
same kind of corn fit for the table in June. He brought
a few grains from the southward, and planted them
last year. His time for change is not yet come. The
distance from whence the seed came (and possibly a
change of soil) has favoured him.

Richard Peters^
lethJuli/, 1810.

To the Philad, Soc, for promoting Agriculture.

C 291 3

Advantages of Agricultural Tours, On Gleditsia Tria-
canthosj or Honey Locust, Hedges. By Wm, Rawle,

Read August 14th, 1810.

My dear Sir,

I wish I could contribute to the stock of the society
any thing deserving its notice. Mere theories are of
little use to tlie public. Facts accurately described and
well established ought to be laid in, before the work of
the theorist commences. For these we must, in general,
depend on a class of men, who, though liberal in collo-
quial communications, are often unwilling to take up
the pen. The practical farmer, kind and hospitable to
his guest, delights to make his own experience and
labours the subject of conversation ; but the mind un-
accustomed to literary composition, is as averse to
throw the same information on paper, as the hand, ren-
dered rigid by daily employment, is often disinclined to
the mechanical operation of the pen. The alternative is
to go to them, for what they will not bri?ig to us. Much
useful knowledge might be collected, and many new
and striking matters of fact made public, if agricultural
tours, so common in England, were sometimes made
here, with a view to publication. An intelligent man
who would first begin with our own state, on the more
important and best, and perhaps also, (as a contrast) the
worst cultivated part of it ; who would visit the farmer
at his homestead, closely examine his practice, hear
his narratives and his reasonings, look into every thing,
both i*^ <rross and in detail, and carefully note down,

292 On Agricultural Tours^ ^c,

on the spot, without trusting to subsequent recollection,
what was worthy of public communication, would con-
fer (not an incalculable) but a calculable benefit on the
public. One section of the country would then learn
the actual profit or loss of modes of husbandry pursued
in another ; perhaps possessing the same soil and cli-
mate, but deriving a greater or less advantage from
them, in consequence of variations in their modes of
husbandry. It would discover its own errors, or in-
crease its own improvements, as the case might be, by
comparison with others.— -The publications of such
tours, particularly under the sanction of a respectable
society, would widely and promptly disseminate this
useful knowledge. Is it not surprising, that with the
example so long before us, of a nation whose language
we use almost exclusively, and whose literature is the
chief reliance of our booksellers and printers, and from
whom we import so regularly every publication that
appears, and, among others, the various tours, not only
through Great Britain and Ireland, but parts of the
continent, that we should not in a single instance, that
I know of, have had a similar exertion made ? I ex-
cept indeed some of those " notices^'' of our agriculture,
which a few hasty and prejudiced foreign travellers
have inserted in their works. Men who have allowed
too short a space of time, even for the secondary im-
portance, in which this subject presented itself to them.
Men, who have formed their theories before they be-
gan their travels ; and, inclined beforehand to depreci-
ate the progress of art in these new countries, are too
blind to perceive, or too uncandid to confess, that art
has already made a considerable progress among us ;

On Agricultural Tours^ ^c. 293

and, with proper assistance, might perhaps (to speak
modestly) in time equal the improvements of our elder
brethren. If the rest of the world possessed no other
account of the agriculture of England, than what has
been observed and published by foreign travellers
among them, our information would be imperfect in-
deed.— It is wonderful that the benefits of the press,
that rapid, cheap, and easy mode of communication,
which brings distant nations to each other, and famili-
arizes one half of the globe with the daily events and
domestic transactions of the other, should have been
neglected by ourselves on this important subject. Slow,
imperfect, and uncertain, as verbal communication is, it
is as yet almost the only means of information ; and
while we know distinctly and fully, by taking up a
book, the course of husbandry in Norfolk, Sussex, and
Lancashire, we cannot I believe, beyond a few scattered
instances, find a single printed memorial of the course
of husbandry of a state in the union. Like our tawnev
predecessors, we must depend on "the tales of our old
men," or the accidental arrival of an inhabitant from the
place, before we can acquire the knowledge we want.
This is withholding the facility acquired by the art of
printing, from that art ; which, as it is the most neces-
sary, must be admitted to be the most important to
man.

Let me then venture to suggest, that as soon as a
suiticient fund can be raised, and a suitable person
found, an agricultural tour should be set on foot under
directions of the society ; beginning in one of these
counties, such as Lancaster or Berks, in which the ope-
rations of agriculture have hitherto been carried on with

294 On yigrkultural TourSy csfc.

the most spirit and success. The particular objects of
inquiry to be given to him in charge by the society ;
without preckiding him from collateral pursuits of the
same nature, particularly mineral productions and sta-
tistical details, connected with the leading object.

Such a survey, when carefully taken of one county
or district, with the closest attention to accuracy, would
not only facilitate similar undertakings among our-
selves, and possibly (as in die case of Arthur Young)
at private expence ; but excite a similar spirit in the
other states. I consider the utmost accuracy an insepa-
rable ingredient in the utility and success of the plan.
The detection of an error, even of little importance,
would excite doubts as to the rest of the work ; and
diminish its popularity in the neighbourhood to which
the error related.

From this general subject let me now proceed to a
particular one, on which the society has very justly
bestowed a portion of its attention.

A cheap and certain substitute for the expensive
fences, in use among us is truly desirable.

Ihe pleasing and benevolent St. Pierre^ comparing
architecture with planting, observes, that ihe moment
the building is finished it begins to decay ; while the
plant as soon as it is left, begins to improve, increase,
and reward the hand that set it in the ground. I have
not the book with me and am not sure that 1 quote cor-
rectly. The thought, ho\vever, is as I state it; and noth-
ing can be more beautifully just ; nor more applicable
to the difference between a live fence and a dead one.
But there is certainly some great impediment in the
way of raising good hedges with u§!. In very few partjs

On Hedges. 295

of the country do we see it attempted ; and frequently,
after several years toil, it has been abandoned as a hope-
less, or at least unprofitable effort.

One of the great objects of an American farmer
should be to compose his hedge entirely of an American
plant. — Even if the white thorn, which may be import-
ed from England, accorded better with our climate
than from the experiments in the vicinity of Philadel-
phia, I am inclined to think it does, the difficulties and
expence of importation form sufficient reasons to re-
ject it.

I have on a small scale, made several experiments
to raise a hedge, strong, handsome, and durable ; my
wish was to raise from seed sown on the spot. I tried in
the first instance the berries of the common cedar, and-
the next year the berries of the juniper, after finding that
neither of them germinated, though the ground was well
prepared, and care taken to keep it clear of weeds. I
made another attempt with the cedar berries; endeavor-
ing to prepare them by a treatment assimilated to the
process which takes place in the stomach of birds ;
who are known to be the great, propagators of these
plants. — That is, I soaked them, for four or five hours,
in warm water ; then putting them with sand in a bag,
had it well shook, rubbed, and rolled for some time, and
immediately put the ben'ies in the ground. Of this I
tried a furrow of a few yards only by way of experi-
^jient, but was equally unsuccessful. I tried (by advice)
the pomace of a cyder-mill in the autumn ; but I sus-
pect the field mice, with which my place abounds, de-
feated me in this case. The cuttings of the privet suc-
ceeded ; but the privet forms rather a screen^ than a

296 On Hedges.

hedge ; and I wished to find something capable of turn-
ing back the horned cattle, which I have generally ob-
served require a stronger hedge than horses. After
some consideration I concluded to try the seeds of the
honey locust, fGleditsia TriacanthosJ and of these in the
autumn of 1803 I procured a quantity from Richmond
point, near Philadelphia. The object was to secure
them, when put in the ground, from my clandestine
little enemy, the field mouse ; and supposing the smell
of sulphur to be obnoxious to it, I steeped the whole
of the seed, 24 hours in water, with pulverized brim-
stone. The ground was the edge of a garden, loose
and tolerably rich. The seed was sown in three rows ;
on the first of April 1804. The young plants soon made
their appearance ; and I believe not a seed was lost.
I took no other care of them than occasionally to weed
them ; but the next spring, conceiving that I could
spare one row, I reduced the number to two ; by
transplanting to another field. The plants thus removed
throve exceedingly well ; though not equal to those
which were left behind. I regretted this removal ;
however, the following spring, when I found many of
the original plants did not put out leaves, and on exa-
mination I discovered that they had been destroyed by
the indefatigable mice, by gnawing the roots under
ground, so that the dead plant came up with a slight
pull destitute of roots. Fortunately this had not been
so general as entirely to defeat my plan ; and in the en-
suing autumn I replaced some of the destroyed stocks ;
and conceiving that the dead grass and accumulated
rubbish, along the bottom of the hedge, had allured the
mice, by affording them a warm cover, I had it all

On Hedges, 297

cleared away : — dug a small trench on each side of
the hedge, and inserted gravel and sand in them. —
No injury has since been done to the hedge. — It has
continued to thrive, — is annually headed down, — pre-
sents a beautiful foliage to the eye, and, except in one
place where too wide an aperture has been injudiciously
left, is without any artificial aid an effectual bar to cat-
tle.— Its length is 260 feet.

This plant though it passes under the general name
of locust, is a distinct thing from the robinia ; which is
the common locust ; and of which there are several va-
rieties. I have four of the latter on my place, none of
which would answer for a hedge. — The robinia pseudo
acacia^ and the robinia glutinosa, (brought by Michaux
from the westward) both of which are liable to be per-
forated by insects ; the thornless robinia, which I be-
lieve is not a native, and the robinia hispida^ often called
the rose acaua^ which is merely an ornament for the
shrubbery.

In the subjects for premiums the white mulberry is
mentioned. I tried this plant in 1794 at another place ;
but found its growth too slow and desultory, to render
it valuable in this point of view.

There are two other strong objections to it, the want
of thorns, and the fondness of cattle to browse on it.
The plant selected for this purpose should either be
obnoxious to the taste, or defended by thorns ; its
growth should be compact and steady ; it should bear
the shade, and drippings of trees, which we sometimes,
for diiferent reasons, are desirous of retaining in the line
of a hedge or near to it. This property is not always

VOL. II. p p

29S * On Hedges.

to be found in plants but the gleditsia will grow cheer-
fully in the most confined situation ; and does not throw
out suckers like the robinia.

I am my dear Sir,

Faithfully and affectionately yours

W. Rawle.
Harleigh, July 2tlst, 1810.

Hon. Richard Peters.

President of the Agric. Soc. Philad,

E 299 ]

Philadelphia J July V2th^ 1810.
Read August 14th, 1810.

Sir,

I conceive it a duty I owe the society, to commu-
nicate through you, the result of some experiments
which I had set about, for the purpose of ascertaining
the best means of reclaiming ©Id worn out land. I had
fondly listened to the method proposed by some, of im-
proving, with clover and plaister, without the use of
lime ; and determined to try it. The field which' I
pitched upon for my experiments contains about four-
teen acres ; it had been cleared about fifty-three or four
years ago, and continued in constant cultivation for
upwards of thirty years, without manure of any kind.
Some old people now living, say that they have seen
as 'good crops of wheat cut from it, as ever they saw ;
but it was kept in cultivation till the produce would no
longer pay for the labour, and has been thrown out a
common for more than twenty years, 'till I fenced it in.
I had the whole of the field ploughed early in the spring
of 1808, in the month of May one part of it was plough-
ed again, and sown with buckwheat ; this buckwheat
was ploughed in when in blossom, and the land sown
with buckwheat a second time, which was likewise
ploughed in and sowed with rye.

The other part of the field was limed, at the rate of
25 bushels to the acre, and planted with corn. The lime
which I used was of the hot kind, from a quarry which
is generally approved of for land in those parts ; makes

300 On Liming Land,

very strong mortar for building, but is not used for
plaistering, being granulated and not very white. I sup-
pose it to be similar to that described by Dr. Darwin,
which he supposes to have been primitive lime, broken
down by the action of water and petrified a second
time, which he thinks is the strongest lime.

The following summer was very dry, which together
with the heat of the lime, I supposed to be the cause
why the corn became stunted and produced almost
nothing. In the spring of 1809, the land was ploughed
and sowed with oats and clover, the other part of the
field which was now in rye, was likewise sowed with
clover at the same time, and as soon as the clover be-
gan to appear above ground, the whole field was sowed
with plaister.

At harvest the oats was a very good crop, the rye was
tall and well eared, but rather thin ; perhaps it was
owing to this circumstance, that the clover among the
rye looked better, and more plentiful than that among
the oats. I had not seen it, until Wednesday the 4th
instant, when I found that part of the field which had
been limed, closely covered with fine clover, whereas
on that part which was not limed, almost the whole of
it had perished last winter, and what plants remained
were weak and sickly, and abundance of wood-grass
beginning to appear, with which the field used to be
almost covered while it lay a common ; whereas not one
plant of it is to be seen on that part which was limed.
From this I concluded, that if the system of improving
with clover and plaister without lime, should succeed in
the end, it must be by a number of re])etitions of the
same process, which would require time and labour

On Liming Land. 301

equal to if not exceeding the expence of lime, and
the result uncertain. I therefore ordered that the part
of the field which had not been previously limed, should
be limed as soon as possible, twice ploughed, and sown
with rye, and clover next spring.

It was the opinion of the man who farms for me, as
well as of others who made observations, that I missed
it by planting corn with the lime ; that if I had sown
oats and clover the first spring, I would have had a
profitable crop, besides gaining a year in my improve-
ment, which was lost by the failure of the corn crop,
and part of the strength of the lime exhausted to no
purpose.* I am fully aware of the objection which some
have to oats as an exhausting crop, and therefore ill
calculated for advancing the improvement of worn out
lands. At the same time that I disapprove of the ab-

^ However corn may succeed upon fresh limed land, in
cases where the land was in good heart previous to the ap-
plication of the lime ; I here give my opinion not from con-
jecture, but experience and observation, that in general it will
be found better for the land, and more profitable for the far-
mer, to defer either corn or wheat, until clover have first
intervened ; especially if the lime was of the magnesian
kind, and the land poor ; and then the addition of a little dung
will be very useful. And in this opinion I am pardy born
out, by that able and experienced farmer Judge Peters, Pre-
sident of this Society ; in a note at the bottom of page 280,
of this volume, he has these words, " The same fields (where
wheat had failed) produced clover in abundance. In their
next turn for wheat (and especially if assisted with a light
dunging) they amply retributed my former disappointment."

302 On Liming Land.

surd practice of some farmers, of sowing oats and buck-
wheat, year after year, as the worst of all rotations ; I am
convinced from long experience, that an occasional crop
of oats is no more exhausting than wheat, rye, or corn;
that it is an excellent nurse for clover, a profitable crop
for the farmer, and the straw good fodder or litter, with-
out which he cannot get much dung, the value of which
is not sufficiently appreciated by many of our farmers.
Every kind of grain which ripens its seed is an exhaust-
er, even clover which is the most ameliorating crop
which we know, if it is but a moderate crop and left
standing until its seed is full ripe, instead of improving,
will be found to exhaust the land.

Before I conclude I must take some notice of the
mild lime, which I mentioned in a note at the bottom
of page 8. I then supposed the mild lime above
mentioned, to be the property of Mr. Barnitt of Marl-
borough township, but when I was with my friend
Mr. John Mill's on the 4th instant, he told me that Mr.
Barnitt's lime is the hottest and strongest lime in that
neighbourhood, that the mild lime which I alluded to is
the property of Mr. Baker of Newlin township. The
two limes are not more than two or at most three miles
apart, Mr. Mills's farm lays nearly in the centre be-
tween the two, and he occasionally uses both. He says
that it requires 130 bushels of the mild lime, to go as
far on land as 100 bushels of the hot lime ;* that the

* This last brings a higher price than any limes in that
neighbourhood, or from the valley ; being esteemed so much
more valuable, as it goes farther on land &c. than either of
thes«.

On Liming Land, 503

mild lime is in its effects on land somewhat similar to
that of dung, as it gives out its strength to the first crop,
but in one or two crops more it is all gone ; whereas
though the hot lime sometimes, instead of helping,
rather injures the first crop, its good effects continue for
many years. He showed me a clover field, one part of
which had been manured with Mr. Barnitt's hot lime,
and the other with Mr. Baker's mild lime. I observed
that wherever a heap of the hot lime had lain, not a
blade of vegetation of any kind had appeared, though
Mr. Mill's told me that every particle of it was shoveled
off as clean as possible ; but on that part of the field
where the mild lime was put, no such effects were pro-
duced. He told me further, that the grain was best on
that part where the mild lime was put, but the clover
is greatly superior on the other part, (it was all plaister«
ed alike) and I have no doubt that the succeeding crops
will evince a decided preference, in favour of the hot
lime. I expect to procure specimens of both the above
limes, for the purpose of having them analyzed.*

Dr.. James Mease.

I am sir, yours respectfully,

J. Lang.

* Having procured specimens of the above varieties of
limestone, and by the polite attention of Mr. James Cutbush,
have been favom-ed with a chemical analysis of each of them,
(for the results of which see the letter annexed) we are en-
abled to judge oi the striking similarity, between these and
the specimens which were analyzed in England by Mr. Ten-

304 Note, on Liming Land.

nent some years ago, as particularly noticed in the London
Philosophical Transactions, and in the writings of Mr. Henry,
Dr. Darwin and others.

We may remark that while the learned theorists in England
and elsewhere, were exulting over the grand discovery ,where-
by the farmer might proceed with certainty in his choice of the
lime most proper for manure, as if none but the mild or calca-
rious kind, would henceforth be used for that purpose. In the
mean time, we find the great mass of practical farmers, whose
practice is generally the result of long experience and obser-
vation, who read very little, many of whom seldom or never
see a newspaper, far less the London Philosophical Trans-
actions ; who never heard of Mr. Henry nor Darwin's Phy-
tologia ; who are entirely ignorant of the grand discovery of
the calcarious and magnesian limes, still giving the prefer-
ance to the hot or magnesian lime, and paying a higher price
for it, even where the mild kind is equally within their reach,
notwithstanding they know as well as Mr. Tennent, that the
spots where the heaps of it had lain will remain barren for
at least two years to come ; they being at the same time
sensible that with a judicious rotation it will produce them
improved crops for a number of years, whereas the beneficial
effects of the mild lime will be all gone in two years.

J. L.

E 305 ]

Analysis of American Limestone. By /. Cutbush^ Che-
mist arid Apothecary,

Philadelphia, ISth September, 1810,

Sir,

I have made the necessary examination of the lime-
stones you wished me to analyze. The comparative
quality, with respect to the ingredients of each kind
(hard white, and black micaceous) we may, therefore^
the more readily judge of.

While one variety, on the one hand, according to my
experiments, corresponds to that mentioned by Mr.
Tennant, the other appears on the contrary, to be com-
posed of more calcareous earth, and I presume would
answer all the desirable purposes of agriculture.*

With respect to the limestone, when it comes under
the head of magnesian limestone, agreeably to the name
of Mr. Tennant, I would merely remark, that when the
magnesian earth exceeds a certain j&er centum, it might,
with strict propriety be referred to this class ; for in most
of the varieties of limestone, the magnesian earth is
more or less abundant.

* Mr. Cutbush in this instance falls too hastily in with Mr. Tennant's
hypothesis, in giving the preference to the calcarious lime, for agricultu-
ral purposes. Wliereas it is a fact well known, that Mr. Barnett's lime
a.bove noticed, (which agrees with Mr. Tennant's magnesian kind) fetches
a higher price than any other limes in the&e parts ; and such is the demand
for it, that it cannot be got burnt fast enough — AVhea it is known that a
kiln is ready, the waggons come the night before it is opened, and next
morning they never stop loading until the whole is finished. This is sold
at fifteen cents per bushel at the kiln, while the others are bought for
twelve and a half cents per bushel.

VOL. II, (^q

306 On Analyzing Lime.

The characters of this limestone, which answers to
the magnesian limestone, are its extreme hardness ;
striking fire with steel, in consequence of which it must
contain a large proportion of silica ; slow solubility in
muriatic acid, 8icc.

The solution, when effected in muriatic acid, was
tested with carbonate of potash after filtering it, which
produced a copious precipitate.

Oxalate of potash, added in a similar manner, also
produced a precipitate.

The last experiment decided the presence of lime,
and the former in a great measure, the existence of
magnesia. To ascertain this fact, however, with more
certainty, a portion of the solution was examined with
carbonate of ammonia, and the precipitate formed, was
separated. The filtered liquor was now examined with
phosphate of soda, which occasioned a copious preci-
pitate. The quantity of this appeared to equal the quan-
tity obtained by oxalate of potash in the former experi-
ment, or that caused by the carbonate of ammonia im-
mediately preceding. On examining the precipitate
formed by carbonate of ammonia with muriatic acid
and oxalate of potash, the whole w^as discovered to be
carbonate of lime.

The phosphated soda, according to Dr. Wollaston,
added after the carbonate of ammonia, in the manner
pf which I have spoken, (when the carbonate is used in
the common temperature of the atmosphere) is the most
accurate test for the discovery of magnesia.

The experiment for determining the presence of
magnesia was made in a general way, in fact, merely to

On Analyzing Lime, 307

ascertain if this earth existed under the circumstances
we have already stated.

The other specimen of limestone, which is far more
friable, and of a dark micaceous appearance, was solu-
ble with more facility in muriatic acid. The solution
was soon effected ; the addition of carbonate of ammonia
separated the lime in an abundant precipitate ; and the
filtered liquor, after adding the carbonate, gave a slight
precipitate with phosphate of soda. Magnesia, however,
as already stated is always found, more or less, accom-
panying lime.

With much respect, Sir,

I remain yours, &c.

James Cutbush.
JohnLang.

Course of Crops,

Advantage is taken, of the vacant space in this sheet, by
the writer of the note, page 144, on General Armstrong's
letter relative to the Draveil plough and the tenant's course
of crops ^ page 145, to correct an error. The words ^'^ and his
course of crops ^'' should have been omitted. There cannot
be a worse course than wheats ryCy and oats^ immediately
succeeding each other.

[ 308 ]

Monsieur Thouin^s Letter^ sent with a Box of Seeds.

The following translation of a letter from Professor Thouin
is published in acknowledgment of his highly beneficial civi-
lities. Nothing can promote mutual benefits to distant coun-
tries, more than such interchanges. We entertain a hope, that,
not only the members of the society, but other citizens, will en-
able us to reciprocate such favourable attentions. These seeds
and all others so received, have been, and will be, diffused for
general benefit. An unfortunate delay, not owing to any want
of attention in Mons. Thouin^ prevented its arrival here for a
great length of time, after its being sent from Paris. A sense
of the importance to our country, of such valuable additions
to our products, should stimulate our fellow citizens abroad,
to exertion in forwarding their transportation.

"museum of natural history,

Paris^ 20th February^ 1808.

" Professor Thouin, one of the administrators of the
museum of natural history at Paris, and member of the
national mstitute of France, has the honour to present
this collection of seeds to the society of rural economy
of Philadelphia. He prays them to receive it as a pledge
of his respectful attachment, and of his desire to concur
with them, as much as lays in his power, to increase
the agricultural resources of a people, whose wise laws
he admires, whose freedom he esteems, whose indepen-
dence he regards, and whose manners he respects.

Monsieur Thouin's Letter. 309

" This assortment is composed of almost four hun-
dred Yitxlt packets of seeds of trees, and plants ; exotics
in North America, and which may be accommodated
to every department of rural and domestic economy.
The packets of the greatest part of the several species
being in duplicate, contain a sufficient quantity of seeds
to be capable of diffusion among a great number of
the members of the society, who will cultivate them
in various soils, different situations, and by many modes
of culture ; and thereby multiply the chances of suc-
cess. In this way more certain results will be afforded,
than if the whole were sown in the same kind of soil, in
one place, and in one mode of cultivation.

" If the collection now sent is agreeable to the society,
or to any of its members, and they desire to receive one
similar, they have only to communicate to me their re-
quests ; and they will find me always disposed to pro-
cure for them every thing I have at my disposal, in the
extensive establishment committed to my care. The
society will acquit itself with interest, by transmitting,
described or not, some seeds of the vegetable products
which grow between the Allegheny mountains and the
South Sea, in the countries which American travellers
begin to frequent.

Respectfully,

Thouin.'*

C 310 ]

The following is published as promising much benefit'
in small operations. It will be highly useful, for se-
lecting fruit, and detaching the nests of caterpillars
from the trees, also in cutting off grafts and superflu-
ous shoots. We are informed that instruments, on the
same principles, exist in Germany, on a very large
scale. We have conversed with an old Hannoverian
gardener, who alleges he has seen and used one. This
does not lessen the merits of the inventor ; who, as has
happened in other instances, struck out the same
thought in a distant country.

Directions for the Purchaser ofJocelin^s Patent Prun-
ing Shears*

In the first place. Procure a spruce, or other light
and strong pole, planed straight to the size of one inch
in diameter at the upper, and one inch and a quarter at
the lower extremity, when about twelve feet in length
and for twelve inch arm shears of about two pounds
weight, and less when shorter poles, or for lighter
shears : — ^burn in the spike end of the shears, after
boring the pole, as a file into its handle, then drive on
an iron ferrule ; place the cord — draw it straight on the
pole, and insert three or four wire staples, from a little
below the shears, down to about half way, for the cord
to run in.

In pruning, let the upper blade of the shears rest
against a bud or twig, at the right hand ; and by pulling
the cord, the moveable blade is pressed against the

On Jocelin^s Patent Pruning Shears » 3 H

branch to be taken off, in an oblique direction ; and hav-
ing an acute edge, the cutting is mostly upwards, and
easily performed on live branches, three quarters of an
inch in diameter, more or less according to the size of
the shears and quality of the wood — the distance of 20
feet above the place of standing, more or less according
to the length of the pole. Poles of different lengths can be
applied to the same shears, as occasion may require.

Let the blades be screwed as close together as may
be consistent with moving freely — keep the principal
cutting edge in good order, and the friction parts well
oiled, and wipe the blades after using; observing to hook
the arms together to save fingers.

The pruning shears are used to great advantage, in
trimming young fruit trees by timely taking off, or
shortening such branches as may be necessary for the
health and beauty of the trees, and perfection of the
fruit. For taking selected fruit, cutting away worm
nests, trimming goosberr)^ and other shrubs, it excels.

Price single xvithout pole or cord.

Twelve inch moveable arm. Five dollars.

Nine inch do. Four dollars and fifty cents.

Six inch do. Three dollars and fifty cents.

Four inch do. Three dollars.

All persons are cautioned against purchasing any of
said shears without a card, containing a bill of sale in
due form — specifying the size and price of the shears
so purchased, and signed by the seller.

And also permission for using the same, signed by
the patentee,

Simeon Jocelin.

312 On Jocelin's Patent Pruning Shears.

New Haven, March '21th, 1810.
Honourable Richard Peters, Esq.

Bought of S. Jocelin,
One o/'Jocelin's nine inch
patent Pruning Shears,
Price 4 Dollars 50 Cents,
Received Payment,

Simeon Jocelin

The Proprietor of my patent
Shears, purchased as above
to the use of the same in his
only.

Pruning
stated, is entitled
or her service

Simeon Jocelin, Patentee,

[ 313 ]

On Soiling Cattle^ on Broom Corn, and Guinea Corn
as Green Food for Cattle, By John Lorain.

Read, November 13th, 1810.

Sir,

On the 20th ultimo I topped one row of corn to as-
certain how it would bear early cutting, and on the
31st commenced feeding my cattle with them, and they
continue to eat every particle with greater avidity than
any other food; and I think thrive faster than on first
crop grass: the blades will be given in succession, the
husks and stalks will remain to be appropriated here-
after: the former are relished by cattle more than any
other part of the fodder; the latter weighs rather more
than all the rest of the plant, and to reduce them to
good food would be an - object of no small considera-
tion. In the winter of 1808, my cattle eat all the stalks
I had, after cutting them from two to three inches^ but
then their other provender vv^as bad, and in 1809 when
better provision was made for them, they refused the
stalks cut in the same way although they were better
saved; this induced me to give over further trial till I
could fall on some better mode of preserving them
with a larger share of their juices, by cutting or in
some other way reducing them much finer without too
much expense.

In your Encyclopsedia you mention some gentleman
who cut them very fine with a very powerful cutting-
box, how this could be effected by manual labour with-
out costing too much I cannot conceive, I have bruised

R r

314 On Soiling Cattle.

them under a conical roller (an excellent cheap tool for
threshing grain crops) but found them so tough and
elastic, that I have been discouraged from sending a
load to some tanners bark- mill, though that would be
much more powerful, and perhaps somewhat similar to
the best mode of bruising whins in Ireland. Wishing
this fall to resume the experim*ent, in order to deter-
mine the full value of a good crop of corn, I beg the
liberty of asking whether any thing in the course of
your practice or reading has occurred, that would ena-
ble me to use them profitably as food for cattle.

As you appear highly interested in the success of
soiling, it will no doubt give you pleasure to learn, that
I have surmounted every difficulty in the practice of
this summer, seven of my cattle have been sold since
you saw them, and there are several more that I shall
offer for sale in a few days, and to crown my success,
fortune has thrown in my way an invaluable plant. On
the 19th and 21st of May 1 planted a small patch of
Guinea corn in clusters from eight to twelve inches
a part, and on the 23d another with broom corn adjoin-
ing it; the first has been cut with the scythe twice, and
the second cut yielded full one-third more than the
first, though not so tall; this was in consequence of the
great increase of suckers: it bids fair for a third crop
unless too little heat, or an early frost should affect its
growth. The other patch consisting of broom and
Guinea, was not cut till about five feet high, the plants
have suckered greatly, and no doubt will produce a
plentiful second cut. My cattle were very fond of it,
but the quantity was too small to form any opinion of
its nutritive qualities, but those must be very consi-

On Soiling Cattle. 315

derable if the observations on this plant in your En-
cyclopaedia are correct: the enclosed extract of a letter
from Dr. C. Drayton Junr. accompanying the seed will
cast a very considerable light on the subject which,
after read please return. If 1 am not greatly mistaken,
Guinea corn will produce more green fodder than any
other annual plant that has been used for that purpose,
either here or in England; and under this conviction I
intend the ensuing spring, to commence with cutting
for my cattle, half or perhaps the whole field designed
for Indian corn the spring following, and that the
plough and harrow shall immediately follow the scythe,
till sown broadcast with Guinea corn, by which means
I expect to obtain a large supply of green food coming
in immediately after first crop grass is done, and vastly
superior to the best second crop grass, with no other
expense than seed and harrowing, and the sod will be
better rotted than by fall ploughing. I regret that I
did not try whether Indian corn would not bear re^
peated cuttings if commenced before its disposition to
sucker, ceased. If you have never examined the broom
or Guinea corn in the different stages of their growth,
and their wonderful and profuse suckering after cut-
ting with the scythe, you will I make no doubt be
highly gratified in viewing my little patches, more es-
pecially as you design to soil cattle.-— I am generally
at home every day after 12 o'clock, and on Sunday al-

316 On Soiling Cattle,

together, and if it suits your entire convenience shall
be happy to see you, and am your

Respectful humble servant,

John Lorain.
Dr. James Mease.
September I2th, 1810.

N. B. The first cut of the Guinea corn was from
three to two and a half feet high, the second from two
to two and a half feet.

Remarks on the Culture of the Guinea Corn or Holcus
Spicatusj referred to in the foregoing paper.

This plant being useful for fodder as well as grain ;
some manage it thus :

Oats, they sow the first week in November in drills
one foot apart. In moderate winters it is fit to be used
as green fodder by the first week in February, at that
time the leaves when extended may be 18 or 20 inches
long from the eanh, and then cut six or eight inches
from the top. This may be repeated several times, and
cut within eight or ten inches of the earth.

Guinea corn. — About the middle of March, remove
entirely every other row of the oats, and sow the
Guinea corn in drills very thin, 10 or 12 grains in the
space of a foot. It being a tender plant, not bearing
frost, it is thus sheltered by the oats. — In six weeks
it is fit to cut, about six or eight inches from the top
for fodder; then remove the oats wholly. Thus from
the beginning of May, it may be cut every 12 or 14

Remarks on Guinea Corn, 3 17

days until frost. In June collect the blades together and
cut them all ofF, one or two inches above the crown of
the plant, indeed, if the plant be cut near to the ground
it will sprout out repeatedly but not leaf so profusely
though come to good seed. But this hitherto only re-
lates to fodder, and the cutter will be regulated in his
cutting, by seeing what part the creatures refuse from
being too hard.

When seed is the object, then in these rows which,
are three feet asunder, the plants may be hoed off,
leaving small clumps of six or eight stalks about four
or five feet distant in quincunx order as it suckers
much, it may be occasionally suckered on the common
principle : and these plants are good fodder.

If the seed be sowed for a crop of seed, disregarding
use as fodder, the rows may be four or five feet apart
and the clumps as far apart in the rows ; sowing 10 or
12 seed, in each clump or hillock. If the soil be in
good heart, it will probably not require a single hoeing ;
the plants stole so much, and abounding with leaves,
the earth is almost entirely shaded, and in the more
advanced stage, entirely so.

Like plants in general, it delights in a soil rich, dry
and loose. In the West Indies it yields two crops an-
nually— both yielding from 60 to 80 bushels of seed.
Here* we set but one crop. In the field, the birds are
fond of the grain ; and in the barn> the rats. It is ex-
cellent for poultry, and where the seed is cleared from
its husk, by beating in a mortar ; and boiled and eaten

^ In Carolina.

318 Remarks on Guinea Corn,

with butter or milk it is scarcely to be distinguished
from small rice,* frost being the guage for its sowing
and harvest, every clime must be regulated in the cul-
ture by experience.

With the respects of

His humble servant,

C. Drayton Junr.

Mr, John Lorain,

* Small rice is the small pieces broken off in beatingj
together with the eyes of the grain.

C 319 ]

Profit of Soiling Cattle. By John Lorain,
Read December 11th, 1810.

Tackoney, 26th November, 1810.

Sir,

I have succeeded in soiling and selling the catde
mentioned in a former communication, and should your
society consider the subject interesting to agriculture,
will with pleasure detail the causes of former defeat, and
the management which has, and I hope ever will prove
successful. — At present, I propose confining myself to
some observations on its very superior economy, com-
pared with grazing, and to illustrate the subject from
the practice of my own farm, shall subjoin the produce
of this year, over and above soiling forty cattle and six
horses, to wit.

1730 bushels of potatoes at 35 cents, the
prices of this article are very fluctuating, and
not always governed by a plentiful or mid-
dling crop ; they were rated at the same last
year, and sold for more exclusive of riddling,
and hauling to market, and a loss sustained
by frost, - - . . . % e>06 50

817 bushels of corn, at 60 cents; this may
appear high to some, especially as it will shrink
considerably in the crib. I do not sell till the
crib is wanted for the new crop, at which time
prices on an average are high, - - 490 20

Carried forward, ^ 1095 70

320 Profit of Soiling Cattle,

Ainount brought forward, S

222 1-2 bushels of barley delivered but no
rice fixed; the brewer informed me not long
bince, he expected the market would be fixed
at one dollar per bushel,

247 1-2 bushels of wheat sold for S 2 50
cents per bushel ; seed retained, rated at the
same price the purchaser hauled it from my
barn, - - , -

Peaches sold for 85 dollars 66 cents, a trivial
article, but the trees and gathering injured
the crops on the ground near three acres,

76 tons of hay: 7 tons deducted, fed to the
horses after the 10th of August, when proper
grasses for the horses became very deficient.
69 tons at 12 dollars 50 cents per ton ; hay-
sellers will consider this too low, but it must
be judiciously applied to be worth as much
when fed away on the farm,

1430 loads of compost estimated equal in
nutrition to 587 loads of dung. Farm yard
and stable dung unmixed, 804 loads, the
whole 1391 loads of 32 cubical feet each at
50 cents, . . - .

The purchasers of m.anure will consider this
much too low, but this price pays attendance
on cattle, and every other expense till it is
ready for the crops.

19 tons of corn stalks and husks, the tops
and blades were given green to the cattle —

Carried forward, S 3580 61

Profit of Soiling Cattle, ' 321

Amount brought forward, S 3580 61
the farmer in the practice of leaving his stalks
in the field, and entangling his plough and
horses among them in the spring, risking his
shins at every step, would laugh at seeing
them estimated in a crop. I find them cheap
and excellent litter for the yards, they are with
the straw not consumed by the catde, charged
together with raking woods, and hauling
leaves every year to my manure account.- —
Price of stalks at three dollars per ton, - 57 00

Barley straw and chaff, valued at the cost
of threshing and cleaning the grain, - 27 81

Wheat straw and chaff, valued in the same
way, 37 12

Dollars, JS 3702 54

This produce has not been accumulated by a system
free from errors and misfortunes : a large share of both
has occurred very injurious to the crops, which will be
explained, when I communicate the result of my corn
and potatoe patch.

The tract 106 acres 85 in grass and under tillage ; the
residue woods, roads, yards and garden : had those 85
acres been in grass no better or thicker set, they would
have been barely sufficient to pasture the stock, and tak-
ing into consideration the forepart of the season, I doubt
whether under the very best management they would
have been enough. One acre of good land well set with
grass, is considered sufficient for an ox; but grounds sub-
ject to the plough, are rarely returned well set with artifi-
cial grasses, and are seldom rich enough to get quickly

s s

522 Profit of Soiling Cattle.

covered with natural grass, and it is well known that cat-
tle soon devour an acre of clover nearly run out, or
indeed any other thin set grass : however the grounds
are open to observation, except about 10 acres of the
worst, the greater part of which has been ploughed for
spring crops, and between thirteen and fourteen acres
top dressed with compost, since cutting the first crop ;
but those are not yet so materially altered as to prevent
investigation.

As every thing heretofore advanced has been found-
ed on actual experiment, except the capabilities of the
grounds to graze the stock, I am sorry that rests on
opinion, and consequently stamps some degree of un-
certainty, on every conclusion that may be drawn from
the whole ; but if this opinion is correct the produce
stated above, has been rescued from oblivion by soil-
ing, except the hay, which might have been mowed
after the stock, as they decreased in number, had they
been pastured on the grounds, and the advantage de-
rived from their dung often dropped where useless, and
seldom where it w^ould be most beneficial.

An extra produce of 3702 dollars 54 cents, or of 43
dollars BS cents per acre, on 85 acres, or of 34 dollars
92 cents per acre on the whole 106 acres, appears to
demand some attention: and notwithstanding the prices
forming this estimate, may be considered too high by
many equally near to Philadelphia as myself, and must of
course be curtailed to suit remote situations, the intrinsic
value of the articles will still remain considerable, and
if the numerous acres appropriated to pasture in Penn-
sylvania, are in proportion to the soil capable of pro-
ducing in the same ratio, soiling is an object of high

Profit of Soiling Cattle, 323

consideration, provided it should hereafter be found to
answer all the purposes of breeding, rearing, and fatting
animals, equally as well as grazing ; but of this very-
little is known in this country, and as far as my infor-
mation extends, not much in Europe : a few experi-
ments either here or there, cannot, ought not to overturn
established and well tryed practice, yet as I believe it
will answer all those purposes, having this year expe-
rienced no other difficulties than those arising from too
scanty a su ■ ly of proper grasses, and have discovered
none improper except red clover, and that only in cer-
tain stages of its growth, I cannot but wish to see enter-
prising farmers, who are in the habit of carefully in-
specting the business of their farms, trying the expe-
riment on a moderate scale: those who depend on others
should not engage in it ; any industrious observing far-
mer might without the least risk try it in a smallway,if he
only commences with his horse and working oxen, and
has enough of proper grass, I will venture to pronounce
positively that he will never pasture them again, while
in his power to soil them in the yard ; a trivial breadth
of grass will support them, they will be always full and
at hand, and the manure saved for his potatoe patch and
corn hills, very considerable.

If your society wishes further report on this subject
I should be early informed, for it embraces such a va-
riety of objects that it must of necessity be lengthy, and
particularly as I conceive it ought to be accompanied
with an abridgement of my farm accounts for this year,
clearly stated and correctly balanced, to shew from them
what bearing soiling has on the profits of the farm, and
whether under a judicious management of cattle, those

;24 Profit of Soiling cattle.

profits will pay a handsome interest on a capital of
about 19,300, dollars vested in and employed on this
estabUshment, which appears to me something like elu-
cidating the point by mathematical demonstration.

As measurement and weight of bulky articles on a
farm cannot be estimated with the same precision, as
they are when carried to market I state below the
mode on which the foregoing estimate is generally
founded.

I am your very respectful humble servant.

John Lorain.

The first loads of potatoes were measured, and the
carts marked, and afterwards filled to this gage ; they
have heretofore overrun on being riddled, the small
at first lay between the cavities of the large.

The corn was all correctly measured in a tub very
similar to a Maryland corn barrel, one was shelled and
measured from which the crop is estimated it ; is evi-
dent this will shrink in the crib, but I have no certain
rule to determine how much.

I consider eight square feet or 512 cubical feet forms
a ton of hay in a well settled mow ; where it lies shallow
oris not well settled, allowances should be made.

The mode of measuring dung is explained in a for-
mer communication.

[ 525 ]

On a Wool Micrometer,
Read December 11th 1810.

Belmont^ November 2Bth, 1810,

Sir,

Dr. Logan has been so obliging as to be the bearer
of a Wool Micrometer. I beg leave, on behalf of
our worthy member RobertBarclay Esq. of London
and Berry Hill nc^r Dorking, England, and in his name,
to present this valuable instrument to the society. In
his letter to me of the 31st July 1810. Mr. Barclay
writes —

*' By Dr. Logaji I have sent you, for the use of our
society, an instrument introduced by Sir Joseph
Banks, only at the last IVoburn sheep shearing, — a
Wool Micrometer, to ascertain most accurately the
quality of our wools ; which be pleased to present, in
my name to our society ; as from the patriotic exertions
lately made in the United States, to improve your native
wool, by crosses of the true Merino^ I presume this
new instrument will prove acceptable."

I am much gratified, and, no doubt^ the society will
be impressed with feelings similar to mine, by this in-
stance of polite and useful attention and kindness in Mr.
Barclay. Although highly acceptable, at any time, the
arrival of this instrument, at this period, when its utility
is peculiarly important ; adds to its value, as it respects
ourselves.

326 0« a Wool Micrometer.

The drawings accompany the instrument ; and di-
rections for using it.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant.

Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease.
Secretary to the Fhilad. Soc. for protJioting Agriculture.

We have not yet had time to arrive at a perfect know-
ledge of this micrometer, so as nicely to discriminate between
the samples of wools. The filament sent with the instrument
is T^^^ parts of an inch, in fineness. The wool of my ewe
No. 2 in the plate, is agreed, by all who have viewed its fila-
ment through this micrometer, to be several degrees finer
than that accompanying that instrument.

R. P.

A AVOOL MICROMETER.
FIG. 2.

[ 329 ]

Directions for using the Micrometer,

Fig. 1. A, The body of the microscope in which a
tube is made to slide containing the eye glasses ; this
motion is necessary for obtaining distinct vision, b,
the slider by which the object is adjusted to distinct
vision hi the first case ; c, the plate on which the divi-
ded glass is placed, d, the pinion, by which the divid-
ed glass is moved.

Fig. 2. E, The plate on which the objects are to be
placed ; this plate is made to turn on a centre, so that
the diameter of the object to be measured may be
placed at right angles to the motion of the divided
glass f, f, two milled headed screws ; to hold the object,
g, g, two springs for the same purpose.

h, The scale, k, the vernier, each division on the
scale is equal to the 1000 part of an inch, seen in the
place of the object, which is subdivided into ten by the
vernier, k, therefore each subdivision is equal to the
Tol^o part of an inch seen in the place of the object.

Great care should be taken to adjust the object to dis-
tinct vision ; as on that in a great degree depends the ac-
curacy of the measurement. There is a circle on the
body A, fig. 1, which is nearly the proper place for the
shder, b. The filament of wool sent in its place, with
this micrometer, will be found to measure Toh^s of an

inch.

T t

[ 330 ]

Farther Remarks on Mixed Crops of Corn and
Potatoes.

Read January, 1811.

Tackoney, I3th December, 1810.

