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UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
LIBRARY

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COLLECTIONS

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MEMOIRS

OF THE

PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY
FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE;

CONTAINING

COMMUNICATIONS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS

IN

HUSBANDRY AND RURAL AFFAIRS,
VOL. IV.

" Let us cultivate the ground, that the poor, as well as the rich, may be
" filled ; and happiness and peace be established throughout our borders."

Tentanda Via est, qua nos quoque possimus tollere Humo .-

PHILADELPHIA

PUBLISHED BY BENJAMIN WARNER,

NO. 147, MARKET STREET.
1818.

•h3*V*V* -v -i\\*', •*•

* '.- < - 1 ' •

"f S~3

v, <4-

X

CONTENTS.

Page,
Preface, - ..--»---- i

Alteration in the Laws, ' - - - vi

Officers of the Society, - - - - - vii

List of members elected since the publication of the last vol. viii
Library, - - - - - - - xi

A Discourse on Agriculture, by Richard Peters, President,

at the request of the Society, - - -

An Address on the progress of Agriculture, with hints for

its improvement in the United Slates, by James Mease,

M. D. one of the Vice-Presidents. -

Notices for a young Farmer, particularly one on worn

lands; Sfc. by Richard Peters, - - - .-

CONTENTS OF THE MEMOIRS.

I. T. M. Foreman, Esq. on Crawford rye, 1

II. Account of wire fences, by White and Hazard, - 3

III. On Spanish peasantry, their improved lime-kilns, and
economical cooking stoves, by Anthony Morris, Esq. - 9

IV. Richard Peters' s letter on hill-side and other American
ploughs, - - - - - --13

T. Jefferson aifid Col. Randolph on the Mil-side plough, 16

V. J. Parker, of Kent couuty, Maryland ; his account of
sedge -w heat ; and successful experiments by changing
seed, - - - ------19

Note, by R. Peters, 25

VI. On threshing out wheat by a roller, by Nicholas Ridge-
ley, Esq. of Dover, Delaware, - - - - 29

VII. Account of Bennett's clover and turnip sowing ma-
chine, by George Logan, M. D. - 44

VIII. Communication from James Parker, of Maryland,

on disease called stunt in wheat, - - -47

CONTENTS.

Page.

IX. Jlecount of the Virginia cider apple, called Gloucester

white, by James Mease, M. D. - - 49

X. On Smyrna wheat, by Samuel Hazard, 52

XI. Elastic tubes for giving relief to hoven cattle, invent-
ed by Dr. Monroe, professor of anatomy, Edinburgh, - 55

XII. On the cultivation of the Woad plant, by H. S. Dear-
born, Esq. - - - - - - 57

XIII. On preserving Indian Corn from frost, by Samuel
Morey, of New Hampshire, - - - - 63

XIV. On wine, made from cider and honey, by James Par-
ker, Esq. - -- -- - -65

XV. Description of a steam apparatus for boiling potatoes,
turnips, Sfc. communicated by Reuben Haines, 68

XVI. On the utility of horse rakes, by Roberts Vaux, Esq. 71

XVII. On the successful cultivation of wheat on the sea
coast of Rhode Island, by Messrs. Greenes, communicated
to Dr. Mease, by Dr. Joseph Comstock, of East Green-
wich, Rhode Island, - - - - - 74.

XVIII. Account of the means to prevent the smut and mil-
dew, of wheat, adopted with success in Flanders, by James
Mease, M. D. - - ... - 76

XIX. Jlecount of an uncommonly fertile soil in Lancaster
county, and on trimming hedges, by Caleb Kirk, of De-
laware, --- - -•- -82

XX. On the utility of planting hops near grape vines, in
preventing the destruction of the grapes by insects, by
James Mease, M. D. - - - 84

XXI. Miers Fisher, Esq. on various trees, - 86

XXII. Corn grubs, or cut worms, by R. Peters, 89

XXIII. Effects of season on crops, by T. Semple, - - 95

XXIV. On the effects of season on crops : on fall plough-
in"-, and oyster shells as manure, by John Jidlum, Esq. 97

XXV. On Hotchkiss''s straw cutler, by R. Peters, - 104

XXVI. On straw cutting, and Mangel Wurtzel, by Isaac

C. Jones, 107

XXVII. On the same subject, by the same, - - 112

CONTENTS.

XXVIII. The effect of the season of 1816, by general Da-
vid Humphreys, of Connecticut, - - - - 113

XXIX. On gypsum, by John Patterson, of Warren, Virg. 115

XXX. Richard Peters, jun. Esq. communication to Mr.
Eastman, on Hotchkiss's straw cutter, - - - 118

XXXI. Samuel Betton, M. D. communication on sugar
canes, - - - - - 120

XXXII. On Tangier wheat, by William Poole, - - 122

XXXIII. On the disease in wheat called stunt, by Thomas
Plater, Esq. - - - - - - 125

XXXIV. Observations on the summer of 1816, by Samuel

L. Mitchell, M. D. 127

XXXV. Observations on the season, and its influence and
effects on vegetation, in the year 1816; beginning ivith
those belonging to agriculture, Sfc. by

of East Marlborough, Chester county, Pennsylvania, - 130

XXXVI. Periodical freshes every fourteen years in the De-
laware, and north-east branch of the Susquehanna ri-
vers, by S. Preston, 140

XXXVII. On the importance of the navigation of the De-
laware and Susquehanna rivers, by the same, - - 145

XXXVIII. Extract of a communication to the late Bernard
M'Mahon, of Philadelphia, deceased, on the culture, ma-
nagement, and uses of the Mangel Wurtzel or root of
scarcity, by Mr. John Lloyd, of Ireland, steward to the
bishop of Derry, - - - - - - -151

XXXIX. Account of an Alderney cow, by Richard Maris, 155
XL. Effect of the late season, (1816,) on the growth of

grain, grasses, and vegetables, in the neighbourhood of
Washington, and the country above and below it, connect-
ed with the navigation of the Potomac, - - - 156
XLI. American Ploughs. Trials of them in England, 160
XLII. Robert Barclay, Esq. to R. Peters, on cole seed,

tares, Mangel Wurtzel, and trials of American ploughs, 162
XLIII. Account of trial of Towsleifs plough ; and culture
of corn, turnips, Sfc. by Abraham M. Garrigues, - 165

CONTENTS.

Page.
XLTV. Double furrow plough, communicated by Mr. James

Eastburn, --- - -.-. 169
XLV. On muck and fresh stable manure, by E. G. Pass-
more, of Delaware county, Pennsylvania, - 172

Note thereon, by R. Peters, 181

XLVI. Mode of cultivating Indian corn. Harrows. By

R. K. Meade, of Virginia, 184

XLVI I. Stunt and black grub, by Samuel Preston, - 189

XLVIII. Communications in consequence of the request of
the society, on the circumstances attending the season

0/I8I6, 190

No. 1. By Parker Cleaveland, of.Brunsivick, Maine, 192

2. By John Gardner, of York, Pennsylvania, - 195
Note, by R. Peters, - - - - 196

3. By William Poole, of Brandywine, Delaware, 198

4. By Joseph Gibbons, of Springfield, Delaware

county, - - - 199

Note by R. Peters,

5. By Parke Shee, of Upper Providence, Delaware

county, Pennsylvania, - 202

6. By Henry Coxe, of London Grove, (Penn.) 204
Note, by R. Peters, - - 206

7. By John Love, Prince William, Virginia, - 208

8. By Richard J. Jones, of Queen Anne's county,

Maryland, - - - - -211

Note by R. Peters, - - - - 215

9. By R. K. Meade, of Virginia, - - 216
10. By W. D. Bacon. Hessian fly. Tioga, Penn. 219
\\. By James MTadgen, of Kennett, Chester coun-
ty, Pennsylvania, - ... 220

12. By William Brattle, of Pittsfield, Massachu-
setts. Corn Grub, its parent $ and note by
R. Peters, - - - - - 223

XL1X. Entomological letter, by Thomas Say, - - 224

L. On raising Indian corn, by W. Noland, Esq. in a let-
ter to Thomas Leiper, Esq. - 227
LT. Wire fence ; oats ; Jersey manure ; corn grubs ; fall
ploughing, 8{c. Sfc. by Richard Peters, - - - 229

CONTENTS.

X

Page.
LII. Hessian fly ; grain moth ; cut worms, by Tliomas Say, 236

LIIT. On the improvement of land by the use of shell-marl,

by J. Singleton, of Talbot county, Maryland, - - 238

LIV. On reclaiming, improving, and cultivating salt marsh-
es, by general John Swartwout and Brothers, - - 250
LV. On the same subject, by John R. Coates, Esq. - 257

LVI. On the culture of Mangel Wurtzel, or improved beet

root, by Isaac C. Jones, - 285

LVH. On burning clay for manure, by James Mease, M. D. 291
LVIII. Inquiries on the subjects of an address, circulated
by the curators of the society, through the several counties

of Pennsylvania, - 305

LIX. Improved Pocket Chondrometer, - - - - 312
LX. Weight of grain, Sfc. - - - - - 314

LXI. Correction of error in " Notices for a young farmer," 316
LXI1. Weight and size of a superior ox, sold in the Phila-
delphia market, in 1818, - - - - -317

CUTS.

I. Wire fence, - - - - --6,7

II. Machine for heating irons, - - - - 10,11

III. Economical Kitchen, - - - - - 11, 12

IV. Plat of a sedged wheat field, - - 48

V. Elastic tube, for relieving hoven cattle, - 55

VI. Steam apparatus, for boiling or steaming potatoes, <$'c. 68

VII. Horse Bake, - - - -71

VIII. Triangular Harrow, - - - - - 186

IX. Improved common Harrow, - - - - 188

X. Jin Implement used in planting of Mangel Wurtzel, 289

XI. Improved Pocket Chondrometer, - - 313

XII. An Ox, bred and fed in New Jersey, - - 31s

PLATES.

I. Hill side Plough, - - - - - 16

II. BenneWs Machine for sowing clover and other small
seeds, - - - ----44

III. Hotchkiss's Straw- Cutter, - 104

PREFACE.

THE flattering appearances of a more general diffu-
sion of a spirit encouraging to the friends of Agricul-
tural Improvement, which pervade our country, are
highly gratifying to our Society, whose labours have con-
tributed to rouse our fellow-citizens to a proper sense of its
importance, We arrogate to ourselves no peculiar merit;
though we look back, with great satisfaction, on our per-
severance in disinterested and patriotic endeavours. The
success attending such endeavours is the only reward we
covet ; nor do we claim exclusive praise. In other districts
of our Union, similar exertions have been made, by intelli-
gent and highly meritorious associations, to rescue from its
torpid situation a subject which is of the first consequence, as
it regards not only the individual happiness, subsistence and
comforts of all our citizens, of whatever profession or calling
they may respectively be ; but as it relates to the strength,
resources, and safety of our common country, which already
exhibits a rare phenomenon in the history of nations. The
Plough, and not the Sword, is the true emblem of its cha-
racter. Whilst, in other divisions of our globe, conquest,
and the splendour of military achievements, obtained by the
sacrifice of thousands of victims to bloody and heartless am-
bition, afford a false glare of national greatness; our strength,
wealth and happiness, are results produced by the enterprise,
exertion, and individual industry of a most wonderfully aug-
mented population. The Sword we have used, most effect-
ively, for defence ; and it can be wielded as effectively for
offence, when discomfiting our foes may require it. But the
Plough-share will more certainly and more innocently extend
our power and advancement. Our territory is more than
sufficient for ages of increasing population. We have only to
cultivate, with intelligence and assiduity, the regions we pos-
sess ; to render us incalculably prosperous and powerful. We

ii Preface. '

should not neglect the art of war, however greatly it is to be
deprecated, in order that we may be able to repel invaders :
but our leading propensities and pursuits should be those which
enable us to cherish and perfect the arts of peace. Among these,
Agriculture is indubitably the most useful, it being the
foundation and source of nutriment to all the rest. By this
the solid strength of our nation, which mainly consists in
a hardy, thriving, and independent yeomanry, is insured
and extended. Territory without an industrious popula-
tion is as unprofitable as a barren waste; and, whatever may
be its fertility, all its powers are torpid, until agricultural ex-
ertion, and intelligence in applying ijt, give to them activity
and value. Nor will the most fertile regions be either produc-
tive or safe, if intelligent husbandry be not practised, to ena-
ble those who inhabit them to support themselves in conden-
sed society ; and gain, in plenty and security, both subsist-
ence and reasonable wealth, on limited and proportionably
small allotments, in almost boundless wilds. As well might
our new countries be still the haunts of roaming savages,
as be possessed by semi-barbarous and roving hunters, or
even scattered husbandmen, ignorant in their art, and expo-
sed to every attack of ferocious beasts, and equally savage
men. In our old and first settled districts, the advantages ac-
cruing from this invaluable art, are still more necessary and
indispensable. The natural fertility of those countries has
been hard pressed ; and, in many portions of them, it has
passed away : their population rapidly diminishes, and the
value of property therein is lamentably, yet not irrecoverably,
decreased. Double diligence and exertion are therefore neces-
sary to counteract the temptations, which new countries, often
deceptively, hold out to fickle or enterprising occupants of
worn lands. It, then, most impressively behooves the citi-
zens of our seaboard countries to patronize every plan cal-
culated to prevent unnecessary emigration. The sure mode
is that which teaches our husbandmen to be easy and happy
at home ; and, of course, supersedes the necessity of their

Preface. iii

wandering abroad. Those who dwell in cities would be-,
beyond all others, the most helpless and forlorn, should the
fields on which they depend for supplies be ill cultivated, or
finally deserted by the tillers of the soil. Of what avail, in
that deplorable predicament, would be their pecuniary wealth,
gained by commerce, manufactures, and the arts which con-
tribute to luxury, refinement, comfort, and tranquil enjoy-
ment? As well might their coin be reduced to its original
ore, and returned to the mines from which it had been drawn :
or, if it could be farther used for accumulation, it must be
transported to other, and perhaps precarious, scenes of spe-
culation. Their property, now styled real, would sink into
unsubstantial nothingness. Let them, then, of all others, be
the most forward in promoting Agricultural Improve-
ment, by contributing liberally to the facilities of roads, in-
ternal navigation, and other means by which it is encoura-
ged and supported.

Our Society, however inadequate their efforts may have
been, have at least set an example worthy of imitation. It
is composed of members engaged in almost every occupation.
Although all are not practical farmers, they well know that
every citizen is, either immediately or indirectly, interested
in the prosperity of Agriculture; and that science, as well
as mechanical operation, is essential to its welfare. They
have, therefore, through along course of years, endeavoured
to bring forward conviction in the public mind, that this im-
portant art should not be left, unaided, merely to those who
pursue the labours of husbandry. The minds of the tillers
of the soil must be enlightened, by information flowing from
every appropriate source ; as their corporeal powers are invi-
gorated by the employment to which they are devoted. We
flatter ourselves, that the information we have collected and
disseminated, has greatly contributed to the pleasing pros-
pect, although it be even now only in its early dawn, which
presents itself in various quarters of our country. Many
societies for the promotion of Agriculture are formed, and

iv Preface.

forming. Several of our legislatures have evidenced encou-
raging signs of a participation in the laudable patriotism,
which, more than has heretofore been witnessed, animates
our citizens. Long may this cheering prospect continue to
brighten ; and never again may it be clouded by apathy and
inattention to the most momentous of all worldly objects
which should engage the anxieties of a well informed com-
munity. However great in amount be the pecuniary and other
moveable and fugacious possessions of civilized men, there
seems to be an inherent desire, in every individual, also to
own some portion of the earth, to which, finally, he must re-
turn. Let every one, therefore, bear a part in rendering its
surface a source of happiness and comfort, not only to him-
self, but to every member of the community with whom he
enjoys its blessings. A prominent difference between savage
and civilized man is, that the latter, by his skill and acquir-
ed intelligence, produces plentiful supplies from a small sur-
face of soil, for the support of a multitudinous population :
but the former requires regions of wilderness, for the scanty
subsistence of a few. It is the distinguishing characteristic
of savages to revolt against separate appropriations, or agri-
cultural improvement, of land. They roam the forest, in
common with the beasts devoted as their prey; and when they
do not prowl for each others destruction, their fellow- ten ants
of the wilderness are the objects of their toilsome and exter-
minating amusements in the chase. Their fondness for beads,
trinkets, and other baubles, is quite as rational as is the cur
pidity of those in civilized life, who amass money for the mere
gratification of increasing their hoards ; or circulate what they
have, for the sole purpose of swelling the amount of their stock ;
without using it for promoting the most worthy of all pursuits,
that of employing, instructing, and thereby eminently benefit-
ing their fellow men. Among these pursuits, the most general-
ly advantageous are those which encourage and promote the
culture, improvement, and embellishment of a country. Gold
and silver, amassed with no public object, or laudable private

Preface. v

benefit, are as worthless, whilst thus hoarded or avariciously
turned; as the beads, trinkets, and baubles, with which sava-
ges gratify their rude and childish propensities. Such stores
of useless wealth their sordid possessors must leave behind
them ; without a vestige of public-spirited employment of it,
to embalm and perpetuate their memory.

Actuated by the motives which, at first, induced us to form
our association, we now present to our agricultural, and all
our fellow-citizens, our Fourth Volume of Memoirs.
It is not to be expected that any thing more than unconnect-
ed, and often crude, materials for forming regular systems,
or treatises, can appear in such collections. We flatter our-
selves, however, that it will be found at least equal to our
former publications ; and receive the candid indulgence; with
which our preceding volumes have been treated.

LAWS.

At the annual meeting in January, 1818, the third, tenth, and
sixteenth laws of the society were altered, as follows :

ARTICLE III.

The society shall have a president, and four vice-presi-
dents.

ARTICLE X.

The stated meetings of the society shall be on the third
Tuesday of every month.

ARTICLE XVI.

For the purpose of defraying the necessary expenses of the
society, for premiums and prizes, books on agriculture, im-
proved instruments of husbandry, and other important ob-
jects and contingencies, every member shall annually pay to
the treasurer a contribution of four dollars.

If any resident member shall remove beyond the limits
prescribed, he shall not, in virtue of his resident membership,
be eligible as a candidate for honorary membership, without
being regularly proposed as such.

OFFICEHS

PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
AGRICULTURE.

Elected at the annual meeting, in January, 1818.

PRESIDENT.

RICHARD PETERS.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

WILLIAM TILGHMAN, JAMES MEASE,
GEORGE LOGAN, ROBERT COLEMAN.

TREASURER.

EDWARD BURD.

SECRETARY.

ROBERTS VAUX.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

RICHARD WISTAR, Jun.

CORRESPONDING COMMITTEE.

RICHARD PETERS, WILLIAM TILGHMAN,
JAMES MEASE, JOHN VAUGHAN,

ZACCHEUS COLLINS.

CURATORS.

ISAAC C. JONES, RICHARD PETERS, Jun.

REUBEN HAINES, JOSEPH R. PAXSON,
STEPHEN DUNCAN.

A LIST

OF THE

MEMBERS

OF THE

FH1LJWELLTHM SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
AGRICULTURE.

Elected since the publication of the last volume.

QCj* Those marked thus * are dead.

RESIDENT MEMBERS.

do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.

Coleman Fisher, Philad
*James Hamilton, do.
Joseph R. Paxson,
Joseph Ridgway,
John Miller,
John White,
Nicholas Biddle,
John Wister,
John M. Price,
Richard H. Bayard, do.
George Murray, do.
Richard Wistar,jun. do.
William Schlatter, do.
Dr. Jonas Preston, do.
William S. Warder, do.
Edward Shoemaker, do.
Stephen Duncan,
Samuel Spackman,
Joshua Lippincott,
Samuel Shoemaker,
William Smith,
Edward Paxson,
Benjamin Johnson,
Richard C. Wood,
^Richard Maris,
Isaac C. Jones,

Charles Massey, Philad.
Emanuel Eyre, do.

Charles Fox, do.

Daniel B. Smith, do.
William Walmsly, do.
Maurice Wurts, do.
John E. Hall, do.

George Morrison, do.
William L. Fisher, do.
Edward Thompson, do.
Samuel Canby, jun. do.
Condy Raguet, do.

Edward Needles, do.
David J. Davis, m. d. do.
Lewis Clapier, do.

Joseph D. Brown, do.

do.

Caleb Cresson,

do.

do.

Israel Cope,

do.

do.

George Blight,

do.

do.

Charles Bird,

do.

do.

Jacob S. Wain,

do.

do.

Robert M. Lewis,

do.

do.

Richard Bache,

do.

do.

Charles Chauncey,

do.

do.

James M. Broome,

do.

do.

John Magoifin,

do.

List of Members, ix

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Sir John Sinclair, Bart. England.
C. H. Wilkinson, M. D. Bath, England.
Domingas Borges de Barras, Rio de Janeiro.
M. De Lormerie, Paris.
* J. Billingsly, England.
David Caldwell, Philadelphia.
J. R. Evans, Esq. Elkton, Maryland.
Thomas Smith, Tinicum, Delaware county.
Dr. Ritchie, York county, Pennsylvania.
Dr. Thornton, Washington city.
Mr. Bellah, Chester county, Pennsylvania.
Gen. Thomas Robinson, do. do.

Samuel Willis, York county, do.

William J. Miller, Philadelphia county.
Thomas Pinckney, Jun. South Carolina.
J. T. Lewis, do.

G. Fisher, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Gen. T. M. Forman, Cecil county, Maryland.
James Parker, Head of Chester, do.

William Pennock, Chester county, Pennsylvania.
F. A. Vandyke, M. D. Abington. do.

Thomas Miles. do.

John J. Champlin, Long Island.
Francis Wisely, Chester county, Pennsylvania.
Mahlon Parsons, do. do.

John Adlum, District of Columbia.
Samuel Betton, M. D. Germantown, Philadelphia county.
Samuel E. Shoemaker, Maryland.
Joseph B. Sims, Brandywine. .
Thomas Vickars, Chester county, Pennsylvania.
Thomas G. Henderson, Lancaster county, do.
Virgil Maxey, Maryland. •

Robert Frazer, Delaware county, Pennsylvania.
William Shippen, M. D. Bucks county, do.
Dr. Dudley, Petersburg, Virginia.

S

List of Members.

Jacob C. Wykoff, Philadelphia county.

Samuel A. Kirk, York county, Pennsylvania.

Robert Woodward, New Jersey.

James Ross, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.

George Poe, Jun. do. do.

John Darragh, do. do.

John P. Dc Gruchy, Northumberland county, Penn.

Andrew Kirkpatrick, New Brunswick, New Jersey.

David Hosack, M. D. New York.

John Yeates, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania.

Charles Miner, Chester county, do.

Abraham Sharpless, do. do.

Edward J. Stiles, Carlisle, do.

James Duncan, do. do.

Clayton Wistar, Manington, New Jersey.

George Morgan, Washington county, Pennsylvania.

LIBRARY.

FOLIO.

Farm Account Book, consisting of Ruled Tables.
Martyn's edition of Miller's Gardener's Dictionary, 2 vols.
The Farmer's Account Book of Expenditure and Produce,

for each day, month, and year, by D. Young, Edinburgh.

Gift of James Ronaldson.
Flora Londinensis, new series, No. IV. by J. W. Hooker,

London, 1815.
Michaux on the Oaks of the United States, French.

QUARTO.

Rules of the West Lothian Farmer's Club. Gift of James

Ronaldson.
A Volume of Memoirs and Pamphlets, on Agriculture, Bo-
tany, and Rural Economy, by M. Thouin, Professor of

Agriculture, Paris, 333 pages.
Communications to the Board of Agriculture of England,

7 vols.
Michaux on the Forest Trees of the United States, with

elegant coloured plates, (French.)
The Errors of My Age with respect to Agriculture, by M.

Cointeraux, French.
Dundonald on the Intimate Connexion of Agriculture with

Chemistry.
Farmer's Daily Journal, or Accountant.
Scott's Plates of British Prize Cattle.
Transactions of the Society for Promoting Agriculture in

Connecticut. New Haven, 1802. Gift of Samuel Hazard.
Proposals for establishing an Institution, called « The

Plough, or Joint Stock Farming Society," by Sir John

Sinclair. Gift of Dr. James Mease.

xii Library,

Explanation of the Engravings of the most important Imple-
ments of Husbandry used in Scotland, by Andrew Gray,
1814. Gift of Samuel Patterson, Esq. Edinburgh.

Experienced Mill Wright, with 44 engravings, by Andrew
Gray, Edinburgh, 1814. Gift of do.

Complete Course of Agriculture, by Rosier, 10 vols. (French.)

Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, Vol. I.
part 1, and Vol. II. parts 1, 2, 3, 4.

Nicholson's Joiner and Carpenters Assistant.

A volume, containing, —

Description de l'Ecole d'Agriculture pratique du Museum et
des Examples qu'elle Renferme,

Description des Nouvelles Sortes de Greffes, viz. Griffe du
Museum, en Arc, Buffon, a, Orangers, with plates.

Hist, et Descript. du Coignassier de la Chine Nouvellement
Introduit en Europe.

Employ du machefer dans le Jardinage, par M. Jean Thouin.
The foregoing the gift of Professor Thouin, Paris.

Agricultural Reports to the British Board of Agriculture,
5 vols. Gift of George Clymer.

Communications to the Bahama Agricultural Society, Nas-
sau, New Providence, 1800.

OCTAVO.

Lawrence's Farmer's Calendar.
Bordley's Notes on Husbandry.
Transactions of the Agricultural Society of New York, 3 vols.

Gift of the Society.
Marshall's Rural Economy, 14 vols.
M'Mahon's Gardener.
Darwin's Phytologia.
Dr. Mease's edition of Willich's Domestic Encyclopaedia.

5 vols.
Culley on Live Stock.
Bryant on Esculent Plants.
Preston's Modern English Fruit Gardener. .

Library. xiii

General View of the Agriculture of the North Riding of
Yorkshire, hy John Tuke, 1800.

General View of the Agriculture of the West Riding of
Yorkshire, by Robert Brown, London, 1799.

Monthly Register and Encyclopsedian Magazine, 3 vols.
London, 1802 — 3.

Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, by Dr. Dickson,
Vols. I. II. & III.

Forsyth's Principles of Agriculture, London, 2 vols. 1304.

Letters and Papers of the Bath Society, England, Vols. X.
and XI. Gift of the Society.

Agricultural Mechanism, or a Display of the Properties of
Vehicles and Implements of Husbandry, with 20 copper-
plates, by Captain Thomas Williamson, London, 1810.

Farmer's Companion, by R. W. Dickson, M. D. second
edition, 2 vols. London, 1813.

Skellet on the Parturition of the Cow.

Veterinary Physiology and Pathology, by James Clark,
Edinburgh, 1806.

The Husbandry of Three British Farmers, Bakewell, Ar-
buthnot, and Ducket, by A. Young, London, 1811. Gift
of Richard Peters.

Sir John Sinclair's Account of the System of Husbandry
adopted in the more improved districts of Scotland, Lon-
don, 1812. Gift of Robert Barclay, Esq. of Berry Hill.

The same, the gift of Samuel Patterson, Esq. Edinburgh.

Remarks on the Drill Husbandry, by which the advantages
of that mode of cultivation are pointed out, by John An-
struther, London, 1816.

Farmer's Calendar, by A. Young.

General View of the Agriculture of Lancashire, with Ob-
servations on the Means of its Improvement, by R. W.
Dickson, 1815.

White's Veterinary Medicine, 2 vols.

Forsyth on Fruit Trees, 1812.

xiv Library.

An Epitome of Forsyth's Treatise on the Culture of Fruit
Trees, by an American Farmer. Gift of J. Humphreys.

Gleanings of Husbandry. Presented by J. Humphreys.
The following works are the gift of Samuel Patterson, Esq.

of Edinburgh.

1 . Hogg on Sheep, 1 807,

2. Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, Edin-
burgh, seven numbers.

3. Repertory of Arts, London, first 5 vols.

4. Farmer's Magazine of Edinburgh, from Vol. VIII. to
Vol. XVIII. inclusive.

5. Catalogue of Books belonging to the Medical Society of
Edinburgh.

6. Articles and Regulations for the Society of Operative
Cotton Weavers, 1807.

7. Plough Wright's Assistant, by Andrew Gray, Edinburgh,
1808.

8. Tibb's Experimental Farmer, London, 1806.

9. Observation on Banks for Savings, by the Right Honour-
able George Rose, London, 1816.

10. Select Essays on Husbandry, Edinburgh, 1767.

11. Transactions of the Society instituted at London for the
Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce,
for 1814, Vol. XXXII.

12. Lyon on Fruit Trees.

13. Prize Essays and Transactions of the Highland Society
of Scotland, 4 vols, and first part of vol. 5, Edinburgh.

14. Sir George M'Kenzie on Sheep.

1 5. Statistical Account of Scotland, by Sir John Sinclair,
Vol. II.

1 6. Statistical Account, or Parochial Survey of Ireland, by
Win. Shaw Mason, Esq. 2 vols.

17. Account of an Improved Mode of raising Crops of Grain
by means of a Drill Barrow, by Sir John Sinclair, 1815.

1 8. Sir John Sinclair on the Agriculture of the Netherlands,
London.

Library. xv

19. On Fiorin Grass, by J. Learmont.

20. On Edinburgh and Ruthwell Saving Banks.

21. Report of the Society for the relief of the Deaf and Dumb.
On the Cultivation of the Horse Chesnut Tree, by A. Baume,

Paris, 1798, (French.) Gift of N. G. Dufief.
The following nine are the gift of Dr. James Mease :

Two Letters to Sir John Sinclair, on Draining Wet Lands,
by Dr. Anderson, Edinburgh, 1796.

Constitution of the Merino Society of the Middle States of
North America, Philadelphia, 1811.

On the Pine Lands of Georgia, by George Sibbald, Augusta,
Georgia, 1801.

Observations on the Agriculture of the United States, by
Mr. Strickland, London, 1801.

On the Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce of the
United States, New York, 1789.

Essay on the Mending the Breed of Horses in America.

Bartley's Observations on the Conversion of Pasture Lands
into Tillage, and on using Potatoes in manufacturing
Starch and feeding Sheep, Bath, 1802.

On Fiorin Grass, by Dr. Richardson, London, 1810.

Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland
on Shetland Wool ; with an Appendix, by Sir John Sinclair
and Dr. Anderson, on the same subject, Edinburgh, 1790.

Marshall's Reviews of the Reports to the Board of Agricul-
ture, London, from the East : and Middle Departments,
2 vols.

Hunt's History of the Dishley System of Breeding Cattle.

Elements of Agriculture, by John Naismith, London, 1807.

Papers published by the Massachusetts Agricultural Society,
2 vols, first series. Gift of the Society.

The American Grove, or an Alphabetical Catalogue of Fo-
rest Trees and Shrubs, natives of the United States, by
Humphrey Marshall. Presented by the author.

Retrospect of Philosophical, Mechanical, and Agricultural
Discoveries, Vol. I.

xv i Library.

Nicols's Gardener's Calendar, 1814.

A Treatise on Agricultural and Rural Affairs, by R. Brown,
Edinburgh, 2 vols.

A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of
America, its Connexion with Agriculture and Manufac-
tures, by T. Pitkin, 1816.

Prize Essays and Transactions of the Highland Society of
Scotland, by Henry Mackensie, 4 vols. Gift of the So-
ciety.

Account of some Experiments to promote the Improvement
of Fruit Trees, by peeling the bark. Gift of the author,
Sir John Sinclair.

Money and Trade Considered, with a Proposal for Supply-
ing the Nation with Money, Glasgow, 1760, by John
Laws, Esq.

Young's Agricultural Survey of Essex, 1807, 2 vols.

An Essay on Draining Land by the Steam Engine, showing
the number of acres that may be drained by six different
sized engines, with the prime cost and actual outgoings, by
W.Walker, Boston, Lincolnshire, 1812.

Annals of Agriculture, 4 first vols, and vols. 6, 15, 16, 17.

Memoires de la Soc. D' Agriculture de Seine, 16 vols.

Mem. of same Soc. under the name of Soc. Royale D'Agri-
culture, 1814, 15, 16. Both presented by the Society.

Traite du Pied, considere dans les Animaux Domestiques,
par J. Girard, Paris, 1813.

Essai Theorique et Pratique sur la Ferrure, par C. Bour-
gelat, Paris, 1815.

Voyages d'un Naturaliste, par M. E. Descourtilz, 3 torn.
Paris, 1804. Gift of J. C. Montgomery.

DUODECIMO.

Memoirs of the Lives of Benjamin Lay and Ralph Sandiford,

by Roberts Vaux.
Memoir of the Life of Anthony Benezet, by Roberts Vaux.

Both presented by the author.

Library. xvii

Richard Peters on Gypsum.

H. A. S. Dearborn's Translation of Lasteyrie's Essay on the

Cultivation of Woad, Boston, 1816.
Luccock on Wool, 1805.
Constitution of the Society of Practical Agriculture, near

Bard's Town, Kentucky.
Regulations of the Leith Select Subscription Library.
Catalogue of the Library of the late Dr. Joseph Black, of

Edinburgh. Gift of Samuel Patterson, Esquire.

The following pamphlets, in French, are the gift of the
author, M. De Cubieres, of Versailles.

1. Memoir on the Ash-Leaved Maple (acer negundoj of the
United States, Versailles, 1804.

2. On the Red Cedar fJuniperus VirginianaJ of the United
States, Versailles, 1805.

3. On the Nettle Tree, fCeltisJ 1808.

4. On the Magnolia Auriculata.

5. On the Cypress, (Cwpressus Disticha.J

6. On a Remarkable Marble, called Magnesian Greek?
(Grec Magnesien.J

7. Discourse on the Advantage rendered to Agriculture by
Women.

Memoir on the Utility of Hedges, by M. Bosc, Paris, 1807.
Exposition of the Plan of Operation adopted at the various

Nurseries for Vines at Luxembourg, by M. Bosc. These

two last presented by M. Michaux, (French.)
Summary View of the Courses of Crops in England and

Maryland, by J. B. Bordley, Philadelphia, 1784. Gift

of the author.
Rules, Orders, and Premiums of the Bath Society, for 1809.

Gift of Dr. Parke.
Ditto, for 1812 and 1813. Gift of Dr. James Mease.
Ditto, for 1816. Gift of Sir J. Sinclair.
Cullyer's Farmer's Assistant, containing tables for finding

the content of any piece of land, from dimensions taken in

yards ; tables showing the number of loads that will ma:

3

xviii Library.

nure an acre of land, by knowing the distance of the heap ;
and tables for measuring thatchers' work, fourth edition.

On the State of England in December, 1816, by Sir John
Sinclair.

The following are the gift of Dr. Mease :

Des Moyens de Rendre L'Art Veterinaire plus utile, par
P. Chabert et C. M. Fromage, Paris, an 13.

Rapports Faits a la Soc. d' Agriculture du Departments de
la Seine, sur le Concours des Memoires de Medicine Ve-
terinaire pratique, par M. M. Desplas, Girard, &c. Paris,
1812.

Rapport sur le Prix Proposes pour des Observ. Pratique de
Med. Veterinaire, par M. M. Huzard, Tessier, et Girard,
Paris, 1810.

Rapport sur le Prix, pour Obs. Prat, de Med. Veterinaire,
Paris, 1811.

Rapport surles Memoires du 1812.

Rapport sur les Memoires du 1813.

Rapport sur les Memoires du 1815.

Proces Verbal de la Seance Publique Tenue a PEcole Roy-
ale d'Economie Rural e, et Veterinaire de Lyon, le 10
October, 1814, pour la distribution des Prix aux eleves.

Nouvelle Organization des Ecoles Imperiales d'Economie
Rurale et Veterinaire, Paris, 1813.

Reglement from les Ecoles Veterinaires, An. 5.
The following are also in French :

Elements of the Veterinary Art. On the Materia Medica,
by C. Bourgelat, 2 vols. 8vo. fourth edition, Paris, 1805.

Treatise on Sheep, by M. Chambon, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1810.

Treatise on the Exterior of the Horse, by C. Bourgelat,
sixth edition, with notes by J. Huzard, and plates, 8Vo.
Paris, 1808.

Instructions on Sheep, and particularly Merinos, by M.
Tessier, Paris, 1810.

Treatise on Building, en Pise, by Francois Cointeraux*
Paris, 1790. Gift of M. De Lormerie.

Library. xix

Memoir on a Cabbage that can be mowed. Choce a faucher,
by the Abbe Commerel, Paris, 1789. Gift of ditto.

On the Culture of Rice in France, by M. Lasteyric. Gift of
the author.

Report to the Agricultural Society, Paris, on M. Michaux's
Voyages to the United States, Paris, 1809. Gift of Mr.
Michaux.

List of the Members of the Agricultural Society of the De-
partment of the Seine, for 1809. Gift of the Society.
The following French pamphlets are the gift of Dr. Mease :

Memoir on Furze, Whin, or Gorze, L'Ajone, (Vltx Eiiro-
pens, Lin. J by M. Colvel, Paris, 1809.

Treatise on the Management of Forests and Woods, by M.
Dralet, Paris, 1807.

Memoir on a Disease that affected the Milch Cows of Paris
and its vicinity, year 8th.

On Sheep, by the Marquis De G , Paris, 1788.

On Merino Sheep, by F. H. Gilbert, Paris, year 7th.

Report to the Agricultural Society, Paris, on the Improve-
ment of Agriculture in the Department of High Alps,
fdes Hautes JllpesJ by M. Pettit, Paris, 1810.

On the Farming of Baron Flotbeck, and on the Cultivation
of Chicory, at Brunswick, (Germany) by M. Brunn Neer-
gard, Paris, 1808.

Manual of Practical Agriculture, by the Senator M. the
Count de Pere.

Some Facts on Merinos, by C. Pictet.

The following are the gift of John Vaughan :

Observations on the Sowing of Spring Wheat, published by
order of the Dublin Society, Dublin, 1807.

Essay on the Construction of Ice Houses, and a Description
of a Refrigerator, (for the preservation of butter or meat)
by Thomas Moore, Baltimore, 1804.
The Great Error of American Agriculture Exposed, and
Hints for Improvement suggested, by Thomas Moore,
Baltimore, 1801.

xx Library.

Treatise on Practical Farmers, and on the Use of Plaster of
Paris, Deep Ploughing, &c. by John Binns, of Loudon
county, Virginia, Frederick Town, Maryland, 1803.

Papers published by the Massachusetts Society for Promot-
ing Agriculture, 2 numbers, 1796, 1804. Gift of F. Nichols.

Virgil's Pastorals and Georgics, translated into English
prose, with Notes and Reflections, by James Hamilton,
Edinburgh, 1742. Gift of S. Patterson, Esq. Edinburgh.

Bakewell on Wool. Gift of Solomon W. Conrad.

An Essay on the Utility of Soap Ashes as a Manure, London,
1812. Gift of Dr. James Mease.

Resolutions of the General Meeting of Subscribers to the
Edinburgh and Glasgow Canal, 1815.

Directions for the Transplanting and Management of Young
Thorns, or other Hedge Plants, by Thomas Main. Gift
of Dr. James Mease.

Smith's Map of the different Strata of England, Wales, and
Scotland. Gift of Robert Barclay, Esq. England.

The Society are collecting specimens of native manures :
and also working models of useful agricultural implements,
as far as their limited funds will permit. They will cheer-
fully receive models of all improved or patented implements
from the Proprietors.

ERRATUM.

Page 121, for 10*. read 10s-

A DISCOURSE

AGRICULTURE.

ITS ANTIQUITY; AND IMPORTANCE TO EVERY
MEMBER OF THE COMMUNITY :

THE OBLIGATIONS

ALL ARE UNDER TO ENCOURAGE IT ;—

AND THE

NECESSITY OF DIFFUSING A KNOWLEDGE
«

OF ITS PRINCIPLES, AND SYSTEMATICAL PRACTICE,

AS THE FIRST STEP TOWARDS ITS

ADVANCEMENT.

DELIVERED BEFORE

THE PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY FOR PROxMOTING AGRICULTURE:

AT THEIR REQUEST,

On their Annual Meeting-, the 9th of January, 1816.
BY RICHARD PETERS,

TUEIfl. PRESIDENT.

At a meeting of the " Philadelphia Society for pro-
moting Agriculture," held 11th mo. ( November ) Ikth,
1815, itxuas, " Resolved that the President be requested
to prepare a discourse on the progress of Agricultural im-
provements in the United States, and on the causes thai
have contributed thereto, with hints for its further ad-
vancement"

At the annual meeting of the Society, convened on Ja-
nuary fist mo. J 9 thy 1816, the President delivered a
" Discourse on Agriculture,' y after which, (the Vice-
President, Chief Justice Tilghman, in the chair,) it was,
on motion of Miers Fisher, " Resolved unanimously,
that the thanks of the Society be presented to the Pre-
sident, for his able and interesting discourse this evening
delivered, and that he be requested to furnish a copy of
it, for publication"

Extracted from the Minutes.

ROBERTS VAUX, Sec'ry.

A DISCOURSE ON AGRICULTURE

IT is more to evidence my disposition to use every endea*
your to show the importance of the subject of our institution*
and the necessity of rousing the puhlic attention to its ad
vancement, than from any consciousness, I feel, of a capacity
to gratify the wishes of the society, that I address to it some
of my own, and recitals of the sentiments of others, on a top-
ic, on which it is difficult to say any thing new.

Husbandry has been practiced, from the earliest times,
more as an art than a science. Most writers on the subject,
are like the collectors of family recipes — good for specific ca-
ses.— But no regard is had to the consequences of administer-^
ing them, as they relate to the general state of the system ;
or how they affect the future vigour and welfare of the pa-
tient. The combination of science with practice, is, relative-
ly, of modern discovery and developement. From the days
of the patriarchs to our own, agriculture has been followed
with very little attention to its principles. At least, none
have been transmitted to us, originating in remote antiquity.
These are now only in their earliest stage of progress; and
by no means settled, or extensively regarded, Yet a com-
mencement (highly honourable to those who have begun the
course of inquiry, philosophical and experimental,) has been
made, with every promise of the most important success.
There is enough already achieved, to excite the zeal, and to
reward the labours of those, who would pursue the discove-
ries, and practice on the principles displayed by both practi-
cal and theoretical writers, on a subject, which, from the ear-
liest ages to this day, has been ever considered the basis of
the comforts and prosperity of the human race.

J8

Jl Discourse on Agriculture.

When our first parents had offended, and were, in conse-
quence, exiled from that happy region, which spontaneously
furnished every innocent and necessary enjoyment, it was de-
creed, that all mankind, of whom Mam was the prototype,
should " cat bread in the sweat of their faces;" that is, they
should procure the staff of life by labour. To this end, " the
ground was cursed;" that is, it was doomed to throw up unto
Adam and his descendants, « thorns and thistles :" to the in-
tent, that labour should he indispensable, to render the earth
capable of " bringing forth its increase ;" and to conquer the
obstacles placed in their way, before they could " eat bread ;"
instead of "the herb of the f eld," which was the food, our of-
fended Maker had then prescribed to fallen man. Although
one of those curses, which were inflicted for our ultimate be-
nefit, by our all wise Creator, who has made nothing in vain,
has been turned into a blessing, by its being employed to pro-
tect the fields, to which the labour of man and the « sweat of
his face" have been applied ; and the other, or some of its va-
riety of species, has been by human ingenuity converted to
the most important purposes, not only as esculents but in the
arts; yet those "curses" still remain, in proof of the divine
displeasure, and require constant exertion to subdue them.
So that human labour, is not only indispensable in the prepa-
ration of the ground for the first stages of culture, but is in-
cessantly necessary in all the subsequent processes of hus-
bandry, in which " thorns and thistles" (the types under which
all weeds and pests are intended to be described) must be ob-
jects of constant hostility, and must be eradicated before pro-
fitable vegetation can be expected. Thus do we find, that
the destruction of weeds and pests, is rendered necessary by
a divine injunction, because it is a prerequisite, before we can
" eat bread." The first principle of practical husbandry is
thus inculcated. Jl good farmer must suffer nothing to grow,
but his crop. He must therefore use ceaseless endeavours to
extirpate weeds and pests.

However small may be the attention to this salutary max-
im, it is the foundation of all profitable operations in husband-

Ji Discourse on Agriculture xi

ry — the test of character in the agriculturist; — and should be
the pride and boast of all respectable husbandmen,

One being asked, «4 what was the best manure V9 replied,
"animal sweat;" meaning tillage, industry and intelligent
and repeated culture. All these are hostile to weeds and
pests, andare certain modes of destroying them. I mention, in
my outset, these impediments in practice, because we have
mental weeds and pests, to wit, ignorance, apathy, obstinacy,
and prejudice, to subdue, before we can reap any fruits from
our labours, to advance the interests of husbandmen, by sug-
gesting improvements in their art.

The beneficent author of our existence, always tempers his
justice with benevolence and mercy. He has enjoined labour
and persevering industry on the cultivators of the earth, not
only as a penalty on human disobedience, but as the most
sure preservatives of health ; and the safest means of insu-
ring happiness, innocence and comfort. To the industrious
husbandman, labour is a blessing ; and the results flowing
from it are inestimable rewards. His constant occupation
either softens, or prevents, the misfortunes inseparable from
our nature. It brings along with it, contentment with mod-
erate gains, unknown to the possessors of superabundant
wealth ; and secures him from the seductions to which integ-
rity is exposed; when men thirst after riches, without labour-
ing for their acquirement. His employment is placed in a
scene, for the most part, removed from the speculations of the
idle and the visionary. Whilst he obeys the divine in-
junction, " to eat his bread in the sweat of his face," his efforts
of obedience give him health and vigour to enjoy it. Yet, al-
though his corporeal powers are thus strengthened, he re-
mains deficient in mental acquirements.

This is not intended as a mere declamatory personal eulogy
on those devoted to the practice of husbandry, the employ-
ment of the immediate descendants from our first parents. It
is meant to shew the claims, which the yet defective art is en-
titled to establish, on the possessors of wealth and power; and
more especially on those who enjoy, without corporeal exer-
tions, that is, who do not " eat their bread in the sweat of their

xii A Discourse on JlgrkuUurt .

faces" the indispensable support derived from the labours of
the husbandman. Science, talent, and every mental acquire-
ment, should be liberally bestowed, when instruction is requi-
red, as it always has been, by the tillers of the earth ; whose
occupation, in a great degree, secludes them from opportunities
of gaining scientific knowledge and a capacity for philoso-
phic research. Agriculture having been not only the first
of arts in priority of time, but the first in the estimation of
the wisest and greatest men of every age ; should ever be
deemed the first object, both of public and private attention.
Power, especially that delegated by the people, should extend
its arm, and open its hand, for its aid and protection. Wealth
should unlock its coffers for its encouragement ; and genius
and science should lavish their almost magical stores for its
instruction. Commerce should yield to its support, a share of
those profits whereof it is the source; and manufactures should
bestow a willing tribute to the art, on which their existence
depends. Those who devote themselves to the learned profes-
sions, should render to it both homage and contribution.
Their usefulness or gains would be small indeed, among shep-
herds and hunters ; and those were, for the most part, the
employments of man, before agriculture widely diffused its
blessings, and mainly contributed, not only to the civilization,
but to the happiness, wealth, subsistence and safety of our
i\ace. Those who minister at the altars; and are our in-
structors and examples In our most exalted concerns ; are,
also, bound to animate, instruct, and encourage the cultiva-
tors of the soil. Many of them in other countries have been
highly meritorious, both in precept and example, on this sub-
ject. And they peculiarly know, that the exercise of this art
is venerable for its antiquity, was enjoined by a dispensation
of providence, and established by an ordinance of heaven.
[t was followed by our first parent and taught to his children.
His first born, Cain, incurred the divine displeasure, and laid
the foundation of his posterior crime, as some commentators
assert, by offering on the altar, grudgingly and impiously,
the mean products of his fields. — An awful and warning les-
son this., to bad and narrow-minded farmers ! Noah selects

A Discourse on Agriculture. xiii

ed and saved from the almost universal destruction of our
race, was a Husbandman ; destined to repeople the earth ;
and to practice and diffuse his invaluahle and all essential art,
as one the most necessary to the support and prosperity of
the succeeding inhabitants of the renovated world.

On us, whose happy lot is cast in a free country, the
extension and encouragement of agricultural improvement, is
most impressively incumbent. J\Eontesquieu has, with truth,
observed, that <l countries are not cultivated in proportion to
their fertility, but to their liberty." The Athenians,
among the first of the Greeks who acquired a free govern-
ment and the polish of civilization and science, were famed
for their knowledge in agriculture. But alas ; their coun-
try, which still continues to be scourged by ruthless despo-
tism, brought on at first by their abuse of liberty, in place of
smiling in its once exuberant plenty, now weeps over its long
lost prosperity . Its dreary desarts still contain the ruins of
its former splendor; which remain, not only mouldering
monuments for painful reflection and salutary instruction to
all people, but solemn warnings to ws, who have evidenced
some strong similitudes of private character and public pro-
pensities ; whilst we possess the rich pearl, which they had
wantonly and licentiously thrown away ! Their freedom has
passed from them ; and their agriculture along with it.

Xenophon, a distinguished Athenian, a great captain and
celebrated historian, who traversed vast regions of the old
world, and led the Grecian armies, in, to them a ruinous, but
to him, personally, a highly honourable, foreign war, has many-
ages ago remarked that " agriculture is the nursing mo-
ther of the arts. For, where it succeeds prosperously, there
the arts thrive ; but where the earth necessarily lies unculti-
vated, there the other arts are extinct."*

In the early periods of the Roman Republic, when liberty
was a substantial blessing, and not an empty sound ; the
highest praise that could be given to any citizen, was, to say

* See Bath Society papers— out of which I have taken some thoughts and
facts.

xiv A Discourse on Agriculture,

of him, " that he had well cultivated his spot of ground."
The leading propensities of her greatest men, were to cast
off their rohes of state, and lay aside their truncheons and
ensigns of power, to * cultivate their spots of ground." And,
in some instances, when absent on high commands, or impor-
tant public duties, their little farms were cultivated at public
expense. But if the illustriously didactic Virgil, could
now revisit the neighbourhood of Rome, and many parts of
the scenes of his still unrivalled Georgics, which were
composed at the instance of the crafty minister of Octavius
Crvsar, pompously styled Augustus, who patronized them,
to repair and make some amends for the waste and misery,
he had mainly himself occasioned ; the feeling poet might
again exclaim, as he did, in the character of Melibaus, in
his first eclogue ;

" Impius haec tarn culta Novalia Miles habebit ?
Barbarus has Segetes ? en quo Discordia cives
Perduxit miseros ! en queis consevimus Agros !"*

With no small degree of anguish he would perceive, that he
had written his yet justly admired agricultural lessons in
vain. The long and unprecedented ravages, with which Eu-
rope has been afflicted in our day, verify the remark of Mon-
tesquieu. In extensive regions of that quarter of the globe,
Agriculture has been either suspended or languishing. Where-
soever it had any activity, its scanty products have been con-
sumed, or trodden down by unrelenting and heartless spoilers.
The modern competitors for power, how far soever necessity
and self-preservation might justify most of them, and one,
beyond all the rest, in desolating ambition : have shewn them-
selves as perfect masters in the works of destruction, as their
examples, the ambitious, remorseless and sanguinary Cae-
sars of antiquity ? though, one excepted, they may not copy
them in personal flagitiousness.

* Shall an impious soldier possess these well tilled fallows ? A barbarian
these crops? Behold the abyss, into which dissension has plunged our miserable
citizens ! Lo, for whom, we have sown our corn-fields !

,# Discourse on Agriculture. xv

Modern times fully display the truth of ancient positions.
In European countries enjoying the greatest share of free-
dom; in that particularly from whence our ancestors emi-
grated, and brought with them many of our best principles of
liberty and law; agriculture is in a high state of perfection.
And it is fortunate for the people of that country, that such is
their knowledge in this art, that they are enabled to substitute
other esculents in place of wheat, or, as they term it corn,
both for men and domestic animals. For it appears, that ow-
ing to ceaseless wars, over-manufacturing, tithes, poor-rates
and difficulties in obtaining the right to enclose and cultivate
their wastes and romnioiiB, they had, in twelve years prece-
dent to 1814. necessarily imported 700,000 quarters of wheat,
annually; valued, for the twelve years, at 30,000,000 of
pounds sterling, for their own consumption. What additions
to their importations have since occurred, I Ikivc not recent-
ly examined. To encourage their agriculturists, at the ex-
pense of the consumers, they are now compelled to enact re-
strictive laws, regulating the import; having by precedent
laws regulated the export of corn. Whether these are salu-
tary, or not, great differences of opinion exist among them.
Such laws do not often reach, but generally defeat their own
objects ; and, by recent accounts, it appears, that the British
corn laws verify this observation. Buonaparte, who aimed at
a lead in every thing, destroyed his project for filling France
with Merino sheep, by forbidding their exportation ; whilst
no such prohibition is there imposed on agricultural pro-
ducts.*

France also exhibits an additional instance, that even par-
tial freedom and agricultural prosperity go hand in hand. For
although she has been, by wicked and visionary political em-

* A restriction upon the exportation of corn, after it rises to 29 shillings
(British sterling) per quarter, has lately been established in France. The policy
of this measure is yet to be tested. It is agreed, even b\ advocates for restrictions,
that free interchanges would be best. But temporary circumstances, and fears
of dependence on each other, have introduced restrictions, In countries which
for ages past have been jealousandconflictingrivals. National jealousy is blood-
less warfare.

xvi A Discourse on Agriculture,

pirics and military tyranny, scourged and flayed, her agricul-
ture has flourished ; since, in consequence of her revolution,
that property has hecome generally divided which had heen
accumulated in the hands of the crown, the great lords and
the church. The people have hecome proprietors ; are re-
leased from the feodal services and tenures ; and have heen
encouraged and permitted freely to follow their agricultural
occupations. Nor, until their late catastrophe, had their soil
been trodden by hostile feet during a long period.

Spain continues to exhibit a melancholy proof, that autoc-
racy and agriculture cannot cordially exist together. The
plough has long been almost idle, in that country. Cursed by
the productions of her American mines (as a punishment for
the crimes by which they were acquired) she has, for an age,
neglected to cultivate her fertile soil, with activity and agri-
cultural intelligence; depending on the precious metals, in-
stead of the more precious produce of the fields. Indolence,
poverty, ignorance and its attendant bigotry, have been the
lamentable consequences, among the great mass of a popula-
tion capable of wonderful exertions and gallant exploits, when
honestly and wisely directed. Her '< beloved" Ferdinand has
gained no wisdom by misfortune. He has restored all the dele-
terious and sordid corruptions of her old government; which
has relapsed into the darkness of the middle ages. All her
bright prospects have vanished. Her splendid achievements,
which of late dazzled and delighted us, have passed away like
gaudy and glowing meteors corruscating o'er the bosom of
night ; and have served only to render her darkness more hor-
ribly visible. If, in the course of uncontrolable events, her
foreign TreasiiiWs should be taken from her ; industry, for-
ced by necessity, would create more permanent and beneficial
resources. Her deserts and trackless wastes, now the fre-
quent haunts of a daring banditti, would smile with cheerful
labour and exuberant plenty. Her wandering shepherds and
starving cultivators of the vine and the olive, would seize the
plough, as the implement which would cause general wealth
and exhaustless abundance to rise from the surface of the
earth ; in place of fascinating but fugatious treasure, obtained

A Discourse on Agriculture.

xvu

by slavishly digging into its bowels, to enrich the few to the
privation and misery of the many. But to effectuate a change
so salutary and desirable, the people must possess a due share
in the government ; liberty must shed her benign influence on
the labours of the husbandman ; and her rulers must, and most
probably will, encourage and cultivate the arts of peace.

Read the accounts of modern travellers ; and you find, that
many of the most fertile regions of the old world, in some
whereof the cultivation was even renowned, are now gloomy
wastes, either scantily peopled by semi-barbarians, or by an
oppressed and often starving multitude, groaning under the
griping hands of Despotism. Is it not, then, most bitterly
to be lamented, that so few among ourselves are impressed
with convictions of these momentous truths. Insomuch, that
they leave an art, so important to the interests of the whole,
to the individual exertions of its professors, without that en-
couragement, protection and instruction which all should af-
ford! If men of reading and historical knowedge should say,
" the facts are known to us and credited ;" I invitingly reply —
" shew me thy faith by thy works." Assist in making the subject
popular, bring it into fashion, and the work is half completed.
It is no mall consolation, that there are honourable and highly
meritorious exceptions. It should continue to be our ardent
wish, as it has been our humble endeavour, that these excep-
tions should multiply, until the improvement of our agricul-
ture shall become as extensive and imperishable, as the freedom
and happiness of our country, to the "esto perpctua" whereof,
nothing can so essentially contribute ; it being, most indubita-
bly, the base on which that freedom and happiness are found-
ed. One would imagine, then, that every Patriot, be his pro-
fession or employment what it may, would feel an interest be-
yond any other, in promoting the prosperity of this universal-
ly important art. If the liberty of our country be so connect-
ed with it, that, as all history and experience show, it is the
test of its stability ; furnishing in war the supplies indispen-
sable for defence, in peace the materials for subsistence, com-
fort and wealth, what further inducements can there be i And,

e

xviii Ji Discourse on Agriculture.

after all, a very moderate contribution of either time, pecu-
niary assistance, or personal attention is required from any
individuals.

Sober and well regulated freedom is the " nursing mother"
of agriculture ; and it amplv performs its filial duties. Licen-
tiousness and anarrhy are its bane ; because in such a state of
things property and person are insecure ; and Despotism, the
inevitable consequence of wild and licentious freedom, con-
vert, by its ravages and oppressions, the fairest portions of
our globe into desarts, cheerless and sterile. Love of country, in
which we are not deficient, when our convictions of the neces-
sity of exertions are roused, should, therefore, impel us to pro-
mote every means for the avoidance of a catastrophe so hor-
rid and deplorable, if even the danger should now appear to
be very remote.

True it is, that agriculture has been known to the most ar-
bitrary monarchs, to be the foundation of all the means they
had, for the support of their population ; too frequently made
the instruments of conquest, ambition, voluptuousness and
splendour; and it has been fostered, occasionally or perma-
nently, by arbritary princes, wise enough to see its importance.
But the tillers of the earth had no weight in the government,
or control over their rulers. They did not enjoy, or dream
of personal independence, or the acquisition of property,
which, with any certainty or stability, they could call their
own. No system, or durable improvement could exist among
them. They were the slaves, either of the monarch, or his
satellites, the great lords, and both their persons and the
fruits of their labour were stamped with the indelible marks
of bondage, " Sic vos non vobis /"* The civilization of modern
times has, indeed, produced more liberal views of policy in
governments in which the physical power of the people is ei-
ther dreaded, or necessarily depended upon ; and a portion
(small enough) of emancipation, both of person and property,
has been granted freely, or yielded reluctantly. But still the
weight of their shacklets precludes those improvements in the

* Thus do you labour fop others ;— not for yourselves.

A Discourse on Agriculture. xix

art, which insure the comforts and wealth of its professors ;
whilst they guard and cherish the freedom and happiness of a
country, Messed with unassailable liberty protected by its
most impregnable rampart, wise, impartial, and purely ad-
ministered LAW.

It is not to be understood, that the aid required for the Art,
is intended for the mere personal emolument of the farmer.
Those who take an incorrect view of the subject allege, that
« farmers are doing well enough, and want no assistance."
Every one acquainted with political economy, knows well,
how extensively it adds to the general advantage of the com-
munity, when the same portion of labour is made to produce
an increased number and quantity of supplies. And, eminent-
ly distinct from all other employments, that of the husband-
man brings into existence, by a kind of creation, additions to
the public stock drawn from the earth. Whereas most, if not
all, other occupations are imployed on materials pre-existing.
Farmers are truly called by the best writers on political
economy, " the productive class ;" whilst all others are justly
styled, "the unproductive classes" of the community.

It is not exclusively necessary to cite opinions, or proofs,
from great authorities, that whilst able and intelligent far-
mers enlarge the mass of property and wealth in the society
in which they live, they also increase the public security and
happiness. It will be seen at once, by every one who passes
through a country productively and neatly cultivated, that
quietude, contentment, morals and exemplary submission to
law and good-government, are strikingly conspicuous. But
in a district inhabited by a negligent, indolent and ignorant
population, the picture is disgustingly and even dangerously
reversed. So that it behoves every good citizen, for his own
security, as well as from motives of patriotism and moral ob-
ligation, to assist in furnishing the means of warning the neg-
ligent, stimulating the indolent, and enlightening the ignorant
husbandman.

I have been requested to discuss the subject of « agricul-
" ture and its improvement in the United States,"

xx A Discourse on Agriculture*

This would, indeed, open a wide field. I have not sufficient
materials for the task. IN or have I been able, since the
request was made to arrange the few I possess, or to obtain a
Supply of numberless deficiencies. It is not, therefore, my
intention, because it is beyond my power, to undertake so ex-
tensive a topic. If, as was long ago recommended by the ve-
nerable father of our country, a national arrangement, either
attached to a national seminary, or, as in England a board of
agriculture, in France, a national institute, with a branch de-
voted to husbandry, and, as in all countries, regardful of this
all important subject, some national, or state plan had been
adopted and established, such materials would ere now have
been at hand. Geological, agricultural and statistical inqui-
ries would have been promoted and made, essential not only
to the agriculturist, but to those who hold our political helm.
They would be furnished with the means of forming correct
opinions of the resources of our country, various in its climate,
soil, products and local capacities. Errors in financial cal-
culations would be avoided, and the prosperity of the whole
advanced. Whatever good or bad practices existed, would be
promulgated to the cultivators of the soil ; so that they could
have been enabled to profit by the one, and sedulously to avoid
the other. Native manures and all auxiliaries to husbandry,
would have been discovered ; and their localities and uses
would have been known. And yet, with all the information
we could obtain, the result would be imperfect. It would en-
able one more intelligent than I profess to be, to give but a
rude outline of a truncated pyramid, built on a foundation, in
many portions of it, unsound, and, with some exceptions, rough
in its structure, with little ornament in its parts : and still re-
quiring immense supplies, both of knowledge, materials and
workmanship, before it can be completed. We could exhibit
the primaeval spectacle of man in his hunter state; and trace
his progress to a wonderful degree of civilization and improve-
ment. No quarter of the globe, can furnish such lessons for
enterprize, successful industry and countless wealth, taught
in our happy country, (if we always more intimately felt its
blessings) in the comparatively short period, in which we have

A Discourse on Agriculture. xxi

extended the prosperity and enjoyments of our race ; whether
as colonists emigrating to a wilderness, or as citizens of an
independent nation, rapidly advancing to an equality with
those who have had the advantages of long experience, accu-
mulating through ages, to perfect their political, agricultural,
commercial and manufacturing systems. All these are a fa-
mily of national relatives, whose fraternity should never be
disturbed, or distracted. Not one of them can receive a wound,
without its being sympathetically and poignantly felt by the
whole. But such has been the state of the civilized world,
that each has had its turn of depression, during the eventful
period in which we have lived ; and it is therefore the more
difficult, at this moment, to establish any certain data9 from
whence to draw sound and justifiable conclusions. We have
just emerged from a participation in the disasters with which
the world has been lacerated. Yet we already exhibit an ele-
vation so buoyant and elastic, that did we not know what has
passed, we should with difficulty believe that pressure and dis-
tress had existed. The agriculture of our country, inclu-
ding both tillage and pasturage, which Sully calls *4 the two
breasts of the state," and by which I mean the art of bringing
forth from the earth, products of every species and description,
in every district of our country, must have been powerful and
efficient in the aggregate, to enable its professors to lay up
materials for commerce and manufactures, so abundant, that no
lack of them was experienced, when our ships again whitened
the ocean with their sails, which had been most lamentably
long unbent. Even in the short period since our emancipa-
tion from the difficulties, dangers and impediments, with
which war and the circumstances preceding it had embarrass-
ed us, our products are in plenty ; and the mass of husband-
ry has been encouraging, although in its details it may be found
deficient and objectionable, — If so much can be done, without
the assistance afforded by science, system and principle ; how
much more could have been accomplished, with the same phy-
sical and mechanical means, directed by intelligence and ag-
ricultural information ? Renovating worn lands has this ines-
timable consequence ; it multiplies products, in a degreee su-

xxii A Discourse on Agriculture.

perior in quantity and advantage to those on lands newly re-
claimed from our forests, and supersedes the necessity of mi-
grating to the wilderness. Hence, the population remains
condensed ; instead of being scattered, and dehilitated hy the
absence of those who wander from old settlements and " the
busy haunts of men," to begin a new and toilsome career in
our unsubdued wastes. A propensity to wander for hunting,
or pasturage, has, from the earliest times, been a proof of ig-
norance in agriculture, and a test of bad husbandry. The
nations of old who inhabited the country wherein agriculture
originated, were celebrated for intelligence in this art. Whilst
others led an erratic life, they remained stationary, enjoying,
in fulness and plenty, the products of their well cultivated
fields; and some of them were as remarkable for scientific,
(so far as we know of the science of those remote ages,) as
for agricultural knowledge.

No dread of superabundant plenty need to alarm us. For
if we can raise double the quantity of an article at the same
expense, we can undersell those less happily situated. If this
be done near markets and places of ready sale and export, our
profits are still the greater ; and our commerce and manufac-
tures would flourish in proportion to the cheapness and plenty
of our products. The skilful cultivators of lands in the vicin-
ity of such marts, would, evidently, be the most benefited by
improvement in their art.

Our taxes are so comparatively small (however we may
complain of a temporary increase of them) and our public
burthens, in contrast with European imposts, so light ; that
no European people could, if our agricultural systems and
intelligence were more perfect, compete with us. England
is prominently powerful, and, though not free from great dif-
ficulties and depressions, prosperous ; with a heavier load of
debt and taxation than, I believe, any other nation. Her debt
exceeds 800,000.000 of pounds sterling ; whilst ours is stated
to be about 120,000,000 of dollars, being short of one year's
interest of the British national debt. Her taxes ( direct and
in addition to those on consumption) in 1814, were such, that,
according to Birbeck, (appendix to notes, pages 18, 19,) an

Ji Discourse on Agriculture. xxiii

annual income from landed estate in England of 441i. 13s. af-
ter paying all direct taxes, will nett only 184J. 10s. Of these
taxes, or burthens, the tithe and poor rate are 180l. I In France,
all taxes (I presume direct taxes) paid, the same amount of
income would nett 3751. The otherwise insatiahle autocrat
of the French people, spared, to keep them in quiet, their
fields and their purses ; whilst he exhausted their population.
He fed their national pride with his all-consuming glory;
whilst he and his myrmidons fattened on the spoils of other
nations. Nor did we escape his indiscriminating grasp. True,
the agriculture of England is, in consequence of them, depress-
ed; but ours would entirely sink under no very great portion
of such burthens. Her population, including her European
dominions, scarcely doubles our own. Our resources arc
wonderfully fruitful, and our territory various and extensive.
And we have, perhaps, too little difficulty in thinning the
ranks of our population by settleing our waste lands ; whilst
she meets with obstacles, almost insuperable, in bringing in-
to profit her commone and wastes ; important to her, trifling
when compared with ours. Yet those commons and wastes
amount to 6,300,000 acres in England alone, (nearly a se-
venth part of the whole area of that kingdom,) and the great-
er part of them are capable of high cultivation. But it so
happens in human affairs, that apparent benefits often pro-
duce opposite consequences. Our boundles territory of waste
lands operates, frequently, as a bar to the improvement of
our old settlements, by affording a new and seductive scene
to the occupants of exhausted lands. Our forests are the
soonest brought into culture by our own people ; and they, in
great numbers, through fickelness and want of intelligence in
agriculture, prefer migrating, to renovating their old, and lo-
cally more valuable, lands. Europeans (with a few valuable
exceptions) do not succeed in our new settlements. And we
have been generally disappointed in our expectations from
them, of profitably increasing our agricultural population,
however estimable many of them may be in other omploy-
ments. So that the swarms for migration must abandon our
old hives. And in your volumes there are lessons for them.

xxiv A Discourse on Agriculture.

With the superior advantages we enjoy over older nations,
to increase both our means and our population, we have eve-
ry thing to hope, and nothing to fear, but disunion and anar-
chy, which are no more to be apprehended, than are the vi-
cissitudes to which all other nations are liable. No church
dues, or overwhelming poor-rates, tentures, or services load our
industry and labour. Leases, and their long or short dura-
tion, do not stand in our way. Proprietors of the soil we in-
habit, we have only to be docile 9 and learn the best modes of
cultivation. All our exertions enure to the benefit of ourselves
and our descendants. And although it may be attended with
some delay to the progress of improvement, that our farmers
can live well with indifferent husbandry ; and thus necessity
seldom stimulates invention, or exertion, as it does in Eu-
ropean countries ; yet long may this incentive be averted !
Other excitements urge us on to agricultural improvement.
A propensity for plentiful enjoyment prevails with most ; and
they, with common industry and a moderate share of intelli-
gence, will be gratified. Hopes of wealth, and its att« ndant
distinction, in a country wherein there are no orders, or class-
es in society, superior in degree, will animate others. But
to attain their object, it behoves them to promote every meas-
ure calculated to advance our agriculture to its highest state
of perfection, if they wish to acquire even a reasonable and
moderate share of riches. Let it, then, be the joint endeav-
our of all our agricultural fellow citizens, be their views and
wishes moderate or extensive, so to pursue, encourage and
improve their art, that when the facts, which are necessary to "
fcrm a just opinion, are collected, they may prove highly ben-
eficial to themselves, and both honourable and profitable to
their country ! Yet, whensoever these facts appear, however,
in particular instances, they may be meritorious, and, in the
aggregate, encouraging ; I much fear, that they will exhibit,
in the details, numerous and disgusting proofs of ignorance in
principles, deficiencies in practice, squalidity in appearance
of foul fields and crops, misapplication of labour and moans,
indolence and imbecility, requiring all the aid, whid1 all the
friends to, and promoters of, the art of good husbandry, can
bestow !

Jl Discourse on Agriculture. xxv

I have mentioned the disadvantages, with which one of the
best cultivated countries in Europe has to struggle, neither
invidiously, nor vauntingly. My intention is to show, that
sound principles and good practice will bear up against all
impediments. And I have contrasted our situation with theirs,
with no other view, than to animate us, who do not labour un-
der similar difficulties and burthens. Nothing is wanted to
enable us to profit by the fortunate circumstances in which we
are placed, but a general conviction of the magnitude of the sub-
ject, and the will to take advantage of them. Although the
British government has wisely established a most respectable
board of agriculture, the great landholders do not call on Her-
cules, without putting their own shoulders to the wheel. Their
agricultural improvements have been chiefly accomplished by
private exertion. True, we cannot compete with the expen-
ses unsparingly incurred,by their nobility, gentry and some of
their clergy, who withhold neither money nor pains to attain
their objects. But when our people, and those who represent
them, are convinced of the necessity of measures for the ad-
vancement of our agriculture, the capabilities and enterprise
of the American character, will achieve all that could be wish-
ed on the subject.

My observations on the general subject, will not apply to all
the branches of it. They chiefly relate to those districts of
our country, cultivated by a white population. From all I
have heard, or know, of those parts of the United States
wherein the labourers are coloured, the sic vos non sobis is
strongly marked, and the want of agricultural knowledge
(forming our judgment from their practice) either of system
or principle is the most conspicuous. Of course, all that has
been said of the necessity of falling on some means to spread
this kind of information, would be to them most highly bene-
ficial. That the proprietors of the soil of those countries,
should have left this subject so long in a state of almost total
neglect and inattention, has always been to me, not only a
source of poignant regret, but of utter astonishment. No
landholders of our country exceed, and a great proportion do

D

xxvi A Discourse on Agriculture,

not equal them, in acuteness of natural talent, education and
mental acquirements. From them I should have expected
lessons of improvement. To them I would not presume to
read them. Yet, contented to receive an aggregate of pro-
duct from large possessions, great in amount, they have, with
some exceptions, suffered the details of cultivation to remain
without change or amelioration, from generation to genera-
tion. And, in fact, it appears to have heen, (according to the
evidence of " Jlrator," written by a distinguished citizen of
Virginia) a system of exhaustion and impoverishment, instead
of one of renovation and improvement. Knowing well, as
they do, how to enjoy the comforts and elegancies of living,
one would presume they would gladly join in any plans to
improve an art, which to them is peculiarly necessary, to
increase their own means, as well as to benefit their country.
They have an ascendency in our public councils, and direct,
in a great degree, our national concerns. It is therefore pe-
culiarly incumbent on them, to forward all measures, wherein
national aid is required, on a subject of most importance to
them, but highly momentous to us all. Among all those cal-
led «* standing committees," either in the national or state le-
gislatures, we have never seen one on agriculture, nor any
appropriation of monies for its direct encouragement. This
would appear to show, either an unfortunate conviction that
none were necessary, or an insensibility to the magnitude of
the subject. Yet, at some periods of our affairs, I have
thought farmers had reason to be satisfied with the omission.
Because such a committee might (under the plea of necessity')
have been employed in other considerations than those which
produce results deemed encouraging. So that, negatively,
we have derived (save in one impost) some advantage by the
u laisse% nous fair 'e," " let us alone." Now, (without pre-
suming to dictate,) it would seem, that some attention to this,
among other urts of peace, should be expected ; because it is
the root from which they all spring. I do not mention these
circumstances reproachfully, but with sincere regret. I shall
be happy to receive any information, more agreeable, to cor-
rect my errors. Nor should I have brought before the socie-

Jl Discourse on Agriculture. xxvii

ty my views of southern farming, had I not deemed it a duty
to comply with their request, so far as I could.

I am requested to develop <l the causes that have contribu-
ted to the improvement of the agriculture of the United
States, and to furnish hints for its further advancement.''

I feel myself as much at a loss to give any tolerable degree
of satisfactian on this point, in detail, as I was on the subject
of its progress. I do not correctly know the various stages
of its advancement, and therefore, cannot specify its degrees
of improvement. That it has improved very extensively, is
known to every body. Its causes have been, in no small
measure, the extraordinary demands for our products, when
the conflicts of foreign nations required them, and our neutral
situation rendered their transportation safe. Our farmers re-
doubled their diligence, and their gains stimulated their in-
dustry, and rewarded their exertions.

I know of no auxiliary to the improvement of our old set-
tlements, so prominent, as the general adoption of the plaster
and clover husbandmj. This great source of fertility origina-
ted in this state, at first by individual exertion. But our so-
ciety, at an early period, had great merit in spreading through
the country a knowledge of the properties and effects of the
gypsum, and in impressing its advantages. These became so
palpably visible, that the most incredulous were convinced.
Its effects were objects of the senses, and inquiries into the
principles of operation were left to theorists, who do not, to
this day, agree on the subject of them. I mention this, not
only as one of the most efficient causes of agricultural im-
provement, but to show that farmers are only to be convinced
by practical proofs. And beyond any other means of en-
lightening the blind and confuting the cavilling and obstinate,
a Pattern Farm, long proposed by us, would be the best.
It is also the only school for educating those who are willing
to receive instruction.

The pyritous earth of Jerseij, improperly called marl is
doing wonders in that state. Most probably, it will be found
in many parts of our seaboard countries, once covered by
the ocean. It promises to be the rival of the plaster, if it

xxviii A Discourse on Agriculture.

bears, as irrefragably, the test of experience. I have wit-
nessed astonishing effects from its application. But its use
is yet in its infancy; and it requires more facts, and longer
trial, to warrant any solid opinion, as to its qualities, quan-
tities per acre, or kinds of soil, to which it can be most pro-
fitably applied.

Marls of various textures are discovered ; and are coming
into use. Lime, of the best quality, we have in exhaustless
abundance. The great bodies of plaster in the vicinity of our
lakes afford ample supplies to an extensive country. Manures
are more generally collected and applied. Our ploughs and
ploughing are much improved. Systematical and cleanly
farming is increasing j and the grasses are more generally
cultivated.

We have excellent specimens of watered meadows ; but ir-
rigation is not carried to the perfection exhibited in Europe;
and particularly in the south of France ; where it is, and has
been, time out of mind, used not only for grass, but for til-
lage-crops, through a great extent of country. And the pro-
ducts raise*], with wretched ploughing, and an indifferent
style of husbandry, are truly surprising. Birkbeck's account
of it is amusing, and highly interesting.

Drainage of boggy and wet soils (under-draining parti-
cularly) is an excellent European practice of which we have
but a partial knowledge.

Warping — (that is, flooding embanked grounds, over
which large streams or muddy rivers can be admitted, to en-
rich by the deposits which had been held in solution by tbe
waters which are both admitted and drained off through
flood-gates) might be profitably introduced ; as well as ex-
tensive irrigation, in many parts of our country ; and, espe-
cially, in our southern states. All these practices are accu-
rately described in European books. The practice of warp-
ing is mentioned by Arthur Young as an instance of the ad-
vantages of agricultural surveys and reports. For until such
surreys were made, the knowledge of this practice was con-
fined, and had so been for a great length of time, to a .small
district in England.

A Discourse on Agriculture. xxix

We are more accustomed to the use and effects of water
than those of fire ; although all know that heat is as necessary
to vegetation, as moisture. Yet we are very little acquainted
with the effects of fire on soils ; and experiments should he
made to ascertain them. I have experienced its benefits, and
have no doubt on the subject. Others are not only doubtful,
but prejudiced. On this head European books furnish much
information ; and their lessons should be attended to candid-
ly. Fire and water are good servants, and should not be suf-
fered to be bad masters. It is as unfair, however, to argue
against the prudent use of fire, because it produces conflagra-
tion and ruin in extreme cases, as it would be to denounce
irrigation to its salutary extent, because floods spread desola-
tion in their un restrain able course. Denshiring, burning of
clay, peat, &c. have been long practiced in Europe, and very
little, if at all, resorted to here; though ashes, only one of the
offspring of fire, are known to be fertilizing. Mixing soils
of different textures is generally approved, and very partial-
ly practised. Animal manures are our chief object ; and we
neglect those auxiliaries which are in plenty on our farms,
and in our power every day.

The first preparatory step towards the advancement of
agricultural improvement's, to satisfy the minds, not only of
farmers, but of the community at large, that it is an object of
primary importance; and not attainable, in perfection by
mere farmers. If this be not accomplished, efforts to introduce
any thing like principle or system, will be arduous indeed.
A farmer should be considered by himself, as well as by all
other members of the community, as one placed in a situation
to perform the most beneficial services to the public, by exer-
cising a calling in which all other citizens are peculiarly in-
terested. He may be, personally no better or worse than
others ; but the art in which he is engaged is the most essen-
tial of all others, to the general welfare. Until a conviction
of this truth operates on the public mind, the progress of im-
provement will be lamentably slow. That it is not, now, a
general opinion, either among farmers, or other citizens, is,
unfortunately for their own interests, too apparent. We have

xxx .i Discourse on Agriculture*

held out premiums for a variety of highly beneficial objects,
and, of our own motion, have bestowed some of them ; but
who has witnessed any emulative contest to gain them ?—
What other excitements to generous pride and emulation,
could be attempted ? To say nothing, in farther proof, of the
abortive attempts we have made to increase our funds. Pub-
lic opinion operates on public men ; and if there be no public
feeling, there is no legislative support or countenance. In all
the expressions of popular feeling or sentiment, which have
been brought forward during the perturbated period we have
lately passed through, who recollects any suggestions, that
agriculture required either improvement or support? Is not
this a most indubitable proof of apathy, or want of discern-
ment, on this subject ? Of commerce and manufactures we have
heard much ; and well do they merit what has been said for
their encouragement. But of their parent, agriculture,
almost a total silence has been observed ; — so far, at least, as
regards the assistance it requires from public, or individual
contribution and instruction. It is idle to conceal from our-
selves circumstances so forbidding and unpleasant. The few
efforts made to draw the public attention to the public interest,
on this topic, are not disregarded by these general observa-
tions, or their merit, in any degree, diminished.

The former part of this address, made to comply, so far as
I am enabled, with your desire, was calculated to furnish ar-
guments and invitations, whatever may be their force, and to
impress and elicit the aid of every member of the society, in
some plan for enlisting the public opinion and feeling, into a
service so evidently necessary, and so conducive to the public
advantage. Until this is accomplished, it is vain to give
other " hints," for the advancement of the progress of agricul-
ture. My suggestions do not flow from any despondency I
feel on the subject; because, with proper exertions, the public
mind can be enlightened. And nothing would achieve this de-
sirable object so effectually, as the establishment of societies
for promoting the knowledge of its principles, and encoura-
ging and exemplifying its best modes of practice, in all quar-
ters of our country. Each should provide a small, but well

•0 Discourse on Agriculture. xxxi

selected library. Agriculture should be the leading sub-
ject. Selections from the best writers on Husbandry might
be introduced, as school books, to make early impressions on
young minds. Other subjects may be interspersed in those
libraries, to entice our farmers and theirfamilies to read;
and thus conquer their antipathy to what they, contemptu-
ously, call book-farming. Premiums for excelling, and
honorary notices, would rouse and reward a spirit of emula-
tion. All subjects of difference, especially on political ques-
tions, should be avoided ; and agriculture be considered the
rallying point of good citizenship.

As one proof of the utility of such institutions, with great
pleasure, I mention the Berkshire Agricultural Society at Pits-
field, in Massachusetts. I have been informed by intelligent
persons, who have seen the results and witnessed their pro-
ceedings, that they have in a short period, by premiums, ex-
citing a spirit of emulation and a desire to gain a knowledge
of practical husbandrtj ; breeding of domestic animals ; improv-
ing and neatly cultivating farms ; increasing in quantity, quali-
ty and workmanship, household manufactures, raising the clean-
est and best crops, actually viewed and examined by committees
making; progresses for that purpose; introduced a style of
agricultural improvement, uncommon and highly exemplary.
And this, at an expense raised by annual subscription, bear-
ing a small proportion to the value of the extensive advanta-
ges accruing from it. Annual displays of premiums, and,
when practicable, the subjects of them, a procession, and pub-
lic distribution of the rewards, preceded and concluded by re-
ligious exercises, agreeably to the laudable habits of that peo-
ple, captivate, and invite competition ; and accelerate the so-
lid and evident prosperity of the country.

I have mentioned this society, because it is formed in the
most western and remote county of that ancient state. Other
highly respectable societies in the eastern quarter of our
union are too well known to require any notice or eulogy,
from me.

I consider the insensibility to the magnitude of the subject,
to be the greatest obstacle in the way of advancement, which

xxxii A Discourse on Agriculture,

agriculture has to encounter. Nor is it a new misfortune. The
volumes you have published, to the great credit of your pa-
triotism and perseverance, contain almost every thing, I could
suggest, for the " advancement of agriculture." A reference
to them, therefore, will spare my time and your patience. — In
your first volume will be found, u Outlines of a plan for esta-
blishing a state society of agriculture, in Pennsijlvania, drafted
by myself, and honoured by the adoption of most respectable
associates, in a committee of this society, more than twenty
years ago. During my long service in the general assembly
of this state, I zealously endeavoured to procure for it, the
patronage and adoption of the then legislature. T was finally
defeated by the sottishness of some country members, (for
whose peculiar interests I had been labouring,) who turned,
in a committee, the scale of votes against me. They insisted
that the best mode of improving agriculture, was, "to lay
your hands on the plough-handles, and urge on your horses."
It was in vain that I combated this quaint, and as they
thought, unanswerable dogma. If the hands of a common sai-
lor were laid to the tiller, and the vessel steered without com-
pass, observation, or nautical knowledge and skill, her pro-
gress towards her port would be as hopeless, as would be the
advancement of husbandry under the direction of ignorant
ploughmen. Science , teaching intelligence in the art, is as re-
quisite in agriculture, as it is in navigation. To this, no
doubt, must be added, practical habitudes and skill. Yet, with
all this unpleasant appearance, our prospects are not cheer-
less. Most of our countrymen are remarkably capable of re-
ceiving instruction ; and very many willing to profit by it.
They have, in many encouraging instances, improved most
meritoriously, the husbandry of our country, in districts there-
tofore very unpromising. Insomuch, that great numbers of
our fields, will bear a comparison with tnose of the best culti-
vated countries.

It is a subject of gratulation, that happy prospects seem to
be opening. The president of the United States, after the
example of his immortal predecessor, has recommended to the
notice of congress, the establishment of a national seminary.

Ji Discourse on Agriculture. xxxiii

I conceive, that one efficacious mode of advancing our hus-
bandry, would be, for this, and other agricultural societies,
the increase of the numbers whereof, we have always ardent-
ly wished, and often promoted ; to forward memorials, pray-
ing* that the subject of agriculture may become engrafted in
the plan of education, as one of its most valuable branches ;
— or, in some way, to impress the necessity of national at-
tention, to the foundation of national independence and hap-
piness. Such representations would not only bring the sub-
ject into public view ; but would most indubitably promote
the public interests. Our state legislature, having now the
subject of education before them, might also be addressed, on
this highly interesting topic.

The lights which chemistry affords to agriculture ; and the
aids which mechanics and other branches of the mathematics
and natural philosophy bestow on it, are well known to all
of us. Botany, (of which I am far from intending to speak
disrespectfully,) is chiefly a classification and nomenclature
of plants. If these were left to scientific amateurs ; and
some practical uses were made of this department of science,
agriculture would receive great benefits. To instance the
Gramina tribe ; which comprehends a great proportion of
the plants grown in tillage crops — grains and grasses. If
their uses, and varieties, and the best modes of culture, were
designated, it would be highly conducive to their profitable
propagation. The grasses, (commonly so called,) which
thrive and ripen together, might be distinguished, beneficial-
ly. I have always found that sowing permanent grass-seed
with clover — which is fugacious — affords the most profitable
pasture and hay. Orchard grass fdacUjlis glomerata, or
cocksfoot,) is the kind I prefer, as the companion of the clo-
ver.

Nothing gives a more elastic spring to Agriculture,
than roads, canals, and other interior navigation. Your me-
moirs are not deficient in portraying the utility of these fa-
cilities to transportation. They open new channels of com-

E

xxxiv J Discourse on Agriculture.

munication — new fronts to property — and stimulate improve-
ment, not only in husbandry — but in all branches of employ-
ment, to which labour and capital are profitably applied. To
these the attention of our national, as well as state legisla-
tures, is now called.

The enumeration of the stupendous and costly bridges over
our great rivers, exhibited by our state chief magistrate, af-
fords a strong proof of the general wealth and public spirit
of our citizens ; and a flattering encouragement to our hus-
bandmen ; as they facilitate their means of arriving at mar-
kets. In this catalogue, he only enumerates those "lately
erected," and lie has, no doubt involuntarily, overlooked the
High street bridge — the example and stimulant to them all —
erected on piers of solid masonry, in a depth 6f tide water
unexampled ; and under circumstances, allowed by European
engineers, never before to have been successfully encounter-
ed. Exhibiting also the first example in this country, and
tbe second in any quarter of the world, of a covered wooden
bridge. Nor should the beautiful structure within view of it,
be omitted. Although our government may not have be-
stowed direct support to our Agriculture — yet we should
rejoice that such aids to its advancement, though erected
with private funds, have, much to the praise of their patriot-
ism and attention to the public advantage, been encouraged,
and " honourably mentioned."

