Title: Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting
Agriculture, v. 2
Place of Publication: Philadelphia
Copyright Date: 1811
Master Negative Storage Number: MNS# PSt SNPaAg022.2
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PHILABELPHIA . SOCl^^T^f ; .
FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.
CONTAINING
COMMUNICATIONS ON VARIOUS SUBJE^gli^.
IN
HUSBANDHt & RURAL AFFAIRS.
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TO WHICH 18 ADI>SX>|
AtipiE REQUEST OF THE SOCIETY, "jt<lCUI/rUBJIL l^fQUlttlES OJ<r PLAISTER 6^ PMM"
VOL. II.
« Let 111 cuhivafc the ground, that the poor, as well as the rfch, inay be 6lied ; and happniMi •and peace be esublished throughout our borders."
Tynturuia Via estyqua m» quoque possimUi foltere Hwiio
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PUBLISHED BY JOHNSON & WARNER, AND SOLD AT THEIR BOOK STORES,
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IN PHILADELPHIA, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, AND LEXINGTON KENTUCKY. '
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PRINTED BY JANE AITKEK.
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1811.
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DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, to wit :
BE' It REMEMBERED, That on the second day of January in the thirty fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1811. Johnson & Warner of the said District, have deposited in this Office, the Title of a Book, the Right whereof they claim as Proprietors, in the words following, to suit : Mf^
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" Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture. Con- "Uining Communications on various Subjects in Husbandry and l^H Af- «* f^s. To which is added at the request of the Society, Agricultural In- "quiries on Plaister of Paris, Vol. II.
«* Let us cultivate the ground, that the poor, as well as the rich, may be *♦ filled ; and happiness and peace be established throughout oiu* borders."
•• Tentanda via est, qua nos quoque possimus toUere Humo :
In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, intituled, '•An Act for the encoiu-agement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, diunng the times therein mentioned." And also to the Act, entitled "An Act, supplementary to an Act, entitled ** An Act for the encouragemeRt of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Au- thor« and Proprietors of such Copies, during the time therein mentioned," and extending the benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving, «Dd etching historical and other prints." ^L *
D. CALDWELL,
Clerk of the District qf Pennsylvania:*
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PREFACE.
AT length we have completed another volume, which wiU be a proof of our perseverance ; with whatever other
., K» ottpnded. In it will be found many consequences It may be attenaea. m n w j
usehil pieces o^formation, though novelty may not at- tract the merely curious inquirer. To practical men, the developement of old operations, tested by experience, are more important, than new discoveries : yet some of even these will b? seen. Nothing injures agriculture more than whimsical novelties ; except bigotted adherence to old and bad habits. It should be the aim of all agricultural publica- tions, to record and promulgate good practices ; and to ex- tinguish, by practical and weU ascertained facts, the mischiefs, or insufficiency, of old and ihveterately bad customs. New discoveries seldom occur ; but when they are known, they should be examined with care, and received with caution ; but without prejudice. When tested by experience, they should be added to the store of profitable lessons ; and explained and enforced by inteUigence and industry. Agricultube, like the Common Law,is ^lore indebted, for its best principles, to precedents founded on wisdom and e^.-rience, than it is to the presumed improvements of theorists, and speculative experimenters. This is enough for us to concede, to those who receive every thing «;««.« with distrust and hesitation; and suppose that none are acquainted with husbandry, but those who hold the handles o! the plough. To those who began with theories, originating in ingenious and specuat.ve opinions, philosophy, and the arts and sciences, are highly in- debted lor son>e of their best principles. Pursuits with the fatu.
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Preface.
ous view to the discovery of the philosopher's stone, or other dreams of alchymists to achieve the transmutation of metals, have originated some of the most important facts, now known and practised upon. No small portion of agricultural improve- ment now flourishes under the discoveries of men, deemed, by prejudice, equally wild and visionary. This should therefore warn practical farmers against the ruinous foes to their own prosperity,— 'the incredulity ^nd prejudice with which they receive (if they take the trouble to read them) -written cctm- munications : and those more especially, which contain che- mical and philosophical principles, applied t%,the art of prac- tical husbandry ; fronpi which agriculture derives most essen- tial advantages.
Having, with the most affectionate attachment, addressed ourselves to practical farmers i we take the liberty, most re- spectfully, to say a few words, to those of our fellow-citizens who are not immediately emplQyed in husbandry ; while they prosper on the produce of the toils and anxieties of husband- men* They celebrate and enjoy in their feasts, with great ardour and approbation, the blessings of agriculture ; and place it in alphabetical order, as it is in fact, as the first of arts. But here ends their zeal. Not through defect of patriot- 181)1, but through want of conviction, that more than their good wishes, are required. Yet agriculturists are thankful for this testimony in their praise ; and gratified by the libations plente- ously poured out in honour of their art. While commerce, which is but its hand-maid, receives^ighly profitable, though not always sufficient, attentions, (and so it ought, as its interests ancl those of husbandry are indissolubly united) agriculture, its foundation, is left to find its own auxiliaries and security ; and must, unassisted, take its chance for progress and prospe- rity. Legislative attention is scantily afforded ; and private aid is little seen, or felt, If a few zealous individuals step forward, to stimulate and advance its interests, they are left to coi:^5U|n^tl]y?ir5^eal,byits owneffort^s. These are slowin theji'
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operations, and not promptly influential in their effects. Indivi- duals are thus discouraged from forming associations, for agn- cultural purposes. We believe th^re are few of tiie kind, m activity, to the southward of Penn3ylvania. We deplore this state of things, not as it respects ourselves ; for ^e presume on no claims to peculiar support or attention ; nor have we the vanity to identify ourselves with the subject oionvm- stitution. The observations are general, and too well founded. We, 'tis true,have made an effort, hitherto ineffectual, to in- crease our numbers and our funds. Although it has not had ks effect we trust that, when understood and more generally TnowXiU yet be successful. The plan is in the volume, rdsuWitted to our fellow citizens, for their consideration. It will be seen that our correspondents, however personally respectable, are not extensively increased. This has forced on some of our members, the necessity of repeated efforts, to add to our stock of information. They, most w.lhngly, would have given place to others, had they came forward to Ifford their assistance. We mention not these circumstances in a style of complaint ; but as facts, in support of our asser- Insf and with L hope, that more desirable prospects will ^oon oDen, to gratify our wishes.
We Til patently wait for convictions .f its importance, and essential use to all their prosperity, to impress the sub- S of our endeavours on Uie minds of our fellow citizens. H our efforts ptoduce no immediate effects; we shall be content, that, with the best intentions, we " cast our bread Cn he wlters" to be " found," by those for whose ser- Xe we disinterestedly exert ourselves, " after many days. We however, flatterourselves,thatourhumble efforts have
not be'en entirely vain and unproductive On the contrary ^e are persuaded, that important benefits have -crued Bu Z extent of them cannot be otherwise than limited, and not generally influential; while they flow from the endeavours
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of a few. We are abundantly happy to perceive, every i;<rhere, agricultural improvement ; growing even under the praise- worthy skill and labours of unconnected individuals ; not enjoying the advantages, which a knowledge of the suc- cess of others, in approved practices, would impart. Yet, un- less a general spirit of systematical improvement can be roused, the progress must be slow. We see the extent of the ground ; but feel ourselves inadequate to the occupation of it. When speculation, and a thirst for instant gain, find ob- jects of employment tending to immediate pi^ofit, real or fanciful, ardour in the pursuit is rapid and active. But when results are produced by combinations not strikingly apparent, we are not disappointed when we find, that much time and pains are required, to produce general attention, and salutary conviction.
It is vain to say, that agriculture is sufficiently encouraged, by those who take off and consume, or deal in, its products. This may be said of any other branch of labour, art, employ- ment, or pursuit. It has been found, in all ages and coun- tries, that the cultivators of the soil require peculiar atten- tion to instruction in their own art. Genius, learning, pa- triotism, wealth and power, have been, from the remotest times, employed in their encouragement. This encourage- ment has ever been deemed th^ most ];^onourable, and the brightest ornament, to the character3 oi those who bestowed it.
The wise and good leader ol the patriots of his day, wh© was an instrument, in the hands of heaven and his country, to lay the foundations oi our present prosperity (unexam- pled in other regions of our globe, though deplorable and vexatious casualities, unjust and oppressive trespasses, and Tnortifying interruptions, too o.ten lop its exuberances J was, in addition to his other virtues, distinguished for his ardent devotion to the interests oi agriculture ; and de»- lighted in its practical pursuits. He has erected ior himself, ^ MONUMENT to his fame, in the happiness of his country.
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Every field, smiling under the toUs and economy of the hus- bandman,— every sail wafting the treasures of commerce,— every fabric rais^ by wealth and taste, for comfort and convenience,— or "lendor and enjoyment,— all the blessings which religious or civil institutions shed around them,— all the products of the useful, or elegant, arts, — and, — ^the ce- ment and security of the whole,— the freedom and indepen- dence of our country,— are the rich and invaluable materials, of which this monument is composed ; — and agriculture
is its base.
This capacious monumental pyramid,--^hus splendidly ornamented,— visible to all the civilized world,— limit- ed in its site, only by the territorial boundaries of our nation,— has, inimitably, anticipated the faltering chissel of the tardy sculptor. Unless the desolating volcano of dis- cord, should whelm his and our beloved country, in its ex- terminating lava, it will, through ages yet to come, defy the tooth, and the ravages, of time.
Fame, long the faithful eulogist of the atchievements of our departed military chief, and those of the brave and patriotic band, — ^his companions in arms,— now intermits its clangors, or lays aside, her justly boastful ^nd far-sounding trump. She attires herself in the peaceful garb, and is decked with the emblems, of Ceres. Admiring this stupen- dous memorial of the civic virtues of the father of his country, and his venerated compatriots, she displays them for imitation. She hovers o'er its pinnacle, or visits its apartments ; and encourages, by recitals of Washington's precepts and example, our own citizens, in the ways of well- doing. She invites, — ^not the ambitious, the visionary, or the restless and disappointed ; but the worthy and ingenious, of all descriptions and countries ; — and peculiarly the industrious and sober husbandman and artizan, — from the troubles and oppressions which afflict them, in the desolated andsubjugat- ed portions of Europe. She allures, without anxious or un-
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dignified solicitation, yet with sympathy and welcome, the heavy laden, to lay down their burthens ; and here take,— not indolent rest, but,— active, profitable, and useful em- ployment. To this she entices, urges, and animates, by dis- playing the benefits derived from it, to all engaged in the culture of our fields ; as well as to those who subsist and prosper on the fruits of the husbandman's toils. She awa- kens their attention, and rouses their emulation and exertion, by casting enlivening rays, from the uplifted Torch of Ceres, on the exuberant Horn of plenty ; — continually diffusing its blessings, and therefiOre constantly requiring to be replenished and supplied.
Public gratitude, hitherto lingering and dilatory, may, even thus late, rouse the government of our nation;— grown great and prosperous, on the fruits of the virtues and labours of our admired and lamented hero and patriot. The effu- sions of patriotism may yet rescue our country, from the stain of unpardonable and impolitic neglect, by animating private citizens to raise to his memory, a monument, ho- nourable to them ; though (however highly decorated) less brilliant than that He had founded, for his country and himself. Should this desirable event occur,— let the fact be recorded, on the most conspicuous of its tablets,— that " the encour- agement OF agricultural improvement, and informa- tion, was AMONG the favourite WISHES OF HIS HEART. '
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CONTENTS
Page.
An Act to incorporate the Philadelphia Soctett^j for
promoting Agriculture^ - - - ' - ix
Article Tenth altered^ - - - '- xi
Officers of the Society for 1811, - - xiii
New members elected. .... ibid
Honorary members, xiv
Address of the Society to their fellow citizens^ xv
COirrENTS OF THE MEMOIRS.
I. Some hints concerning Lime, occasioned by read^
ing Darwin^s Phytologia, by John Lang, - - 1
II. On Harrowing Wheat in the spring, by John Lang, - - - - - 9
III. On Peach Trees, by fVm. Phillips, - - 12
IV. On Onions, by PVm. Phillips, - - . 17
V. On Onions, by John Lang, - , -• 19
VI. On Live Hedges, by Abednigo Robinson, 24
VII. On Disease of Swtfie, by J. P. De Qruchy, 28
VIII. Colonel Pickering on Hedges, - - 34
IX. On Haven Cattle, by John Steele, . . 39
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CONTENTS.
CONTENTS.
X. Observations, by R. Peters, - - * .
XI. Relative to Hedges, by Paul Cooper, -
XII. On Corn, by Joseph Lyman,
XIII. On Gypsum, by John Taylor, . - -
XIV. Observations on Col Taylor's letter, by R.
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Peters^
XV. On Gypsum, by John Taylor, - - XVL On Fruit and Fruit Trees, by Samuel
mjjL*- Pfpston " * "
XVII. On Apple Trees and Grafting, by S.
Preston • " *
XVIII. On Virginia Husbandry, by John Tayloe,
XIX. Remarks, - ' , m
XX. On Leeched Ashes as a manure, by I/wmas
JSfexvbold, - ' ."
XXI. On Bees, by S. H. Smith,
XXII Plan for establishing a Manufactory of Agricultural Instruments ; and a Warehouse and Repository for receiving and vending them, by Richard Peters, - - "
XXIII. Extirpation of JVild Garlick, by Alger- non Roberts, • ' '
XXIV. Observations, by Richard Peters,
XXV. The Field Pea, by Richard Peters,
XXVI. On Garlick, by Paid Busti, - -
XXVII. On Moles, by Dr. Barton,
XXVIII. Foreign Grain sent for seed. A new plough and experiments therewith at Drevilk the seat of Daniel Parker, Es^. near Pans, by John Armstrong, - •: '
Page.
41
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75
79
89 100 1Q3
10^ 107
11
120 122 132 134
137
140
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XXIX. Eulogium on TFm. West, by James Mease,
M. D. ' . - - • -
XXX. On Mildew, by Timothy Pickering,
XXXI. Some thoughts upon Mildew, by a New- - Englandman, - '
XXXII. On Salt as a manure, by Richard Pe-
* ters, - - - - .
XXXIIL On Tough Sod, Star oj Bethlehem, and Blue Bottle, by Richard Peters,
XXXIV. Some observations on Fruit Trees, by Edward Garrigues. Observations thereoti,
XXXV. On Oat Pasture and Improvement of * Soils, by William Young,
XXXVI. On Soiling Cattle: mixed cultivation of Corn and Potatoes, by John Lorain,
XXXVII. The Efficacy of Sulphur on vegeta. tion, by Richard Peters,
XXXVIII. Tunis, Broad' tailed, Mountain- Sheep, . by Richard Peters, 'XXXIX. On Tunis Mountain Sheep- Wool,
XL. Breeding In and In,
XLI. On Sheep-killing Dogs, by liichard Peters, 247
XLII. Explanation of the Plate, - - 254
XLIII. Extract from the Es^ay on Sheep — their varieties, is'c. - - r
XLIV. Proofs of the originality and high estima- tion of Broad' tailed Sheep, by Richard Peters,
XLV. Heads of Lease for Richard Peters^ s Bel- mont Farm, ' - -
XLVI. Heads of Richard Peters' s Leases to Ten- ants on Shares. Extracted from the Lease of Belmont Farm, * ^ - 263
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173
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200
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211
240 245
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CONTENTS.
Page.
266 272 288 290
291 299
XLVil. Covenants to perform articles before enumerated ; and some additions and explana- tions, XLVIII. On Liming Land, by Richard Pefers, XLIX. On ffheat, by Z. Hollingsworth, L. Deterioration of Grain, by Richard Peters, LI. Advantages of Agricultural Tours. On Gle- ditsia Triacanthos, or Honey Locust, Hedges, by William Rawle, - - - - LII. On Liming Land, by John Lang, LIII. Analysis of American Limestone, by James
Cutbush, chemist and apot/iecary, LIV. Monsieur Thouin's Letter, sent with a Box
of Seeds, LV. Directions for the Purchaser ofJoceMs Pa- tent Pruning- Shears, LVI. On Soiling Cattle on Broom Corn, and Gui- nea Corn as Green Food for Cattle, by John Lorain, .----" LVII. Remarks on the Culture of the Guinea Corn
or Holcus Spicatus, by C. Drayton, Jun. LVIII. Profit, of Soiling Cattle, by John I^rain, LIX. On a Wool Micrometer, by Richard Peters, 325
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310
313
316 319
LX. Directions for using the Micrometer,
LXI. Farther remarks on mixed crops of Corn and
Potatoes, by John Lorain, - - - LXII. On Soiling Cattle, by John Lorain, LXIII. On the Salivary Defluxions in Horses, by
William Young, A. Perlee and W. Baldwin, LXI V. Changes of Timber and Plants. Races of
Animals Extinct, by Ric/mrd Peters,
329
330 338
350
357
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Agricultural Inquiries on Plaister of Paris ^ by Richard
Peters Esq.
SELECTIONS IN APPENDIX.
Page.
I. On Hedgingy by Thomas Main, District of
Columbia, - - - - - - .2
II. Method of Stabbing Hoven Cattle, by W. Wallis Mason, ofGoodrest lodge, near Warwick^ 43
III. On Planting Corn, by John Lyman^ - 47
PLATES.
I. Draveil Plough,
II. Tunis Sheep,
140 211
CUTS.
I. Patent Pruning Shears,
II. Wool Micrometer,
III. Trocar,
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328
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aH;^±«i«HaaBiMiAw«i''>*^*'i*'*
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AN ACT,
TO INCORPORATE THE
PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY,
FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.
WHEREAS a number of persons desirous of promo- ting agriculture in this country, have for that purpose asso- ciated themselves in the city of Philadelphia, and it is the manifest interest of free governments to cherish and encourage institutions of such a nature : Therefore,
Sect. I. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre^ sentattves of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in General As- sembly met J and it is hereby enacted by authority of thesame^ That the persons who now constitute the Philadelphia society, for promoting agriculture, or who shall hereafter be admitted members of the same, shall be, and hereby are declared to be a body politic and corporate for the term of ten years, from and after the passing of this act, by the name and style of, " The Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture," to have succession, to plead and be impleaded, sue and be sued, in all courts of record or elsewhere, and be capable to take, hold and enjoy lands, tenements and hereditaments, goods and chattels, and the same from time to time to sell, grant, demise alien and dispose of, to use a common seal, and to alter or renew the same at pleasure : provided \h2it the clear yearly value of the real estate by them held shall at no time exceed the sum of three thousand dollars.
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Act of Incorporatioih
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said. That the officers of the said corporatV)n shall^opnsist of a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary, and such other officers as the said corporation may think necessary, who shall be elected annually or otherwise as the rules and by laws of the corporation may direct.
Sect. III. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid. That the said corporation when convened, upon due notice given to the members by public advertisement or otherwise, shall have power and authority to make ordain and establish such, and so many rules, by-laws and ordinan- ces relating to the times of meeting, the admission of mem- bers the powers and duties of the officers thereof, and the ordering of the other concerns of the said corporation, as they may deem necessary and proper : provided. That no rule, by-law or ordinance as aforesaid, shall be valid if incon- sistent with the constitution and laws of this state or of the
United States.
Sect. IV. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid. That the present officers of the said society shall continue in their respective stations until an election shall be made under this act, and the rules by-laws and ordinances now in force, not inconsistent with the constitution and laws of this state, or of the United States, shall be good and valid until altered amended or abrogated by the corporation.
JAMES ENGLE,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.
P. C. LANE,
Speaker of the Senate.
Approved— the fourteenth day of February, one thousand
eiffht hundred and nine : ^ SIMON SNYDER.
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At the Annual Meeting January 1810, the \Oth Law of the Society, was altered as folloxvs.^-^
ARTICLE X.
THE members of the society shall be distinguished into resident, honorary and contributing members.
Resident members shall consist of persons residing with- in a convenient distance, to attend the meetings of the Socie- tv at Philadelphia ; and these are defined to be such, only as at the time of election, reside within ten miles of the said city, on either side of the Delaware. All memberg of agri- cultural societies, in other states and countries, with whom we shall correspond ; and all persons of this state, and of other states and countries, who shall be elected by us for the purpose, shall be honorary members ; and are hereby invited to assist at our meetings, whenever they come to Philadel- phia. Strangers who desire to be present, as auditors, may be introduced by a resident member.
Honorary contributing members are of the description hereafter mentioned.
Every citizen contributing, and paying into the hands of the treasurer, a sum not less than Fifty Dollars, may be elected, agreeably to the rules, an Aonorarz/ member; with- out regard to place of residence. Those who thus laudably enable us to extend the usefulness of the society, and pro- mote its objects, are invited to assist at our meetings. They will be styled honorary contributing members.
All donations and bequests for general purposes, shall be faithfully used ; and regular accounts kept of their applica- tion.
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The Tenth Article Altered.
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Such donations or bequests as are given, granted, made or devised, on terms directing their being used in, or applied to, any particular branch or branches of husbandry, or rural ceconomy ; or subjects connected therewith, shall, with all due fidelity, be so used or applied. And if they, or any of them, shall not be, at the time, sufficient to accomplish the object designated, in whole or in part, they and every of them, shall be placed in a situation, if practicable, to accu- mulate ; until by additions of other means, the object inten- ded can be effectuated.
The names, and amount and description of donations, of all citizens contributing pecuniary or other donations, of any amount or description whatever, shall be registered, in a roll kept for that special purpose. They will merit and receive the thanks of the society, for the patriotism and public spirit, evinced by their thus affording the means of accomplishing the objects of our institution.
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OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY FOR 1811.
President— RICHARD PETERS. Vice President— GEORGE CLYMER.
Treasurer— SAMUEL HODGDON.' Secretary— JAMES MEASE M. D.
COMMITTEE OF CORRESPONDENCE.
RICHARD PETERS.
GEORGE CLYMER.
JAMES MEASE M. D. ,
JOSEPH CLOUD.
JOHN VAUGHAN.
Members elected since the publication of the first volume.
Resident.
Abraham M'Garrigues, Philadelphia.
Reuben Haines, ditto
William Esher, ditto
George Esher, ditto
Theophilus Harris, ditto
Charles Lewis, ditto
John Lorain, ditto
Monsieur De Lormerie, ditto
J. B. M'Kean, ditto
P. M'Kell, ditto
George Kinnard, ditto
EUiston Perot, ditto
Charles Wister, ditto
David Caldwell, ditto
James Cutbush, chemist and apothecary, ditto
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New Members.
ditto ditto ditto ditto
Honorary Members.
Daniel Buckley, Lancaster County Pennsylvania. Samuel D. Ingham, Bucks Count)^, ditto A. M'Calister, near Harrisburg, John Morrison, Jenkin town, David Moore, Chester County, Samuel West Chester County, Benjamin Hobhouse, President of Bath and west of En- gland agricultural society, Robert Barclay, of Berry Hill, Essex England. Benjamin Waddington, Bath, ditto
John Cox. Burlington. County, N. Jersey. John Nicholas Van Eys, Amsterdam. John Armstrong, late minister of U. S. to France. Monsieur de Cubieres near Paris. Daniel Parker, ditto
Andrew F. Michaux, Paris.
Monsieur Thouin, Professor of Agiiculture, national Mu- seum Paris.
Benjamin Ives Gillman, Marietta, Ohio. Monsieur Sylvester, Secretary to Agricultural Society, Paris.
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The following Members were omitted in vol. 1st, among those elected previously to 1805.
Dr. Benjamin S. Barton, Professor of Natural History, Materia Medica and Botany, in the University of Pennsyl- vania.
* Mr. Samuel Vaughan, of Jamaica.
* Mr. Charles Vaughan, ditto.
The following were omitted among the members elected since the publication of the last volume.
C. N. Buck, Philadelphia. Ralph Eddowes, ditto.
* Edward Duffield, Lower Dublin, Philadelphia county,
# Thomas Moore, Montgomery county Maryland,
At the last annual meeting of the Agricultural Society, February 1810, a gold medal, value fifty dollars, was unanimously voted to John Taylor Esq. of Caroline county, Virginia ; for his great exertions in raising live hedges ; of which an account is given in the first volume of the So- ciety's Memoirs.
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The following was published^ with the foregoing Altera- tion of the 10th Law of the Society.
Address of the Society to their Fellow Citizens.
THE Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture have now nearly completed six years, since their revival from a state of inactivity into which they had fallen. The causes, which produced their former torpor, are not entirely remo- ved, A zeal for the objects of their association, among the inhabitants of this opulent, commercial, and manufacturing city, has not appeared in the extent expected. There exists among the citizens a mistaken opinion, that it is necessary for every member of our society to be an agriculturalist, either in practice or theory. Moderate contribution of either money or time, and patronage afforded to the means of en- creasing agricultural knowledge and practice, are the primary requisites. These are within the power of most citizens, whatever may be their occupations. The citizens of Phila- delphia, are exceeded by those of no other part of the Uni- ted States, in talents and capacity to promote the prosperity of their country by encouragements to agriculture ; — ^the foundation upon which the public happiness, comforts and support are erected. There is no part of the United States, in which such talents and capacity, can be more effectually and beneficially employed, for the mutual prosperity of both city and country. We have neither the presumption nor the inclination to assume the office of censors ; nor do we deem ourselves entitled to lead the public opinion ; nor to mention any thing in a style, either of complaint or solicitation. Our association is voluntary-, our pursuits neither interested nor selfish, and our efforts zealous, but, from necessity, limited and inadequate. More efficient talents, and greater numbers
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XVI
Address to the Citizens.
of active members, must be added, before our objects can be attained. An increase of funds is also indispensable. We take the liberty of enumerating, briefly, some of the objects at which we aim ; and we have published the act of incorpo- ration, which the Legislature have been pleased to grant to us ; that those who desire to give their assistance, through us, to the all important subject of our association, may judge for themselves. They will perceive, that we are now in a legal capacity to receive donations, and to hold and secure property, for the purposes of our institution. The design, and means of accomplishing it, may be seen in the first volume of our memoirs ; the publication whereof has made no small deduction from our scanty funds.
1. We wish to receive and promulgate agricultural infor- mation and intelligence both theoretical and practical ; pre- ferring always the latter. In this object we have received very flattering encouragement ; both in our own country, and by the attentions of Societies and Individuals of other
Countries.
2. We have proposed Premiuins to stimulate and encour- age our agricultural fellow citizens, in that laudable emu- lation, which gives vigour and effect to the eff'orts of indi- viduals in every branch of agriculture, and the arts and manufactures of which it is the source.
3. We desire to promote the establishment of a manufac- tory of agricultural implements, and of every instrument, and utensil required in operations connected with the prac- tice of any, and every, branch of husbandr}^ Also, as part of this establishment, a Ware Room for the exhibition and sale, when approved and stamped under proper regulations, of all such implements, instruments and utensils. And also for exposing to view, models and drafts, plans and projects for improvements in husbandry and rural ceconomy.
4. A Pattern Farm^ on which every experiment in hus- bandry may be made, and approved practice introduced.
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Address to the Citizens.
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Every probable theory may be herein brought to a practical test ; its uses shewn, or its fallacy detected. This would become a school for disseminating agricultural knowledge ; by means far more influential and instructive, than any here- tofore devised.
5. A Veterinary Institution, for investigations into the diseases of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine ; and preven- tives and remedies ; as the means to gain and promulgate the knowledge of both diseases and cures. Of such, espe- cially, as are common, or peculiar to our climate and country.
6. To promote the formation of similar societies through the state : and (if required) to co-operate with them in every endeavour, to forward the objects of our own and their establishments.
Some of these views may be, and now certainly are, in the extent contemplated, beyond our present powers and pe- cuniary means. But we must be satisfied with having at- tempted the beginning of a plan, which may hereafter be accomplished, however distant the period of success, may now appear. That period may be wonderfully accelerated by the aid and exertion, our fellow citizens have it in their power amply to afford. We indulge an ardent hope, that the impor- tance of a subject, in which we all are deeply interested, will be more generally seen, and more highly appreciated.
Richard Peters, President. James Mease, Secretary.
February^ 1810.
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MEMOIRS
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AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
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PHILADELPHIA.
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Some hints concerning Limey occasioned by reading Dar* win^s Phytologia. By John Lang.
Read August 9th, 1808.
WE have for some time past heard much talk about two varieties of lime, the one useful or favourable to the growth of vegetables, when used as a manure ; the other hurtful or pernicious, and therefore not to be used for that purpose ; the first is termed calcarious, the other magnesian lime.
The first notice we have of this magnesian lime is from a communication of Mr. Tennant, published in the London Philosophical Transactions.
This is doubtless a subject of great importance ta farmers, and in my opinion deserves to be more fully investigated. If all lime which contains magnesia is only useless as a manure, it must be of great importance to our farmers to be informed how they may be able to distinguish this from the calcarious lime ; but much more so if it is as Mr. Tennant says, destructive to
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vegetation, and that it diminishes the fertility of tjie soil. The distinguishing characteristics of these two varieties of lime, mentioned by Mr. Tennant, it would seem, can only be discovered either by analysing, (which pro- cess farmers are generally ignorant of;) or by makmg experiments by applying it to the soil. It is said that magnesian lime when used in too great quantities ren- ders the soil less fertile, and wherever a heap of it has been left on one spot, vegetation will be prevented for many years ; while of the other sort of lime, a large quantity is never to be found injurious ; and that the spots which are entirely covered with it, become re- markably fertile, instead of being rendered barren.
From the above statement it would appear that by far the greatest proportion of all the limes used either in this country or in Europe are of the magnesian kind, or in other words must contain a certain proportion of magnesia. For my own part I have never seen pure calcarious lime, unless that made from calcined shells may be denominated such ; though I must own I am not chemist enough to be able to discover the magne- sian lime, except by its effects upon the soil, as above described by Mr. Tennant, and Dr. Darwin. The dis- tinctions which some farmers make, of hot and mild lime, Mr. Tennant believes to mean magnesian and cal- c^ious lime. And the Doctor says he is informed that the magnesian lime is preferred in architecture, and is said to go further in making mortar, &c. If this is the case I think it will be admitted that all the lime used in the United States, either for building or manure, is of the hot or magnesian kind ;* as it is well known that the lime of this country is generally stronger and of course
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will go further in making mortar, or as a manure for land than English lime. Were our farmers in this country to discover lime of so mild a quality that this- tles and grass would grow up through the sides of the heaps of it; but at the same time it would require three loads of this lime to produce the same effects upon their land, as two loads of the lime now in use, I think they would surely prefer the latter to the former. Our farmers know very well that wherever they lay their lime heaps, every particle of grass or other ve- getables will be destroyed ; and that the spots on which it lay will not bear any crop for a year or two afler, un- less they are careful to remove it so clean, that no more shall remain on these six)ts, than the same proportion which they spread over the rest of the field. They likewise know that if they should leave their lime heaps exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, to succes- sive frosts and thaws, rains and snows, &c. it would in time become as mild as the calcarious lime described by Mr. Tennant. But then it would be useless for mortar, and for land it would be like some medicines of which the chief recommendation is that if they do no good, they will at least do no harm ; and for that rea- son they commonly cover the heaps over with sods, or straw, &c. till the land is prepared for putting it on. Our farmers Ukewise know that poor land will not bear so much lime as rich land, and that if they should by mistake over-lime their land, the succeeding crops will rather be hurt than benefited by it ; and in such cases there is no remedy but either to give the field a dress- ing with dung, or let it lay a year or two till the heat of the lime is partly given out, and then it will have its
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effect. From this I conclude that lime must act as a stimulant, and that the quantity applied to the land ought to bear an exact proportion to the carbonic, or vegetable matters contained in the soil. It is well known that stimulants used in small quantities are in some cases very useful in the animal economy, but in gieat quantities they will destroy animal life.
I would not by any means presume to call m ques- tion the results of Mr. Tennant's or Dr. Black's expe- riments ; on the contrary, I am rather inclined to be- lieve, that all stone lime contains a greater or lesser proportion of magnesia ; but that the lime which con- tains the greatest proportion of that earth, is totally un- fit to be used upon land as a manure, I think, deserves a second consideration.
Dr. Darwin observes that the substance called chalk- stone is almost wholly magnesia ; now I know from experience that chalk-stone land is the most kindly to- all sorts of grain of any soil I am acquainted with, and will bear a longer succession of severe cropping before it is exhausted. But perhaps it is the process of calci- nation which gives to the magnesia that caustic quality which renders it so hurtful to vegetation, as Mr. Ten- nant found by his experiments, that thirty or forty grains of lime did not retard the growth of seeds, more than three or four of calcined magnesia. From which Dr. Darwin concludes, that, as both injure vegetation in large quantities, they may both assist vegetation in
small ones.
Consistent with the Doctor's remark I would just ob- serve, that there are many substances which make rich manures, when used in small quantities ; for instance
On Lime,
I have seen very great crops of barley got by sowing the land with pigeon's dung, as thin as we sow rye, and harrowing it in along with the seed barley ; where- as had it been put upon the land as thick, or half as thick as we would put stable or barn-yard dung, it would as effectually destroy all vegetation as hot lime used to excess. The same remarks will apply to the dung of all kinds of domestic fowls, also to human dung and urine, so much valued in China. Common salt has often been recommended as a great assistant to the growth of vegetables when used in small quanti- ties, whereas it is well known that the excessive use of it will render land totally barren. -
It will be admitted on all hands that all animal and vegetable matters contained in the soil, must undergo a decomposition by some means or other, so that be- ing thereby reduced to such a state as to be easily so- luble in water, they may be readily absorbed by the tender roots, by some termed the mouths of plants. That the roots of plants naturally possess to a consider- able degree the power of producing this decomposition, I have had occasion more than once to observe, in the case of planting potatoes with woollen rags instead of dung. I have vseen fine crops of potatoes raised by dropping a small piece of woollen rag,* not larger than
"* Before the revolution war, I collected many cart loads of taylor's rags, chiefly woollen. Some I had cut in small pieces ; others were ploughed in, as they came from the shops ; after having been scattered by hand so as barely to cover the surface of about three acres of loamy land, much worn. I had a remarkably fine crop o£ potatoes ^ succeeded
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the hand, in the furrow alcmg with every sett of the potatoes when planted, and I have observed when the potatoes were gathered in the fall, that, in every instance where a potatoe plant had failed to vegetate, the rag was turned up intire, very little damaged by being buried under ground ; whereas on the other hand, not the smallest vestage of the rags were to be seen in any part of the ground where the plants had succeeded and grown to perfection. Only I observed in some instances where the rag had been uncommonly large, a white mouldiness upon the soil about the roots of such plants, which seemed to me an indication that more nutritious matter had been formed than could be absorbed by the roots. Besides I observed the palms or tops of such plants were always large, and of luxurious growth, while the potatoes at the root were small and not fully ripe.
But there are other animal and vegetable substances which require more powerful solvents to prepare them for the food of plants ; such substances must be decom- posed either by means of the putrid fermentation, or by the application of hot lime, &c. But while the pu-
by a great crop of wheat. On this clover was sowed. It lay for many years without other manure except plaister, in green grass after the clover. The effects of the rags con- tinued longer than those of any manure I ever experienced ; and I think the part of the field on which the rags were strewed, is the best spot in it to this day. It has been all limed, dunged and plaistered alike from time to time ; and the soil of the whole field is similar in all parts.
R. Peters.
March 27th, 1810.
trid fermentatioji i$ going on, it is exceedingly noxious to vegetation, as w^e may see by the bad effects of putrid or stagnant water upon the roots of tender plants ; while on the other hand, hot lime will check the progress of putrefaction, and at the same time vezy quickly effect the decomposition of various bodies; thereby preparing sweet and wholesome juices, whether they consist of carbon, phosphorus, oils, or alkali, or compounds of all or either of these. And I conceive if the lime meet .with a sufficient quantity of such substances as it in this manner acts upon, it will by mixing with such juices, thus prepared, be thereby deprived of its caustic qua- lity, in the same or somewhat similar manner to that whereby magnesia or chalk blunts, or sheaths the points of the sharp particles of acids. But if the lime does not meet with a sufficient quantity of carbonic or other matters in the soil to act upon, so that its caustic qua- lity may be completely overcome, then in such case it will act upon the tender roots of the growing plants, iu the same manner as it acts upon grass or other vegeta- bles when laid in heaps on the surface. And this is in my opinion the cause why lime in some instances is hurtful, instead of being beneficial to land.
Rags chopped, and sown by hand, and ploughed in three months before sowing wheat or barley, the quantity six to ten hundred weight per acre, are used in England widi success. In Kent they spread a ton per acre every third year for hops. As they hold moisture, they are adapted for diy
gravelly or chalky soils, and succeed best in dry seasons
Gleanings of husbandry ^
J. Mease.
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On Lime.
Upon the whole, I think instead of troubling our formers about distinguishing the different qualities of magnesian and calcarious lime, it will be better to advise them to use lime sparingly on poor land, and at the same time to use every exertion to increase their dung and compost heaps, whereby their land will be prepared for the application of lime, not only with safe- ty, but great advantage.
This note refers to the * in page second.
* Since writing the above, I am informed that there is in Marlborough township, Chester county in this state, a mild lime which answers well on land. But it is a notorious fact, that the great body of improvers, use hot or caustic lime with success ; but clover ought always to be sown with the first crop. And though in some instances the grain crop may seem little benefited or even injured by the lime, the clover and succeeding crops will shew its effects.
J. Lang.
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On harrowing Wheat in the spring. By John Lang.
Read January 12th, 1809.
A paper lately appeared in the Aurora, which was likewise published a few days ago by Mr. Poulson, intitled an accidental improvement in agriculture. The subject was the advantages which might be derived from harrowing grain at certain periods of its growth, which had been discovered by harrowing a piece of oats, for the purpose of covering grass seeds. But the place is not mentioned, nor the person by whom the discovery was made. The writer concludes by ob- serving that this discovery may be of use as an advan- tageous mode of hoeing in broadcast husbandry.
I remember many years ago of reading a \try well written paper on this subject in some periodical publica- tion, I think it might possibly be Dr. Anderson's "Bee." This writer besides detailing the results of sundry ex- periments, gives likewise the rationale (as the French say) in something like the following words. " In every instance where the soil has been finely pulverised, whe- ther by harrowing, or frost, or by any other means ; if heavy rains succeed, and afterwards dry weather, a hard and compact crust or cake is formed all over the sur. face, in which the young plants of wheat, rye, barley, or oats &c. stand fixed as if they were growing out of a brick wall, and by pressing against their tender sides prevent the expansion of their parts."
Another effect is, that this hard crust or cake prevents the free access of light and air to the roots so necessary to
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produce the vegetable fermentation ; besides this crust or cake by being completely deprived of its aqueous particles, become more contracted than the stratum im- mediately under it, hence it becomes divided by innu- merable cracks or openings, into which multitudes of insects enter and find safe lodgings under the hard crust, where they remain secure from the scorching rays of the sun &c. through the day, and come up through the cracks or openings at night, to prey upon the tender plants, and return to their lodgements when the sun begins to be troublesome in the morning. But by passing a light harrow over the grain in the spring, as soon as the ground is so much hardened as to bear the horses feet without sinking, the young plants are relieved from that unnatural pressure, a free access is given to the light, and air to the roots ; by stirring up ^the soil a new fermentation is produced, and the little ihsects are dislodged from their subterranean habita- tions, all their operations disconcerted, and they left to perish by the influence of the sun and weather. By this operation the grain in a few days acquires a fresh vigour, equal if not superior to what might be pro- duced by a top dressing.