Sir,

I resume the detail of my mixed crop of corn and
potatoes, commencing where I left off the 21st May
last. — The corn was earthed up once with the plough,
and hand hoes immediately followed after it ; in this
state it continued until it again became necessary to
subdue the weeds, at which time the ridges were hand
hoed barely deep enough to effect that purpose ; it was
suckered three times, twice would have been sufficient,
had not re-planting occasioned great irregularity in the
growth ; the re-planted part was dressed with gypsum
soon after it was up, hoping this would assist it to con-
tend with the roots and shade of that which had taken
the lead ; but it produced no perceptible advantage, op-
pressed by its powerful neighbours, it became feeble,
useless, and actually injurious (except in places where
the first planting had altogether failed) in a space suffi-
cient to prevent injury from its roots and shade, and
the extensive failure in the original planting required
one fourth as much seed as w^as planted at first, from
which I infer an immense loss in the crop. When the
com was from 5 to 7 feet high, a tremendous storm le-
velled it to the ground; had it been left in the hands of
nature, the injury would have been inconsiderable, but

On Corn and Potatoes, 331

all the hands I could get were employed in setting it
up ; some of them being awkward, broke the plants, and
sadly mangled the roots, and it was not until about
seven acres had been set up, that I observed the active
power of vegetation was performing the operation infi-
nitely better than the most expert workman in the field.
After this two other storms blew down a considerable
quantity, when the ears were too heavy for it to rise,
and although part of this lay flat on the ground, it was
not observed that the filling of the ears were hijured,
but it became necessary previously to ploughing up the
potatoes to remove those plants out of the way, which
it was found had rooted from their joints fast to the
ground ; with a sharp hoe those roots were easily cut,
and the plants readily laid aside with but little injury,
while I was present ; but other business demanded my
attention, and the crop sustained very considerable
damage from the carelessness of the person who did
this work : these disasters, together with calculating the
roller from its round instead of the round of the extremi-
ties of the indentures, reduced the fruitful plants in the
field to one half the number originally designed. They
were ascertained by measuring a rod in various parts of
the field, when the ears of the re-planted were well formed,
and estimating the average of fruitful plants within those
distances, and from that moment I clearly perceived my
high expectations were blasted : but the disasters of
this ill-fated experiment did not stop here; early in
August, it was discovered that proper grasses for soil-
ing the cattle would soon be very deficient, and on the
20th of that month one row of corn was topped, to as-
certain how it would bear early cutting, and it was

332 On Corn and Potatoes,

thought that it had received no injur)% and on the 31st
of the same month commenced feeding the cattle with
the tops, cut daiiy as wanted, except the re-planted,
which was considered too young: these lasted them 'till
the 18th September, when the blades were stripped,
commencing where the topping began, and these fed
the cattle until the 5th of October.

In the progress of topping and blading, one row was
left entire along side of the row topped the 20th August;
both those rows, and also another row along side of the
row first mentioned, were all cut oiF by the roots on the
2d of October, and hauled in and set up separate, un-
der my own inspection. They were husked and measur-
ed on the 8th of November.

Produce of the row neither topped or stripped 9 5-8
bushels of corn in the ear.

Produce of that topped the 20th August and bladed
20th September, 7 6-8 bushels of corn in the ear.

And the produce of the one topped the 2d Septem-
ber and bladed the 20th of same month 7 3-8 bushels
of corn in the ear.

This experiment strongly indicates that if all the crop
had been topped as late as the 2d of September, and
bladed on the 20th of the same month, that the loss on
the whole field from those operations would have been
more than 230 bushels, but as those rows stood near
w^here topping and blading commenced, it must have
been less, yet certainly very considerable, for through-
out the whole field the husks were generally dry and
open, except on the row which had not been topped or
stripped : on this they still retained a greenish hue, and

On Corn and Potatoes, 333

were close set to the ear : indeed the difference was so
manifest at the time this row was cut off, that it alone
convinced me, that necessity had urged a measure ex-
tensively detrimental to the crop, and this in direct op-
position to former practice founded on attentive obser-
vation, that fodder was better saved with one half the
expense by cutting off than by topping and stripping
the corn, while the ears appeared to derive considerable
advantage from the plants remaining entire.

The potatoes were once earthed up with the plough,
after which the w^eeds likely to out top them were re-
moved by the hand, and they would have been luxuriant
had it been sufficiently considered that nature designed
them to grow under the ground^ for the high planting
and dry weather while they were fruiting reduced their
usual size considerably.

The ground where these crops grew measured 13
acres, 24 3-4 perches exactly : one half appropriated to
the corn and the other half to the potatoes.

Produce 817 bushels of shelled corn, and 1730 bush,
els of potatoes.

This forms an average of 263 bushels of potatoes, and
124 bushels of shelled corn per acre, if I may be per-
mitted to assign to each the ground they occupied.

It may appear strange that after growing such a crop
of corn, the details of the injuries it sustained should be
so lengthy, but it should be remembered that it was an
experiment projected on an opinion, that close planting
on well manured ridges, sufficiently distant from each
other to give full scope for sun and air, would produce
as much corn on each acre and save half the land for
other crops, as could be produced if the whole ground

334 On Corn and Potatoes,

had been occupied by corn planted in the usual way, but
of this the experiment has fallen short nearly one half,
for 118 bushels of shelled corn has been grown per acre;
this was a wager crop, perhaps too highly manured for
wheat to follow, yet from my observations on the ridged
rows of com last year. 1 did not expect to be far behind
that very superior crop. The ears of my present crop
have been generally larger than any I have grown here-
tofore, two of the largest size which have been laying
four or five weeks on a shelf close by a stove and arc
perfectly dry, have been shelled, and measure full a
quart, or a pint each, but it is impossible to determine
w^hether the ears of this crop would have been dimi-
nished in size, or if so, to what extent, had the re-plant-
ed been able to contend for their share of nutriment,
and had the number of clusters originally designed been
planted, this remains to be determined hereafter : but
the result of this crop clearly determines, that this mode
of planting will produce large crops of corn, while it
reserves one half the ground for other valuable purposes,
provided the quantity of plants do not exceed the num-
ber of fruitful plants in this field, to wit, about 33 with-
in the length of every perch on each ridge ; and also, if
topping and blading be omitted, and the plants are not
cut off until the grain has nearly arrived to perfection,
arid the effect of storms are left with nature to repair ;
and although re- planting is frequently beneficial to crops
plai"ited in the usual way, in the case under considera-
tion it proves injurious, and every possible precaution
should be used to render it unnecessary. I once suc-
ceeded by planting eight grains where only three were
designed to stand, and a boy of eleven years old, with

On Corn and Potatoes. 335.

a little instruction and a trivial expense, thinned them
to my entire satisfaction, as soon as they were out of
the way of grubs and crows : and I expected to escape
re-planting this year by dropping six grains where only
two were designed to stand, and keeping a boy in the
field to drive off crows: the seed ears were selected and
a little shelled off each end of the cob, reserving the
remainder for planting. I have since been informed by
an observing farmer that the hearts of two or three
grains from each ear designed for planting should be ex-
amined with a sharp knife, and if they are found to ad-
here closely to the flint on each side, and are otherwise
sound and healthy, the ear from which they were taken
may be relied on : perhaps this precaution in addition to
an unusual quantity of seed might go far toward ensur-
ing a sufficiency of plants if crows are kept off.

Potatoes cannot be grown extensively except for cat-
tle, and it has been asserted by many who are well in-
formed, that they wdll not pay for cultivating, if expend-
ed in this way ; they are also a troublesome and perish-
able crop, and come off too late for the corn to derive
any advantage from turning the ground they occupied
to it, consequently the space left between corn grown
in this way, cannot be so extensively useful until plants
are selected for this purpose, that will combine the des-
truction of weeds, an early harvest, with a capability of
withstanding a sufficient manuring for wheat, and grass
seeds to follow, and that are not perishable, and do not
require huckstering to get them off; and there are plants
which it is believed will answer all those purposes, but
I do not learn that they have been grown in this way,
and perhaps some of those would better accord with

336 On Corn and Potatoes,

planting the corn one foot wider asunder without dimi-
nishing the number of plants per acre, as much larger
scope will be provided for their roots with the advan-
tage of more sun and air.

The corn and potatoe grounds are now in wheat,
sown with rather more than two bushels per acre, after
one ploughing commenced in the middle of the potatoe
rows (rendered flat by the cleaning harrow) and ending
in the middle of the corn ridges on each side, forming
beds of eleven feet each from the middle of the water
furrows. The execution was easy, and when finished,
equal in appearance to any field I have ever seen; it
will be sown with grass seeds in the spring, to be mown
five years : one exhausting crop immediately following
another of the same kind, seems to require an apology
or explanation, and not knowing which would suit best,
what is offered will be applicable to either ; manuring
well for corn has so far secured me a good crop and left
the ground clean and rich enough for wheat or barley,
of which I have had superior crops free from weeds, and
consequently easier and safer harvested, and the land
left not too much exhausted for grass seeds. This short
round I conceive produces more grain than a longer
one would do on a larger breadth of ploughed ground,
and leaves more land for grass, which, while it is adding
to the revenue of the farm, is daily accumulating riches
for future grain crops.

Yours, &cc.

John Lorain.

N. B. Perhaps it will not be known to all who may
wi^li to plant potatoes among corn, that the vines of the

On Corn and Potatoes, 337

latter die nearly as soon in the shade of the rows
as the early sorts. I have tried a variety, and find
none answer near so well as a kind which are said to
have came originally from Rhode Island ; they are not
as soon fit for the table as the earliest variety, but by
harvest are as large, and soon attain perfection ; only
few grow at the root, and those mostly large and closely
set to the stem, and will produce large crops if planted
very close in the row ; if planted among corn, they
should be first put in, that they may get as forward as
possible before the shade of the rows becomes inju-
rious.

u u

[ 338 ]

On Soilmg Cattle, By John Lorain,
Read Januaiy, 1811.

Tackoneij, 20th December^ 18 10-.

Sir,

I purpose at this time to enter no further into the
subject of soiling, than what relates to the grasses for
and against it, and the management of the cattle, unless
as I proceed it may be considered better to make ob-
servations now, on some other things connected with
that system.

The varieties of grasses on this place are very incon-
siderable ; green grass, timothy, and orchard grass, have
been my principal dependence for soiling the cattle, but
there is also some blue grass, white clover, and other
native grasses, and to none of those have they disco-
vered any marks of dislike, and they have been tried
with some very coarse from a wet spot in a bottom
meadow, to which they did not object; they will also
eat crop or fall grass freely, likewise a multitude of
weeds which they reject in the fields, and having been
compelled from necessity to cut a barley stubble crop
of tall oat grass for them, they also eat this freely, and
as it has since grown sufficient for a short cut with the
scythe, promises great usefulness in soiling.

If the cattle are fed with red clover in the spring be-
fore the heads are beginning to form, they will in gene-
ral eat but little of it for the first day or two, but after
this feed more freely on it, and when the heads are
pretty generally formed or forming, they continue to eat

On Soiling Cattle. 339

it freely until the first crop gets rather old, when it pro-
duces what is termed a salivation or slobbering ; this
may proceed either from the suckers of the second crop
springing from the roots, or from the poisonous sap
(which is supposed to be produced at this season) ris-
ing up into the old stem ; or by the decaying under
leaves of the plant disposed at this time, from some hid-
den cause to collect poisonous properties, for it is said
the grain of wheat sometimes becomes highly impreg-
nated with poison from damage sustained while stand-
ing in the field ; but as insects of various descriptions
have generally been thought the primary cause of most
'of the evils attending vegetation, and men of superior
information confidently assert, that the smut and mil-
dew in wheat are occasioned by them, and it may here-
after be discovered that insects are the cause of this ma-
lady in clover, and as the ravages of those have been
generally periodical, it seems to accord with the prevail-
ing opinion, that clover has not long been affected in
this way. The person ,vvho has cut grass for my cattle
during the three years oi" soiling, has frequently inform-
ed me, that after long continued rains, or drifting and
moist weather, the red clover got affected with a rusty
appearance on the stalks, which he considered the cause
of the rejection of it by cattle. I have observed this ap-
pearance on well saved second crop hay, yet it excited
but little attention until very lately. If insects are the
cause of this evil, perhaps with proper glasses, traces of
their ravages may now be discovered in the stalks of
the second crop hay, if not, the ensuing summer will
afford ample scope for investigation.

;-40 On Soilitig Cattle,

Unless a remedy for this malady in clover should be
discovered, it cannot, consistent with the preservation
of a necessary rotation, be used for soiling longer than
until the green grass or orchard grass are ready, without
recourse to the plough, which, unless under certain cir-
cumstances, may be found too expensive ; and if guinea
or broom corn is sown for this purpose, a gap will be
left between them and the clover, to be filled up with
some other green food, for v/hich purpose it is thought
timothy might answer, if the Guinea corn is sown early
on a good soil ; the patch of that plant mentioned in a
former communication, produced a better third crop
than was expected, from the late planting and complete
shade of woods on two sides of the patch ; it was left
standing until frost, and found as tender, or perhaps
more so than Indian corn. Q_uery, would gypsum be a
manure for this plant.

Clover from the first commencement of its being af-
fected, has through the whole season afterward been in-
jurious to the cattle, and that as far as could be deter-
mined by the eye, in exact proportion to the mixture of
it contained in each load, unless the quantity of it mix-
ed among the other grasses was too small to produce
any perceptible effect; yet when the proportion of clover
did not exceed above one-third, both cattle and horses
eat it freely, and appear to do well, but as they still slob-
bered some, it is thought they would have done still
better, if the mixture had been much less, or if the red
clover had been altogether absent ; it was also very ob-
servable that they were not all affected alike, for while
the great majority were all but starving on clover, or
too large a mixture of that plant, a few continued to eat

On Soiling Cattle. 341

sufficient to keep them up, and those did also better on
the second crop clover hay through the winter and was
soonest sold to the butcher. But it is not only in soiling
and in the hay, that the detrimental effects of second
crop clover are felt ; grazing on this plant has been
found by many a very precarious business, and a neigh-
bour had to turn out his cattle last fall on the roads to
prevent them from starving on a profuse pasture of this
grass, yet on my farm cattle have done tolerably well
while grazing on fields, parts of vdiich had been previ.-
ously mown and given to them in the yards, and was
found so obnoxious that they w^ould scarcely cat suffi-
cient to keep them alive, from which it would appear,
that while at liberty in the fields, they either have saga-
gacity to select those parts of the clover plant which are
least injurious to them, or to find other plants calcu-
lated in some measure to correct its baneful effects, and
also that they may be soiled on the first crop of red clo-
ver, until it becomes too old for that purpose, and after
this turned out to graze, which would considerably in-
crease the quantity of first crop hay, as well as the ma-
nure, by which means their soils with the aid of gypsum
might in a short time be sufficiently enriched to grov/
grasses suitable for a regular continuation of soiling
throughout the whole season.

That there may be other plants which will slobber
cattle is by no means improbable, but it is thought they
cannot be numerous on this place or their effects would
have been discovered.

Orchard grass is excellent for soiling cattle, it starts
early, continues late, grows rapidly through the whole
season, and incomparably faster than red clover in the

S42 On Soiling Cattle,

fall ; it starts instantly after the scythe with almost in-
credible vigour, neither waiting the healing of its
ivounds or fresh shoots from its roots.

Timothy appears to suit the sellers of hay better than
those who feed all their hay and grass on their farms ;
after the first cut but little is to be expected from it,
unless growing in rich moist bottoms, yet with the ad-
dition of this grass, cattle may be longer kept on the
first crop, and perhaps earlier fatted for market, and I
have observed none that they eat more freely or on
which they thrive faster.

The green grass on this place has grown after clover
which had run out, and as it has not been in my power to
enrich those grounds until this fall, consequently the
crops have been light ; but I have observed on spots
accidentally enriched, that the vegetation has been quick
and luxuriant ; whether it will require too much ma-
nure to bring the rest up to this standard, and to keep
it so, is to nie entirely unknown, but I find it forms a,
close pile, springs early, arrives quickly to perfection,
and stands the nipping frosts of winter perhaps better
than any grass which grows on this place in sufficient
quantities to excite attention ; and notv/ithstanding the
ground was thin and the first crop cut late, it has gene-
rally afforded a tolerable third cut, the greater part of
which has been fed green to the horses and cattle in the
yards. The mowing commenced the 13th of Novem-
ber and continued until the third of December, when a
fall of snow put a stop to the scythe, and it is likely to
all further progress in this business, as the grass which
is now left would, under the most favourable circum-

Ofi Soiling Cattle. 34!

stances, be rather short for tlie scythe, but if it were long
enough I should certainly expect to proceed, as soon as
the snow and ice are out of the way ; for a considerable
snow which fell on the 1st and 2d of November, and
laid for sometime on the grass which has been cut since,
produced but trivial inconvenience. A little patch of
tolerable grass of the same sort has been reserved, to
ascertain whether the old foliage, together with the
young sprouts, which it is expected will spring up soon-
er under this warm cover, will not form an early and
profitable cutting for cattle in the spring ; for if a late
and early cut can be provided for the yards, no part of
grazing can be managed as economical as soiling, and
the rapidity with which the soil may be improved by the
latter practice, must recommend it to attention when it
has been sufficiently considered to what extent manur-
ing may be carried on a farm, the grass grounds of
which are all subject to the scythe, and the hay, grass,
straw, leaves, weeds, corn stalks and their roots are ail-
attentively gathered and brought into proper use in the
j^ards, and that this may be effected in some situations
without resorting to soiling is evident, but it is equally
evident, that those situations are too inconsiderable to
produce effects materially interesting to agriculture.
To illustrate the extent to which manuring may be car-
ried, facts'will be produced as far as they will go, and
the deficiency supplied with speculation, which it is
thought will not fall far short of demonstration. This
farm has been subject to this system only four years,
and at this time may be justly considered in the infan-
cy of improvement, and this year 13 acres have been
highly manured for the summer fallow crops, and be-

344 On Soiling Cattle.

tween 13 and 14 acres of grass top dressed, and there
remains on hand of the manure collected during twelve
months, a balance sufficient to top dress nine acres
more, and it does not appear unreasonable to suppose,
that the capability of producing manure will extend in
proportion to the increased vegetation of the soil until
it reaches its zenith of perfection ; it is considered pro-
per to mention here, that when I moved to this place'
in the fall of 1806, twenty cart loads of dung were haul-
ed on it, and the stock of hay being only ten tons (which
was the whole that had been made that year on the farm)
rendered it absolutely necessary to purchase that article,
and when hay has fallen short some has been purchased
since, the whole from first to last amounting to about
30 tons of hay and 2 tons of barley straw.

With respect to the management of cattle, it is in-
dispensably necessary, not only to their thriving, but
likewise their health, that dry places be provided for
them to stand and lay down upon during wet weather ;
and litter is generally expended before soiling com-
mences, if the common yellow loose clay of the yards is
pitched into their sheds, until the floors are raised suf-
ficiently high to give them a considerable sloping de-
scent from the cribs, ending at the front of the sheds in
a step of 6 or 8 inches above the level of the yards ; this
purpose will be so completely effected, that without a
wisp of litter they may be kept dry, throughout the
longest continued summer or autumnal rains ; the cat-
tle will tread those floors perfectly hard in a few days,
imless rain should intervene, and in that case a thick
covering of litter if put on in time will secure them
from injury ; they should be kept covered after hard

On Soiling Cattle, 345

frost commences ; when the dung is hkely to incom-
mode the cattle, the yards and sheds are scraped, and it
is hauled out and mixed into compost to prevent fur-
ther evaporation ; this appears to be a very wasteful ma-
nagement of dung, and if the cattle w^ould thrive equally
as well tied up, the difference in labour would be more
than compensated in the quantity and quaUty of the ma-
nure ; and European writers say, soiling in airy sheds
and cool stables answer, but whether difference in cli-
mate or the habits of cattle are against that practice here^
is unknown to me ; but I suspect the difference in ex-
pense would be found trivial or perhaps not any; for the
scraping extensive yards as frequent as necessary, can
be little less expensive than the daily cleaning of the
stalls, and the wheeling from the yards to the stercora-
ries will be more scattered and distant, consequently
more expensive than performing the same work daily
from the sheds. If this reasoning be correct, there can
be but little, if any difference in the expense as it re-
spects the dung, and I strongly suspect, two cart loads
of that properly saved, would produce more vegetation
than three of that which had been drenched with the rain
and scorched with the sun, and it only remains to make
a set off against geering and ungeering the cattle twice
per day, (they do not require much water when on
green food) and scraping the dung off from them once in
the same time ; and this it has been found may be spec-
dily and sufficiently performed with a piece of an old
scythe fixed into a wooden handle. When the cattle are
tied up less than half the shed room will suffice, the
cost of building, repairs, interest, and ultimate decay will
be saved ; it will be less expensive to spread the grass

X X

346 On Soiling Cattle.

in half the number of cribs, and it will not be injured
by the cattle surrounding the cart, or the labourer hin-
dered by their being in his way ; underling cattle will
have an equal opportunity of feeding, and there will be
less risk of their injuring each other, and this is a sub-
ject of some consideration ; an ox was gored in my
yard last spring, and it was not without considerable
trouble and expense that his life was preserved, and I had
a cow killed last year in the same way, and if the cattle
were tied up in winter also, it is thought a sufficiency of
litter might be saved for the summer, as it requires
vastly more to keep yards properly covered than would
be necessary for stables and sheds.

I have found cribs preferable to racks for soiling cat-
tle : when grass is put in the latter, they get it quickly
under their feet ; if the former are wide enough they
feed with their heads over them, and the waste is incon-
siderable.

It has been my practice to give the cattle fresh grass
from the scythe morning and evening, but as the morn-
ing feeding is sometimes later than would be desirable,
perhaps the grass designed for the morning might be
cut toward evening and left in swarth ; raking up grass
until it is wanted should be avoided, as it is liable to
heat, and it is also very improper to let it lay in the field
exposed to the sun : in either case it is not relished by '
the cattle.

The cribs should be carefully cleaned out every morn-
ing, and the contents may be made into good hay in the
cheap and easy way mentioned in a former communi-
cation ; but this requires attention or it may not be pro-
perly shook and spread out, and not only spoil, but per-

On Soiliiig Cattle, 347

haps set fire to the building ; however after the gage of
the cattle is known, there will be but little grass left
over, if proper attention be given and the quality is good.

Labour appears too high in this country to admit of
cutting straw with the grass, but it is likely that the love
of variety might induce the cattle to eat some of the
best quality, if attentively given in small quantities, and
it has been considered by some a useful corrector of the
purgative properties of grass.

The confined situation of the cattle in the yards, is
peculiarly favourable to the prevention of loss from eat-
ing green food too freely at first, but requires close at-
tention for a few days in the beginning. When any of
them appear rather full, they should be immediately
placed where they can get nothing to eat or drink, and
if this fullness is followed by a restlessness discovered
from unusual movements, particularly with their feet,
and an extension of their tails as if straining to discharge
the wind, and generally accompanied with a disposition
to lay down, it then becomes immediately necessary to
keep them in pretty smart motion, which enables them
to disengage large quantities of wind, which is some-
times accompanied with frequent discharges of dung,
and when their flanks get lank, further attention at thab
time is unnecessary ; there were only two in my yards
this year, with which I had scarcely any trouble.

A little good first crop hay should be kept for feeding,
when the weather is too bad to admit of cutting and
bringing in grass, but during the whole feeding of last
season, a resort to hay was not found necessary more
than three times ; a healthy Irishman who feared no
weather, performed this work at 10 dollars per month,

348 On Soiling Cattle.

with board washing and lodging ; but it was under :\n
expectation of a present at the end of the year, if his
conduct merited it ; but confinement every Sunday not
being agreeable to him, the rest of the labourers on the
farm took each his Sunday in rotation at this business,
for which they were paid exclusively of their monthly
wages, and at the same rate, but no compensation is
expected for sunday attendance on the cattle during
winter, such attendance being customary.

Numbers appear to dread the trouble and difficulty
attending soiling, who cheerfully acquiesce in whiter
stall feeding ; and the cleaning of troughs, varying food,
and humouring the appetite of animals, botli in respect
to quantity and quality, is submitted too without mur-
muring, because they have been accustomed to it, not-
withstanding it frequently happens, that accidental or
injudicious feeding but once, satiates cattle so much,
that it is found very difficult to get them to feed well
afterwards : not so with soiling, if too much be given,
the cattle will eat until they are fully satisfied, and if
after this is done, they become displeased with the re-
mainder in consequence of its having laid too long in
their cribs, if the contents are removed and fresh grass
given, they eat as freely as if nothing of this sort had
occurred ; neither have I observed variety necessary to
stimulate their appetites, but it is observable that al-
though in the field they are fondest of the tenderest
shoots, in the crib it is otherwise ; there, tender grasses
form a compact mass, with which they are not so well
pleased, as when further advanced in their growth^ and
this circumstance appears to form a solid reason, why
it has been found in Europe, that the same cattle gained

On Soili?ig Cattle. 349

more by soiling than they did from grazing, for there
can be but little doubt, that grasses at or near maturity
contain a larger share of nutriment and are less disposed
to purge the cattle. I have also noticed, that when the
grass gets quite old and is dying as it stands in the
field, they are not so fond of it, but still continue to eat
it more freely than the young and tender grasses.

I have obtained an early cutting from rye sown thick
on ground designed for potatoes, it was ready about the
first of May, and proved valuable, as red clover was
about a week later.

Cattle are fond of oats cut green, and it is said by
many, that poor land is much improved by sowing
them for pasture, and I observe one gentleman attributes
a large share of the improvement to their roots, but
whether this is, or is not the case, it can scarcely be
doubted that the improvement would be much greater
by feeding the tops in yards.

And am, Sir, with respect,

Your obedient humble servant,

John Lorain.

James Mease, M. D.

[ 350 ]

On the Salivary Defluxions in Horses,

The follorwing papers were written at the request of Mr.
William Young near Wilmington Delaware ^and by hbn
forwarded to the society.

Read January 8th, 1811.

Wilmington December 25th 1810.
Dear Sir,

In conformity to promise, I communicate to you the
result of some observations and experiments I have made
on the SPOTTED sturge, Euphorbia maculata of Lin-
neus, particularly relative to its being the cause of the
salivation that has occurred so frequently among horses
in this and the adjacent part of the country. Although
my experiments have been but few and simple, I con-
ceive they have been sufficient to establish the fact.
The frequent occurrence of a profuse discharge of sa-
liva from horses, and its rapid production of great de-
bility and emaciation in that useful animal ; had not
only excited the attention and sui*prise of many of the
farmers ; but had also given rise to many conjectures
as to the cause of it. — Many opinions were founded on
no substantial data, but originating only from conjec-
ture ; by many it was imputed to a peculiar quality
inherent in the second growth of clover, — its generally
appearing first when horses w^ere put to pasture on
the second crop, and being almost exclusively produc-
ed by pasturing in clover fields, were considered as cor-
roborating evidences of the correctness of the hypothe-
sis; but its not having occurred for many years after clo-

On the Salivary Defiuxions in Horses, 351

ver had been extensively cultivated ; and not occurring
at all in many places, where horses are pastured almost
altogether on clover ; sufficiently proved that opinion
to be erroneous. It was also imputed to the effects of
gypsum on plaister so frequently used to promote the
growth of clover, but the occurrence of it on many farms
where no plaister had been used, as well as its not
having occurred on many where it had been used very
copiously, proved this opinion equally incorrect with
the former.

My friend Dr. William Baldwin of Wilmington in-
formed me, that a member of the Linnean society of
Philadelphia had supposed, that the ptyalism was caused
by a species of the euphorbia. He also politely favoured
me with a specimen of the species to which it was im-
puted, and gave me some information on the Euphorbia
Americana in general, which extensive knowledge of
botany enabled him to do. For the purpose of as-
certaining the fact, I procured a small quantity of
the Euphorbia maculata, and gave it to my horse en-
veloped in a small quantity of clover carefully gathered
stem by stem, and perfectly free from all other vegeta-
bles or any extraneous matter whatever. A preterna-
tural discharge of saliva took place in less than half an
hour. This experiment was frequently repeated, and
invariably with the same result. To prove that clover
did not contribute towards it, in some cases other grass
was used as an envelope with the same effect. And when
the horse was perfectly free from ptyalism, a conside-
rable quantity of clover carefully gathered without the
euphorbia was given to him, and no such effect was
produced.

352 Oil the Salivary Defluxions in Horses.

■ ■■■■■■ . ■' , ...... .~-^.:»— -

These experiments I considered sufficient to prove
that the Euphorbia maculata would produce salivation
And I am induced to think for reasons that I shall hereaf-
ter mention, that it is the general, if not the only
cause of it.

There are three species of euphorbia common in
our fields : the maculata^ caniscens and corolata^ of Lin-
neus. There are more species of euphorbia natives, and
some exotic species now flourish in our country, but
their peculiar habitudes confine them to certain dis-
tricts. Of the three species above mentioned, either
would probably cause salivation if masticated : but the
peculiarities of the maculata render it the only one like-
ly to be eaten by horses. None of them will be eaten
if not so situated or presented, as to be taken mto the ani-
mal's mouth along with some agreeable grass, as clover.
The corolata is a large plant towering above the gras-
ses, and therefore easily avoided. The caniscens is an
humble plant attaching itself close to the ground without
elevating any of its branches, and seldom flourishing
among the grasses ; but generally confined to open
grounds, or cornfields road sides Sec. on these accounts
it is seldom eaten. The maculata delighting in the well
cultivated clover ground, and when closely surrounded
by the clover attaining to about the same height, and
sending off maiiy slender spreading branches, it is very
liable to be taken in with the clover by the larger mou-
thed animals. Whether this species of euphorbia^ has
flourished for a length of time in this part of the coun-
try, or has but lately migrated into it, I have notascer-
tained, but in either case, its having but recently intrud-
ed itself into the pasture fields can be easily accounted

On the salivary Defluxions of Horses, 353'

for. It comes forward, flowers and ripens its seed, about
the same time with the second crop of clover. And as
clover seed is generally gathered from the second crop,
it must be very liable to have some of the seed of the
euphorbia maculata gathered with it, if any of it had
grown among the clover; and in this way may be exten-
sively diffused over the country. The salivation was
observed in the neighbourhood of West Chester, and
other parts of Chester county, before it was seen in this
neighbourhood ; and as the farmers here have generally
obtained their clover seed from thence, it seems highly
probable, that it has been introduced in that manner.

As but few of the grasses, except timothy, were pro-
pagated by seed 'to any considerable extent in this
country, before the introduction of clover, and as the
low flat grounds on which timothy grows, and the closer
sod it forms about its roots, are unfavorable to the eu-
phorbia maculata, it is not singular, that, before the culti-
vation of clover, it should have been confined to the
margins of fields and open uncultivated grounds, its
native place. As this plant is not furnished with any
of those astonishingly curious apparatus for dispersing
its seeds that many are, and not being eaten by any ani-
mals except by accident ; it had not the advantages of
any means of emigrating from its native location, pre-
vious to its connexion with its friendly associate clover »

All the plants of the genus euphorbia contain an ex-
tremely acrid juice; — many of them stand at the head of
the catalogue of vegetable poisons, many of them, when
rubbed on the skin, will produce excoriation: and the least
acrid, when taken into the mouth, act as powerful masti-

Y V

S54i On the salivary Defiuxions of Horses.

calories. The euphorbia maculata possesses its greatest
acrimony when in flower, or alittle before: and at that time
the salivation has been observed to be most prevalent.
Most plants when thoroughly dried in the sun lose much
of their virtue. This is also the case with the euphor-
bia maculata, for this reason hay, containing it, tho-
roughly dried in the sun, will not be near so produc-
tive of salivation, as when it has been slowly dried in
cloudy weather. This circumstance I think worth at-
tending to, in gathering hay containing it. Horses and
hogs are the only animals, that I have observed, to be
subject to the salivation. Why it does not affect the ru-
minating animals, I have not been able to ascertain.
Probably future observation may enable me, or some
one else, to account for it. At present I shall not haz-
ard a conjecture.*

From the foregoing observations I think it extremely
probable, that the plant in question is the general cause
of the salivation in horses. There are other plants be-
sides the euphorbia, that will act as masticatories: but I
believe that there are but very few of them flourishing
in our fields, that are liable to be eaten by the grami-
nivorous animals. I am perfectly satisfied that the
euphorbia maculata will produce it ; and I have always
observed it to abound in the fields where ptyalism
was prevalent.

* Several members of the Society have remarked, cattle
sheep and swine as well as horses, to be affected by the sc*
cond crop of clover, and of other grasses.

On the salivary Defluxions of Horses, 355

""'■■'■■ • ' ■■.•

If this communication will afford any service or sa-
tisfaction to you, sir, you are at liberty to make what
use of it you may think proper.

Your humble servant,

Abraham PerleEo
William Young.

[ ^56 ]

On the salivary Dejluxions of Horses,

Wilmington^ December 21 th 1810.

My Dear Sir^

The plant that has been supposed to produce ptya"
lism m horses, of which I gave you a verbal account last
summer, and of which you now wish a description, I
take to be Euphorbia maculata of Linneus, It is placed
in the class of dodecandria, and order monogynia^ of the
sexual system. The genus is characterised as follows,
in the last edition of the system of nature.

Calyx 1 leafed inflated, inferior : nectaries 4 or 5,
standing on the calyx : capsules on a pedicle 3 lobed.

The noxious species which is the particular object
of our investigation, is thus described in the same work.

Forked : leaves serrate oblong, hairy ; flowers auxil-
iary, solitary : branches spreading.

Leaves when young, marked with a brown spot.

The Euphorbia are a very numerous as well as natural
family of plants, and all the species appear to possess a
particular acrimony.

Ov\X. oi one hundred and twenty-two species enume-
rated in Tur toil's edition ofLinneus^ only five of that num-
ber are described as natives of North America ; several
other species, however, are now known to the botanists.
There are three species to be met with in this neigh-
bourhood viz. The E. colorata, E. canescens, and E. ma-
culata. The E. colorata is generally found growing in
uncultivated situations, but mostly within uncultivated
enclosures, as in hedges and by the side offences. It is an
erectplant, and grows to the height of several feet; branch-

On the salivary Defiiixions of Horses* 357

ing outwards, and exhibiting a handsome appearance
when its white flowers are fully blown. The E. canescens
which Linneus has restricted to Spain^ is an humble
plant, trailing close to the ground, but without emitting
radicles. Both these vegetables are found in dry si-
tuations. But the E, maculata with which we are more
immediately interested, although it is to be mostly met
w^ith in greater abundance on the margin of dry pas-
ture fields, is more generally diffused over the cultiva-
ted parts than any of the other species ; and, begins to
be in flower about the latter end of July, or the begin-
ning of August, and continues to flower for several weeks;
daring which time it, no doubt, possesses the greatest
acrimony; and it is during this time, that the horses are
most commonly affected with the disease known to the
farmers by the name of slabbers.

A memoir was read a few years ago, before the LiU"
nean society of Philadelphia on the ptyalism of horses, in
which the author stated the E. maculata to be the cause ;
but I have not seen this memoir ; nor have I been able
to obtain any important information respecting it. In
all probability your investigation will be more satis-
factory and conclusive. In a conversation, however,
which I had a few days ago with Dr. Barton, he infor-
med me, that he believed several vegetables had a simi-
lar eflfect with the E. maculata in producing the slab^
hers; and that he has known this disagreeable disease
to be produced by dry clover, which he supposed to be
in a diseased state.

I am Sir,

William Baldwin.
Dr. Abraham Perlee.

[ 358 ]

Changes of Timber and Plants^ Races of Animals
Extinct,

Read February 12th, 1811.

Belmont^ February 4f/f/l811.

Sir,'

Last week, a British publication, entitled, " The Ec-
lectic Review," for July 1809, was put into my hands;
and it was the first time I had seen it. It furnishes one of
those minor means, designed or not, by which irritations
(injurious to the interests of both) are kept alive, between
the people of the two countries. I have nothing to do with
such considerations, as a member of our society, farther
than as they tend to destroy the usefulness of facts, very
innocently (whatever may be their relevancy) brought
forward, to promote the objects we have in view. Had
this publication been confined to the country in which
it originated (without meaning to slight the opinions of
the few, whose notice any thing relating to me would
attract) I should have been perfectly indifferent about
it, had I been informed of it. Its want of candour and
truth, would only have excited an indignant smile.

Notwithstanding the superficial objections, made by
the writer of the article in the British Review, to my
relying on the changes of timber and plants, as an ex-
ample set by nature, to shew the necessity of changes of
crops ; I still continue of my former opinion. It may
not be necessary in the old world, wherein almost every
thing is artificial ; and the principles and practice of

Cfmnges of Plants^ and Animals. 359

husbandry are better understood. But here, where the
wildness of nature is constantly in view, tHe attention of
our farmers being called to her operations, will produce
conviction, sooner than elaborate discussion, or technical
example.

In my endeavour to shew the necessity of changing
crops, and the utilit}^ of also changing the locality of ani-
mals (the former well known, in Europe, to be essential,
and the latter thought to be so by many) I mentioned,
in our first volume, a number of facts ^within my own
knowledge, and procured testimony from very respec-
table sources, corroborating those facts, as to changes
in natural products of timber and plants, which are un-
deniably proved. I have known them to be true, from
my youth. I think them very strong indications of the
absolute necessity of changes of products, in agricultu-
ral operations. I also conceive, that great support is
afforded to the opinion, that change of locality is neces-
sary, to preserve domestic animals from deterioration,
by the facts, in frequent proof, that when one race of wild
animals, migrates, or becomes extinct, a different race,
or races (in obedience to a natural propensity to change)
is, or are, found in the haunts of those precedently in
the occupation of them. I had intended to have prose-
cuted this inquiry, and to accumulate a multitude of
facts on this subject ; and I may yet, at a time of leisure,
perform my promise. Mean time, I hold it a duty I owe
to myself, to say, that I never have had the most distant
idea of bringing into view these, or any other facts, to
support hypothesis, or theory, of any kind. On the
contrary, any candid reader will see, that I cautiously
avoid all such vain and unnecessary speculations. My

360 Changes of Plants, and Animals,

object is, entirely, to recommend useful practice. I hold
no opinions contrary to those geherally received, as to
causes of renovation, or changes, of vegetable, or other
productions. As to changes of locality, or substitution,
of animals in a state of nature, I never conceived any
other mode of supplying the places of those which had
been destroyed, or had migrated, than that of other ani-
mals roaming, from other quarters, to fill the vacant
haunts. If any objectionable opinions are held by others
on these subjects, let themhe responsible for their cor-
rectness, or futility. There is, certainly, something unac-
countable, to persons of common observation, in the
facts, both as to timber, plants, and animals; and, for this
reason, they were, at first, denied. It is only to preserve
tht practical force of them from being lost in contro-
versv about causes, that I have troubled the society.
If I had considered the case merely personal, I should
not have deemed it of sufficient importance to notice.
Yet I am charged by some Furnisher, in the employ of
the Review-Maker (who, cursorily and acetosely, glides
through our first volume) with "impiety" and "unphilo-
sophical absurdity ;" and sentiments are attributed to
me, which I never held; — to wit, — that ''new and spon-
taneous productions are brought into existence^ by a
new order of things. "^^ If this scribe means an "order" not
warranted by Scripture, and the opinions of wise and
good men ; I acknowledge, or believe in, no such new
or old, " order of things."

The arrogance and fastidious prejudices of many of
the tvro wTiters of articles in British periodical publi-

Changes of Plants ^ and Animals. 361

cations (when either persons or things,* in this coun-
try, are the subjects) are so common ; that they excite
in me no keen feehngs of resentment. Although in
themselves stingless, I regret, that the causticities of
such writers are sometimes mischievous, when they fall
in the way of those, who have not magnanimity to de-
spise such hackneyed malevolence ; which is unequal-
led by any thing, but the ridiculous, gross, and "shame-
less," falsehoods, of their "coadjutors," — the jaundiced
Tourists, who haunt, and flit through, our country.
, It has been only defensively, that I have mentioned
the race of animals who feed on the products of calum-
ny. They will not be extinct, w^hile human nature re-
tains its present condition. On their account, I should
be ashamed of casting the least reflection on the coun-
try to which they belong. Equally unjust would it be,
with censure thrown on one individual for the opinions
of another. The wandering part of this race, prove my
allegation, that the propensity to change locality (not

^ The pious and philosophical gall of the writer in the Ec-
lectic Review, is roused by the unoffending Schuylkill bridge*
With his usual candour, he misapplies the friendly testimonv
of that worthy and intelligent English engineer, — Mr. Wes-
ton ; who writes, as to the xvestern pier, — built of solid ma-
sonry, whereof it contains 6178 perches, in a coffer-dam, on
a bare rock, without footing for very many of the piles, in
41 feet water ; in the tide water of a river subject to frequent
floods, — " it will afford you matter of well founded triumph,
when I tell you, that you have accomplished an undertaking
unrivalled by any thing of the kind that Europe can boast
of." — He stiles these expressions of his respectable country-
man, — "American Vanity"!!!!

z z

»62 * Changes of Animals and Plants,

always for good purposes) exists strongly in man. De
Azara, in his travels in South America, furnishes proofs
of the facts, as to changes of plants. I may and do be-
lieve his facts ; but 1 utterly reject his opinions, as to
local, multiplied, and recent acts of Creation,

The unaccountable results of chymical affinities, or
the properties of the loadstone, are not new creations.
Forest trees planted, or grown from nuts or acorns^ where
growths of the same species had perished, will not long
thrive. Change of locality is essential in renewals of or-
chards and nurseries o^ fruit trees ; as I can shew from
incontestable facts. The causes must be sought for in
original, and not new, creation. My whole argument (be
it strong or weak) as to animals, is founded on change
of locality ; and not new creation. I do not rely on ana-
molous instances ; but on a general current of facts.

Yours very truly,

RicHAED Peters.
Dr. James Mease,

Secretary Philad, Agric, Society,

(Q* Some communications in foreign languages
are reluctlantly omitted, for want of translations.

Anonymous papers cannot be inserted, agreeably to
the design of the Society. Every person should be re-
sponsible, for the flicts and opinions he communicates.
The Society claim no praise, and wish to incur no cen-
sure, from the publication of such facts or opinions.
This remark is made with no particular allusion ; but
for the information of future correspondents.

APPENDIX.

SELECTIONS.

Observing that some of the pa()ers introduced into this
voldme indicate a strong and laudable anxiety in their au-
thors to have the hedging system introduced if they only knew
how to proceed, and which plant or plants are best adapted
to the purpose. In order to direct their exertions with cer-
tainty, so thaj they may proceed without danger of disappoint-
ment, I have taken the liberty of presenting for insertion,
the following small tract, which was presented to me by the
author who is himself an honorary member of this society.

Mr. Main has fully, proved by real experiment, that one
of our native thorns is greatly preferable for hedges, to the
English white thorn ; that hedges can be raised in this coun-
try in shorter time, by two years, and at a great deal less
expense than in England. Knowing as I do, that it is Mr.
Mains wish, as well as his interest to do every thing to
promote this elegant and useful improvement in the coun-
try, I expect he will pardon this freedom which I have ta-
ken without his knowledge.

J. Lang.

The Philadelphia societij for promoting- agriculture*

a *

DIRECTIONS, &c

Directions for the Transplantation and Management of

Young Thorn or other Hedge Plants^ preparative to

their being set in Hedges : with some practical ohser-

. vations on the method of Plain Hedging. By Thomas

3Iai?i, District of Columbia,

TRANSPORTATION OF THE PLANTS.

Such as are intended for a distant carriage will be
packed in boxes, the price of which will be added to the
charge. The seedling plants being commonly destitute of
lateral twigs are naturally well adapted to lie in small
compass ; ten or fifteen thousand may conveniently be
deposited in a box, such as any labouring man can lift
with tase. The largest seedlings are, however, in a fa-
vourable season, of a size much superior to this calcula-
tion, never the less always well adapted to be laid in
little room.

WHEN A BOX OF PLANTS COMES TO HAND

They are to be managed according to the state of
the weather, or the season of the year in which they
arrive, the length of time they have continued in a state
of confinement, and their apparent condition being also
taken into consideration.

On Hedging.

m OPEN WEATHER.

When the box arrives it is to be immediately opened
and the plants taken out, but if late in the day it would
be as well to defer it until the next morning ; when
being carefully separated from the stuffing, they are to
be laid regularly in small parcels of about fifty or a hun-
dred. with their roots all one way. Each of these parcels
are then to be washed, by plunging them up and down,
or from side to side, in a vessel of water to refresh them,
and to clear away any filth they may have contracted
during their confinement. They are then to be laid in
a trench formed in some secure and convenient place
for this purpose, being spread therein, pretty thin, in a
sloping position, and covered all over with mould, ex-
cept so much of their tops as just to shew where they
are.