I must request the indulgence of the society, in excuse for
the desultory and imperfect manner, in which, owing, among
other incapacities, to indispensable engagements, I have
treated a subject all of us have so much at heart. It will be
seen, that I could (except in a few instances) only make ge-
neral observations. I must also apologize, for the non-com-
pliance, specifically, with the terms of their request.

To you, many of the observations may be superfluous. But
they were suggested by the interest I have long taken in the
subject of them.

Your meritorious endeavours have been crowned with on-

Jl Discourse on Agriculture. xxxv

ly partial success. But, I am satisfied, and you must be
conscious, that much good has flowed from them. ** It is
not in mortals to command success f9 hut it is your conso-
lation, and should be your honourable pride, that you have
laboured " to deserve it." Let us cheerfully persevere ; and
our objects will be attained, by sure — though, to our zeal,
apparently slow degrees.

ERRATA.
Page xvi. For foreign " Treasurers," read Treasures.

For "starving- cultivators," rea d starveling cultivators.
For " fugatious," read fugacious,
xviii. For " convert," read converts.

At the end, for " shacklets," read shackles.
xix. For " imployed," read employed,
xxiii. For <e setteling," read "settling.

For " commone," read commons,
xxiv. For " tentvres" read tenures.
xxv. For " non sobis," read non vobis.

AN ADDRESS

ON THE

PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE,

WITH HINTS

FOR ITS IMPROVEMENT JJV THE

UNITED STATES;

DELIVERED BEFORE THE

Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture,

AT THEIR ANNUAL MEETING, JANUARY 14th 181Y,

BY JAMES MEASE, M. D.

One of the Vice-Presidents of the Society.

At the annual meeting of the Philadelphia Society for Promot-
ing Agriculture, held January (1st mo.) 14th 1817. The Se-
cond Vice-President, Dr. Mease, delivered an address, "On the
progress of Agriculture, with hints for its improvement in the
United States."

Whereupon it was resolved unanimously, That the thanks of
the Society be presented to him, and that he be requested to fur-
nish a copy of his address for publication.
Extracted from the Minutes.

ROBERTS VAUX, Secretary.

AN ADDRESS, &c.

Persuaded of the utility of annually laying before our
Society, a condensed view of the progress of Agriculture at
home and abroad, and other subjects connected with the ob-
jects for which our association was formed; with such cir-
cumstances and events as may tend to improve them, that are
likely to prove injurious, or that may furnish hints for obvi-
ating their effects in future years, I determined to address
you on the present occasion*

Permit me previously to treating on domestic affairs,
to notice the extraordinary change that has taken place
with respect to the state of agriculture in Europe, in the
course of the last year. During the continuance of a war
unexampled in the annals of the ancient or modern world,
for the number of the victims that have fallen, for the
extent of the measures taken, the means employed to
carry it on, and for the change of policy in those who have
at various times been engaged in it; the extra demand for
every species of food, especially of a vegetable nature, oc-
casioned by the fair consumption of man and beast, and the
unavoidable waste that takes place in armies and navies,
necessarily caused a ready sale, high prices, and sometimes
great scarcity, especially in England, which notwithstand-
ing its justly boasted Agriculture, seldom raises enough ve*
getable food for her internal consumption:* but still, the

* See Appendix A„

vj Atf ADDRESS, &C.

farmers, notwithstanding the combined pressure of the an-
nual increase of general taxes, and also of those to which
agriculture is exclusively liable; rise in the price of labour,*
of rent, and of every article of the necessaries of life, were
enabled to thrive, to improve their land, and to assume a
style of living, which their fathers or themselves a few
years since never expected to be able to indulge in, and at
which many of the aged, when they reflected upon for-
mer times, were astonished. A great and serious change
however took place, from causes, some of which continued
to operate until the last autumn, when the general distress
from another and opposite cause was continued, and from
their combined effects, a depression of prices in the first in-
stance, and rise of them since the last harvest, distress un-
exampled in extent and degree has been produced, which
every friend to humanity must deplore—The causes to
which I allude, were the exclusion of British manufactures
from the United States, and the continent in 1812; followed
by three uucommohly fruitful harvests in England in suc-
cession, viz. 1812, 13-1* : the well grounded prospect of
peace from the events of the war on the continent in 1812,
and the actual return of peace which caused the vast go-
vernmental demand for produce greatly to lessen; and final-
ly from the ample continental supplies which immediately
took place after that event.

The British government yielding to the universal cla-
mour of the nation, passed a law to prohibit the importa-

* Mr. Brougham stated, (\pril 1806,) in the House of Commons, that the
total increase in the expences of cultivating a farm of 400 acres, since 1792
including assessed taxes, as equal to £282, 8s independently of the great rise
on lime and manure,-and the income tax of 10 per cent. The increase in
the taxes affecting the necessaries of life, has added to the price of labour,
among which is that on malt, by raising the price of beer, the national drink.
The duty on malt, since 1792 has been raised from 10s 7 to 34s 8 per quarter
oi eight bushels;

AN ADDHESS. &C* VU

tion ofeverj species o< corn, until they should rise at home to
certain prices, which from the severest scrutiny on the sub-
ject, and examination of farmers it appeared were required
to pay for the expense of cul'ure. and to yield a reasonable
proSt.-* England even became an exporting country, and
was enabled to dispose of a portion of both animal and ve-
getable produce. During the past year, we beheld with some
degree of wonder, the rare occurrence of cargoes of pota-
toes, and much beef and pork from England and Ireland,
arrive in our ports. A great change however, has since ta-
ken place. The past season in Britain* and in many parts of
the continent, particularly in the fertile soil and fine climate
of France, has very much resembled that which we have wit-
nessed in our own country; and the general diminution of
the crops produced by the adverse weather, has caused
an unexpected and extensive demand for our produce, and a
consequent increase in the price.f Thus proving, in our
own country, at least, the great inducement and encour-
agement which the farmer has to endeavour to improve his
art. to preserve the fertility of his land, and to cause it to
yield its greatest possible produce. For notwithstanding
the little estimation in which the people of Europe affect to
hold our knowledge or practice of Agriculture; it is a fact,
that few years elapse without their application to us> to sup-
ply a pressing demand for vegetable food.

The United States have witnessed the most extraordi-
nary weather since March last, ever known since the
settlement of the country. After a severe winter, es-
pecially towards its close, the weather become unusually
mild for the season, from the middle to the last of March;
and predictions were made with some confidence, as to the
certainty of the farmer being blessed with the opportunity

* Wheat must sell for £4 the quarter.
f Flour on the 13th January was $14 per barrel in Philadelphia,

Viii AN ADDRESS, &C.

of commencing his labours in the field at an early date: —
but the good tidings had scarcely been announced, and the
self-gratulations were scarcely made, before a complete re-
futation of the prognostic took place, by the occurrence of
severe cold very generally throughout the United States
and Canada: even parts of rivers that had not been frozen
during the preceding winter, were passed on the ice
with heavy loads. The weather continued unusually cold
as the spring advanced, and even rooms exposed to the
genial influence of a southern sun, in Philadelphia, were
not comfortable without fire in the morning and evening,
before the middle of June. In the country there were few
days during the whole summer in Pennsylvania, in which
fires were not required by sedentary persons, all day. Not a
week has passed since March, without the newspapers an-
nouncing the occurrence of frost and ice, in some parts of
the United States. At Quebec snow fell from the 12th to
18th April, and between those dates at Chilicothe, Ohio,
followed by sharp frosts. The peach trees there had been
previously in blossom.

Snow fell on the 14th May at Albany,* and on the 5th &
Gth of June at Bangor in Maine, after a warm rain; also at
Peachham, in Vermont, on the 7th June, 6 inches deep. At
Montpelier, in Vermont, the weather was colder on the 6th
7th and 8th of that month, than ever had been known at that
season, and the snow was one foot deep on the hills in the
vicinity of the town. At Hallowell in Maine, snow fell in
the first week of June, and was followed by hard frost. The
spring was uniformly cold in Pennsylvania, and to the
south, so severe a drought was experienced, that many hun-
dred acres of wheat were ploughed up from a conviction

* " Travellers arriving in the city from the westward, reported that the
country in many places had the appearance, of winl?-. the hills being as
white as in the month of January." *

AN ADDRESS, &C. IX

that they would not pay the expense of preparing the ground
and the cost of reaping. Indian corn was in many places
re-planted, in consequence of that first planted having per-
ished. At Charleston, S. C. the drought was peculiarly
distressing, no rain having fallen for eight weeks, previ-
ously to the 29th March.

The changes in the temperature of the air were also re-
markable for their rapidity during the months of May and
June; and the heat of summer of one day was often sue-
ceeded by cold weather.* At Boston, the thermometer rose
to 82° on the 5th of June, and fell to 52* next day. Changes
equally great took place in New York, Philadelphia, and in
almost every State in the Union. It is generally agreed that
these vicissitudes in temperature have been greater than
ever were known in the United States. In general the de-
ficiency of rain continued throughout the autumn, but at
New York and Philadelphia it rained for several days after
the 12th September; on that day snow fell at Springfield in
Massachusetts, and the mountains of Vermont were covered
with it.f What adds to the extraordinary character of the
season is the fact, that the winter, which by reason of the cold
spring summer and autumn, we had probable grounds to
believe would be unusually early, did not on the contrary
make its appearance in Philadelphia, until the 11th inst.
On the 5th of December, the Hudson was passed with teams
on ice at Albany, but mild weather succeeded. A few cold
days were experienced generally throughout the United

* At Quebec, between the 12th and 19th of May, the Theniiometer wa*
at 75° and on the 29th there was ice a quarter of an inch thick. The spring1
was said to be more backward than any for the last 25 years.
f At Hanover, N. H. the Thermometer was on

Thursday 25th Sept. at sun-rise, at 23*
Friday, 20

Saturday, 20

Sunday, 25

B

AN ADDRESS, &C.

States, about the 22d and 23d of December, and the Dela,
ware was frozen below the falls at Trenton, but the follow-
ing week, the weather was mild and pleasant, requiring ve-
ry little fire. Severe cold was also experienced at Hallo-
well in Maine, at the same time; but " moderate and even
warm weather,?' succeeded. On the 27th of December the
thermometer at the Health office, Philadelphia, in the shade
at 2 o'clock P. M. was at 64°; and on the same day at Al-
exandria, in the District of Columbia, the singular fact was
Doted of its being at 58° in the morning, that is, three de-
gress higher than it was on the 21st August last; and the
heat of the same day, at 2 o'clock P.M. was only one degree
above that of the 21st of December. At Montreal the snow
had nearly disappeared, and the rivers which had been fro-
zen over had opened in the channel.*

Thus the phenomena presented by the past and present
season, shew to demonstration the correctness of the opini-
on I have long entertained, viz, the impossibility of forming
any conclusion as to the weather that will follow the appear-
ances of a dav or week, or month, and justifies the remark
long since made by a correct observer, that our "climate
is invariably variable." We may most truly say, that as
regards the weather, we "know not what a day will bring
forth." In England, it also appears that the season was cold.f
In Scotland, cold cloudy and wet, with few intervals of clear
genial weather, and the harvest was one month later than
usual, and very deficient. The same unfavourable weather
is said to have prevailed in most parts of the continent of
Europe.:}:

* On the 4th January, it is stated in the Montreal Courant,-" that the
snow has almost entirely gone off, and with but little variations, the Christ-
mas holy.days have more represented the beginning of a Canadian spring,
than the season of winter."

t There was a considerable fall of snow in October, in the lower parts of
Cambridge and Huntingdonshires, and the frost was very severe.

* See Appendix B. for additional facts on the weather.

AST ADDRESS, &C. Xi

The consequences of the weather I have noticed were
such as might be expected. The crops of Indian corn and
of grass were very short. It is calculated that not above
one third of the usual produce of an acre has been obtained
from either, in the state of Pennsylvania or even in the
warm soil of the sandy parts of New Jersey. In the vici-
nity of Philadelphia however, I have observed, that upon
w 1! manured lots, the produce was quite as good as usual.
In some parts of Maryland, and in the northern and eastern
States the corn failed entirely. "Wheat barley and oats
have been as productive as common, except where the
first named grain was much injured by its old enemy the
insect, absurdly called Hessian-fly: — another proof that a
cold winter has no influence in destroying that pest. Buck-
wheat, always a precarious crop, was severely injured. Oats
were generally much better than common, and as this fact
offers a useful deduction, I deem it proper particularly to
notice it. It is well known, that in the United States
oats seldom attain that degree of size and plumpness which
are observed in that grain in Britain,* owing to the rapidity
with which the heads fill, and the lateness of the season
at which they are sown. But the cool season just passed*
by causing the slow growth of that plant, permitted
the filling of the heads, and their maturity to progress
simultaneously, thus doing away the injurious effects,
which, but for the season, would have as usual follow-
ed the late day at which they were sown. The con-
clusion I draw from these faots is, that we are taught

* This remark applies in particular to oats, long naturalized in our coun-
try. But it does not apply to the fine oats that was imported from En-
gland within a few years, and sown in the vicinity of Philadelphia, by the
late Mr. McMahon, who shewed that in five years, it suffered no diminution
in quality; and samples are now in the cabinet of the Agricultural Society
which would do credit to the markets of London, Dublin or Edinburgh.

Xii AN ADDRESS, &C.

by them, the benefits to be derived from an alteration of the
practice of sowing oats and barley so late in the spring as
common; the consequence of which is, comparatively light
grain, particularly of oats, as already noted; whereas if they
are sown at an earlier day, they would of course be longer
in coming to maturity, and from the above causes would un-
questionably increase in size. This reasoning is supported
by the facts, that in England and Ireland, where those
grains grow slowly, (owing to early sowing and cool sum-
mers,) the barley generally, and oats always, unless in un-
favourable seasons, are heavier than in the United States;
and in the county of Somerset in Pennsylvania, where from
its locality, the summers are also moist and cool; oats are
better and larger than in any other part of the state. The
early sowing recommended may be easily accomplished by
adopting the practice of plowing ground in the autumn, and
harrowing in the grain without a spring ploughing^ a
practice that has been adopted with respect to barley se-
veral years since in this state with marked success;* and
which besides the advantage stated of improving the qual-
ity of his grains, will enable the farmer to gain at 1 east
two or three weeks in the spring, and afford him time
to finish fencing and other farm work with his own
regular labourers: whereas, by deferring the prepara-
tion of the ground until the spring, he is obliged to per-
mit necessary work to remain undone, or if done, to in-
terfere with the regular cultivation of the farm, and do ma-
ny things out of season, or be put to the expence of hireing
additional hands.f

The short crops of Indian corn and grass, although they
caused a deficiency in the usual revenue of the farmer, have

* Domestic Encya. art Barley, Philadelphia, 1803. In England it ap-
pears from an Arthur Young's survey of Essex County, that the practice is
general in Suffolk, and is deemed a great improvement in farming.
f See Appendix C,

AN 4DBRESS, &C. xili

not been without advantages; for they have thereby been
taught a lesson from which they may derive considerable pro-
fit in future years. From being obliged to provide the means
of winter sustenance for stock, they were induced to look
about for resources within themselves; and necessity, that pa-
rent of useful inventions and of industry, as well national a»
individual, forced them to have recourse to various expedients
hitherto not practised, and among others to economise their
Indian corn fodder, which all know was generally fed to great
waste by the dry cattle in the field, or permitted to stand un-
touched.— During the past season however, the corn stalks
were carefully cut off close to the ground, and either fed in
the barn-vard in racks, or what is much more economical,
cut fine, and fed with ground oats orgroundcorn, or rye and
cut straw in troughs* The corn blades too, which when care-
fully saved, make admirable food for horses and cattle, were
timely stripped, dried and housed, and even the corn husks
have been made to contribute to the stock of food. Thus
were the animals nourished, and the manure strictly so call-
ed, saved, and put under command; but much more will be
made during the winter and spring, by the decomposition of
all the offall vegetable substance from the provinder, which
had the plan mentioned not been adopted, would have wast-
ed its substance by evaporation, in the field, where it origi-
nally formed part of the plant. 1 dwell with more satisfac-
tion on this subject, because I can speak experimentally with
respect to "the nourishing quality of corn stalks, when cut
fine and given to stock, and have several years since public-
ly recommended the adoption of the practice.

As connected with the Agriculture of our State, I beg leave
to give the statement of the amount of the produce exported
from Philadelphia, during the three quarters of 1816.

The whole amount is $7,599,76. The number of barrels
of one of our siaple articles, viz. flour was 26649 — which a>t
die average price of $10 amounts to $266490. But as during

xiv AN ADDRESS, &C.

the last quarter, considerable shipments of that article have
taken place, twenty-five per cent may be added to form an
estimate of the whole number of barrels shipped, during the
year 1816. The number of American vessels cleared from
the port of Philadelphia was 310. — Their tonnage amount-
ed to 55,446. The whole number of clearances was 437, and
the tonnage 78,844.

The only article of import subservient to Agriculture is
Gypsum, of which 19452 tons were imported during the last
year from Nova Scotia. When we reflect that much is also
imported into New York, and some into other States, and
that the quarries on Cayuga Lake are in active operation,
and found to produce Gypsum of an excellent quality, we
may form some calculation of the quantity of that inesti-
mable mineral production consumed in the agriculture of
the United States.

Among the desiderata Of American husbandry t lireshing ma-
chines have long been ranked,* and so early as the year 1792, a
successful attempt had been made by a gentleman of Phila-
delphia to construct one. the model which of is now in the
cabinet of the American Philosophical societyof Philadelphia.
It is to be regretted, that the gentleman* in whose ingenious
mind the excellent idea of that useful machine originated,
did not prosecute, it as we should probably have had those
machines in operation in the United States, even before they
were generally introduced into Europe; and the old world
might have been indebted to us for one of the most useful
implements of husbandry, as it has been for a knowledge of
the application of steam to a purpose the most useful and im-
portant in human life, and most efficient as a mean of defence
in naval warfare, that ancient or modern ingenuity can boast
of. I know I am anticipated by all of you, when I mention the
stemming of rapid steams, and the safe and expeditious na-

* Col. A. Anderson. See Appendix I>

AN ADDRESS, &C. XV

vigation of our sounds and bays by steam-boats; — and the
construction of steam-frigates, by the lamented Fulton.

The desideratum mentioned of the threshing machine
has been supplied by Mr. Dumbleton, who arrived during
the last summer from England, and put one into operation
at Mr. John Barney's, Port-Pen Delaware, which I am in-
formed has given complete satisfaction, by its answering all
the ends that can be desired of such an implement, viz, spee-
dy and clean threshing, ease of management and porta-
bility-

It appears that burning clay for manure has been prac-
tised with great success in Ireland and Scotland; and as there
are extensive districts of our country, the soil of which is
of that nature, I beg leave to invite attention to this new
means of enriching land. But as I propose to give a full
account of the mode of conducting the process, I have not
deemed it necessary to be particular with respect to it on
the present occasion.

An important addition to the stock of our agricultural in-
formation has been made by that indefatigable friend to the
art, Sir John Sinclair, in consequence of a visit paid by him
in 1815, to Flanders, the result of which he has since pub-
lished.* Among other useful facts related by him, he has
established beyond the possibility of a doubt, the efficacy of
certain mineral steeps in preventing smut in wheat; and the
fertilizing properties of the ashes produced by the combus-
tion of peat extracted from salt marshes in Holland, on
crops of clover, the succeeding crops of wheat, and in pre-
venting the increase of all sorts of insects; in destroying
mosses and lichens, which injure pasture-lands; and in pro-
tecting the wheat from mildew, a disease to which from its
situation, Flanders is extremely subject. It is probable,

* Hints regarding the agricultural state of the Netherlands. 1815.

XVI AN ADDRESS, &C

the particulars will be inserted in the next volume of the
memoirs of our Society: I shall therefore merely state in
addition, that as there is reason to believe peat of a similar
nature to that of the Dutch, abounds in the marshes of our
extensive coast, and on the borders of the brackish rivers
and creeks of the United States, the farmers in the vicinity
of them would do well to search for it, and to make the ex-
periment with its ashes, on the crops just mentioned. It
may happen that they will prove a substitute on their soils
for that invaluable inland manure gypsum, which it is well
known produces not the least effect as far as the influence
of the sea air extends.*

I state with pleasure that I have received information
from a correspondent in Maryland, of the discovery of large
beds of alluvial deposits, in Kent and Queen Anne Counties,
similar to some of those found in various parts of west New-
Jersey, the utility of which as a manure in the sandy or
light soils of that district you all know has been found,
when cautiously used, to be very great; and I have no doubt
that future researches in the peninsula, between the Dela-
ware and Chesapeak, and indeed in every part of the tract
constituting the ancient sea coast of our country, will disco-
ver similar deposits. The fertilizing properties of those
substances cannot fail of proving highly benefieial to the
land in their vicinity; but I must caution those within whose
reach they are. not to depend entirely upon them for restor-
ing the exhausted state of the soil; for although indepen-
dently of the good effects known to be derived from the
mere circumstance of the stimulus given to plants by the new
earth in which they grow; considerable advantage will fol-
low the decomposition of sea shells and other animal re-
mains with which they are mixed; yet if successive and
exhausting crops are taken from land dressed with the
new substances; if part of the increased produce be n©t

* See Appendix F,.

AN ADDRESS, &C. Xvll

applied to the feeding of stock in the barn yard, and the
manure thus obtained be not used to give body and life
to the stimulated soil, their expectations of the treasure
now dreamt of fiom the use of those substances, will
certainly not be realized. But the addition alone of manure
will not answer all the desired end of the husbandman; the
earth will sicken even of manure: rotations of green fertil-
izing or covering crops are indispensably necessary to reco-
ver the earth from the exhausting effects of an uninterrupt-
ed cultivation of tobacco and grain, or of any one crop.—
This is not mere theory; the experience of every judicious
farmer or cultivator in Pennsylvania, will support me in the
propriety of this injunction.*

The importance of good roads and canals to all countries,
in facilitating the cheap and constant transmission of the pro-
ducts of agriculture and of labour generally, is so obvious,
and has been so fully ascertained by the experience of Eu-
rope; that the subject cannot be too often, nor too forcibly
impressed upon the attention of the public They mark the
genius, spirit, enterprize and good sense of a people, and are
indissoluble connected with individual comfort, and national
wealth. During the continuance of the universal war that
recently vexed the European world, such was the profitable
external commerce enjoyed by <he United States previously
to their entering into the war. that it. was impossible for some
time to convince the people or legislators, notwithstanding
the able papers written on the occasion, of the infinitely
greater value of internal commerce and of a home market,
than of foreign trade; and although it was frequently pre-

* As the knowledge of the most judicious modi of applying the substan-
ces mentioned to the soil, is of consequence, the socieU will thankfully re-
ceive communications on the subject; and in their na,me I beg leave to re-
quest them,

G

xviii an address, &c.

dieted thai the effects of the inattention complained of, would
every year be more and more perceived in retarding the im-
provementof the country and be severelyfelt, in case of a war,
the progress of which was deemed by many gradual but cer-
tain; yet a deplorable indifference to the subject on the part
of our general and state legislatures continued. But since
the restoration of peace has enabled all the maritime nations
of Europe, to be their own carriers, and the dear experience
of the increased expense and obstruction to the public busi-
ness occasioned by the want of good roads and canals during
Aha late contest with England, the importance of our inter-
nal commerce, and of facilitating the intercourse between
remote parts has been forced upon the public; and I am gra-
tified in being -able to state the increasing attention that has
been paved for (i few years past in most of the states to the
wise policy of internal improvement.* In many of the states
canals intended to connect various streams, and others for
the special purpose of transmitting produce have been dug,
are in progress, or in contemplation. Pennsylvania and
New-York are proceeding partly with seperate canals, and
jointly co-operating in others.* which will be of mutual
benefit. Pennsylvania together with Delaware and Mary-
land, have al*o subscribed largely to the completion of the
long projected and important canal to connect the Delaware
and Chesapeak, and only wait the aid of Congress to pro-
ceed. A disposition in that body having at last been evinced
to promote internal improvement,! it is to be hoped they will
be induced to authorise the advance of the necessary funds
to insure its completion.^: Pennsylvania was early alive to

| Virginia, hitherto backward in her attention to roads and bridges, -has
done herself immortal honor by the establishment in 1815, of a board of
works, specially charged with the duty of attending to every object of in-
ternal improvement; and ample funds are appropriated to carry their plans
into execution.

» f * See Appendix F,

AN" ADDKESS. &C. XIX

the importance of (hose sources of national wealth, and ten
years before the war of the American revolution, a practi-
cable rout for the canal last named, was traced by a com-
mittee of the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia; and
immediately after the country began to revive from tfee de-
struction and poverty occasioned by our successful struggle
for freedom, a grand scheme for connecting the Susquehan-
nah with the Delaware by means of canals was formed; and
but for mismanagement, and too great haste in beginning,
we might now enjoy the benefits arising from that impor-
tant scheme. The public mind, however, is now reviving
from the state of depression or indifference info which it
was thrown by the failure of former attempts; and hav-
ing the opportunity of acquiring the most ample knowledge
of the causes of that failure, the errors of our predecessors
may in future be avoided. Omitting a more particular enu- ,
meration of the canals alluded to, I beg leave particularly
to call the attention of (he Society to the noble project of
rendering the river Schuylkill navigable by means of locks,
which I have no hesitation in pronouncing one of the gran-
dest and most original ideas for the improvement of a river
ever offered to the world: for hitherto the views of engi-
neers have been confined either to the clearing obstructions
in the beds of rivers, or to the taking advantage of rocks or
falls in their channels to make a single dam, for the purpose
of obtaining command of the water at certain spots; where-
as, when the plan of improvement in the Schuylkill shall have
been completed, an entire still-water navigation for boats
at all seasons, when not obstructed by ice, will be effected,
from the falls to the mouth of Mill-creek in the vicinify of
of the fine and inexhaustible coal beds, one hundred miles
from Philadelphia. One lock is already finished at the falls,

XX AN ADDRESS. &C.

and another is in progress at the upper end. The almost in-
calculable interest which Philadelphia has in the completion
of the scheme, will I hope cause our citizens effectually to
aid the company incorporated to carry it on. Its accomplish-
Dientwould give life and activity to a large tract of country,
(now comparatively dull and inactive) by the numerous man-
ufactures and labour saving machinery that would be erected
ou each side of the river: by the employment of the lame and
aged persons, who are now a heavy expense to the adjoin-
ing counties and to the city; and by the value of the labour
of the hardy yeomanry of the country in agriculture; and
the numerous mechanical employments to which a thriving
state of it, and of manufacturing establishments have inva-
riably been found to give rise; and by the cheap and steady
transportation of agricultural produce, coal of the best kind.*
wood for fuel, sawed timber, stone, marble, iron ore, and
wrought iron, and lime, all or part of which are now brought
downhy land at an comparatively immense expense, or only
for a short time during the precarious and short continued
rise of the river, in time of freshes.

As upon an occasion like the present it is proper to men-
tion everj thing tending in anyway to promote the agricul-
tural interest, f beg leave to call the attention of the Soci-
ety to the subject of saving banks. The effect of these in-
stitutions in aiding industry, by the inducement they offer
to those engaged in agricultural and other employments, to
lay up a small portion of their daily, weekly, and monthly
earnings, and to deposit them in a bank, by which the temp-
tations to spending are greatly diminished, are so obvious,
and have been so fully established on the continent of Eu-
rope, and lately in Scotland and Kngland, that no doubt can

* T!»is coal is of thai specie>- called anthracite, *nd gives an intense heat
in stoves or fireplaces where there is a strong draught.

AN ADDRESS, &C. XXi

be entertained as to the immense advantage that will he de-
rived from their adoption in the United States; and I beg
leave to urge their being instituted where the sphere of your
influence extends. Mechanics and others in Europe, who de-
pend upon their labour far their support are paid at so low a
rate, that in order to lay up a small sum every week, they
are obliged to deprive themselves of some of those things
which in this country would be deemed the necessaries of
life; but in the United States, such is the high rate at which
those engaged in mechanical or agricultural labour, are paid,
that no such sacrifices are necessary; it is only requisite to
part with a small sum over and above what is necessary to
furnish them amply with every comfort which a reasonable
being can desire; a sum which if not thus disposed of would
certainly be spent in useless articles of dress, or in idle
amusements. By placing their savings in a bank, the per-
son will have the satisfaction of knowing that they are safe
beyond the possibilityof loss; and that they will daily accumu-
late, and be ready at a moment for him, when the hour of
real need shall arrive. While however urging the adoption
of this truly important oeconomical measure, I cannot avoid
stating that they ought in all cases to be organized by the
public authority of a city, county or town; because an idea
of security, (so essential to the desired extension of their be-
nefits,) will be attached to ihem, and this, an association of
private persons might not excite; it is moreover as much a
duty of the public authority to provide the means of prevent-
ing mendicity, and to encourage moral habits among its ci-
tizens, as to enact laws for the relief of existing poverty, or
for punishing crimes actually committed.*

In the spring of 1816, several cases of serious indisposi-
tion, and some of mortality, occurred in the town of Boston

* See Appendix G.

XXli AN ADDRESS, &C,

and its vicinity, from grown persons and children eating
bread and other dietetic preparations, composed wholly or
in part of rye; and as that excellent grain is known to be
very subject in the New England States, and in countries
of Europe, in which a climate similar to those States pre-
vail, to a morbid affection of the seeds, called ergot, causing
them to lengthen, and turn black, and to acquire deleterious
and singular properties; it is highly probable that the opi-
nion attributing the diseases mentioned, to the infected
seeds having been ground up with the perfect grains is well
founded. Indeed the circumstances attending the cases of
the subjects who were sickened, give very strong probabi-
lity to it; and as the same diseased state of the rye does
sometimes, though happily seldom occur in Pennsylvania,
I have thought it useful to mention it on the present occa-
sion, as a caution carefully to screen such grains from those
destined for Hour, and even to cause them carefullyto undergo
the process adopted in our improved mills for cleansing grain
before being ground. I think it also proper to add, that I
have reason to believe, that there is a great similarity to
ergot in the smut which often affects the wheat of Penn-
sylvania, and the middle States, and hence must suggest
the propriety of the same care being taken in scouring grain
produced from a field of wheat in which smut abounded, as
I recommended in the case of the rye; and in both cases
to prevent domestic animals, especially those with young,
from eating the chaff of such diseased rye or wheat, or even
inhaling the dust arising from the process of winnowing
them.

Asa powerful means of promoting agriculture, I beg leave
to urge the enlightened husbandman of the United States to
omit no opportunity of committing to paper all such re-
marks as may offer to him in the course of his operations,

AN ABDllESS, &C. XXlii

whether tending to shew an improved mode of cultivation,
or to point out injuries which may have occurred from his
adoption of measures or crops, either from necessity, inat-
tention, or hy way of experiment. By the first measure,
those less informed than himself will be instructed, and by
the latter, erroneous steps will be avoided. The good that
may be thus done is so obvious, that to dwell on it is unne-
cessary. And here let me urge the importance of farmers
noting even single facts, as soon as possible after their oc-
currence; let them not trust to memory for the preserva-
tion of auy useful remark, until a number are collected, for
memory is treacherous; and after a lapse of time, some par"
ticulars may be omitted upon which the utility of the re-
cord may depend; thus he may be the unwilling agent of
leading others into error, the discovery of which will here-
after give every conscientious man pain. Death may also in-
tervene between the occurrence of the remark and its re-
cord, by delay: whereas by speedily communicating the
fact, the desirable object of spreading information quickly
will be obtained. Let them also not be deterred from com-
municating, by the consideration of the supposed poverty of
their materials for a paper, or from being unused to writing:
a single fact will be acceptable, in any style, and will claim a
preference to theoretical disquisitions; for too many of these
have already been published by theoretical men which have
misled others of a similar cast, who in all countries have
engaged in the attractive employment of agriculture. We
want facts noted in the field by men who handle the plough,
or who personally superintend the work of their servants;
and of such a complexion I am happy to think with only one
or iwo exceptions, will the papers in the volumes of our soci-
ety be found to consist. The agriculturalists of the United
States, while they exhibit a commendable reluctance inlay-

XXiV AN ADDRESS, &C.

ing aside their accustomed practices in which they have
been educated, with the results of which they are acquaint-
ed, and equal caution in the adoption of new or untried
modes, are nevertheless exceeded by none in a similar em-
ployment in any country, for sound sense, intellectual intel-
ligence, enterprize. and freedom from prejudice, (the source
and basis of all rational improvement,) or can more clearly
convey their ideas in conversation; but like the farmers in
other countries, they discover an unwillingness either to take
the trouble to commit facts to paper, or to appear as au-
thors; but this reluctance it is to be hoped will be overcome,
when they reflect that in no other way can the business of
their lives he improved; that their remarks may call forth
those of others, from which they themselves may derive
instruction; and lastly, that they are writing to friends, who
will gladly receive their letters, and make the best use of
them for the promotion of the objects for which they write,
and we arc associa ted With the view of giving out agricul-
tural fellow- citizens an opportunity of making notes of such
occurrences as may likely to be useful, and of diffusing in-
formation, the society have encouraged the publication of
an agricultural almanac in Philadelphia, which I am happy
to hear has met with a sale that emboldens their continua-
tion in future years.

The advantages resulting from insuring farm houses and
farm buildings from loss by fire, so far exceed the trifling
amount of the premium paid to the officers, that I cannot
omit the opportunity of warmly urging the adoption of the
measure. Scarcely a year passes without some serious
conflagrations taking place in our state, either of houses or
barns, and when the latter are burnt, the loss is often con-
siderable. The practice of thatching barns, which is too
common in the interior of Pennsylvania, ought to be dis.

AN A.D DRESS, &C. XXV

continued, and shingles, or what are still hetter, tiles or
slates be substituted.

Hitherto the general, or state governments have done
nothing for the promotion of agriculture except in an indi-
rect way, (viz. by incorporating turnpike and canal compa-
nies:) and although the greatest solicitude on the part of
rulers, and pecuniary assistance are lost upon a people defi-
cient in energy, enchained by superstition, or oppressed by
arbitrary regulations; yet when these obstacles to improve-
ment do not exist, but on the contrary the energies of the
public mind are left unrestrained, and that mind is found
to be bent on improvement, countenance from the govern-
ment of a country, and occasional pecuniary aid will ren
der the most essential benefits to agriculture, by serving
as a kind of pledge to the people of the sense entertained
of its importance, and by enabling societies instituted for
its promotion to reward the meritorious exertions of indi-
viduals who have set examples of superior industry, or good
management in any way; who have made capital improve-
ments at an expence which their own finances could not
well bear; or in short, who have in any way promoted
the objects connected with agriculture horticulture, or
rural economy. — Societies supported merely by the pri-
vate subscriptions of the few members who are disposed to
join such associations, cannot for obvious reasons be sup-
posed able to offer premiums to any extent, while their a-
mount to a government even supposing they were all claimed,
would not be felt; but as this is an improbable event, the
objection which might be made by some persons to the
amount of the sum so taken from the public purse, will not
hold good, while the benefit and honor derived from the pa-
tronage afforded by government would remain, and induce

XXVI AN ADDRESS, &C.

a gradual progress in improvements. An excellent opportu-
nity is now afforded of assisting the cause of agriculture and
internal improvement, in the projected establishment of a
new department in the national government, and it is to be
hoped that it will not be lost. Indeed it is impossible to
calculate the effects on the prosperity, or on the domestic
comfort: or the amount of the wealth which the nation may
derive from a Secretary of the home department, resolutely
and actively directing his attention to every concern from
Maine to Georgia, which naturally comes within the scope
of the duties arising from such an office, such as canals,
and roads, obtaining a knowledge of the improvements in
making and repairing them, and its publication for general
benefit; ascertaining practicable routs for new roads, or ca-
nals, stimulating those more immediately concerned in their
formation to undertake them, under the promise of pecu-
niary aid, if necessary to complete them: introducing use-
ful implements of agriculture; seeds, plants or trees, useful
in diet, medicine, or the arts; labour saving machinery,* and
improved breeds of cattle, from. Europe, by offering pre-
miums for the same, or directing the attention of foreign
public agents, or of the numerous American citizens whG
visit Europe, either for profit, pleasure, or mental im-
provement to the subject; and who would delight in comply
ing with the request, from a sense of duty, and the satisfac-
tion derived from the consciousness of having promoted
thereby the interests of their country. He might also
do good by countenancing and aiding with advice, or pecu-

* The increase of taxes and price of labour in England, bave acted as sti-
mulants to the invention of numerous labour saving implements in agricul-
ture, as well as in manufactures; of the former we have none in the United
States, except the threshing machine,

AN ADDHESS, &C. XXVll

niary assistance, cautiously bestowed, ingenious native or
foreign artists; by facilitating the discovery of the nume.*
rous mineralogical treasures with which the bowels of our
country are stored, and forming a cabinet of all those sent to
him, for the inspection of artists in future, who may wish to
know their localities and various qualities. By means of
such an officer, government may command at any moment
the intellectual resources of the United States; and thus,
upon an emergency in the public affairs, recourse could be
had without delay to the combined advantages of a know-
ledge of the locality of numerous raw materials, and of the
best method of employing them for the purposes to which
they were applicable. The benefits of such resources are ob-
vious, but will be more fully estimated by those who know
the energetic impulse that was given to France, by such an
appeal, during the gloomy years of public scarcity in some
articles most essential to civilized existence, and to public
defence. Through such an officer a system of statistics
could be established, that would enable the government to
know precisely, or as it were to show a balance sheet of the
actual state of the country, as to various branches of manu-
factures, arts and agriculture: their increase, or decrease,
and the propriety of granting or withholding legislative pro-
tection. In like manner he might ascertain the gradual in-
crease of population, the chances of existence and the pro-
portions of births to deaths, in different parts of the United
States, a species of knowledge of incalculable consequence
to this country, and for want of which we are obliged to de-
pend in the case of insuring a life, for calculations formed
upon observations on mortality made at Breslaw in Silesia,
Stockholm, Northampton. London or Paris. But it would
be tiresome even to enumerate all the objects connected
with the improvement of the country to which such an officer.

XXVlli AN ADDRESS, &C.

zealous in the discharge of his duty, and supported by the
public spirit of the legislature, might profitably direct his
attention: I will therefore only say, that from his exertions
we might cease to be tributary to Europe for numerous arti-
cles which our industry would furnish, and our own inge-
nuity work up, (and that cheaply because of the general de-
mand) and thus by keeping at home the precious metals,
which we export to pay for the manufactures of the old
world, we should not again be under the necessity of having
recourse to the miserable, and to many, the ruinous expedi-
ent of using as a circulating medium, the bills of a host of
public and private banks, (many of which in different parts
of the Union, had not specie to the amount of a sixth, and
some not even a tenth part of their notes, and the debts
they owed to depositors;) the solidity of the national strength
would be increased, by the increased attachment of the
people to the government, which they would find attentive
to their best interests, and alive to the wise policy of keeping
men, women and children employed; and thus supplying us
with home productions, the scarcity of which alone obliges
thousands to use those of the work-shops of Europe: and
lastly, the means of communication between remote parts
being facilitated, a national feeling would be firmly establish-
ed, and those invidious distinctions and the imaginary op-
position of interests, which have hitherto, prevailed, would
be entirely done away.^

* See Appendix H.

APPENDIX.

(A. P. s.)

THE following facts prove the gradual rise, and sudden
fall, in the prices of grain, in England. After the peace of
1763, wheat rose from 36*. to 41s. the quarter: the average
price of it during ten years prior to the commencement of the
war with France, in 1^92, was 47s. the quarter: during the
tweuty years beginning with 1794, and ending with 1S13, the
average price was S3*.: during the last ten years, ending with
1813, it was 92s.: and during the last five years of the twenty.
10S*. In January, 1813, it was 120*.; but in November, 65*.
[Parliamentary Debates. Malthus.

The following statement shows how dependent England is
to foreigners for her grain.

"An account of the real value of corn, grain, meal, and flour,
* imported into Great Britain from foreign parts, iu each year
from 1792 to 181 1, both inclusive.

Real value of foreign corn, &c.

YEARS.

imported.

1792

£. 856,095

1793

- - - 2,021,993

1794

1,768,811

1795

- . - - 1,461,622

1796

- - ' - • 4,487,116

1797

1,455,722

1798

1,569,757

1799

1,765,840

1800

8,755,995

1801

- « 10,149,098

1802

2,155,794

1803

1,164,592

1804

1,855,333

1805

-- 3,754,831

1806

1,106,540

1807

1,878,521

1808

336,460

1809

2,705,496

1810

7,077,865

1811

- 1,092,804

Total 20 years, - - £ . 57,420,285

XXX APPENDIX.

"Above one-half of this amount was probably paid for in
specie, a large proportion of which, it is said, found its way to
France, and enabled it to carry on the war.''

[Sir John Sinclair's Political Maxims. 1812.

(B. p. 10.)

Although the summer aud autumn were unexampled in the
United States for cold, yet the spring was not more backward
than in preceding years; as the following comparative state-
taken in Boston shows: —

Mr. Hale — It has frequently been said, that the present sea-
son is a backward one, especially before the late rains. This
is a mistake, if we have reference to this vicinity. It is far
from being a backward season. Men's memories may fail
i]iem, but nature never deceives us.

The following comparison of th& seasons of 1813, 1815, and
1816, may amuse some of your readers, and instruct them.

Apricots ofiened in 1815, May 1st — In 181$, in full blossom,
May 3.

Currants and Gooseberries in 1815, in full blossom, May 11
—In 1816, May 9th.

Cherries in blossom, May 10th, 1813; also, May 10, 1815;
equally forward May 6, 1816.

Mespilus Canadensis, or Showy Medlar, in blossom, May
11, 1813, May 16, 1815, May 9, 1816. This is an unculti-
vated plant, and may be considered a fair test of the season.

Peaches began to open in 1815, May 11 — In 1816, May 5.

Plums in blossom, May 14, 1815— May 12, 1816.

Pears began to open their blossoms, in IS 13, May 20 — In
1815, May 18— In 1816, May 13.

Asparagus was cut in 1813, May 14, for the first time in a
particular garden.

In 1815, May 6th, in the same spot.

In 1816, May 5th, do.

Here then is a variety of cultivated and uncultivated plants
on the same estate, and it is impossible to resist the evidence,
that the present season is not among the latest, but may be

APPENDIX. XXXI

rather classed among the early ones. If the cause is asked,
we answer true it is we had a long-protracted winter, but the
weather suddenly passed to the opposite extreme, and it is be-
lieved we have had hotter weather, either to take the mean, or
to take the extreme heat, than we usually have at this season.
The facts above stated are unquestionable. The prospect at
present is very flattering to farmers.

A PRACTICAL CULTIVATOR.
. May 14, 1816.

On the 5th March, the fruit trees in Charleetown, near Bos-
ton, Mass. were in blossom: on the 29th of that month, the trees
were covered with ice and snow in Boston: the snow on a level
was more than one foot deep in the streets. The change in
the temperature of the weather took place generally through-
out the United States on the 17th March. Frost was observa-
ble at Charleston, S. C. on the 29th August, and the sugar
canes and cotton, in Georgia, were seriously injured. In Ten-
nessee, and the Western States, generally, corn and wheat
have been abundant: and in December the first sold for 25
cents and the latter for one dollar the bushel, in Ohio.

On the 14th May frost killed much of the cotton in Tennes-
see. Snow fell on the 6th June, in New Hampshire, and the
western parts of Massachusetts. At Plattsburg no rain had
fallen previously to the 5th October, fpr eight or ten weeks;
and almost all the springs and swamps were dried up.

Snow fell on the 6th October, at Brunswick, Maine, two
inches deep.

So mild was the weather in the beginning of January, 1817,
that at Concord, Mass. " the white pond lilies (not having had
time last summer) expanded their leaves and appeared in full
bloom." A great change soon took place, intensely cold wea-
ther having followed generally throughout the continent. At
Montreal the mercury in Fahrenheit's thermometer stood on
the 12th January at 12®, and gradually fell to 14° below 0, on
the 22d. At Brunswick, Maine, on the 13th, it was 15^° be-
low 0, and fell to 17° on the 16th. At Kennebeck it was 32°
below o, on the 15th. At Hallowell, Maine, on the loth and

XXXii APPENDIX.

1 1th, it was 20° below 0, and on the 15th, 34°. At Charles-
ton, S. C. the weather had been pleasant until the 17th Janua-
ry; on the 18th it was at 1S° on Fahrenheit's scale. At
Georgetown, S. C. snow fell on the 13th, for the first time in
19 months. At Augusta, Georgia, on Sunday the 19th, the ther-
mometer was at 11°; but the weather moderated the next day,
and on Tuesday "the genial temperature of spring returned."
At Philadelphia it has been very cold since the 19th; and on
the 26th snow fell one foot deep: on the 4th February the ther-
mometer was down to 2° below 0. The cold has been intense
throughout this continent to the 17th of January. On the 15th
the thermometer was 2° below Q of Fahrenheit's scale, at Phila-
delphia, and at Washington City; and 7° below 0 at New York.
In Connecticut and Massachusetts it was several degrees
lower, fioston harbour was completely closed, and passable
on sleighs as far as Castle Island; a circumstance that has not
happened since the year 1779.

(C. p. 12.)

I know that in some districts of our country, barley equal in
weight and quality to British barley, is raised. Our brewers
even say ihat more extract is obtained from American than
from English malt. The weight of barley, the growth of 1816,
and brought to Philadelphia, has been from 49 to 54 lbs. —
These weights are rather greater than in common years, and
may be fairly ascribed to the slow growth of the plant, arising
from the cool season. The country on the Brandywine river,
and the vicinity of West Chester, Penn. are above particularly
alluded to. The state of Rhode Island also produces great
quantities of fine barley — and the breweries of New York and
Philadelphia are in part supplied with the article from that
state.

Exclusivelv of the advantage derived from the gain in time
to the farmer, by preparing the ground in the autumn, the fer-
tility of the soil will certainly be increased by the exposure of

APPENDIX, XXXlll

its internal surface to the frost; and for this reason the autumn
ploughing should be as deep as possible. The fertilizing prin-
ciple is unquestionably nitre, the materials for which we know
exist more or less in the air, as is proved by the ease with which
that salt is procured by lixiviating the earth under stables,
sheds, and tobacco houses, with water, and by evaporating it,
and purifying the salt thus obtained by repeated solutions in
water. No difficulty occurs in explaining the formation of
nitre, knowing as we do that " the component parts of nitrate
of potash are nitric acid, water, and potash, which may be re-
solved into the following elements: oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,
and potassium; and all these elements are experimentally
known to be present in the situations where salt petre is form-
ed, witli the exception of potassium. In the supposition that
the salt petre is a produet, and not an educt, of the above pro-
cess, it must be a component principle of some one of the ele-
ments present, or a compound of two or more of the principles
of those elements, or of two or more of the elements them-
selves."*

The common objection I have heard urged against early
sowing, is the want of warmth in the ground, owing to which
the seed would not vegetate. But this is futile: for grain can-
not suffer from being in the ground, and will be ready for the
gradual increase of heat in the spring. Both oats and barley
will vegetate at a low degree of temperature. Even in the
cold climate of Scotland, "barley has been sown on the winter
furrow, as early as March, and never failed to produce an
abundant crop, and of a superior quality "f

It should always however be held in mind, that barley re-
quires a deeper cover of mould, and more pulverised soil, than
oats.

* Kid on the Natural Production of Salt Petre. Trans. Royal Soc. Lond.
1815.

f Account of Husbandry in the improved districts of Scotland, by Sir
John Sinclair, p. 249. Edinb. 1812.

E

XXXIV APPENDIX.

(D. p. i*.)

A Threshing Machine, upon Col. Anderson's plan, was
erected in Maryland, in 1792, and answered well; hut after
sometime the wheel warped, and impeded its perfect opera-
tion. The absence of the inventor, and want of confidence in
the owner of the machine, or want of energy, occasioned its
being laid aside.

Besides Col. Anderson's plan, Mr. Hoxie, of Hudson, N. Y.
and Mr. Deneale, of Virginia, obtained patents for Threshing
Machines, but they have not been successful in introducing
them. In 1S02. Mr. D. Prentiss, from Edinburgh, erected six
or seven, in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jersey, on the
Scotch principle, which answered well; but they required
more care than common labourers would bestow in feeding the
machine to prevent its choking; and as common workmen could
not repair it when out of order, and the maker was at a dis-
tance, they did not multiply. Mr. P. also engaged in another
line of business.

The advantages of Threshing Machines are, 1. The enabling
the possessor to take advantage of a sudden rise in the mar-
ket for grain. 2. The more complete cleansing of the grain from
dust and smut, than by the flail. 3. Rendering the straw more
eatable by stock, in consequence of the bruising it undergoes in
beating out the grain: and if mixed with fresh cured clover
hay, it will more readily absorb the moisture in if, than when
the grain is threshed by the flail, and thus add greatly to the
stock of winter provender for cattle.

(E. p. 16.)

A gentleman of Philadelphia informs me, that taking the
hint from an account of the practice of burning clay, which
he read in a foreign journal, he has directed an experiment to
be made on his land, at Port Penn, of burning marsh- mud,
with a view of using it as a top-dressing for grass and grain,
and as the water at that place is brackish, and that kipd of

APPENDIX. XXXV

soil abounds in roots of decayed vegetables, there can be no
doubt of the fertilizing effects that will be produced by the
employment of its ashes. He has already tried the ashes of
those pests of a moist soil, tussocks, on grass land, and from
the present appearances exhibited by the spots dressed with
them, he expects the most beneficial effects from their use on
the succeeding crop. Tussocks yield a great proportion of
their weight in ashes, and burn readily, after being set up in
small heaps, oven-fashion, for a few days, in the sun.

(F. p- is.)

A. Company is incorporated in the State of New York, " for
the purpose of effecting boat navigation between Seneca Lake
and the Susquehannah River," and have laid a memorial be-
fore the government of Pennsylvania, soliciting its aid and pa-
tronage. The completion of this work, with that now in con-
siderable progress between Seneca and Ontario Lakes, will
open a Boat Navigation from the Lakes to the Chesapeak.

The recent completion of the Locks on Black River, below
Brownsville, effects the navigation of the River from Lake On-
tario to Brownsville.

The want of the Chesapeak canal was severely felt during
the late contest. The property, public and private, taken by
the British blockading squadron, and the cost of transporting
articles by land that could have been sent by that canal, if it
had been finished, amounted in value to much more than what
is wanted to complete it, or than the whole canal will cost. —
Happy would it have been for the United States, had the elo-
quent speech in favour of tliis Canal, of the lamented J. A.
Bayard, delivered in the Senate of the United States, in 1808,
been attended to by Congress.

These are minor objects, compared with the stupendous
project of connecting the River Hudson with Lake Erie,
which originated in New York four years since, and which
it is to be hoped will he aided by the General Government —

XXXVI APPENDIX.

By the calculation of the Commissioners, it appears that the
whole expense will not amount to five millions of dollars — a
mere trifle, considering the extensive benefits that will result
from the completion of the work. The remotest corners of the
United States would feel its vivifying influence.

Congress, upon the motion of Mr. Calhoun, of South Caro-
lina, have appropriated, during the present session, one million
and a half of dollars, and the United States' share of divi-
dends in the National Bank, for twenty years, on seven millions
of dollars, owned by them, for constructing Roads and Canals.*
. — The practicable routes for the latter, and the points of con-
nexion between numerous watercourses, so as to effect a great
chain of internal water communication, have been so often de-
tailed, and so fully brought before the view of Congress, by
Mr. Gallatin, that no delay need take place as to the proper
spots to commence the truly patriotic work; the completion of
which would create a most desirable revolution in our views
and opinions of things, and have a most beneficial effect upon
the national prosperity.

(G. P- 21.)

It is a fact well established, that notwithstanding the wages
of day labourers, mechanics, and male servants, in the United
States, are much beyond what is necessary to their comfortable
support, and decent appearance; yet that at the end of the year
they are in general no better oft* than when it began: and whe-
ther they earn 10, 20, or SO dollars per month, little is laid up;
and the first and last classes mentioned, have seldom a change of
decent apparel. Independently of the thoughtlessness of the
people alluded to, I was led to believe that one reason why
they indulge themselves in the wasteful habits complained of,
is, their not having any way of putting out to good account,
small sums of their surplus earnings; and it struck me, that

* The bill was rejected by President Madison!

APPENDIX. XXXVII

had they an opportunity of doing so, they would avail them-
selves of it. These reflexions indueed me to publish in my
"Archives of Useful Knowledge?' in October, 1810, a plan of
an institution which I termed a " Bank of Industry;" the ob-
ject of which was to suggest a plan by which the persons
alluded to might be enabled to invest such portions of their
earnings as they could spare, in order that a sum might gra-
dually accumulate, with interest, and be at command in case of
sudden sickuess, unexpected misfortune of any kind, or suspen-
sion of work during winter. The measure is equally applica-
ble to country and city. In Scotland and England, these insti-
tutions have spread rapidly within the last two years, and
have even received the protection of Parliament.

The reception of small sums is an important part of the
plan of a Saving Bank: for should the deposits be required to
consist of large sums only, (say five or ten dollars), the otter
impossibility of the class of people (for whom particularly the
scheme is intended), refraining from uselessly spending part
of their earnings, before they amount to the above sUm, will
prevent hundreds from availing themselves of the opportunity
offered, and from beginning to save; whereas if twenty-five or
fifty cents be accepted, they will daily add to their little capital.
They will say — what I deposit, will be safe; — if I keep it, I
may either spend, lose, or lend it, and never have it returned.

The granting interest on deposits is also a part of the scheme
essentially connected with its general diffusion. The induce-
ment to the labouring class to lay up part of their earnings,
derived from the reflection of its security; the advantage of
having their money placed out of the temptation of spending;
and the satisfaction of reflecting on the little capital so accu-
mulated, on any occasional pressure, would doubtless operate
with them to add to their stock in bank; but the knowledge,
that after it amounted to a certain sum, it would bear interest,*
would prove a still stronger exeitement, an extra-en courage -

* Private Bankers, in England and Scotland, allow interest on deposits,
when left for a certain time. Banks in the United States ou»ht to follow
the example.

XXXV111 AFPENDIX.

ment to industry and economy, in order to attain that sum; and
when the object was reached, it is reasonable to suppose they
would make great exertions, and submit to some denials, to pre-
vent its being broken in upon. The common labouring class
of mankind, although generally an improvident set, yet often
contains persons who do more than provide for their daily wants,
and with commendable foresight endeavour to lay up against
the wants of futurity; whose spirits revolt at the thought of
seeking aid from public charity, and who would rejoice in the
opportunity of securing and deriving interest from their surplus
earnings. With others, the ambition of having a bank ac-
count, and the pride they will feel in having the fact known,
and the gratification derived from occasionally referring to
their book to see or show the gradual increase of their capital,
will powerfully act: while the stimulus of example will ope-
rate on some who may at first be indifferent to the adoption of
the measure.

The most common day labourers in Philadelphia can earn a
dollar per day throughout the year; and yet they are commonly
in rags, and without a dollar in store. Many spGcies of me-
chanics earn from two to four dollars per day; but they lay up
nothing in a general way. Cotton spinners earn ten dollars
per week — glass blowers, Si 20, or more, per month.

On the whole, " the scheme of Saving Banks is calculated
to secure independence without inducing pride; ip lead to tem-
perance, and the restraint of all the disorderly passions which a
wasteful expenditure of money nourishes; and to produce sobriety
of mind and steadiness of conduct, which afford the best foun-
dation for the domestic virtues in humble life. The effects of
such an institution as this upon the character of the people,
were it to become universal, would be almost inappreciable."*

Since the above remarks were written, Saving Banks have
been established in Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, the

* Third Report of the Society at Edinburgh, for suppressing beggars,
relief of occasional distress, and encouragement of industry among the
poor. 1814.

APPENDIX. XXXliC

regulations for which may be consulted by those who wish to
imitate such good examples; and also the "Pamphleteer," vol.
7, for an analysis of those of the various British Saving
Batik associations. One rule ought to be observed: to make
them as simple as possible.

The following table, taken from a series of papers on the
subject, in a Philadelphia paper, will " show at what rate the
weekly savings will increase at a compound interest of 4 per
cent, per annum."

Weekly
Saving's.

"Win amount
in 3 Years.

7 Years.

12 Years.

20 Years.

550 25

40 56

102 67

195 37

387 12;

0 50

81 ±2i

205 33

390 62£

774 25

1 0.0

162 25

410 66

781 25

1548 50

1 50

213 37 i

615 99

1171 S7i

2322 75

2 00

324 50

821 32

15Q2 50

3097 00

3 00

486 75

1231 9S

2343 75

4S45 50

4 00

649 00

1642 64

3125 00

6194 00

5 00

811 25

2153 30

3906 25

7742 50

W.N. a day labourer, has a wife and four children, and
earns §6 per week. It cosls him S3 50 per week to keep his
family; he pays ^50 per year rent, his fire-wood costs him £20,
and clothes and other expenses §40: so that his expenses
amount to g5 50 per week; and his savings are 50 cents, ex-
clusive of what his wife can earn. This half dollar per week
is in all probability foolishly squandered, in the greater num-
ber of instances; whereas if deposited in a Saving Bank, ii
would accumulate in twenty years to nearly 8800, by the table;
and at 6 per cent, (which the Bank might afford to allow him)
to about S900 — a sum which would afford comfort and shelter
to him in the evening of life, and be far sweeter in the enjoy
meiit than the most magnificent charity.

A. R. a drayman, in good business, and having a wife and
two children, lives at about the same rate as the former: he can
earn from 12 to 15 dollars (say 15) per week — deduct g5 for
peeping his horse, dull weeks, &e. and he can lay up gi 5'

Xl APPEXDIX.

per week: this sum Mould amount without interest in 20 years
to S40SO. The probability is, that it would not with ordinary
management reach half that sum. Deposited regularly in a
Saving Bank, it would yield at four per cent, nearly §7000,
or a clear annual income of from 300 to 400 dollars.

A journeyman mechanic can earn from 7 to S dollars a week
(say 7): suppose him to be 21 years old, and that he remains
unmarried for 7 years — h's board and washing will cost him
g3 per week, and all his other expenses need not be $1 50 per
week more. He will then lay up $2 50 per week; which sum
would produce in seven years, in the Savings Bank, at 4 per
cent, above §1000; and lie would be possessed of an ample ca-
pital for establishing himself as a master workman.

(H. p. 28.)

\ more particular notice of the objects to which a Secretary
of the Home Department might, with infinite advantage, attend,
may be useful. And, first, as to Roads. Travellers have fre-
quently remarked, (and some of them in terms not the most
mild), the miserable state of the roads between the interior and
the Atlantic States; and even asserted, that one of the worst roads
in the country (at a time when it ought to be best), was that
leading from the populous and wealthy city of Baltimore, to
the seat of the National Government. In connexion with the
subject of roads, it will be of obvious utility to acquire, by a
correspondence with liberal men in Europe, and especially in
England, the knowledge of the best mode of constructing
roads; and when obtained, to publish it, for the benefit of the
many hundred turnpike roads in the United States, not one of
which it is believed has been constructed upon the best princi-
ples. An experiment of a few miles might also be made of a
road formed upon the improved plan, in the District of Colum-
bia, to serve as a model: and this would probably have more
effect in inducing others to adopt it, than a general recommen-
dation of a plan not tested in this country. It is understood
•hat during the last few years, great improvements have been

APPENDIX. 41

made in the formation of turnpikes, and of these it is in our
power to avail ourselves. Some publications have reached
this country in the course of the last and present year, which
show in part what has been done. The means of keeping the
roads in repair; the prevention of the injuries to them, by regu-
lating the weights of the carriages to the breadth of the wheels,
(an essential point), and the most easily managed and economical
weighing machine to prevent deception, and to be stationed at
certain toll gates should of course demand a portion of attention.

The introduction of useful implements of agriculture; of la-
bour saving machinery; of useful arts, and ingenious mechanics
from Europe, would be an important part of the duty of the
new officer. We every year hear of new and useful implementi
in husbandry, or of improvements in those already in use, which
would be highly beneficial if introduced into the United States;
but from the total want of intercourse between the cultivators of
the soil in the United States and those in Europe, the improve-
ments of either country remain where they were made. Indeed,
were the existence of such foreign improvements or inventions
known to our farmers, the difficulty and expense of procuring
them, would constitute an insurmountable obstacle to their intro-
duction. But if once introduced, and if models were sent to the
different agricultural societies in the United States, they would
be speedily brought into use, and would tend greatly to abridge
the labour of the farmer. Several useful machines and imple-
ments could be mentioned, to which allusion is made. Among
those of primary importance in the arts, I may mention the im-
proved steam engine; the Nottingham loom, that weaves 24 pairs
of stockings at a time; the impioved mode of making white-lead,
which renders unnecessary the health-destroying process hi-
therto in use; and the machinery of Mr. Lee, for preparing flax
and hemp.

The improvements in the steam engine recently made in Eng-
land, tend greatly to increase its power, and to economise fuel,
the consumption of which, upon the plan formerly in u§e, wai so

F

42 APPENDIX.

enormous, as greatly to detract from the profits of the manufac-
turer. On this subject I find the following note in Tilloch's Phi-
losophical Magazine, fur January, 1816. " According to Messrs.
Leans' report for December, the average work of 33 engines was
19,333,126 pounds of water lifted one foot high with each bushel
of coals consumed. During the same month, the work done by
Wolf's engine, at the W heal Vor, was 46,907,793, and that at
Wheal Abraham, 47,622,040 pounds of water lifted to the same
height with each bushel of coals. "

The embarrassment and loss sustained by the defective steam
engines employed in the water works of Philadelphia, have been
so great, as to render one on the improved principle very desire-
able. Steam engines are applicable to the draining of extensive
swamps. espeeiaiSy where they lie a great distance from the near-
est outfall, and at the same time the land which lies between the
low grounds and the outfall, is many feet higher: so that drains
are obliged to be cut very deep, and to a great distance; and Mr.
W. Walker, of Horncastle, in England, has published, (1812),
an essay, showing, by means of tables, the number of acres that
may be drained by different sized engines, with the prime cost,
and annual outgoings; a work that will be extremely useful to
all those who have occasion to employ them for the purpose.

Not only might the agricultural, but the manufacturing inter-
ests of the United States be materially promoted by the officer
taking proper measures to procure, or encouraging ingenious or
useful artizans to emigrate from Europe, particularly in those
branches of business that languish for want of mechanics. Among
others, 1 may mention one of great consequence, viz. earthen
ware of the finer sort. Even porcelain could be made, as the
materials for it abound in the United States; and some of them
in the vicinity of Philadelphia. France and Germany impose
no restrictions on emigration, and the ingenious artists of both
those countries would be a great acquisition. Government, by
means of such an officer, will have the power of becoming ac-
quainted with the residence of ingenious men in the several arts,

APPENDIX. 43

sciences, and trades, and might become the depot of discoveries,
and of specimens of every substance connected with the useful
arts, which might in this way be essentially benefitted. Through
him mechanics and artists of every description, who arrive in
the United States, might know where to find the particular earth
or material, of the qualities best suited to their respective pur-
poses. The glass maker, in particular, might find where the
proper materials for making his glass-pots were to be had — that
great desideratum, and, as I am informed, powerful drawback
on the profits of the manufacturers. Ascertaining also the par-
ticular minerals that have been discovered in different parts of
the country, and their qualities, would aid and confirm the just
notions of the practical miner, and check the projects of unadvis-
ed persons.* Already we possess the art of converting one of
the materials of a turnpike in Maryland, (chrome), into the most
brilliant yellow paint now known;! and due encouragement would
lead to the discovery of fuller's earth, and pipe clay, (the ex-
portation of which from England are prohibited), and other sub-
stances equally valuable.

A chemical operator should be attached to the proposed de-
partment, whose duty it should be to analyse all minerals sent to
him for the purpose, in order to ascertain their composition: and
when these are known, the qualities of i]\e article, and its capa-
bilities of manipulation, could be readily determined. And let me
ask, in what way could 1000, or 2000 dollars, be more profitably
employed, or with more honour to the Government? Such an as-
sistant is always found connected with the officers exercising du-

* Mr. Godonwas called about six years since, to examine the quality of
copper ore, in Chester county, Penn. in working which, 50,000 dollars had
been expended. He informed the proprietors that the same kind of ore had
often been attempted to be worked in Europe, and always without advan-
tage, owing to the difficulty of separating the iron from the copper, and ad-
vised the proprietors to abandon their works, which they were reluctantly
compelled to do.

\ The discovery of Mr. Gfodonj but the process has been since perfected
by Mr. Hembel, of Philadelphia.

44 APPENDIX.

ties similar to those proposed for the new department, on the
continent of Europe, and the Board of Ordinance, in England,
also has its chemical operator. The losses which it is known
have been sustained by the United States, for the want of such an
assistant, would have paid an hundred times his salary, if one
had been appointed at the establishment of the federal gov-
ernment.

The advantages derived by France from her ingenious men,
mentioned p. 27, are summed up by Chaptal, in a paper read to
the Nat. Institute, in 1815, on the manufacture of sugar from
beets. For an account of the measures adopted in France to
collect salt-petre, see " Archieves of Useful Knowledge," voL
3, p. 353.

In fine, there is no calculating the quantum of benefit that
may be produced from an officer of Government steadily direct-
ing his attention to every thing connected with the internal im-
provement of the country; or that would tend to foster that inven-
tive spirit, or keep alive the industry and enterprise that prevail
among the citizens of the United States. Let us only for a mo-
ment advert to the articles gypsum and red clover seed. What
would have been said of a person fifty years since, when that pre-
cious mineral, and still more precious seed, were first introduced
into Pennsylvania, if he had asserted that they would in less than
half a century, add more to the real wealth of the state, by being
employed in its agriculture, than if a gold or silver mine were,
to be discovered? Would he not have been called a madinan, or
have been set down as a visionary character, as Fitch and Kum*
sey were, when they asserted that boats cuuld be propelled
against the currents of our rivers by steam? Or, at least, such
results would have been declared as improbable, as the spinning
of two threads of cotton at once?* Not only has the solid capital
been increased by the increased exports of the animal and vege-
table productions which have been multiplied, but, from the na-

• Dr. Franklin once predicted, in a company of several members of the
Royal Society of London, that the day would come when this would be
done: but they all pronounced the exploit impossible.

APPENDIX. 45

ture of the employments which such a large proportion of our ci-
tizens, and foreign emigrants arriving in the state, have been in-
duced to adopt as a means of obtaining a livelihood; from the
mills which ornament the banks of all our water courses: the ma-
chinery and numerous mechanics employed; the substantial farm
buildings and dwellings, and other agricultural improvements;
grand or substantial bridges, and roads to which they have given
rise; the increase of population; happy mediocrity of circumstan-
ces; abundance of food, for man and beast; and improvement of
farm stock — that have followed the appearance and actual en-
joyment of so much prosperity. And if such effects have result-
ed from bringing into general use only one plant, and one mineral
substance, what may not be expected from twenty other plants
being diffused over our states, in climates suited to their several
natures, and by making the minerals of our country subservient
to a thousand purposes in the arts, and domestic economy? What
increase of comfort would not be enjoyed by the Southern planter,
and the inhabitants of the Southern States generally if only two
acres of Guinea grass, and avena elatior, (or tall oat grass),
were cultivated on every farm, from the milk, fresh butter, and
the cheese they would enable the grower to furnish his family
with, all the year? And yet I will venture to assert, that unless
they are introduced by an agent of Government, half a century
will elapse without the desirable measure being accomplished. —
What capital, I may further ask, would not be saved to the na-
tion by the general use of the excellent Benne or Sesarnum seed
oil, in place of that of the olive, in diet, in medicine, and in addition
to that obtained from flaxseed, for numerous purposes in the arts?
It would be easy to proceed in the enumeration of the points to
which the Secretary might turn his attention, or in detailing the
advantages that would result to the country, from a faithful dis-
charge of his duty; but I forbear on account of the length to
which my notes have extended.

THE END.

NOTICES

FOR A YOUNG FARMER;

PARTICULARLY ONE ON

BEING SOME RUDIMENTS FOR

AN EPITOME OF GOOD HUSBANDRY;

AND SUBJECTS PROMOTIVE OF ITS
PROSPERITY.

Belmont, March 5, 1817V
Dear Sir,

The attempt at furnishing materials for a compend of some of the moss
useful practices and arrangements in husbandry and rural economy, suitable
to our local circumstances, herewith sent, was intended for our Almanack ; to"
which I was requested to contribute my share of assistance. But it was con-
ceived, that the narrow limits indispensable for that Publication, would not
admit of this addition ; and I gave over all thoughts of offering it for any other
purpose. I had not sufficiently attended to the classification of subjects ; hav-
ing, as they arose, written down such ideas as occurred to me, without the
regularity whfcfc ought to be observed on all subjects comprehending a variety
of matter. The Society having determined to publish another volume, I now
request you to present th.s collection, imperfect as it is, for consideration,
If better materials for the Volume, are not in plenty, it may be used to supply
deficiencies ; or returned to me, as the Society think proper to direct.

Very sincerely yours,

Richard Peters,
Jloberts Faux, Esq. Secretary to the Philadelphia
Society for promoting Agriculture.

The President's Epitome of Agriculture having been reaoV
it was resolved, unanimously, that it be printed, in the Fourth
Volume of Memoirs.

Extracted from the Minutes.
Roberts Vaux, Secretary,

:

CONTENTS

L Farm Yard, to be laid out on a good plan. Water introduced, and
stock confined.

II. Yard to » be stored with all attainable putrescible substances; to be
mixed with the dung and urine, in a Jien or stercorary. Valuable
qualities of urine. Night soil.

Ill Fall ploughing ) its advantages. Corn-grub, or Cutworm. Sod-
dy grounds j how to treat them. The Roller, and its uses. Farm
wed, on a small scale, rather than extensively and negligently Hes-
sian Fly. Mix earths, and plough in green manures. Composts.

i V. Ume j when, and how profitably applied. Indian corn ; modes of
planting. Rotting or decaying the sod. Harrow preferred to the
plough, lor cleaning and dressing corn. Some remarks on south-
ern farming.

V Stable and Yard Manure to be ploughed in. Dung ; remarks on
lied °Plm0nS aS t0 the state "* which * is raost beneficially ap-

VI. Beep ploughing mbveaklngVLp. Sorrel and sorreline acid. Foul
or wet fallows Chaff-bearing crops, not to succeed one another.
f '"9 5* tor W> or sown for pasture. Oats and Indian corn,
for soiling FrftAe* Heligoland Bean. Thistles ploughed in!
fences. Timber. Line Fences.

VII. Change of crops recommended. Harrowing winter grain, in the
I?7^g ",* ,?*'* Sh°Uld be acco^^odated to the soil, rather than the
toil to the plant Food of plants ; diversity of opinions concerning

L pgCS °{ForesJ Timb^ Mr. JBifg-A*', theory as to ages of
fft 1 f, RePetltlons of.same sPecies of grain, or grass. Clover fails,
atter frequent repetitions. Seed shallow, however deep maybe
your breaking up. -

VIII. Piaster old fields for pasture, and subdue Weeds. Some re-
marks on Piaster. IC

IX. Orchard Grass ; its value, and advantages over Timothy, or Clo-
ver. Remarks on its culture, and seed. Poa viridis, or Green
urass. fiorin Grass. Poisonous Plants to be eradicated. Bo-
tany ; its uses in farming.

*\*,TlZati0nSr f?r Earths aS Manures. Apparatus for analyzing
toils. Uses of chymical and mineralogical knowledge to a farmer

hZr/yrxT Earth- c Water to be *PPfied t0 a11 its «ses * **
oandiy. Advantages of some knowledge of practical surveying

^drostatics, and the mechanic powers. Miscellaneous duties

CONTENTS.

XI. Casual failures should not discourage confidence in a general
rule; nor controversies about theories, prevent perseverence in
good practices.

XII. Summer Dung to be collected ; and how to be treated. Hotlime
injurious, and some remarks on Dung, and its state of fermentation.

XIII. If inter Grain subject to injury, when sown the first year of li-
ming.

XIV. Selection and change of Seed. Crossing meliorates Grain and
Fruit. Quantity of Seed to an acre. Variety of opinions concern-
ing it. Drill Husbandry ; and sowing in drills. Plaster sown on
winter Grain. Hessian Fly ; some remarks on it, and some guards
against its injuries ; Wheats believed to be capable of resisting
them.

XV. Steeps. Mildew and Smut. Stunted or Sedge Wheat.

XVI. Carefulness in raising and expending Food for Farm Stock, re-
commended ; and modes of treating several kinds of food and pro-
vender. Chaffing Hay, Straw, &c. Steaming Potatoes. Scarcity
Root. Boiling or scalding Provender. Culture of Potatoes previ-
ously to a Wheat crop ; different opinions concerning it. Potatoes
said to grow best on boggy grounds. Veterinary knowledge, and
Weights and Measures ; their uses even in the orderly and more
beneficially feeding of stock.

XVII. Soiling j some remarks on. Pens for cattle and sheep.

XVIII. Fire on Soils ; its uses, and observations thereon.

XIX. Ditching and draining. Warfiing. Irrigation. Stagnant
Water injurious, if not carefully attended to.

XX. Discretion, as to the numbers and species of live stock, recom-
mended, and judicious selection of breeds.

XXI. Dogs to be trained discreetly ; to prevent bad habits ; and espe-
cially in regard to sheep-killing. Carelesness in those who leave
temptations in their way, a principal cause of this propensity.

XXII. Farm dwelling-houses, and other buildings ; observations con-
cerning them, and the situations in which they are placed. Stables
for horses and cattle. Pens for swine, and mode of feeding them.
Cleanliness as to all places in which live stock are kept, recom-
mended.

XXIII. Accounts of receipts and expenditures, and No tes of farming
occurrences, to be kept.

XXIV. Reading on agricultural subjects, recommended.

XXV. Experiments useful and necessary ; but settled practice should
not be disregarded. Profits of farming ; observations respecting
them.

XXVI. Poultry.

XX VII. Farming mstruments, implements and tools to facilitate agri-
cultural operations : Some observations respecting them.

XXVIII. Agricultural Societies.

XXIX. Habits of Industry, Economy, and Sobriety inculcated. Sa-
vings Ba?iks. Friendly and Benefit Societies. Lancaster Schools.

XXX. Conclusion ; and general observations.

NOTICES

FOB A

YOUNG FARMER;

PARTICULARLY ONE ON

WORN LANDS;

BEING SOME RUDIMENTS FOR AN

EPITOME OF GOOD HUSBANDRY ;

AND SUBJECTS PROMOTIVE OF ITS PROSPERITY.

I. You cannot be too careful in forming the plan of your
Farm-Yard ; (the magazine and laboratory of your principal
stores for artificial fertility,) calculated ultimately for your
improved farm. But begin with such parts of your farm
buildings and accommodations as suit its present state of cul-
ture ; and add such conveniences, as circumstances, from time
to time, require.

If no water be in your yard, dig a well, promptly ; and
confine your stock from November to May ; never permitting
thein to wander after water, the provender of the stalk-field,
or the miserable fogge of other fields ; in which they empty
themselves, gain little nourishment, and uselessly scatter their
dung ; the fertilizing qualities whereof, are thus given to the
winds ; and only a dry and inert remnant left, for future
benefit. The stalks and husks of Indian Corn, should be
brought home for feed and manure ; instead of being waste-
fully browsed, and trodden down, by wandering cattle. Let
not a hoof, unnecessarily, leave your yard, or stables ; not
however, neglecting to give them proper exercise, within the
enclosure, or if out of it, let them so remain only during the
time employed in such exercise ; or in the services required
from them.

vi Notices for a Young Farmer,

II. Hale into your yard, a sufficiency of every prutrescible
substance, within reasonable distance; and often clean up
your muck. Have a pen or stercorary of solid masonry, with
its bottom paved, or composed of sound and well compacted
clay. Your manure gathered into your pen or stercorary,
should be secured against the treading of cattle, which, by
excluding air, prevents the necessary fermentation ; a rea-
sonable degree whereof is essential, although when excessive,
it should be checked. Sir H. Davy's discussion on this sub-
ject, shews one side of the question ; and experience must
teach the other. Mix Earth with your fermenting litter, or
muck, rather than Lime; until the fermentation be sufficiently
advanced. If your stercorary be roofed or thatched, it will
be the more perfect. Have pits, secured from leakages, to
collect the drainings of dung ; and the urine of Horses and
Cattle ; — the most valuable excrements. Human urine is also
surprisingly beneficial ; and generally, (as it regards rural
economy,) wasted. Prejudice and ridicule are alive, when
it is asserted, that it is preferred by Horses and Cattle to
Salt ; and is, to them, salutary as a medicine, as well as a
condiment, promotive of health, and consequent profit.* Our
Germans have been long acquainted with its uses ; and a late
publication in England, shews its powers and efficacy, as
well for domestic Animals, as for fertilizing the soil ; when
diluted, and judiciously applied. Immense collections of it
might be made ; not only in Cities, Towns, Inns, and Ma-
nufactories, but on every Farm. Human Ordure, or Mght-
Soil, however contemptuously regarded by us, has been long

* Many years ago, a German woman kept Cows, in a town in Maryland ; and
derived a plentiful support from the sale of Milk, Cream, and Butter. Her
Cows were remarkable for their goodly appearance ; and every body preferred
dealing with her, to being supplied by other Cow-keepers. Envy was excited ;
and she was narrowly watched. At length it was discovered, by her rivals,
that she daily emptied the contents of the Urinal, into the food of her Cows.
She acknowledged this to have been the magical cause of the superiority of
her Butter and Cream. But when the secret was discovered, she could sell no
more of the celebrated articles, which had heretofore been so universall) ad-
mired. It is only by stealth, thai such prejudices can be prevented, or subdued
by a conquest over the imagination.

Notices for a Young Farmer. vii

used in Eastern Countries, as the most valuable manure. In
some parts of Europe, it has, for some time past, become an
object of attention. Its offensive qualities are readily cor-
rected by lime.

III. Plough and harrow soddy fields in the fall ; and add
Lime, harrowed in at that season, if it be within your power.
In addition to other advantages of this operation, you will
thereby escape, either wholly, or for the most part, the an-
noyances of the Com Grubs. In what mode the destruction
of the grubs, or the eggs of their parent, (be it a Beetle, or
what it may ; for on this subject, there are varieties of opi-
nion ;) is, by these operations, accomplished, or their ravages
prevented, is a subject of laudable curiosity and speculation i
but the fact of the purpose being achieved, is all important;
and in numerous instances, incontestably proved. That spring
ploughing is generally inefficacious, is too frequently and fa-
tally known. Instances of failure to produce the effect men-
tioned, by fall ploughing, have been adduced. On examina-
tion into the facts of some, it is found, that the operation has
not been performed either well, or in due time, and only par-
tially ; and in other cases, either uncommon grub years, or
other peculiar circumstances, have occurred. The great ba-
lance of facts is, most assuredly, favourable to this practice ;
and warrants its adoption. It is so beneficial in other re-
spects, that it should be followed, even without regard to its
effects on the grub. Some acute diseases defy common reme-
dies ,- and dams and mounds resist common floods ; yet yield
to extraordinary inundations. Nevertheless, medicine, and
medical skill, and preventives of overflows, should not be set
at nought. Nor should any beneficial operation in husbandry
be disregarded, because it does not in every instance succeed.

Fall ploughing enables you to plant corn early : and it is
better thus to risk spring frosts ; which do less injury to your
plants, than do early frosts, in autumn, to the corn fully
grown.

It is alleged by several highly respectable farmers, that,
in holes made near the hills, with a pointed stick ; incon-

viii Notices for a Young Fanner,

ceivable numbers of grubs have perished. In a letter to the
Society, on the information of one who actually experienced
the fact ; it appears, that, by a ditch dug for the purpose,
across a field ; the passage of Cutworms from a field which
had been destroyed, to one uninjured, was obstructed : and
six bushels of grubs were thus collected. This would seem
indubitably to prove them to be migratory ; and to shew the
consequences of leaving part of a field unploughed in the au-
tumn ; which affords harbour for grubs, which may from
thence wander over the fall ploughed portion. Several far-
mers have escaped the grub, by steeping the seed corn in
spirits of turpentine ; and rolling it in plaster.

Soddy grounds should be rolled, and well harrowed, in the
direction of the furrows ; after being broken up so deeply, as
to place beyond vegetation, the sod ; and by thus excluding
air, and by clean, shallow, and frequent stirring, so as not to
disturb it, to promote its decay without a capacity to grow.
The dead fibres, (nature's restoratives,) are thus retained in
the soil, for appropriate manures. — Lime, Plaster, Marie, &c.
to co-operate with. The sod left on edge, either dries use-
lessly, or vegetates, with all its pests.

The Roller is too little used ; and, mistakenly, supposed to
consolidate too much : whereas it crushes and separates clods,
and loosens the soil. On clay and heavy ground, the Spiktj
Roller is best ; as it is on all hide-bound surfaces — of mea-
dows and mowing grounds particularly ; but, like all other
operations, rolling must be performed judiciously, and adapt-
ed to soils and circumstances. Few, indeed, are the soils, on
which it is not highly beneficial.

Sow no more ground, with winter grain especially, than
you can perfectly till and manure ; one well dressed acre,
being worth many negligently treated. Manure, good til-
lage, and late sowing, which latter is only justified by the
two former, are guards against the Hessian Fly, If even to
good farming, misfortune occurs, losses are not accompanied
by self reproach. Shed Oats, or that grain sown with the
wheat, sometimes attracts the Fly, by its being more forward
and tempting ; for this insect has no predilection for wheat,

Notices for a Toting Farmer. ix

although our interest in this grain, induces our peculiar at-
tention to its misfortunes ; but, like Radishes sown with Tur-
nips, success does not always attend the experiment, though
well worthy of trial.

If you cannot get Lime, or Animal manure, mix Earths of
different qualities and textures, or plough in green Manures ;
such as Buck-wheat, clover, &c. Turn them in deep, to pre-
vent evaporation in gases ; which would occur in Summer
fallows, superficially ploughed.

For Composts, move old fences, and plough up their scites ;
thus destroying hedge-rows, and other nuisances ; and mix
tussocks, weeds (cut before going to seed,) and all putresci-
ble substances, in long and low beds, to be turned by the
plough. Go into your woods, and compost leaves and wood-
soil ; also use mould from low places, washed thither by rains
and floods ; and throw out the beds of stagnant ponds. Lime
with the latter, is beneficial, and plaster operates wonder-
fully with the former, on the decayed vegetable matter ; as
do ashes, on pond or river-mud. Plaster, in compost in
which vegetable matter is mixed, is more beneficial than lime.
Whether salt be or not a manure, is not well ascertained ;
but it has had success in small quantities. See 2 vol. Phila-
delphia Memoirs, p. 173, 4, 5,7. The Chinese make much
use of sea water as manure, on lands near their coasts ; and
those in the interior, scatter salt over their fields ; before they
are tilled. The same practise is pursued in Hindostan.

IV. You gain a season in the wholesome efficacy of lime, by
spreading and harrowing it well in, on your fall-ploughed
fallows. Its causticity is thus mitigated or destroyed, by
winter exposure ; and you may the more safely use dung, the
ensuing season, for your crops, without danger of injurious
effects from hot lime.

If you plant Indian Corn, on either fall or spring ploughed
sod-fallow, (or any other) deeply tilled, (and it is the most
desirable and cleaning crop,) plaster the hills — as they are
technically called — or sow the gypsum over the whole field ;
and some do both, after the plants are sufficiently forward.
The seed should be wetted and rolled in plaster, or sleeped

B

Notices for a Voting Farmer

in a decoction of Hellebore or Copperas ; or, what produces
surprising effect, a strong solution of Salt-petre ; but do not
soak or steep it too much. In dry weather, the germination
is accelerated, by the steeping, injuriously ; so that the plume
and radicles perish ; and in long wet seasons, they rot. The
sod having been broken up 5 to 7 inches deep ; or if more,
the better ; requires shallow planting. If it be cut with a
coulter harrow, the better the crop will thrive. Being un-
turned, the sod becomes of itself a manure. Although it may
not entirely rot, its incapacity to vegetate is insured ; and
the soil is left filled with decayed vegetable matter, auxiliary
to the corn product, and a pabulum for appropriate manures.
But frequent harrowing must not be neglected $ whether you
shall plant in squares or drills, and at what distances ; depends
much on the state of your field, the nature of your soil, and
not a little on opinion ; which varies much on this subject ;
and is frequently operated upon by success, in the mode which
happens to be fortunate. Some have spoken favourably of
planting Corn as early as it can be well got into the ground ;
and they do not fear the annoyance of late frosts. It might by
this means be vigorous enough to resist the Grub, or grow
after being cut off by them. Some have succeeded in planting
late, so that the Cut- worm is passing away before it starts.
The first mode is more secure from early frosts in the au-
tumn.

Unless its situation and circumstances forbid, lay your
Cornfield level, rather than in ridges ; that moisture, in light
soils especially, may be retained, instead of passmg away;
and, if necessary, draw water furrows, to carry off accidental
flooding, by rains, or other causes. Cleanly farming is es-
sentially necessary, with the hoe and common harrow, to
prevent grass and weeds from growing ; and to assist in rot-
ting the sod. Use the plough little, if at all ; and the har-
rows much. Ploughing up furrows to the Corn plants, is an
impediment to the harrowing culture, carries off moisture
from the plants, exposes the accumulations of earth soon to
dry through, and is worse than useless. If you must ridge
low and wet soils, still the hoe and common harrow should

Notices for a Young Farmer. xi

be diligently used. Pulverize your ground, and the plant
will be nourished and supported by the length and vigour of
multiplied roots ; and never require hills, or elevated furrows.

It being the intent of these Notices, to recommend, not to
dictate; it is deemed proper to mention, that Col. Taylor, of
Virginia, (and his practice is followed by many southern
farmers,) pursues a mode of cropping with Indian Corn, di-
rectly the reverse of the one herein recommended ; and an
account of it may be seen in his drator. He breaks up, how-
ever, deep ; lays his fields in high ridges ; — possibly, his soil
and surface may so require, — in a north and south direction ;
burying his coarse, (corn-stalk) manure, to rot in his soil ;
and in succeeding Corn crops, after a lapse of some years,
the rows are planted over the former deep furrows ; the
crowns of the new ridges, occupying the places of those fur-
rows. Many pursue his practice, and speak favourably of it,
To us, who prefer laying our fields level, for the scythe and
grazing, this mode would not be eligible. It may in some
soils, as it regards the culture of the Corn crop merely, have
its advantages. It resembles in some particulars, Mr. Gregg9 s
practice, on a wet heavy soil, mentioned in our 2d. volume.
Col. Taylor's plan may be seen in his Essays on the subject.
In this mode deep ploughing is essential ; and it is as much
so in the level culture ; for, with shallow ploughing, moisture
would soon evaporate ; though not so much as if ridged, and
a greater surface exposed to drain and dry. Many who pre-
fer ploughing in grain, lay their fields in broad lands, and
harrow, after ploughing in.