. This writer likewise expatiates upon the great advan- tage of harrowing summer fallows after every plough- ing, by which he says one half the ploughings may be saved, and the intention of the operation much better effected. He observes that if the soil derives any rich- ness from the atmosphere it must be while it is in a state of fermentation, and harrowing is the best means for producing that effect ; besides the seeds of annual weeds cannot be destroyed till they first vegetate, but
by repeated ploughings and harrowing each time, all the seeds which may be in the soil being brought to vegetate, will be completely destroyed.
I have often advised some of my friends in the coun- try, to try this method of harrowing their grain.— I reasoned with them by analogy from the well known practice of harrowing their meadows in the spring ; if the operation of harrowing grass meadows causes the grass to assume a dark green colour and vigorous growth, why may ncJt the same effect be expected upon the grain. I have often thought that by repeated ex- periments of this kmd, accompanied with minute ob- servations, the hessian fly at certain periods of its exist- ence, might be much disconcerted, if not destroyed ; at any rate by giving the grain a start, it might out- reach in some measure the depredations of the fly.
My friends would listen to my reasoning, and even acquiesce with my ideas, but when I enquired if they had made the trial, the excuse was they had not got a light harrow, or they had too much work to spare time for experiments, so hard is it to introduce any improve- ment though ever so valuable. But I am fully convinced that if the practice were to become general, the effects would be found equal if not superior to the valuable effects which have been produced by plaister of Paris. See our Memoirs^ vol. 1, page 88.
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On Peach Trees. By JVilliam Phillips.
Read July 14th, 1809.
Riversdale, November 23c/, 1809.
Sir,
From a desire to promote the cultivation of fine fruit, and a belief that every publication of experiments that are attended with success, may at least have the happy effect of stimulating others in the pursuit of so desira- ble an object and eventually perfect it, I am induced to relate to you my mode of cultivating peach trees, as well as that pursued by others as far as they have come under my observation, together with the effects.
Seven years past when I took possession of Rivers- dale farm, I planted 30 peach trees in a grass lot which had not been ploughed for at least twenty years, and was very tough and bound. The first and second year they did not grow the least, and appeared as if they would soon die ; my gardener wished to cut them down as he thought them not worth removing, but I pre- ferred trying an experiment with them ; which was to throw about half a peck of well slacked lime (which had been exposed to the weather several months) round each, the following spring I was agreeably surprised with their very thrifty appearance they bore as many fine peaches as they could support, and though the ground had not been dug it was perfectly loose four feet in circumference round them: they grew very much that year, and have continued to produce me a
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great crop every year since, which increases with their size, and they are now large trees. Since the first year I have had the ground annually dug about four feet in circumference round them, and I do not find the worms have attacked them yet ; from accident two trees were neglected for two years after I limed the first, they scarcely bore a leaf; the ground was so hard as to be impenetrable to the roots. I have had lime thrown round them since, and they have recovered and borne some fine peaches, and will I believe grow to a good size ; the success of this experiment having convinced me that I could successfully . raise peach trees on grass ground, I have been induced to plant out upwards of eight hundred in a field that will be alternately in grain and grass, some of which bore very fine fruit last sum- mer. Although the ground has been in clover since the trees were planted, they have a very healthy appearance, and bid fair to be very durable, but that, time only can ascertain, for my own part I am perfectly satisfied if they bring me only four good crops, for the trees are then worth nearly as much for fire wood as I pay for the young ones. I would recommend digging round the trees once a year it mixes the lime with the earth, much to the improvement of the soil ; fresh slacked lime will not answer, as I have known a young orchard entirely destroyed by it, which has caused an opinion to prevail that lime in any way is prejudicial, and I was cautioned by old farmers from using it; but in the way I used it, after it had been deprived of its excessive heat by a long exposure to the weather, I am very certain of its producing the most beneficial effects on ril kinds of trees. I have apphed it to upwards of fifteen hun-
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dred apple and pear trees, besides the peaches, all of which evince its good efiects : a load of forty bushels, after being exposed to the weather from October, till June served for about eighteen hundred trees.
I have now given the result of my experiments, and will relate to you what has come under my observation. An ingenious farmer, Mr. Ashton, in my neighbour- hood a few years past, planted three hundred peach trees on about three acres of ground ; I saw them last summer, they were very thriving, and he lately in- formed me he had gathered about five hundred bushels of good fruit and sold them readily on the ground at a dollar and fifty cents per bushel, he adopted no other mode to bring them to perfection than ploughing : he informed me that he had raised a crop of Indian com on the ground every year since he planted the trees, and that without manuring, but the ground was in good order when he planted them. Thus, by the trifling labour of planting the trees which he raised from the stone, even without being inoculated, he obtained more money from those three acres than his whole farm would have rented for, and that too without losing one year's crop, from the ground, the faithful cultivation of which in procuring other crops insured him success in his crop of fruit. Thus you see the peach when con- stantly cultivated will succeed without lime or any ma- nure ; though in grass grounds I am confident they
would not.
With respect to plumbs and nectarines I have tryed various experiments without success, and though I have about fifty trees which are healthy, blossom well and bring their fruit to a considerable size, yet they all drop
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before they come to perfection: and I have never got one nectarine except from a young tree planted in the fall which yielded me fourteen fine nectarines the ensuing summer; since when I have not had another, and I find the older my trees are, the more they are infested with insects, from which I conclude that were they attacked on their first appearance, by destroying the eggs in the fallen fruit, or otherwise, it might prevent their increase and eventually destroy them. — ^For several years^my fa-, mily have been supplied with the finest plumbs by a neighbour, who is the only person I know of who has had uniform success with them, last year while his tree$ were in full bearing, I carefully examined them, particu- larly as respected their culture and local situation, and I found that nq uncommon pains had been taken with them ; on the contrary, they appeared neglected as was evident from the numerous dead and broken limbs that hung about them, and that the very great success he had, could only be attributed to their situation, which was at the place where his hogs laid, and were fed ; he told me that the hogs never let a plumb that had fallen remain many minutes undevoured, and thereby de- stroyed the insects that hung about, and the eggs that were deposited in them, though of late there had appear- ed but few insects about the trees.
How easy would it be to inclose a piece of ground for the purpose of feeding hogs in, which if planted with the best plumb trees, might be made to yield more profit than twenty times the same ground would in grain or grass, when it is considered the enormous price that fruit commands, no doubt owing to the diffigultv of
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raising, which I am confident might be surmounted by the above mode.
I should now apologize for trespassing on your pa- tience, were I not certain that your real zeal in similar pursuits would render it unnecessary, and remain
Yours •sincerely,
William Phillips.*
Dr. James Mease.
* The success of the fruit on trees in the plantation ifrequented by hog^s^ is evidently owing to the destruction by them of the curculiones. See Dr. Tilton's letter, vol. I, page 187. Mr. Phillips's farm is near the Delaware. Peaches ge- nerally thrive best near rivers; and especially those of brack- ish water. Digging round all trees is highly beneficial. See Mr. Coxe's letter, vol. I, page 21/. The lime promotes heal- thy vegetation, but wh£n the worm, or curculiones get pos- session, they are not affected by lime. These latter are the master-foes to all fruit. The fallen fruit is their nursery, and whatever destroys that, is their enemy* Cherries and other common fruits are in such plenty, that the banishment or extirpation of the curculio is an event more anxiously to be Mashed, than expected. They avoid moist atmosphere and salt air, on the borders of rivers or the sea. In cities and towns they do not delight.
This is a bold and laudable experiment made by Mr. P. on t] lis short lived tree. The result we shall be anxious to kno^i\r. We have unwilling doubts as to duration.
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dn Onions. By mUmm Phillips. Read February 14th, 1809.
Philadelphia January IS thy 1809. Sir J
Some years past upon a journey through Connecti- cut, I was surprised at the very great difference between their mode of cukivating onions, and that usually pur- sued m Pennsylvania ; and was forcibly struck with the superior advantages of theirs, which enabled them to raise prodigious quantities ; for it was not uncommon to see fields of ten acres occupied by them. — Since that time I have frequently proposed to the gardeners around this city, to try an experiment upon their mode of cul- ture, which is, to sow the seed so thin that they may stand at the distances at which they plant their young onions (called seed onions) which mode I was impress- ed with a belief, would bring them to perfection in one year, as it does in Connecticut, our summers being as long, and I believe the climate as congenial to them as that of the state just mentioned ; they however univer* sally objected, asserting that they would not obtain their full growth in one year, though I could not find that any one had really ascertained it. I was there-
fore induced myself to try the experiment Four years
past I had a piece of ground prepared in the usual mode and season, and sowed the seed about three in- ches apart, (which I found could not be done with re- gularity in any other mode than putting the seeds in a bottle, which was afterwards corked and a quill fixed
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through the cork, which enabled the gardener to drop it with faciUty equi distant.) The ground was attended
to as usual. .
The result was, that I had as good a crop of omons, and as large as what was gathered from an adjoming bed that had been planted with small onions m the old mode, with this difference only, that they were a few days later, which was a material objection, as ours ob^ tain a superiority by reaching a foreign "^^''l^^ ' '^^^^^ those of Connecticut. It then occurred to me, that that obstacle might be overcome by sowing the onion seed in September, after a crop of peas, beans, or any early vegetable or grain, was taken off. Therefore the nex fall, I had a large spot of ground prepared and sowed it the second week in September ; they attained a good size that fall, and were tended as other onions next soring and I had the satisfaction to find them as early, iLe and numerous as any produced that season, and generally the largest I had ever raised; since when 1 have pursued no other mode, and have not failed except in one bed which the gardener had neglected sowmg until the middle of October, which I found was too late, a part of them being thrown out by the frost as they had not obtained a sufficient hold of the ground.
The comparative advantage of this, over the old mode of culture, must be very evident, as it is a savmg ot nearly half the labour as well as time.
By the old mode they must be sowed and gathered, planted out the next year, and again gathered, two years occupation of ground, as also a lapse of two years be- fore the farmer receives his reward for labour.
On Onions.
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By the mode recommended, one sowing and one ga- thering only are required, the ground is occupied but one year, when the farmer can receive his compensa- tion— which in duration is equal to a crop of wheat or rye. — With a hope that this experiment may be attend- ed with equal success by others,
I remain yours sincerely,
William Phillips.
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary, Agric. Society, Philad.
On Onions. By John Lang.
Read March 14th.
Philadelphia, March Uth, 1809.
Sir,
I think it was an observation of Dean Swift that the man who improves one acre of land so as to produce as much as two acres did before, deserves better of his country than all the race of politicians put together. Upon the same principle the traveller who carefully ob- serves the various modes of culture of any particular plant, and attempts to introduce an improvement (though ever so trifling) into his own country, is a good member of society.
Our member Mr. Phillips was surprised to find that in Connecticut, onions were brought to full perfection in one season ; whereas in Pennsylvania two seasons are required. I was no less surprised than Mn Phillips
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when I came first to Pennsylvania, to find that onions required two seasons to perfect their growth, in a coun- try where I found vegetation in general so much more rapid than I had been accustomed to see it m my na- tive country, and in a country too where the chmate is so much better, and the summers longer than m Scot- land. I immediately concluded that this must be ac- counted for from the absurd mode of culture which had been introduced by the first settlers of the country, and its continuance owing to the great difficulty which I have always observed in rooting out old habits. I inquired of gardeners and others for their opinion on this subject, but got little or no satisfaction. I then determined to try the mode which I had always seen practised in ScoUand, and which I myself had followed for many years. The result was, my onions were much smaller than those which I used to raise in Scotland ; and though, inferior in size to those raised in two sea- sons here, they were harder and better for keeping over winter. I did not observe the circumstance which Mr. Phillips mentions of their coming some days later, as I only raised them for the use of my own family.
After I had lived in this country a few years, I had occasion to observe that the great heat and dry weather which generally sets in here about the first of July, and continues till the middle of September, has a great ten- dency to disconcert the intentions of many European plants, particularly those of them which have small fi- brous roots, and go but a small way into the soil in search of food. These when the moisture is so com- pletely evaporated, and the soil becomes so very dry, either perish entirely, or assume a premature ripeness.
For instance the daisy, which grows wild in great pro- fusion in the pasture grounds in Scotland, cannot be kept alive here but with the greatest care. The oats of this country where they ripen in a few days, pro- duce a poor, thin, shrivelly grain, compared with those of the North of Europe where they require as many weeks to ripen as days here. The onion likewise is a plant whose small fibrous roots reach but a short way into the soil, and of course is soon dried up ; besides it is a plant which requires a great quantity of nourish- ment, and for that reason must not only have a very rich soil, but a constant supply of moisture to bring it to full maturity.
The potatoes of this country likewise when the dry weather sets in, generally assume a premature ripeness, and if showers afterwards occur, the bulbs being al- ready hardened, do not swell any more, but take what is called the second growth. This I conceive to be chiefly owing to an error in the prevailing mode of cul- ture, which I think I have completely obviated by a different mode I have practised, and which I shall make the subject of a future memoir.
Here I would beg leave to observe farther, tliat most of the land in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia being alluvial or made ground, it acts like a filter for draw- ing off the moisture which should nourish plants ; be- sides there exists a stratum of sand at different degrees of depth, which must attract the water, and assist the filtration ; (this circumstance together with the burning hot sun which prevails here in the latter part of sum- iner completely deprives many plants of moisture, ex- cept such as have long tap roots, or strong fangs which
M
s/i'^'hW* ,
^
22
On Oiiions.
On Onions.
23
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I'!'l'
I
50 a ereat way into the ground ;) whereas in the case of primitive ground where the sub stratum is in many instances almost impervious to water, the moisture is much longer retained in the soil.
I have never been in Connecticut, but I was some weeks in September 1797 very near the borders of that state, in the state of New-York. I there observed the climate to be considerably different from that of Penn- sylvania ; in particular the pasture was greatly superior. This was an evidence to me that the soil was not apt to be so quickly deprived of moisture. Perhaps this may be partly owing to its nearer vicinity to the ocean, and this may be one cause why Connecticut is better adapted to the culture of onions than Pennsylvania. The mode ofcultivating onions in Scotland was as follows: the CTound intended for that purpose was very well ma- nured in the fall with rich old rotten dung, care being taken that it contained no seeds of weeds or grass * this is well turned in and left so for the winter. In the the month of March following it is dug agam and smoothly raked, and at the same time formed into beds two feet wide and of a reasonable length, with alleys be- tween for the convenience of hand weeding, on these beds the seed is sown broadcast. My method for sow- ing it equally, was to wet the seed with a little water, and shake upon it pounded chalk or whiting, roll it in the whiting and spread it out to dry. By this means I could see the seeds distinctly where they fell on the
* I have often heard it said that in Holland where onions are raised in great perfection, they generally use the dung from privies for this reason.
H
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ground, and could thereby judge of its proper thick- ness. If any part of them was observed to be too thick when growing, part of them were culled out for pot herbs, and the rest left for a crop.
I still think the above mode deserves farther trials here, if the ground were made previously rich enough, the seed early sown, and properly tended.
I am Sir respectfully yours,
John Lang.
Dr. James Mease.
mu
I •
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t 24 3
P« Live Hedges,
25
'1, I
On Live Hedges.
Read May 9th, 1809.
New-Hampshire, Stratham, April 6th, 1809.
Gentlemen, I saw in the Portsmouth Oracle, an advertisement
by the Agricultural Society of Philadelphia in 1806, soliciting information in the art of agriculture ; and having been ten years in the farming line, I have tried many experiments in almost every branch that our cli- mate and soil will admit. From your advertisement live fences appeared to be of great importance in your views. I have been making them more or less every year smce I have farmed, with some variations as to the mode. When I purchased my farm there were a number of the English willows on it ; old ones had been cut off and young ones had shot out, so that I could get a plenty of "stakes : I set many hundred rods of these willow stakes on different soils and in different forms ; in the mean time I raised nurseries of poplars which I supposed I should prefer to the willows : I think it not worth while to give the whole particulars of the willows, as I think poplar far exceeds them for makmg live fence I have set out the poplar intending them for posts when large enough ; I have set many hundred rods in this order ; some are large enough to nail to. I intend topping of them when I nail boards to them, that they may be the more firm and steady ; I tlunk there are many advantages in these sorts of posts. The poplar I believe is so well known in the United States.
I need not recommend them. I will only observe, that they are the most easy tree to propagate of any known ; that they are suited to almost any kind of soil ; a shovel full of manure is as beneficial to them as to a hill of com. Before I saw your advertisement, I had laid out the following method for making live fence : last sea- son I tried the experiment with I think the greatest suc- cess. I laid up a mound two or three feet high in the following manner : I took square spades and shovels, and cut out the sod in squares as deep as it would hold together, as much a slant as I wished to carry up the sides of the mound, laying it with care as you would lay brick, breaking joints, heaving in the loose dirt as the nature of the business requires. I made a trench on each side of the mound in course three or four feet wide and one deep, and left about one foot each side of the mound of the sward, unbroken to support the mound. I left the mound when completed about two feet wide on top and a little dishing ; I laid on top of the mound manure and mixed it with the loam, I beat the sides of the mound with spades to even and harden it together ; I then took poplar limbs and shoots not mater- nal which, sufficiently long to reach from the top to the bottom of the mound, that is to the old surface, leaving them three 6r four inches out : if long enough to top they will do better ; I sort them ; I take a suitable stick * and make holes at six inches distance along the top and middle of the mound, I set the cuttings in them : a temporary fence is necessary if exposed to creatures, on each side. By experience I found the cions rooted from top to bottom. I think it best to lay the manure to the bottom of the mound. I vi^w the manure t9 \^
VOL. II. s
"H
26
On Live Hedges.
On Live Hedges.
27
very essential. This experiment was made on very light sandy soil. It is now almost a year smce I made the experiment, and it is very promising : the frost is now out, and the mound remains perfecUy firm and whole : the cions started earlier than those that were set out before and had root, and continued growmg through the season. We experienced a considerable drought in August and September, but it did not aftect them in the least : they grew from three to four feet high, leaving all their shoots on : I prefer leaving the shoots on as they will grow the stronger, and will make the better hedge : if one chance to die, the hmbs will fill up the vacancy, though there was not one of mine died excepting a few which were girdled by a large dung worm, which I supposed was occasioned by lay- ing the manure on top i 1 would recommend keeping the weeds from the top of the mound. The calculations I make on this kind of fence are these : In the first place, it is the most ornamental of any I ever saw, or can conceive of; 2d. It will come to perfection sooner than any other live fence ; 3d. It will be by the high way on loose soil, a means to harden the way by the shade and roots ; 4th. It will be comfortable for the tra- veller both summer and winter. I calculated very great advantages from it in the winter season, as it will break the winds, prevent the snows blowing in drifts ; the trees will attract the sun : it will be much warmer in winter as well as cooler in the summer by the shade. I make a great calculation on the growth of this fence for fuel : a few hundred rods will support a family with it for fire- wood. I have made a similar kind of fence where there was not sod to support the mound up a
'J
I
ridge ; set them in the same order as above, it flourished very well ; but will require longer nursing, and will not stop the small animals so complete as the other, I cal- culate the hedge on the mound will be sufiicient fence in three years from the time set out ; the lower kind in five or six. Two good men will lay up ten rods in a day of the mound. I expect to make one or two hun- dred rods this season. I was going to let it rest one year more before I informed you ; but in considering the matter I thought if you should approve of the me- thod you would like to try the experiment or to recom- mend it this season, if any further information is wanted,
#
or any proof I will give it with the greatest pleasure.
•^ Abednego Robinson.
Society of Agriculture ^ Philadelphia.
£ 28 3
On Diseases of Swine.
29
■2 \ ii
HHll
KM
I i
On Diseases of Swine.
^ ftead June 13th, 1809.
Northumberland 3Uf, March 1809.
Sir
A friend lent me a few days ago the first volume of the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for promoting agricuhure :— 1 have perused it with much pleasure ;— it will no doubt encourage those interested in agricul- tural pursuits to make the communications which the society invite.— Observing in the preface, that the soci- cty call particularly for information " on the diseases of our domestic animals,"—! cannot refram from givmg you an account of the diseases which within my know- ledge have attended an animal, that few writers have thought worth whUe to notice ; but which Dr. Rush, in his admirable introductory Lecture, (published by the society,) has rescued from that stote of obscurity and neglect under which it had so long lain dormant : you will readily perceive, 1 mean the hoc— I wish the information 1 am about to give may be acceptable to the society, but I own my chief object in writing is m the hope, that it may induce others to come forward, and supply information on a subject on which it has either not h^tn fashionable to treat, or perhaps from the mistaken idea (to quote the words of Dr. Rush) " that the hog like the miser, can do good only when he dies."— 1 have generally in my pens from 100 to 250 of those animals : they are of course subject to diseases ; one with which I was most troubled was a disorder that
=c
I believe might be called the staggers, it attacked them generally in the month of September : tlie hog would all at once turn round very rapidly, and if assistance waS ftot at hand, would in less than half an hour, die. It ' seldom happened that one alone was attacked, six, eight, or a dozen would be seized in the same way in the course of a few hours : they were immediately bled under the ear and at the tail ; some sweet milk and brim- stone were given to them ; and on which they were af- terwards fed till they were well, or died ; a few reco- vered, but a greater number died ; this however was the only remedy that I knew of, until the year 1803, when a young man who had lately arrived from Wales and who was then working in my still house, put into my hands an old pamphlet, the title page of which was nearly torn off, but it was printed, I think, in the year 1706 or 1707, and was composed of receipts for the cure of animals ; there was described a malady among hogs, which I was satisfied was the same as my swine were attacked with and the cure pointed out was as fol- lows. " You will see a bare knob in the roof of the mouth, cut it and let it bleed, take the powder of loam and salt, rub it with it, and then give him a little piss and he will mend." (I give it you in the authors own language.) Every year my pens were more or less sub- ject to this disorder; and since it came to my knowledge I have invaribly followed this prescription, with certain success, for where I used to lose six I do not now lose more than one: but although the pigs recover they never thrive so well after such an attack. The causes which this author gives for the disorder, I cannot apply to my pens, he says, " the staggers, in hogs proceeds
30
On Diseases of Swine,
On Diseases of Swine.
31
^
from corrupted blood, arising from lying wet : through filthy rotten litter and want of meat." My hogs lay dry, they are never in want of meat, and have fresh litter given to them when the pens are cleaned out : which they are usually three times a week. It should be ob- served that my largest or oldest hogs have never been attacked by this disorder : it is confined to those of middle size, say pigs from eight to ten or eleven
months old.
In the fall of 1807, a disorder broke out among the larger hogs ; it was not confined to my pens alone, but it was an epidemic which raged among the swine throughout this part of the country, and it progressed so rapidly among mine, that I expected at one time to have lost nearly the whole of them : the people in the neigh- bourhood called the disorder the sore throat.— A hog would come up to the trough, eat, apparently in good health, and in ten minutes after, be dead : and those which were attacked were the finest hogs in the pen : their food was good and they had plenty of running wa- ter to wallow in, (a thing absolutely necessary in the summer season,)— I had several of them opened, but did not discover any particular cause for such a sudden exit, except a trifling swelling in the wind pipe and black pustules on the tongue.— A friend and neighbour sent me a late volume of the Museum Rusticum and of the Farmers Magazine ; in the latter, vol. 3, page 105, I found the disorder tolerably well described as far as t» appearance in the hogs I opened : but they call it measles, which I am certain was not the disorder ; as I found however my old medicine for the sore throat -.—bleeding and nitre :— and a diet of sweet milk, had no good effect,
I thought I might as well administer to the diseased animals the medicine which the magazine recommend- ed,— antimony. — I began with great confidence in the medicine from the high character given of its virtues in several late English publications ; I dosed two or three and they certainly did not die so speedily as under the other regimen : in the course of a few hours five or six more shewed symptoms of disease, I applied the same specific; but unfortunately they went from bad to worse, so that in two or three days I had only the skins left of thirteen very fine hogs : early one morning the four- teenth took sick and symptoms of immediate dissolution appeared on him : — I determined however to give no more medicine — I merely bled him under the ear and in the tail : — he bled fi-eely — I then had him carried out (for he was unable to walk) to a clover field ; he was put down, but he could not stand ; I observed how- ever though he was laying down that he began to bite off the heads of clover (which stood very rank) voraci- ously ; I left him without much hope of his recovery, but still with the appearance of more favourable symp. toms : — I came home to my breakfast, after which I again went out to the field and found to my great sur- prise the hog walking about and still feeding on the clover : — in two days he was perfectly recovered : that is, he fed with as much avidity as any hog at the trough. Finding the favourable change in this hog, I instantly turned my whole stock (about 180) on clover, of which I then had a five acre field nearly ready to cut the second time ; the sacrifice was well repaid, for from that instant I had no more sick hogs. — Last year, about the middle of August which is the time sickness has
■•.i
32
On Diseases of Swine.
On Diseases of Swme,
33
ii
usually began among my swine, I turned out my whole stock on a luxuriant clover field ; and in consequence there was neither staggers or sore throat among them : no sickness and no deaths. Until the last year I have never passed the fall season without losing some and I therefore intend (as long as 1 find it to answer, to pur- sue the same plan of turning the hogs on clover each succeedmg year : I hope the same favourable result may be the consequence. ^
I differ with you with respect to sour wash being " the most grateful and alimentary to swine," in En- gland, I know such an opinion prevails ; but in this climate, I am certain, mine eat most and thrive best twhile it is ^eet. I occasionally give them " a little salt to their porridge." " dry rotten wood," is a good thing, but I will take the liberty to mention what I think' a better : we have three blacksmiths in this town, and my hogs eat up all the ashes or cinders they make: we haul it into the pens by cart loads, and the hogs wiU' as you observe by the rotten wood, devour this at times with more avidity then their ordinary food.
When the hogs are put up to fat 1 do not find it ne-
cessary to give them grit of any kind: the corn appears
to me to answer every purpose : perhaps it is owing to
their having heretofore been accustomed to the wash;
for when once upon com they will not touch the ashes
they formerly eat with so much apparent relish. About
five weeks before they are to be killed they are put
upon com, and as much is thrown to them three times
a day as they wiU eat ; it is always given to them m the
ear, for having been accustomed to the wash : mastica-
tion is a novelty and no doubt a pleasure to them ; and I think it makes tlie fat the more solid.
If you think this communication will be worthy of the notice of the society, please to lay it before them ; but if not, let it remain entre nous, and believe me with great respect and esteem,
Dear Sir
I
Your most obedient,
J. P. De Gruchy.^
Hon. Richard Peters Esq.
President Agric. Soc. Philad.
* My experience has uniformly been favourable to the sour wash (not acetous) both for health and economy ; much less grain or meal will suffice ; and its fermentation with water fixes the saccharine quality, so essential to nutrition. Salt is often given. I never pen my hogs in hot weather. Mr. D. G. is on a great scale ; and must do it. His stiil wash may require to be sweet ; under the circumstances in which his swine are placed. His chopped grain has undergone fer- mentation, before distillation ; and I know his intelligence on the subject. In summer my hogs chiefly run on clover. Swine feeding on clover in the fields, will thrive wonderfully ; when those (confined or not) fed on cut clover, will fall away. My use of rotten wood, continues to answer every purpose intend- ed by its being given. I am much gratified, by the information that there are other substances answering, the same end.
R. Peters.
VOL. II. ' ^
C 34 ]
On Hedges.
35
Colonel Pickering, on Hedges.
Read Juiic 13th, 1809.
Jfashington, June \st, 1809.
Dear Sir^ t i ^^
In a letter which I put into the mail yesterday, I asked you some questions, and made some requests and ob- servations, which occurred on the perusal of the Me- moirs of the Philadelphia Society of Agriculture : but I believe I omitted to speak of live hedges.
Wlien I dwelt at Wyoming, and saw the havoc of fences by freshes in the Susquehannah, the importance of live fences struck me forcibly ; and had 1 contmued there, should doubtless have commenced their mtroduc, tion When in 1800 I went into the back parts of the state away from bottom land, I thought of your hem- lock'hedge, of which you have given me the history , substantially, as now recited in the memoirs It appear- ed to be a perfect fence, easily formed, and with this advantage, that (as I supposed) no domestic anii«&l would brouse it. In this view I mentioned it to some settlers in that quarter. But they told me that sheep would eat hemlock. Cattle also, I now know, will taste it But so they (sheep particularly) will eat the thorn; on which when young and in hedges, if accessible to sheep, they commit such depredations, that Lord Kaims says he could hardly refrain from murmuring agamst Provi-
dence. , ^
More than twenty years ago I read Anderson s i^s^
says on Agriculture, and I well remember his prina^
pies; the only rational ones I ever saw, for making thorn hedges. I have mentioned them to several persons who are cultivating hedges : but they do not give themselves the trouble to examine them: they let their gardeners take their own course. You will find his directions, I think, in his first volume. I have recited them in substance to Mr. Main, and added that his other countryman, Lord Kaims, had suggested a like mode of training a thorn hedge. Mr. Main had not heard of either Anderson or Lord Kaims. Yet he is distinguished for his intelligence. Mr. Main's hedges I have repeatedly seen. If, as you mention, he pro- poses in his pamphlet, to slope the sides of his hedges, ta- pering them upwardsy I have forgotten it. His own, how- ever are not so formed. He sets th^ plants only six or se- ven inches asunder, so that when well grown, the stems alone would form a fence. I have a thousand of Main's hedge thorns, which I shall set in corresponding rows eventually to form the fences of the avenue from a pub- lic road to my house ; and I shall train them according to Anderson's directions ; of which an essential one is, not to cut the top of the stem until it has acquired suf- jicient stability to resist even a bulL Till then, the sides only are to be pruned, or sheared^ and in slopes upwards to the heighth of four and a half or five feet, to preserve the side shoots down to the ground. For if, like your hemlock hedge, they will retain the lower branches, when the sides are pruned perpendicularly, much more will they do it when the sides are sloped, and give them a perfect exposure to the sun, air, rains and dews.
From what I had occasionally read of English thorn hedges, I doubted their constituting complete fences — I doubted the more, because it seemed to be a common
n
26
On Hedges.
On Hedges.
37
:a:
practice to introduce trees into them. And Lord Kaims expressly says, he never saw a good hedge in England. Mr. Bordley handsomely compliments the planters of some hedges in the Delaware state. They probably made a good appearance when young : but I have seen them repeatedly within the last six years ; and in my eye they possess neither beauty nor efficiency. They consisted, in fact, of thorn trees twelve or fifteen feet high, with bushy tops and naked stems, and gaps in- numerable. In that condition I viewed them as nui- sances. They occupied much ground, and required many posts and rails, (which, shaded and long remaining wet with rains, would soon become rotten,) to fill the gaps. Within two or three years past, the proprietors of some of those hedges have found some labourers, (I believe English hedgers) who have plashed and top- ped the trees ; and interweaving them with the stems and stakes, have made good fences for so long time as
the dead wood will last.
Mr. Main, in his pamphlet, refers to M'Mahon's directions for raising thorns from haws— a process re- quiring a preparation of a year and a half prior to the sowing of the haws. But in the autumn of 1807, in con- versing with an English gardener, here, (Theophilus Holt,) I found that the haws would vegetate the first spring. He showed me a bed of seedings which had grown from the haws of 1806. I desired him to gather me a quantity of haws of the hedge thorn cultivated by Mr. Main, (they are to be found scattered in every part of the city) which you call cratagus cordata, and to mix them with earth and keep them until the ensuing spring: Then he sent them to me in a box (remaining mingled
in the same earth,) and I forwarded them in a vessel to Salem. I did not reach home till near the middle of May ; and my son Henry, occupied in other business, and forgetting them, they remained in the box till about the 20th, when I opened it, and to my regret, found all the haws had not only sprouted, but sent out thin radicles so far, and were so entangled in the earth, that it was impossible to separate without destroying them ; so that out of perhaps two thousand or more, five plants only survived and grew. It was a satisfaction however to have the certainty that this sort of thorn, at least would grow the first spring. Holt said that in England the white thorn did not vegetate till the second. I men- tioned this fact to Mr. Main, a few days since. He ad- mitted that they would sometimes grow the first spring, but that sometimes they failed.
Seven years ago, I told a relation in New-Hampshire, who, wanting rocks, was obliged to fence his fields with rails and boards, that he could form hedges 'in his light land even with white pine — which abounded. — The young trees (not crouded together) sent out long limbs near the ground, and regularly upwards, in, a suitable slope ; they only required clipping to multiply the branches. — The European Larch (of which I have forty or fifty that are from four to six feet high, and many of which last year bore cones,) are admirably adapted for hedges. They send out numerous branches from their stems from the ground upward, and will grow well on poor land. Dr. Anderson, (third volume of his Essays on Agriculture,) says that they grow fastest in the poorest soil, and bleakest exposures. They may be pruned at any time in the summer ; and such as I have
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38
On Hedges,
c
pruned in June, close to the stems, have had the wounds entirely covered by autumn. They differ a little from the American Larch, having larger leaves and cones. From the high character given of the European Larch by Dr. Anderson, I was induced to import from En- gland those I have. Probably you will think his ac- count rather exaggerated. The cones of the American Larch, (which are plenty in Maine, and not unfrequent in Essex county,) when just grown, are very beautiful, both white, (or pale green,) and purple, the latter espe- cially.
The seeds of apples from the cider press, (common crabs, or ungrafted fruit) will produce trees bearing, when young, spurs or sharp pointed as the spines of thorns. These trees might be selected for hedges ; and perhaps no shrub or tree would make better. Bronzed every summer and kept low as I have seen single trees in permanent pastures, they form an impenetrable mass of limbs, and so close, that a bird could not find his way through them.
Very truly yours,
Timothy Pickering-
Richard Peters Esq.
C 39 3
4
On Hoven Cattle. By John Steele.
Read August 1809.
As the President in the communication on hoven cattle, with which he has favoured the society, has re- ferred them to the Museum Rusticum, I beg leave to submit to their consideration some remarks on the pa- pers inserted in that publication by Mr. John W, Baker. I deem this the more important, since the errws and inconsistencies of this writer, with respect to the seat of the disease, the necessity of piercing the gut to let the wind escape, and the little fear that should be enter- tained of wounding the intestine, appear to have been adopted by the President ; and may, whilst sanctioned by his name, be productive of injurious consequences in those parts of the country where the introduction of clover is recent, and where litde experience of the treat- ment of hoven cattle has been consequently acquired. That the first stomach which contains the crude ali- ment, previously to undergoing the process of regurgit^ tion, is the principle scat of the disorder, is evinced, not only by the relief afforded by natural eructation, and by the extraction of the fixed air through a flexible tube introduced through the oesophagus, but also by pierc ing the paunch in the most prominent place between the hip bone and the short rib on the left side, which is the ordinary method.— In the last case a considerable quantity of vegetable matter in a high state of fermen. tation generally obtrudes through the orifice, but I never witucssed any emission of wind from the abdomen
I > >
) >
40
On Hoven Cuttle.
Indeed in extreme cases, the cavity of the beUy is a much diminished by the distention of the paunch as to render it probable, that the air therein contamed if any there be, has no agency in the production of the disease The pressure of the first stomach or paunch, against the interior integument of the abdomen, probably led Mr. Baker to mistake that ventricle for the cavity ot the belly, and gave rise to his erroneous opinions on the subject. Although I do not conceive any danger ot wounding the intestine, can arise fi-om piercing the ani- mal in the most prominent part of the beUy, its various convolutions being confined to the opposite side yet 1 will venture to remark, that I think wounds inflicted in that extremely tender part are attended with more danger than Mr. Baker and the President seem to im- ply. An eminent medical writer says, if one of the bowels be slightly cut, the edges of the wound retract equally ; and if it be penetrated or cut through, they curl themselves back so as to invelope the upper part and the inside is thus completely turned outward.
If this high authority had not been sufiicient to con- vince me that wdtitids in the intestines are much to be feared ; my experience would, for I have in reiterated instances known wounds in the bowels of cattle, mflict- ed by accident, to prove fatal.
Ardent spirits given to hoven cattle in doses of about a pint, diluted with water, in conformity to the du-ec- tions of Dr. Darwin in his Zoonomia, frequently proves efficacious in the first stages of the disease, but I question whether any remedy in the last stages of it, is equal to piercing the paunch.
On Hoven pc;Mle.
» •> V J , » » » » » 9
* ■> > I • ' u ,
J > -I ■>
1
> ■> >
I'. *
) )
* )
' *
« )
41
A description of the flexible tube abav>e alluded toi is to be found in Rowlin's Cow Doctor, a work which has obtained considerable celebrity in Great Britain.
John D. Steele. JVear Doxvningstown, lOth June 1809.
Dr. James Mease.
OBSERVATIONS.
Mr. yohn Wynn Baker was 6ne as much confided in, for his integrity and veracity, and was as laudably useful in practical experience on the subjects he professed to know, as any person of his day. He enjoyed the patronage and esteem of the most respectable charafcters of his time. Whether his anatomical knowledge was as accurate, as was his informa- tion upon other subjects, it is not essential to discuss. I always receive information with thankfulness ; and wish those qualifi- ed in this much neglected branch, of the veterinary art, would pay more attention to it. A desire to communicate what I con- ceive useful, often impels me to treat on subjects which I find MOt generally known ; though perhaps by many better under- stood. In this case I do not believe I have mentioned any thing new. For facts falling under my own observation I can vouch : As to theories^ I leave them to the learned. — ^The facts menti- oned by Mr. Baker are indubitable ; and have been frequent- ly verified. There is certainly greater safety in piercing the beast on the left side, between the hind rib and the hip-bone as directed in page 6, of our first voL Mr. Steel agrees m the necessity and efficacy of penetrating the paunch. His appre- hensions as to other parts, may have some foundation, but are much exaggerated. His endeavours to rectify errors are
praise-worthy. But it would be much to be lamented, if any VOL. II, y
Ill • •
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ff •
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/
• • • •
* • : Obse^^tions.
alarms s hovjld 'di^'ter from a remedy .hich m mulutudes of m^
•In-ccsrhaTsaved valuable beasts from <>f ^^^ ^J^^^^^^
death. The risk of the incision in any part of thebeUy or ides,
cllnot be greater than that of the disease, if leftto xts fatal pro-
;::. Le^all dangerous parts be avoided ; but et no fears
prevent the surest of all remedies. As ^o^^^! ^^^^ f ^ wounding Che intestines, I have conversed with on^ of the roremmentof our physicians,* and a deservedly celebr^ed Turgeon,! who is generaUy acknowledged tobe at theheadc^ his profession. They agree that although it is best to avoid . them, yet that wounds of the intestines, are, by no means, often attended with the consequences, or dangers, which have excited Mr Steele's apprehensions.
Dr. Darwin's flexible tube (and the same thmg has been long ago mentioned by Dr. Munroe) is doubtless very pro- ber But little is known of its comparative superiority. A lar- ger would never think of providing it ; but knives are always at hand. The use of this tube, shews that air is the cause of the disease, when confined and elastic. Potash, in the early stages, has been found very efficacious, given in drenches or ba]ls,in quantities of not more than quarter or half an ounce at a dose, at intervals, 'till its eff^ects are produced. Any flttfl/r neutralizes the gas, or elastic air, which would occasion death. To prevent the viscera being abraded, raw linseed or other oil,
tnav be given.
However scientific may be Mr. Steele's reasoning as to the interior of the animal, I avoid controversies (even if I were qualified to sustain them,) on subjects whereof facts are the best expositors. I will not therefore agitate this question; or perplex it with discussions about locality, or speculate as to the nature of the disease, or the air generating from the cause of it ; and occasioning the dangerous malady. It is enough to observe, that in general, those whose catde meet
* Dr. Rush-
t Dr. Physick.