If, however, the season for planting them be at hand,
they may be returned into the box after they are
washed, laying a little of the stuffing over them, and
the lid being shut to prevent injury from rats or
mice, let the box be placed on the floor of a cellar,
where it may remain until conveniency serves to have
them planted. But if the proper season for planting is
yet at a distance, and the ground happens to be extreme-
ly wet when the box arrives, it may, with its con-
tents, be lodged in the cellar until the soil is sufficiently
dry to have the plants deposited in the ground as above
directed. And if at such early season a sudden frost
should detain them in the cellar for a considerable pe-
riod they will suffer no injury thereby, provided the box
is well secured from vermin.

On Hedging,

IN FROSTY AVEATHER.

Should a box of plants come to hand when the earth
is shut up by the frost or covered with snow, it is
immediately to be placed in a cellar, and to remain
there until the frost is over, or the snow is gone, and
the ground in a fit condition to have them trenched. If
there is reason to suspect, from the intensity of the cold,
that the frost has penetrated to the plants, the box must
not be opened until the mild warmth of the cellar has
had time to dissolve the frosty particles; as handling the
plants in that state might prove extremely injurious.

A sound discretion must therefore be exercised in
such a case, and some days suffered to elapse before even
curiosity itself is permitted to look into the box. Nei-
ther must it be subjected to any sort of extra heat, but
left to the influence of the cellar alone, or to the return
of open weather, to effect a thaw, at which period the
plants are to be treated as above described.

A BOX OF PLANTS LONG DETAINED BY
THE WAY.

If from some accidental circumstance this should
happen to be the case, and the spring be pretty far ad-
vanced when the box conies to hand, the plants must
be taken out, separated from the stufling and examined ;
if they are found to be still alive, they may probably
be recovered, although in a sickly state, by proper ma-
nagement. To this effect they are to be totally immer-
sed in clear soft water, the coolest that can be obtained.
Thev are then to be washed out clean, and particularly

On Hedging.

inspected, and any of them that may appear absolutely
dead are to be picked out and thrown aside. The resi-
due are again to be laid in a change of the same cool
water, and to remain entirely covered therewith for a
few hours in a cool shady place. The plants are then
to be taken out and the water thrown away, a fresh
change being substituted in its place ; they are now
to be set with their roots only therein, and so slack to-
gether that the air may circulate freely among the stems :
as many vessels being provided as may be necessary
for this purpose. In the course of two or three days,
shifting the water twice or three times a day, the plants
will be sufficiently refreshed, and may then be planted
out in the nursery as hereafter directed.

In our wintry climates, the best season for packing
up plants that are to be transmitted to a remote dis-
tance, is when the sap is in its most inert state, or short-
ly after the fall of the leaf. Purchasers who are so situ-
ated, will therefore please to send their orders in the
autumn, that measures may be taken to have their
plants packed up before the setting in of severe frost.

Plants that have a long journey to encounter, will
always be packed in moss, if it possibly can be obtain-
ed: w^hen this cannot be had, oak leaves of the last fall,
a little moistened, will be substituted. Such as have
only a few days journey require no stuffing whatever,
but will do very well tied up in a mat or other con-
venient wrapper. A box however is always the safest
vehicle, as it most effectually prevents the plants
from suifering by the weather or being injured by the
carelessness of the carrier. Every person of common in-
. genuity will be able to supply whatever other manage-

On Hedging,

ment accidental circumstances may render necessary,
remembering always that a small degree of moisture,
more or less according to the state of the atmosphere,
is necessary at all times for the preservation and health
of the plants, while they remain out of the earth.

NURSERY FOR THE PLANTS.

The soil most fit for a nursery to the young plants
of the haw-thorn, is a free, rich, deep black loam, that
has previously been in a cultivated state, rather inclined
to moist than dry, rather situate at the bottom than the
top of a height, rather on the flat summit than on the
declivity of a hill, and where such a soil and situation
cannot be had, that which comes nearest to this descrip-
tion ought to be preferred. A soil that would suit for
cabbages, and in a similar state of preparation as would
answer well for that vegetable, will also answer for the
most part of such plants as are used in hedging. It
will, however, be of great advantage to have the piece
of ground appropriated for this purpose, digged from
fifteen to eighteen inches deep ; if the soil will not ad-
mit of more than twelve inches in depth it may do, but
less than that would be too shallow to produce fine
thriving plants. If the state of the soil should render
it necessary, it must be turned up rough or trenched
by the spade in the beginning of winter, in order that
it may be mellowed by the frost, and also that it may
be clean from the remains of former productions, and
work free and easy when it comes to be turned over,
levelled and dressed in the spring.

On Hedgifig.

A piece of ground about twenty- one yards square
will be sufficient for the transplantation of ten thousand
plants, set in rows about fourteen inches wide one row
from another, and three inches apart from plant to plant
in the row.

The appropriate piece of ground being well secured
from the intrusion of cattle, the work of planting is to
be set about as early in the spring as possible, having
regard however to the state of the weather, and the
condition of the ground ; for it is much more injurious
to dig and dress the soil when too wet, than to have the
plants put in when the mould is rather inclining to
dry. The effects of a dry mould can in part be obvi-
ated by dipping the plants in water at the time of set-
ting ; but to spade, rake, plant and tread upon a
soil surcharged with moisture is often of very bad con-
sequences. But although the earliest season is to be
embraced for this business that the nature and situation
of things will admit of, yet so long as the hawthorn buds^
in that part of the country where the work is to be
done, are not yet opened, the planting will be in good
time, and if the cions have been buried in a northern
exposure this will retard the sap a little, and afford more
time, to wait for a favourable opportunity.

When the soil is in a suitable condition to work welt
with the spade, and break easily under the rake, the
opportunity of a mild calm day must be taken to be,^in
the work. The ground is then to be neatly spaded^ break -^
ingthe clods and levelling it properly as the work-
men proceed. So soon as three or four feet in width is
digged, that portion is to be raked smooth, and the
planting immediatelv to commence, that the mould

On Hedging,

may be fresh and pliable, in which condition it will the
more aptly close about and embrace the roots of the
plants. As many planters as are to be employed in set-
ting the plants, having provided themselves each with
a dibble or setting stick for the purpose, about eight
inches long, with a short handle naturally formed at a
proper angle and sharpened to such a convenient point
as experience will soon direct, a garden line is to be
stretched one foot within the verge of the raked ground,
for the first row.

So many plants as it may be expected the labour-
ers can put in before they go to eat, being taken out
of the deposit, their roots trimmed by a careful hand
to about six or seven inches long, and placed in a tub
of water near at hand, the planters are to take from
thence small parcels, containing from twenty-five to
fifty at a time, successively ; as they are planted these
are to be held together in the left hand, and one of
them being placed between the thumb and fore finger
of the same, its root is to be put into the hole made
by the dibble and held to a proper depth, the mould is
then to be closed thereto by a smart insertion of the
dibble conveying a small portion of soil perpendicular
to embrace it, another flat stroke is applied by the same
to fill up the opening and thus with three motions of
the dibble, judiciously applied, the plants are suc-
cessively planted and fixed upright in their place, each
workman being careful to plant just so near the line as
not to touch it, and also not to double up the roots
when putting them in which would be extremely in-
jurious to the future growth of the plants, observing
always to keep a regular distance in setting them, and

On Hedging.

to have the root always so deep in the ground that^ the
yellow part, or wind and weather mark, may be at least
an inch under the surface. Each labourer having plant-
ed his own share, is immediately after to fasten that
portion firmly in the ground, by placing a foot on each
side of the row, and shuffling with impressive and short
movements to the end of that portion which he hath
planted. On the proper fastening of the plants success
in a great measure will depend ; it is therefore to be
regarded with particular attention. The line is then to
be moved about fourteen inches forward and the plant-
ing continued, while the digging and raking are also
to be carried on at the same time, particularly when
any considerable number of cions are to be planted, as
a few hours wind and sun might reduce the surface
mould into a dry crumbling state, which would not
only be disconvenient for the planters, but might prove
h urtful to the plants, not closing so well about their
roots to exclude the air as when newly turned up and
retaining some degree of natural moisture.

The smaller the plants, the more susceptible they
are of injury ; such therefore must be managed with the
greatest care, and never be much exposed, when they
are out of the earth to drying or frosty winds, but guard-
ed therefrom as much as possible. These must also be
planted on a surface more exactly smoothed by the rake,
and their delicate roots neatly trimmed, and correctly
inserted into the soil ; for if these were left any way
loose in planting, a few days or perhaps a few hours of
high withering winds would risk their destruction,

' . b ^

10 On Hedging,

It is also neccssan^ here to observe, that plants left
long immersed in stale unchanged water, particularly if
it is in any degree warmed by the heat of the weather,
may be injured thereby, being exposed to an insipient
putrid fermentation.

WATERING THE PLANTS.

After they are planted this will seldom be requisite,
except where they have been long detained by the way ;
in which case, after they have been refreshed by immer-
sion in repeated changes of cool soft water on their arri-
val, as has been already described, observe that in planting
them the place of every sixth row is to be left vacant,
for the purpose of freely passing therein with the water-
pot. A parcel of forked stakes, about eighteen inches
or two feet long, being provided, sharpened at the butt
end and stuck into the ground along each side of every
bed, at the distance of eight or ten feet, a line of poles
being laid from fork to fork on both sides, so as con-
veniently to support a quantity of leafy boughs spread
.over the whole to screen the beds from the sun, and to
impede the current of air, which particularly in the time
of windy weather would be severe upon sickly plants.
The shade and daily watering may be continued for
several weeks, or until the plants shew by their vigor-
ous appearance that tlicy are evidently out of danger,
the watering may then be discontinued, and the shade
removed by degrees, which the gradual shrinking of
its dead leaves will contribute to effect, taking the op-
portunity of cloudy weather to remove it altogether.

On Hedging, 11

Or should the proprietor, from a laudable motive of
having large sized and excellent plants, be willing to
incur this trouble and expense, the plants may be water-
ed for a few weeks at first, although they have been
planted at the proper season, and are no ways sickly.
In the time of dry weather, when this watering will
only be wanted, the water must not be sparingly used
when once begun ; for if an inch or a little better of
the surface merely is wetted, the plants in place of be-
nefit, will be injured thereby ; as the soil farther down
at their feeding fibres will still continue dry where
^moisture is most wanted, and that at the top will
either do no good or stimulate the putting out of roots
too near the surface. In the time of severe drought,
therefore, let the soil be thoroughly drenched, if at all,
and this regularly repeated every evening while the dry
weather continues. But, though in this last case the
alleys, in place of every siicth row, will be wanted for
the conveniency of passing to water the plants, there
will be little occasion for any shade.

AVEEDIXG.

This is an important operation, and must not be delay-
ed at any time longer than the weeds are yet so low as to
be hoed expeditiously. A small garden hoe is best for this
purpose, the weeder being careful to walk in the row not
yet weeded, for his tread would tend to re-plant some
of the weeds were he to follow after the hoe with his
feet in the same row. The weeds among the stems of
the plants are at the same time to be attentively pulled
up by hand. The number of times which this operation
. is necessary in the course of the season depending upon

12 ^n Hedging,

upon the state of the weather, can only be determined
by the appearance of the weeds

TAKING UP THE PLANTS.

If, after the fall of the leaf, they are judged to be of
^ proper size to plant in hedges, they are to be dug up
with a strong spade, the workmen being careful to ob-
tain with every plant a proper quantum of root, such
as will evidently be sufficient to nourish it. The plants
will be probably of different sizes, and it will there-
fore be necessary to have them separated into three or
four different sorts as they are taken up, and if there are
some that do not yet appear of a size fit for hedging,
these are to be placed by themselves and trenched apart
until the next spring, when they are again to be plant-
ed in the nursery. If the plants do not appear generally
to be large enough for immediate hedging ; though a
sufficient number to begin upon could be culled out
from among the rest, these only may be taken up and
the residue suffered to remain in the rows another year,
fastening any of them that may happen to be loosened in
takhig up the others, by pressing down the earth about
their roots with the feet. It will be hard to describe in
an intelligible manner, the right size for hedging, as this
depends not altogether upon the height that a plant may
have attained, but also upon its strength and apparently
healthy condition, not forgetting to take the size and
number of its roots also into the estimate. Each of the
different assorted sizes of the plants are to be trenched
by themselves, and are to be carefully spread pretty
thin in the trench in a sloping position, and the roots
well covered with mould, and also half way up the

On Hedging, 13

stems, mixing the earth therewith so as to exclude the
air. Each row successively is to be managed in this
manner, so as their roots may remain no longer exposed
to the sun and air than what is necessary to have them
assorted.

The sudden setting in of the winter, soon after the
fall of the leaf, seldom leaves much opportunity to plant
hedges before the spring ; but when such seasons oc-
cur, they ought eagerly to be embraced, particularly if
the nature of the soil is dry where the hedge is intend-
ed to be planted. When this is the design, the plants
need not be laid in the earth, but deposited in a cellar
until some thousands are in readiness for planting. It
would not be prudent, however, to have a large num-
ber in such situation at once, as at this season of the
year the weather might suddenly change to frost, and
prevent their being planted. The haw-thorn is a plant
that begins to vegetate among the earliest in the spring:
therefore wlien a great number is on hand, it is always
indispensibly necessary to begin taking them up as
soon as possible, as it is a slow and tedious piece of
business, and a great deal of time is consumed in the
operation. But when the number of plants is not great,
the taking them up may with propriety be deferred un-
til spring; when as soon as the weather will permit,
they may be got ready for hedging.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD OF
PLAIN HEDGING.

A row of suitable shrubs or trees, planted at a proper
distance from each other, on the plain, cultivated surface

14 Oji Hedging,

of the ground, in order to form a fence, is what here is
meant by plain hedging, to distinguish it from the com-
mon method used in Britain called hedge and ditch.^

Plain hedging is, in its aspect, somewhat similar to a
drilled row of Indian corn, and the culture and cleaning
from weeds is equally simple in the one as in the other.
The eifectof a judicious cultivation is also of parallel effi-
cacy in both cases, allowing for the slower growth of the
perennial hedge, when compared with the rapid progress
of the annual corn. There is no artificial elevation of ihe
earth contemplated in this method, and where an em-
bankment is brought into the scheme, by way of assist-
ance to the temporary fence, it is to stand exterior to
the hedge, which is set in the usual upright position
inside, where it is as susceptible of cultivation as if
there was no ditching in the case.

A row of hedge plants, projecting almost horizontally
from the face of a bank elevated over their roots, can be
cultivated or assisted in their growth no other way after
planting but by hand weeding; and in the pensile position
in which the young cions are placed, the effects of dry
-weather would prove fatal to the health, if not to the
life of the plants, in such a climate as this, the first severe

'* Those who are curious to luiderstand the manner of con-
ducting this the old way of hedging, will find in Mr. Ber-
nard M^Mahon's American Gardener's Callender," a clear
and excellent description thereof, with much other useful
information in this art, as well as in the various departments
of horticulture, &c. That valuable book has lately been pub-
lished in Philadelphia, and in my opinion is well deserving
of public patronage.

0?i Hedging, 15

drought, that might happen, if the soil was naturally
inclining to dry, more especially where the flice of the
bank might be fronting either the meridian or the three
o'clock sun. A great deal more might be said as to the
ditching method not being generally adapted for the
United States: but those who have any doubts concern-
ing the matter, and are desirous of being satisfied
whether the way of plain hedging, or that of hedge and
ditch is preferable, can have it determined by experi-
ment, and after trying both they can judge for them-
selves which is the best.

In a rich, fiat, humid soil, not very susceptible of in-
j ury to the plants from dry weather, or damage to the ditch
hy heavy rains or severe frosts, it is probable that the
-hedge and ditch method of fencing may be suitable. The
nature of such soils renders ditching much easier, when
free of roots, than in a strong heavy clay, or a soil inter-
spersed with stones, made up of bedded flints, or render-
ed almost impervious imderneath by layers of cemented
gravel. In such flat, soft grounds, independent of the
notion of hedging, a large deep ditch will often be w^anted
to drain the land, and therefore this expense cannot with
propriety be made an objection against the hedge and
ditch mode of forming live fences. Whenever hedging
comes into general repute, it is reasonable to expect
there will be suflficient ingenuity found among the hus-
bandmen in the various parts of the country, to dis-
cover what methods are best adapted for their several
local situations and circumstances, and also, what other
aids can be introduced into practice, will naturally from
time to time become manifest to the attentive observer.

16 On Hedgbig,

TEMPORARY FENCES.

As the method of plain hedging will always require
some protective defence, to guard the young quicks
from cattle for several years after they are planted, it
will be necessary to say something here concerning
these. Where a field, intended to be inclosed by a
hedge, is already furnished with a fence of rails, dl that
is then necessary is to have this temporary fence placed
at a proper distance from the line where the hedge is
intended to be set; this distance ought to leave a space
so wide as to permit a breadth of five feet along the
side of the hedge to be cultivated by the plough, whe-
ther with one or two horses the nature of the soil must
determine. A hedge on a tolerably good soil, may al-
ways be calculated to extend its lateral twigs three or
four feet on each side w^hen full grown ; it will there-
fore be proper in some cases, to plant at that distance
from the bounden line of a public road, and rather
some feet more distant from the line of a neighbour,
who is not obliged to suffer another \ person's hedge to
encroach upon his property, when he is not willing to
receive a benefit from it. There must, also, be room
left in this case to walk in trimming the hedge. Any
person of common understanding will want no more
than this hint to have such matters rightly regulated
before hand, and sometimes, by permission, to have the
temporary fence set a little out on the road side, or by
consent, sometimes a few feet on the adjoining field of
an obliging neighbour.

On Hedging, 17

Where a post and rail fence is already erected upon
the line, the hedge inside may be planted pretty near
it if desirable; and the ground next the railing can be
cultivated with the spade or the hoe when the hedge
is in place, while the interior half of the hedge course
can be cultivated by the plough, as hereafter described.

Where there is good land altogether without fencing,
and where timber for rails cannot conveniently be ob-
tained, a fence of wattled brush-wood, such as is com-
mon in many parts of the country, if it last for six years,
will answer the purpose of a protective fence as well as
any other. Where stuff fit for wattling is scarce, if the
land be pretty flat, free of stones and easy to dig with the
spade, a mound of earth or sod, ox faced with sod, sup-
ported behind with earthf and surmounted at the top by
an addition of w^attling, will in any of these modes make
a sufficient temporary fence for the purpose intended.
Fences something similar to these are not uncommon
in America, where no hedge is contemplated, and I
have often beheld with regret the labour that has been
expended upon them, considering their transitory na-
ture, and reflecting that had there been a live hedge set
behind immediately afterwards, it would in the course
of a few years, have become a strong and permanent
fence, rising as it where out of the ruins of the former*
A post and rail fence of lasting materials, after protect-
ing one hedge to sufficient strength, may be removed to
defend another, and if it will bear two removals or last
eighteen years, it may thus serve to protect three dis-
tinct hedges in succession.

c ^

18 ' On Hedging.

For the purpose of aiding in the construction of tem-
porary fences, plantations of chesnut, pine, cedar mul-
berry, the common locust, Sec. ought to be immediately
set about in parts of the country where timber is get-
ting scarce. A very few acres of such would produce
materials sufficient for assisting to enclose many hun-
dreds with live hedges. The chesnut, mulberry and lo-
cust, would increase on their being cut down at a pro-
per age, and their stumps would soon afterwards annu-
ally afford a portion of stakes and poles for the above
purpose, selecting one here and there, which had attain-
ed the size, and letting the residue grow until another
period. The young plants of all these species of trees
would answer best lo be first raised in a nursery, and
after transplanting them there and letting them attain
to the age of three years, then to plant them in the ap-
propriated field, well cultivated before hand by the
plough, and smoothed by the harrow, and the ground
also afterwards cleared occasionally from weeds, by
instruments of horse labour for a few years. The
plants thus cultiyated, would soon become fit for the
purpose intended ; not forgetting also to have such plan-
tation well secured by a good fence from the depreda-
tions of cattle.

There will seldom be much occasion for any inter-
nal defence to protect the young hedges, if matters
can be so managed as to have no domestic stock to
pasture in the enclosed field for the two first years, and
in the third and fourth year if cattle are only kept out
during the spring and the beginning of summer, they
will not do much injury to the hedges in the after part

On Hedging, 19

of the season, as it is only when the shoots are young
and tender that cattle will crop them.

PREPARATION OF THE HEDGE COURSE.

When the soil is tolerably good and clear of impe-
diments, the track of the hedge will require no other
preparation than what is commonly bestowed on the
contiguous field for a crop of wheat or rye. Deep
ploughing, however, will always be found beneficial
and where the trench plough is known, the use of it in
preparing the course will be found greatly to conduce
towards the strong and rapid growth of the hedges af-
terwards. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that the
spade is superior to the plough, in cultivating the soil,
in all cases where the different amount of expenses are
not taken into the account; but in common practice,
and on an extensive scale, the plough will be perfectly
sufiicient, assisted by a neat harrow, to do the whole
work of previous preparation, considering that methods
of saving time, expense and labour are always, when
practicable, matters of high estimate to the American
husbandman.

Where the soil in which a hedge is intended to be
planted is worn out by crops, or is naturally thin, good
Culture and manure also sometimes ought to be employ-
ed to overcome its sterility; when this is the condition
of the ground, these beneficial preparatives ought to be
applied several months at least before the planting of
the hedge, and if done one whole year before hand so
much the better. If the soil is not brought into a con-
dition of being capable of producing strong weeds of

20 On Hedgi7ig.

some sort or other, it will not be able to support a stout
and vigorous hedge.

When an intended hedge-course chances to cross
over any spaces of barren land, these are to be made
equally fertile with the generality of the soil, if practi-
cable. Such being frequently very differently constitu-
ted, will require a peculiar preparation, as the nature of
each may seem to demand. If broken rocks or stones
should come in the way, they must obviously be clear-
ed out to a sufficient depth, and their places supplied
with good mould. And if such spaces are composed
of an earth unwholesome or pernicious to vegetation,
a trench must be dug in the direction of the hedge
course, as far as is requisite, of six or eight feet wide,
and some other soil, the best that can be obtained near
at hand, substituted in place of the bad; in short, the
sagacity of any farmer will be able in such cases to
determine how to proceed. All such accidental im-
pediments however, are to be considered in due time,
and measures taken to overcome them before the
hedge is planted, that it may thrive equally and be uni-
formly strong throughout. The temporary fencing and
the preparation of the hedge course being duly con-
sidered, while the young plants are yet growing in the
nursery, when the hedge comes to be planted every thing-
will be in an orderly train, and it will suffer no damage
or detriment from an improvident conduct at the begin-
ning. After all, in most cases the old fences being suffi-
cient to last a few years, and the soil where the hedge
is intended to stand, being in an ordinary state of clean
cultivation, nothing else will be necessary, but to plough
the hedge-course, harrow it smooth, run a deep furrow

On Hedging* 21

straight along the middle thereof, in the manner here-
after described, and plant the hedge.

PLAXTIXG THE HEDGE.

If the soil is naturally dry, the most eligible season
for planting a hedge thereon is immediately after the
fall of the leaf, but if inclining to moisture or subject
to be ovei-fiovved during the winter, the planting had
better be deferred until the spring, the plants having
been previously taken up and assorted, as hath already
been adverted to; the immediate preparation on the same
day that the planting is to commence must be conduct-
ed in the following manner.

The hedge-course having formerly been laid off in
the intended direction, cultivated and prepared as hath
been already described, a deep furrow is to be run by the
plough in the centre thereof, returning therein as often
as may be found necessary, to form it deep enough and
render it clear of clods or other obstacles. This opera-
tion is to ht conducted in a straight direction, by ihc
assistance of a number of slender poles, placed in the
usual mode of running lines in land surveying, and
about thirty or forty yards apart from each other, but
their distance must be regulated by the length of the
garden line intended to be used in planting the hedge.
The poles having been thrown down by the plough,
are again to be set up in the trench, after it is made, to
see if it is exactly straight, and shew if any farther cor-
rection is necessary. The furrow, when evidently deep
enough and no crook or bend appears in its whole
length, is then ready for the reception of the plants. A

22 On Hedging

parcel of neat trimmed corn-stalks, provided for the
purpose, are to be laid singly, about eight or ten 3^ards
from each other across the trench to support the garden
line, which is now to be stretched from the first to the
second pole, observing if it is not exactly straight
through its whole extent, and having it rectified accord-
ingly, the plants are to be set exactly in the direction
of the poles, the line must therefore be placed on the op-
posite side to that where the planters are to fix them-
selves when performing the work. The planting is most
conveniently carried on from the left hand to the right,
and when the hedge is planted upon a declivity the
planters will find it easiest to have their faces toward
the uphill side. A quantity of the plants having been
brought to the spot, as many labourers as are employ-
ed in the business are to take a handful of them, and
being distributed along the line at nearly equal distan-
ces from each other, and each one with his own hand-
ful of plants laid at his left side, one of the plants is
placed upright in the trench with its roots spread in the
bottom thereof, and held by the left hand at a little dis-
tance from the line ; as much mould is to be drawn over
the roots of the plant by the right hand as to keep it
steady in its place; another plant is then to be set in
the same manner about five inches from the former, or
at whatever distance has been determined upon;* the

* Where hogs are permitted to go at large, the distance
of the plants from each other may be from four to six inches,
according to the weakness or strength of the soil; the better
the soil is the wider they may be set. Where these animals

On Hedging. 25

planters are thus to proceed until the length of the line
allotted for each is finished through the whole, the line
is then to be cautiously removed so as not to disturb
the plants, and with the corn-stalks carried forward and
extended betwixt the second and third poles. Some of
the labourers may now continue to plant, while others
are employed in filling up that portion of the trench
which hath already been planted. It is most convenient
for two labourers to do this with spades, throwing in
the mould thereby to both sides of the hedge at once, so
that the plants may not be displaced by a pressure on
one side while the other is unsupported; a little prac-
tice will soon render the operation familiar to the work-
men, and they will understand it better in a quarter of
an hour's acquaintance, than by all that I am able to say
to simplify it.

Each of the different assortments of plants are to be
set contiguous without mixture in the hedge. When
the ground is all of equal fertility through the whole
extent of the course, it is best to begin with the largest
plants; when these are done, let the next in size suc-
ceed them, and so on to the lesser sizes, if more than
one or two of those in hand should be required; but if
the soil is not of equal strength in different parts let
the strongest and best plants be set on the weakest part
of the ground. It is necessary here to observe, that no

are under restraint, there will be no occasion to set the plants
so close, from six to eight inches wiU generally answer, and
one foot will be as wi(ie as in the best of soils, will be re-
quisite.

24 Oft Hedging,

more length of trench must be opened at once than can
be planted m the course of the day, so that the mould
may be always somewhat soft and moist, which will be
of essential benefit to the new planted plants ; if the
whole length of a side of a field can be set in the course
of a forenoon, the plants being pretty well fastened by
the hand and the roots completely covered with the
mould, the filling in of the whole trench may be perform-
ed by the plough, particularly if the soil is soft and clean
and the surface evenly. Nevertheless, the whole of the
plants are always to be fastened individually afterwards
by the feet of the workmen, pressing them on each side,
and also in the intervals between every two, and forcing
them all to stand upright in the proper range of the
hedge ; after which, a little of the soil scattered among
their stems, will prevent the earth from cracking, and
tend to keep moisture about their roots.

If the soil^ as well as the weather, should happen to
be pretty dry, it will be of advantage to have a tub of
water at hand to dip the roots of the plants therein, in
successive parcels, immediately before they are plant-
ed. The bulk of plants that have been brought out,
ought also to be covered from the iiifluence of the
weather, and sprinkled occasionally with a little water,
if the condition of the roots seem so dry as to re-
quire it.

When a hedge is planted in the fall, if the plants are
rather small, it will be of good consequence to draw
up some mould, about four or five inches deep on each
side of it, forming a ridge with the plants in the centre ;
this will serve to prevent them from being drawn up by

Oti Hedging, 25

the frost, or the alternate freezing and thawing of the soil
in the winter months, a circumstance very common in
tlie middle states of the union. It is not safe, however,
to place leaves or litter for this purpose along the sides
of young hedges, as these afford shelter for ground
squirrels and mice, which are apt to gnaw the tender
roots of the hawthorn, either for food or pass-time.

After a hedge is planted, if the tops appear consider-
ably unequal, it willr be proper to give it a slight trim-
ming with the shears, clipping off just so much as to
render it evenly. Or if the plants appear disproportion-
ately tall and slender, they may then be shortened equal-
ly, so far as may appear to be necessary to prevent their
being violently agitated by the winds, or bent down-
ward by the weight of the snow in winter.

SUPPLY OF VACANCIES.

This is a most important part of the art ; for if the
generality of a hedge be ever so strong, yet if there
are gaps left here and there, it would be equally as bad
as if a post and rail fence should be deficient in several
of the pannels. These gaps or vacancies in hedging
can never be so effectually remedied, as when the hedge
\s young. Such hedges as are planted immediately af-
ter the fall of the leaf, are to be carefully examined at
the return of spring, or the first open weather that may
ensue after severe frosts, to see that none of the plants
have been heaved up thereby, and if so, they are to be
fastened down by pressing round about them with the
foot, and if any of them have accidently been destroy-
ed or cut off near the surface, they are to be replaced

d *

26 On Hedging.

by new plants, as soon as the state of the soil and the
weather will permit.

Every person who attempts to form a live fence,
ought to keep these supplies in early and careful re-
membrance. Some fine large plants ought always to be
retained in the nursery, to supply such accidental fai-
lures as may happen in the infancy of hedges. Four or
five plants for every hundred in a hedge, will generally
be found enough for this use. As soon as the fall of
the leaf takes place, all young hedges ought to be in-
spected, and the supplemental plants being taken up
with extraordinary care to save their roots as much as
possible, are to be planted in the vacancies. Where the
place of one plant only is vacant, an opening is to be
made for the reception of the new one, with a grubbing
hoe or narrow spade, and as this opening cannot be
much extended in the direction of the hedge, it must,
therefore, be opened the farther across, so as to take
in a good proportion of the roots of the new plant with
ease, the extreme fibres thereof having been pruned a
little to prevent any occasion for doubling them, a thing
which is generally inimical to the free growth of any
plant whatever. The opening is then to be correctly
filled up on both sides with the best mould at hand, and
the plant fastened well in its place by the foot of the
planter, scattering a little loose earth over the spot af-
terwards. Early next spring, the hedge ought again to
be examined, and if any dead plant has been passed
over unperceived, or if any fresh accident has happen-
ed, such are to be supplied accordingly. At the end of
the first and second years, or after the fall of the leaf,

On Hedging. 27

and early in the spring of these periods, this examina-
tion and supply must by no means be neglected, as
upon a faithful closing up of such gaps at the proper
time, depends the whole effect of hedging as a sufficient
fence. When the plants in the hedge are grown large,
it is very difficult to introduce a brother of their own
kind amongst them, as the stranger will run more and
more risque, the older the hedge is grown, of being
stunted or destroyed by the contiguous plants. When
from negligence or accident, any of these vacancies
should happen to be left unsupplied until it is too late,
the simplest and best remedy is to drive a stout season-
ed stake of locust, cedar or other lasting wood, into the
ground where the plant ought to have been. The length
of this stake need not be more than eighteen inches or
two feet, where only one plant is missing. And where
the deficiency of a number hath left a wide gap, com-
mon ingenuity will be able to find out proper ways and
means to mend it with stakes or rails. But a hedge with
such patches, particularly if they are numerous and
large, will appear very unsightly, and be a lasting mo-
nument of the mismanagement of its superintendant.

CULTIVATION OF THE YOUNG HEDGE.

Through the course of the summer it is to be cleaned
from weeds as often as may appear necessary. This
operation will be most expeditiously performed by
horse labour ; the common plough will generally do
very well, and any one who has ever ploughed in a field
of Indian corn, ought to know without funher direc-
tion how to conduct this work to advantage. The fur-

28 ^^ Hedging.

row ought to be laid towards the hedge at the first
ploughing, and when the next becomes necessary, by
the growth of the weeds, the mould is to be turned out-
waids, being mindful then not to leave an open furrow
close along side of the hedge, but to reiurn the earth
therein, by a slight scratch of the plough; or by a hand
hoe, after the ploughing is finished. A siViail neat har-
row with handles to guide it by, will not only fill uj) rhis
last trench the most expeditiously, but also break the
clods, help to destroy the weeds, pulverize the soil, and
will in a very short period, run over a great extent of
hedging. The weeds among the stems of the plants,
are always, however, to be drawn out by the hand, after
the horse labour is accomplished.

The hedge- course being well ploughed in the spring,
a harrow of the above description will, in a light easy
soil, free of stones, &:c. be the best instrument to weed
young hedges through the course of the summer. If
the nature of the soil will not easily yield to this, a cul-
tivator, which is a sort of flat shovel plough that runs
horizontally through the surface with an equal wing on
each side, and is used with a coulter, is most excellent
for the purpose of weeding young hedges.

It will in some places be prudent, after every dress-
ing of the hedge- course, to open small water-ways across
it, to prevent the accumulation of the rain water, and
to throw it off piecemeal into the adjacent lands. This
is indispensibly necessary in hilly situations, where, in
the time of heavy or long continued rains, the muhitude
of rills would soon gather into a torrent, or being con-

On Hedging. 29

fined in the outside furrow would shortly enlarge it to
a deep ditch, and perhaps undermine the hedge.

Whether nature intended the growth of weeds as an
admonition for us to stir the soil in order to destroy
them, it is not material for me to inquire ; but it is cer-
tain that this occasional breaking of the surface to era-
dicate them is of benefit to the land, and of great ser-
vice in promoting the growth of such plants as are
adapted for this method of cultivation, and perhaps
there is no article susceptible thereof in which this be-
neficial effect is more apparent than it is in young hedg-
es. On a soil abandoned to an undisturbed state of re-
pose, with the surface hardened by the sun and wind,
and become quite impervious to the benign influence
of the dews or light rains ; a hedge thus neglected to
be cultivated in its infancy, is apt to get bark-bound
at the beginning, to be almost irrecoverable by the force
of cultivation afterwards, and a number of years will
generally be seen to slide away before it can be brought
into a thriving state : but by an early and assiduous
attention continued for two, three years at first, the
plants will quickly recover from the sickness occasion-
ed by their transplantation, the weeds being carefully
eradicated, and the soil kept loose and light by culture ;
the young plants, if the first summer's affliction hath
left them in any tolerable state of health, they will the
next year shoot vigorously, and soon attract the atten-
tion of the proprietor, by the lively green appearance of
a handsome miniature hedge. And if this should some-
times not be quite the case in the second year, the effects

30 On HedginK,

of cultivation and clean weeding will to a certainty shew
themselves in the third spring.

The number of years through which this course of
cultivation is to be continued, can only be ascertained
by the strength of the hedge, but in general five or six
years will be found sufficient. Vines, briars, sassafras,
and all other insidious perennial plants, are still to be
rooted out from time to time, if any of them should
chance to make their appearance among hedges whe-
ther young or old.

TRIMMING OF HEDGES.

When a new planted hedge has been equalized by
the shears, it will require no further trimming until it
hath completed its first year's growth, at which period
if it appears to be considerably unequal in height, it is
to be again reduced to an evenly stature, by a slight
clipping after the falling of the leaf ; but if it appears
nearly uniform with only a shoot here and there higher
than the generality of the hedge, these tall ones alone
are to be cut off. The sides of the hedge need not be
trimmed at this period, and here it ought to be observ-
ed that the lateral shoots are always to be sparingly dealt
with, more particularly in young hedges, as upon the
extension of those nearest the bottom the closeness of
the hedge will a good deal depend.

At the end of the second year the top trimming is
again to be attended to, and the hedge once more re-
duced to an equality of height.

At the third year's trimming, the operator need not
tip it olf so delicately as before, but having fixed on a

On Hedging, 31

determined height, according to the stature and strength
of the hedge, he is to cut straight into it with the shears,
so as to leave a good .strong stubbage, out of which the
next or fourth year's shoots are to arise. The sides of
the hedge may also now be trimmed a little next the top
— the bottom being still spared to favour its extension.
If it has grown well, it will now be about three feet in
height after it has been trimmed — in order to have a
stout thick hedge, the more gradually it is permitted
to rise it will ultimately prove the stronger and more
equal throughout.

At the end of the fourth year the hedge may be
brought into its proper shape, by a judicious manage-
ment of the shears. When the top is finished, the sides
are to be shorn in a sloping direction : but where neat-
ness is only a secondary object, the breadth of the hedge
towards the bottom is to be impaired as little as possi-
ble, it being always the most difficult to get the lateral
twigs to extend themselves outwards, the sap naturally
inclining to ascend in the upright shoots, and the shear-
ing of the sides does not stimulate their growth as is
effected on the tops by cutting them.

The main purpose of trimming hedges, that are mere-
, ly intended for fences, is to bring each individual plant
into an equality of strength and stature ; but such as
are intended for ornament as well as for use, are to be
kept constantly trimmed, at least once a year. On a
strong soil, when the hedge is in its fifth year, if the
shoots are large and rank, it may be trimmed about the
latter end of June, when, it has generally terminated its
annual growth. It will be much easier to cut the hedge

32 On Hedging,

while the wood is tender and succulent, than when ma-
ture and hardened afterwards.

But, beauty and neatness being out of the question,
it is evident that the trimming of hedges does not con-
tribute to strengthen or enlarge the stems of the plants,
as some people suppose theoretically that it ought to do ;
thinking that by cutting off the top of a tree, the whole
quantity of nourishment conjectured to be taken in by
the roots alone, will be confined to that part which is left,
forcing it to increase, swell and grpw accordingly. The
truth is, that every leaf of a tree is an organ attracting
nourishment to the plant, not only by imbibing the
fluids of the atmosphere, but also by its perspiration
acting as a syphon to draw a continual current of new
supplies through every root. There is a harmony in all
the economy of nature, and the larger and more weighty
the top of a tree is, it is evident that it will require a
stronger stem to support it, and when the top is cut off^
what occasion is there for the stem to become enlarg-
ed?

MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS.

Mankind are all disposed to take the shortest road
that leads to the object of their desires, though it is fre-
quently not the best ; and it may be expected that ma-
ny of those who have planted or intend to plant live
hedges iu this country, will be impatient to have them
in perfection as soon as possible, or perhaps sooner than
nature, assisted by all the efforts of art, has decreed
that they should be so gratified. For the purpose of
rendering half grovvn hedges fencible, many ingenious

On Hedging.

contrivances will, no doubt be invented hereafter. Such
ideas as have come across my imagiiiation to favour
this end, shall now be freely communicated, leaving
others to add thereto at their leisure.

METHOD OF RENDERING A YOUNG HEDGE
IMPERVIOUS TO BLACK CATTLE.

Our cattle being accustomed to go at large, and used
to pushing their way through brakes and thickets, we
can only expect to debar them by live fences, through
sheer strength of the plants which compose the hedge,
and if they possibly can divide it with the help of their
horns, some of them will undoubtedly, at times try to
force themselves through, without much regarding the
spines of the common haw-thorn, which would do little
more to a strong steer than to tickle his tough hide,
but in order to check his progress, and keep him on
the outside, or keep him in if his owner should choose
to have him there confined, it will not be difficult nor
expensive to assist the young hedge in the following
manner.

When a hedge is four years old, let the top of it be
trimmed at the proper season, to about three feet or three
feet and a half from the ground, a number of neat rails, or
seasoned poles, sufficient to run the whole length of the
hedge being provided, these are to be laid one after
the other, singly along the top, exactly in the middle
thereof, their ends being lapped past each other, and
tied together with a piece of hickory bark, or some such
cheap and ready ligature, the stubbs of the shoots will
easily support them there until the new growth secure

e -^

54 On Hedging

them in their place. The hedge being annually trim-
med as usual, in two years the rails will be found enclo-
sed in the very center of it, so that any animal of a large
size that may attempt to push its way through, will find
it impracticable to divide the hedge.

METHODS FOR EXCLUDING HOGS.

When the old protective fence seems to be on the de-
cline, while the hedge has not yet attained sufficient
strength or closeness to keep out pigs or hogs, that are
permitted to go at large without yokes, the hedge may be
strengtherued to resist them by driving a short stake
about two feet long in the vacancy betwixt each two of
the plants; if these stakes are sufficiently durable to con-
tinue firm for two or three years, the hedge will probably
at that period, be strong enough itself to keep hogs out.

Another method to effect this purpose, may be com-
menced when the hedge has completed its second year,
or when the stems of the plants nearest the ground,
have attained the size of a persons thumb, then just be-
fore the bud begins to open in the spring, let the whole
hedge be cut off by a saw, to within an inch and a half of
the surface ; the cultivation being ,continued as usual,
the shoots that will arise from these stubbs will run up
to four, five, or six feet the first season, and will be so
numerous and full of thorns, that the hedge will in a
few years be completely closed at the bottom ; the trim-
ming being annually attended to as before directed
under that article. But it is to be observed that these
strong shoots are at first easily disjointed from the
stocks, and therefore cattle of every description must

On Hedgifig. 35

be carefully kept from them until they are out of dan-
ger.

A better than either of these can be executed when,
the field enclosed, is incommoded with stones.

Having the hedge-course ploughed and harrowed
level in the spring of the fourth or fifth year, tlie stones
are to be gathered from the land, and the largest ones
first laid along side of the hedge ; having marked a
space in width, proportioned to the quantity that can
be had, or is capable of containing as many of them as
are deemed sufficient ; they are to be laid somewhat
regular, so as to form a sort of loose pavement or dia-
gonal wall with its upright face about fourteen inches
high, bearing against the stems of the plants. The in-
terstices among the large stones may be filled up with
the smaller, so as to close every opening against the
growth of weeds or perennial plants.

This will not only be an excellent barricade against
swine, but will also tend to enrich the soil and promote
the growth of the hedge ; but it must not be attempted
before the stems of the plants at the surface of the
ground, have acquired the size of a stout walking cane,
as the stones will harbour field mice, and other animals
that would gnaw the roots of small plants but will not
trouble such as are of the size mentioned.

Where stones cannot be obtained, another method
may be taken to close the bottom of a hedge. After a
course of flat rails, similar to those that are used in post
and railing, are fixed along the inside, with their faces
bearing against the hedge and raised a few inches from
the surface — held in their places by small stakes or

36 On Hedging.

other simple contrivances — a mound of earth is to be
piled up in a sloping bank to support them — having
first ploughed a narrow stripe at a little distance from
the hedge course, the more easily to procure mould for
the purpose.

This mould would rather be of benefit than detri-
ment to the hedge, although if both its sides were to be
banked up to any considerable height, it might kill it
entirely ; for there are few plants that can bear to be
set much deeper in the ground than they grow naturally,-
but when the earth is elevated on one side only, the
hedge will suffer no injury therefrom, and will thus ap-
pear planted on the side of a bank* without any ditch.*

HOW NEAR TO A WOOD OR GROVE OF TALL
TIMBER TREES, MAY A HEDGE BE PLAN-
TED, SO AS NOT TO SUFFER INJURY OR
HAVE ITS GROWTH IMPEDED THEREBY?

At the same proximity to such a wood as where In-
dian corn would thrive, a hedge also will do well, that is
about the length of the trees off, from where they stand,
or a litUc farther. There are some species of trees, how-

=* As to the method of splashing ot hedges, it is not neces-
sary to describe it here, as it is only adapted for such as are
old, ill managed, or here and there derective of plants. Any
person who is curious may see a full description of splashing,
illustrated with a cut, in the American edition of the "Do-
mestic Encyclopedia," by Dr. Mease, of Philadelphia ; a book
that is or ought to be, in the hands of every husbandman
and house-keeper in America,

On Hedging,

ever, that are uncommonly noxious to whatever other
plants are introduced to their neighbourhood, particu-
larly after they have acquired full possession of the soil,
and are grown up to their complete stature. The com-
mon blackwalnut is one of these, and perhaps the lom-
bardy poplar is also not a very innocent neighbour to a
hedge. Fruit trees may be planted at such a distance
from hedges, as is proportioned to their common size or
altitude — but to plant any of them in the line of a
hedge, is by no means advisable. Morella cherries,
plumbs peaches and quinces, may be set about fifteen
or twenty feet off; apples, according to the size that
the different kinds attain to, may be set at the same or
a little farther, and pear trees, heart cherries, &c. are all
to be regulated in this respect, according to their usual
ultimate height remembering at the same time, that
there is a difference betwixt setting a hedge near full
grown trees, and setting young trees near to full
grown hedges, as in the latter case the old hedge will
not be so easily injured by the youthful intruders, as if
a young hedge were introduced to the neighbourhood
of old trees. The persimon is a very innocent tree,
and perhaps will sometime or other be found worthy
of cultivating in orchards, for the value of its fruit, and
the many important purposes to which it can be applied
in domestic economy.