Wheresoever the harrow has been fairly tried, its advan-
tages over the plough, in the Corn crop, have been decisively
shewn. Corn in drills, on a sod deeply ploughed in, the
rows 4 feet apart, and the plants 18 inches asunder, and
thereafter entirely cultivated with harrows, has produced
crops, beyond the belief of those wedded to the old mode of
culture. Some have found great advantages in the culture
of Corn in wide rows ; and potatoes, well manured, drilled
between them.

xii Notices for a Young Farmer

It is evident, that this and other modes of practise herein
mentioned, are calculated for farms of the extent deemed
competent in our part of the Union ; where permanent clean-
liness, and valuahle covers of grass, for hay and pasture, are
contemplated. In southern sections, where the mere grain
crop is the object, and vast extent of surface occupied ; so
that numbers of acres are multiplied, to produce an aggre-
gate, which might be had from a few; such details of opera-
tions for dressing and cleaning the soil, although highly as-
sistant to the immediate crop, would be considered inapplica-
ble and unnecessary. But until, in those districts, some such
practices as are used in less extensive husbandry, are more
commonly introduced, landholders should not complain of
broom-straw, and other noxious pests, overrunning and steri-
lizing their worn and finally abandoned fields; urged on their
march to poverty, by double cropping, and rough farming.
Great advantages might, however, be now taken of former
mismanagement, by pursuing some such means to recover
waste and abandoned lands, by using the spontaneous growths
of scrubby timber, first for cover, after felling, and then
burning it ; as Col. Taylor has practised. See 1 vol. Phila-
delphia Memoirs, pages 32, 8, 9. He has not only set an
encouraging example for farther experiments ; but has af-
forded the strongest proofs of the benefits resulting from
cover and fire, on soils. From experience in the like ex-
periment, it could be shewn, that his cover remained unne-
cessarily long unburnt.

If the numbers of Slaves are burthens on the southern
Landholders, in the farming districts ; confining their atten-
tion to a better stvlc of agriculture on a smaller scale, would
relieve them. If emancipation or colonization be prudent and
practicable, those emancipated or colonized, might be spared ;
when fewer labourers were required in improved husbandry.
If less land were occupied in exhausting culture, there would
be a surplus, for a white population to cultivate to greater
advantage. The improved state of the husbandry in some of
the counties of Virginia, particularly Loudoun, is an example
of peerless value. The plaster and clover culture has pro-

Notices for a Young Farmer. xiii

duced there, almost magical effects. Deep ploughing is much
practised.

If you cannot lime, for the Com crop, in the autumn, let it
be done early in the spring. The harrows mix the lime with
the soil, and should be frequently at work. Be not afraid of
cutting the Corn roots ; they send out fibres from the severed
parts, which more than supply the deficiency occasioned by
excision. Sucker your Corn, and do not sow winter grain
among it — to the injury of both crops, as well as your land.
Of all your crops, Indian Corn will the least bear neglect,
and it amply rewards all your attention. It is not only the
most valuable, take it with all its advantages, but it is, of all
crops, generally the most certain. If it fails, some most un-
common seasons or circumstances occur. We call it Corn,
without its specific designation, for its pre-eminence. It is
the best crop to subdue a stubborn, or clean a foul, soil. It
forces you to farm well ; which counterbalances its exhaus-
tion, in a very important degree.

V. Plough in your Barn-ijard or stable manure. In what
state dung should be applied, is a disputed question. Some
plough it in, at an early stage of putrescence, and some when
it is more advanced. The middle course is, perhaps, the
best. To scarcity or other tap-roots, fresh dung is decidedly
hostile. But the adverse opinions on this subject, as to other
crops, are too diffuse, to be here inserted. You will find them
in books ; but the best lessons are to be gained from your own
experience. Your well rotted compost, is indubitably best,
for top dressings, on either grain or grass. Yet fresh dung,
as a top dressing, has its advocates. It is even believed by
many, that using dung by itself, is wanton waste : and that
it should be considered only as an ingredient, to give value
and activity to other materials in composts. Much more ap-
parently improbable revolutions in rural economy, have come
to pass. Intelligent Farmers hold opposite opinions. See,
in England, Mr. Gregg's practise; 2d vol. Philadelphia Me-
moirs, 71, 72 ; and Col. Taylors Jlrator. Read Sir H. Davy's
Discussion upon this subject, and judge for yourself. See
also, in Sir J. Sinclair's Tour through Flanders, 1815, an ac-

xiv Notices for a Young Farmer,

count of the practice of the Swiss Farmers ; who soak their
dung in water, and apply it in a liquid state, to far greater
advantage than crude dung.

The nature and qualities of soils, and the kinds and de*
scription of manures, have influence, no doubt, on opinions
and practice. Climate and seasons have also their operations
on manures. The most general opinions and practise, favour
the use of moderately rotted dung.

VI. Break up deep, and he not afraid of turning up barren
soil ; when the nature of your ground admits of this opera-
tion • Shallow ploughing up the vegetable mould, deceptiously
serves a turn, when it is not exhausted ; and its exhaustion is
the certain consequence of this ill-judged tillage. But the
air contains the principal store of materials for the food of
plants ; and will impregnate the substratum, if exposed a due
length of time ; especially in winter, when it receives much,
and parts with little ; the heat of the sun^being then feeble,
and incapable of dispelling what the soil receives from the
air. Those who object to deep, much more to trench plough-
ing, want experience, sufficiently to test their benefits. They
have mismanaged experiments, or have been in too great
haste to crop their grounds. The substratum must be ex-
posed, tor a time necessary to receive the influences of the
atmosphere. Indian Corn, with lime, is by far the best crop,
after trenching, particularly : because it requires the soil to
be constantly stirred and exposed. True, there are some
soils, which neither deep nor trench ploughing will benefit ;
and every Farmer should accommodate his practice to the
nature and qualities of his soil. Over cropping and shallow
ploughing, with exhausting crops in succession, frequently
cause overwhelming growths of Sorrel, to infest ill managed
fields. Lime is the only remedy : and you will see in Lord
DundonahVs " Connexion," &c. the good effects of lime ; which
destroys the sorrel, and produces the sorreline acid ; highly
friendly to wholesome and profitable vegetation. Green sorrel
grows on fertile soils ; but the red sorrel is a certain mark
of sterility.

Never sow a foul or weedy fallow, to save a ploughing ,* or

Notices for a Young Farmer. xv

a wet one, to save time : nor sow, or stubble in, one chaff-
bearing crop, immediately to follow another. Such farming
may succeed for a time, under particular circumstances ; but
in the end it will produce only a crop of regret.

If you are deficient in mowing grounds, Oats may be sown
on your fallow, and cut for hay, before ripening the seed;
and in such case they do not exhaust ; nor does any plant, in
this stage of its growth. And see Mr. W. Young's paper on
the great advantages of Oat-pasture. 2d vol. Philadelphia
Memoirs, 186. Oats and Indian Corn are sometimes sown
together, in broad cast ; and cut for soiling, or to be plough-
ed in, as green manure. It is difficult to dry them, for win-
ter provender. Thistles, or other succulent plants ploughed
in, fertilize wonderfully ; when left long enough to ferment,
and become putrescent.

If any covering crop, for summer fallows, which does not
exhaust like Oats, could be suggested, a great reformation
would ensue. Vetches, or some such plant might be substi-
tuted, if the culture were better understood. The Hclegoland
Bean, very productive, is now esteemed, in England, as a
cleaning crop, to precede Wheat. A spring cover of Pease,
of a species ripening in time, is very beneficially used to pre-
cede wheat, in the autumn. If the pease fall, and the crop is
likely to fail, they may be ploughed in, as an excellent green
manure.

Keep good Fences, and make and repair them, when other
business is interrupted. They not only secure your own
crops, but ensure the good will of your neighbours ,• by pre-
venting teazing contests. Let no weeds, or nurseries for
pests, remain near them ; and avoid throwing stones, or other
obstructions to the scythe, on the edges of your fields, or
mowing grounds. They prevent cleaning their borders ; and
afford opportunities of growing, to noxious weeds and other
pests; forming, finally, scrubby hedge rows, to disgrace them.

Be avaricious of your Timber ; and fence your wood
lands, to protect the young growths. Waste and negligence
in this all essential article, soon produce irretrievable want.

Live Fences are becoming more and more indispensable :

xvi Notices for a Young Farmer.

and those composed of the Newcastle Thorn (craUegus crus
gallii) will he found the hest, for hardihood, durability, con-
stant verdure, and numbers and strength of the thorns. Live
fences, as well as orchards, and all fruit-trees, demand the
earliest attention ; and will be growing into profit, whilst
other improvements are progressing. If to the ditch and
mound faced with stone, which many deem the best, (because
it affords immediate protection both to your hedge plants and
to your field,) you prefer plain hedging ; cultivate strips along
your hedge, from year to year, well manured, and plant po-
tatoes ; and your thorns will thrive luxuriantly. In a few
continuations of the potato culture, you will gradually reach
and invigorate the whole extent of your hedge. Let no per-
son begin a hedge, who will not nurse and foster it, in every
stage of its growth.

VII. Change your Crops, and be satisfied with a good
one on a small surface well prepared ; taking a pride in clean
and neat farming, rather than wasting your labour and means,
in extensive, slovenly, and ill requited culture. Harrow your
winter grain in the spring, in the direction of the seed fur-
rows, or drills ; and be not afraid of disturbing a few plants ;
manifold produce will remunerate for the few destroyed.
The cracked and baked surface is thus pulverized ; and the
harbours for insects broken up. See Philadelphia Agricul-
tural Memoirs, 3d vol. 24, 50. The wheat plant throws out
sets of roots in the successive stages of its growth; and most
requires loose earth, in its infancy.

Accommodate your plant to the soil, in preference to fitting
your soil to the plant; every plant requiring a peculiar at-
tention to its own habits and organization. The Author of
Nature has placed in their proper element, both plants and
animals ; and they are suited to their designated positions.
Sand or rock plants perish in clay or rich soils ; as do those
calculated for fertile ground, in sand. See a valuable Essay
on this subject, 14th vol. Bath Society Papers, (1816,) page
136. By a careful attention to the facts and principles de-
veloped in this Essay, apparently barren sands and sterile
clays, may be made to produce profitable crops of appropri-

JVotices for a Young Farmer. xvji

ate plants. Our sea coasts, on their dreary sandy or pebbly
beaches, might be filled with the Marine Pea; which will
grow, in defiance of the surges, spontaneously, after the first
seeding; and produce perpetual crops of nutriment, for horned
cattle, sheep, and swine, either on sea coasts, or the bor-
ders of lakes. The trifolium maritimum, (sea Trefoil ) would
grow luxuriantly in salt marshes ; and take the place of the
inferior vegetation now occupying them. Many more in-
stances, to show the principle, might be added. The Tussilago,
or Colts-foot, delights in meagre soils; and making them
rich, especially with dung, will kill it. it were to be wished,
that our wild garlick were thus vulnerable. Meagre soil,
of any texture, cannot equal that naturally fertile, in the pro-
duction of any plant; but manure operates with double effi-
cacy, on a plant in its proper soil. Nor is it intended to say,
that, in all cases, changing a plant from a worse to a better
soil, (avoiding extremes,) is otherwise than salutary ; for
some plants are thereby improved. But such plants must
not be those exclusively calculated for particular soils. Wheat
is, fortunately, a plant capable of being indigenated in any
soil or climate ; yet of this grain, there are species growing
better in some, than in other soils. There are wheats for
sand, and wheats for clay. The grasses (commonly so called,)
have varieties, strikingly adapted to appropriate soils j an 1
such peculiarities should be carefully studied.

It is not intended to enter into the questions — what is the
food of plants ? and whether particular soils are more than
others, furnished with the pabulum for the plants natural to
them? and whether every plant requires specific food ; which
being exhausted, degeneracy or death ensues? The general
opinion seems to be, that all draw their nourishment out of a
common magazine, in the air and the earth ; the organs of
each being formed to draw the sustenance peculiar to it; and
most of this, from the air. Such questions are unsettled ;
various opinion's bring entertained concerning them. The
changes of timber and plants in our forests, were mentioned
as indications of nature, that our crops should be changed.
Most unwarrantable imputations have been cast on the jwriter

C

xviii Notices for a Young Farmer,

in the Philadelphia Memoirs, who communicated the circum-
stance now known to every body, us if lie believed in a new
creation, or in equivocal generation: than which nothing is
more groundless and untrue. See Philadelphia Memoirs, 2d
vol. p. 358. Theorists •« hear, like a Turk, no brother near
the throne.'* Hut the facts were barely related, and no The-
ory was attempted to be established.

Mr. Knight's Theory, tested by strong facts, is now much
credited; although at first received with great opposition.
He alleges, that Trees have their respective ages ; beyond
which the race becomes extinct. On fruit trees, manv expe.
riments seem to prove this idea correct. Grafting or bud-
ding from old trees, is now abandoned ; it being asserted,
that the one thus propagated will endure no longer than the
allotted age of the parent tree. This subject is elaborately
treated, in British publications ; with which the curious in-
quirer may amuse, if not instruct himself.

The same kind of grain has been sown, in long succession,
in several instances. But these, being exceptions to general
experience, should be considered as anomalies. Clover fails
after frequent repetitions ; and the Europeans interrupt the
successions of this grass by sowing Tares and Vetches, After
such interruptions, clover may profitably again take its
course, in the rotation. And thus it will be, with any other
plant.

Whatever be your change of crops, good farming should be
invariable. Wheat or barley on worn lands, without good
tillage and manure, will not repay the expense of culture.
However deep you plough, seed shallow. The coronal roots
are formed near the surface, and the plume and radicles pe-
rish ; in whatever depth the seed be deposited. The harrow
lays your field more level and fit for a cover of grass, than
the plough ; and, on this account, many harrow in their grain,
in preference to laying their fields in elevated lands ; which,
unless your soil be wet and low, are unnecessary. But care
must always be taken to draw furrows, as drains ; where
water would be likely to remain, and drown, or scald, your
plants. A great advantage derived from harrowing in grain,
is, that after your field is prepared for seeding, you can ra-

Notices for a Youn* Farmer. xix

pidly sow and harrow in your seed ; and have the choice of
weather, and other circumstances ; which the more tedious
process of ploughing in your seed would not permit. The last
ploughing may he in broad furrows, as deep as those desire,
who plough in their seed. This mode is equivalent to their
practice, and lias the additional advantage Of the harrow.
The idea of clods mouldering in winter, and protecting the
plants, and laying deeper hold when grain is ploughed in, are
excuses for bad culture. Pulverize your soil, and draw fur-
rows for drains when necessary, and the plant will root lux-
uriantly ; and want no clod-mouldering.

VI II. Plaster your old Fields ; which, being full of de-
cayed and inert vegetable matter on which the plaster ads,
will throw up pasture, until you can cultivate them in course.
We are not yet perfectly acquainted with all the properties of
plaster. The general current of facts prove, that salt and
salt air, are hostile to its operations. And yet there are in-
stances where it has succeeded on our sea-board, as well as
on farms remote from our coasts.

Subdue weeds and other pests in the fields thus plastered,
and all others, by the scythe and as much hand weeding as
you ran afford. Weeds are your deadly foes ; but, in the
compost heap, they mav be converted into friends. Whilst
overrunning your fields, they are robbers of the food which
would supply wholeSoine and profitable plants. The expense
or labour of eradicating them, is far more formidable in con-
templation, than in reality it will be found.

IX. Sow Orchard Grass ; if in the autumn, harrow it in
with your winter grain. Some prefer sowing it in the spring.
Much depends on the soil and season ; and you can try both
modes and periods, to enable you to form the lest opinion.
This grass will be permanent, when ciorcr, (with which it is
a profitable companion.) fails. It is, on uplands, preferable to
Timothy; which is a great exhauster, — yields but one crop
of hay, and little or no pasture, on i\\-\ soils ; thus leaving the
field bare of cover ; and exposing it to the exhaustion of the
sun and win's: whilst orchard grass, by its quick and re-
peated growths, affords a ceaseless cover and defence.

xx Notices for a Young Farmer.

By thus recommending Dactylis glomerata for permanent
pasture and hay, it is not intended to cast the least reflection
on the clover culture. This is now so commonly practised,
and its uses so generally acknowledged, that it is unnecessary
to dwell on its excellent properties. But the clover is fuga-
cious; and the orchard grass, sown with it, endures in unin-
terrupted vigour and usefulness, when clover, in dry seasons
particularly, is burned or shrivelled ; or has entirely depart-
ed ; having lived out its short period of existence ; or having
been prematurely destroyed by frosts ; to which it is often a
victim. The clover and plaster are so congenial, and the
improvement of the soils suitable for them so universally
known, that any detailed notices of them would now be su-
peril uo us.

Raise your own orchard grass seed ; and do not spare it on
your fields. Thin sowing throws up tufts, detached and
coarse. You buy, in the shops, much chaff and little seed :
insomuch that a bushel weighs only from 14 to 16 pounds,
at best; and some much less — barely sufficient fqr an acre.
It should be sold by weight, and not by measure. No grass
seed can be raised more plentifully and cheaply ; and yet the
expense of purchasing, has deterred its more general use.

It will be difficult to keep an old weedy farm long in grass ;
and the plough must, therefore, be oftener used than a clean
farm requires. Yet, with composts as top dressings, and de-
struction of weeds, wonders may be performed in a grazing
system. But when the old sod is broken up, time, as well as
good husbandry with proper courses of crops, must be af-
forded. No winter grain should be sown, the first season of
breaking up old grass lays. The stirring and culture of that
and the ensuing year, are necessary to ensure the complete
destruction of weeds and other unprofitable vegetation.

If you should be so fortunate as to conquer weeds and
prsts, and obtain a clean cover of the poa viridis, or green
grass, which will not grow unmixed in all soils ; it is not to
be told, how long your fields, with top dressings, will con-
linuc without being disturbed by the plough; if scarified,
when surface bound, by a proper instrument. This grass

Notices for a Young Farmer. xxi

appears to be native, though not peculiar to this country ;
and it must, according to general experience, grow sponta-
neously.

Plants spring up in soils in which they are indigenous,
without previous seeding. The experiment of cleaning by til-
lage, and meliorating by manure, worn lands, and suffering
them to throw up grasses spontaneously, has decisively suc-
ceeded, so as to ensure valuable crops of the appropriate
kinds ; which finally establish themselves, after contending
with intruders for a time. fVMtc clover seems most univer-
sally native ; but this grows better in some, than in other
soils.

Those who do not attend to the laws of nature in this
regard, suppose that they can, with plenty of manure, force
plants in any soil : but this is a great mistake. Gorging land
with dung, for any product, is expensively ruinous. There
is no surer mode of first deteriorating, and finally destroying,
any plant out of its natural soil, than that of lavishly dung-
ing it. And this misapplied extravagance, is injurious to
plants either of rich or poor soils. The latter are, however,
the soonest killed by high dunging.

Yet, take it for all in all, changing crops, or what is
called convertible husbandry, in which grass, for a reasona-
ble period, is only pact of the rotation, will be found the most
suitable to. the circumstances of our country : save in such
grounds in which the plough cannot be fitly introduced ; and
are from their nature and situation peculiarly calculated for
grass. For many such soils, those particularly which are
boggy and wet, it would be unpardonable not to mention the
Jgrostls stolonifera, or Fiorin grass ; by means whereof won-
derful improvements might be introduced, in soils fit for no
other crop. Its reputation is now so completely established
in Great Britain and Ireland, that objections to its culture
have been entirely overcome. Failures, in England, have
occurred, from want of care in cultivating the true species :
and thus bringing its character into disrepute. The agrostis
vulgaris, has been used, instead of the .s tolo n ifr ra ; than which

xxii .Yotices for a Young Farmer

there cannot be a greater mistake. Those who make experi-
ments among us, should be very careful to obtain the true-
kind of this plant. It is a wise plan to cultivate and bring
to the most perfect state, the plants congenial to your soil ;
and to avoid forcing, by artificial and expensive operations,
the growth of those which only serve a turn and do not per*-
manently abide ; or are subject to disease and casualties,
which appropriate plants escape. Although Fibrin will grow
in most soils, it can only be profitably employed, in moist, or
boggy, grounds.

Be careful to eradicate all poisonous plants, in your pas-
tures and fields. You will find in books, what you want in
experience, proo.s of the necessity of this precaution; and
you will learn the dangers to which cattle are liable in this
regard. Some plants are poisonous to some beasts ; though
safe and salutary to others. A reasonable knowledge of the
useful parts of Botany, without burthening yourself with its
endless nomenclature ; would enable you to distinguish plants
and their properties. A pocket magnifying Glass should al-
ways be at hand ; as not only highly useful in distinguishing
plants and the enemies infesting them ; but by it you could
examine the particles composing earths ; and ascertain their
qualities and uses. This would afford entertainment, whilst
it promoted your interests. Nothing is more necessary in
the inspection of seed, whether of grain or grasses : you can
discover, by your glass, unsoundness or malady in the one ;
and mixtures of worthless and injurious seeds in the other.
No person should trust the naked eye, when purchasing grass
seeds particulaly ; wherein poisonous or pestiferous seeds are
frequently mixed ; and many are so minute, as to be invisible
to unassisted sight.

X. Explore your own, and the neighbouring Farms, for
clay, marie, peat, earths, &c. for comm on benefit, and emu-
lative experiment. Mixing soils of different qualities, im-
proves more lastingly than dung. Some acquaintance with
Mineralogy, would induce you to provide the necessary and
simple apparatus required in analyzing soils ; and Miat de-
scribed and recommended by Lord Dundonald in his «* Con-

Notices for a Young Farmer, xxiii

nexion between Chymistry and Agriculture" would be amply
sufficient. See 1st. vol. Philadelphia Agricultural Memoirs,
Selections, p. 57. You may also consult Sir JL Davy's Agri-
cultural Chymistry, on this subject.

A moderate share of mineralogical and chymical knowledge,
without extending it to the length required in a Sgavan;
will enable you to distinguish the qualities and properties of
earths ; so as to discover in your experiments, whether any
substance be or not durably nutritious to plants ; or a mere
stimulant, (useful in its place and due proportion,) urging on
the operation of other materials ; without adding, of itself,
any thing to the stock required for permanent fertility. It
is said, by some, that the Jersey nyritous earth, called Marl,
is of this description ; and by others, that it is permanently
fertilizing. Nothing decisive can yet be pronounced, as its
many varieties differ in their respective effects. There are
facts both ways ; so that this earth when applied, and the soil
it is intended to assist, should be carefully scrutinized ; and
the qualities of both practically known. Some English chy-
mists, to whom it has been sent, style it an Hydrat of Iron ;
whilst others designate its composition, as a collection of de-
composed granite, schorl, silex, alnmine, Iron ; in some speci-
mens, (no doubt, those mixed with shells.) lime, and mag-
nesia, with sulphur. A more accurate knowledge of its parts
and properties, is still required : and it is to be wished, that
our own chymists will give us their assistance. Broom grass,
and other pests on worn lands, may be destroyed by a top-
dressing of this earth and chloritic sands of a similar, though
not so potent a nature ; which substitute a natural growth of
white clover. They may be ploughed in, for permanent me-
lioration, after laying for some time. These substances may
be found in many parts of our sea-board country.

Render Wat^r subservient to all its purposes. Dams and
ponds, for collecting streams and their deposits, are maga-
zines for manure; as well as heads for irrigation of grass, or
even tillage crops ; and watering is found, in countries where-
in it is practised, equally beneficial to both. When springs
or streams are absent, dams, to retain the deposits of rain-

xxiv Notices for a Young Farmer,

floods, are highly advantageous ; by furnishing temporary
irrigation ; and, finally, supplies for the compost heap. The
Chinese have, time out of mind, set examples of constant use
of irrigation ; and their modes of raising water from rivers,
streams, kc. and of applying it, are to be found in many
writers.

Acquire some knowledge of practical surveying ; and
procure a small Compass, or a plane-table, or cross at least,
with a chain and level. You will thereby be enabled to lay
out your water courses, drains, and ditches, to the greatest
advantage. You could, also, lay out your fields regularly ;
and you should note their contents, and designate them by
names, or descriptions. Too large enclosures are not benefi-
cial; smaller fields afford more changes for cattle or tillage ;
and are more neatly, and less wastefully, fed or farmed.
Some acquaintance with Hydrostatics and the Mechanic pow-
ers, would aid you in many branches of your business.

Visit, often, every part of your farm ; and fix, beforehand,
your work. View, frequently, not only your water courses,
but all your enclosures, crops, and woodlands ; and note what
is amiss. You will thus guard against evils consequent on
negligence.

Shew yourself in your fields; in busy seasons especially.
Your presence will animate the industrious, and stimulate
the unfaithful and indolent. More profit will arise, if your
concerns are extensive, from such attentions, than from all
you could accomplish by your personal labour confined to
one object ; to which, however, if your circumstances compel
you to submit; you will soon discover the superiority, (ac-
cording to the country phraseology,) of " come boys," to
« go boys." The one ensures your work ; — the other leaves
it half done. If you are rich enough to employ an Overseer,
you will be fortunate, if he will not require overlooking.

Although some of the acquirements and duties herein re-
commended, may not be necessary to a mere practical far-
mer ; they are not the less worthy of the attention of one who
wishes, and has it in his power, to gain a more perfect know-
ledge of his profession.

Notices for a Young Farmer, xxv

XL Be not discouraged by casual failures, from repetitions
of good practices. Some seasons are more inauspicious than
others, to some particular plants, or modes of culture. Con-
fide in a general rule, although, in some instances, there may
be successful exceptions. Avoid controversies about theories.
An useful result fe often neutralized, or lost, in a dispute on
the cause or mode of producing it. A careful attention to
facts, is far more instructive than the most elaborate discus-
sions on theories.

XII, Gather all your summer dung ; dropped near fences
and hedge rows, (if you will suffer such incumbrances,) and
under trees ; and mix it with earth, on a ploughed head-land ;
to save it from sun, winds, and dung-beetles. All dung should
be covered either with earth or a roof; to prevent evapora-
tion and waste of its most valuable ingredients. Mix no hot
lime with your muck, dung, or compost-heap, before fer-
mentation has ceased, or sufficiently advanced ; as it injures
moderate fermentation, and often consumes the muck. In-
stances of even conflagration of strawy muck by hot lime,
to a great extent, can be given. No doubt, excess of fer-
mentation is injurious ; and over-rotted dung is not desirable.
But extreme cases should not be resorted to, for instruction
or argument. If lime be used, that slacked is always safest
and best, when mixed with either dung or compost. A justly
celebrated Lecturer, (Sir //. Davy,) objects to watering dung.
But it can be proved, by many facts, that infinitely more
losses and injuries to dung in stercoraries, have accrued from
the dry rot, for defect of moisture ; than can be produced in
watering muck or dung, from any cause. In covered ster-
coraries, as all ought to be, watering judiciously is all es-
sential. See, among other proofs, Mr. Quincifs account of
his stercorary: 3d vol. Philadelphia Agricultural Memoirs,
pages 292, 3, 4, 5.

XIII. Sow no winter grain, the first year of liming fields.
The crop is generally retarded in ripening ; and caught by
mildew, blight, or rust. The liming here meant, is one suf-
ficient for durable improvement of the soil. Those who lay
on lime in small quantities, which may do neither good nor

D

xxvi Notices for a Young Farmer*

harm, often, (not always,) escape injuries ; though they gain
no immediate advantages.

XIV. Select the best seed of all your grain; roll it in plaster,
after wetting it; if you will not steep it. But a change of
seed entirely, when the grain has heen sown too long on the
same farm, can be at once accomplished, by procuring a full
supply from distant places ; and the more distant the better,
without waiting for the tedious process of gradual selection ;
however commendable the latter may be. All thoroughly
experienced writers recommend changes. Some distinguish
between native and exotic plants. Our cultivated grains,
particularly wheat, are exotic and should he frequently
changed ; though some instances of long continuance of the like
crops from unchanged seed, may he produced. Where wheat
is native, it is a mean grass ; it being of the Gramina tribe.
It has been improved to its now perfect state, by change of
locality and culture, and by crossing; which is effected by
sowing different kinds together. Wheat so crossed has been
proved to resist mildew and other maladies ; when common
wheat of one kind, in the same or adjacent fields, has been
ruined. Melioration of plants by crossing is found to be so
successful ; that, in England, they are in the practice of ap-
plying a similar process to fruit trees. Mr. Knight has been
very fortunate in renovating their Orchards, by crossing from
seeds of different kinds of apples ; so as to produce, in a
course of time, a new and vigorous race of apple trees ; the
old kinds having been, for many years, in a state of irre-
trievable decay.

But the crossing must go no farther than the point of me.
Jioration ; i. e. unnecessary repetitions should be avoided.
The harriers of nature must not be broken down. Hybridous
mixtures are unfruitful and worthless.

. Our grain plants do not tiller, or stool, as formerly ; and
especially those necessarily sown late, to escape the Hessian
Fly. A greater quantity of seed must therefore be allowed,
than our predecessors were in the habit of using. One would
imagine, that in countries celebrated for agricultural know-
ledge, the point of thick or thin sowing had been long set-

Mtices for a Young Farmer. xxvii

tied. Yet, in England, the Farmer's Journal, (a most valua-
ble publication,) is filled with disputes on this subject; espe-
cially on the question, whether poor land should or should
not be sown thickly ; and rich land thinly ? — Poor land should
not be sown at all, with wheat, or any grain requiring much
nutriment ; if any adequate return be counted upon. It seems
that spring wheat is sown thick ; as far as three bushels to
the acre ; in the month of April, or beginning of May. A
kind— the triticum cestivum of the Botanists, may be hoed,
dibbled, or harrowed in, on bare places, where grain sown in
the autumn has failed ; and will ripen with the autumn sown
grain. It is bearded* with white straw and reddish grain ;
and does not mildew. The Talavcra, or Spanish wheat, is
now in great credit in England. Possibly spring wheat
would generally escape the fly. No successful means have
been taken to gain a perfect knowledge of agricultural facts,
in regard to this formidable foe ; although we have so long
suffered under its desolating ravages. Oats may sometimes
attract the fly and save your wheat ; as Buck-wheat sown oi<
accidentally growing among corn-hills, invites the grub from
your corn-plants.

The drill husbandry, and seeding with instruments for sow-
ing in drills, calculated to save, as well as more regularly to
distribute and nourish the seed, have had many vicissitudes
of opinion and practice in Europe. Here, experience has
been so much confined to a few, that it would be hazardous
to pronounce, decisively, concerning it. It has zealous ad-
vocates ; and should be an object of experiment, where cir-
cumstances warrant and require the practise.

Some contend for the efficacy of plaster sown on the winter
grain; both for its beneficial operation on the growth of the
plant, and to repel the fly. In the l* Inquiries on Plaster/"
republished in the 2d vol. of the Memoirs, a suggestion of its
uses to repel the fly was made; and lately if has been alleged
that it has been attended with success. But as to its use
in increasing the growth or productiveness of the plant, great
differences of opinion exist. When grass, (clover especially.)
is sown 07i the grain, as is now the common practice, plaster

xxviii JVotices for a Young Farmer

is apt to throw up the grass so luxuriantly, that it injures the
growth of the wheat or rye, by keeping the lower joints of
the stems so moist and tender, as to check the circulation of
the sap ; and cause them to lay or fall, when the heads are
formed, and hecome heavier than the straw will support ;
though they are often mere chaff, through want of sustenance
which is engrossed by the grass. Still this practice has re-
spectable advocates. Clean and good farming, with a suffi-
ciency of manure, admitting late sowing, so that the flights
of the flics are, for the most part, over before the young
wheat plants are in sufficient forwardness to afford a lodg-
ment for the eggs or nits of the fly, seem to be the best guards
against its ruinous ravages. Wheats with solid straw, resist
the compression of the indurated tegument containing the
nits, whilst pipy stems yield to its pressure ; and when the
head is formed, become prostrated by its weight. The yellow
bearded wheat has been found to escape injuries from this
inveterate destroyer. Some other kinds have been spoken of,
as having similar properties.

XV. Steeps are highly recommended, as guards against
the maladies oC grain ; and for invigorating the first efforts
of the plant. The Flemish steep of blue vitriol, or copperas,
is said to destroy the parasitical plant adhering to the seed,
and deemed the cause of mildew and smut. See Sir J. Sin-
clair's Tour through Flanders, 1815. But this, or any other,
does not always succeed ; and smutty grain washed in pure
water, is often rendered fit for sowing, without danger of a
smutty crop. There are so many, and so various opinions,
on the causes of mildew and smut, that it is difficult to form
a decisive conclusion. See, (among others,) 2d vol. Phila-
delphia Memoirs, 164, and in the 14th vol, of the Bath Soci-
ety Papers, 54, &c. see article 3d, in which there is an in-
genious and elaborate discussion on the diseases of wheat.
Good farming, and well manured ground, so as to ripen the
grain early, seem to be the best securities. Spring wheat
most commonly escapes mildew and smut; and there are
kinds quite as good as winter grain. Such should be sought
for, and cultivated. In England, and other parts of Europe,

Notices for a Young Farmer. xxix

and in the northern parts of our country, summer wheat is
raised to great advantage. Whether or not it would escape
the fit) is doubtful ; for flies have been found in plenty in
summer barley.

It is not yet agreed, what kinds of wheats best withstand
injuries from the Hessian Fly. The yellow bearded and other
wheats with solid straw, or strong stems, (the solid stemmed
wheats being designated by the appellation of cane or cone
wheats, ) are deemed the most efficacious. Farmers should
bend their sedulous attention to the selection of such wheats.
Good farming, manure, and reasonably late sowing, are, cer-
tainly, the best securities. Bnt too (ate seeding is unsafe:
for the spring-brood of flies attack the tender plants of very
late sown wheat, not sufficiently forward to be capable of re-
sisting this foe, with the like destructive effect, we experi-
ence in spring barley ; appearing to prefer, for this purpose,
plants in the edvly stages of their growth. It is, most proba-
bly, a native herei It never entirely leaves us ; though it
appears, at irregular periods, in numbers less scourging than
at times when its ravages are more conspicuously destructive.
It seems to make movements of its main body from North
and East, (where it was first perceived,) to South ; leaving
always, on its march, detachments or stragglers, sufficiently
monitory to keep us on our guard. Its name does not prove
its importation ; for that appellation was bestowed during our
revolutionary excitements ; when every thing we disliked was
termed Hessian, Entomologists class it among the Tipuloe ;
whereof there are more than 120 varieties. In Hesse , they
have not this vermin, to annoy their crops.*

Steeping your seed wheat, is attended with little trouble
or expense ; and is, assuredly, worth the trial ; as it has
so many, and such respectable, advocates. Avoid, however,

♦Since the above was in type, a scientific description of the Hessian Fly,
and of a parasitic insect which feeds on it, has appeared. It is written by Mr
Thomas Say ; and is published in the 3d number of the Journal of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of PhiladelpMa. He has given the insect the name of
Cecidomyia Destructor ; and considers it specifically distinct from the Tiptdu
tritfei of Kirby, and entirely unknown in Europe.

xxx Notices for a Young Farmer

steeps too strong ; as they sometimes prevent the seed shoot-
ing ; or produce a premature and sickly germination ; espe-
cially if the seed be not well rinsed or washed. You need be
at no loss for a choice ; as so many receipts are to be (bund
in books of agricultural authority, for steeps of various com-
positions.

The stunted or sedge wheat, may, possibly, be the conse-
quence of seed grain being infected by disease, or infested by
insects. It would be worth the experiment, to try the effects
of steeps. Changing the seed, to a kind entirely different
from that usually sown, has been found to be a guard against
this serious and increasing evil. Lime, and strong lime wa-
ter, often have beneficial effects on diseased seed wheat.

XVI. Be particularly careful in expending, as you should
be provident in raising, every species of provender for your
stock of horses, cattle, and sheep. A variety of food, and an
orderly distribution of it, are more promotive of health and
vigour in your domestic animals, than a lavish expenditure
of any one species. Such as require previous preparation,
should have it bestowed ; both for profit and economy. Cut
or chaff your hay, straw, corn tops and blades, and even
your stalks, with a powerful Straw Cutter ; and you will save
a great proportion, which is otherwise wasted, or passed
through the animal, without contributing to its nourishment.
One bushel of chaffed hay at a mess, given in a trough, three
times in twenty-four hours, is sufficient for an horse, ox, or
cow. A bushel of chaffed hay, lightly pressed, weighs from
5 to 5\ pounds. An horse, or horned beast, thrives more onr
15 lb. thus given, than on 24 or 25 lb. as commonly expended,
(including waste,) in the usual mode of feeding in racks ; to
which troughs, properly constructed, are far preferable. This
practice has been now fairly tested by experience ; and the
result accurately proved. This, and other great improve-
ments in feeding their domestic animals, have been forced on
the people of Europe by necessity. Steaming Potatoes has
been long practised. Boiling or scalding provender commonly
given dry, is found to be highly beneficial. The Turnij) cul-
ture, on an extensive scale, succeeds better there, than it does

Notices for a Young Farmer. xxxi

among us. The Scarcity root is there cultivated extensively,
for dairy cows and ewes in milk ; also for fatting cattle, with
oil cake, occasionally, as a change. It supplies succuh v-X food,
in the season when such food is the most scarce. This root
thrives well in our country ; and should be more generally
attended to ; for swine and cattle particularly. For the lat-
ter, it is important at all seasons ; its leaves in summer be-
ing as valuable, as its roots in winter or spring. Carrots
may also be profitably cultivated. They are not only highly
nutritious, but preventives against some diseases, and reme-
dies for others, (asthmatic maladies particularly,) in horses
or cattle. High prices, and scarcity of bread stuffs, will com-
pel us to imitate European examples, in substituting esculent
roots for grain, in feeding our live stock. Of Potatoes we
know so much, both as to their culture and uses, that it seems
unnecessary to mention what is commonly practised. It has
been the opinion of many, for a long time past, that they arc
exhausting; and that unless additional manure is bestowed
on the land on which wheat is to follow them, the wheat crop
will not be abundant. This opinion is not confined to our
country. Many believe potatoes are best in dry soils; yet it
is asserted by an intelligent writer, in England, (see Bath
Papers, vol. 14, page 147,) after actual experiment for 16
years, that ** potatoes will never be mealy, if not grown in
tolerably moist ground ;" and a drained ht>ggy earth is pre-
ferred to all others. In this kind of earth, the Irish potatoes
are generally cultivated. It is fortunate, that this root will
grow in almost any kind of soil ; and the advocates for differ-
ent opinions may respectively indulge in taking their own
course. Potatoes are generally planted too late. Early plant-
ing admits of the crop being gathered in time for sowing
wheat, by those approving that practice. Contrary to com-
mon opinion, it is now said by some practical agriculturists,
that young, or unripe seed potatoes, are most productive.

Teach yourself, by reading and observation, at least the
outlines of veterinary knowledge ; and promote its en-
couragement. This will instruct you in the best and most
wholesome modes of feeding, as well as administering inno-

xxxii Notices for a Young Farmer

cent preventives and remedies. Do not depend on charla-
tans, or servants, for what a little attention on your part
might avoid or remedy. Never neglect frequent visits to
your farm yard and stables. Good servants are encouraged,
and bad ones detected, by such attentions to your own affairs.

Keeping accurate and lawful Weights and Measures,
is not only demanded by integrity in dealing; hut it teaches
a habit of looking into the minute details of your affairs,
highly conducive to profit and economy. When this habit is
fixed, you will do nothing at random ; but symmetry and cal-
culation will appear in all your concerns; and success will
generally crown endeavours planned agreeably to well ascer-
tained data, and not undertaken with thoughtless conjecture
and hazardous guess work. Feeding your stock by weight
and measure of food, will not only save your provender, by
its orderly distribution, but, frequently, the lives of animals;
too often starved by niggardliness or neglect, or gorged and
destroyed by profusion. If it be true, as it is, that "the mas-
ter's eye makes the horse fat ;" it is equally so, that the mas-
ter's eye prevents the horse from being pampered, wanton,
pursive, hloated, foundered, and, finally, wind-broken and
hlind.

When any of your live stock die of disease, or invisible
casualty, have them opened ; for discovery of the cause, and
future instruction.

XVII. Feeding, in stalls, or Pens, on green forage, which
is called soiling, has not been sufficiently practised here, for
us to form decisive opinions of its practicability and prefe-
rence, under our circumstances. It has been favourably re-
presented hy some who have tried it; and it merits farther
experiment. If proper preparation be made, so that a certain
succession of green food could be ensured ; the practice, in
many situations where labour is at command, and droughts
do not interrupt the supplies, appears highly commendable,
on the score of saving our summer food, by expending it at
our pleasure, in place of suffering cattle, at their will, care-
lessly to browze over and waste much pasture. It saves the
expense of inclosurcs: which, in our mode of dividing farms.

Notices for a Young Farmer. xxxiii

essential in our present arrangements, are very costly ; and
adds to our stores of manure, which can he applied in a less
advanced state of fermentation ; the seeds of weeds and coarse
grasses having been prevented from ripening and increasing,
by the frequent application of the scythe. In England, and
other parts of Europe, they grow the Chiccortj, very profita-
bly, for soiling ; and make much use of the spring and win-
ter Vetch. No extensive experiments have been made here,
in the culture of these plants ; and it would be desirable, that
some spirited agriculturist would give them a fair trial. In-
struction in their cultivation, can be readily obtained, by con-
sulting British and other publications on the subject.

If cattle or sheep are penned, the pens should be frequently
moved ; and the dung of cattle composted. They should not
be placed in declining situations ; from whence the dung and
urine are wastefully washed away. Moveable pens for sheep,
have great advantages. They are safe (in proper pens) from
dogs ; and their dung fertilizes beyond any other. If for
health and convenience they must range in the day, penning at
nights, unless flocked (and well guarded) on an extensive
scale, is essentially necessary. Multiply your pens, rather than
crowd too many in one fold. Be not sparing of a reasonable
allowance of salt, to your domestic animals of every descrip-
tion. Some prefer rock salt for sheep, to lick at their plea-
sure.

XVIII. The effects of fire on soils, are well known in fo-
reign countries to be salutary ; and here, proofs are not defi-
cient. Various modes in which it has been applied, are to be
found in European books. When carried to excess, it is, like
all good things abused, no doubt, injurious Nor would any
one wish to destroy the inestimable vegetable matter of a
sod, capable of being completely decayed, so as not to vege-
tate ; for this would he unnecessarily wasting the means of
restoring fertility, by the co-operation (with this inert vege-
table matter) of manures, or materials for the food of plants
in the earth or in the atmosphere. But where bulbs, or other
pests are otherwise indestructible ; or the substratum be clay,
proper for burning into highly fertilizing manure ; there can

E

xxxiv Notices for a Young Farmer.

be no reasonable objection to the application of fire. Den-
shiring, or hurnbaking, is described in agricultural books ;
wherein its benefits are developed, and the improper use
of it pointed out. Burnt clay has been long known to be
fertilizing ; and so are the ashes of peat and turf. Even
burning brush and straw on fields, is proved to be almost
incredibly fertilizing and productive. Burning the foul co-
ver of wild grass and weeds, before ploughing for Indian
corn, even in the spring, has, in frequent instances, destroyed
the grub or the eggs of its parent. In what manner heat
operates on soils, is not essential ; nor is the inquiry whether
the effect be produced by the ashes, or the mere application
of fire. The facts are well ascertained ; and that is enough
for all practical purposes. Some soils may be less benefitted
than others; and with some, burning may entirely disagree.
Whatever may be the theory of, or prejudices against, this
operation, it behoves us at least to try, if even on a small
scale, a practice which has the approbation of eminent and
successful practical and scientific agriculturists in Europe.
And in this, as in every other operation, a farmer should
know and calculate on the nature of his own soil ; and there-
by judge of the expediency and propriety of any practice.

XIX. Our awkward mode of ditching and draining our
swamps or wet grounds, is not only inconvenient and un-
sightly, but occupies space unnecessarily. Underdraining,
and thereby preserving a level, dry, cultivable and produc-
tive surface, is every way eligible ; where the site will admit
of it. It would be well for some spirited agriculturist, to
set an example of improvement in this regard. Lessons, in
European books, for underdraining, are in plenty ; and there
is one in the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society.

In declining grounds, a straight open ditch in the direc-
tion of the declination, is injurious and dangerous. Violent
floods, in such ditches, always produce a ravine or gully.
The ditch should be oblique ; and calculated to resist them,
whilst it still affords a sufficient passage to floods. Nature
establishes precedents ; her streams being generally meander-
ing and flexuous. Under, i, c. covered, drains, are not liable

Notices for a Young farmer* xxxv

to the ravages of floods ; and may be straight, without being
exposed to the dangers to which open ditches are subject.
Our rich alluvial tide-water meadows, are not included in
these remarks ; the drains and ditches of these, for the most
part, must necessarily be wide and open. Modes of surface
draining, and instruments for the purpose, are pointed out
and described in European books ; and are well worthy our
attention.

The fertile bottoms on rivers and less streams, frequently
prove the fecundating effects of overflows occurring from
floods; which leave their rich deposits on the recession of
the waters. In Europe, they practise what is there called
warping ; to produce, artificially, the like result. By means
of banks, dams, and flood-gates, where there is fall enough
to drain off the tides admitted, they introduce the water of a
river, (and the more turbid the better,) and suffer it to remain
stagnant until it has not only destroyed worthless vegeta-
tion, but by the settling of the rich mould Which has been
held in solution, a great store of manure is deposited, for pro-
fitable culture and renovating the fertility of the soil. After
their first operations are completed, they suffer the banks,
sluices, and flood-gates to remain ; and admit the water, oc-
casionally, as it may be necessary for either irrigation or
manure. In our embanked meadows, something of the kind
is accidentally or purposely done. But it would be well,,
where it is practicable, to introduce this improvement among
us. Many modes of irrigation are practised in other quar-
ters of our globe ; but here water is not applied to agricultu-
ral purposes, in any degree equal to the uses whereof it is
capable. In our southern countries, it is only applied to par-
ticular crops. Birkbeck's account of irrigation, in tine south of
France, is well worthy of attention. It will be seen, that it*
uses are not confined to grass ; but are extended to ever}
species of crop, and so had been, there, through ages : Chan-
nels for the conveyance, distribution, and delivery of water
from one farm to another, have remained for a time beyond
the memory of man ; and are held as inviolable as the boun-
daries of property. But the use of water should be carefully

xxxvi Notices for a Young Farmer.

studied. Stagnant water, if suffered to remain long, injures
vegetation ; and even its deposits of rich manure have bad
effects on some grain, in the first instance, though finally they
fertilize wonderfully. Wheat is the most injured by stagnant
water -t and is often so scalded and deteriorated, as to become
abortive ; and produce only cheat In winter, the irrigation
of grass grounds, is held to be most advantageous ; and the
water is more nutritive by its deposits. In hot weather, it
scalds, and should be turned off, so as to be only occasionally
used.

XX. Always rather understock your farm, with domestic
animals. An extra number of Horses, is the most oppressive.
No farmer should be without a due proportion of working
oxen. The neck yoke is the simplest, but is not deemed the
best mode of enabling them to work. That fitted on the fore-
head and attached to their horns, or collars and other ap-
propriate gears, are, by many, preferred.

Have no more Swine than you can feed well ; (always
rung,) and kept within your own inclosures, if your farm
be in a populous neighbourhood. Running hogs are fertile
sources of bitter enmities, and petty controversies. A root-
ing hog wastes its flesh ; and requires more food to restore
it, than is gained by the scanty prey after which it labours.
Nothing is better for store-swine, than red clover eaten off
the growing plant, But, differently from horned cattle, green
clover cut and given to them, will not keep them in good
plight. They waste as much as they eat, and do not relish
it in this way.

In a well managed butter dairy, skimmed and butter-milk
will afford means of raising a store-pig to each cow ; beside
a due allowance for some sows, to produce pigs for store-
hogs ; and roasters for the market. Few farmers, however,
do so much ; because they will not raise esculent roots, as
substitutes for grain, for winter keep of store-hogs. A milk
dairy furnishes food for sows and pigs, from the offal and
unsaleable milk.

Let all your stock of animals be of the best breeds : but
study useful qualities, more than shewy figures. Yet well

Notices for a Young Farmer. xxxvii

proportioned and sightly animals are generally the most
valuable, hoth as it regards usefulness and keep. There are
exceptions ; in dairy cows particularly. Large horses, cattle,
sheep, and swine, are not the most profitable. Those of the
middle sizes are, on every account, to be preferred. Osten-
tation, (and, as it respects the horse particularly, a less in-
nocent motive,) more than real benefit, too often excites those
who value themselves on exhibiting very beautiful horses,
very large and very fat, (and of course very expensive,) cat-
tle, sheep, and swine. This may be, and is, a laudable pride
in those whose circumstances admit of indulging it ; and
breeding well formed and well endowed animals, is highly
worthy of encouragement and merited praise. But hardihood,
and easiness of keep, should be prominent qualities ; especial-
ly in the stock of a farmer. For such qualities, and many
other good properties, the Tunis sheep will be found worthy
of great attention.

Our breeds of horned cattle particularly, are too little at-
tended to ; and dairy cows, especially, are with difficulty ob-
tained. True, the demand for them is much increased. But
this should operate as a stimulant to multiplying their num-
bers and attention to their breed ; which requires different
qualities, in many respects, from those fit for the knife. For
this reason, a variety, in breeding cattle for the specific pur-
poses to which they are devoted, should be carefully studied.
Mules are highly valuable ; but are not so generally used as
they should be. It would be well to spread this long lived,
hardy, and laborious animal, of the best kinds, through our
country. Breeding in and in, i. e. from the same family, is a
subject of diversity of opinion. No doubt a selection from a
large flock or herd, of the finest forms and qualities, however
near the blood, will generally ensure a good race. But when
the parent-stock is small in number, and kept too long on the
same farm, the experience of many respectable breeders is
decisively favourable to changes and crossing : exceptions
there are to this position ; and so there are to every general
observation and practice. It is generally agreed, that the
male stamps the character of blood and breed on the progeny,

xxxviii Notices for a Young Farmer,

Against keeping an unreasonable number of sheep, there
have been, recently, ample warnings. Such excesses, gene-
rally, (but, for the time, injuriously for individuals,) regulate
themselves. In England* extravagant speculations in sheep,
were checked; (as far as legislative interference could accom-
plish,) by laws. In the time of Henrij VIII. an act of Parlia-
ment recites, that some flock-holders had 24,000 sheep; and
it enacts, that no person shall hold more than 2000 ! Re-
ligious communities and characters held the largest flocks,
and thus depopulated the country, an d forced the labouring
classes into mendicity and crimes, for want of employment.
They drew on themselves their dissolution, and restraints
on their sordid propensities ; by thus affording to this arbi-
trary monarch, some plausible pretexts and many justifiable
motives, for his fatal hostility towards them. See an inter-
teresting Paper on the Poor, and Poor-Laws ; Bath Papers,
14th vol. pages 245, et seq.

Such causes have, in no small degree, contributed to keep
the plough idle in Spain, and other countries where, accord-
ing to the quaint phraseology of an old poet, " sheepe have
eaten men, many a yere ;" in place of W men eating sheepe."
Instances, however, of excessive abuse, are no arguments
against breeding these highly valuable animals, in numbers
adequate to our prudent demands for them.

Great flocks may be kept, in parts of our country in which
they would not interfere with other branches of husbandry.
Locality is, therefore, of primary importance. Lines of states
are well for jurisdictional purposes. But local prejudices are
injurious, on the great national scale. Mutual wants, plen-
teously supplied, will bind us in bands of common interests ;
and we shall the sooner become one people. If, in old dis-
tricts, cattle or sheep cannot be so advantageously raised or
fatted as in newly settled countries ; let us apply our efforts
where they are most beneficial. What liberal mind was not
gratified by a recent influx of prime beef-cattle, from the
western country ; some of them preferred, by our victuallers,
to those of our vicinity, after having been driven more than
400 miles ? The seaboard markets will thus be reduced to

Notices for a Young Farmer, xxxix

their proper level ; for home consumption and external com-
merce.

A farmer should confine his objects, to such as properly
fall within his system of economy ; so that one member of his
general plan shall not interfere with, but be assistant ta
another. There are sheep for farmers, and sheep for flock-
masters. Speculation should not be indulged ; being- adverse
to habits of industry ; and tending to bring on reverses, which
an husbandman is ill calculated to bear. Extravagant specu-
lations, in any pursuit, defeat their own objects, by lessening
the value of an article increased beyond the demand ; and,
in such case, a kind of reaction reduces its price below its
real estimation. A farmer should sedulously avoid propen-
sities which foster ideas, that profits are to be gained by
lucky hits in the lottery of chances ; in preference to the slow
but sure rewards of industry, economy, and prudent manage-
ment,

XXI. Familiarize your young Dogs with sheep, and
correct them, when they chase or annoy them ; and they will
protect, in place of injuring your flocks. Dogs become sheep-
killers, by neglect in training them. Starved curs prowl for
prey, and become savagely mischievous. Those who do not
pen their sheep, and bring them home at nights for protec-
tion, but leave them in distant fields, expose victims to such
dogs ; and they ruin even innocently inclined dogs, by throw-
ing temptations in their way. They have no right, therefore,
to complain of injuries. Good and faithful dogs are as ne-
cessary on farms, as sheep.

Accustoming dogs to feed on raw and bloody food, renders
them inclined to seek it. The sight or smell of blood, infu-
riates many animals. Horned cattle are peculiarly affected
by it. Not only dogs, but horses, operated on by the sight
or smell of blood, have been known to be seized with fits of
sudden rage ; and instances can be related, in which they
have dangerously attacked persons whose garments had been
stained with, or smelt of blood, although commonly familiar
with them. Animals, (man included,) become habitually and
culpably fond, of what, at first, may have even excited an-

xl Notices for a Young Farmer,

tipathy and disgust. Sheep-killing begins in wantonness,
and ends in vice ; and is a species of canine madness. The
confirmed blood-sucking sheep-killer, acquires a wild shrill
bark, different from that of other dogs.

Shameful negligence in not burying dead carcasses, not
only reflects disgrace on those who permit such nuisances,
on other accounts ; but the dogs of a whole neighbourhood
are often ruined, by such temptations to savage propensities.

XXII. Do not commence with erecting costly buildings;
but apply your time, efforts, and pecuniary means, to your
farm ; and shift on with tolerable accommodations, until your
fields warrant your providing better. Want of calculation
in this regard, when their funds have been limited, has in-
jured and depressed many beginners in farming; who have
erected expensive houses, which have exhausted their means
of improving their farms ; and capacious barns, with little to
store in them. If difficulties in their affairs compel them to
sell, they find, that, however expensive may have been the
buildings and accommodations, a poor farm must be parted
with at a very inferior price ; and the buildings are seldom
duly appreciated, in a calculation generally made on the value
per acre. When the farm becomes productive, it seldom, if
ever, happens, that the barn is too large. The most general
mistake is, that it is too small ; and most commonly, the floor
is too narrow for treading out crops with horses, or using
our simple machines for threshing ; which, (though not so
powerful,) are tolerable substitutes for the complicated and
expensive, however valuable, inventions, with which, in some
parts of Europe, grain is threshed out. In the moist coun-
tries of Europe wherein there are late harvests, stacking is
preferred to confining grain in barns, which is said to be in-
jurious on account of retaining dampness, and promoting
mouldiness in both grain and straw. But in our climate,
favouring early harvests, with generally fine weather, no
such consequences follow; and barns are all essential. In
the southern parts of our country, they are dispensed with
too negligently and unprofitably. The great farmers tread
out their grain from the harvest field, or from stacks, as

Notices for a Young Farmer* xl i

■•- »- ' = . ... • . -

promptly as possible. By this means, the grain is at mar-
ket before the moth fly is grown sufficiently to injure the
flour ; and thus they have almost conquered that pest. And
this, in some degree, justifies their lack of farm buildings.
Save that in covers for their farm stock, they are lamentably
deficient.

Let your dwelling house and its appendages, be to leeward,
(as it respects commonly prevailing winds, those in winter
especially, when fires are constant,) of your barn and stack-
yard ; and sufficiently distant from them to avoid accidents by
fire. Lights should be, as much as possible, forbidden in your
barn and stables ; and suffer not the reproach of omitting the
common guards to your buildings, against lightning. Their
being placed near water conveniences, may answer some pur-
poses ; but this should generally be avoided, especially if
streams be large and dull, or collected in stagnant pools. Low
and damp sites for dwelling houses, generally produce fatal
consequences to their occupants. Leading distant springs or
streams to your homestead, or digging wells, may be costly
and inconvenient ; but health and comfort are thereby en-
sured. When buildings and other improvements are placed
too near mill-dams, or rivers, and streams subject to Jloods;
repentance comes too late, after ruinous consequences have
been suffered by such want of foresight and calculation.

Stables for horses should not be too close. Diseases arc
generated by confined air ; and horses kept too warm cannot
safely encounter cold and wet. Fatting cattle and sheep, in
sheds open to the south, and suffered, in good weather, to
run out in yards, are always hardy, healthy, and thriving.
Swine kept in too warm, and more so in filthy pens, are ever
subject to diseases and unprofitable feeding. There is no
greater mistake, than that of gorging swine, when first pen-
ned for fatting. They should, on the contrary, be moderately
and frequently fed 5 so that they be kept full, but do not
loathe or eject their food j and, in the end, contract fevers
and dangerous maladies, originating in a hot and corrupted
mass of blood; against some of which, dry rotten wood, as an
absorbent, and, some allege, smith's cinders, thrown in their

F

%]ji Notices for a Young Far mo. .

jbens are preventives* In airy and roomy, yet moderately
warm pens, paved or boarded and often cleaned, they are
healthy and thriving. They shew a disposition to be cleanly,
however otherwise it is supposed; and they always drop their
ejections in a part of the pen different from that in which
they lie down. No animal will thrive, unless it be kept clean.
When cleanliness becomes habitually practised, it is easy to
preserve it, But if filth be suffered to accumulate, the re-
moval is a task — irksome and procrastinated.

XXIII. Keep accounts of all your expenditures and re-
ceipts; and notes of remarkable occurrences on your farm,
Recording even your errors will benefit yourself in future
avoidance ; and become warnings to others. Your successful
practices will be examples. You owe it to yourself, your
children and your country, to register and promulgate them.

XXIV. Read, and do not slight, either foreign or domes-
tic books of reputation for principles and practice, on agri*
cultural subjects. Climates may and do differ ; but princi-
ples are invariably the same. If you have, as you ought, a
desire to be well acquainted with your art, gain some know-
ledge of subjects elucidating its principles ; and particularly
of Chymistry, as connected with agriculture ; although you
need not aim at being a perfect Chy mist ; nor qualify your-
self as a disputant on theories and vain and unprofitable dis-
cussions, Which produce no beneficial result ; but, on the con-
trary, bewilder those to whom information of plain principles
and facts, and practical lessons, are the most necessary.

Home's Principles of Vegetation, Darwin9 s Phytologia,
Hunter'' s Georgical Essays. Antler son's Essays, Lord Dundo*
nalds Connexion of Agriculture with Chymistry, Davy's Agri-
cultural Chymistry, are among the books, giving a general
view of principles ; and books of practice you can obtain at
pleasure. The former you can use as lawyers read Black*
stone's Commentaries ; and the latter as theij apply to reports,
for detailed and practical information.

XXV. Experiments are highly commendable, but do not
set out as an habitual experimenter ; as if husbandry were a
new art, (however defective it may be,) and every thing de-

Notices for a Young Farmer* xliii

pcnded on your own discoveries. In such case, you would
consume your labour, time, and means, which should be de«
voted to settled and kri >wn practice, in pursuing your own
suggestions ; or in clearing up your doubts on the experience
of others : most probably unprofitably and unnecessarily.
Listen to intelligent and successful practical men, whom you
will easily distinguish among your neighbours. Do not im-
itate the exclusive self approbation of too many farmers; who
Impatiently and heedlessly wait whilst information is offered ;
until they can relate what they are doing, and have done.
Yet where even a failure will be attended with no serious in-
jury or expense, fear not to attempt an improvement or dis-
covery ; although the endeavour may be unprecedented. It
most assuredly requires experiment to adapt foreign practice
to our climate and circumstances ; and to make essays to
change or meliorate our defective usages. But we are not
so far behind, as that most of the common operations are not
well understood and reputably executed.

It is not intended to say any thing on the subject of profits
of husbandry, as these depend so much on the circumstances
both of the farmer and the farm ; accordingly as its culture
is applied to grain or grass, or mixed husbandry, and the
management and economy with which its business is conduct-
ed ; that no calculation can be made, on general principles,
with any degree of correctness. Those, however, who do not
personally labour, and have every thing to hire or purchase,
should be moderate in their expectations ; and for them a
grazing farm would be the most eligible. But a. farmer on
his own farm, as is the case with most of our husbandmen
in this happy country ; wherein they are burthened with no
tithes, heavy rents, and oppressive poor rates ; and pay, com-
paratively with other countries, light taxes , helping them-
selves and assisted by their families ; — thus avoiding the pay-
ment of much wages to hirelings ; and, of course, not sub-
jected to their caprices, vices, idleness, and defalcations ;
contented with, wholesome subsistence, in great plenty, and
reasonable profits ; can live well and independently, with even
a tolerably good system of husbandry; and sit « every man

xliv Notices for a Young Farmer,

under his vine and under his fig tree, and none shall make
them afraid."

Those who wish for enjoyments comparatively elegant and
luxurious, must depend on other resources than those of a
mere farmer on a moderately sized plough farm, producing
chiefly grain; or even a grass farm of reasonable extent;
but, with every additional resource, they will not be a jot the
happier in real comforts; though their habits may require
artificial substitutes for them.

A farmer can be a well informed gentleman, according to
the true import of that appellation, without the imitative and
shadowy pretensions of many who affect that character ; which
does not consist in expensive display. Let his motto be,
esse quam videri ; — to be, and not merely to seem; — and his
station in society will be respected, as it merits, for useful
actions ; and he may be distinguished for politeness and sua-
vity of manners, without the tinsel of affectation and insin-
cerity. He will be more esteemed, the more he accommo-
dates his wants and habits to his circumstances.

XXVI. A farm homestead is enlivened by Poultry; and
family comforts arc much increased by their eggs and young.
But their numbers should be kept within bounds ; and their
kinds prudently selected ; as some are less inclined to wan-
dering and mischief, than others. Turkics are the most mis-
chievous and offensive; and geese are predatory trespassers ;
very voracious, and injurious to grass grounds. It is ques-
tionable, whether the balance of the account, giving credit
for their market price, (and some believe it might be doubled)
be not much against both. So that, in many situations, it
would be, perhaps, most economical, if they must be had, to
buy them for the table. Dung hill fowls, of innocent breeds,
arc preferable to either. Confining these too much has not
been found eligible; and high feeding is not promotive of,
but checks, fecundity. It also destroys one of their uses, by
making it less necessary and desirable to them to seek for
and destroy insects and other pests to your garden and fields.
They thrive better when kept in good condition ; and by
moderately feeding them at home, they return from wander-

Notices for a Young Fanner, xlv

ing, and preserve their domestic habits. They often injure
the garden; but some gardeners think that they do more good
than harm, by devouring insects and noxious vermin. The
absence of wild birds, whether owing to irregularities of sea-
sons, or wanton destruction, is often seriously felt in the in-
crease of insects on our farms. The depredations of birds
are fully compensated by the services they render to us $
whilst, for their own support, they are preying on our ene-
mies. Our poultry are entitled to regard on this account.
They may be broken of bad habits, by checking intru-
sions ; and feeding them exclusively, in places distant from
the garden. Those who find them ungovernable and too
mischievous, may keep them in poultry yards, or banish
them entirely. Pigeons are seriously mischievous ; and should
either be kept in small numbers, or not at all. Guinea fowls
lay abundance of eggs ; though in some cold countries it is
otherwise. But they are inveterate enemies to other poultry.
Fowls, however, laying the most eggs, which they can do
without frequent congress with the males, are not remarkable
for breeding; many of their eggs being barren. Those lay-
ing fewer eggs, more frequently incline to incubation. Tur-
kies among tobacco plants, are valued for their feeding on
the worms which infest them. Mr. Coke of Norfolk, in Eng-
land, purchased hundreds of ducks, for worming his turnips.
Whatever may be their value, in these disgusting however
useful instances of filthy feeding, it would require the absence
of all our prejudices for us to relish them at our tables.
Those who bought Mr. Coke's fat ducks, were happily igno-
rant of the means by which the delicacy was rendered mer-
chantable ; and no objections are made to feasting on turkies
thus fed, by those whom habit has reconciled to such repasts.
Good eaters are, however, too busily employed on the sub-
jects before them, to suffer the intrusion of over-nice associ-
ations of ideas.

Hen houses and nests should be kept clean ; nor should they
be too close and warm. Filth generates vermin ; and heat is
injurious, both as it respects health generally, and particu-
larly at the times of incubation, when over-warmth in the

xlvi Notices for a Young Farmer,

hen is prejudicial to hatching ; insomuch that she frequently
turns, and often leaves, her eggs to cool. Be careful to
guard against the access of egg-suckers. Minks, rats, and
weazles, are greatly so ; and they and other such vermin are
destroyers of poultry. Dogs are not much hehind them in
this propensity, and should be chastised and broke of the
habit of egg-sucking, when young : they otherwise retain it
through life.

The dung of poultry is well worth your care. It is so
powerful, that it would fertilize, if even sown by hand-fulls;
and it must, therefore, be thinly scattered.

It must be seen, that many of these observations, as they
relate to some kinds of poultry, apply to farms in a thickly
populated neighbourhood where range is trespass. The kinds
most noxious in confined situations, may be profitably and
extensively raised in other districts of our country, wherein
circumstances favour the breeding them. Too many cocks
should not be kept. Their ferocity in combat, (the more fre-
quently shewn, when extra numbers contend for the same
object,) is not a proof of their fecundating properties ; and
the gentlest and best formed should therefore be selected.
One for every 8 or 10 hens will be sufficient. The others
may be emasculated, and thus improved as an esculent, high-
ly valued where the practice is common. Capons are rare
among us ; but it is unaccountable why this addition to our
fare has not been more attended to. Hens hatch only one
brood, or two at most, in a season. A capon may be taught to
hatch, and most carefully rear and hover, several broods in
the same year.

Runty and mean breeders, of either sex, should be killed.
It is scarcely possible to prevent different breeds, in the same
yard, from mixing. But if breeders are sizeable, it is by
no means a subject of regret, that they communicate with
each other. Crossing most commonly improves poultry ; as
it does other animals as well as plants. But they must not
be of a distinct species : for some kinds produce, by mixing,
mules or hybrids which will not breed. The Muscovy with
the common duck, affords a frequent instance of hybridous,
and commonly barren, progeny.

Notices fur a Young Farmer, xlvii

A singular instance of the benefits derived from poultry,
was presented to a number of respectable witnesses of the
fact, some years ago, in a part of an unseated country in
Pennsylvania ; far removed from population. A solitary New-
England settler, was found clearing the woods and building
a cabin for the reception of his family ; who were to follow'
him with the rest of his stock. He had brought a number of
poultry ; and a flock were seen around him, which, by their
eggs, furnished the chief part of his support ; and with this
sustenance, he declared he was perfectly enabled to labour.
Occasionally he procured some grain from distant settle-
ments, which the fowls sparingly shared with him. This,
and the precarious supplies of the forest, kept them and him
in good plight. They never wandered, but always associated
with him ; as well for protection as from habitual attachment.
XXVII. Few farmers attend, sufficiently, to the necessity of
providing the best, (and the best are generally those the least
complex in their construction,) as well as the most appro-
priate instruments of husbandry ; and the implements,
utensils, and tools of their trade. All occupations require
those who follow them, to be closely attentive to the means
of carrying them on with facility of execution and conse-
quent profit, by tools appropriate to every operation in their
business. But a plough or two, some common harrows, a
cart or waggon, with some ordinary tools used in common
and minor operations, too generally fill the catalogue of
farming intruments and implements. Ploughs should be va
rious, and calculated for different uses. Among them is a
plough introduced in the hilly country of Virginia by Gol.
Randolph, for ploughing, horizontally, mountainous or hilly
lands. An account of it will be seen in the 4th vol. of the
Philadelphia Memoirs, in a letter from Mr. Jefferson. The
like practice is followed by the Germans inhabiting mountain-
ous countries; but their ploughs witli shifting mould-boards
are differently constructed from that mentioned. Every farmer
should accommodate his instruments to the local situation and
attributes of his farm ; as well as to the uses common to all

xlviii Notices for a Young Farmer

situations. Harrows should be constructed for the variety of
purposes required in good husbandry. Coulter and hoe har-
rows, as well as others adapted to different operations, should
be possessed by every good farmer : and among the less in-
struments, the horse rake should be better known and more
generally used. This saves much manual labour in gather-
ing hay ; and is peculiarly fitted for raking grain-fields, (the
borders whereof, after being reaped, should be cut with the
scythe, or cleared otherwise of weeds,) so that quadruply the
expense and labour of the operation is gained by the saving
©f grain which would otherwise perish. See 3d vol. Phila-
delphia Memoirs, 212, 13. There are hand-rakes for this
purpose, wherewith one labourer will do as much work as
two or three with the common rake. The roller, both plain and
spiky, is as essential as any other instrument ; yet is not so com-
mon as it ought to be. Riddles and screens for cleaning our
grains, are highly improved of late years ; yet few farmers pos-
sess the best. The potato riddles are great facilities, to save
time and manual labour, in sizing and separating those roots
whilst gathering ; yet few possess them at all, and others have
them badly constructed. Improved cutting machines will be
found all essential, when the practice of chaffing hay and other
provender becomes duly appreciated. No pains or reasona-
ble expense should be spared, in substituting some effective
threshing machines for manual labour; and thereby overcom-
ing one of the greatest embarrassments in our rural affairs.
XXVIII. Encourage the establishment of an Agricultu-
ral Society, in your neighbourhood ; and contribute your
share of useful information. Let it be furnished with a well
selected, however small, library ; on subjects as well practically
as theoretically connected with husbandry. Avoid turning
it into a club for mere amusement, or topics of controversy
and dissension : but let the objects of its meetings be confined
to the improvement of its members, in the business to which
their lives are devoted. One of the great objects of such so-
cieties should be to enlighten the minds of our citizens, on
the subject of roads, canals, and improving the navigation of
rivers, bridges, and other facilities for transport AJi tlje

Notices for a Young Farmer, xlix

partial inconveniences, of running through farms, payment
of tolls and other minor objections, are no more than the dust
of the balance, when weighed against their incalculable bene-
fits to agriculture, arts, and manufactures.

XXIX. However unpromising may appear the task, use
your endeavours to incite, and with address, mildly and mode-
rately to invite such of your neighbours who require and will
listen to a benevolent Mentor, to habits i industry, economy,
and sobriety : for such habits are the only requisites in this
country, free from the impediments and disadvantages exist-
ing in many others, to enable every well disposed citizen to
advance his interests and comfort. They are impenetrable
shields against poverty and want. Point out to them the ad-
vantages of depositing a small portion of their earnings, in
saving banks, or 'well regulated friendly and benefit societies ;
as sure resources against penury, and relief in sickness and
incapacity to labour, as well as for the education of their
children ; to guard them against the miseries of unlettered
ignorance and its companion vice. And for this purpose,
encourage and patronize the Lancasterian plan of teaching.
It is the most practicable and effectual, as well as economi-
cal improvement in the means of education of young mem-
bers of the community, unable in any other way to acquire
learning, and to whose wants it is peculiarly adapted, that
lias ever been introduced among any people : and especially
among our citizens, enjoying universal suffrage in our re-
publican system of government. Knowledge and information,
to qualify them to inquire and judge for themselves and not
depend on assistance often seductively rendered, are essential
to their freedom and happiness. This knowledge and infor-
mation can only be acquired, through the facilities afforded
by education ; and what is called a common one, which must
be gained in early life, is fully competent to all useful pur-
poses for which they require it.

Religion and morality, to which all earthly considerations
are of very inferior importance, will spread their benign
influences over minds enlightened by the information such

G

Notices for a Young Farmer.

means of attaining it will furnish. No people can be happy,
and no government, (especially one founded on republican
principles,) can be safe, when religion and morality, (twin
sisters,) are not the predominant habits of the mass of its
population.

Associations should be formed, to moderate, if it cannot be
totally abolished, the custom of dealing out to labourers,
ardent spirits ; — the most dangerous and destructive foes to
the peace of a community ; and to the prosperity and happi-
ness of individuals afflicted by a propensity to use them in-
continently. Those who furnish the means of destruction,
are equally culpable with those who perish under their en-
ticements.

If, out of county funds or by private societies, some
premium or medal were given to poor parents, to encourage
binding their children, often kept at home in idleness and
want, to regular trades, or employments in husbandry,
much benefit would arise both to the parents and children.
Hiring them to occasional labour, or in manufacturing es-
tablishments, conduces nothing to their permanent benefit \
either as it regards education, morality, or final settlement in
life. There is an unfortunate reluctance on this subject, which
might be overcome by honourable notices and distinctions.

Savings placed in the way of accumulation, in the mode
recommended, would enable persons in narrow circumstances,
in a course of time, to establish themselves at home ; or, if
they are so disposed, in our new countries, when their fami-
lies increase in numbers and strength. Plans of such banks
and societies and of the schools mentioned, can be readily
obtained. Dealers in ruinous temptations to waste time,
health, and morality, will not have so many customers, when
money, too often devoted to baneful dissipation, is saved for
meritorious and salutary purposes ; but our country will in-
calculably benefit by the increased numbers and vigour of its
population. Youth and manhood, would enjoy innocence and
health ; and penury would be averted from old age. The less
idleness and drink, the more bread. Tins remark would be

Notices for a Young Farmer,

unnecessary, could those to whom it is applicable and moni-
tory, be induced to follow the instruction, and feel the excite-
ment, conveyed by the old but evergreen Apothegm, —
« Industry is the right hand of fortune ,* and frugality her left."
3£XX. If many of these mementos should be deemed trite
and unnecessary, by men of agricultural intelligence ; they
will, nevertheless, be found useful to beginners. The list-
lessness of old farmers, often requires something like Dean
Swift's Flappers. What is considered as trivial, obvious, and
minute, requiring little exercise of mind or faculty, is over-
looked and walked over every day without observation : yet
such details and items are as essential to the great concerns of
life, as are the letters of the alphabet, and the common gram-
mar rules, to literature. The Germans have a homely, but ex-
pressive axiom,— "List ist bcsser als mist ;" — skilful manage-
ment is better than dung. — It has been the aim of the forego-
ing Notices, to unite the benefits of both. With skilful ma-
nagement, steril and worn lands may be made durably pro-
ductive. Without it, the fertility of the richest soils is soon
dissipated. Novelty or originality have not been the objects
of this defective compendium. Facts and opinions are drawn
together presumed to be warranted by experience, or col-
lected from writers of reputation. Nor are any practices or
opinions recommended as exclusively preferable ; however
pointedly they may be mentioned. They are intended as
mere suggestions and hints to beginners ; and not promul-
gated with any view to assume superiority of knowledge or
judgment, over those who may consider other practices, or
opinions, more correct.

It is a melancholy reflection, that the principles and prac-
tice of an art, on which the subsistence and comforts of the
human race so materially depend ; should still be subject to
varieties in opinion and contrarieties in practice. Few of
even the rude outlines of a subject so copious, can be com-
prised in a compass so narrow. Nor can it be expected that
anv more could be noticed, on many points, than the prac-
tices respectively mentioned ; leaving the details of execution

lii Notices for a Young Farmer

to be sought for in experience, from practical monitors, or
books.

The art remains imperfect, although so man) ages have
elapsed since man was first doomed to cultivate the earth ; and
countless volumes have been written on the modes of fulfilling
his destiny. Some benefit is, however, always derived from
the most humble attempt at instruction ; if it be received with
candour and discriminating judgment. It would' be as ha-
zardous and vain, (though leading and settled principles are
generally applicable,) to recommend the like practice in dis-
similar soils and situations, as it would be for a physician to
prescribe the same treatment and remedies, to patients dif-
fering in strength, constitution, and habits.

The jbllowing addition to the Note, page XXIX, was omitted
in its proper place,

Mr. Say describes the parasitic insect in the larva of the Hessian fly, scien-
tifically. Its length, one tenth of an inch.— He styles it tne Ceraphron, and
classes it with the tribe of insects called Ichneumons. It deposits, according
to the manners of its tribe, its eggs in the bodies of larvce, (catterpillars,) and
Jjecomes perfect by the destruction of the larva of the Hessian fly. ** Protected
'* by this indurated covering, the Parasite undergoes its change, and appears
«« in the perfect state, about the latter end of June. It seems probable that
" this insect prevents the total loss of our wheat crops, by restraining the in-
" crease of the cecidomyia, within certain bounds." He says it is often mistaken
for the Hessian fly, by those who see it evolve from the pupa of that fly. And
flights of the Ceraphron are erroneously taken for Hessian flies.

The Ichneumons are nature's scavengers, destined to destroy the vermin
which wonld otherwise overrun the earth. They breed in catterpillars, corn
"rubs, and other such reptiles, which perish in myriads, in consequence. When
they are perceived coming out. of the larvce of other insects, it is inconside-
rately alleged, that the corn-grubs, &c. turn into flies. It would be desirable
that some naturalist would discover the parent of the corn grub ; there being
no abolutely certain, but many various opinions on that subject.

It is said that a parisitic insect is found in the incisions made by locusts in
the branches of trees. No doubt an Ichneumon, placed there for destruction of
the eggs of the locusts, to prevent their unbounded increase.

CORRIGENDA.

No. VI. Table of Contents, for line fences, re:ut live fences.
Page 6, No. II. in the note, for heretofore, read theretofore.
No. IV. for " before it (the seed corn,) starts," read sprouts.
At the end of the second paragraph of No. IV. add

Transplanting, from a seed bed sown early, broad cast, in or convenient to
your cornfield, or with supernumerary plants from other hills, is far prefera-
ble to using seed corn for supplying defective hills cut off by the grub, or
otherwise vacant. Plants overtake and keep pace with those uninjured ;
but renewals with seed corn, seldom arrive at maturity.
In page ix. at the end of the paragraph, add — Salt is used for destroy-
ing grubs, worms, &c. and has been successful in killing or banishing the
corn grub.
No. XIII. The following was accidentally omitted in the copy. Page xxvi,
Not'iing requires more attention to the nature and qualities of your soil,
than the use of Lime. If it be too lavishly applied, or too frequently re-
peated, without intervals of grass to furnish vegetable matter, or ma-
nures, either animal or vegetable, ploughed in, for the lime, (according
to the country phraseology,) to feed on, it renders your ground lime sick ;
and reduces it to sterility. Our caustic lime must be applied in quanti-
ties very far less than the mild lime of Europe, if we would avoid turn-
ing a highly beneficial auxiliary into a destructive scourge. No certain
rules, as to quantity per acre, can be fixed, without a perfect knowledge
of the soil to which it is to be applied. In all cases moderate quantities
at first, are the safest. Our common lime is here meant ; as much de-
pends on the kind of lime applied. It must therefore be the study
of those who apply lime, to discover its composition, or what is called
its strength ; before they can form a correct opinion of its salutary or in-
jurious uses. It would seem, that the mild lime had some fertilizing
qualities in itself ; otherwise the lavish use of it, whereof we read, can-
not be accounted for. — Mere practical results being here intended, you
must consult books for technical and copious discussions on lime.
Insert in page xxv. after " by necessity" — Salt your clover and other succu-
lent as well as coarse hay. But over-salting diminishes the nutriment.
More than a peck to a ton is superfluous. Half that quantity is often suf-
ficient. Ten to fifteen pounds is usually an ample allowance.
In page xxvii. After " by crossing'* strike out the words "from seeds of," and

insert, (by applying the Pollen of one kind to the Pistil of another,)
(Xj^ Errors in grammar or punctuation not noticed, are left for correction to
candid readers.

The few books enumerated, are mentioned (their titles from memory) be
cause they are written in our language in addition to their intrinsic value. The
leisure of a young farmer, fond of mental improvement, could not be better em-
ployed, than in qualifying himself to read agricultural and other publications
relating to his art, written in other living languages. The French and Ger-
man, particularly, are highly useful for intercourse with foreigners arriving or
being in our country. In these languages, he would find stores of information
well worthy his profitable labour in acquiring them.

MEMOIRS

OF THE

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF

PHILADELPHIA.

T. M. Foreman, Esq* on Crawford Rye.

Read Nov. 1815.

Rose- Hilly near Savinton, Md. 9 th Oct. 1815.
Dear Sir,

The enclosed letters, will show vou how I came into
possession of what Mr. Poole is disposed to call the Craw-
ford rye ; but with Mr. Poole's permission, I know that
this rye has been in the United States since 1812, for in
that year, the late Joseph Tatnal of Brandywine, gave a
few grains to a careless tenant of mine. In 1813, struck
with its gigantic growth, I took possession of one head,
and which is now increased to six quarts, which in the
course of the present week, will all be dibled, in land
about the average oi the field. This rye was described
to me, by the name of Napoleon rye, having been ob-
tained from his celebrated botannic garden. Therefore,
Napoleon rye it shall remain.

Comprising what I have grown, with Mr. Poole's
sample, I can assert that the grain is alreaJy highly im-
proved ; but of my stock, 1 have picked a tin cupful of

On Crawford Rye.

equal quality with the thirty grains enclosed, with the
head in the tube, which you will with this receive. I do
not wish you to open the tube, until you have a meeting
of your board, that you may fairly compare my grain with
the recently imported.

You will not only admire this gigantic head, but you
will observe that the stalk is solid. If this stalk will re-
sist the fly, we have then obtained a most valuable grain,
which will enable us to arrange our seeding to more ad-
vantage. Formerly we begun to seed our wheat on the
20th August; and now. never before the 3d or 4th of
October ; of course, we all have our wheat badly put
in. Virginia and Maryland claim all improvements in
the variety of winter grain, and if this rye has any merit,
we shall find it out, and we will leave the carrots and
beets to you.

But what would be a little beyond these last articles
would be your giving encouragement to the bean seed,
from which is extracted the most delicious oil, and with
the advantage that it never becomes rancid, and improves
with age, differing in this respect from all other oils. It
o-rovvs to most advantage on poor sandy soils, such as the
coast lands of Jersey, and the sands of Sussex and So-
merset, and Worcester. If you could form a patriotic
company, to erect a mill for the purpose, distribute seed,
and purchase at two dollars a bushel all which might be
offtred, Philadelphia might supply the United States with
this admirable oil, and the owners would soon find it a
profitable business. Seed can be obtained from Georgia,
from which I procured hulf a gallon, the want of a mar-
ket, stopped the business. I mean now to reproach you
for not thinking of me, when your society obtains sam-
ples of seeds. I devote myself to agriculture, and will
make fair experiments.

I am, your obedient humble servant.

T. M. Foreman.

[ 3 ]

Account of Wire Fences. By White and Hazard*

Read January 8th. IS 16.

White' 's-Town, 1st. Month, 2nd. 1816.

Friends,

The attention of the Agricultural Society having been
frequently directed towards the discovery of substitutes
for the usual expensive mode of fencing, and invited
inquiries upon that subject ; we make no apology for
offering to their consideration, a plan which not only pre-
sents a diminution of expense, but also to the farmer a
source of very considerable profit.

It is to form rails of wire, and posts of living trees. In
order to render the advantages apparent, we shall first pre-
sent a statement of the expense of a common post and
rail fence, and then exhibit an estimate of the cost, and.
we trust, a reasonable average for the produce of a fence
erected on the plan which we would propose.

Cost of a common fence for 100 acres, ~) _,- ,._^

for 50 years. 3

Cost of a wire-fence for do. do. SL751

Leaving without any other consideration, ~)
a saving, and consequent profit of, 5
But in addition to this we must take into view, I
the whole produce of the trees, will be a nett profit. The
amount of this will, in some measure depend on the na-
ofthe trees, as indicated by the richness of the soil, or the
judgment of the farmer. We subjoin a catalogue of such

H

Account of Wire Fences.

trees as have occurred to us, as forming a sufficient vari-
ety, either in regard to the consumption of the farm, or to
the supply of market. We consider that after ten years
from the time of planting,

24?4 Apple trees will annually produce at g 1 each. $244

30 Cherry do

20 Pear do. -

10 Plumb do. - ' -

10 Shellbark do. -

50 Chesnut do. -

20 Walnut do. -

5 Butter nut do. (Juglans Cinerea.)
5 English Walnut do. (Jug. Regia.J $1.
250 Button wood will spare from tops 24 cords }

fire- wood at S3, cord. J 7'2

Multiply this annual amount by the 40 years

given _ 815,840

From which deduct the cost of the fence, as

as above. 1 751

50cts.

15

50cts.

10

3

SI.

10

12

81.

20

SI.

5

SI.

5

Producing a net profit of, g 14,098

To the credit of the wire fence in the period of fifty
years.

The interest on the annual produce, it is presumed, will
be sufficient to keep the fences in repair, not only for fifty
years, but a period beyond calculation.

An additional advantage, will accrue from this dispo-
sition of the fruit, and other trees, as the soil they have
hitherto occupied, may be thrown into arable and mea-
dow land.

With regard to the strength of a wire fence, we do not
hesitate to express our belief in its sufficiency to resist

Account of TP ire Fences*

any attack it may be required. We have given it a fair
trial at the Falls, with the most breachy cows of the neigh-
bourhood, and it is remarkable that even dogs avoid pas-
sing over it.

In case of the wire breaking by any casuality, it is
easier repaired than any other fence.

The wire No 6. will sustain a weight of 1300 lbs.
when stretched in the manner of a rail. No. 9. 750 lbs.
and No. 11. 300 to 450 lbs. Ascertained by fair expe-
riments for the purpose.

Respecting the duration of the wire, daily experience
sufficiently speaks, that when protected by a coating of
Linseed oil, or paint, an entire reliance may be placed
on it.

We conclude by recommending the subject to the in-
vestigation of the society ; informing them they may see
a wire fence erected on this plan at R. Watkins Tavern,
at the Falls of Schuylkill.

We are Very Respectfully,

White & Hazard,

Hon. Richard Peters,

President of the Agricultural Society.

ESTIMATES.