Observations*
43
with these critical attacks, have neither time nor capacity to reason about the structure of animals, in parts either visible or hidden. If they theorize on the subject, fear and hesita- tion are the result^and the beast dies, before their conclu- sion is formed. The violent explosions of wind, issuing from the orifice after incision, may not have occurred under Mr. Steele's obser\^ation, but the fact can be proved by many wit- nesses. Nor would it be a difficult task to produce cattle now perfectly sound, and in high healdi, which have been pierced for, and cured of the disease, in other parts than those gene- rally known to be the most safe. If a perforation or incision fails in the part recommended ; — I repeal— that no danger apprehended from wounding the intestines, can be put in competiton with the certainty of death, unless this kind of relief is boldly and instantly applied. Country people want stimulus and support in such undertakings ; and not addi- tions to their natural hesitations. And the chances are more against the beast not being pierced at all, than its being done in a wrong place. In an instance falling under my own no.- tice, the account given by Mr. Baker was read, after the ope- ration and effect were over. Everyone present declared, that had he been a witness to the whole process of disease and remedy, he could not more exactly have described every symptom and circumstance then actually exhibited. In one instance a small tin candle mould, and in another a hollow piece of elder, was inserted into the orifice j to prevent its closing, and the exterior and interior incisions from being displaced, in the way described by Mr Baker.
1 am aware that zeal misapplied produces many irrepara- ble mischiefs, both in the small and great concerns of tlie world. But I am so confident on this subject, that I hesitate not, to confirm all I have said, in the communication upon which Mr. Steele has (no doubt from the best motives) ani- madverted. ^
Richard Peters.
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t 44 }
Jtektwe to Hedges. By Paul Cooper.
Read December 13th, 1808r ^
Woodbury, N. J. August Ath, 1808-
Esteemed Friend,
At thy request I have made some additional remarks on Hedges— I was surprised to see in the transactions of your society, the apple tree, and the walnut recom- mended for live fences : such plants as are easily propa- gated from cuttings must be preferred, I have found it difficult to get the walnut to live one year after settmg out, the sweet gum or linn, grows fast, bears plashing very well, is very easUy cultivated, and makes a suffici- ent fence in a few years. The sour gum in low land will also m a few years make a very good fence : the white mulberry, the button woodorplane tree,* grows rapidly,,- is easily propagated from cuttings, or seeds, and makes excellent fire wood equal to hickory ; this is important to have growing, and to get fire wood out of our fence from time to time; in some situations and soils the thorn may not be injured by insects, I would however by all means make the trial. I find in some parts of my farm the thorn grows very well, plants set out m 1802 by properly cutting the tops from year to year m order to produce a sufficiency of horizontal shoots, were in 1807 a sufficient and handsome fence without plash- inc. In other parts of the same farm, I should not have a fence in twenty years of the thorn, but in this last soil
* Platanus occidentalis. L.
Relative to Hedges.
4S
the sweet gum would thrive admirably, or the plane tree.
I have tried the red cedar : cattle are remarkably fond of twisting it and destroying it with their horns.
The willow in low grounds does very well; the Georgia poplar is very easily raised from cuttings, grows admi- rably even in very sandy soils, and from the trials I have made, appears likely to succeed very well. — The white thorn is often exceedingly injured by a worm or some kind of insect that kills the bark all around near the surface ; I was discouraged from raising any more from the seed, although the insect did not kill the roots, yet so much dead wood looks very unhandsome : but the Viburnum Prunifolium L. or black haw, throws out many horizontal shoots, and is a remarkable hardy plant. I never saw it in the least injured by insects ; it grows very plentifully in our woods, and may be raised in any quantity from seeds. I dig it up and set it out in the same manner that we do the thorn, and I understand since my propagating it, that others have recommended it. A number of the plants I have mentioned would thrive very well in a variety of soils, where the thorn would not answer any good purpose, and it must always be of consequence to choose plants suitable to the dif- ferent soils on our farms.
Thy respectful friend.
Paul Cooper.
Dr. James Mease.
C 46 3
On Com,
47
On Corn. By Joseph Lyman.
Read April 11th, 1809.
Hatfield, February 2Stk, 1809.
Sir,
Your letter of 30th, January, reached me early in February. I embrace the first leisure hour to attend to the contents. My publication of 1796,* is not at hand and it is uncertain whether I could find it. I know not whether I stated in that publication the condition m which my field was at the time of my seeding it with Indian com. If not, it would be proper that you should know, that it had been previously, manured in a high degree, and the preceding year, if I recollect right, was cultivated with a crop of tobacco by persons to whom I leased it. With what I should call a slovenly cultiva- tion, the 180 rods produced 2600 pounds of merchant- able'tobacco, and with due attention, might have pro-
duced hundreds more.
The next year after the tobacco crop, I took it into my own management, and improved it for Indian com, according to the statement you have seen. As to the result there stated, it ought to be considered that the measurement of the produce was immediately afte» harvest ; probably it would have been eight or ten per cent less, had it been delayed until February or March.
* For the piece alluded to. See the appendix.
II
The year succeeding my crop of Indian corn, I tilled the field I believe without any manure, and sowed it with barley and clover seed. The product was very great. A gentleman who had been an agriculturalist in Great Britain, viewed the barley when it had just head- ed, and told me that he had seen no field of barley in England superior to it. The crop by its own weight, and a heavy rain, fell, and by being badly lodged, was diminished, yet it was very considerable. I did not mea- sure it, but it was I believe about 40 bushels per acre. The ground has been in grass ever since.
This same year 1797, I planted another field with Indian corn in my second method, viz. in rows of cus- tomary width, three or four feet apart, and in hills two corns in a hill, about eighteen inches apart.
This was to reduce the labour by the assistance of the com harrow. This field was suckered three times as in the preceding year. But the land itself was pot so good as the other field, nor had it been so richly manur. ed. However, allowing for these disadvantages, the> produce was, I believe as great as in the preceding year. But while the stalk was in full size, and in a full state about the time of setting for ears, a heavy tempest pros- trated the whole, as it did other fields planted in the usual way. And although the crop was valuable, and more than I had expected, yet it by no means equalled the product of the former year. Yet I should say, that as far as the crops progressed, without any uncommon interruption, it was a good voucher for that particular method of cultivating Indian corn. In the mode of cul- tivating, especially my first mode of planting in squares af two feet ; creeping under the plants on the ground,.
» .1,1 „
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48
On Com.
On Com,
4S
11-, ■
i
to sucker the stalks, was very irksome to my boys, and the price of labour rising at this time out of a due pro- portion, and my other employments engrossing my time, I did not pursue the experiment. Since that time I have chiefly improved my small portion of land by letting it
to others.
My neighbours are generally farmers, and are called good farmers in the old fashioned way ; but they have too much land to invite them to make experiments, and to spend the summer upon a few acres. I do not know tliat any of them have tried the methods which my pub^^ lication prescribed. They saw and admired the result of my experiment, but either for want of help or for want of zeal in making experiments, they went on in the old track— raising 20 or 30 bushels on an acre.— They had as many acres as they could improve without employing any additional labour on two or three acres, which would have filled their cribs, as full as they are commonly filled from ten or twelve. I have not omitted to pursue the method stated in my publication, from the slightest conviction that there is any error or defect in the system, but merely from my not being employed in farming, as my stated business. Too much of my time would be engrossed to pursue the course effectually. — Want of leisure and capital, prevented my course of ex- periments, in such a manner as the importance of the subject demanded.— My publication was designed to invite farmers of property, and practical husbandmen, to pursue the experiment. And I am persuaded that they might pursue it to as great advantage, as my pub- lication supposes. Not looking much to my little por- tion of land, and unable to procure labourer^ at a rea-
ITX
sonable price, -or to oversee them if pixx:Ured, I have committed my fields to other hands oft lease. But were agriculture my Tme of regular employment, I should take the Course J :4id:, in 1796, fo^ the greater part of my corn land* 1 , , t Mrysi^ ' \ I
:;...May I he permitted to suggest the pm: utility of wood ashes, in raiding indian cor^ ? >Wbat .Iny family do not want for domestic Use, I generally apply as ma- nure for Indian conj,. by putting/a handfull r0und each hill, after th0 fir^t hodng.— (We hoe fowr times-) I ti^ye observed the effects repeatedly, until I nm satij^fied that upon almost every kind of lai^d one bushel of ashes
will produce an additional bushel of Indian corn. I
have tried wood ashes, and gypsum upgu comja the same field, and the field thought to be fi-iendly to gypsum; the ashes have been less expensive and quite as pro- ductive.— I once sowed four acres of very poor land, with three bushels of flaxseed. — Upon two acres I strewed eight bushels of ashes. The ground which had the ashes produced 100 pounds of flax more than the other. While on the ground, the eye perceived bat a slight diflTcrence in the two different parts of the field. But I found the harl much better. This I attributed to the ashes in killing the insects which prey on the roots of flax, after it has attained its size, and before it has procured its coat. Speaking of wood as'hes, I will men- tion another experiment. — I turned up an acre of sward, and planted it witli Indian corn. I applied after the first hoeing about ten bushels of ashes (which is a profuse and unusual allowance :) but before the field was ashed, my labourers had nearly exhausted the ashes — I direct-
VOL. II.
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On Corn.
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ed them to leave a portion of the field ; they left ground
in it, without ashes. j j
At harvest, the grtfund manured with ashes, produced two or three times the quantity of the better land which I had neglected—The one yielding, I should say as much as fifty bushels per acre, the other not more than twenty. Ashes sprinkled on land lately turned up from sward, are most decidedly the most productive manure , which I have tried. After Indian com, ashes are most useful in ensuring a good crop of flax, both harl and seed. In laying land down to grass I have found barley the best crop. It is early off the ground, and gives great facilities to the tender clover to gain a firm root belore winter. Flax has commonly been preferred,* as the crop with which to sow clover, but it comes of the ground late ; it is spread on the ground and imprisons L clover still longer ; and the puUing of the flax rends and disturbs the roots of clover and exposes it to death
the next winter. . , •
I do not know sir, that I have met your wishes m this letter— If I have exceeded those wishes by the m- troduction of extraneous matter, you wUl be candid enough to excuse it and to carry it to the account of my sincere desire to promote the beneficial purposes
of your institution.
With due esteem I ajn sir^
Your humble servant,
Joseph Lyman.
Dr. James Mease.
Secretary of the Jgric. Soc. Philad.
The foUotuing letters though not written for public view ^ yet contain much matter which should not be lost. They are therefore thought worthy of being inserted
* . . "S g r
among the transactions of the society.
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On Gypsum.
* This alludes to his own vicinity.
Read June 13th, 1809.
Fort jRoyalj Virginia^ January 30 th^ 1809. ^
i
Dear Sir^
I have postponed answering your two obliging letters of May last, hitherto, lest the very great pleasure of your correspondence, should seduce me to be trouble- some, in the number or length of my letters ; and I fear you will allow my apology to be a good one, before you get to the end of this.
Your warning against a reliance on gypsum, and ne- glecting manure, induces me to give you an idea of my practices respecting both, in hopes of obtaining your corrections. For many years I have enclosed all my ara- ble land at each farm, in one enclosure, and excluded grazing entirely, leaving the whole vegetable matter the land produce^, to return, taking a crop of corn and one of wheat, every three or four years. To increase vege- table cover I sow large fields of clover, cutting only a small proportion for seed and for feeding green. These are treated with plaister, and the clover is plowed in dry, when the field comes into culture. It is cheaper to plough it in dry than green, on account of the different seasons of the year for the operations ; and however
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On Oijpsum.
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contrary to theory it may be, my experiments have not satisffed me that it b less nutritive to tbe earth espe- cially when well clothed with these vegetables unul to- wards the end of the winter, , T^oover added to the exclusion of the hoof, keeps its pores open longer m winter to the action of the atmosphere, than ploughmg itself ; and defends it against sun as well as frost whilst ploughing exposes it.to both, my idea is, that this sys- tem is fitted for a combination with gypsum, and that s«ch a combination may possibly succeed without the aid of manure. If so, it may be useful towards dimmish, ing the deficiency of that article, for I agree with you, that nothing can be a complete substitute for it. To make the experiment Mrly, I have set aside 200 acres, half to be cultivated in com yearly, half to lie unculti- vated and ungrazed.and the whole to receive an annual dressing of three pecks of plaister b the acre. 1 he repe- tition of the culture being too quick for a perennial plant, I use the bird-foot clover as we commonly call it, to raise clothing for the land, having found that the plaister operated as powerfully on that as on red clover. This grass rises early, diessOon in th^ summer, abounds in seed so as to set the land thick the following year, af. fords a good cover, and nourishes a s^^cond annual, the crab grass,* which springs through it the latter end of the summer, and gives afresh cover to the earth. This' experiment of combining the use of plaister with enclos- ing has hitherto been very flattering.
As to corn stalks, fo;- about 26 years past I have re-
* Syntherisma Serottna L.
On Gypsum*
53
duced all mine to food, litter and manure. But my ex- periments reject the use of cutting boxes, after trying the best for a long time, on account of the expence and inutility of the labour. The expence on a very small farm is not seen ; on a very large one, it is felt at once. On mine, the removal of stalks, straw, corn shucks, cobs and tops to the places of consumption, is nearly sufficient for the winter's work. To cut the stalks and straw, would employ the whole labour of the farm. If a good farmer ought to have a vast surplus of dry vege- ' table matter for litter, beyond what is necessary for food, why should this expence be incurred ? Is it not cheaper to feed in waste, and let the waste go for litter ? It is with difficulty I reduce this coarse food to manure and apply it in the spring. If the stock is increased and made to eat it, the manure is diminished, and the addi- tional stock is soon killed by the want of a dry warm bed, and a deficiency of summer pasturage.
I find corn stalks gradually became less valuable as food and litter, the longer they stand, therefore I begin to use them as soon as I begin to gather corn, by remov- ing every day the weather will permit, about eight or ten heavy waggon loads, into the stable yard and farm pen ; keeping a parcel near each to resort to in less quantity when the weather is bad. Horses and mules thrive better at this crisis, than at any other time of the year. Whether the saccharine juice of the stalk agrees better with them, or whether it is owing to their being able to masticate more of it than the cow, who is chiefly confined to stripping it, they seem to thrive better on this food than horned cattle. Between two and three thousand load of manure is made on the fiirm I live on,
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54
On Gypsum.
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chiefly of com stalks. It accumulates in the yards until the winter is over, and is never disturbed until the mo- ment it is to be used. This is always in April immedi- ately after the com, save what is to occupy the land to be manured, is planted. The manure is carried out, spread on land fallowed in winter, that it may separate easily and mix well with the coarse manure ; a bushel of plaister to the acre is sown on it after it is spread, and it is ploughed in, all on the same day. I have frequently for experiment, left my manure longer periods to rot, undisturbed— made up into large dunghills— mixed and unmixed with earth— covered and uncovered, and in all have suffered a loss of labour and manure, in pro- portion to the deviation from my present practice. When manure is suffered to lie to a second year, I think its loss exceeds a moiety. The best instmment for raising and scattering this coarse manure which I have seen, is a hoe, in its eye, shape, helve and dimen- sion, precisely like what is called here a hilling hoe, but having three strong prongs in place of a blade. These prongs pierce the manure by the fall of this forked hoe, it is taken up without stooping, in as large a parcel as the labourer can manage, and shaken into the waggon by suffering the helve of the hoe to fall gently on its top
You ask me the cause of the black heads of wheat in the forward kinds I sent you. They are frequent with us And the forward is more liable to them, than the later wheat. But in no instance have I known them to ■ produce a material injury to the crop. The infected heads perish young, and communicate no distemper to their neighbours ; and the number is never consider-
X)n Gypsum.
55
ac3=
able. Like the rust and other disorders of that kind, I suppose it to proceed from repletion. Most of my lands being flat, I have observed that those disorders might be infallibly produced artificially, by graduating mois- ture alone for their attainment, and trusting to the sea- son for heat ; and the remedies I use are, to plough very deep when I sow my wheat ; nevertheless covering it shallow, and to lay the land in ridges the width of the corn rows, with a deep and narrow furrow between them. Wheat seems to me to resist these maladies, in proportion to its forwardness, because it is less exposed to the combination of heat with moisture. Early kinds are the resource against the one ; draining off rain wa^ ter by furrows and deep ploughing, seem to me to be the best resource against the other.
A few of the experiments I have made with gypsum are mentioned, to take a chance for adding a fact to your information on that subject.
1803. March 15th. Oats and clover, both just up, plaistered them at one bushel to the acre ; three weeks after, plaistered them again with the same quantity. Upon both occasions left the richest portion of the plat unplaistered. This only produced one third, both of oats and clover, of the plaistered land.
April. Mixed or rotted a bushel of plaister with as much seed corn, keeping it wet whilst planting. With such rotted seed planted a field of 40 acres, except eight rows through the centre which were unplaistered. The land poor. The inferiority of these eight rows was visi- ble, from the moment the corn was up, to its being ga- thered.
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On Gypsum.
1804. April. Rolled the seed corn of two hundred acres in like manner, leaving eight rows across the field, so as to intersect with flat, hilly, sandy, stift', rich and poor land. Their inferiority was so visible, that from an eminence in the field, a stranger could point out the eight rows from the time the corn was three inches high, until it was all in tassel. In this the eight rows were a week later than the plaistered corn. The plais- tered corn stood the best, was forwardest, and produced the greatest crop. Its fodder dried about ten days sooner.
1805. April. Plaistered as above the seed corn of 30 acres of rich moist land, leaving eight rows. Corn injured by too much rain. No difference between the eight rows and the rest.
May 7th. Replanted my corn on the high land, which had been much destroyed by mice, moles and birds, mixing two quarts of tar well, with one bushel of seed corn, and then plaistering it as above. Tlie best reme- dy I ever tried against those evils, and the plaister as usual, accelerated and benefited the corn.
April 25th. Plaistered three bushels on three acres of clovf^r just up, sown alone on land half manured with coarse manure. A good crop.
May 9th. Seven bushels on seven acres of forward wheat and clover. Wheat heading; land thin; the clover exceeded what such land had usually produced. No benefit to the wheat.
May lOth. Six bushels on six acres of very bad clover sown last spring. Clover just beginning to bloom. The season became nioist, and it improved into a fine crop.
May 10th. Last spring I left an unplaistered strip of 20 feet wide quite across a field of clover. It was all cut
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On Gypsum.
57
aac:
except this strip, which was so bad as not to be worth cutting. This spring on this day (clover beginning to bloom) the strip was still much inferior to the adjoining clover, which was good. I plaistered it at a bushel to the acre, leaving the rest of the field unplaistered. It equalled the adjoined clover in one month.
May 16th. Sowed 23 bushels on 23 acres of com in a large field. Ploughed in part immediately, harrowed in part, anu left part on the surface ten days before it was worked in. Com four inches high. Weather moist. No difference between the three divisions. The seed of the whole field had been rolled. These 23 acres exceed- ed the adjoining corn 25 per cent : its blades and tops also dried sooner.
June 15th. Plaistered at three bushels to the acre a strip of goose grass or English grass — no effect on land or grass.
August 10th. Sowed 50 acres of thin sandy land in' com at the time, in clover, and 40 bushels of plaister on the seed, harrowing both lightly in. A moderate show- er in four days, succeeded by a severe drought. Clover sprouted and chiefly perished. A good cover of bird- ' foot clover followed land so visibly improved, that a stranger could mark the line of the plaistering by the growth. That and the adjoining land in corn in 1808. The difference visible in favour of the plaistered land.
September 17th, to the 5th, of October. Sowed 88 bushels of yellow latter bearded wheat ; 171 of forward, mixing half a bushel of plaister with one of wheat, a little wetted. One bushel of forward, and three pecks of latter wheat were sown to an acre. All among corn. Two slips of 30 feet each were left across tfifc *
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VOL. II.
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Oti Gypsum.
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field, in which unplaistered wheat was sown. Where the land was sandy, the unplaistered wheat was best, owing to the great growth of bird-foot clover among the plais- t^red. This discovered the effect of gypsum on that an- nual grass. Where this grass did not appear, there was no difference between the plaistered and unplaistered wheat. From the spring of 1806 to this time, the un- plaistered slips have been distinctly marked, by a vast inferiority of the weeds and grass naturally produced.
November 23d. Sowed three bushels of plaister on one and an half acres of wheat, left unplaistered for the purpose in the field last mentioned, on the surface. \Veather moist. No effect on the wheat, on the ground, or in the growth to this day, though the plaister was of the same kind with that used in the last experiment.
1 806, March and April. Sowed 200 acres of clover with plaister, at different times when the weather was dry, moist, windy and still, part at three pecks — a bushel and five pecks to the acre, leaving a slip of 20 feet wide across a field, to ascertain the goodness of the plaister, which was of a hard white kind, that hitherto used being soft and streaked. The clover in this strip was bad, on each side of it, fine. No ap- parent difference was produced by weather, quantity, or times of sowing. The whole crop far surpassed in goodness whatever such lands had produced before, except the slip, as to which Pharaoh's dream seemed reversed.
April and May. Rolled all my seed corn as usual, leaving slips unplaistered. An excessive drought. No dift'erence between these slips and the rest of the field. The following year when that grass grew, tufts of luxu-
«
On Gypsum.
59
aeas
i'l! t. '■■'■ .Lfl.'Bl, \.
riant bird-foot clover, designated the exact spots where the plaistered corn had been planted. ^' '^
April 23d. Sowed 16 bushels of plaister on eight acres of oats and clover, just up, intending to have a great crop, and leaving a slip. Land naturally fine and high- ly manured. Drought as above, excessive. Oats bad. No difference between the slip and the rest. Qover kill- ed. Land ploughed up in September and put in wheat. Clovd* sown in 1807 on the wheat. A heavy crop of wheat, clover plaistered in March 1808, at a bushel to the acre ; crop very great. No inferiority in the slip un- plaistered in 1806.
1807, March 1st, to 12th. Sowed clover seed on one hundtcd acres in wheat, and 80 bushels of plaister the sowers of the latter following those of the former. Left a strip of 20 feet. Weather dry, moist, windy or calm, and for two days of the sowing a snow two inches or less, deep, on the ground. Land stiff, rich, poor 6t sandy, and of several intermediate qualities. The clover came up better than any I ever sowed on the siirfade, the strip was a little, and but a little inferior to the ad- joining clover, which I attribute to its receiving some plaister from the effect of a high wind. The whole field received three pecks to the acre in 1808, and was the best piece of high land grass of the size I ever saw. The wheat received no benefit.
: March 10th. Sowed 40 bushels of plaister 6h 60 acres of poor land, cultivated in corn (Indian) last year, and well set with bird-foot clover, leaving an unplaistered slip. Weather dry and windy. Effect vast. Strip visible to an inch, as far off as you could distinguish grass. The bird-'
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On Gypsum.
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foot cloy er died, and a crop of crab grass shot up through it, and furnished a second cover to the land.
1907 and 1808, fo these two years all my corn ground as it was broken up or listed has been plaistered broad* cast, with from three pecks to a bushel to the acre, and directly ploughed in, and both the seed com and seed wheat have been rolled bushel to bushel. In both, the crops have greatly e;ccceded what the fields have ever before produced. That cultivated last year has doubled ^ny former product. But they have been aided in spots with manure, and the years were uncommonly fruitful. All the manure carried out in these two years has beei^ sprinkled with plaister when spread before being plough- ed in, and several fields of the bird-foot clover have been plaistered. The results conform to those already men- tioned^ *
1808, February. Plaistered four ridges of highland meadow oat at a bushel to the acre. No effect.
Some of the inferences I make from these experiments are, that gypsum should be worked into the earth ; that half ^^ bushel or less to an acrej worked in, will im- prove land considerably ; that drought can defeat its ef- fects upon com, but not upon the land, if it is covered ; that the weather is of no consequence at the moment it is sown, tl¥)ugh the subsequent season is of great ; that it may vastly improve red clover even as late as May ; that it increases the effects of coarse manure ; that a quai^tity less tha^half a b.ushel to ai) aqr^ ^ , iij in some cases as effectual, as a much larger one; that excessive mobture or excessive drought destroys its effect ; that its effect is more likely to be destroyed, when sprinkled en the surface, than when mixed with the earth ; that
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On Gypsum.
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sowing it broadcast among Indian com after it is up, may improve the crop 25 per cent : that sown in June it may not improve English grass ; that sown in August and covered, it may improve the land, though drought succeeds ; that sown on wheat in November] it may neither benefit the wheat nor land ; that about three pecks to the acre immediately sprinkled on clover seed sown on the surface, may cause it to come up, live, and thrive better ; that a similar quantity sown on the surface in March may treble the burden of bird-foot clover ; that sown broadcast from the 1st of January in breaking up or listing corn ground, the same quantity will probably add considerably to the crop ; and that it may not improve the high land meadow oat if sown in February.
I have witheld experiments tending to prove the uti^ lity of combining enclosing with the use of gypsum, because they are yet defective ; and some others, on ac- count of the length of this letter.
If my poor experiments can in the least degree ad- vance the laudable design of your institution, I shall be always willing both to communicate them, and that you should either select extracts, or suppress them as you please. I expect this year to complete a project for drain- ing 200 or 300 acres of land, subject to tide water, musk- rats, and a creek having two mills on it above. It is a considerable work for a farmer, and has been conduct- ed at very little expence. Would a circumstantial ac- count of it be agreeable, should it succeed ?
I have been obliged to use the common names of se- veral grasses, from an ignorance of the botanical. Some of them have not I believe been named by the adepts
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in that science, and I have no botanical vocabulary to look into for the others. Such names I know fliuctuatc and are often different, in different districts ; if those I have used should be unintelligible, I will upon knowing it, try to explain them. I am with great respect, Sir,
Your most obedient servant, ^
John Taylor.
Dr. James Mease
W.
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Observations on Colonel Taylor's Letter^ by R. Peters.
Belmont March ISth, 1809.
Dear Sir^
I return you Colonel Taylor^s letter, which I have read with the same pleasure all his communications in- spire. His letters cannot be too long ; I wish those of equal ability to give information (if many such there be, among those devoted to agricultural occupations) would take half the pains, either to establish facts or to commu- nicate them. His mode of substituting the clothing of its own surface, in place of artificial, or factitious ma- nures, is new to us, on the scale he exhibits. The dif- ference of the vegetation, ploughed in dry or succulent, has always, with me, been in favour of the latter greatly. ^^^ But when I compare my relatively small husbandry, with his expansive performances, over so vast a surface, I feel like a dwarf along side of a giant : conscious of some powers, according to weight and inches, — but lost in comparative inferiority. Yet, after all, the prin* ciples of small or large husbandry, though they may dif- fer as to the extent of application, are the same. And my opinions, suited to my capabilities, have always been in favour of the " exiguum colito.^^ I think there is more gained by it, in proportion. If I can get as I have done, from 30 to 50 bushels of wheat off a few acres — sup- pose 20 — I gain more than the southern farmers do off 100 ; both in product, and saving expence. But they have slaves individually fed and cloathed cheaply, and paid no wages. The drones^ — the old — the young — the
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o4 Observations on Colonel Taylor^s Letter*
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sick — the vitious — and the idle — consume, however, no small portion of the earnings of the workers. The latter their owners must employ ; for the more they work, the quieter they keep them. Therefore all sys- tems are good or indifferent, according to existing cir- cumstances.
I have always been of opinion, and so I long ago mentioned to you as plainly as I dared — that your corn stalk cutter was an expensive bauble; if used on a great scale on an extensive farm. You see even the la- bour of slaves, is thrown away in this tedious operation. It can only be useful where forage is scarce ; and la- bour applied when there is nothing else to do. — And when is that interval, on even a Pennsylvania Farm ?
The maxim of our grazing farmers, on uplands here, is ; "the more cattle, the more grass, and the more fer^i tility.'* Arthur Young says — " the more sheep the more fertility, and supplies of food.'* I have never yet found this verified — est modus in rebus — JVilliam fFesty with the addition of his top dressing, went the nearest to prove it as to cattle. He bought no manure but lime, and ploughed none : — but the hoof and the tooth were in eternal activity. In no countiy is there finer or better grass, than constantly covered his fields.
The bird' foot clover^ eo nomine^ I do not know. But being, no doubt a variety of the trefoil^ the plaister ope- rates with it. Mr. Taylor^s ideas, as to old dungy are similar to my own ; but I have never liked applica- tions of it in a fermenting state, in light soils. Weeds ^ Mr. T. does not seem to care about. I have been just reading some discussions, in the late British agricultu- ral magazines They go to prove " that the heavier the
Observations on Colonel Taylor'' s Letter. (^S
Crop (no matter of what) the richer the land is left; the grain thrives best through tap rooted grass." I give this as their idea — for Mr. Taylor's experiment, " Sep- tember 17th to 5th October" [and many might be ad- ded] disprove one, at least of their principles. The wheat was worst among the plaistered bird-foot clover [*'wAy."*] They say, that " vegetable cover excludes heaty and admits light ; and these are distinct elemen- tary substances, though generally found together. Lighty with hydrogen and carbon (the materials of oU) is the vivyfying power of vegetation ; but radiant heat is hostile. Enough light is admitted under the cover, and radiant heat is excluded." Although it cannot be denied that light is essential to the life and growth of plants, which can be raised to maturity in caves, by lamp lighty it does not fertilize the soil. They do not make allowance, either, for the exhaustion of a heavy crop. What will they say to Mr. Taylor's dead cover of cedar &c ; or to a door, or board, lying on the surface ; and fertilizing ; by preventing evaporation, and the ex- traction by the sun [or a crop] of what the air impreg- nates ? And yet admitting, not light but, the acidified gases^ carbon &c. which create and support vegetable
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* To the " •whif'* of Mr. T. I have no decisive or techni- cal answer. Probably^ the under crop of grass prevents from perspiration, and stagnates in the lower joints of the wheat- stalks, more juices than can circulate through the plant. There are greater demands for food, by both plants, than the earth can supply. The strongest and most forward plant ob- tains the mastery. Thick and strong wheat, often choaks clo- ver. R. p.
VOL. II. I
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66 Observations on Colonel Taylor's Letter.
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existence. Theories sink under facts ; and I depend on the latter. Young grass does no harm. But I have lost crops by plaistering clover ; and throwing up luxuriant vegetation under wheat.
You must get Dr. Seybert, or some other chemist, to inform how to discover the quantity of the sulphuric acid in plaister. It is good or bad, according to the proportion of this acid contained in it. My way has been to heat it in a dry pot ; and judge by the ebullition. But I now take it as I can get it. I find hard or soft stone very little different in effect ; though it makes a great odds in pulverization. The colour is given by metals — most coTimonly — by iron. It is a sulphat ; — and its distinguishing characteristic is the sulphuric acid. If Mr. T. would keep this in view, and attend to the principles I have mentioned often, both in the " agricultural inquiries" and in our memoirs, he would, with his great industry, and agricultural, as well as other capacities, help us all in developing causes. The half bushel, doing as much as any quantity, is account- ed for on these principles. Our pupil will soon be our master. He wants no instruction. His facts agree with my experience, ever since gypsum was used here. With wlieat or other culmiferous chaff-bearing crops, I never found it anywise efficient : except that rolling the seed in it gives an impetus to the first spring or shooting of the plant. I wish Mr. T. would gradually banish the heterodox custom of maize with wheat, in the same field. But the southern farmers will never listen ta this Penn^ sylvanianisme. We meet the fate of all preachers against inveterate habits.
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Observations on Colonel Taylor^ s Letter. 67
I have always found scattering plaister over the whole of a corn field, better, than partial applications to hills. Covered or not, I have not found much, if any differ- ence. I have sowed it on the snow in February, and as late as June, or July, with equal success. Season and casual circumstances, no doubt, concurred. I should think that covering would be the best for a corn field. It brings it in contact whh the roots of the plant, as
they spread.
I wish Mr. T. would send us his results and mode of draining. Every thing from him is valuable.
You can easilv inform him of our mode of manufac- turing plaister. Nothing can be more perfect ; and you know how to describe it. You may send this letter; or pick out of it any thing you please.*
I am much afraid of Mr. Taylor's experiment on his 200 acres half kept in corn — and half in ungrazed clover — both plaistered. It will most assuredly fail on the corn ground, though it will succeed on the other part. No doubt the vegetable matter in the latter, will constantly give activity and pabulum for the sulphuric acid. But what will be in the corned part for it to work on ? The more pulverization by constant tillage, the less the plaister will operate; because the vegetable matter is perpetually dissipated. I have often mentioned
* Colonel T. in a letter February 16th, 1810, to Dr. Mease, explains his practice, which had been misunderstood. It is a bold, and it is to be wished it may be a succesful experi- ment. The ameliorating the soil, by the decay and accumulation of vegetable matter from its own surface, has succeeded on a smaller scale ; but in a longer time.
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68 Observations on Colonel Tat/lor^s Letter.
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the fact, too, of the necessity of change of crop from the following example of its contrary ; because it was very remarkable, though not singular. A neighbour of mine, rich and stiff in opinion, (and not like Mr. T. receiving graciously all information) added to my long catalogue of facts on this subject. He would not believe my doc- trine (nor will many others) about change of crops. He said clung' would do every thing. He planted Indian com, and plaistered it for seven or eight years, in the same field. In his last effort he highly dunged the field. He saw it gradually dwindle, 'till it came to a small bamboo. It is a great exhauster, added to the othet^ ob- jection. He continued apparently incredulous ; and thought of his field, as one in a consumption does of himself: who does not believe he is dying, though on his last legs. He changed his crop, however, from con- viction : but he said it was " because he was tired of seeing always the same plant." He sowed wheat ; and had the finest crop, he ever raised. This had the bene- fit of his dung ; which wants no co-operator. But plais- ter is not a noim substantive. Nor is a plant too long kept in the same field. — Alternation and vegetable ma- nure may favourably interrupt the continuity of crop. — A plant kept too long in the same field is not assisted by frequent repetition, or quantity, of manure. It must have a change. Gorging with dung, is as little benefir cial to a plant, as overabundant food to an individual, cursed with a canine appetite. He eats much — digests little — and dies. If there is any exception, it is grass ;
Observations on Colonel Taylor^s Letter. 69
which, however, is always changing its species on the oldest leys, in whole or in part.*
I see Mr. T. does not approve of exposure of sur- face, even in winter. I have read and heard much, in the dispute between the fallowists and anti fallowists. The results, in my mind, have been much like many of our public disputes. You end with as little conviction as you begin. From long and reiterated practice for
* What TuWs drill husbandry may prove against this long indulged, though not singular opinion, I cannot say. The drill husbandry is much in vogue again in England ; though Tull had been long, as sailors term it— under the weather. — I con- tend not for dogmas or theories. But I speak from uniform observation as to myself^ without impeaching the experience or judgment of others. TuU's ideas were, that, by frequent stirring and culture and changing his drills, he could success- fully cultivate the same plant, in the same field, for any length of time with little or no manure. There seems a fashion in husbandry, as in all other human aifairs. It will be seen that a Mr. Gregg, hereafter mentioned, succeeded in reversing the culture which had been used on his farm, for half a cen- tury. 'Tis not unlikely that when he passes away, somebody will reverse his practice. It is not surprising that in smaller operations such vicissitudes should occur. In naval tactics, magna componere parvis^ Mr. Gregg's countrymen succeed by breaking the line^ [their own first and then that of their enemy,] though many old victories were gained, when it was the fashion to keep it compact. Their too successful antagonist wins, and desolates, ^eA/s, regardless of the labours of the husbandman, by reversing, or despising, all the tactics, which had given to preceding conquerors, what was once considered, deathless fame. R. P.
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70 Observations on Colonel Taylor's Letter.
more than 40 years, I have invariably found fall and winter ploughing, and exposure to the winter frosts, and temperature, with all its vicissitudes, most salutary and profitable to all succeeding crops. To Indian corn most strikingly. In the season of winter the earth, which is more the place of deposit and store-house for the food of plants, than the nourishment and support of them in itself, receives every thing and parts with nothing. Even, summer Jallowing for killing weeds, and opening mouths to receive the nutriment for future crops from the air, if the stirring be frequent, is highly beneficial ;— though I have met with some facts which have staggered me on that point. In England, I believe, the fallowists have the majority on their side. I nevertheless, believe in all that can be said about permanent and long cover ; and in the efficacy of covering crops. I have wrote too, much now, to allow me time to give what I conceive reasons for such opinions ; nor do I deny that there are some soils, which may afford exceptions. You know I do not deal in paradoxes, or fine spun theories ; howe- ver these may appear. The practice of fall ploughing is here approved by all intelligent practical men.
The best way for colonel T. would be to try a few acres ; and not speculate about it ;* not in wet clay soil
* « Not in wet clay soil.''— I did not mean to sav, that, in such ground, fall and winter ploughing should be excluded. Nothing can be better if well managed ; and the field thrown up in narrow ridges, to dry and drain. I have known plais- ter succeed on clay, when thus freed from moisture. This kind of soil has a tendency to consolidate, and bake, or harden into a crust, on the suriace. And the more so, if ploughed
Observations on Colonel Taylor's Letter. 71
- ■ ■ " ' I" - ■ . . ■ .. , , .
-—One trial may not be enough, he will discover rea-
in Broad and flat lands. Frequent ploughing does not seem always to answer on this, as well as on lighter soils, unless it be ridged, and thrown up to drain. I feared that, in the first essay^ the proper mode would not he adopted. It is on this soil only, in this country, that fresh dung, can be recommended, if it be in any case preferable. Arthur Toung, in his address to the British board of agriculture, (1809,) speaks in strong terms of approbation, of the practice of ap- plying fresh dung ; and quotes the authority of professor Davy, for its great and important efficacy, chemically consi- dered. It would be well to make experiments on all soils ; and obtain facts and results. For myself, I can answer, that on light soils, I have tried it repeatedly, with evident disad- vantage, though I am not a friend, to over-rotted dung.
There is a communication from Thomas Gregg Esq. to the British board of agriculture. May 20th, 1809, of his mode of managing a farm of 240 acres : of h'eavy, wet clay land, in Hertfordshire, England. It is well worthy the attention of our farmers on such lands. Though his husbandry is on the drill system, which we are not in the habit of practising, vet much of his management might be profitably introduced. — He ploughs but once in the year. And that in the autumn and winter; and theji ploughs in his dung, which remains undisturbed by the plough, (his allowance ten loads to the acre,) and therefore, he says, a less quantity has more effici- ency. The surface is kept clean, friable, stirred throughout, and free from baking, by the scarifier and harrow, which prepare for, and cover all his ctops ; which, where they are of simi- lar grain, are not greater, to the acre, than our own, with good farming. Of the instrunients, plates are given. The scarifier is not unlike my cleaning harrows ; but more adapted to his use. Mine are for lighter work, in loamy soils, with only one wheel, in the beams by which they are drawn, to regulate
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72 Observations on Colonel Taylor's Letter.
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sons, by facts. And no one can turn them to better ac-
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depths. I can multiply or diminish the number of hoes at pleasure ; and work them at two, three, or six inches deep. I have them with three, and as far as twelve hoes, of differ- ent sizes, to stir from two to three and four feet in breadth. Of Mr. Gregg's crops, there is a constant succession, so that his ground is never naked, and exposed to exhalation and exhaustion, by the sun. Before ploughing, he uses a marker to trace, or lay out his field ; so as to be ploughed in five and a half feet ridges, with a drain between them. His whole admirable economy, rotations, and changes of crops are de- tailed. He has cleared annually, ^1117 ll*. Sterling on an average of six years : whereas it had cleared before his taking the farm only ^ 230, annually. He reversed all the old regime of this farm, under which it had been managed for 50 years. Including £, 240 rent, his annual expence is £^ 1 367 9^. Ster- ling; S6071 48 cents of our money, which would buy here
a good farm.