WHAT SORTS OF HEDGE PLANTS ARE RAIS-
ED FOR SALE AT MAIN'S NURSERY.

That kind which I have been most in the habit of
propagating for some years, is a species of the Ameri-

^ On Hedging,

can haw- thorn, which, after trying several others, seems
to me to be the best adapted for hedges of any of the
many different kinds of that plant which are natives of
this country. It is one of the several maple leaved sorts,
to which 1 have given the name of the American hedge-
thorn ; any farther description is at present unneces-
sary, as my former customers are now in possession of
it, and those who intend to purchase can soon also have
an opportunity of seeing it. For this plant the foregoing
directions are more particularly adapted, although with
a very little difference they will suit for the most part of
plants used in hedging.

THE PYRACANTHA OR EVERGREEN THORN,

Is another plant, of which a few thousands are now
on hand for sale the ensuing season. It is not a native
of this country, but after a trial of several years it ap-
pears to take well with the climate, and seems excel-
lently adapted to form hedges. Being an evergreen, a
hedge of it will be highly ornamental. When it comes
to be about three or four, years old it begins to bear
fruit, and after that it is annually decorated with a pro-
fusion of its bright scarlet coloured berries, the nume-
rous clusters of which make a splendid appearance, from
tlie beginning of September through the greater part
of the winter. It is apt to run up to long slender and
flexible shoots.easy to be intwined at pleasure. It freely
takes root by layers, for whenever any of the twigs lean
upon the ground, or are but slightly covered with the
soil, they will soon send out fibres, so that a single cion
of it may quickly be made to cover a surface of ten or

On Hedging, 39

twenty feet wide. No plant can be more suitable to fence
in a poultry yard, as not the smallest chicken will be able
to get through a fence of it properly trained.

THE HONEY LOCUST.

That horrid thorn, whose stem is armed with protrud-
ed clusters of spears pointing every way to guard an
orchard against the attempts of the lurking thief, is the
only other kind of plant on hand at present, fit for the
purpose of hedging. Although I have not yet made
much progress in experimenting its capacity for this end,
it has, 1 believe, been tried m other places, but how it
answers I have nothing but conjectures to inform me.
I have, however, no doubt of its eligibility to form
strong and handsome hedges. Its foliage is extremely
beautiful, and goes to sleep every evening, by folding
the lobes of the leaves together, like the clover and ma-
ny other plants related to that class, at which time the
change of its appearance so suddenly effected, is amu-
sing to the observer. Four or five thousand plants of the
honey locust are now on hand for sale.

THE HOLLY

Is a plant of the first rate estimate for hedges, but I
have unfortunately never been able to procure seeds of
it since I commenced the nursery business in this place.
It grows plentifully in many parts of the country, and
will probably thrive on a soil composed of an over pro-
portion of sand for the haw- thorn to thrive.

40' Oil Hedging.

THE RED CEDAR

Will succeed on a very barren soil and bleak expo-
sure, where perhaps none of the others mentioned would
thrive. Hedges of it have been made in several parts of
the country, and if I am rightly informed some of these
are now excellent fences. Had I an opportunity I would
undoubtedly try the two last named plants.

Those five species above named, are the whole that
I would choose to include in the list of hedge plants,
as the best adapted in my opinion for the purpose in
this country. Many others, indeed, might be mention-
ed that are fit for ornamental hedges, and there is scarce
a tree in the forest, but what its species might be im-
pressed into the service of live fencing ; but while those
that are superior can as easily be obtained, why should
we use such as are but indifferent ?

A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds
of plants in a hedge cannot be recommended ; such a
heterogeneous composition will neither make a good
fence nor look handsome.

Somewhat in contradiction to this rule, I last year
(1806) planted a hedge in the spring, composed of the
pyracantha and honey locust, set alternately about eigh-
teen inches apart. The soil was an old field extremely
poor, and quite worn out, scarcely capable of bearing
grass, or the leanest species of weeds. 1, therefore, scat-
tered a little manure along the track, where the hedge
was to be planted, and turned it in with the plough.
After smoothing the surface a little with a hand hoe, the
plants were set at the distance described, the summer
was very dry and unfavourable, but contrary to expec-

On Hedging. 41

Nation, both pyracantha and honey locust survived it,
and are now (September, 1807,) in a very thriving con-
dition. The intention of this mixture is to have the bot-
tom of the hedge perfectly closed by the pyracantha,
and the body of it strengthened by the honey locust ;
both together may be expected to present such a thorny
mass of entangled resistance as will preclude all intra-
aion.

Perhaps if I had planted two distinct hedges, one of
the pyracantha eighteen inches plant from plant, and
another of the honey locust, about five feet outside of
the other, also at eighteen inches apart, it might have
been still better.

It is not my present intention to persuade any person
into the notion of hedging, or to use any arguments for
that purpose ; such recommendation would come with
a better grace from any other person than from one who
is in the habit of raising quicks for sale, and is con-
sequently interested in disposing of them. It may, how-
ever, be allowable for me to say, that this mode of fenc-
ing, whenever it is practised in the United States, will
contribute its share to give an orderly and systematic
turn to our plans of rural policy, conducive to a perma-
nent neatness and regularity among arrangements that
are commonly in a continual state of confusion and
change.

It can scarcely be expected that gardeners or over-
seers generally will be advocates for the introduction of
live fences. To look for this, would be to look for more
than human nature can afford, for who would volunta-
rily seek additional care and trouble, with an additional

f *

42 On Hedging

risk of blame, without any expectation of an additional
recompence ?

CONCLUSION.

Those who have honored this trifling performance
with a perusal thus far, will be enabled thereby to judge
for themselves, whether or not its contents have any
claim to the attention of the American agriculturist. I
have, therefore, nothing further to observe, but that the
friendly countenance and approbation of intelligent, sen-
sible and reflecting characters, will ever be esteemed
and sought after, as an essential part of my reward. For
the use of those only who have felt themselves interest-
ed, or curious enough to follow it this length, among
whom I include all my former and future customers,
this imperfect production is most respectfully dedica-
ted by

Their humble fellow- citizen,

Thomas Main.

DISTRICT ok COLUMBU,

September 2%th, 1807.

[ 43 ]

Method of stabbing Hoven Cattle^ to discharge the rari-

Jied air from the stomach, when they have been over^

fed xvith moist clover grass. Communicated by Mr,

W, Wallis Mason, of Goodrest Lodge, near PFar^

wick. From Trans. Soc. Jrts, London, vol. 26.

Gentlemen,

I beg leave to lay before you a trocar and canula
for the relief of cattle, when gorged or hoven. Since I
have introduced it, it has been used with the greatest
success, having, in every instance tried, been proved a
safe, easy and effectual remedy. I consider it will not
be necessary for me to detail the dangerous conse-
quences arising from cattle being hoven, as it is well
known, that the public are annually deprived of num-
bers of valuable cattle by this disorder. I am inclined
to offer it as an instrument superior to that for which
the society granted a premium in the year 1796 ;* as I

* The instrument for which the Society of Arts rewarded
the inventor by a premium of fifty guineas in 1796, was not
a tube, but consisted of a cane six feet long, having a knob at
one end, which was to be pushed down the throat of the ani-
mal into the paunch, and thus to give free passage to the air
extricated by the clover^ The flexible tube mentioned was in-
vented by Dr. Monro of Edinburgh In 1795, and consisted
of iron wire twisted round a rod of polished iron ; the wire
after being taken off the rod, is to be covered with leather.

J. M.

44 Method of stabbing Hoven Cattle.

am of opinion, that flexible tubes maybe forced down
the passage which conducts to the lungs, by which most
dangerous consequences would ensue. An instance of
this kind occurred last year in this neighbourhood,
when intending to force the passage of the paunch, and
occasioned the loss of the animal. ' '

Neither the farmer or baihft' can be expected when
going the rounds of the farm, to carry with him at all
times an instrument so large as one of the flexible tubes ;
even if he had it, he could not make use of it without
the assistance of a second person, and the disorder
would be fatal in most instances before such assistance
could be procured.

I considered that the trocar and canula commonly
used by surgeons, might be employed to advantage for
the relief of hoven cattle. I have employed the instru-
ment to answer better the purpose here intended of pe-
netrating the tense hides of cattle ; and such alteration
materially facilitates the operation.

The method of applying it is, to penetrate with the
trocar and canula through the hide of the beast to the
paunch on the near side, about six inches^ from the back
bone, at an equal distance from the last rib, and from
the hip bone : then to withdraw the trocar, and to leave
the canula in the wound until the air which the paunch
contained has escaped. The canula may then be taken
out, and the wound covered with a plaister of common

* A member fomid that six inches was too small a dis-
tance, as the kidney of a cow was injured when stabbed at
that distance from the back bone by a knife. J. M.

Method of stabbing Haven Cattle. AS

pitch spread on brown paper,* about the size of a crown
piece. All the clanger incidental to the common mode
of stabbing with the knife is effectually prevented by
the canula being left in the incision when the trocar is
withdrawn.

The small expense of the instrument, its portability,
the ease with which it can be used by an individual, its
safety and efficacy in use, as it has not in any instance fail-
ed of complete success, will, I hope, be sufficiently evi-
dent to recommend it to the attention of the society. A
great saving would arise to the owners of cattle, and to
the country at large, from a general adoption of its use.

A feeding ox will thrive as well after the operation
as if it had never been affected by the disorder. Cows
in calf are in no danger from its use. It has been found
particularly beneficial in preserving rearing calves and
young cattle, when afflicted with this disorder, which
had heretofore been fatal to great numbers of them.

I beg leave to add certificates of a few of those gen-
tlemen who have witnessed the utility of this method,
and whose recommendations have stimulated me to
submit it to the society, in hopes that by their liberal
patronage it may be rendered more generally beneficial
to the public.

I have the honor, &:c.

W. Wallis Mason.

Certificates from the following gentlemen testified,
that they had experienced the efficacy of Mr, Mason's

* Leather or coarse linen would ansv/er better.

46

Method of stabbing Hovcn Cattle.

trocar ; had proved the safety of the operation, and the
instantaneous relief which it had never failed to pro-
duce without leaving any blemish or dangerous conse-
quence from its application.

John Ford Naish, Leek TFooton.
Thomas Bryan, TVarwick.
William Oram, Warwick,
William Ledbrooke, North End.
Richard Cattle, Milverton,

REFERENCE TO THE CUT.

The blade of the trocar is of steel, fixed into a wood-
en handle. The shape of the blade ol the trocar is oval.
The canula or sheath is an oval tube, which exactly
fits the blade of the trocar ; the concave circular plate
fixed at the end of the canula, forming a hilt, to pre-
vent the instrument from giving too deep a wound
when used : the end of the canula is worked down to
a sharp edge, that it may not obstruct the passage of
the instrument.

C 47 ]

FROM THE HAMPSHmE GAZETTE.

On planting Corn. By Joseph Lyman,
Referred to, page 46 of Memoirs.

Mr. Butler,

Having heard of the advantages to be derived
from planting and cultivating Indian corn in a manner
different from the one commonly practised, I determin-
ed, for my own satisfaction to make the experiment. I
chose a field which the year before was in grass, and
was turned up and cultivated without any manure for
raising potatoes. When these were gathered,, and the
vines cleared off, the ground was ploughed. Last spring
I ordered 45 sack loads of manure, as are contained in
the body of a cart, to be carried on. The manure was
composted, made chiefly from potatoe tops, corn stalks,
and other vegetables ; and might perhaps be nearly
equal to 30 loads of common barn yard manure. When
spread equally over the field, it was ploughed again, and
fitted by the seed harrow for planting. I then divided
the field into three equal parts. One third was planted
in hills two feet distant each way, three grains in a hill.
One third was planted at the common distance of three
and a half feet between the hills, three grains in a hill.
The other third was planted as our farmers usually plant,
three and a half feet between the rows and six feet be-
tween the hiils, about five or six grains in a hill. The
^eed was poor, so that more than cne in three grains
failed. My corn came up very unevenly, some hills hav-

48 On Planting Corn,

ing one, and some three stalks in a hill. After the first
hoeing, a small handful of unleached ashes was put
round each hill through the field. In those portions of
the field where the corn was planted thick, I directed
the suckers when about eight or ten inches long, to be
plucked off*, so as to leave no part of the shoot on the
original stalk ; then the dirt was drawn about to prevent
bleeding. The corn was suckered three times. When
the shoots began to appear above the second joint they
were left for bearing. The third of the field planted in
the usual mode was left to nature, and was not suckered.
The two feet corn was cultivated by hand hoeing. In
the other parts, the harrow or the plough was used
twice ; the two last hoeings were plain. The rankness
and tenderness of the stalks would not admit of the
plough. The eighteen inch and common way planting
were well hilled : the two feet corn would not allow hill-
ing, but in a slight manner. The corn planted in the
usual mode suffered much more by falling to the
ground than either of the other lands ; owing, I sup-
pose, to the feebleness of the secondary stalks or suck-
ers : the two feet corn stood the m.ost firm and erect.

On the night succeeding the 31st of August, my
field v/as so situated as to receive manifest injury from
the frost. At harvest I was careful to make an exact
measurement of the corn upon each portion of the field,
by a half bushel, then examined by the town standard.
The field I measured by the surveyor's chain ; it con-
tained one hundred and eighty rods of ground. The
produce on each part was as follows, viz.

60 rods planted square, two feet distance, yielded 39
bushels and 1 1 quarts, which is 105 bushels to the acre.

On Planting Corn, 49

Sixty rods planted at the usual distance of rows and
18 inches between the hills, yielded thirty-six bushels
and twenty -seven quarts, which is 98 bushels and one
peck to the acre.

Sixty rods planted in the common mode yielded thir-
ty-two bushels, which is eighty -five bushels and one-
third per acre.

The whole field yielded 108 bushels and one peck
nearly, which is, upon an average, 96 bushels and one
peck per acre.

The quality of the corn in the two first modes of
planting was nearly similar. In both instances they clear-
ly excelled the corn planted in the common mode. In
this statement I make no account of the soft and poor
corn, which upon the whole field amounted to six or
eight bushels of ears. Every farmer for himself, will
estimate the shrinkage between harvest and market sea-
son. This will not alter the proportion of each piece of
ground. I am persuaded that the lucrative mode of
planting is to plant three grains, and if they come up
; ,well, to pluck up the poorest stalk after the first hoeing,
leaving two for growth. Then you may expect, if the
land be prepared, to have two full ears upon each stalk.
It will be inquired, what is the proportion of labour
upon each mode of cultivating ? Here I cannot be so _
exact as I have been in my other calculations. Yet I was
not inattentive to this part of the experiment, I found
little difference in any part of the labour, excepting in
planting, ashing, hoeing and suckering. I think the fol-
low ing estimate cannot be far out of the way. The com-
mon mode of planting, until we finish hoeing, 1 should

cr ^

t3

50 On Planting Corn.

call five days work on an acre : the eighteen inch, ele-
ven days ; and the two feet corn, fifteen days on an acre.
The two feet corn, besides exceeding in quaUty, has
nearly twenty bushels more than the common planting :
the greater expense is ten days work, or ten bushels of
corn, by which means we make a clear saving of ten
bushels per acre.

In the eighteen inch planting, we make a saving of
seven bushels over the common mode. The two feet
planting exceeds the eighteen inch after allowing for la-
bour, three bushels.

In these new modes of planting by suckering your
corn, you turn the strength of your soil from the produc-
tion of barren stalks to the production of solid grain :
your lands yield gi'eater profit : your work is brought
into a narrow compass, and you have your other fields
without any loss, left in a state to recruit, and be pre-
pared for a future abundant harvest. The experiment
was made upon easy land, free from stone. I conjectur-
ed that the advantages would be still greater upon hard
strong land, where the common mode of cultivation is
more expensive.

Joseph Lyman.

Hatfield, Nov. 1, 1796.

AGRICULTURAL INQUIRIES

ON

PLAISTER OF PARIS

ADVERTISEMENT

THE Society requested me to arrange, for republica-
tion in their memoirs, the contents of my little compilation
on PLAisTER OF PARIS, in 1797. I have endeavoured to col-
lect from various quarters of our country a series of facts oc-
curring since that period. I should have combined them with,
or engrafted them on, the facts then drawn together ; and
thus have formed a compendious account of all we now know
on the subject. But although I have been favoured by a few to
whom I had written, I have been generally unsuccessful. I
shall persevere in my endeavours ; and either wait 'till my
object is fully attained, or communicate, as I receive them,
the results of my inquiries.

There is a most unfortunate indisposition in our fellow
citizens, to reduce to writing the necessary information re-
quired on agricultural subjects. Some are too busy, and some
too indolent. Dread of criticism operates on some ; and false
and reprehensible diffidence on others. There are few land-
holders who cultivate their own soil (as do most in this coun-
try) who cannot express their knowledge of facts sufficiently
clear in writing, on a subject to which they are more compe-
tent than literary theorists. No farmer is remote from some
well educated neighbour, who can write down and commu-
nicate the facts recited to him. It is therefore the more to
be lamented that any want of information on practical hus-

iv Advertisement.

bandry, should retard the improvement this kind of know-
ledge would promote. The few who engage in the task of dif-
fusing agricultural knowledge and intelligence, are not assist-
ed or supported as they merit. They must, however, be con-
tent with doing all the circumstances and difficulties they en-
counter permit. They must be satisfied with their own con-
sciousness of the purity and usefulness of the motives which
actuate them. The ribaldry of small critics (if any there be)
who nibble at modes of expression not objects of literary
scrutiny ; and the feeble sarcasms of those who, instead of
encouraging, attribute laudable exertions to communicate and
diffuse agricultural information to personal vanity; or to a rage
for what such puny (or, in their own phraseology,/?^ wet/) cen-
sors call " riding their hobby horse," must be disregarded.
The numbers of such hypercritics must be so small, and their
patriotism so much below the freezing point, that they should
not excite even the momentary attention of those who wish
to promote the prosperity of their country. One valuable
improvement introduced, or made more generally known,
through their agency, far over balances a thousand verbal
criticisms, and sour or fanciful strictures. I say not this
with any reference to myself (for I have not the presump-
tion to claim any right to exemptions, or peculiar attention
to my wishes or requests) but to impress on others, of more
capacity but little active zeal, a disposition to render to
their countiy the service it requires. This is not only called
for, from those who can furnish the necessary facts, but it is
more imperatively demanded from those whose talents, and
literary, as well as other capabilities, can turn facts to the most
profitable account.

Advertisement.

Men of sense and liberal tempers, do not look for elegance
of diction, or classical arrangement, in agricultural communi-
cations; in which those succeed the best who can confine them-
selves to plain colloquial language ; though this on every sub-
ject cannot be done. When readers with well turned minds
even meet with language, or phraseology, not usually within
the comprehension of common farmers, they forgive, though
they may not approve. I have my share of toleration to require
on this, and every other, account. Those who seek for better
entertainment than circumstances will admit, or as Sancho
would say, " want white bread, where only wholesome brown
is to be had," often risk, or lose, comfortable accommodation.

I travelled, in early life, on my way to a county court, witli a
city acquaintance ; who, being a smell-fungus and fault-finder,
had generally an unpleasant journey. At a country tavern
(where I always found plenty of the best fare to be expected
in such places^ though not served up, or sat out, in a style of
elegant arrangement) A^ called for capillairey^ and orgeade ;]
to relish his beverage, in a^hot August-day. He became petu-
lant, when he was told, that no such things were either kept or
known in the house. The landlady, who had really put her best
foot foremost, to entertain us, was disgusted; and returned his
testiness v/ith compound interest. She concluded a highly sea-
soned and flippant philippick, by requiring us "to go where we
had a right to expect city dainties; or ride on 'till we learned that
good country provisions were better than leckerbissleinen^^^ — .
Mckshazvsy — which she supposed what he had called for to

* Capillaire. — Syrup of the herb maiden -hair,
t Orgeade. — Sugared barley-water.

vi Advertisement.

be. She was a plain, but smart German. I pacified her, in her
own language, with all due submission to existing circum-
stances, essential for one who did not wish to lose a substan-
tial dinner, because capillaire and orgeade could not be ob-
tained. And if such unnecessary sirrups should have been
found, out of their place, I should have been the last entitled
to object to a dinner on that account. I soon restored her
good humor, by some fortunate pleasantries, at the merited
expence of my morose companion ; who experienced their
profitable effects, without understanding them. If he had un-
derstood them, he would only have sat me down for a witling.
By these I succeeded in convincing her, that /, who had been
a frequent and contented guest at the house, ought not to suf-
fer, or the house lose advantages, because she had been teased
and affronted by ein lecker phantast ; — in English — an over-
nice pretender to delicacy of taste,

I have deemed it best (under the failure of my attempts
fully to comply with the wishes of the society) to re-publish
the AGRICULTURAL iNquiRiES, from the first impression,
verbatim. This has created the necessity of adding notes,
both to the text and former notes. The little book is out of
print ; and much sought for, though not now of so much
importance as it was thought to be at the time of its publi-
cation ; when the subject was not so generally known. All
my experience since, confirms the information then promul-
gated. If I cannot now materially add to it, I have no cause
to reproach myself with any omissions of endeavours so to do.

Richard Peters.
"Belmont^ 10th September^ 1810.

AGRICULTURAL INQUIRIES

ON

PLAISTER OF PARIS.

ALSO

FACTS, OBSERVATIONS

AND

CONJECTURES ON THAT SUBSTANCE,

WHEN APPLIED AS MANURE.

COLLECTED, CHIEFLY FROM THE PRACTICE OF FARMERS IN PENNSYLVANIA,
AND PUBLISHED AS MUCH WITH A VIEW TO INVITE, AS TO GIVE INPOR-
MATION.

WITH SOME ADDITIONAL NOTES :

AND MORE RECENT FACTS AND INFORMATION.

BY RICHARD PETERS

PMILADELPHIA :

RE-PRINTED BY JANE AITKEN, No. H,
NORTH THIRD STREET .

1810.

INQUIRIES ON PLAISTER

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Queries proposed to correspondents by Richard Peters.

English analysis of plaister. Pages 17, 18.

William West, page 18. Answers to queries.

Application of plaister to land nearly a
century under bad management^ how
managed; and great benefits of plais-
ter. What kinds of soils, what quan-
tities of plaister per acre, and repeti-
tions. What crops best adapted to,
when to sow it and its durability.
Notes on this communication.

Robert Frazier, page 22. His account of Col. HannunCs use
of plaister, on virgin soils^ and
poor land, — quantity applied, — repe-
titions ; does not render ground ste-
rile— products to which applied-
time of scattering — quantity of hay
per acre. Used with dimg to great
advantage. European and American
plaister equally good.

Philip Price Jun. page 25. Length of time he has used plais-
ter, on worn land. Quantity per
acre, kinds of soils proper for plais-

***

CONTENTS.

ter. No effect on 7nellow land — ^notc
giving the reason why — no effect
on other grains than buckwheat ;
which is an exhausting crop. Most
beneficial to clover. Not more
active with, than without, other
manure. This shewn to be other-
wise in a note. Exhaustion by re-
petition a mere biig-bear^ note. —
Indian corn does not succeed buck-
"wheat^ advantageously.
Gen. Edward Hand, page 35. Length of time he has used

plaister, quantity, kinds of soils,
repetitions successful. Used
with dung. Does not render soil
,'iterile. Quantity sowed per acre.-
Rolling seed grain in plaister,
highly beneficial — quantity of
clover per acre — good on vari-
ety of grasses. Time of sowing
it. — Used in connection with
other manures — ashes ^nd. plais-
ter assist each other, (so lime J
duration — European and Ame-
rican plaister equally good.
John Curwen page 41. Thoughts on the composition of the
gypsum. Period of his using plaister.
On land exhausted by bad tillage ;
though it had been limed and dunged.
Quantity of plaister per acre. Kinds of
soils. Repetition does not induce steri-
lity. Hard cropping bad, with any ma-
nure. Plaister chiefly good on red clo-
ver. Its effects on corn doubtful. Time
of scattering. Mode ol applying to Li-

CONTENTS.

dian corn (Note) — produce per acre of
red clover. Agrees with dung- and lime*
American and European plaister equal.
Its duration. Plaister prevents pastures
being injured bij droughts ; and cattle
prefer them. Beneficial in compost
heaps y and preferable to hot lime.
Note.
John Sellers, page 46. General observations. Change of ma-
nure. Applications of plaister ; modes,
state, and kinds of soil. Virgin soils —
quantity per acre — and produce in hay
and feeding, whether clay soils favour-
able or not to plaister. Mr. W. Young's
mode of ameliorating and preparing
clay soily highly approved ; in a note— «
a concrete substance (allum) thrown up
by plaister on xvet clay, Mr. Sellers
doubtful as to improvement by repeti-
tion. Has not discovered bad effects by
repetitions. Rotation or his crops. Most
proper for red and white clover. Times
to strev/ thinks lands laying in grass
improved, and that both manures and
products should be varied. Note on
changes of manures, and crops.
Edward Duffield, page 53. Length of time he has used plais-
ter-— repetitions and effects. Quan-
tity per acre— kinds of soil. In-
tervals of re-applications. Does
not render the earth sterile^ in the
least degree. On grasses, imme-
diate effects. On grain, not till
well mixed with the soil, by
ploughing &c. Times of scattering

CONTENTS.

plaister, on certain grounds and
crops. On Indian corn, three or
four bushels over the whole ground
best. Produce per acre. Duration.
European and Ainerkan plaister
alike good. American makes the
best cement. Tilth required for
Indian corn. Note. Mr. Duffield's
son dislikes plaister. (Note) Acid
contained in plaister ; and not the
calcareous earth is the cause of
operation. Note. Experiments to
prove the operative principle of
plaister. Not credited, by chemists
of that day.
Rev. Dr. Wharton, page 58. Plaister much used on hilly y

st07iy and thin soils, intermixed
with isivs'lass; f mica J, Quanti-
ty so^rvn. Soil not thereby impo-
verishedc Not mixed with other
manure. Clever lands only bene-
fittea. No effect on cold, wet,
clay. But on gravel, clover dou-
bled in quantity. Continuance.
Sown in the spring. On Indian
corn, thinks it increases plant,
but not grain. Note thereupon.
Note. Tarring seed com, and
other grain, guards against
vermin. Re-planting* Trans-
planting. Number of plants in a
hill. Furrowing tor corn, and
leaving balks. Obsei-v ations on
this practice.

CONTENTS.

Algernon Roberts, page 62. Sowed on field, light loam andjlin-

ty gravel. Improvement percepti-
ble on clover — ^but injured by blue
grass. On orchard — ground in til-
lage 60 years. Surface loa?n ; un-
der stratum clai/. Great improve-
ment in crops of both clover and
timothy, — ^but on clover most. —
Young apple trees highly bene-
fitted. No difference in improve-
ment on the dijBPerent soils. —
Sti^ loam. Age of mo 011^ hav-
ing effect, a mere chimera. On
land cleared 90 years : great be-
nefit. Peach trees benefitted.-—
Sown on mixed grass-lay — -water -
cd meadow. Parts stagnated xvater;
— results. Indian corn benefitted.
No improvement on buckwheat.
Does little for natural grass. Blue
grass overruns clover, and plais-

* Plaister is so irregular in its phenomena, that it often unaccountably fiuls, or siu-pvisingly suc-
ceeds. Many attribute this to the times of sowing ; acconliiig to tlie age,— increase or decrease, of
the moon. Whatever success or failure they experience, at any particular times of tiie vioon's pha-
ses, or situations, a general rule is formed, and fixes faith. Theplaistcr must be sow Ji by the alma-
nack ; because, in its irregular operations, it happened to succeed, at a favourite time. So of all
crops, of evcrj- species ; bleedijig, and sui-gical operations on animals, setting offences, and plant-
ing of trtes. Mr. Roberts risks, with those who are goNenied by such " chimeras,^' the credit of his
other facts, by denying the oithodoxy of this indulgence in (imology.

A worthy old Gennan told me, in the presence, and much to the edification of several of his
neighbours, w ho were great believei's in the moon, that our elections never went right, at the w rong
time of the moon, I asked him, if he meant the full and change ? He replied, — no. The sign should
be in the Jiecid and heart " das haupt und hertz ;" " und nicht in den bauch, iind die scliaam ; od:r
die armc und hande ." and not in the belly, or the secrets, or the arms and hands. Whether my old
friend (who shewed how the sigiis governing those paits, influenced the actions and conduct of
men) spoke seriously, or sarcastically, it would be as w ell (if we liad the option) to lea^e the mocii
and the .s/^'nA\ in possession of agricidtural influences, exclusively. In other matters, neither the
signs, nor the sj-mpathies, could be adjusted to general satisfaction. Tliis she« s, hoA\ever, to wluit
lengths vagaries arc canied.

R. P.

CONTENTS.

ter ceases to be serviceable. On
fields limed and dunged — highly
benefits red clover. Repetitions still
improve, but not always equal to
first application. Again on limed
land. Result superior. Repetition.
Result equal to first application.
Sowed on light soil — had been
limed ^ and lightly dunged — in til-
lage 80 years. Superior in benefit.
Miserable field beiore; now among
the best. On field tilled 50 years —
sand — limed. Improvement equal
to first sowing. Sowed six times
in seven years ^ on same field, xvith-
oitt manure^ does not injure. Crop
equal to any other.' On field limed
and dunged. Improvement and
product superior ; field tilled 60
years. Again on limed land —
equal to any other field. Experi-
ments on grain Jlax £^c., discour-
aging.
Richard Petei-s, page 72. Remarkable improvement by plais-
ter, at Bethlehem^ in Pennsylvania.
Period in which he has used plais-
ter. Land worn out, full of weeds
and pests, ^lantity per acre. Point of
saturation. Regulated by substances
hjinds in the earth. Salt; experi-
ments on. Kinds of soils favourable
to plaister. No success on clay. Re-
petitions^ and with what auxiliaries.
Dung ; observations on. What Ai?ids
of i: rain and grasses are benefitted,
or not. Manures; times of applying.

CONTENTS.

Quantities of grass, clover. Prefer-
ence by cattle to plaistered grass. Over
luxuriant-grass not approved of. —
zuith inanures, English opinion that
plaister and lime disagree — and that
it is best on Virgin soils denied.
Comparison of crops of grain here
and in England and Ireland; and
quality of zuheats. Sowing clover on
zvinter grain. Opinion of its produc-
ing mildexv^ erroneous. Duration.
Weeds ; observations on them. Dung
should be rotted or composted to de-
stroy their seeds. Stercoraries ; mi-
serably mismanaged. Fences : hedge-
rows— merit of one who would bota-
nize with a viev/ to destroy zueeds. SU
jfo/ms wort, ranstcdor toad-jiax, Eu-
ropean and American plaister equnl
in quality. Miscellaneous obser-
vations. Prejudices against the use
of plaister here, and in Germany, Un-
certainties and intermissions of its
1^ effects, accounted for. — Retentive of

moisture. Dew remains on plaister-
ed, longer than on other grounds.
Richard Peters, page 88. Plaister attracts and retains mois-
ture, Ingenhausz — his opinion o«i
water; as it feeds or convGys food to
plants — ChaptaPs ideas. Grinding
plaister; — and most profitable num-
ber of bushels to the ton. 89. Calci-
nation injures j^laister. Analysis, —
Mode of trying quality, 90, a the-
ory of plaister,- might be suppressed.

CONTENTS.

92, Short account of Ingenhaiisz^ s
ideas, as to oil of vitriol being ser-
viceable to plants. Opinions of others.
92, 93, 94. Carbonic acid disengaged
by putrefaction^ ib. Ingejihausz' s
account of gypsum^ ib. Quantity of
plaister per acre: and mode of apply-
ing, 95, 96. Indian corn 96 — 7. Plais-
ter must be kept siiperficiaL Its ope-
ration not perceptible on zvinter
grain. 97, 8. Plaister with dung* —
Lot onxvhich it -was first strewed^
98. Manures produce carbonic acid*
Plaister with animal or vegetable
manures^ most efficacious, 99, 100.
Mode and cause of operation^ and
repetition^ ib. Constant success with
plaister. Clover with plaister, agrees
the best of any other grass. Excessive
operation^ exhausts its powers in a
short time, 101. It is the sulphuric
acid^ which constitutes the operative
principle oi Y>l"disttr. postcript, 102,
3, 4. Dr. Priestly\ opinion of what
constitutes t\\e food of plaiits. Obser-
vations thereon, 105, 6, and opini-
ons of Ingenhausz and Chaptal^ ib.
English account of gypsum^ 108, 9,
10. Observations* thereon. 111, 12,
13, 14. Success of .Mr. Smythe^ in
England. Extract of a letter from
Robert Barclay Esq, of England. —
Proposition of experiment to banish
the Hessian fy ; by means of /?/flfZ5-
ter^ or oil of vitriol, 116, 117. Com-

CONTENTS.

Richard Peters. mon salt injurious to plaister, 117.

Explanation of some of the tenns^
used in the "Inquiries &c." 119,20.
NoLAND William Esq. his com-
munication on the improvement by
plaister,in LOUDC»f county, Virginia^

121. Confirmatioil of principles and
facts, contained in precedent pages,

122. Some cover the plaister — in-
stance of success on com in tassel.
On cut potatoes for seed. Rolling
seed grain in plaister. — Service of
plaister on xvheat doubted. But land,
ameliorated by clover and plaister,
is always found best for wheat ^ 123.
Fixed opinion as to plaister. Car^.
less about land being poor or rich. —
Prejudices against clover-hay con-
demned, 123, 4. Names of Mr. No-
land's correspondents. Salivary de-
fluxions of horses and cattle, 125.
See letter on ptyalisrn in the volume.
Instance where plaister on virgin soil

% ineffectual. Compared with old land

adjacent. Tobacco much benefitted by
plaister, 126. Not successful on clay.
Top dressings of plaister not only of
no use on wheat j but retard ripe-
ning, and crop caught by mildew,
127. Query if mildexv were not oc-
casioned by some other cause.
Thanks to correspondents.
Fac-simile of General Washington's hand writing j and
sketches of his private character.

^^^

Agricultural Inquiries^ ^c.

To GEORGE fFJSHIJVGTOJ\\ President of the
United States.

Sir^

THE following collection, on the subject of the agricul-
tural properties and uses of the gypsum, having been under-
taken by me at your desire, I have thought there was a pro-
priety in presenting it to you. However unimportant other
parts may be, those which contain practical results, I flatter
myself will be useful.

I have had frequent occasions of knowing, that the en-
couragement of agricultural improvement and information,
is among the favourite wishes of your heart. It is on this ac-
count, and not with a design to give it an undue importance,
by placing it under your notice, that I have been induced
to inscribe to you this publication.

?i It is peculiary consolatoiy, when we can draw any portion
of our comfort from our misfortunes. Your retirement from
public life will afford you leisure and opportunities, by your
patronage and example, to promote the interests of agricul-
ture. Some compensation will be thereby afforded us for the
loss we shall sustain, by your resigning the helm at which
you have so long, so wisely, and so safely, steered our poli-
tical barque.

Dedication,

Long may uninterrupted health, that first of blessings,
enable you to enjoy the splendid evening of a life, so much de-
voted to lyour country, as to have been but little dedicated to
yourself.— -And that you may be as happy as you have been
eminently instrumental in making millions of your fellow-citi-
zens, is my sincere and ardent prayer.

I have the honor to be,

With the most true and respectful esteem^

Your obedient servant,

Richard Peters.
January Zd^ 1T9T»

PREFACE

IT IS to be lamented that it falls to the lot of
an individual to risque the publication of the fol-
lowing sheets, in which the agricultural part of the
community are more immediately, though not
solely, interested. An ineffectual attempt has been
made to establish a state society of agriculture,
whose useful and agreeable employment it should
be to invite and promulgate communications, sti-
mulate experiments, and cherish and reward, with
honourable testimonies at least, the ingenious and
industrious cultivator. An application was made to
a former legislature of the state, for an act of in-
corporation of such a society, and a plan there-
with suggested. But no steps have yet been taken
in the business. It is to regret, and not to censure,
that I mention the circumstance. It is difficult,
if not impracticable, to produce conviction in the
minds of the generality of farmers, that persons
who have not been educated or manually employ-
ed in farming, can give much useful information
in, or effectual energies to, agriculture. And yet

xii Preface,

the greatest improvements in husbandry, have
been either suggested, or made, by those who were
not professional farmers. If pecuniary assistance
should be required out of the pubhc funds, it
should be afforded. A cent expended, with pro-
priety, to aid and reward genius and industry, in
pursuing agricultural experiments and researches,
will add an eagle to the public stock. This is
applying nourishment to the root of the public
prosperity.

Were it without example, it would be surpri-
sing that legislatures, consisting for the most part
of farmers, have done so little for the encourage-
ment of a profession, which is calculated, above
all others, to produce additions to the common
mass of property, by creating countless supplies,
drawn from the earth.

In England, the establishment of a Board of
Agriculture, under the patronage and pecuniary
encouragement of the legislature, is recent, but
its advantages are incalculable.

In France, agriculture is accounted, as it really
is in all countries, the basis of public and private
wealth and prosperity. Its patronage and encou-
ragement are placed among the first objects of
public attention; and radically interwoven with
the principles and system of their national policy
and government. Perhaps the period is not distant

Preface. xiii

when the pubHc mind here will be turned to this
subject. Nothing will then be wanting towards
the accomplishment of every thing wished for,
by the friends to this important and invaluable
art. They have received the highest gratification,
and must conceive the strongest hopes, by observ-
ing this subject recommended to the attention of
Congress by the President, who has constantly
mingled with his other patriotic solicitudes, an
unabating desire to forward agricultural inquiry
and improvement.

I began this collection of facts, &c. on plaister
of Paris, with no intention to make it public. I
found, in the course of my inquiries, much agree-
ment as to general results, among my agricultural
acquaintances and friends. I now think the collec-
tion I have made, will be so beneficial, that I
cannot resist the desire I feel to make an eftbrt,
towards rendering the knowledge of this valuable
substance, more generally diffused. I hazard the
disapprobation of thegendemen (to whom I return
my sincere thanks) who have favoured me with
their communications; as I have not asked their
permission to lay them before the public. But I
trust they will pardon me, from the motive induc-
ing me to take the liberty I have used. I have
also a wish to see, whether agricultural publications
will meet with a favourable reception.

xiv Preface.

I had intended to form, from my own expe-
rience, assisted by the materials I could obtain
from others, an essay, in which all the knowledge
we have of the agricultural uses of the gypsum
might be concisely promulgated. But, on a subject
in which practice is the surest guide, /fl!c/5, vouch-
ed by men of practical knowledge exhibited in
their own words, seemed to me best calculated to
promote truth, remove prejudice, and to excite
and encourage inquiry and exertion.

I had answered the queries on this subject
for private information, chiefly from the know-
ledge I had gained, in a long course of practical
attention to the uses and effects of the gyps; and
I find, since receiving the communications from
my friends, that their experience and mine, in
general, agrees.

As to opinions and conjectures though they
may not at first be solid, they may possibly lead to
farther discoveries. In statements of agricultural
facts, made to those who are to judge of the merit
of experiments or practice, it is perhaps right to
avoid opinions and speculations. But in the pre-
sent publication, 1 have thought it proper to throw
out opinions, and even slight conjectures. My
view is to draw forth better opinions, and to set
scientific men to thinking on the subject.

Preface, xv

Terms are used in the following account of
the gypsum, without nice attention to their force;
as it is difficult more accurately to express our
present ideas. The plaister, is, for instance, called
a stimulant, a mariure. Some substances are said to
make a good footing for the plaister, that it wants
somciking to feed on, &c. When we know more
about it, we can establish a more appropriate and
correct phraseology.

Several to whom I have applied for informa-
tion have not favoured me with it, from a disin-
clination, I presume, to throwing their thoughts
on paper. This discouraged me from extending
my correspondence. But I believe I have obtain-
ed the most material facts. Those who have an-
swered the queries, occupy land of every variety
of description, so as to comprehend the whole
range of the different soils on which the plaister
Is used.

I shall be truly grateful, if any of those who
have been in the practice of applying the plaister,
will supply omissions, Jind rectify mistakes.

I indulge a hope that men of chemical and
philosophical knowledge, will be induced farther
to examine and analyze this powerful substance,
with a view more accurately to discover its agri-
cultural properties, and the causes of its operation
on plants. The farmer, when taught by their dis-

xvi Preface.

coveries and experiments, will be enabled to ren-
der this manure still more valuable, by the most
judicious modes of apphcation. It will then be
fdt by the cultivators of our soil, that science essen-
tially promotes their interests and happiness. A
practical conviction of the advantages derived
from it, will urge them to afford to literary establish^
ments, and men of useful learning, the public and
individual support they so justly merit,

Richard Peters.
January 3d, 1797.

INQUIRIES, FACTS,

OBSERVATIONS AND CONJECTURES,

ON

PLAISTER OF PARIS

Letter of Richard Peters^ and Ansxvers to Queries on
Plaister of Paris, by Mr, William West^ of Darby
Township, Delaware County,

Sir,

THE gpysum, or plaister of Paris, according to a
late analysis of its component parts, as declared in an
English work, is said to be compounded of a mineral
acid, and a calcareous earth ; the first an enemy, the
second friendly to vegetation. According as the one or
the other prevails, it is said to be good or bad. It is said
there, to operate on virgin soils with good effect, but
not on grounds which have been long under cultiva-
tion, and especially those that have been limed. The re-
sult of your experience is requested on this particular
point : my observations do not support this assertion.
Make any miscellaneous remarks, founded on your
experience, though they may not be immediately appli-
cable to the queries I take the liberty to send to you.

18 On Plaister of Paris.

Head your observations with each of the queries to
which they respectfully apply, and be pleased to favour
me with them as soon as your leisure will permit.

I am, with sincere esteem,

Your obedient servant,

Richard Peters*
Mr. W. West.

Query 1. How long have you used the plaister?

Answer. About eleven years, without disappointment
in its effects.

Query 2. What state was your land in when you
began the use of it ?

.Answer, My land chiefly when I began to apply it,
though naturally of the first quality, had been nearly a
century under bad management, and tired down. I
ploughed up about five or six acres, and dressed it
with a rich earth about old buildings that grass had
grown over, and rotted it down in itself, and applied
about thirty loads to the acre, sowed it with winter
barley, the spring following with clover, the next spring
with plaister of Paris ; its product in grass was allowed
to be equal to any that had any where been seen. I
mowed it two summers, and have grazed it ever since,
and the sod is now in good perfection. I redressed it
last summer with plaister, and its stimulation very good;
the sod is green grass, white clover with a mixture of
red. This piece with a number of others, laid down in
grass with different kinds of manure, and plaistered,
will now feed as many cattle as acres, and from the

On Plaister of Paris. 19

effect of their droppings may be kept up continually.
I have continued the application of plaister every year
from my first using of it to the present, and its most
beneficial use is on grass, if rightly managed on the
previous dressing of other manure and its preparation ;
all which will require a system in itself to describe
at large.

Qiieri/ 3. What quantity per acre have you general-
ly used?

Answer, The quantity of plaister per acre, four and
a half bushels, the redressing about three bushels ; but
I would not recommend a second application when
land has been mowed five or six years, without a light
dressing of other manure.

Query 4. What soils are the most proper for this
manure ?

Answer. The soils most proper for the plaister are
warm, kind loamy ones ; land that is generaly deemed
good wheat land ; that will sink the water quick in
winter, not too level, and land moderately hilly. Land
that takes lime well, will the plaister.

Query S. Have you repeated the application of it
with or without ploughing ? — at what intervals, and
with what effect?