Common post and rail fence 5 rail high;
55 Rails at 10 cent make a fence 100 feet is 5,50

11 Posts 25 2,75

Putting up fence, holeing and pointing 25cts

apannel, 2,75

Cost of 100 feet g 11,00

Account of Wire Fences.

At the above rate 11 fields of 9 acres each,
and 1 field of one acre, will cost at once fenc-
ing, making 100 acres, SI, 540

In 50 years the expense on the fence will be
^qual to another complete fence, and is g 1,540

Total cost without interest for 50 years,

83,080

A Wire Fence, with living Trees, &c. With 4 Rails.

1 Top rail No, 6. weight lllbs, at 16cts.

3 Under rails No. 9, weight 201bs. at 17a cts.

6 Live posts, or treees, IS ft. apart, at 12i. cts.

6 Small posts to be set in with the live ones
close behind, and at equal distances apart,
so that when the dead posts decay, the wire
can be attached to the live ones, by moving
the wire rails a few inches back.

Planting trees and posts, and putting up fence,

51,76
3,50
0,75

0,75
1,50

Account of Wire Fences,

10 Space posts 2 in. square to set on the ground, or

on a stone, the wires merely to run through, to keep

them stayed in their places. q 50

24 Rivet head nails. 0'24

Linseed oil, to coat the wires. 0'07

But to fence against hogs, add,

4 Rails of No. 12 wire, wt. 13 lbs. at 12 or 19 cts. 2,61

94 Round-headed nails. 0 24

Cost of 100 feet, against all cattle hogs, &c. Sll~92
At the above rate 100 aires in 11 lots of 9 acres
each, and 1 of 1 acre, will cost, (and will last
50 years.) gl „51

This fence will produce from the fruit, fire- wood '
&c. per estimate, S396. Commencing ten
years after setting out. so that in the 50 years
the.r will be 40 annuities of that amount.
Amounting in the whole to, 15 84Q

Nett profit of the two fences, in 50 years with- ~

out interest.

SI 4,089

Wire Fences with Dead Po^tsT '
5 Rails of No. 12 wire, 100 feet long will cost
mcludingall contingencies for a completefence
or say less than 70 cts. a pannel of 9 feet ' S7 58

Account of Wire Fences,

Or with top rail No. 9. and 4 others No. 12.

cost, less than 80 cts, a pannel, 88,09

Or 4 rails No. 9. about 80 cts. a pannel, 8,97

Or 4 rails No. 6. about SI a pannel, 12,12

Note.— The increased demand for wood fences, will increase their

price. . . ..

But the demand for wire fences will decrease its price; as the

greater the demand for wire the cheaper it can be made.

C 9 ]

On Spanish Peasantry, their improved Lime- Kilns : and
economical Cooking Stoves. By Anthony Morris Esq.

Read January 8th. 1816.

Madrid, October 15, 1815.
My dear Sir,

In my journey from Cadiz to Madrid, I availed myself

1 *5E T crrtences admitt^> » d- & from

1 for he (0" WhK?y°U meet with nothi"S b"t **■
0) for the purpose of inquiring |nto the ,4its of the

Agncultural and labouring classes, always to me, the most
mterest.ng portmn of every community: I found the en
durance of every convenience of life not onIy wk, ™
fence, but mth content, and cheerfulness, a geier
ractenstic trait of the SmnJcK general cna-

uniform habits o £ SoTt 't'mnl "**' ^^ ^

in the department of ru a civH 7- ET™" ' ^
ti ,a , r , . ' dI> C1V]1> an« domestic economy

^1 • , ' *»ater, is better understnnrl

or at least . better applied, than in the United StaS S
former, m the country, in the burning of lime and h thS
cmes mall culinary operations; the° latter, i'nu 1 "
he.r c,t,es wtth water, which is generally from spri "s f
the,r Sierra's or ranges of mountains; and which is never

i tea r ofpet;fect- reinns^y ^^"i

25S?i.Stw5t of collectin» a,ld co-

& > enaea\om to procure you a Dartirnlar

account. In the burning of lime, they use oiSSl
shrub, brush-wood, and weeds, with which the vidn
of the Kilns supplies them; none are thicker th }

-allest linger, very feW beyond thl'mickS o^ge-

10

On Spanish Peasantry &fc.

stem. The form of the kiln, or of the arch, in which the
lime-stone is arranged, differs little from ours, except in
the top of the kiln being very little above the surface of
the ground ; being covered with clay to confine the heat ;
and the arch within being of such a height from the bot-
tom, as gives to the stone all the possible effect of the flame
which these light and dry materials produce. The nature
and properties of their lime-stone are precisely similar to
ours, and I think their practice might be applied by our
countrymen to great advantage, particularly on those farms
in the lime-stone counties, where wood is scarce, , and
brush, and weeds, are in plenty ; the former would be
saved, the latter destroyed.
I am, Dear Sir,

With every respectful consideration,
Your obedient Servant and Friend,

Anthony Morris.

Dr. James Mease.

Sec. of the PhiL Agricultural Society.

REFERENCES.

A machine for heating irons;
g|| 1 foot 2 inches high. The height
of the circular part from A. to
B. is 10 inches ; its diameter at
the bottom 10 inches, at the band
CC 11, and at the top B 1 foot 1
inch : On it and forming a part of
the same piece is the square part DD
ihes high to E. 1 foot 4 inches long and 11 inches

On Spanish Peasantry, fcfc.

11

wide : In this of a rhomboidal shape, is a cavity, #,«,«,«,
| of an inch deep, 1 foot long and 7 inches wide, for plac-
ing the irons, after which the cavity continues for the coal

3 inches deep, 10! long and 5-| wide at the top, and nar
rowing towards the bottom, where it is 8 inches long and

4 wide, and receives a grate of those dimensions, through
which the fire receives air by means of a hollow within
that communicates with the door F.

Fig. 2,

Fig. 2. Plan of the same ma-
chine as seen from the top, a,a,a,at
the cavity of receiving the iron
bfi&b, for the c,c,c,c : the grate
the hollow within.

band
inch

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Front view of an
economical kitchen : 3 feet 6 in.
ches high and three feet in diame-
ter, of a eircular form, at the side
is a vent or door A. (for supplv-
ng air and for taking out the
ashes) 14 inches wide and 7 in-
ches high. Two iron bands d,d,
ddy each two inches wide are,
placed at the top one on the out-
side and one inside for holding
the work together; the outer

is even with the surface, the inner one projects * an

above it, as seen also in figure 4.

I

12

On Spanish Peasantry, &c.

Fig. 4. Section of the pre-
ceding on the line BC, exhibit-
ing the interior construction and
proportions. A. Circular cavity
6 inches deep, 2 feet 3 inches in
diameter at the top, and decreas-
ing gradually to the perforated
iron plate B, which is 1 foot 10
inches in diameter, and sustains
the pucheros or pots. Here the
diameter is lessened 2 inches and
forms a projection for supporting the plate, and the cavity
continues 9 inches deep and decreasing in diameter to the
bottom where it admits the grate C one foot in diameter, on
which is placed the coal. Under this continues the cavity
D 10 inches in diameter, and 1 foot 3 inches deep, commu-
nicating with the door or vent E, the dimensions of which
are noticed in the reference to figure 3.

[ 13 ]

Hill- side Plough, American Ploughs.

Read April 1816.

Belmont, 5th April, 1816.

Dear Sir,

For the information of the Society, I send a letter
from Mr. Jefferson giving an account of the success of
Gypsum in the country in which he lives ; also of the
mode introduced by his son-in-law, Col. Randolph, of
ploughing a hilly country. A description of Col. Ran-
dolph's plough calculated for the purpose, is also contained
in it. The mode of ploughing is practised in the hilly
countries of the North of Europe ; but they use a shift-
ing mould-board, which is rapidly turned, on a vertical
pinion, at every bout. I have requested a draft or model
of the plough and share, which I will present to the Socie-
ty when I receive them. Please to extract the parts of the
letter relating to agriculture, and file the extracts. After
which I will thank you for the return of the letter. I also
send a letter from our friend and member Robert Barclay
Esq. of England, giving an account of the trials of some
ploughs I had made for him. The society will be, no
doubt, gratified, when they perceive that we are capable,
in any thing, to reflect back to that country, the light we
have received from it, on the subject of our institution.
These ploughs have fully proved on their first trials, (and
they will perform better when the British ploughmen are
more accustomed to them,) my assertions in the note in

14 American Ploughs. Mangel Wertzel.

our second volume, pages 144, 5. I send also an ex-
tract from Evans and Ruffy's Farmer's Journal ; giving
an account of one of the trials of two of Mr. Barclay's
American ploughs; very favourable to those Implements.
The three horsed plough is an excellent instrument ; but
great injustice has been done to it, by its being worked
only with two horses abreast, or four oxen. The three
horses abreast, are essential to its movement, because it
is calculated for the third horse, on the off side, to keep it
to its work ; and the power of the whole is equally di-
vided, and correctly balanced. As to the objection that
the plough (if this be the one meant) will not clear itself
in foul ground, and is not calculated for heavy and stiff
soils, or stony ground, nothing can be more unfounded,
as they will find on executing the directions I have trans-
mitted. Detach the coulter, and it will turn in Buck-
wheat, clover, stubble, and any foul cover of weeds, or
grass, to the greatest perfection : I think quite as well
as Ducket's skim coulter plough. There is no ground,
capable of aration, too heavy or stiff to resist the power,
or perfect operation of this plough.

I send some seed of the orange coloured Mangel
Wurtzel, which, being highly esteemed in Europe, I
wish some of our members would carefully cultivate, to
assist me in obtaining seed for distribution, and also to
spread the knowledge of this excellent root ; which has
obtained in Europe, and in England particularly, (from
whence it was sent to me by Mr. Barclay) a celebrity
beyond any other, as food for cattle. The mode of cul-
ture will be seen in our 3d volume. Mr. Barclay in-
forms me, that the orange coloured root grows more
'inder the surface, than the mottled or white kinds ; but

Mangel Wertzel. 15

I do not value it the more for this habit.* The largest and
best roots are those growing, for the most part, above
ground.

Yours very truly,
Richard Peters.
Mr. Robert Vaux,

Sec. Philad. Soc.for promoting Agriculture.

* I have found on two years experience that my apprehensions oi
the inferior value of the yellow Mangel, were well founded. My seed
of the white kind has degenerated. The mottled is the bes>t. Suc-
cess in the culture of this root mainly depends on the purity an&
goodness of the seed.

R. Peters.
January 7, 18 18.

[ 16 j

Monticello, March 6, 1816,

Dear Sir,

I have to thank you for the copy of your discourse on
agriculture which you have been so kind as to send me.
I participate in all your love for the art. We are indebt
ed to you for much of our knowlege as to the use of the
plaister, which is become a principal article of our im-
provements, no soil profiting more from it than that of
the country around this place. The return of peace will
enable us now to resume its use. My son-in-law, Col.
Randolph, is perhaps, the best farmer of the state ;
and by the introduction of the horizontal method of
ploughing, instead of straight furrows, has really saved
this hilly country. It was running off into the valleys
with every rain ; but by this process we now scarcely
lose an ounce of our soil.

A rafter level traces a horizontal line around the curve
of the hill or valley, at distances of 30 or 40 yards,
which is followed by the plough ; and by these guide-
lines the ploughman finishes the interval by his eye,
throwing the earth into beds of six feet wide, with large
water furrows between them. When more rain falls than
can be instantly absorbed, the horizontal furrows retain the
surplus untill it is all soaked up, scarcely a drop ever reach-
ing the valley below. Some two or three years ago, I
mentioned to Mr. Peale this method of ploughing, and I
think he has informed me of his having since practiced
it with satisfaction. It is probable therefore you may-
have heard of it from him, if not through some other
channel.

On a Hill-side Plough. 17

Mr. Randolph has contrived also, for our steepest hill-
sides, a simple plough which throws the furrows always
down hilL It is made with two wings welded to the
same bar, with their planes at a right-angle to each
other. The point and the heel of the bar are formed into
pivots, and the bar becomes an axis, by turning which,
either wing may be laid on the ground, and the other
then standing vertically, acts as a mould board. The
right-angle between them however, is filled with a slop-
ing piece of wood, leaving only a cutting margin of each
wing naked, and aiding in the office of raising the sod
gradually, while the declivity of the hill facilitates it's
falling over. The change of the position of the share at
the end of each furrow is effected in a moment by with-
drawing and replacing a pin. The little paper model en-
closed may help out my description of the share/

Thomas Jefferson.

C 81 ]

Description of the Hillside Plough.

The mould boards are not plated with thin iron, as
usual, to prevent the wearing of the wood : in doing
that the iron is made to extend beyond the edge, so as
to scrape the furrow clear, if required : that may be done
to the angular, as well as to the plane piece of the
mould-board, as to the latter only, which will be found
quite sufficient. In lands full of stone, or roots, where
the frequent strains given to the forceps by the ob-
structions to the angle of the cutting-share, which forces
it downwards, might cause too much play on the first,
it is supported by something like a long and curved
staple cleft in the head to receive the forceps and per-
mit its play, while it is kept from moving laterally and
getting loose : the prongs of this staple are driven into
the under surface of the beam on each side of the for-
ceps. Neither of the additions here mentioned are often
wanted. Such ploughs have been in use on two farms
in the S.W. mountains of Virginia for 9 years. By
them the tallest clover is completely turned under on the
sides of the steepest hills. They work from 8 to 10
inches with 2 small mules or one stout horse.

* Col. Randolph lias, by Mr. Jefferson's desire, been pleased to
send a working model of bis Hiil-side Plough ; which can be viewed
Society's, Room.

C 19 J

/. Parker, Esq. of Kent County, Maryland ; his account
of Sedge Wheat, and successful experiments by chang-
ing Seed.

Read March 18I6.

Long Mead. Kent Co. Md. Feb. 18, 1816,

Sir

As the proper season for investigating the cause of the
disease in wheat, noticed in the Memoirs Vol. L page
124, and Vol III. page 422, (by some called sedge, by
some stud, but which I think may as properly be called
stunt) is approaching, I have thought proper to state to
you such facts on the subject, as have occurred in the
course of my business. 1 have for fifteen years had an
opportunity of noticing its progress, and although 1 have
not been able to ascertain its cause, I have discovered a
remedy, which has in a great measure rendered it harm-
less.

I. It first appeared in this neighbourhood on a farm I
now own, on an inconsiderable eminence. The then
proprietor, a gentleman of nice observation, and a prac-
tical farmer of much experience, discovered that the
wheat had on that spot, for several crops, began to de-
cline in March, and although the disease affected only a
small part at first, it increased considerably every crop.
He tried various methods to remedy the evil : as the
ground afforded a proper scite, he made his treading floor,
and stacked and trod his wheat there, but treading the
ground hard for that purpose, had no effect : he planted
the ground in corn, and instead of sowing it with wheat
(the usual practice here) he let it lie over, and had it
ploughed very deep in the winter ; in the spring he sowed

K

20 Account of Sedge Wheat, fcte.

it with oats, and prepared it for wheat, in 1804. In 1805
the stunt had increased considerably, and very much in-
jured the crop. In 1806 I became possessed of the field,
and by the practice I have adopted, I have never been
injured by the stunt there, but have made good crops,
at least of straw.

II. A temporary cow pen, or feeding, yard, was made
in a field, for the purpose of feeding cattle through the
winter, (the common practice here) the fence enclosing
the pen was removed in the spring, the manure carted
to a distant part of the field, and the ground planted in
corn in April, and sown in wheat in October ; the corn
was very luxuriant, but the wheat on the area of the feed-
ing yard was intirely killed in March ; and what was very
extraordinary, I couldtracethe zigzag line where the fence
had stood, distinctly on the wheat. The disease had
not extended any further than the ground had been co-
vered by the litter in the cow-pen, which in the spring
wasfperhaps two feet deep. This was the first appearance
of the stunt in this field.

III. In one of my fields where water sometimes stands
after heavy rains, the stunt appeared a few years ago, on
a small spot about thirty feet diameter, and from that
spot has extended considerably.

IV. In the winter 1804 — 5, a severe season for snow5
and sleet, in one of my fields sown witty red-bearded wheat,
two small spots, distant from each other about two hun-
dred yards, were exposed for some time to very severe
frosts, the snow having been drifted from those places.
In March, the wheat began to perish, the ground soon
became bare, and, on examination, I found the wheat
was stunted, and the spots mentioned produced nothing

Account oj Sedge Wheat £fc. 21

* ■ " * . ' ' ' ..... ■ mijr

but weeds. This was the first appearance of the stunt
on this farm.

V. On the adjoining field to the last- mentioned, and
near one of the bare spots before described, after plough-
ing the field, in August, to prepare it for wheat, a cow-
pen was made for the purpose of milking there, and to
manure the ground ; this field was sown in red-bearded
wheat, and had never been diseased before ; but the crop
was materially injured around where the cow- pen had
been, but the area of the pen was very luxuriant,

Those two last cases, occurred on a farm divided by a
public road forty feet wide, from the farm on which the
three first cases were noticed ; the manure on each farfh
was distributed where necessary, on the farm where col-
lected, and not taken from the one to the other.

I will now state to you the remedy which I have ap-
plied, and, will also, give you the information I have re-
ceived from others.

In the month of June in the year 1805, passing through
the field first mentioned, then sown in red-bearded wheat,
I observed that where the bearded wheat had been en-
tirely destroyed, there were a number of plants of smooth
wheat growing : the plants standing single on good ground
were very luxuriant, and, I judged from that circum-
stance, that the worm required other food, and that
the ground would produce a crop of the smooth wheat,
I accordingly procured some wheat of the kind we here
call Brunswick wheat. It is a dark coloured, late,
smooth wheat, and not a profitable crop on common
ground, but at that time almost every other kind had
been discarded for the red-bearded, which was known to
be preferable. My experiment succeeded compleHv

Account of Sed e Wheat, frV.

I cculd mark to the furrow, where the different kinds
were sown : the red- bearded was entirely destroyed, but
the Brunswick produced a good crop.

Believing I had discovered a remedy for what I
thought a great evil, I conversed with a number of far-
mers, and found where the two kinds of wheat had been
sown in the same field, and divided by a head-land, or
turning, that the red wheat was destroyed and the Bruns-
wick not injured, and in all cases the Brunswick wheat
was not stunted. I continued to sow this wheat on dis-
eased ground, for several years, but I did not like it, and
procured other kinds. I got some smooth wheat from
Wye river on this peninsula, and this wheat also escaped
the stunt. I procured from Delaware some red chaff
smooth wheat, which had a high character, but this was
entirely destroyed early in April ; I then tried the old
yellow-bearded wheat: this was delicious food for the
worm.

We have a smooth wheat lately introduced into this
part of the state, which has a brown or purple straw, and
called blue straw wheat. It is a valuable acquisition to
those who have been injured by the stunt ; it is a yellow
plump grain, ripens as early as the red wheat, and yields
well from the straw. One of my neighbours sowed
some of this wheat on stunted ground in 1813, and al-
though the season 1814, was wet and unfavourable, the
grain was good and it yielded well.

I procured some of this wheat in 1814, which in 1815
produced a good crop on stunted ground. I, last spring,
examined a number of fields, and inquired of gentle-
men who had sown it, and could not discover that in any
case it had been injured. In my own field I had a posi-

.Account of Sedge Wheat, £sfc, 23

. . -— — < .^

tive proof of i:s excellence, for although I had the blue
straw grain sown over more ground than had previously
appeared to be diseased I found the evil had encreased ;
the blue straw was thick and luxuriant where it joined
the red wheat; the red was much injured for several
lands next to it.

In order to ascertain whether the red wheat would
thrive on stunted ground which had been sown with
Brunswick, I ploughed and enclosed a small piece of
ground in a field which had been much injured when
sown in red-bearded, but had produced two crops of
Brunswick. I sowed this enclosure with red wheat, it
did not appear to be injured in the beginning of April.
At that time the fence was removed, a number of the
plants were transplanted into the garden, and the field
ploughed and planted in corn, those plants continued to
prosper, and I had sanguine hopes that the experiment
would succeed; sometime in May they were accidentally
destroyed in the garden, but from their appearance the
last time I viewed them, (I did not reside on that farm,)
I believed the red wheat would escape the disease. After
the ground had produced the Brunswick, and in order to
prove it fully, I sowed the ground from whence the plants
had been taken to the garden, and indeed all the stunted
ground then in tillage, with red wheat, but I suffered for
my temerity, the stunt had increased considerably, and
my crop was injured more than usual, this ground pro-
duced last season a good crop of blue straw.

One of my field corners which was opposite to a lot
divided by the public road before- mentioned, had been
partially affected in 1809. In 1810, I sowed it in wheat
from Wye, but it had been damaged : it came up too

24 Account of Sedge Wheat, fcfc.

thin, and the crop was indifferent ; but it was not stunt.
ed. In 1812 I sowed it with red-chaff smooth wheat
from Delaware, in April 1813 it was all destroyed. I
ploughed it up, planted it in Indian corn, and sowed it with
smooth wheat from Wye$ and had in 1814 a very abun-
dant crop of straw. In 1815 the field opposite to this lot
produced a crop of red wheat, but about two acres ad-
joining the lot, only divided by the public road was very
much injured.

I have known stiff and light, wet and dry, soils affect-
ed with this disease, where manure had not been applied;
and I have stated these facts, which have occurred on my
own lands, to shew the whimsical character of the dis-
ease, to invite observation and experiment, to discover
its cause. I believe it to be a worm, and, as far as my
observations have extended, I have never, in any instance,
known it to be distributed in the manure, which I have
generally applied to such parts of my land as most re-
quired it.

I will observe Sir, that my inquiries on this subject,
have not coroborated my own observations. I have been
informed by one gentleman, that a crop of oats, by ano-
ther that a crop of Buckwheat, and by a third, that lime-
ing his stunted ground had cured the disease. The oat
crop has not succeeded with me ; the buckwheat I have
not tried, but I would rather suppose the gentlemen mis-
took the complaint. The lime I have more confidence
in, but the remedy here where lime is very dear, would
be impracticable. Mr. Binns, of Virginia, has recom-
mended sprinkling brimstone over, or around the spots
affected : but that application would be too expensive,
and I believe would be ineffectual.

Account of Sedge Wheats &fc. 25

I have been informed by a friend that he knew a quan-
tity of coarse manure drawn into a field in Autumn,
where it lay in heaps until the spring, when it was spread,
and the ground planted in corn, and sown with red wheat;
the wheat was entirely destroyed on those spots where
the loads of manure had been dropt, this case compared
with the 4th case stated, deserves consideration, in both
instances it appeared to be the effect of the weather, and
differs very materially from the case of the cow-pen.

The facts herein stated, as of my own knowledge, are
correctly related, I feh a deep interest in the investiga-
tion of the subject, as it is a complaint not noticed bv
any European writer on agriculture, which I have peru-
sed, and I believe it would become much more injurious
than the Hessian fly* but for the remedy which is now
applied, I suppose it is an American disease, or it would
not have been overlooked by the scrutinizing eye of a
Young, and other British writers, however, they too may
err.

" I believe the Hessian fly to be accurately described
in DuhamePs Elements of Agriculture, vol. 1. p. 269,
as quoted from Chateauvieux, and noticed in Mill's
Husbandry, vol. 3. p. 43.

Your's respectfully,

James Parker.
Dr. James Mease.

NOTE.

The stunted, or sedge wheat, accordiag to the facts shewn,
in the foregoing communication, affords, among a thousand
others, an additional proof of the necessity of change of both

Account of Sedge Wheat, Esfc.

the species of crops, and the seed. It also proves the wonder-
ful advantage to be derived from studying the nature and ha-
bits of insects and other depredators. Here is a strong instance
of change being indispensable, even in the same genus of
grain. It would have availed nothing to have taken Mr.
Cooper's mode of selecting the best ears of the red chaff oeard-
ed wheat. None of that kind succeeded, or would have es-
caped the disease, or as I suspect, the ravage of the insect,
which may be so minute as to escape detection ; though our
correspondent, Mr. Evans, alleges he could find no insect in
his stunted wheat. The fact of the stunt always appearing in
the cow-pen'd or dunged ground, shews the probability that
the disease or its author, was resident in the straw or chaff
used in the pens. Insects are curiously inclined to feed on cer-
tain plants, in preference to others ; and their predilections are
so unaccountable, that they attack those of apparently different
natures. When more numerous than the favourite plants will
sustain ; they, 'tis true, devour all vegetation indiscriminately.
We know not to what cause to ascribe their common predilec-
tions. Last season the potato fly (lytta vitata) was in great,
plenty on my grounds. They nearly ruined a small patch
of potatoes I had planted, for experiment, in my garden, A
large bed of fine melons grew adjacent to the potatoes, and
%vere not touched by the fly. They passed over several
beds of other vegetables, and attacked the leaves of my scar-
citv roots, the first time I ever knew any insect or vermin
annoy them. Their ravages were really mortifying to me,
who am much attached to this root, and very desirous of bring-
it into general notice and culture. None of the common beets
were touched by the fly, though within their reach, on their
passage to the mangel wurtzel. And yet there is quite as much
affinity between the two kinds of beet, as there can be between
the red-bearded and the blue-straw wheats. I have frequently
recommended inquiries into the habits of insects ; and it would
be highly important to discover whether or not insects cause
the stunt. I know it will be difficult to establish any certain

Account of Sedge Wheat* &fc. 27

criterion to prove peculiar propensities. But plants most sub-
ject to injury by certain insects, might be noted, from time to
time. The potato flies, last summer, were found in plenty on
the pothosfetida, or skunk-weed ; and on the aetata racemosa9 or
black snake-root, in the woods. If insects are not the cause of
the Stunt, the facts stated by Mr. Parker, nevertheless, shows that
it is wise to change the crops on the infected grounds. We know
that smut and other maladies, are propagated by the grain, chaff or
straw, of precedent crops. And, to prevent this evil, writers have
recommended burning such chaff or straw. If, however, the ma-
nure made with such straw and chaff be applied, and it appears
by many facts, that however Mr. P's experience may be, wheat
has been stunted on ground manured with cowpen'd dung, let
the crop be entirely changed, from the one producing the straw
and chaff. The account, given by our correspondent, of even a
change of the species of the same genus of plants ensuring per-
fect safety to the crop succeeding that tainted with infection, shews
that crops of entirely different kinds must be doubly secure. I
have no doubt but that if in Maryland, and other states, wherein
the stunted or sedge wheat prevails, they would sow clover, or
other grasses, on their grain fields ; the cow-pen'd or dunged
spots would throw up abundant grass crops, though those of
grain had been destroyed; and thus they would be remune-
rated for the labour bestowed on their fields, for an abortive
crop of wheat. Indian corn grew luxuriantly on the cow-
pen'd ground. The change of one wheat for another, seems,
however, to have succeeded with Mr. Parker, better than it did
with Mr. Hollingsworth ; and yet the success of the latter, was
encouraging ; for his white wheat throve tolerably, when the
red chaff perished. 2 vol. 287 — 8. My proposition to winter
fallow, or any other mode of cleansing their fields, will never
be attempted, whilst the southern farmers adhere to their here-
ditary bad style of farming, handed down from father to son.
If the evil be a disease communicable from Straw, or other
cause inherent in the manure; or if it be occasioned by insects;
their mode of sowing wheat contemporaneously with indiaft

L

28 Account of Sedge Wheat, &c.

corn, allows no time or opportunity for cleansing their grounds,
by tillage and exposure to the ameliorating influences of the
atmosphere. One day they will discover, that they had better
contract the scale on which they farm ; and cultivate smaller
fields well, rather than labour over, and double-crop, vast sur-
faces, when a less space, well cultivated, would yield them in-
calculably greater profits. Would it not be advisable to try
experiments with the Flemish steep of copperas, which may ope-
rate to purge away malady, or the eggs of insects from the
grain ?

Salt in moderate quantities, or reasonably salt-water, is found
to destroy insects and their larva, worms, &c. ; and as it also
assists the crop, it is well worthy of trial.

C 29 ]

On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller, by Nicholas
Ridgeley, Esq. of Dover, in Delaware.

Read April, 1816.

Dover, 30 March, 1816.

Sir,

The encouragement given by the Agricultural Society
of Philadelphia, to farmers and others, to make commu-
nications of useful and practical improvements in husban-
dry, induces me to lay before you, a method of treading
out wheat, which is simple, expeditious, and within the
power of any man, willing to employ ten or twelve dollars,
in facilitating the operations of his farm. I think I am
not mistaken in believing, that an equally easy and advanta-
geous mode of separating wheat from the straw has not been
discovered by, or known to the mass of farmers of our coun-
try. I speak with more confidence of its utility, because
some of our best farmers have adopted it with the greatest
success ; and because I have myself, more than fifteen
years, pursued the course I now recommend, and know,
from actual experience, that it is not liable to any reasona-
ble objection, unless it be that treading out grain forms an
objection not to be removed by any benefits. Let this ob-
jection be thought what it may, at present it ought to have
no effect, for eight tenths, if not more, of all the wheat
which is carried to Brandywine, Philadelphia or Balti-
more, from this peninsula, is trodden out by horses, and
will continue to be so, until some cheaper and better plan
can be invented.

30 On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller*

The manner of treading wheat, which I propose for
consideration, is with a roller drawn by three horses. A
broad-axe, saw, auger and drawing-knife, are the only in-
struments necessary in its construction. A small quanti-
ty of timber, and a few pounds of iron from the black-
smith, with the price of the labour, make up the expense,
is will be seen in the following description.

Take a piece of good, tough white oak, 6 feet 6 inches
ion;;, and 12 or 15 inches square. Then make it 8 square,
and reduce each end to a circle, a little and gradually par-
ed down, beginning 3 inches from the end, and secure the
ends by iron bands two inches wide. This is necessary
to prevent the wood from splitting. In the centre of each
end of the roller is to be inserted an iron axis, to which
the frame is to be fixed. The axis should be an inch in
diameter, and should penetrate 12 or 14 inches into the
roller, and project 4 inches beyond it, to be received into
the frame. The part which enters the roller must be
square, the other round. On each square of the roller
bore a number of holes, with a two inch auger, at the dis-
tance of 6 inches from centre to centre, in a direct line
with one another, beginning on any square as the first,
near to the iron band, and so till 12 holes are bored. The
next square must be begun about 3 inches from the iron
band, and so let every other square be bored, by which
means there will be 12 holes in 4 squares, and 11 in the
other 4 ; and the holes will be in every other row, op-
posite to each other ; or, in common phraseology, they will
hit and miss. Let pins of wrell seasoned white oak be
prepared, 12 or 13 inches long, and 2 by 3 inches square.
The ends must be rounded and inserted into the roller,
the longest sides of the pins being placed lengthwise

On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller. 33

the roller, and be driven well home. Then stretch a line
from one end to the other of the roller, on the pins, so
that the pins on the off end, should be marked at the dis-
tance of 11 inches from the roller, and at the near end.
at 8 inches ; then saw off the pins where thus marked,
and the Roller will be ready for the frame. The pins are
thus gradually shortened in order that the roller maybe fitted
for running in a circle. To the roller, is to be fixed a frame
made of any strong wood, projecting about a foot in front,
next to the horses, beyond the pins, and the same distance be-
hind. It must be secured by mortise, and tenon, and pins, so
as to be taken off when not in use. For preservation a small
roof must be made to cover .the roller. The frame may
be separated and put any where out of the weather.

Such a roller will last until it is destroyed by dry-rot
The whole cost will be ten or twelve dollars. By boring a
hole in the centre, from end to end, and allowing the tim-
ber to become perfectly seasoned, before it is made, and
keeping it covered when not in use, it will last fifty years ,
or more. The pins may become very dry, and drop out,
but they may easily be made fast enough by wedging with
wet straw. The iron axis at each end soonest becomes
loose, and is more troublesome than any other part of the
machine, for wooden wedges are not sufficient to hold it.
But when well made, and put in skilfully, it will continue
firm in green wood, several years, and longer in dry
After the timber is bored and well seasoned, an iron axis
to pass entirely through the roller, might be fixed im move-
ably, so as to remain good a life time.

The above described roller is adapted to three horses.
The gradation of the pins is suitable to a yard of 80 or
] 00 feet in diameter.

32 On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller.

On the state of the treading yard, and weather, depends
altogether the success in treading.

The yard should be 80 or 100 feet in diameter, clear of
stacks and fences. The soil should be close and bind-
ing, and free from sand and gravel. The richer it is, the
better will be the yard. There should be a space, exclu-
sive of that necessary for treading, on which wheat, hay,
straw, and every thing of the kind may be stacked,
round the yard, and close to its edge. The yard must
rise a little in the middle, and when first made, should
be well and perfectly trodden with horses. All little inequa-
lities should be filled up with proper dirt wheeled in,
and so trodden, till the whoie face of it is smooth, hard,
and even. Let the wheat be stacked round the yard
ready for treading; though previous to stacking, the
yard should be perfectly clear, in order that waste wheat
may be swept up and saved. The yard must always be
kept free from grass and weeds, and should be on the
south side of the barn ; and there ought to be no trees
in the neighbourhood, by which it may be shaded. At
any time after harvest, when the business of the farm
will permit, and the weather is suitable, wheat, oats, &c.
may be trodden out. The winter is the best season,
when the ground is hard frozen, and the weather is dry.
Wheat then treads better, and is free from dust. The
next day after the fall of a deep snow, I have had the
snow brushed off the stacks, and removed from the yard,
and have trodden five or six days successively with
great advantage. As soon as all the grain is trodden out,
a fence should be run round the yard to secure the stacks
of hay, straw, and other fodder ; and then corn-stalks,
leaves, potato-vines, and rubbish of every kind ought

On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller. 33

to be drawn on it ; and cattle, horses, sheep, or any
other stock, except hogs, be kept there as much as pos-
sible, to tread and pack it, and keep it covered. The
covering should not be removed until a day or two be-
fore harvest. This is indispensable. If the yard is not
kept hard, and free from grass, much grain will be lost,
and much labour required to restore it to tolerable
order. And no plan is so effectual as that of feeding
stock on it.

As to the weather little need be said about it. Every
person knows that dry weather is better for any operation
to be performed on grain, even if it is under a roof, and
more especially if it is to be done out of doors, than
wet, or even a damp state of air. In July and August
wheat treads very well. To obviate the inconvenience
of dews, the yard, and also the stack, should, the even-
ing before, be lightly covered with straw. In the morn-
ing the straw can be removed in fifteen or twenty mi-
nutes, and then there will be no impediment of that sort-
It is better though to wait an hour or two, that the mois-
ture may be exhaled, than to work on damp ground, or
with damp straw ; because, in either case, the wheat
will tread tough, and much of it will be beaten into the
earth. A judicious farmer will accommodate his tread-
ing to the other business of his farm. As soon after har-
vest as the time can be spared, he ought to begin, and
so occasionally proceed, until the whole crop is ready for
market. If it be practicable, all the grain should be got
out before winter ; and then the yard will be ready for
feeding on, and for being put in a state of preparation
for the next year's operations.

Whenever the farmer has determined on treading, h<

34 On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller,

should the day before examine his roller, and see that it is
in order. Then let him have four rollers, two of them
with teeth 8 or 9 inches long, and 3 or 4 inches apart ;
and two others with teeth two inches long, and about 2
inches apart, and four wooden forks. The large rakes
will act on the long, coarse straw ; the smaller ones on
such as is fine, and mixes more with the wheat. But it
is better to use the rakes with long teeth altogether, than
to suffer a careless hand to work with the small rakes.
By inattention much of the wheat may be carried off with
the straw.

Thus prepared, an active fellow, or two, should mount
the stack ; and cut the bands of the sheaves , and push the
wheat off as expeditiously as possible ; and the hands be-
low must carry and place it in a circle, about ten or
twelve feet wide, round the yard, in the track or path on
which the roller is to run, until the whole floor is laid
down. Three horses should be then fixed to the rol-
ler, and proceed at a pretty good trot. As soon as the
horses are set in motion, the scattered wheat from
the inside edge of the circle, and on the outside, should
be raked up, and thrown upon the floor. I here suppose
five hands to be on the yard ; one, a boy, will ride, the
other four will place themselves in pairs, and divide the
yard by the eye, as equally as posible ; and imme-
diately begin to turn the wheat, with the forks, from bot-
tom to top, keeping it as near as may be in its circle.
One of each pair should take the inside of the circle, the
other the outside, and work in conjunction. Each pair
should travel round the floor, as they turn the wheat,
keeping a proper distance, and taking care to avoid the
horses, and by no means to stop them ; and so continue

On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller. 35

until the wheat is finished. The roller should run on the
inside and outside of the floor, as occasion may require.
This can be judged of by a slight examination of the
straw. The middle of the floor commonly treads out
faster than the other parts, because the horses and roller
will unavoidably run more on it. It will be now and then
proper that a couple of the hands should lay by their
forks, and go along the inside and outside of the floor,
and rake up, and throw into the middle of it, the scattered
untrodden wheat which lies out of the track of the horses
and roller. The expedition of the work will greatly de-
pend on the men in turning the wheat. The wheat,
through the whole course of treading, must be continued
of its original breadth : it will wrork much lighter, than by
suffering it to be gathered up into a deep, narrow, body.
Sometimes it will be laid too thick on a particular spot.
As that is discovered in treading it ought to be run over to
a thinner place. As soon as the grain is all out, let the men
throw the straw with their forks, off of the wheat, into a
narrow circle, then take the horses from the roller, and let
them be trotted round 10 or 15 minutes, and the men
continue raising and turning the straw. This will disengage
the loose wheat from the straw. The straw is to be re-
moved. Some attention will be required in handling it
so as not to take off* wheat with it. This will depend
on the care of the men using the rakes. When the great
body of coarse straw is carried off, the small rakes are to
be used in collecting the fine, short, light straw. A
smart willing hand, will very soon become expert in this,
and indeed in every part of the business. The straw be-
ing disposed of, the wheat must be pushed into the centre
of the yard, where it will be out of the way of the se.

M

36 On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller.

cond floor. Then begin and proceed as before. As soon
as the second floor is trodden out, the straw removed, and
the wheat pushed off, if the day's treading is finished,
some of the hands should be set to sweeping. The fan
is now to be put to work. This stage of the business
requires some management to keep all the hands properly
employed. One shoukTcarry wheat to the fan, another
turn it, and a third attend the hopper ; the others may
sweep, carry wheat into the barn, or do any other part
of the work as occasion may require. A little experi-
ence will soon regulate these things.

Each floor of wheat on a yard of 100 feet diameter,
should be sufficient to turn out 25 or 30 bushels. But
it is to be remarked, that more work may be done, and
with greater ease to man and beast, by laying down too
little, than too much wheat on a floor.

It is not necessary to place the wheat with any regard
to the heads and butts. Neither is any part of the straw
to be removed, until the whole floor is trodden out

In good weather, a floor of 50 bushels may be trodden
out in two hours. 1 mean after the horses and roller
are put on it. If three more horses, and a rider can
be spared to follow the roller, it will hasten the work
very much.

In January 1803, I had trodden out in one day with
a roller and three horses, followed by three others, and
four hands on the floor, besides riders, two stacks, ave-
raging 45 bushels each ; but it was not fanned. The
wheat and chaff were pushed into the middle of the yard.
In January 1809, I had trodden, in five days, five stacks?
each containing fifty bushels. The wheat was fanned

On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller. 37

and carried into the barn, and the straw stacked, each
day.

I proposed to George Cummins, Esq. a senator for
this county, in our state legislature ; and one of our
most successful and skilful farmers, the following ques-
tions, and received from him, after consideration and ex-
amination, the following written answers. He uses the
roller.

Q. What is the average number of bushels of wheat
which you tread in a day ?

A. Sixty ; and I have trod from that number
to 88.

Q. How many horses do you put to the roller ; and
how many other horses are employed on the yard ?

A. Three horses to the roller ; and three others
rode by a boy in the common mode of treading.

Q. How many hands answer ?

A. Two boys to ride, and four to keep constantly
turning the wheat from bottom to top, until it is all
trod out.

Q. What is the greatest quantity of wheat that you
ever trod out in a day ; and how many hands and horses
were employed ?

A. Eighty-eight bushels. The roller and three horses
to it, three other horses, four hands and two boys made
the force employed.

Q. Besides the roller, what other implements do you
use on the yard.

A. Wooden forks for turning the wheat, and rakes.

Q. What quantity of wheat do you generally put on
a floor ?

38 On Threshing out IVheat by a Roller.

A. From 20 to 25 bushels.

Q. What number of floors do you tread in a day ?

A. Three. And all the wheat trod each day, is chaff
ed, and put into the barn.

Q. The size of your yard to tread, and to stack on ?

A. Seventy feet in diameter for treading, and 12 feet
on each side for stacking-.

Mr. Cummins has added the following note to his an-
swers. " Joseph Foreacres treads with a machine about
44 the same size of mine. He never uses more than three
*' horses with it; and generally gets out in a day, about
" fifty bushels. Some days he exceeds that quantity,
vC with only himself, two boys between 15 and 20 years
** old, and one small boy to ride. He chaffs the wheat.
' puts it into the barn, and generally stacks the straw.

u J. Cummins with six horses or mules, treads 60
" bushels ; frequently more, with four hands, and two
" boys to ride. He chaffs, and puts up the straw, &c.
^ the same day."

There are some objections to this mode of getting out
wheat ; and so there are to the flail, and to the Scotch
machine. Let any man though, try the method of tread-
ing here recommended, with his yard, roller, rakes,
forks and fan in order; the weather suitable, and the
hands a little experienced, and I am persuaded that he
will deem it superior to any other plan yet discovered,
as applicable to the great body of farmers. The Scotch
machine is two expensive for common use ; the flail is
two tedious : and neither of them will do the work bet-
ter, I conjecture, than the roller. The flail I know will
not. The threshing machine I never have seen; but

On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller. 39

the most accurate account which I have read of it, war-
rants the conclusion here made.

OBJECTIONS TO TREADING.

1. The wheat must be stacked out of doors. This does
uot necessarily follow. If the barn stands on the edge of
the yard, the bands of the wheat may be cut, and the
wheat thrown into the yard, almost as expeditiously, as
off the stack, however, it will consume more time on
the whole, and therefore stacking round the yard should
be preferred. A stack, well put up, will stand 18
months without leaking a drop of water. The wheat
will be as sound, and the straw as good, as when first
stacked. This I know from experience, although it was
improper to suffer it to remain so long.

2. Again, the stack is liable to injury from fowls.
This may be obviated by a close rail- fence round the
yard ; and by securing the top with briars, brush, or timo-
thy hay, or hay of any long grass which will lay close.

If the stack is elevated by a few blocks, or large stones,
and strong fence-rails, so as to raise it a foot or 18 inches
from the ground, to admit dogs and cats occasionally to
go under it, rats will not do half the injury as if the
wheat is put directly on the ground, or on rails laying
on the ground.

3. It has been said that threshing with the Scotch ma-
chine " more generally separates the grain from the
" straw, than possibly can be accomplished by treading. "
This I do not believe when the roller is used ; though
I never saw the Scotch machine, and probably the wri-

40 On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller.

ter, who made the assertion, never saw wheat trodden
out with a roller. Properly managed, in good weather,
and on a good yard, treading with a roller will disengage
every grain in good wheat. It is true, if the wheat is
small, and has not well filled and ripened, and especially
if it has been cut rather green, it will be very tough, and
a few heads will retain the wheat, but it must be very
ordinary, and not worth the labour of and process to se-
parate it. Wheat which has grown on land producing
from 6 to 20 bushels, or more, to the acre, I sincerely
believe will not retain one half of one per cent. It is well
known that good wheat threshes easily, and clear, com-
pared to such as is small and shrivelled. And so it is in
treading, with this difference, that the roller and feet of
the horses act proportionally more expeditiously, and
more effectually than the flail ; and I really suspect, as
completely as the Scotch machine, merely in separating
the wheat from the straw. Many people lose much by
treading (and so they do by threshing), but it is owing to
their own slovenly management.

4. " The great damage which the grain must receive,
i: when treading, by the dung, &c. of the horses du-
" ring the process," has been opposed to this mode of get-
ting out wheat. There is certainly some justice in the
objection ; but, for all, the injury is not perceptible. I
never observed in trodden grain any damage worthy of
complaint. In the winter, the dung is hard and of little
moment. In the summer the horses may be confined
a day or two in the stable ; and fed on dry food, which
will harden their dung, and put them in excellent condi-
tion for treading ; and they will perform the work with
better spirits, than when taken with a full belly from grass,

On Threshing out Wheat by a Roller. 41

This should always be done when they are employed in
any kind of labour, in the summer. My horses when
used in ploughing or harrowing Indian corn, turning fal-
low, ploughing-in wheat, &c. are constantly kept on dry
food, except, perhaps, once a week, they are turned to
grass, for the sake of opening their bowels, and keeping
them in good health.

I have been told that the wheat of Duck Creek Neck,
in this county, is more diligently sought for, and com-
mands a better price, at Brandywine, than any wheat
which is carried to that market ; and it is all trodden out
with horses. It is said to be preferred to the nicest
thrashed wheat of Pennsylvania and New York.

5. The labour to the horses have been objected to the
process of treading. I have before, in some degree,
noticed this objection. It may additionally be observed,
that in treading out 50 or 60 bushels of wheat, by ma-
king two or more floors, the horses will not be employed,
the utmost space of time, more than six hours, and at
intervals, so as completely to rest them. In very hot
weather care will be required ; but not more so than in
any other kind of labour. Perhaps it is more fatiguing
than ploughing, but its continuance is not so long ; and if
the horses are driven to excess the fault will be in the su-
perintendent, and not in the work itself. In fifteen
years, not one of my horses has sustained the least da-
mage by treading.

6. It may be supposed that the straw is not so good as
threshed straw. If the straw is equally well preserved it
is not inferior. The long food which my horses gene-

42 On Threshing out Wheat by a Rotter.

rally eat in winter, is straw of trodden wheat. They are
nice judges of good eating ; and I never observed them
to refuse well preserved trodden straw. The more close-
ly straw, and indeed hay, is packed, and kept from the
air, the fresher it will be, and the more kindly horses and
cattle will eat it. On its good preservation depends the
retention of its good qualities. I have heard more than
one gentleman of judgment and experience say, that they
thought horses preferred trodden to threshed straw ; and
they accounted for it, by conjecturing, that by treading,
it was made softer and more palatable. Sometimes I buy
a little threshed straw, raised on small lots, and I never
find that my horses make any difference, if it be all alike
sound and fresh. Trodden straw requires a little more
care in stacking ; and after the stack is put up, it should
be secured by a few rails or poles until it is well set-
tled.

7. The chance of damage from rain has been stated
among the inconveniencies of treading wheat. I admit
that there is such a chance, and I believe that it some.
times happens ; but a farmer must be very unskilful in
the changes of the weather, or foolhardy, who will ex-
pose himself to the probability of such a chance. In fif-
teen years I have not once had a floor of wheat catched
in a shower ; nevertheless this circumstance is to be taken
into the calculation, but i will venture to say that no pru-
dent man, with tolerable judgment, ought to hesitate a
moment about adopting the roller, on this account.

It may be imagined, from the preceding observations,
that I have a mind Unresist the introduction of the Scotch
threshing machine. I have no such intention. My pur

On Threshing out JVheat by a Roller. 43

pose is to recommend a mode of getting out wheat which
is suired to general use. If a farmer has but thirty or
fonv bushels, he and another hand, and two horses may
completely tread and secure it in a summer's day ; if he
has a thousand, or five thousand, his hands and horses
musr be in proportion ; and between harvest and the first
of March, it may with the greatest convenience be all
prepared for market. In the autumn, he may tread, and
clean and st 11 ; if the price be not to his mind, it may
lay ready for the spring market. At any season, wheat
in the chaff keeps admirably in a barn, and by tread-
ing and carrying it in, chaff and all, without any fanning,
it may afterwards be cleaned at leisure. The winter next
after the first embargo, in Mr. Jefferson's presidency I
had mycrop of wheat trodden out, and put into my barn,
in the chaff. The next year's crop, the succeeding win-
ter, was treated in like manner. In the spring of 1809,
when the embargo was removed, I went to work, and
fanned, and clemed the whole, and found it all perfectly
sound and merchantable.

The roller which I have described was first invented,
as I have been informed, and applied to treading wheat,
by Mr. Benjamin Sylvester, now deceased, of Caroline
county, in the state of Maryland. John Clayton, Esq.
a judge of our supreme <:ourt, and an excellent farmer,
introduced it into this county. My friend, George Cum-
mins, who never suff rs any improvement in farming to
escape him, adopted it immediately after seeing its ope-
ration at Mr. Clayton's, and has continued its use more
than twenty years. He annually raises from 500 to 800
bushels of wheat, and perhaps an equ-il quantity of oats;
and he thinks that the great desideratum in threshing

N

44 Bennetts Machine for Sowing Clover.

wheat has been attained by the application of the roller
to this purpose.

I have the honour, to be, Sir, with very-
great respect, your most obedient servant.

Nicholas Ridgely.

Account of Bennett's clover, and turnip sowing machine

by George Logan, M. IX ^

To Richard Peters ; president of the Philadephia Society
for promoting Agriculture*

Read March, 1816.

The cultivation of clover is considered the basis of a
rotation of crops, on which is founded the improved sys-
tem of agriculture in the United States. Many of our
husbandmen are discouraged from adopting this valuable
mode of farming, on account of the delay and difficulty in
sowing an extensive field with light grass seeds by hand.
It is therefore with great pleasure I inform the society,
that I have received from a friend one of Bennett's ma-
chines, for sowing grass or turnip seeds, which promises
to be a most valuable addition to our implements of hus-
bandry. The experiments made with it at Stenton, in
sowing clover and timothy seeds, exceed my most san-
guine expectations. A man pushing the instrument be-
fore him, in the same manner as using a wheel-barrow,
will sow twenty acres per day, uninterrupted by wind or
a light rain.

A perambulator is connected with the machine, to as-
certain the quantity of ground passed over, whilst employ-
ed in sowing.

William Lehman, an ingenious carpenter in German-
town, has made one of these machines for Albanus Lo^

Benneffs Machine for Sowing Clover. 45

gan, which he has used with satisfaction : but without the
perambulator, which renders the original machine more
complicated in its construction, without adding much to
its utility.

I shall with pleasure exhibit the machine to any person
desirous of seeing the same. Enclosed I send you the in-
structions for using Bennett's agricultural machine, as ac-
companying the same.

Geo. Logan.

Stenton, March 9th, 1816.

A Model of the above Machine is deposited in the room of the
Agricultural Society.

Instructions for using BennetVs Agricultural Machine^
as accompanying the same.

When you get into a field, set your regulator, and
fay the box across the carriage with the regulators behind,
then put in the seed and drive straight across the field ;
place a stick to wheel back to, and so continue till you get
to the end of the field, and then wheel round the head land,
as you will find an advantage in leaving that till the last,
it being required to turn in. The best way to turn is to
drop the handles, and go and mark a place to set the
wheel, to go back, and lift the machine off the ground.
The two straps are to buckle the box to drive it to the
field. When you want to empty your seed, take off your
box, turn it on the joint edge, open the lid a little, and
the seed will ran to the end into a half gallon measure,
which is requisite in the field to fill the box with. If your
lands are ploughed the same width or double the width of
the machine, you will have no occasion for sticks, as the
furrows will be a guide : if the lands are not so wide, stop a

46 Bennetts Agricultural Machine.

hole at the end so as to sow one land at a time. Once go-
ing over the krid is sufficient. When you want to wheel
without sou ing, turn the cog of the wheel on the other
side.

Instructions for setting the Machine.

When you want to sow mixed seeds, such as rye grass
(sometimes called bents trefoil, broad clover, Lutch clo-
ver, lop, or any other mixture of grass seeds, let them be
well mixed before they go to fit Id. Turn the large hole
opposite the rush : the hole at full size will sow twelve
or fourteen gallons on an acre, half the hole will sow about
seven gallons. Three handles are sent with three iron
pins in them ; and if you intend sowing two gallons on
an acre, put in the smallest, and bring the largest part of
the hole to the size o the pin. If you sow three gallons,
take the next size ; if four gallons, take No. 4 li you
measure the seed into the box, you will find by the acre,
whether it sows too much or too little, as there is a wide
difference in grass seeds. Should it sow more than you
wish, set the hole a trifle less ; if not enough, set it a little
larger. In sowing turnips, one small hole at each brush
will sow about two pounds on an acre ; two holes six
pounds : but of S weed's turnip not quite so much, the
seed being larger. If you intend sowing one pound of tur-
nip seed per acre, put one hole to every other brush, and a
blank to the others ; and if the seed be good, and the sea-
son kind, it will produce a good crop, and come in lanes,
if you harrow the same way the seed is sown ; which will
need less labour to hoe them. In sowing broad clover,
five holes will sow about eight pound on an acre ; of
Dutch clover it will sow about eleven pounds per acre,
and so in proportion of any other seed of the same size.

The short hand of the perambulator goes round once in

Stunt in Wheat. 47

five rod>, and die long; hand once in eighty rods. The dis-
tance you walk tor m acre bfgrou I n hen using the box
at lull length, is two hundred and thirty five rods.

Communication from James Parker, of Maryland, on
Disease called Stunt in Wheat.

Read March I2th 1816.

Long Meadow* Feb. IStfi, i816,

Sir,

For the particular inspection of the president :,nd the
officers of the society, and for the view of those mem-
bers who may think the matter interesting, I have given
a rough sketch of my land, which although not done
with mathematical accuracy (not having used my scale
and dividers), will shew the operation oi the disease as far
as it has yet appeared* The vice president knows well
the situation of my land, being in the practice of pass-
ing it, at least semi-annually, and will see that the sketch
is nearly correct.

Yours very respectfully.

James Parker.
Dr. James Mease.

This note and the following cut ought to have immediately follow
ed Mr. Parker's communication, page 19.

A View of James Parker's Land.

48

Field

:m

Field :■■

$yy.

a

^Lot.;^

^yyy<>y& Field

>
1

Road

1

1

•

I
1

^plffl

tlife.

I

I

S

1

*

EXPLANATION.

1 Where the stunt first appeared.

2 Winter cow pen or feeding yard.

3 Ground sometimes covered with water,

4 4. Spots from which the snow drifted 1804, i

5 Summer cow pen.
a House and yard.

b Garden,
c Barn and stables.
d Treading floor.
e Outlet to well and road.
* Enclosure for house garden, stables, he. &c
Diseased ground.

jVbfe— The dotted parts show the diseased wheat.

( 49 )

Account of the Virginia Cyder Apple, called Gloucester
White , by James Mease , M. D.

Read July 1814.

Having heard from William Coxe, Esq. a very favour-
able account of a cyder apple in Virginia, which went
by the name of Gloucester White, Robertson, or Talia-
fero apple, and being told by him that Mr. Jefferson
could give some information concerning its origin, I wrote
to him for it ; and deeming also the history of the Hugh's
crab (a cyder apple of more general note), well worthy
of inquiry, I requested him to favour me with such facts
as he possessed respecting it. The following was his
reply,

Monticello, June 29, 1814.

Dear Sir,

On my return home after an absence of five weeks, I
find here your letter of 24th May. Of the history of the
Hugh's crab apple, I can furnish nothing more than that
1 remember it well upwards of 60 years ago, and that it
was then a common apple on James' river. Of the other
apple after which you inquire, I happen to know the ori-
gin. It is not a crab, but a seedling which grew alone in

50 The Taliaferro or Robertson Apple.

a large old fr Id near Williamsburg, where the seed had
probably been dropt by some bird. Major Taliaferro of
that neighbourhood remarking it once to be verv lull of
apples, got permission of the owner of the ground to ga-
ther them. From this he made a cask of cyder which,
in the estimation of every one who tasted it, was the finest
they had ever seen. He grafted an orchard from it, as
did also his son-in-law our late chancellor Wythe. The
cider constantly made from this, was preferred by every
person to the crab or any cyder ever known in this state,
and it still retains its character in the different places to
which it has been transferred. 1 am familiar with it, and
have no hesitation in pronouncing it mueh superior to
the Hugh's crab. It has more body. i:> less ac>.d, and
comes nearer to the silky Ch mpai^n than any other.
Major Taliaferro called it the Robertson apple from the
name of the person owning the parent trer, but subse-
quently it has more justly and generally been distingt.i h-
ed by the name of the Taliaferro apple, after !;im to
whom we are indebted for the discovery of i's valuable
properties. It is the most juicy appl^ I have ever known,
and is very refreshing as an eating apple. Accept the
assurance of my great esteem and respect.

Thomas Jefferson.
Dr. James Mease.

Th e Gloucester White, Taliaferro, or Jhhertson Apple.

A White thin skin, with many small red spois on the
stem end ; very juicy, of a keen aromatic uste. The

The Taliaferro or Robertson Apple. 51

fruit hangs till late in September, ripen quick, and fall,
as soon as ripe, the tree at the same time drops its leaves.
Its size is about that of a large fed-streak. An immense
bearer, a very fine cider apple, and by many, thought the
finest table apple of the season, in Virginia. The bran-
ches are stubbed. Mr. Jefferson described it as much
superior to the Hugh's crab for cyder, as that is to any
other fruit.

Dear Sir,

The above description of the "Gloucester white" is ex-
tracted from my book. I have supposed it of Virgi-
nia origin, that is, first cultivated there, but cannot
vouch for the fact.

Very sincerely and respectfully yours,,
William Coxe.
Doctor Mease.
Burlington, May 21st, 1814,

0

[ 52 ]

On Smyrna Wheat, by Samuel Hazard*

Read December, 1815,

The accompanying specimens of wheat are a part of a
bag which I have brought from Smyrna in Turkey with
a view to distribution by the society. Having unfortu-
nately had a long passage, the season for sowing has too
fat elapsed to make a fair trial of them. Notwithstand-
ing, I am desirous that the experiment should be made
as fir as practicable, to ascertain whether the introduction
of this variety of wheat into our country may be attend-
ed with great advantages. I have never heard of its be-
ing before attempted ,but should this have been the case
an opportunity will be afforded to confirm the result of
former experiments, and supply the seed from the growth
of our own country.

No. 1 is the hard wheat and which I had particularly
\\\ view in bringing the grain to this Country. Its hard-
ness seems to be the quality which recommends it to at-
tention, this property rendering it less liable to the attacks
of the insects either in the field or granary. It is this
grain which constitutes the principal commerce of the Black
Sea, and the sea of Azof; and is from thence carried
to Malta and various parts of Europe. At Malta, and in.
the Islands of the Archipelago, there are capacious sub-
terranean Magazines which bein^ filled with this wheat,
are closed from the air ; and continued unopen'd till oc-

Samples of Foreign Wheat. 53

casion may require, which sometimes does not occur for
several years : the grain is then found as good as when it
was stored. In Turkey, I had no opportunity of deter-
mining the quality of the flour which this wheat would
produce, as their millstones are of too soft a nature to
grind it completely, which of course would prevent the
flour from being well boulted and exhibiting its true co-
lour: the bread made of it under these circumstances was
rather dark, but very sweet. It is however more gene-
rally mixed with a softer wheat of which you have a spe-
cimen herewith marked no. 2. The proportions vary ac-
cording to circumstances. At Malta 1 understood they
were four sixths of the hard,and two sixths of the soft
wheat ; thus mixed, the bread becomes whiter.

No. 3. is a sample of the two kinds as they are gen-
erally mixed, and sold in the Smyrna market for family
use,

The soil in which they are produced is generally very
light, and frequently calcareous, and is merely turned up
by a slight wooden plough drawn by oxen or Buffalos.
It is therefore probable, that under good cultivation, the
produce would be more abundant and the grain much
larger

The season for sowing corresponds, nearly with our
own : but their winters are less rigorous and wetter,
the rains commencing about the latter end of September,
and continuing with occasional intermissions of a few
days, till March or April, after which there is no rain for
several months. It is this difference which in my opi-
nion forms the principal obstacle to our cultivating for
eingn grapes and other Eastern fruit.

54 Samples of Foreign Wheat,

They produce no hay in Turkey, and as a substitute
for it, feed their horses and other animals upon the Wheat
and Barley straw. It is cut into pieces of 2 or 3 inches
in length, and appears to be eaten with the same avidity
that hay is by our Cattle. It must therefore be more
nourishing than our straw, or we are not sufficiently ac-
quainted with this property of it. It is also probably
more valuable as a manure after having been subjected
to the digestive processes of the Animal. Barley is
used instead of oats.

The Bag of wheat will be disposed of in any manner
that the Society may direct.

Samuel Hazard.
Philadelphia, December 17, 1815.

I 55 ]

Elastic Tubes, for giving immediate relief to Choked or
Blown Cattle, Invented by Dr. Monroe, Professor
of Anatomy in Edinburgh.

These Tubes have long been found of the greatest
utility in preserving the lives of animals, when choked
or blown from eating too freely of clover, turnips, &c.
and only require to be more known to be in general use.
The wood mouth-piece being placed in the mouth of the
animal, and buckled round the head, assists the operation
and protects the tube ; the cup end of which will imme-
diately remove any obstruction in the throat, and the
other end will cause the immediate escape of the con-
fined air.

56 Dr. Monroe's Elastic Tubes, &V.

Farmers, graziers, and keepers of cattle in general,
should not be without an article of such great utility ; by
means of which, when cattle are blown, the air is not only
more certainly and expeditiously discharged than by
stabbing the animal, but the danger is avoided which
stabbing occasions, not so much by the irritation which
the wound creates, as by the air and other contents of
the stomach getting into the cavity of the belly between
the containing parts and the bowels, which excites such
a degree of inflammation as too frequently proves fatal to
the animal.

C 57 ]

On the cultivation of the woad plant, by H. S. Dearborn,
Esq.

Read November, 1816.

Brinley Place, Roksbury, near
Boston, October 31st, 1816.

Sir,

Understanding you take great interest in the agricultu-
ral pursuits of your country, and as President of the
Agricultural Society of Philadelphia, I herewith trans-
mit a number of copies of a work, which I have trans-
lated from the French, on the culture of Woad or Pastel
and the use of its blue pigment in dying.

Desirous of testing the correctness of the experiments
which are therein detailed, of the best methods of cultiva-
ting pastel, and extracting the indigo from the matured
leaves of the plant, I sowed a piece of ground early in
May, in drills, three feet apart ; and at the first weeding,
thinned the plants, so as to leave them six inches apart.

On the 15th of August, I cut a part of the leaves,
which covered one sixtieth part of an acre, and pursued
the process contained in the information upon the art of
extracting indigo from the leaves of pastel, published by
order of His Excellency Montaliret, Count of the French
empire and minister of the interior, contained in the
treatises transmitted.

The experiment succeeded to admiration, and I here-
with send you a sample of the article obtained.

58 On the cultivation ofWoad Plant

The fermentation was perfect at the expiration of
48 hours. The liquor being drawn off from the vats,
one bucket of lime water, prepared agreeably to the di-
rections contained in the treatise, was added to two of the
liquor, and then agitated with a small wooden rake for
fifteen minutes, when a most copious white froth arose
to the surface, which soon assumed a bright blue co-
lour ; this froth was carefully skimmed off, and put into
earthen bowls to dry, and gave me a quantity of u fleuree,"
as mentioned at page 138.

The green floculi were deposited in two hours. The
superincumbent yellow liquor being drawn off, an ounce
of sulphuric acid to every bucket of liquor diluted with
water, was poured into the green precipitate, which in-
stantly changed it to a most beautiful cerulean blue :
cold water was then poured into this admixture, and
violently agitated for ten minutes.

Twelve hours after, the liquor was drawn off, and
the blue deposition put into cloth filters to drain. In
twenty four hours, the woad was perfectly drained taken
out and put into a box with a linen bottom, which was
placed in an airy situation under cover. At the expira-
tion of seventeen days, it had became a tenacious paste ;
it was then taken out with a wooden knife, and press-
ed into small boxes to dry. In two weeks the indigo was
perfectly dry.

At the expiration of twenty days, the plants which
had been cut, were grown sufficiently large to cut again.
Thus seed sown in May, would give three cuttings a year
in this northern climate ; but if sown in September,
there might be four, if not five cuttings a year ; as the

On the cultivation of the Woad Plant. 59

plants are not injured by the frosts of winter, they would
in this way be fit to cut in June.

From this experiment I am satisfied the following
quantity of indigo could be made from an acre of ground.
— One cutting from one sixtieth of an acre gave of woad
half a pound, One cutting from an acre, therefore,
would have given thirty pounds : four cuttings would
give one hundred and twenty pounds. The present
price of indigo is two dollars per pound ; therefore one
acre of land cultivated with pastel, would produce to
the farmer two hundred and forty dollars,

I wish you to distribute some of the books I have sent
among the different Agricultural Societies in the state
of Pennsylvania, and the remainder in such manner as
will best tend to diffuse a knowledge of the advantages
which the agriculturists and dyers of your state may de-
rive, from the cultivation and use of pastel.

If the present pacific state of the world is adverse to
the extension of the cultivation and use of pastel, as a
dying material, it is nevertheless important, that the ad-
vantages which the different sections of our country may
reap, at some future day from this plant, should be known
when less favourable circumstances shall combine, to
afford the colouring ingredients now so easily obtained
from every part of the globe.

During the war, indigo was four dollars a pound in
New England and Philadelphia.

It is of the first consequence to a nation, that it can at
all times be able to rely on the resources of its soil, and
industrv, for not onlv the necessaries but the luxury cf
life.

P

60 On the cultivation of the Woad Plant,

The resources of the United States are as yet, very
imperfectly developed, but the rapid advances which are
now making in chemistry, mineralogy, botany, agricul-
ture, and the mechanic and fine arts, warrant the most
favourable anticipations of the future glory, prosperity,
happiness, and real independence of our Republic.

Besides the advantages resulting from the cultivation
of woad, as a pigment for dying, it is indispensably ne-
cessary for fermenting the indigo vat For this purpose,
the green leaves are used or they are made into cakes,
balls or pelotes as described in the treatise.

It is a notorious fact, among well taught, scientific and
experienced dyers, that a deep, permanent and brilliant
blue cannot be produced, unless the indigo vat is ferment-
ed with woad.

It has long been used in France, Germany, and Hoi-
and, in preparing the indigo vats in the best manufacto-
ries of those countries, and is now used in England ; for
it is found impossible to imitate the justly celebrated na-
val blues of France without it. A more perfect fermen-
tation is thereby produced, and the particles of indigo
consequently more uniformly held in solution. The
colouring pigment prepared in this manner attaches it-
self so firmly to the fabrics, that cloths thus dyed, ap-
pear of a deep, uniform and beautiful blue ; the colour
does not rub off and never fades, by exposure to wet
heat or the air, but remains permanent and unchanged.

There is no art less perfectly understood in this coun-
try than dying; and it has been owing exclusively to the
exertions of the first chymists of Europe, that it has
been reduced to a perfect system, and the whole pro-
cess conducted on known established principles.

to the cultivation of the Woad Plant. 61

Formerly there was a mysteriousness in the pro cess.
which, for a long time, excluded all attempts at inves-
tigation. Those who practiced the art, made it a point
to keep as important secrets, whatever they knew, and
like manufacturers of glass, suffered no inspection of
their labours, lest they should be robbed of an imaginary
treasure. There were no means within their power of
detecting the causes of failure in the preparation of their
vats, for they were ignorant of the chemical effects of the
different ingredients used. They merely knew from
practice or tradition that a certain combination of materi-
als, made a red, blue, yellow or green dye, and if from
an injudicious admixture, the anticipated result did not
take place, they merely said they had " bad luck"

Long custom had created prejudices which forbid in-
struction, and like many individuals of every mechanic
art, the dyers laid it down as an axiom, that nothing use-
ful could be learned from books, or instruction commu-
nicated by individuals who had not served an appren-
ticeship and laboured in the same vocation.

The vast strides which have been made in knowledge
during the last fifty years, have not been confined to the
schools of the Literati, or only known to the secluded
philosopher.

Useful discoveries in the arts, instead of merely giving
eclat to the laborious investigator, and patient experimen-
talist, have been extensively disseminated.

The perfection of European manufactures is attributa-
ble to the march of chymical investigation.

The superior manufactures of Painter's colours, earth-
en-ware and porcelain, soap, medicinal preparations, the
working of metals, the art of dying and distilling and

62 On the cultivation of the, Woad Plant.

the astonishing improvements in agriculture, are some of
the important effects which have resulted from the che-
mical pursuits of the learned individuals, societies and
academies of the last half century.

Although the United States have progressed in civili-
sation and the arts, in a manner unparallelled in the an-
nels of nation, still much remains for inquiry ; and it is
the duty of every citizen, to contribute by every means
within his power, whatever may tend to advance the best
interests of all classes of society, and render our nation
industrious, learned, independent, and happy. I send
you a quantity of woad seed, which please to distribute
in such a manner as you think best.

I have the honour to be Sir,

Your obedient servant,

H. A. S. Dearborn.
KfoN. Judge Peters.

President of the Philadelphia Society for promoting

Agriculture.

On preserving Indian Corn from frost , by Samuel
Morey of New Hampshire,

OrfordN. H. Sep. 5, 1816-
Dear Sir,

I send you the result thus far, of an experiment now
making, to save corn from the effects of early frost.
This season of late frost, and snow, gave little hopesof rais-
ing a single ear of corn in this country, after the severe
frost of the night of the 21st of August. What corn 1 had
was but little injured by that ; but it having been cut
down by a late frost in June, the kernel was not half
grown in the most forward ears. We were threatened if
not with a famine, certainly with another severe scarcity,
I desired my hands, with a hoe, to remove the earth from
a standing hill of corn, forming a small ditch or trench
about 3 feet diameter, they then took or pulled up about
ten or twelve other hills, placed them in the ditch round
the standing hill, and formed a stook in the same manner
as is practised, when corn is cut up : the earth was then
hoed back on to the roots. The weather for the next
ten days was very cold, and we had two or three other
frosts in that time, and although" the standing corn was
preserved in a great measure from its effects, by fogs, as
before, yet its progress toward maturity, was scarcely
perceptible : not so with that 1 had removed into warmer
quarters :I thought could perceive every day the kernel regu.
iarly filling. In ten days most of the forwardest ears 1 ex-
amined, would have done well to pick for green corn, al-
though not an ear was to be found in the field of stand-

64 On Preserving Corn from Frost.

ing corn in any measure fit. At the end of twelve days,
being threatened with another severe frost, I had removed
into clusters in the same manner about an acre an a half
more. Nothing can be more promising than the experi-
ment thus far. It is now the middle of September, many
of the ears in the stooks first put up, appear now to be
perfectly well filled and are begining to turn hard, which
is not the case with any of the standing corn. — I see as
yet no reason to doubt but that, had it been known that
corn could have been saved, or in a great measure in this
way and at so early a period, nearly the intire crop might
have been preserved to the great comfort and relief of the
people : all the stalks and leaves are in perfect order for
fodder.

Should you think the object worth mentioning to
your agricultural friends, and they think it worthy their
attention, it will be in a way for all the benefit to be deri>
ved from it to society, that can even be expected to be
realized.

Yours,

Samuel Morey,
Dr. Mease.

( 05 )

On Wine made from Cyder and Honey, by James
Parker, Esq. in a letter to the Secretary,

Read August 1816.

Head of Chester, Kent county,
Md. July 20th, 1815.

I have received a letter from the hon. Judge Tilgh-
man, enclosing an extract from the minutes of the Agri-
cultural Society of Philadelphia, requesting to be fur-
nished with the process for making wine, such as the sam-
ple I took the liberty to present to the Society. In com-
pliance with the request, I will observe, that I was first
induced to make the experiment by reading the receipt
of Mr. Cooper, of New Jersey, in your edition of Wil-
lieh's Domestic Encyclopedia ; and I commenced the
process as directed, using instead of the washings of
honeycomb, pure boiled honey, and French brandy,
instead of apple brandy as used by Mr. Cooper. I used
in my first essays in 1808, apple brandy, peach brandy,
and French brandy ; the result was, that the apple and
peach brandy, produced very pleasant liquors, but the
French brandy exceeded my expectations. I have con
tinued to make experiments when I could procure suit-
able fruit, and have completely demonstrated, that my
composition will invariably produce a cheap fine wine-

66 On Wine made of Cyder and Honey.

The cyder, of which the sample sent you, was made,
was pressed the latter end of November, 1812 ; and pass-
ed through a cloth to take out the pummice, and put into
casks, with above two gallons of honey to the barrel : it
remained in that state until March, at which time the fer-
mentation had ceased, it was then racked off into clear
casks with two gallons of French brandy, and one gallon
of bounce, made of French brandy and Morella cherry,
added to a barrel. About midsummer it was fined in
the usual way, with whites of eggs and new milk; I began
to use it about the first of November : this has been my
invariable practice. I have ascertained that every kind of
fruit will not answer ; I havefailed twice, with an apple
peculiar to this part of the country, called scrivener's red,
which makes a very pleasant but not strong cyder.

The apple which I would prefer and which has never
failed is the cart-house, and the pennock ; I have tried the
cart-house separately, and have ground them together,
and have always succeeded ; I have also used loaf sugar
instead of honey and find it answer equally as well ; but
it is not so cheap. The morella cherry -juice is not es-
sentially necessary, but it is a considerable improve-

ment.

It is unnecessary to observe that the strength, or sweet-
ness, may be made to suit any taste ; by increasing or
diminishing the quantity of brandy or honey, and per-
haps the only fault which has been found by gentlemen,
judges of wine, is, that my wine is too sweet ; however,
this objection may be easily remedied. I have used less
than two gallons of honey to a barrel in my last essay,
and I think it will be the best I have made.

I will send you a demijohn of it in a few days, by the

On Wine made of Cider and Honey. 67

Smyrna packet, which you will please accept.. The
sample I submitted for the inspection of the society, was
two years old, that in the demijohn I intend for you is
one year old, and I think will be preferable to the first at
its age. I will send you also a bottle of the first sample,
that you may compare the quality.

In December 1813, I pressed off three barrels of cider
made of the Cart-house and Pennock, from my own
orchard, and I procured a barrel of the scriveners, very
carefully prepared by a neighbour, and added the honey :
when I examined them in February, I found the last bar-
rel was pricked and I very imprudently mixt it with a
barrel of the Cart-house, expecting to restore it ; in con-
sequence, boih casks are indifferent, but I think they
improve : one other of my casks had been a rum cask,
and although it had been well scalded it gave the wine a
rum flavour, which it still retains ; that in the demijohn
is of the other cask, made of the Cart- house and Pen-
nock at the same time. Had it not been for those circum-
stances, I could have furnished you with a quarter cask,
as you desired ; the older parcel I wish to retain for my
own use, to furnish samples and to ascertain its improve-
ment. Last year my orchard failed, and I did not make
any, at present I have a fine prospect for fine fruit.

I am Sir, with respect, &c.

James Parker,
Dr. Mease.

Q

( 68 )

Description of a Steam Apparatus for hoiltng Potatoes,

Turnips, &c. for cattle, communicated in a letter from

Mr, John Bell of Overton- House, England, to Mr.

Eoward T. Grant, of Shrewsbury, New Jersey.

Communicated by Reuben Haines.

Read September, 1816.

M-.

Steam apparatus for boiling Potatoes, &fc. 69

A Pot to heat water for the boiler.

B Boiler.

C Cistern of hot water to supply the boiler regulated by

a float and valve.
D Steam-pipe 2 inches diameter.
E Stop- cock to turn the sieam on or off,
F Side view of the cistern or steaming box.
G Opening in the top to put in the potatoes, &c. to be

tight closed while steaming.
H Strong wood coupling.
I Bottom floor of the steaming box.
K Second floor raised 9 inches from the bottom and

made of bars of cast iron.
The steam is introduced into the open space betwixt
the floors by means of the pipe D, and passes through
the grate bars to the potatoes.

L Coupling frame to keep the cistern firm.

M End view of the steaming cistern without the door,

N N Hinges to hang the door.

O O Frame bolted to the sides for the door to shut

against.
P Floor of grate bars.
Q Space for the steam betwixt the floors. The door to

be made to fit as tight as possible, to prevent the

steam from escaping.
R. A door for a boy to go in, occasionally to clean the

bottom of the pan from sediment.

My steaming cistern, or box, is made with five large
flags, or planks, and a wood door, the whole firmly held
together with a strong wood coupling frame; they should

70 Steam apparatus for boiling Potatoes, fcfo

not be less than two inches thick, and dovetailed toge-
ther, as the steam is very powerful. M} Boiler contains
about seventy gallons, it is made of two cast iron pans
with broad rims, one turned over the other and screwed
together with a joint of paint and flannel, it should be
about half -full of water when in use.

[ 71 ]

On the Utility of Horse Bakes, by Roberts Vaux, Esq.

Read August, 1816.

Brwood Lodge , 8mo. 8, 1816;

To Richard Peters, Esq. President, and the Members of the Phi-
ladelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture.

In one of my late letters to the President, I promised
to furnish the society with some facts concerning the uti-
lity of the horse rake, now in general use by the farmers
of this neighbourhood. This valuable implement is of
such simple construction, that those who are the least
expert with tools, might supply themselves with it. It
is composed of a piece of scantling 3 by 3 inches, 10
feet long, into which 25 teeth 18 inches long, and 4
inches apart, are inserted horizontally ; 8 pins 4 inches
in length are driven perpendicularly into the scantling,
and there are also attached to it, two handles of similar

72 On the Utility of Horse-rakes.

form as those of a plough.* The horse is connected by
a chain to each end. The cost of materials to make a rake
of this description, would not exceed two dollars, and I
presume any carpenter, or wheelwright, could afford
them complete, for four, or five dollars, each. Some farmers
employ them for raking hay into winrow. But although
it is an expeditious mode, the hand-rake is more clean-
ly. This instrument is most important in the grain field
after the harvest is off. It not only combs the stubble,
and gives the grass a much better opportunity to grow,
but it saves an astonishing quantity of grain. The sub-
joined statements obtained from persons of respectability,
who thus glean their fields, are sufficient to establish the
reputation of the horse-rake , and ought to recommend it9
to universal adoption.

Be assured of my respect.

Roberts Vaux.

* The Rake presented to the Society sometime since, and now in
the room where it meets ; if my memory is correct, was brought
from Long-Island. It is inconveniently large, and clumsy. A rake
of the dimensions I have given, is found by experience to answer the
best purpose.

R. V.

On the Utility of Horse-rakes^ 73

Statement of gleaning, after the harvest of 1816, in
the north-east part of the county of Philadelphia, accom*
plished by the use of horse-rakes.

Acres.

Bushels.

Pecks.

A. W. from 10

14

C Part of this was
X r£ked twice.

J. S. 9

6

I. L. 7

8

R. W. 7

10

3

J,M. 4

3

less 2 quarts.

P. J. 9 to 10

12

J. B. 13

11

M. N. 16 17

B. B. 6 7

82 88

( 74 )

Account of the successful Cultivation of Wheat on the
sea coast of Rhode Island, by Messrs, Greenes, com-
municated to Dr. Mease, by Dr Joseph Comstock, of
East Greenwich, Rhode Island.

Read Sep. 10, 1816.

" As agricultural concerns, occupy some part of
your attention, I lately took pains to make inquiries of
my friend, Col. C. Greene (brother of the late Gen G.)
whose family I was attending, respecting his extraordi-
nary success in raising wheat. It is probably known to
you, 'hat of late years attempts to raise wheat in New
England (upon the sea coast more especially) have been
frustrated either by the wheat being killed by the winter,
or by being ruined by blast. The Messrs. Greenes who
own the Potowom farm in Warwick, the last year raised
fifty- four bushels of excellent wheat off two and a half
acres of land ; and that was the fourth year that the same
spot had been under tillage, viz. 1st. Indian corn, 2d.
Barley, and then two crops of wheat in succession.
Last year a bushel of the wheat weighed 61 lb. There is
now a promising crop upon the same spot.

The mode of culture has been : 1st. to manure the
land highly with manure obtained from Naraganset Bay,
to which their farm is contiguous ; 2d. in the begin-
ning of winter, after the ground is frozen, the same kind
o^ manure (chiefly, almost wholly ell-grass) which is cart-
ed on in carts having broad wheels in such quantities as

Cultivation of Wheat on the Sea Coast, Zfc. 75

to cover up the grain, and protect it from the severity of
the cold. About twenty tons have been carried on for
this purpose. In the spring the tender blades start
through this covering. Lastly, in the month of June, the
heavy dews are swept oft' early in the morning by two
men taking hold of the ends of a long rope and passing it
over the top of the grain. The blast is thus prevented
from attacking it.

P. S. In parts of the country remote from the sea,
there cannot be a doubt of any kind of litter answering
the same purpose as sea weed to cover up wheat, and
thus prevent it from being winter-killed : such as
the straw of wheat, barley, rye, or the leaves of trees.
The wheat raised by Messrs. Greenes, was of the beard-
ed species.

K

[ 76 3

Account of the means to prevent the must and mildew of
wheat, adopted with success in Flanders, by /.
Mease, M. D.

Read September, 1816.

Mr. Caleb Kirk of Brandywine, Delaware, lately
brought me a few ounces of smut taken off of a parcel
of wheat, by the operation of his mill used to prepare
pearl barky ; and informed me that twelve bushels of
grain yielded three bushels of smut ; and as this serious
disease of wheat almost always appears under certain cir-
cumstances attending growth, and the seed used, I am
happy in having it in my power to inform the American .
farmer of a safe, simple, and cheap remedy, and of course
accessible to all, which has been for a long time in use
in Flanders.

I obtained the knowledge of this invaluable remedy
by reading a late pamphlet by that eminent and faithful
friend and patron of agriculture, the right honourable
Sir John Sinclair, which was recently presented to our
Society with several other valuable works, by a generous
friend to our Society living in Edinburgh.

It appears that Sir John Sinclair left London in the
month of February, 1815, with the view of ascertaining
what he might have easily found out without leaving
home, viz. the relative prices of grain in Great Britain,
and in Flanders, the causes of any difference that might
exist, and the means by which any material variation
might in future be prevented; but the extensive military

Means to prevent the mildew of Wheat \ Esfa. 77

operations that shortly after took place in the country
which was the immediate object of his researches, oblige
him to confine his whole attention to Flemish agricul-
ture; and I apprehend that every farmer who raises
grain will be grateful for the important discovery which
has been brought into notice ©f the world at large through
his agency.

Smut is almost the only malady in wheat, known in
the neighbourhood of Ostend : at Bruges it prevails more
in oats and rye than in wheat.

The Flemish farmers, very philosophically ascribe the
diseases of wheat, andjthe mildew in particular, to a succes-
sive degeneracy in the organs of vegetation in ttir pLats
sown ; and they maintain that such maladies can in a great
measure be prevented, first by sowing the ripest and >est
grain for seed : second, by frequent change of seed, (in
many cases every second year) though when the best seed
of their own growth is used, and it is properly prepared,
such a change in some districts is prolonged for eight
or ten years. Thirdly, by the preparation of the seed.

The effect of these measures may be judged of when
it is considered that in the celebrated Pays de IVaes, situ-
ated between Ghent and Antwerp, and whic; is reckoned
the best cultivated district in Flanders, or perhaps on
the continent, he Niette or mildew is unknown, although
the fields are small, and usually inclosed by trees and
hedges (of course not well ventilated) the fields surround-
ed with ditches filled with water, and the wheat cultiva-
ted there, being of the white sort which is peculiarly lia-
ble to mildew. The climate is also variable, and often
very rainy in spring and in harvest.

The ancient steeps for wheat in the Pays de Waes

78 Means to prevent the mildew of Wheat, Cite.

was verdigrise, (acetate of copper) reduced to powder, in
the proportion of about hulf a pound of English verdigrise
to every six bushels of wheat, which was mixed with as
much human urine as would enabk the light grain, to
swim, that they might be skimmed off. The sted is
kept three hours in this liquid ', then dried with or with-
out lime, and sown.

At Ghent, an apothecary, and his predecessors have
for above fifty years, prepared and sold a remedy against
the mildew, of which arsenic was the basis, and Mr. Pre-
vost, having found by various experiments that blue vi-
triol (sulphate oi copper) was also a preventive, the arsenic
has been abandoned. The following is the mode of pre-
paring the grain by this last process. Dissolve three
ounces and two drams of sulphate of copper, in three gal-
lons and three quarts, (wine measure) of cold water, for
every three bushels of grain that is to be prepared. Into
another vessel, capable of containing from fifty. three to
seventy-rime wine gallons, throw from three to four Win-
chester bushels of wheat into which the prepared liquid is
pou.ed, until it rises five or six inches above the corn.
Stir it thoroughly, and carefully remove all that swims*
After it has remained half an hour in the preparation,
throw the wheat into a basket that will allow the wa-
ter to escape, but not the grain. It ought then to be
immediately washed in rain water or pure water, which
will prevent any risque oi its injuring the grain, and
the n the seed dried, before it is sown. It may be preser-
ved in this shape for months. It appears by a quotation
of Sir John Sinclair from the Agricultural survey of the
county of Derbyshire, that copperas is used as a steep for
wheat by a farmer of the name of BuUer in tliat county.

Means to prevent *he mildew of Wheat, Z?c. 79

That the mildew is either not in the soil, or if it is,
that the application of copper preparations to the seed,
prevents its injuring the plants, is proved by an experi-
ment, detailed by Sir John Sinclair, where mildewed
grain was sown in a field that had before produced mil-
dewed wheat ; and yet the crop raised from the mil-
dewed seed, which had be jn subjected to the above prepa-
ration, was no in the least affected by that malady.

Mr. T. A. Knight of Herefordshire, to whom we
are indebted for the elucidation of many interesting ques-
tions on the subject of vegetable physiology, is of opinion
that the disease called mildew is taken up by the root,
(every experiment to communicate it from infected
straws to others proving abortive) and that all we see
externally is its fructification. This corresponds with
Mr. Prevost's opinion, that it is an intestine parasitical
plant, and hence Sir John justly concludes, that the
root coming from a seed fortified against infection by pre-
parations of copper may resist the disorder, however much
that root may afterwards be exposed to its influence.

In addition to the foregoing facts of the succesful em-
ployment of steeps to prevent smut and mildew, I may
add those related by Tull, the father of the drill hus-
bandry, and more recently of Mr. Barton of Virginia,*

* Wheat brought from Red-Stone in Pennsylvania to Frederic.
County, Virginia, to exchange for salt, was used as seed-wheat by Mf
B ; and was steeped in strong salt brine, and covered with sifted lime
previously to sowing. His crop from that wheat escaped smut, while
the crops of two of his neighbours, who sowed the same wheat without
any p evious preparation, suffered much from smut. Barton's Medi-
cal and Physical Journal., vol. Hi. 2nd Suppl. p. 178,

80 Means to prevent the mildew of Wheat, Uc,

in favour of steeping seed -wheat in salt : of Mr. Andrews
in the 6ih vol. of the Agricultural Annals of A. Young
in favour of arsenic and a ley of wood ashes, and those of
Mr. Jennings in the 9th vol. of the Bath memoirs in fa-
vour of diluted sulphuric acid, all of which shew the
truth of the theory respecting the cause of smut, as giv-
en by Mr. Knight, and should induce every farmer to
try them in case his situation is liable to either smut or
mildew, or he is under the necessity of using grain any
way infected with either disease.