But it is well worth the notice 6f an American farmer, if he should complain (as is often the case) of his public bur- thens—that Mr. Gregg' stixht is ^72, his poor rate, £^^0,ziid his highway duty, only ^ 6— being an annual incumbrance, beside imperceptible taxes of ^ 138 Sterling,=613 dollars of
our money And tithe, poor rate, and highway charges were
the same,' when the produce and profits, were at the lowest rates. Their turnpikes and canals, very numerous, supersede the necessity of high road taxes. An example which is lauda- bly operating on us.
English farming requires to be in a superior style, to afford its annual burthens. But these stimulate exertion, and call forth the powers of the mind, as well as corporeal employ- ment. I wish no such stimulants here ; though of taxes for the poor fairly entitled to public support, and for making and repairing roads, if justly applied, no complaint should ever
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Observations on Colonel Taylofs Letter, 73
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count ; I wish I could get such a person as Colonel T. to establish in his own domain ^X\1kt pattern farm; where he could (as he would) pursuj^on a small scale, the best systems of neat and improve^usbandry. This would be a school and example, for his own benefit, and great amusement ; as well as for imitation by his neigh-
be made. It is probably, however, owing to the ease with which our wants are well supplied, and a competence obtain- ed, and, of course, so few paupers, and all taxes light, that our agriculture is not better. We do not feel that necessity, which is not only the spur to exertion, but, according to the trite adage, the mother of invention : we are assuredly ad- vancing, commendably and profitably, in most branches of our husbandry. Long may we continue to possess the salutary and substantial enjoyments derived from it ! Obtained, 'tis true, by an inferior style of cultivation and economy ; but without the painful feelings, which not only the amount, but the subjects, of two of these heavy annual contributions, would excite.-— Not because the ministers of religion should be des- titute of decorous and plentiful support ; or the poor be com- fortless, or ill supplied. But because we are accustomed to choose our own pastors ; and take our own modes of support- ing Mem and no others. We have not the numbers of poor, iij proportion to population, to demand such contributions, or af- flict our sympathies. Wars, either of necessity or ambition, or too extensive manufactures, have not yet withdrawn our people from extending the cultivation of our soil, however in artificially ; nor most deplorably increased, the numbei's on our poor list. Should it ever happen that these consequences attend manufactures, it will be a warning that they are car- ried too far.
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R. Peters.
VOL. II.
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74 Observations on Colonel Taylorh Letter.
hours- His slaves might here be taught, by selections ; and when taugW turned on his common farms, im- proved in themsejpes, and exemplary to others. But the southern gentlemen object to mixing slaves of different habits together. It has I believe, never been systema- ticiilly tried.
Yours very truly,
Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease.
I think the magotty bay bean operates like Mr. Taylor's bird-foot clover, in some respects. It fertilizes by cover, and rotting down its vegetation continually. It seeds plentifully ; and renews itself constantly. For light sandy soils it has been much used in Maryland ; and elsewhere. But it is only fit to prepare for grain crops ; which it wonderfuUy assists. It excludes clover and other grasses, by keeping the sole posses^ sion of any ground it once fully occupies. Demg a legume, it docs not exhaust. We have tried it some years ago ; but disliked it, as being injurious to the clover system. Cattle and sheep feed on it : and it is good where nothing better is to be had. It grows on light and barren soils, where better products wiU not thrive.
C 75 ]
On Gypsum. Read June ISth, 1809.
Firginiuj Port Royal February lOth^ 1810.
Dear Sir^
Both Judge Peters and yourself have mistaken my experiment, respecting a field in corn, and another in bird-foot clover, owing no doubt to the obscurity of my language. These fields are not permanently occupied by either plant, but alternately by both. One field pro- duces a crop of corn, and the other being enclosed, re- ceives the benefit of a crop of ungrazed vegetable mat- ter. The succeeding year the ungrazed field is taxed with the crop of corn, and the com field fed with the ungrazed vegetable. Both fields receive annually a bushel of plaister to the acre ; in one it is sown upon the bird-foot clover in March or April, and in the other ploughed in at its fallow. The object is to ascertain whether an annual bushel of plaister to an acre, com- bined with a biennial relinquishment to the soil of its natural vegetable product, will enable it to be severely cropt every other year without impoverishment, or with an addition to its fertility. The first effect would suffice to check an evil, every where demonstrating the wretch- ed state of our agriculture ; the second would be a cheap and expeditious mode of improving the soil, even where the state of agriculture is good. If doubts had not been again excited by the seasonableness of the last year as to rain, my convictions would have been settled
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On Gypsum,
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both as to this experiment, and also as to the efficacy of plaister. The trial corn field produced double its cus- tomary crop. Near 300 acres in corn on my farm, not twenty of which were manured, almost averaged thirty bushels. A double crop also. But 1 shall record and transmit to you the result of a more complete trial. In the mean time, Mr. Roberts's experiment* so accurately accords with my observations and hopes, that it affords me much encouragement.
The progress you are making in the improvement of sheep, is at present the first object of public interest, but it will not be speedily, if at all, that the country below the mountains south of the Susquehannah will rival you. We have here neither buyers nor manufacturers of wool, (the household excepted) of any moment. Its usual price is about 17 cents, and we cannot grow it in our dry climate on exhausted lands, at less than double the price you can afford it at. These considerations shew you that success does not yet appear to us through the magnifying end of the telescope.
The perusal of Judge Peters's letter has afforded me
great pleasure.
Of sundry suggestions in his letter I shall certainly avail myself. As to a few, my doubts remain. The maxim "the more cattle, the more grass" may be thus conjugated. " Cattle produce grass— grass produ- ces cattle — and cattle will subsist men ; and so the sys-
^ A mode pursued by Job Roberts, on a particular worn out field, had been stated to Mr. Taylor.-— See Robert's Penn- sylvania Farmer, page 208.
J. M.
t.'WTi^'-y. .-vr bji ' »J»!
On Gypsum.
77
tern of Malthus is overturned, more easily than the sys- tem of Malthus overturned the system of Godwin." " The heavier the crop no matter qfw/iat, the richer the land is left, though the crop is taken offJ^'^ From this fact stated by judge Peters, I infer, " that the heavier the crop, no matter ofwhat^ the richer the land is left, if the crop is not taken q^" If a heavy crop of weeds or crab grass (no matter of what) would leave the land richer though taken off, it will I suppose enrich it still more, when restored to the earth. By the fertility of the surface of the earth of uncultivated countries, and of long enclosed spots, our attention is drawn, to vege- table matter. The famous experiment of the willow, with many others, proves that vegetables draw much of their food from air and water. Whatever of these tran- sient elements, vegetables can catch and bestow on the earth, elaborated into a durable manure, seems to me to be a particular acquisition drawn from an inexhaustible treasury. It is however, not the small neat husbandry of which the judge is so justly enamoured, and which may be preferable in well peopled regions, but one cal- culated to improve a great space of worn out land slow- ly and at small expence. Weeds and grasses of all kinds undoubtedly injure the crops with which they grow, yet we sow clover with wheat. In seasons favourable to its growth, I have seen it injure wheat materially. It is for the purpose of replenishing the earth v/ith vegetable matter that we do this. The stubble and roots, the litter it produces or saves when fed away (such as straw and stalks) conspire to furnish the recruiting pabulum. Weeds and grasses of all kinds left on the surface or ploughed in, like wheat straw, are supposed by the en-
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On Gypsum.
dosing system to afford this pabulum ; nor will they prevent a clean cxilture, if their vegetating periods are attended to. Is it certain that an annual plant sprouting late in the spring/artd suddenly covering the earth after wheat is reaped, may not be made as useful as a peren- nial one ?
The object of a pattern farm mentioned by Judge Peters, is the exact object to which I am aspiring ; but it is pursued rather on a large than a small scale, be- cause it is necessary to combine considerable profit with the experiment, for the subsistence of my family ; to face the objection that my system is fit only to create a pretty garden at great expence ; and to allure men by exhibiting the most powerful temptation in my own ac- tual success to imitate the example. A draining expe- riment upon the point of being finished, will soon deve- lope it in all its parts, and if it should then satisfy my own judgment, and meet with the approbation of others, I will give you the best account I can of such items as may be embraced by the design of the society.
I am very respectfully. Sir,
Yoitr most obedient servant,
John Taylor.
Dr. James Mease.
C 1^ 1
On Fruit and Fruit Trees. Read June 13th, 1809.
Stockport y Wayne County^ April 5 thy 1809- For the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agricul- ture ifc.
Gentlemen^
It is with pleasure that I see your publication* of the 21st, last Month, requesting answers to sundry queries respecting the cultivation of fruit trees.
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* The following publication is alluded to :
The agricultural society of Philadelphia, desirous to collect facts on the subject of fruit and fruit treeSj will be much obliged by answers to any or all of the following queries. As their object is to obtain and promulgate information relative to fruit and fruit trees, the best adapted to our climate and circumstances, they hope those of their fellow citizens, who have experience in their culture, will favour them with their assistance in a design of general utility.
1. What kind of fruits are the greatest and most certain
l)earers ?
2. Which are those coming soonest to perfection, and times of blooming and ripening of those within your knowledge ?
3. Which are the hardiest, and most easily propagated ; and the different modes of culture ; and the times and man- ner of planting and propagating, both as respects season and state of sap ?
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On Fruit and Fruit Trees
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And as you justly observe, it is not expected that one individual may be able to answer all the queries ; per- haps it may also on the other hand be difficult to pro-
4. \yhat enemies assail fruits, and modes of destroying them, or guards against them ?
5. Modes of recovering decayed trees, which are most sub- ject to. injury, and the best means of preventing diseases or
decay? . .
6 What soils, and what manures or dressmgs are proper
for the respective kinds of fruit trees, and their proper as- pects : in what situations do they thrive most, and what are
jreneral causes of injury or decay ? , , . ^ . .
7. What trees require the tree-knife, and which are best
left entirely to nature ?
8. What fruits will bear gathering before maturity, so as to ripen in the house, or under other cover , and the best mode of preserving ripe fruit for use ?
9. What insects or vermin are enemies to fruit, and the
means of repelling, or destroying them?
10. How long since the bitter-rot first seized the Vandever,
and house apples ? Is there any mode of prevention, or has situation or soil any influence on the disease ?
11. Apples generally fell off the trees in great numbers be- fore maturitv, last autumn near Philadelphia. In many no mark of decay appealed. What is the cause of this early fal- ling and what the means of prevention ? .,■.„.
It not being expected that any individual w.11 be ena- abled to answer all these queries, it will be seen that U is left to each correspondent who will be pleased to attend to them, to give information as to that species within his knowledge. Communications to the secretaiy of the society will be grate- fully received.
On Fruit and Fruit Trees.
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pose queries, the answers to which, would include all the useful information the subject Would admit. . For upwards of the last 30 years, of my life, I have taken great pleasure in paying attention to the raising of fruit trees ; and if any observations that I have been able to make, prove of service to my fellow citizens, I shall have a pleasure in communicating them.
I shall not attempt a regular answer to your queries ; yet pay some regard to your arrangement, Confining myself principally to the apple tree.
I consider the apple the greatest and most certaitl kind to bear ; yet not raised so soon as a peach tree by perhaps 10 years^ before they produce much fruit.
I consider apples under all their varieties, the length of time they may be preserved, and the many uses made of them, not only the most valuable of all our kind of fruits ; but perhaps of more real value to the people in geperal than all the other fruits.
The apple is the hardiest kmd of fruit tree, and the easiest raised of any that I am acquainted with ; yet perhaps they require the most time to raise.
I have planted several orchards, and have not expe- rienced any material difference in my success as to their growing well; whether planted in the fall or spring, or at any time in the winter, provided there is no frost in the ground : I believe any time when there are no leaves on the young trees, will answer equally well to plant them.
This idea of transplanting fruit trees at any time when they are destitute of leaves, is not an original dis- covery of mine ; but was communicated to me by letr
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On Fruit and Fruit Trees,
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ter, many years ago by the learned and ingenious Chari" cellor Livingston.
The greatest enemy to fruit trees in this part of the country^ is the catterpillar. My mode of destroying them is to go early in the morning, and twist their nests out of the trees with a stick or pole, which I find is readily done ; and that it is negligence or rather laziness in a farmer, to suffer his orchard to be much hurt by catter-,
pillars.
The loose gravelly soil.l consider from all my observa- tions, best suited for an apple orchard ; and that a high ^ixidainj situation produces the largest fairest fruit.— A north aspect is most secure from the late frosts in the spring, as the trees do not come forward so early.
The best manure that I have experienced for the ap- pie tree, is horse dung arid litter, to keep the ground round the tree loose, and free from sod.
I generally prune all my kinds of fruit trees: whether
any kinds answer better without, I have not experienced.
I have been acquainted with the bitter-rot in f^ande-
vers, and some other apples for at least 40 years, and
have endeavoured to discover the cause and prevention,
. which I considered that I had done, as follows.
1 had observed that rot to prevail most in wet damp seasons, and on trees with the thickest closest tops and least exposed to a free air.
I considered it a kind of mildew or mould, that pene- tratcd the skin of some kinds of apples more than others ; as I have discovered on the skin of other kinds of apples fwhen that rot prevailed J large black spots.
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On Fruit and Fruit Trees.
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If such was the real cause, then perhaps the pruning the trees, or raising them in dry airy situations, would be of advantage.
But about this time last year, two very intelligent gentlemen from near Boston, lodged at my house and among other topicks of conversation, those of or- chards and the bitter-rot were introduced. — One of them informed me^ that he had discovered '' the true cause of the bitter-rot, and a safe and easy mode to pre- vent it; — that it was occasioned by a certain kind of a worm on the body of the tree, between the wood and the bark ; and that a safe and easy mode was to peal all the bark off the bodies of the trees, on the longest day in the year ; which he said he had frequently done : that it did not kill or injure the trees, but that they grew much better for it ; — and that it effectually prevented the bitter-rot."
I was surprised at this account, as I had no idea of a tree living with the bark peeled off, in the hot dry sea- son, yet they appeared worthy of credit.
Therefore I resolved to sacrifice one tree to the expe- riment, and on the 20th day of last June, about one o'clock, in hot clear weather, I pealed a tree on which there were apples, and had been subject to the bitter-rot. I took all the bark off from the roots to up among the limbs, fully expecting in two days to see it withered and dead, — between the wood and bark I found many of those worms, and discovered that there was a pulp ov glutinous substance whxoh had grown that year between the wood and the bark, and adhered to the wood. I went faithfully every day to see my tree wither, but was dis- appointed ; it appeared to grow and thri\'e the better,
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On Fruit and Fruit Trees.
and this glutinous substance to harden, and has since grown into a perfect barky the apples hung on as the other trees, and no bitter ^rot on them as had been some years before.
I relate the facts as they are, and hope that others of more knowledge and judgment, may improve on the experiment. I intend myself to make further trials.
These facts I communicated in a letter to my wor- thy and ingenious friend Doctor B. S. Barton, and gave it as my opinion, that the annual growth of the tree at that season is of such an age, as to be in an optional state to either form wood or bark, as the necessity of the tree may require ; how much earlier the operation ought to be performed in more southern climates, must be tested by experience.*
I have lost several good trees by those worms ; — they first kill the bark, then a speedy rot takes place in the wood, and they blow down with storms : and according to my observations, all trees in a declining state are much more subject to the bitter-rot, than those in a more flourishing condition.
Some experiments and observations I have made m regard to raising orchards and preserving of apples, I presume may prove worthy the attention of the public. The common practice in raising apple trees is to graft or inoculate them when small in the nursery near the ground : this does not appear to my experience to be the best way, as I have two large orchards of trees raised in that way, bearing the best kinds of fruit, and
* See Medical Repository ol New-York, vols. 3d, and 4th,
for an account of the utility of barking fruit trees.
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On Fruit and Fruit Trees.
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I observe that such trees only bear fruit every other year ; and then generally more full and heavily loaded, than the natural strength or substance of the tree can bring to full size and maturity ; and such trees when so heavily loaded, are subject to split and break down in
storms.
The next year the orchard if ever so large, produces very little fruit ; — the trees appear to be exhausted, and on the decline ; — too great a load of apples also inclines them to the bitter-rot and other defects.
I have found it by experience to be a much better way, to let my trees grow in the nursery and plant them out as natural fruit ; — then when they begin to bear, I go round in the fall and mark such as I disapprove of the fruit, and graft them in the limbs the next spring ; and such are the best and most steady bearing trees that I have : they produce a reasonable equal quantity of ap- pies every year, and much larger and fairer than such trees of the same kind of apple, that irregularly bear every other year.
Another advantage by this mode is, that we are still obtaining some new valuable kinds of apples, and when we graft them regularly in the nursery, perhaps often cut off as good or better fruit than we place on.
All our very best kinds of grafted fruits were origi- nally natural, and perhaps if this mode was more gene- rally pursued, many more new and valuable kinds would be discovered.
Perhaps one of the very finest and most useful apples that we now have, is the New England seek no further (so called;) the original tree I am informed, grew up in
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On Fruit and Fruit Trees.
On Fruit and Fruit Trees.
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a fence row, and first began to bear during the Ameri- can revolution.
The best mode that I have experienced to preserve winter apples, is to let them hang on the trees as long as safe from frosts ; in that time such as are most for- ward to rot will have generally fallen off ; then to gather them carefully without bruising, and spread them for some days, to dry thoroughly, in an airy chamber : — then carefully assort and pack them in casks in a cellar, where they will not freeze :— in the spring after the freezing weather is past, spread them agaui in the cham- ber, and let them have plenty of air ; during the time the apple trees arc in blossom, they will rot abundantly more than at any other ; and must often be carefully assorted and spread very thin : such as survive this their pro- bationary period, until after the fall of the blossoms, in- dine to wither a little, and keep without much more
rotting. ,,
' I have had some of my finest and largest New Eng^ land seek no furthers, sound and delicious on the 15th of September ; — at which time the same trees on which thev grew, were again loaded with another crop of the same kind of apples, sufficiently grown and matured
for common use.
Thus with care and attention, the American farmer
may supply his family with green apples every day in
the year. — I have done it on this farm, where about 20
years ago, 1 cut down the first tree.— Most of the farms
. through the country, abound with 'great numbers of
' scrubby natural apple trees around the fences, which
' the owners consider of little value ; were they trimmed
up, and grafted, they would be of great value, and bear
as good fruit in three or four years, as any new trees that would require 10 or 12 years, to raise.
If an accidental discovery which I think I made last spring, upon full experiment, prove as efficacious as it ap^ peared to me, it will be worth a million of money to the union ; it is to prevent the late frosts in the spring from killing the apples when the trees are in blossom.
Last spring I sowed plaister of Paris under some of my apple trees; when in blossom, there came a severe, late frost, that nearly killed all my blossoms, unless ou the trees where I sowed the plaister, and they alone hung full of apples in the autumn.*
It is a well known fact, that plaister has an attractive quality, and draws the moisture out of the atmosphere ; as on grass or grain, where it is sown, there is a much heavier dew, which remains longer in the day than where none has been strewed.
If such is its quality to attract moisture from the at- mosphere, why not the particles of frost from the blos«- soms on the trees ?
I wish to recommend the experiment to all farmers, who wish to preserve their fruit from the danger of late
frosts.
You mention that last season the apples near Phila- delphia fell off* the trees prematurely ; I had not known
* This fact has been observed by others ; moisture will keep off frost, common salt has had this effect, when scattered round trees. A straw rope, with ope end twisted round the fruit tree, and the other immersed in a tub of water, conveys moisture and repels frosts. — See Anderson's Recreations, vol. 1st, and Domestic Encyclopaedia, Am. edit. art. ^'Froat*''
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On Fruit and Fruit Trees.
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before, that the circumstance had been noticed by any person except myself. My apples most generally fell off in the same way before they attained maturity : on ex- amining them, they appeared sound on the outside ; but on cutting them open, there was a dark soft streak in all such as had fallen off, some depth within the skm ; which soon turned to a rot : this led me to gather such as h^ not fallen off the trees, sooner than I otherwise would ; I took all my former precautions to save them through the winter but in vain, they all rotted before spring ; the decay began in the same dark streak below
the skin.
It is a singular circumstance which I have not known before, neither can I account for the cause, unless some- thing singular in the season.— 1 wish to h^ar the sen- timents and observations of gentlemen in different parts of the state, on the subject.
I consider the best mode of raising fruit, particularly apples a primary object for our citizens in general, and as knowledge on the subject can only be obtained from observations and a communication of sentiments from different parts.
I am gentlemen
Your friend respectfully,
Samuel Preston.
Dr. James Mease.
[ 89 ]
On Apple Trees and Grafting.
Read November 9th, 1809.
Stockport JFayne County, August 22c/, 1809.
Respected Friend^
Thy acceptable favour of the 26th June last, came duly to hand ; the various cares of a large harvest, and this very uncommonly wet season, hath diverted my at- tention from a more timely answer.
My only object in corresponding on the subject at this advanced period of a laborious life, is to endeavour to afford some hints and observations to be improved upon by others, for public benefit.
American agriculture I consider as yet in the cradle : and perhaps horticulture or the raising trees hath been the branch most neglected, although deemed an honour- able study amongst the ancients : we read that king So- lomon when in his greatest wisdom and glory, " spake of trees from the cedars of Lebanon, to the hysop that springeth out of the wall."
Chronologists suppose Homer to have been much older than Solomon, and in the most beautiful episode of all his works, when Ulysses went to make himself known to his father. Homer describes the venerable old king Laertes, busily employed in cultivating his trees. The fertile genius of Homer on this occasion, had a free and full choice of all kinds of employment for the ancient
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On Apple Trees and Grafting.
king. Yet he chose the cultivating of fruit trees as most
honourable.
Then why is the subject so much neglected in our young and rising empire ; the sinews and wealth, if not support thereof, is agriculture or cultivating our mother earth, and such was the first employment of original
man.
I consider that he who raises a valuable fruit tree for
the benefit and repast of succeeding ages, erects an ho- nourable mausoleum to his memory.
I am free to say, that I fully believe the apple tree to have been a native of America, well knovm and used by the Indians before the discovery of Columbus : this idea may perhaps be new to many, and I think worthy of the most accurate investigation ; and perhaps in this age since the decease of the original settlers, may be more difficult to ascertain : the longer therefore the subject is ^ delayed, the greater the difficulty, and I feel a kind of American desire, to have it fully investigated before our present more aged citizens depart.
I wish to give a candid statement of facts that have come to my knowledge, to shew why I have formed the opinion of the apple tree being a real native of America. I was bom and bred in Bucks county in this state, and almost fifty years ago, I remember the far famed Townsend apple tree ;— it was then by far much larger in diameter, height, its limbs extended further than any apple tree that I have ever seen : — at the time of my acquaintance with it I was young, and used to pass near it when going to mill, as it stood alone in a field.
Perhaps it is now n^ar. 40 years since I saw that tree, in which time so many objects have floated in succes-
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On Apple Trees and Grafting.
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sion before my mind, that I cannot rely on my memory to give an accurate account of its dimensions : but think from the best of my recollection, that it must have been upwards of four feet in diameter; the quantity of apples it bore, was enormous, perhaps too incredible to relate ; it stood on a high airy situation, and in a light poor stony soil: which I consider most favourable to the Ion- gevity of the apple tree : the size and colour of the ap- ples nearly resemble the vandever ;— they are neither sweet nor sour, but of a most delicious rich taste and high flavour ; easy to bake or cook ; they ripen in a pe- cu'liar manner, some very early, and then drop off; while others succeed them, and at my father's, we have kept some of the later growth until apples came again,
the next summer.
The proprieter of this valuable and useful curiosity, was one Stephen Townsend, an aged amiable and bene- volent man ; the tree stood near a public road, and all travellers had free access: I remember hearing him say, that when his grandfather first took up that place, it was a very large apple tree standing in an Indian clearing : his grandfather was Richard Townsend, mentioned in Robert Proud'' s history of Pennsylvania.
I also remember when very young, to have heard some of the most aged respectable, and informed people the neighbourhood afforded, say, that tree must be much older than Columbus : that was before I knew the meaning of Columbus ; the proprietor Stephen Town- senrf freely permitted access to his tree ; by all descrip- tions of people : and it was most highly esteemed, more particularly by the friendly Indians, many families of
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On Apple Trees and Grafting.
On Apple Trees and Grafting.
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whom then lived in the neighbourhood ; they used aU to frequent it and carry off blankets full of apples.
A very aged Squaw amongst them who from senio- rity was deemed either their priestess or queen^ quite gray headed, and who pretended to remember William Penn, used to say, that when the Indians sold their land they did not sell their good old apple tree, therefore they claimed the apples, and had no opposition from the pro- prietor ; the Indians almost worshipped that tree, and I remember hearing the aged squaw say, that when the *^ Great Spirit made that apple tree for poor Indians, he made the apples ripe all summer ;" — they had a tra- dition amongst them, that the tree was older than the J^uropean settlement, and I am fully inclined to believe their ideas correct : — ^sometime past I was informed by a friend of mine living near where the tree stood, that it became hollow, and hath been dead and gone for some years past ; my worthy father taught me before seven years old to graft an apple tree, which art I have practised very largely, being the only person within 50 miles round that understood it, and have taught it to many people in this country.
The first pence I ever earned when young, was by grafting apple trees for our neighbours ; I then took grafts off the far famed Townsend tree : since I raised trees in this country from the seeds and began to graft, my greatest desire was to obtain grafts of that kind. I therefore wrote to a much younger brother living in the neighbourhood to make all diligent enquiry through the neighbourhood for a tree of that kind,. he did so, and found one which the owners assured him was the real kind, yet it was on the decline. This confirms me in thy
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idea, that a graft from an old tree makes d short lived tree. However late in the season, he sent me some cions, and I proceeded next day to graft them, all of which grew and are yet growing ; they have for several years borne apples, and are the genuine ancient Town- send apple. I graft from them every year, and had in- tended to do it before I received thy kind information, lest that valuable kind of apple should again be in danger of being lost.
My second reason for thinking the apple grew spon- taneously in America, is, that the next largest apple trees that I ever saw in my travels, was on the old In- dian settlements in Menesink above the blue mountains, viz. at Nicholas Depuis, Paquarry, Shappanacky and se- veral other old towns.
John Lukensy the former surveyor general, under whom I acted as deputy, near the latter part of his time, made an enquiry of me respecting the large old apple trees in Menesink opposite DepuVs large island, and I well remember, he said, that when a small boy, he ac- companied Nicholas Scull there to make the first sur- veys above the mountain : — and that Nicholas Scull ad- mired the very large and ancient apple trees, and then gave it as his opinion that they were much older than the European settlements, as there were none in all the vicinity of Philadelphia near their age or size.
The observations of men of such sense and under- standing as Nicholas Scull and John Lukens, are cer- tainly worthy of weight.
I also remember that Nicholas Depuis Esquire dc- ceased, the former proprietor of those ancient trees, ex- pressed to me as his opinion, that the native Indians
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On Apple Trees and Grafting.
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must certainly have understood either grafting or ino- culation, long before the white people came among them ;— as seven of the largest and oldest trees on his farm standing compact together, all bore the same kind of apple ; and he then considered those trees far older than the European settlement of America.— I well re- member the kind of apple : they were very excellent, a large long red delicious winter apple ;— I believe that those trees are now all decayed and gone.
Another reason why I consider the apple tree spon- taneous to this country, is, I have seen apple trees said to have been imported from Europe, by the first set- tlers, not as large or of as old appearance as those men- tioned, by several generations of trees.
As I have had great experience in crown graftings and consider it far the most valuable mode of propaga- tion, I will offer a few remarks.
The season I prefer, is late in the spring, but before the sap starts to loosen the bark, yet I have several times practised it with success, after the trees were fully oreen : but in that case, care is required not to loosen
the bark.
In regard to binding up my graft, I us^ nothing but simple potter's clay, well worked, of which I put on plenty, and endeavour to press it round the stock below the split, so as to be water tight and retain all the sap that issues from the stock to nourish the graft.
The stocks often split rough or with a twist; my prac- tice is to shave them out smooth with the point of a knife, that the sides thereof and the graft may make a joint.
On Apple Trees and Grafting.
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In cutting grafts off a tree, I prefer taking one only of each limb, that is that I may have the bilge or joint between the two years growths, to shave and set in the stock ; — that bilge is curly and porous, more readily catches the sap from the stock, and I find by experience will grow more the first season than any other graft taken from that limb ; if there is no such bilge or joint on my graft, I shave it with a bud outward, that there may be a crook in the sap of the graft, more certainly to catch the sap of the stock : by observing these simple natural rules, I have set in one season upwards of 400 grafts, and not had more than two to fail ; — and have also readily instructed many people ignorant of the business.
In grafting peaches, cherries or plumbs, in all which the outside bark of the stock runs round, there is another caution necessary in the splitting the stock, or the bark will tear rough and the graft die ; that is, to enter the knife in the top of the stock, so far as to just strain the bark but not to tear it, I then take the sharp point of another knife, and split the bark down on each side the stock, just where I expect the stock to split, then pro- ceed exactly as for the apple, and I find them to grow equally certain and well : — my apple grafts set in the limbs of trees generally bear the third year ; I have several times for experiment taken grafts at same time, off bearing trees, and off grafts that had been set the year before of the same kind of fruit, and grafted them the same day in different limbs of the same tree, and cannot discover any difference in their time of bear- ing ; — yet some kinds of fruit do not bear as early as others.
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On Apple Trees and Grafting.
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The best time or mode of cutting or transporting of grafts a great distance, is a subject worthy investigation: I have made a variety of experiments, and the result ra- ther bewilders me than otherwise, I will relate some facts and desire further information from those of more knowledge and experience.
1st. I have frequently had apple grafts sent to me during the winter, from different parts of New England ; my practice hath been on receiving them, to lay them on the earthern floor of the cellar.-cover them with earth until grafting time, and they have always grown
well. , , •
2d. Some years ago, I received in the latter part
of winter, some plumb grafts (from Esopus) that had
actually been imported from HoUand ; they appeared
perfectly dry and dead ;-I buried them in the cellar,
grafted them in the spring, and they all grew, and bore
fruit the third year.
3d. Several years ago I was from home, and calling to see an acquaintance, he informed me, that he had some grafts in his nursery of the French pommeroi or king apple, which an acquaintance of his m Rhode Island had imported from the south of France; I was anxious to obtain a cutting; it was then the 15th day of September and dry warm weather, he gave mc a twig, about nine inches long in full leaf ; I returned home two days journey, with it in my pocket ; when I reached home it was withered, I laid it on the grass in my gar- den, and turned a sod over it; there it lay until grafting time, 1 then took it out, cut it into six short pieces, set them, and they all lived and bore fruit the third year.
On Apple Trees and Grafting,
97
4th. I was in Lancaster about the 10th October, and obtained some valuable cuttings from my friend Timo- thy Matlack Esqr. I took them home carefully, and laid them under a sod, as I had done the pomme roi : at graft* ing time I took them up, they all appeared rotten in the bark, and I could not prevail on one to grow.
5th. The grafts of my Townsend apples were cut and sent me in the month of June, after the leaves were nearly of full size; they were withered in conveying up* wards of 130 miles ; I grafted them the latter part of June in trees in full leaf, and yet all grew and are yet
growing.
6th. In June last year, for experiment, after the leaves were about fully grown, I cut off and grafted a large tree in the limbs, taking my grafts out of the orchard also in full leaf : I had 1 1 stocks, and set 22 grafts, of 22 dif- ferent kinds of apple ; and never had grafts to grow better.
7th. About the middle of last March, I was in the city of Albany, and called on my friend Peter Yeates Esquire, for a variety of cuttings from his far famed fruits : he gave them cheerfully, I wrapped them up in the most careful manner, took them home, and buried them in my cellar as formerly ; at grafting time they all appeared to be decaying under the bark, I set them with all possible care, but only succeeded in two apple grafts.
As to this season it hath been the most cold and wet ever known ; attended with heavy fogs and dews ; our grass and oats grew very large ; wheat better than w^ expected : of Indian corn I presume there will be none to ripen, and even plaister of Paris, would not brinff it forward.
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On Apple Trees and Grafting.
My apples are nearly all blasted and fallen off, not with frosts but cold wet rains ; some I observed feU off before others, according as I presume to the delicacy of their constitutions ; my /»omme roi feU first. '
. Those that hung best were the New England ^eeA: no furthers, and the noted Tcmnsend apples; can this be owing to their being natural firuit of the country ?
I am respectfully your friend,
Samuel Preston.*
« Mr. Preston having had great experience in orchards, we give publicity to his inlormation with pleasure. We can- not accord in his conclusion, though the facts of longevity of the old apple trees are curious. The crab apple alone we believe to be a native. There is no trace in our forests of other apples ; which are found always in settlements either of the Indians, or their successors. The peach though called persica, from its being brought from Persia into Europe,-^c believe is also a native of the southern regions of our conti- nent ; where it is found growing wild and spontaneously m great varieties in the forests ; most commonly near streams,
the sea, or great waters. , , u
We by no means make the assertion ; but it would not be a more visionary conjecture, that, if the apples mentioned were not imported by Europeans, they might have been brought from Tartary, or those parts of the other contment from whence our aborigines wandered. The facts are too isolated and few, to draw from them any solid conclusions. The pyrus mains, or apple, as we see it in our orchards, is said, bv botanists, to be an improved variety of the crab or wilding. Accident may have produced some, and careful cul- tivation others, of the 40 or 50 varieties we possess. But that
On Apple Trees and Grafting.
99
N. B. The appearance of the apple trees that I totally stripped of bark last year, is not such this summer as to encourage me in a large practice ; yet they are both growing, have apples on and a new bark, but the leaves are more of a yellow than the other 'trees. I have freely devoted them for a fair experiment, and shall watch
them closelv.
I have seen in a New York newspaper, an imperfect advertisement of a book, teaching a sure and easy mode to make the limbs of the apple tree grow as certain as a tree with roots.
If this discovery hath really been made, I consider it the most valuable of any of the present age.
S. Preston.
such accidents here, or cultivation in the hands of our sava- ges, who have not multiplied instances of skill in that way, in other parts of our continent, have produced the species mentioned by our correspondent, we are not disposed to be- lieve, without farther proois than those he has (not uninterest- ingly) exhibited. There is, nevertheless, no impossibility in the circumstance. We have the crab or wildings in as great plenty, and variety, in its native character, as can be found in any country. Perhaps the novelty of the suggestion, may ope- rate on our doubts. We shall be obliged by information of any other facts, if any there be, on this subject, from other parts of our country.
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Read August, 1809.
Dear Sir,
Agreeably to your request I embrace my first lei- sure of acknowledging your favour of the 2-2d. of Fe- bruary, and replying thereto as the variouis subjects oc- cur. First, you mention plaister of Paris, of which I do not make general use, particularly on my low lands, where I have not found it to succeed. I sometimes use it on my highlands, where it answers tolerably well par- ticularly with clover, though I do not cultivate this crop upon a large scale, yet I have some at each of my farms for the purpose of feeding it, when half cured, to my horses, and other work team, through the summer.
My general rotation of crops is corn and wheat, the latter succeeding the former, on the same field, the size of which varies of course according to the size of the farm, for some of the fields or shifts as they are termed here are four hundred acres, whilst others are no more than one hundred upon the difierent farms, the number of shifts which is generally three, depends in some mea- sure on circumstances and cultivation, as also depends the kind of plough ; of late I have been in the habit of making mixed crops, corn, wheat, tobacco, cotton, oats, rye, pease, beans, &c. I seed from three pecks to a bushel of wheat to an acre, and reap from ten to fifteen bushels, and my com ground produces from three to six barrels per acre, though this again is variable, ac- cording to soU and seasons. I have never yet made any
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accurate estimate of the expence of timber fences, mean- ing sawed post and railing, which I have had for some years back, and I am highly in favour of, for though they come high in the beginning, yet I think them the cheapest in the end, as I suppose with tolerable care, they would last fifteen or twenty years. The staking and wattleing is also an expensive fence, but looks neat, and is of considerable duration, say from six to ten years, when well done with trimmed cedar brush, or cedar poles interwoven on the stakes; which last kind of fence I have of late been in the habit of making.
The cedar succeeds tolerable well here, though we have not yet any live fences in this vicinage. The stock on my farms are, cattle, sheep, and hogs, though the former succeed tolerably well, I think the latter does best. As I generally kill on my estate, from fifty to sixty thousand pounds of pork annually. The hogs are penned, and fed on corn and vegetables, for six or eight weeks before the killing season. We have an abundance of na^ tive manure, in our low ground-marshes, yet such is the routine of my cropping, the extent of the farms, and certain hands appointed to each, I cannot find lei- sure or means to collect it. I make no artificial manure, except what is made by my cattle in farm yards, which I keep highly littered with straw, marsh hay, corn stalks, &c. through the winter, and spring, and during the summer I have moveable pens, in which I put my cattle at night ; these I generally place on my light lands, by which they shortly become equal to those of superior native quality. Our pastures are not sufficiently luxu- riant here to make grazing for market an object ; yet I have always tolerable good grass beef in the fall, which is
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„rely sold, but distributed among my ^vers ^'^"f people: that which comes to my own table ,s stalledfor ffew months, and fed with corn-fodder, (corn blades Z tops,) clover and vegetables. We have but few m- atceiJ the hollow horn here, though --d.tely^ the south side of Rappahannock, there is a d-^emper the nature and origm of which is not yet known, and ^rov s very fatal to cattle. On my plantations generally, work Jses, oxen and mules ; the latter, which I greaUy Pre- fer are by far the most numerous, the oxen that are ^Sd for heavy burthens, are worked with a common yoke and bow; the few that plough work m a coUar^ Ind are geared some what like horses.--! do not drill "yg-nbut generally -er it with the plough, f^ Z!i by the hand hoe, to make a finish; it is general^ 2 in in September amongst the corn as it stands on the fi Id" I flw my land in the fall. When I plant my 11 ; the spring. I plough deep or shallow t^^^^^^^^^^ prefer the former, according to the so.l.-Orchards sue ceed tolerably well here, though I think the peach pre. erable to the'apple for produce.-I have no particu ar defence for either, except to have the trees looked over a«d once a year. I have no doubt but Colonel Trior's mode of recovering his land, by its own nui. ISes may be a good one ; but then he can raise very
little or no stock.
Most respectfully I remain
Your obedient servant,
John Tayloe.
June 5th, 1809. Richard Peters Esc^.
On Virginia Husbandry.
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REMARKS.