Answer, The repeated application of it has a good
effect, as I have mentioned above. It follows lime equal
to anv manure.

Qiiery 6. In consequence do you find that it renders
the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?

Answer, It does create something of sterility in five
or six years by mowing ; then it may, as above men-
tioned, be lightly dressed by dung or compost ; about

20 On Plaister of Paris.

twelve loads to the acre, will make a new footing for
the plaister. This quantity will promote a wheat crop.

Query 7. To what products can it be best applied ?
grain and what kinds? grasses and what kinds?

Ansxver, It is best adapted to grass and every kind
of summer grain.

Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ?

Aitswer. The time to strew it is in the spring, when
vegetation is fairly abroad.

Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre of
grass, Sec. you have known by the means of plaister?

Afisiuer. Respecting the quantity of grass per acre, I
have answered above.

Query 10. Have you ever used it with other manure,
and what ? — and the effects if any superior to the plais-
ter alone ?

Query 11. Is there any diiference between the Euro-
pean and American plaister ?

Answer 10 a?id II, I answer in one: have never used
it with other manure ; thought inexpedient.^

As to its durability, the product for live years, mowed
twice each year, and the third plaistcred, will I believe
be more than can be produced from dung, without re-
striction of quantity.

*_I am sorry I have not had the pleasure of a conversation
with Mr. West since he was so obHging as to communicate
his answers. I was obscure in stating to him the 10th query.
I meant not a mixture of the gyps with the dung, and a cotem-
poraneous application. He has in his answer to the 6th query
met my ideas on the subject.

R. P.

On Plaister of Paris. 21

It is not very agreeable to fully express my experi-
ence on agriculture, for fear the verity of it might be
called in question ; but a visit from Judge Peters at my
farm, would be agreeable, when conversation would
add something more.

William West.
May 2Q>th, 1796.

I have often since conversed with that most worthy and
much lamented agriculturist Mr. West, I never could prevail
on him to write more on this, or any other subject. He would
evade, or what was more in character, at once refuse all
my importunities. Mr. Sellers and Mr. West, having been
among the first with whom I communicated on the subject
of the plaister, and when they were unbelievers, I took occa-
sion to address my queries to them and was highly gratified
by their conviction- of its efficacy and the results of their ex-
perience.

Mr. West did not begin the use of plaister, until many
years after its being known here ; and used by all who could
be prevailed on to believe in it. But he soon recovered his lost
time. His fortunate plan of top-dressings with a kind of crea-
tion of manure, made from materials on his own farm, and
such as are generally overlooked and neglected, succeeded
most wonderhilly as auxiliary to plaister. It seemed to ope-
rate in connexion with his composts, with all grasses on his
fields j and to set general rules at defiance.

R. P.

September 1810.

[ 22 ]

Letter from Robert Frazer^ Esq, of West- Chester, con-
taining an account of the use of Plaister of Paris ^ by
CoL John Hannum, of Chester county.

Sir,

I have received no information from those into whose
hands I put your queries in answer thereto, except
from Col. John Hannum, to whom 1 deUvered a copy
a few days ago. Your anxiety to receive information on
the subject, urges me to the most speedy transmission of
such as 1 have obtained. Whether it will prove satisfac-
tory or not, you will be best able to judge.

Que7'y 1. How long have you used plaister ?

Answer. Twelve years.

Query 2. What state or condition was your land in
when you began the use of it ?

Answer, 1 have used it on virgin soils, and upon old
land ; sometimes very poor ; sometimes good strong
land ; sometmies indifferent.

Q^uery 3. What quantity per acre have you general-
ly used.

Answer, From one to five bushels.

Query 4. What soils are most proper for this manure?

Answer, High ground and sandy soils.

Query 5. Have you repeated the application of it with
or without ploughing? at what intervals, and with
what effect?

Ansvoer, Frequently both, with and without plough-
ing, and generally with very great effect.

Query 6. In consequence do you find that it renders
the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?

0?i Plaister of Paris. 23

Answer. I have not yet found its useful effects to have
ceased ; possibly owing to my mode of using it general-
ly, which is, of applying one bushel per acre each year.

Query 7. To what products can it be best applied ?
grain and what kinds ? grasses and what kinds ?

Answer, Beneficially to the production of wheat, rye,
barley, Indian corn, buckwheat, peas of all kinds, pota-
toes, cabbage, clover, and all other grasses common
amongst us.

Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it?

Answer, From the first of March, if the ground is
clear of frost, to the first of May.

Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre of
grass, &c. you have known by the means of plaister ?

Answer, I have in some instances by means of plais-
ter, taken three tuns of hay from land really poor ; but
such cases are not common.

Query 10. Have you ever used it with other manure,
and what ? — and the effects, if any superior to the plais-
ter alone ?

Answer, Yes ; the land will in less time be much
more productive. I have not found my land in good
heart, in less than three years with plaister only.

Query 11. Is there any difference between the Euro-
pean and American plaister ?

Answer, I have used both ; have sowed them on the
same kind of ground, on the same day, and have ob-
served no difference.

N. B. I have raised from two acres of ground, plais-
tered three succesive years previously to sowing, with-
out any other manure, 927 pounds of clean dressed or

24 On Plaister of Paris.

swingled flax, the land being at the first sowing of the
plaister very poor.

If I receive any further information, it shall be forth-
with forwarded to you.

I have the honor to be

Your very humble servant,

R. Frazer.
WesUChester, May SOth, 1796.

Richard Peters, Esq.

On wheats rye, and oxhtv gi' asses than clover^ I have never
succeeded by direct applications of plaister. Barley and oats
rolled in plaister have been much benefited. But after clover
plaistered had occupied the field for its usual time, wheat,
rye, or any culmiferous crop, have highly profited by the
ameliof ation of the soil.

R. P.
September^ 1810.

C 25 }

Answers to Queries on Plaister of Paris^ by Mr. Philip
Price, Jun. of East Bradford, Chester County.

Agreeably to thy request, I have endeavoured, ac-
cording to the best of my recollection, to answer the
queries thou wast pleased to forward to me, which I have
endeavoured to do in as explicit a manner as possible,
and hope any incorrectness will be excused, as it is done
in a hasty manner.

Query 1. How long have you used the plaister?

Answer. Ten years on two diiFerent farms ; four years
on the first, and the present is the sixth year on the
second.

Query 2. What state was your land in when you
began the use of it ?

Answer. The first farm I lived on had been much re-
duced and worn out, but was considerably improved
with lime and stable manure, for a few years before I
went on it, and began to make use of the plaister. The
farm which I live on at present was also the greater part
much reduced and worn, and but a small part either
limed or manured.

Query 3. What quantity per acre have you generally
used ?

Answer. I have seldom used more than two bushels
per acre in one season, but generally one and one and
a half bushels per acre, which I find sufficient if repeat-
ed yearly whilst in clover.

Query 4. Wbat soils are most proper for this ma^
nure ?

26 On Plaister of Paris,

Ansxver. By the experiments and observations which
I have made, I find a high, warm, dry, gravelly or loamy
soil, to be much the best ; clay, cold or low lying land,
is seldom favourable for it. I have known some low
lying land which was dry and loamy agree with it, but
not near equal to the high.

Query 5. Have you repeated the application of it
with or without ploughing — at what intervals, and with
what effect ?*

Answer. I have frequently repeated the use of it both
with and without ploughing. I sowed a field with it five
years ago, which had some little appearance of both
red and white clover, but had never been sown with
any seed, upon which I put one and a half bushel of
plaister per acre. I pastured the field, and although the
season was very dry, it produced a great quantity of
good pasture sufficient to keep about one and an half
head per acre. The second year I sowxd one bushel
more per acre. The season being more wet, it was bet-

^ The effects of the plaister detailed in this answer are in-
variably proved by all experience, before and since this pub-
lication. When I mentioned the operative principle of the
plaister— i. e. the sulphuric acid (first set free itself, and then)
decomposing substances in the earth, and thereby furnishing
their food to plants and attracting moisture, the idea was
either new, or little known. But it accounts for all the phas-
nomena of plaister. Old fields are uniformly found to evi-
dence the strongest effects. In them, decayed roots, and ve-
getable putrefying or putrefied matter, is in the greatest

abundance.

R. P.

September y ISIO.

On Plaister of Paris. 27

ter than the first, The third year it was not plaistered,
but continued good. It was ploughed in the fall of that
year, which was very tough ploughing, but done by
two horses. The next spring I planted it with Indian
corn, and put half a bushel plaister per acre on, which
yielded upwards of fifty bushels per acre. The year
following I sowed the same field with barley, having
manured a part of it with barn yard manure the fall before
I sowed the barley, I then intended to have sown the field
with wheat, but the clover (without any seed being
sown) coming up and Jiiaking so beautiful an appearance,
determined me to let it stand for a crop, which now looks
to be the best crop I ever had of grass, being a mixture
of red and white clover, with some blue grass. I sowed
one bushel more plaister last spring per acre. I could
mention several other experiments which I made, that are
similar, on land of the same quality; as this field and two
more which I had, were in pretty good heart before I be-
gan to use the plaister.

In the spring of the year 1792, I fenced oiF a piece
of about four acres, being a part of a large field that
was much reduced, washed into deep gullies in many
parts, and had been totally neglected for many years.
The appearance was so disagreeable that I put no value
on it when I purchased the place, though the field con-
tained near fifty acres. The above said piece of four
acres I folded my cattle on at nights, which were be-
tween thirty and forty in number, for near three months,
and sowed it with wheat. The spring following, I sowed
it with clover seed and one bushel of plaister per acre ;
soon after the seed came up, the clover grew strong that
season. I applied one bushel more plaister per acre the

28 On Planter of Paris.

the next spring, and then mowed two good crops a
year for two years ; then ploughed the clover down,
after the last mowing the second year, and sowed it
with wheat on one ploughing, which now is a good
crop standing on the ground. I may here remark, that I
have not apprehended the plaister to be of any beiiefit
to a crop of w^heat, when first sowed, upon it ; but after
having been in with clover, it }s in a very fine state for a
crop of wheat and seldom fails producing a good one,
if not left to lay so long as other grass, to get too strong
for the wheat.

Another experiment I made in part of the field last
mentioned, on about eight acres that was extremely im-
poverished, and thrown out of cultivation for a number
of years. It lay very high and dry. I ploughed it in the
fall of the year 1791, and let it lay until the next season,
when I ploughed it again and sowed it with buckwheat,
which was a light crop, notwithstanding a favourable
season, uDt yielding above seven or eight bushels per
acre. The next spring I sowed it with oats and clover
seed, and then had five bushels of plaister sowed over
the whole piece ; the crop of oats better than I expected
and the clover grew so that it came out in bloom that
season. The t\^o next seasons I sowed it with plaister,
the first with but three bushels on the whole where it
appeared to be the weakest, the second year with one
bushel per acre, and mowed the clover both years two
crops which were good, and the clover appearing to
stand well. I have sowed it again with one bushel per
acre, which now promises me another good crop I have
:put no other manure whatever upon it, and it is now

On Plaister of Paris. 29

worth ten times ^vhat it was before I plaistered it, the
face of the soil appearing to be entirely changed, and
is admired by all who have heretofore known it, the
plaister having had the effect they have known upon
it. This has encouraged me to treat all the field in the
same manner, which has been nearly done to the same
good effect.

Query 6. In consequence do you find that it renders
the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?*

Answer. I have never yet found it to have any bad
effect upon any land that I have put it on, and as I re-
peat the use of the plaister as often as I sow with clover,
I have not experienced the beneficial effects to be gone;
but I find that in pasture land that has lain for four or
five years or more, it occasions a stiff sward to plough;
put when well ploughed and pulverised, it is as light and
mellow as it has been before the plaister was put on :
and I am fully of opinion, were farmers to be careful
to mow all they possibly can where the plaister is used,
the great addition they would thereby gain to their
usual proportion of manure would render it almost im-
possible ever to have that effect, as mowing is much

* The bugbear exhaustion has been long found to be a
mere phantom. I have not a field which is not the better for
repetitions of plaister. It is known that my applications were
not only the earliest, but for many years on the most exten-
sive scale. I continue to use the gyps freely and in large
quantities.

R. P.

September J 1810.

On Plaister of Paris,

less injurious to the soil; by not being trodden the clover
will stand good longer and will not get into that tough
state above described. It should never lay more than two
years until ploughed for a crop of wheat, and I would
recommend the following rotation of crops, as requiring
the least ploughing or labour, and which I am endea-
vouring to practice. First year Indian corn, potatoes
and pumpkins ; second year barley, when it should be
manured and plaistered, after being sown with clover ;
third year clover, to be mowed and given to the stock,
or made into hay ; fourth year to be used in the same
manner, and ploughed after the second crop is mowed
for wheat ; fifth year wheat. The two years it is in clo-
ver, it should be plaistered with one bushel per acre,
if high and loamy land, but more if inclined to be heavy.

If five fields are farmed in this manner, the produce
will be amply sufiicient to manure one of them every
year. I have somewhat deviated from the query, to
shew the little danger their is to be apprehended from
a proper management, where the plaister is used.

Query 7. To what products can it be best applied? —
grain and what kinds ? — grasses and what kinds ?

Answer, I have found it more beneficially applied to
Indian corn than any other grain, having never failed
to have a good effect wherever I have applied it, except
in two instances ; one of them was in a field about a third

On Plaister of Paris. 31

part of which had biickivheat in the preceding year;^
I left a row of corn unplaistered, which run across the
fresh broke up land and the buckwheat ground : in the
latter I could perceive no effect whatever that the plais-
ter had on it, being a very light crop ; in the fresh broke
up land the crop was very good, and more than double
the quantity where it was plaistered than in the row
that was not. The other instance was in 2ijine mellow
rich piece of land, that had been well manured the year
before ; from which I had taken a good crop of potatoes
and pumpkins. I left three rows unplaistered, but could
perceive no difference whatever between them and the
others, where I had sowed at the rate of two bushels
per acre. The piece was sowed the spring following
with barley and clover seed, and the plaister that had
been put upon the corn without any advantage, had a
great effect upon the clover, which was much better than
where the three rows were omitted. This piece had
been well limed before the pumpkins and potatoes were
planted. The effects of the plaister here, as well as in
many other instances which I have known where it has

* Many farmers are of opinion, that Indian corn never does
well immediately after buckwheat. I have never considered
buckwheat an exhauster, as it is a bastard legume and a good
covering crop. R, P.

I have changed my opinion, by more attentively pursuing

experiments on buckwheat, I think it is a great exhauster,

when permitted to ripen its seed.^

R. P.
September y 1810.-

32 On Platster of Paris,

been applied to Indian corn* in mellow land and had no
effect, has been mysterious to me in its operations. I
have never had it to have any effect (when first apphed)
on any other grain except buckwheat, when sowed on
fresh broke up land.

I have found the plaister to be of the most advantage
to red clover of any grass, but I believe will be helpful
to any grasses whatever that are sown in such land as
I have described in answ^ering the 4th Query.

I believe it will also be useful to any kinds of grain
put in after clover.

Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ?

Answer. I have found it to be the most advantage to
clover to sow it with a small quantity soon after it
conies up^ and to repeat it again as soon as vegetation
takes place^-\ which I believe to be the most proper time
for anv grasses ; — or Indian corn, immediately after the
first harrowing and moulding.

^ I have had frequent instances of its failure in mellow land,
and supposed that by tilth and exposure the putrefying ve-
getable substances had been exhausted ; but here was dung-
to supply their place. — If Mr. Price means dung- where he
says it " had been well manured the year before," it is an
instance of the whimsical effects of the gyps.

R. P.

j This is an excellent expedient to prevent the effects of
drought, and give a stimulus to the tender plant in its first
efforts when it is often destroyed. It also falls in with the
ideas of those who think it best to sow it when vegetation
takes place. Mr. Price's method secures both chances.

R. P.

On Plaister of Paris >> 33

Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre of
grass, &c. you have known by the means of plaister ?

Answer, I cannot answer this query with certainty,
having never weighed any. But by computation from
land that has been manured before it was plaistered, I
have had from two crops of clover about four and a half
tuns per acre ; and from poor unmanured land, that I
should not suppose would have produced, half a tun, I
have had frequently one and an half, and perhaps two tuns.
I propose trying the experiment, by weighing a small
proportion of a piece I have plaistered, and another
sowed with clover at the same time, along side, and
treated every way in the same manner, except the plais-
tering. The plaistered, I think, will produce at the rate
of two tuns ; and the other I do not believe will produce
at the rate of five hundred weight per acre.

Query 10. Have you ever used it with other manure,
and what ? — and the effect if any superior to the plais-
ter alone ?

Answer, I have never found any kind of manure to
be of any advantage to strengthen the plaister. I have
put it on after lime and dung frequently, and have al-
ways found the greatest difference in the effect, where
it has been put on entirely alone, both on clover and In-
dian corn. Where the manure has been put- the crop has
been the greatest^ but their operations I believe to be
entirely independent of each other.*

* Whether my idea of the sulphuric fici^ being the active
agent, in the gyps was original, or adopted, I cannot tell ; nor do
Iclaim merit on such accidental thoughts. But since my conjee-

E

34 On Plaister of Paris,

Query 11. Is there any difference between the Ame-
rican and European plaister ?

Answer, Not in their effects upon grass or grain that
I have ever been able to discover, as I have used them
both on the same field. The European is the easiest
manufactured, which makes it preferred ; but the Ame-
rican is found to make the strongest cement, and is
generally used for that purpose.

Philip Price, Jun.
nth ofe>th Month. 1796.

Richard Peters, Esq. Philadelphia,

I have heard of none who have been more remarkably suc-
cessful in the plaister system than Mr. West, and Mr.
Price. They have brought old worn out lands to an astonish-
ing degree of fertility and profit, by combining the plaister
with other manures. The gyps was, however, the principal
agent. As to results in general, my experience and theirs
agree ; but I think I have proved that dung and plaister
mutually assist each other. It appears by Mr. Price's state-
ment, that they do not disagree together ; for he states, that
^^ where the manure has been put^ the crop has been the

greatest,^'*

R. P.

tural then^ but now well known, principle of operation has
been tested by long experience, there remain no doubts of
the mutual assistance afforded by dung, or any other animal
or vegetable putrefying or putrefied substance, and plaister.

R. P.

September^ 1810.

[ 35 ]

Jnswers to Queries on Plaister of Paris, by General
Edward Hand, near Lancaster,

Rock Ford, July ZOth, 1796.

Dear Sir,

I sit clown to answer your queries on the subject of
plaister of Paris, so far as my own experience enables
me ; that indeed is confined, owing to the circumstance
of my farm being generally managed by persons whose
indolence, or prejudices proved great bars to experiment.
That difficulty is now removed, and I hope hereafter to
be able to conduct it on a plan more beneficial to myself,
and by communicating my little experiments, to be of
some use to the community.

Query 1. How long have you used the plaister ?

Anszver, Ten or eleven years.

Query 2. In what condition was your land when you
began the use of it ?

Answer, That on which I first tried the plaister was
apparently exhausted by injudicious management, and
produced the most scanty crops of any on my farm.

Query 3. What quantity per acre have you generally
used ?

Answer, Generally not less than three, or more than
four bushels.

Query 4. What soils are the most proper for this
manure ?

Answer, My land is a sandy loam, on a lime stone
of different qualities ; the rock in some places so near the
surface as scarcely to admit the plough.

36 On Plaister of Paris.

Qiiery 5. Have you repeated the application of it
with or without ploughing? — in what manner?— at
what intervals ? — and with what effect •?

Answer, I have repeated it the sevendi year after three
crops of clover, one of wheat, one of corn, and one of
oats, with which clover was sown. The effect nearly
the same as at first. I have this spring repeated two
bushels per acre on the same ground, without plough-
ing, on clover which had been mowed two successive
years, but my expectation was not answered.

N. B. This ground, has been twice manured with
barn yard dung ; once with corn, and once on the grass,
since the plaister was first applied.

Query 6. Do you find that it renders the earth sterile
after its useful eftects are gone ?

Answer, On the contrary, the lands on which I have
first used the plaister, though then in the state mention-
ed in answer to the 2 Query, have since regularly yield-
ed excellent crops of grass, grain, potatoes, com 8cc. part
of which never has had any other manure, at least for
twelve years.

Query 7. To what products can it be best applied ?
—grain, and what kinds? — gi'asses, and what kinds?

Answer. I have found considerable advantage from
the plaister sown with oats in very small quantity, L e.
as much as would adhere to the wet seed. Applied to
corn in the same way, it has an admirable effect ; indeed
with me, equal to three or four times the quantity sown
on the corn after it comes up.

I have sown it with barley and clover, at the rate of
three bushels per acre at different times. The clover
was always very fine, but I cannot say that the barley

On Plaister of Paris, 37

was any time benefited, and I have reason to believe,
that it would have been as good a crop without the
plaister. I have never tried it on any other small grain.

Grasses, I have generally used it on red clover. I
have also sown it on mixed grass, as white clover, blue
grass and timothy, always to good effect.

Query 8. What is the best time to scatter it?

Answer, I generally sow it in April, but have also
applied it in June, after mowing the first crop ; the effect
nearly the same.

Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre you
have known by the means of plaister ?

Answer, I once mowed eighteen tuns from five acres:
the clover was sown with oats on old ground ; the oats
was no more than a middling crop. Fifteen bushels of
plaister were sown after raking the stubble in Aprii,
and the grass cut the June following.

I have frequently got two and a half tuns per acre,
never less than one and a half tuns ; the second crop is
generally one third less. I have indeed heard of much
more abundant crops of grass; but as I believe you do not
admit hear say evidence, I shall not trouble you with it.

Query 10. Have you ever used it in connexion with
other manures, and what ? — does it agree with lime ?
and what effect has a connexion with other manures
produced superior to the plaister alone ?

Answer, I have not used plaister in immediate con-
nexion Vvdth other manures till this spring. On about an
acre manured with barn yard dung, which was planted
with potatoes last year without dung, was sown barley
and clover, and immediately after three bushels of
N. S. plaister. I this spring also sowed barley and cIq^

38 On Plaister of Paris*

ver on three acres, which had been manured with the
same kind of dung, and planted with corn last year. —
Three bushels of N. S. plaister per acre immediately
followed the barley. The clover in both, looks extreme-
ly well, and may be cut this year if I chuse it. If a pre-
ference can be given, it must be to the acre in potatoes
last year, and manured this spring. They were both
ploughed late last fall after taking in the crops. Lime

1 have not tried. I this spring sowed plaister on two
pieces of mixed grass, and a few days after wood ashes
at the rate of ten or twelve bushels to the acre, as near
as I can guess, was sown on one of them ; they have
been cut and fed green ; that on which the ashes were
sown has been twice cut, the other but once, and at this
moment they are both equally fit to cut again. Except
in this instance of the ashes, I have never had more grass
from lands previously manured for other crops, than
from those which had not,* although an equal propor-
tion of plaister and grass seed had been sowed on each.}-

* The result of the dung applied on the barley ground,
cannot be knov/n until next year.

f Plaister with lime, and with ashes, never fails to agree.
There is an instance apparently contradictory in the memoirs,

2 volume, page 105. I never doubt facts asserted by respec-
table men. But I suppose the grasses were not of the trefoil
tribe. On other grasses, the plaister has little, if any, effect,
as repeated experience proves. I therefore think that the
plaister and ashes were not at variance ; but the grasses were
not of the kind liable to be benefited by the plaister.

R. P.
September 1810.

On Plaister of Paris. 39

Queri/ 11. Its duration?

Answer. In one instance I mowed the same ground
four years successively after four bushels per acre of
plaister had been applied, but I find that blue grass
generally begins to appear the third year ; therefore I
wish to mow or pasture the ground two years only, and
then plough again.

Query 12. Is there any difference as to useful effects,
between the American and European plaister ?

Answer. I cannot yet tell. The trials made with the
American plaister on barley and clover this spring,
mentioned in answer to the tenth query, are my first
essays ; the prevalent report of its bad quality, prevent-
ed my making an earlier trial. At present the effect of
the American plaister appears equal to any thing that
might be expected from the European.

I wish it had been in my power to have given fuller
answers to the questions you have been pleased to ask
me. In doing it I have confined myself to simple facts,
avoiding comments and matters of opinion, supposing
them foreign to your design.

With much respect,

1 have the honour to be,
Dear Sir,

Your very humble servant,
Edward Hand.
The Hon. Richard Peters Esq.

C 40 ]

Note^ on General Hand^s Letter.

I am sorry that one so capable, as well from professional
knowledge on chemical subjects, as opportunities of acquiring
and making agricultural observations, has avoided comments
and matters of opinion. Having hazarded these myself, I
should the more gratefully have received them from those
more capable of forming just opinions and well founded con-
jectures.

R. P.

[ 41 ]

Answers to Queries on Plaister of Paris^ by Mr John
Curwen, of Upper Merton^ Montgomery County.

W, Hill, August lOth, 1796,
Dear Sir,

Inclosed are my answers to your queries, agreeably
to your request.

If the plaister is compounded of a mineral acid and
calcareous earth, it may be suspected that both have a
share in its effects ; for it can hardly be supposed that
such can be produced from it less than a bushel of cal-
careous earth to an acre ; and may it not be presumed
that some active substances, which in large quantities
are poison to vegetation, may, in very small ones be
friendly to it ; or may not the compound have quali-
ties, not found in any of its parts ?

If in England it has no effect on grounds which have
been long under cultivation, and especially those which
have been limed, America may boast of superior ad-
vantages. My answer to the 10th Query shews the re*
suit of my experience on that point.

Query 1. How long have you used the plaister?

Ansxver. Ten or eleven years ; at first in small quan-
tities, but finding it beneficial, have used a good deal
for several years past.

Query 2. What state was the land in when you be-
gan to use it ?

Answer. Generally on limed and dunged land which
had been much exhausted previous to this by bad tillage
without manure.

Query 3. What quantity per acre have you generally
used? F

42 On Plaister of Pans,

Answer. I began with six bushels, but gradually less-
ened the quantity to one; and findingthe immediate effect
not materiall}' (if at all) different, now put on only one,
and repeat it every other or third year, supposing more
produce is obtained from the same quantity in this way.

Query 4. What soils are the most proper for this
manure ?

Ansiver. Dry loams. I have tried it on wet clay with-
out effect, though I have found its effects on the banks
of watered meadows considerable; it does better on hilly
than level land, perhaps because it is dry and lighter.

Qiiery 5. Have you repeated the application of it witli
or without ploughing? — in what manner? — at what
intervals, and with what effect ?

Answer. I have repeated it on meadow and clover
ever}^ other or third year with good effect, and sown it
several times on the same land, after ploughing, without
observing its effects to decline : in the last instance the
land was dunged ; in the former it w^as not.

Query 6. Do you find that it renders the earth sterile
after its useful effects are gone ?

Answer. No, quite the reverse ; nor do I believe ^ny
kind of manure has this effect; though hard cropping of
land, dressed with lime, has given rise to this opinion.*"

*I was deceived in my first applications of lime^ by being told
that lime Will spend itseli as much without cropping, as with
constant successions. I over cropped, without then knowing-
its mischief. Lime spends itselt, as it is called, by exhausting
the vegetable matter in the earth, and nothing is more inju-
rious than hard croppmg, with lime : bad enough with any
manures. I mean grain crops. R. P.

September 1810.

On Plaister of Paris. 43

^ Query 7. To what products can it be best applied ? —
grain and what kinds ? — grasses and what kinds ?

Answer. I have used it most on red clover, and know
no crop which it improves so much ; it does very well
on white clover and mixed grasses, but not equally so
as on red clover. 1 have tried it on Indian corn with
different degrees of success. It enlarges the plant J think
more than the produet of the cor?!.^ On wheat, rye, Sec.
if it did any good, it was very trifling.

Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ?

Answer. This may be done at any season, but as it
operates quickly, the least time is lost by putting it on
when vegetation is coming on rapidly in the spring, or
«oon after mowing the first crop.

* I have sometimes suspected this to be the case, but have
never been able exactly to ascertain the fact. In some seasons
I have had very large, and in others moderately sized ears of
plants, which appeared equally vigorous. The plant gets the
greater part of its growth before the ears begin to set. I have
supposed that its earing, well or ill, depended not so much
on^ the plaister, as upon previous culture; and season and
other circumstances at the time the ears are forming and
filling. Let the ears in any particular season be smaller or
larger than usual with plaistered corn, they are always better
than those on rows left unplaistered in the same field.f

R. P.

t My practice now is to scatter the plaister over the whole field (two busliels to the acre) and
harrow it in. I also dust a little on the plants when young-, at the first dressing. I find the roots
coming in contact, thi-oughout the field, with the gypsum (opei-ating on the putrefied substances^
and supplying food and moisture) has much greater tfficacy,

R. P.

September 1810.

44 On Plaister of Park.

Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre of
grass, &c. you have known by the means of plaister ?

Answer. I have had clover which would have made
two tuns of hay per acre the first crop, and that on
ground which I am certain without plaister would not
have produced one third of that quantity ; the second
crop nearly one tun, and reserved the third crop for seed.

Query 10. Have you ever used it widi other manure,
and what sorts ? — or on ground previously dunged ? —
and the efi'ects, if any superior to plaister alone ?

Answer. I have never mixed it vyith manure previous
to putting it on the ground, but generally used it on
ground litned or dunged for both J not long before, and
found its effects in a great degree proportionate to the
manure in the ground (whether limed or dunged) though
on ground exhausted and never manured, the effect
was considerable.*

Query 11. Is there any difference between European
and American plaister ?

Answer. 1 do not remember using any American be-
fore this year ; and as I had none of the other sown at
the same time, I caimot answer this query ; but it had

* Nothing is better than plaister to mix with compost beds.
It forwards the putre' action, (without consuming them) of
the vegetable or animal matter composing them. Lime^ in
quantities, or hot, consumes and injures. I often differed
with my late friend \^'illiam West on this subject. He was
convinced he had begun with too much lime ; and lessened
the proportions. R. P.

September 1810.

On Plaister of Paris, 45

the desired effect, and I am inclined to think there is
little or no difference.

Query 12. Its duration ?

Answer, With me it has not been uniform. Whether
it depends on the quantity put on, the nature of the soil,
the difference in seasons, or the goodness of the plaister,
I cannot say ; but it will sometimes fail the second
year ; sometimes it will last four or five, and where it
has been put on the hills of Indian corn, and afterwards
mixed with the soil by ploughing, I have known its ef-
fects visible for six years, and continue the same length
of time on an exhausted soil never manured.

It is no small addition to the value of plaister, that
the grass lands on which it has been spread, are not
near so much injured by drought as others, and that
cattle love to pasture on them better.

The expence of raising red clover with plaister and
a small quantity of dung, and raising it with dung alone
(if bought at the common prices) may I think be esti-
mated as one to five.

I am, Sir, your's sincerely,

John Curwen.

[ 46 ]

Answers to Queries on Plai^ter of Paris ^ by John Sellers^
Esq, of Derby Township, Delaware County,

August 1 5th, 1796.

Dear Friend,

It would afford me much pleasure to have it in my
power to communicate any observations generally use-
ful on the subject of thine of the 19th of last month, to
which the obliging thee would be an addition. The
analysis thee mentions in an English work I consider as
a useless inquiry, until we w^ere able to know with the
same certainty all the properties of plants, and the por-
tions of the variety of elementary foods nescessary for
the greatest promotion of vegetation. I therefore should
suppose acids friendly or unfriendly, according to the
quantity of the other kinds and portions of manure ap-
plied therewith, as we know a due quantity of lime is
friendly, and that too much is entirely destructive to
vegetation, and that a greater quantity may with safety
be applied with dung than without it. The knowledge
most to be depended on, is to apply such manures as
from experience we find best to promote vegetation.
I have thought a repetition of the same sort of manure
on the same ground would not have so good an effect as
a change, which perhaps may be as necessary as that
of different kinds of grain, flax, potatoes, &c.

My first use of plaister was in the year 1786, on
land limed about fifteen years before, and afterwards
manured with dung in a moderate degree. It was at
that time sown with clover on the wheat in the spring.

On Plaister of Paris. 47

from which the produce in grass was very great ; some
judged three tuns per acre; I suppose there was cer-
tainly two and a half per acre for several crops ; it how-
ever declined so that in five years their was but little
clover, the old plants dying, and the new ones being
overpowered or smothered with green grass. I then at
seeding time broke it up and harrowed in wheat, the
next spring sowed it with clover and plaister on the
wheat. The clover following this operation was light in
proportion to the former, perhaps owing to the roots of
the green and other grass not being sufficiently killed
by the one ploughing, thereby the plaister not having
so good an effect on a second application as the first.

The next piaistered was with respect to having been
limed and dunged, the same with the first and the con-
tinuance of large crops of grass. It was then in the
spring broke up and planted with corn, and the next
summer sown with barley and spring wheat; and at or
about the same time widi clover and plaister, which sue-*
ceeded nearly equal to the first time sown with plaister.

The next second application of plaister was on the
sward six years after the first plaistering. This piece of
land had a dressing of rotten dung in the fall. The next
summer first crop was light, the second crop better
chiefly green grass and but little clover. The next
spring where the dung had disappeared, and was incoi;-
porated with the soil, it was sown with about two and an
half bushels of plaister per acre, which was succeeded
with a middling heavy crop, nearly one half clover, I
suppose brought forward by the plaister.

On some other of my fields, within reach of my barn
yard, that has frequently been dunged, the plaister harf

48 On Plaister of Paris.

a very extraordinary effect, but has not been repeat*
ed on distant fields that never have been dunged, its
effects were wonderful, considering the state they were
in ; one of the fields was sown with clover on the wheat
and not exceeding two and an half bushels of plaister
per acre, in March, 1794, on which I had upwards of
forty cattle upwards of two weeks in the beginning of
last May; then inclosed it for mowing, and mowed it in
the latter end of June and the beginning of July last,
from which I had upwards of one tun per acre. This
field without the plaister or clover seed, would not have
produced pasture worth inclosing. It has been under
cultivation in turn near or quite one hundred years.*

Here suffer me to express my utter astonishment
and inability to account in what manner so small a quan-
tity of matter of any kind should have so wonderful a
power of promoting vegetation as appears in the above
cases. Thy English author speaks of virgin earth being
the most agreeable to plaister, it is likely it may. Land
over poor appears most certain of being improved by it.
It may be observed, that all my land, and indeed all in
the state, was in a virgin state as to that kind of manure.

* Here is a strong instance of plaister on old cleared fields,
without dung. Mr. Sellers's is one of the oldest setdements
in the state. I very much doubt the theoiy of this English au-
thor ; especially as it respects virgin earth. No doubt it will
operate wonderfully on new land (which does not require it)
because of the vegetable matter in it, but it is on this matter^
and not the earthy that it w;orks. But see at the end, an in-
stance where plaister had no effect on new land.

R. P.

September, 1810.

On Plaister of Paris. , 49

Query 1. How long have you used plaister ?

Answer, I have answered it in the foregoing.

QuerY 2. What state or condition was your land in
when you began the use of it?

Answer, Before I used the plaister my land was full
of twitch, or what is called blue grass, which afforded
little pasture, scarcely sufficient to fatten cattle for my
own use ; since the use of it for several years back, I
have fattened from forty to fifty each year, besides
mowing as much off the fields each year as afforded a
sufficiency of hay for my team and family horses, and
upwards of twenty catde ; before that my dependance
for hay was from bottoms and watered banks, the hay
from which was very inferior to that from the fields.

Query 3. What quantity per acre have you general-
ly used.

Answer, For several years I used between four and
five bushels per acre, but the two last years not more
than two or two and an half per acre.

Query 4. What soils are most proper for this manure?

Answer. A soil too light and sandy, or clay, I think
unfavourable, and that called loam, not over stiff, most
favourable.*

*Ihad been informed of several instances of plaister being beneficial to c/w?/. But in every
Case I inquired into, I found the clay completely drained, by being thrown up in high ridges; and
all its moisture evaporated, or drawn off. See Mr. Young's excellent mode of ameliorating clayo
soils; Agricultural Memoirs, vol. 2, page 186. This not only changes the texture and nature of the
soil ; but adds the vegetable pabulum ^ov plaister, or lime. Mi-. Young's meritorious pei-severance:,
in this new and successful experiment, has earned the thanks of all farmers of such ung^teful
soils. I have seen indications of the fact, and have been informed, tliat the vitriolic acid of tke
'plaister on wet clay, has thrown up a concrete (alum) or. the surface, like a, hear frost.

R. P.

Sfipt ember }Sio.

a

50 On Plaister of Paris.

•" ' I. n. I.. , ■ . ,. ■ . ,^.. .

Query 5. Have you repeated the application of it
with or without ploughing ? at what intervals and with
what effect ?

Answer, I have answered above ; but I am inclined
to think its effects will lessen by a frequent application,
but TiOt more so than the frequent apj)lication of any
other kind of manure. Perhaps the improvement of land
may be something similar to that of animal improve-
ment, Mhich is better promoted by a change of nutri-
ment, than by being confined to any one kind.*

Query 6. In consequence do you find that it renders
the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?

Answer. I have not observed any sterility yet to fol-
low Its use ; perhaps a greater length of time may pro-
duce such appearances. For some years past my rota-
tion of crops and times of breaking up grass, has been
as followeth : I have seven fields; one with Indian corn,
one in fallow that was in Indian corn the year before,
one in winter grain that was a fallow the year before,
four in grass. By which rotation I have always four for
pasture or mowing, besides the fallow and the wheat
field from harvest the remainder of the grass season.

* Mr. Sellers was of the opinion I have often avowed on
this subject. He gave me numerous instances, mhis long ex-
perience, as to changes of both plants and animals ; as well
of mdividuals, as oflocality and nutriment. He carried It into
the change of manure ; o the benefit whereoi I have seen
many striking and undeniable proofs. He was uncommonly
observant ; and one of a strong mind, not destitute of cultiva-
tion. R. P.

September^ 1810.

On Plaister of Paris, 51

For several years past the Indian corn was in fields that
had been plaistered four years before, which has been
evidently much better by the effects of the plaister than
it would have been without it.

Query 7. To what products can it be best applied?
grain and what kinds ? grasses and what kinds ?

Answer. I think it improves any kind of grass, but
more particularly red and white clover.

Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ?

Answer, 1 have scattered it at various times without
regard to any thing but conveniency, and have not found
any difference in the effect.

Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre of
grass, Sec. you have known by the means of plaister ?

Query 10. Have you ever used it with other manure,
and what ? — and the effects if any superior to the plais-
ter alone ?

Ansxver, 9, and 10. In the foregoing.

Query 11. Is there any difference between the Euro-
pean and American plaister ?

Answer. From the observations I have made, I prefer
the American.

Although I may already have trespassed on thy pati-
ence by the length and unconnected manner of treating
the subject, my desire of communicating something
useful on a subject which of all temporal concerns is
the most beneficial to a nation, induces me to proceed;
from my own observations, a piece of ground used in
the way of a garden, or indeed in any other tillage, per-
haps several times a year for many years successively,'
although frequently manured, w^ill not be as productive
as a piece that has been under grass several years, and not

§2 On Plaister of Paris.

had so much manure ; the former being much more
subject to be injured by drought than the latter, from
which I am of opinion, that to preserve the fertility of
land it should lie under grass as long as it conveniently
could, and to vary the kinds of manure and productions.

I am, sincerely thine,

John Sellers.
Richard Peters, Esq.

C 53 3

Answers to Queries on Plaister of Paris ^ by Mr, Edward
Duffield^ of Lower Dublin Townships Philadelphia^
County,

Dear Sir,

I received your favor of July 20th, 1796, containing
a number of queries respecting piaister of Paris, viz.

Query 1. How long have you used the plaister of
Paris ?

Aiisxver. Every year since 1783.

Query 2. In what condition was your land when
you began the use of it ?

Answer, It was under timothy grass rather poor, but
was improved with three bushels to an acre the first
year, the next year it was better, the third year about
equal to the first, the fourth year I repeated the plais-
ter at four bushels to an acre, when it was very good,
at least two and an half tuns from an acre, and continu-
ed so several years. This lot hath been plaistered five
times since 1783, and is yet good.

Query 3. What quantity per acre have you general-
ly used ?

Ansxver, From three to five bushels, according t®
the soil ; if sandy three bushels ; and more if loamy.

Query 4. What soils are the most proper for this
manure ?

Answer, Sandy or light loam.

Query 5. Have you repeated the application of it
with or without ploughing— at what intervals, and with
what effect ?

54) On Plaister of Paris,

A7isw€r. I have generally found a good effect from
it on grass ground, by applying it every third or fourth
year without ploughing, and on Indian corn with
ploughing.

Query 6. Do you find that it renders the earth sterile
after its useful eiftcts are gone ?

Answer. Not in the least decree that I could ever
perceive.^

Query 7. To what products can it be best applied ? —
grain and what kinds ? — grasses and what kinds ?

Answer, Its effect is immediate upon grass of all
kinds, and upon Indian corn ; and upon all other kinds
of grain the year following, when it is well mixed with
the soil by ploughing, &c.

Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ?

Answer, As clover is generally put in with barley or
oats, I think the best time to apply the plaister is as soon
as the barley or oat is taken off, as it gives a good growth
to the clover before the winter sets in, Avhich is apt to
injure it when small. It may be put upon a sward at
any time, and upon Indian corn as soon as it is up, and

* Mr, Duffield's son, and successor on the farm, does not
continue oi his opinion. There must be some peculiarity, or
shift of circumstances, of a local nature. All my inquiries, else-
where, result in the elder Mr. Duffield's opinion. Perhaps,
Vik^ lime ^ plaister maybe used too long. I never found it so.
But dung, or other animal or vegetable substances, must be
applied with the gypsum, as often as its operation is required:
more especially after frequent repetitions.

R. P.

September 1810.

On Plaister of Paris. 55

r. r..,».,.,.. I. , Ml .|. .

scattering three or four bushels per acre over the whole
ground is best.^

Query 9. What is the greatest product you have
known by the means of plaister ?

Answer, Of hay three tuns per acre ; as to corn I
cannot say, as 1 have generally used dung as well as
plaister.

Query 10. Have you ever used it in connexion with
other manure, and does it agree with lime ? — and what
effect has a connection with other manures produced
superior to the plaister alone ?

Answer, I have never tried it in a compost with lime
or other manures.

Query II, Its duration?

Answer. Its effect is perceivable for four or five
years.

Query 12. Is there any difference in quality between
the American and European plaister ?

Answer, I have used both without being able to dis-
cover any ; but have been informed that the Stucco

* This is the best though the most expensive way, as the
roots of the corn spread far from the hill, and fill the field
at one stage or other of the growth of the plant. But it re-
quires good tilth to keep down the weeds. Nothing requires
more clean farming than corn, which is seldom ploughed
often enough. Only those who have experienced it, can con-
ceive the wonderful increase of corn, with a ploughing extra-
ordinary after wheat harvest j if it is done when the weather
is moist. In a drought it is rather 4angerous,

R. P.

56 On Plaisfer of Paris.

workmen and the French burr mill-stone manufac-
turers prefer the American, as having a more binding
quality ; whether that makes it a better manure I can-
not say.

You remark that " it is said in an English work, that
plaister is composed of a mineral acid and a calcareous
earth, and that it is good or bad according to the pre-
valence or deficiency of the latter." I think it is of the
former and not of the latter, because it would require a
much greater quantity of the latter (perhaps twenty
five or thirty cart loads) to bring about the wonderful
effects of three or four bushels of plaister.

You will find by Dr. Bergman, who has analyzed
this fossil, that it contains twenty two parts water,
tiiirty three parts calcareous earth, and forty five parts
vitriolic acid.^ And you will also find in a small work
of Dr. Home of Edinburgh, upon the principles of
vegetation a variety of accurate experiments conti-
nued for the space of four years, in order if possible, to
discover the food of plants, the result of which was,
that it is a compound of oils, salts and acids.

If these gentlemen are right, we may conclude, that
the wonderful effects of the plaister are occasioned by
the great quantity of acid it contains y and that clover,
above all other plants, requires the most acid in its food,

* See hereafter Ingenhausz's theory of the supposed effects
©f oil of vitriol on vegetation.

See also the new theory of the carbonic acid being chiefly
the food of plants.

On Plaister of Paris. 57

as tiic ^Teatest efFtct of the plaister is discoverable upon
clover.^

Your most obedient,

Humble servant,

Edward Duffield.
Benjield, August I6th, 1796.