With regard to the influence of the perfect maturity
and good quality of the grain on the future crop, there
can be no question. The same principle that operates
with so much force in the animal creation, viz. the pro-
duction of a healthy and vigorous offspring by healthy
and vigorous parents, is every day perceived in the
case of vegetables : and by an attention to it, our philoso-
phical countryman, Joseph Cooper, has been enabled not
only greatly to improve a variety of Indian corn, but to
preserve thdt acquired-excellence unimpaired for a series
of years ; and it is to the diffusion of the knowledge of his
practice, that a revolution in this respect may justly be
attributed among our farmers, who either influenced by
prejudice, or from being ignorant of the evil consequen-
ces of a contrary conduct, were in the habit of constantly
selling the best of their various crops, and of reserving
the most inferior for seed, and thus were under the neces-
sity of renewing their stock of seeds by purchase from -.h-
ers, who were possessed of better than themst ivesf I can
myself furnish additional testimony, were any necissary,
in proof of the propriety of a change of seed. The far-
mer whose land joined mine in Delaware county, was

Means to prevent the Mildew of Wheat, Ss?c. 8 1

Somewhat prejudiced on this subject, and like most
of his neighbours neither took pains to change
his seed wheat, nor even to select the best of his various
grains to sow. Corn was corn, and wheat was wheat.
He never read any book on farming. What he thought of
my sending to Caroline county, Virginia* for my seed
wheat, I know not, but as he laughed at my merinos,
which were to eat ali the roots of the clover out, he no
doubt laughed at my iat- zeai in sending for wheat so far,
when in his opinion, 1 had as good of my own raising*
My seed wheat was immersed in w.iter, all the light
grains skimmed off, and the heavy grains, when drained
were rolled in gvpsum. My crops were line; but
my neighbours, particularly one year, was very much
affected with smut. Upon inquiry of his son, who was
my manager, as to the cause of the djsease in his father's
wheat, he candidly told me, that he had not changed his
seed for eight years : dnd as to a steep, he never thought
of any.

[ 82 ]

Account of an uncommonly fertile soil in Lancaster Coun-
ty, and on trimming hedges, by Caleb Kirk> of Dela-
ware.

Read September 1816.
Brandy twine % 8th 6mo. 1816.
Esteemed Friendy

I lately returned from a journey, in which I had occasion to
pass though six counties, three of Maryland, and three
of Pennsylvania, on which rout the bad appearance of the
wheat crop had claimed my sympathy with the farmer,
on seeing the unpromising prospect (I suppose from the
Hessian fly and frosty spring,) But calling on a friend in
the lower part of Lancaster county, and the conversation
turning on the subject of the unfavourable prospect, he
invited me to walk out and see his wheat field ; 1 did
so, and I was gratified with a prospect of at least thirty
bushels to the acre, and as the contrast was so great from
the last farm I had passed, which would not yield one
bushel to the acre on a great part thereof, (some spots
better,) and as my friend A. Slay maker's crop looked so
handsome, I was led to enquire as to his manuring, &c. He
informed me that he had never put a load of manure on
that part of his farm since his residence on it thirty-six
years ; neither had he ever missed a crop in that length
of time, and had one year obtained 401 1-2 bushels off
of ten acres and a half. I was induced, from his relation
of the fact of its continued fertility, (having been settled

Account of an uncommon Fertile Soil in Lancaster. 83

and cultivated about ninety years) to take some of the
soil, though it has the same appearance as deep as it had
everbeen penetrafo d by digging, and forward it for inspec-
tion and analysis, as that must contain all that is the need-
ful food for the most valuable vegetation. I did not in-
quire particularly how often he cropped by tillage, but
from the adjoining ground being in mowing order with
clover and timothy well mixed, which I thought mkrht
produce two tons to the acre ; another in addition, corn,
another pasture, &c. I suppose the accustomed mode of
farming practised in Lancaster and Chester counties was
adopted.

If the soil I have sent is wet as much as necessary for
vegetation, it would £ive it the natural appearance.

My friend Slay maker is entitled to the fullest confi-
dence in respect to facts stated.

Very respectfully from

Caleb Kirk.

P. S. From the vigorous appearance of my thorn
hedges this season I was induced to pursue my former
practise of trimming, which 1 perform from the 15th to
the 25th of the last month, and they assume an appear-
ance so pleasing in their present dress, as to gain the ap-
probation of all who visit them. My mind is fully set-
tled on that subject now, and one of my neighbours is
pursuing the same practice.

I treat the Virginia* and Delaware thornf both in the
same way, and thev are alike healthy.

C. K.
Dr. James Mease.

* Crataegus Cordate.
t Crataegus Crus-Galli.

s

( 84 )

On the Utility of Planting Hops near Grape Fines, in
preventing the destruction of the Grapes by insects*
by James Mease, M. D.

Read September, 1816.

It is well known to most of those who have attempted
the cultivation of foreign grapes in the country, that they
do not succeed owing to the influence of mildew, rapid
variation in the temperature, and punctures made in the
fruit by insects particularly the black wasp : while on the
contrary, that they succeed very well in Philadelphia
where they are more sheltered, where the influence of the
sensible qualites of the air is less felt, and the insects
fewer than in the country. The operation of some of the
causes mentioned is beyond our controul, but for one of
them, viz. insects, a remedy it is believed is within our
reach, and that is to plant a hop-vine at the side of the
grape-vine. For this discovery we are indebted to ' . Red-
man, Esq. of New Windsor, Bucks county, opposite
Bordenton, on the Delaware ; who made it in the follow-
ing accidental way. Having a grape-vine, the fruit of
which had been annually destroyed by insects, and wish-
ing to have shade near the vine, he planted a hop-vine at
the root of the grape-vine ; the consequence has been,
that it has borne fruit for the two last years : the bitter-
ness of the hop plant, and the effluvium emitted from it,
probably prevented the insects from approaching or feed-
ing on the grape-vine entwined by the hop plant. A lady
to whom Mr. Redman mentioned the fact of the utility of
the hop in preventing the grape from insects, told him that

Utility of Planting Hops near Grape-vines* 85

she had a grape-vine that grew near a hop-vine, which
bore abundantly while the fruit of others planted more re-
mote from it was annually destroyed by insects. From
these facts we may, I think conclude that the hop- vine
affords at least a probable remedy against grape insects,
and as hops are an indispensable article on all farms, and
the surplus produce always commands a ready sale, there
can be no objection to their being constantly planted
near a grape- vine,

( 86 )

To Wrchard Peters* Esq. President, Willmm Tilghman,
Esq. Vice President, and the Memhers of the Philadel-
phia Society for promoting agriculture.

Gentlemen,

One of the first and most desirable objects of inquiry
which called my attention on my retiring to the country
some years go, was, how shall the scarcity of timber
for building, fencing and fuel in the vicinity of our city
be most effectm lly remedied for the present generation,
and prevented in future: the present prices being four
fold more than they were within my recollection of
them. For fuel, we must look to our coal mines ere
long, or contrive some modej of warming our houses
in the country with a less quantity of wood, than any
mode in present use, with which I am acquainted will
perform. I have under experiment locusts (Robiniaps( udo-
Ac-ciL.) for Posts; Chesnuts (native and Sicilian or Spa-
nish) for posts and rails; button wood (Platanus occi-
d< ntalis) and common black cherry, both good for fuel
and of very quick growth ; of which I may perhaps at
some future, not distant day, address the result to this
respectable society ; but casualty has furnished me with
the knowledge of a tree which seems to promise much
usefulness. Among the ornamental trees which I select-
ed for clumps of shade near my dwelling house, were two
suckers of the morns papyrifera from Clermont, then
the seat ol Thomas Buckley, Esq. now of Jacob Ridg-
way Esq, I think in 1808. These were planted in the

On the Quick Growth of the Paper Mulberry. 87

W.S.W. front of my house ; they grew with rapidity
and in the second and third yuirs threw up a number of
su krrs at considerable distances in every direction a-
round them ; of these I transplanted three or four to the
Right hand of my N N.W. front, which grew with equal
rapidity, and at the end of a year or two, put forth many-
suckers from roots widely extended, just under the sur-
face of the ground. Those first planted in the W.S.W.
front continued so to infest my grounds intended for
grass walks, by immoderate numbers of suckers that in
the year 1813, I rooted up the parent stocks (which I
now have as seasoned posts upwards of ten feet lung) and
all t'«e suckers issuing therefrom, which 1 planted sparsim
in my woodlands with the hope of their forming clumps
around them, to prove of value in some way or other.
The three suckers planted on the left of my house in
the N.N.W. front, became equally prolific in suckers.
I ordered my gardener about a month ago, to uproot
them, and all their progeny, and to transplant the suckers
into vacant spots sparsim in my woodlands, which has
been done, and I have now three large posts upwards
of 10 feet long, perfectly fresh and green. From one of
them I have had cut the upper part, leaving a post of
nine feet, and had two quarters split and planed, at one
end obliquely, to shew the surprising growth of the wood;
and below this at 9 feet from the ground a cylindric
segment of the wood measuring between 5 and 6 inches
in diameter, and cut and planed obliquely on the upper
part, to shew that the tree has had but six years growth :
I send therewith the two described pieces as samples
of the wood. Should it prove valuable as a firm and du-
rable substance, whereof to manufacture useful wares, as

88 On the Quick Growth of the Paper Mulberry.

from its curved br .riches it may be, for the ribs of boats
Dr large vessels ; or its leaves for food of silk worms:
or if it will serve no orher purpose than for fuel, the arna-
zing quickness of its gro th will render it a most va-
luable acquisition to farmers and others in those parts,
where the native woods have become scarce and artificial
plantations arc beginning to be necessary. I shall imme-
diately commence a trial of their duration in the ground
and weather, by planning both the green and dry stocks
\vh en I h 'V< , as posts, in the earth, to prove their duration,
and should 1 live to verify the expe ted usefulness I shall
not suffer rny experiments to remain unnoticed. 1 have
also \ few faggots of he upp'.r growth which I shall re-
serve, to make experiments of their quality as fuel, and
communicate the result to vour notice should it prove
worthy ol vour attention.

I am very respectfully your friend

and fellow labourer in the
object of our pursuits,

MlERS FlbHER*

Ury, in the County of Philadelphia,
4th nio. 30th, 1816.

( *9 )

Corn Grubs, or Cut Worms. Fall- Ploughing.

Belmont, August 8th, 1815.

This season has been remarkably unpropi'ious to our
crops of Indian corn ; which, however, an far better
than we could have expected ; and will on the whole,
be tolerably plentiful, (although, in many parts of our
country, they have been greatly injured,) if* we shruld
be favoured with a mild autumn. The ravages of
the grub, or cut- worm, have been uncommonly ru-
inous. The prevention of this scourge, so often de-
plored, and so seldom guarded against, is always in
the power of every provident firmer, and, if he will
not prevent, he ought not to complain of, the injuries to
which the corn crops are subject. The preventive is fall-
ploughing \ which exposes the progeny of the grub to
destrction, by frosts, and other inclemencies of the win-
ter. During a period of more than fifty years, I have
been personally engaged, or constantly interested, in
practical farming ; and I can truly say, that I never suf-
fered any material injury from the grubs; when I turn-
ed up my fields intended for corn, in the fall of the year
I generally harrowed the fallow : and, previously thereto,
often rolled down the sod. When I could procure lime
at that season, or early in the spring, I was, and am
still, in the habit of spreading it on the corn fal-
low ; and although this is a destroyer of the nascent

90 Corn Grubs, or Cut Worms. Fall Ploughing.

grub; yet the effect was manifest, without the appli-
cation of lime. If fall-ploughing yielded no other be-
nefits, (and numerous are its advantages,) one would im-
agine, that this would be sufficient to recommend it to
general adoption. Yet, although the practice has been,
of late years more commendably attended * to than for-
merly ; it is really deplorable, that it is not more univer-
sally followed. Merely ploughing is salutary ; but the har-
rowing, and thereby completely separating the clod ; and
breaking up, or exposing to the influence of frosts, the
depositories of vermin, is equally essential. Besides,
the sod being thus separated, and access of air prevent-
ed, by harrowing, (and if previously rolled, the better,) the
weeds and grass do not, in any great degree, vegetate in
the spring. If undisturbed, and they may so remain if
the seed be shallow planted, these pests become decayed,
or rotted ; and assist, instead of impeding, the growth
of the crop.

I have made extensive inquiries this season ; and I
have found, almost universally, that those who fail-
ploughed judiciously and in due time, escaped the grub,
In some instances where the field was only partially
ploughed, or the work ill managed, the grub was more
or less injurious ; and I considered these as exceptions
to the general fact, without shaking the general princi-
ples of the practice. In some fields, only partially fall
ploughed, the superior vigour of the corn, is strikingly
perceptible.

Ploughing, or backing up, a few furrows in the
spring ; and leaving balks for the worms to feed on,
may have partial advantages ; but this is a miserable sub-
stitute for fall- ploughing ; and is a disgusting proof of

Corn Grubs, or Cut Worms. Fall Ploughing. 91

negligent and slovenly farming, although it may some-
times succeed.

I am your very obedient servant,

Richakd Peters.
Roberts Vaux,

Sec. to the PhilacK Soc.for

Promoting Agriculture.

NOTE.

Read February, 1817.

The means by which fall-ploughing accomplishes the destruction
of the grub, are not of so much consequence as the fact of that
operation producing the effect. And that, in the greatest number
of instances, it so does, and spring ploughing does not, has very
many respectable authorities to prove. One will be seen in this
volume, communicated by Mr. Adlum\ which places the matter be-
yond a doubt. There may be some apparent exceptions, which if
carefully examined into, would not have weight sufficient to oppose
the general current of facts.

Whether the plough reaches the recesses of the depositories of these
vermin, or exposes the sod to dry and perish, so as not to afford
food for their progeny when in their infant state, is a matter of
more curiosity than real use. It would not seem that they lie too
deep for the operation of the plough, either directly or consequenti-
ally. Holes pierced into the corn hills, 6 or 8 inches deep, by a
dibble or pointed stick, are traps into which if the grubs, when in
their most powerful stage of growth, fall, they are incapable of as-
cending ; and thousands thus perish. It is most probable that, at
the time of fall-ploughing, they are sufficiently within reach of ex-

T

92 Corn Grubs, or Cut Worms. Fall Ploughing,

posure to the subsequent inclemencies of the winter. It would be
Well to collect facts ; so that the history of this destructive foe to
our corn plants may be fully known ; and such facts are infinitely
more useful and valuable than theories. A highly useful fact is of-
ten lost sight of, in controversies about causes ; such discussions not
being always carried on with candour or temper. The consequen-
ces of disputes on agricultural questions, are not a little injurious to
the interests of the art ; by deterring many who are apprehensive of
critical remarks, from publicly communicating their thoughts or
experience. There has been more fall and winter ploughing, du-
ring the past autumn and present winter, than I recollect heretofore
to have occurred in any one year Therefore facts can hereafter rea-
dily be collected on the subject ; especially as they relate to the cut-
worm, and the means of preventing its ravages. If the balance of
facts be favourable, although the practice, like all human endea-
vours, may not always be equally successful, there is sufficient en-
couragement to pursue this operation ; which, independently of its
effect, generally, on the cut-worm, has sufficient advantages to re-
commend it. I never observed the white grub, (the offspring of the
cockchaffer,) to injure materially, if at all, the young corn plants-
The beetle producing them, I believe, deposits its eggs deep: and
the white grubs generally delight to remain subterraneously. Be-
ing furnished with a shelly head, and more powerful means of feed-
ing on coarser food, they seldom appear superficially, at the time
the corn plant is young and tender. My potatoes have often suffered
by these grubs; which bury themselves in, and feed on, the bulb.
This is one of the disadvantages of sod planting ; which, neverthe-
less, I think a good practice. Among my potato crop, (on fall-
ploughed ground,) grew a number of fine plants of Indian corn;
which were not in the least annoyed, eithei by the white grub, or
the cut worm ; yet the corn on m}' tenant's field plough-

ed, divided from mine only by a fence, was so injured by the
cut-worm, that it had been replanted twice or thrice. My gro;
had been ploughed in the autumn 8 or 9 inches deep, and treated
in the manner usual with mc. The sod was left to decay, unturned
by the plough, until I gathered a very plentiful crop of potatoes;
and. then white grubs were fouhd, in great numbers, among the

Corn Grubs, or Cut Worms, Fall Ploughing. 93

remnants of the sod which was, in a great proportion, rotted ; and
all of it so decayed as to be incapable of vegetation.

Many replant Indian corn unnecessarily. If the plant be cut off only
above the surface, it will, nevertheless grow vigorously. The yellow
corn is infinitely better this season, than the gourd-seed ; which
has been the most affected by the misfortunes occurring to oitr
crops. The unripe corn, of every description, has been found nei-
ther nutritive nor salutary to any kind of our domestic animals.

As to the rotting or decaying, and extinguishing all power of ve-
getation, in the sod treated in the manner I have often described;
leaving the soil filled with dead and inert vegetable matter, to be
operated on by lime, plaster, and such substances ; I have had,
among many preceding proofs, a strong instance, this last season.
It was viewed and approved by many persons, and its cleanliness
and freedom from all noxious vegetation of grass or weed*, much
noticed. I never meant to say that the mere operation of fall-plough»
ing, would complete the process required, The field must be kept
clean, through the succeeding season, by being superficially stirred
with hoe and common harrows, in preference to the plough ; as I
have noticed in our II. Vol. Without this, I am well aware ; that
grass and weeds will grow, in a greater or less degree ; but much
less after fall, than spring ploughing ; if the fall-fallow be treated
in the manner I have mentioned : although I know, that many, judg-
ing from local qualities of soil, or imperfect essays, hold a contrary
opinion. If the sod be not turned by the plough, its tenacity will be
destroyed by the fermentation or decay of the vegetable matter and
this I call decomposition ; though it may not amount tointire putre-
faction. To aid and promote this, I cut my sod of last season, in
the spring, with the coulters, and dressed the surface with the hoes
of that excellent implement described (III. Vol. of our Memoirs)
by general Steele ; who was so obliging us to procure one to be made
for me. He prefers spring ploughing, for cleaning his fallow ; and as
/do not, I presume the soils I have long cultivated differ in their
W qualities and texture, from those he tills. But if his experience in
this regard, were more generally acquiesced in ; the advantages
of fall-ploughing in preventing injuries by the grub, would give
to it a decided preference. R, P,

February 6th, 1817,

94 Corn Grubs, or Cut Worms. Fall Ploughing.

When I communicated the foregoing on Fall-jiloughing^ &c. and
the note I wished to follow it; I was persuaded that the corn-grub
was the progeny of the dung-beetle. Great numbers of grubs having
been found in the J.oles made by this beetle, confirmed an i lea sug-
gested by other circumstances. But since I have observed the fact,
that holes made with a stick, will also be filled witb grubs falling into
them, and have been satisfied by proofs of grubs turning into moths,
I have retracted my former opinion. Next to the pleasure of esta-
blishing a truth, is that of acknowledging an error. But this discove-
ry of the parent crthe grub, is highly favourable to the uses of fall-
ploughing ; as moths must lay their eggs shallow, and more exposed.
It also accov ifor the efficacy of previously burning the dead grass,
weeds, Sec. composing- the foul cover of fields ploughed in the spring,
for Indian corn. It seems probable that the moths deposit their eggs
or young on this foul cover.

I have threshed my crop of wheat and rye off the field sod-rotted.
Of wheat (heavy and perfectly clean) I have 30 bushels to the acre ;
of rye, 36 bushels. I cut, with my stubble, two tons of clover and or-
chard grass to the acre, in the last autumn. Not a weed to be seen.

R. P.
February 26th, 1818.

{ 95 )

Effects of Season on Crops.

Read March 11th, 1817.

Sir,

In the Argus of western America bearing date the
10th January, 1817 ; I saw a resolution of the Philadel-
phia Society for Promoting Agriculture, wherein they
requested their Agricultural or other fellow- citizens to
afford such information as would tend to promote Agri-
culture. Whether that request extended as far as Cum-
berland or not, I cannot tell ; but when I first saw it
I resolved to communicate to you, such information
as I thought would be of benefit, and at the same time,
think perhaps the correspondence would likewise be
of benefit to me. I am not a farmer. But such infor-
mation as I can collect I will give unto thee. Mr. Wil-
liam Smyth informed me not long since, thatjthe red clo-
ver in his meadow had during last year nearly destroyed
the timothy, evidently on account of that grass being more
prevalent in that extraordinary season than the timothy.
Another gentleman informed me that the frost in the spring
so completely killed the apple, that the consequence
was a total failure of the fruit, but to his surprise, in
the month of August, the trees blossomed and brought
forth fruit, which grew to the size of hen's eggs, and was

96 Effects of Season, fcfc.

of course destroyed by the frost in autumn before they
couid arrive at perfection, some of the apples I tasted my-
self, and they had ill the qualities of a common green
apple. This circumstance i never saw before. The
same gentleman likewise told me that neither the weevil,
the fly, nor rust (or rather blast) have injured wheat with-
in his knowledge in 1816. Whereas it had not fail-
ed injuring more or less since his residence in Ken-
tucky ; owing as I conjecture, to the coolness of the
spring and summer. This accords with reason, for in
colder clim ites the wheat produces more, and clearer of
blast or weevil than it does in this country.

This is only a short sketch which perhaps will not
be very entertaining, but in a xtw weeks I shall have more
leisure from the throng of business, when I shall strive
to gain such information concerning Agriculture as our
country will afford, which shall be duly sent on.

T. Semple,
S. W. Conrad.
January 20th, 1817.

( 07 }

On the Effects of the Season on Crops : on Fall Plough-
wg, and Lime-shells as a Manure, by John . idlum, Esq.

Read Feb. llth, 1817.

The Cottage near George 7 own,
Z)e C. Jan. 21st, 1817.

Dear Sir,

The last season, I think, was the most extraordinary lever

witnessed, and although i did not actually see the fro^t on
the cold mornings; I observed after the sun appeared some-
time, the sweet potato vines, with the melon, cm -umber and
lima beans, appeared in a degree scorched The leaves were
not quite killed, but had a white or bleached appearance,
and they were most injured where mo^t sheltered from
the wind and current of air The weather was so cold
that the corn continued much longer than usual in its
roasthig-ear state ; a few hills that 1 planted in my garden,
-erd of which came from the West-Indies, were
about six weeks in their roasting-ear state before the frost
killed it.

:..'!'' i n corn generally in this neighbourhood was

bad and . in the same bove-m< , ; for

very little mdtfe than half of it ripened. 1 &.d not pull
my field corn until sometime in December, near th<

98 Influence of Season on Crops, Fall-ploughing, &c.

of which was soft, and that which was hard and fit to grind,
was shrivelled, and did not appear as if come to maturity.
In the year 1815, my water melons ripened in 82 days
from the time the seed was put in the ground, and I though*
from the badness of the season (for here it was not a good
one,) that they were several days later than usual in
ripening. In 1816, my water-melons were 102 days
from the time they were planted until the first one ripened :
musk-melons were 111 days from the time of planting,
before I had a ripe one ; which made a difference of 20
days in the time of the water-melons, and 24 days differ-
ence in the others. And I believe that almost every
thing else except, wheat and rye, was in the same pro-
portion of time coming to maturity : the oat harvest was
at least three weeks later than in other years, neither did
the hickory or walnuts come to their usual maturity, for
I have not seen any with a perfect kernel ; they generally
shrunk and in a degree withered.

I saw an extraordinary exemplification of the advan-
tage of fall-ploughing, last summer about two miles from
me.

There are two fields which were originally one tract
of land, and the publick road now divides them, I know
of no difference in the soil ; they are both level and oppo-
site to each other. They were originally timbered with
black oak, upland hickory, with some gum, persimon, dog-
wood, &c. and the stone, white flint ; both fields had been in
clover about the same time; but the blue grass was taking
possession of them. Dr. Grayson who owns one of the
fields, had it ploughed up in the autumn of 1815 ; Mr.
Bell the owner of the other field, ploughed his the spring

Influence of Season on Crops, Fall- ploughing, csfr. 99

following. They were both planted with Indian corn,
about the same time. I rode past those fields tour or live
times a week all summer, as they were between my two
places ; and I do not recollect seeing any of the com
in Doctor Grayson's fiejf! replanted; I n quired of his
overseer, who informed me that then- wrre very few of
the corn hills cut off by the cut- worm ; whilst in Mr. Beit's
field, I observed them frequently replanting the corn;
I made it my business to inquire of Mr. Belt, owner
of the spring-ploughed field, and he informed me that his
field was replanted tour times ; which 1 have no doubt of,
from what I saw in the course of the last summer. I
frequently questioned the negroes who worked in the field,
as to the cause of their replanting the corn ; and they uni-
formly informed me, that it was cut off by the cut worm.
And they further said, that they did not think that
there were one thousand hills in the field, that were not
cut off twice or three times. Mr. Belt himself informed
mc, that he did not get one barrel (which is five bushels)
of sound corn off the whole field, which was about
eighteen or twenty acres. It was cut oif in the silk, for
fodder. Dr. Grayson's field was about fifteen acres ; and
as good corn as any in the neighbourhood.

I had almost forgot the specimens of pyritous earth you
sent with the other things. 1 have seen but one place in
this neighbourhood with such earth, which is mixed with
iron ; some of it that I heated red hot, had a smell some-
what like burnt feathers, from which circumstance, 1
pos< there must originally have been some animal matter
mixed with it. 1 have observed in places where

U

100 Influence of Season on Crops, Fall-ploughing, l£e.

have dug the roads through the hills near George
Town, veins of a greasy looking substance, which I
think contains a portion of sulphur, hut when heated red
hot, it also smelt like burnt feathers, and where wells
are dug near George Town, I have observed considera-
ble quantities of a sulphureous earth thrown out, and the
water of some of them much impregnated with it (i. e. sul-
phur). Will not sulphureous earth operate as a manure,
probably like plaster of Paris ? If I am spared, I intend
to try it this year.

Quere. Will not oyster shells burnt into lime, ope-
rate more powerfully on land, than when simply pounded,
and will they not go further ? Probably they will not last
so long. I tryed burnt oyster shells, when I lived near
Havre de Grace, about one hundred and sixty bushels
per acre, on a clay soil with but little effect. But be-
tween three and four hundred bushels to the acre, had a
very surprising effect upon a more loamy part of the
field ; the orchard grass on that part was always as high
as the post and rail fence, grew and continued while I
lived on the land which was seven or eight years after.
Putting this quantity on the ground was accidental,
for having left home for a few days, I set my black
people to burn the shells, probably about six or seven
hundred bushels, which I intended for between four and
five acres but my people to save trouble, put them all
on about two acres. The mode I practised was to run
furrows sixteen and a half feet apart, and to measure out
of the cart one bushel of the oyster shell lime about the
same distance apart between the furrows, which was a la-
bour my people were averse to, and therefore took the

Influence of Season on Crops. Fall ploughing, fcfc. 101

liberty of spreading it this last time, before my return
home, on about two acres.*

I am dear Sir, very

sincerely Jours, &c.

Jc^in Adlum.
The Hon. Richard Peters.

POSTSCRIPT.

As I observed a communication from mv old friend.
T. Matlack, Esq. in the III. Vol, of the Philad. Agric.
Memoirs, on the cultivation of the vine, 1 Avxote him
enclosing two letters from Mr. Jefferson to me, to shew
him that there was another grape, that he had not menti-
oned, which 1 thought deserved some attention. When I
described the grape to Mr. Bartram near Philadelphia,
he informed me that it was found by governor Penn's
gardner somewhere near Schuylkill and was called the
Alexander grape. In Mr. Matlack 's r ply to me fie says.
" You have proved that the Alexander-grape, isiavalu-

* I have many times in my life, used oyster shells calcined, and pow-
dered raw, or unburnt. I have always believed the shell liane to be
three or four times weaker than our common stone lime. ^c ope-
ration is more immediate, as is the case with all mild lime ; but its du-
ration is much shorter. For top dressing;, the powdered pyster shells
lire excellent. But 40 or 50 bushels of the powder, are requited for
a complete dressing.

That all eartlls impregnated with sulphur, are manures, is an old
opinion of mine; supported by experience) and the concurrence of
respectable men.

H. Peters .

102 Influence of Season on Crops. Fall ploughing, Este,

" able to our country ; but that it is a fox grape is
" much doubted : a white woolly appearance on the
" under side of the leaf, is said to be the characteristic
" mark, of what is properlycalled the fox - grape ; and the
" Alexander- grape* is* here, supposed not to have that
" mark," The grape that i made the wine of that I sent
to Mr. Jefferson, is the size of a small fox-grape, it has
aLo that peculiar taste, the fox-grapes generally have, but
not in so great a degree. It has also the pulp which is
so elastic that the grapes cannot be pressed, until the
pulp is dissolved by fermentation. The grapes are very-
rich and iiweet, and the peculiar taste leaves the wine,
in nine or ten months after being made. The under
sides of the leaves have a yellowish white and woolly
appearance; so that probably it mav not be the Al-
exander-grape, but I have no doubt of its being a na-
tive.

I got; the cuttings in Philadelphia, from an old Ger-
man, who informed me he was employed by the citizens
to pruiie their vines.

J. A.

* Jumps Alexand'r was a worthy, intelligent man, gardener to
the proprietary, Thomas Penn, at Springetsbury ; well known to
me. It was'a favourite object with YViiiiam Penn and his successors,
to establish vineyards ; and every effort was made by them to cultivate
the vjie. But no success attended the endeavours. Every attempt
at any extensive culture of tlic grape, has failed in this part of our
com itry. In our cities and towns some good grapes are found ; but
in tl it country no success crowns the most persevering endeavours. It
is therefore best to apply our labour and means to agricultural ob-
jec ts ; in which we can assure ourselves of success. In some parts of
or r union, no ciount the grape may thrive. But here, the plough is
tli e implement which demands our unremitting attention.'

Influence of Season on Crops. Fall-ploughing, &c. 103

It would seem, that, to ensure better fortune to the cultivators of the
grape, they should select the best native kinds ; whereof there are great-
varieties; and many little, if at all, known. I bury my grape-vines and
figs, in the autumn ; to guard against severe winters. I lost fifty fo-
reign grape-vines in one winter, by omission of this precaution. Gene-
ral Morcau told me, he found it necessary in this country. He inform-
ed me, that the inhabitants ol a large village near Par/.?, who supplied
the market with great quantities of Jigs, formed their trees so that the
branches were calculated to admit of their being covered with earth,
to guard them against frosts even in that climate.

R. P.

( 104 )

On' Hot Masses Straw Cutter, by JR. Peters, Esq.

Read February, 11th, 1817.

Belmont, 8th April, 1817.

Dear Sir,

I enclose a letter from Mr. I. C. Jones, to be read to the
Society. I sent to the press (Poulson) the publication he
alludes to, and it has had an extensive effect ; for many
now chaff their hay, straw, and corn-fodder. Hotchkiss?s
straw-cutter was introduced here, at my suggestion, by
the unremitting exertion of my son Richard ; who had
many teasing embarrassments, before he could obtain the
establishment for the agents of the patentee. It is get-
ting into great credit ; and when it is further improved,
I am satisfied it will become generally used. I perceive
in the public prints, that in N. England, they have added
a fly-wheel of longer diameter. 1 told the agents that
this was much wanted, as well to remedy, in this or some
other way, its defect in the slow and irregular protru-
sion of the hay, or straw, for the operation of the knife,
as for encreasing its number of strokes. I find a won-
derful saving of provender, by chaffing it. But my ser-
vants have been reluctant and incredulous. They mend
a little, and I see the advantages of their amelioration.
I account for the utility of chaffing, by its exposing more

Hotchkiss^s Cutter. 105

points for the extraction of nutriment, to the maceration
of the liquids in, and the action of, the stomach, or sto-
m ehs, of animals. And no provender, is waited, as
it is by feeding entire; either by negligence in servants, or
us- ! ssiy passing through the viscera, 1 have strong hopes,
that the pracdee or chaffing, will be \ great relief in
this season of comp >r ttive scarcity. We are so much
ac<. ustomed to abundance ; that we have never studied or
practised the economy, which necessity enforces. Three
bushels of my chaffed hay, weigh a stone, fourteen
pounds, and this is enough for a horse, with a common
allowance of oats or chopped grain, for twenty-four
hours. Vi ry little more will be sufficient for a horse
standing idle, without other feed. Mr. Jones saves more
than the wages of a man, in a year, viz : more than seven
tons of hay, in the keep of his four horses; for I allow
five-hundred pounds of hay, including wraste, to keep a
horse for a month. In the common and careless manner
of feeding, this quantity will not do it. So that, in an
extensive concern, a farmer would be well paid, by keep-
frig a hand exclusively for chaffing his long provender.
And yet I believe, that on common farms, his time
would not be half occupied, in this employment A man
and a boy can cut, with Hotchkiss's cutter, in forty or
fifty minutes, as much ha) , and more straw; as will serve
six horses, and^ fourteen or fifteen cows for the day and
night. This has been proved, by actual experiment,
other cm y, as Mr; Jones affirms, do more in the

same time, (and I do not know I y can) nut the la-

bourer, at others, is exhausteci to prostration, whilst one at
Hotchkiss's oes his work with ease. This has been tried.
But one to feed, and one to turn the winch, will do the

106 Hotchkiss's Cu*tcr.

work more expeditiously and profitably. I have two
boxes, holding forty bushels of chaffed hay, or straw.
By this means I can tell the quantity used in a given
time ; and they are replenished as often as they are emp-
tied. At idle times, bad weather. &c. farmers might
always chaff a quantity before hand. If, in cities and
towns, men would devote themselves to chaffing hay, by
the ton, (as wood sawyers work by die cord,) the saving
in a large city, would amount to more, than I have either
time or data to calculate. In the country, the advan-
tages are not to be counted. More stock could be
kept on dry forage, and more cattle fed, or more hay
sold, or more ground turned to other uses than those of
hay or pasture, if the saving by chaffing provender, were
generally practiced. Even corn stalks, cut in thin
pieces, so that the nutriment can be soaked out in the sto-
mach, are highly nourishing, Sec. ; and when used before
they are injured by standing out too long, are palatable
and agreeable to cattle. In the southern states, their cut-
ting their corn-tops and blades, and even stalks, (and
they have spare hands enough to do it,) would turn to
great account. Yours very truly,

Richard Peters.
Robert Vaux, Esq.

Sec. Philad. Sue. for promoting Agriculture.

POSTSCRIPT.
My neighbour, R. Rundle, Esq. set ajsmart labourer at a
good common cutter ; and a gentleman not accustomed to
labour worked the larger HoLchkiss's cutter. Bundles of
Rye straw! of equal size and weight were put in the
boxes, respectively. The gentleman finished his with
ease in four minutes, and the labourer (hard run) took
five minutes in doing his work.

[ 107 ]

On Straw Cutting, and Mangel TVurtzeU

Read February 1817.

Philadelphia, 2d Mo. {Feb.) 3d, 1817.

Respected Friend,

Thy address under date of the 23d ultimo was re-
ceived the 24th, and should have been acknowledged ere
this, had it not been for the press of various engagements,
which have occasioned the delay until this time. The
information was correct, relative to my having one of
Hotchkiss's straw and hay cutters (being one of the least
of the two sizes exhibited for sale) and when I first got
it, I felt much pleased; being impressed with the idea,
that it possessed considerable advantages over our old
fashioned kind, in which the knife is moved with the
hand, both with respect to the rapidity of cutting, as well
as to the regularity in the length of the chaff. But I
have since found, on testing the two kinds, that Hotch-
kiss's, in point of expedition in chaffing, is inferior, but
in point of regularity in cutting, superior. The infor-
mation requested on the subjects of my success in rais-
ing the Mangel Wurtzel, or Scarcity Root, and which is
also sometimes termed the Beet root, as also the advan-
tages I have derived from feeding with cut hay and straw,
in preference to feeding those articles entire ; so far as
my small degree of experience extends, in relation to those
subjects, I will communicate with pleasure.

My attention to feeding my horses (four in number)
with cut hay, by measure, commenced in the fall of last

X

108 On Straw Cutting and Mangel Wurtzd.

year, in consequence of a publication I saw in one of our
city newspapers ( being, I think, an address to the Bath
and West of England Agricultural Society,) in which
were detailed great advantages, that had been derived, by
adopting that practice. Experimenting on that mode of
distributing hay to the number of horses above-mention-
ed, 1 found, or as nearly so as I could calculate, a saving
of thirteen hundred pounds per month. I have since ex-
tended the practice to the whole of my farm stock of cat-
tle, and believe the saving to be, in the same ratio as sta-
ted relative to the horses. In addition to this saving, may
be added, the advantage of an intermixture of cut corn-
stalks and some other descriptions of food, that would
not be eaten separately, and without being thus chaffed.
My horses and cattle are all healthy and look well.

The reasons thou hast assigned, in favour of the use
and advantages of chaff cutting, are those which have oc-
curred to me as being the most probable. In addition to
these, I think may be added another, viz, the great saving,
in point of the waste experienced in the usual mode of
feeding provender entire out of racks. As respects my
success in the culture of the Scarcity root, Mangel Wurt-
zel, or as it is sometimes called, the improved Beet root,
it must be coniined to an experiment of the last season
only, not having turned my attention practically to agri-
cultural pursuits for upwards of twenty years previously.
I was induced to make the experiment, from reading the
accounts of some extraordinary results, in the culture of
that plant in England.

In the 4 mo. (April) of the last year, I had a piece of
ground containing thirty-one and three quarter square
poles, prepared for the purpose of planting my seed of the

On Straw Cutting and Mangel WurtzeL 109

Mangel WurtzeL They were planted in parallel rows
of two feet three to four inches one way, by one foot the
other. On gathering in my crop of roots in the 11th
mo. (November) last ; I found the result, in point of
Weight, to be eight thousand one hundred and eighty
pounds ; and that the weight of leaves pulled from those
roots at different times through the season, amounted to
five thousand five hundred and ninety-five pounds. I am
of the opinion they would have amounted to considerably
more ; but in consequence of the dryness of the season, a
suspension of pulling the leaves took place for some
weeks. Although this result is below those that we have
accounts of, as being realized in Great Britain, yet it is
sufficiently great to induce me to make a further trial,
(should no unforeseen event turn up to prevent) on a
much more extensive scale, the next ensuing season.

I have a very high opinion of this plant for farm stock,
particularly milch cows, not only as respects the leaves
for green food during the summer season ; but more par-
ticularly so, the cut or chopped root, during that part of
the year in which we are obliged to have recourse to dry
food. They are also an excellent esculent for the table ;
my family generally prefer them to the red or garden beet.
I also raised the last season, on twenty- three square poles
of ground, one hundred and ten bushels of the long
orange root carrot ; being at the rate of nearly eight hund-
red bushels to the acre. On weighing a bushel of those
carrots, (cut with an instrument in the form of an S,
which enables a man to cut with remarkable expedition ) I
found the weight to be forty-seven pounds, and the weight
of the same quantity of the improved Beet root, managed
in like manner, I found to be fifty-five pounds. This

110 On Strarv Cutting and Mangel WurtzeL

giving the data for calculation, I discovered that the to-
tal amount of btrets raised on the thirty one and three
quarter square poles of ground, as above specified, would
be equivalent to the rate of about nine hundred bushels
of carrots per acre. Jn addition to this superiority of the
beet, wh-ch respects the quantum of the roots of the two
pla \ts only, is to be taken into the account, the value of
the beet leaves, as also the culture of the latter, which, in
tht way I planted them, requires less manual labour; the
vacancy between the rows being sufficiently great for the
admission of a plough with one horse ; whereas the carrots,
after they are above ground, require the use of the hoe and
hand weeding altogether. I have therefore concluded to
turn my attention more particularly to the culture of the
beet, in preference to the carrot.

Thou observes it would be gratifying to have my per-
mission to lay the details and results of my practical expe-
rience before the Agricultural Society. I have only to re-
mark, that if any of the above is considered of sufficient
interest to claim the attention of that highly respectable bo-
dy, I shall not object.

Thine with sentiments

Of much respect and esteem,

Isaac C. Jones.
Richard Peters,

President Philad. Agric. Soc.

Note. — My ideas of the uses of chaffing were founded on the pro-
cess of nature, in preparing the food in the stomach, for entering the

On Straw Cutting and Mangel WurtzeL 111

system. This preparation is mainly performed by maceration, or soak-
ing, in the liquids found floating in the stomach ; the most powerful of
which is the gastric juice. The more points of the food are exposed to
the action of these fluids, the more nutriment is extracted. Chaffing
has the effect of a double mastication, and exposes every particle of
the food to the action of the juices. Whereas long hay, or other pro-
vender, swallowed, as it commonly is, hastily and not sufficiently chew-
ed, is only operated on partially ; and a great proportion passes through
the intestines with the nutriment unextracted, wastefully and uselessly.
Cattle and other ruminant (cud-chewing) animals have more stomachs
than the horse ; which has only one. Of consequence the macerations
are repeated ; and they will thrive on coarser food than that proper for
a horse. Yet for them, chaffing is essentially useful.

R. Peters.

[ 112 ]

Isaac C. Jones' Communication to Richard Peters,
President of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society.

Read March 11, 1817.

Philadelphia 3d mo. March 1st, 1817.
Respected Friend,

In my letter of the 17th ultimo in answer to thine of
the 8th, I stated the quantity of chaffed hay I was in the
practice of giving to a horse or a cow ; viz. two bush-
els to each in the 24 hours; amounting to from 15 to
15| pounds. I ought to have mentioned that the chaff
given to my horned cattle, is not confined to hay merely;
but most generally to a composition, consisting of an in-
termixture with hay, of a portion of wheat and rye straw,
as also the tops of corn stalks, including the blades and
husks. Two bushels of this mixture I am generally
in the practice of giving, instead of hay alone, as might
have been inferred from mine of the 17th above-mention-
ed ; I have therefore thought, it would be as well, to o;ive
this explanation. I am about experimenting further on
this subject ; by reducing the quantity of chaffed hay, giv-
en to each horse, from 15 down to 12 pounds per day. I
commenced on two ofmv horses from 8 to lOdavs back,
in order to see how it will operate. I am much obliged by
thy offer of some seed of the scarcity root. I last year

On Feeding Cattle. 113

got my seed of B. M'Mahon, which succeeded so well,
that, I have been induced to obtain a supply, from the
same place, for the approaching season : but if thou hast
any of a superior kind I should be much pleased with
having*a few.

I remain with sentiments
of regard, thine truly.

Isaac C. Jones:

Richard Peters,

President of the Philad.

Agricultural Society.

[ 114 ]

General David Humphreys, President of the Connecticut
Society of Agriculture, to Judge Peters, President of
the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture,
respecting the effect of the Season of 1816.

Humphrey sville, Conn, Dec, 1816.

Dear Sir,

In acknowledging the receipt of your respected com.
munication of the 30th of October, in which several very
interesting questions are proposed, respecting the extra-
ordinary season of 1816, I can only answer in part, and
refer you to some anticipated facts and observations, on
the same subject, in an article, inserted at the close of our
Agricultural and Economical Almanack for 1817.

The principal injury done by early and late frosts, fell
on our most important crop, Indian corn. Of this, there
is not more than half the usual quantity ; and, in many
places in this neighbourhood, not more than a quarter
part sufficiently hard and ripe for being manufactured
into meal. That which is unripe, mouldy or soft, when
given as feed to hogs and cattle, has little tending to
fatten them. Mixing and grinding it with oil cake, has
been found the best mode of using it.

Grasses, for pasturage and hay, have been diminished
by the drought about 50 per cent. The hay is estimated
to be nearly 25 per cent better than it is in wet seasons ;
containing considerably more nutriment, and having

been well cured.

All kinds of grain were a longer time than usual in till-
ing and ripening ; which is considered one reason, why
those which came to maturity are more than commonly

On the Effects of the Season. 113

full and heavy. Wheat and rye never yielded more abun-
dantly ; nor was the flour ever whiter, or better for ma-
king bread. There was not so much straw as the pre-
ceding year, when the grain was in many fields blasted
and shrunk. But the straw is bright and peculiarly well
adapted for forage, when cut and mixed with bran, meal,
ar grain.

Roots and vegetables, in gardens that were well tend-
ed by having the earth frequently moved round the
plants, early in the morning, while the dew was on the
ground, have generally been more flourishing and pro-
ductive than in ordinary seasons. Some attentive horti-
culturlists observed that more dew fell than usual.

The grub- worm was never before so frequent and mis-
chievous, as it has been in some places.

Plaster of Paris did not in general produce its usual
good effect. To this, however, there were several ex-
ceptions, where its influence was very great. The frost
did not injure the Indian corn so much, where it was
dressed with it, as in other parts of the same field, where
it was not treated in that manner. More damage was
done by frost in the valleys, than on the neighbouring
hills, to both fruits and plants.

It is a very remarkable fact, that individual roots and
vegetables have been raised, the summer past, of a lar-
ger size, than in almost any former season ; and that
greater crops have been produced, on a given extent,
particularly of turnips and carrots.*

One good effect of the season, has been, to destroy

* Ira Hooker, Esq. of Bristol, raised 800 bushels of turnips, on
an acre and 20 rods of ground, and Mr. Leman Stone, of Derby
succeeded in raising carrots, at the rate of 900 bushels to the
acre.

Y

114 On the Effects of the Season.

the canker worms and caterpillars, which for several
years infested and proved so pernicious to orchards.
Another is, the considerable efforts made by farmers to
supply the deficiency of hay, by successful experiments
to raise other crops, which would not otherwise have
been attempted. Much useful knowledge has been ac-
quired from the experiments. A greater benefit will
probably result, from the lesson on economy in feeding
live stock, during the winter, which has been forcibly
inculcated by the scanty crop of hay. Should the exam-
ple become lasting, there is no calculating the benefit to
the farmers and the country. At the end of the season for
in-gathering fodder, there was not, it is believed, more
hay in the barns, than there was last year, on the 1st of
February.

The feeding of cattle with dry food has been happily
postponed, up to this date, by the fine weather.

So favourable lias the weather been for vegetation,
that during three weeks in the month of November, the
grass in pastures has grown as much, if not more, than
it did, in any three weeks in the summer. To this time,
the pastures have yielded sufficient feed for sheep, and most
kinds of cattle ; so that very little forage or provender has
been expended. It has been observed that the butter,
churned from the milk of cows thus nourished, has been
equally sweet and well tasted, with that made in the
spring or beginning of summer.

If any thing further, respecting this anomalous period
shall occur, which may be deemed useful, I shall be
happy in communicating it. Being

Very respectfully, dear sir, your most obd't serv't,

D. Humphreys.
The Hon. Richard Peters.

Preset of the Philad. Soc. for promoting Agriculture.

( 115 )

On Gypsum.

Read April, 1815.

Warren, (Va.) 26th March 1817.
Sir

The third volume of the Memoirs of the Philadel-
phia Agricultural Society, contains some remarks on the
unsatisfactory manner, in which SirHumphery Davy has
treated of gypsum, ;as a manure, which have induced
me to submit to you the following hints on that sub-
ject. And, indeed, instead of shedding new light on
the matter, as we might have expected, he has expressed
doubts respecting some of its operations, which are fami-
liar to every observant farmer that has used it. Such, par-
ticularly, as its power of promoting putrescence when ap-
plied to vegetable substances, either on grass, or the damp
straw of a farm yard, or even on dry straw mixed with it,
and stacked for the purpose of experiment, seem to be ex-
cluded by the result of his experiment on minced veal.
Under all which circumstances, I know that gypsum has-
tens very much the dissolution of the substances submitted
to its action, but if I could not produce better authority
than my own, for dissenting from the opinion of a chemist
so eminent, I should not now trouble you with my own re-
specting it.

Mr. Kirwan, in his treatise on manures, considers car-
bonic acid gas, as the most active principle of manure in
promoting the growth of plants; and Sir H. Davy concurs
with him, in his lectures on Agricultural chemistry ; if that
opinion be correct, we have the authority of Fourcrov fo>'

116 On Gypsum.

the fact, that, by the mutual decomposition of gypsum and
vegetable matter, carbonic acid is produced. I know not
if his authority be competent to stand against that of Sir
H. Davy ; but the latter has cited it respectfully in his
lectures, and that he was an eminent lecturer on chemistry
at Paris, is well known* That his theory, or facts, be it
either, agrees better with our farmers1 experience than the
other; will appear, I think, from the succtedi) g extract
from his book.

" Le sulfate calcaire est decompo<e par un grand nom-
" bre de matieres comuustibles, a l'aide de la chaleur. Le
" charbon des ub ance vegetales enleve a Pacide sulfa-
" rique l'oxygene avec lequel il a pi d'affinite que nen?
<' a le soufre : il se degage de Pacide carbonique dans
" cette decomposition, et le soufre separe de Pacide
" sulfurique s'unit a la chaux, et forme ce qu'on appele
" hepar calcaire, et ce que nous nommeron:, par la suite
" sulphure de chaux. Fourcroy, Elemens de Hist, Nat.

" et de Chimie, 5 me ed. torn. 2. pag. 125. a Paris."

" The sulphate of lime, with the aid of heat, is decompo-
u sed by a great number of combustible substances The
*' carbon of vegetable substances deprives the sulphuric
" acid of oxygene, for which it has a stronger affinity than
" the sulphur; carbonic acid is disengaged by this decom-
« position, and the sulphur separated from the sulphuric
" acid, unites with the lime, and forms what has been call-
" ed, ' hepar calcaire, and which we will recognize in fu-
" ture by the name of sulphite of limey

It remains to be inquired, if the fermentation of vegeta-
bles be sufficient to excite a heat adequate to the decom
position. We farmers know, that under favourable cir-
cumstances, it will produce fire ; but as I have no preten-

On Gypsum. 117

sions to chemical science, shall not venture an opinion.
It is worth remarking, however, that Fourcroy, in his enu-
meration of the uses of gypsum, although he pronounces
it" une des matieres les plus utiles que la nature produise,"
takes no notice of its use as a manure, unquestionably its
most valuable and important quality, of which he must
have been either ignorant, or incredulous, for its value
of that kind, was known to the Germans, prior to the pub-
lication of his work. This omission, however, tends to
render his testimony more impartial and satisfactory.

These facts, and the inferences derivable from them, are
so analogous to the many suggestions made by yourself
regarding the * modus operandi9 of gypsum, that I thought
it would be personally acceptable to you to have them cor-
roborated by high chemical authority ; and let me add, that
I was led to investigate the subject, by the interest you ap-
peared to assign it, in -your many useful tracts on the va-
lue and uses of gypsum. I rely on your indulgence, for
every attempt, however feeble, to investigate the principles
or improve the practice of agriculture, as my apology for
offering these remarks. Such speculations cannot influ-
ence the opinions of a practical farmer, injuriously ; and a
thorough acquaintance with the means we employ, must,
as in all other sciences promote that of Agriculture.
With my wishes for the success of your Agricultural

Society.

I am your humble servant,

Jno. Patterson.

To Richard Peters, Esq.

President of the Philad. Agric. Soc.

( 118 )

Richard Peters' junr. Esq* communication to Mr. East-
man, on Hotchkiss^s cutting.

Read February llth. 1817.

Green Hill, January 30th, 1817.
Sir,

The straw-cutter, invented by Mr. Hotchkiss of
Vermont, and which I procured from you, I have had
in constant use, during the past six weeks. My stock
consists of fourteen cows and four horses, and during
the whole of this period, they have been fed with hay
and corn- tops, cut with this machine, instead of having
been furnished with thern in the usual mode. I am well
satisfied there is a saving of at least one third in this me-
thod of feeding. My gardener thinks the proportion
saved is greater, and equals one half.

The machine is complete and perfectly competent, to
perform the purposes I expected from it. When pro-
perly attended to, it will cut, in much less than an hour
more than all my stock will consume in one day ; and
the labour in using it is not great. Some care is re-
quired in supplying it with hay, straw or corn -tops ; they
must not be given in large portions, and they must be
given equally. Those only who do not attend to these
particulars can complain of the machine.

On Hotchkiss's Cutter. 119

To liver)- stable keepers, and to those who dispose of
cut straw, the machine will, if employed, be extensively
beneficial ; and farmers may bring to our market a very
great part of the hay they now waste in the present im-
provident manner of feeding ; should they use the ma-
chine.

I am very respectfully yours,
Richard Peters, Junr,

John Eastman,

L 120 j

Samuel Bettor? s, M. D. Communication to the AgricuL
tural Society \ on Sugar Canes.

Read

To the President of the Agricultural Society.
Sir,

As the cultivation of the sugar cane, and making of
sugar have become articles of primary importance in the
United States ; allow me through you to communicate
to the society some observations which I have just read
from James Austin, Esq. of St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica,
and along with them, beg leave to send some specimens
of the four different kinds of cane now cultivated in that
island.

I remain yours very respectfully,

Samuel Betton.

Germantown, January 13th, 1817.

Bambou cane. Requires a very rich moist soil, they
will produce more sugar, and that equally good, than any
other cane ; they require when plants, to be in the
ground sixteen months before cutting, and not to be cut
under fourteen months, as rattoons ; the plants generally
yield from half a ton to four tons of sugar to the acre.

Ribbon cane. This will do better in a light poor soil,
than the bambou ; endure dry weather much better and
rattoon longer, will also give more sugar on a poor soil
than the bambou, they ought not to be cut as plants un-
der fourteen months, and if there is not much rain you

On Sugar Canes. 121

may cut the rattoons in eleven or twelve months ; the
plants generally give about three tons of sugar per acre.

Transparent, or Mont- Blank cane. This cane re-
quires the same culture as the ribbon cane, it however
makes a light coloured sugar, and about the same quan-
tity.

Creole cane. They take a much longer time to ripen
than any other, the plant requires to be eighteen months old
before they are cut, and the rattoons sixteen, they have
been known to Rattoon thirty years, the sugar made from
them is of a very fine quality, and the plants yield from
one and a half, to two tons per acre.

On refining the cane juice previous to boiling. Take
a quantity of the inner bark of the bastard cedar (Butro-
ma Guazuma, of Brown) and rub it in a bucket of cane
juice until it produces a mixture of the consistence of
starch ; but if mixed with water, of the consistence of
the white of ^ggy then throw into the grand copper, as
soon as the cane-juice begins to simmer, four gallons of
the mixture, to every hundred of the cane juice, which
causes all the dirt to rise to the top in ten or fifteen mi-
nutes ; and that skimmed off, leaves the liquor perfectly
pure, and consequently does not requhe any skimming
in the other coppers. It was at first feared that the grain
of sugar prepared in this manner would sofren in an
European passage ; but experience has proved that it
remains as firm as that made in the old manner. The
mode by means of the bastard cedar bark, is particu-
larly adapted to those properties which make a dark
heavy sugar ; as it has made a difference of 10/. ster-
ling per cwt. in the sale of some, thus circumstanced.

/

( 122 )

On Tangier Wheat.

Read
Br andywine Mills, 1 lino. 10, 1816

My Friend,

I have observed in a newspaper of Wilmington, a
notice that the Agricultural Society were desirous of ob-
taining information on certain particulars relative to the
past uncommon season, and that thy name is given as the
person we are to communicate with.

As the Society was pleased last year to send me a small
quantity of rye of an uncommon quality, I distributed it
among four farmers of Pennsylvania, four of New Jersey,
four of Delaware, and one in Maryland, an ounce to each -
desiring them to inform me particularly in relation to it
(agreeably to the enclosed copy of a letter accompanying
each parcel. ) I have heard from very few of those to
whom the rye was sent ; principally, 1 apprehend, be-
cause the seed generally perished in the ground, and no
further notice of it was thought necessary. With two or
three persons it succeeded so far that they have obtained,
some a few grains, and in one instance, a farmer in New
Jersey, on Denniss's creek, has obtained about an ounce?
from which he brought me the small quantity enclosed,
with a head of the rye also enclosed.

In time, perhaps, this grain may be naturalized to our

On Tangier Wheat. 123

climate from the small quantity preserved, and if it suc-
ceeds any where, I presume it will in New Jersey, as that
state has usually raised rye of a better quality than any
other that I have been acquainted with.

I have been informed that considerable crops of rye of
the same species as that at present under consideration,
have been raised in Pennsylvania some years since, but
why it is not cultivated at this time I am not informed.
From an examination of the grain, I am induced to believe
that it will make a flinty, harsh flour, and on that account
may have been disused ; though I apprehend our soil and
climate might operate a great change in this particular, if
cultivated on light sandy lands. *

Since my memory, I think the United States have ne-
ver been favoured with wheat of a better quality than in
the present year, as far as my knowledge extends ; that is,
to Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and
Virginia, from whence we have had wheat this season.

On the contrary, Indian corn will be but poor in qua-

* The grain here mentioned is a very precarious crop, and has not
thriven in Pennsylvania, so as to justify an extensive culture. An ac-
count of early experiments on it will be seen in our volumes, and re-
petitions have not been encouraging. It is the Tangier Wheat of
the Mediterranean, and also grows in Persia, and other eastern coun-
tries. Mr. Poole's observation that its grain is Jtintij, is correct. It
may succeed in the southern states, wherein some specimens are en-
couraging ; and its appearance being very inviting, it is to be hoped
further trials will be made.

It has been deemed best by several intelligent farmers to sow it in
the spring. I have not had flattering results, in this mode ; and it is
hoped, that favourable accounts may be yet received from more suc-
cessful experimenters R. P

124 On Tangier Wheat.

lity and short in quantity, distressingly so I fear ; though
there may be instances where both quality and quantity
are tolerable. I myself have had about thirty-five bushels
of good corn to the acre on a town lot, with much soft
corn.

Buckwheat I believe has generally failed. Rye I know
but little of, but from the great price it had attained a
month since, I presume the crop is a short one. We have
had a good crop of potatoes in this neighbourhood, both
in quantity and quality. Garden vegetables have been va-
rious ; cabbage in great plenty, sweet potatoes poor, and
water melons not good. Apples and pears of all the dif-
ferent kinds abundant and fine. Peaches of good quality
not so plenty as usual, and generally of but indifferent qua-
lity.

As far as my observations have extended or been direct-
ed to such objects, it is my opinion, that there have been
fewer insects this year than is common to warm seasons,
and as a consequence in degree of this circumstance, I

think we have not had as manv birds about the house as

ft

usual, excepting the black kind.

If these particulars will have a tendency to forward the
views of the Society, I shall be gratified : they have been
drawn up in haste, but are, I believe, correct.

Thy Friend,

Wm. Poole.

( 125 )

On the disease in wheat called Stunt. By Thomas
Plater, Esq.

Read December, 1816.

Georgetown, Dist. Col. Nov. 21, 1816.
Dear Sir,

When I had the pleasure of seeing you in
Philadelphia, you expressed a wish 1 would communi-
cate the information I possessed relative to that destruc-
tive enemy to agricultural interests, the sedge wheat. I
shall state briefly the matter of fact arising out of my own
experience ; thereby shewing the success which has at-
tended me in its removal : it not being my intention to
investigate the nature of the disease, which appears to
have admitted of a variety of opinions, without a remedy.
My farm, situated on the waters of the Potowmack in
Maryland, is comprised of about 900 acres of low fertile
land, containing four divisions : the system of agriculture
pursued has been corn and wheat in regular rotation, the
pasture fields always in clover. In the autumn of 1808,
I procured 100 bushels of red lam mas, or what is called
here red straw wheat, which was sown that season
from the first to the middle of October, having none
other on my farm ; it succeeded fully to my wishes, the
three first years producing the best crops J had ever ta-
ken ; the fourth year, in the richest parts of the field
which had been manured, I discovered an acre or two,
whereon there was an entire cessation of growth, after it
had got rather more than a foot high, standing in bunches
resembling broom sedge. Unable to account for it, I

126 On the Stunt in Wheat.

had recourse to the memoirs of the Philadelphia Agricul-
tural Society, which gave to me its first character. I con-
tinued to sow it the two succeeding years, the last of
which it had so rapidly spread, as to cover forty acres that
barely returned the seed. The profits of the farm being
considerably diminished, I determined to change my
seed, disposing of every bushel, and purchased one huiv
dred bushels of what is known here by the blue stem
wheat, grown thirty miles distant. I sowed a part of it
on the two acres ; the sedge first appeared, and a better
crop both as to quantity and quality I never cut : the
same has been continued on the unproductive forty acres
mentioned, and the residue of the field, producing most
abundantly and to the entire extinction of the sedge ; all
which I think forcibly urge the expediency of a frequent
change of seed, the neglect of which no doubt is general-
ly the cause of disease in the crops, and ruin to the far-
mer. The loss I sustained had induced me to advertise
my farm for sale, presuming it was irrecoverable : no
purchaser offering, it has reassumed in my estimation its
original worth.*

With sentiments of respect,
I am, Dear Sir,

With great consideration and esteem,
Your obedient servant,

Thos. Plater.
Hon. Wm. Tilghman, Esq.

* See my remarks on this subject, in a note, folio 25, which should
have had my signature j not for its weight, but my responsibility.

R. Peteks.

( 127 }

Observations on the Summer of 1816.

Read Feb. 181;

Nmtark Mv. 29, 1816.

Sir,

1 have had the honour of receiving the circular
resolve of the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agri-
culture, passed October 30, 1816, which you were good
enough to direct to me.

1 agree with the Society so entirely in opinion, that I
collected the phenomena oi solar spots, and the facts con-
cerning Newfoundland ice, and recorded them in the 3d
No. of the 28th volume of the Medical Repository, p.
301—307.

The season, though unusually cool, was nevertheless
warm enough to ripen strawberries, raspberries, currants,
cherries, gooseberries, pears, plums, and apples. They were
generally very fine. The ox-heart cherries in particular,
were unusually large and abundant. This autumn ap-
ples are, fairer, cheaper, and more plentiful, than they have
been for many years. Peaches were poor, owing to the
distemper of the trees of several years standing.

It is certain that the fruit has been damaged less by in-
sects than is usual. An entomologist complained to me,
a kw weeks ago, that it had been a most unfortunate sea-
son for the collection of insects. That kind of game, he
said, was so rare, that he had added but little to his mu-
seum.

128 Observations on the Season of 1816.

There plight, however, to be an exception made in re-
lation to a sort of voracious larva or grub, which has done
incalculable damage to pastures and meadows. It is a
whitish, blind, hexapodal thing, more numerous in the
soil than has been often observed, and co-operating with
the cold and the drought of the summer and autumn,
has destroyed in many farms the gra-s so entirely, that
not a green blade remains. I have not experimentally found
the imago into which this creature is metamorphosed.
But some of my friends, who declare they know, have as-
sured me that it is the great night beetle of the summer
months. There have been at New York fewer fleas and
musquitoes than ordinary.*

There will not be half a crop of maize on Long Island,
and in the southern district of this state. Further north-
ward there will be less. The buckwheat is so scanty.,
that a few days ago I paid four dollars for a half barrel of
the meal, for the use of my family.

The winter crop of wheat and rye was abundant; yet
the alleged scarcity in Great Britain has so raised the
price of wheat and flour, that the former is selling at two
dollars and a half the bushel, and the latter has actually,
within a few days, been sold for thirteen dollars the barrel.

* This is the grub of the Cock-chaffer, which often injures pastures
and other grass grounds ; and has not been known m iterially to prey
on young Indian corn plants, which grow beyond its reach, before the
season when its ravages are dangerous. It delights most in seddy
grounds; and preferring to live in greater depths under the surface,
than other progeny of insects ; it is frequently protccte I, and ena-
bled occasionally to visit the face of the ground in vigour, whilst those
which inhabit the surface, or remain in shallow retirements, are de-
stroyed in anomalous seasons. **■• I •

Observations on the Season of 1816. 129

price of thirty-seven and forty-five cents, and excellent
turnips at thirty-two the bushel.

Hay and oats are enormously dear. The price of milk
was raised from eight cents to ten, in the course of the
summer; and my milkman this morning gave notice,
that the price would be further raised to twelve cents and
a half.

I write you these facts as they occur to me. If prac-
ticable, I will send you more. In the mean time I as-
sure you of my high and respectful consideration.

Saml. L. Mitchell.

Roberts Vaux, Esq.

Secreturyofthe Philad. Agric. Soc.

2 A

( 130 )

Observations on the Season, and its influence and ejfrcts
on vegetation, in the year 0/I8I6; beginning with those
belonging to Agriculture, fcfc.

Read September, 1816.

Influence, beneficial ; on wheat, (triticum hybernum.)
The theory or opinion, that a cool, dryish, season is the
best for this kind of grain, has been realized this season ;
as far as my knowledge extends. Wheat is heavier and
thinner skinned than usual, with the exception of that in-
jured by the fly, which circumstance appears foreign to
the present inquiry : about two weeks, or rather less, later
than usual getting ripe ; exempt, notwithstanding, in a
great measure, from mildew ; owing no doubt to the cool,
and of course less humid, atmosphere.

Rye, (secale cereale ) As this grain flourishes in a high
latitude, the above observations may apply.

Beneficial on Oats, [avena sativa.) This season has
produced good crops of this grain, though probably it
might be attributed in some dt gree to a warm and wet
time, or at least showery, in June ; yet we find the best
oats are raised in cool climates*

Barley, [hordeum v. ) Crops tolerable good.
Flax, (linum usttatum.) Tolerably well growed and
well seeded ; a cool season is said to be favourable to, or
produce tht finest grained flax, though less in quantity.
Buckwheat, {polygonum fagopyrum.) The season,

Observations on the Season q/* 1816. 131

from its being cool, was favourable to this kind of grain,
had no adventitious counteracting circumstances occur-
red ; but its salutary effects were frustrated by a drought
which came on a short time after it was sowed, and con-
tinued so long as to retard its growth and blossoming ; it
appeared a week or two to be in statu quo, and of
course the crop was much jeopardized by this circum-
stance. Had the frost been absent the length of time
longer than usual that the drought existed, there wo ild
have been a much better crop ;* but even this would not
have removed the effect altogether, as its growth in con-
sequence was very diminurive, and as the frost came on
as soon, or rather sooner than usual. This, in addition
to the drought, h (s caused the crops to be less this year
than in any one within my memory.

Influence injurious—on Indian Corn (zea maize.) This
valuable, or rather invaluable grain, seems indigenous to
the tropical countries, or at least grows best in long, warm
summers, and as it takes nearly the whole of the season
here to perfect its fruit, and it being a tender plant, can-
not far pass its usual period of ripening ; so that a short
season, even if warm, will much hazard a crop ; but if
the season is both short and frosty, it must inevitably fol-
low, that crops will be very trifling, which is the case at
present; In addition to the above unfavourable circum-
stances, the cut worm in the spring did immense damage
all over this part of the country : corn was planted, re

* When the frost came, the buckwheat was bending under its load
of blossoms and grain, remarkably full, probably one half of it yet in
the milk.

132 Observations on the Season of 1816,

pttmted, and repl ,nted again till the middle of June ; the
lust produced r.o >:orn at ail. i presume there has not
I much more than one-third of a crop, and that mostly
soft; in maHy or most places, the blades of the young
corn were killed by the frost about the middle of May ;
and in the fail, frost came when the corn was completely
in the milk. The first frosts seem to h>ve been harder,
or more severe, than usual, which did much damage to
com ami buckwheat; in a greater degree along creeks and
small streams ot water, his remarkable the contrast be-
tween the crops on the high and low lands ; and the low
more especially by the rivulets. Cold seems to be gene-
rated by moisture, or at least this appears to facilitate the
transition from heat to cold ; but if the source from which
the pluvial particles arise be very copious, and warmer
than the surrounding atmosphere, the case will be revers-
ed ; and we shall find it, in those instances, to be warmer
than m other pi »ces. This is verified every year by the
stfie of our htrge rivers ; the lakes of Canada also bear
testimony to this ; the season in the fall of the year being
much milder contiguous to the lakes than farther off: as
water is a mue.h more dense body than air, the transition
fr m heat to cold, and viee versa, will of course be slower.
During the summer, those large bodies of waiter h ve in-
creased their temperature, till it has nearly arrived to that
of the atmosphere ; and as the latter in the autumn is still
growing cooler^ the farmer is incessantly giving out heat ;
which has a very salutary effect on the adjacent country ;
thefngh, on the same principle, in the spring of the year,
the lakes ; being covered with ice, are continually, till it
is dissolved and for s^rne time after giving out cold ;
which has a very unsalutary influence on vegetation. The

Observations on the Season in the Year 1816. 133

kind of corn generally planned with us, is what goes by
the name of yellow gourd seed, rather late of ripening in
co n mon seasons; very different from what was planted
40 \ears ago, which was a hard, yellow, short eared, corn,
that rip. ned 2 or 3 weeks earlier than G. seed, but not ve-
ry productive. There is at present cultivated a long-eared,
hard, yellow kind, with shallow grains, and but few rows
on the ear, that ripens early, and has the present sea-
son made a tolerable crop ; of late, it has not been gene-
rally planted, as it is not very productive.

I believe if corn, even this season, had been planted on
high, south lying land, more especially if it had been ma-
nured from the barn yard, would have produced a toler-
able crop, provided it had been put in at the usual sea-
son ; those that manured with lime, I think had worse
crops than if there had been none put on ; owing, 1 con-
jecture, to that manure being of a cold nature ; it rather
co-operated with, than counteracted the effects of the sea-
son.

Potatoes, (solanum tuberosum,) crops tolerable ; some-
what injured by a temporary drought, when they had ar-
rived at about three-fourths of their usual size ; the tops
dying at this time, it is presumable the potatoes termina-
ted their growth. I suspect the season was not too cool
fortius vegetable, as it grows luxuriantly in a much high-
er latitude ; it being a hardy plant, and comes to perfec-
tion very early in the autumn

Potatoes sweet, (convolvulus batatas,) owing 'o thelate,
cool, and frosty spring, many of them rotted in the
ground (at least with me) though on a southern declivity,
and sandy soil ; which seems the most eligible fortius ve-
getable ; and, like the Indian com, appears to be indi-

134 Observations on the Season in the Year 1816,

genous, farther south than the latitude of 40 degrees

north.

My method of raising them is, to have the hills small
and peaked, manured with compost reduced to a fine
tilth, one large cutting in e eh hill ; the nearer the young
potatoes grow to the edge or side of the hill, where the
atmosphere can have access, the larger will their growth
be ; the cold was so severe last season after 1 planted,
that it became necessary to cover them with stable ma-
nure, while in the state of fermentation, which was taken
off in the day time, if the sun shone warm.

Water melons, {cucumis melo.) Ripe later than usual,
and injured by a wet spell in the last part of their season :
too cool generally through the season for this plant ; as it
rather appears to be out of its latitude. It bears heat and
drought admirably ; or rather it delights in a hot, dry,
and sandy soil ; though it is remarkable, that the frosts in
May did not injure them as much as some other vegeta-
bles.

Pumpkins, (cucurbita pepo.) Generally not so large
nor so rich as in ordinary seasons.

Squashes, (cucurbita verucosa.) As this vegetable
perfects its fruit in the warmest part of the season, and is
probably a native of our latitude, I did not discover that
they were better or worse than other years.

Cucumber, {cucumis sativus.) This fruit is much the
best in cold weather, and seems to luxuriate in moder-
ately wet seasons, in great plenty with us the preceding
summer. The early planting was almost totally dt stray t d
by thefrostin Mav, except where they had been sheltered.

Beans, (phaseolus vulgaris.) The first planting killed
by the frost, the second a tolerable crop.

Observations on the Season in the Year 1816. 135

Peas, [pisum sativum.) Uninjured by the frost ; I
think not as productive as usual.

S, raw berries, (fraga?'ia vesca.) Scarce; killed in some
place* by the frost ; the season too cool for them : not
well flavoured.

Apples, fruit of the pyrus maius. In great plenty,
hung on the trees remarkai iy well, owing to their being
more immature than in ordinary seasons, which must be
attributed, to the absence ol heat and shortness of the
summer ; not as well flavoured as usual, but it is supposed
will keep better through the winter ; as fruit of almost any
kind will ket p longer, if taken off some time previous to
its coming to maturity. Cider made this year appears
to be weaker than common, generally made lute, which
probably will not ferment before spring, if ever it does,
and in this state I apprehend it to be very little worth ;
evenihat which was made early in the fall from the best
kind of fruit, did not ferment as rapid as is usual at that
season of the year, either fr>m the coolness of the weather,
or for want of that saccharine quality which is so es-
sen ial to the vinous fermentation (and which appears to
exist but in a small degree in all unripe fruits) or both.
I am informed that cider at the distilleries did not ferment
as u->ual, or become ripe in the same length of time as
in other seasons ; and I apprehend will not produce much
alcohol. Summer apples remained on the trees much
longer than the usual time, some even till winter ; those
that ripened early, tolerably w^ell flavoured ; but others
ripening as the season advanced, became more insipid,
and that in direct ratio.

Peaches, {amygdalus persica.) But k-w trees in this
part of the country ; but what came within the range of my

136 Observations on the Season in the Year 1816.

observations, were very full of fruit, smaller than usual
and later, without flavour, or rather ill-flavoured ; trees
that formerly bore sweet fruit, row bore sour, or at least
insipid ; what I saw was scarcely eatable.

Pears, (pyrus communis) the same observations will
apply here as were made on the summer apples ; in great
plenty.

Quince, {pyrus cydonia) I believe scarce ; but my ob-
servation on this article is very local and superficial.

Cherries, (prunus cerasus.) Remarkably plenty ; not
as good as in warmer seasons.

Plumbs, (prunus domestiea.) Generally not well fla-
voured, though some local favourable situations, as great
exposure to the suns rays and gravelly soil, produced very
good fruit.

Apricots, (amygdalus armeniaca.) Scarce, and, owing
to that circumstance, larger than common. Suffered in
point of flavour, like most of the foregoing.

Grapes, (vitis vulpina,) or a variety of it, in my posses-
sion. As plenty, and nearly as fine, as in other years.

I shall just observe, that the seven foregoing kinds of
fruit, have suffered less from insects (in tht ir first state
of existence sometimes called larvae, eruca, or worms,)
than in any other year within my recollection : owing
no doubt to the frigidity of the season, keeping the in-
sects in a dormant state, till the rinds of the fruit became
too hard to be perforated by them ; or the season too far
advanced to give time for the eggs to hatch before the fruit
came to perfection.

Observations on the Season in the Year 1816. 137

Forest Trees,

Hickory rjnglans alb ovato.) Nuts of this kind are
in great plenty, perhaps more than usual. In man v in-
stances the kernels are shrunk, not filling much more than
halt' their cavities ; in orhers entirely empty. Whether the
cause originated from the multiplicity of the crop, or
from the cool season, I cannot say ; but most probably
from the latter. It was observed, when given to a pet
squirrel, that it refused to crack or open some of them ;
which led, in one instance, to a discovery that many of
them were not good.

Chestnut tree, (fagus easfanea.) Nuts nearly as plenty
as in other seasons, but much smaller and later ripening ;
some on the north side of trees not more than half their
usual size ; fewer worms in them than usual.

Oaks, (quercus ;) but few acorns of any kind ; pro-
bably the c-use did not originate from the coolness of the
season, as it occurs often in very warm ones. The fe-
male blossoms, or bud, may probably be killed in the win-
ter season, or the male flowers, or rather the pollen, may
be destroyed by a series of wet weather, or blown away
by high winds. If some of the above circumstances or
causes did not take place, I think there would be acorns
every year ; it being a genus belonging to the class Monoe-
cia, and the male and female blossoms being very near to-
gether (which is not the case wi h ail the trees belonging
to this class) would be nearly assure to produce fruit, as
if the blossoms Had been hermaphrodite.

Pine, {Pinus strobus.) I think the seeds of this tree
were scarcer thdii usual, and many that had a good ap-
pearance, haei no kernels. Plenty of cones or strobiles.

2 B "

138 Observations on the Season in the Year 1816,

From the uncommon frigidity of the summer of 1816, it
would he inferable, thai the growth in trees would be less
than in other years. This I found to be the case ; on
opening, or cutting into them, it became very obvious.
The experiment was made on different trees ; and, in se-
veral places, the last years growth in some of them was
not more than half as great as the preceding one, and, in
one instance about two thirds as large, &.c.

If any of the above observations will be of use to any
of the members of the Agricultural Society; the end of
writing will be answered.

N.R. I omitted saying any thing on the grasses : I ob-
served the red clover, (the second crop,) to be more Blast-
in the Leaves than usual ; and very irregular in ripening ;
young s alks or shoots st?ll coming up as the others were
getting ripe. Cut much later than common, and not, pro-
bably more than half a crop of seed ; though a tolerable
one of hay. Crop of grass in general, and of every kind,
less than in other years.

P.S. I shall just add; that insects, bugs and flies have
done much less damage last season than othtr years ; I
do not consider the cut worm and Hessian fly to come
under the above characters. I think the damage done to
the wheat by the fly, was principally in the fall of 1815.
We were remarkably exempt from the depredations of
the- rose bugs. 1 have known them to almost destroy or
prevent a crop of grapes, by eating the very germen of
the flower ; and most of the other parts of the fructifica-
tion. And likewise the blossoms of the Virginia thorn,
^Crotagus Cordata,) and evergreen thorn, and many
other kinds. The bags and flies, that infest cucumber

Observations on the Season in the Year 1816. 139

and squash vines, visited them later, or rather it was la-
ter in the season before they made their appearance, and
I think did much less damage ; as the cool weather
would naturally operate against their multiplication. Ve-
ry few caterpillars ; and f do not recollect seeing any of
the blistering flies, (Lytta vitata,) this season, though,
in some others, they have been in great plenty, on the
potato and beet tops, &c.

With respect to fruit, it may be considered as a general
rule; that all those kinds that come to perfection, or ma-
turity in the months of July and Angus', when the heat
is the greatest, would of course be better flavoured, in this
or any other season, than those that ripened earlier or
later. And it may also be observed, that fruit, of what-
ever kind, that was late of ripening, or required the whole
summer to come to perfection, in other seasons, could
not come to maturity in 1816. It might be said, that
every thing was two or three weeks behind hand, through-
out this extraordinary year.

East Marlborough Township, Chester count y, Pa,
December 31$*, 1816.

( 140 )

Communication relative to the periodical freshes every
fourteen years in the De law ire and North East
Branch of the Susquehanna rivers, &c.

Stockport, March 1st, 1817.
rjCT^On the Delaware, below its bii.iiciits. The waters of the
western branch of Delaware* and those of »h<- north east branch
of Susquehanna, nearly approach each other.]

Respected Friend,

I have not forwarded you any communications for
sometime; !yit,b? perceiving ^ome of my memorandums
and observations, I consider the curious circumstance of
the periodical high freshes in the Delaware and North
East branch of the Susquehannah every fourteen years,
worthy of notice in the natural history of our country. I
shall therefore proceed to state the facts, with some of my
observations of their effects on agriculture.

When I began my improvements in the year 1788,
there was then living at Cosheckton, a very aged man, by
name Joseph Ross, who had resided most of his life
among the native Indians, understood their language, and
was a man of a strong clear mind. He came to see me
for the purpose of giving me some friendly advice ; that
was, to set all my buildings sufficiently out of the reach of
the periodical 14 years high freshes ; and, as there had been
one two vears before, we could readily see, by the drift
wood, how far it had reached on the banks. He informed
me that the native Indians had a traditional account, that
every 14 years there came a great flood in these rivers, 6
or 7 feet higher than took place at any intermediate times ;
for which reasons the Indian* were in th prac tice, in the
fall before they come,1 to remove their corn and stores on

On Periodical Freshes. 141

the highlands; that he could remember four of those high
floods ; viz. in the years 1744, 1758, 1772, 1786, and
thai they had all been nearly of the same height ; and, to
his knowledge, there had been no freshes, in the interme-
diate times, as high by 6 or 7 feet ; therefore there would
certainly be another in the year 1800. He said ht gave
me 12 years warning ; and I had seen and could remem-
ber the great spring fresh in the year 1772 ; as aiso the
great fresh in September 1786, called the great pumpkin
fresh : yet I had not then full faith in Indian tradition.
Time passed on ; and none of our highest freshes reached
the mark of the last fresh by 7 or £ feet. In the spring of
1800, 1 was largely engaged in the lumber business ; and
anxious to have the lumber drawn as handy to put in the
water as possible. We had a tolerably deep snow ; and
there came on a heavy and steady warm rain for three
day a and nights, that raised the river to the mark of the
pumpkin fresh in the year 1786; it flowed over my
farm, swept off most of my fences and my lumber, to
a ver) large amount ; although every exertion was made
to save it. The Susquehanna also rose, and swept the
farms.

As to its effects on agriculture ; my mowing ground
was all covered with mud, that smothered the grass for a
time, but on the whole proved an advantageous manure.

I had a few acres of wheat on new ground, that
looked very well before the snow fell ; the back water
covered it for upwurds of twenty-four hours, and left it
also covered with mud : the consequence was, it turned
all to cheat ; and when harvest came, there was a heavy
load of cheat, and not a stalk of wheat to be found.
Strange as this may appear, Nicholas Depui, Esq. late

1 42 On Periodical Freshes.

of Minesink, informed me that by the great spring
fresh in 1772, he alho hid a field of wheat ail turned 10
eheat, by being covered with water twenty-four hours or
longer. I had also some rv< covered like my wheat ; and
I believe it was of benefit to it, for it was unusually good.

My heavy losses had then converted me to the Indian
belief of periodical floods every fourteen years. We had
no freshes as high by seven or eight ftet, until April 1814.
I was that spring detained in Philadelphia, and, full} ex-
pecting such a flood, I wrote to my people to draw the
fences, lumber, &x, out of the reach of such a flood.
They had obeyed my orders in part, when the flood came
by means of heavy warm rain taking off the snow sudden-
ly ; and rose the river to about the same height of the
other fourteen year flood : the wheat was only partially
covered with back water, and was partially turned to
cheat; the rye was manifestly benefited, I never saw
better. t

A part of the flooded ground was ploughed for Indian
corn and buckwheat, which grew with a luxuriance
equal to the banks of the Nile. I am fully convinced,
that the mud deposited by such floods is a rich manure.

It was singular that the spring flood of 1814 chi fly-
came out of the East Branch ; which was much higher
than ever known before : it swept the shores, and much
damage was done to the farms ; while the West Branch
and Susquehanna were not higher than in common spring
freshes. August 20th, 1814, my friend, John Hilborn,
who lives on the Great Bend of Susquehanna, c:>me to sec
me. He observed that the Indian rule of a flood every
four teen years was either broke or run out ; as, thai spring
their river had not been higher than common. 1 told

On Periodical Freshes. 143

him that the Pumpkin fresh kept off until September. I
had occasion to go to Newburgh ;■ where, on the 2 th of
August was the heaviest rain ever known b\ the oldest
inhabitants : the floods were Mich as to wash down stone
fences that had stood forty or fifty years.

When I reached home, I tound that the water had
been a few inches higher than ever marked before by
any of the fourteen year foods ; my farm was lying a com-
mon, as to fences ; and all covered with mud : to have a
farm so vxposed in the beginning of September, is more
inconvenient than in April : we had hay in plenty, and
stabled the stock.

From my people I learned, that the rain was on the
28th of August, as at Newburgh : that the river being
very low, they were apprehensive there was not rain
enough to raise it to go with a raft : in the afterr.oor* it
began to rise faster than ever was seen before; that the
rafts tore away, with the drifting trees with which the
river seemed covered ; it almost all came out of the West
Branch ; which was four foot ten inches, or five feel high-
er than ever known before ; it swept every thing before it ;
and the damage was great. Bridges, mill-dams, &c. all
went together, and left a clear channel. My purrpkins,
cucumbers, melons, and beans, were totally killed, where-
ever the water came : where the water covered the tassels
of the corn, it killed it totally : where it cove red the silk
of the ears, those ears neither grew nor ripened any more:
where it only came round th. stalks below theear^, it bad
no perceivable effect ; the buckwheat was covered all
over, and bent down with a load of mud; it kept green
until frost, but ceased to grOw. My potatoes were all
under water ; V • .lid no1 appeal! to be killed, but
neither tops nor iqpts grew any more.

144 On Periodical Freshes.

The second crop in the meadows did not grow through
the mud ; as in the spring of the year.

The water was up among the limbs of some of my ap-
ple trees that were loaded with apples ; it checked their
growth, but they ripened to perfection ; and the leaves
fell from such trees sooner than those that stood above
the water ; my turnips were a curiosity : they were cover-
ed with water from ten to twelve or fifteen fett, the water
left them covered over with mud three, four, or six in-
ches deep. I thought them all dead ; late in the fall, they
began to peep out, and on examining them they vv<re
very small ; the snows fell before the ground froze ; they
put out again in the spring, were grown to a large size,
and I never saw such good sweet turnips before, nor so
many for the ground, but they were of short duration ;
they would grow, in or out of the ground. In the course
of my reading, I have met with but one author that noti-
ces the effects of floods on vegetables, that is, my favour-
ite author Dr. Darwin ; see the first additional note, page
525 of his Phytologia. Thus I have given a true state-
ment of facts respeciing the periodical floods every four-
teen years ; and leave it for others to account for the cause.
To my certain knowledge, they have been regular ; for as
many periods ot fourteen years, as my age enables me to
remember correctly ; and I as fully expect such another
flood in the year 1828, as I expect the return of the sea-
sons.*

Thine respectfully,

Samuel Preston.

* Susquehanna rose similar to West Branch ; and convinced Jno.
Tlilborn the Indian rule stood go^d.

[ 145 ]

On the Importance of the Navigation of the Delaware
and Susquehanna Rivers.

As I have promised my observations on the very
great and growing importance of the navigation of our ri-
vers Delaware and Susquehanna : in order to fully un-
derstand the subject, it may be necessary to view a map
of the country to see the great extent of fertile territory
drained by those two long rivers, and their tributary
streams, that either may be rendered navigable, and then
reflect, how bountifully the Creator has furnished those
parts distant from the seaports with the necessaries, if not
the luxuries of life.

The whole country on and near the heads of these
streams abounds with timber of all descriptions suitable
for floats to convey their produce to market without the
labour of crossing any steep hills or mountains ; the coun-
try abounds with salt, plaster of Paris, limestone, coal and
sugar trees, if not iron ; and very few heavy articles will
future generations wish to convey back : it will almost
exclusively be a down stream trade, and I presume prin-
cipally on rafts of different descriptions of wood, which
will ever be wanted near the seaboard for fuel, and suita-
ble timber for buildings and mechanical purposes

When I take a serious view of those beautiful rivers, I
consider, that creative wisdom hath formed them perfectly

2 D

146 Internal Navigation,

right, if man did but understand them, and would but
apply a little necessary labour, to remove the rocks and
obstructions out of their natural channels ; then there
would be safe, easy, level roads through all the steep,
rugged mountains ; such as cannot be made by land ;
for the loads will journey on, without the expense of
teams. Thtse rivers they run under like the an-
cient Roman acqueducts, that are to accommodate more
territory, and give the streams a more gradual descent;
for if the face of the country had not been created de-
scending, the waters would stagnate, and the air become

putrid.