With a view to obtain an accurate account of Virgi- nia farming and rural oeconomy, a number of queries, embracing a great variety of subjects, wer^ submitted to Cobnel Tayloe. He has been so obliging as to return, for answer, the foregoing letter. The general husbandry of Virginia, will be tolerably well understood by its pe- rusal. It may be said without any intention to censure, that it i^ much to be regretted, that both the mode and results are not better. Yet we believe those of Colonel Tayloe are among the best in that state. His fall and winter ploughing is highly commendable ; but the In- dian com and wheat together on the same field, cannot be approved. The very limited use of the clover hus- bandry, and the neglect of native manures, are much to be lamented. We are highly gratified to find that the product of the grazing branch of Colonel Tayloe's oeco- nomy is applied, in part, to the comfortable subsistence of his slaves. But, with his ample means, and intelli- gence, a great extent could be given to this profita- ble business ; at less expence of labour and exhaustion of soil, than culture with the plough. He is content with abundance in the aggregate ; though the details might, by subdivisions of immense property into less farms, and among more proprietors, be more profitably and systematically managed. Without any reference to our ideas of slavery, as being contrary to what we conceive right ; it is questionable whether husbandry carried on by numerous slaves, is even profitable, when compared with farming by white labourers. Those who possess the former are under the necessity of accomo-
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dating their systems to existing circumstances The large proprietors of southern lands, are compeUed to Je the best use of the means they have. Bemg no advocates for agrarian laws, and feeling no spmt of m-
tolerance on the subject of -'-^-^: ^ I'^^'^Z southern fellow-citizens, who are slave holders, what- ever may be our opinions on the abstract question, we rejoice in the amelioration we believe now exists in the Jndition of the southern slaves : and we are always .ratified when we find their labour turned to the most profitable uses, by the proprietors of large and extensive farms ; which, under present circumstances could not beTuUivated without them. Substitutes of white labour- ers are impracticable, under the sUte of population m ourlunt^ generally ; as weU as under the local cir- cumstances of the southern districts of our union. .
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On Leeched Ashes as a Manure. By Thomas Netvbold
of New Jersey^ M. C,
Read August 15th, 1809.
fVashingtony June llth 1809^
Sir,
I received yours of the 3d instant, and can assure you my talents as a farmer have been much over.rated. — I will however proceed to answer your several queries as well as I am able. The soil I have used the leeched or drawn ashes on, is a gravelly loam : and so far as 1 have been able to discover, that manure answers best for clover and Indian corn : it also answers very well for wheat and rye ; but is not equal to stable manure for either of the latter crops. I have used ashes generally on an open fallow, put on at the time of seeding, and ploughed in with the seed ; I have put it on after the grain has been sown, with very good success, but prefer the other method. Gypsum will answer little or no pur-* pose to grass on ashed land ; from that circumstance I infer that they partake more or less of the same qua* lities. — I think as near as can be ascertained by the eye, I have taken off of land that had been ashed, and had produced a crop of wheat, and two crops of clover, 35 or 40 bushels of corn per acre, and that without any other help than the single dressing of ashes. The land was so poor before, I am confident it would not have
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produced five bushels per acre— As near as I can guess, I put 150 bushels of ashes to the acre.
With sentiments of esteem, I remam your friend, &c. Thomas Newbold.*
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Dr. James Mease.
* Thankful for all communications, and wishing to collect facts, we enter not into discussions about theories, further than these' facts require support or rectification. The component parts of ashes, and those of the plaister of Paris, are entirely va- riant in their leading characters. But that there is no hostility between the two substances, has been proved by long and re- peated experience. Mr. Newbold may not have succeeded in the application of piaster, to ground on which ashes had been strewed. Yet in general, success has attended this practice, with most people, within our knowledge, invariably. It was confidently asserted, and for a long time believed, in Eng- land, that plaister would not sucseed on limej lands. And 80, until repeated experience had proved the error of both opinions, was it believed, as to ashed fields. But there is no doubt now that plaister operates well, both with lime and ashes, if there is any vegetable or animal matter in the ground for the gypsum to operate upon ;— for, what is the exact cause of its operation is yet a theory.
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On Bees. By S. H. Smithy of Washington.
Read October 9th, 1809*
Dear &>,
At length I have seized an hour to impart to you ouf experience relative to the raising of bees. Living in the country, with very indifferent black ink, I occasionly use red, extracted from poke berry, of which this is a specimen, I am inclined to think it will stand ; and it certainly has the advantage of facilitating the motion of the pen, — to me no small inducement to prefer it.
I am respectfully,
Your friend, Samuel H. Smith.*
Sidney, September 22(/, 1809.
On the 16th of May 1808, a young swarm left an old hive ; we had a hive prepared agreeably to the di- rections of the Encyclopaedia, into which we put them. The new hive (which we will call the first) was placed on a bench below a tree in a court yard full of clover and flowers, and encompassed by a wood. On the 16th of June the new hive sent out a swarm, which was
* The letter and communication written with the extract from the poke, (Phytolacca J is a beautiful red and promises to be permanent. It would be well to obtam, and promulgate the mode of extracting and fixing the colour.
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placed in a hive of the same construction and on the same bench, which we will designate as the second. We examined the first hive by gently raising the hd, and found it completely filled. We then proceeded, accord, ine to the directions of the Encyclopedia, to take ojl the upper box, which was done uith very little mjury to the bees. Had it been done at night, or early m the morning, or had tobacco smoke been previously ap. plied, scarcely a bee would have been killed. We car- ried away the upper box. and in the meantime threw a cloth over the hive, until having emptied the box we replaced it in its original situation on the top of the hiv^. The bees immediately went to work to repair their cells, and clear away the honey which ran down the hive. ' and proved fatal to a great number of them. The box taken out was three inches deep, was filled with white, transparent, delicious honey, not a cell discoloured, and entirely free from young bees, or bee-bread. In the next box below, most of the cells were filled w# voung bees in the chrysalis state ; while the third and lowest box was principally filled with wax, containmg few bees and but little honey. When we left thccountrj-, which was about the last of October, the bees had agam nearly filled the upper box.
A month after the swarming of the first hive, the 1 5th of July, we examined the second, and found h filled from top to bottom, we took off the upper box m the prescribed mode, which by being done at night, freed us from all trouble, only six or seven of the bees bemg destroyed. We were satisfied with finding it filled with honey of equal freshness, purity and whiteness.
On Bees.
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In the former instances, we had accidentally replaced the emptied box on the top of the hive, contrary to the directions of the Encyclopaedia, which require it placed at the bottom, and the remainingboxestaken successive- ly from the top. In this instance, following the instructions of the Encyclopaedia, we ordered the hive to be gently raised from the bench, intending to place the emptied - box beneath it. This was accordingly done, but to our surprize, the whole contents were left on the bench, artd the bees flew away in every direction. We cleared the bench, and re-instated the empty hive in its former con- dition, replacing the empty box on the top, with but faint hopes, however, that the bees would return to it after being thus disturbed and pillaged. But, contrary to our fears, they soon began to collect on the bench, and had the next morning by sun rise, all ascended into the hive, where they were busily at work. A few days after, this hive was stolen, but the thief finding no honey ip it threw it down. In this state we found it the next morning, and the poor bees in a cluster on the grass dose by it. We brought it home and replaced it on the bench, we then spread a white cloth on the ground by the bees, with a piece of honey on it, the bees soon crawled on the cloth, which we took up by its four cor- ners, carried home, and spread on the bench where the hive stood, into which they returned and resumed their
labours.
During the present year we have invariably pursued the same course, always replacing the empty box on the top of the hive, with the like success.
The directions, given in the Encyclopaedia, must have arisen for the want of an accurate obr> , 7vation of
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the (Economy of a hive, which, from the accidental cu-- cumstances stated, the suggestions to which they led, and the interesting nature of the subject itself, we were induced to examine with very minute attention. This instructed us that the bees appropriate the top of the hive exclusively to pure honey, intended probably en- tirely for their food in winter, as they carefully close the cells as they fill them. The middle of the hive is their nursery, which is filled with bees in their various stages from a little maggot at the bottom of the cell, to a large maggot that completely fills it, and to that chang. , ing into the chrysalis state where it is no longer fed. In this state they are shut up, the mouths of the cells be- ing closed with wax, where they remain until they are perfect bees. The change appears to be very gradual ; for we examined at least an hundred cells, and found them from the maggot just shut up. to where the honey, parts of the bee begin to appear, though still white, to ^Ihere the bodies turn to a darker colour, to where the whole body changes ; to where at last the bee is found alive and perfect, but still enclosed. Whether they extri- cate themselves, or whether their prison door is opened bv the older bees is not certain, though from the obser- vations we made, the latter is most probable. In the case stated where the contents of the hive fell out, we found several of the cakes filled with bees, most of which had iust awakened from their chrysalis or torpid state, but were still prisoners. We opened a great many of their cells with a needle but with all our care, we injured the young bee, which so completely filled the cell that the point of a needle found no room. We then thought of laying the comb thus filled, on a dish by the side of the
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hive, which being done, it was soon covered by the old bees. The day being extremely hot, our attention was for some time withdrawn ; but on examining them in the evening, we found the cells all open, and the prison- ers escaped, which leads to the opinion that they were liberated by the old bees.
From these facts it would seem, that the division of the hive into four boxes is useless, the upper box be- ing the only one that contains honey fit for use. Even the removal of this is prejudicial to the bees, as the cut- ting through the comb causes the honey to stream jdown, by which a great number of the bees are drowned. It may here be not improper to mention a method communicated by Mr. Coles, (secretary to the late president U. S.) who says that in the western section of Virginia, where he resides, they raise large quantities of bees ; and that from the peculiar construction of the hives used, they are enabled to take a great deal of honey without disturbing any of the bees, who conse- quently multiply with unusual rapidity. The hive is composed of two boxes ; the lower one is about one foot wide, and three feet high, with a close cover in which there are four holes, one at each corner, large enough for the bees to pass up into the superior box, which is about a foot in every direction, and is without a bottom. Into this the bees ascend, and fill it always once, and sometimes twice during the summer, with pure honey ; while in the lower box they deposit their eggs, rear their young and store their wax. This box is never disturbed except when wax is wanted. The upper box by being carefully slid off, is taken without a single bee, or evw breaking the coml?. These hives are kept
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in a house the door of which is never opened except when honey is wanted. They are placed on shelve, with their litUe doors adjusted to a c°;j^«P°"f '"^ '^'^ ture in the wall of the house, through which the bees
pass.
S* H. S.
September 22rf, 1809.
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Plan for estahlishing a Manufactory of Agricultural Tn^ struments ; and a Warehouse and Repository for re* 'tewing and vending them. By Richard feter^,
I have long seen, and desired to remedy, the defects in the agricultural instruments, in common use throughput our country. If any are found (as many of the common implements are^. either intrinsically good, or OH a valu* able and efficient plan, they are npt easily multiplied, or readily obtained. The workmanship is often faith* lessly performed; and the materials are frequently worthless. If a mechanipk is celebrated for his skill, and and succeeds in the execution of any particular article, he has more demands than he can fairly supply ; and Is, too often, seduced into negligence and forfeiture of (character, by using unseasoned timber and other mte^ rior materials, and slighting his work, to encrease or support his business and profit. And yet, in general, the farming utensils and implements in our state are, as I believe, superior to any others in the United States. Few workmen, with the best inclinations, have opportunities of seeing perfect models ; either of new instruments, or of improvements on those already In use. No manufactory of agricultural instruments ingerip- raly exists ; and much embarrassment, del^y and difS- culty, are found in the collection from various and di3- tant places, and from workmen of various character .wd capacity, of all the implements of husbandry required for even common operations. The inventions of inge^ nious men of our own country, are, for the most part, confined to narrow districts where they are used i m^ VOL. j;. f
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1 14 Manufactory of Agricultural Instruments.
* Manufactory of Agricultural Instruments 115
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many valuable foreign instruments are little known among us. Some are introduced from abroad, and, found complicated, expensive and inapplicable to the state of our agricultural circumstances. The best and most eligible instruments are those on simple princi- ples and construction ; faithfully made and easily re- paired.
I wish to suggest to the society, the following sketch of a plan ; which, if well executed, may be extensively
beneHcial.
1st. ITiat a manufactory of agricultural instruments be estabUshed ; under the patronage of the society.
In this may be made every implement of husbandry for the common, or, if required, extraordinary opera- tions in our agriculture ; on the best plans and con- struction. Those newly invented, or used in foreign countries, if approved on trial, may also be manufac- tured, in addition to those generally known. But none are to be sold without having passed under the inspec- tion of a person or persons appointed by the society ; and stamped as the society shall direct.
2^. A warehouse for the reception and sale of all agri- cultural instruments, made at the manufactory, obtained by the director for sale, or sent there to be disposed of
on commission.
Tliis would draw together every kind of implement worthy of attention ; either imported, made at the ma- nufactory, or in any part of the city, in the towns, or other parts of this state, or the neighbouring states. It will become a highly useful place of exhibition, of every species of farming utensils, and of all articles used on
farms, including those for the dairy, and every branch connected with husbandry : examinations of their con- structions and utility, and inspections of their qualities, may be made by direction of the society, and, if ap- proved, they may be stamped: and thereby recom- mended.
Models may also here be deposited, for inspection
and imitation.
Here, an assortment of every implement wanted, may be at once obtained, and the kind and quality ensured, so far as the society can be reasonably expected to be responsible, with the common care and attention of its members ; who can spare from their necessary voca- tions, only a portion of their time.
It is not intended that the society shall be subject to any losses, or enjoy any profits. A person well recom- mended for his intelligence, integrity and mechanical talents, (but removeable for incompetency or misbe- haviour) must be procured ; who, for his own benefit, will undertake the management and direction of the manufactory, as well as of the collection and sales of all articles. If, added to other requisite qualifications, he has some agricultural knowledge and propensities, his capacity for the employment will be the more per- fect. He may associate with him others, skilled, or ne- cessary, in any branch or branches, if he (as he no doubt will perceive it to be) finds it convenient or proper. But he must be subject to such rules, as shall be mu- tually agreed on. These rules will be calculated only for the credit and usefulness of the establishment ; and he will find it his interest to comply with them. On a for-
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tUnate choice of the person charged with the direction, the success of the plan almost entirely depends.
It may most probably be necessary, that some pecu* hiury assistance (on such terms as circumstances re- quire and justify) should be afforded in the commence* hie.it of the plan.— I'herefore a subscription (either on loiin, contribution to our stock or funds, or in some way most likely to succeed) may be promoted ; so as to ob* tail, from public spirited individuals, a sum not exceed- Jr.g dollars. This is to be applied under
the direction df the society. Every practicable care will be had that it be used faithfully, and employed protit- abU and safely ; and possibly it may be so managed a» to obtain an interest, for the subscribers, Who must, ho* ever, take their risk on this subject ; the society to be only responsible for using their best endeavours. Being novv incorporated, we can more legally and cor- feclly receive, dispose of, and manage, whatever funds- tnay be furnished to us, for the purposes of our insti.
tutioui
This wealthy and flourishing city has become one of extensive and various manufactures, as well as of COmtherce* In the former it is less rivalled, than in the latten The plan herein proposed will add, in no small degree, to its celebrity and advantages, if success at- tends the establishment* The interests of our city, as Well as those of other parts of the state, should induce peCutiiary and other encouragement, even from those not directly engaged m, lor all are consequentially benefitted by, the agricultural improvement, and rural prosperity bf OUf country* 1 hese are the immediate objucts of ouf association. In theu: accomplishment We may enter-
Manufactory of Agricultural Instruments. 1 17
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tain (as all our endeavours are gratuitous, and personally disinterested ! well founded hopes, Of being encouraged and assisted by the patriotism and public spirit of our
fellow-citizens.
Such a manufactory, with its warehouse and reposi. tory, once in operation on an extensive plan, will give employment and profit to numerous workmen of almost every description. It will not be necessary that all these should work in the .manufactory.— They may, in their own work-shops, wheresoever situated, complete in- struments according to models furnished, or agreeably to their own ideas, and send them for sale, or vend them to the director ; so as to afford them a profit, and to him a reasonable advance.
To the Agriculturists of our own, and of every other state (and to those of the southern states particu- larly, where the demand is great, and where few or no instruments of husbandry are made) most important ad- vantages will be derived. They will be certain of finding at one place, a general assortment of the implements they require; and have the mostprobableassuranceof thegood quality and construction, of the articles they order. En- couragement, by extensive demand, will induce fidelity and integrity in the director ; whose emoluments will en- crease and continue so long as he maintains his reputation; as well for the construction, workmanship and materials of the articles he supplies, as for the moderate rates at which they are obtained. And it may rationally be ex- pected, that they can be afforded on the best terms, when the demand warrants the emi^loyment of a capital not iisuaUy within the means of workmen, or dealers on a smaU scale. Among the benefits to be derived from the
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command of capital, the providing the best timber, and waiting for its being seasoned before it is used, as well as the selection of other materials of prime quality and at reasonable prices, are of the first importance. Emu- lation will be created in and forced upon, workmen not connected with the manufactory. They will be under the necessity of attending to the quality of work made and sold by themselves ; or if sent to the warehouse and exhibition rooms for sale, they will be careful that its quality and construction will stand the test of inspec- tion 5 aod entitle it to the stamp of the society. This the laudable pride of some, and the interest of all, will in- duce them to value ; and care should be taken that it be judiciously, as well as impartially applied or with- held.
To the ingenious, industrious and faithful workmen
ofall trades connected with agriculture; and to the in- ventors of, and improvers on, instruments employed in husbandry, the repository for exhibition and sale will be incalculably beneficial.
In whatever light this subject may be viewed, by those who have not paid to it the necessary attention, the profitable extent to which such a plan and establish- ment may be carried, is almost incredibly great. But prudence and necessity warn us, that in its origin the measures should be suited to the means ; which in the outset cannot be expected to be any wise competent to its full perfection. If success and good management attend its progress, its own operations will produce and ensure the means and facilities of enlarging it, to any extent the demand requires. This demand is now pro- digiously great, and is constantly encreasing with the
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population and improvement of our country. Multitu^ dinous bodies seldom succeed in such pursuits ; but this manufactory and warehouse will combine the ad- vantages arising from the countenance, assistance and encouragement, we can afford; and those accruing from private enterprize and industry, stimulated by profit and reward to individual exertion.
Richard Peters, Belmont, July \5th 1809.
The ware room could be made, in addition to its other ^ uses, a place for receiving and distributing all kinds oi grain and seeds^ either sent or procured from other countries, or col- lected in our own. Their diffusion might be effected by sales ; or, when justifiable, gratuitously. All specimens of earths, or any native substances calculated for manures, or other agricul- tural purposes, might therein be exhibited.
The society, not having funds to carry on the plan proposed, hjjve given to it their decided approbation, but could do no more j save that they have promulgated it, for general inform mation. No person has yet dared to carry it into effect. The society know too well the inefficacy of attempts at extensive manufactures, by bodies of naen composed as they ^re, of citi- zens, whose time is indispensibly devoted to their private concerns. Enterprising individuals, assisted by patronage and encouragement, succeed best In such undertakings; when their own emolument stimulates exertion. And the plan is formed, under this view of the subject. It is confidently believed, and earnestly wished, that some person, competent and inge- nious, will e'er long see its advantages, and undertake its
^Ji^ecution*
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Extirpation of fFild Garlick. By Richard Peters,
Read December 11th, 1809.
Belmont, November '29th, 1809.
Sir,
As we have no communication on the subject of de- stroying Garlick, I have copied one, made to our agri- cultural society of Blockley arid Merion, by my very attentive and respectable neighbour, Algernon Roberts. It proves the efficiency of repetitions of plaister of Paris, in addition to the object inducing its being made. " In the spring of 1802, I planted a field of about 15 acres with Indian com ; in the succeeding fall I limed it, with 40 bushels per acre. The following spring (1803) I planted it again with Indian corn. It produced a very poor crop ; which I attributed more to a want of proper cultivation, than any other cause.— The sue ceeding spring ( 1804) I sowed the field with oats. After ' getting off the oats, I ploughed down the stubble, har. rowed well, and sowed the ground with clover seed. The season being very drj', the seed did not take to answer my expectations. I next spring (1805) sowed the field with oats ; and after harrowing in the oats, I sowed two bushels of clover seed, and then rolled the
ground The seed took exceeding well ; and that fall
produced a good crop of pasture. In the spring of 1806, I sowed the field, with 29 bushels of plaister, and it pro-, duced pasture fully to my expectation. In the spring of 1807, I sowed 22 bushels of plaister, and the pasture
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continued much as the preceding season. In the spring of 1808, I omitted sowing it with plaister ; and thought the pasture that season rather declining. I this spring (1809) sowed the field with 30 bushels of plaister ; and find the pasture improved, when compared to last season, I have no doubt many will censure the foregoing, as an execrable rotation ; and as such reject it, My rea# son for adopting it was, that I knew the soil — a gritty gravel — well adapted to clover and plaister j and being much infested with garlick, I determined to try a suc» cession of spring crops, to destroy the garlick ; and the event has fully answered my expectation. The soil be- ing well adapted to clover, it continues to be the pre^ vailing crop ; upon which the plaister has had, and con. tinues yet to have, an exceeding good effect. And this I have found invariably to be the case, as long as clover continues to be the prevailing grass. But in all other cases, when other grasses subdue the clover, I find the application of plaister to be of small effect.'^^ ** August, 1809,^'* >
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VOL. II. Q
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On Wild Garlick
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OBSERVATIONS.
for wheat, is, by very many. ^eUevea t
sowing oats on Lghtsoas, ana P /^^ ,^
diatdy p«cf = »," " h °';e) who will censure Mr. „„n,ber, of those {.f any the- M » ^„^,i„„,.
Roberts's con-ofj^' - » ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^,^„,„ I see not that, for his oojew , ^j
better. There were two ^P' ""l";^" ,'f he had «>B, and four of clover, P'»-«"f * ^J^f^ was in ttt- ^.ploughed every autumn -^^^^^^ ^,, ^een
l^' "•■' "*^' IS a^l "^'advantages wonid 4e sooner accomplished , ano ^^^^
•"-t-dof :S;"r:r;;tS - ptoB--
same kuid ot grain, arc j ^^^ ^^^
But his object was not - ™* '»; '^.^^^^^ ..Wuj agency inthe conquest «f J"'/"''^ „^ ys means
for com, and ^^ ^'^^^^Zt'. -'■'P'- ^^ of destruction of the pest " ^, the ear.
experience '» ^-^f;^- „-; Xt especiaUy if it ly ploughmg m the sprmj,, ^^ ^^,^
^-n^ i^^^Al^^'itl'dt^r.^;. oats h. one benefit intermixea. /- ^,,u:ect— But it is dif-
ficuU to judge of relations ^^^^^ ^^^
concomitant --^^^'^fX^^^^^ bearing on undesignedly and -^J^^ ^^^^^^^^^ , .^op. to pay for the point, omitted. Ihe desire g ^^ ^^
labour and expence immediately, warp
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Remote benefits are seldom contemplated. It is not easy to abandon liabits ; and it seems that bad ones lay the fastest hold. A neighbour (the late Mr. Thomas George) had a field near to both Mr. Roberts and myself in ; which he planted Indian corn, for many successive years. In vain I endeavoured to dissuade him front such injurious repetitions. Com is an exhauster ;— *' h* could remedy this by dung ;"— but his remedy failed aS to the com ; though he enriched his field. The com, year after year, dwindled, till it had a stalk like small bamboos, and ears of the size of nubbins ; many whereof were entirely barren. He practically convinced himself (an expensive mode of argument) and abandoned the practice; which, he said, was supported by many instan- ces of success. He never /a// ploughed'm this field, nor fallowed with the opening of the spring there, though he did so in other fields. This field may be now view- ed, and it will exhibit a plentiful cover of garlick ; the repeated succession of Indian corn crops notwithstand- ing. Yet his field was not impoverished ; for, by chang- ing his course, a fine crop of wheat succeeded his aban- donment of the Indian corn culture.*— In many parts of his agricultural operations, Mr. George had correct
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* This having been the most decided proof of the neces- sity of change of crops I have known, I have mentioned it! on several occasions- But, so far from its having been the' only instance, that it is but one among very great numbers I have seen, and could enumerate ; though none have occurred so strongly marked, because not so pertinaciously continued.
R. P.
124
On ff^ild Garlick.
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ideas * He gave me many facts as to the effects of early ploughing, with a view to turn up garlick in its tender
* 1 have been frequently a witness of Mt. George's bold and successful attempts at ridding his pasture fields ot gar^ lickM hand weeding, in moist weather. I have seen, at va- rious Les, tons of it thus collected. He said he could subdue itso, as that it did not feculate his butter , and he was douWy repaid, by the increased price, and ready sale of that art.- cl!, when it was generally tainted in the market Bemg Often obliged to pass one of his large heaps ot garhck, I had the curioJtyto attend to its progress, in it. fermentation and putrefaction. The ia.tor was almost insupportable , and far exceeded any effluvia from animal putrefaction. tresembM in my sensation, a combit»ation of the strongest extract of A.a^ fjda. with the most pungent volatile sah.-Some one who ias the propensities of Smollet's Lismahaso, w.th objects more meritorious and useful, might discover, m the wdd garhck, properties, valuable either in medicine, the arts, or manufactures , to balance its mischiefs and abommat.ons.
Mr. George's weeders each carried home, at noon, h,s wa^.« let or basket tall ol garlick ; which was thrown mto ^e .^ .horse troughs, and greedily eaten by the -f -g^^""- "f^ said it was not only nutritious, but gave them spmt and ^.^ gour, to per,orm the remainder oi their daily task. Occupan^ of garlxky lands, who are too often, in the spnng, short of 2ge J find the early pasture of the garlick both useiul healthy, and indispensably necessary ior the.r stock. Al- though it is at first laxative, it finally becomes regularly nutritive , and cattle and sheep thrive on it. Change ol pas- ture, or dry food, for a .ew days, (or as some say, forty eight hours) will take off the taint from their flesh.
I have never seen ;n new lands, the gariick, or wdd omon. tts bulb resembles the latter ; being indistinctly lame hated though chiefly solid ; and not divided into cloves hke the
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State, when just beginning to shoot ; and, by this means, to backen or destroy it* He believed that it was the ploughiilg, and not the oats, which produced the effect. But, having a large dairy, fed in the winter with oats and corn, ground together in certain proportions, he was of the sect of oat farmers ; and of course found reasons to justify the practice. An oat fallow, he allow-, ed, required more dung than common, to restore what the oats had exhausted. But he said, " with plenty of lime and dung one can farm as he pleases." However true this may be, the question still remains to be solved. . — What is the best course for those to pursue, who either have, or have not, this plenty of lime and dung ? For myself I answer-— not to sow an exhausting crop of oats, to be succeeded by another culmiferous * crop
former. Its head contains a multitude o[ cloved seeds : and^ on this account most rtsembles the bulbs of the altiiim or gar- lick. But these seeds are entirely different from those of the onion. It is destructively prolifick j for several bulbs will be formed from one clove ot the head.
There is an old tradition, that the Sxvedes first imported and sowed it here, for early pasture. — But I have always believed it to be a spontaneous native product; the compa- liion, it' not the offspring of poverty 5 originating in vi^orn and exhausted lands Swedes having been early settlers, their lands were the first exhausted ; and in them the garlick made its first appearance, of course.
R. P.
* Culmiferous crops are those of grain enclosed in chafy husks. They are fibrous rooted and exhausting. They gve little to the earth ; and draw from it the stores of vegetable food, which it had collected.
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On Wtld Garlick.
of winter grain-the most valuable but the most trnTr,,. exhauster_A further praCicu. auswer.., at- temnted in what follows hereafter. '
Mr. Roberts, whose farming and management ,s gc- nerally exemplary, candidly gives the preference to an "e^n fallow ; 'though he has been in the 1- -^ ^^ Jheat after oats. See our memoirs, page 100. But not i ving, for several past seasons, had encouragmg wheat lop - has this year sown on an open or clear fallow. Sing garlick and his demand for oats, form h.s apo-
Inmr for sowing them heretofore.
Wh« sJly exhausts ; but it oecopies the ground
,„„I,1 Lws\.s -m*es, gradually, and extens^e^.
„st>,s dellgb. to penetnte and spread, beneath .1«
soil stirred by the plough. It does not mjure the vege-
:! nrould l*e 1 -r^V^ » ** B'-*' "f^ ** lo» and snperfieial roots, numerous and peeutarly Zous WlL, cut for hay, oats do not m any great de- ^Jexhanst: nor does any erop till ^ Facets ..s-d ^ 1 have no» a fu-c field (small but well <'"f > "' "' =;^; Two years ago it was so infested w,.h gaM; tha he hav i . winter, was unfit for my eows : as ,t gave thar ^ai most disgusting Uste. In 1807 I gave tt a fa p, ughing, and in the spring of 1808 ' PO';^^^^
Igai,?; as '^r ^'^ ^.fT:^ ^^Z^ time (the beginning of Maj ) 1 P'aniea which I so well attended, that not -^^ ^-J^ be seen. My crop of corn was remarkabl abund n . though the season was unfavourable. I cut oft the co n talkland hauled them intothebarnyard,as«su^^^^^^^^
for manure.-I fall .ioughed it again ; and hmed light y Wishing to cover my fallow in the sprmg, and, by
On mid Garlick.
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an example, to intice the oat farmers to intermit their inveterate habits, I procured Albany peas^ sowed them broadcast, and harrowed them in ; after which I rolled them, I was obliged to send to New York for my seed, which occasioned delay; and, although I ploughed early^ I sowed a month too late ; not getting any seed into the ground until the middle of May. I had succeeded with peas many years ago ; but had forgotten the requisite quantity of seed to the acre. I sowed two bushels to the acre; whereas three'^ had been formerly my usual quan- tity. They came up even and looked remarkably well, till the pods appeared; when heavy rains laid them, and my expectations were disappointed. I lost my crop of peas ; but I did not lose the benefit of their cover. Two acres of the same field were highly dunged, and planted with potatoes ; whereof I had a plentiful crop, which came off early : I sowed wheat in the potatoe ground, ten days before my pea fallow was ready. A remarkable dry season prevented my sowing in the time I wished. During the drought, I gave an extraordinary ploughing to cover and protect a moderate dressing of
* I have now a very promising crop of the field pea. 1 sowed it early, with three bushels to the acre. Next year, I will, on part, sow four bushels. We have had the greatest drought, for two months, I ever recollect at this season of the y.ear. Yet my peas (plaistered,) have continued to thrive. Most, fortunate rains have now given them every advantage ; though in a more favomable season, they would h:^ve been
more forward.
R. P.
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OnWild Garlick.
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well rotted dung, on the pea fallow. About the middle of October, I harrowed in my wheat ; sowed on it timo. thy seed, and rolled it in. With all the advantage of . earlier seeding, the wheat on the potatoe ground is in. ferior to that on the pfea fallow ; though both look well.* The garlick is apparently destroyed on the whole field. I could in the winter, have collected many bushels^ of dead bulbs of garlick; which had been exposed, by the harrows, after the fall ploughings. In this way I have cleared many a field of the garlick, which infested them at the time. But in three years (often in two) the seed, which had been lying torpid, vegetated ; and produced a new crop of pests. By attacking these with a fall, and an early spring ploughing, I have banished the garlick for many succeeding years. My present flattering ap- pearance may turn out fallacious ; I therefore will post- pone my TV Deum till I am certain of victory. It seems as \i garlick, once rooting itself generally in a field, gains an endless possession in the soil. Like a chymical coifi- pound (which according to a recent discovery, can ne- ver be so decomposed as that all its parts will be com. pletely separated) in a greater or less degree, it forever
* Every expectation I had formed respecting the wheat on the pea fallow, is confirmed. It far exceeds that on the po- tatoe ground. There has been a long drought ; yet the pea fallow wheat is nearly as good, as a crop in a favourable season. I have drilled wheat (hoed) superior to it ; but it is among the best broadcast wheat, I have seen this season. No garlick yet appears in the field. «
tSth yune 1810.
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infests and adheres. Scattering bulbs, to continue the succession, will remain covered by the plough, and out of the reach of destruction. '^
I have a field adjacent preparing for a similar course ; and shall repeat tny experiments of leguminous*' cover. I am much mistaken if my campaigns against the garlick, are not equally successful with those of my- worthy neighbour. My object has been, as I now believe,' accomplished in a shorter time ; with less exhaustion and better culture. It will be perceived that I rely, for extirpating garlick, on my frequent fall and early spring ploughings. A winter crop intervening prevents repe- titions of the ploughings ; and impedes the entire over* tTifdw of a crippled adversary. It gives time to the gar* lick to recover its vigour.
'The loss of thy peas is of much less consequence, than my failure in setting a profitable example. For^ such failures confirm prejudices in others ; though I: shall not be in the least discouraged, in my object of substituting beneficial for exhausting covers. — It is in support of this object only, that I am induced to say—
* Legtiminoxts pla7its are those whose seeds are enclosed in pods. — Every species of the pea and pulse kind are Legumes* They shade and cover ; their tap, or main roots strike deep ; and do not prey upon and exhaust the vegetable mould, as do plants shallow set, and entirely fibrous. Exposing to the influences of the atmosphere, surfaces porous and extensive, they draw from the air their chief supplies. They probably give to die earth, a balance beyond their receipts from it i which, by their shade and cover, they enable it to retain.
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VOL. II. It .
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On Wild Garlick.
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that 1 shall not meet with my usud success '^-^^y^^ if it does not far exceed that of any oat farmer s. 27^ et Mow, lam particularly confident- and ^m brow into the scale of competition agamst me. all rsir;e pea cro. Accidents a^..^^^^
Zs of the subject as they relate to the exU^aUon o^ iTrlick lam convinced.by long experience, that, wUh SS early spring Ploughings, -e w^ be ^-^ in the winter grain without oats on the fallow thanU^
of L latter grain is worth, in a general eourse of crop of the latter g ^^ ^ ^^^
seasons and prices. It is in my opu " ,
Trnmon, yet not the less injurious mistake; that the rrX of breaking up or ploughing for a winter crop b te ast performed in the fore part of the season when r^o^Ud^ the first. Before either ley or sta^^ field _ (as those are called which have ^^d coini m^he pre^^^ ceding season) are turned up. the garlick and weeds o^
S kinds grow strong and ---^""^^^^^^'.^^C^ easily killed, if attacked by early ploughmg. It ha been
" constan habit to plough early, deep, and often I X sow wheat with less than four ploughmgs ; and
We areihe usual number with most other flirmers. I three are tnc perceive the great advantage of
, ever ye failed ->V^^^^ .„ g,„,,,,
ploughing u A M. 1 1 ^^^^^ .^^^^^ .^ because
r L :Cen : 'turned up to the winter, is ame- trS by exposure in that season without exhaustion . ,
. S IS not the case with naked summer faUovvs.--But Sail ploughing of a garlick ley should be sh^w, .. e. tvot to exceed three or four inches , ana
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On Wild Garlick.
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harrowed in the direction of the furrows ; that the bulbs may be the more loosened from the sod, and entirely exposed to the frosts and thaws.
If the course here recommended is not perfect ; it is nevertheless the best I know to be in the power of com- mon farmers, — Denshiring^ or paring and burnings is an effectual mode to eradicate all pests in the sod. But this is not likely to be resorted to, in the present state of things. Trench ploughing is also a sure mode'; as I can, from repeated experience, attest.
Graziers and large dealers, may extirpate garlick by great numbers of cattle, winter fed on their ground. The late Mr. William Jones succeeded in this way, at Garlick Hall in the neck. The poaching and tramping the sod, as well as fertilizing the soil by the droppings from, and the laying down of, cattle, afford the remedy. But this mode is attainable by a few people only.
Garlick grows in poor and exhausted soils generally ; but, like all robbers, it does not spare the rich. It is propagated by the seed and bulbs, or roots. When the parent bulbs, or old roots, are destroyed, the seed, in two or three years, will produce another race of pests ; as if it were intended vindictively to punish the de- stroyer of their predecessors. But as soon as this vile progeny appears, they should at once be assailed ; and, being tender and weak, they are the more easily over- come, by a fall and early spring ploughing. A variable winter of severe frosts, with intervals of thaws, and a late spring, with frosty and chilly damp nights, and oc- casionally warm days, are favourable to the destruction of the bulbs, exposed to such vicissitudes. These ob- servations are extended beyond my original intention.
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On Wild Garliek.
I was induced, by a practical conviction, to gratify a de- sire to show, that the object is most profitably and prompUy attainable, by a course of husbandry which ameliorates, instead of exhausting, tlie soil.
Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease.
Secretary of the Agric* Soc. Philad.
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The Field.Pea.
There is a very general mistake, in this part of tlie countrj', respecting the culture of the field pea. It is supposed to require much labour, and it is conceived that they must be sown in drills, and stuck. True it is that, like beam, when sowed in drills, and hoed, they pro- duce more abundamly ; and so will any plant. But there is no more expence, or labour, in the usual mode of cuU tivation, than with oats. They are sown in broadcast ; and harrowed in, in the direction of the furrows. When ripe they are cut with the scythe, or that and the cradle, if they stand up well ; raked up when dry, and stacked, or housed. They are threshed in the common way ; and cleaned in the common fan, nothing is equal to them for rotting a sod j and in Europe they are often sown on a ley, with one ploughing; for the purpose of rotting it, as well as for the crop. They delight in light soils, the most ; but will grow in others. They are as certain a crop, as the grains in common use. Pease often fail, as do other crops. But when appearances are against
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On Wild GaKlick.
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them, they may be ploughed in, as green manure, to profitable account. When they perfect their crop, or when ploughed in, they do not fail to meliorate the soil. Beans are best; for heavy soils ; but they do not often succeed here. Pease are in great demand, for ships pro^ visions, or exportation; when split, or whole. Chopped ©r ground for cattle, they exceed oats, either for milk, or fatting. Hogs are fond of them ; and they may be given to fatting, or stock swine. But the former must be finished off with Indian corn ; which makes the ba- con of this country superior to that of Europe. Horses are fed on pease in England, and other countries.
R. Peters.
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On Garlick. By Paul Busti.
Read January 9th, 1810.
Blockley''s Retreat \^t January \^\^
^^ishing to make it appear, that the importance | .;.mB- the results of practical experiences, is rlorus^l --- of disseminating among the the «^°^ " tn led^e of the precious art of agriculture, rt; tfsub-l ti: observations 1 made on the best "^^X^ t^e nauseous plant, that poisons so r^y of the fields in our neighbourhood:
The Garlick. . • 1 fto^, I boueht Parkinson's estate, and
resident on tte p ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ I
°' 7edtry»l^^hr! could destroy it. 1 met with
'"^ ^iralllclby consulting my neighbours, as the,r
"° " ° ere ot-ite in opposition together. On two h.lls opmions were quite m 1 1 ^^^^_ j
*'= :■; Slriri on -one I caused a ,uan r^r Ifste ° be spread, tltinking that the c,u,cU ,„y of pl="-«' • j;^ „„„,a suffocate and sfllc
ploughed and prepared tor Indian com.
On Qarlich
135
No benefit whatever having been derived from hast- ening the vegetation of the clover, (for the garlick r€» ceived likewise advantage from the plaister ;) I set in 1808, a man about pulling the bulbs before the seeds were ripened. Six cart loads of plants having been pulled up, I thought to have gained the point ; and in the fall of that year I manured and ploughed the ground; throwing in rye seed, in the proportion of two bushels per acre. In reaping, I soon discovered that the enemy-^ was far from being overpowered. The quality of my rj^e made me condemn it to the use of the stables. I met with a better success on the hill, where the corn had been planted in rows. Many garlick stalks came up, but were cut down and overturned by the plough in dressing. Few escaped unhurt. Determined however, that none should remain, and convinced, by the simple reasonings of plain good sense, that a frequent stirring of the ground must prove the best' check upon the growth of any vegetable ; I converted in the spring of 1808, the corn into a potatoe Tield, adding a good deal of manure. I may with truth boast, to have perfectly succeeded in subduing the garlick. For among the rye harvested this year from that spot, not a single seed of p-arlick was discoverable. From the dissertation of Judge Peters on garlick, lately inserted in Poulson's paper, I have however learned to be diffident of my com- plete victory. It may happen, that some bulbs or seeds still remain sculking among the clover and other gras- ses sown amidst the rye. Should this be the case, it will soon be discovered next spring ; and, if so, I intend to go over again the same rotation of crops, not doubt-
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On Garlicfc.
in^ that if in completing ot.e, I have had reasdft to think I had got the palm df triumph, my efforts will be crown- ed with full success after a second rotation.- -v^
I have the honour to remain. Sir, your most obedient servant,
Paul Bdsti. Dr. James MeaM?