The Hon. Richard Peters, Esq.

* I was gratified by Mr. D's agreeing in an opinion I had
long held, and frequently mentioned to many others. I had
conversations with Mr. D. since this answer. He, with me,
tried many experiments with the view to th s theory ; and
both were confirmed in it : though he, as well as mysel ', were
not reckoned orthodox^ by chemical savans. They insisted
that the gyps was an insoluble compound, and that the acid
must be first disengaged (which no doubt it is) before it can
act. R. P.

September 1810.

H

[ 58 ]

Answers to Queries on Plaister of Paris, by the Rev, C
Wharton^ D, D, near TVibnitigton^ in the Delaware
State. Now of Burl ngton N. J,

Prospect Hill, August \9th, 1796.

Dear Sir,

Since 1 was favoured with yours of the 20th iilt. I
have made inquiries among those of the neighbouring
farmers from whom I could expect any information
respectiiig ihe nature and effects of the gypsum. Much
use 1 find is made of it in the upper parts of this coun-
try, where the land in general is hilly, and the soil sto-
ney and thin, intermixed with a great proportion of
isinglass. On these hills the effects of the gypsum are
astonishing especially when spread upon clover.

One bushel or one and a half at most, is sowed upon
an acre, and its produce is more than doubled by this
procedure. They do not discover that the soil is any
ways impoverished by the gypsum, but on the contra-
ry rendered more able to support a rotation of crops
for tw^o or three years. I could not learn that they mix-
ed it with any other kind of manure, or that they ex-
perienced much benefit except upon clover lands. They
always sow it early in the spring, and have no other
than what is brought from Nova Scotia. From my own
experience, I am fully convinced of the advantages aris-
ing from this substance to some soils, and its inefficacy
upon others. A narrow vein of dry gravel mixed with
clay, runs through the flu'm on which I live; on each
side of it the land is rather wet and a cold clay. On
this latter 1 could never perceive any effect from the

On Plaister of Paris. 59

gypsum, while the gravelly soil was so much benefited
by it, as to furnish at least double its usual quantity of
red clover. Some lots upon which it was spread three
years ago, have not been manured since that time, and
have already been mown twice this summer, and now ex-
hibit the appearance of an abundant third crop. They
were mown also three times last summer, but never
pastured. 1 have never spread the gypsum but early
in the spring, though 1 make no doubt but sown in a
wet season, it would be serviceable at any time. For
two years I tried this manure upon Indian corn ; I first
covered it in the hill with the corn, and the next year I
applied it at the time of moulding, the quantity to each
hill about a table spoonful. In both instances the corn
assumed and retained a deeper green during the whole
summer, than what grew around it upon land of the same
quality. 1 think likewise that it vegetated quicker, but
I could not perceive that the quantity of grain was increas-
ed by this application.'^ To farmers therefore who are

* Dr. W. seems to carry the opinion, on this point, farther
than Mr. Curwen. There may in some seasons be some
foundation or it; but I think the ears are, in general, evident-
ly increased by the plaister, though it may at times operate
in greater proportion on the plant. Any other manure will
do the same thing, according to the season. We have some-
times a great profusion of straw, and of course small ears of
wheat, oo our dunged, or new land. If land be too highly
dunged, or naturally too rich, this is constantly the case. It
depends therefore on the strength of the ground, or quantity
of manure, as well as season, whether we shall obta n grain or
plant m proper or undue proportion. It would be well to

60 On Plaister of Paris.

in the habit of re-planting their corn it may be service-
able; but as I always tar\ mine and so have no occasion

manure some part of a field with other substances, and plais-
ter the rest, to compare the produce. This should be done
for a coarse of three or vour years, as in one or two seasons
the weather may be more favorable to dung, &c. than plais-
ter, or vice versa. My observations in general are against
this opinion ; though I have, at times, thought the plant had
a greater proportion of the benefit of he gyps, than the ears.
Great attention should be paid to destroy the suckers ; w^hick
draw off the supplies both irom plants and ears.

R. P.
jTarring the seed corn is good against mice and birds, though
it sometimes indurates and prevents the germ rom shooting;
but the cut-worm, or grub ;=^ will, notwithstanding, cut off
many of the young shoots above ground. A decoction ol hel-
lebore, mxed with sulphur, soot, and a little nitre, is equal-
ly offensive to vermin ; and if the seed, after berng soaked
in th:s mixture, is encrusted with plaister, it remarkably
forwards the growth. As to re-planting, it seldoms comes to
much. Transplanting o plants raised in the garden, or any
clean and r ch corner o the field, is much more el gible. This
is easijy managed, by sowing in dr Us a small quantity of
corn, at the time of plantmg the field. If the plants are not
wanted, the loss, or trouble, is inconsiderable. Plants may also
be had vTom hills in which too many seeds have been drop-
ped. It is too common to have more plants in a hill than are

* Many persons aver, that furrow ing out their fields in squares, and leaving the balks un-
ploughed, tili tht com itqiiirt s that tliey so should be, etfectually ^awls against the grubs ; which
feed or. thf grass and roots in the hi.lks. It may be so, but this uniislit s an excuse to slovenly
fannei-s, ai;d precludes .all ploughing, and perfect cleaning the soil. The remedy, or preventive,
is woi-se than the disease.

R. P.
September, 1810.

On Plaister of Paris. 61

for that tedious piece of business, I shall discontinue the
application of it in future to Indian corn.

1 shall be very h.ppy to see the wonderful effects of
this substance (1 know not if I may call it manure^ ac-
Gouuted for in a rational tnanner. At any rate the dis-
covery of its virtues is extremely important to the Ame-
rican farmer, as it increases at so easy a rate the quanti-
ty of his herbage, and consequently of that species of ma-
nure upon which the success of his business principally
depends. My intention is to make further experiments
with the gypsum, and you may depend upon my furnish-
ing you with the results of them.

I have, dear Sir, the honor to be,

With much esteem and respect,

Your humble servant,

Charles H. Wharton.
Hon. Richard Peters, Esq.

necessary or profitable. Three at the most are sufficient.
Although I mention the places where the corn is dropped, by
the common appellation of htlls^ we have for the most part
abandoned the old practice of hilling. We do not omit the
necessary use oi the hoe^ but we earth and tend our corn chief-
ly with the plough.

R. P.

[ 62 ]

Minutes of the Process and Result of sowing ofPlaister
of Paris, from the 3d of ApriL 1788, until the 5th of
May, 1795, by Algernon Roberts , of Merion Mont-
gomery County.

Process. April Sd, 1788. Drizzly evening wind ar'
cast, moon's age twenty-five days ; sowed a half peck of
plaister upon twenty perches in the high field ; the
soil a light loam mixed with flinty gravel, in cultivation
at least four score years, without any manuring in my
memory. Sown with red clover seed the spring twelve-
months before sowing with plaister.

Result. 1789. This spring a perceptible improvement;
the ground being subject to blue grass, and that not
sufficiently destroyed by cultivation, rendered the im-
provement trifling.

Process. April Uh. Drizzly morning wind eastwardly,
moon's age twenty-six days, sowed eight bushels of
plaister upon two acres in the upper end of the young or-
chard ; the soil in part a stiff" and in part a light loam,
under stratum generally a stiff' clay, in tillage at least
sixty years. A few years previous to sowing with plais-
ter, limed at the rate of forty bushels per acre, and
manured at random with barn yard dung, say fifteen
cart loads per acre ; red clover and timothy seed sown
upon winter grain, both of which were much over-run
with blue grass.

On Plaister of Paris* 63

. Result. 1788. Upon mowing both first and second
crop, an improvement of at least four times the quanti-
ty, and the quality as much improved as the quantity
of grass; the trees as apparently improved as the grass;
the clover more benefited than the timothy; no percep-
tible diiference of improvement in the different soils.

Process, April 1th. Rainy evening, wind at east,
moon's age one day ; sowed a half peck of plaister up-
on five perches in the high field ; every observation
applicable to April 3d, except the soil being a stilFloam
and situation rather level, although high.

Result. 1789. Spring; as yet no perceptible odds.
Fall ; a very perceptible difference ; but the observa-
tions of the above may justly be applied to this. As I
perceived no difference in the age of the moon when I
sowed plaister, I of course discontinued minuting it as
a chimera unworthy of notice.

Process. April Sth. Sowed the peach lot with plaister
about four bushels per acre; in cultivation not less than
ninety years ; the soil a stiff loam, under stratum a re-
tentive clay, sward red and white clover, and green grass
fertility of the soil very good ; peach trees just begin-
ning to bear.

Resuh. 1788. An improvement equal to the young
orchard ; the peach trees apparently benefited.

64 On Plaister of Paris.

Process. April Sth. Sowed several spots in my mea-
dow with plaister, at the rate of about four bushels ])er
acre ; the soil in general a light loam, in parts inclining
to a gritty gravel, although in parts so flat as to incline
to stagnate waters ; under grass I believe at least fifty
years, little or no manure put on it in my memory;
quantity about five acres, about two whereof is watered
with fresh spring water immediately from the spring
head. Sward a mixture of red and white clover, and
timothy, with many natural grasses.

Result, 1788. The improvement at least four fold,
except in places on which the water stagnated for w^ant
of fall to carry it off*, when I perceived no benefit from
the plaister ; the clover more improved than the natural
grasses ; the watered banks as much benefited as the
unwatered, the water kept of after sowing till the opera-
tion of the plaister was perceived, after which time
it was watered as usual.

Process, 1798. April &th. Sowed two bushels of plais-
ter upon the peach lot sown before iVpril Sth, 1788.

Result 11 ^9, I believe no improvement, but continu-
ed good.

Process, April 20th, Finished sowing my meadow
with plaister about four bushels per acre ; observations
of April Sth, 1788, in general applicable.

On Plaister of Paris. 65

Result, 1789. As beneficial as the parts sown last
year, and all the observations of that time applicable
to this.

Process. April 20th, Sowed that part of the young
orchard with plaister that was left unsown the 4th of
April, 1788 ; the observations upon that part apply
to this.

Result, 1789. The same as last year.

Process. June Sth, Sprinkled two bushels of plais-
ter upon about six acres of Indian corn ; an old tilled,
unmanured, gritty gravel soil.

Result. A considerable improvement.

Process, August Wth^ 1789. Sowed half a bushel of
plaister upon about forty perches' of buckwheat just
sprouting up ; soil light loam, old land and very poor.

Result 1789. No perceptible improvement.

Process. April 15 th, 1790. Sowed two bushels of
of plaister upon the peach lot.

Mr. Roberts continues in the opinion that plaister does

little for natural grasses. See 2d. vol. Page 121.

R. P.
September J 1810.

%6 ' On Plaister of Paris.

Result. Continued good, I believe ; not improved
from last year.

Process, April \Sth, Sowed tw^elve bushels of plais-
ter upon five acres of the young orchard, sown before
the 4ih of April, 1788.

Result. 1790. No perceptible improvement, the clo-
ver and timothy being over-run with blue grass.

Process. 'April 6th^ 1791. Sowed twenty-eight bushels
of plaister upon the field above the orchard ; quantity
sixteen acres ; soil a light loam, in parts mixed with
a flinty, and in parts with a gritty gravel, under tillage
at least sixty years ; a few years before sowing with
plaister, limed at the rate of about forty bushels per
acre, and several times in my memory manured with
barn yard dung in parts, and lightly sown with red clo-
ver seed the 9th of April, 1789 ; the roots much injur-
ed by a haid winter, but a profusion of young clover
shooting up.

Result. 1791. Although a dry and unfavourable sea-
son for pasture, considerably improved in the fore part
of the season, and vei) greatly in the latter part.

Process. April 13th. Sowed four bushels of plaister
upon one and an half acre of the lot before the door;
the soil a light loam, under tillage a century, and always,

On Plaister of Paris* 67

since my memory, kept fertile, by frequently manuring
with barn yard dung ; sward fresh clover.

Result, 1791. As favourable as any heretofore.

Process, March 2Sth, 1792. Sowed two bushels of
plaister upon the peach lot.

Result* 1792. Still continued good.

Process. March 30th. Sowed the meadow with plais-
ter, at the rate of four bushels per acre; sown before
in 1789.

Result. 1792. Considerably improved, but not equal
to the first sowing.

Process. 1793. Sowed one and an half bushel of
plaister upon the peach lot.

Result. 1793. Continued good, but no perceptible
improvement from last year.

Process. April 1st, 1793. Sowed five and an half
bushels of plaister upon one and an half acres of clover
and timothy ; sown with flax April 6th, 1792 ; in till-
age about ten years, and limed two years.

Result 1793. Improvement equal, if not superior, to
any heretofore.

68 On Flaister of Paris.

1796. Upon mowing the first crop, the clover nearly
run out ; good crop of timothy.

Process, April 2d, Sowed seven bushels of plaister
upon the lot before the door, sown before with plaister
the 13th of April, 1791.

Result, 1793. Equally improved with the first sowing.
1796. Clover almost over run with blue grass.

Process, April Sth. Sowed twenty-eight bushels of
plaister upon the upper field ; quantity fourteen acres
sown with red clover seed the i9th of March, 1792 j.
in tillage eighty years ; limed in the fall of 1790 ; and
in parts lightly manured with dung ; soil a light isin-
glass loam, with a small part mixed with gritty and
flinty gravel.

Result. 1793. Perfectly equal, if not superiorly im-
proved with any heretofore ; no perceptible diff'erencc
between any of the differeiit qualitied soils.

1796. N. B. This field was so remarkably unfavour-
able to pasture, that it would not have subsisted fourteen
sheep reputably through the season, although it is now
one of the best of my pasture fields.

Process, April 1th, 1794. Sowed twenty-five bushels
of plaister upon fifteen acres in the sand field; in tillage
at least fifty years; limed in the falls of 1789 and 1792, at
about forty bushels per acre each time ; the soil a light

^ On Plaister of Paris, 69

loam, and excessively poor before liming ; sown with
clover seed March 18th, 1793.

Result, 1794. Improvement no ways inferior, if not
superior, (the extreme poverty of the soil considered)
to any heretofore.

N B. 1796. The pasture considerably declined, al-
though very good compared to its former state.

Process. April 8th, 1795. Sowed twelve bushels of
plaister upon the young orchard sown uith red clover and
timothy seed M rch lUh, 1794; and ploughed, limed
and dunged since sowing it with plaister, in April, 1790,

Result. 1795. The improvement perfectly equal to
the first sowing.

Process, April 8th. Sewed the peach lot with two
bushels of plaister, /^n«^ ^Ae ^z'x^A time in seven years^
xmthout any other manure or tillage.

Result. 1796, Upon mowing first crop appears
equally good with any other crop heretofore ; which to-
gether with many other experiments, convinces me that
a repetition of plaister without an addition of any other
manure, will not injure, if it does not improve the crops
of grass.

Process. April 2Sth. Sowed thirteen and an half
bushels of plaister upon six acres in the strawberry

70 On Plaister of Paris,

field; limed in the spring of 1790, and well dunged
in the summer of 1793 ; in tillage at least sixty years ;
soil a light and stony loam, sown with clover seed in
March, 1794.

Result. 1796. The improvement so great,. that after
pasturing it down early in the spring, the appearance
is in favour of mowing a good crop of grass, which I
intend to do.

Process. May 5th, 1795. Sowed thirty-three bushels
of plaister upon about eighteen acres of the far field,
limed in the year 1793, and sown with clover upon oats
in the spring of 1794 ; soil a light isinglass loam, and
excessively poor before liming ; in tillage at least seven-
ty years.

Result. 1796. The improvement equal to any of the
soils of equal fertility.

Process. I have tried many other experiments with
plaister, upon several kinds of grain, flax, and garden
vegetables, but with such various and trifling success,
as to discourage me from a farther continuation of them.

{tj^ I have unfortunately mislaid a letter from Mr.
Hecke welder, of Bethlehem, giving an account of the
use of plaister on the Brethren's farms there, by Mr.
Beidel and another, their superintendants. It is confir-

On Plaister of Paris. 71

matory of the accounts herein before given, of the prac-
tice of other farmers. The farm at Bethlehem consists
of loam, and other soils fit for plaister, on a substratum
of lime stone. I have known several of the fields now
in grass for near thirty years. I think Mr. Beidel has
used plaister near twelve years. The appearance of the
grounds now under clover, was so much superior last
summer when I saw them, to their former aspect, that
I was surprised at the contrast. Nothing can exceed
some of these grounds. The low meadows on the Ma-
nacasey, which were formerly neat and in high order,
appeared comparatively neglected, and some of them in
very bad condition. I asked Mr. B. the reason of this
alteration. He informed me that the advantages derived
from the plaister on the up -lands, were so great, that
it was questionable whether he should pay any fur-
ther attention to the low meadows, except as grazing
grounds.

R. P

C 72 ]

Answers to Queries on the Subject of Plaister of Paris,
as a Manure ; by Richard Peters^ of Block ley Town-
ships Philadelphia County,

Query 1. How long have you used the plaister of
Paris, as a manure ?

A7iswer, About twenty-five years. I was among the
first who began the use of it in Pennsylvania.

Query 2. In what condition was your land when
you began to apply it ?

Answer. Worn out by long and bad culture ; full of
weeds and other noxious plants ; some annual, others
perennial.

Query 3. What quantity per acre have you general-
ly used ?

Answer, From four to six bushels, at one strewirpg,
I have formerly thought the proper quantity per acre ;
but lately I have not commonly exceeded three bushels.
I have had as much effect from two bushels, as from
any greater quantity per acre, when season and other
favourable circumstances combined. It is difficult to fix
the requisite quantity, as effect much depends on acci-
dents of weather, &c. which cannot be calculated with
any certainty. There appears to be a certain point in
the operation of plaister, which is not gained by addi-
tional quantity, so much as by a combination with ex-
traneous circumstances, difficult to trace or account for.
When this point of saturation is arrived at, I ques-

On Plaister of Paris. 73t

tion whether any increase of quantity will extend the
effects. ^«y^

CaJ On the principle that gyps is a salt, [vide note r ] aid
salts check fermentation when applied in too great quantities^
it may be presumed, that the requisite quantity o! plaister, is
regulated by the fermentable putreiying substances it finds in
the earth on which it is strewed. It these be scarce, a great
quantity of plaister, beyond what is necessary to operate with
them, is hurtful. I remember to have sowed, on a strip across'
a field, some years ago, a great dressing of plaister ; perhaps
in the proportion of ten bushels to the acre. This strip pro-
duced little or nothings till I dunged the field for wheats two
or three seasons after the over dose of plaister, I was surpris-
ed by this small strip recovering itself, and remaining for
years superior to any other part of the field. Yet I have
heard of ten bushels to the acre, being strewed to good effect.*
But I know not the state of the ground, as to the pabulum
for the gyps, I never found it beneficial, to sow the plaister
3n any such quantity.

I, many years ago, divided half an acre of ground into
square perches, to try the effects of common salt. I began
by scattering a proportion of two bushels of salt to the acre,
increasing the quantity on every perch. I numbered the di-
visions, and kept an account of salt sown, and the produce
of wheat with which the whole was sowed. I have not the me-
morandum of this experiment at hand, but I think the wheat
dwindled with eight bushels to the acre, and nothing grew
^fter, I believe, the proportion of twelve bushels of salt. I
mention it now, because it seems analogous to the present
subject ; for I recovered the ground by moderate dunging.
The spot salted might be perceived for many years after- \

* On inquiiy I found tliis was a iXUStoJ^ Jl» P«

.Septanber, 1810.

74 On Plaister of Paris,

Query 4. What soils are the most proper for this ma-
nure.

Answer, Li,^ht soils, dry and sandy, or loamy. On
clay I never succeed, though I have heard of its being
used on clay with a degree of success. /^6>/ On vv^et soils
I have always failed. I have strewed it on mossy swamps.
On elevated spots in these swamps, it has killed the
moss and thrown up white clover wonderfully; but has
done nothing where the water around these spots con-

f^^JWhene it has any success on clay, it is rare. The Presi-
dent (whose lands at Mount Vernon and in its neighbourhood,
are generally strong clay, or inclining thereto,) has frequently
told me, that he has always been unsuccessful with plaister,
I think he has tried it from one as far as twenty bushels t»
the acre, without any kind of benefit. That I might be accu-
rate in this account, at my request, he was pleased to inform
me, that he had " tried the plaister of Paris on his land
(which is stiff and cold) at die rate of from one to twenty
bushels to the acre. — It has been spread on grass and plough-
ed land. — On the latter it has been ploughed in ; — harrow-
ed in with a common tined harrow ; bush harrow ; — and not
harrowed at all. The effects in either and all the cases, were
not more than if he had taken up as many bushels of the same
earth and scattered them again over the surface of the ground.
Yet he beUeves inland is a friend to gypsum as a manure*^

wards, by the extraordinary verdure of the grass (chiefly
white clover) which grew spontaneously on it.^

* This experiment Is alluded to ui jny coimniuiication on salt. 2 vol. Memoii-s. 173, But by a
typographical enror, pounds are inserted for husMs. I went as far as 20 bushelsjto the acre, (or ift
that proportion) most uselessly and injurious!)-. R- P-

September, 1810.

On Plaister of Paris. 75

tinued on the ground in, the smallest degree. I have
heard of some instances to the contrary, but none have
fallen under my observation.

Query, 5. Have you repeated the application of it
with or without ploughing? — at what intervals, and
with what effects ?

Query, 6. do you find that it renders the earth ste-
rile after its useful effects are gone ?

Answer. 1 have beneficially repeated the application
with and without ploughing; but I succeed best in a
repetition after cultivating, and dressing slightly with sta-
ble manure, or with ploughing in green manures. I have
ploughed in buckwheat in full blossom (which in a fort-
night or three weeks, often in less time, becomes putrefi-
ed and converted into excellent manure, having under-
gone a violent fermentation) and sowed winter grain, on
which I have sowed clover seed; and having strewed
plaister on the clover, similar, if not greater effects,
have been produced than were received from the first
dressing. Ploughing in clover affords a pabulum for
the plaister, which fails often in mellow grounds in fine
tilth, where the putrefi d substances are scarce, or have
been exhausted by ploughing and frequent exposure.
In short, 1 find it must have something to feed on, as
some farmers express it. In the first application, it has
the decayed roots of vegetable substances it finds in the
earth. I perceive no greater degree of sterility after
plaister, than after dung. All manures are stimulants,
and leave the earth wearied and vapid, from the exer-
tions they have excited. Stable dung as bad as any if

76 On Plaister of Paris,

not worse ; as it leaves the ground full of weedsj unless
it be sufficiently rotted, or used in com^osX, fc)

Query. 7. To what products can it be most profita-
bly applied? — grain and what kinds?

CcJ It is as much on account of its containing the seeds of
weeds, as its supposed inferiority in other respects, that the
Chinese neglect the dung o:' horses and cattle, as we do hu-
man excrements. But they provide every where, " covered
reservoirs for storing up what is dropped, in most countries,
uselessly in the privies and streets," Ingenhausz is apparen-
tlv extravagant in his preference oi human alvme and urinous
ejections, to those or horses and cattle. He goes so far as to
suppose, that these ejections from an individual, will manure
as much ground as would produce more vegetables than he
could consume ; and by selling the superfluous portion, he
might purchase enough of other food, to render the vegetables
palatable. However improbable this may appear, there may
p^^siblybe more soliditjMn the observation, than our inexpe-
rience, and perhaps ideas of delicacy will permit us to believe.
The Chinese have as much knowledge of practical agricul-
ture, as any people in the world. Their immense population
compels them to concentrate their efforts to this point, so as t^
raise the most off the smallest possible portion of ground.
Antipathy, and habits of using other manures, will prevent
our following the Chinese, in their practice of manuring.
Lime, burnt clay, calcareous earths oi all kinds, and even com-
mon earth, deprive the most putrid and nauseous substance-s
of their disagreeable qualities, and assist them in promoting^
sweet and wholesome vegetation. Night soil is so strong, that
a fi th part is a sufficient proportion ior a compost ; and it
should never be used by itself. Two loads, mixed with ten-
of earth, and one of lime, are sufficient for an acre.

On Plaister of Paris. 77

Answer. 1 never found any beneficial effects from
strewing it on winter grdm.{^dj It is useful for all legu-
minous plants, (buckwheat, a bastard legume) flax,
hemp, rape, and other plants, whose seeds produce oil. It
is also beneficial for most products of the kitchen garden
and fruit trees ; Indian corn and turnips. Oat and barley
seed wet, and covered with as much plaister as will ad-
here to them, are much benefited. I have found little
or no ube in a top dressing of plaister, on either of these
latter grains. It is generally most profitably used for
red clover; though it will do excellent service to any
grass. ^ White clover, being the natural grass of most
countries, in certain soils, is most commonly thrown up
by plaister, (as it is by several other manures) though
there was no appearance of this grass before the appli-
cation.

Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ?

Answer, I have sown it in most seasons of the year.
If strewed in the fall, and a dry frosty winter succeeds,
much of the plaister is blown away. I have found it
answer well, if sown at any time from the beginning of
February to the middle of April, in misty weather. I
I have frequendy sown it on the snow in February,

(dj See my remark on query 10th, which shews the opera-
tion on clover, so as to ruin the zvheat crop sozved with it.

^ This assertion is too broad. I doubt its efficacy on
grasses, others than those of the treifoil tribe. At least there
are many grasses on which it has no effect.

R. P.

September^ 1810.

78 On Plaistcr of Paris.

and it has done well. Some do not sow it till the vege-
tation begins. It seems to me, that if strewed at any
season, it will have an effect; though, perhaps in a
greater or less degree, according to the state of the
weather, or other accidental causes. /^fy'

(ej I believe that all manures put on as top dressings, are
most beneficial in the spring ; when the plant is active, and
draws in the food they supply. Dung\ or other manure, laid
on superficially in the autumn or winter, loses much by the
washings oi the winter rains, &c. It can do little service
while the plant is torpid, except as a cover from frost, and by
depositing what is left of its salts and juices, ready to act
on the plant v/hen vegetation begins.

I am inclined to believe, from more attentive experience
since, that my opinion, stated in the foregoing note, ts not
generally founded in fact ; though the theory appeared to me
plausible. I have been highly benefited by both compost and
dung, as top dressings, in the autumn. On one field, I left a
part to be covered in the spring ; after most oi the ground
had been dunged m the fall. The eflPect was greatly in favour
of that lunged in the autumn. Plough. iig in manure, will ef-
fectually prevent its wash ng away by w^inter rains. But I
th;nk the sht-ltcr given by dung or compost to the grass,
or grain, as a top dressing, and the mixing oi the salts or
component parts of the dung, or con^post, by means of frosts
and thaws in winter, with the earth, far overbalance any
loss by the washings of winter rains. The evaporation which
carries oif the v = atile parts of the manure, is certainly less
in wmter, than in spring, or summer. With plaister strewed
in winter, I have succeeded as well as in any other season of
strewing. R. P.

September^ 1810.

On Plaister of Paris. 79

Query, 9. What is the greatest product of grass per
acre, you have known by the means of plaister?

Answer, As much as from any other manure. I
I never weighed, or kept an exact account. I think I
have had five tuns per acre, at two cuttings, in one
season ; and I have sometimes cut a third crop; though
I seldom do this, as I prefer feeding the third growth.
The hay is in my opinion better than that produced by
dung. The cattle waste less of it. I have dunged part
of a field and plaistered the residue. The cattle and
horses will reject the grass on the dunged part, while
they can get the smallest bite off that plaistered. I have
never desired over luxuriant crops of grass. The hay
of these is not so nutritive as that of a moderate growth.
The stock will not consume it to advantage, though I
often salt it. I am content if I get a tun and an half, at a
cutting on the acre. This will stand well to the scythe,
and does not, like over luxuriant grass, die, rot, or
become feculent and musty at the root.

Query 10. Have you ever used it on ground dressed
with other manure, and what? and the effects if any
superior to the plaister alone?

Answer. The answers to five and six comprehend,
for the most part, what I have to say on this query.
In England, it is said the plaister fails \vhere the " land
has been limed :(f) that it operates best on virgin soils^

(f) It is said in a late English publication, that the gypsum
chieRy consists of a mineral acid and a calcareous- Sarth ;
and as the one or the other prevails, it is good or bad.

^ See note page, 48.

80 On Plaister of Paris.

and does not answer on lands which have been long
under tilla^^e." We find the direct contrary effects here.
It is true we do not lime here, nearly as highly as they*
do in England. Our lands will not bear so much lime
as theirs. We have as good and as bad land, as that of
any part of the world. The poorer the land, the less
lime it will bear. But our best land w^ill not admit of
so much lime at two dressings,* as I have understood
they put on in England, at once. Whether our lime is
stronger, or our climate less favourable to it, I cannot
tell. A difference of climate may have an operation
on plaister, as it has on products. Vegetation is here
more rapid than that of England, and of course our
harvests earlier. The straw of their wheat is, I believe,
generally shorter than that on our fresh or manured lands,
and the ears larger and fuller, where the wheat is good;
for they are not without a due proportion of bad wheat,
with light and small grains. So that v/e do not generally
get so much wheat off an acre, as they do. But our
wheat yields a greater proportion of flour. It is not so
flinty, is thinner skinned, and of course we have less
offal and more flour. Our grain grinds more lively,
and without kiln drying. Much of their wheat requires
kiln drying, before it can be ground to advantage, and
especially grain intended for exportation ; owing to its
qualities, produced by moisture and other circumstan-
ces of climate. In Ireland their grain, ground at their
best mills, is generally kiln dryed. We know neither
the necessity nor use of kilns in our mills, except for

* I might have said three or four dressings. Land over liiiiec!, or limed too ofteji. may be restored,
•f>7 green manures ploughed in, or dung. R* 5*.

JSef^icj; 1810.

On Plaister of Park. 81

.'ilia'- , .... . ... , ■ .~

Indian corn. On the contrary, our millers sometimes
damp the wheat, to prevent the bran from being ground
so fine as to pass through the cloth, and speckle the
flour. This account is given to shew the effects of mois-
ture in the English and Irish climate, in comparison
with that of our country. I believe that plaister will not
answer so well in a moist, as in a moderately dry cli-
mate. A very wet season here, is not the most favourable
to plaistered grounds. The advantages of the gyps, over
other manures, are most perceptible in dry seasons. I
doubt, however, be the effects of climate what they may,
either on products or manures, whether in England, the
plaister has had a long or fair trial. I find, by some late
English publications, that the knowledge of it is not
extensive, and its use confined to a few agriculturists ;
some of whom give the most flattering accounts of
their success in its application.

Many of my fields are limed as highly as they will
bear. Some part of my land is fresh ; a small part re-
mains in an exhausted state. I apply the plaister to all,
and do not find any difference unfavourable to that which
has been limed. Some years ago, I sowed clover with
wheat in the autumn, on a field highly limed. I plais-
tered a part of this field, on the clover and wheat ;
the whole having had a light dressing of dung. The
succeeding season, the pkuster threw up the clover
in sucl"\| profusion as to choak the wheat crop, in a
great degree. I lost my wheat on the plaistered part,
as I mowed, not being able to reap, the crop. The
wheat on the other part was excellent, and the clover
of moderate growth. I am aware that part of my misfor-
tune in the loss of the wheat, may be attributed to the

82 On Plaister of Paris,

clover getting too forward, by being sown at the season
of seeding wheat. Yet a comparison with that in the
same field not plaistered, sufficiently shewed the eiFects
of the gypsum. I have not repeated this mode of
sowing clover, which I then practised to avoid the loss
I had sustained from late frosts, which sometimes de-
stroy the young clover, sown on wheat in the winter.

Some farmers object to sowing plaister on the clo-
ver sown on winter grain, while the grain is in the
ground yfgj and do not strew the plaister till the next
season. Perhaps this may be best. But I have met
with no loss by strewing the plaister on the clover and
wheat, when the clover seed was sown on the wheat in
February. On the contrary, in a dry spring, it has
saved my young clover, and forwarded the grass, so as
to enable me to mow a tolerable crop in the autumn
next after the wheat harvest, which, being cut with the
stubble, 1 have given, in the winter, to dry cattle. What
they rejected, increased my dung heap. It has been»
however, most common with me, to sow the plaister in
the spring next succeeding the grain harvest.*

CgJ It is an opinion, perhaps founded in prejudice, among
some farmers, that its quality of attracting moisture, assists
in producing mildew, I have had fields plaistered, and those
which were not, equally mildewed, and equally free from it,
in the same seasons, according as the mildew prevailed or
not, in the country surrounding my farms. #

* This is now, and has long been, my practice. I have found
sowing the plaister on the clover and wheat too hazardous.

R. P.
September ^ 1810.

On Plaister of Paris. S3

Q:uery 11. Its duration ?

Answer. When it throws up gentle and moderate
crops, its efficacy is of the longest duration. If it is vio-
lent in its first operation, it is of short continuance. I
have known it exhaust itself in one year. But I have
had benefit from one dressing of three or four bushels
to the acre, for five or six years, gradually decreasing
in its powers. I prolong the efficiency of dung, by
plaistering the second or third year, when the clover,
on dunged or any other ground, begins to fail. Perhaps
the scattering it annually, or every other year, in small
portions, will continue for a length of time gentle ope-
rations, and prevent violent effiDrts. I have heard of
some who have practised sowing it frequently, and in
small quantities, and obtained good crops of grass for
twelve years and upwards.

The weeds of our fields, /^/2>^ which have been at former
periods under bad culture, forbid their laying in grass,

(^A jThe Japanese^ as well as the Chinese^ reject the dung of
horses and cattle, because they contain the seeds of weeds, and
use night soil, which their laws compel them, to save. '^ Their
fields are for this reason, (among others) so free from weeds,
that a celebrated botanist, passing lately through Japan, with
the Dutch embassy, could scarcely find any other plants
on the corn fields, but the corn itself." Ingenhausz y^^c?^ of
plantSy page 15. If what has been quoted on this subject will
have no other effect on our practice, it ought to warn us to
be more careful in rotting or composting our dung of horses,
&c. and to prevent the seeds of weeds mixing with our manure.
Nothing in this country is in so miserable a stile as the mis-
management (with some exceptions) of our stercoraries. The

84. 071 Plaister of Park,

esptciaily if only pastured, so long as it wquld be
otherwise desirable. Cutting annual weeds, before they
seed, will destroy them. Perennials cut at proper peri-
ods, may in a great degree be conquered. At any rate,
their seeding may be prevented ; and the old stock de.
stroyed by ploughing. But the abominable custom of
sufFtring weeds, briars, &c. to grow in corners an^
about fences, will forever afford nurseries of the^
pests, which will keep up a succession of these nui?
sauces, in fields otherwise well cultivated. The rotting
of fences, articles of no small expence and labour, is
not the least evil attending this negligent habit. The
few farmers who are careful to destroy weeds in their
own fields, are too often infested by those of their
slovenly neighbours. In some parts of Europe there
are laus which authorize those who destroy weeds
in their own, to cut those in the adjacent fields of an
obstinate or negligent neighbour, and obtain summary
process from a magistrate, to reimburse the expence.
However unpalatable such laws might be here, they
shew that the destruction of weeds is considered highly
important, in countries where a good stile of agri-
culture prevails. The truth is, that a farmer should be

dung is left exposed to rain and sun ; thrown about care-
lessly in our yards, when the cattle do not drop it uselessly
in the fields. The heaps, which are often made in holes, or
hollow places, where the stagnant water prevents putrefac-
tion, are permitted to be poached and irodden by our cattle^
or still more firmly pressed together, by loads haled over
them; So that the air cannot be admitted to produce a
thorough iermentation, and by this means to kill the seeds of
the weeds, which are ru nously destined to be the pests of our
fields, and the destroyers oi our crops.

On Plaister of Paris* 85

in constant hostility against these formidable foesr His
reward in a victory over them, will be a certain increase
of his crops, which will be doubly benefited by every
effort to destroy useless and noxious plants.

It would entitle any person to the gratitude of his
fellow citizens, who could point out a mode of destroy-
ing with the least expence and labour, the weeds which
iniest our fields. However contemptible it may appear
on a slight view, it is an object w^orthy genius and in-
dustry, to botanize for the perfect understanding of the
nature and properties of weeds, for the purpose of
their destruction. In my tours through this state for
some years past, 1 have observed, with melancholy at-
tention, the most destructive w^eeds, and particularly
the St. John's Wort, overspreading our country. The
ransted,* has now passed the mountains. The more
fertile the soil, the more it is subject to be over-run by
them. Though 1 have subdued many, yet these weeds,
and particularly the St. John's Wort, |^i J have baffled

'^ Toad-flax.

fij Two well attended crops of Indian corn or potatoes, will
conquer die old stock of this weed ; but I have had, alter I
supposed it eradicated, a new growth Ironi the seeds which
had dropped, and remained in the earth. It grows from both
roots, slips, and seed. I have destroyed this new growth by
turning up the roots, by a shallow ploughing, to the irost
of a severe winter. Those who have not yet been visited
with this scourge, should be watchful to eradicate it, at any
expence or labour, on its first approaches. A small degree
of expence and attention will then prevent, what it is ex-
tremely dfricuh to remedijy when it has gained lull posses-
sion of their fields.

86 On Plaister of Park.

my endeavours at their complete destruction. I have
obtained temporary victories over them, but have yet
to combat their ravages. I know of none in the pesti- '
ferous catalogue, so exhausting and destructive as the
St. John's Wort. Besides its being injurious to cattle
and other stock, it is the greatest enemy the clover hus-
bandry has to contend with. Plaister will, by forward-
ing the red and white clover, and other grasses, over-
power many weeds ; but it has little, if any effect on
the St. John's Wort, or ransted.

Query 12* Is there any difference between the Ame-
rican and European plaister ?

Answer. I have in general found the European plais-
ter the best. But I have used the Nova Scotia (the
only American plaister I am acquainted with) to equal
advantage. I know not whether there has been any
chemical analysis of these plaisters, to enable us to
judge of their relative qualities. The quarries in Nova
Scotia may turn out better the more they are worked
and explored. There is a variety in the American plais-
ter, some being much better than others.^

* The Nova Scotia plaister I have used for many years, t
find it equal to any imported from Europe. I have seen
very little plaister from Europe of late years ; as that from
Nova Scotia answers all agricultural purposes pertectly. And
I believe all other uses, R. P.

September^ 1810.

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS

ON

PLAISTER OF PARIS

THE prejudices for and against this manure are
equally violent; and their is no way of correcting them,
but by the results drawn from sober and continued
experience. In Germany, where this fossil has been
the longest known and used, opinions have been very
opposite, and many of them very absurd and ridicu-
lous. Not only sorcery and witchcraft have been charg-
ed on those who used the plaister, but it has been said
by some wonderfully wise people there, that it produced
or attracted thunder and lightning. Some of the petty
princes of that country have made edicts against the use
of it, urged, perhaps, by the bigotry of its opponents,
and the unfounded German adage : "that it makes rich
fathers and poor children." The peasants have, how-
ever, in opposition to these weak and tyrannical prohi-
bitions, sown the pkdster on their fields in the night. I
have Seen a treatise in German, on the subject of gyp-
sum, as applied to agriculture, containing inany excel-
lent observations and useful lessons, mixed with some

88 On Plaister of Paris.

anecdotes and discussions, sufficiently amusing, to cheer
one through dissertations, on a topic apparently insipid
and unentertaining.

After all that our present experience enables us to
say, we have much to learn on the qualities and effects of
the gypsum, as it relates to agriculture. I have known
it produce no effect for four years, and then throw up a
most astonishing vegetation ; and this after repeated
ploughings, for both winter and summer crops. In a
field now in clover, I perceive it most luxuriant, where
Indian corn hills were plaistered with no effect on the
corn, four or five years ago. This is one among many
instances I have had in my own fields, and have heard
from other farmers, of similar effects. /^A^/

Whatever be the cause, dew will remain on a part
of a grass field plaistered, an hour or two in a morning,
after itll moisture is evaporated from the part of the
same field not plaistered. I have also frequently seen'
this effect in my garden beds, which, if plaistered, will

CkJ May not this be accounted for, by supposing that the
operative principle in the plaister, was an over-charge for the
fermentable substances then in the earth ; and that it did
not find enough of these substances to operate on, until the
time when it produced the vegetation here mentioned?. — ■
[Vide note C^'J*]^

• I have on sevenil occasions obsened strong; tufts of clover, sometimes of wheat, when I have

dunQ;ed a field, which had been plaistered on the com hills, wliere those hills had been. I supposed

the dung aflbi-dcd a pabuhun lor the acid of the plaistei- which had been lavishly thro(*Ti on the

hills ; and, until the dung wa« applied, remaiiied in combination. See v<A. 1, agricultural memoii-s,

page 174.

* R. P.

lS^;ptanber, 1810.,

On Plaister of Paris. 89

retain moisture, in the driest seasons, when there is not
the least appearance of it in those beds whereon no
plaister was strewed. If water be, according to an o\dflJ
as well as modern opinion, " almost all in all,'' in the
food of vegetables, the plaister attracts, or retains,
abundant supplies Y'^y'

I do not like the plaister ground too fine. It flies
away in strewing, and is not so durable as that moderate-
ly pulverized. I think it sufficiently fine, if it be ground
so as to produce twenty bushels to the tun. It is most
common now, to make twenty-four or twenty-five bush-
els oi ditwn. fnj I have endeavoured to prevent the finer

flj Lord Bacon,

{mj Ing-enhausz is of opinion, that zvater is only a vehicle
of the food of plants, and by no means the true nourishment
of animals or vegetables, — the less so, as several plants can
live without being in contact with water. Essay on the
food of plants^ page 1. But Chaptal thinks water so essential,
that he says, (page 448, Philadelphia edition) " A plant
cannot vegetate without the assistance of water ; and that it
is the only aliment the root draivs from the earth''

fnj As a caution to farmers, I mention, that, at a late trial
of a cause in Bucks, between the buyer and seller of a horse,
it appeared in evidence, that, aiter his death, several stones,
weighing in the v/hole 15 pounds (one of them 7 pounds)
were found in the rectum and other viscera of that animal ;
and these were said to have occasioned his death. In ano-
ther instance (in the neighbourhood) of the death of a horse,
17 pounds w^eight of similar stones were found in his intes-
tines. The proprietors ox these horses had their horse-feed,
for a length of time, chopped at a mill where plaister was
ground ; and the grain for horse feed chopped by the same

M

90 On Plaister of Paris.

parts from being blown away, by damping it. But I
do not find that it can, in this state, be so equally dis-
tributed; it being apt, when thus damped, to collect in
lumps.

It should always be remembered, that calcination,
however necessary it may be to make cement of plais-
ter, lessens, if not destroys, its agricultural u^ts.foj

We have a simple mode of trying the quality of
plaister. We put a quantity pulverized, into a dry pot
over the fire ; and when heated, it emits a sulphureous
smell. If the ebullition (arising from vvhatever cause,
be it the escape of air, or dissipation of its water of
chry stall ization) is considerable, it is good. If it be

pair of mill stones. This circumstance, and the appearance
oi the petrii actions, have occasioned a beliei, that they ^v ere
formed by collections of plaister, mixed with the feed, and
taken in therewith by the horses, from time to time. This
opinion may not be well fomided ; as calculi are produced
in animals i'rom other causes. But such calculi consist gene-
rally of urinous partxles ; and are found in the bladder or
kidneys. They have not commonly foreign matter for their
basis; though it sometimes happens otherwise. The bare pos-
sibility oi it should produce circumspection, to avoid the dan-
ger of such accidents.*

(oj [Vide ChaptaPs Chemistry vol, 1, page 212.] Where
the analysis o: the gyps is g ven, and it is said that it loses 20
per cent^ by calcination. Chemists say it loses only its water
of chrystallization.

• Since I have discovered the violently purgative quality of the plaister, I doubt that these cal-
culi were fonnedof the calcareous, or other, part of the gj'psum. Let those better qualified decide.

R. P.
September^ 1810.

On Plaister of Paris. 91

small, it is indifferent. If it remains an inert mass, like
sand, it is worthless.