But, it may be objected to this mode of transporta-
tion, that, in the summer, these rivers are too shoal for
want of water ; and, in times of high freshes, too rapid
and tough to be navigated with safety. This I admit ;
and every person, well acquainted with navigating the
Delaware and Susquehanna, must readily admit, that
more water runs down these two rivers, every year in
times of high freshes, than necessary to render them
completely navigable all summer, if the stream were
uniform. Therefore, taking it for granted that the quan-
tity of water is more than amply sufficient for all the
desired purposes, it remains for me to shew, that Provi-
dence has amply provided cheap and ready means for
man to regulate the quantity of water, that annually
flows down these rivers, in any uniform proportion or
time he pleases.

Where I live we call it a complete safe raft fresh, if the
river rises 4 or five feet perpendicularly above low water
mark. What we call high freshes, too high to run the
rough falls, is from 10, 12, 14 to 16 feet perpendicular;

Internal Navigation. 147

and the 14 year floods, have been 22 feet perpendicular
above low water. I am well satisfied by experience,
that it' all the rocks and ob tructions were cleared out of
the natural channel of the Delaware, that three feet perpen-
dicular above low water, would be sufficient for raft na-
vigation.

The mode of regulating the quantity of water is as
follows. — On the heads of those rivers, and on all the
streams above the Blue Mountain that feeds them, are
very large ponds or lakes, one above another. All of
such lakes that I have examined, appear to empty out
through deep narrow channels ; and I have been of
opinion, that they were formerly more deep and large
than at present, and that the channels have worn with
time. My plan is, to make dams on the outlets of all
the ponds, 10 or 12 feet, and in some places, more feet
in height ; and retain the water in high freshes, to draw
off and supply the rivers in any such proportions as oc-
casion may require to continue them navigable all
summer. In the winter, when the nav gation is ob-
structed by ice, let them all be shut, and the water reser-
ved until spring.

I have long considered the subject, and sought for
certain data in vain ; that it is rather an estimation. I
have considered that the quantity of water, that runs
down either of these rivers, is in due proportion to the
extent or surface of country on which the rains and
snows that fall, drain into them ; then on what propor-
tion of the surface of ground that supplies these rivers
would the waters descend or drain into ^ch ponds or
lakes. I should think 2 thirds the water ; and I believe

148 Internal Navigation:

the estimation would be perfectly safe at saying half the
water that feeds the Delaware and Susquehanna, above the
Blue Mountain, may be made subservient to our purpo-
ses by such means, and that half of such water would be
quite sufficient for the purpose.

I first took the idea from the stream called Muskonne-
konk, in the state of Jersey, which issues out of a large
pond or lake, some say 20 miles long, as it turns among
the mountains. On the outlet is built a dam, that was
about 13 feet high, and what water raised in the pond,
was all the head and fall, for a forge and grist and saw
mill, that used to run very steady, and keep the stream
uniform to the Delaware.

A larger experiment of the kind was fully tried du-
ring the war of the American revolution. The late Ge-
ral James Clinton, with whom I was well acquainted, in-
formed me, that he first explored the navigation of the
upper part of Susquehanna river being appointed to
command a division of the army to join General Sulli-
van, at Tioga Point, to dislodge some hostile Indians
and Canadians. (See the Map.) He cut a road, and
marched his army and baggage from the German Flats
to the head of Otsego Lake ; there made flat-bottomed
canoes, and dammed the outlet of the lake for six weeks,
and raised the water so that it made such a rise in the
river, as to float them down to Tioga Point, with their
munitions of war and provisions. Some years after-
wards, he was appointed one of the commissioners on
behalf of New York to run the state line to Lake Erie, and
pursued the same route and plan to convey his baggage
and provisions to Tioga Point.

Internal Navigation. 149

Dams on the outlets of these lakes would afford the
best water powers for mills or any kind of machinery.
By drawing the water from under the ice in winter, it
will be so warm as not to freeze on the wheels as was
the case at the pond on Muskonnekonk.

Such dams at all the lakes and ponds would not injure
any interests of the country, and using them for
mills would also tend to render the waters in the rivers
uniform in their quantity. The confining so large a
part of the waters that make the great floods, would al-
so be of important advantage and safety to the farms on
the banks of the rivers. The free navigation down the
rivers, would be abundantly cheaper than by way of ca-
nals and locks.

When I have with great pleasure travelled the mar-
gins of these lakes, to view the advantages of such dams,
I have admired how very perfectly all our rivers and
their tributary streams were created for such a mode of
improvement, and exclaimed with the poet Cowper —

" God made the country, man the town."

It may be asked, what kinds of produce are to be ex-
pected from the heads of those waters, if the recom-
mended improvements in their navigation were made ?
I answer,

1. Salt,

2. Plaster of Paris,

3. Lumber of all descriptions,

4. Grain, in proportion to the cleared lands,

5. Stone Coal tor fuel for the city,

!5o Internal Navigation.

6. Wool ; if our legislature would raise the bounty
for killing panthers and wolves, to a law of extermina-
tion ; for the mountains on the heads of these rivers, are
better sheep pastures than the mountains in Spain.

7. Such a system of improvements would tend to en-
courage agriculture in all its branches ; and when every
visionary 'system of speculation is fully tried and proves
abortive we may then adopt the language of John, " As
for the earth out of it cometh 6mzflf."-chap. 7, 5.

T nine respectfully ,

Samuel Preston.

( 151 )

Extract of a Communication to the late Bernard M'Ma*
hon, of Philadelphia, deceased, on the culture, manage-
ment, and uses oj the Vlaiigei Wurzel, or Root of
Scarcity, by Mr. John Lloyd.

Fully convinced of the manifold important advan-
tages to be derived from the cultivation of this invalua-
ble vegetable production, I take the liberty of transmit-
ting you the following detail of its culture, management,
and uses.

This root, not being well known with respect to its
culture and use, fell into disrepute, until within these
four or five years, when the Marchioness of Salisbury
introduced it among the agriculturists of England. Ma-
ny of those who received this valuable root from her la-
dyship, have repeatedly saved from 60 to 90 tons off the
English acre. Its seed was introduced into this country,
(Ireland) in the year 1787, by a Mr. Edward Lindsey,
who, at that time, procured some packages from Dr.
Letsom, of London. Its good qualities not being then
known, or mode of culture understood, it fell into dis-
use, as in England, and has only been revived within
these few years.

Mr. E. Lindsey, wishing to further the general culti-
vation of this inestimable vegetable, constructed a ma-
chine to fecilitate the sowing, which has answered the
purpose remarkably well, and now large fields are to be

152 On the culture of the Mangel WurzeL

seen of it ; and most persons have had abundant crops.
The leaves produce two or more crops in the seasons of
summer and autumn, and both leaves and roots are most
valuable for feeding milch cattle, and unlike Turnips or
the Brassica species, communicates no bad taste to the
milk, but much improves it with a very delicious flavour.
They are also allowed to be remarkably good for feeding
pigs.

From the many instances which can be adduced, one
only is here necessary to point out the superior merits of
Mangel Wurzel :— Wolf M'Neil, Esq. of Bally morscan-
ton, near Dundalk, (a gentleman who has cultivated it to
the greatest per ection,) sowed one acre, from the leaves
of which he fed forty pigs through the seasons of last
summer and autumn ; after which he saved 84 tons of
roots, and upon these fed nine cows and five calves du-
ring the winter, and had upon the 22d April 1815, eight
tons remaining, exclusive of one hundred of roots,
which he transplanted for the purpose of preserving good
seed. This circumstance is in itself considered suffi-
cient, without bringing forward any more of the
many proots which could be adduced in its favour,
to completely establish the usefulness of the Man-
gel Wurzel.

Culture,

Time of sowing, months of April and May. — Pre-
pare a plot or field as for Turnips or Potatoes ; open two
drills with the plough, two feet apart, and put in a suffi-
cient quantity of dung, according to the state of the
ground ; then cover the dung with the double mould-
board plough at once, or the single plough at twice, by

On the culture of Mangel Wurtzel 153

ridging them up as high as can be well done, with a man
shovelling between the drills, right and left, smoothing
the surface of the dung, which will leave the ridge about
a space of ten or tweive inches broad.

This complete method of following, will repay the
trouble of shovelling, by raising a full proportion of earth
under the roots. When the ground is thus completely
prepared, two boys or girls can sow from two to three
acres per day. After sowing, it should be well rolled,
which completes the whole process.

The crop is afterwards to be treated the same as tur-
nips or potatoes, by putting to, and taking off, mould, &c.
After the roots have been raised, the ground is in re-
markably fine order for wheat, or any other crop.

I subjoin, for your complete satisfaction, the following
letter to the editor of " The Irish Farmers' Journal."

" Sir, notwithstanding the multiplicity of communica-
tions respecting Mangel Wurtzel, for the last two months,
I cannot resist sending you a statement of an intelligent
practical man, corroborative of the wholesomeness of the
plant, and instructive as to the use of the tops or stems,
which some able agriculturists have hitherto considered
of no value; whereas they have been applied by him as
food for cattle, and have proved as efficacious in fatten-
ing, as either leaf or root.

u 1813. I put in a very poor cow, and for some time
fed her upon Mangel Wurtzel tops. When the frost
came, she was fed with roots, of which she ate seven and
a half stone per day, with eight pounds of hay. She was
flit in three months from the time she got the roots.
When put in, her value was seven pounds. She had
eighty-one pounds of tallow, and never appeared, from

2E

154 On the culture of Mangel Wurtzel

the day she was put in, to the day she left me, to have
any disorder whatever.

" 1814. I purchased four heifers, on the 17th of Au-
gust, in very bad condition ; put them on the second
run of after grass ; took them off the 10th of November
following, and put them in stake on the tops of the Man-
gel Wurtzel, and about seven pounds of hay per day,
during which time they improved very much. The first
cost of the above heifers was twenty-four pounds ; they
were sold about the 12th of January, 1815, at forty-five
pounds ten shillings, during which time, they never show-
ed any symptoms of weakness, or disorder of any kind.

" I never knew the slightest appearance of any disor-
der, in any of the cattle, fed with either root or leaf, for

beef or milk.

" I have at present eight bullocks and two cows, feed-
ing with Mangel Wurtzel and turnips, with eight pounds
ofhay to each ; on an average, they consume about five
stone of Mangel Wurtzel, and six stone of turnips, each,
per day, and are improving very much.

" I also got four pigs on the 2d of October, 1814, very
thin ; put them up, and fed them with Mangel Wurtzel
root ; and, for experiment, one day tried them with some
raw potatoes, of which they would not taste, while the
above root lasted. I killed one of them on the 29th of
December, 1814, for pork, of which I would not wish

for better, and well flavoured.

"John Lloyd.
" Steward to the Bishop of Deny.

" Dated this 20th January, 1815."

{ 155 )

Alderney Cow.

To Roberts Faux, Esq. Secretary of the Philadelphia
Society for promoting Agriculture.

I have upon my farm, on the Delaware, a cow of the
Alderney breed, imported a short time since by Mr.
Wurts. She had been fed in the usual manner, with
potatoes ; and, during the last week, the milk from her
was kept separate, and yielded eight pounds of butter.
The cow is a small animal, and is supported with less
food than our ordinary stock.

By communicating this fact to the society, it will
oblige, &c.

Richard Maris.
January 11, 1817.

P. S. The cow is three years old.

The cow above referred to, is now in the possession of another
member of the Agricultural Society ; and, after a fair trial made
with her during the last summer, (1817,) the superior richness of
her milk, when compared with that of other cows, has been fully
tested. She gave 9| pounds of extremely rich, highly coloured
butter, per week.

( 156 )

The effects of the late season (1816) on the growth of
grain, grasses and vegetables, in the neighbourhood of
the city of Washington, and the country above and be-
low it, connected with the navigation of the Potomac.

The coldness of the spring was such as to produce
a general despair, as to all the winter grain crops, and di-
minish expectations, as to the spring grain, and all kinds
of esculent plants.

This state of things continued till the end of May,
when a plentiful fall of rain, and some warm weather,
produced a most marvellous change ; and though very
little rain fell afterwards, during the whole summer, the
crops of winter grain, at harvest, proved more productive
than for some years before. The crops of timothy hay
also, on meadows which were rich, whether on low or
high land, afforded an ordinary, and, in some instances,
a superior yield.

The crops of oats were worse than ordinary : wheat
lands, which were sowed in the spring with plaster, ex-
hibited a great improvement in the crop, which, in some
instances, was supposed to have been doubled, in others,
to have received the addition of one-third.

Clover failed generally very much, from the effect of
cold, combined with the want of moisture, probably more
from the former, than the latter. In fact, the second
growth was generally very small. Indian corn, in ordina-
ry lands, was feeble all the summer, late in shooting, and,

Effects of the season of 1816. 157

from the want of heat, more than the want of moisture,
was late in opening, and consequently more than half de-
stroyed for the purpose of bread, by the frosts in Octo-
ber.

Buckwheat, from the long continued drought after
harvest, was very unproductive. Spring barley, even on
rich bottom lands, was also of small yield. Early gar-
den vegetables succeeded very well, though late in com-
ing to maturity, particularly cabbages, which had been
planted in the previous autumn. The first crop of po-
tatoes was very productive, and of good quality, in lands
rich enough to bear them; and all esculent roots flourish-
ed well, except the Carolina, or sweet potato, which fail-
ed in a great degree, almost universally. The latter crop
of Irish potatoes was very much reduced in yield by the
want of rain after harvest ; otherwise, the quality of the
ordinary standard.

Melon vines, of every kind, failed much in quantity
and quality, from the cold more than the want of rain.
The water melon was very inferior in size and quality.
The pumpkin, cucumber and squash were also very un-
productive.

As to fruit, the garden grapes were fine and productive.
The early appearance of apples, promised abundance, but
the excessive latter drought diminished their size, and
caused many to fall. Peaches were generally fewer in
quantity, and inferior in size and flavour.

On the west side of the blue mountains, the limestone
soil being of a warmer nature than the soil on the east
side of the same mountains, the want of heat in the atmo-
sphere did not produce such injurious effects in the growth
of corn ; and the crops in that country may be consider-

158 Effects of the season of 1816.

ed as maintaining an average. Even on this side of the
blue mountains, in rich moist bottom lands, in some in-
stances, the corn has produced abundantly ; but these
instances are few. At present, (December 1,) from the
continuance of mild moist weather, since the frosts in
October, in rich clover lands especially, and in timothy
meadows, the growth of grass furnishes a better bite to
stock, than during all the summer.

From these observations it results, that the past sum-
mer was too cold for corn, for the Indian pea, for the
field bean, for melons, pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers,
and tomatas, which were injured more from the cold-
ness of the season than from drought. The same obser-
vation applies to the sweet potato. It also results, that
there was sufficient heat in the atmosphere for wheat and
winter grains ; a little more moisture would have added
to the crop, which is proved from the great effect of plas-
ter, in cases in which it was used.

The spring grains and clover grass required more mois-
ture and more heat. Timothy, of all the grasses, seems
to have met the trials of the season with least injury.

Irish potatoes, (except the latter crop,) and all escu-
lent roots, seem to have flourished well, as did cabbages,
both of the early and later growths. Turnips, in lands
well prepared and suited to their growth, in all cases in
which they were not at an early stage destroyed by the
fly and the drought, have succeeded well.

The forest trees, both this and the last season, were
injured very much by a caterpillar, which appeared in
May, or the beginning of June, by destroying the foliage.
Many trees died from the effect of this injury. Lands
which had lain out in clover, or other grass, and planted

Effects of the season of 1816. 159

in the spring in corn, abounded in such numbers of cut
worms, as to destroy the first plantation of com. This
effect was not observed to an injurious extent, in lands
cultivated the previous summer,* or broke up during the
previous fall and winter.

Some supplemental notes, with the writer's name, will
soon be forwarded.

* This has been repeatedly observed when the culture was
good ; so as to leave no grass or weeds for the grub moth to de-
posit its eggs on. R. P.

£> The Society, in former volumes, have not publish-
ed anonymous communications, however valuable they
may have been ; deeming the w7riters alone responsible.
The expectation held out in the last paragraph, has in-
duced an exception to the rule.

( 160 )

American Ploughs,

Extract from (lEva?is & Ruffy's Farmers' Journal,'
{London,) November 20, 1815. Trial of New Ploughs.

" On Thursday, the 9th instant, some ploughs, on a
new construction, were tried at Bury Hill, near Dorking,
the seat of Robert Barclay, Esq. a member of the Board
of Agriculture, and a very zealous, liberal, and inde-
fatigable encourager and promoter of every thing that
tends to facilitate labour, to decrease expense, and to ad-
vance the interests of husbandry. Two of these ploughs
had been sent to him from America, by Judge Peters,
president of the Agricultural Society of Philadelphia.

" The other new plough was that invented by Mr.
William Cooke, of Greenwich, and often advertised in
this paper.

" Though the day was unfavourable, a number of the
neighbouring gentlemen, and many practical farmers at-
tended. The ploughs were tried in a wheat stubble, a
rather free loam, but very much encumbered with couch
and weeds ; in a wheat stubble of stiff ground, but un-
obstructed by weeds ; and in a light sandy soil : they
were alternately drawn by two horses each, and then by
four oxen ; the weight of draught was taken by the in-
strument invented for that purpose ; they were set at dif-
ferent depths ; and their powers of operation tried in eve-
ry way that was suggested. When the acknowledged
awkwardness with which every new implement is at first
handled, is considered, the facility and correctness that

Trial of new P Houghs \ 161

the men showed in managing these ploughs, was a con-
vincing proof of their simplicity : in fact, there is nothing
complex about them, and there is one other essential
quality, common both to the American ploughs, and to
Mr. Cooke's, they move every particle of the soil, clear
olit the furrow, and leave the bottom perfectly level.
The whole of the ploughing was witnessed by those pre-
sent with feelings of pleasure and satisfaction, and the re-
sult of their opinion was, that one especially, of the Ame-
rican ploughs was, for free and mellow soils, a most va-
luable implement, of easy draught and effective operation,
equal to any, and superior to many in present use ; but
that in foul grounds, it could not fully clear itself,
and was not sufficiently powerful for very heavy soils.
— That Mr. Cooke's plough, was at least equal to it
in operation, in soils where the American plough per-
formed well, and was superior to it, or perhaps to any
other, in very heavy and very foul grounds, where it bu-
ries the surface completely, and leaves a most perfect
seam. It is an implement of very uncommon merit ;
and the peculiar quality of it seems to be its fitness for
any soil, from the lightest to the heaviest. A gentleman
present, said he had tried it on his farm, in Middlesex,
and particularly on a head-land, which had been much
carted on, and where his own heavy plough, with four
horses, could make no impression, while Mr. Cooke's,
with three horses, turned it up completely ; but many
farmers present doubted its powers where stones are em-
bedded in the soil. This remains to be tried, and Mr.
Cooke is ready and anxious for the trial."

2F

( 162 )

Cole seed, Tares, Mangel Wurtzel.

Extract of a letter from E. Barclay, dated Southward
15th April, 1815, to R. Peters.

" I mean to adopt the plan lately introduced, to raise
two grain crops by sowing Cole seed and turnips direct-
ly after clearing my tares,* which will be fit for use in
September, when the land may be prepared for wheat.
In one of my letters, I reported my having obtained from
Flanders, last spring, a few seed of a new variety of Man-
gel Wurtzel, being of a deep orange colour, not before
grown or seen with us, of which I had many fine plants,
from six to eighteen pounds. The roots are now plant-
ed again, to preserve the seed amongst us, of which I
hope to send you a sample of the seed of this year, as
by an experiment it has been proved to be more saccha-
rine than the common red, or rather rose colour which
Mr. Davy esteems much beyond the white."

" I wrote you that 1 have two stables of fat oxen now
ready for sale, of the Scots Galloway breed, from ninety
to a "hundred stone, (of eight pounds,) which is the size
most preferred in town, of which, five oxen were fatten-
ed solely by Mangel Wurtzel and hay, with complete
success ; the other fifteen on linseed and bran, crushed
between iron rollers, which fully answers our expectation,
and is highly economical. "

* Vetches*— vicia sativa, Lin. See Gleanings of Husbandry,
\rt. Vetch. N°te fy « Member,

( 163 )

American Ploughs.

Extract of a letter from the same to the same, dated
Bury Hilly November 20, 1815.

" On an experiment made the end of August, by some
of my agricultural friends, near Branfford, Middlesex,
against a four horse plough of that county, I had the sa-
tisfaction to find one of your ploughs, with two horses,
did the work quite as well, and as easy ; and it was then
agreed, that in light land your plough answered excellent-
ly, particularly as it cleared the furrow so true and smooth,
which we all know to be one of the first qualities. Wish-
ing to make a further experiment, on this farm, I had the
ploughs brought from town, and tried two of them with
much success, especially one which merited great praise,
of which you will have a very ample account in the
Farmers' Journal of this month, by a gentleman who at-
tended closely on the experiments, and the competition
made between your plough and a new one of Mr. Cooke's
of Greenwich, which, in very strong soils, is deemed su-
perior to any other plough known in these parts."

These ploughs were made for Mr. Barclay, under my
inspection. I combined the best principles and forms of
our American ploughs, studying simplicity of construc-
tion, sedulously ; and with the view to my observations
in the note, Vol. II. p. 144, 5. Improvements on our

164 American Ploughs* Sithe and Cradle.

ploughs have since been made ; and they far exceed (for
our use) any English plough I have seen.* In England,
the complexity of their ploughs is much out of date ; and
they find the advantage of simplicity of construction.
Many now do their work with fewer horses ; and use
lines, as we do ; without unnecessary drivers, or the in-
cumbrances of wheels, &c.

I sent to Mr. Barclay an American sithe and cradle,
which, with his usual zeal and liberal attention, he caus-
ed to be fairly tested in his harvest field. It was worked
by an American cradler, against an Hainault sithe in an
expert hand. It proved far superior in every respect, but
that the Hainault sithe cut quite as clean, yet in no de-
gree with equal celerity. I am in hopes this implement
will become fashionable ; but it meets with the fate of all
new instruments, especially in a country wherein labour-
ers must be humoured under present circumstances : for
Mr. Barclay writes to me, (after eulogizing the sithe and
cradle with merited approbation,) u I find our men all
averse to its use ; as a new article ever meets with oppo-
sition from that class ; and though employ is become
more general, yet I found any machine tending to lessen
the wonted employ of harvest men, to be unpopular in
the present crisis."

R. Peters.

* See my remarks on the trial of the ploughs sent to Mr. Bar-
clay, in my letter, on the subject, to the society • ante. I have
made these remarks for the encouragement of our farmers,* and
with no view to invidious comparisons. R. P.

( 165 )

Account of trial of Toxvsleifs Plough; and culture of
Corn, Turnips, Ss?c.

Germantown, 12th Mo. 1816.
Esteemed Kinsman,

The plough committed to thy care by the Agricultu-
ral Society of Philadelphia, for trial, has been used, and
thy request in part complied with, and the results I shall
endeavour to communicate in as few words as may be.

First. The plough, as received, was tried in a mea-
dow that has never been turned up, to the knowledge of
the oldest inhabitant of our village.

The result exceeded my most sanguine expectation,
turning a furrow superior to any I ever saw.

Second. On ploughing my late corn field, for oats and
barley next spring, I found that the coulter of the plough
not resting on the point of the share, was a manifest dis-
advantage, as the corn roots choked it ; however, by let-
ting it down as low as it would admit, the complaint was
in a great measure prevented. I would suggest the pro-
priety of its being made so as to rest on the point of the
share ; the coulter of the one now tried will not admit
of it, being too short by six inches.

The result was, I never had the corn roots so well co-
vered, and that they should so be, is, in my estimation,
a very desirable thing.

The third experiment I intended making, has been re-
tarded by the late severe frost. This will be in a sod not
turned down these five years, and stony ground ; should

166 Culture of Com, Turnips, fcfc.

this succeed as well as the first and second, I have no
hesitation in pronouncing it as my opinion, that Towsley
and Co.'s plough is superior to any I have ever had used.
Whilst on the important subject of agriculture, I deem
the present a suitable opportunity to communicate the
result of my experience in the culture of corn and tur-
nips, the first of which, from the frosts of this season,
failed to an alarming extent, and suggest the propriety of
an earlier attention in planting. I commenced this year
on the 27th of the 4th month, (April,) but not having
sufficient manure on the ground, for dunging in the hills,
I stopped on the 30th, when five acres were done, and
did not begin again until the 12th of the 5th month,
(May,) and finished on the 15th ; with this I hand thee
two ears, of the growth of the first planting ; the whole
five acres came to perfection, and was admitted by all my
neighbours to be the best corn grown this season : the
second planting was about half hard, the other in a milky
state, when the frost took it, and not near as heavy a crop.
From this, and the planting on the 25th of the 4th month,
(April,) 1815, which was an excellent crop, I am led to
believe that an erroneous idea is prevalent, that from the
10th to the 20th of the 5th month, (May,) is the proper
time to plant. By my diary of daily occurrences, and
state of the weather, I find that the corn planted on the
27th of the 4th month, (April,) was up on the 3d of the
5th month, (May,) on the 15th it was apparently killed
by the frost of the night preceding, and the frosts of the
7th, 8th, and 9th of the 6th month, (June,) were so se-
vere as to nip the blades of the whole field ; on the morn-
ing of the 12th a fine shower fell, attended with thunder.

Culture of Corn, Turnips, fcfc. 167

which so altered the corn, that in one week it overgrew
all the blights it had received ; the early planting grew
much stronger, and was in tassel two weeks before the
other. From these observations I am induced to believe,
that although frosts are injurious to the growth of corn in
the spring, yet they are not so bad as one in the begin-
ning of the 9th month, (September,) when the grain is in
a milky state, and which, by my early mode of planting,
may in a great measure be prevented. My intention is,
to plant on or about the 20th of the 4th month, (April,)
next. Before closing this, I may observe that I have my
ground, which has uniformly been a sod, ploughed in the
fall, to prevent the cut- worm ; it was a remarkable fact,
that I did not lose one plant by the worm this season,
whereas my next neighbour, the fence alone dividing us,
lost nearly half of his. I could add much more to the
foregoing communication, but will leave it, with a desire
that some other person may make a trial of my small ex-
perience.

TURNIPS.

Turnips being a crop that will not pay, with us, with-
out great economy in the raising of them, I have endea-
voured to fall upon some plan that would be advantage-
ous, with as little expense as possible. I now commu-
nicate the result of my experience for these three years
past. About the last of the 7th month, (July,) I have a
piece of old sod ploughed, and immediately rolled, then
spread with good short stable manure, and well harrowed
about the 10th of the 8th month, (August,) and then

168 Culture of Com, Turnips, &V.

sowed : when the leaves are about one inch long, I have
them harrowed both ways, and then left, this being, in
my opinion, as good as hoeing, and much more econo-
mical.

The result has uniformly been an excellent crop.

Affectionately,

Abraham M. Garrigues.

Reuben Haines.

( 169 )

Double furrow Plough.
The improved Draveil double furrow Plough.

Communicated by Mr. James Eastburn.
(See Plate of the Draveil Plough, Vol. II. page 140.)

The improvements which have been made upon the
Draveil double furrow plough, mentioned in the second
volume of the " Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for
promoting Agriculture," have, it is conceived, by "sim-
plifying its construction, rendered it applicable to com-
mon use in our country, in lands clear of rocks and stumps.
The inventor of these improvements has also constructed
mould boards, suitable to these ploughs, upon an im-
proved plan, which are intended to be of cast iron, and
which, by diminishing resistance, will render them, when
of small size, easy to be worked by two middle sized
mules or horses, in cultivating corn or seeding wheat.
With this force, a gentleman of Maryland has used these
ploughs, of the size now exhibited, in working corn and
seeding wheat. The rows of his corn are four and a half
feet apart. With his double furrow plough, drawn by
two middling sized mules, he works his corn completely,
by a single bout between the rows ; whereas two, and
sometimes three, were necessary with the common sin-
gle plough. His ploughmen put in four bushels of wheat,
sown at the rate of one bushel and a peck per acre, a day
each, instead of two, which is the ordinary task for a com-
mon seed plough, which he has laid aside altogether, ex-
cept for the purpose of laying off the lands or beds for
sowing. He works his corn after planting, and seeds his

2G

]70 Double furrow Plough.

wheat with half the number of ploughmen and mules,
which he used, before he adopted the improved Draveil
double furrow plough. His lands are free from large
stones and stumps, and part of them are hilly, and part
nearly level, in both of which kinds of land he has used
it, and found it to answer perfectly. His experience
proves the utility of this improved plough, and that it
surpasses the expectations of general Armstrong, (who
first transmitted to this country, from France, the draw-
ings of the original Draveil plough, to the honourable
Richard Peters, of Pennsylvania,) which limited its use
to light and level lands.

The improver of this plough, after throwing away the
wheels and complicated fore beam of the original French
plough, found it necessary, in order to make the furrows
of the same depth, to turn the point of the hinder share
a litde above the level of the fore share. If this be not
properlv attended to by the maker of the plough, the de-
fect may be easily remedied by the ploughman, by rais-
ing the fore beam, by means of a wedge driven between
the beam and the shoulder, if the fore share runs too shal-
low, and the hind share runs the proper depth. If, on
the contrary, the fore share runs the proper depth, and
the hinder share too deep, the point of the latter must be
raised, by shortening the shoulder of the hinder plough.
When the balance is thus properly established, the cle-
vass will regulate the depth of this, as it does that of the
ordinary plough. As there is a strong tendency m this
ploueh towards the land, it is proper, in making it, not to
turn the shares at all to the land, and to give the fore
beam a bend towards the land. Should this not be suf-
ficient, the clevass will supply the defect.

Double farrow Plough. 171

A three or four furrow plough may be constructed up-
on the same principle with the double furrow plough,
but a plough carrying more than two furrows, is more
liable to accidents, and rather unwieldy, especially at the
turning.

This plough, it is believed, must become extremely
useful in working all sorts of soils, after they are once
broken up, and to break up light or sandy soils. But to
break up stiff lands, it is apprehended it would take a
greater number of horses, than could be managed by the
ploughman with convenience. As to working corn and
seeding wheat, a fair experiment, for a whole season, up-
on a pretty large scale, by the gentleman above alluded
to, has proved its great utility beyond a doubt, by ena-
bling him to dispense with one-half of his ploughmen and
mules for these purposes.

& A working model, of the improved plough, may
be seen in the ware-room of the society.

( 172 )

On Muck and Fresh Stable Manure, by E. G. Passmore,
of Delaware County r, Pennsylvania.

JSdgmont, 1st mo. 18th, 1816.
Esteemed friend,

Having read an essay in the third volume of the Me-
moirs of the Agricultural Society, page 221, upon the
subject of hot muck and rotten dung, in which there are
some objections advanced against the use of hot muck,
opposed to the result of applications that have passed
under my observation, and as the management and best
application of manure is a subject of primary importance
to the agricultural interest, I shall take the liberty of
stating my sentiments upon it, for your service.

Though vegetables are capable of deriving their sup-
port from elementary principles, yet, as by a wise eco-
nomy in the laws of nature, the source of vegetable pro-
duction is replenished, by the dissolution of the produc-
tion, it is reasonable to conclude, (and facts support the
deduction) that the elements that have once formed a
living fibre, are, by the natural decomposition of that
fibre, placed in a situation more capable of entering into
the composition of a new race of living fibres, than the
same elements obtained from other sources. If the de-
composition be effected by combustion, the elements are
converted into the same state that they can be obtained
from other materials : when effected by fermentation, the

Muck and Fresh Stable Manure. 173

more violent it is, the nearer it approaches, in its effects,
to actual combustion. Carbon, both soluble and insolu-
ble, is a component part of all vegetables ; facts, familiar
to practical farmers, support the conclusion, that soluble
carbon is much the most efficacious. By a slow process
of fermentation, the soluble is gradually detached from
the woody fibre, and held in solution in the water : but
when the decomposition is more rapid, (as will always
be more or less the case, when it is effected in a mass,)
there is a large quantity of carbonic acid gass formed : as
the water is capable of holding but a small portion of it,
the rest, rendered buoyant by the heat, must rise into the
atmosphere, where every breeze (and not the exhaling
powers of the sun) must bear it away : was not this the
case, there would, excluding water, be but little differ-
ence between the weight of the materials, before and after
fermentation ; but the loss in virtue is much more than
proportionate to the loss in weight ; for it is well known,
that in proportion as vegetables approach the state of
woody fibre, they are difficult of decomposition. Fer-
mentation must therefore commence on those parts con-
taining soluble carbon : the greater part of this loss was
in soluble carbon, that would never have been converted
into carbonic acid gass, had the raw materials been com-
mitted to the soil. Every application, that has passed
under my observation, has gone to corroborate these
sentiments. I have rotted dung in covered repositories,
both in a large and small quantity, conducting the fer-
mentation by compression and irrigation, in the best
manner that I was capable of conceiving and effecting ;
applied it and muck, as voided from the stable, in quan

174 Muck and Fresh Stable Manure,

tities as nearly equal as could be estimated ; and the re-
sult has shown the inferiority of rotted dung.

The urine and moisture of the alvine ejections are
powerful promoters of fermentation. When the mate-
rials are thinly placed in the soil, and thus deprived of the
assistance derived from volume, the other auxiliary is
necessary, in order to promote a speedy return, so ad-
vantageous in every investment of capital. I therefore
highly approve of covered repositories : but I would have
them open on all sides, and situated in such a part of the
fold-yard, that their contents should be most exposed to
the treading of cattle ; thus as much as possible prevent-
ing fermentations taking place.

Among the objections and analogous illustrations ad-
vanced by R. Peters, I think the following worthy of
notice ; because they are calculated to carry conviction to
minds but little disposed to reflection, or that are incapa-
ble of drawing their conclusions from an examination of
principles. Of this latter class, (from defects in educa-
tion) is a large portion of our very respectable body of
farmers.

" The violent fermentations preparatory to the art of
making bread," and " fermented and baked provender is
more nutritious," &c.

In the fermentation of bread, a portion of the starch is
converted into sugar. It is generally believed, that that
arrangement of elementary principles, forming sugar, is
more nutritive than any other produced by vegetation
or vegetable decomposition. Were " we to venture to
recommend this process to be carried on in the stomach,"
\t would not take place in a healthy animal ; but the de-

Muck and Fresh Stable Manure. 175

a ■ ■ ■ .. ' ■ ■ ■ . , , , . ==.

composition of muck does not take place when com-
mitted to the earth. His " fanciful" conclusion, there-
fore, that " fermentation in the stercorary is as essential
to the preparation of food for plants, as fermentation in
the dough-trough is to making bread," is incorrect.

" That it produces, in grain crops, smut, blight, and
mildew, or loss by laying of over-abundant straw." By
smut or blight, I have never seen a crop much injured :
but I see no reason why it should produce such an effect,
unless from the application of an excessive quantity. Mil-
dew is well known to attack those plants that are protracted
in their ripening, either from being weak or growing in
a low and deep soil. A few loads of muck have been
applied, every year, on the farm upon which my obser-
vations have been made ; and I have uniformly observed,
that the grain there was first ripe, unless put on a part
least favourable to early maturity. In one instance, I
particularly remember, (though, from the sparing man-
ner in which it was applied, there was but little differ-
ence in the quantity of straw) there was rather better than
a week difference in the time of its shooting into head.
As to " laying," that, I think, must be charged to the
farmer, for applying an excessive quantity. If he is more
apt to commit this error with muck than rotten dung, is
it not a proof of its superior efficacy ?

" That it affects the ground with a durably deleterious
taint." I know of no principle upon which this can be
produced ; but, on the contrary, I have observed, that
where it was applied, green grass, (poa viridis) has almost
uniformly followed. I cannot admit the position, that

"It is incontestably true, that dung operating with
violence is much shorter of duration." This violence of

176 Muck and Fresh Stable Manure.

operation is produced by that part of the manure that is
dissipated in the atmosphere. When the fermentation is
effected in a mass, it is capable of producing the same
effect after, that the other can. It can do no more ; for
the strength of grass roots, which it promotes, acts upon
the principles of compound interest. I have seen the su-
periority strikingly evident in the second course of grass,
when no manure was applied to the intervening grain
crop.

I believe, with R. P. that exposing the raw material
upon the top of the ground is without reasonable excuse ;
because it is exposing it to the influence of casualties and
the loss of a protracted return. But I believe it very
possible for all the advantage to be derived from manure
or muck - spread in this way, that can from any other
mode of application ; but it is better applied to grass than
grain ; because it will form a thicker covering, to prevent
the sun exhaling, not its virtues, but moisture, one of the
essentials of fermentation, which, being slow, does not
produce heat sufficient to raise the carbonic acid from the
ground. If rains, occurring during this process, should
be gentle, both that and the soluble carbon will be soak-
ed into the earth : but should they be heavy, a large por-
tion of both must inevitably be washed away.* But, as

* Any quantity of manure, applied in the rotation of crops to
the artificial grasses, at the time the seed is sown, will do more
for that course of grass than twice the quantity applied next year,
such is the advantage of a healthy, vigorous seedling plant. Were
I to lay down a piece of ground for the natural grasses, to obtain
the best of which, green grass, a rich soil or top dressing is ne-
cessary, if the earth, which I yearly lay over the fold-yard, was
not sufficient, I would rather spread the " raw material," subject*

Muck and Fresh Stable Manure. Ill

a grain crop affords inadequate shelter, the materials must
often be dry, and decomposition at a stand, so as to afford
but little assistance to that crop, this has generally been
more or less the case, where I have observed such an
application.

" The stercorary is to the farmer, what his dam is to the
miller," and " fermentation" (in the stercorary, I suppose)
is as essential to the farmer as to the brewer or distiller."

The miller wants his dam to produce a power adequate
to the effect. The farmer does not want the stercorary
for that purpose : for decomposition will take place with-
out the aid of quantity.

The brewer and distiller want a new arrangement of
the elementary principles of vegetables : this is the result
of a loss of part of the carbon ; and is best effected by
promoting the fermentation in a mass. The farmer wants
an entire decomposition : his object is to save the carbon.

ing it to casualties attendant, than to the known and inevitable
loss by fermentation in a mass. I believe that the opinions en-
tertained by some men, in favour of covered repositories for dung,
have resulted from ascribing effects to a wrong cause. They have
witnessed the great difference in effect, produced by a few loads,
drawn immediately from the stable, and the same kind when rot-
ted : they have considered this difference was all produced by the
latter having been wet ; but the real cause was the animal produce
of the stable promoting a speedy fermentation of materials, not
before fermented. When applied to ground laid down with arti-
ficial grasses, it is the influence of this speedy return in promot-
ing vigorous seedling plants, and the decomposition of their roots,
when returned to the plough, that forms the difference in effect
between that and dry hay straw. But for the influence of that
cause, it would be less valuable, in proportion to the dressings it
contained, as that quantity is less valuable by all that it takes to
support the life of the beast, and add flesh to his bones.

2H

178 Muck and Fresh Stable Manure.

All other things being equal, this will be effected in in-
verse ratio to the mass.

" Arator, aware of the necessity of meeting his fer-
menting muck with a powerful plant, his Indian corn
stands the brunt of the battle." I should rather suppose
he applied his muck to that crop, because it was the only-
one which he put in, in the spring ; also, because it is
more easily covered by a sward. I covered about two-
thirds of a five acre lot, last year, with muck drawn from
such a stercorary as above described, and planted it with
corn. There was not so much rain as to wet through
the dust. From the 9th of the 7th, till near the close of
the 8th month, on the part dunged, I could not, at any
time, find a shrivelled leaf; yet, in other parts, this was
not the case, though the whole suffered much less than
any other in the neighbourhood, which I principally at-
tribute to the minute state of subdivision to which the
surface soil was brought, by frequent hoe-harrowing.
The corn, alluded to above, was on a piece of ground
facing the north. The whole lot was much injured by
the cut- worms, in the spring ; near an acre was almost
entirely destroyed ; on a part of that not dunged, the corn
was quite ordinary : yet, notwithstanding these draw-
backs, it averaged eighty bushels to the acre. Therefore,
the part dunged, that suffered least from the worms, must
have had considerably above an hundred bushels to the
acre, though the part dunged wTas not previously in a state
of cultivation that would produce even a middling crop
of grass.

As to the fact mentioned in the close of his postscript,*

* The fact, I mentioned from memory, will be found more
minutely, but substantially alike, related in the Museum Eusti-

Muck and Fresh Stable Manure. 179

I conceive it must have resulted from a deficiency of
crops admitting of cultivation while growing ; for, unless
we admit of equivocal generation, we must suppose,
that when the seed vegetates, and the young plant is de-
stroyed by the cultivation of the crop, all danger from
that quarter is at an end. The farmer, who composted,
exposed his seed to vegetate on a small scale, where in a
short time he could destroy those that had vegetated, and
expose a fresh parcel ; from that cause he might succeed,
under the same course that the other failed : he might
have succeeded equally well, by introducing more fallow
crops, and had a year's advance and increase in crop, to
have balanced the account of labour. I very much
doubt whether the vegetative power of weed- seeds is de-
stroyed by fermentation of a muck heap, unless it pro-
ceeds to height amounting almost to actual combustion ;
for the embryo principle of life resists the efforts of de-
composition, in most seeds, that contain but a small
quantity of farinaceous matter. Most weed- seeds are of
this description. In many, the vegetative power is as-
sisted.

That fermentation of muck in a heap must be produc-
tive of great loss, every observer of nature, in her mode
of preparing food for plants, might have supposed ; eve-
ry farmer might have adopted the same assumption, from
the smell of his muck heap : but it is science, by teach-

cum, Vol. V. p. 104. The successful farmer prospered by change
of crops, and invariably composting and rotting his dung. Smut
was uniformly the chief destroyer of his predecessor's crops ; —
of wheat particularly: but it never revisited the fields manured
with composted dung, after having been cleansed by tares, vetches,
and other fallow crops. R. P.

180 Muck and Fresh Stable Manure.

ing us the principles of vegetables, that has enabled us to
submit it to demonstrative, and therefore satisfactory-
proof: nor has any application that I have made led me
to conclude, that this " inevitable loss was, in profitable
result, a gain." Among many, I will particularize the
result of one application upon a poor washed piece of
land, where but a few solitary roots of grass would grow,
and where a return of the seed of wheat could not have
been expected from the most favourable season. It was
applied at the rate of about twenty cart-loads to the acre.
The smell of ammonia was penetrating : the wheat grew
so thick, that it actually moulded as high as the third
joint, before it lodged ; but it was better filled than ever
I witnessed of an equal quantity of straw on any ground,
and far superior to any other part of the field, where there
was nearly an equal quantity of straw. I was under the ne-
cessity of cutting it four days sooner than the rest would
do, that was manured with rotted dung. The farmer that
applies his muck before fermentation, is able to cover
nearly twice the quantity of land, with equal effect. The
difference in result of the two systems, therefore, will
stand somewhat thus : — Two men have equal sums at
interest ; the one takes up his interest when due, applies
it in some business, by which he gains one hundred per
cent, per annum ; to this doubled sum he adds the next
year's interest, for a new capital, to embark in the same
trade ; while the other lets it lay in the hands of his debtor.
Let me impress it upon the mind of every farmer, that
loss by warming rains, or exhalation, is not the greatest
foe he has to contend with. The existence of the latter,
in sensible quantities, is even doubtful : the former may
be arrested by a layer of earth under the muck, and a

Muck and Fresh Stable Manure. 181

basin situated in a convenient place, to receive what
drains away. But it is the decomposing efforts of fer-
mentation, by converting the materials into an elastic
fluid, that bids defiance to the practical provisions of art
to prevent its escape, in the presence of the heat produc-
ed by a fermenting mass.

Note to the communication on Hot Muck, &c.

I receive with pleasure any correction of errors I may commit
in theories of any kind ; and particularly on a subject so impor-
tant to tillage crops as that observed upon in the foregoing essay.
But both the writer and myself will find that theories do little
towards conviction, in operations wherein practice is the surest
guide. My theories, in his opinion, are inapplicable ; and short
of proving the points I aimed to establish : and so, for aught I
know to the contrary, some of them may be; and if so, they show
the impolicy of giving too many reasons, when one or a few would
be sufficient. Practical proof, too, supersedes the necessity of
abstract discussion. But still my experience warrants my de-
cided disapprobation of the use of hot muck. I have no personal
object to gain ; and, desiring that truth may prevail, by an eluci-
dation bestowed on it by a series of facts, I consider myself as
having done some service in producing discussion. I have been
a practical farmer, with more or less activity and personal atten-
tion to it, (accordingly as my other engagements permitted) for
the greatest portion of my life. The account I gave is founded on
numerous facts, which, through a long course of time, fixed my
opinion, and directed my practice. Had I kept a journal of every
experiment I have made and seen on this subject, I could have fur-
nished perhaps stronger proof of accidental or rare success, witli
hot and unrotted dung, than I have perceived in the few instances
related by the writer, and others who disagree with me. But safe
practice must be warranted by the balance of many facts. In
some instances, with me, the earth surrounding the covered dung

182 Muck and Fresh Stable Manure.

or muck ploughed in, has checked the fermentation; and the
•wetted straw has neither fermented nor rotted. Unless the mass
be reasonably rotted, it is impossible to spread it, so that the
animal matter can be equally distributed. It will lie in lumps
or aggregations of dung, which will ferment (especially if ap-
plied to summer crops) in a hot and dry season, violently ; whilst
the strawy parts are little affected. Your crop will grow uneven,
and bunchy in spots which will fall. And thus I have, in nume-
rous instances, far overbalancing those to the contrary, found
the fact to be. The mischiefs attending it have passed under
my frequent observation. The account of the rationale of mil-
dews, smut, &c. given in our second volume, page 160, &c. agrees
with my frequent experience. The hot dung, or indeed any
stimulating manure, promotes, in warm days, rapid and over-
abundant circulation of sap, which, being extravasated and check-
ed by chilly nights, coagulates, feculates, and rots. Insects I have
seen in countless numbers on such extravasated sap. Low or
damp situations are most adapted to chill and check the circula-
tion, and in them mildews are therefore more frequent ; but they
are not exclusively subject to them. Those who soil, and for that
purpose cut their grass and weeds before maturity of the seed, or
apply their muck in drill crops, kept clean by frequent hoeing
or harrowing, have the best chance of success against the growth
of weeds, and possibly on other accounts. I am in hopes, that,
if (although unintentionally on my part) I rouse up antagonists
to my practice ; be their motives what they may ; or set to work
candid and intelligent inquirers ; some settled results will be es-
tablished, on a subject on which differences both of opinion and
practice have existed, as long as my memory enables me to re-
collect. If this be the consequence, I shall be gratified, be those
results either favourable or contradictory to my individual opi-
nion or experience. Farmers of wet clay soils will be the most
successful with hot muck ; especially if they copy Mr, Gregg's
practice, as related in a note in our second volume, pages 71, 72.
But, in his essay on the subject, I find his dung undergoes a
reasonable fermentation before it is applied.

Anxious only for practical truth, and never contending for
victory in opinion, I am not disposed to enter into controversy

Muck and Fresh Stable Manure. 183

on any agricultural subject, and especially on theories. Such dis-
putes do no service ; and tend to prevent the great mass of farmers
from meddling with a litigated topic. I shall therefore forbear any
animadversions on Mr. P.?s remarks on my endeavours to eluci-
date my opinions ; unsuccessful as to him, and most probably with
others who deem stercoraries useless ; and, indeed, if they are
right, mischievous. Much less shall I incline to discuss the modus
operandi of dung, or other manures. In such discussions, men
of more intelligence than either of us have failed. Nor do I pre-
tend confidently to account for the causes of mildew, smut, or
other diseases in grain. I continue to hold covered stercoraries,
and compound dung-hills, in high estimation. If this be an error,
I a.mnow so incorrigible, (yet, I trust, open to future conviction,)
that I willingly join in opinion with very many experienced ag-
ricultors, that directly applying fresh unfermented stable dung
to crops, is a lamentable and wasteful misapplication of a power-
ful raw material ; invaluable for its capacity to impregnate and
elaborate earths, and putrescible and other substances : thereby
adding a manifold increase to the stock of manure ; by rendering
other materials highly fertilizing; which would, of themselves,
have been inert, inoperative, and worthless, R. Peters.

February 25, 1816.

( 184 )

Mode of cultivating Indian Corn. Harroxvs.
By i?. K. Meade, of Virginia.

Lucky Hit> May 28th, 1816.

Dear Sir,

The plaster is working miracles in our limestone soil.
A next neighbour of mine, whose veracity I can vouch
for, has, with the aid, he says, of fifteen bushels of plas-
ter, cleared four hundred dollars from fifteen acres of land.
He put, late in the spring, fifteen bushels of plaster on
fifteen acres of clover, and got but a very moderate crop
of hay, there being a great drought. He thinks it will
pay him for all the expense of plaster, cutting, and get-
ting out forty bushels of clover seed, at ten dollars per
bushel, which he actually sold. This neighbour of mine,
John Kerfoot, has been in the habit, generally, of having
better wheat than myself; and I cannot account for it, if
it be not from this circumstance. He pulverizes well,
after a deep ploughing, sometimes two ploughings, sow-
ing from three to five pecks of wheat per acre, doubly
harrowing it in, with light harrows, very shallow. I pre-
pare my ground in the same way, sow from four to six
pecks per acre, and put it in with heavy, sharp harrows,
well weighted, so that the grain has been put to a consi-
derable depth. His grain uniformly looks thicker than
mine. I intend, this fall, to roll in a small spot of wheat ;
last fall I smoothed off, with a small harrow, thirty-two

Mode of cultivating Indian Corn, fcfc. 185

rows in my corn field, where the wheat had been plough-
ed in with a Dutch shovel ; — it has uniformly looked bet-
ter than the rough ploughing, and will turn out, I think,
considerably more. I shall tire you out with my desul-
tory remarks ; will conclude, then, with the harrow. My
father was in the habit of using a variety of insu-uments,
similar to those you describe in your last letter, but our
country was not then sufficiently clear of stumps and
rocks, nor is it now, to work complicated instruments to
advantage. To put in as much as we could, during the
season, has been our general aim ; paying but little re-
gard to the mode of cultivation, or the improvement of
the soil. My practice, in some measure, and my ideas,
agree with your mode of corn cultivation, though, with
my neighbours, I have been in the habit of planting my
corn in half prepared land, and mangling the young corn
to cultivate the balance ; but I have done with it ; an
experiment this spring has confirmed me. I cultivate
two thirty acre fields in corn, both set in blue grass and
clover, the one I harrowed down with a heavy harrow,
with three horses, only once, the other I harrowed and
cross harrowed, with the same harrow, but loaded, and
drawn by four horses, which put it in fine order. This,
the last planted field, has met with a trifling interruption
from the worm, while the other has been much injured,
and required a great deal of re-plantirig. The first re-
quires a great deal of cultivation ; the other will wait
more than a month after the corn is put in the ground.
I put a handful of ashes, with plaster, in each hill, as do
a great many farmers around me, in imitation of Farrow,
who made a great crop in that way, though the propor-
tion of plaster was greater with him.

21

186 Mode of cultivating Indian Corn, fcfc.

This equilateral triangle is preferable to the diamond
harrow, in stumpy or rocky land ; I give a preference to
the other, in perfectly arable land.

=9

v, iS* o

sr°2 *

2L.S ft

PS

ft p g-

c/>

(X

The triangle harrows six feet of ground. It is used
in the first place as a breaking down harrow, and em-
ploys for that purpose eleven teeth, which occupy the
two sides of the triangle, and divide the ground, within
a fraction, into seven inch spaces. The teeth are so
long and sharp as to cut through a sod, or penetrate stiff
ground, with a competent weight on the harrow, which
four horses can easily draw. The distance of the teeth
from each other is so great as to prevent its ever choak-
ing. The teeth, being keyed in above, may be easily
removed, and turned round, to use the other sharp edge ;
for the teeth are flatted, and taper gradually from the
under part of the harrow timber to the point, so that the
strength of the tooth is fore and aft ; a blacksmith's bill
is saved by the economy of turning the tooth. The
usual way of putting in harrow teeth is from the top of
the harrow, barbing the teeth well, to make them hold,

Mode of cultivating Indian Corn, &c. 187

thereby tearing the wood work to pieces, when you take
them out to sharpen ; then wedging and splitting the
timbers, when you put them in again ; thence to loosing
teeth, and half-harrowing — Virginian style — Is it so in
Pennsylvania? These teeth are gradually shouldered
up from the under part of the timber to the top, burnt in,
so that they fit as close as wax, and, when keyed above,
cannot come out or move. These holes, being burnt
exactly of the same size, will admit any change of shape
to the tooth below. Now, this same stock, which, if
made of good timber, will last a generation, and will re-
ceive the addition of ten teeth behind, to divide the se-
ven inch spaces into three and a half, for harrowing in
grain, or a full set. twenty-one, short teeth, and square,
to put in grain, will answer in the place of two. This
harrow, I think, will be free from choaking, (the general
objection to them) for the last mentioned ten teeth, being
all behind, are seven inches apart.

188 Mode of cultivating Indian Corn, bV.

It ought to have been cut oft' at the lower line, to make it square
six feet.

This harrow is intended to answer the double purpose
of harrowing down, and putting in ; goes over eight feet
of ground, and divides into seven and three and a half
inch spaces. The front bar or slab of iron will be effec-
tual in drawing up stumps, and defending the rest of the
harrow. I have worked one of this sort several years,
with four oxen, with the teeth too close for a breaking
down harrow. It is not laid off mathematically ; but will
serve to give you an idea of the plan. It is, to be sure,
a common one, with some addition, which you will have
the opportunity of saying, whether or no is an amend-
ment.

Believe me, dear sir,

With great regard and respect,

R. K. Meade.

( 189 )

Stunt and Black Grub.

One of our correspondents, (S. Preston, Esq.) whose
communication, in extenso, is, from necessity, omitted ;
informs of his having observed the stunt in timothy grass,
as well as in wheat. He mentions a fact of his own
knowledge, having repeatedly practised it, that firing a
musket near the ground, over garden beds infested by
the black grub, which annoy and cut oft' cabbage and
other plants, will kill them, by the concussion in the air,
or some cause producing the effect. It seems they are
migratory, like the corn grub ; and those not killed may
rembve to some other scene of depredation. How to
account for this fact, or how to improve it to more im-
portant purposes, must be left to philosophers, and other
savans. We barely state it, as communicated. Dead
birds, insects, &c. are frequently found after thunder
storms ; and it is not uncommon for dead bodies of per-
sons drowned, dead fish, &c. to be raised and discovered
floating on the surface of rivers and other deep waters,
after severe thunder ; and even after heavy cannon having
been fired. When the British fleet and army occupied
New York, during the war of the revolution, the fre-
quent firing of cannon either banished or destroyed the
lobsters, which had been plenty in the bay and waters at and
near that city. They returned, gradually, after the peace ;
but are said not to be now in such plenty as they had
been in early times. Other causes may have contributed
to the latter circumstance. A violent blow or concus-
sion on the ice, when rivers, or other large streams, or
dams, are frozen over, will torpify or kill fish, so that
they have been taken, thus stunned, out of air-holes, or
those cut through the ice for the purpose.

( 190 )

Communications, in consequence of the request of the
Society, on the circumstances attending the season of
1816.

The following Resolution of the Society was promul-
gated by the curators ; and many of our agricultural fel-
low-citizens were so obliging as to communicate infor-
mation. The matter for our volume has increase^ so
far beyond our expectations, that we are compelled to
omit some communications partially, and others en-
tirely, merely for want of room in our volume ; and by
no means from inclination to give preferences to any of
our valuable correspondents.

" At a Special Meeting of " The Philadelphia Society for
promoting Agriculture" held October (10th mo.)
30th, 1816.

It was resolved, unanimously,

That the Curators, with the assistance of the Secretary
and Assistant Secretary, and any other Member or
Members of the Society, who will procure and give in-
formation, collect facts relating to Agriculture and Hor-
ticulture, and of all circumstances connected therewith,
which have occurred through the extraordinary season
of 1816 ; and particularly the effects of Frost on vegeta-
tion, so far as it shall be in their power to acquire a
knowledge of them. In performing this useful service.

Season 0/I8I6. 191

they will designate the Trees, Grasses, and other Plants,
and especially those cultivated, on which the Season has
had either beneficial or injurious influence, and the local
situations in which it has operated more or less pernici-
ously, with the view to ascertain (among other beneficial
results) the hardy or tender Grains, Grasses, or Plants,
most proper for situations exposed to droughts, wet, or
frost. In their inquiries, they will endeavour to discover
the stages of growth in which cultivated crops have been
more or less affected, and the state of products both of
Grains, Grasses, and Fruit. The addition of any facts,
as to insects and vermin usually or occasionally preying
on cultivated plants, and whether more or less injury has
been done by them in this, than in ordinary seasons, would
also be useful. The result of such inquiries to be drawn
into the form of a report, to be made by the Curators at
our annual Meeting in January next, subjoining such
observations as they shall deem proper to furnish, n©t
only with the view to present information, but to record,
for future instruction, the uncommon occurrences, and
the consequences attending them, which have marked
this anomalous period.

Published by order of the Society.

RICHARD PETERS, President
ROBERTS VAUX, Secretary."

192

Season c/1816.

Brunswick, (Maine) December 31, 1816.

My dear sir,

I recently observed, in the Repertory, a paper signed
by yourself, requesting information, relative to the late
uncommon season. Although your views were probably
confined to Pennsylvania and the neighbouring states, I
thought it might be interesting to you to see some ac-
count of the climate of this extreme part of the United
States, more especially in those months in which vegeta-
tion takes place. I use a very accurate thermometer,
with Fahrenheit's scale. It is suspended about six feet
above the ground, and has a northern exposure.

TABLE I.

Showing the monthly mean temperature for the last seven years,
in May, June, July, August, September, and October.

, Mu.'UUs.

| 1810.

| 1811.

| 1812.

| 1813.

j 1814.

| 1815.

| 1816.

May.

| 55.3°

| 54.7°

| 49.5°

| 52.4°

| 55.4°

[ 52.3°

| 50.5°

June.

j 63.6

| 63.8

| 60.8

| ol. 8

| 62.7

| 64.2

| 58.8

July.

| 65.7

| 68.8

| 65.5

| 67.6

| 67.4

| 71.4

| 65.2

August.

| 66.4

! 67.2

| 64.4

| 68.8

J 64.6

| 65.7

| 66.1

September

. | 61.6

| 01.0

j 56.4

j 61.2

j 58.0

1

| 57.9

October.

| 48.1

| 49.2

| 47.7

| 48.5

| 50.1

| 46.8

| 49.9

Means.

| 60.1

| 60.8

| 57.4

| 60.0

| 59.7

| 60.1

| 58.0

TABLE IT.

Showing the annual temperature, deduced from three observations
each day, made at 7h. oQm. A. M., at 1 o'clock P.M., and 15m.
after sunset: and also the annual temperature, deduced from
the extremes of heat and cold, taken each day by a self -regis-
tering thermometer, exposed as above.

YEARS,

From three observations each day,
From extremes of heat and cold,

1810

1811.

1812.

181311814.

1815.11816

45.3°

46.2°

42.6

44.9 45.1

44.5 43.8

42.5

44.2

39.7

41.9 [40.9

42.0 14 1.5

Season of 1816*

193

Mean temperature of the year, for the last seven years,
as deduced from three observations each day, 44.6°.

Mean temperature for the last seven years, as deduced
from the extremes of hefct and cold, each day, 41.9°.

TABLE III.

Showing the quantity of rain, and the coldest day in the preced-
ing months, for seven years.

1810.

1811.

1812.

Month

Rain.

Gr.

Cold.

Day

of
Month

Rain.

Gr.
Cold.

Day

of

Month

Rain.

Gr

Cold.

Day

of
Month

Inches

Inches.

Inches.

May,

2.8

25.0°

7

4.3

24.0°

24

4.4

23.0°

16

June,

2.9

36.0

7

2.9

36.8

1

7.7

42.5

5

July,

3.0

44.0

15

5.0

40.5

1

5.0

43 0

2

Aug.

3.6

435

16

3.6

42.5

6

3.7

37.0

31

Sept'r.

1.4

32.5

17

0.5

33.3

22

1.0

27.8

29

Oct'r.

14

14.0

31

26 21.5

18

46

198

14

Inches. 15.1

18.9

26.4

1813.

1814.

1815.

May,

2.7

21.5

4

11.4

31.5

3

1.8

24.5

2

June,

2.1

39.5

3

3.7

36.0

7

47

40.0

11

July,

2.7

43.0

11

3.6

39.0

13

1.5

41.5

5

Aug.

2.2

44.0

19

7-3

59.5

26

3.0

415

10

Sept'r.

0.7

37.5

27

5.1

31.5

6

4.2

32.0

Oct'r.

1.6

16.0

22

0.6

17.0

25

1.2

197

31

Inches

12.0

1816.

May,

4.1

25.0

15

June,

1.4

30.0

10

Julv,

1.6

33.5

9

Aug.

2.1

41.7

29

Sept'r.

0.3

25.5

28

Oct'r.

61

23.5

5

31.7 16.4

This table will enable you to
form some idea of our expo-
sure to late frosts in spring, and
early frosts in autumn. When
my thermometer, suspended as
15.6 before mentioned, falls to 36°, I

generally hear of slight frosts in low grounds. When it
falls to 34 or 33° in the air, the frost on the ground de-
stroys tender vines, &c. I have remarked, that the
same degree of cold, immediately after rain, when the
earth and vegetables are wet, will not so certainly pro-
duce injury, as when the weather is very dry.

2K

194 Season 0/I8I6.

Of the seven last years, 1812 and 1816 have been ve-
ry unfavourable to vegetation. The average tempera-
ture of 1812, during the aforementioned months, was a
little less than in 1816 ; but the season was much more
wet.

The extremes of cold, the last year, have been very
great. In June, the thermometer fell below 36 degrees,
on four different days.

My observations on the effect of the last season on dif-
ferent vegetables, have been very limited. Good crops
of wheat and rye were raised in Maine ; but the corn has
been almost entirely cut off.

Your's, with much esteem,

Parker Cleaveland.
Mr. Solomon W. Conrad.

Season of 1816. 195

York> June 5, 1817.

Sir,

In consequence of a publication, signed by you, as se-
cretary of " The Philadelphia Society for promoting Agri-
culture," I am induced to communicate, on some of the
points, what came under my own observation. In this
county, (York,) the crops of wheat are generally very
luxuriant, and promise an abundant harvest. The Hes-
sian fly has done little or no injury ; at any rate, it can-
not be discerned by examination.

The only effectual remedy for preventing the dreadful
effects of this destructive insect, is late sowing. It is be-
lieved, that sowing after several severe frosts, or about
the first of November, is the only method discovered by
experienced farmers, to prevent the fly's ravages.

The grub, or cut worm, as it is generally called, has
done injury to an alarming extent. Some fields of corn
are entirely destroyed, and require re-planting. Some
farmers have made use of precautionary means, by roll-
ing the seed corn in ashes. It is supposed that the ashes,
adhering to the grain, render it unpalatable to the cut
worm. These means have actually answered the expect-
ed purpose, and have facilitated the vegetation of the
plant. There is another remedy, which has also proved
destructive to the cut worm, and a preservative to the
tender plant of corn, viz. When the plant is just pierc-
ing the soil, take a tea-spoon full of slacked lime, (or
even more will do no harm,) and scatter it on the plant.
Another method, — Roll the seed corn in slacked lime, it
will produce the same result. These experiments have
been tried, and I firmly believe will answer the cxpecta-

196 Season 0/I8I6.

tions, and indeed far exceed them. I had a field of corn
ploughed last fall, late in the season, it having been a clo-
ver field, with a view of preventing the grub, or cut
worm, from destroying the corn plant, this spring, but I
find that the worm is even worse in this field, thus pre-
pared, than it is in fields that were broke up early in the
spring for corn. If this hasty communication can possi-
bly be of any service to the important interests of agri-
culture, I shall be happy in having contributed my mite.
Very respectfully,

Your obedient humble servant,

John Gardner.*
Mr. Roberts Vaux.

* It is unfortunate, that in the practice of an art in which man-
kind, in a state of civilization, are so much interested; there
should be not only adverse opinions, but clashing facts. It must
be from the balance of the latter only, that a profitable result can
be established. Nor can we be so well informed, as we ought, of
the circumstances and steps, under and by which, the conclusion,
as to even the alleged fact, is arrived at. Much inquiry is now
in progress on the subject of fall ploughing, as it affects the cut
worm. In itself, if no such enemy to our corn crops existed, it
is of essential use ; not only as it meliorates the soil, but for-
wards the business of a farmer, by performing a preparatory ope-
ration to planting, at a time of more leisure than the opening of
spring generally admits. It will be found, however, that the ba-
lance of facts is favourable to the practice of fall ploughing, well
executed ; and especially, if lime be applied, and well harrowed
in ; at a season when it is placed in a situation to have its caus-
ticity subdued, by the ensuing winter. Some who plough deep and
well in the spring, find lime to operate so as to repel or destroy the
grub, in a great degree. But the fact, of fall ploughing being a re-
medy, or preventive, (and it may not be the sole preventive, or re-
medy,) is all essential. It may not always succeed ; nor does any
other agricultural operation. The cut worms may be, as they ha\ '

Season of 1816. 197

been, overwhelmingly destructive and numerous ; so as occasion-
ally to baffle every human effort. But there is no justification
for our neglecting any thing, which has been successful, in mul-
titudes of instances; or practicing bad tillage, by what is called
listing; or throwing up a few furrows of the sod, and leaving the
rest of the field unploughed. This may be sometimes apparent-
ly warranted by the event, as to the grub; but, to meet one oc-
casional misfortune, we should not establish a reprehensible ha-
bit of permanent hostility to the foundation of all good husband-
ry,— complete and frequent aration. Good farming, manuring,
and late sowing, do not always guard against the fly. Yet in a very
great majority of instances, as in the one mentioned by our cor-
respondent, they are successful. The chastisements we experi-
ence from both the grub and the fly, correct bad habits ; and force
on us amendment in our agricultural practices, and sedulous at-
tention to the destruction of vermin. R. Peters,

198 Season oflSlb.

Brandywine, 6th Mo. 4th, 1817.

Esteemed Friend,

A farmer is now with me, who says he has planted his
corn the third time this season, and finished yesterday
only ; the grub having nearly destroyed the whole that
was in seven acres.

He also relates, that his neighbour's field, of about
twelve acres, separated only by a fence, is quite good,
and except about ten hills, he has not been obliged to
re-plant at all.

He likewise relates, that both fields were ploughed last
season, and cultivated alike in all respects, but that his
neighbour's field being overgrown with wood grass, it
was burned off last fall, before ploughing ; he knows no
other method of accounting for the different state of the
corn in the two fields, and I mention this fact, as it may
throw some light upon a matter, very interesting, not on-
ly to our agriculturists, but to all the inhabitants of these

states.

There is reason to fear that the corn but just now
planted, can yield little or no crop, unless the remainder
of the season be uncommonly fine ; and as the corn of
rich lots, that has not been injured by the worm, is scarce
four inches high, there is much reason to fear, that our
corn crop will be very short this year, as well as the last.

Thy friend,

William Poole.

Roberts Vaux.

Season of IS16. 199

Springfield, Delaware Co. June 6, 1817.

Sir,
Seeing that the Agricultural Society are desirous of
ascertaining what modes of previous preparation of the
soil have been found to prevent the corn grub, or cut
worm, I will give the information as respects myself.
Late in the month of March last, I ploughed a twelve
acre field all up, and harrowed it well ; I then marked it
out both ways, four feet, and planted my corn the first
week in May. The cut worm destroyed the whole of
the corn. I ploughed about eight acres, by backing two
furrows together, and was careful to plough about four
inches deep, and that none of the furrows fell back, to
give the worm any chance of getting up on the ridge ;
this I did about the middle of April. In order that I
should work it both ways, and that there should be no
marks made, to enable the worms to get to the hills of
corn, I got my light cart, and put a man in to drive the
horse, and a boy to move the poles, and that made a suf-
ficient mark to plant my corn : — the cut worms have not
destroyed one hill in a thousand. There are great quan-
tities of them, which feed on the grass, and one would
suppose, to see where they have eaten the grass, that
sheep had been in. Spots are eaten entirely bare. They
have suffered very much by getting into the furrows, they
being so deep, that the grubs have not been able to get
out. I am now ploughing up the middles, and my corn
is sufficiently large to harrow, which I intend doing as
soon as I finish ploughing. There is one other way, that
will, in my opinion, completely destroy the worm, that is,
in the spring, as soon as the worm makes its appearance,

200 Season of 1816.

which will be about the middle of April, burn your ground
in any way you can : — where there is no furzy grass, it
would be worth while to have straw or leaves : be care-
ful not to burn it too soon in the spring, before the worm
makes its appearance. As to the Hessian fly, we know
nothing about them, only that they are eating the wheat
in my neighbourhood.* I think about one half will be
destroyed by them.

* The wheat so much injured has probably been badly farmed ;
or some uncommon circumstance has occurred to that so ruinous-
ly attacked by the fly ; for we are authorized to say, without
doubting our worthy correspondent's statement, that there is as
o-ood wheat now growing in that neighbourhood, as any in the
county ; and very little, if at all, injured by the fly. As to plough-
ing in grain, to prevent the stunt, its efficacy is not found in the
parts most subject to this malady; for where it prevails most, it
is a common practice to plough in the grain. W. Graham, Esq.
of Chester, has a corn field uninjured by the cut worms ; (which
are in great plenty in his field,) owing to an accidental growth
of buckwheat, which he suffers to remain till the grub has passed
away. The worms are found among the buckwheat, and ia tufts
of sorrel, in great numbers ; whilst the corn hills are entirely free
from them. This seems to show, that they have no predilection
for Indian corn, but prefer other plants. If this should really be
the case, they will be a greater scourge than they are by being
occasional destroyers of corn : for they will seduce people wish-
ing to save trouble, into slovenly farming, to guard against the
grub ; whose visits may cease, but bad habits endure. Mr. Gib-
bons has furnished another proof of the " salutary effects of fire
on soils;" and it will be found, the more it is attended to, that
proofs without number can be afforded ; not only as it regards
the destruction of vermin, but as it respects the melioration of
the soil. See Vol. III. Agric. Mem. pages 214, 15, &c. See Mr.
Poole's account of burning the wood grass on a field, having pre-
vented injuries by grubs. ^" Peters.

Season 0/I8I6. 201

The stunt is a new thing among us, but as far as I am
able to judge, the cause is, that wheat that is plough-
ed in, is not so subject to the stunt, as that which is har-
rowed in, for this reason, — the wheat that is harrowed in
is not covered sufficiently deep to give the root a proper
hold of the ground, and therefore, in the spring, when the
ground settles, it leaves the root bare, and it is not nou-
rished, and of course stops growing. The best method
I have found for a crop of wheat, is to plough it in, and
let the furrows be pretty coarse, and in the spring it will
moulder down about the root, and by covering it, be of
great use to the wheat.

I am, &c.

Joseph Gibbons.
Mr. Roberts Vaux.

2L

202 Season 0/I8I6.

Upper Providence y Del. Co. June 1, 1817.

Esteemed Friend,

The ravages of the cut worm, in tiiis neighbourhood,
have exceeded all former experience ; and should the
remaining part of the season be unfavourable, no corn
crops, or very partial ones, will be obtained this year. —
Being myself one of the sufferers, from this ambushed,
and indefatigable enemy, I have been trying to discover
some means by which the corn may be protected ; and,
if possible, the Avorm destroyed. And whatever the pro-
cess should be, I concluded that best, (if effectual in ar-
resting the worm,) which should be performed with the
least labour, and the greatest expedition, after the corn
was planted. I believe I have succeeded in my wishes,
and do myself the pleasure to communicate, through you,
to the Agricultural Society, for the purpose of general
usefulness, the plan I have adopted.

I propose to take a pair of narrow cart or chair wheels,
securing on the outside of the rim, or tire, two or four
projections, somewhat similar to the tooth or cog of a
mill-wheel ; and so formed, as to impress in the earth a
hole four inches in depth, and of an elliptical form, which
will be made by tapering the tooth from the four sides to
the centre.

The wheels thus prepared are to be taken through the
■field, by a horse, immediately after planting, in direc-
tions alternately opposite, that in going and returning,
they will track and make the holes on each side of two
rows of corn ; should the number of holes made in go
ing and returning one way over the field, be insufficient,
it may be proper to cross at right angles to the first

Season 0/I8I6. 20;

course, as we do in marking out for planting. Thus
will the wheel tracks and holes be so numerous, as to
render it very difficult, if not impossible, for the worm to
arrive at the corn. It may appear strange, that these ver-
min can crawl up the sides of a clean tin cup, and yet
are unable to raise themselves up the inclined sides of a
very shallow trench, if the ground be light and crumb-
ling. These facts I have ascertained by experiments ;
and therefore conceive, that the worm, in searching for
the corn, will get into the track, which will conduct it to
the hole, into which it will be precipitated, and there pe-
rish. In addition to this, I can state, that I have had
the plan in operation, and find it answers completely.

The pressing and polite invitation you gave me, to
furnish the Society with any circumstances in my prac^
tice, likely to promote the interests of agriculture, aided
by the desire to be useful, is the only apology I can of-
fer, in making this communication, to which I subscribe
myself, respectfully and with sincerity,

Your friend,

Parke Shee.
Mr. Roberts Vaux.

P. S. My plan of fitting up the wheels, for the pur-
pose I have stated, is simple, and may be accomplished
in a few hours. If you desire to know it, I will make it
the subject of a future communication. P. S.

204 Season of 1816.

London Grove, 6th Mo. 14, 1817.

Dear Friend,

Observing thy invitation to farmers, in the Freeman's
Journal, I sit down to communicate some remarks which
have forcibly pressed themselves on my attention. Be-
ing neither philosopher, chemist, nor botanist, and more
disposed to profit by my neighbours' experiments than
to hazard any myself, I shall confine myself to such facts
as have met my eye in the humble avocation of a plough-
man.

The severity of the weather in 1816, which prolonged
the cold till after midsummer, made dreadful havoc
among the eggs and nestlings of all wild birds, and de-
stroyed thousands of the old. These birds, we know,
chiefly subsist and feed their young upon flies and creep-
ing insects, of every description : I might say entirely,
since in the breeding season there are no ripe seeds to
assist them in that office. It follows, that flies of all
kinds, and their larvae, which include, I believe, worms
and caterpillars of every description, except the varieties
of the so called earth worm, must have abounded and
multiplied in an uncommon degree. The cut worm fly,
(which we believe to be shaped like the musquitoe, but
three or four times its size, of a dull yellow colour, with
long legs extending remarkably behind as it flies,) and
the Hessian fly being comparatively undisturbed, had full
leisure to deposit their eggs ; and few can have failed of
remarking, that the migratory tribes of small birds are,
this year, perhaps, not by one twentieth so numerous as
usual. Blackbirds especially, which used to visit our
fields in clouds, at the very season when the cut worm

Season of 1816. 205

makes its ravages, are rarely to be seen, and not more
than a single bird, or a very few indeed together. Even
the common crow (a ravenous devourer of vermin) ap-
pears here to be almost extinct.

Having never made the changes these insects under-
go a subject of study, I must be silent on that head ;
but if the society should be led to believe, that the ab-
sence of their natural destroyers is a main cause of their
present increase and alarming depredations, a remedy pre-
sents itself, if the public will be prudent enough to adopt it.

Let it be recommended, under the sanction of their
respectable authority, to printers through the state, to
urge (as of serious importance) that sportsmen, young
and old, should abstain from shooting or otherwise de-
stroying blackbirds, robins, jays, catbirds, swallows,
spaiTows, &c. &c. If I be right in my conjecture, the
most valuable consequences to agriculture, will follow
such a jubilee, and the measure has this to recommend
k, that its motive may be made clear to every man's ca-
pacity ; and if it should produce no solid good, it is at
least an act of mercy.

No wheat that I have yet known will uniformly resist
the attacks of the fly ; nor do I believe, from the nature
of the attack, that such a wheat will ever appear. Jones's,
and the orange straw, (bearded,) seem to suffer least.
The surest preservatives are strong manuring and late
sowing ; not so late, however, as to hazard the mildew.
No previous preparation of maize will prevent the cut
worm ; but steeping in putrid chamber-lye, or liquid tar,
and rolling in plaster or sulphur, one part of the latter to
four, will quicken and invigorate the first growth, and
nearly save the grain from destruction by birds. It might

206 Season 0/ 1816.

be worth trying, whether cane brimstone, (a very cheap
article,) finely powdered and mixed with plaster above
ground, would not check the depredations of the worm.
Holes made near the plants have destroyed inconceivable
multitudes, as have perpendicular- sided, narrow trenches,
between the corn field and grass or clover land. Amos
Harvey, a respectable maltster and farmer on Brandy wine,
speaks of many bushels being taken in this manner by a
person in his neighbourhood.

I have pulled up many plants of wheat, diseased with
the stunt ; in some I have found a tough, slender, red-
dish worm, (I believe the true wire worm,) in the core
of the root ; in others, the fibres have been decayed, and
many covered with a light grey or whitish mould, ap-
pearing like lime-clean seasonable tilth. Sound, plump
seed, and timely manuring, with ripe dung, I believe to
be the only preventives.

I remain, thy sincere friend,

Henry Cox.
Roberts Vaux.

It has been long suspected, that insects were the cau-
ses of the stunt in wheat. The wire worm in England,
produces the same effect. The remedy is there to steep
the seed, or roll it in quick lime. In our appendix to
volume 2, pages 95, 96, Mr. Sommerville recommends
mixing lime with dung, (to destroy insects,) after the fer-
mentation has sufficiently progressed. It will be seen in
a paper in the present volume, that success has attended
a change of seed, (so far as respects the stunt,) from the

Season 0/I8I6. 207

wheats commonly sown, to the purple or blue straw-
wheat. Mr. Cox's account of the worm found in the
root of stunted wheat, is a proof that worms or insects
are the enemies to be subdued. Such vermin abound
the most in dunged grounds ; and in the accounts we
have of the sedged or stunted wheat, the malady is the
most severe, where cow pens for winter feeding have
been placed.

The supposed " cut worm fly," is, most probably, an
ichneumon, bred in the grub. Entomological writers
aver, that the ichneumon fly, deposits its eggs in cater-
pillars, (and the grub is a species of caterpillar,) and thus
brings its own progeny into existence, by the destruc-
tion of the larvae of other insects. The varieties in co-
lour and shape of the ichneumons are numerous ; there
being more than four hundred different species.

R. Peters.

208 Season of 1816,

Buckland, Prince William county, (Va.)

June llth, 1817.

Sir,

But little elucidation of the subjects of inquiry con-
tained in your public letter of the 5th mo. 30th, 1817,
can be expected from a part of the country where agri-
cultural improvements are so little advanced as in this.
We have indeed profited by the accidental intercourse
some of us have had with Pennsylvania, and derived
from thence the possession of the means, as far as expe-
rience has unfolded facts, of escaping the ravages of the
Hessian fly. The kind of wheat cultivated in Chester
county, in 1810 and previously, called Jones's white
wheat, was brought by James Lawler to Fauquier coun-
ty, in Virginia, in that year, where, and in the adjacent
counties, it has been since cultivated, without experi-
encing injury from the fly. This fact is established by
sundry certificates, published in the National Intelligen-
cer on the 5th inst.

For a history of this variety of wheat, beyond Mr.
Lawler's information, we shall actually look to your quar-
ter, and anticipate, from the inquiry you have invited, the
gratification of an account of its origin.

One of your inquiries conveys the supposition that the
purple straw, and golden beard wheats, resist the attacks
of the fly. The experience of this part of the country
is against the supposition. If it is the case in Pennsyl-
vania, where perhaps these kinds of wheat were lately in-
troduced, the circumstance discloses an important fact in
agriculture.

Season of 1816. 209

The very seasonable spring we have had, seemed, at
one time, to have providentially interposed between us
and this destroying mischief ; but, since the wheat has
come into head, we find it stand very thin, even on good
soils, few stalks not wounded, and many falling daily, in
their progress to maturity, giving the wheat a tangled ap-
pearance ; while the fly continues to depredate on the ten-
der stalks, lately put forth, and will probably destroy them
all. Throughout this country, the degree of injury is
various, except in the Jones wheat, which has sustained
none ; and the difference of degrees is sometimes exhi-
bited in the same field, without any known circumstance
to account for it. The general estimate of injury in this
part of the country, from the ravages of the fly, cannot, I
think, be made less than three-fourths of the crops. In
former years, the proportion of wheat made into flour, for
exportation, was at least as ten to one of the consump-
tion ; but, from the circumstance of the crops of Indian
corn having been very short, many will be obliged to
feed entirely on small grain, for four or five months to
come ; therefore, in all probability, not more than one-
half of that made will be for exportation.

In this immediate vicinity, the disease called the stunt
is unknown.

On the subject of the cut worm, it cannot be said that
any remedy, tested by general experience, has been dis-
covered. In this neighbourhood, its effects have been
partially felt, in some instances, without any known cause
for the difference in others. Causes have been assigned.
The one most generally accredited, is found in die mode
of cultivation. When the ground has been partially
broken up, the injurv from the worm may be said to be

2M

210 Season of 1816,

less ; and I think, from observation, it may be added,
that the injury is in proportion to the quantity of soil dis-
turbed. The mode practised some where, as published
in the news-papers, of making a hole in each hill, I am
told, was tried by one of my neighbours, but did not
succeed, as in the only instance where he found worms
in the hole, they had cut off the corn before they fell m it!*
In Virginia, we cultivate so much land in corn, in order
to make the necessary quantity for man, horse, and ox,
that it would seem to be a task of hopeless termination,
to erect a pit-fall in every hill, especially in light and
crumbling lands.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

John Love,
Mr. Roberts Vaux.
f The holes ought to be made in the track of the insect. J. M,

Season of 1816. 211

Kinnersley, Queen Ann's County \ Md.
June 10, 1817.

Sir,
Considering it desirable that the erroneous impression
taken up by many persons, should be removed, as re-
gards the blue or purple straw wheat being exempt from
the ravages of the Hessian fly, I can assure you that that
kind of wheat, throughout this district of country, has
suffered considerably more than any other kind. At dif-
ferent periods, I have been induced to purchase the blue
straw, the red chaff bearded, the yellow bearded, and the
white Washington wheat, which last named wheat is the
favourite of all the farmers living on the best lands of
Wye and Chester rivers, all three kinds recommended
by different persons, as suffering least from the Hessian
fly. In the course of twenty-five years' experience, I
have no reason, on that score, to give either the prefer-
ence : they are all equally sufferers, by the ravages of that
destructive insect.

Farmers have tried different modes to get rid of this
troublesome and voracious fly, but I cannot say that I
have ever heard of any person's having been able to suc-
ceed in getting clear of their visits. A gentleman of my
acquaintance, Matthew Tilghman, Esq. formerly of Kent
county, a few days since informed me, that he once im-
mersed his wheat, for a few seconds, while in a sieve, in
pots of boiling water, then suffered it to drain for a mi-
nute or so, and afterwards threw it on the barn floor, and
sprinkled quick lime over it, and spread it thin, to dry :
this course he followed every evening, scalding as much
wheat every evening, as he intended to sow the following

212 Season of 1816.

day. This plan he was induced to adopt, from a publi-
cation he once read on the subject ; the person publish-
ing being under the impression, that the egg of the Hes-
sian fly was deposited by the insect, during the time the
wheat was in head, about a month before harvest. He
reaped a good crop, and means again to pursue this plan
the ensuing fall. I have made up my mind to follow his
example, being confident, if it does not succeed in de-
stroying the fly, that it will, at all events, give the young
plants a vigorous and quick growth, and most likely be
the means of increasing the crop. Lyttleton Gale, Esq.
deceased, who formerly lived near Havre de Grace, on
the Susquehannah river, informed me that his crop of
wheat was much increased, in consequence of soaking
the grain, and rolling it in plaster, until it had taken up
all that would adhere to it. The part of his crop which
I saw, was in full head, and about six inches higher than
other wheat, sowed along side of it, on the same day,
which had no preparation whatever, but was sowed in the
common way. Whether the grain that was soaked and
plastered, was soaked in hot or cold water, I did not as-
certain. It was not done with a view to avoid the fly.

Some years since, being under the impression that the
Hessian fly deposited the egg in the young wheat, after
it had vegetated in the fall of the year, to avoid the first
flight, persons in my neighbourhood were in the habit of
sowing as late as possible : they began to sow from the
1st to the 10th of October, and continued to sow until the
latter part of November ; the crops, of course, were light,
not exceeding what might be called half a crop, could
the wheat have been sowed about the 1st of September.
About a fortnight before I sowed my crop, I was in the

Season 0/I8I6. 213

practice of sowing down my turnings in rye, for the pur-
pose of attracting the fly, and causing them to deposit
the egg therein, and always thought my crop was bene-
fited thereby. The turnings sowed down with the rye
were invariably destroyed, and the wheat only partially
injured. This plan is totally at variance with that of
soaking the wheat in hot water, or rather scalding and
liming it ; which of them is correct, will remain for fu-
ture experiments to decide. The destruction this season
is so general, throughout this and the adjoining counties,
that it is the opinion of the best informed farmers, that
more wheat will not be made than will suffice for seed,
and bread for family use. With the exception of my
son's farm, at Swan point, in Kent county, (the land
whereof is of very superior quality to the forms in gene-
ral,) I know of no one that will produce a fall crop ; the
ground there is handsomely covered with wheat. A con-
siderable part of his ground, where his fallow wheat is,
was manured with the sea oak, or weed, from the bay.
Benjamin Chew, Esq. of your city, can describe the
Swan point farm to you, if necessary to your inquiries.
As to what you term the stunt, I presume it is, what in
this part of the country is termed sedging, or putting on
the appearance of young sedge. This, I am of the opi-
nion, is caused by an insect that girds or eats round the
root, and causes the plant to die. With a small magni-
fying glass, I have discovered an insect among the roots
of the sedged wheat : a microscope would enable a per-
son to give a better description of this insect. The best
lands, particularly bottoms, and hills that have been aid-
ed by manure, suffer ?nost ; indeed I have frequenth
been obliged to plough up land, sowed in wheat, (th(

214 Season of 1816.

plants having been totally destroyed,) and set it in spring
grain. The wheat has sedged with me in corn field
ground, as well as in clover lays and old field fallow, —
in one as bad as the other. No remedy for this has ever
come to my knowledge.