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On Mold. By Dr. barton*
Read January, 9tb, I aflO»
Dear Sir,
1 have lately perused, with not a Kttle satisfaction, in one of the British Agricuhural Magazines, some obser- vations on the utility of moles. It is well known to you, that the mole has, by most writers, been consi- dered as a very pernicious quadruped ; and that the business of mole-catching in England is not an unpro- fitable one to those who follow it. The observations to which I allude, have nearly convinced me, that the com- mon mole of Europe, is upon the whole more beneficial than pernicious to the labours of the agriculturist. To the garden it is acknowledged, that the mole doe?
prove injurious. ,
' The common mole of the United States, which Lm. naeus denominates, for want of better information con- cerning it, Sorex aquaticusy is specifically distinct from the mole of Europe. But the two animals are, in many- essential respects,— as of structure, appearance, way of life, food &c., nearly allied. Almost every one believes, that our mole, which I have no doubt infests or visits your ground, for it is very common along the Schuyl- kill,—that the common mole of Pennsylvania, is a very pernicious animal. I wish you could turn the attention of some of the members of the agricultural society to this subject. It is one of no small consequence. I great- ly doubt if this mole be so pernicious as is imagined^ 1 have long entertained doubts on the subject. I suspect
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i On Moles.
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that it will be found to render more service than to do mischief; I mean in our larger fields. When it gets into gardens, it may do much mischief. But even here, if I do hot greatly mistake, the evils which have been ascribed to this little animal, have been much exagger- ated. I could show you, that it even does some good
in the gardens.
Should you, or any other member of the society, deem it worthy of your attention to inquire into the cor- rectness of the general notion, that our mole is a very T)emicious animal, I hope you will be careful to specify the animal to which your observations may refer. We have, at least, two species of moles near Philadelphia, which are in many respects, different ; I mean the So. rex aquaticus about which I am most concerned, and the species called by our farmers, the " star-nose-mole," or Sorex vristatm. Confining myself to the former spe- cies, much the most common, let me ask the following
questions: viz. , . u-
■ 1. What kind of grounds are most frequented by this
animal ? Is it ever found in the wetter meadows ? 2. What vegetables does it chiefly consume ? Does
it injure the roots of the red-clover ? Does it ever iri-
jure the Indian coi n ?
■' 3. What insects does it eat? Does it not devour ■grubs, and other larvay of beetles, 8tc. ' 4. In what way does it prove most injurious ? • ' 5. By loosening the earth, and thereby enabling the
radicles of different plants to progress with more foci- lity ; and by devouring a portion of the radicles which it meets with, does not the mole of the United States, do quite as much good as harm ?
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On Moles.
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6. At what season of the year does the mole bring forth her young ? Or has she not.at least, two litters in the year ? What is the number of young produced by a single pair, in the year ?
7. May we not, by preserving moles from unneces- sary destruction, turn their beautiful fur to usefUl jiur- poses in the United States ?
I am, dear Sir,
Very respectfully, yours, &c,
B. S- Barton.
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December \9th, 1809, RicHABD Peters Es<i.
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Jforeign grain sent Jbr seed.-^-A new plough and ex- ^ periments therewith, at Draveil the seat of Daniel Parker Esq. neat Paris. By John Armstrong.
Read January 9th, 1810*
PartBy 2d November 180ft
J)ear Sir,
The little bolt which will be delivered with this let- tcr, fcdhtains three species of grain and one of grass seed, which I do not remember to have seen in the
United States.
Number 1* Is a wheat which from its uncommon pi'oductiveness, as Well in grain as in straw, is called ie ble d*abundance. It is said to be of African origin, ^ttd is sometimes called Egyptian wheat.
Number 2. Is a rye of excellent quality, giving a
flour little inferior to that from wheat. One bushel of
this grain weighs 64 pounds, and its straw, like that
of the preceding article, is very stout and nearly solid.
Number 3. Is a barley called here Vorge fromentef
"^or wheat barley, from its resemblance to some species
of wheat. An acre will give as many bushels of thb
^ of any other species of barley ; and a bushel of this
\ species, will give considerably more flour than the same
quantity of any other species.
Number 4. Is the seed of the Sain-foin of Nor* ttii^^dy, which gives as many hay-cuttings as LucernCi and a tolerable after grass for pasturing cattle.
To these I add the drawings of a new invented plough^ and a minute of work, which I last springs saw
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it perform at Draveil, the seat of our countrjman Daniel Parker. My own opinion is, that in light and level lands, this instrument will supersede the use of all others of the same name.*
Committing these worthy foreigners to your protect lion and patronage, and hoping that like our own pota* toe, they may improve by translation.
I am dear sir,
Yours truly.
Richard Peters Esq.
JOHX ARMSTRONCi
P. S. Having an un-occupied comer in the box, I fill it with one of these adopted som^ which does no discredit to his parentage. Its present weight is two pounds and a quarter. The field in which it grew contained twelve acres and a half, and gave 10,000 Boisseaus (20 pounds* each) 100 of the largest, weighed 200 pounds, the one I send was tlie second, or third, in point of size. This gigantic race is called the champion, and is not inferior to any of the family, for the uses of the table.
* Nothing can be more grateful or patriotic, than the ex- ertions of our citizens, in whatever station or pursuit they are occupied abroad, to add to the prosperity of their coun- try, the knowledge of agricultural improvement, by trans- mitting models or drafts of useful or new implements, or valuable grains, seeds or plants — General Armstrong is en- tided to much praise on this account. The grain and grass seeds will be faithfully attended to, and the j-esults reported.
The Egyptian wheat has most generally failed, though re- peatedly sown here.
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On Foreign Grain*
as
Extract from the Farm-book of Draveil, October r, 3 1st 1809.
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A statement of the force required for the working of the several ploughs underwritten ; determined by es- says, made at Draveil on the same piece of land, a san- dy loam, with the Dynonemetre of Regnier :
The ordinary French plough, 563 pounds.
The Rotheram plough with wheels, 427.
SmuU's improved Rotheram swing plough, 396.
The rye is a most valuable desideratum ; if it suits our climate. It shall be sedulously nurtured. Crops of rye, m many parts of our country, have failed for several years past. It will be a most happy relief, if some new species should bring back our former success with a grain which formerly was the surest of all crops. , , • i.
The barley some of our society have cultivated, but with- out much flattering success. In Scotland and other European
I
countries it grows abundantly. . /. t • .i.
The saintfoin, {cods head) Ilcdastjrum Onobynchts L: is the most valuable of all its tribe, where it can be raised to matu- rity. It U the tenderestof all grasses, and requires the clean- est farming, till it arrives at three years old ; and thereafter it is the hardiest and most durable. Many unsuccessful at- tempts have been made here to bring it to perfection. And vet it grows in Europe luxuriantly, where no other valuable Krass will thrive. It delights in light dry and chalky soils, wherein its roots penetrate to great depths and distances- placed bcvond all injuries from frosts, or vicissitudes ot season. It is a beautiful flower, in the pleasure garden.
The sptcies of potatoe is not unknown here. Although care- fully guarded, it rotted on the passage. Its exterior was only preserved, so as to shew its size, and excite regret. It must be a most valuable root ; and should be procured and cuhivatedv
On Foreign Grain.
'143
Sbs:
Guillaume's plough, for which he obtained the pre- mium from the French agricultural board, 240.
Note. The three first ploughs are worked with three horses and one man, the latter with two horses and one
man.
The furrows were taken nine inches wide, and five inches deep.
Mr. Parker's double furrow plough, 500.
The two furrows 24 inches wide, and five inches deep, and the plough worked with three horses and one man.
The commencement of working with this double furrow plough was in March last. On the 21st of May, an essay was made to ascertain the quantity of ground^ which could be ploughed with it in a given time.
A piece of land, 860 feet (French measure) Iong,*and 24 feet wide, making 51 perches, (containing each perch 20 feet square, amounting to 20,412 feet English mea- sure, half an English acre,) was ploughed in an hour, including two stoppages of the plough of six minutes^ to change a bolt. The furrows were five inches deep, and 12 inches wide ; the 24 feet, being ploughed by 24 furrows, or six turns of the plough. It was worked by three horses and one man, tlie ploughman having the reins of the horses.
A field of strong land, which was sown in 1806 with wheat, and gave 30 English bushels to the acre, was sown in April last with buck- wheat, whicli was plough- ed in, the latter end of July for manure ; has been ploughed with two double furrowed ploughs, for wheat this month (October;) it contains 25 acres, and wa.s ploughed in six days, and one third of the seventh day for one plough to finish the two ends. This work
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144
On Foreign Grain and Ploughs.
would have taken with the common mode of ploughmg, for two ordinary ploughs, 12 days and an half, making an actual saving of a half in men and horses both as to time and labour, and the work equally well done.*
Experiments have proved, that where the f^l of rain is 20 inches per annum, as in the vicinity of Pans, the component parts of the earth for wheat, should be on 50 parts, 25 parts silex, 15 parts calcanous, 10 parts vegetable and animal matter, and argil.
The earth of a field on the banks of the Seme, six leagues from Paris, at Draveil, has been analysed, and found to contain as follows :
Silex,
Calcarious matter,
Water, Vegetable and Animal Matter,
Oxide de fer, Alumine, •
Oxide de Manganese, Sulfate de Potasse, Loss, - - -
• The motive for furnishing the draft of Mr. Parkers plough, merits and obtams our thanks. The results, and h.s course of crops, are highly exemplary.
It will be seen that the plough which has obtamed so n»uch approbation in France, has been worked agamst the Test English and French ploughs ; and is deemed supenor to them. This being the case, apparently, it cannot be ac- counted an unfounded assertion, that the ploughs of th. countrv, esteemed and used here by good farmers are equal tXse of Europe. They are superior in simpl.c.ty of con-
On Foreign Graiff.
US
This field had been in culture the preceding years as follows :
- 1802, Wheat, after being pastured with sheep.
1803, Rye.
1804, Oats, with this crop the farmers lease finished.
1805, Carrots and Parsnips, for cattle.
1806, Vetches.
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struction, and quickness of movement j and in efficiency most undoubtedly equal. The improved East Jersey one shared plough, with one man and three horses a breast, has performed and commonly accomplishes, all that the Draveil plough has done, with its two shares. Two acres per diem, at any depth from four to seven inches, is common work. Nor is it singular, for a smart American ploughman, with a well constructed common plough and two horses, to turn up one acre and an half per day. Two acres, and two an half, have frequently been ploughed in a day, with ploughs now very common through our country. All complexity of wheels, additional shares, and machinery, are out of use ; and deemed incumbrances.
The American toothed sickle is better than any imported. Although in general they reap well, and use the toothed sickle ; , yet whole counties in England, where their agricul- ture and management is nearer perfection than in other European countries, have the smooth edged hook for reaping. This cuts as it enters ; and scatters the grain, before it can be griped by the reaper. Here such management is unknown.
Our scythe and cradle, is far superior to any implement of the kind. Used in England ; though they have there such instruments.
Our necessities under the scarcity of labour, have intro- duced simplicity in all our operations. It would be as singu- lar to see wheels and driver? and multiplied shares to ow VOL. II, T
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146
On Foreign Grain.
1807, Wheat, 30 English bushels to the acre. ISOs! Winter Oats and Rye, for pasture for sheep. I8O9! Buck- Wheat &c. as above stated in the work- ings of the double ploughs.
ploughs, and excite as much curiosity as would the total abandonment of them in Europe. There is no advantage over the single, in the double shared plough, in the separation .ot the sod, or earth. The best breaking up three horse ploughs, with single shares of 20 and 22 inches in width, elevate the sod or earth, so as that it breaks to pieces in its fall and turning ; and a furrow can scarcely be discerned. Mr. Par- ker's double plough takes only 24 inches in width, with both its shares. Under our agiicultural inferiority in too many instances, it is Jortunate that we have some things for con- solation. It is ot no essential importance to enquire whether they were invented, improved, or adopted, by us.
Our great disadvantage is, that it is difficult to collect,* and have faithiuUv made, implements of our best kinds. Many are bad enough, both in construction and workmanship. A plan lor establishing a manufactory of, and ware-room for exhibifng receiving and vending, the best implements oi husbandry, has been promulgated, which, we indulge the hope will be encouraged.
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Eulogium on TVilliain West. By James Mease M. D» Read February 13th, 1810.
Posthumous honors, whether they consisted in mo- numents, or in praise, have generally been confined to persons who have occupied the first ranks in civil so- ciety, or who have distinguished themselves by their military exploits or literary talents. Their examples for these reasons, are necessarily limited in their influence, because only a small number of persons can derive be- nefit from imitating them. Examples of virtue, indus- try, knowledge and usefulness, taken from the humble walks of life, are calculated to be far more beneficial in society, because a great majority of mankind are in a situation to be benefitted by them. Of this class, the cultivators of the earth arc by far the most numerous. The retired life of an humble agriculturist, does not in- deed admit of a display of eloquence, nor would such a display suit the speaker ; but it is hoped, that a few traits in the life of one of them, will prove interesting, particularly to a society founded for the purpose of pro- moting knowledge, economy, and the improvement of the profession of which he was so distinguished a member.
The venerable subject of this tribute of respect was born in the county of Delaware, a few miles from the farm he owned at the time of his death. He was the elder brother of the celebrated Benjamin West, who has done so much honor to himself, and to the state which gave him birth, by his talent, as an histo-
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Eulogium on fFiUiam Westt
Eidogium on William West.
149
rical painter in England.* The first years of his youth were employed on the plantation of his father, and at a proper age, he was put apprentice to a mechanic in the city of Philadelphia,— an oak cooper, at which busi- ness he continued until his 40th year, when he deter- mined to become a farmer. The place he purchased, consisted of upwards of 100 acres, and although by na- ture of an excellent soil,t yet it had been so far ex- hausted,'astobe incompetent to the maintainance of the owner, few and simple as his wants must necessarily have been.
* The family of Mr. West is traced as lar back as Ed- ward the third, in whose wars they distinguished themselves. One of his ancestors Colonel James West, after having sig- nalized himself in the battle of Worcester on the side of the republicans, embraced the pacific principles of friends. The grand parents of Mr. West emigrated with William Penn to
this country.
I The farm is situated in a tract of land about three quar- ters of a mile wide, which is remarkable for abounding in blue rocks of a very hard nature, and which when broken appear of the colour of newly cast metal ; hence it is called pot metal rock ; the composition of the soil of this tract is so good as to be proverbial, and in a field of a farm through which the vein partly runs, the difference in the appearance of the grain or grass on each side the line may be seen to a foot or two. The rock is the amphibole^ or grdnstein of minerali- gists. The fact is mentioned with a view to give an oppor- tunity of ascertaining whether any such connexion between fertility, and the presence of this stone takes place in other districts.
safpsi
The business of farming may be said to have been new to Mr. West, for although he had a general idea of the common operations of husbandry, yet he must have been very deficient with respect to the various minor details upon which so much of the success and profit of a farm depend. The land he bought was al- most a common: there being scarcely a fence of strength sufficient to keep out whatever animal chose to walk over his fields and they were covered with briars and weeds of every kind. In these respects his farm was not singular. All the agricultural operations of the district were the reverse of what they ought to have been, and of what they now are. — There is still much room for improvement.
After fencing his land, by substantial inclosures, and clearing it of weeds, briars, and wild hedge-rows, he looked around for information, as to the best mode of conducting his farm. He saw cattle half starved in winter for want of food, and pinched with cold from deficient shelter, and but poorly fed even in summer. Grass was the result of the spontaneous, though scanty production of the soil after the crop of grain was taken off, or in a few cases, of natural rough meadow, or wa- tered fields, but as the first of those resources was not in the power of all, and as the latter, if within their command, was neglected from indolence, or ignorance of the benefit to be derived from it, or of the method of effecting the improvement, the provision of hay was necessarily extremely poor : the consequence was, that the stock kept was small in number, or if the vanity of shewing a large stock infected the farmer, they were of course but half nourished. In either case, manure was
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Eulogium on William JVest.
scantily made. Successive crops of grain exhausted the ground : the slovenly practice of sowing wheat or rye among the standing Indian com was universal, and the cultivation of artificial grasses especially of that great fertilizer red clover, which has done so much for Penn- sylvania, was unknown. The cattle were therefore per- mitted to wander over the fields to pick up the slender provision afforded by nature, or to browse upon young twigs in the woods, to the certain destruction of the growing timber: grazing at that time was solely con- fined to the rich natural meadows on the penmsula, between the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill, and many farmers depended entirely upon them for the supply of their winter beef, and even for part of the hay for their live stock. In short, he found that the whole management of a farm was pursued not upon fixed principles, but in a random manner ; the object appear- ing to be, to obtain as much from the land as possible, without regard to the preservation or improvement of the powers of the soil. With those facts before hnTi,the prospect was extremely discouraging. He did not pretend to any knowledge in farming; but what he saw and learnt were sufficient to convince him that practices which neither enriched the farmer nor the land, could not be the most eligible, and he therefore determined not to adopt them, and as he could derive no informa- tion from his neighbours, he read what books he could procure on farming, and for the rest he depended upon his own judgment. At the day alluded to, the science of agriculture was at a low ebb in every part ot the European and American world : the useful spirit for diffusing information by means of books, was not ex-
Eulogium on William West.
151
cited in this country, and even in Europe, scarcely any works of much note had appeared on agriculture, ex- cept those of Du Hamel, De Lisle and Tull. The me- rit of Mr. West was therefore the greater, because with- out the numerous helps which the modern farmer may have recourse to, derived from the works of these who have detailed the result of their experience, or from the good examples of their neighbours, he ventured to alter a bad system, and to establish a new one which the experience of near half a century in this country has shewn to be correct, and which has added to the pe- cuniary resources, and agricultural reputation of our State.
The chief part of the cultivated land in Pennsylvania, was in a course of tillage, and grain commanded but a small price. The business of grazing as already stated, was confined to a small district, and the inquiries he made satisfied him as to the superior profit arising therefrom, when compared to tillage. From this cir- cumstance therefore as well as from a partiality for that pleasing branch of husbandry ; he resolved as soon as circumstances would permit, to lay down his land to grass. — What an undertaking at that time ! and how was this to be accomplished ? the introduction of red clover had taken place only a few years before, and with the exception of a few districts, was confined to the vicinity of Philadelphia : for prejudice, the great enemy to all improvements, had opposed its progress among the cultivators of the soil. The great advantages however of this valuable grass, derived from the im- mense burthen which it produced, were soon seen by Mr. West, and he determined to avail himself of them.
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^Eulogium on WUliam West.
Eulogiian o?i JVilliam fVest.
153
Its fertilizing effects were the result of subsequent ex- perience, the knowledge of which from the recent and partial use of the plant was yet to be acquired. Clover was therefore sown, and his fields soon bloomed with the novel exotic, affording him treble the quantity of hay, that ever had been known to grow in the vicinity, upon the same quantity of ground. But clover, Valu- able as it proved to him, and as it still is, he knew requi- red to be renewed, and a permanent pasture was the ob- ject he aimed at, for he held it as a principle that every country was blessed by a native permanent pasture grass. How therefore was this to be obtained ? it occurred to him that a visit to the peninsula, where native grasses abounded, and an examination of the soil on which they grew, might teach him something on the subject. He there saw tliat the whole soil was alluvial, and of course very rich, that luxuriant natural grass clothed the fields, and that the only manuring which they obtained, con- sisted of the droppings of the cattle; here then were the principles upon which the improvement was to be grounded. Manure was applied as equally as possible, to the surface of a rich bottom. Philosophically con- cluding that like causes must produce like effects, he determined to imitate the practice, and the result proved the accuracy of his deduction. The first object there- lore to be attended to, was to bring his soil if possible, to the desirable state of fertility of the alluvial district, and this he knew could only be accomplished, by the accumulation of manure. How therefore was this great desideratum to be obtained, and how increased? It was clear that the wandering of the cattle over the fields and roads or in the woods, could not add to the stock of
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this great requisite; for in the one case it would beles- sened in quantity, and diminished in quality by the action of the elements upon it ;. and in the other, it would be totally lost. He therefore confined his cattle to the barn yard, during the winter, and to increase the quantity of manure, he, in the first instance pleniifuUy strewed the yard with leaves from his woods, while the scanty crop of straw, corn blades and corn stalks, which his first course yielded, assisted in supplying food.
The sites of the old fences he had removed, the earth under the wild hedge rows which he had previ- ously grubbed, were ploughed up, and together with that taken from the ditches he dug or cleaned out, were formed into composts containing a large proportion of lime ; while every specie^ of offal and vegetable matter about the dwelling house,iand innumerable weeds while yet unripe, were added to the contents of the barn yard. He provided against drought by leading a spring from a considerable distance along his high lands, so as to irrigate at pleasure some of his largest fields. The |;j^cious water from the barn yard, which even to this <lay, is either entirely lost, or permitted by most farm- ers to run off in wasteful profusion over a particular field, was confined by the construction of the yard, and forced to increasejt^^e riclies of the fresh materials which were continually a^jrjpgress to the fertilizing heap. To cdl^ his grass grouiTr^^^ previously cleansed of peren- nial weeds' by falkow crops, Reapplied a compost ma- nurc^ .early in the spring, always observing to accommo- dating it to the nature of the soil. He had the satisfac- tion to see the complete success of the j,practice. For as the artificial grassejs: declined, the penjti^nent native
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Eulogium on William West.
Eulogium on William West.
155
ereen grass* took their place, and only required a repe- tition of the practice, which caused its ^PP^^^"^^' *° ;"" sure its continuance ; and for many years he exhibited the only instance in the county, of an intire sward of green grass upon an upland farm, and of fields vvhich had not been disturbed by a plough for upwards of
thirty years. •
The alteration of the farming system of William West from the random plans of the country, did not fail to' be noticed by his neighbours, and in some of them to excite animadversions ; and as in every instance of deviation from prevalent customs or practices, pre- dictions of failure without hesitation, and with great confidence were generally made. The event however, proved the incorrectness of their predictions. In Uic short space of three years, his supply of provender was so great as to enable him to sell hay to a farmer who possessed a much larger tract of land than his own, and who had indulged himself most in objections upon « the town-man's farming." The people of the vicinity saw with astonishment, field after field, covered with heavy pasture, which formerly were distinguished by the great supply to the young people of fine blackber- ries ; and in a few years, they were surprised to see 40 head of cattle brought to a farm to graze, which had scarcely ever afforded a bare support to ten head before ; but ihey wondered still more when those cattle were successively led.to the capital by the butcher, and more- over were informed, that a large dairy- and flirming stock were supported during the same season. Such a change
SB
* Poa viridis of Dr. Muhlenberg.
could not fail of exciting more remarks than his deviating from the common agricultural system of the country, had formerly produced. — In the one case, some little pride was mortified, at seeing the successful practice of a citizen, in the improvement of land by courses which were so opposite to what farmers thought could not be altered for the better, or the adoption of measures which had either never reached their ears, or were slighted, from prejudice, or neglected from want of industry ; in the other, the more feeling principle of interest operated to the production of remark, and to a gradual change of their agricultural operations. This change he lived to see effected, not only in his immediate neighbourhood, but in more remote places, and to behold farms, nay whole districts, brought from a state of poverty to a de- gree of high cultivation, by following the example he had long before set.
We are too apt to estimate the value of improve- ments, in a degree disproportionate to their value, when the theory that explains their success, or the practice of them has become familiar to us. We wonder that what is so easily accomplished, and is so simple, should have been so long concealed from us, or have been so recently adopted, and this remark will apply with par- ticular force to the present occasion. The practice of producing a fine sward upon upland farms, by the ap- plication of manure to the surface, now appears so sim- ple that it strikes us with astonishment, the thought did not occur to others at a more early period ; but this wonder will cease when it is known that even to this day in many parts of the country, the benefit of it remains yet to be discovered. Men who believe the system of
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156
Euhgium on PFilliam IFest.
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farming they pursue, admits of no alteration for the bet- ter, will of course despise all information derived from agricultural publications; and those who deem it a mis- application of time, or who are afraid that it will be deemed an acknowledgment of their own inferiority to go expressly to view the farms of others, will of course long continue in the practices of their forefethers, how- ever erroneous, and adopt all suggested improvements with caution and reluctance.
It was indicative of Mr. West's disposition to im- prove, and an evidence of his freedom from prejudice, that he at a very early period adopted the use of gyp- sum as a manure ; conscious that he had much to learn, he was always on the search for information, and he no sooner heard of the beneficial effects, which had been experienced from that singular substance on some of the city lots, then he made further inquiry respecting it, and saw and heard enough to satisfy him as to its uti- lity. Without therefore hesitating as many did, because he could not account for the theory of its operation, he resolved upon its use. The first season convinced hinx that it was a most important acquisition to the farmer and the experience of every subsequent year confirmed him in the opinion he at first had adopted. He defended it against the futile and weak objection which he fre- quently heard urged against it, that it acted upon vege- tables like ardent spirits upon the human body, and like them must finally exhaust tlie powers of the land : he vvould remind its opponents of the means which it fur- nished of adding to the vigour of the soil by means of the great quantities of manure afforded by the addi- tional number of cattle, which could be maintained from
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Eulogium on William fFest.
157
the grass it produced, and which would tend far more to invigorate the soil, than the gypsum would to exhaust it. Much of the fertility to which his farm had reach- ed, he ascribed to the use of that important substance, and his continued confidence in its powers occasioned the general and extensive use of it in his neighbourhood. The result of his experience with respect to its effects on grass, may be seen in the publication of the President of our society, and his remarks shew that he had a cor- rect notion of the points essential to the production of its full eiFects, and explain the want of success which sometimes follows its application to land.
The paper alluded to contains the only literary tes- timonial of his attention to agriculture.* He was fre- quently importuned by his friends, to give to the world, a statement of the improvements he had effected, and of his practice in general, but he as constantly declined to
* This backwardness to give to the public a detail of the progress of his improvements, which arose solely from his diffidence, is the more to be regretted, in as much as they would have been highly instructive to a young farmer. Few practical men are fond of committing themselves on paper. Neither Bakewell, the well known English improver of live stock, or Klyiogg the Swiss,ever communicated their improve- ments to the world. But Mr. West did not like the former character, wish to conceal his operations, nor like the latter imdervalue written information : on the contrary he set a just estimate upon all instruction whether oral or recorded, and often regretted the contempt in which our agriculturists' in general held all information, except what is derived from their own limited circle of observation.
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Eulogium on Tfilliam West.
comply * His uniform answer was " come and see, I can inform you more by conversation in a few hours, and by a walk over the farm, than by writing volumes. A visit to his farm was well repaid. The inquirer found- always a hospitable reception, a pleasant companion, and saw every thing about the land bearing the strong- est marks of industry, care and skill. The most luxu- riant grass, the native production of the sod, every where met the eye ; not a weed was to be seen ; the fences in the most perfect order, a compost bed ready prepared or in preparation in the field next to be dres- sed and every improvement effected in the most sub- stantial manner, as if he had been just entermg the farm early in hfe. His industry was indeed encreasmg ; tor he held it as a point of duty, " in every man who oc- cupies land to endeavour as far as capable to keep it in an improving state, for the benefit of himself, his connections, the public, and posterity and he who can make an addition or improvement though small to what is already known, would be doing more good than living alms all the days of his lifC't But although he did not write for the public, he was always ready to serve it, and was often applied to for the purpose of viewing and selecting farms for those who wished to settle in the county, or called to give advice to begin- ners a duty which he always cheerfully performed.
The construction of his stables, and the accommo- dations for his cattle, all designed by himself, are supe-
* Mr. West had drawn up the outline of a communication to the British board of Agriculture, but didnotfimsh it. \ Address to the board of agriculture.
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Eulogium on William West.
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rior to most I have seen, and his stalls are referred to as models worthy of imitation, in two respectable British agricultural publications.*
Hitherto I have spoken of Mr. West only as a farmer. It is now necessary I should mention his merits as a man and a member of society. In these important cha- racters he acted a part no less distinguished. He was scrupulously exact and honourable in all his dealings, and possessed a delicacy of feeling, and nice sense of lionor, which we too often see wanting in men who maintain a reputation in the world. He abhorred every thing bordering on meanness or narrowness of conduct, and could not refrain from expressing his disapproba- tion, when informed of actions that partook of either. No man ever possessed a fairer claim to the amiable title of a good neighbour y and no man took more plea- sure in bringing about a reconciliation between those families whose friendship or good understanding had been suspended. In the delicate and often trying situ- ation of a divider of estates, a duty to which he was often appointed to perform, he acted with a sense of justice that always gave satisfaction. Whatever was done by him, was the result of full deliberation and honest impartiality, and therefore was cheerfully sub- mitted to, however contrary to expectation and the wishes of a party. His benevolence and liberality were alike free as prompt, and I may add disinterested in the highest degree. More than one farm has been pur- chased by his assistance, and numerous instances arc
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* Complete Grazier, and Edinburgh Farmer's Magazine.
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Eulogium on William West.
Eulogium on fVilliam WesU
161
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known to me of ample pecuniary loans, without the smallest compensation. Against this he was principled. He had known the advantage himself of some capital, in the commencement of his agricultural operations, and therefore freely advanced it when convenient to those proper objects whose necessities induced an application to him. He was of a cheerful disposition, and delighted in society, to which he contributed a great share of its charms ; for he expressed himself with an accuracy of language, and precision of style, far above what might have been expected from one, whose education had been so much neglected in early life. He possessed a considerable talent for poetry, and has often in my hear- ing recited some of his compositions, which for ima- o-ery and ease of versification, would have done credit to many whose fame stands high in the list of poets. He possessed all the plainness of the religious society to which he belonged, and of which he was an exemplary member, joined to the manners of the well bred gen-
tleman. , • i •
The confidence that his fellow citizens reposed in him
was repeatedly shewn, by his frequent election as a member of the legislature of this state. The compli- ment was the more honorable because it was never so- licited. He seldom engaged in debates of the house ; in a few instances however, he was induced to deliver his sentiments, and acquitted himself in so masterly a manner, as to convince his hearers, that if his natural ta- lents had been cultivated at an early period, he would
have distiirguished himself as a public speaker,* as much as he did in the peaceful occupation of an im- prover of land. The board of agriculture of England having heard of his superior farm management, paid him the compliment of electing him an honorary mem- ber of their institution, shortly after its establishment.
Mr. West attained the great age of nearly 84. — His mental faculties retained their full vigour to the last year of his life. By an irresistible instinct of our na- tures, old age in any one conimands respect. But this respect is combined with veneration, when we associate the sight of grey hairs, and other remarks of the decay of the body, with ideas of virtue and eminent usefulness in an honourable occupation. Such were the feelings which the presence of Mr. West excited in every one who saw him, whether upan lis farm, by his fire side, upon the road, or in company. The review of a long and innocent life is always pleasant, but when the mind in its retrospect upon past years, sees every one filled with labours for the benefit of country, family and friends, the sensations excited by it are more than plea- sant,— they are truly delightful. But Mr. West had
* In one case, he replied, at the particular request of his friends, to an eminent counsellor in the house, and gave so clear a view of the subject in a short speech that the question was carried on the side he espoused, by a very large majority. His opponent, afterwards requested that the subject might undergo a private debate before six gentlemen of the bar. The proposal was agreed to, and on the discussion of th^ question, the vote of the umpires was unanimous in favour
of Mr. West.
VOL. II. X
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162
Eulogium on William West.
enjoyments of another kind in the evening of his hfe. They did not consist in viewing territories acquired by fraud or force, or fields stained with human blood. They were of a higher nature ; they consisted m con- templating trophies of his conquests over barrenness, briars and thorns, in fields covered with the means of encreasing the subsistence and numbers of men and beasts, and in beholding the progress of improve- ments through the country, upon upland farms, ot which he had set the example and in the tranquillity re- sulting from a well spent life.
After an illness of some weeks, which he bore with great composure, he calmly resigned his breath on the
6th December 1808.
If in ancient times, the birth day of that man was deemed worthy of celebration who first pressed the grape, and taught man the use of its intoxicating juice ; surely the memory of our own countryman will be held in grateful remembrance by posterity, when it shall be known, that he greatly contributed to increase the solid riches not only of our state, but also the wealth and com- fort of the farmer, which of late are so apparent, by the agricuhural improvements he introduced, and by shew- ing how the earth may be made to produce a greater increase by the judicious application of labour.-In the domestic 'circle, we dwell with pleasing satisfaction tiponthe recollection of those departed friends, who have endeared themselves to us by good offices, virtues and the kind courtesies of life ; the patriotic mmd vv.ll derive still greater pleasure from the consideration, that ' a long and^aclive existence had been spent in labours calculated to promote the interest of the community at
Eulogium on William TVest.
163
large, by improvements in a calling particularly suited to the genius and habits of the people ; and the friend to religion and morality will feel happy in the know- ledge of the fact, that with such great personal merit, the respected subject of this tribute was strict in the discharge of every duty, to that being from whom all goodness flows.
•.v■;:^^J:^ ^EaCT^J|g
C 164 1
On Mildew. By Timothy Pickering.
:, I
Read March 13th, 1810.
Washington^ January \st, 1810.
Dear Sir,
In a conversation with you on mildews, I mentioned a short but very ingenious dissertation on that subject, which I had often quoted on the like occasion, and which 1 promised to send you. It was published m a Boston newspaper in the year 1768; and the papers for the year being bound in a volume, it was fortunately preserved. A few days since I received the inclosed copy, transcribed at my request. It gives the only sa- tisfactory solution of the phenomenon of mildews that I have ever met with. Sir Joseph Bankes's discoveries (admitting their reality) did not abate my fliith in the correctness ot the " New-England-man's" theory. Sir Joseph's (to the naked eye) invisible seeds oi fungi, find, in the extravasated juices of the leaves and stalks of grain, a bed adapted to their nature, in which they vegetate. Those seeds, floating in the air, and strikmg against the clammy juices of those plants, would of course be there held fast and take root.
If you have visited the woods of Pennsylvania in the spring, you must have noticed the rusty appearance of ■' the sap (particularly I think of the sugar-maple) oozmg from the stumps of trees felled not long before, and co- vering the tops and sides of the stumps. Of the same colour, you know, is the newly extravasated sap on the
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On lifildew.
165
stalks of wheat and other grain when struck by the mildew.
You have seen many statements by American (and I believe British) agriculturists, of wheat being reaped while the grain was soft and milky, and the plants still green, or greenish ; which nevertlieless produced, if not a full sized, yet a tolerably plump kernel, and yield- ed a very fine and uncommonly white flour. It has been as often said by the same agriculturists, that by such early reaping of grain, on thejirst appearance of mildew^ you may obtajn a valuable though not an abundant crop ; the sap in the stalks continuing its natural course to the heads : whereas if the same grain remain- ed uncut, the seeds w ould be shrivelled, and often give chaff* only instead of flour. — How is this to be account- ed for ? The answer which has occurred to me, and which I will now state, while it furnishes an explana- tion of the declared fact, goes to confirm the theory of my country. man in the paper inclosed. It is this :
The stalks of grain being severed from their roots, the source of the malady is cut off". The vessels of the stalks are no longer distended by a superabundance of sap ascending from the heated soil — they cease to re- ceive any. The bursted vessels, through the wide breaches in which, the sap, in its rapid ascent, was rush- ing, naturally close ; and the sap already received into the stalks (further aided perhaps by dews) pursues its gentle course to the heads, and fills the grain.
The writer's remark, that grain in old fields which have been often dunged, is frequently mildewed, while that on new land escapes (for which, on his hypothesis, he assigns a natural reason,) comes in support of your
f
166
On Mildew.
opinion, that long and new dung is injurious to grain- crops.
I promised to give you an account of my experi- ments in cultivating the common field-peas, some twenty years ago at Wyoming, in which they were en- tirely free from bugs : but this 1 must postpone for the present.
I am, dear sir,
Faithfully yours
Timothy Pickering.
Richard Peters Esq.
From a Boston Newspaper printed in March 1768.
Some Thoughts upon Mildews.
As the public are now, on all sides, calling upon every one to communicate his observations upon any thing which relates to agriculture ; perceiving in read- ing M. Duhamel's husbandry, that there are a great variety of opinions, about the nature and cause of mil- dews upon grain, even among the most celebrated gen- tlemen farmers in Europe ; and desirous, if possible, to contribute mv mite towards any useful discovery ; I have ventured to shew my opinion, founded on such observations as fully satisfy myself; as it appears to me pcrfecdy to correspond with facts; and in a natural and easy way to account for every appearance and ef- fect of that disorder in grain.
m
-0m
' y fL-yif iWM a^ifwgasa
On Mildew.
167
My fixed opinion then is, and long has been (in which I since find I agree with the famous M. Chateau- Vieux) that the powder which forms the rust, called mildews, is the ex travasated juice of the plants dried by the sun, upon the stalk.
My reasons are these, 1st. The grain, we see, re- ceives no more nourishment after it is violently struck. 2d. On a careful inspection, it appears that some of these rusty blisters are actually under the outer coat or skin of the stalk, and do not appear to have any com- munication from without, others are only split in the middle, some more and some less, and the rust appears on the outside more or less according to the opening. 3d. The learned Mr. Tillet (Duhamcl tells us) with a good microscope, actually saw the juice issuing from these small openings, over which he still perceived some pieces of the membrane which imperfectly covered them. This methinks must give occular demonstration. But the two former satisfied me, the second especially appeared demonstrative.
The true cause of this extravasation is next to be in- quired into. This no writer that I know of has hinted. I take it to be this, a sudden obstruction of the juices of the plant, by a very cool night, after several days and nights of very warm weather.
By a continued heat, the earth is warmed to a great degree, and all nature invigorated ; this occasions a great ascent of the juices, so that every vessel is full (as in an animal of a plethorick habit when all knovi'- there is most danger of the vessels bursting ;) a sudden cold ensuing at this critical season chills the tender
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168
On Mildew.
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stalk, and most where it is slenderest, and there brings
on a stagnation.
But the earth, being deeply warmed by the long and mtense heat, not cooling so soon as the stalk, contmues the violent ascent of the juices as before ; and if there be an obstruction or stoppage above, in the slenderest part of the stalk, what must, what can be the conse- quence of this but an extravasatiotiy or that the vessels
burst? , ,
That in fact mildews in New-England always come
in cool nights, after intense and continued heats, 1 am sure from near 40 years observation, and from these symptoms I have often known a mildew prognosticated by observing persons, in the evening precedmg.
Such a cold, succeeding heat, every philosopher, and almost every man, knows will occasion a great dew. And this no doubt is the reason why this rust has been ascribed to the dexo and called meldew or mUdav. Whereas I suppose it was the cold, properly speaking, which occasioned both ; and that the dew had no other effect in occasioning the rust than, as by hanging on the stalk, it may increase the chill. ^
Another fact which, I think, confirms this hypothesis is this • that the thin leaves and the slenderest parts ot the stalk are always first affected : on the stalk the spots first api>ear just below the ear. Here the stalk being smallest and the vessels narrowest, is the first stoppage by the chill, as might be expected. And accordingly iust below this the first eruption appears ; and so lower and lower, till, without relief, it covers the whole and entirely ruins the grain if not akeady filled.
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On Mildew.
169
It is another well known fact, that grounds in our new settlements are much less exposed to mildews than in our old plantations which have been often dunged. The reason of this is plain upon this hypothesis, for dung heaps are known in summer, to receive and retain a much greater degree of heat than common earth.