One might suppose, from this rude experiment, that
plaister was good or bad, according to the quantity
of phlogiston it contained.* When phlogiston was in
fashion (for its existence is now denied) it was said
to be a considerable ingredient in the food of plants.
See Young's experiments, in his Annals, on this point.
It may be also, that the greater the proportion of cal-
careous earth, which absorbs the vitriolic acid in its
composition, the better the gypsum. Some have suppo-
sed mineral acids to be inimical to vegetation ; while
others have asserted, that the vitrolic acid will greatly

^Although some of the theoretical ideas I have hazarded,
have since been useful in prosecuting practical experiments ;
I should have omitted many of them, had I been enabled to
accomplish my design of condensing the whole of what is
now known, into a short and regular system. I leave them
as they are, though some speculations might be suppressed.
I believe Mr. Toung does not now value the experiments he
exhibited, to prove phlogiston to be the food of plants. —
Practical iarmers do best, when they content themselves with
exemplary iacts. Theorists, agricultural as well as others,
frequently employ themselves in groping in the dark. Light
is, however, often approached, through dark and devious
passages. The phenomena of the gyps were so extraordi-
nary, that all endeavours to develope its mysteries, seemed
justifiable.

R. P.

September^ 1810.

92 On Plaister of Paris.

assist and promote the growth of plants, fpj Perhaps

(^p^Ingenhausz a celebrated advocate for the new chemis-
try, of which Mons. Lavoisier was the founder, has, this year,
(1796) pubUshed " an essay on the food of plants, and reno-
vation of soils." He imagines wonderiul effects may be pro-
duced by oil of vitriol (or any concentrated acid, much dilu-
ted with water, or mixed with earth) poured on the soil
immediately before sowing. The cost of this manure about
two shillings sterling per acre. He relates some experiments
on a small scale, confirmatory of this hypothesis, but ac-
knowledges it noTv to be mere theory. His opinion, and
that OT others cited by him, is, th.'&t fxed air ^ nov/ called, in the
new nomenclature, carbonic acid, Qrom. its being found plen-
tifully in chalk, it is also called cretacious acid J is, in a great
degree, the jood o:' plants. He asserts, in opposition to Dr.
Priestly and others, that plants thrive the best in oxygen
or vital air ; or at least cannot live without it. His theory,
which is among the most modern, is, that carbone (charcoal)
though of itseli no manure, is the foundation of the iood of
plants ; but must be mixed with oxygen or vital air. Plants,
according to this theory, decompose the air surrounding
them; and, by this process, assist in producing their own food.
That this process is performing at all times, by the roots
and flowers, but is carried on by the leaves and stalks in
the night, or shade, and inhaled by the latter in the cooler
parts of the day ; but constantly from tffe earth (where it
is chiefly deposited) by the roots. That plants accelerate
their growth in the dark, and advance the least in the
middle of the day. That they possess the power of shifting
carbonic acid from the air, by attracting its oxygen, and
furnishing it with carbon; and that they also possess a
wondenul faculty of changing water into oxygen or vital
air. That the oxygen is also acquired from the common

On Plaister of Paris, 93

a due mixture of the acid with the calcareous earth,
may turn into wholesome food, what of itself might be
injurious to vegetation. But as I chiefly relate agricul-
tural facts, I leave the discussion of such points to phi-
losophers and chemists. It is enough for us if we know
effects. Causes are often hidden, among the arcana of
nature. Nothing has evidenced a greater diversity of
opinion, among the most eminent men, than the ques-
tion. " What is the food of plants ?" Nor do they
agree about the nature of the air contained in vegetables.
Some assert it is mere atmospheric air, changed, or lia-
ble so to be, mX.o fixed, by ebullition — phlogistic, by fer-
mentation— or dephlogisticated by the sun, the light
whereof operates a change in this air, not produced in

air, by the soil ; and this vital air, being mixed with the
carbon, becomes carbonic acid, and enters the plant through
its roots. Jngenhausz* s doctrine, in another place, (an old
opinion) is that the earth, of itself, does nothing towards
the support of plants, their food being chiefly acquired
from the air; " the principal business of feeding being carried
on by the leaves in the atmosphere." The seed is said to con-
tain the carbonic acid sufiicient to forward the plant, till it
is enabled to acquire fresh supplies from the air, and through
the earth, which contains this acid in great plenty. I give
but a faint, and perhaps inaccurate, recital of these theories,
merely to shew the variety of opinions among men trulv
eminent on both sides ; and because those here mentioned
are some of the most modern. Farmers should not overlook
• theories; but they should depend only on careful and ju-
dicious experiment and practice.

94 On Plaister of Paris.

plants in the shade.(q) Of what nature or species is the
air contained in plaister ; or whether this substance ope-
rates by its powers of attracting or retaining moisture,
and decomposing, preparing and communicating to
plants, the air, the fittest for their nourishment; must be
decided by others than practical farmers, to whom pro-
fitable effects are more important, than the most learned
and ingenious theories. /^r^

(q) Ingenhausz on vegetables page 184, \%5^food of plants
8fc. Vital air, produced by vigorous plants in the sunshine,
is of the gr atest purity in itseli. The air thrown out by
them in the shade or in the dark, is of itself unmixed "with
other air, the most active poison in destroying animal life.

(r) Ingenhausz, page 12, Essay on the food of plants^
&c. after observ ng, that "all the most powerful manures have
one common quality, viz. to contain, or to disengage, a great
quantity of carbonic acid, proceeds to suppose, that animal
and vegetable substances probably act as manures only, zvhen
in the act of decomposition by putrefaction, during which
period a great quantity of carbonic acid, is produced. This
putrefaction is promoted by almost all salts when mixed
-with those substances in moderate quantities, but is checked
by a large proportion of those salts, as Sir John Pringle
found. It is thus with alkaline salts, with common s^Xt, gyps,
which last is a vitriolic salt, widi an earthy basis. This notion
may account for the benefit, which the Germans and the
Americans derive from employing gyps, as a manure. The
latter fmd it even worth their while to draw this ingredient
C gyps J from Europe." " According to these notions, we
may perhaps understand, why all those manures which un-
dergo the quickest decomposition ought to be oftner applied

On Plaister of Paris. 95

It is customar}^, with some farmers, to sow plaister
every year, on the same ground, in smaller quantities,
L e, about a bushel to the acre ; and some sow less, for
several successive seasons. Some sow it every other year.
Those who practice these methods (by all of which I
have occasionally profited) consider them most bene-
ficial, for grass grounds particularly. I have generally
thought it best, to get abundant products in the shortest
time. I have therefore applied the gypsum in greater
quantities, to the clover husbandry ; and its operations
were in full vigour, as long as the clover continued on
the ground. When the clover fails, I plough and pro-
ceed with the usual course of crops, till it falls again
into its common rotation. This- generally happens in
the third year from my ploughing up the ley or sod, as
it succeeds w^inter grain, which I have seldom sowed
on my worn lands, unless they are previously limed, or

than some others, which, not being susceptible biit of a very
slow decomposition, such as chalk, lime, burnt and pounded
bones, ^i//?^', impart, during several years, to the soil a pro-
lific quality."^ I had not seen this essay, when I gave an
account of my experience on the plaister. But I am much
confirmed in some of my conjectures, since reading this pro-
duction ; and particularly in my opinion, that the plaister ope-
rates most powerfully, when in connexion with animal or ve-
getable putrefied, or putrefying, substances.

* Whether the decomposition of the gyps is slow or quick, is a mere conjecture. I find myself
safest wlieii I adhere to ikets. From the invigorated appearance of vegetation, if a rain immedi-
ately succeeds the sowing the plaister, I have thought the gjys was quiciily decomposed ; though
not so rapidly, as not gradually to yield its acid. I do not contend for tlieories, if results are suffici-
ent without them.

R. P.
September^ 1810.

96 On Plaister of Paris.

dressed widi stable manure, or buckwheat ploughed in
as a green dressing. I have sometimes ploughed in the
last growth of the clover, of the second or third year,
and harrowed in on the sod, after once ploughing, wheat
or rye, on which I have sowed clover seed, and plaister-
ed again. I have done well enough in this practice,
though I do not think it neat or good husbandry. It
should not be done if the ground be poached, or foul
with weeds or blue grass, which require frequent
ploughing to destroy them.

I sow clover with spring grain generally, and scatter
plaister on the clover and grain, but doubt its effects
on the grain, as a top dressing. I often sow clover seed
with plaister on buckwheat, and the plaister operates
powerfully on both clover and buckwheat. Clover seed
sown on flax, answers well. The plaister has a great
effect on both these plants. The pulling the flax does
no injury to the clover. If the buckwheat seed be wet,
and strewed over wdth a coating of plaister, the crop is
much benefited. I sometimes mix the clover seed with
the plaister, and sow them together.

There are various opinions as to the manner and time
of plaistering Indian corn. If season and other circum-
stances are favourable, the mode then used is naturally
conceived to be the best. But there is no deciding
from one or two fortunate seasons. Some put it on the
hill soon after, or at the time of planting ; some at the
time of moulding; and others at a later stage. Some
suppose, tliat if it be put on, and could be confined to,
the plant (though this is impossible, for the earth will
receive the greater part, either while it is strewing on
the plant, or by the washing of rains) it is the most

On Plaister of Paris. 97

beneficial. I generally strew it on both plant and hill.*
I liave put it on the hill only, and have scattered it over
the whole field. I have met with success generally, but
sometimes disappointment, in all these modes of appli-
cation. The one I generally practice is, strewing it on
the plant and hill, when the leaves are fairly formed;
or, at the latest, when the corn receives its first dressing;
which is most commonly done by harrowing over, and
uncovering (if necessary) the plants, though the hoe is
used when requisite. But the plaister is always strewed
after this operation, that it may remain on the surface.

I have always considered it necessary to keep the plais-
ter, as much as possible, on the surface. In some anoma-
lous instances, which I consider as exceptions to any ge-
neral rule, it has operated when ploughed in ; but for the
most part it does best as a top dressing. I had been in-
formed of a practice of sowing plaister with seed wheat,
and ploughing both in together. This (and every other
mode of application of the plaister to winter grain) has
had little, if any, success with me; though I have tried
it in every way I ever heard of, or could imagine.

Good crops of winter grain have often succeeded
clover, to which no other manure than plaister on the
clover, had been applied. I attribute this to no imme-
diate action of the plaister on the grain, but to the
clover; which always ameliorates the soil. It is an ex-

=*The spot in which the plant grows is yet often called a
hill ; but the practice of hilling- corn has been generally dis-
continued, for a great number of years past.

R. P. *
September^ 1810.

N

98 On Plaister of Paris,

cellent covering crop, and, like most tap rooted plants,
does not exhaust ; but on the contrary increases fer-
tility. I have known a good crop of wheat, follow the
ploughing in a luxuriant vegetation of young, succulent
teazle and thistles ; — tap rooted plants. These appa-
rent pests had for several years occupied the field. They
had operated as a cover, and, when ploughed in, as a
green manure.

The lot on which I first strewed plaister, twenty-five
years ago, has not been ploughed during that period.
I have twice given it about half a top dressing of stable
dung. I have repeated the plaister three or four times ;
three, four and six bushels to the acre, at intervals of
three, four and five years. I should have preferred
ploughing, had it been convenient, as, in the second
crops, I am often tormented with Indian grass and
weeds. But the ground is on a part of my farm, where
the hay and pasture are more useful to me, than any
other crops. After dressing with dung, I have left a
part unplaistered, to compare it with the rest ; and al-
ways perceived a striking inferiority, where the plaister
was not strewed. I once repeated the plaister on a part
of it, without previously dunging, after it had been
mowed several years, from the time it was first plais-
tered. The plaister seemed to have no effect. But on
applying a sHght dressing of dung the next year, this
part was equally good with the Tt^\.,fsJ This lot is

(^.yjl have notwithstanding this instance, frequently plais-
tered here and in other parts of my farm, and succeeded well
without dung; but never in the degree I have perceived

On Plaister of Paris, 99

now in excellent common grass ; intermixed with red
and white clover, and some blue grass — parts of it
much layed, owing to the wet season.

I have, from this and many other occurrences, long
been of opinion, that the plaister must come in con-
tact with some animal or vegetable manures, or pu-
trefied substances, /^^^ to give it its proper efficacy.

{tj " Charcoal or carbon exists ready formed in vegeta-
bles, Chaptal 36, 37."

Although Chaptal, page 452, asserts, that " we see the
vegetable almost entirely formed of hydrogene^ he, in the
the same page says "the nitrogenous gas (and he afterwards
adds the carbonic acid) more particularly serves them for
aliment. " Hence it arises that vegetation is more vigorous
when a greater quantity of these bodies which afford this gas^
are presented to the plants these are animals or vegetables
in a state of putrefaction. " Carbonic acid predominates in
the fungus, and other subterraneous pla?its.^^ Page 453. Ingen-
hausz on the food of plants, 6. "^// manures, principally dung,
produces a great quantity of the carbonic acid, either by itself,
or by decomposing the air in contact with it." Hassenfratz
asserts, that the brown sediment of dung is carbone. And
Ingenhausz, though he does not exactly agree with Hassen-
fratz, allows that this brown sediment may become carbone
by ignition. It appears then that the gases, which are the
food of plants, according to the present theory, exist in vege-
tables ready formed ; and in animal or vegetable substances

with dung. I must be understood here to mean, a repetition
of the plaister. For in the first application, it has generally
thrown up as great a burthen, as any combination could pro-
duce.

100 On Plaister of Parish

\_See not^ f^J-'\ And when so connected, a small quan-
tity of such manures or substances will give it activity.
The auxiliaries necessary to draw forth the powers of
the plaister, are within the reach of every farmer, of
common industry and moderate capacity. The first ap-
plication, without other assistance than that it finds in the
earth, from the decayed and decaying roots, and other
vegetable substances, will throw him up forage, and
enable him to increase his stock. The more stock, the
more animal manure for summer or winter crops, prepa-
ratory to the repetition of plaister, with clover. The green
manures only cost the seed which produces them. With
these auxiliaries, I am satisfied, by actual and long
experience, that the gjpsum may be repeated as safely,
and with more benefit and less expence, than can any
other manure, on soils suitable for its application — a cir-
cumstance which ought always to be kept in view.

in a state of putrefaction. It also is before shewn, that the
vitriolic acid in plaister, disengages from the substances con-
taining, them, «// the g-ases,^ Ths theory, thereiore explains
and coroborates the fact — that the plaister operates with
most power, Vv'hen it finds animal or vegetable putreiactions
(dung., buckzvheat ploughed in, &c. &c.) in the earth in
which it is strewed. It,- of course, shews why it will not ope-
rate at all, when the animal or vegetable substances, or other
bodies containing the gases, are not in places where it is
strewed.

*And no doubt it finds in the earth chemical ag;ents (whatever they may be) which by superior
affinities decompose the ^^sura, and set the sulphuric acid free, to perform its operations.

K. P.

Srptember, 1810.

0?t Plaister of Paris, 101

—'''■■ - =

In fine, I continue, after long and various experience,
in the free and extensive use of plaister. I have been
often disappointed, in the expected results of my numer-
ous applications of this generally powerful, sometimes
fugacious, and frequently ungovernable ?X\m\i\d\\\.fuJ
But I have been successful in the far greater proportion,
of my practice and experiments.

Richard Peters.
Belmont 30th May 1796.

fu) I can with a tolerable degree of certainty, from
the appearance of an over luxuriant crop of clover, tell
when it is about to quit me. When the plaister ceases its ope-
ration, the clover departs with it, being overcome by twitch or
other noxious grasses or weeds. It perishes in consequence
of too violent efforts. Its fate is similar to that ol an indi-
vidual, who by living too fast accelerates death. I account for
the phenomenon, of the sudden exit o\ the operative powers
of the gyps, by its having prematurely decomposed the sub-
stances containing the principles of vegetation ; and having
exhausted those principles in too short a time. In the vio-
lence of these operations it excites a vigorous, but fatal
vegetation ; which, like the exertions of one in the parox-
isms of fever, puts on the semblance of strength, but, in
fact, is only a prelude to dissolution. There is no guard
against this misfortune, but the practice oi sowing small
quantities, and frequent repetition. This mode I like the
better, the more I experience it.

POSTSCRIPT

I submit the following conjectural remarks^ and their ap-
plication to the agricultural facts to which they refer ^
to the judgment of those who are better informed than
I am^ on chemical subjects^ with which I profess to
have no more than a very slight acquaintance.

JR. jP.

" IN 1755, Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, advanced, that
limestone contains much air, of a different nature from com-
mon air. He affirmed, that the disengagement of this air
converted it into litne ; and, that by the restoration of this
air, calcareous stone was regenerated." Dr. M'Bride, Mr.
Jacquin, and Dr. Priestly, are quoted, as having confirmed
this doctrine by experiment. " This was then known by the
name oi fixed air. In 1772, Bergman proved that it was an
acid^"* It has since been distinguished by various names ;
" and, as soon as it was proved to consist of a combination
of oxygene and carbone, or pure charcoal, the name of car-
home acid was appropriated to it." Chaptal's Chemistry,
yol. 1, page 212.

It appears then, that the crude limestone contains the air
(in a proportion of 40-100) which is said, by Ingenhausz, to
be t\vt food of plants. When it becomes lime, it is deprived
of this air, till it is slacked or ejfete, and then it recovers the
fixed air sufficiently to act as a manure.

On Plaister of Paris, 103

It should seem, that it is for this reason, that we find plaister
to operate favourably on limed land. The sulphuric acid in
the gyps, finds the carbonic or fixed air in the lime, which
it disengages ; and puts in a state to act, with increased vi-
gour, on the grass.

Although the chemists do not allow that gyps^ like lime-
stone, contains ^xed air^ yet it may have the faculty of
communicating to the plant, by operating on other sub-
stances, the carbonic acidy or whatever be its food. In
Chaptal, page 186, it appears that 100 parts of gypsum
contain 30 of sidphuric acid, 32 oi pure earthy and 38 water.
It loses 20 per cent by calcinatio7i. In other experiments,
a greater quantity of sulphuric acid is found, according
to the plaister assayed. This analysis excludes ^xed airy
from this substance. It could not reside with the sulphu-
ric (vitriolic) acid, but would be expelled in a state of g-as.

If Ingenhausz's ideas, of the almost magical powers of the
oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) on vegetation, be just, in any
important degree, the sulphuric acid 7}iay be considered^
either in itself or as it sets other agents at worky the

MAIN SPRING or OPERATION IN PLAISTER* It is COmmOulv

used, by chemists, to separate the carbonicy and all other
acids, from their combinations, wherever they are found. The
earth, according to the theories before stated, is constantly
filled with the carbonic acidy by furnishing carbone to the
air it inhales. It is found in calcareous substances, with
which, in great varieties, the earth abounds : it exists in, or
is produced by, the roots of decaying or decayed vegetables,
trees, and all animal or vegetable manures. I therefore think
it a corollary fairly to be drawn from this theory, and the
actual analysis of the gypSy that it is this sulphuric or

VITRIOLIC ACID WHICH CONSTITUTES ITS OPERATIVE PRIN-
CIPLE; and that, though it may in itself (nor is lime) be no ma-
nure, yet, when scattered on the earth, it decomposes all sub-

104 0?t Plaister of Paris.

stances in which the fixed air, or carbonic acid, is found. It re-
leases this, from the bodies impregnated with it ; and, by put-
ting hi a state of activity, prepares it to enter the plants, and be-
come their ^ood,in combination with whatever else is neces-
sary, to their existence and growth.

Why the plaister is applied, with greater profit on light^
than on claijy or other wet soils, it is difficult to account. It
may, possibly, be owing to the d fferent materials it finds to
operate upon. Most claiis have a great proportion of iron^
in their composition. — Chaptal, page 214, [Philadelphia edi-
tion.] They are so retentive of moisture, that they are gene-
rally cold, wet, and sour. The sulphuric acid, when poured on
iro?i or zinc, by decomposition of water, produces the hydro-
genoiis gas, or infammable^ and not Jixed, air, or carbonic
acid. Chaptal, Page 61. Clays, and all wet soils have so
much redundant moisture, that (by means o-- the sulphuric
acid in the plaister, operating on the iron they contain) they
afford an overcharge of hydrogene. The hydrogene, accord-
ing to Chaptal, page 97, fixes itseli in vegetables, though
it is otherwise in 7netals, &c. while the oxijfren^ or vital air^
necessary to be combined with it, as a nutrition to plants,
is disengaged and escapes. Thus the inflammable air, being
left alone, and in too great a quantity, either does nothing,
or injures vegetation. This infammable air may, in small
portions, in combination with oxygen, or carbonic acid, be,
as Chaptal asserts it is, an ingredent in the ^ood. But when
in great quantities, and of itself, it may be destructive. In light
soils, the v/ater and moisture "are soon drained away. But
the plaister counteracts the percolating, or porous, qualities
of these soils, by attracting, arresting and retaining as much
moisture (and perhaps no greater quantity) as will answer
all beneficial purposes. The superfluous water or moisture
passes off. And thus the operative principle in the plaister
produces no more, either oi infammable, ox fxed air, than
is necessary for the salutary supply of the plant. A shorter

On Plaister of Paris, 105

and perhaps a better explanation, is, that in clay soils there
is little or no -calcareous earthy on which the plaister always
operates the most favourably ; as it finds, in these earths, the
carbonic acid in the greatest plenty.

Dr. Priestly, m a conversation I lately had with him, told
me, he was preparing to analyze the gyps I with a, view to
farther discoveries of its nature and properties, both chemi-
cal and agricultural. I wait, with much curiosity, to know
the result of the experiments, or this able chemist and vene-
rable philosopher. I am aware, that the doctor's opinions,
and those of the followers of Lavoisiere, in several points,
differ very materially. I am neither qualified, nor inclined,
to determine which are right ; though I have ventured to
make deductions, perhaps too hastily, from some of the new
chemical theories. The Doctor asserts, that "some plants
are chiefly nourished by hydro gene or hijlammahle ai'r^ such
as the willow, &c." We see aquatic plants coarse, strong, and
capable of being sustained (if so they are) by air which is
found the most plentifully in wet grounds, where no tender
plants, the occupants of dry soils, will grow. The air, nutritive
to the one, may be poison to the other. Clover will not
grow well in wet grounds, nor will plaister operate there ;
so that clover and plaister seem to be made for each other.
The Doctor thinks, that the mjlammahle principle is the
prevalent part of the nourishment of plants ; and that they
thrive the best in vitiated or phlogisticated air. It will be
seen how much other eminent men differ with him, by
what has been said by Ingenhausz, &c. The Doctor's
opinion of the carbonic acid htm^ injurious to plants, is not
in unison with that of Ingenhausz, Kirwan, and others. In
Chaptal, page lir,vol. l,it is said, "The carbonic acid is
improper for vegetation ; Dr. Priestly, having kept the roots
of several plants in water impregnated with the carbonic
acid, observed that they all perished ; and in those instances
where plants are observed to vegetate in water, or in air which

o

106 On Plaister of Paris,

contains this gas^ the quantity of gas is very smali,^^ Practical
fanners know, that an overcharge of any manure is destruc-
tive. I have killed plants with dung water, too highly impreg-
nated ; but have forwarded their growth surprisingly, with
water moderately infused with dung. May not the water
mentioned by Dr. P. have been too highly impregnated with
the carbonic acid, when it destroyed the plants ? It is allow-
ed, that plants vegetated in such water, when " the quantity
of gas is very sjjialL^'' Nature has provided, that plants shall,
in ordinaiy operations, imbibe no more of their food than is
proper for them. In extraordinary instances, a plant may,
like an intemperate animal, be gorged with food, and, fall a
sacrifice to excess. It may be, too, that carbonic acid is only
a part of the food ; and requires to be corrected or aided
by some other ingredients, to produce salutary effects. Ingen-
hausz allows that " Plants die in pure carbonic acidJ''^ He
says, oxygene, or pure respirable air, and heat, are necessary
to vegetation. [Vide Ingenkausz on food of plants, pages 9,
10,11.] Plants absorb mephitic or phlogisticated air, and
emit vital air. Man, on the contrary, is kept alive by vital
air, and emits mephitic. Chaptal vol, 1 , page 117. But Ingen-
hausz [food of plants page 6.] pointedly asserts, that, "all airs,
which cannot be easily changed or decomposed into fixed air ^
as possessing no oxygene, are true poisons to plants, such as
infammable air, putrid air, 7ix\6. azote, contrary to Dr. Priestly
and Mr. Scheele. He further says, that all " other airs poi-
sonous to vegetable life, are also destructive of animal life.'*
Such is even the carbonic acid, concentrated, or without a
great proportion of respirable air.

When I began to extract the accounts of the latest writers
on chemistry, the food of plants, he, it was under the idea,
that the gypsum would be found to contain this food. Be
this as it may, the theories I have mentioned may possibly
afford amusement, if they are of no real use, to those who have
not access to the works of the writers, who entertain, on this

On Plaister of Paris. 107

subject, the current opinions of the day. These, like the
doctrine of phlogiston, though once held to be so strictly
orthodox, may, ere long, become apocryphal ; and be placed,
by future reformers in chemiistry, among the lumber of the
schools. Something useful, however, is always added to the
common stock of knowledge and improvement, by the the-
ories of ingenious and scientific men. Yet, after all, the far-
mer will find his fields the most convenient laboratories ; his
instruments^ of husbandry ^ his safest, most simple and intelli-
gible apparatus ; his crops his most instructive expositors j
and experience his most faithful and unerring guide.

108 On Plaister of Paris,

As our practical results and opinions, differ with the ac-
count of the gypsum, given in the " outlines of a proposed
general report from the (British) board of agriculture, on
the subject of manures ; printed last year in London, and
transmitted here by Sir John Sinclair^ I think it best to
publish that account. It is the^ most recent, I have seen from
England, on that subject. In the same report, there is a de-
tail of experiments by a Mr, Smythe^ of Kent, too long to
insert here ; but very favourable to plaister, on sainfoin and
clover. By this it appears, that they are little advanced in
the knowledge of the uses o; plaister, though a desire to use
it begins to increase among their farmers ; who, like most of
those of all countries, will not believe till they see. Mr*
Smythe^s experiments were on light loams, and poor calca-
reous soils; the chalky soils particularly. A friend of his tried
it on clay^ and failed. Nor had it effect, with him, on grass ;
I suppose he means, other than sainfoin or clover. Nor
on corn^ or turnips. Wheat is there called corn.

GYPSUM.

" THIS article has hitherto been little used in
Britain, as a manure, and, in the instances where it
has been employed, the accounts of its value are very
contradictory ; in some cases it has been represented
as producing astonishing effects ; in others no visible
advantage has been derived from it, and in several
instances it has done mischief.* Before we enter into
any discussion upon the subject, it will be necessary to
state, that gypsum consists of a mineral acid, joined

^ I. wish it had been mentioned what "mischief?" I never

knew it to do harm, even where it did no good.

R. P.

Noverdber 1810.

On Plaister of Paris, 109

to a calcareous earth. This acid is well known to be
as unfriendly to vegetation, as calcareous earth is favour-
able to it, and, upon the proportion of it contained in
gypsum, the value of that article, as a manure, depends.

When calcareous earth is added to any of the acids,
they unite, and compose earthy salts, differently named,
according to the acid made use of. If this compound
contains a due proportion of the acid and the calca-
reous earth, it is said to be neutralized; but if either the
acid or the calcareous earth predominate, the compound
then possesses acid, or earthy properties.

We suppose, therefore, that, in cases where calca-
reous earth is the prevailing principle in gypsum, its
beneficial effects as a manure will be visible, because
in that case, a portion of the earth roill not he united
with the acid, and will therefore he left at liberty to act
upon the soil.

In cases v/here these two ingredients are equally
balanced, the compound posseses very little solubility
in water. It is, perhaps, in these cases where it produces
little effect ; nor is it possible it can ; because unless the
parts of any substance are soluble in water, they generally
can produce no effect on vegetation.

Lastly, where the acid predominates in gypsum, of
which, however, we recollect no instances, its mischie-

Since this publication, the gypsum is used in England to

profitable account. Its properties are better understood and

I beheve, the use of it is much encouraged. How whimsical

and inapplicable is this theory ! when we compare it with

facts generally known here.

R, P.
September, 1810.

110 On Plaister of Paris.

vous effects will be visible, as acids of all sorts are
mimical to vegetation.

In this way we account for the different effects produc-
ed by gypsum, and also for the gypsum, brought from
certain places, being more valuable than that brought
from others. In many cases its value will depend upon its
containing more calcareous earth than acid. Upon lands j
therefore, where no stimulating substance has been ap-
plied, and which contain little or no calcareous earth
in themselves, this sort of gypsum will be a good ma-
nure ; accordingly, in America, where the soil in most
places is composed almost entirely of vegetable earth,
arising from the decayed herbage, and the deciduous
parts of the trees which have grown and decayed there
since the creation, and where scarcely a particle ofcalca^
reons earth is to be met with^ this sort of gypsum will
stimulate the soil, and produce good effects; even in this
country, upon virgin soils, which contain no principles
of that sort, its effects will be similar ; hut upon lands
ivhich have been long in a state ofcidtivation, which have
been frequently manured with substances containing much
alkaline matter^ or which have received a due proportion
of calcareous earthy its effects will not be perceptible,
unless an enormous quantity be used. But in cases
where the acid prevails, its bad effects will be visible at
once. In all cases, therefore, where gypsum is intended
to be used,zY ought to be a mutter of serious inquiry^
firsts whether the land has been previously limed ? and
next, whether the acid or calcareous earth prevails in
its composition ? If the land possesses in itself no cal-
careous matter, the gypsum, which contains most of it^

On Plaister of Paris, 111

will produce good effects; but in all cases where the
acid prevails, it will certainly do harm,

" This account of the nature of gypsum we are en-
abled to give, from having carefully examined different
sorts of it. In some of these the calcareous earth pre-
vailed ; and in others the substance was a neutral com-,
pound. We pronounce, therefore, that in all cases where
the calcareous earth prevails in gypsum, it will be usC'
fuly if the ground has not been previously limed.

In cases where the acid and earth are equally balanc-
ed, it will have other effects.

And in cases where the acid prevails, it will uniformly
do harm ; unless, perhaps upon chalk or limestone lands.

It is therefore a manure that can seldom be used
with advantage in this country upon arable lands, as
there are few situations indeed in which the soil does
not either contain calcareous matter in itself or has re^
ceived it as a manure."

OBSERVATIONS.

THE writer of this article is misinformed when h&
says that " in America scarcely a particle of calcareous
earth is to be found.'''' We have enough of it, mixed
with a great variety of substances. Our attention has
not been sufficiently paid to subterraneous explorations,
to enable us accurately to class or designate the seve-
ral species, either of those unmixed, or in combination.
We know most about the argillaceous (clayey) earths,
because we have had them more in use, and they are
more common. This account of gypsum, as to its agri-

1 12 On Planter of Paris,

cultural uses, seems to be founded in mere theory. For
we find by experience^ of which theory is only the pupil:

1. That the gyps succeeds on limed land^ quite as
well as on that not limed ; and some think better.

2. Although we never analyze chemically, to know
the balance between the aac/and the calcareous earth in
our plaister, we find that the gyps, out of the same par-
cel, does as well on limed, as on other land, let whatever
parts of the substance prevail in its composition.

3. As to its alleged disagreement with alkalis, we
do not find this, by any means, founded in fact. I have
plaistered land previously manured with soap boilers
ashes, and it has not only done well, but I think has had
remarkable success. 'Tis true these ashes are mixed
with lime, and the alkali weakened by lixivation. But
General Hand has placed the fact beyond a doubt. See
pages 30, 31. He strewed ten or twelve bushels of
(wood) ashes to the acre, which is much more than I
ever strew per acre, for grass. The plaister, he states,
had more effect, than it Iiad on ground dressed with other
manure. Why it is so, is not of so much consequence,
as the fact itself. But if the foregoing theory were pur.
sued, we should find encouragement from the proper-
ties of «//ra/f5. Chaptal, pages 115, 11 9, 120, [Philadel-
phia edition] " all alkalis contain carbonic acid and are
considered as carbonates, Hydrogene and nitrogene gas
may be produced from mineral; and carbonic, from all
alkalis y In other chemical writers it appears, that the
salt found in ashes, may be purified, so as to contain
half its weight oi fixed air. Beside that it may be pre-
sumed that vegetable alkalis furnish the most carbonc,
it appears, that in both mineral and vegetable alkalis, the

On Plaister of Paris. 1 13

sulphuric acidy in the plaister, finds sufficient materials
to set in motion, for the nutrition of plants.*

4. Mere matter of opinion is no proof: but it seems
most likely that the acid (vitrolic salt) in the plaister, is
most soluble in water, though the earth be also solu-
ble— and, (if this be the criterion,) that it is the «cfflf,
more than the calcareous earth, which produces the
effect. But I still conceive this effect is produced by
the acid operating on other substances, and not imme^
diately on the plant. If it be the calcareous earth, why
do not other calcareous earths operate in a similar de-
gree ? It would take an immense proportion of other
calcareous earths, to do what is here supposed to be effect-
ed by a small quantity in the plaister. Crude limestone,
pulverized, has a considerable effect on grass grounds.
But it takes so much of it, as to preclude, by the ex-
pense of obtaining, the profit of using it. Broken or
powdered oyster shells, (which contain calcareous mat-
ter as well as salt) are excellent for grass grounds. But
their powers bear no reasonable proportion to those
of the plaister. Limestone gravel is pulverized, in some

^ Since these observations were made, I have tried a great
variety of experiments, with lime and ashes respectively, in
large and small quantities, on land. I have, in no instance,
found, that the English theory could be justified. On the con-
trary, the plaister has frequently drawn forth the powers of
both the lime and ashes, and corrected them when too much,
or assisted, when too little, of either of the latter, had been
spread on the field.

R. P.
September, 1810.

114 0?i Plaister of Paris,

countries, and used as a top dressing. But the quantity-
necessary is enormous, compared with that of the
plaister.

5. There is no country where limestone lands are to
be found in greater proportion, than in this. I know
many farmers of limestone lands, who use plaister.
The results of their practice, much the same with those
on other soils. It depends on the texture and staple, of
the upper stratum of soil. Limestone is here found
under clay, loam, and sand. In our coal countries, ge-
nerally under clay. It is curious to observe the gene-
ral uniformity of the strata, in our western country,
beyond the mountains ; where in many parts, they
scarcely ever sink a well, without finding clay, coal, lime-
stone, 2ind Jreestone, or slate, in strata, each of from four
to six feet thick. The clay is generally on the surface,
but it frequendy happens otherwise.

6. By a recurrence to the facts in the foregoing
collection, it will appear, that the idea of plaister not
being beneficial, where lands have been long under cul-
tivation, is unfounded. Mr. Robert's lands have been
cleared 90 or 100 years. Some of mine above 60, Mr.
Sellers's is an old farm, and so are those of Mr. Duf-
field and Mr. Price.

I have lately been informed, in a letter from Robert
Barclay Esq. of London, a worthy member of our soci-
ety, that plaister succeeds in some parts of England;
where it has been used with various success ; and
often, in that kingdom, without any benefit. Mr. Bar-
clay writes, under date of 31st July, 1810.

0?i Plaister of Paris. 115

" Many years since, I republished your tract on the
use of gi/psum ; which had the effect to cause many
experiments to be made ; but generally with litde suc-
cess.— However Mr. H. Smith for SmytheJ a respecta-
ble experimental farmer, near Feversham in Kent, has
fortunately succeeded, on a calcareous soil. He assures
me, that there are above six thousand acres under
plaister, in his vicinage. He received the gold, or silver
medal, from our society of arts and sciences."

It will be seen that we have as much success here on
other soils, as we experience on those mixed with calca-
reous matter. The vegetable or animal substances, found
in the earth by the plaister, are here the causes of its
efficacy. Probably this is the same Mr. Smythe before
mentioned. It seems strange, that, in England, the plais-
ter agrees with calcareous matter in the earth, and yet,
there, it is said not to agree with lime; the basis whereof
is calcareous matter.

Richard Peters»
October, 1810.

[ 116 ]

SINCE the foregoing collection has been in the
press, 1 have been informed, but do not vouch for the
fact, that plaister has a considerable effect in preventing
the fly from injuring wheat. Whether, like a success-
ful medicine, when much in vogue, the gyps is ima-
gined to be a panacea^ and good for every thing ; or
whether there be really foundation for this information,
I cannot determine : but it is well worth inquiry. We
know that some things are offensive to vermin, and
drive them away ; and others destroy them. One or
the other of these results (if it be of any use at all in
this particular) may flow from strewing plaister on win-
ter grain.

I have thoughts of trying the following experiments,
on my wheat fields ; as the fly is among us. But I
have not fixed on the time; — \a hether it shall be in the
season when the old fly deposits its eggs, i. e. soon
after the wheat is sown in the autumn ; or in the
spring, so as to destroy, or drive off, the young brood, as
they are produced from the eggs. Perhaps it will bq
right to try the experiments in both seasons.

None of these to be so powerful as to injure the grain.

1. Brine two lands with salt and water, or sow com-
mon salt thereon.

2. On two other lands, plaister of Paris.

3. On two other lands, soot, and a small proportion
of sulphur.

4. On two others, lime just slacked.

On Plaisfer of Paris. 117

5. On two others, ashes or lye.

The common salt must be applied at a distance
from the gyps ; plaister does not succeed on sea coasts,
where the air is always impregnated with sea salt.
This salt and that in plaister, by operating on each other,
may change the qualities of both. Sulphuric acid forms
sulpJiat of soda, or glauber salts, by decomposing ma-
rine salt, and combining with the soda. Glauber salts ,
and all compounds containing sulphuric acid, are ma-
nures, or auxiliaries to vegetation: but are not so effec-
tual or cheap as the gypsum. The small quantities re-
quired of the latter, and its rapid decomposition, will
always give it the preference.

R. P.

6. Sprinkle, on two other lands, water, in which of/ of
vitriol is dissolved : this water will kill, or banish, bugs,
flies, and other insects, from bedsteads, walls, Sec, in our
houses. If the plaister is an enemy to the fly, it is pro-
bably by means of its vitrolic acid. If this could be
proved by experience, Ingenhausz would render es-
sential service, by his theory of the oil ofvitrioL

It would be well, if several farmers were to try some
experiments of this sort; though at first they may seem
whimsical. My fields, generally plaistered on the wheat,
or on preceding crops of grain and clover, have been
little infested by the fly. But I have attributed the
safety of my wheat, to good tilth and manure. So that
the crop may be soMai late, and the ground throw up
strong and vigorous plants, which resist the fly, when

118 On Plmster of Paris.

starved stalks, and grain sown early, fall sacrifices.*
There is something, too, in the species of wheat sown.

R. P.

^ I have tried these experiments ; but have not been able
to ascertain accurately the effects ; owing, probably, to my
escaping from the ravages of the fly. From their disinclination
to furnish facts, or try experiments, I know not what has
been done by other farmers.

R. P,
October y 1810.

[ 119 ]

EXPLANATIONS of some of the terms used m the fore-
going sheets,

ACID, a combination of vital air, with certain elementary
substances; such as — ^nitric, sulphuric, muriatic, carbonic, Sec.
Acid comprehends all qualities of such combinations, sour-
ness and causticity inclusive.

ALKALI, one of the divisions of salts, comprehending
that class of chemical elements, which uniting with acids
form perfect neutrals ; in opposition to the salts formed
of acids with metals or earths ; -which are called imperfect,

Carbone, charcoal.

Dephlogisticated, purified, by being deprived of me-
phitic, or phlogisticated, qualities.

Gas, all aerial fluids, except of common air — The ebuli-
tion attending the expulsion of elastic fluids, from substances
fermenting, or eff'ervescing.

Hydrogene, inflammable air. — With this balloons are
filled.

NiTROGENE Gas, Azote, or atmospherical Mephitis,
phlogisticated Air; corrupted air, which has served the
purposes of combustion, or respiration.

Oxygene, vital air — the basis of all acids — discovered by
Dr. Priestly in 1774. It always exists in combination, and
cannot be obtained in purity, without decomposition. The
atmospheric air we breathe, has 72 parts of nitrogene gas,
and only 28 of oxygene. These modifications are so neces-
sary, that without them we could not live. If we were to
to respire vital air, in its state of purity, it would quickly
consume our life. This virgin air is no more suited to our
existence, than distilled water. Chaptal, 82, 84. Thus we
see that both plants and animals require combinations ; and d«
not exist in, or by, any air totally unmixed.

120 Explanation of the Terms used.

Phlogiston, the principle of inflammability.

Mephitic, ill savoured, noxious, poisonous air. The sweet-
est flowers and fruits, always exhale this mortal poison.
Hence the danger of laying in close apartments, wherein
even an inconsiderable number of flowers are placed. Sudden
deaths are not rarely the consequences of such mistaken
gi'atifications ; to which many persons have fallen sacrifices :
thereby fatally depriving Mr. Pope's ridicule of its sting ;
by proving that the strongest man, as well the most delicate
of the sex, may —

" Die of a rose— of aromatic pain.''

See Ingenhausz experience sur les vegetaiix. Pages 67, 68.

C 121 ]

Improvement by Plakter ; in loudon. county, Vir-
ginia.

Since the foregoing compilation was put to press,
and too late to embody them into the little work, I have
received, through the fcivour of William Noland Esq,^
a collection of facts, relative to the improvements in
the agriculture of LOUDON county, in Virginia. The
plaister of Paris has created, in that county, an entire
renovation of their soil ; which was worn out by long
cultivation, and bad systems. Much of it was not ori*
ginally of the first quality; their bottom lands excepted.
I do not find any contradiction ; but, on the contrary a
complete confirmation, of the facts and principles en-
deavoured to be established, in the publication herein
reprinted. The use of the gyps began, in that county,
about twenty years ago. The difficulties attending it$
introduction, were, in a degree, similar to those prevail-
ing here, in the infancy of this great auxiliary to our
agricultural prosperity. Its progress was more rapid,
when conviction followed a few practical proofs. Now^
their zeal is greater than that existing here. They have
the most solid reasons, for entertaining the highest opi-
nion of the capacities of the plaister. It has substituted
plenty and comfort, in place of want, or scanty subsist-
ence. Their lands have, in many instances, quadru-
pled in value, their stocks of domestic animals have
wonderfully increased, and their barns and granaries are
filled. Such instances of rural prosperity, excite in me
sensations inexpressibly dehghtful 1

122 On Plaister of Paris,

I do not discover any doubts on the subject of its
constantly ameliorating, instead of exhausting, the soil.
On the contrary, some of the facts are stronger in favour
of amelioration, than in my experience I have per-
ceived. Some allege that ground long plaistered ploughs
tough : so we often find it. The general opinion seems
to be, that its application in small quantities, even as
low as half a bushel to the acre, and frequent repeti-
tions, are best. They are much in the habit of ro/-
ling all their grain, for seed, in plaister. Their times
of application of top-dressings, are, in general, the same
with ours. Many Y^rtitx covering the plaister, after spread-
ing it over the whole field, in quantities of from one to
two and an half bushels per acre. There is an instance
of plaistering half a field of Indian corn when in tassel,
and its producing double the number of barrels of
of corn, compared with the crop in the unplaistered
moiety. On clover they esteem it most efficacious, but
they speak favorably of its effects on any kind of grass,
or grain ; and find its efficacy increased by a small ap-
plication of dung. They find, that seed potatoes cut
and plaistered, produce more abundantly. I have ex-
perienced the same effect. Lands producing, in their
exhausted state, only seven bushels of corn, and five of
wheat to the acre, have been made, by plaister alone with
clover crops, to bring 40 bushels of the former, and 30
of the latter, per acre ; and their fertility remains on the
advance. They mix various quantities of plaister with
their seed grain; from an half to a bushel of gypsum, to 5
and 6 bushels of grain. The grain is, as is done by us,
wetted or soaked previously. Some oi the Loudon farmers
think, as I do, that top dressing with plaister on wheat

On Plaister of Paris, 12!

does little service, if any; but they all concur in the effi-
cacy of rolling the seed. Those apparently of the most
accurate observation, believe, that courses of clover crops
plaistered. so ameliorate the soil, that the following
grain crops, in this way receive their advantages.

One of Mr. JVolajid^s correspondents observes ; —
" the valuable properties of plaister are so well esta-
blished in this neighbourhood, that you might as well
ask a man if bread and meat were of any use to a la-
bourer, as to ask him if plaister is of any use to his
land. He would answer the one as quickly as the other,
in the affirmative. If land is for sale, the only object seems
whether it lies well, and is well watered. Its being poor
or rich, makes but very little diffi^rence in the price ;
as it is so well known that one course of red clover, well
plaistered for one or two years, puts the ground in good
heart for any crop."