Having purchased some land adjoining my farm last
year, it became necessary to alter the laying off my farm
and I was compelled to sacrifice a crop of young clover,
which I had sowed this spring twelve months, to bring
my fields into the rotation contemplated ; this clover was
sowed on a wheat fallow, and of course my corn was
planted on the stubble of this field ; it is very free from
the worm. The crops of my neighbours, planted in the
old pasture fields, are very much injured by the cut
worm ; and I am informed, that the best chance to en-
sure a crop of corn, is to plant in the stubble fields : the
standing of my crop seems to prove that fact. I always
tar my corn, and roll it in plaster, and never failed till
last year, in making a crop ; my failure then was occa-
sioned by the backwardness of the spring season, and the
early setting in of the frost. Immense quantities of corn
were destroyed last year by the early frost. Tarring and
plastering will certainly prevent the birds from pulling it
up, and thus ensure the first planting to stand. I am
anxious to have a description of the wheat, called Jones's
white wheat, said to withstand the attack of the fly ; and
would esteem it a favour, if you could ascertain the
truth of the statement lately published, stating it to have
been brought into Virginia by a man of the name of
Lawler, from Chester county, Pennsylvania. I want
faith, after the many kinds I have tried, of any particular
kind of wheat being exempt. If you can give me any

Season of 1816. 215

information on this subject, I shall esteem it a Favour.
M. Tilghman, Esq. informed me that a man had scald-
ed some wheat, limed it, sowed it in a box, and placed
that box beside another box, in the south window of a
room, where no fly could get at it ; they both came up,
and the limed wheat was clear of the fly, while the other
was full. I think his information was obtained from a
gentleman of the name of Brown, from New York : the
experiment is easily tested. I write in haste, and with
the hope of being useful. I do not mean to assert that
there are no other good crops in Kent county ; I have
heard of one or two others, but have not seen them.

Your obedient servant,

Richard J. Jones.
Mr. Roberts Vaux.

Those who pursue experiments, founded on the mistaken ori-
gin of the fly, as being in the head of the wheat, or in anywise
affecting the grain, should spare themselves that trouble. It is
well ascertained that the fly deposits its progeny in the young
plant, near the root ; and its injuries are ruinous to the straw.
The grain is never affected in any other way, than as it is shri-
velled and imperfect, by the circulation of the juices which should
nourish it, being impeded by the pressure of the nits, or the te-
gument enclosing them, on the vessels of the stems. When solid
straw, or vigorous pipy stemmed plants, resist this pressure, and
the grain is perfect; the flour is as excellent as if no fly had in-
fested the plant. This is mentioned, because, in an European
publication, I have seen unmerited odium cast on American flour;
as having been rendered unwholesome by the Hessian Fly. The
southern moth fly injures both the grain and flour. The grain of
wheat is its nidus. R. Peters.

216 Season of 1816.

Lucky Hit, July 23, 1817.

Dear Sir,
I received, last fall, a publication of your society, re-
questing information on the peculiar effects of last sum-
mer's climate, and should long ago have replied to it.
had I been in possession of curious, or even plausible
speculations. With respect to useful or important mat-
ters of fact, I cannot say further, than that all vegetation
that could be improved in its growth, after the fall rains,
was very productive; potatoes, cabbage, and roots of
different kinds, yielded plentifully, and supplied the place
of corn in a great measure. Your society well recom-
mend the cultivation of potatoes, they are an excellent
auxiliary to corn, and rarely fail, with decent culture, in
tolerable land. You mention some queries on the sub-
ject of the grub worm, published by your society. I
have seen, in the Intelligencer, six, on wheat, fly, worm,
&c. published in May last, by the secretary. I will fol-
low them in their order, with the little information I may
have. 1st. The stunt is scarcely known on this side of
the mountain ; but having learned that it was very pre-
valent in Loudon county, I have no doubt you may de-
rive much information from thence. With the fly, and
its effects, I am very intimate, having lost eighty acres
out of one hundred and ten : or rather, thirty acres com-
pletely, fifty acres may produce five bushels per acre, and
the balance, thirty acres, probably twenty bushels per
acre ; in all, about two-fifths of a crop. The last men-
tioned thirty acres was of the purple straw, sowed on a
corn field, the stalks previously cut and stacked, the
ground harrowed down with a heavy harrow, and the

Season of IS16. . 217

wheat harrowed in the same way, between the 1st and
3d of October. The next best field was a fallow, sowed
from the 4th to the 10th ; the last field, from the 10th to
the 17th : this last was good cultivation, with plough-
ing and harrowing, but it was too late. We are pretty
certain, in fertile land, of a saving crop, if sowed from the
25th of September to the 10th of October ; even our
rye does not escape if sowed out of season. The fly has
been more destructive this season than I have ever known
it. Early in May, our prospects were more flattering than
had ever been known, but by the middle of the month,
after some warm days, from the richest verdure appeared
a dry naked field. 2d. The only remedy that is known
against the fly here, is sowing in good season, and stimu-
lating the soil. 3d. The only kind of wheat that resists
the fly, is called the Snider, above the mountain, — the
Lawler, below, said to come from your state. It has been
raised for ten years in this county, and I have undoubted
proof that it has never been injured by the fly, but it is
subject to the rust, and a worm ; has a short head, and I
consider it an unproductive wheat. I sowed two bush-
els of it in the midst of a purple straw field, at the same
time with the purple straw, and found it to be a week
later than the purple straw which was around it, and half
eat up by the fly, while the Snider was unhurt. The
golden and purple straw has always had much the ad-
vantage in its appearance, and has been considered by far
the most productive wheat. Little has been said about
the Snider, or Lawler, until the present year, it js now
making a great noise : though an indifferent head, it has
a beautiful grain : it may be sowed early, to advantage.
Although the purple is very subject to the smut in this

2N

218 Season of 1816.

part of the country, I shall continue to sow it, on account
of its great productiveness. I have never had the smut
in it yet. Four years ago I let Mr. Richard P. Barton
have thirty bushels, to get in seed, which produced a fine
wholesome crop, but the proceeds of the next sowing,
from the same wheat, were very much smutted. Query,
How can this be accounted for? 4th. With respect to
the stunt, I have said already that we scarcely know it.
5th. With respect to the grub worm, which has scourg-
ed us severely, I can give you but one experimental
remedy, — picking them out of the hill of corn, and
killing them ; this is laborious, but certain. We find
that no ground is always exempt from the worm, ex-
cept it be new ground. Wheat stubble is frequently
destroyed, when clover land escapes. Fall ploughing
fails when spring succeeds. I have lost twenty acres
this season, not being able to keep the worms out of
more than forty acres. 6th. The philosophy of the cut
worm is but little known here. We want spirited in-
quirers on those subjects. Should I be able to get any
useful hints about them, I shall communicate them.
Yours with regard and respect,

R. K. Meade.
Hon. Richard Peters.

Many years ago I had heard much of the Jones's wheat, (now
called Lawler,) as to its capacity to resist the fly. I procured
the best seed ; and faithfully cultivated it, during several years.
I never have been injured by the fly, in any degree equal to ma-
ny others. I did not perceive the advantages, on this account,
this wheat is said now to possess. I abandoned it entirely, as un-
productive. It grew in single stems $ and I lost more by scanty
crops of this wheat, than I had ever suffered by the ravages of
the fly. R- Peters.

Season of 1816. 219

Jackson, Tioga, Pemu July 10, 1817.

Sir,

Having perused a piece in a public print, headed
" Agricultural," in which your society requested the ci-
tizens of the United States to forward information re-
specting the destructive insect called the Hessian fly,
and being desirous of diffusing all the useful know-
ledge which lies in my power, I take the liberty to for-
ward the following communication to your society, which
I have from good authority.

It is most certain that the fly lays its egg in the fall or
autumn of the year, which continues in the plant during
the winter ; to prevent which, take one or two quarts of
oats, and put to one bushel of seed wheat, mix it tho-
roughly, and sow it as usual : the oats will spring up be-
fore the wheat, fit for the fly to lay its egg in, which be-
ing done, the wheat comes on afterwards, untouched by
the fly, and the winter kills out the oats, and of course
the egg must perish. If this information is of any utility,
I shall be amply rewarded for my little trouble.

I am, respectfully, yours, &c.

W. D. Bacon.
Mr. Roberts Vaux.

220 Season 0/I8I6.

Kennett Township, Chester Co. Pa. July 8, 1817^

Sir,

In looking over the newspapers, I saw published there-
in a request of the Agricultural Society to their fellow-
citizens, to favour them with communications respecting
the injury the wheat is likely to sustain by the effects of
the Hessian fly, the stunt, &c. also the ravages of the cut
worm, on the Indian corn.

1st. The wheat has not sustained much injury by the
fly, though it is very numerous in the wheat this spring,
and causes a great many stalks to fall. The heads are
tolerably filled before they begin to fall, which does not
happen until about two or three weeks before harvest.
The fall progeny of the fly is vastly the most injurious,
if the wheat is put in early.

2d. We conceive, that the best preventive to the ope-
ration of the fly, is to make the ground good, and to sow
the wheat between the eighth and fifteenth of October.
As to the stunt, it has done very little damage to the
wheat this seasoa, in the vicinity of Kennett, although we
have discovered no way of preventing its effects. The
stunt has operated worst on the highest cultivated land,
in the vicinity of Kennett.

3d. We sow different species of wheat, but most ge-
nerally the red bearded ; we think it resists the effects of
the fly, and stands the winter better than other species.

There are good crops of wheat, barley and oats in this
neighbourhood, and the crops of corn are coming on fast.
It is a fine growing season, for every kind of grain and
grass ; indeed we have no cause to complain of any thing.

Season of 1S16. 221

5th. In respect to preparing the soil for corn, we ge-
nerally agree that ploughing in the fall is best ; though it
is not a positive preventive of the worm, it puts the ground
in better order. I recommend marking out for the corn
the first week in May, then digging holes about ten inch-
es square in some of the furrows, say eight or ten in a fur-
row, and if the worms are very numerous, in every eighth
or tenth furrow. I have known one hundred worms caught,
in many holes, for a number of nights in succession. As
the worms don't begin to travel until about the 10th of
May, I would incline to plant about the 6th, and imme-
diately make a hole in each hill, with an instrument made
similar to a surveyor's staff, with an iron socket on it,
about six inches long, and a sharp point at the lower end.
By making a hole about three inches deep, at the top of
the hill, as near the corn as may be, I have caught from
five to fifteen in each hole. They cannot get out. After
the corn came up, I sent a boy over the field every morn-
ing ; if he found a stalk cut, he pulled out the worm and
killed him. By the above means, I saved the last plant-
ing of my field of corn, the first planting having been de-
stroyed. Although they began to go out of a grass field
into my corn field, I carefully stopped them by plough-
ing a deep furrow, and turning it towards the grass field,
digging a number of square holes in it : the furrow ought
to be kept square on the side next to the corn. My
neighbour, Jesse Pyle, had a lot of clover of about five
acres, which the worms totally destroyed, and were mov-
ing from thence to his wheat field. He ploughed a fur-
row along each side of the field, and dug holes, to the
amount of about fifty, in each furrow, of about ten inches

222 Season of 1816.

square : in one night, many of these holes were filled
from two to three inches deep with worms. It is allow-
ed by many who saw them at different times, that there
were several bushels caught in one week, in these holes.
The worms were very large. There were many clover
fields destroyed in the vicinity of Kennett. There are
many different kinds of cut worms, and they undergo
different changes. The little blackish cut worm is trans-
formed into a -kind of dirty yellowish long legged fly,
which deposits its nits in the grass, or elsewhere. The
flies continue about three weeks and then disappear.

Yours, &c.
James M'Fadgen.
Mr. Roberts Vaux.

Season 0/I8I6. 223

Pittsfield, Berkshire Co. Mass. August 5, 1817.

Sir,

This is agreeable to a notice I saw in the Pittsfield
Sun, taken from a Philadelphia paper.

There are two species of the cut or corn worm of Pitts-
field ; the large worm is of the size of a large goose quill,
in length an inch and one-fourth ; when it is about to
leave the nympha state, it becomes dull, and sinks four
inches into the earth, to put on the aurelia state, which is
a bright chesnut coloured shell ; in forty days it comes
out a clouded, mouse coloured, muffle headed miller,
over three-fourths of an inch in length. The small worm,
perhaps equally mischievous, is an inch in length, and in
size proportioned ; it takes a similar course, and comes
out a miller, not three-fourths of an inch in length, in co-
lour and marks resembling a partridge's tail feather.*

William Brattle, Jr.
Hon. Richard Peters.

* At the moment when I was about communicating the result
of an experiment with the corn grub, on my own farm, I receiv-
ed the foregoing letter. Many grubs had been placed in a box,
with sods and other food for them, by my son. His endeavours
were baffled by the playful curiosity of a little grandson, who dis-
turbed, with a stick, the greatest number of the subjects of the tri-
al. Yet two passed through the stages described by Mr. Brattle;
and came out large clouded moths ; resembling that which Mr.
B. calls a miller. Another was found by my son, in the corn
field I have mentioned. It was sent to Mr. Say. I relate these
facts, as being contemporaneous proofs, in distant parts of our
country. Many ichneumon files have been seen, bred in, and
proceeding from, the carcasses of dead grubs. But these are dif-
ferent from the parent of that reptile. R. Peters.

224 Season of 1816.

Philadelphia, September 28, 1817.

Sir,
It is a circumstance not a little singular, that the Hes-
sian fly is unknown to the Europeans ; such, however,
from all I can learn, appears to be the fact ; but the name
is at the same time perfectly familiar to them, particular-
ly to their entomologists, but as it has no meaning of it-
self, and no analogies upon which it depends, it conveys
no information to them : here then is one of the uses of
a scientific arrangement and an universal nomenclature.
The classical name refers directly to a natural assemblage
whose habit is the same, or nearly so, hence every ento-
mologist who learns the name of an insect, becomes at
the same time acquainted with the general form of the
body, manners, mode of life, &c. The European ana-
logue of this famous insect, (tipula tritici, Kirby,) depre-
dates upon the blossom of the wheat, and its attacks are
always confined to the contents of the calyx ;* our species
I believe is not known to infest that part of the plant.
The plate you received was drawn and engraved by Mr.
C. A. Le Sueur, a justly celebrated zoologist and drafts-
man, it is printed in black ; this I mention particularly,
as two or three of the impressions were coloured capri-
ciously, and were taken by some of the members of our
academy ; if, perchance, the one in your possession is
coloured, I will furnish you with a proper impression.

* This seems to be the spotted moth fly of the southern states ;
which lays its egg on the blossom of the wheat. It is hatched in
the ^rain ; and, when perfect, eats its way through the envelope
of the wheat, like the pea bug. It differs entirely from the Hes-
sian fiv : both in its mode of propagation, and its habits. R. P.

Season 0/I8I6. 225

The locust is so called, probably from its appearing in
great numbers at times, like the Asiatic insects common-
ly known by that name ; but in this respect only does it
distantly resemble the truly formidable Gryllus migrato-
rius et tartaricus, which, I need not inform you, are con-
sidered as more destructive than any other known spe-
cies of animals. The name Locust is therefore impro-
perly applied to our Cicada, and ought to be rejected.

This insect is well known to the systems, it was de-
scribed by Linne under the name of Cicada septendecim,
and by Fabricius under that of Tettigonia septendecim.
Latreille and Lamarck, in their systems, retain the for-
mer generic name. Besides very numerous accounts in
our public prints, of the Cicada or locust ; an account of
it is inserted in the Stockholm Transactions, as early
as the year 1756, and I believe in the Trans. Royal Soc.
Lond. of the same year, by Collinson, with a figure.
Kalm, in his travels, says they appear about the middle
of May. Stoll, in the year 1788, gives a figure and short
description, in his large work u der Cicaden" The de-
scriptive words of Fabricius, in his Systema Rhyngo-
torum, are " T. nigra elytris albis: costajlava." This
description is, it is true, too laconic and unessential to be
good for any thing, but his allusion is well known by the
specific name and synonyms. That the eggs are hatch-
ed the same season in which they are deposited, is cer-
tain ; the young enter the earth immediately, and there
remain for seventeen years, before they are ready to ap-
pear in the perfect state, and it is highly probable, dur-
ing all that time, are in an active state.

With respect to the corn grubs I know but little. 1
had been accustomed to see them in the fields for seve-

20

226 Season of 1816.

ral years past, but was entirely unacquainted with the
perfect insect : that they were the larvae of some of the
nocturnal lepidoptera, was evident from their characters.
It was not until the present season, that I became par-
tially acquainted with the perfect insect, as the product
of these larvae. Early in the summer, I received from a
highly respectable source, which, except in matters of
natural history, (in which it is often necessary to doubt
the evidence of our senses,) I should have relied on with-
out hesitation, a Tipula or Crane fly (Limonia Latr.) as
the parent of these grubs, with every assurance that there
could not possibly be a mistake, as the worms had been
selected, fed, and carefully observed, during their pro-
gress to the perfect state. However absurd this appear-
ed, it induced me to pay some little attention to the thing,
the result of which was a perfect conviction that the pa-
rents were two, three, or more species of moths, as was
at first supposed. Mr. Samuel R. Wetherill, of Bur-
lington, presented me since with two different species of
the genus Noctua. Fab. which he obtained from these
grubs; and finally, I have the pleasure to return my
thanks to Mr. Thomas R. Peters, for a third species,
which was sent in the pupa state, but which has since ap-
peared on the wing ; still, as there may be one or two
more, of which we yet know nothing, and the little im-
perfectly known, or not positively ascertained, even of
the above species, induces me, consistently with a pru-
dent caution, to remain silent about them, until the re-
turn of another season shall enable us to make further,
and more accurate observations. Very respectfully,

Your obedient servant,
Thomas Say.
Hon. Richard Peters. -

( 227 )

On raising Indian Corn, by W. Noland, Esq. in a letter
to Thomas Leiper, Esq.

Aldie, March 30, 1817.
Dear Sir,
It was only a few days ago that I was able to procure
an answer to the inquiry contained in your letter ; and
this must be my apology for so late an acknowledgment
of your favour. The land which produced the crop of
corn, to which you allude, was prepared in the usual
Loudon county mode ; which is, to plough deep, turn
over the sod well, and harrow the whole. The field was
laid off in furrows, four and one-half feet apart, and the
corn drilled at from eighteen inches to two feet apart.
The corn planted at that distance produced fourteen bar-
rels to the acre ; but where the furrows were again di-
vided, so as to make the distance between the hills from
two feet three inches to eighteen inches, or two feet,
which was the case with three or four acres, the product
was eighteen barrels* per acre. Had the season been a
good one, I am confident twenty barrels per acre would
have been made ; and this, too, on a field very uneven,
and improved entirely by plaster and clover. As many
as sixteen barrels per acre have been made in this coun-
ty, from planting three feet each way ; but it is believed
that more corn can be made from the drill mode than any
other. Mr. Delaplain, of Maryland, who made from
twenty-three to twenty-five barrels of corn per acre, plant-
ed in drills ; as did also Mr. Machir, on the south branch

* A barrel contains five bushels.

228 On raising Indian Com.

of the Potomac, who made more than thirty barrels per
acre. In planting corn in drills, the tedious mode of
covering with hoes may be dispensed with, as the harrow
answers a much better purpose, and covers the corn light-
er and more even. Harrowing over the corn when it is
about six inches high, is an universal practice with our
best corn growers. You ask how you can, by plaster
and clover, make your lands produce thirty-five bushels
of wheat per acre ? I answer, plough deep, sow not less
than one bushel of clover seed on ten acres of the land in
which you have wheat, rye, or oats ; sow a bushel of
plaster to the acre on your wheat, in the fall, and a half
bushel of plaster , mixed with a half bushel of ashes, on
your clover and wheat, and a bushel of plaster on your
clover fields, in the spring. Make a fallow of your clo-
ver fields every third year, and I think you may calcu-
late on thirty-five bushels per acre. With respect to the
old field that you contemplate sowing in oats and clover,
I would not advise you to plough in the clover this fall,
nor would I the next fall, were the clover promising.
I am, with great respect, yours, &c.

W. NOLAND.

Thomas Leiper, Esq.

( 229 )

Wire Fence; Oats; Jersey Manure; Corn; Grubs;
Fall ploughing, &c. fcfc.

Belmont, August 3, 1817.

Sir,
This past spring, I enclosed a part of my lawn, for the
purpose of tillage, preparatory to laying it down in grass.
Forty pannels of the fence, of nine feet each in length,
and four and a half in height, are constructed with dead
posts, hewn and painted, and wires of sufficient sizes
running through them. The number of wires Jive ; the
lower two at eight inches, and the others ten inches apart,
which I find sufficient to turn all invaders — small hogs
excepted ; and it seems equal to this, if the hogs were
well yoked, as they ought to be. Each pannel of wire is
bound by a vertical one in the middle, with a loop through
which every wire passes ; so that the whole oppose a re-
sistance conjointly. This is better than any other mode
I have seen ; and does not permit horses or horned beasts,
with their heads and necks, to separate the wires, and
trespass as far as either can reach. It is a little neater
than a common fence would require, is amply strong to
resist any horse, or other even mischievous assailant, and
costs little more than a common five railed cedar fence,
of good materials. The plan of wire fences, with trees
for posts, I dislike ; as the trees shade and exhaust the
borders of fields to a greater amount in value, than all the
expense of dead posts and their renewals.

230 Oats ; Jersey Manure, $s?c.

I sowed oats, (thicker than usual for a crop,) to pre-
cede winter grain, on or with which I shall sow grass
seeds. Knowing that oats ripening the grain is a very
scourging crop, I have cut it, as soon as the panicles
were completely formed, for hay, bound in sheaves to be
chaffed in my straw cutter ; the excellent qualities of such
hay being well known to me. I have mentioned these
circumstances, with the view to communicate an occur-
rence which agreeably surprised me. Four years ago,
I procured forty tons of Jersey manure, and spread it as
a top-dressing on many parts of the Belmont farm, on
sand, clay, loam, and in every variety of exposure, as well
as on moist and dry grounds. But in no instance any
profitable effect appeared. A broad strip of the lawn,
light and sandy, had been top-dressed, and showed no
signs of melioration heretofore. This strip is part of my
little oat field ; and it has thrown up a most luxuriant
growth ; far exceeding any other part, (though the whole
was good ; having been well limed throughout,) and af-
forded a proof that this manure agrees and co-operates
with lime. I never saw, in the richest soil, stronger, bet-
ter headed, or more promising plants. It would have
been incompatible with my objects, or I should have suf-
fered it to ripen, for experiment of its product. Mr.
Mark Reeve, who is very intelligent on this subject,
(and to whom I sent a sample of the manure,) informed
me, that I had been imposed on by the person from whom
I procured it ; the article used by me being only the co-
ver of the true kind. Its effect, luxuriant as it is, must
have been far more so, if the perfect manure had been
used.

Corn, Grubs, &c. 231

To show what may be done by patient perseverance
and industry, I mention ; that my tenant, (on shares,)
has eighteen acres of Indian corn, equal to the best crops
in the most favourable seasons. All my fields are well
limed and productive ; and this field about equal to any
other. I endeavoured to prevail on the tenant to Jail
plough for his corn ; but he is an old fashioned farmer,
bigoted in rooted opinions. He thought that early spring
and deep ploughing, with the lime, would do every thing.
The field was admirably ploughed, clean, and well ma-
naged in every respect. But his corn was attacked by an
host of cut worms, which I had predicted. My tenant
was determined to back his opinion, and unwittingly sta-
ked his life to support it : for in the end he had nearly
destroyed himself, as well as the grubs. He is an aged,
and rather feeble man ; yet he accomplished the extinc-
tion of the cut worms, with very little assistance from his
family, by actually mashing them with his fingers and
feet ; though he might have gathered and destroyed them
by means less disgusting. I confess I had not the most
distant belief that it was possible for him to succeed.
But he is rewarded for his toil ; and is now recovering
from an attack of fever, and consequent debility, brought
on by fatigue, against which I had often warned him. I
do not think his re- seeding (to which re-planting from a
seed bed in a corner of your field is far preferable) was
anywise equal to that required in common cases. Part
of the field is flat and strong ground ; and a part light
sandy loam. In this latter the grubs were comparatively
few ; and the corn, at first, the best. But now the crop
on the low ground, in which the grub most abounded, is
equal, if not better. So that from this example we may

232 Fall ploughing ', &c.

conclude, that an able man, with a few boys, need not
despair of success in ridding his field of grubs by the
means mentioned ; if he will not believe in, and take any
other. My tenant found the most proper times to secure
his prey, were before and at day break, and in the even-
ing ; as the grubs always retire from the sun. Yet he
did not intermit his pursuit through most of the day.*

Some of my neighbours have derived benefit by ma-
king deep holes, with a pointed stick, near the corn plants ;
in which one neighbour trapped an inconceivable num-
ber of grubs.

In an agricultural society in my neighbourhood, it is
a practice for the members, respectively, to state such
facts as have come to their knowledge, on their own and
other farms ; they being intelligent practical farmers. At
a late meeting, which I attended, facts, pro and con, on
the subject of Jail ploughing, to prevent injuries from
grubs, and for other valuable purposes, were candidly
stated. In some instances, fall ploughing had not been
successful to the extent usually experienced ; but in none-
had it entirely failed. The balance of facts was com-
pletely favourable ; not only as it regarded the grub, but
in other beneficial effects on crops. Some had fall plough-
ed part of a field, in preparation for a spring crop of oats
or barley ; and left another part to be ploughed in the
spring. The oat crop far exceeds, on the fall ploughed
part, that ploughed in the spring. Lime is generally
used by all the members. The facts as they are verbal-
ly stated, are recorded by the secretary, and a great num-

* We had fifty bushels of shelled corn to the acre ; a good crop
is any year, on a clover sod, without dung.

Listing ; Wheat Steeps. 233

ber, highly useful, thus collected. These would be lost,
if written communications were expected ; for none such
would be made. Several instances of listing, or throw-
ing furrows together, and leaving balks for the grubs to
feed on, were stated. This slovenly practice had suc-
ceeded in some instances, but in others it had entirely
failed. So that vicious husbandry meets with the fate of
moral vices, — it does not always succeed : and in that
case adds self reproach to disappointment ; the more bitter
when nothing is gained by the reprehensible endeavour.

One member had been in the practice, (not approved,)
of planting Indian corn in a field wherein corn had been
the preceding year. He stated that the grub never an-
noyed him ; and supposed his escape to be owing to the
parent of the grub preferring soddy ground to that loose
by the tillage and cleanliness of the corn crop of the pre-
ceding year.

One member had a smutty crop of wheat on his low
ground ; but the grain was fair and free from smut on
the hilly part of the same field : the seed of the whole be-
ing alike. Query, Why ?

I had steeped in a solution of copperas, as directed by
the Flemish receipt, published in Sir J. Sinclair^ Tour
through Flanders, a bushel of my seed wheat, last fall.
Another bushel, I wetted and rolled in plaster. The
straw of both was very fair, and perceptibly brighter than
that of the rest of the crop, which was all good. But
that rolled in plaster was far better headed, and in every
way superior. A small part of my farm I reserve, for
culture under my own direction.

I should have mentioned, that the crops of corn are not
generally good ; having been much injured bv the grub.

2P

^34 Indian Corn, &fc.

But if we have a favourable autumn many fields will be
productive ; as the second and third planting look thriv-
ing, and some very late planted (late in June) are very
promising. My tenant's field is rivalled, and it is said,
exceeded, by another in the neighbourhood ; but that
was fall ploughed and had no grubs ; though they were
ruinously plenty on adjacent farms. Some fields were
only in part fall ploughed. In such cases the grub mi-
grated from the part unploughed in the fall, and more or
less injured the corn on the other part. In one case, the
skirts or borders of a fall ploughed field were injured by
grubs migrating from unploughed fields adjoining ; tho'
in other instances this had not occurred. In such cases
(of ploughed fields surrounded by those in sod,) it was
proposed, that deep furrows, (the perpendicular sides
next the corn,) should be made round the corn field, to
obstruct the passage of the cut worms from other fields.
Several instances were given, wherein the grubs could
not scale such a wall of vertical earth, though only a few
inches high.

My inquiries have been extended further than my own
vicinage, with the like results. In no instance when fall
ploughing has been accompanied by harrowing, and more
especially with liming, have I found a failure of effect on
the grubs. The extraordinary ravages of those reptiles
having caused much sensation this season, led me to aim
most at this object ; which is only one of the benefits of
this highly advantageous operation. I have found in some
instances, that fresh lime was efficacious even with spring
ploughing. As to the origin of the cut worm, I could
discover no general agreement, or certain data, on the
subject ; though many are endeavouring to fix the parent
of this destroyer. Those who allege that it produces a

Wheat ; Hessian Fly, &c. 235

fly, are most probably deceived by the ichneumon, bred
in the grub.

Few of the members entirely escaped the fly. But
they knew so well, that it is idle to sow wheat without
manure and good farming, that in general the fly has done
them little injury, save where the grain was too late sown,
i. e. in the first or second week in November. Such
wheat, in two instances, having grown little till spring,
was destroyed by the spring brood of the fly. Others
generally sowed the first week in October ; and yet so
variant are facts, owing to accidental circumstances, that
a farmer had a great crop of wheat on potato ground,
sowed the 22d of November, not in the least injured by
the fly.

I have thus detailed a short history of facts, as reported
by practical men, because it will not only be positively
useful; but it will afford a specimen of the advantages
which would accrue to the general interests of husband-
men, if agricultural societies, in various parts of our
country, would communicate with each other, on sub-
jects interesting to farmers ; and to every citizen, equally
concerned with them, in this important branch of the pub-
lic prosperity.

I am truly yours,

Richard Peters.
Roberts Vaux, Esq^.

A member of the Society states, that when the full grown grub
is in vigour, lime will not destroy it. T have confined them in
slacked lime, and found them very uneasy ; but several hours'
abidance in it has not materially injured them. The experience
of others has been different — fiat experiment um. Possibly lime
is most efficacious when the grubs are in the egg state : or in early
stages of their growth. ft. P.

( 236 )

Hessian Fly ; Grain Moth ; Cut Worm.

Philadelphia, October 30, 1817.

Sir,

It seems probable that the eggs for one of the broods
of the Hessian fly, are deposited in the stubble, or young
shoots about the old stalk of wheat ; for, that the insect
evolved in the spring, is so long lived as to deposit eggs
in the autumn, is hardly credible ; if this is the fact, it
follows, that destroying the stubble by burning, &c.
would also destroy the superabundance of these insects.
The experiment is well worth trying, and if done by
farmers simultaneously, wherever these insects have ap-
peared, the probability of success would of course be
still more obvious. Perhaps ploughing in the stubble, or
rolling it, would answer the same end if done at the pro-
per season, or proper state of the weather.

I have not carefully examined the grain moth, though
it is to be found here plentifully, in the grain loft of eve-
ry brewery, in the warm weather. I will certainly attend
to it in the proper season, but at present I will observe,
that it most probably is a naturalized foreigner, and not
an indigenous insect ; if so, it may be the Tinea granella
which is the pest of corn lofts in Europe. Its wings are
described as marbled with grey, brown, and black, a lit-
tle elevated behind, and with a white head ; its larva
unites the grains together by means of its web, forming
a sort of tube, from which it occasionally ventures forth
to devour the grain. Upon recurring to your letter, I

Grain Moth ; Gut Worm, 237

find you allude to a very different grain moth from the
one above mentioned — one which in the larva state feeds
like the curculio, within the grain ; this may prove, on
examination, to be the same, or at least analogous to that
species of the genus Yponomenta, which we are inform-
ed commits such ravages upon the grain in the south of
France. I do not recollect to have seen it.

Mr. Brattle is no doubt correct in his statement about
the cut worms. I do not know where the parents depo-
sit their eggs, but as all insects, (however different may
be the food of their immature progeny from their own,)
in this important act consider the appetites of their off-
spring, and also their convenience, by placing them in
immediate contact with their food, it may be inferred that
the oviposit producing the cut worm, must be at or near
the roots of the grass, where it would be destroyed by
burning, as you have mentioned, or by exposing them to
the action of the frost by ploughing.

I hope to have the honour, at a future day, when my
knowledge of insects shall be more mature, to commu-
nicate some observations to the highly useful society over
which you preside, as will be consistent with its views
towards promoting the agricultural knowledge of our
countrymen, which from obvious causes is becoming
**very day of more vital importance to them.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

Thomas Say,
Hon. Richard Peters.

< 238 )

On the Improvement of Land by the use of Shell-Marl.
Talbot County, Md. Dec. 31, 1817.

Dear Sir,

I received your letter of November 10th by mail, and
should have answered it sooner, but it has not been in
my power. For twelve months past my health has been
very precarious ; I have not, in that time, been as far as
Easton on any business. The whole, almost, that I am
capable of doing, is to ride out on my farm, in good wea-
ther, for exercise, and to see how the business is carried
on ; and I can scarcely at times even write my name le-
gibly, and very seldom can write a letter. Your good-
ness will therefore excuse my seeming inattention to you.
I will endeavour to answer your inquiries as well as I can,
and it will give me pleasure, if my answers are such as
may be satisfactory to you.

Your first question is, whether what I use be marl,
or soil mixed with shells.

Whether it be marl or not, I will not pretend to de-
termine, as I have seen no description of marl that an-
swers exactly to it ; but Mr. Tench Tilghman informed
me, he had seen a description of marl used in Scotland,
exactly similar to what I use on the farm on which I re-
side, and which is the improved land you mention, I
have not seen the account myself. However, this, and
all mixtures of broken marine shells, of which there is a
great variety, are now denominated marl, here. What
I consider the best, and which I most use, is composed

On the use of Shell- Mar L 239

of small parts of marine shells, chiefly scallop shell, about
one-eighth of an inch square, or somewhat longer or
smaller, with scarce any sand or soil with it : some of it
seems to be petrified, and is dug up in lumps, like stone,
from four or five, to forty or fifty pounds in weight, hard
to break even with the edge of an axe, and will remain
for years, tumbled about with the plough, before it is en-
tirely broken to pieces, and mixed with the soil ; indeed
you may observe it in some parts of the bank, where the
soil has been washed from it, appearing like rock stone ;
but if broken and pulverized a little, it effervesces very
much with acids. It lies from three to five and six feet
deep, from the surface of a light or sandy soil, on the
banks of the cove, but how deep the marl, or bed of
shells goes, we cannot ascertain, having never dug through
it. When we get from two to four feet deep into it, the
water springs, so that we have never gone deeper, but
fill up the hole with the surface soil, and open another.
It does not lie level, but waving, sometimes dipping so
deep that we lose it ; nor is it of one colour, but some
white, like dry mortar, some the colour of yellow ochre,
some red, like red ochre, and some blueish : but I do
not know any difference in the quality, from the colour.
In digging, it is generally loose and crumbly, but mixed
with hard lumps as above described : we find sometimes
whole shells of scallop, oyster, and barnicles. The kind
I estimate most, is of the foregoing description, and I am
of opinion it lies at different depths, under the whole of
this peninsula, which has been gained from the water,
and that the shells are of the different kinds of fish which'
inhabited the waters while they covered the land. In
some places, at heads of coves, I have traced the shells

240 On the use of Shell-Marl.

by cutting a ditch from three to five feet deep, down the
valley, and even through the marsh, till I came to tide-
water ; but in this kind of low ground there were more-
whole, and larger shells, and none of the large, stone-like
lumps above mentioned. It appears as if it had been the
bottom of the creek, and as if covered by the water more
lately than the first described : all these are on this farm.
At my other farm, where my uncle formerly lived, and
which is at the head of this creek, I find it by digging
deep into the ditches, in the meadow ground, which
empty into the head of the creek : but that kind differs
from what I have here ; as, besides the scallop shells,
which are not so much reduced as here, there is, for
perches together, the clam shell, perfectly whole, but so
soft, that when thrown out of the ditch and exposed to
the air, they soon fall away to powder : but the scallop
shell seems most abundant; and of this kind of shell-
fish we have no knowledge. The beds of shell are to be
discovered in many places, on the edges of the creek,
and even out into the water ; and are found throughout
the county, in most places where carefully sought for,
but generally, I believe, a good deal mixed with sand.
However, I have no doubt they may all be usefully ap-
plied as improvers of the soil : they are now coming in-
to the use of many persons in this county, who have dis-
covered them on 'their land, and have adopted a regular
system of manuring.

" Your next question is, to what kind of soils, and how
it is applied ; as a top dressing, or ploughed in ?

I have applied it to all the soils on my farm, some of
which is a cold white clay, and wet ; others a light loam,
and sandv. I find it useful to each kind, and manure my

On the use of Shell-Marl. 241

land all over with it, without distinction, and to advan-
tage ; putting a smaller quantity upon the looser soils.
I have applied it as a top dressing on clover, and also
where clover has not been sown ; with a view to improv-
ing the grass, and also to be satisfied whether it would
not be best for the ground, to let it lie spread on the sur-
face, for a year before the ground was put into cultiva-
tion ; but it has not answered my expectation. I could
not perceive any advantage from that mode of applica-
tion. I now constantly apply it to the ground cultivated
in corn ; carting it out in the winter and spring, and put-
ting on from twenty to forty cart loads per acre, accord-
ing to the ground, and the previous quantity that had
been put on, in former cultivations, dividing each load
into from four to eight small heaps, for the greater ease
in spreading, according to the size of the load. Some is
put on before, and some after the ground is broken up,
but it is all worked into the soil by the cultivation of the
corn, and it never fails of considerably improving the
crop of corn, as also the ground wherever the marl is,
especially in largest quantity. There is a small green
moss, and black moist appearance, on the surface of the
ground, when not cultivated ; as you perceive about old
walls, and in strong ground. Though the preceding is
the common mode in which I use the marl, I do not think
it the best ; I mix some in my farm yard, with the farm
yard and stable manure ; and would prefer mixing and
applying all that I used thus mixed, but for the labour
of double cartage, which I cannot as yet accomplish, ma-
nuring so largely as I do. I cultivate one hundred acres
yearly, and constantly manure the whole of what I culti-
vate ; emploving only four carts, and four hands with

2Q

-24:2 On the use of Shell- Marl.

the carts, which do all the manuring and carting on the
farm.

Your next question is, what has been my rotation of
crops, and mode of cultivating, since I have used this
manure ?

Since I began to use the marl, and bend my attention
to improvement by manure, I have cultivated only corn
and wheat, sowing my ground in clover, and using the
plaster. Instead of cultivating all my ground in cora?
and sowing wheat on it as heretofore, I divided my cul-
tivation into two parts of fifty acres each, putting one
part into corn, which I was able to accomplish manuring
time enough for the corn, and making a fallow of the
other part, manuring as much of it as I could accomplish
before the time for sowing wheat ; and disregarding, in
a degree, all smaller crops, which I could not attend to,
as an object, without increasing my number of hands ,
and interfering with the main business. I went on in this
manner, till I found I could easily accomplish manuring
one hundred acres and upwards, per annum : having got
my ground to that state that I can risk making a crop
without manure, I am now about discarding fallow, be-
ing able to manure my whole hundred acres time enough
for cropping in the spring, by beginning to manure for
the next year as soon as the spring manuring is finished.
I shall in future have no wheat in fallow, but sow it after
corn and other crops, from which I am satisfied I can
make more from my ground than by naked fallow, which
I always considered unprofitable, though you made more
wheat, except for the advantage of having more time to
manure. The standing annual force on my farm is eight
hands (men) with one hired by the month : of these hands

On the use of Shell-Marl 243

four are employed with the carts; two in ploughing,
harrowing, &c. for the cultivation of the crop ; and the
other two or three, as may be, do the blacksmith's and
carpenter's work, as also the fencing and other work ne-
cessary on a farm : the six hands employed with the
carts and ploughs, are not taken off for other business,
except in the time of harvest, and sowing wheat, when
they are probably stopped. / do not work so much with
the plough as formerly ', but more with the harrow, which
lessens and quickens the labour of cultivation, keeps the
ground cleaner, and, I think, in better tilth. Occasion-
ally I hire or employ some women, for hoeing work and
spreading manure. I flush my ground in large lands,
and harrow and roll as it may require ; then, instead of
listing, as common, mark it out each way with a plough,
very shoal, so as not to disturb the grass ploughed down,
and after dropping the corn, cover it with the plough or
harrow, and immediately put in the harrow, keeping it
going, as the weather will permit, till just before harvest,
when we plough the ground, and finish the cultivation
with the harrow, except something should occur, making
it necessary to plough again after harvest. This I have
found the best mode of cultivation for corn. I plant my
corn about four feet apart each way, and have from three
to five stalks in a hill, or cluster, for I endeavour to keep
down the hill, and have the ground as level as possible.
In saving my corn crop, I cut it up, without pulling it
from the stalk as usual, and cart it in all together, then
husk it out, leaving the husk to the stalk : I lay these
near my feeding yard, and throw them into it twice a
day : this gives us a large quantity of strong healthy food
for the cattle, which servos them all winter, and keeps

244 On the use of Shell-Marl.

them in good condition, without any other food ; makes
a large quantity of excellent manure, and a fine dry feed-
ing yard. As opportunity can be found, we cart marl,
fuller's earth, clay, and any good soil that is convenient,
into this yard, which being mixed with the stalks, and
straw, or any thing else, penning the cattle on it through
the winter and summer, instead of penning on the field,
in the common way, we have a large quantity of manure
to go out in the fall, and next winter ; it is put into the
field, in the intermediate rows, between the rows of marl,
as far as it will go, and they all get mixed in the cultiva-
tion. We also convert the scouring of our ditches, the
head-lands of the fields, and all waste-ground that we can,
into manure, by carting litter from the woods, yard ma-
nure, or litter, &c. &c. and mixing with them ; so that I
can nearly, or quite, now, accomplish making farm-yard
and this kind of manure, sufficient to go over my whole
hundred acres, annually. For the two last years, I have
made more manure than I could accomplish or effect
carrying out, though I have manured from ten to twenty
acres more than my hundred, each year, with part marl
and part farm-yard, but not the whole with both, as I
hope to be able to do in future ; but it will be necessary
to increase my carting force to effect it, and I clearly see,
I can raise sufficient manure for the purpose ; heretofore
I have manured my corn-ground, fifty acres, with marl,
and my fallow with part farm-yard manure, and part marl,
as mentioned before ; so that you will perceive the im-
provement made on my soil has not been effected by
marl alone, but in conjunction with farm-yard manure,
clover, and plaster, and by making it a point to manure
with something all the ground I put into cultivation ; so

On the use of Shell-Marl 245

that every time I cultivated a field, that field was im-
proved, and not in any degree impoverished by the cul-
tivation. By this means, and the Divine assistance, I
have effected that improvement of my farm, which is so
very striking to the observation of every person ac-
quainted with it. I can say nothing as to the compari-
son of crops, before and since my improvement ; it has
been a progressive thing for many years, and, till I
adopted the present plan, I was an experimental farmer,
trying every thing I met with in books, or heard of ; so
that there is scarce any rotation of crops, or mode of cul-
tivation, but what I have tried.

This, I believe, will answer all your questions, except
as to the time when I began to use the marl, and how
soon I experienced the beneficial effect of it? — being
your fourth question.

In August, 1805, in digging down a bank on the side
of a cove, for the purpose of making a causeway, I ob-
served a shelly appearance, which it struck me might
improve clay soil ; I took some of it immediately to the
house, and putting it into a glass with vinegar, found it
effervesced very much ; this determined me to try it as
a manure ; accordingly, in September, I carted out about
eighty cart loads, and put it on a piece of ground, fallow,
preparing for wheat, trying it in different proportions, at
the rate of from twenty-seven to about a hundred loads
per acre, and the ground was sown in wheat : I could
not, myself, be satisfied that there was any difference
through the winter and spring, although general Lloyd,
who was viewing it with me in the spring, thought he
could perceive some difference, in favour of the marl ; but
at harvest time, the wheat, though not more luxuriant in

246 On the use of Shell-Marl.

growth, or better head, was considerably thicker on the
ground ; and, after the wheat was taken off, the ground
where the marl had been put was set with white clover,
no clover being on the ground on either side of it. The
next year, 1806, I discovered it in the drain into the
head of the cove, which I immediately ditched, and from
the ditch put out seven hundred loads, on the fallow
ground ; the effect, as to the wheat and clover, was the
same, (this was put, for experiment, at the rate of from
forty to a hundred and twenty cart-loads per acre,)
though the marl was not of the same kind as the other,
but more mixed with sand and surface soil, being taken
from the low ground, by ditching, and all mixed toge-
ther. I also tried it on corn ground, spread out as above
mentioned, and found the effect immediate, as to the
com, and in the same manner as above described, as to
the wheat sown on the corn ground ; this induced me to
persevere in the use of it, which I have done ever since,
adopting the mode I mentioned before, and putting it at
first from forty to seventy loads per acre, till I have now
come down as low as eighteen or twenty loads per acre,
going the third time over the ground with it.

I believe I have now answered all your inquiries, as
well as I can, except as to the average comparison of the
past and present crops, which I cannot well do, for the
reasons above given, and also that my fields are entirely
changed, neither containing the same grounds, nor the
same quantity of ground in each ; but I believe I shall
not be much out of the way, if I say, that I think the
soil now capable of producing between two and three
times as much, per acre, as it would before I began to
use the marl ; and though the marl has not solely pro-

On the use of Shell-Marl. - 247

duced the improvement, yet the improvement would
have been far short of what it is, if it had not been for
the marl, which has contributed, in a very large degree,
towards it ; and no small matter in favour of the marl is,
that, by the blessing of God on my endeavours, I have,
in twelve years, been enabled to improve three hundred
acres of ground, to the pitch that these are, and am now
in a fair way of increasing in the same ratio that a snow-
ball increases as it is turned over.

I fear you will not be able to read, and hardly to un-
derstand, this tedious letter, in many parts ; if you can,
and it is in any degree satisfactory to you, I shall be com-
pensated, and will cheerfully answer any inquiries, in fu-
ture, that you may wish to make. The first favourable
opportunity, which may probably be by some friend, in
the spring, I propose sending you a small bag of marls
which may be more satisfactory than any description.
With every sentiment, &c.

John Singleton.

Hon. William Tilghman.

( 248 )

On reclaiming, improving, and cultivating Salt Marshes-

Belmont, March 25, 1818.
Sir,
I have been gratified for all the pains I have taken to
procure the very valuable and instructive communica-
tions relative to the improvement of salt marsh, from ge-
neral Swartwout and his brothers ; through the instru-
mentality of Dr. Hosack. John R. Coates, Esq. has
completed the subject; also from actual experience.
Both these communications, on a new, and hitherto un-
explored topic, will be highly prized by all who are en-
gaged in such enterprizes ; because they warn against
imprudent undertakings ; and instruct those who contem-
plate practicable and profitable improvements. To those
not interested in such property, the details may appear
unimportant ; but they are, in my humble opinion, inva-
luable to adventurers in similar pursuits. On a careful
perusal of them, I cannot satisfy myself with any abridg-
ment I have attempted to make. Having been commu-
nicated to the society, as they came from the hands of
my very obliging correspondents, I think it best to suf-
fer them to remain entire. Not only the operations re-
quired in the preparation of the soil, but some sound
agricultural principles, and economical arrangements are
developed by Mr. Coates ; and the clear and strong light
thrown on the subject by Messrs. Swartwout s, entitle
them to our grateful approbation. Yours very truly.

Richard Peters.
Roberts Vaux, Esq.

On Salt Marsh. 249

New York, February 15, 1818.
Dear Sir,

I have the pleasure to enclose a reply to your favour,
relative to the process employed in reclaiming the salt
marshes in the vicinity of our city. General Swartwout
and his brothers, who have engaged in this enterprize,
unite in this reply. It is my intention to add to this in-
formation the observations of another gentleman, to whom
I shall submit the contents of your valuable letter.

I have carefully watched the progress of the improve-
ments of general Swartwout, and am convinced that they
will prove successful. If I possessed the means, such is
my confidence in the plan they are pursuing, I most
cheerfully would have united in the undertaking. Our
citizens in general want faith upon this subject ; but I
am persuaded that each year's cultivation will evince the
correctness of the views of the present proprietors.

Your letter* and the reply to it, in my opinion deserve
publication, in as far as they may prove the means of cul-
tivating the numerous inlets of our seaboard. The mo-
ment I receive any additional information, it shall be for-
warded to you.

I am, dear sir, with great respect, yours,

David Hosack.
Hon. Richard Peters.

* 1 have retained no copy of the letter I wrote to Dr Tlosack ;
otherwise it would have been published. The time I devote to
sucli subjects is, in a great degree, stolen from other, but less
agreeable occupations. I regret that I cannot comply with his
polite intimation; as the letter seems to be deemed important by
those who are better and more experienced judges of its useful-
ness, than I have any pretensions to consider myself. The effect
it has produced, amply rewards all my endeavours. R. Peters.

2R

250 On Salt Marsh.

Hoboken, Feb. 12, 1818.

Sir,
We have perused, with great attention, the interesting
letter of Judge Peters to you, making inquiry on the sub-
ject of the reclamation and cultivation of salt marshes,
and which you were pleased to put into our hands a few
days ago, with a request, that we would detail the mode
adopted by us upon the marshes in the vicinity of New
York, for the information of your correspondent. This
we proceed to do, and shall answer the inquiries in the
order in which they are made. 1st. The nature and com-
position of the soil reclaimed ? The soil is alluvial, a
deep rich loam, clay, and some peat ; ten to thirty feet
deep ; no sand or gravel. 2d. The embankments ?
These are placed twenty to forty feet from the edge of
the river, on the firmest ground, and are sixteen feet
broad at their base, five feet high, and from three to four
feet broad at top, the sides faced with sods, cut from the
marsh, near the river, and the body of the bank compos-
ed of the best mud, well packed. 3d. Ditches, drains,
&c. ? Our ditches are cut four feet deep, five feet wide
at top, and one foot at bottom, which form prevents the
sides from falling off, and permits them to be scoured
with ease. Our drains are four feet deep ; two feet at
bottom, and eight feet wide at top ; but almost all our
ditches drain into natural creeks, which answer the pur-
pose of reservoirs. We make no ditches parallel with
the dyke, either within or without, believing that they
weaken the embankment, and afford a shelter for the

On Salt Marsh. . 251

muskrat. Our ditches are cut perpendicular to the dyke,
and approach it to within about four perches. 4th. Rise
and fall of the tide, floodgates, &c. ? Ordinary tides rise
and fall about six feet, to which depth, if necessary, we
could drain the marshes. Our sluices are of the simplest
construction, very substantial, and seldom require atten-
tion or repair. They are thus constructed ; heavy sills
are laid down, a foot below low water mark ; a strong
frame of timber is mortised into the sills, and supported
at top by braces ; wings faced with plank, and the whole
frame is filled with soft mud, to prevent its leaking ; the
race way is about four feet square, and planked, and both
ends of the floor of the race way are spiled with plank to
prevent its blowing, and the gate opens and shuts with
the fall and rise of the tide. We have avoided sluicing
natural creeks, but have stopped them off* with timber and
plank, and carried the dyke over them, placing our slui-
ces as near them as the nature of the ground would allow.
Sluices put into creeks are never safe, are very expensive,
liable to settle, to blow, and be forced from their posi-
tion. 5th. Cost of the banks and ditches ? The banks
were constructed under our own personal inspection, by
day and week labour, at one dollar and fifty cents per day,
and the business was new to us. At this rate, they cost
about ten dollars per perch. We could make them now
for seven. They are not exposed to uncommon assaults
from surges, storms, &x. The labour of dyking and
ditching was performed exclusively by Irishmen, who
used the American ditching spade, and a three-pronged
fork. Wheelbarrows were much used, when the distance
was too great to throw the sod with a fork. Ditching-

252 On Salt Marsh,

was done at various prices, until, by a fair experiment,
we brought the labour within calculation. Our main
drains cost about one dollar and fifty cents, per perch,
while the ditches averaged thirty- seven and a half cents ;
they could now be cut for thirty cents per perch. The
average cost for dyking, draining and sluicing, we esti-
mate at twenty -five dollars per acre. Having thus ex-
plained the mode adopted by us in draining and enclos-
ing the grounds, we shall proceed to answer the sixth
inquiry, to wit : The steps taken, and the success of
them, for bringing the drained marsh into profitable cul-
ture? And here we must remark, that we are yet in a
course of experiment ; when we purchased these marsh-
es and commenced their reclamation, we possessed no
practical knowledge of agriculture, nor could we find a
person, upon whose experience in marshes we could re-
ly, to direct us in our operations ; hence the necessity of
various experiments to ascertain the best mode of bring-
ing them into profitable cultivation ; these we will detail,
in the hope that others, who may be engaged in similar
improvements, may profit by our experience. We shall
commence with experiments made on the Hoboken
marsh, which was embanked, sluiced and ditched, in the
spring and summer of 1814. This piece of ground con-
tains about three hundred and twenty acres, situated up-
on the Hudson river, and opposite the city of New York,
and is what is usually termed salt marshy the water here
being nearly as salt as the ocean. Upon a small piece,
near the centre of the marsh, prepared by cutting the sod,
some peas, beans, onions, beets and other vegetables,
were sown in the month of May, of that year : they all

On Salt Marsh. ^53

came to maturity, and were of excellent quality. In the
spring of 1815, we ploughed about ten acres, which was
planted with Indian corn ; about the same number of
acres were also planted with corn in the sod, without
ploughing : they both succeeded well, no difference in
the yield, which averaged about forty bushels to the
acre; but our superintendant believing that ploughing
was necessary to bring the marsh into fresh meadow,
ploughed in the autumn, near two hundred acres more,
which was exposed to the winter's frost : we had also
sown some grass seed the same season, on the sod ; it
took but partially. In the month of May, 1816, we
planted Indian corn on about one hundred and fifty acres
of the ploughed ground ; the frost and worm, with an
adverse season, destroyed nearly the whole crop : we ga-
thered less corn that year, than was produced the prece-
ding year from live acres ; about forty acres were sown
with oats, they grew well and gave a great yield ; it was
evident that oats were the best thing we could put into
the ground, for a first crop : it was now discovered that
much of the timothy, sown the preceding spring, had
taken root, which circumstance, together with the discou-
raging appearance of the corn, induced the decision to
sow grass seed throughout, which was accordingly done
that season, in the months of September, October, and
the beginning of November : that part which was sown
before the first of November did remarkably well, pro-
ducing, the last harvest, on some lots, full two tons of
timothy hay per acre, and, on the average, more than a
ton ; the late sown did not take or do so well, but we
made full three hundred tons of timothy hay, from this

254 On Salt Marsh.

meadow ; it grew very rank and stout, the heads, on an
average, six inches, and many nine inches, and even
twelve inches long : the lots upon which the grass had
but partially taken were re- sown, and the whole, when
winter set in, promised a full crop the ensuing season.

In October, 1816, a lot, of about four acres, was
sown with wheat ; the ground was low, the winter cold
and wet, and the greater part of it froze out : it yielded
about twenty-five bushels of grain, of the best quality
and first appearance : on some lots, where the grass seed
had no taken well, we harrowed, and sowed oats, in
April and May last ; they did uniformly well, and would
have produced full forty bushels per acre, but we lost
more than half the crop, by the August storm ; we cut
the stubble high and burnt it preparatory to seeding the
ground ; we put about two acres into wheat and rye, and
no grain could look better than it did, when the winter
set in ; the remainder of the oat ground we laid down
with timothy.

We commenced dyking the Newark marsh in the
spring of 1815, and that season embanked and sluiced
one thousand nine hundred acres, north of the road lead-
ing to Newark, and distant from New York about four
miles : the next summer we ditched near a thousand
acres of this tract, which is not, strictly speaking, a salt
marsh : the waters of the Hackinsack and Passaic rivers
are fresh one-half the year, and but slightly saline the re-
mainder : the indigenous vegetation of the marsh is com-
mon flag and water-rush, some blue grass, and a stout,
rank, three-square grass, none of which grew on the Ho-
boken marsh, which was covered with sedge ; the soil is

On Salt Marsh. 255

consequently less impregnated with salt, the sward is not
so tough, and sooner decays when drained : on this
ground the grass seed took root, and grew well, but four
months after the drains were cut, and one year after it was
enclosed : this was on lots over which fire had passed.
Indeed nothing more seems to be required to prepare
this ground for grass, than the simple operation of burn-
ing the vegetation on the ground, as early in the au-
tumn as it will take fire, sowing the seed on the sod and
harrowing well after : the addition of a roller would no
doubt be of service : in this manner, two lots, of about
ten acres each, were prepared last October, and sown
with wheat and rye, and when winter set in, no grain
could look more promising than it did : about four hun-
dred acres of this tract are now in timothy, which promi-
ses a full crop the next season : clover and herd- grass
thrive equally well on this ground.

In a word, the result of our experiments, thus far, is
conclusive, that the least expensive and best mode of
subduing the sod of marsh land, and bringing it into
fresh meadow, is to let it remain a year, or more, after
it is banked and drained, then to burn the indigenous ve-
getation on the ground, and harrow in grass seed, or
commence with a crop of oats. Having tested the prac-
tice to our satisfaction, we shall pursue it hereafter, un-
til experience points out a better mode.

It appears that we have about seven hundred acres,
now laid down with timothy, promising wtjjJJ, and that
six hundred acres more are in a state of preparation, and
will be laid down with grasses, in like manner, the ensu-
ing season : nine hundred acres, in addition, are embank-

256 On Salt Marsh,

ed and sluiced, but not drained, and about one thousand
four hundred acres are yet unembanked, and in its natu-
ral state, the improvement of which is delayed solely
for the want of funds ; the moment they are obtained,
we shall proceed in our labours, until the entire tract is
enclosed, drained, and brought into profitable improve-
ment.

Accept the assurances of our highest regard.

John Swartwout,

For self and Brothers.

Dr. David Hosack.

k

On Salt Marsh. 257

Philadelphia, February 28, 1818.

Dear Sir,

The request you did me the honour of making, for
any information I might possess relative to salt marshes,
was too flattering to be declined ; and as the subject has
never been examined in America, where such marshes
require different considerations from those of other coun-
tries, I fear you may startle at the length of this commu-
nication : — any part of it is at your disposal.

There are many large tracts of salt marsh on our coast,
within the bays, inlets and rivers, susceptible of such
improvement as will amply compensate a cautious ad-
venturer, render those districts healthy, and add to the
revenue, for county purposes.

I presume that all salt marshes are formed in the same
manner, and from similar materials ; and that the super-
ficial appearance is nearly alike in every country ; pro-
ducing the same herbage, with trifling variations, arising
from the altitude of the ground, and the difference of cli-
mate.

Whenever there is a rain that washes the soil from the
land near rivers, whenever pieces of the banks fall into
rivers, and whenever the channel beds are disturbed by
storms, the lighter particles of earth are earned up and
down the stream, and kept in motion to the distance of
a few miles or hundreds of miles, sometimes settling, and
again being disturbed, till they reach a cove near the
shore, or some rock or hard shoal near the channel, where
the agitation is so diminished, that the floating motes may
gradually fall and stick to the bottom ; subsequent rains

2S

258 On Salt Marsh.

and storms add to the depository, until this alluvion rises
above low water mark ; and being then more or less un-
der the influence of the sun and atmosphere, it gives
birth to docks, reeds, grasses and mosses, of various sub-
stances and properties, according to the quantity of heat
or moisture, or to the operation of some other agents in
nature. This herbage arrests the particles of mud float-
ing over and through it, when the tide is high enough to
cover the flats, and detains such portions as have suffi-
cient gravity and adherence to resist the impetus of the
current : hence, in some places, the mud-flat enlarges its
dimensions, in width and height, till the height is that of
high water mark ; and, in other situations, the force of
water, in more rapid transit, carries away, at a single tide,
whatever had been left the preceding one ; such force be-
ing just sufficient to allow the shoal to rise to a certain
height, and no higher : this may account for the lowness
of the Pea Patch and Reedy Island, at the head of Dela-
ware bay ; while the opposite marshes, on either shore,
are raised to the level of ordinary high tides.

The wild grasses have never been properly classed ;
and for want of a nomenclature, as well as from a la-
mented deficiency of science, I am unable to represent
the several aquatic plants ; but as grasses and soils are
so intimate, I must note some of the most predomi-
nant of those, that my account of these may be intelligi-
ble. I shall not attempt to assign a reason for the differ-
ence of vegetables that grow on salt marsh, from those
which spring from fresh mud, barely stating that there
is a difference, and that the grasses of the former are
much more abundant, and in their natural state more use-
ful, as they afford tolerable pasture for cattle. The great-

On Salt Marsh. 259

er quantity of herbage than fresh marsh produces, and
which is constantly rotting, yet held by strong roots, and
growing again, may account for the more evident union
of vegetable and mineral materials in the soil : the reed
on fresh marsh dies early in the fall ; is frangible, and
floats away in a few successive tides, without incorpo-
rating with the soil. There are three grasses more
prevalent than others on salt marsh : one is a long tangled
grass that takes root in the sand, as soon as a thin layer
of mud is formed upon the latter, at or below low water
mark, and grows where the water is generally clear ; it
becomes tangled by agitation, catching small portions of
floating mud, by which it acquires as much consistence
as barely to deserve the name of land. After growing
above low water mark, and for a few inches below its
own surface, it is solid enough to bear a man ; who, by
jumping, may shake it for several yards : an inexperien-
ced person would suppose that this kind of marsh might
be banked to advantage. It has been tried, near to Allo-
way's creek, in Jersey, where the bank formed of this
vegetable earth decayed, and settled even with the marsh ;
it was so loose as to become saturated with water as the
tide flowed; at every recession of which, the sun rotted and
in a few years reduced it to its former level. Soon after
the bank was thrown, and the ditches were cut, the mea-
dow was dry, but in a year or two the whole body became
decomposed ; and, for want of mud, or of water sufficient
to buoy and sustain it, settled so low that rain water
would not run off — there was no fall — thus it became
worthless. Then the turf bank rotted, or floated off, and
the expense was entirely fruitless. The second species
of grass requiring notice is called, in Jersey, " Sedge

266 On Salt Marsh.

Grass:" it has a succulent root, resembling that of a
leek ; it takes hold two or three inches below the surface
of the marsh ; the blade is about a foot high, is broad,
tender and nutritious ; its verdure is nearly perennial ;
hay is often made of it in January ; it does not grow
close ; it flourishes in a rich black soil, composed of
the finest particles of mud, and in places where the
marsh has not raised quite to the height of ordinary
tides. From this cause, sedge marsh (unimproved)
is generally too soft for pasture, and the crop too
liable to be wet, or carried away by the water, for hay-
making on a large scale. The soil is strong, and from a
foot to three feet below its surface, begins to be com-
pact ; the same kind of soil produces the three- square
grass, so well known as to need no description. This
marsh becomes excellent, after being banked a few years;
but in considering the propriety of enclosing it, the ad-
venturer must examine carefully, to ascertain whether the
supra-soil or spungy substance be so _ thick, as to fall
greatly when decomposed ; the danger being in its set-
tling so low that the back water, from creeks or from the
clouds, will not fall into the bay or river ; in which case it
is worthless for fresh meadow, and worse than in its natu-
ral state. The rise and fall of tide must, of course, be ta-
ken into consideration ; for although, where the rise and
fall are six or seven feet, there will be no injury from the
settling of the marsh as much as three or four feet, the
same may not be said when the rise and fall of the river
are only three or four feet. The last of these grasses
that I shall mention, is called " Salt Grass :" it grows on
the highest marshes of rich blue mud, its roots reaching
the solid soil, at two or three inches below the surface,

On Salt Marsh. 261

and extending a few roots as low as a foot. Here the
mud is solid for many feet, down to the sand or gravel,
and in many instances as deep as the bottom of the river
or bay ; its depth varies, however, according to the su-
perficial shape of sand or gravel on which it was origin-
ally formed : the salt grass (so called) is esteemed the
best fodder for cattle, though not quite so good as the
sedge for pasture, where the latter grows dry enough ;
nor is the hay so much esteemed for sheep , as is the
sedge : it is a hard wiry grass, growing high and very
compact ; it may be gathered without much risk from
tides, which seldom spread over the high marsh where it
abounds. Where this salt grass, and even where the sedge
grass prevails, the mud is so solid, at a little distance un-
derneath, that water cannot percolate; and having no
drains in the natural- state, the water is stagnant, and ge-
nerates certain vegetables that dissolve, and form a sub-
stance resembling a spunge; whose fibres are strong,
compactly intertwined, and whose roots are very tena-
cious : this surface is cut into pieces smaller than bricks,
and used for firing near New York : it yields heat ra-
ther more feeble than tan.

Having said that there are large tracts of salt marsh
which might be improved to great advantage, it is qui *
as necessary to add that there are many, which ne-
ver should be touched with that view. Where they
are exposed to the open ocean, whose capricious vio-
lence inundates half a township one day, and casts a
sand-bank to prevent the retrocession of water the next,
and where the water is so clear that it serves only to
nourish sea- weeds, without adding mud to make a sub-
stantial soil, no great improvement should be expected.

262 On Salt Marsh.

Marshes on sounds and inlets of the coast, are often ex-
posed to that uncertain rise of the sea, and are situated so
near it as to receive many of its attacks, while they are
out of the reach of floating mud, which is deposited in
quiet places, nearer the sources of the rivers. Our go-
vernment would not undertake to improve those mud-
less flats, excepting for military purposes, while the
western country remains untenanted ; nor could the work
be effected on a grand scale, while labour continues so high
as it is at present. It is true, that Holland owes her ex-
istence and chief revenue to such works, but equally so,
that she preserves them only by the most expensive vi-
gilance. The first cost of machinery, and incidental ex-
penses, would, and ought to be sufficient to discourage
our government: individuals would inevitably fail in
such extensive enterprizes. Whenever, therefore, a pro-
ject of improvement is entertained by individuals, the
chief inquiries should be : —

1st. Is there sufficient elevation of the marsh, allow-
ing for its sinking, to drain it into the creek, river, or bay,
to which it lies adjacent? and in estimating the probable
diminution in the height of the marsh, the nature of the
different strata of turf, grass or roots mixed with mud,
; nd of the mud itself, must be considered. A spirit-level
should be used to ascertain whether the back part of the
marsh be high enough, as the highest marsh is always
next to the river: without particular attention to this
phenomenon, we might be greatly deceived.

2d. If the mud be not sufficiently tenacious near the
site of the intended bank, where is the solid mud to be
obtained, and what will be the cost of carrying it in
wheelbarrows or on handbarrows? It must be understood

On Salt Marsh. 263

that the turf will not be fit for the bulk of a bank,
though the salt grass sod is better than any thing else for
facing.

3d. What will be the probable effect of storm tides;
as they may overtop a low bank, or bear a weak one in-
to the ditch ? The last inquiry, which perhaps should
be first, is particularly necessary in situations where no
certain limits can be assigned to the tide at its height.
On bays there are large tracts of good marsh, but some of
them so exposed to storms that the greatest care must
be had to considerations of the size, materials, and cost,
of a suitable bank ; the nature of the beach at high and
low water ; whether it be shelving or abrupt in its de-
scent ; whether it be composed of sand, gravel, or mud ;
and whether the marsh gains upon the bay or the bay on
the marsh ? Opposite to some marshes there are high
mounds of sand or gravel thrown by the surf, whose
materials sink at the reflux of the wave ; they cannot
float over the marsh as particles of mud in diffusion
would, but are left at the edge, as high as any storm tide
casts them ; thus forming a natural defence to the marsh,
sufficient for its protection against all common tides.
This natural mound, however, is sometimes destructive,
at others defensive, to the meadow ; defensive, where
there are creeks from the upland that ebb and flow
in their connexion with the bay ; for, in this case,
the back water may be collected, at any time, to force
a passage, through which to drain the meadow, at low
tide ; it is destructive, where there is no creek rising
in the fast land, for the natural mound keeps all the
rain water from falling into the bay ; and though a drain
may be dug to carry off the water, through the beach to

26'4 On Salt Marsh.

low water mark, a few high tides will fill up the mouth
of such drain, and the next storm tide, probably, replace
the sand as high as ever : there is no chance, in such a
place, of making good meadow, without machinery to
raise the back water so high as to be sent over the natu-
ral mound.

It was just now observed, that where creeks, from the
fast land, pass through the meadow, there is advan-
tage in having this natural mound. It is a protection to
the artificial one, which must nevertheless be thrown
from the solid mud inside of it ; and it should be raised
as occasion requires, by putting a slab or brush fence
in every low place that storm tides may have broken,
or the winds blown away. The fence would catch
the loose sand blown from the beach, when dry, at low
water ; as well as that which the waves might otherwise
throw into the meadow, beyond the regular line of
the natural mound. Too much reliance on the natural
mound must be avoided, lest the artificial one be ne-
glected. A bank of sand, alone, will never be safe ; for
the rooting of a hog, or the track of an ox, may let the
bay water through, and thus begin a breach that will en-
large must faster than if the bank were of mud. Other
inquiries must occur to a prudent man, such as, what is
the quantity of marsh to be enclosed, with reference to
the profits in comparison with the expenditure ? the pro-
bable amount of interest on capital, till the land be culti-
vated or brought into fresh grass ? the population of the
neighbourhood, in relation to the demand for hay or
grain, and the price of labour ? the distance from mar-
ket ? the facility of procuring fresh water for cattle ? the
laws of the state, which should impose a bank tax, pro-
rata, for repairs ? &c. &c.

On Salt Marsh. 265

Some marshes, where there is no sloping beach, are
washed at their edge, next the river or bay, by ordinary
tides, all the time of flood and ebb — no sand nor gravel to
defend them : in such a case, no bank erected near the
margin will stand long, but will, in a few years, be un-
dermined and cave in ; great pieces of sod are constant-
ly breaking off, carrying some mud along with them, and
this process never ceases, excepting at the turn of tide,
to make regular approaches towards the artificial bank :
nothing can justify enclosing such a marsh, unless the
owner can make safe calculations on the plan of going
far back into it for the site of his bank, and thus losing
several hundred yards in depth between it and the bay ;
and even then, he must look forward to a time when the
encroachment of the bay will compel him to abandon
his out-works : to prevent this, however, piers or old
hulks have been resorted to with success, but always
with great expense. The uncertainty of the effect of such
barriers is another objection, as they frequently increase
the evil they were placed to forfend. There are some
valuable tracts, fit for banking, in whose centre, or ex-
tremity next the fast land, are soft low places of consi-
derable extent: in order that the improvement of the
whole need not be retarded, till the tides should fill up
these low spots, which, from their remoteness from bays
or rivers, might never be, the owners could assist nature,
by digging ditches from such bays or rivers, through
which the muddy water would readily flow and spread
over those low places, which are commonly called " salt
ponds ;" three or four years would, by this method, effect
a great alteration : this cannot be done after the bank is
made, without inundating all the land enclosed.

2T

266 On Salt Marsh

Many of the foregoing remarks apply, with most effect,
to large tracts of salt marsh ; and, in this view of the
subject, it appears proper to advert to the difficulty of
procuring fresh water for cattle, when the meadow shall
be prepared for grazing : the subject is mentioned now,
because we are considering the propriety of banking,
with an eye to the expense as well as the profit. It is
common for the marshes to extend two, or even three
miles' from the fast land to the river or bay ; and, where
no fresh streams pass through, there are but two expe-
dients ; one is, to build a platform or slip, for cattle to
descend upon to the river, at low tide ; but this can be
useful only where the water is merely brackish — brackish
rivers being potable at that period : the other is, to have
a well so constructed as to obtain fresh and exclude
brackish water ; the best mode of accomplishing this has
been practised within the fortifications of the Pea Patch,
a low marsh island, near the head of Delaware bay. An
iron cylinder, about four feet in length, whose rim is an
inch and a half thick, and the diameter three feet in the
clear, is put into a well in the salt marsh, when dug to
the depth of half a dozen feet ; the cylinder sinks into
the mud, and another one is placed upon it ; a man de-
scends to dig the mud from around the rim and from the
middle, by which means, and the weight of iron, the cy-
linder settles ; and thus joint after joint is put on, till
the spring below the surface of sand or gravel is found as
fresh as those in upland. The joints of the cylinder are
not made with grooves, but they effectually exclude any
water that would otherwise ooze through the mud into
the well. Few wells in salt marsh need be dug deeper
than ten feet below the sand or gravel on which the marsh

On Salt Marsh. 267

is formed; and it is presumed that twenty-four feet
would be the mean depth required in high marshes on
the Delaware. The cost of the well at the Pea Patch,
was, per contract, forty-five dollars per foot, including
every expense ; but it is supposed that the work might
now be done for half that sum: — a thousand dollars
would be well spent in obtaining fresh water in a large
body of meadow, remote from the fast land.

Having determined to bank and reclaim a large tract
of marsh, for that is still the hypothesis, let us inquire
what is to be done at first, and in progress ? The first
step is to ascertain the quantity owned by others, in or-
der that if the state laws do not compel every owner to
pay the expense according to his quantity of marsh, the
legislature may be applied to for a special act ; by ne-
glecting this, some of the owners receiving benefit from
the enclosure, will probably refuse to pay their quota of
expenditure : next, let contracts be made for banking and
ditching by the rod (not by the day) under the superin-
tendence of a person appointed to see that the packing
be properly done, and the ditches cut as wide an4 deep
as the agreement specifies. The banks should be thrown
from a single ditch, inside of the site of such bank, un-
less where it is necessary to make one so large that the
men cannot throw the mud from the inside of the ditch
to the outside of the bank, and, in this case, if the mud
can be carried for a reasonable price, it is better to have
it done, than to have two ditches ; one ditch is preferable,
because the bank is not so apt to spread and fall into one, as
if there were two ; nor has it so great a tendency to sink,
or spoil its shape, as it would have by crushing its foot-
ing into two ditches ; it will be more free from musk

268 On Salt Marsh.

rats, which delight to play in ground between two pieces
of water : it will be more free from Jidlers, by some called
soldiers, which never go over the surface of grass into
which they cannot penetrate, though they bore innumera-
ble holes, of half an inch diameter, into the soft sides of the
ditch, below the bank ; and if ther«e are two ditches, they
burrow from one to the other, and thus begin ruinous
breaches.* And again, there can be no attrition from the
tide against the edge, where there is but one ditch, and
that inside. Where the expense will be justified by the
quantity, and favourable situation, and uncommon value
of meadow, as in that between Newark and New York,
it would be preferable to have no ditch, but to carry all
the mud from a place distant from the site : this plan
was there pursued by Samuel Swartwout, esquire, the
active proprietor of that most valuable estate. The slui-
ces or flood-gates should be erected, in number and
size, as the quantity of water indicates a small or greater
vent to be requisite : respecting them, I wish only to re-
mark, that they should be made solid, on logs, placed
either end up, or on the side, across the sluice ditch, as
low as the tide will admit ; this to prevent muskrats from
undermining, from which cause the water within or with-
out the meadow might cause the works to blow: if ex-
pensive flood-gates be made, a roof would preserve them
for many years.

The size of the bank on salt marsh will depend on the,
situation, in reference to exposure ; but it must be also

* The fidler is an amphibious shell-fish, like a craw-fish, about
the same size, and so called from carrying one large claw or piri-
cer before it, when it runs, the claw being in about the same pro
portion to the dimensions of its body, as the violincello to a gen-
tleman of the orchestra.

On Salt JSfarsh. 26$

observed, that the footing should be wider, and the bank
itself higher, than for fresh marsh, when first made, on
account of the perishable vegetables that are more or
less intermixed with the mud, of which the bank is
formed. If the marsh be extensive, a main drain should
be cut, as deep as the floors of the main flood-gates or
sluices; and all the smaller drains should end in the main
one, at different points; these need not be so deep,
though they must be somewhat deeper than the turf or
peat. The dimensions of ditches, usually made merely
for draining, are six feet across the top, three feet across
the bottom, and three feet deep; less than eight feet
across the top will not turn cattle, nor is a depth of three
feet sufficient for that purpose in dry seasons ; cattle
will walk over a ditch of less capacity.

I now take leave to detail my experience in the ma-
nagement of salt meadow, but by no means recom-
mending others to follow the example. About eight
years ago, I engaged, in company with J. H. Brinton.
esquire, in purchasing, banking, ditching and reclaim-
ing a large tract of salt marsh, in Jersey, on Maurice ri-
ver, extending down to its mouth, and thence down the
Delaware bay, to West creek. We began by banking
about twelve hundred acres on the river, at and above the
entrance ; our experience has enabled us to perceive
many errors in the first operations ; but the benefits of
the enterprise were so plainly developed, and the prepa-
ration and management so much better understood, that
we threw another bank, the year before last, embracing
four thousand acres, adjoining the first body ; the two
banks, united, extend about twelve miles; and the length
of all the ditches, together, is upwards of one hundred

270 On Salt Marsh.

and thirty miles : it was easy, at the beginning, to com-
pute the cost of the bank and drains, which upon paper
appeared trifling, when compared with the expected ad-
vantages ; but all such estimates were fallacious ; the
undertaking was new, the object very important ; and li-
beral ideas, in every stage, produced, in the end, an ex-
penditure ten-fold greater than had been anticipated ; we
had no guide among the inhabitants, no caution from ad-
venturers before us, yet such were the allurements for
lavish disbursement, that innumerable small sums, to ac-
celerate the work, encourage farmers, or promote early
experiments, were not withheld : the old adage, " festi-
na lente" never intruded itself among our calculations :
my own embarrassment therefore preceded my income,
and obliged me to sell part of the estate prematurely ;
which I mention to put others on their guard. Our
next object was to place experienced husbandmen upon
the property, to work it to the best advantage, on our
account ; these were procured from Pennsylvania, with
horses, wagons, ploughs, and every necessary implement
for agriculture. In the course of the first fall we put in
about three hundred acres of wheat and rye ; the grain
was strewn on the ground, which had never been plough-
ed, and the harrow was passed over it frequently ; but such
was the tenacity of the salt grass roots on the surface,
that very little impression was made, and much of the
grain, so exposed, was destroyed by birds ; the remainder
took root and had a good appearance for a time, but not
more than a twelfth of the grains were covered ; and those
which were not, were raised on tender transparent roots,
which supported the husk of the seed at about an inch
above the ground ; the meadow appeared as if covered

On Salt Marsh. 271

with innumerable spiders of the long-leg tribe : these all
perished at the first frost ; while such grains as were co-
vered by the earth, however shallow the protection, sur-
vived the winter, stooled in the spring, wherever there
was soft earth to creep into, and produced an amazing
increase ; that is to say, the increase of covered grains
was amazing, not that the whole crop was. A bushel of
the wheat weighed sixty-four pounds, and it was all
alike, except the common white wheat, which neither
yielded nor weighed so much as the red- chaff bearded
wheat. In its growing state, it was, and has been ever
since, free from mildew, and we attribute this fact to the
saline particles of the atmosphere.* The rye was more
abundant ; for, being a smaller grain, more of the seed
had fallen into the harrow- cuts, and there obtained shelter.
The whole product of three hundred acres did not pay
the expenses, by many hundred dollars, but the ultimate
value of the soil was apparent, from the vigour and health
of those plants that were covered from the weather.

In the spring, oats were sown in the soft ground,
where it had settled so as to allow cattle to go over with
a harrow ; and a better crop, it is presumed, never was
seen ; the straw enormous, and the top well filled. In-
dian corn was put in other lots, with a hoe ; it grew in
some places, but failed in most. Our workmen, with-
out experience on a soil of this nature, planted so deep
that the seed became rotten, by the water that had not yet
filtrated to the ditches ; or so shallow that the sun dried it

* There is a common practice among shallopmen. to dash salt
■water on the sails, to prevent mildew.

272 On Salt Marsh.

i ■ — ■ »

up with the crust of dead grass on the top. In a small
piece, however, selected for experiment, (about the
fourth of an acre,) the crust was removed with a hoe
and rake, and here the crop wTas remarkably heavy.
The second fall having arrived, it was determined to put
the same ground in wheat and rye, as before ; for we sup-
posed that the sod was sufficiently rotten for the harrow
to tear it in pieces. We were disappointed ; the most solid
parts of the meadow still sustained the decaying roots of
salt grass ; and where this was not the case, the horses
could not walk, and oxen went with difficulty through the
slough. It was perceived, that wherever the mud was
lightest, the decomposition was most speedy ; and hence,
as this light sedge-mud was the only kind that could be
cultivated to advantage this year, the farming proceeded
under great discouragements to the workmen, as well as
to the oxen. The frequent plunging of these made them
sullen, and the slow progress of the work disheartened the
drivers ; while the musquetoes, whose number had not
then diminished since the ditching was done, increased
the vexation of both. These obstructions limited the
operations of the fall to a smaller space than was intend-
ed ; but the ensuing summer brought an abundant har-
vest, as respects rye. We now discovered that wheat
was a less hardy plant, and unfit for the loose marsh ;
but that in every place on the solid salt grass marsh,
where it had a covering, it throve well.

In the second spring, oats grew again, as well as be-
fore, in the same ground ; and a small piece of flax yield-
ed an ordinary crop. Indian corn looked stinted and
scalded in some places, and most luxuriant in others,

On Salt Marsh. 273

—

The grub worms* were very prolific under the salt grass
sod, and attacked the seed as well as many of the stalks.
Two lots, together about twenty acres, had been sown
with timothy and clover ; others with herd- grass. The
two first were flourishing while nourished by the show-
ers of spring ; but the summer sun acting upon a dry
surface of dying salt grass roots, communicated too much
heat to the young fresh grass, which perished. It must be
difficult, at any season, for new grass to obtain a footing
among the established roots of the natives, which already,
reach the moisture so necessary for the sustenance of all ;
and the former will not dispossess the latter, until these
are destroyed by being constantly exposed to the sun,
and deprived of the superabundant water on which their
existence depends. Where herd-grass had been sown,
it took well, and was pastured ; the ground improved as
it settled by the weight of cattle. Herd-grass was not so
much injured by superfluous water, as were other fresh
grasses. This meadow is now as good for pasture or
mowing as any other ; having improved every year.

The third fall arrives — more ditches have been cut —
fresh weeds have spread over the ground, instead of salt
and sedge grass, to a greater extent than before. It was
concluded to let the property to the halves — owners pay-
ing for scouring the ditches. The Germans are tired of
working with oxen — refuse to work to the shares — are
discouraged ; and the lots are let to people of the neigh-

* If these grubs were of the same species with our upland
corn grub ; this is a curious fact. Salt and salt water, in nume-
rous instances, have destroyed the common grub in our corn
fields. R. p,

2U

274 On Salt Marsh.

bourhood. Worse farmers than those near the bays
are not to be found. They are so fond of " birding,"
that we may calculate events of the morrow with the
certainty of soothsayers — by the evening flight of wild
fowl. The}7 will leave their horses standing at the har-
row, while they tend a hoop-net — or they will go " oy-
stering," or " drumming' ' (catching drum fish) on the
flats — or they doze in a batteau at night, a jug for a pil-
low,— a fish-line tied to the wrist ; while their wives and
•children are more actively employed at home, in brush-
ing away musquetoes with a turkey-wing. I mention these
habits of the natives, as being fairly within the calculations
that should be made, before a great improvement of salt
marsh is undertaken. These pursuits are called " natural
privileges," and under that head are justified many liber-
ties, such as neglecting to harrow sufficiently to secure a
crop for themselves or the owners of the soil, if a net is
to be mended, — using the teams for bringing home fish,
oysters, &c. &c. Notwithstanding all this, our amphi-
bious tenants contrived to get in between three and four
hundred acres of winter grain. Bad harrowing, light sow-
ing, late season, cattle plunging, men complaining, did
not seem to promise much ; yet the grain looked well
in November, better in the spring, and at harvest there
was the most brilliant display in one body, that perhaps
was ever seen in the middle states. The difference in
farming was, however, quite apparent in various lots.

Succeeding years produced crops of winter grain
nearly as good, but some injury was felt from the fre-
quent succession of the same kind of grain — to this cause
we ascribe the large proportion of cheat that grew up in

On Salt Marsh. 275

the wheat land. The last crop of wheat and rye was not
so heavy, neither in straw nor grain, although our farm-
ers improved as fast as the marsh — their idle habits have
yielded to the incitement of golden harvests. They know
how to live better, and understand that the best means to
procure good food is to work for it. They give the pre-
ference to dried eels and potatoes, over dried eels alone ;
and acknowledge that corn-fed pork is more savoury than
that which was fattened on king crabs.*

Permit me now to attempt to account for the deterio-
ration of the crop of grain, (though the grass had im-
proved every year,) at the same time admitting that a
very intelligent and experienced gentlemanf of Port Eli-
zabeth, ascribes the fact entirely to the xvant of a change
in the nature of the crop. It will be recollected that our
marsh is composed of a body of rich blue mud, on the
top of which is a vegetable resembling a spunge ; and
that spunge is three inches, and often more, in thick-
ness. There cannot therefore be much substance till
the surface decays and mingles with the solid sediment
of tide water on which it grows. Nevertheless, every
fresh or spring tide before the bank was made, left a
little mud on the top of the spunge ; — that little, coming
twice or thrice a year, had a fertilizing effect. Additional
richness was derived from the atmosphere, if we accept
the opinion of a writer who asserts that " dew when pu-
rified in a vessel, has a black sediment like mud, at the
bottom, which causes that darkish colour to the upper

* Sometimes called " horse shoes," — 'large crawling shell fish,
used for hog-feed, and giving a disagreeable fishy flavour to the
pork.

t Joshua Brick, Esq.

276 On Salt Marsh.

part of the ground." Mr. Livingston has lately made
experiments that sanction the remark. Leaving this fact
to the philosophers, I adopt it for the present purpose, and
how forcibly does it apply to salt marshes ? Sir John Prin-
gle, speaking of Zealand, says that " by the evaporation of
the water in which various plants and insects die and rot,
the atmosphere, during the latter part of summer and au-
tumn, is filled with moisture and with putrid and insa-
lutary vapours. A second but less obvious source of
humidity, is from the water under ground; which in
that country lies near the surface ; and as the soil is light,
the moisture easily transpires, and in summer loads the
air with vapour, even where no water is visible. An-
other cause of the humidity and corruption of the atmo-
sphere, is imperfect ventilation. There are no hills to di-
rect the wind in streams upon the lower ground ; hence
the air is apt to stagnate." A better description of our
salt marsh country could not be given ; though the re-
cent improvements have in a very great degree altered
the general state of health in their neighbourhood. Pro-
fessor Vince, of Cambridge, has ascertained to his satis-
faction, that the Mediterranean sea evaporates one- tenth
of an inch per diem in summer ; so that our salt marsh-
es have every chance of a great supply of fog from the
Atlantic, and dew from the land ; and perhaps one proof
of it is, that cattle left on salt water beaches do not re-
quire so much drink as those fed on upland. It is said
that they are supplied with the necessary moisture from
descending vapour. I return from this digression to state
an opinion, that the mud casually deposited by exuberant
tides, with the residuum of fog and dew, may so fertilize
the spungy surface of salt marsh, as to make it produce

On Salt Marsh. 277

heavy crops, for a few years, without imparting more du-
rable fecundity. This surface being exhausted by tillage,
must be enriched by manure, or by deep ploughing, or
by natural causes, which will gradually embody the ve-
getable surface with the mud beneath ; — and thus I ac-
count for the deterioration of our crop, and the means of
recruiting the soil.