There can be no doubt therefore, but that dunged lands do the same in proportion to the dung, especially the ,uav dung, laid upon them. And if so, it must oc casion a more violent ascent of the juices, and so the stalk will be proportionably in more danger of bursting, and of an extravasation of the juices, upon a sudden chill in the stalk.
Another fact commonly observed is, that high grounds are not so exposed to mildews as lower. The reasons are plain upon this hypothesis. 1st. Because there is not so much difference between the weather in the day and night on high grounds, as in the lower. 2d. Because the greater motion of the air in the high land, may in some measure prevent the stagnation of the juices.
But most of these things are very hard to account for, upon any other hypothesis I have ever seen.
Upon this plan too, an high xvind will be likely to prevent a mildew ; and accordingly, I think, they are never known to come in a windy night, though cold. And a shower, or a rope passed over the fields, at this time may do some service : as tlie washing and cleans- ing a sore on an animal, or as any kind oi motion in case of stagnation of the blood and juices of our bo. dies.
But though I take this, for the reasons given, to be the true cause of what are called mildews; from the
VOL. II. V
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On Mildew.
knowledge of whkh, it has been hoped some remedy S be investigated ; yet here 1 must own my .gno- "fee ; and leave it to some more happy gemus to bless Mankind with a re.^y, if providence permUs any
1 am not certain of any worth ment.onmg : but pre. suming upon the candour of mankind for my good - tention, whether I do any real service or not-I would inst hint at two or three thmgs. ' l^If the unhappy night or nights can be prognos.
ticated from the symptoms ^b°--«^: f'^Xu rope moving over the field, and stirnng the gra^n aU the nieht might be of some service, though I h.nk Itw off the'dew in the morning can be of but httle, or 2d In the woods where brush is plenty, the burmng : htp^f brush on the windward side so that the lole shaU pass over the field, and soften the air, m.ght verv probably be of service.
Or if by any means our land could be kept sUong enough to produce the grain most exposed to rnddews w'hout dung (or only very old dung were used) 1 have To doubt, but it would be of great service from the experience of our new settlements, where, so far as I can learn, they rarely>ve miklews to hurt them, as I
hinted before. ,
B^at as our mildews in New-England most commonly come about the beginning of July, the only thing we can depend upon at present, is the using every method
On Mildew.
171
to bring forward our grain as early as possible that it may ht full and ripe before the common mildews come.
A New-England-man.*
* I never knew who was the author of this theory of mil- dews ; but am inclined to think it was Peter Oliver Esq. then a judge of the Superior Court of Massachusetts. Two or three years after its publication, I became acquainted with him. He lived in the country, and was iond of agricultural enquiries and pursuits. To him also, I believe, the public was indebted for a second edition of the Reverend Dr, El- liot's essays on field husbandry, written more than sixty years ago ; the earliest American production on the subject.
T. P.
1st, January 1810.
rO]
It is agreeable to know, that our countryman has long since anticipated the ideas of the modem agriculturalists of Europe. The fiequent injurious effects of new dung upon grain, espe- cially wheat, are now fully ascertained, and were mentioned in our first volume, in the paper on " smut in wheat."
The proposition of the rope to agitate the grain, and shake off the dew, has been ^^eceyitly proposed by British agricultu-* ral writers.
J. M.
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C 172 ]
[ 173 ]
Notes, on Mildew.
I cannot reconcile to my ideas of the vrell known intelli- gence o* the celebrated Arthur Toung, his eulogy on the I use of long fresh dung, in preference to thatwhtch ts rotten; but by presummg that its failure in success here, .s owmg to the difference of climate. See his lecture, read before the British board o. agriculture, May 26th, 1809. P^^^ f ' *^' where he says, " x..re the practice general, it ^oulda^id above 20 millions Sterling to the produce of the kmgdom. Could I hazard the imputation of presumption, m settmg up my limited experience against an authority so truly respectable, I should doubt the soundness of his calculation, even in En- eland ; but in our country, and especiallij on loamy and hght lands, I should directly reverse his position. As Mr Davy has joined in the sentiment, it must be chymtcally r.ght. But from every observation I have made here, either on my own, or the lands of others similar to mine, I cannot hesitate to say, that, in this country, it would be agriculturally wrong. II it ever succeeds it must so do, in we^ cold, clays. It will be recollected, that I always distinguish between hot, long and fresh dung, and that sufficiently prepared, by a due fermen- tation and putrefaction, beiore it is applied. Over-rotted dungr I never approved of. There are, however, here, advocates for long, .resh, dung. 1 have seen the most vigorous vegeta- tion laved ; or end in blight, smut, or mildew ; and their grounds filled with weeds and vermin.
R. Peters.
i
On Salt as a Manure. By Richard Peters.
t
Read March 13th, 1810.
Belmont February 15th, 1809. Sir^
As agricultural occurrences turn up, I mention them, that we may preserve them ; for use, or consideration. A Mr. George Bedel of Frederick county Virginia, call- ed on me with a little pamphlet he has published ; en- titled " A late discovery &c. relative to fertilizing poor and exhausted lands," &c. I found this 'Uate discover^/,'' consisted in the use of common salt as a manure, applied in small quantities. His means of discovery were, at first the accidental observations of the moisture produced by salt in the driest seasons; and the great resort of earth worms, to places on which pickle or salt had been thrown. I know that those worms are attracted to such places ; but if they remain but a short time there, they die. I told him, that when a boy, it was my habit to sprinkle salt, or salt and water, in dry seasons, to cause the assemblage of earth worms, and furnish myself with bait for angling ; and I was never disappointed. I re- lated my frequent experiments with salt, on acres divid- ed into square perches, at rates from 20 pounds to half a bushel per acre : and my frequent top dressings in every way.* And ahhpugh I found the smaller quanti-
* These experiments were made^ and often repeated, more than 30 years ago. Occasionally I have since tried some of them. But I have never been encouraged to pursue the prac- tice to any great extent.
R. P.
174
On Salt as a Manure.
¥
ties the most successful. I had still doubts about Us ge- neral utility, as a manure of any certain efficacy. I read to him, from page 171 of our memoirs, the opmion 1 there give in these words. " It is not well ascertun.ed that common salt (muriat of sodaj is a manure. If it is, it acts by its septic quality, when applied in small quan- ties " His exclamation was-" Then it is a manure, and acts as thou hast supposed," I know it by nume- rous facts, and profitable experiments." He is not a farmer by profession ; and his pamphlet shews h.m not to be acquainted with principles of the art. His theor.es are heteredox and whimsical. Among other mipro- prieties, he proposes the mixture of salt with gypsum;- decidedly ruinous to both. He has a small farm ; but is a n,echanic;-I think in wire work. His facts are worthy of attention. He ploughs in the full ; or, .f practicable. - in the winter, and early in the spring. There he falls m with my experience; and probably this may be the se. cret, in a great measure, of part of his success. The strewing the salt must be before vegetation begins in the spring; and never to exceed one bushel per acre cither in substance or diluted with water, and mixed with two bushels of " virgin mould where fallen trees had lain and rotted, or from marshy land, or slackened ashes " The compound must be dry and friable. His average per acre seems to be three pecks of salt, mixed in the compound, so as to facilitate its bemg the be t r and more equally strewed. He applies it to all vegetable products ; whether on the farm, or in the garden. And he i^ives instances of happy effects in the orchard ; and on all fruit trees. He deepens his spots where Indian com is planted ; and puts therein a table spoonful of
On Salt as a Manure.
175
salt, or an handful of the mixture. He is a friend to mo- derate steeping of grain in weak salt and water, for seed ; but not to brines, strong, or long continued, as steeps. He has applied the salt, or mixtiyre, to cotton^ with great success ; and says, " The same mixture will answer equally well for wheat, rye, com and tobacco." Also hemp and and flux are benefitted by either the salt alone, or the mixture. It does not succeed on cLiy soils, not well pulverized. He gives instances of great im- provement by sowing a bushel of salt per acre, or that quantity in his compound, on grass lands. He told me that Lord Fairfax in Virginia practised this many years ago on timothy grass, and doubled its product ; as he was informed by an old servant of that nobleman. I give you this account from his pamphlet, and conversa- tion. He reprobates all applications of salt in large quantities; as being as injurious, as are the smaller por- tions beneficial. He top dresses with salt, or the com- pound, at the rate mentioned, all crops of either spring or winter grain ; and prefers strewing it in moist wea- ther. He says that others in his neighbourhood are in the practice, which is gaining much credit among those who adopt it. I think it best to make trial of his sug. gestions, though his panacea seems good for too many things ; and have no reason, from his appearance, to doubt the verity of his facts. Be they ever so apparent- ly improbable, the experiment will cost litde, of either labour or expence. The gantelope I ran, in early life, under the lash of prejudice, when, almost alone, I began to disseminate the uses and efficacy of small quantities oi plaister of Paris ; has taught me never to treat with neglect or contempt, relations of experiments in hus-
^
176
On Salt as a Manure.
bandry ; though they may appear improbable, or be un- accountable : especially when the test is easy, and cheap. Lord Dundonald condemns salt in large quan- titles ; but ipentions the profitable use of sea water : in which there is only one bushel and an half of salt to the ton. Darwin is opposed to the use of salt as a manure. Nothing can exceed the improvement made by the hay of our salt marshes, applied as manure. Plaister will not succeed, where this hay is used.
An old farm-servant reminds me of a remarkable fact. He was employed in my experiments with salt ; and scattered it in broad stripes across fields, in various quantities. The salted stripes were visible at great dis- tances, especially in winter; being free from hoar frosts, or slight snows ; when all other parts were covered. Nor would severe frosts operate so much on them, as on other parts. They continued open, dry, and free from frost, when all the surrounding grounds were deeply and firm- ly frozen. He says I strewed salt around fruit trees ; to keep off frosts, and increase their vigor. But in some cases, having salted too heavily, the trees were injured. In others, it appeared to be very salutary.
I am. Sir, Your obedient servant,
Richard Peters,
Dr. James Mease.
Secretary of the Philad. Soc. for promoting Agriatlture.
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Notes J
# Salt has long since been used as a manure, and various accounts are before the public, of the success attending it Fljpt especially is greatly benefitted by a slight quantity. .
J- M.
I
I have (in this early part of the season,) spread salt in the way, and in the quantities mentioned by Mr. Redd^ on every species of crop, both grass and grain. We have had an unfavourable spring owing to a long drought. I have pef- ceived no effect, good or bad, from all or any of the applica- tions of salt. On my wheat I had some ^pearance of bene- fit, but it was not decidedly clear. So that if it succeeds with others, I have my usual bad luck. It is my intention to repeat the experiment.
R. P,
July ISthy 1810.
VOL. II.
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On Star of Bethlehem and Blue Bottle. 179
On Tough Sod, Star of Bethlehem* and Blue Bottle.
By Richard Peters Esq, ^
«ead March 13th, 1810.
In the autumn of 1808, 1 ploughed my little trenched field in which I raised the hemp (mentioned m our Memoirs, page 244,) from five to seven inches deep. The sod was tough ; and the surface much bound. I treated it as I have been accustomed to deal wrth s»mi. lar soddy leys. I harrowed it frequently in the fall, and, in open weather, in the winter, in the direction of the furrows, to expose the garlick, and fill all opemngs a4- xnittingtoo great influxes of ak. To close them and consolidate the mass, I rolled it weU ; and thus it layed through the winter. The spiky-rolkr, an implement too little known or used in this country, and without which no farmer of heavy or clay lands can do justice to his husbandry, would have been the best for this operatK,n; though in light lands it is only occasionally required.
Those who do not follow my practice in old leys
newly broken up, object to fall ploughing ; because, m
the spring after fall ploughing, they cross-plough, and
turn up the ^od with all its pests and adhesion. This 1
never do, but hafrow it well and often ; sometimes with
a harrow, furnished with numerous hoes instead of tmes,
for my spring crop. I marked out the field in squares
for Indian corn, and planted at the usual time; not dis-
turbing the sod, except in a small part of the field, here-
* Ornithogallum umbelUitum.
after noticed. The corn thus treated does not, at first, grow so vigorously as in the common way. But as soon as the roots have penetrated the rotting sod, and mixed with the putrefying vegetable substances, the plant is wonderfully rapid in its increase, and in its improvement in colour and vigour. When the corn requires plough- ing, the sod is completely decayed, and becomes a manure.
I was truly mortified by the discovery in this field, of a new enemy, which defies all my efforts to subdue it. Mixed with some compost, made, in part, of the clean- ings of my garden, which had been spread several years, were a few bulbs of that most destructive and uncon- querable pest— the star-hijacinth* or wake o'days, as it is vulgarly termed— from which the increase has be- come ruinously great. It has resisted the attacks of two winter exposures ; and I can now pick off the surface, the bulbs unhurt, although those of the garlick are de- stroyed in their immediate vicinity. I have left no en- deavour for their extermination untried. Intermixed with them are many of the garden blue-bottle ; also a nuisance almost as indestructible, though not so pro- lific. It is dangerous to mix the cleanings or offals of gardens, with composts intended for the fields. Flowers innocent and grateful in the parterre, are often pests in the field. But the one now mentioned, does not always thus originate. I have brought this subject into view, to gain more than give information. On inquiry I am told, that thousands of acres, through the country, are
•«••!•
^ Star of Bcthlehem.^^lO d'chck*
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180
On Star of Bethlehenh
rendered worthless by this agriculturally vile plant. Botamcally I find it a favorite with our highly intel- ligent member, professor Barton ; who looks only at its good qualities ; with which I am willing to dispense, if it could be entirely rooted out of our country. I know nothing but paring and burning, that will subdue this foe. This I should have done ; but my public en- gagements, at the proper season abstructed me from such employment. This practice being unknown here 1 wished personally to superintend it ; to prevent (as much as in me lay) failure exciting prejudices against it. In the spring of 1809, 1 determined not to be outdone; and took the resolution to hand weed an acre of the worst part of my field. I turned in the plough ; and had a man, to lead boys, in hand weeding after the plough and harrow ; but could not get through above half the acre. From this I collected, in repeated ploughings and harrowings, at least one hundred and ffty bushels of bulbs ; estimated on a computation of the loads of a measured cart body. 1 should have persevered ; but the boys grew tired and abandoned the task.
Until my disaster, I had no idea of the extent to
which this destroyer has spread it ravages. I hear of it
from numerous quarters of the old settlements of our
state. It has even been indulged, in grass grounds and
meadows. Those who admired its insidiously modest
and bloomy whiteness, did not perceive the ruinous
pleasure they enjoyed. It exhausts far hty onA gar lick ;
though it does not nauseate the crops. Meadows and
fields, once fertile and productive, are rendered by it
barren and worthless. I earnestly wish that our farmers
would take the alarm, in due time to arrest the progress
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Usefulness of Rotting of Sod.
181
of this very destructive plant ; which has hitherto been toomuch overlooked and disregarded. All I can do, until I pursue farther means and experiments, which I shall not omit, is to give solemn warning !
In my attempts to detach the roots from my field, and assist the weeders by frequent stirrings with the plough and harrow, I have a confirmation of the useful- ness of my practice of rotting the sod. In the spot so often ploughed, the old vegetation dried, and perished uselessly, and the Indian corn was strikingly inferior to that on the rest of the field. The whole crop, al- though at first unpromising, was abundant ; and ex- ceededthe general rate of crops of my tenants and neighu hours. The season was not very favourable for corn. My field remained remarkably clean, and free from weeds— an advantage attending this mode of treating soddy grass-grounds. The corn stalks having been car- ried into the bam yard, the field is now winter-fallowed and limed ; in preparation for field pease, potatoes, and other ameliorating crops to precede wheat. It is in fine tilth ; and all the former cover of grasses, and other conimon vegetation (with the exception before stated) entirely rotted, and mixed throughout the ground mel- lowed by the culture, and very promising in its colour and loose texture. The garlick I do not fear ; but too many of the other bulbs remain to annoy me. An early spring ploughing will, under its present fitness for it, be highly serviceable, and complete its tilth. This will
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Usefulness of Rotting of Sod.
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now do as much good, as one immediately succeeding the first fall ploughing, would have done mischief.
Richard Peters. Belmont, February \9th, 1810.
To the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture.
I know other farmers who practice rotting a sod, to this
effect ; though not exactly In this mode. I have heard of none
who can destroy completely the bulbous pests. li any there
are, they cannot do a gi'eater service than they will render,
by communicating their practice.
R. P.
April 2d, 1810. Several clusters of the bulbs of the Star-Hyacinth, which have been exposed on a flat stone (with no earth but the small portion which adhered to them) to all the winter frosts; are now vigorously shooting ; uninjured by all the past inclement season. Having been informed that sheep would eat these bulbs, I turned in my flock, when the ground was covered with them. But they will not touch them ; nor will swine.
R. P.
These clusters remained alive until the beginning of Mayj
when they perished.
R. P«
Some Observations on Fruit Trees. By Edward Garri.
gues. Of Kingsess.
Read March 13th, 1810.
On the 6th day of the 5th month, 1803, the frost was so severe as to destroy the tender shoots of the apple trees, which at that time had extended about four inches, and the fruit as large as a small hickory nut ; this frost being succeeded on the following night by a heavy fall of snow, so as to break the branches of many tender or soft kmds of wood,— left but a slender hope of fruit for the succeeding autumn ; but, contrary to my expec tation, one of my orchards produced at the time of ga- thenng, 60 barrels of good pippins, and about 1000 gallons of best cider, while the other orchard which is nearly adjoining at the corners, did not produce one peck of apples either of summer or winter fruit al though of the same kinds of fruit as the first mentioned orchard. This excited some attention to the circum- stance attending the cold, which came from the north east and their being some shelter from that wind af- forded the orchard which produced fruit ; induced the behef, that when the east wind prevails, and the or chards are exposed to its biting effects while in bloom" or the fru.t but small, more danger attends the expectS crop, than from colder weather from other quarters T would therefore prefer planting some kind if shelter to orchards which may be exposed to the east winds as an expedient to counteract, its baneful influence
Would It not be found expedient to take off a W. part of the superfluous wood, that often overloads our
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Observations on Fruit Trees.
peach trees, as well as the frequent superabundant fruit that is often afforded at the same time, so that frequently where there is no worm in the root, the tree is prema- turtly exhausted by over- bearing of wood and fruit? Having planted some of the finest peaches that I ever saw growing, and while loaded with a very promising crop, by a sudden gust of wind, during a thunder storm, one of them was completely stripped of all its limbs — after which it put out, and the succeeding season, while all its companions in years were dwindling by their ex- cess of bearing the preceding year, this one proved and continued for several years a good bearer, of the red
rare ripe kind.
We may observe by the flowering almond and di- vers other shrubs or trees, that when nature offers an exuberant crop, that the plant, of roots are so enfeebled thereby, as to exhibit some doubts of the surviving of the plant or tree ; this induces me to suppose that we frequently blame the worm, as a known ravager of the peach trees, when perhaps, very many of them die by our want of attention to them. I have (as yet in vain) attempted to stimulate some of my friends in East Jer- sey, to attempt a peach orchard in the sandy pine lands, which I have great reason to believe would amply re- pay all cost for the essay, by affording perhaps the linest fruit, known to us, in this western world.
Thou will readily observe my dear friend this hasty sketch is only offered, as hints for the excitement of some who may be disposed to appreciate the advantages of good fruit ; not only for themselves, but believing when not abused by distillation, a blessing to our fa- voured country ; hoping that some of your society will
Observations on Fruit Trees.
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ana:
contniue to favor others in different situations of life, vvuh the result of their experience for the general good.
I subscribe myself, thy assured friend,
Edward Gakricubs.* ^ngsess Farm, 2d month 23d, IQiO. Dr. James Mease.
asweal be "^"^ communication is acceptable in itself,
on lis r^ " " '"°"^ •''^ ^^'^ ''^^ -'-"-- paid to
rsubie Tr '" r" "''^ P''°""'S^'^- -formation oa the subject ot fruu and truit trees. European books will not
suffice to sat.siy our minds ; because our climate and ctcum stances vary irom those of the od.er hemisphere. TherHs no greater mistake, in any country, than cuttLg down wood
winds. ALllar m h.s Gardener's Dictionary, has some ex eel lent remarks on this subject. The fact of th ut^l^f shelter menuoned by Mr. G. has been frequently obserTed but seldom m so remarkable a degree. H.s fact as to the pc.ch tree accidentally stripped ol its branches, deserves at tent,on. There are so many misfortunes attending this species of tree, and so much has been in vain attempted to s a hI some genera rules lor its culture, that welsi ate o n o nounce any decided opmion. Some have asserted that'thj kmle should never he applied ; while others support the ne cessity of the free use of it. It will be seen in ourlst volume" hat to the southward, where it flourishes extensivel T J chiefly leit to nature. And it is most probable that it win be very diflicuh to establish any certain rules, by wWch ThU short lived tree can be cuhivated here, with well Ibunded ex pectation ol profit or durat.on. funded ex-
See our first volume Dao-ps It te iw ^.
' P'^S"' ". 1^. ir, 21, 120, 183, sra.
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On Oat Pasture and Improvement of Soils. By William
Young. Of Delaware.
Read March 13th, 1810.
Jtockland Farm, March Qth, 1810.
Sir,
In compliance with your request, made a consider- able time ago, I have inclosed a narrative of the oat pasture; and several circumstances under which it has been introduced, with immediate advantage, to the live
stock and worn fields.
I have endeavoured to copy it from the fields them- selves ; I have however, designedly as it were gone back, to give another view, of some circumstances which are deemed important, and not with a view to overcome your patience, but to remove doubts, and introduce the experiments before you, in a different point of view. The inferences respecting the advan- tages, or use of the oat pasture, have been, and still may be deemed a whimsical expedient to spend money ; it may be ridiculed by others. But as it has outlived, and overgrown every thing of that nature here, there is some hope, that it may become indigenous elsewhere : it has been weighed for years under hopes and fears. Not that I dread criticisms, made under circumstances which offer a hearing, in private, and before the public tribunal, on equal ground, foot by foot, with the critic. It would give satisfaction to convince, or to be con- vinced. Improvement is the goal towards which I bend
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my course. If a new path shall be pointed out, and which has with greater advantage been trodden for seve- ral years, and with a greater number of simple facts tp recommend it ; it will be cheerfully followed. Other- wise the course now beaten by some years experience, cannot be abandoned.
I am most respectfully yours,
William Young. George Clymer, Esq. -^
Vice-President of the Philad. Soc. for promoting Agrie.
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It is generally acknowledged, that the best land may be reduced to sterility, from an injudicious rotation of crops. It remains in a great measure to be proved, whether a farm, which from bad management had been rendered barren, can be restored to its pristine fertility, by a treatment, not beyond the reach of every farmer' (nor without the farm) who possesses the land, free from incumbrances, which are nearly equal to the sup- posed value of his worn out farm.
When an enquirer examines the publications of those, who have given the results of their experiments; it ap' pears not only practicable, but easy : frequently how- ever, some circumstance is not mentioned in the com- munication, or some thing not attended to by the reader who intends to make the same successful experiments* but fails, from the causes stated.
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The Rockland farm, exhibited a subject for experi- mer.t, as it had not only been reduced by cropping, but generally, became a common for every animal, to take what remained of the scanty natural, but coarse her- bage : having read in various books the result of sow- ing plaister and clover, it was presumed, that sowmg plaister and clover, would be the extent of the expen- CCS, required to fertilize the fields, in a few years ;— a f« w experiments, proved that the plaister and clover seed were both lost, as no one could at any season of - the year, point out what field, or upon what part of any field they had been deposited, unless where the briars and bushes had been eradicated.
It should however have been mentioned, that the soil was generally a cold or heavy clay, some blue, white, light brown and a few spots of red clay, loaded with hard blue stone and rocks, chiefly quartz, mixed with iron, and copjjer. Some of the experiments were made with plaister, others were made by top dressing with lime, at the rate of twenty -five, to thirty bushels per acre : the lime was brought 20 or 25 miles from the kiln, and laid on the field at 25 cents per bushel : it was formed into a bed of about half a foot thick and covered with earth, ploughed and thrown over it, before it was slacked, that all the phosphoric principle disen- gaged by the water, might be united with the earth which covered it ; a heavy harrow was afterwards passed over it, so soon as the shell was reduced to powder ; the bed of lime and earth, was then frequently turned by the plough and harrow, until the whole assumed, the appearance, and smell, of soapers ashes, containing about ten parts of common soil, to one of lime. It was
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then carted, and spread regularly over the field, and in every instance it gave a return of clover, equal to ten load of stable manure to the acre. The idea of mixing the lime and earth, was suggested from spreading the re- fuse mortar of lime and sand gathered from about build- ings and laid upon the field, the effect of which I observed was more immediate than any equal quantity of lime : though mixtures of lime and earth, were equally so,— in both cases, the lime was completely pulverized, and the sand and earth, broke up the communication of hme with hme, and the succeeding rains carried the fertihzmg principle of the lime, as from a sieve, into the soil where it was spread,— it completely divided the soil, rendering that open and warm, which before
was compact, and too cold for the roots of the grain to live in.
The whole soil which before felt dead under foot became so elastic that persons of observation by walk- ing over the field in the night, distinctly told how far the hme and earth compost extended. The colour of the soil was likewise changed into that of chocolate.
These eff-ects presented several ideas, which had not occurred to me before: viz. That any thing which would separate the particles of the soil, and admit the air, would render these cold and heavy clays, warm and fertile • -that the free intercourse of air, would carry off" the acid ; to meet this, ploughing in the foil was adopted and found successful; one half of a field six vears ago was ploughed in the winter, the other half ploughed in the spring, that part which was ploughed in the spring has never brought grain, or grass, equal to the other! It should have been observed, that the field had not
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been ploughed for upwards of 20 years, and of course a great body of rubbish and roots were ploughed in, after the briar-hook and grubbing-hoe had smoothed the surface. Spreading of manure in the autumn, from the compost bed, has also been introduced with um- versal success, both upon grain and grass fields, the lye or salts, of the manure, being carried into the soil by the rains upon the breaking up of the frosts, which have in some measure prepared the soil to receive it. High agricultural authorities, even bottomed on accu- rate observation, are opposed to the practice of spread- ing out manure in autumn ; amongst these we find the Justly celebrated Lord Kaims, in his gentleman farmer, a work upon first principles, and deservedly of the high- est authority. A departure from his judgment is only to be allowed, where facts would censure silence ; nor should his name have been mentioned, unless to avoid the charge of writing without attending to what has been said on that subject ; it is no conclusive objection that " the strength of the manures, will be carried ofl by winter rains, or exhausted by the frost :" are not the warm showers more so, and are not the exhalations more copious in a warm than in a cold temperature ; is the descending of the sap in trees no monitor, as to the season for spreading out manures, and about the ope- rations of nature, for renewing, and invigorating, the process of vegetation.
Briar-bushes, and all vegetable substances have been covered up with earth, rotted and used with the same success, as stable manure, and so far, and so long, as they separate parts of the soil and admit the air, they fertilize and change the colour of the mould. These
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experiments tested by frequent repetition, have laid a foundation for experiments less expensive, and equally fertilizing, for the production of grass, and grain.— Ploughing and sowing, for the purpose of producing pas- ture, and accumulation of vegetable soil have been adopt- ed: for this purpose wheat, rye, Indian corn, (maize,) buckwheat and oats have been sown upon fields plough, ed, which were incapable of producing any crop ; none of those grains, have produced pasture and vegetable soil equally valuable, to that from the oats : where the others have failed, its roots have pierced, disarmed and vanquished the inhospitable soil and rendered it fertile ; the winter ploughing is continued, and the oats are thrown in, as early as the season will allow, sometimes even in February, either upon what has been ploughed m autumn, or in the fidds which were in corn the pre- ceding year, or in pasture oats, the preceding fall. In general they afford early pasture, and when tHey are reploughed in July and August, and sown again with oats, they furnish excellent pasture from early in Sep tember, until late in December, during that season when all other pasture is generally dried up. The first sowing of oats only gives about two months pasture, but the roots and remaining herbage affords a manure for the second sowing, and this always yields four months valu able pasture._vvhich no other course known to me will afford. In September, October, November and Decern ber,— considerable attention is required, to preserve the young clover, which the field will be able to raise in the second year of the oat pasture : if sown with the oats m the spring, the cattle should never be put in while the ground is too moist, as they would destroy and
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tread it into the soil; and sometimes dry seasons are also highly injurious to the clover. When the clover is sown with the second sowing of oats, the same care- is re- quired to prevent its being trodden in by the live stock, for this purpose it is always necessary to have a spare field of old pasture, which they will feed upon in wet weather, and which they would not relish in dry wea- ther. To guard against a dry season it is most proper never to pasture the oats, where the clover is sown, so much, as to prevent the herbage of the oats from giving shade to the clover. So soon as a field will produce clover luxuriantly, there is no farmer at a loss how to make his field as rich as he pleases and having got them into good heart, it will be his interest to put them in such rotation, as shall increase the vegetable soil and consequent fertility of his fields.
It is almost unnecessary, to mention, wliat will make its way to the understanding of every farmer, viz. The many advantages gained from treating his barren field
in this way.
1st. Eariy and late sweet pasture from such fields, which otherwise produced a scanty course herbage un- palatable to every animal.
2d. Immediate reward for his labour ; the stock are supported by it within two months from the time seed is sown : the two returns give six months green food ; he is not however to depend upon it for all his summer
pasture.
3d. Perhaps it is one of the most effectual means to root
out gariick, because what have escaped the plough in
the spring, are eaten down with the pasture from the
first sowing of oats and prevented from going into seed :
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the ploughing in July and August expose so many oF its bulbs to the sun that few shoots are to be n-und in oats sown for fall pasture.
4th. It is an easy and profitable way of clearing grain- fields from every species of injurious weeds ; as it will convert them into vegetable soil, and enable the farmer to raise* whatever grain or grass he shall judge most suitable to the soil.
5th. It will save the expence of a fruideis summer fallow, and the green herbage will aid the dairy.
6th. It enriches the farm from within itself, and no expence is required beyond the reach of any farmer : by rising one hour earlier, and working one hour later than usual, for two weeks, he may plough, and sow two acres, as an experiment. The pasture will recom- pence his labour, while his soil is greatly improved ; it is equally evident, that the fertility of the soil is ac- quired, partly from the roots of the oats, opening the soil and introducing the air, and warmth, of the sun, and partly, from accession of vegetable soil, produced from the decomposed roots of such pasturage ; but even before the roots are converted into soil, they pro- duce the most beneficial effects. Those from the spring sowing, retain the moisture, and supply the summer sow- ing with it. The roots from the fall pasturage, being full of sap, introduce winter frosts every where, into the soil, which swelling with the congcalation, separates the parti- cles ; for it is to be observed, that roots while the stem is eaten down by the stalk, do not become hard but are more numerous, than when the plant is matured into grain. It is however iiecessary to sow at least double
the quantity of seed, to that required for crops pf grain. VOL. ir. B b
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the pasture being so much the thicker, and the increase of vegetable soil from the decayed roots so much the greater.
It is not to be expected, that one or two repetitions of the series of oat pasture, will make the soil equally- rich as a common dressing of stable manure, which from a farm of 100 acres, will not in general extend over more than 10 or 15 acres ; this gives to one acre nearly the vegetable soil produced from seven or 10 acres. — It is to be remembered, that the object pro- posed was to render worn out, or barren fields produc- tive ; and in no case have I found a field, which was not after two years oat pasture, capable of producing clover, and receiving the gypsum with evident advan- tage. So soon as a field produces clover, no one is at a loss, how to produce advantageous crops afterwards. It is in every ones power, to estimate what the plough- ing and seeding per acre of oat pasture will cost, and according to circumstances, so will the expences be, but in general where the expences are high, the value of the pasture is equally so, and if even granted that the cost of ploughing, and seeding, shall be double in va- lue to the pasture produced, let the comparative value of the field be fairly estimated, before the course was begun, a waste, or worn out field, and what it is now, when the course is completed and laid down in clover, timothy or orchard grass.
It will be of the first importance to have at least two fields, otherwise if the cattle are constantly upon the same field it will not be found so productive, and in wet weather^ they should be turned into some field where the herbage wi^ too hard in dry weather. It will
be eaten greedily by the cattle after they have been sa- tiated with the soft blades of the oats ; under this ma- nagement, beeves have been fatted for family use and taken off in December, without any grain. It is ob- served that the oats scour at first, but the free use of salt, readily corrects the complaint, and in no pasture do they ri.e faster in flesh ; and the juices of their meat uncommonly grateful.
The fields which have been in com the preceding year, have also been sown in the spring; without being reploughed, and have done equally well, except upon heavy clays, when the spring has commenced with heavy rains, which have rendered the soil too compact to be opened, even wkh a heavy brake harrow, drawn by four horses. The fields from the oat pasture the foregoing autumn, have also been sown, without re- ploughing, when the spring has set in without much rain, after severe frost : not only the oat pasture, but also the clover sown therewith, have answered well.
Oats have also been sown amongst the hills, and drills of corn, after it has received the last dressing. It has succeeded, without any visible injury to the corn, provided, care has been taken not to injure the roots' by the plough or harrow at the time the oats were sown.
It has been enquired, are not all crops of oats ex- hau sting, if so, how can two sowings of oats in the same year, render the soil fertile ? it is granted, if oats shall be matured into seed they will certainly exhaust but if cut off, while in the blade, they, and all culmi-' fcn us plants, will fertilize. The experiment was made , With Indian corn, sown broad-cast, cut twice and car.
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ried to the stable, and a crop of turnips taken off the ground the same season : the manure was laid on before the corn was sown, but none was given when the turnip
seed was put in.
Anothc: way in which oats fertilize, appears to be from increase of vegetable soil ; this is within the view of every observer ; the remains of the pasture ploughed in, particularly in July and August is speedily decom- posed, its tenderness and moisture aiding the dissolu- tion. But dry stubble and husky roots are difficultly decomposed, nor do they produce so much carbonic or couUy matter in the soil, which chemists say decom- poses the water, and produce the air required to pro- mote vegetation. As the vegetable is produced from air and water, and not from earth, which seems to be no more than the labf)ratory where the process of vege- tation commences, and finally serves as a matrix to hold one part of the plant, while the other parts are raised aloft, in quest of superior aid, to complete the inscru- table operations of the vegetable fabric.
It has also been enquired, will this process of oat pasture fertilize every where? it is answered, that where the soil and climate are the same, the effects will be the same also. A description has been given of the soils, where the experiments were made, and are still going on. If experiments of the same nature shall be made upon a different soil, and climate, the result will be different, and more or less favourable, according to circumstances, and for which the practice now men- tioned, cannot in justice be rendered accountable. If my shoe fit my foot, I am warranted to say, it will suit a foot of the same size, and shape every where ; let no
one conclude, that it will fit a foot of larger or less size or different form, but I must confess that passing over things equally obvious, I have run into numerous and expensive errors.
But when it is enquired upon what evidence it is to be received— the reply is at hand,living evidences, are at the command of every one who chooses to make the trial, let him however, be on his guard, against suffer- ing himself to take a crop in place of the spring pasture oats.
If it shall still be enquired, how does the oat pasture fertilize? It may be also observed that the constant ver- dure and green herbage prevent the rays of the sun from parching the soil and depriving of its moisture and air, both of which are highly necessary to vegetation. The double portion of juicy vegetable matter arising from the two crops of pasture in the same summer, be- ing every where united with the common soil partly mechanically and partly chemically, renders the soil capable of retaining sufficient moisture and elastic air, to make it open and warm, and by which the soil does not only become thicker by going downward, but ac tually expands, or rises, so as to give a furrow, con- siderably deeper, than formerly, over immoveable rocks. Some years ago, a field in view of the farm- house, marked the broad rocks, during the course of every crop ; they are now covered with so much soil, that they are seldom observed. The two ploughings also contribute to the increase of the air in the soil without which no soil can be fruitful, there being no 'vegetation in vacuo. Tull's horse hoeing husbandry, was introduced under the idea, that the pabulum of
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plants was pulverised earth ; the fact daily before us is, that pulverized earth, retains the moisture and a?r, as the handmaids of vegetation, some experiments have lately been made, the results of which favor these re- marks, viz. " that soils afforded quantities of air by distillation, somewhat corresponding to the ratios of
their values.^^
Inclosed I have sent soils in the state they were found, before the courses mentioned were introduced.
No. 1. A sample of the unimproved soil about three inches deep.
No. 2. A sample of the same soil four inches deep, improved by the lime compost two years.
No. 3. A sample two inches deep from the field in its exhausted state.
No. 4. A sample three inches deep from the same field, which was once sown in pasture oats, and has been one year in grass sown after the oats, which did not take well, partly owing to the late season when it was sown ; and partly owing to the seed having been injured, and
the soil still cold.
No. 5. A sample two inches from an exhausted field.
No. 6. A sample four inches from the same field after pasture oats, w hich was followed by wheat, a poor crop, and succeeded by oats a middling crop, with clover which yielded a considerable swarth last season;
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when the clover is ploughed in, it will be followed by pasture oats.* ,
* The samples of soils sent by Mr. Young, exhibited the most marked difference. The progress from absolute ster- rihty, to rich mould, might be traced by the appearance of colour in the several parcels. I with great pleasure bear tes- timony on the subject of Mr. Young's improvements. In the years 1806 and 1808, I saw cattle feeding in good pasture and good crops of grain, and grass growing in fields, which m 1804, I thought totally irreclaimable from briars, garlick roots, and original poverty of soil. Where manure is at hand, and capital in the possession of the cultivator to purchase it any sod may be rendered fertile ; but Mr. Young affords the best example of good farming, viz. enriching a naturally poor sod, and restoring fertility to exhausted land, by re- tummg thereto its own produce raised with the least possible cxpence. ^
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On Soiling Cattle : mixed cultivation of Corn and Potd-
toes. By John Lorain.
Read July 10th, 1810.
Tackoney, 2\st May 1810,
Sir^
I received yours of the 14th instant, and consider myself highly honoured by your board, but am obliged to decline an attendance on your meetings, as my family who are very lonely situated, would not feel easy were I
absent at night. ,
I regret exceedingly that my peculiar situation, pre- vents an intercourse with gentlemen who have added reading, reflection, and experiment to long practical in- formation. Books and the practice of common farmers have heretofore been my only resource, the latter are too generally in hostility, with every thing that increases labour or expence, and it is extremely difficult to glean what will best suit the soil and climate of my farm, from
the former.
I shall go on to make the most attentive use of such information as I can obtain, and should any thing wor- thy of record occur in my practice, it shall be com-
municated to you.
1 am now trying to fat 27 young healthy steers, rising up from about five to eight or nine hundred pounds, also seven three year old runts and a cow, by soiling them in yards where they have shelter from sun and rain, and good spring water at will : fresh grass is also given them twice a day under my own inspection. For two
On Soiling Cattle.
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years past I have not succeeded owing as I suppose to deficiency of speargrass, they improved as fast as ex- pected until the second cut of clover, which caused a frothing from the mouth and they would scarcely eat sufficient to keep them alive. The economy of feeding in this way, has not been exaggerated by reputable European writers, in this I think 1 cannot be mistaken, as correct accounts are kept for every field, and trans- action of my farm.
One man and a boy of twelve years old feeds the above, together with six horses and three milch cows, ©ne bull and a large ox that has grain, and where the grass is good the work is not hard; the manure is worth more than their labour, and although Dr. Anderson's mode of making hay under cover, may be rather visi- onary on an extensive scale, here it may be beneficially practised, and not a fork-full lost by over feeding.