In fact, the clover husbandry, with its almost magi-
cal adjunct — the plaister, does every thing for exhaus-
ted lands ; and much for any other soils. No other
grasses can compete with it, for prompt ameliorationo
I see with pain, (because it discourages the clover-
system) prejudices growing against clovet-hay. For
20 years, I used but a small proportion of any other, and
I never, during'that period, had a sick horse. I generally
salted the hay, while it was stowing in the stack, or
mow; and was content with moderate crops, cut in due
season, and carefully made; though I could have had, by
forcing or overgrowing, a greater burthen. In the winter
I often damped, either with water alone, or weak pickle,
over night, what was to be used next day. For horses, in
careless hands, other hay may be better. But the cha^

124 On Plaister of Paris,

racter of clover-hay is injured by the inordinate desire
of getting too heavy crops, which are never sweet nor
maturated ; and, at the root, the grass of such crops is
always feculent, and often rotten. The seller may gam
by two, three, and often more, tons to the acre at a cut-
ting ; but neither the buyer, nor the farmer who con-
sumes it, is equally benefitted. Horses reject, or suffer
by, such over-luxuriant crops ; and, being rank, coarse,
and often leafless, cattle waste a great proportion of
them.

For milch- cows in winter, no other hay is equal to
good well cured clover. I have often tried the com-
parative merits, in this way, of clover and the best of
other hay. The complaint, that it wastes, and is injurious
to horses, is owing to its over luxuriance, and bad
curing ; and not to any unwholesome qualities, in the
plant. Every one of experience knows, that too heavy
crops of any grass, never turn out wholesome, sweet,
and profitable, in the consumption.*

Mr. Noland's correspondents were Lev en Poxvell,
James Heaton^ Mahlon Taylor^ George Taverner^ Ber-

^ The idea that clover (plaistered or not) more than other
grass, has a tendency to produce the running at the mouth
of horses or cattle is unfounded. See vol. 1, of agricultural
memoirs, pages 167, 8. I have seen on all grass grounds, in the
autumn, with a microscope, numberless red spiders^ very
small. Some say spreading hot lime kills them, and prevents
salivary defluxions, irom horses and cattle. I cannot ascer-
tain the cause of this unfortunate complaint. I have heard
many, but no satisfactory, accounts oi its origin, or remedy.
(Salt sometimes checks it ; and so does putting the horses, or
cattle, to dry forage, or grain, R» P«

On Plaister of Paris. 125

~~~-^ '•' ' ■ ■ . I .. —

nard Taylor, Robert Braden, James Moore, and Abel
Jenners: — all respectable citizens, and practical farmers,
of Loudon county; and well acquainted with the general
state of agriculture therein. He had the like difficulties
in procuring information, with those constantly experi-
enced here.

Mr. Noland informs me, that, about 14 years ago, the
late Col. Clapham cleared about 20 acres ofneiv land, and
ploughed in, on a part of it, half a bushel to the acre of
plaister.^ He planted ^o^r/cco on the part plaistered, sowed
also thereon, about half a bushel of plaister to the acre,
broadcast. There was no appearance of any benefit
from the plaister, either on the crop to which it was
then applied, or to any succeeding crops since. Mr. No-
land, with a view to ascertain the effects, if any, on new
or virgin soils, repeatedly took notice of this piece of
land ; and has never been able to discern any difference
between that, and the adjacent new land unpiaistered.
An old field of the same original quality, divided from
the new land only by a lane, and entirely worn out, was
taken up, for experiment, by Col. Clapham, and sowed
generally with plaister ; but stripes were sometimes left

^ Great numbers of farmers now harrow in, and some
plough in the plaister, and give favourable accounts ol their
success. My opinion was originally against this practice j
but I always distrust my own judgment, when facts, well
attested, oppose it. I often now harrow in the plaister on a
corn field ; and find it highly beneficial. In general I still
use it as a top dressing : and never found advantage by
ploughing it in.

R. P.

126 On Plaister of Paris*

unplaistered, for comparison. The crops, especially of
Indian corn, plaistered, yielded more than those on his
rich bottom land. But when not plaistered, the corn
was nearly worthless.

Mr. Noland'^s farm, though adjacent to Col. Clap-
harn'Sy is not so much benefitted by plaister; and espe-
cially on Indian corn. Yet, having some years ago a
piece o{ tobacco, neglected, overcome by crab grass, and
not likely, from its appearance, to come to any thing, he
scattered plaister lightly, after dressing them, upon each
plant. The success was wonderful, and might be per-
ceived at a great distance. The crop was far superior to
tobacco unplaistered, on better land. Col. Clapham also
had similar success with tobacco plaistered ; and Mr.
Noland now constantly plaisters that plant, and never
fails to succeed.

Mr. Abel Jennersy one of Mr. JVoland^s correspon-
dents, confirms what I have often observed, as to plais-
ter strewed on clay. The soil mentioned by Mr. Jen-
ners, must be similar to some of that on the Mount
Vernon estate. General Ifashington^s account of his
abortive experiments on such soil, will be seen in page
74.

"To your second, I answer, — the first farm I went to
live on was very poor ; — the soil, a flat, white oak,
white, clay, — on which I used the plaister, in various
ways ; but found no advantage from the use of it. I
measured off one acre in an old field, on which I solv-
ed one bushel ; and near that a quaiter of an acre, on
which I sowed another bushel. I viewed this ground

On Plaister of Paris. 127

for three succeeding years, and never discovered any
difference in the growth at all. I had some red hills'^
adjoining my meadow, sowed with red-clover, of which
I plaistered a part ; and had as visible an effect from it,
as ever I had on any ground whatever."

Another correspondent of Mr. N's, who is a friend to
rolling the seed, of wheat, or other grain, in plaister,
previously to sowing ; states, that, ** top dressings of
plaister, he found not only of no service to winter
grain, but he had suffered by the plant being retarded
in its ripening the seed (though it was very green, and
looked flourishing) so as to be caught by the mildew."
The effect seems to be similar to that produced by
lime ; whatever be the cause. Possibly the mildew oc-
curred from other causes. I never new the plaister in-
jurious to any crop. I lost a crop by plaistered clover^
choaking the wheat.

I cannot close the well intentioned, however inade-
quate, eflbrts I have made, to establish the reputation,
and shew the extensive advantages derived to agricul-
ture, by the use of the subject of the foregoing sheets;
without cordially expressing my best thanks, to those
who have assisted my endeavours.

To Mr. Noland and his correspondents, I am pecu-
liarly indebted ; as they are among the few who have
complied with my requests, to communicate recent
facts, relating to that part of our husbandry, in which

* Red hillsy are light j sandy, or gravelly.

128 On Plaister of Paris.

the gypsum is so highly efficient an auxiliary. I lament
that circumstances have not permitted the insertion of
their letters. 1 perceive some of them express, though
not to me new, yet, very unnecessary apprehensions
of exposing themselves to critical animadversions. But
the diffusion of agricultural publications is so deplo-
rably limited, that either censure or praise, must be
confined to a small circle. 77/!^?!/ would not suffer by can-
did scrutiny ; and all other is mischievous and despica-
ble. Our thanks are due to those who rectify errors ;
criticisms with this view being grateful and laudable.
Our disinterested motives, in giving the best informa-
tion in our power, must be a shield against, or consola-
tion under, unmerited censure. I regret that my so
frequently meeting with this excuse for withholding
communications, compels a repetition of such observa-
tions. The difficulties attending the collection and dif-
fusion of agricultural information, are only equalled by
the arduous, and often fruitless, task, of prevailing on
those for whose benefit it is calculated, either to read,
believe in, or practice upon, such information. Those
who profit by the lessons we endeavour to afford,
bestow on us the most grateful eulogy, in the advanta-
ges they derive from our desires to serve them. And
this is the best, and only, praise we covet.

Whatever apprehensions may be felt, by individuals
who do not give themselves the trouble of assisting in
the diffusion of cigriciiltural knowledge, and the facts
on wliich it is grounded, I have every reason to believe,
that those who do exert themselves, receive the appra*
bation of all real friends to their country^

On Plaister of Paris. 129

So far as our society, and the individuals who com-
pose it, are concerned in the subject, they have no
cause to complain. On the contrary, they have been
honoured and gratified, by attentions from highly re-
spectable individuals, and societies ; both at home, and
in foreign countries. They are, and should be, sincerely
thankful for these attentions ; and rejoice that they are
made the instruments (in whatever degree their capa-
cities are competent and useful) of promoting the true
and solid interests of their country.

Richard Peters.
November^ 1810.

(S^i^^LyT-

^>irx^ <;au5^ tf7-x2u-^ Qj2-s^^^.<.^ <^ _.

,^iK<>^i^iUi. ^ ;^ti>€^ *-^ .^^ ^"'^-^

fSuperscrihtd)

[ i 3

Fac-Simile of General Washington's Hand Writing ; and
sketches of his Private Character.

It has been suggested to me, by several friends, that a
Fac-Simile of Gen. Washington's hand writing, would be
a curjosity to such as are not acquainted with it ; and a pleas-
ing memorial to those who reverence his name and charac-
ter. I have selected the shortest note I can find, relating to
agriculture ; and solely on account of its brevity. I cannot
lay my hands on letters I received, more appropriate to the
topic on which the " Inquiries" are written. He was in the
habit of seeking information upon subjects of husbandry and
rural affairs ; v/hich gratified and amused his few leisure
hours. But he became so much engaged in public labours
and cares, that I was happy, at all times, to relieve him from,
the pressure, his agricultural correspondence occasioned. A
long and sincere love for him, had subsisted from an early
period of my life ; and he, without ceremony, required the
slender assistance I cheerfully rendered. He would (as in
matters of greater moment) correct, observe upon, and add
to, any drait, or information, with a masterly hand : and on
the subject of husbandry, he was peculiarly zealous and intel-
ligent. He generally gave more credit (never less) than they
merited, to those who gave him assistance, which his situa-
tion necessarily required, in the small, as well as great con-
cerns in which he was constantly occupied. His own mode
of expressing his thoughts was (in my opinion) better, than
that in which any other person could clothe them. I often
thought, that he was not sufficiently conscious of this. His
style was formed and perfected, by his own efforts'. '^He began
the bright career, which furnishes the first chapter in the his-
tory of his public life, at an age, when those who have
the opportunities, are finishing a literary education. He
had a plain and clear style ; natural, and peculiar to himself -,

ii Sketches of Ge7i, IVashmgtoris Private Character,

and he wrote with ease, but generiUly with deliberation. This
was, once^ so well known to me, that I could, most generally,
distinguish it, though copied in another hand. Whatever be the
fact, of many public papers being wholly or partially written by
his able friends, or ministers, as it is naturally to be supposed
that they so were ; I only speak of what I know. This de-
ducts nothing from his candour, or clearness of judgment.
I neither affirm nor deny, any such positions. But this must
be allowed ; that his selection of papers deservedly celebrat-
ed, was a striking evidence of the strength of his mind, and
discriminating faculties. An acute lawyer has credit for
drafting a perfect instrument ; but it is the worth and esti-
mation of the name to the seal, w^hich gives it force, cur-
rency, and value. It is an old and well known saying of
a British crowned head, when the credit of measures was
attributed to the administration ; that " a foolish king never
<^L")se wise ministers." I cite this observation, not for its
"^ v>Jty, but its consistency with common sense.

; ,< :sh to repel any idea of my claiming merit, or impor-
t<a»icfc., from the small assistance I could give him, on any
occa$ion.

Tf I i\'^?nted proofs to fortify my orvn convictions (for I ^
presume uO<- to decide for others) of the truth of my assertions,
as to his I'l 'ary capacities, I could find them plentifully in-
ters^t ' ed through more than fifty of his original letters, in
his o.vv! hand WTiting, now on my table. They were written,
during a course of several years, to confidential -friends (the
most of them to one on whom he placed much reliance) on
the most important, as well as less prominent, occurrences,
of the arduous struggle, in which he was so eminently dis-
tinguished. No rhetorical flowers, or finery of diction, will
be perceived. But they display a clear and correct judgment,
a constant and unshaken fortitude, a liberal mind, disinter-
ested patriotism, and extensive views. They prove, invaria-
blv, that the achievement of the liberty, union and happiness

Sketches of Gen. TVashingtori's Private Character, iii

qf his country, was his undeviating aim; and its independence,
his leading-star.

Had I not prescribed to myself bounds, which I will not
overleap, I could trace, distinctly, through these letters, the
the most prominent features of his farewell address. These
do not appear so well matured, or expressed, as they finally
were. But the senti7nents are substantially similar : though
some may be said to be in a state of adolescence ; — if such
an expression be allowable.

These letters, if there were none others, would convince any
who candidly doubted on the subject, how unnecessary
literary assistance to him would have been, for all useful
and necessary purposes, had his leisure, or inclinations,
permitted him to depend solely on himself. I am not at
liberty (nor is it required in this feeble sketch of his private
character) to adduce passages in frequent proof. I may,
however, without regard to this point, and without any
nice selection, mention an instance of his rigid adherence
to duty, at the expense of his private accommodation and
enjoyment. We who passed tjhrough the vicissitudes of
our revolution, well recollect, that the years 1779 and 1780,
were among the most distressful iEras, of the variegated pro-
gress through our contest. It was in the winter of one of
those years, that the occurrence happened, which I have
mentioned in volume first, page 232. He was pressed by
many personal friends, and particularly by one possessing
his confidence, and to whom he addressed one of the letters
I have noticed, dated '-'■ Middle Brook^ December 12th, 177ff,"
to spend his winter in Philadelphia; where all would join
in rendering his time happy, and his situation personally
accomodatory. He writes in reply, from the patriotic feelings
of his heart; — and without affectedly quoting the inapplicable
examples of Hannibal and Capua ; —

" Were I to give into private conveniency and amuse-
' ment, I should not be able to resist the invitations of my

iv Sketches of Gen, Washington's Private Character.

*' friends, to make Philadelphia (instead of a confined room
'^ or two) my quarters tor the winter. But the affairs of the
"<2rm2/ requ:re my constant attention and presence; and,
'* circumstanced as matt;ers are at this juncture, call for some
*' degree of care and address, to keep it from crumbling, —
*' As peace and retirement are my ultimate aim, and the
" most pleasing and flattering wish of my soul, every thing
*' advancive of this end, contributes to my satisfaction ; how-
*' ever difficult and inconvenient in the attainment : and will
" reconcile any place, and all circumstances, to my feelmgs,
"whilst I remain in service."

In proof of the goodness and candour of his heart, I ex-
tract a part of a letter, dated ^'■West Point August 22d, 1779;"
to the same confidential friend.

A most disastrous, and nearly ruinous, misfortune, had
taken place, at an early period of the war. He, at that
distant time, suffered under the reproaches, of some envi-
ous, of a few malignant, and of more mistaken, malcontents;
for, although posterity may not believe it, such there were.^

* These would, either privately, or openly, censure (among other imjustifiable charges) his Fabian
policy. I was continually, during all the active years of the war, in a situation to know the exact
state ofour army, and its strength, deficiencies, wants, or supplies; which I could not, at any time (un-
officially) or any purpose, reveal. Without pi-etensions to military talents, or skill, I was always satis-
ficfi, that this policy was our salvation. Although rejoiced when our aimy M'as strong in its effectives,
and redundant ir. its supplies; yet I sometimes feared, that zealous patriotism, and professional pride
(honourable and approprifite to soldiers, and sufficiently prevalent among our militaiy eharactei*s)
would urge to pitched battles. Under this idea, I had frequent occasion to draw comfort from mis-
fortune. I thought, when impolitic measures had * crumbled" our army, and thinnetl its ranks, or
withheld its supplies ; that, shielded by the guardianship of heaven, our weakness was our strengfth.
Ifthis had been substantive comfort, and not consolation derived from necessity, I should have
been more and oftner satisfied under it, than I i-oally was. Our weakness and necessities were,
very frequently, seriously dai^gerous and alanning ; and the more so, when they were not gene-
rally known, or believed. Supiaeness in the people, as well as in their representatives, was often
the perilous consequence.

Many estimable men, both in and out of the army, were imeasy under inactivity ; and thought
the contest should be brought to a close, by general battles, or more frequent offensive operations.
Such anxieties pressed on his patience, but he resisted them firmly ; witliout passing by opportu-
nities, in smaller combats often, and in important enterprises, when necessity, or the magnitude
of the object, justified. Hannibal and J-V/fin/j wt^re cast in diifereiit moulds. Although the heroism
and military skill of the one were indisputable; the patience, Avisdom, and forbearance, of the other,
szveA his country.

Sketches of Gen, Washington's Private Character, v

But he would not, — unnecessarily for any public purpose, —
develope the real state of the transaction. He bore unmerited
reflections, patiently and silently. He had suspended his bet-
ter judgment, in deference to the opinions of others (good and
true men) with whom his situation compelled him to advise.
A resolution of Congress, too, was indirectly justificatory of
the advice which produced hesitation, as to his peremptorily
enforcing his own opinion. This he calls "a foible." He had
given plain and explicit orders j but he had left the time and
manner of execution, in a degree, discretionary. Yet the
disobedience of an able and worthy general officer (who after-
wards became eminent, and deservedly distinguished) was
strictly unjustifiable. The disaster was heavy, and irretriev-
able. The error flowed from well intentioned motives ;
and the character of the officer was unimpeachable. He thus
writes, in the letter cited : — " But this concern received ad-
*' ditional poignancy, from two considerations which were
" but little known,-— and one of them never will be known
" to the world ; — ^because I never shall attempt to palliate
" ?7zz/ oivnfoiblefi^ by exposing the error of another. Nor in-
'' deed could either of them come before the public ; unless
" there had been such a charge, as must have rendered an
" inquiry into the causes of this miscarriage necessary."

Those only who knew his private life^ had the complete
opportunity and gratification, of admiring his private virtues ;

On the subject of his cautious, and finally successful conduct (mistakenly, and sometimes ma-
levolently, turned against him) he writes, in a letter, dated from " Middle Brook, June 23d 1777 ;
" We have some among us, who wish to make themselves popular at the expense of others ; or
*' rvho think the cause is not to be advanced othenvue than by fighting. The peculiar circumstances
'*under which it is to be done, and the consequences which may follow, are objects too tri\'ial for
"their attention. But as I have one gi-eat end in view, I shall, maugre all the strokes of this kind,
" steadily pursue the means, which, in my judgment, lead to the accomplishment of it. Not doubt-
" ing, but that the candid part of manliind, if they are convinced of my integiity, will make proper
" allowances for my inexperience and frailties. I will agree to be loaded with all the obloquy they
** can bestow, if I commit a wilful mistake."

It is well known,— and he mentions it in several of these letters— that nothing but a sense of duty,
and the universal wishes of his countiy, induced linn to accept his arduous, thomy, and highly i-e-
•;?onsible appointment.

vi Sketches of Gen* Washington^ Private Character.

and unassuming, though unaffectedly dignified, manners. He
had been engaged in so many difficult and important trans-
actions through his life, that he had acquired an habitual
thoughtfulness, which gave a pensive cast to his features.
But no person more relished cheerfulness, pleasantry, and
disengaged conversation, when his undeviating attention to
business and aifairs, permitted relaxation. I mention this to
shew, that his character in this respect has been, by many,
mistaken ; and that he was not, in his disposition, gloomy,
or saturnine. His countenance would brighten, and light
up, with cheerful and innocent pleasantry ; — ^but no person
ever saw, in his features, depression, despondency, or want
of equanimitv, under the severest embarrassments and dis-
asters ; which were, at frequent periods in our revolu-
tionary affairs, but too common. Correct in his religious opi-
nion^, he was exemplary in the unostentatious performance of
his religious duties. Always, and openly, acknowledging in
prosperity, the favours and blessings of the omnipotent and be-
nevolent BEING, from whose bounty, life and all its enjoy-
ments are derived; he was submissive to his will in adver-
sity. No unreasonable, or boasting, exultation, was ever
perceived in his conduct, expressions, or correspondence, in
military success ; nor did any querulous or unworthy bewail-
ings appear, under defeat or disappointment. Yet he was
neither insensible to the one, nor callous under the other. =*

'*His magnanimity under misfortune, \vas unifonnlj- observed. But the pleasure he received, on any
great event favourable to his counti-y , was at 07ice perceived. A distinguished veteran of our revolu-
tion, lately informed me, that, after the battle of Gennanto>TO, the American army had retired, up
the Skippack road, 18 or 20 miles from Philadelphia; and my informant was at head quarters, when a
letter arrived announcing the captiu-e of General Burgojnie's army. It was put into General Wmh-
ington''s hands to read ; it being a private letter. The General's sensibilities were so excited, and he
was so deeply affected with the importance of the intelligence, and the great advantages deri\ed
from it, tluit he returned the letter to Col. Palfrey, who had presented it to him (being himself unable
to proceed) and desired him to finish it. My wortliy old patriot and friend, obs ervetl to me, w ith
much emphasis ;— " Here were displayed the strong feelings of genuine patriotisni I of a mind inca-
" pable of en\-5- ;— transported w ith joy at a Aictoiy, the honour of which would be another's ; but
•' which gave earnest of eventual success, in the gneat object of the war !"

Sketches of Gen. TFashington'' s Private Character, vii

I have often compared notes, with many who were fre-
quently with him, I never met with one who said he could
approach him, without some symptoms of insuperable and
respectful formality ; involuntarily transferring their own feel-
ings, to his character ; and yet he Had nothing chilling or re-
pulsive in his manner, or countenance ; on the contraiy, his
demeanor was polite and inviting. Though cautious and
circumspect, in great as well as smaller concerns, he was
guileless and candid. He was accurate, methodical, but
always inflexibly just, and often minute, in pecuniary and

other arrangements, calling for this kind of attention.

Yet he was liberal, benevolent, and charitable, when oc-
casions required his assistance. He was, naturally^ of a
warm temper ; which his general conductor appearance, did
not indicate. This shewed itself in smaller vexations, sud-
denly occurring ; but rarely (though it appeared sometimes)
in great matters. I have considered his victory over his na-
tural temperament, as one of the greatest he had obtained.
I have witnessed conquests of this kind, which have excited
my most unqualified admiration j and yet it has been thought,
that he was cold ; and without keen feelings or sensibility.
I heard a respectable foreigner assert (and, no doubt, he
carried the idea to his own country) that diplomatic and
other strangers, were not treated by the President with
easy and gracious receptions. He added, that he never saw
rudeness, but the politeness was cold ; and seemed to be un-
intentional, and owing to the natural temperament of the
man. All the reply I made, was, that I had not generally
perceived this. I knew (or at least I thought; as I did in se-
veral other cases) that, at that period^ the demeanor was
exactly proper, in the. instance cited ; though I do not pre-
tend to nice judgment in such matters. General character is
often drawn from particular instances, hastily, or uncandidly.
He knew well, that it was due to his station and himself, al-
ways to behave decorously j or, as it is commonly expressed,

viii Sketches of Gen* Washington's Private Character,

like a gentleman. But I have ever considered it incompati-
ble with the propensities oi a candid mind, to practice the
hypocrisy and insincerity of politeness, by affecting emotions
not felt. What is C2i[\td. gi-aciousness^ if it be indiscriminate-
ly exercised, justifies (in my view of it) this remark. The
address of a man ofthexvorld^ politely, but noi (according to
his expectations) gradously received, would induce him to
attribute it to general coldness of character ; lest it should
appear, that there was something particular in his case.

In his family he was beloved. His affectionate attentions to
one of the worthiest and best of women, were alwavs con-
spicuous ; and tenderly and constantly reciprocated by her.
He zvoidd be obeyed, but his servants were devoted to him ;
and especially those more immediately about his person.
The survivors of them still venerate and adore his memory.*

The w^orld are in possession of the facts, on which his pub-
lic CHARACTER is established. Whatever opinions may be
formed as to his having been a great man, (of which I
never doubted, though I enter into no discussions on this sub-
ject) those who enjoyed his friendship, and intimate ac-
quaintance, must all. agree, that a better man could not be
found. If history should deem herself too elevated, to record

* His old and much valued servant William (a man of colour, once a slave, and known through
tiie anny ; and by all who wei-e acquainted in the General's family) still lives at Mount Fernon;
uhere he is kindly and tenderly treated by its present propiietor, Judge Washim^on. He is much
of a cripple ; beiug afflicted with the rheumatism ; the consequence of his campaigns with his
master. His fi-equent/JiVgr^fjog-eis perfonned to his mastei-'s tomb, on his sticks or crutches. Agen-
tlenjan a few months ago, had the curiosity to talk ^\ith William ; who is intelligent and not dis-
inclined to conversation, though not forward in loquacity. He treats the affairs of the world as
matters in which he has now little concern, except as a lookei-'On. He observed—" And so I hear
they talk of going to war.— What ! go to war, now my old master is dead ! No, no,— that wont do ;
let them wait, before they go to Avai-, 'till they get such another. But they will first have a long—
long— peace indeed :— and so much the better. They would not like war, if they knew a* much
about it as we did:''

To ajiother visitant at Mount Venion— he was relating wai* occurrences. He stopped in his
narrative-" Now we come to what passed in a way, that my master never tliought I should
spealv of it :— so I always skip such things."

Much honour, it is truQ, camiot be derived fixim the eulogies of such men. But it is an evidence
of the kind treatment bis scn'ants received, when their gratitude is thus strongly, and disinterest-
edly, expressed.

Sketches of Getu Washington's Private Character, ix.

all these traits of character, they are nevertheless useful ;
and contribute to forming a correct estimate, and just opinion.

If I have taken an occasion, and place, deemed not necessa-
rily to require it, to say what (chiefly) I personally know ;
and have had peculiar opportunities of understanding iVom
the most respectable sources ; and to pay my humble tri-
bute to his memory (when patronage and power are gone ;
•^and w^hen the influence of his name does not conti-
nue, every where, to operate as it merits) it must not
be ascribed to any vain presumption in me, that I can add
to his character or fame, I have yielded to the irresistible
impulses (unpremeditatedly excited in my search for this
specimen of his writing) of a long and sincere affection and
veneration ; which will never cease, while life and recollec-
tion remain.

What he alludes to in his note (as it respects the com^
mittee of Congress) was his great plan of engrafting the
subject of AGRICULTURE, into a national system of educa-
tion ; and placing the cultivators of the soil, and their in-
struction and excitements to improvement in their art, un-
der national patronage. He was anxiously solicitous in this
patriotic endeavour. It was not imputable to him that it
failed. Had he been fortunate enough to accomplish it, no
action of his life would have deserved more celebrity, and
public gratitude.

Richard Peters.

New Tear^s Day^ 1811.

ti

INDEX.

Africa. More remarkable for varieties of animals and
plants, than any other quarter of the
globe, - - - 231-243

Agricultural Instruments. Manufactory of them recom-
mended ; and plan for an establish-
ment, - - - - 113
Great utility and benefits of such es-
tablishment, - - - 117
Analysis of soils, extract from Davy, on, - - 276
Apples — soils suited to, manure for, enemies to, 79
Reasons for supposing them natives of the U. S. 90
Armstrong General, his letter with foreign grain &c« 140
Ashes fresh, of wood, useful manure for corn, - 49
leeched— Efficacy of them ; and how applied, - 105
Answer to assertion that plaister does
not agree with ashed lands. (Note) 106

B

Baldwin Dr. on salivary defluxions of horses, - 350
Bark, peeling off fruit trees proposed as a cure for

bitter rot in apples, - - - 83

its success doubted, - - - 99

Barley recommended for laying down land to grass, 5Q

at

INDEX.

Barton Dr. on ground moles, . - - - . 137

Beans, southern. Cover of ameliorate and enrich when
ploughed in as manure : but are pre-
judicial to grass and clover husban-
dry, - - - - 74
to be soAvn on heavy land, - - - 133
Bees on, ... - - 107
Berard Mr. on efficacy of sulphur in promoting vege-
tation,'"' - - - 206
Bethlehem, star of, and blue-bottle. Highly injurious
to land. Attempts to eradicate them
ineffectual, - - - 178-9
Bitter rot in apples, - - - - 82
Blast, or black heads, of wheat, - - 54-5
Bones Thomas, certificate respecting Tunis sheep, 337
Breeding in and in. Observations on this practice, 245-6
Britain Great. Varieties of sheep and dogs there, 241-252
Broad-tailed Sheep. Tunis, - - - 211

See proofs of originality &c.
Page ii. The Hebrews and modern Arabians^ as well
as the Greeks^ distinguish by appropriate words^
what we call the Broad-tail^ from the tails of
other animals. These words, or terms, mean
a continuation of the lobi^ or elongation of the
rump,
Busti Paul on wild Garlic, - - - - 134

C

Carolina, South, Tunis sheep highly esteemed there, 238
Wool sent from thence to Philadel-
phia, and other cities of the U. S. to
be manufactured, - - 239

Cattle hoven on, -_- - --39

on soiling, - 200-313-319-320-338

Chemists, requested to assist the society, by analyzing

the lime of different quarters of our country. 285

INDEX.

Cinders (Smith's) given to hogs, fatting, - - 32

Clover pasture, cures hogs of staggers and sore throat, 31

Cooper Paul on hedges, - - - - 44

Corn (Mayze) on, - - - - 46
Corn, (Indian) stalks. Cutting boxes for, expensive
on a large farm : best used as manure ;

and how so used in Virginia, - 55

Corn, Indian, a mode of planting, with potatoes drilled, 203

and potatoes mixed cultivation of, on, 200
Crops course of, at Draveil in France. Wheat rye,

oats in succession a bad course, 144-145

D

Dogs. Sheep-killing, account of them. Dog trap. Mis-
chiefs of keeping supernumerary
dogs, Pennsylvania dog law, and
just mode of executing it. Vari-
eties of, in Great Britain, 247 to 253
Drayton Dr. on Guinea corn, and broom corn, - 316
Duet excretory. In sheep, mouth of it between the
clefts before. In cattle also in the fore
part of cleft. In swine in the hinder
part of the shank, its use, and diseases 220
arising from its stoppage, - - 221
Dung hot and fresh ; remarks on, - - - 172-204
Dupont Mr. his powder works : and factory. Meriiio

Jiock : and remarks on form of that sheep, 242-3

E

Earth of a field near Paris, analysis of, - - 144

Euphorbia maculata, supposed cause of defluxions in

horses, - - - - 350

F
Fruit and fruit trees on, - - - 79

Fruit trees and orchard, observations on, require shel-
ter against cold winds. Peach tree

INDEX.

benefitted by loss of its limbs, - 183
Remarks, - - - 185

G
Garlic, Wild, modes of destroying it, 120-131-ai4

Gibbes, John Esq. Extract from his letter, on Tunis

sheep, - - - - 238

Gleditsia Triacanthos, on - - - - 291

Grafting, on and directions for - - . - 89
Grain, foreign ; sent by General Armstrong. Wheat,
ble d"^ abundance rye, a remarkable fine
variety. ^dcA^y^Vorge fromentes^ 140

Remarks on - - - - 141-2

Deterioration of by change - 290

Gregg Mr. his husbandry on clay soils, - - 71-2
Groif Joseph, his certificate on Tunis sheep, - 2^5

Gruchy de Mr. on diseases oi hogs, - - - 28
Guarrigues Edward, communication on fruit trees 183

Guinea corn on, - - . - 316

Gypsum. Colonel Taylor's account of his experi-
ments on - - - 51-55-61
Application of it in Europe, cause of its ope-
ration and effects - - 207-8-9-10

on, - - 51

utility of, in keeping off frost from apple trees, 87

H

Harrowing, wheat on, _ _ - - 9

Haws black, recommended for hedges . - - 45

Hedges live, on, ----- 24-34-44

Hollingsworth, Z, on disease of wheat, - - 287
Horses and cattle, middle sizes most profitable, - 219

Hoven catde, _ - _ - - 39

Husbandry, small and extensive compared - - 63

Heavy crop exhausts, though said to ame-
liorate land, - - - - 64-5

INDEX.

Dead — or live — cover on land ameliorates, ibid.
Indian corn and wheat, in same field, con-
demned, - - - - 66
Change of crop, recommended, by its con-
trary being injurious, - - 68
Fall ploughing recommended - 69-130
Drill husbandry, observations on (Note) 69
Clay soil mode of treating and cropping

husbandry on such soils, - 71-2
Implements used in this culture, - 72
English husbandry, its expense and bur-
thens ; remarks on, - - . 72-3
of Virginia, on, - - « _ loO
Remarks on, - - - - 103
I

Insect kills wheat in Maryland, - - 287

Jocelin's pruning shears on, - - - - 310

L

Lease of a farm on shares, - - - 260 to 271

Lentz George and William Rusk. Certificates relating

to Tunis sheep, - - - _ 234

Lime on, - - - - X

On liming lands — mode — ^lime kilns. — quantity
per acre species ol lime — English ideas of 3fag'
nesian lime — doubted, — mischiefs of over-liming,
or too hard cropping — effects on various soils —
probable mode of operating — necessity of analy-
sing lime, to discover its strength and qua-
lities, ------ 272-286

No hostility between lime and gypsum, - 285

Lime kilns, coked coal, a substitute for wood in burn-
ing lime, . - _ - ^ 273
Premium, recommended for improvement in, ibid.
Erection of, on tide water, — for city supplies of
lime, - - - - - - - 273

INDEX.

Lime analysis of, - ----- 305

Liming land on, - - - - 272

Livingston R. R. extracts from his essay on sheep, 257
Lorain John on soiling cattle, and mixed cultivation

of corn and potatoes, _ - - 200

on soiling cattle, and mixed cultivation

of corn and potatoes, - - - 313

profit of, 319

Further remarks on, - - 320-338

Lyman Joseph on Corn (Mayze) - - - 46

M

Mag-nesian lime generally used in U. States, 8-284

Manure of privies useful for onions, - - 22

Mease Dr. Eulogium on William West, by, - 147

Mildew on, - - - - - 164
remarks on, by Col. Pickering; who transmits

thoughts on mildew, by "a New England-man," 164

Moles ground, on, - - - - 137

N

Newbold Thomas, on leeched ashes as a manure, 105

O

Oats an exhausting crop when it perfects its seed — not
necessary to kill garlic, but, requiring earlif
ploughing^ gains the credit of that operation, 122-6

Oat pasture on, - - - - - 186

Oliver Peter, on mildew, 166

Onions on by William Philips, - - - 17

by John Lang, - - - - 19

P

Pattern farm, recommended to southern proprietors of

large farms, - - - - - 73-78

Peach trees, lime preventive of diseases in, - - 13

Observations on, - - . - - 16

INDEX.

'Pennsylvam^i do^- law account of and remarks o?i^ 250

Peas, field, recommended an ameliorating crop, 127

Mode of culture, - - - - 132

Perlee Dr. on salivary defluxions of horses, - 350

Peters Richard, remarks on hoven cattle, - - 41

Remarks on diseases of swine, ^ 33

Observations on Colonel Taylors letter, 63
Virginia Husbandry, - - 103-4

Plan for establishing a manufactory of
agricultural instruments ; and ware-
house and repository for receiving and
vending them, - - 113 to 119

Extirpation of wild garlic, - — 120
On the field-pea, - - - 132

Remarks on hot dung, - - 172

On salt as a manure, - - 1 73

On tough sod, star of Bethelem, and
blue -bottle, - - 178 to 182

Remarks on fruit trees, particularly the
peach, - - - - 185

on planting Indian corn and potatoes
and heavy manuring with fresh dung, 203-4
Translation of part of a French memoir
on the vegetative efficacy of sulphur, 206-10
On Tunis broad-tailed mountain
sheepy - - - - 211

wooly 240
Breeding in and in, - - 245

On sheep-killing dogs, - - 247

Originality, and high estimation of
broad tailed sheep, - i ii iii iv v vL
Heads of lease of a farm, on shares, 260-271
On liming land, - - 272-286

Note on wheat, with the decay of the
root^ - - . - 288-9

INDEX.

On grain ; deteriorated by change and
mixture, . - _ 290

Phillips William, on peach trees, - - - 12

on onions, - - - - IT

Pickering Timothy, transmits with remarks, thoughts

on mildew, - - 164

Plough Draveil; Drawing of, sent by General Arm-
strong, from France ; and account of
its operation. Comparison with
American ploughs and their simpli-
city approved, - - 142-3-4-5
Plough, notice of a new one, _ , . 142
Potatoe champion account of one sent from France, 141
Potatoe and corn culture, - . _ 200
Preston Samuel on fruit and fruit trees, - - 79
on grafting and bitter rot, - - 89

Q.

Queries on fruit and fruit trees, - - - - 79

R

Rags,— utility of as a manure, - - - 5-7

Raybold Philip, letter on Tunis sheep, - - 236

Rawle William on agricultural tours, and hedges of

honey locust, - - - - - 291

Roberts Algernon, on wild garlic, - - 120

Robinson A. on hedges, - - - 24

Rot bitter of apples on, - - - - 79

S
Scythe and cradle : American of superior form and

make, to that in England, - - - 145

Sainfoin remarks on, (Note) - - - - 142

Salt. George Redd's account of its being strewed be-
neficially in small quantities. Facts of its efficacy
to repel frosts, . - - 173-4-5

Notes on, - - ^ - - 177

INDEX.

Sheep, Tunis broad tailed, account of original stock

brought into Pennsylvania ;
and endeavours to propagate
them, - - - - 211
Highly valued in South
Carolina, - - 238

Value of Tunis sheep com-
pared with others — wool
and mutton, - - 215

1. Facts as to fleece. 2.
Hardiness. 3. Tendency to
fatten. 4. Gentleness and
quietude. 5. Healthfulness.
6. Coupling. Black -Tongue
said to be a sign of tendency
to breed black sheep. — 7.
Tail the test of blood, - 217
White fleece no desirable
object ; and mark of depar-
ture from race, - 222
Mr. Livingston's account
of broad tailed sheep ani-
madverted on, and proofs of
non application to the Tu-
nis sheep. 225-6 to 229 inclusive,
Some of these sheep said
to be in Virginia, Parts of
that state favorable to sheep
breeding, - 232-233
Certificates of and proofs,
relating to Tunis sheep, 234-239
Have easy births, structure
of hinder parts favorable to
yeaning, - - - 246
b +

UNDEX.

Sheep, Tunis. The woo// comparison with

merino, and other wool-
docking tails of sheep, 240-243
See note page, iv, " proofs
originality," and (wool). —
Explanation of the plate
placed before page 211: and
account of the sheep therein
represented, - 254-256

Keeping different breeds of
sheep separate and distinct,
recommended, also mquiries
into varieties of breeds in
America, - - . 241
Young sheep, except the
Tunis, do not fat equal to
those aged, - .■ 236

Dentition, and loss of teeth ;
ages of sheep deemed cli-
macterical, (note) - 237

Lap-ears of sheep, - 229

Sizes and qualities, deemed
most eligible for breeders, 219
Varieties in Great Britain, 241
Extracts from R. R. Liv-
ingston Esq. his essay on
sheep, - - ^57

Practice of Pennsylvania
farmers as to their flocks, 240
Originality and high estima-
tion of broad tailed sheep
proved, - i ii iii iv v \i

Sickle toothed, American better than imported, smooth

edged reaping hook used in Europe, condemned, 145

Sod, mode of rotting and success of it, - 178-9

Soils, analysis of on Dravezl farm, near Paris (France) 144

INDEX,

Professor Davy'^s treatise on analysis of soils ;
and observations thereupon. Analysis of their
own soils recommended to farmers here, objects

of our premium on that subject, - - - 276
Swine, diseases of, - - - - 28-29

Remedies for certain diseases in, - - 30-31
Sour wash, said not to be so good for, as that

sweet, ----- - 32

Cinders (blacksmith's,) substituted for rotten

wood given to hogs, - - - - 33

Observations on the above (note) - - ibid

Salt, on as a manure, - - - - _ I73

Seeds, various French account of, grain - - 140

Smith Samuel H. on bees, - - - - 107

Soiling cattle on, - - - - 313^3.3^

Soils on improvement of, - - - 18G

Sour gum tree recommended for hedges, - - 44

Star of Bethelem on, - - - - 178

Steele J. D. on hoven cattle, - - - - 39

Sulphur promotes vegetation, - - 206

T
Taxes comparison of taxes, tithes &c. on lands in En-
gland with the light imposts on American farms, 72-3
Tayloe Colonel, his letter on Virginia husbandry, and

remarks thereon, - - 100-104

Taylor John on gypsum, various experiments with, 51-75

on utility of bird foot clover, - - 52

Thouin, professor, translation of his letter, - 308

Timber and Plants changes of, - - 357

Tough sod on rotting of, - - ,- - - 178

Townsend apple tree, observations on, - - 90

Tours agricultural on, - - - - 291

V
Vegetable cover and manure. Clover bird (foot) and
other plants, sown to rot, or for ploughing

INDEX.

in, without feeding, or cutting ; — to fur-
nish vegetable matter for manure, and ame-
lioration, - - . _ . 52
Said there to be best ploughed in dry-
But see page 63.
Alternation— Indian corn and vegetable
cover plaistered and ploughed in to pre-
cede and follow, in constant biennial suc-
cession, - - - ibid
Col. Taylor's account and explanation of
his process on the foregoing plan, - 75
Benefits of restoring vegetable matter to
the soil, - - - - 77

Virginia Tunis sheep there. Parts of that state calcu-
lated for sheep-breeding, - - 233

Vegetation promoted by sulphur, - - - 206

w "

West William eulogium on, > _ _ - 147

Wheat, on harrowing in the spring, - - 9

disease in, called decay of the root, - 287-8

Remarks thereon, - - - 288-9

Worms, found in other sheep, do not breed in the Tunis

race, 222-6

Wool, Tunis in great estimation and yields more to the

fleece than that of common sheep, - 234

Not equal to merino ; but superior to most others, 244

average weight of Tunis fleeces ; and description

of them, - - - - 217

Comparison of Tunis wool with that of English fleeces,

See note on proof of originality, - - - vi

Wool micrometer on, - - - 325

Y

Young William on oat pasture and improvement of

soils, - - - - 186

ERRATA.

Errors in orthography, grammar ^ amd punctuationy deficient or I'cdundant,
must be left for correction, to the candid and intelligent reader.
Memoirs, Page 2, H line from top read "never found to be injurious.'*

42, 2 paragraph, insert a, before quarter or half an ounce &c.

5S, last paragraph,/or "rotted.'^ read rolled.

63, last paragraph should read (5 line from bottom,) "from

thirty to fifty bushels of wheat, per acre."
66, near the bottom — chaff-bearing, between culmiferous

and crops — should be in a parenthesis.
72>, line 6, of note — insert j'ef, before "we are assuredly.'"
91, 1, second paragraph — proprietor.

101, 5, second paragraph, dele As — before I.

119, 4, note, 2 paragraph dele *Wrtreflf"— insert, offered.

7 line — indispensably.
145, 9, of note—" two and an half."

151, 3, dele "De."

173, Text 3 line, from the bottom ; dele ^'pounds," and iii-

sert bushels.
220, last line. Read, "swine have the mouth of\he duct, &c."
229, yo/- *'most sheep have, more or less, the lap-ear," read,

inany sheep, &c.
239, at the end— June 7th, should be July 7th.
246,ybr flock's, readjf^oci-.y.
352, for caniscens, read canescens.
ij. Proofs of originality &c. The T Jod or Yod, is omitted in

the word Miah, or Alieh — read, ntbx. Magntis-

Jieri — to be made, or formed, large,
ii, read, ©o-ipvv, 02(pT2 is Lumbus, the loin. Qsphun means a

continuation of the Icin.

Ki^y.oa — kerkos, is Cauda, — the tail. «ja, oura, is

also Cauda ; from Sfoir, terminus, the extremity.

It would apply to the appendage, below the

ocr^yy, — See the plate,
iv, part of the sixth line should read—" The flesh, and the

fat intermixed, of all victims 8cc."
v, " flows back, t© recruit the mass of blood and other parts

of the system." — This should read, "fo recruit the

m,ass of blood :''* ["and, consequently, other parts

of the system."] The latter is an observation of

the translator.
Inquiries on Plaister, page 18. For "respectfully" read respectively.

120, for " o/" aromatic pain" read, in aromatic pain.
Advertisement, before Tnquuncs : for sat, read set.