At this period of husbandry in salt meadows, various
manures, and particularly lime, would be useful; the
mud from ditches, sand from the fast land or beach,
dung, and almost every manure would accelerate de-
cay, and compress and strengthen such soil as had
not a sufficient portion of mud. The marsh improved
by Mr. Brinton and myself, has, in every part, a solid
substratum of blue mud ; and the whole body having be-
come sufficiently compact, for. horses and oxen to walk
in a plough furrow, the rich soil from below is to be
turned up ; for where that has been done, and time al-
lowed for the salt and sour nature to pass away, the
crops are equal to any that I have heard of, and supe-
rior to most. They are not, however, so certain as in
upland. The great body of our meadow was harrowed ;
and that is sufficient, nay better than ploughing, in the
first years after the enclosure is made ; but some lots
were ploughed for the sake of experiment, and though
they did not yield at first, as those did which were mere-
ly harrowed, we now begin to see the advantage of the
operation, in giving firmness to the soil. But we should
have been better recompensed (the benefit of the expe-
riment apart) had we depended on the harrow alone for
the first five years, during which the crops were good ;
and it would have been soon enough to plough, when

278 On Salt Marsh.

these began to fail. After the ground is once mixed
by the plough and harrow, the latter implement alone is
prefered for several years. One objection to ploughing
salt marsh in the first five years after it is enclosed, or
before the sod becomes rotten, is that the top, being
turned with the grass roots up, dries in the sun ; and,
not having enough moisture to accelerate putrefaction,
lies for years in the same state, like a spunge ; for it is
then too tough for the harrow, and clogs under it with-
out being broken : but if it were left fast to the ground,
without ploughing, a light harrow, of common construc-
tion, would skip and tear out a little at a time, in like
manner as oakum may be picked, when it cannot be pull-
ed to pieces. Another objection is, that the sod, so hard
and dry when ploughed up and exposed, covers that on
which it is turned ; and therefore the latter has not enough
sun to excite speedy fermentation, while it is kept suffi-
ciently moist to cherish many of the salt grass roots :
one hard sod is turned on another by the plough, and
must be left so, for the slow process of time. The har-
row will not break, nor tear it after it is ploughed, as
in upland. Nature does more for this soil in the first few-
years after it is drained, than all the force and art of man.
By letting it remain in its natural position, by waiting till
it settles, as it will when the water is drawn off by ditch-
es, all the expense of premature experiments in farming
may be saved r — a due proportion of heat from above, and
moisture from below, acting on vegetable and mineral
soils so intimately united, will sooner effect the necessary
decomposition of both ; when they will form a new soil,
capab! the usual improvement. Among the numer-
ous objections to the plough in \hz first few years> I will

On Salt Marsh. 219

only add, that the tough dry sod would lie on the ground,
to catch the seed it could not nourish — to trip the work-
men— to arrest the sway of the sithe — to harbour moles,
meadow mice, snakes, worms and insects. Beside all
this, ploughing is a most difficult operation, in new
marsh, when every step in the furrow brings oxen to the
dew-lap.

All our exertions were attended with cost far beyond
calculation; but they confirmed our original views of
the value of salt marsh, where it is (as is our own) of
sufficient height above the neighbouring water, and of
sufficient depth of solid mud, after allowing for its sett-
ling. We were so convinced, that, as I stated before,
we enclosed an additional tract of four thousand acres.
We now prescribe rules for ourselves, by which we feel
assured that the new marsh will not cost, at the end of
five or six years, more than a third of the expense of the
other.

The first rule is to avoid farming altogether for two
years, by which time cattle can draw a harrow over the
ground, if this has been well drained.

2d.. To have nothing done on our own account, by the
day, month or year.

3d. To let the meadow to the shares, or for monev —
preferring the latter.

4th. To authorize no repairs to the houses or out
buildings, after they are once put in order.

5th. To build barracks on the meadow, instead of
barns on the upland.

6th.* If the rent be payable in grain, to remove om
share before the rats consume more than one-t£;ith of it

280 On Salt Marsh.

We prefer, however, having grass seed sown thick,
immediately on the bank being finished, and afterwards
at proper seasons of the year ; — then to put on as many
cattle as we can obtain, even for the most trifling com-
pensation— our object being to turn the whole into graz-
ing ground.

The foregoing view of the subject is taken upon a
scale of several hundred or thousand acres; and, in
closing these general remarks, I beg leave to repeat,
that the elevation of the marsh, the rise and fall of tides,
and the quality of the alluvion, are the most important
inquiries to be made, before a great work is commenced.
I feel more zeal to make an impression on these points,
having lately heard of a project for enclosing a large bo-
dy, where the rise and fall of tide are but two feet. In
this case I lament to say, the marsh will never bear grain
or fresh grass, though the salt grass will be improved by
ditches : and that in three years the meadow will be, as
before the bank was made, regulated by the tide.

I now take leave to offer some opinions on the ma-
nagement of a small piece of salt marsh, after it is en-
closed and well drained ; because this will fix our atten-
tion to the mode of culture, without carrying us into the
region of consequences attending a large body together.

Let it be supposed that ten acres of salt marsh, com-
pletely enclosed and drained, are to be put down in grain
as soon as possible. Also, that ten other acres of such
marsh are to be put into grass without delay. With re-
spect to that destined for grain, I would recommend that
it should be left to settle, for the first year ; whema great
crop of salt grass or sedge may be gathered ; for in the

On Salt Marsh. 281

first year after a bank is finished, before the meadow is
thoroughly drained to the ditches, the native grasses
grow very high ; — they afterwards diminish till they die
out entirely. In the second spring, the meadow will
be, according to its tenacity, covered with fresh weeds,
more or less, such as butter weeds, lamb quarters, marsh
elder, and a variety of plants, affording for a short time
excellent pasture, especially for sheep. They grow spon-
taneously, as at the beginning of the world ; when, ac-
cording to Ovid,

" The teeming earth, yet guiltless of the plough,
" And unprovok'd did -fruitful stores allow."

Dri/dw's Trcrns. 1 B. Metam.

The fact so remarkable, is difficult to be accounted
for in this new creation, just raised above the waters,
and often two miles distant from fast land. I have sup-
posed that the seeds were floated and deposited with the
mud, at the formation of the marsh ; and that they re-
mained inert till the sun brought them to life — his rays
having been obstructed by the water, before the bank ex-
cluded it. Or, the weeds may have been produced from
an invisible germ, soon after the mud became exposed to
the sun. This opinion may receive some confirmation
from the first chapter of Genesis. — " And the earth
brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind,
and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after
his kind." Those weeds, together with the remaining
salt and sedge grass, should be burnt previous to sowing
with grain ; and a time should be waited for, when, after
a rain, the moisture is not so great as to prevent the
flames from spreading through the herbage, and yet suf-

2X

282 On Salt Marsh,

ficient to keep the fire from burning the sod below the
surface : if the sod be burnt, the fire frequently pene-
trates as low as a foot, destroying the vegetative faculty of
the soil. The light ashes imparts no vigour, nor is it capa-
ble of producing a single plant of itself. Burning injures
the marsh, inasmuch as its height is thereby destroyed ;
for the winds sport with such ashes even more than
with snow. I have seen a Maurice river man sowing
broad cast in a fresh breeze, when the sky appeared
almost as black as night, with ashes ; and he, in the
local fashion, with his shirt-tail outside of his trow-
sers, resembled the picture of Darwin's Demon, —
" wrapt in clouds, in tempest tost." If care be not had
therefore, to the time of burning the weeds, it were bet-
ter to mow them. This preparation over, oats in the
spring, or wheat and rye in the fall, may be sown, se-
lecting the solid ground only for wheat. The harrow
should be passed often. The plough should not be used
for several years, as before recommended. The same
process may be followed (except the burning of stubble,
which is not now necessary) every year, till the ground
is fit for ploughing ; when it may be farmed in the usual
way, or put down in grass. Early sowing, before it be-
comes very husky, is best for spring crops — late sowing,
after grasshoppers have gone, is best for fall crops, in salt
meadow. Indian corn well planted, (not too deep nor
too shallow) succeeds ; flax grows high ; mustard seed
flourishes ; and, as the soil becomes more mellow, pota-
toes thrive, and turnips, broad cast, do very well. The
ground, in fact, is fit for any thing, and may receive the
ordinary treatment ; and it is so strong, as not to require
manure for many years after one ploughing.

On Salt Marsh. 283

With respect to the lot destined for grass, I would re-
spectfully recommend, that, as soon as the bank and
ditches are finished, the salt grass or weeds should be
burnt, when the ground is wet and the weeds dry ; and
that herd or timothy or clover seed should be sown—
preferring herd, in low wet places, on account of its
hardy nature ; and timothy and clover, where the
ground is dry, on account of their quality. Fire should
not be used afterwards, lest the fresh grass be destroy-
ed ; but the lot should be overstocked, that all the her-
bage may be eaten down nearly at the same time. If
a sufficient number of cattle be not obtained, a small
number will select the fresh, and let the salt grass and
weeds go, to seed, — thus enabling the latter to keep the
ascendency. In such a case, the whole should be mown
even ; and then as many cattle as can be had should be
turned to graze on the after-math. They will, at the
same time, trample through the crust of salt grass roots,
and set the fresh grass seed fairly in the ground, if more
seed be necessary. Every year will increase the fresh
grass, by this process ; but, as much of the seed perishes,
on a salt or sedge grass surface, that does not fall into
the harrow cuts or cattle tracks, repeated sowing is ne-
cessary. Three or four years will thus make first rate
meadow.

If the meadow be low and spungy, it never should be
ploughed, nor destined for grain : its height is better pre-
served by leaving it undisturbed. There are many pieces
of marsh, even though the main body of the tract is bet-
ter, that are high enough for grazing, and yet would
settle too much by cultivation. Here the idea of irriga-
tion occurs. The practice of overflowing fresh meadows,

284 On Salt Marsh.

to raise them, is universally approved; but salt water
meadows should not be subjected to it, if it can be avoid-
ed, lest the salt water herbage revive : and here again we
see the necessity of attending to our cardinal point, that
of elevation, before a single spit of mud be thrown.

The marshes near Savannah have been lately enclos-
ed. Those opposite to Charleston, (S. C.) I am told,
have the necessary qualities. The western and eastern
shores of Delaware bay, and the small rivers that ebb
into it, afford extensive and valuable tracts, among many
of no value whatever : and between Newark and New
York, the best improvement in this country, all things
considered, has been effected. This marsh, it is be-
lieved, is of the requisite height, and the banks are
large and well constructed in every respect. A morass
of three thousand acres, which separated and sickened
very populous districts, has recently been brought to an
healthy and fruitful state. The complete melioration of
this tract remains to be seen. It will be proven to be
the most valuable one, of the same dimensions, in the
United States : its local situation and quality ensure this
result. The worthy proprietors of it will be soon com-
pensated for their anxiety, labour, and expense, as well
as for the discouragements that constantly assailed them,
from the good and ill nature of friends and pretended
friends, at every step.

I regret the prolixity of these remarks ; but the sub-
ject is so important, if it be touched at all, that less in-
formation should not be given ; and indeed many details
have been omitted, for the sake of brevity. The object
is to excite undertakings that may be profitable and du-
rable ; and to discourage others. Those immense tracts

On Salt Marsh. 285

of salt marsh, forming a fringe to our Atlantic border, are,
for the most part, worthless, — nay, worse ; but if an in-
habitant of the interior should visit them, after seeing the
great improvements in other places, he may at once con-
ceive the ruinous plan of giving to Ceres all those plea-
sure grounds of Neptune. On the other hand, if he cau-
tiously consider the strength and height of the wave,
with the compactness and elevation of the terraqueous
shore ; if, doubting, he retreat to the bay, and thence
to the river, calmly to make observations, he will find
here an ample area for his enterprise and industry : he
may create the fortune of himself and descendants ; — not
from the sand and drift weed of the ocean, but the solid
blue mud washed from the richest parts of our hills.

I am, very respectfully, &c. &c.

John R. Coates.

Hon. Richard Peters.

( 286 )

Philadelphia, 4th Mo. 16th, 1818.

Esteemed Friend,
Thy address of die 1 1th instant was duly received, in
which thou states, that the attention which I have given
to the cultivation of the Mangel Wurtzel, will no doubt
enable me to furnish a circumstantial account of the pro-
cess suitable to be adopted, for the successful manage-
ment of that valuable vegetable, and shall feel much obli-
ged by my communicating the experience I have acquir-
ed on this subject. In conformity with thy request, I
will with pleasure communicate any information I am in
possession of on the subject ; and although my experi-
ence is, no doubt, much more limited than that of many
others, in respect to the culture of this highly valuable
plant, yet having had, for two seasons past, considerable
success in its cultivation, upon a pretty extensive scale,
I subjoin the following particulars, which I am in the
practice of pursuing in its culture, as well as the manner
of gathering in a crop, and preserving it in the winter
season. With sentiments of much respect,

Thine truly.

Isaac C. Jones.
Roberts Vaux.

Culture of the Mangel Wurtzel, or improved Beet root,
as practised by myself with considerable success.

Make choice of a piece of ground as free from weeds
as practicable, and in good tilth : if a potato crop had

Culture of Mangel Wurtzel 287

been taken off the preceding season, it will be an advan-
tage ; particularly so, if the ground had been well ma-
nured, being thereby left in a mellow state. From the
6th to the 10th of the fourth month, (April,) give your
ground a good ploughing, say from eight to ten inches
deep, if the soil will admit of it, after which a complete
harrowing, in order to level it well and break the clods.
This being done, strike out furrows wTith the plough,
two feet three or four inches apart, and double ploughed,
that is, the plough returning on the same furrow, to the
end whence it set out. This operation will form a trench,
in which well rotted manure should be deposited, at the
rate of twenty to twenty-five two horse cart loads to the
acre. Muck, or manure in an unrotten state, should be
avoided, as land in good heart will do better without any,
than manure of this description.

After the manure is thus deposited in the trenches, the
ground, previously turned from them by the plough,
should be returned, also with the plough, forming ridges
immediately over the manure. The tops of these ridges,
being narrow and too elevated, should be somewhat flat-
tened or levelled, either with a rake or light roller. In
the middle of the ridges, the seeds are planted, so that
the plants may receive all the benefit of the manure be-
low. The seeds are deposited about half an inch in
depth, (if done whilst the moisture is fresh in the ground
the better,) and about twelve inches apart.

To effect this with regularity and expedition, I have
formed a wooden instrument, with six teeth, in sets of
two each, (see a representation annexed.) With this in-
strument, on the top of the ridges, as nearly over the ma-

288 Culture of Mangel WurtzeL

nure as practicable, indents, or small holes are formed,
say half an inch deep, as above stated, into which the
seeds are deposited, (one seed in each indent is sufficient
provided the seeds are perfect,) and covered with dirt by
the fingers. As from two to three plants generally spring
up from one seed, and not more than one ought to be aU
lowed to grow in a place, there are pretty uniformly ex-
tra plants, sufficiently numerous to insure a full crop, by
transplanting, in order to fill up vacancies which may
have occurred, in consequence of the failure of any of
the seed. The transplanting ought to be commenced
when the plants have attained the size of a quarter to half
an inch in diameter, and when the ground is in quite a
moist state. These precautions being taken, there are
very few plants that will not thrive and do well. In trans-
planting, care will be requisite to form holes sufficiently
deep for the plants, to prevent the point of the root from
turning upwards. The mode I have adopted for dress-
ing or keeping the plants free from weeds, and the ground
in a loose mellow state, is by means of the plough and
hoe : — the space between the rows being sufficiently great
for the adfnission of a small plough, with one horse. It
has been found best, in the first place, to plough from the
plants, (taking care not to go so near as to injure them,)
as it much facilitates the use of the hoe, immediately
about and between the plants. After the hoeing is done,
they are again ploughed, but the ground turned towards
the plants, when the dressing is completed.

Culture of Mangel Wurtzel.

289

Explanation of the wooden instrument \ used in forming
the indents in which the seeds are planted,

A. The handle inserted into
the head, or cross piece, B.

B. The head, or cross piece.
C C C. Six teeth, in sets of

two each, inserted into the under
part of the cross piece B. The
teeth forming the different sets
are about two inches apart, and
the distance from the centre of
one set to the centre of another,
is twelve inches. It is consider-
ed better to have six teeth in
sets, than to have but three teeth,

placed singly : as the indents, in which the seeds are
planted, being twice as numerous, doubly insure the
growth of the plants ; and in case of their being too nu-
merous, can readily be pulled up for transplanting, and
for the table, or given to cattle or hogs.

Time and manner of gathering in a crop of Mangel
Wurtzel, and preserving them in the winter season,

1st. As to the time. — A good deal will depend upon
the state of the season, but as a general rule, I think it
may with propriety be stated from the 1st to the 10th of
the eleventh month, (November.)

2nd. The manner I have pursued is, when the wea-
ther is dry and favourable, to pull up the plants, with the
leaves ; then break off the latter as near the plant as prac-
ticable, (except those roots you wish to preserve for seed
the? ensuing season ; the leaves of these it will be best
carefully to cut off, from two to three inches above the

2 Y

290 Culture of Mangel Wurtzel.

crown of the plant,) after which, shake off as much of
the dirt as you conveniently can, and lay the plants upon
the top of the ridge they were pulled from, in order that
the residue of the dirt adhering to them may dry ; in
which state it may readily be rubbed off by the hand, or
a stick of some soft wood, made smooth, to prevent
bruising. After they are thus cleared, and in a dry state,
they are ready for housing, in any dry place, secured from
the frost. I have also had them keep remarkably well,
through a very severe winter, in a garden or field, cover-
ed with earth, in the form of a conical mound or heap.
In preserving them in this way, it will be requisite to se-
lect a piece of dry ground, on which to form your heap,
around which make a trench sufficiently capacious to af-
ford a quantity of earth to cover them one foot, or fifteen
inches in depth. At the time of so covering them, the
ground thrown over, should be made very compact, which
may be done by treading it, for if loosely thrown on, wet
will be more likely to penetrate, and of course injure the
roots.

Isaac C. Jones.

P. S. If thought most advisable, for expedition, the
head of the instrument for forming indents may be ex-
tended, so as to take in four or more sets of teeth, in-
stead of three, as represented.

( 291 )

On burning Clay for Manure. By James Mease , M. D.

The history of agriculture shows that the influence
of fashion extends as well to the cultivation of the earth,
as to dress, or to any of the common occurrences of life.
This remark applies strictly to the subject of using burnt
clay for manure, of the utility of which we have heard so
much within two or three years past. This practice, it
appears, is quite ancient in Europe, and has been pursu-
ed with zeal at one time, and at other times fallen into
neglect. It is mentioned in " The Country Gentleman's
Companion,"* and there stated to have been introduced
by the earl of Halifax, in the county of Sussex, in Eng-
land. The burnt clay is said to have been found parti-
cularly beneficial to turnips, an excellent crop of which
would follow, even in worn-out land, if only ploughed
two or three times and the clay ashes spread over it.

The utility of burning clay for manure is also men-
tioned in the " Outlines of the 15th chapter of the propo-
sed general Report from the Board of Agriculture," (of
England,) on the subject of manures, drawn up by the late
Robert Somerville, of Haddington, f p. 87. It is there sta-
ted, that they are very beneficial " in cases where the soil
is very stiff, and strongly retentive of moisture. A mix-
ture of burnt clay upon such soils will not only break their
cohesion, and make them more easily cultivated, but will
also render them less retentive of moisture." Mr. White
Parsons, at West Cawel, states, " that he finds lime, after

* By Stephen Svvitzer, Lond. 1732. t London, 1795.

292 On burning Clay for Manure.

t I......

the use of clay ashes, a very powerful manure upon such
lands, though it had formerly been tried, in three times
the quantity, without doing the smallest service.' ' But
upon thin clays any attempt at burning would be highly
improper : such lands contain too little of the principles
necessary to vegetation. The practice, it appears, is ex-
tensively adopted in Ireland ; and in the " Caledonian
Mercury," (Edinb. July 15, 1815,) there is a letter from
Alexander Craig, of Cally, dated January 28, 1815, to
Edward Boyd, esquire, of Merton Hall, giving an ac-
count of its utility, and of the mode of conducting the
process. The following is an extract from the letter.

" Being perfectly convinced, both from ocular demon-
stration and personal experience, of the infinite utility of
clay ashes, as a manure for every kind of crop, as well as
a top dressing, Lam extremely anxious that the use of
them should become universal. I shall, therefore, have
much pleasure in communicating to you every informa-
tion on the subject, and I have now sat down to accom-
plish that object, as far as lies in my power. Having had
occasion, for some years past, to go repeatedly to Ireland,
on the business of Mr. Murray's estate there, I was struck
with the method adopted in some parts of that country
of burning clay, and making use of the ashes in prefer-
ence to lime, of which there is such abundance. The
method also adopted of causing the clay, just as it is dug
out of the ground, and without preparation of any sort, to
burn of itself, without the assistance of any combustible,
arrested my attention ; and having witnessed the crops of
wheat and corn of every description, as well as flax and
potatoes, luxuriant almost beyond credibility, produced
from stiff clay soils, without the aid of any other manure

On burning Clay for Manure. 293

' • =?

than ashes so obtained, I determined to make the expe-
riment at home ; and accordingly, on my return, I com-
menced operations, and have practised the burning of
subsoil for three years, with the greatest success. I was
difficulted at first for want of clay, but I hit upon a vein
or bed of tenacious subsoil, partly till, and partly clay,
which answers the purpose quite well, though I do not
apprehend it is so good as clay. The ashes I have hi-
therto applied solely to the production of turnip, but
within the last ten days I have laid nearly five hundred
cart loads on grass lands, as a top dressing ; — my turnip
crops from ashes have exceeded any thing of the kind in
this neighbourhood. I was twice in London, in the course
of last summer and harvest, and on my way to and from
town, I saw no turnips superior, hardly any equal to my
crop, though I passed through Berwickshire and North-
umberland.

" Last season, by way of experiment, I manured part of
my turnip field with well rotted stable dung, which was
ploughed in the same day it was led out, — the remainder
with ashes ; — the seed, which was the yellow-field sort,
was sown on the same day ; that sown on the ashes sprung
much earlier than that on the dung, continued more vi-
gorous during the season, and when I pulled them late-,
ly, the turnips produced from the ashes were more than
double the size of those from the dung. Excepting my-
self, no person has hitherto practised the burning of clay
or subsoil in this country, till last season, when I prevail-
ed on Mr. John Wallace, a tenant of Mr. Murray's, in
Tongland parish, to try the experiment. Though it was
about the beginning of May before the burning com-
menced, yet Mr. Wallace obtained as many ashes as ma-

294> On burning Clay for Manure*

nured twenty acres. Notwithstanding the turnips were
later of being sown than usual, and were too long in be-
ing hoed, Mr. Wallace obtained for them the second
premium for green crop from the Agricultural Society in
the Stewartry, and since, the Highland Society have
awarded to him their first premium.

" Mr. Wallace has a considerable quantity of ashes on
hand for his Swedish turnip this season, and he means to
have at least sixty acres of turnip from ashes. So fully
convinced is he of the superior efficacy of clay ashes, that
he has repeatedly declared to me he would not now be
at the trouble of carting dung from Kirkcudbright to his
farm, though only one mile and a half distant, even if he
were to get the dung in a present.

" Though I do not apprehend that any written account
I can give you, will afford half so satisfactory an idea of
the method of burning clay, or indeed any kind of sub-
soil of moderate tenacity, as ocular inspection of the
work, yet I shall give you the best description I can.

" The general method of proceeding to work, is to
make an oblong inclosure, of the dimensions of a small
house, (say fifteen feet by ten) of green turf sods, raised
to the height of three and a half or four feet. In the in-
side of this inclosure air pipes are drawn diagonally,
which communicate with holes left at each corner of the
exterior wall. These pipes are formed of sods put on
edge, and the space between them so wide only as an-
other sod can easily cover. In each of the four spaces
left between the air pipes and the outer wall, a fire is kin-
dled with wood and dry turf, and then the whole of the
inside of the inclosure, or kiln, filled with dry turf, which
is very soon on fire, and on the top of that, when well

On burning Clay for Manure. 295

kindled, is thrown the clay, in small quantities at a time,
and repeated as often as necessary, which must be regu-
lated by the intensity of the burning. The air pipes are
of use only at first, because, if the fire burns \vrith tolera-
ble keenness, the sods forming the pipes will soon be re-
duced to ashes. The pipe on the weather side of the kiln
only is left open, the mouths of the other three being
stopped up, and not opened, except the wind should
veer about. As the inside of the inclosure, or kiln, be-
gins to be filled up with clay, the outer wall must be
raised in height, always taking care to have it at least
eighteen inches higher than the top of the clay, for the
purpose of keeping the wind from acting on the fire.
When the fire burns through the outer wall, which it oft-
en does, and particularly when the top is overloaded with
clay, the breach must be stopped up immediately, which
can only be effectually done by building another sod
wall from the foundation, opposite to it, and the sods
that formed that part of the first wall are soon reduced to
ashes. The wall can be raised as high as may be con-
venient to throw on the clay, and the kiln may be in-
creased to any size, by forming a new wall when the pre-
vious one is burnt through. I have had them so wide
as to afford space for a horse and cart to turn on them ;
but, when they are so broad, it requires the workmen to
walk on the top of them when feeding with clay, which
I would not recommend, because, the more loosely the
clay can be laid on, the more rapidly it will burn. I did
not take all the trouble above stated with my kilns —
having the advantage of a quantity of old moss sticks and
tree roots, which I split, and kindled a large parcel of
them, and surrounded the fire with a quantity of dry turf,

296 On burning Clay for Manure.

and, as soon as it was well kindled, I built round a strong
wall of sods, and went on, adding clay to the fire, and
sods to the outer walls when necessary, till the kilns were
so large as to contain upwards of one hundred loads
of ashes.

" The principal secret in burning consists in having
the outer wall made quite close and impervious to the
external air, and taking care to have the top always light-
ly, but completely covered with clay, because if the ex-
ternal air should come in contact with the fire, either on
the top of the kiln, or by means of its bursting through the
sides, the fire will be very soon extinguished. In short,
the kilns require to be attended nearly as closely as char-
coal pits. Clay is much easier burnt than moss or loam,
— it does not undergo any alteration in its shape, and on
that account allows the fire and smoke to get up easily
between the lumps, — whereas moss and loam, by crumb-
ling down, are very apt to smother the fire, unless care-
fully attended to. No rule can be laid down for regula-
ting the size of the lumps of clay thrown on the kiln, as
that must depend on the state of the fire, but I have
found every lump completely burnt on opening the kiln,
and some of them were thrown on larger than my head.
Clay no doubt burns more readily if it be dug up and
dried for a day or two before it be thrown on the kiln,
but this operation is not necessary, as it will burn though
thrown on quite wet. After a kiln is fairly set a-going,
no coal or wood, or any sort of combustible, is necessary,
the wet clay burning of itself, and it can only be extin-
guished by intention, or the carelessness of the operator,
the vicissitudes of the weather having hardly any effect on
the fires, if properly attended to. It may perhaps be ne-

On burning Clay for Manure. 297

cessary to mention, that when the kiln is burning with
great keenness, a stranger to the operation may be apt to
think that the fire is extinguished ; if therefore any per-
son, either through impatience or too great curiosity,
should insist on looking into the interior of the kiln, he
will certainly retard, and may possibly extinguish, the
fire. For, as I mentioned before, the chief secret con-
sists in keeping out the external air from the fire."

The person communicating the letter signs himself
" E. D." and says that " several farmers leave out alto-
gether the air pipes and holes, or tubes, and only make
plain walls of green sods. The size of the kiln is fifteen
by twenty-five feet, and some are even larger, when the
weather is fine and dry. It is only in dry weather that
the clay can be burnt to advantage ; for if it is wet, the
process is slow ; and unless there is a tolerable quantity
of vegetable matter in the clay, it will be liable to burn
into hard pieces, like brick ; but a good stiff subsoil, or
a clay that has vegetable matter in it, will answer exceed-
ingly well."

The foregoing letter is also published in the " Farmers'
Magazine," of Edinburgh, for May, 1815, by Edward
Boyd, of Merton Hall, who says, that he has " seen won-
derful effects, for years, from ashes upon his own estate,"
and congratulates the farmers of Galloway upon their be-
ing enabled to supply the Glasgow market with fat mut-
ton (when it cannot be got elsewhere) by the use of tur-
nips raised by ashes.

In a subsequent letter from Mr. Craig, inserted in the
Edinburgh Farmer's Magazine, for May, 1815, p. 143,
he says, " On the 28th instant, (February, 1815,) I pull-
ed and weighed a square chain of the Swedish turnips ;

2Z

298 On burning Clay for Manure.

the weight per acre amounts to 52 tons. 1 cwt. and 48
pounds. Six turnips weighed eighty-one pounds ; and
a single turnip weighed fifteen pounds, three ounces. I
suppose the produce is superior to any thing ever known
in this country, on the best soils ; and when the quality
of the ground on which these turnips grew, (a thin, light
soil, on a rocky bottom,) is taken into consideration, the
produce is almost incredible. My Swedish turnips, from
clay ashes, the year before, were fully better than the
above crop, owing to the seed having been remarkably
good. The above weight includes the tops and tails of
the turnips ; but as they grew in the centre of Mr. Mur-
ray's preserve of game, very little of the tops remained,
the whole having been stripped off by the pheasants, and
a part of the turnip also having been eaten by hares."

In the number of the foregoing work for November,
1810, Major-general Sir H. M. Vavasour, of Milbourn
Hall, Yorkshire, gives his testimony in favour of the uti-
lity of clay ashes as manure for wheat. He says, " I last
year manured forty acres for wheat, at the rate of twenty-
cubical yards per acre : the effect was equal to my hopes :
half of the field was manured with dung, about fifteen
tons per acre ; the other half with clay ashes, twenty solid
yards, about twenty-five tons. Several farmers, who
viewed the crop, thought the part covered with ashes the
best. After being cut, that part appeared decidedly the
best crop. Two lands in a field were manured with a
double portion of ashes, and there the corn was laid : a
strong proof of their effect."

From the foregoing testimony in favour of burnt clay,
no doubt can remain as to its fertilizing properties, and
as there are extensive clay districts in most of the old

On burning Clay for Manure, 299

settled states, I have no doubt the experiment will be
made, of applying the ashes as manure.

The following mode of burning clay with cord wood,
was published by Mr. James Riley, of Elizabethtown,
New Jersey, last autumn ; who says, that Mr. Merriott,
near Hudson, New York, has proved the great utility of
the ashes as a manure.

" On a spot of clay ground, take half a cord of good
dry wood, cut it of different lengths, from two to four
feet, and pile it up in the manner of setting wood in a
coal pit, with kindlers in the centre, then dig or cut up
the sods around it, and cover over the pile of wood one
thickness : next make a channel from the centre of the
wood to the outward edge of the circle intended to be oc-
cupied by the body of clay. This channel must be form-
ed of sods or turf, and a foot in height by a foot in breadth,
in form of an arch — it is for the purpose of setting fire to
the pile, and keeping up a current of air to the centre.

Thus prepared, dig up the clay round about, and throw
it on the pile, covering the whole with an equal thick-
ness, two, four, six, eight, ten, or more feet, and set the
wood on fire, keeping the channel open to admit air ; the
mass becomes heated in a short time, and the whole body
of clay burns until it decomposes and is reduced to ashes;
the longer it burns, the greater the heat, and the quantity
may be increased at pleasure, without any additional fuel.
Care must be taken night and day, that the fire does not
break forth, and some sods or clay should be kept con-
stantly ready to prevent the heat from escaping, until a
sufficient quantity is obtained. As long as it is fed it will
never cease burning. When enough is burned, let it
alone, and the fire will break out and soon extinguish.

300 On burning Clay for Manure.

When cool, the ashes thus produced are fit for use, and
may be put on clay land in tne same manner as wood
ashes, and will have an astonishing effect in producing
prodigious crops of either grass, grain, or any vegetable.' '
In the 14th volume of the Bath Soc. Memoirs, the
Rev. W. Wilkieson also gives an account of his experi-
ments on burning clay. The soil was a cold, stiff, tena-
cious clay, that had been over cropped for a series of
years. He marked out a space of fifteen by twelve feet,
excavated it one foot deep, and with the soil thrown out
made a wall round the space. At each corner he made
an air pipe, each pipe (made of sods) extending only two
feet into the enclosure, in a diagonal direction. In the
centre of the enclosure, he placed upright the but end
of a large tree, around which other fuel was placed, co-
vering the bottom of the whole space within the wall.
Dry turf was placed over the whole surface, which was
again covered with a thin coat of clay, except a small
hole by which the fire was introduced. The fire spread
rapidly, and it required the exertions of two men to smo-
ther the flames as they burst out. During the first two
or three days, the surface of the heap occasionally sunk
in places, and apparently grew cold ; into these places
fresh fuel was put, care being taken to make small open-
ings, and that the operation be done as speedily as possi-
ble ; for external air let into the heaps, seems to do mis-
chief. Each covering of clay crumbled to ashes in an
hour or two after it was put on. The heap was on fire
twelve days, and was attended by two men : one was
chiefly employed in digging the clay ; the other in wheel-
ing it to the heap and throwing it on, sometimes by hand,
and sometimes with a spade. The ashes were tried as a

On burning Clay for Manure. 301

manure, first for barley, and with better effect than dung.
On turnips, the effect was striking : many of them being
twenty -six inches in circumference.

In another communication from a gentleman, in the
Farmer's Journal, London, December 30, 1816, he says
that the kilns should be made small by a beginner, about
three yards wide and six long, in the inside ; as he be-
comes more skilful, they may be made larger. The walls
are to be made of sods, two feet thick at the bottom, and
one foot at the top, leaving two flues in each side, and
one in each end, about one foot square : the walls to be
four feet high. As the quantity of clay is increased,
during the progress of the burning, the walls should be
raised, keeping them about a foot higher than the clay :
about six feet will be as high as can be conveniently
burnt. He applied the ashes to wheat, upon a clay soil,
spreading them after the last ploughing, and harrowing
them in with the seed, at the rate of thirty tons per acre.
The longer the ashes remain on the land before harrow-
ing, the better, that the lumps may fall and mix with the
soil. Mr. Curwen says, " that clover lays have been top
dressed with the ashes, without any apparent advantage."*

In the Farmers Magazine of Edinburgh, for Novem-
ber, 1815, the following method of burning sods and
clay, by means of quicklime, without coals or any other
fuel, is given in a letter from John C. Curwen, of Work-
ington Hall, Cumberland, to George Dempster, Esquire,
and as the multiplication of manures is an object of great
consequence, it was thought a proper appendix to the
foregoing papers. On some soils, the combination may
suit better than either lime, or clay ashes separately.
- * Fanner's Journal, December 22, 1817.

302 On burning Clay for Manure.

■-■ ■ ■ - ■■■---

" On burning Sods, and Clay, by means of Quicklime,
without Coals or any other Fuel.

" Workington- Hall, September 2, 1815.

" Sir,
" On my return from Scotland yesterday, I found your

favour ; and am happy to afford you, as far as in my pow-
er, the information you require, as to the mode of burn-
ing surface soil, and clay, by lime.

" Mounds of seven yards in length, three and a half in
breadth, are kindled with seventy-two Winchester bush-
els of lime : — First, a layer of dry sods or parings, on
which a quantity of lime is spread, mixing sods with it,
then a covering of eight inches of sods, on which the
other half of the lime is spread, and covered a foot thick ;
the height of the mound being about a yard.

" In twenty-four hours it will take fire. The lime
should be immediately from the kiln. It is better to suf-
fer it to ignite itself, than to effect it by the operation of
water. When the fire is fairly kindled, fresh sods must
be applied. I should recommend obtaining a sufficient
body of ashes before any clay was put on the mounds.
The fire naturally rises to the top. It takes less time,
and does more work to draw down the ashes from the
top, and not to suffer it to rise above six feet. The form-
er practice of burning in kilns was more expensive ; did
much less work ; and, in many instances, calcined the
ashes, and rendered them of no value.

" I have recently seen a good deal of burning in vari-
ous' parts of Scotland, most of which was ill done, being
burnt into lumps. I question whether clay can be made
into ashes advantageously, without a mixture of surface
soil. It is either calcined, or not sufficiently burnt.

On burning Clay for Manure. 303

" The advantage derived from ashes appears to be by-
absorption of the atmosphere. The necessity of having
them fine, (admitting the principle correct,) is indispen-
sable for their producing the full effect.

u Some of the kilns I saw employed in burning clay,
were worked with small coal. I recommend the break-
ing down the walls, in order to moderate the heat, as well
as a means of expediting the work.

" I have just completed paring, with the skim-coulter
plough, twenty- six acres of clover lea of the second crop,
which I intended next year for turnips. The sods were
well broken with the harrows, which freed them of the
greatest part of the mould. The residue was burnt, and
has afforded me above a thousand single-horse carts of
ashes.

" There are twelve mounds, with seventy- two Win-
chester bushels each. One fire would have burnt the
whole. This was not deemed expedient, as the increas-
ed cost of cartage would far have exceeded the expense
of the additional lime.

" I think it may fairly be supposed, that the lime adds
full its worth to the quality of the ashes. Where lime-
stone can be had, I should advise the burning a small
quantity in the mounds, which would be a great improve-
ment to the ashes, and at the same time help to keep the
fire in.

" I have manufactured for use this season, two thou-
sand carts of ashes (single) and have raised from them
fifty acres of turnips (Swedish,) with sixty carts of ashes,
fully equal to what had a hundred of good dung. Twen-
ty-one acres with thirty carts very good. I expect they
will reach thirty tons per acre. Some with forty on clay,

304 On burning Clay for Manure,

not so promising ; — the state of the soil accounts for the
difference.

" I should advise that from fifty to sixty carts be giv-
en ; — you must understand I speak always of single carts.
Two acres of cole, which had forty carts of ashes, the
surface soil being burnt for turnips, are an admirable
crop ; and show, where there is depth of soil, the burn-
ing is unattended with injury.

" I conceive I am justified in anticipating a rapid in-
crease of green crops, the means of producing them be-
ing now within the reach of every one.

" The farmer who consumes his straw with turnips,
makes manure nearly in a ratio of eight to three, and ad-
vances the quality full one-half. By augmenting the
quantity of dung given to strong soils, much benefit will
accrue, as has been satisfactorily proved by the interest-
ing experiment of Mr. Stewart of Hillside, Fifeshire.

" I do not think I am too sanguine in viewing the ge-
neral adoption of the system of surface soil and clay-
burning, as likely to be the most important discovery for
the interests of agriculture, that has occurred since the in-
troduction of the turnip into Norfolk by lord Townsend.

" If any further information appears to you requisite,
I shall have great pleasure in hearing from you ; grati-
fied in the opportunity of proving the respect with which
I have the honour to remain,

" Your obedient servant,

"J. C. Curwen."

( 305 )

The following Inquiries on the subjects stated, are
respectfully submitted to our Agricultural Fellow-
Citizens, for the information sought, by proposing
them.

I. The best mode of preparing land for tillage crops,
and the seasons for breaking up ;- — fall or spring ; — deep
or shallow ; — so as to meliorate the soil, forward the bu-
siness of husbandry, and destroy insects and their larva,
likely to infest and ruin our crops ? Modes of destroying
or banishing moles, rats, mice, and such foes to our fields
and ingathered crops, demand our serious attention.

II. What times are the best for seeding, winter or sum-
mer grains respectively ; and the quantities of seed requi-
red per acre ; and what soils require thick and what thin
seeding. The quantities of produce of different grains on
designated soils, naturally fertile, or made so artificially ;
and the modes of culture. The average products of farms
in a neighbourhood, township, or county, either of grains
or grasses, and other products commonly cultivated ; and
the expenses and labour of cultivation, with the current
sale prices ; and the average prices of land in a neigh-
bourhood, township, or county ; so as to furnish materi-
als for statistical calculation ; noting the general texture
of the soil, sand, loam, clay, &c. ?

III. Discoveries of known or new manures, and practi-
cal information as to their effects ; modes of applying,
and quantities applied. Best modes of using known ma-
nures of all kinds ? Results of experiments with salt,
applied in small quantities as a manure, would be highly

acceptable.

3 A

306 Inquiries.

IV. The best, most economical, and salutary modes of
preparing food for domestic animals ; on dry or succulent
provender ; and what roots, as substitutes for grain, are
most eligible?

V. The most effectual and cheapest modes of prepa-
ring and fitting crops, for domestic use or market ; sa-
ving labour by threshing machines, or treading out by
horses, &c. and average cost of such preparation or pro-
cess ?

VI. The most proper systems of cropping, suitable
for different soils ; the kinds of grain most profitable, and
the least exhausting, in specified soils and situations?
What species of grain, or other vegetable products, best
succeed others, and the best modes of culture for each?
What soils or situations best suit winter or summer
wheats; and the species most preferable ; as well for pro-
ductiveness, as least liable to diseases ; such as mildew,
blight, rust, stunt or smut ; and what kinds are the least
injured by the Hessian fiy ? concerning which, well as-
certained facts should be collected and communicated.

VII. The introduction and experienced use of grasses,
best calculated for particular soils ; and which will grow
and ripen congenially together; and the most proper mode
and season for sowing, and stage of growth for cutting
for hay ; the different kinds of grasses ?

VIII. The most convenient sizes of fields, in propor-
tion to farms, for shifts and changes of crops ; and the
most profitable changes ; and the periods for which those
most permanent in the rotation should remain ; so as to
promote the progressive and durable improvement of the
farm?

Inquiries, 307

IX. The proportion of timber land, and the kinds of
timber, which ought to be reserved, and devoted to, and
carefully preserved for, their uses on farms ; for building-
implements, fuel and fencing ; the most economical and
durable modes of enclosing fields in old settlementsf
either with live or dead fences ; and what kinds of plants
or materials are the best ; and of the latter, what timber
affords those the most durable, either above or under
ground ? Of the plants for live fences, what are the best
kinds of thorn, or other plants as substitutes ; and the best
modes of hedging and treating hedge-plants, from their
earliest stage to maturity ?

X. The best modes of clearing and cropping, as well
as of enclosing new lands ?

XL The best agricultural implements ; and improve-
ments on them ?

XII. Irrigation, or watering, both arable and grass
grounds ; and the best modes of using water for either
purpose ; and the best kind of water, and times of apply-
ing it, for grass or tillage crops ; ditching, draining, em-
banking and profitably clearing bogs or marshes, salt or
fresh ; and the best modes of cropping and laying down
permanent grasses on reclaimed marshes or bogs ; and the
grasses most proper for such soife ? Artificial modes of
collecting water for irrigation ; and its deposits for ma-
nure ? War ping j for fertilizing grounds on which it can
remain stagnant, or destroying bad vegetation and other-
wise unconquerable pests? What timber is the best and
most durable for pipes, exposed or covered with earth,,
for conveyance of water, for any purposes ? And what is
the best mode of constructing and fixing such pipes?

308 Inquiries*

XIII. The most proper times for sowing or planting
useful roots and other vegetables ; and the kinds most
suitable, in garden or field culture, in our climate and
circumstances ; for pur consumption, as esculents ; or in
ihe aits ; or for food of domestic animals ?

XIV. The best and cheapest modes of extirpating
weeds and pests ; and the times or stages of growth,
when they are the most easily destroyed ; including
modes and times of tillage for this purpose, cutting, or
other means ; and the uses to which such nuisances can
be turned ? A botanical description of noxious weeds,
plain and practical, would assist in the knowledge of their
habits, times of seeding and growth, so as to facilitate
their destruction, when they are the most capable of an-
noyance.

XV. Breeds of domestic animals; of every kind; the
most beneficial, calculated for local situations, pastures,
and other circumstances peculiar to particular sites and
districts of country, wherein they are respectively bred
or employed ; noting those the most proper for draft or
burthen ; kept the most conveniently and economically ;
and a comparative calculation of the use of oxen, and the
best mode of gearing and working them, mules, &c. as
it respects horses. Also the diseases to which domestic
animals are respectively subject ; with suggestions of re-
medies and preventives ?

XVI. Fossils, and other natural products, convertible
into manures, found on or near farms ; and the best modes
of applying marles, lime, and other such auxiliaries.
Modes of mixing soils, and proportions of each, — paring
and burning the surface soil, — burning clay, peat, &c.

Inquiries* 309

and using their ashes, — and every application of fire to
soils ?— will fall under this head of inquiry ?

XVII. The best mode of recovering worn lands ;
within the reach of common farmers ; and, of course,
with the least pecuniary expenditures ; — to wit : — by-
good husbandry, proper courses and kinds of crops ; the
best modes of filling gullies, and removing other impe-
diments to cultivation f and particularly attending to the
improvement of soils, by the means pointed out in the
preceding inquiry ?

XVIII. The best and most profitable management of
a dairy ; the breed of cows most suitable, and the most
effective, nutritive, and economical food, and means of
preparing it ; and the modes and times of feeding and
milking most beneficial, either as the dairy is applied to
butter or milk ; and a comparative statement of both em-
ployments of the products of the dairy, as respects the
immediate saleable articles, or other purposes, to which
the refuse milk may be. applied. If cheese be the object,
a relative or positive statement is requested ?

XIX. The best plan of a farm-yard ; and the most
convenient and most economical buildings and covers for
stock ; the best modes of treating and increasing farm-
yard or stable manure — in well constructed stercoraries,
composts, and otherwise ? The best plan of a barn ;
sties for swine, and all minor accommodations supple-
mentary to the barn ; and the wkole management of the
farm-yard, and dispositions of the various species of
stock, are included in this inquiry ? If plans of farm
houses, of the most convenient and economical elevations
and structure, with accommodations for stock, and cal-
culated for every sized farm, and even for cottages, were

310 Inquiries*

also furnished and promulgated for the instruction and
choice of our rural fellow- citizens, they would conduce
to their real comforts, as well as to the decorous appear-
ance of the country. The most expensive are not al-
ways the most convenient dwellings ; and houses and
other buildings on the best construction, can often b<
erected with less cost.

XX. Comparative results in the same or a neighbour
ing farm of equal capacities, applied to tillage crops,
mixed husbandry, or solely devoted to grazing or dairy ;
would highly benefit those who have the choice of em-
ploying their present farms in either way ; or purchasing
property, suitable for either mode of occupation or cul
ture. If any such results are known, from actual expe-
riment, what is the conclusion to be drawn from them ?

XXI. Experiments in the drill-husbandry and row-
culture, of wheats and other small grains, roots and other
vegetable products usually thus cultivated, by those who,
in circumstances to practise it, could best succeed, and
inform of results? Cleansing foul grounds by horse-
hoeing, and increasing crops by frequent stirring of the
intervals, have raised estates in England and other Euro-
pean countries, particularly that of Mr. Coke, of Norfolk,
to many fold their former value. If such culture has been
practised here ; to what extent has it been carried ; and
with what success ? It is believed that, except with In-
dian corn and potatoes, very little has been done here in
this mode of cultivation.

XXII. It would be well for those who incline to keep
more stock, than the common mode of depasturing at
large will admit, to make experiments in soiling, or feed-
ing installs, yards, or pens, with green forage ; which

Liquifies* 311

supersedes the necessity of interior enclosures, economi-
zes food, increases the dung heap, and can be accom-
plished where labour is easily obtained. If any such ex-
periments have been made ; what have been the results ?
And what grasses and other plants are the most profit-
able and salutary for stock thus fed ?

XXIII. The most durable kinds of fruit trees, of
every species adapted to our climate and circumstances.
Apples are of the first importance : the diseases attending
them, and other fruits ; and the insects and vermin often
fatally annoying them, should be noted and reported,
with the remedies for, or preventives of, their maladies ;
and the means of repelling or destroying their foes ? Also
the best modes of treating orchards and nurseries, and
propagating fruits, of every species.

( 312 )

Improved Pocket Chondrometer.

The Chondrometer being much relied on, by dealers
in grain and flour, in Europe ; it has been deemed use-
ful to give a cut of this instrument ; and directions co-
pied from those printed and accompanying it, according
to the scale used in England; from whence it was im-
ported. Our workmen can readily furnish any number
required of these valuable and portable articles. The
specimens of weights, No. I. are those of English grains
and grasses. No. II. are American average weights, ac-
cording to the best information which could be obtained
on a hasty inquiry. It would be well, if those better in-
formed would furnish a more general and accurate ac-
count of weights of American grains and seeds. It is
now the established custom to buy and sell wheat by
weight ; reckoning the bushel at sixty pounds. Barley
is also bought and sold at the standard weight of forty-
eight pounds. All grains and grass seeds should be sold
and bought by some standard weight ; — far preferable to
measures ; which are subject to great uncertainty, and
no small deception. Our mills, of the best construction,
make from twenty-one to twenty- three barrels, (each
weighing one hundred and ninety-six pounds,) of super-
fine flour, from one hundred bushels of wheat of the
standard weight.

Improved Pocket Chondrometer.

313

Directions for the Improved Pocket Chondrometer ; for
ascertaining the weights of all kinds of Grains, or
Farina.

First, fill the measure, or bucket, in the same careful
manner you would do, if it were a real bushel ; and, with
the roll, strike off the top ; only observing, (as this in-
strument is upon a diminished scale, and that as the more
bearded, or rougher kinds of grain, such as oats, &c. are
more liable to be torn up by striking, than the smooth
and free,) that they should be charged somewhat heavier,
or they would lose too great a proportion, in so small a
quantity, by striking; and thereby appear too light.
Secondly, hook the bucket on the end of the scale-beam,
remove the brass slider to that part of the divided scale,
where it will just preponderate the bucket and its con-
tents. Then look at the fiducial edge' of the brass slider;
and observe at which degree it stands ; that being the
weight of an eight gallon bushel of the grain upon trial.

SB

314 Weight of Grain, &c.

Nine specimens of the weight of marketable Grain per
bushel: that which weighs more is, (ceteris paribus,)
better ; and vice versa.

No. I. English Grain, &c.

lbs. lbs. . lbs.

Wheat is from 55 to 63 per bushel ; mean weight 59

Rye

50

56

Barley -

45

49

Oats

35

43

Peas

62

67

Small Beans

60

66

Dutch Clover

65

71

Canary

54

56

Rape

47

50

do.

53

do.

47

do.

38 i

do.

64*

do.

63

do.

68

do.

55

do.

48 i

N. B. If, instead of the roll, you make use of the flat
strike ; the grain will appear to be from one to two pounds
per bushel lighter.*

No. II. American Grain,

&c.

lbs.

Wheat, State of New York, 59 1

Pennsylvania, 61 >

States south of Penn. 57 1 j

Mean wt.

lbs.

59

Rye,

Barley, - - -

. do.
do.

57

48

Oats, .-•---■

- do.

35

Indian Corn, (up country,)

do.

58

ditto. (sea board,)

- do.

54

Speltz, — Query?

* There is so much uncertainty in the measurement of grain,
(as 1 have been informed by candid and experienced dealers,)
either unskilfully or negligently; or intentionally, to serve pur-
poses; that 7i to 10 per cent, may be gained or lost. R. P-

Weight of Grain, &c. 315

Buckwheat, — Query ?

Red Clover Seed, 64 to 67 lbs. Mean wt.

lbs.

651

Peas, - - - -.-.-- - do.

63

Timothy Seed, — Query ?

Orchard Grass, (Dactylis glomerataj

from 13 to 18 lbs. do.

15 I

There is much fallacy in the sale of this seed ; a great
proportion of chaff being mixed with it, to increase the
bulk. It should be sold by weight.

The preceding weights of grain were obtained from
intelligent dealers and millers, at Brandywine ; one of
the most extensive marts for grain and flour.

The grass seeds are deemed right ; but must be sub-
ject to future correction. The oats are high, as an ave-
rage ; thirty-one or thirty-two pounds would be nearer
the general average weight. The average of clover seed
is by some estimated at sixty-three pounds. Wheat has
weighed as high as sixty-seven and a half pounds, and
corn (Indian) sixty-four pounds per bushel. Some bar-
ley, fifty-two to fifty-four pounds ; much depends on sea-
son, and the kind of corn, or grain ; as well as on soil and
culture. It is said, that barley under forty-five, will not
malt profitably ; nor will wheat under fifty-six, make
good superfine flour.

Several other statements of weights were obligingly
furnished ; but the press could not be delayed for their
insertion. Our correspondents, in various quarters of
our country, would render an important service, by en-
abling us to publish a correct statement of the weights
of grains and grasses in their respective neighbourhoods ;
or at places of extensive sales, or manufacture,

R. Peters.

NOTE.

A highly respectable friend has been so good as to point out to
me my careless mode of expression, in my " Notices for a young
Farmer ," page xxxvi. I mention wheat being so injured by stag-
nant water, " as to become abortive ; and produce only cheat."
I should have said, " and the spot on which it had been sowed,
produced only cheat." I do not believe in the transmutation of
grain from one kind to another; more than I credit the transmu-
tation of metals. Crossings and hybridous mixtures are to be
accounted for; but they proceed from intercourse of perfect plants.
Cheat often succeeds, or rather takes the place of, destroyed or
abortive wheat: why ? — 1 do not pretend to assign the cause. I
have known cheat sown, produce cheat: but never change its
kind on frequent repetitions. Plants degenerate by bad, and me-
liorate by good, culture ; but do not change their kind. Wheat
is, originally, a mean gramen ; yet it is wheat, and not cheat. I
have never seen any scientific or botanical description of cheat, so
as to induce me to believe it a degenerated wheat; or any variety
of the triticum. Botanists must determine this question.

He informs me, that the Lawler wheat, (Jones's,) is pipy,
or hollow and soft strawed ; and yet it is not injured by th# Hes-
sian fly. If this be generally the case, it is a fortunate discovery.
All my knowledge of it, is contained in a note, page 218. Whe-
ther it resists, or is avoided by, the fly, I know not. I have found
that solid strawed or cone wheats, resist injuries by the fly ; and
other wheats, with good farming and late seeding, are successful
generally ; but not uniformly. Some kinds of wheat escape the
stunt ; which is believed by many to occur from injuries by in-
sects. I have supposed, that some species of the same genus of
plants are disgusting to insects ; and thus escape their ravages.
See a note on the subject, page 26. It seems the Blue straw
wheat is a victim to the flies, though the straw is coarse and
strong; and the Lawler escapes their assaults. Whether they
have predilections for one more than the other, is worthy of in-
quiry. I have thrown out opinions on the subject of some plants
being favourites with particular insects, whilst they have antipa-
thies to others. I hazard these opinions to invite information.

R. Peters.
Mgust 23, 1818.

( 317 )

Weight and size of a beautiful Ox, sold in the Philadeh
phia Market in 1818.

PhilaJelphiti, August 26, 1818.
Dear Sir,

Agreeably to your request, on behalf of the society. T have col-
lected all the facts I could obtain in relation to the ox ; the draw-
ing whereof, said to be a correct likeness, was exhibited at one of
the meetings of the society. I have also procured a cut of that
very fine animal ; those from whom I obtained information have
not been so minute and satisfactory, on some points, as I could
have wished ; but what is communicated may be depended on.

He is of the Bakewell breed ; from what stock originally cross-
ed is not known. He was seven years old when killed, and ran
two years on salt marsh : after four years old he was put in the
stalls, and fed on Indian meal and clover hay during winter. In
the summer season he was turned .out to grass, and also fed on"
Indian meal ; precedently to the three last winters, during which
he was fed with sifted Indian meal and some wheat flour : what
quantities of either were given at a mess, or in amount in the
whole, cannot be ascertained. He was raised and fed by Job
Tyler, of Salem, West New Jersey.

WEIGHT.

Weight when alive,
Weight of Beef,
Weight of rough fat,
Weight of the hide,

DIMENSIONS.

Length along the back,
Height ....
Thickness through the chuck,
Thickness through the body,
Thickness through the hips,
Girth round the brisket,
Girth back of the fore legs,
Girth of the body - "" -
Girth of the hips,
Girth of the length of the body, 17

I remain, with sentiments of respect, your friend,

Richard Wistaiv Jux,

Hon. "Richard Peters.

2723 pounds.

2165 do.

136 do.

125 do.

9 feet 0 inches

5

2 1-2

2

9 5-8

3

2 1-2

2

9 5-8

10

3 5-8

9

7 1r4

10

2 1-2

10

0

17

8 1-2

( 318 )

•02

g
o

INDEX.

iXjP Some notes are inserted, which circumstances prevented being intro-
duced in their proper places.

A

Adlum, John; his letter on the season of 1816, fall
ploughing, oyster-shell lime, native grapes,
pyritous earth, &c. - - - 97, &c.

Agricultural Society ; specimen of the mode of collecting
facts in one ; and advantages of
such collections, - 232, 3, 4, 5

Alderney cow ; account of one, - - - - - 155
Apple ; Gloucester white, its excellence for cider, - 49

B

Bacon, W. D. oats sown with seed wheat, invite the fly, 219
Barclay, Robert, of England ; his letters on American

ploughs, tares, cole-seed, &c. - 162, 3
Bean, producing oil ; culture recommended, 2
Bennet's clover and turnip seeding machine, - 44
Betton, S. M. D. communication on sugar canes, - 120
Brattle, William, Jr. ; a large moth, the parent of the cut-
worm or corn-grub, - - 223

C

Carrots, crops of, raised in Connecticut, - - 114

Cattle, on salt water beaches require less drink, than

those on upland, ----- 276

$CJ» There is a most deplorable deficiency of inform-
ation in our volumes, on the subject of breeding
and managing cattle, and other stock on our
farms. It is to be earnestly wished, that our
correspondents will enable us, hereafter, to sup-
ply this lamentable hiatus, in one of the most im-
portant branches of rural economy. R. P.
Chondrometer; for weighing grains and grass seeds, - 312

318 INDEX.

Cicada septendecim, the true appellation of our locusts, 76

Clay; burning for manure, - 291

Cleaveland, Parker; his letter on the season of 1816;

and other important subjects, 192, 3, 4

Clover seed ; Bennet's machine for sowing, - 44

and plaster husbandry, its great advantages, 228
ICT* The practice of ploughing in clover, and
using plaster, has arrived, in some counties
of Virginia, to such perfection, as nearly to
supersede the necessity for dung. R. P.
Cockchaffer ; some account of it, - - - - 128

Coates, John R. his communications on salt marsh, and
modes of cultivating, improving, and
reclaiming it, - 257 to 285, inclusive

Comstock, Dr. Joseph ; culture of wheat and other crops,

on land manured with sea-grass, 74

Corn, Indian; culture of it, - - 166

grows luxuriantly on ground liable to stunt
or sedge wheat, 20

see Mr. Singleton's mode of culture, - 243

Coxe, W. his account of Gloucester white apple, - 50

Henry, on cut -worms, wild birds, Jones's wheat,
&c. - - •- - - 204, 5, 6

Note thereon, - 206, 7

Cow, Alderney ; account of one, ,.- - 155

Cut-worms : holes near corn -hills trap them, - 221

destroy clover, - . ib.

caught in deep furrows, - - ib.

a large moth is their parent, - - 223, 6

instance of pertinacious industry to destroy
them, - - - - - 231

D

Dearborn, H. S. his account of the woad plant, 57

Draveil plough, improved ; account of it, - - - 169

E

Eastburn, James ; on the improved Draveil plough, - 169
Fall ploughing ; accounts of it, pro and con, 232, 3, 4, 5

INDEX. 319

Fig trees ; burying them, a guard against frosts, - 103
Fidler, a shell-fish, account of it, 268
Fire on soils ; burning wild vegetation of salt marsh, be-
neficial, - 255

but too deep burning injurious, - - 282

^CT* The ashes of such overburnt surface are
wasted and useless ; having no mould, mix-
ed with inert vegetable matter, to work on.
But see the important uses and value of
peat, or Dutch ashes, when properly ap-
plied ; in Sir J. Sinclair's Tour through
Flanders, 1815. R. P.

Fisher, Miers ; on the paper mulberry, &c. 86

Foreman, T. M. on big rye, and the oil bean, - - 1, 2

G

Gardner, John ; on the Hessian fly, corn grubs, &c. 195, G
Garrigues, Abraham M. trial of Towsley's plough, culture

of Indian corn, turnips, &c. - 168

Gibbons, Joseph ; Hessian fly, corn grubs, &c. - 200, 1

Grain motl) ; some account of it, - - £36

Grain ; frequent successions of the same kind, injurious, 274

Grains and grass seeds; weights of, - - - 314
Grape vines; hop vine planted near them, repels insects.
Query, if it be not the effluvia from the

hop ? See Vol. III. 366. - 84, 5
culture of grape vines in Pennsylvania not

encouraging, / 102, 3

burying vines protects from frosts, - lb.

Grub, black; curious mode of banishing or destroying it, 189

corn ; preservatives of corn from its ravages, - 195

Note respecting it, 196, T
burning wild grass destroys it; and note

thereon, 198, 9—200

listing, a preservative, - 199

mode of making holes as traps, by pins or

cogs, on the rim of a wheel, - - 202- S

32G INDEX.

Gypsum; --------- 115

extraordinary effects on corn and wheat, in

Loudon county, Virginia, - 227, 8

H

Haines, Reuben ; his communication of a mode of steam-
ing potatoes, &c. ... _ 68
Harrows; account of several kinds, - 186,7,8
more useful to corn crops than the plough, - 243
Hay ; chaffing, its advantages, - 104, 5. 107, 8, 9. 110, 11, 12
Hazard, S. samples of foreign grain presented by him, - 52
Hessian fly ; - - - - 195, 216, 219, 224, 236, 213
Herd grass ; most successful on wet soils; salt marsh par-
ticularly, 273

Hop vine ; planted near grape vine repels insects, - 84, 5

see vol. 3d. 366, effects of effluvia or scents.
Horse rake ; utility of, by Roberts Vaux, 71

Horse shoes, or King crabs ; food for hogs, - 275

Hosack, D. M. D. respecting salt marsh, - 249

Hoven cattle ; Dr. Monroe's elastic tubes for relieving

them, -------55

But see vol. 2d. 41, et seq. a more expedi-
tious and certain mode is mentioned,
which experience has proved to be safe.
Humphreys, Gen. D. effects of season of 1816, - - 113
^T3 Horticulture : Is mentioned, not for re-
ference, but most serious regret. No commu-
nications appear in our volumes on this sub-
ject. And yet the management of a Kitchen
Garden, as it is called, is of the first impor-
tance to every farmer ; and is most lamenta-
bly neglected. Few of our farmers sufficient-
ly attend to their gardens ; and too many ne-
glect them entirely. If more vegetable food,
and less flesh, were consumed on our farms,
the more health and comfort would be the re-
sults. Nor would economy, in our domestic
affairs, be found the smallest consideration.

INDEX. 321

16

, 49, 50

63

184.

227

305, &c.

The cheap luxury of garden fruits and vegeta-
bles, the innocent employment of time, and the
health insured by them, ought to be incentives
to a most careful and intelligent attention to
their culture. R. P.

I & J
Jefferson, T. his letter on the advantages of the hill-side
plough, in mountainous countries, -
his account of the Gloucester white apple,
Indian corn ; on preserving it from frosts,
modes of cultivation, -
culture, in Loudon county, Virginia,
Inquiries, submitted to agricultural citizens,
Jersey manure;. extraordinary instance of efficacy after
lying torpid along time, and its conge-
niality with lime, - 230
Jones, I. C. on hay and straw cutting, or chaffing; - 107
on mangel wurtzel, - 285, 286, 7
Richard; on Hessian fly, sedged wheat, steeping

seed grain, &c. and note thereon, - 211, 215

K

King crabs ; food for swine, on our coasts, - 275

Kirk, Caleb; his account of an uncommonly fertile soil,

and trimming his thorn hedges, - - 82, 3

L

Lime kilns, Spanish ; economical use of fuel therein, - 9, 10
Locusts ; improperly named by us; they being the cicada
septendecim of entomologists, and not the de-
structive eastern gryllus, - 225
Logan, G. his account of Bennet's machine for sowing

small seeds, 44

Loudon county, Virginia ; improvement of their lands,

by clover and plaster husbandry, - 227

ICT^ In some of our southern states, there is a

practice called enclosing ; L e. sowing clover,

plastered frequently, and suffered to grow and

re -seed itself, and rot down for two or three

3C

322 INDEX.

seasons or years. Not a hoof nor a tooth is ad-
mitted. It is finally ploughed in, and fertili-
zes almost incredibly. This practice requires
extensive farms ; so that fields can, without in-
convenience, lie out of demand during the
time of melioration. R. P.

Love, John ; on Hessian fly, Lawler wheat, cut worm, &c. 208
Lloyd, John ; his communication to the late B. M'Mahon,

on the culture and uses of mangel wurtzel, 151

M

Morris, Anthony ; letter on Spanish peasantry, &c. - 9

Mease, J. M. D. communication, Gloucester white apple, - 49

mildew and smut, 76

hop vine near grape, - - - - 84

burning clay for manure, - - - 291

Monroe, Dr. elastic tubes for relieving hoven cattle, - 5$

Morey, S. New Hampshire; preserving Indian corn from

frosts, - - - - . - 63

Mildew and smut ; modes of preventing, 76

Mulberry, paper ; quick growth, and its uses, 86
Mangel wurtzel ; culture and uses, - 104, 5, 6. 109. 286, 7. 151

see appendix to 3d. vol. 99.

Maris, Richard ; account of an Alderney cow, - - 155

Mitchell, S. L. M. D. on the season of 1816, - - 127
Muck, or fresh dung; preference to rotted, 172, et seq.

note thereon, - 181
Meade, R. K. harrows, Hessian fly, cut worms, Jones's

wheat, &c. - 195, 216
M'Fadgen, James ; Hessian fly, cut worms, &c. - - 220
Mildew ; grain on salt marsh little subject to it: saltwa-
ter dashed on sails prevents, - 271
Marshes; unhealthfulness endeavoured to be accounted for; 276
salt; modes of reclaiming and improving,

2p0 to 285, inclusive

N . -

Noland, W. his letter on culture of wheat, by Plaster

and Clover husbandry, - - - 22b

INDEX. 323

ICr" See Mr. Noland's account of improvements by means
of plaster and clover, in Loudon county, 2d. vol.
Memoirs: Inquiries on plaster, 121.

The facts stated by Mr. N. do not rest on his sin-
gle authority ; which would, however, be sufficient.
They appear extraordinary to those who exclusively
rely on stable dung, and other costly manures ; but
are familiar to good farmers in Loudon, and some adja-
cent counties; who, first from necessity, and now from
conviction fixed by experience, generally adopt this
practice, and consider dung the least valuable ma-
nure. Lime they could have in plenty, if they did not
prefer the plaster, and its great auxiliary, clover,
ploughed in as green manure. Although the crops men-
tioned are not common, yet they have been produced.
Twenty to twenty-five bushels of wheat, and forty
bushels of corn, per acre, are average crops now, on
many farms, on lands which, before this style of hus-
bandry was introduced, would not yield one-third of
their present product. These are good average crops
in this country, wherein our grain ripens early, owing
to the plant growing more rapidly ; and, of course,
giving less time for multiplying and maturing its seeds.
The more feeble sun, and tardy progress of vegeta-
tion, in many parts of Europe, give advantages in quan-
tity of crop, but not in quantity or quality of flour,
in equal weights of wheat; there being more offal in
European grain.

Dung, lime, &c. from habit, are primary desiderata
with us. But let us cast the film from our eyes ; and
if we will not entirely substitute burnt clay, mixing
soils, ploughing in green manures, rendered powerful
by plaster ; let us, at least; use tlfcm in aid of our fa-
vourites from old acquaintance ; and give them a fair
competition; to enable us to form a candid decision. Not
to throw the least reflection upon the common mode of
fertilizing by dung; it can truly be said, that its ex-
tent and duration are very limited ; whilst the materi-
als here mentioned, either as substitutes or auxiliaries,
are in boundless plenty, and readily obtained. R. P.

324 INDEX.

O

Oyster shells ; used as manure, 100

P

Parker, I. account of sedge wheat, change of seed, &c.

and note, 19, 25

wine made from cyder and honey, 65
Peasantry, Spanish ; their character and habits, 9
Patterson, John ; his ideas on the qualities of gypsum, 1 15, et seq.
ICP" It often, of late years, occurs, th&t plaster does
not operate the first season, when spread in the
spring. 1 have repeated the dressing, one bu-
shel to the acre, or two at most, after cutting
the first crop of grass, to great advantage ; and
have perceived its efficacy the succeeding
year. R. P.
Peat; its great plenty on our salt marshes, - - 261
|CJ* See our almanac for 1817. No better manure
need be sought for, than the ashes of this peat.
See Sir J. Sinclair's account of Dutch ashes, in
his tour through Flanders. Peat composted and
rotted is in itself highly fertilizing. Plaster ac-
celerates its putrefaction. With a small pro-
portion of stable dung, to promote more rapid
fermentation, it is still more efficacious. R. P.
Peters, Richard ; on ploughs, mangel wurtzel, fall -plough-
ing, &c. 13, 89

benefits derived from chaffing hay, - 104, 5
Richard, jun. on Hotchkiss's straw cutter, - 118

Richard ; sen. wire fence, oats, Jersey manure, &c. 229
communication of his correspon-
dence on salt marsh, - - . 248
correction of error, in his Notices

for a young farmer, ... 316
Plater, T. account of stunt or sedge -wheat, - - - 125
Poole, William ; burning wood grass kills cut worms, 198

Plough, Hill-side; Mr. Jefferson and col. Randolph's ac-
count of one, - - - 16,18

INDEX. 325

Ploughs, American ; sent to England, trials of them,

13, 160, 1, 3, 4

Towsley's ; trial of it, - - - - 165

Draveil ; improved, and its advantages, - 169

Ploughing, fall ; its advantages, ... 89, 99, 220

Potatoes ; apparatus for boiling by steam, 68

Preston, S. account of stunt in timothy grass, and mode

of destroying garden grubs, - 189

periodical freshets in Delaware and N. E.

branch of Susquehanna, ... 140

navigation of Susquehanna and Delaware ri-
vers, - - - - - 145

R

Rake, Horse ; - - 71

Redman, T. discovery of hop vine repelling insects from

grape, - - - - -- - 84

Randolph, Col. description of a hill-side plough, with a

model, 19

Ridgeley, N. account of treading and getting out wheat

by a roller, 29

Rye, big; or Tangier wheat, cultivation in Maryland, 1,2

Rye, common ; thrives on newly cleared salt marsh bet-
ter than wheat, - 272

Salt marshes ; reclaiming, improving, and cultivating,

and general description, 248 to 285, inclusive
Sea-shore inhabitants; habits of some, to be taken into
the account in calculations of expense of im-
proving salt marshes, - 274
Say, Thomas; entomological letters, - 224,236
Sedge wheat ; insects or worms found in the roots, and

an account of its mischiefs, - - 213

Season of 1816; its effects on crops, &c. 95,96, 113, 14, 115, 123,
124, 130, 127, 156, 190, 192, 3, 4, 208, 213, 216, 220
Shee, Parke ; trapping corn grubs, in holes made by pins

on the rim of a wheel. - - 202, S

326 INDEX.

Shell-marle ; great improvement by it, - 238

Singleton, John, of Maryland; great improvement by

means of shell-marle, i&.

Smyrna, in Turkey ; kinds of wheat cultivated and
brought for sale in the ports of the Mediter-
ranean, modes of manufacturing, &c.' - 51,53
Soil ; one uncommonly fertile without manure, 82

Stunt, or sedge wheat ; I. Parker's, T. Plater's account

of it, - 19,47,125

Stoves, Spanish ; for economical cooking, 9

Sugar canes ; communication respecting them, - - 120
Swartwout, John & Brothers ; on salt mar'sh and improve-
ment on reclaimed marsh, - - 250, 256
Steeping seed wheat ; - 212

Tares, cole seed, mangel wurtzel, &c. - - 162

Treading or getting out wheat by a roller, 29

Turnips; apparatus for steaming, - 68

culture of them, - - - - - - 167

Turkey ; substitutes for bay in that country, and wheats

cultivated and sold there, - 54

Vaux, Roberts; his account of the utility of horse rakes, 71

W

Water, fresh ; how to procure it in salt marshes, - 266

|Cicn On the shores of the Isle of May, where salt
peculiarly abounds, a headless hogshead, sunk
in the sand, affords a sufficient depth to collect
fresh water. Salt water percolates, through the
sand, into this receptacle, and becomes fresh by
filtration. This fact has been noticed there, at
a time when no rain had fallen during a period
of two or three years precedently. R. P.
salt; dashed on sails prevents their becoming
mildewed, - .... 271

INDEX. 327

Weeds, fresh ; spontaneous growth, after desiccating salt

marsh, - - 281

see vol. 1st. changes of timber and plants,
pages, 28, 296
White & Hazard ; wire fences, - - - - 3, 4, &c.
Wire fences ; calculation of cost, and uses, - 3, 4, &c.

account of one, ----- 229
Wine ; made from cider and honey, 65

Wheat, sedge ; I. Parker's account of it, and efficacy of

change of seed, and note by R. Peters, 19, 25, 21, 22
threshing or detaching by a roller, - 29, et seq.

samples of foreign wheats, account of them, by

S. Hazard, 52

manure for it, seaweed or grass from sea coasts, 74
Tangier ; called big rye, account of it, - 122, 3
Lawler, or Jones's, said to withstand the Hes-
sian fly, - 208

blue straw, otherwise, but flourishes in ground

where other wheats stunt, - - t - 211
advantages of rolling in plaster, - - - 212
plaster and ploughing in clover highly beneficial

for wheat and Indian corn, - - - 228

red chaff; thrives better than white, in salt marsh, 271
weights of; English and American ; also of

other grains and grasses, - -•"".- 314, 15

Woad plant; H. S. Dearborn's account of its culture

and uses. 57

ERRATA, IN THE MEMOIRS.

Page 1. For " comprising," read comparing.

18. For " not plated," read plated.

27. For " facts stated by Mr. Parker," read fact.

38. For « two tedious," read too tedious.

57. For " Dearbrn," read Dearborn.

62. For " annels of nation," read annals of nations.

63. For « I thought could," read I thought I could.
76. For " must," read smut.

81. For " dnd," read and.

89. For " destrction," read destruction.

89. Insert a period after " fall of the year."

97. For " lime shells," read oyster shells.

114. For " horticulturists," read horticulturists.

115. For " Sir Humphery," read Sir Humphrey.
182. In the Note. For " the hot dung," read the dung.
189. For " will kill them," read will kill most of them.
251. For " perpendicular to the dyke," read at right angles

towards the dyke.

A note, after Mr. Singleton's communication on the use of
shell marie, should have been added.

Mr. Singleton is unable accurately to ascertain the average
annual acreabte amount of his crops. But his land having produ-
ced twenty bushels of wheat, on corn ground, and forty bushels
of Indian cqrn, per acre, and being now in a state of progres-
sive improvement, he thinks it safe to state those quantities as
average crops ; liable to deductions, as are all crops, by uncon-
troulable casualties. W. T.

( 329 )

The following communication was made too late to be inserted
in the body of our volume. It is too valuable to he omitted ; and
is added, by direct ton of the Society.

Philadelphia, Sept. 13, 1818.
Dear Sir,

Knowing the active interest you take in the progress
of American agriculture, I am persuaded you will re-
ceive with some degree of satisfaction the two following
observations, which I had occasion to make, in my last
ramble through Pennsylvania and New Jersey. They
may be of some utility in future times ; and perhaps you
may think that they deserve being proposed, as objects
of experiment and inquiry, to the zealous members of
our Society.

It is useless to recall the importance of having useful
plants fit for every kind of soil, chiefly for the least fer-
tile ; it is useless also to recall the importance of the ve-
getables that feed the cattle, in every system of husban-
dry. I will only demand your attention to the immense
quantity of sandy soil, that occupies all your coast, from
the Neversink highlands to St. Mary's, more than seven
hundred miles in length, and a medium breadth of sixty
miles. In all this wide-extended tract, the excellent
<ystern of husbandry, founded on plaster and clover, i^

3 D

( 330 )

scarcely practicable ; and the means of feeding cattle di-
minish, in proportion as the necessity of animal manure
increases.

In this last ramble, I have met with a variety of the
grass called by the botanists Panicum Virgatum, growing
in the most luxuriant manner, in bushes, in the sandy
soils about Shrewsbury river, New Jersey. The horses
and cows, to which it was presented, ate it with great
greediness ; and in fact, the only bushes of this grass
that were untouched, were those placed within fences.
I have recommended to Mr. Rosevelt, a very intelligent
farmer at Plack Point, to collect seeds for me ; and he
himself was persuaded to try the cultivation of it in the
sandy parts of his farm.

The other observation is on mulberry trees. From
the beginning of the seventeenth century, and first esta-
blishment of Virginia, the rearing of silk worms has
been in contemplation ; but the attempts have been un-
successful,— not from any defect of the country, but for
want of population, this object of culture being only
practicable where many hands can be spared from more ne-
cessary labours. The Moravians in Bethlehem , ( Pa. ) plant-
ed, with the same view, many European white mulberry
trees ; but have abandoned the rearing of silk-worms,
from the above mentioned general cause. The trees,
left to themselves, grow luxuriantly, intermixed with the
American morns rubra, a native of America, and very
common in the interior of Pennsylvania. It has happen-
ed that they have formed alliances, an event not rare in
the vegetable kingdom, among plants of the same genus,
and the production is a mixed breed mulberry tree, with
the leaves shaped like the American species, but all the

( 331 )

rest of the nature of the European. This mixed breed
appears fitter than any of the parents to feed the silk
worms, bearing more succulent and tender leaves> and
less rough than either of the parents.

These two observations you may announce to our so-
ciety : if they judge them worthy of notice, I will try to
expose them in more detail, and in a form more appro-
priate to appear in their Memoirs. In the mean time,
receive the assurance of the consideration and esteem
with which I am,

, Most faithfully, Yours,

j. correa de serra.

Dr. James Mease.

( 332 )
Jethro Wood's Improved Patent Cast-Iron Plough .

(See Plate.)

The mould-plate, share, and land-side of this plough are cast-
iron. The mould-plate is of a superior construction ; it combines
the mechanical principles of the wedge and screw, in raising and
inverting the furrow-slice. The share is attached to the mould-
plate by screws; the beam is also raised and lowered by a screw :
and a wrench, for the purpose of raising and lowering the beam,
and also for taking off and putting on the shares, serves as a bolt
for the devise.

Ploughs upon this principle are made and sold by
JOSEPH BARNARD Sf SON,

Market street, between Schuylkill Third and Fourth streets.
Philadelphia.

J. B. & Son endeavour to unite beauty with utility in their
ploughs, and they warrant them to answer the purpose for which
they are designed, in every respect. In consequence of the pe-
culiar shape of the mould-plate, it escapes, in a great measure,
that friction to which all ploughs are subject in raising the sod or
furrow-slice ; it is therefore easier in the draught than any other
plough now in use.

The cast shares are furnished at sixty cents each, and are war-
ranted not to break, even in the most stony soil. Wrought shares
can be furnished, if required, at two dollars each ; and if neces-
sary, the coulter can be connected with the point of the share.

Scientific and practical farmers are respectfully invited to call
and examine the plough, and, if they please, give them a trial,
and if they do not answer their purpose, return them.

fCT All orders promptly executed.

CORRIGENDA.

No. VI. Table of Contents, for line fences, read live fences.
No. II. page vi, in the note, for heretofore, read theretofore.
No. IV. page x, near end of paragraph, for " before it, (the seed corn,)
starts" read sprouts.
x\t the end of the second paragraph, page x, add

Transplanting, from a seed bed, sown early, broad cast, in or conveni-
ent to your corn field, or with supernumerary plants, from other hills,
is far preferable to using seed corn for supplying defective hills, cut off
by the grub, or otherwise vacant. Plants overtake and keep pace with
those uninjured ; but renewals with seed corn, seldom arrive at maturity.
Salt is used for destroying grubs, worms, 8tc. ; and has been success-
ful in killing, or banishing the com grub. Old pickle, or refuse meat, or
fish, dispersed in small quantities, in mole tracks, has banished moles
from gardens, or fields.
At the end of the last paragraph, —

Indian corn is truly a great exhauster ; however valuable it may other-
wise be. It should therefore be only one of a course of crops, and not
repeated, but at long intervals. When its turn arrives, it should be used
as a cleaning crop ; for which it is highly estimable, not only for its own,
but for the benefit of its successors ; which should be small grains and
grasses. Whatever may be done in more fertile or new countries, old
lands will not admit of frequent and uninterrupted successions of this
crop.
No. V. page xiii. Insert after " or stable manure," — It is a mistake to sup-
pose that dung sinks into the earth It evaporates ; and its salts and
gases mix with the air. Superficial applications may serve a turn for a
crop or two ; but the ground is not durably benefited.
No. XIII. page xxvi. The following was accidentally omitted in the copy ; —
Nothing requires more attention to the nature and qualities of your
soil, than the use of lime. If it be too lavishly applied, or too frequently
repeated, without intervals of grass to furnish vegetable matter; or ma-
nures, either animal or vegetable, ploughed in, for the lime, (according
to the country phraseology,) to feed on ; it renders your ground lime
sick ; and reduces it»to sterility. Our caustic lime must be applied in
quantities very far less than the mild lime of Europe, if we would avoid
turning a highly beneficial auxiliary, into a destructive scourge. No cer-
tain rules, as to quantity per acre, can be fixed, without a perfect know-
ledge of the soil to which it is to be applied. In all cases, moderate
quantities, at first, are the safest. Our common lime is here meant ; as
much depends on the kind of lime applied. It must therefore be the
study of those who apply lime, to discover its composition, or what is
called its strength ; before they can form a correct opinion of its salutary

tit

Corrigenda,

or jnrious uses. It would seem, that the mild lime had some fertilizing
qualities in itself, otherwise the lavish use of it, whereof we read, cannot
be accounted for. The lime of burnt oyster shells is mild; and land of
any tolerable staple will bear great quantities, beyond the proper allow-
ance, to the acre, of caustic lime. See Mr. Adlum's letter, page 100, of
the fourth volume. Many other instances might be adduced. Both large
and small quantities operate at once. But it is fugacious ; and, compared
with caustic lime, soon exhausted. Of the mild lime of England, seven
hundred bushels have been put on an acre : and two hundred bushels are
common. What is the strength of their mild lime, compared with oyster
shell lime, or with our magnesian or caustic lime, is unknown. Forty to
sixty bushels of the latter, are amply sufficient, with us, for any worn
acre : and for most of our worn land, too much ; at the first dressing.
What quantity of oyster shell lime is proper at first, is not yet ascertain-
ed. Repetitions of smaller quantities, at intervals, would be better, than
applications of too much, at once.

Mere practical results being here intended, you must consult books,
for technical and copious discussions on lime.
No. XIV. page xxv i. After "renovating orchards by crossing," strikeout
the words " from seeds of," and insert, by applying the pollen of one
kind to the pistil of another.
No. XVI. page xxx. After " forced on the people of Europe by necessity,"
insert, Salt your clover and other succulent as well as coarse hay But
over salting diminishes the nutriment. More than a peck to a ton is su-
perfluous. Half that quantity is often sufficient. Ten to fifteen pounds
is usually an ample allowance.
No. XX. page xxxvii. At the end of the fourth paragraph, after " great at-
tention," add—

A principle of adaptation of animals, as well as plants, to soil, climate,
and situation, will be found in nature ; with rare exceptions. The vari-
ous species of sheep prove this principle. Dry countries are best, for all;
as they require little drink, and wet soils produce diseases. Yet fenny
countries, and coarse bites (especially if salt,) are faveurable to some
kinds. The Lincolnshire and long wooled, will thrive in such situations,
and with such feed, where fine fleeced sheep would perish or degenerate.
In our zeal for fine wooled sheep, we overlooked this principle ; and be-
lieved that any pastures would suit them. The Cheviot sheep delight in
mountainous ranges, often covered with snow ; and the Shetland race in
short bites, salt air, and barren browsing ; yet the fleeces of the latter
are finer, though scanty, than those of the Merino. Instances of other
animals might be adduced. Old pastures, dry and elevated, are best for
sheep ; and preferable to artificial grasses. Of such grasses, Mr. Coke,
of Norfolk, in England, finds the cocksfoot, (our orchard grass,) constant-
ly fed, the most eligible. He inoculates a clean fallow field with sods

Corrigenda.

of old lay, three inches square, and the same distance apart, to renovate
old pasture ; so valuable is it deemed. His fields are well cleaned, by
his row-culture ; which he extensively and profitably practices. New
countries produce no proper pastures, generally, for fine fleeced sheep ;
though there may be selected spots. The sheep for such countries, should
be those of the heavy fleeced and long- wooled breeds. Prairie countries,
it would seem, are peculiarly calculated for them.

Household manufactures are of the first importance ; and practical farm-
ers should breed heavy fleeced and worsted or long wooled sheep, for
common purposes, in such manufactures, as well as for marketable car-
casses ; even in old settlements and districts of country. But for any
flock, a better mode of providing their keep through the winter and
spring months, must be introduced. Succulent food, consisting of carrots,
potatoes, Swedish or other turnips, Mangel Wurtzel, &c. must be provid-
ed. Sheep out of condition are most worthless stock. Wool nor mutton
can no more be produced from a starved flock, than can a profitable crop
be gathered, from a steril and ill cultivated field. No question is intend-
ed to be discussed on the subjects of large manufacturing establishments,
or fine wooled sheep. Enough, both of experience and discussion, has
already been exhibited, to enable every one to form his own opinion.
Under prudent and intelligent direction, both of these great subjects of
public prosperity will settle down to their proper standard ; and where
that is exactly to be found, only time and experience, faithful and unerring
monitors, can, with any precision, determine. See Vol. III. Philad. Agric.
Memoirs, pages 362, et seq.
(Xj" Err«rs in grammar or punctuation, not noticed, are left for correction
to candid readers.

The few books enumerated are mentioned, (their titles from memory,)
becauee they are written in our language, in addition to their intrinsic value.
The leisure of a young farmer, fond of mental improvement, could not be bet-
ter employed, than in qualifying himself to read agricultural, and other pub-
lications relating to his art, written in other living languages. The French
and German, particularly, are highly useful for intercourse with foreigners,
arriving or being in our country. In these languages he would find stores
of information, well worthy his profitable labour in acquiring them.

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