Last spring I planted ten acres of Indian corn, the rows eight feet three inches distant, hills or rather clus- ters at eighteen inches on the rows; and but three plants suffered to grow in each. Between the corn, two rows of potatoes unplanted two feet three inches a part; eight acres were dunged on the sod mostly clover, the other two spread with tolerable rich mould; produce 430 3-4 bush- elscorn,and 848 bushels of potatoes. This product though not coutemptable was far below my expectation, and can be accounted; for, the plan was novel to my ploughman, and I could be but little with him, a great deal of the corn was removed after up, to make room for the plough, much left standing with too little room, to the great injury of both crops, and either from the backwardness of the season or some other cause a considerable quantity re.
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planted, and the last ploughing of three acres being too deep, while the ground was wet, it baked and turned yellow in a few days, this produced short corn and nub- bins generally, except the ridges hereafter explained, they stood the test of this ordeal and although one of them planted too close to the potatoes, had but little soil left on one side, yet it flourished and produced plenti- fully : many rows were planted in the water furrows, made when the potatoes were put in, and yielded nub- bins only, the replanted and removed gave fodder. 1 do not regret the loss sustained, by the clearing out fur- rows, as it led to valuable information, they naturally introduced ridges, in other parts of the fields, and here a double quantity of soil and dung was concentered under the com, and it was luxuriant; one of those rows was cut and carefully set up by itself in my lawn, husked and measured in December, and yielded at the rate of 66 bushels per acre, and of one ton six hundred and thirteen weight of fodder, viz. blades, husks and tops, and one ton and seven hundred weight of stalks, excellent litter for the yard. — This was a beautiful shaded summer fallow; eight acres are now in wheat, seeded with sixteen bushels, and at least equal to any 1 have seen this season; the other two ploughed in the fall in one-bout ridges, and seeded in spring with six bushels barley, is really handsome except about one quarter of an acre of cold relentive clay, which has suf- jfered by the drought.
1 have planted this spring 13 acres in com and pota- toes, the former on five and a half feet ridges, two rows on each ridge, 12 inches a part along the rows and the same distance triangular across, two plants to be left
Mixed Culture of Potatoes and Com.
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in each cluster. Between the corn ridges are planted on beds five and a half feet wide, two double rows of pota- toes, vacancy between them two feet two inches, the double rows eight inches a part, straight and triangular like the com ; this leaves ten feet tour inches between the double rows of corn for sun and air. 1 have never known a very large crop of corn without a great many plants, and if those can be better arranged with valuable crops of other kinds growing on the same ground, it will be an object, and it is strikingly obvious that the outside plants of a field are much the best, when not incommoded by fencing &c. Those grounds were ploughed in one- bout ridges in the fall, twice ploughed and well harrowed in the spring, manured at the rate of 64 loads* of farm yard dung per acre, each load 32
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* I have frequently planted Indian corn in single rows eight feet asunder, and dropped single corns, two feet distant from each other in the rows ; so as to stand in single plants. This mode was suggested to me by General Washington^ who told me he had great success in it. When the corn was ridged, potatoes were planted in the cleaning out lurrows ; which were filled with rotted dung ; and closed by two fur- rows backed over the potatoes by the plough. I have had repeatedly 40 to 50 bushels of shelled com, and 100 to 150 bushels of potatoes, to the acre. The roots of the com ran into the dung, and received every benefit. I never had a nubbin ; as the stalks in general had each no less than three, and the most four, perfect and large ears. In weight the crop always exceeded the best corn cultivated in the common way; whatever number of bushels there might be. The culture must be clean, and the stirrings frequent*
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cubical feet measured in the field, after being settled by the driving one half applied to the corn, the otlier half to potatoes; to avoid poaching the potatoe rows, the dung assigned them was hauled and dropped on the com rows, and from thence spread on the potatoes, which were re- gularly placed in holes sunk by an indenting roller, one and three quarter inches below the surface, and covered by the plough securing a depth of loose soil underneath as well as the light covering of dung and soil above ; after this the corn rows were well pulverized with a hoe harrow, when the dung was hauled and spread, they were ridged up and the sides of the ridges harrowed, and the tops flattened with a harrow without tines the holes made with an indenting roller two and a half inches deep, in which the corn was planted and covered with hand hoes ; the potatoes are generally up with a rich broad leaf and strong stem, most of them harrowed with a folding harrow, an excellent tool, cleaning and pulve- rising the soil quite up to the stems of the plants ; the
I wait the result of such bold and heavy dunging on wheat* It is far beyond any thing I have known. I never could get wheat to stand till it came to the sickle, or with heads filled, or clear from smut or other diseases, after half the quantity of dung menlioned by Mr. Lorain was applied. But as my manure (dung) is always moderately fermented and putrefied, I cannot calculate what is the proportion of strength, or quan- tity, compared to Mr. Lorain^s muck ; as I suppose it to be. ' If ever fresh dung, applied in any thing like such quan- tities, succeeds, with a -wheat crop .; it must be after summer crops have subdued its bad qualities, and effects.
R. P.
On Soiling Cattle.
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plough will immediately follow to earth them up,— the com is just peeping out of the ground it being designed that the potatoes should take the lead.
And am with respect, yours &ۥ
John Lorain,
Dr. James Mease.
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Read July 10th, 1810.
Sir,
The following contiuns a confirmation of the opinion I have always held, as to the operative principle of the plaister of Paris. It will be seen in my " agricultural inquiries on plaister of Paris,'' published in 1797, that I therein mentioned, as a conjecture, what reiterated experiment has since proved. I translate from the French, a sketch of the memoire on the subject, sent to me by a friend. It contains information worthy of being promulgated ; though much of it is here, more confirmatory than new, as to the plaister. But I do not recollect that any experiments have been made with SULPHUR, for the purposes stated in the memoire.
Richard Peters.
20th June, 1810. Dr. James Mease.
Secretary of the Agric. Soc. Philad.
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The efficacy of sulphur on vegetation.
''A memoire of M. Berard the elder a trader at PONT-LIEU les le u kjh s , and member of the socictij oftlmt town, treating on the use of plaister or gyp- sum, employed as a manure; containing observations curious and useful in agriculture.''
"ikf. Berard observed, with admiration, in many jour- nies on the borders of the lake of Geneva, in Savoy,
On the Vegetative Efficacy of Sulphur. 207
and elsewhere, the excellent crops of clover plaistered ; and was astonished at the prodigious effects of that manure ; considering the small quantity used. But although the mode in which that substance acts upon vegetation, has remained, and will always be a mystery ; the thoughts which M. Berard has expressed on the composition ofthe^z//?^, and his appropriate conclusions, have not been useless to himself, or destitute of benefit to the art of husbandry.
"il/. Berard having seen in chemical books, that the analysis of the gypsum produced much of the sulphuric acid, combined with lime and other calcareous earths ; and, calculating its quantity, he saw that this manure owed its wonderful efficacy to the sulphuric acid ; in a proper state of combination to promote vegetation. This acid entering into the composition of animal and vegetable matter employed as manure, was to him a confirmation of the opinion he had adopted, of the pow- er of this agent in the work of vegetation.
"The fertility of the lands abounding in volcanic mat- ter, as in the neighbourhood of Catanea in Sicily, near Naples &c. where the soil is evidently combined with the ashes of the volcano, or of decomposed lava, aflbrded a strong proof of the vegetative virtue of sulphur.
"After these reflections, M. Berard caused brimstone to be pounded and sifted ; and mixed it with ashes, to render the sowing easy. Having spread this powder on clover and lucerne, on wheat, and natural grass, he waited the effect. It was surprising on the lucerne and clover; but little perceptible on the wheat and natural
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208 On the Vegetative Efficacy of^ Sulphur.
grass.^ Repeated experiments gave the same results. It was particularly remarkable, that its effect was the most prompt, when, after its application, a shower of rain fell : without doubt, because moisture aids and developes the sulphuric principles. Let the powder or the gyps be employed, the result is always the same.
*' It appears, that we may conclude from this, that sul- phufy is one of the greatest stimulants to vegetation. Let this be admitted, and we perceive the numerous advantages of this discovery, to the agriculture of coun- tries wherein sulphur is common. We already have shewn the benefit of sulphur for artificial meadows. Many proofs have demonstrated, that it singularly pro- motes the vigor of the olive tree. Perhaps the same ad- vantages may be derived to other Jruit trees. It is known that countries abounding in sulphur produce the strongest wines. We may conclude from this,t that bi/ introducing the sulphur^ in a convenient proportion^ in the compost of dungy earthy and sand, which commonly furnishes the manure for viiies ; and suffering the whole
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* I have never derived any benefit from plaister on xvheat and natural grass. Some have told me that they have pro- fitably applied it to wheat ; but I have never seen any instances of it ; save that plaister on moistened or steeped seed wheat (if it be not steeped in brine) has been useful, in giving the plant a vigorous shoot, in its early stages.
R. P.
f This agrees with my freqaent practice of introducing plaister, instead of lime, into dung and compost heaps. See volume first, page 283.
R. P.
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On the Vegetative Efficacy of Sulphur. 209
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to ferment, we shall ameliorate the nature of the vines ; and produce the quality of those grapes, which are cul- tivated on grounds filled with volcanic matter. It is, at least, worth the experiment." [Extracted from the An- nals of Arts and Manufactures. 1 809. ]
I have, on garden plants, long and fi-eely used flour of sulphur (on melon vines particularly) to destroy or expel the grubs and flies. I have perceived them to thrive, but attributed their vigour to their being freed from annoyances. I have also used sulphur water on fruit trees; to banish or destroy aphides. I plaister most plants; and therefore have supposed, that the gypsum alone had benefitted them. A small infusion of oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) in a large proportion of water, promotes vegetation in, and banishes insects from, garden plants. It would be well to make some experiments with the sulphur alone ; or combined as the memoire mentions, on a variety of plants : on those of the trefoil tribe especially. I do not see why the sul- phur, in substance, should not produce efiects similar to those of its derivative — sulphuric acid. But plaister b, with us, cheaper ; and in greater plenty,
Richard Peters.
In page 98, agricultural enquiries on plaister op FARis, I mention—
** If Ingenhausz's ideas of the almost magical powers of the oil of vitriol (suLPHURiq acid) on vegetation be just, in any
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important degree, the sulphuric acid may be considered either in itself, or as it sets other active agents at work, the main spring of operation in plaister. It is commonly used by che- mists to separate the carbonic^ and all other acids, from their combinations, wherever they are found. The earth, accord- ing to the theories before stated, is constantly filled with the carbonic acid^ by furnishing carbon to the air it inhales. It is found in calcareous substances, with which, in great varieties, the earth abounds ; it exists in, or is produced by, the roots of decaying or decayed vegetables, trees, and all animal or vegetable manures. I therefore thmk it a corollary fairly to be drawn from this theory, and the actual analysis of the gyps ^ that it is this sulphuric or vitriolic acid which constitutes its operative principle^ &fc," — And see volume first, page 158. I have since ascertained by a variety of practical tests, to my satisfaction, that this opinion was well founded. After separating the vitriolic acid^ the other parts of the plaister are inoperative ; and have no effect whatever on vegetation. As to my conjectures about the mode of its operation, they yet remain mere conjectures ; though practical effects are be- yond all doubt. I believe also that, " the mode in which that substance acts upon vegetation, has remained, and will always be, a mystery.'^'* Why it acts on some plants, and not on others, is as mysterious and inexplicable, as is its mode of acting on those whereon it produces invariable and wonderful effects. We know what will assist its operation ; and can supply artificially what it does not find, or has exhausted, in the earth. And this is enough for us to know ; for all practical uses.
R. P.
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TvsiSy'Broad'tailedj'Mountairiy'SiiEEV. By Richard
Peters.
Read May, 8th 1810.
It will be seen in the first volume of our Memoirs, that I obtained the original stock of these sheep from^ Colonel PtVA-enw^-, then secretary of state; to whom they were sent by tVilliam Eaton Esq. when consul of the United States, at Tunis. For this estimable proof of his patriotism, he merits the thanks of all who profit by its advantages. I deemed myself bound, though no terms were made with me, to distribute many of their progeny gratuitously ; and gave away lambs, for several years, with a view to encourage and spread the breed. My pastures were overburthened with ewes, sent to my rams when no charge was made. Those who re- ceived the benefit, were not sufficiently conscious of ' its value ; save that they found the broad-tail excited curiosity; and procured a ready sale for the lambs. The original ram, after I had bred from him some ex- cellcnt sheep, was sent, for his own, ^nd the use of the farmers of Lancaster county, to my late friend General Hand. I was offered what was then deemed a high price for the ram, by some victuallers ; who wished to breed lambs for the market ; but I did not think it consistent with my ideas of propriety to accept it. Nor did I wish the lambs killed; and my object of increasing the num. bers, and spreading the breed, defeated. I gave up thfc management of my farm to a tenant, on shares ; ^nd with it the full blooded sheep. Neither he, nor thoscj
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Tv}iiSj'Broad'tailecl,'Moimtai?i,-SiiEEr. By Richard
Peters.
Read May, 8th 1810.
It will be seen in the first volume of our Memoirs, that I obtaiatd the origmiil stock of these sheep from Colonel Pickering, then secretary of state; to whom they were sent by JVilliam Eaton Esq. when consul of the Lnitcd States, at Tunis. For this estimable proof of his patriotism, he merits the thanks of all who profit by its advantages. I deemed myself bound, though no terms were made with me, to distribute many of their progeny gratuitously ; and gave away lambs, for several years, with a view to encourage and spread the breed. My pastures were overburthencd with ewes, sent to mv rams when no charge was made. Those who re- ceived the benefit, were not sufficiently conscious of * its value ; save that they found the broad-tail excited curiosity ; and procured a ready sale for the lambs. The original ram, after I had bred from him some ex- cellent sheep, was sent, for his own, and the use of the farmers of Lancaster county, to my late friend General Hand. I was ottered what was then deemed a high price for the ram, by some victuallers ; who wished to breed lambs for the market ; but I did not think it consistent with my ideas of propriety to accept it. Nor did I wish the lambs killed; and my object of increasing the num- bers, and spreading the breed, defeated. 1 gave up the management of my farm to a tenant, on shares ; and with it the full blooded sheep. Neither he, nor those
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On Tunis Sheep.
succeeding him, held the sheep in proper estimation ; though every endeavour was made to impress it upon them. The lambs were sold, year after year, to the butchers ; at the prices, or nearly so, given for those bred from common sheep. It is only very lately that the present tenant has discovered their value, by the demand for them ; which is now much greater than can be supplied. This demand is created by the experience of those who have been convinced, by their own obser- vation, of their superior excellence. My flock is so reduced, that, in a pecuniary point of view, this late conviction of the value of this breed, is to me of very little importance. My tenant is now taking some pains to recover his lost time and opportunity. I am happy to know, that others have been more careful to preserve this highly valuable race. I mention these, and other, circumstances, to account for these sheep not be- ing very extensively known and estimated, for a length of time.
My endeavours at getting the sheep into credit, were, for a long time, very unpromising. I had insensibility as well as prejudice to combat; nor do I believe them yet entirely overcome. The trouble I now give to the society, by a long, though just, detail of the character and qualities of these valuable sheep, is my last effort to remove and conquer what remains of this insensibility and prejudice. Experience in the affairs of the world too often shews, that whatever intrinsic merit a saleable article may possess ; the price in the market is the crite- rion by which its value is generally estimated. It is not unlikely that my object of spreading this breed of sheep, and inducing care and attention to them, would have
Oji Tunis Sheep.
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been (taking mankind as we find them) more effectually accomplished, by demanding large sums for even the few I could have sold, or hired out as tups, at high prices. If any new proofs of this view of the subject were want- ing, the daily instances of purchases, at prices novel and astonishing in this country^ made of another highly valu- able race of sheep, would afford them.* The zeal now prevalent for the breeding this, or any other, estimable addition to our stock of domestic animals, did not ex- ist at the time the Tunis sheep made their first ap- pearance. 1 am highly gratified by present prospects
* A ^?ar o^ Merinos have been recently sold at S 3000. I never knew a pair of Tunisians selliorinore than S 100; and most commonly ior halt the sum. Whatever may, in practice, be proved by the Hudibrastic calculation, —
-— ** What is WORTH, in any thing,
" But so much money, as ^fwill bring .?'*
few farmers could sustain a loss to the amount of prices now demanded for full blooded Merinos. A dog\ in a few mi- nutes; and disease^ in a few days, would ruin, or materially injure, a farmer of common circumstances. Whether these prices be high, or low, I pass no opinion. Yet bounds should be set, to desires for profit. And this must be left to regulate itself. The Merinos have had able and fortunate patrons ; but their character abroad has mainly promoted their credit here ; while the Tunisians^ with no assistance from fo- reign reputation, and even contending against prejudices, as well as insensibility to their value, have principally ad- vanced themselves. When, however, the former were of- fered for sale, at first, near Philadelphia, their merits were so unknown, or overlooked, that their lambs were sold to the butchers, for lack of other purchasers ; though the sheep were then offered at moderate prices.
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On Tunis Sheep,
on this subject. I am by no means desirous that it should be repressed in its application to the favourite race of sheep, now endeavoured, almost exclusively, to be brought into fashion. 1 am fully impressed with the value of Merino wool. No other wool, within my know- ledge, can, compete with it. Nor do I mean in any way to lessen the estimation in which the Spanish sheep of this breed, are held. I say of this breed (in which there are varieties, some whereof are much inferior to others) because in Spain, there are sheep of as coarse carcase and wool, as any of the worst we have. And it is well known, that the mutton of all breeds there, is so in- difterent, that the tables of the wealthy are supplied from Barbary : wool of valuable breeds, being the pri- mary object, is no doubt the cause of inattention to the other uses of sheep ; added to other circumstances.
Our country is extensive enough for many different races ; and some, in parts of this, as in all other coun- tries, may thrive where others will not. In South Caro- lina the Tunis sheep, obtained from my stock, are pre- ferred to all others. In Engla?j(l, imd other sheep-coun- tries, that some breeds are better adapted to local circum- stances than others, is verified indisputably ; as will be seen in the accounts of their best wriiers ; though sheep may be indigcnated, with proper care, in any country. In England I have never heard of the Tunis 7nountain sheep. Their writers do not mention it ; though they have broad- tailed sheep ; and I am persuaded this spe- cies is there unknown. 1 therefoi e wish that the Tu n i s- BROAi)-TAiLED.MOUNTAiN-SHE£P,mayhave its share of attention; without interfering with the views of those who prefer others. I have mentioned emphatically their
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specific distinction, because the broad-tailed African sheep in general, so far as my knowledge extends, are much inferior to these. All I have known (except some Persian sheep) with broad tails, have been an unprofitable race ; though no doubt, as they occupy so great a por- tion of the habitable globe, there must be, among them, many valuable kinds.
My experience and observations as to the Tunis sheep, are founded on a knowledge of them for a period of thirteen years. The benefits arising from their propa- gation have accrued, in the greatest degree, to others. For it may be seen, that my advantages— except in the real pleasure, and solid satisfaction I derive to
myself from even the partial success of my eflbrts
have been small indeed. I see no cause to claim any merit over others, on this account. Reasonable emolu- ment is the just reward, of all who risk or labour in laud- able pursuits. I do not aim at establishing this on the depretiation of other good breeds ; being only desirous that it should take its proper rank among them.
There should be varieties of races and kinds ; to suit not only local circumstances, but also different objects, for which they are intended. I believe with Culletj (on live stock: page 153,) ''that breed is the best tliat brings the most profit, in fleeee and carcase together, from the same ground, in equal times." I do not hesi- tate to avow my persuasion, that the Tunis mountain sheep will, in the long run, compete with any, in this view of the subject. The temporary price of better wool, with all that has been said of its presumed sUi- ' bility, does not alter my opinion. Plenty or scarcity of an article, and shifting demand for it, operate on price.
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These are circumstances perpetually fluctuating. That breed is most generally desirable which is best suited to all common circumstances ; and requires no more care and attention, than good common farmers can, and will, bestow.
I have never seen better home-made cloth, than the selected parts of the Tunis fleeces, and especially the cut next the pelt, will afford. Some of them will bear three cuts, of about an inch and an half to two inches long> each. Many of the fleeces, are of this description ; and more are short and fine. Of worsted and fleecy hosiery, I have not seen any other wool produce superior fa- brics, for common use. For the latter, the cut next the pelt has been used. I have seen some fleeces appa- rently yi/rry next the pelt, like beaver ; but consisting of very fine-fibred wool.
The mutton^ is known to be among the finest and best in our market. The proportion of flesh to size of the animal, is, I think, remarkably great. There is little offal in this sheep. It is, when pure, hornless ; and its bones are small. It lays the fat on profitable points. Though it does not shew the suet on the kid- neys, as much as do someother sheep, yet the fat is mix- ed with the flesh ; which is of the most inviting colour ; and marbled in a striking degree. Its tail (which I have known, when prepared for cooking, to weigh from six to eight pounds) \{ properly dressed^ is a feast for an epi* cure. The tail of a young beaver, which I have enjoyed when I dared to indulge in such food, (when free from a fishy or sedgy taint, to which, at certain seasons, the flesh of amphibious animals is subject,) is the only rival I know.
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On Tunis Sheep.
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The following additional account of these sheep, can be verified, by myself, and others who have gained a practical knowledge of them.
1. The Tunis sheep are better set with ruooi, than any others generally known here. The Merino may be an exception ; but it remains for experiment, in a common course of keeping sheep, by farmers here. There is no part of its body uncovered. It does not shed its wool like common sheep : so that I have never seen a ragged Tunis sheep, where the blood of the stock predominated. If the wool of the mixed breed is de- ciduous ; it shews that the sheep partakes of the cross, more than the stock. I have known one kept unshorn for a year after the fleece might have been taken oft'; and the fleece continued entire and thriving ; and the sheep remained in high health. But I would not re- commend this, as an eligible practice. For very fine fabrics, the Merino wool can be used alone ; and such are only within the purchase of the wealthy. It is most generally mixed with fine wool of other fleeces ; and it is in such case, worked to most profit. The Tunis wool is suflScientfor all common purposes; and can be ap- plied without mixture with other wool, to more uses than that of the Merino, or any other sheep generally known here. The average weight of fleeces is from five to five and a half, and I have known some flocks to average six pounds ; I speak of a selected flock, well fed, and attended to with care. From individual sheep of the full blood, I have shorn eight, nine, and ten pounds. I mean, in this estimate, washed wool ; or from sheep washed before shearing. I have generally (but not al- ways) practised this ; and 1 have never found any dis-
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advantage, cither as to cleanness of wool or health of the sheep. In the crosses, pains should be taken to select breeders of the best forms and fleeces. From careless- ness in this respect, many persons have injured the cha- racter of this sheep, and its fleece. It is as vain to ex- pect good fleeces from a starved, neglected, or ill as- sorted, flock ; as it is to count on a good crop, from a poor, and ill managed field. I am convinced that the wool of this sheep has never been properly known or appreciated; the mutton having been the object. I have now as fine, and as white, home- made blankets, and have seen as fine flannel, made from the white wool of spotted fleeces, as those made of any other wool usually devoted to such purposes ; there being always as much white wool, as will answer for every fabric requiring it. In the dressing of blankets and flannels, we are yet much behind the Europeans.
2. They are hardy ; and will bear either cold or heat, better than any others within my knowledge. I have, on a small scale, (never less in number than one or two score ; and frequendy from 80 to 100) had an interest in, and kept, sheep, of every breed known in this countrjs for a period of 45 years— some breeds recent- ly introduced, and the Merino, excepted. I never knew a hardier sheep, than are those of the Tunis breed. Were I to point out (in my estimation) the proper form, size, and valuable points and qualities of a sheep, I could not more jusdy designate them, than by exactly de- scribing my old ram caramelli.
3. They fatten with less food, and much quicker, than any other sheep. That other sheep become as fat, I know : but more tiu\e and food are required, so to
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On Tunis Sheep.
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make them. They will bear to be kept fat, without be- ing diseased, far beyond any others within my know- ledge. The carcase is heavy, but not coarse ; as are many other sheep of large sizes. The heaviest ewe of this breed I have known weighed 182 pounds alive, when sheared. Her fleece, clean washed, weighed eight and one half pounds, she was half blood. A half bred ram, a twin, at 18 months old, weighed 214 pounds.* 4. Their character is that of gentleness and quie^ tude. And they live in health, vigour, and usefulness, to greater ages than other sheep. I never saw a breachy Tunis sheep. Some exceptions there may be, but they
* Although I have mentioned the sizes and weight of sheep, and lacts as they respect the mutton, I do not value the large sheep the most. I have always found that mode- rately sized sheep, of any breed well fleeced, are the most profitable. One of the finesi, and proportionately heaviest fleeced and superior fleshed wethers, of the full blooded Tunis breed, weighed 1 8 pounds the quarter. He was stunted in his growth, by an accident when a lamb. I do not admire very fat mutton, of any breed. The Tunis ewes are the smallest ; and generally carry the finest fibred fleeces. I have long been convinced, that large cattle are the least profitable. Middle- sized horses^ are to be preferred.
I think it a great mistake in crossing, to prefer sheep of large sizes ; though, no doubt, some respect is to be paid to this circumstance. The qualities of fleece, flesb, temper, hardihood, healthfulness, and tendency to feed well and ceco- nomically, are more important than size. The largest sheep have generally the coarsest wool, and most indifferent mut- ton. The full bred Tunis sheep are naturally of sizes the most eligible. The old ram was reasonably large ; and much above the size of common sheep.
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are rare. Yet they are not inactive ; but use sufficient exercise for health, without wandering and fickleness as to ()astures. In these they are not overnice ; and will keep in good condition, upon coarser and less food, than any sheep I am acquainted with.
5. Their general healthfulness enables them to re- tain their fleeces. A diseased Tunis sheep is rare ; even in a mixed flock, in which other sheep have been subject to every disease known in that animal. I have had them disordered in the feet, with thtjbuls^ but not the foot rot. If the hoofs of sheep are examined, there will be found a small opening, near and above the fore part of the cleft. It is the mouth of a duct, runnin;j; lip the shank ; and calculated for the emission of a mu- cilaginous oil, which lubricates, supports and assists in the growth and renewal of the corneous parts of tlie hoof. Perhaps it is also a drdin for humours, which, when confined, become morbid and peccant. If this closes, the disease appears.* Examine well, and rub briskly the parts together. Assist the opening of the duct, and the discharge of the morbid and stagnated matter, in every way. Poke juice, I have found effi- cacious. Few are acquainted with this part of the ani- mal structure, though, I believe, all cloven-footed ani- mals are thus formed. Swine have the duct, in the hin-
^ Worms are Oiten .ound in this duct, and in the shanks of common sheep. None have ever been discovered in the shank, or in this duct, of the Tunis sheep. Probably because the wooliness oi the part kept off the insect which generates these worms ; if so they or ginate. The disease I call the fouls in the Tunis sheep, is occasioned by coagulated mat- ter, and not worms, in this duct.
der part of the leg. Cattle in the cleft; which when dis- eased, is lacerated often by a hair rope drawn between the clefts; when gentler means would effect the purpose.
6. A Tunis tup couples with a ewe of other breeds with more certainty of effect, than a tup of the common species, with a Tunis ewe. The broad tail is the im- pediment. This must be managed by an adroit pander. I have known frequent failures in projected crosses, ow- ing to inattention in this particular. But the Tunis tup finds no difficulty with a ewe of his own race. However whimsical it may appear, the colour of the tongue of any breed, is said to be important in the selection of a tup. The third georgick of Virgil records the fact ; which I have seen verified in several instances. I give Dryden's translation of the passage.
" Even tho' a snowy ram thou shall behold, Prefer him not in haste, for husband to thy fold. But search his mouth ; and if a swarthy tongue Is underneath his humid palate hung*, Reject him ; lest he darken all thy foci ; And substitute another from thy stock."
If this should seem to some improbable, it will be no difficult task for the incredulous, to avoid the black tongue ;— lest, per cha?ice, the denunciation of Firgil may turn out well founded.
7. The tail is the true test of purity of blood ; and horns are a bad symptom ; especially if large. The tufts on the thighs, and crest, or forelock, are also marks of blood.
Those who find this race preferable, under all its circumstances, must balance advantages and compara- tive defects. It is, like the Merino, a peculiar genus and race of sheep. Phose who value them must reconcile themselves to coloured wool ; though the greatest pro^
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portion is white. But I have not found, that whiteness is the criterion of quality or fineness ; and I have ofteu found tht tawney, the finest wool. Every part, of every colour, but black, will take dyes, equal to any wool of any species. JVhiteness is therefore of little substantial importance, or benefit. If the Merino wool had no other excellencies, real or fanciful, its whiteness or cleanliness would not recommend it ; as it is not, so far as 1 have seen, remarkable for either. We must take things as God made them ; if we would have them ac cording to their kind. Art as often fails, as succeeds, in attempts to ameliorate. The lambs of the Tunis breed are white, red, tawneij, bluish, and black;— hxM the few- est of the latter. All (except the black) grow white in the general colour of the fleece, though most com- monly coloured in spots ; and either tawney or black geneially marks the cheeks and shanks ; and sometimes the whole head and fiice. A perfectly white Tunisian, is as much deteriorated by this singularity of departure from stock, as is an Albino negro, who is an Anomaly in the African race of men. 1 have seen some nearly white sheep, of this breed, and tolerably high blooded, after three or four crosses with this object ; but I never liked them the better for this circumstance ; which 1 always considered a departure from blood and race. The whiteness of fleece was obtained from the sires, or dams, of the crosses. The sire commonly gives the character to the progeny. I would not, however, be understood to say, that mixtures, or crosses, with well selected sheep of other kinds, are prejudicial. On the contrary, 1 have had, and have seen with others, fine sheep of half, three quarters and seven eighths blood. But
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not all of these crosses (especially where white fleece is the object) shew the tail in perfection ; and I think many are deficient in some of the best qualities of the sheep; and that in proportion to defect of tail, and white- ness of fleece.
A neighbour, who has, I believe, been accustomed to, or acquainted with, the modes of managing sheep in Ireland, ^nd has great merit in preserving the Tunis breed (obtained from my stock) in high perfection ; avers, that, by attentive selections, and proper manage- ment, he can have Tunis sheep, as white as any others. He succeeds better than I have done ; — and believes what he wishes. — But I perceive, in spots, a cast of tawney tinge, or a departure from blood, in those he deems perfectly white. A strong propensity to believe, wonderfully assists our faith. — A most worthy country- man of his, has often, with fervor and solemnity, i^s- sured me ; — and he believed it — that the eggs of Ire- land were the whitest in the world ! He despised them as an esculent, if the shell had not, what he called, the Irish mark; — that is, — in English, — pure white, — w ith- out any mark at all. — He held nothing in greater abo- mination than a dyed, — or what he called a pie-bald, caster egg. It was in vain that one attempted to per- suade him that the interior of all eggs was alike ; so far as depended on tints or colour of shell. — De gustibus non est disputandum. — So I have no controversy with those who do not fancy the wool, — or, if they so please, the mutton, of a coloured sheep.
Richard Peters. Belmont, May 3c/, 1810.
To the Philad. Sue. for promoting Agriculture'^
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On Tunis Sheep.
On Tunis Sheep.
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POSTSCRIPT.
When I made the foregoing communication, I had not read Chancellor Livingston's account of broad- tailed sheep; in his essay pages 27 & seq. He has my sincere thanks, and is entitled to the acknowledgments of all farmers, for much valuable information promul- ged in this essay ; however widely I may differ in opinion on some points. My accidentally meeting with the essay, has compelled me to pursue further, a sub- ject I had conceived closed.
By my perusal of it I am satisfied, that he is entirely unacquainted with the sheep I have mentioned. If he had not so been, 1 know his candour too well to suppose, he would have omitted to make them an exception to the worthless and spurious race he has described. To the character and qualities of my sheep, his description is a perfect contrast. It would furnish, in the hands of a pupil of Hogarth, not even a tolerable caricature. Those Mr. Livingston pourtrays are not, as he asserts, an original race ; but one produced by nature in a spor- tive freak ; assisted, as he alledges, by " the art of man ;" who took an undue advantage of her aberration, which afforded " a basis whereon to engraft his whims."
The Tunis mountain sheep are as much, in my belief, the bona fide and unsophisticated descendants of an ori- ginal stock, as are the portions of the human race in- habiting the regions wherein they are found. They are therefore not comprehended in the account he gives of the hvbridous intruders into animal existence. If they were even a sportive production, it would have been a most fortunate gambol ; for it would have added
a most valuable item to the catalogue of domestic ani* mals. I claim the exclusion of the Tunis sheep from his zoography.
1. Because in Mr. Livingston's Lusus Natura^ all the fat of the hinder parts is in the tail. — In the Tunis sheep, it is well, and generally, distributed through the whole carcase.
2. In his Hybrids^ the caudical fat (for in my recol- lection he mentions no other, in any quantity) is, in warm climates, oily and soft, and, when melted, will not again indurate. In the natural Tunis sheep, all the fat is capable of resuming its hardness after melting, I have never seen more solid, whiter, or finer mutton tallow, in all states of atmospheric temperature, than the fat of this sheep affords.
The speculations of a mind so ingenious and instruc- tive, excited by a laudable desire to inform (though there may be some fanciful flights) I leave on their own merits. I believe professed naturalists know little more than I do, of these, or other secrets of nature. The celebrated Buffon is not without a quantum sufficity of what the French call " les Egarements de V Esprit y''-^ visionary wanderings.
The protuberated tail of the Tunis sheep, composed of " delicate esculent," and not of soft fat, as a mere *' repository," and which Mr. Livingston calls " an excressence and deformity," was, no doubt, bestowed for wise purposes. By what I have mentioned of thp difficulty attending the coupling of a common tup with a Tunis ewe, it would seem, that this guard was given to her, and other broad tailed sheep, to prevent mixture with a different species of animal ; which the author of
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On Tunis Sheep.
nature uniformly interdicts. To the ram, it is furnished, that it may descend to the progeny. Perhaps also to prevent the introchjction of worms, or progeny of in- sects, which may, in a peculiar degree and manner, in- fest sheep in warm climates ; in which the sheep of every variety, are generally broad-tailed. * The intestines, and all other parts, of these sheep are remarkably clear of the kind, or any other species, of worm ; or the knobs, found in the entrails, and other parts, of sheep of other breeds. See Mr. Capner's ac- count of these worms. Vol. I. pages, 133, 4.
I have seen ingenious and speculative opinions, con- cerning, what may as well be called an *' excres- cence and deformity,"— the protuberance on the back o{ \\\i: camel ;—^x\o\\\^r J fr lean animal. This A^mrA is greater or less, accordingly as the animal is generally £it or lean. The broad- tail of the sheep encreases or diminishes in size, in proportion to the general state of the fat in the carcase. But neither the bunch, nor the broad-tail, is the " repository of all the fat." I never knew it alledgcd that the bunch was produced by na- ture in a sportive fit ; or owed its origin to '* the art of man." For its being placed where it is, I do r.ot pretend to account. Human reason only exposes its own defici- encies, when it attempts to account for unaccountable things. This appears in more important subjects, than those of the broad-tails of sheep, or the bunches of camels.
I should not have deemed it necessary to annex the following certificates, which might ha^ e been multi-
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plied ; but since erroneous opinions have been formed, and published, I wish the facts I have stated may be ascertained by the testimony of practical men. Mr. Livingston, whose zeal, talents and instructive inteU ligence in general, I highly respect, has unwittingly, degraded the whole dynasty of the broad- tails, stock and branch, from their rank in the scale of created beings ; though they have, from the beginning of time, had undisputed possession of two quarters of the globe, and a part of the third ; to wit, of Asia, Africa, and part of Europe. I have endeavoured to introduce' some* of them, to the acquaintance of those who inhabit the fourth quarter of the world. Mr. Livingston would have excepted, had he been acquainted with it, this branch of the family ; and would have been among the first to welcome it to this place of refuge ; from the disgraceful society of its illegitimate and unnatural African collateral relations : for such those must be, to whom his description applies.*
^ Ha: Nii^ce in Seria ducunt : however trifling these things may be in themselves, they lead to serious con- sequences; they revive, or create and foster, unwarrant- able prejudices. When I sent the ram to Lancaster countv. the Germans, there, would not, at first peVmit any con- nection with their ewes. General Hand was obliged to buy thirty or forty ewes, to set an example. The Ger-
mans considered it an unnatural intercourse '' verhiu-
pjung- unnatiirlkhe ;"— and they stiled Sultan, or Caramelli^ an outlandish-mongrel-brute ;— " auslandischts unverminf' ti^es MauUhicr:' But when the Philadelphia butchers sought Jor the lambs, and good prices were given for them and the wool, they altered their opinions ; and the stranger
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On Tunis Sheep.
Even the broad-tail, which Mr. Livingston considers *' an excrescence and deformity," I have not viewed in any disgusting aspect. The representations in the plate, are faithful portraits ; taken from sheep now in my pos- session. From these my opinion— or if it be so Qon^ ^iruQ A— fancy — may be judged.
Although not overmuch of a stoicky I should, were it not that old prejudices may be again revived, and operate unfavourably, have imitated, on behalf of my sheep, had they been even specially mentioned, the complacency and silence, recommended by one of that sect, I think. Epic- tetus. This disciple of Zeno advises those of us bipeds, who may be misrepresented and disparaged, to be con- tent in our consciousness of its being unmerited: because we are to presume (a la mode de la secte des sto'cciensj that some imaginary characters, and not ourselves, arc aimed at. This philosophic apathy would, no doubt, be really Greek to men of ticklish tempers ; though en-
I
became a great favorite. Their interests only, can conquer their prejudices. When I first endeavoured (36 or 37 years ago) to introduce among them the plaister of Paris, their incredulity and prejudices were strong. Some calender-macher told them, it attracted thunder and lightning ! and made rich fathers, by. its first operations ; but poor children, by its final exhaustion of the soil.— Their children, now, know better. 1 lament their prejudices ; but highly esteem theniy for many good qualities.
That a cultivated mmd, and those ignorant of all culture, save that of the ground, should unite in the same erroneous opinion as to the sheep, proves nothing, but the meeting of two extremes.
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forced in language more generally understood, than that of this impenetrably patient old Phrygian.
Their long and peculiarly taping ears are, to me, the only ungraceful parts of these sheep. Most sheep have, more or less, the lap-ear ; but I think none others so remarkably. I have seen an old conjecture, which I believe Mr. Livingston has adopted, ascribing it to confidence in their security under the protection of man ; who guards them, when domesticated, from their enemies ; and supersedes the necessity of listening — erectis auribus — to impending dangers. Whether there be, or not, any thing in the structure of the ear, shew- ing that it was originally formed to be erect ; I, who am not a professed naturalist, but one of the laigens^ will not presume to determine. I am satisfied with knowing, that these sheep have lap- ears and broad- tails : and, believing that the Almighty had so formed them, in the original creation of the stock, I am content. That their pendulous ears are owing to an acquired habit of security and confidence ; or of settled compile ment and submission ; produced by a similar temper (to compare small things with great) with that which induces the dousing of pendants, or dropping of peeks, to friends or superiors at sea, — as if reason and instinct evidenced like propensities, — I am not prepared pe^ remptorily to decide : though some naturalists seem to have no difficulties on such subjects. I am less puzzled when I believe, that their creator, for wise purposes, so fashioned them.
No animal is more timid than the sheep ; and none have more frequent occasions to be so. Dogs are their etenial foes ; and dogs (lap-eared dogs among the worst)
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On Tunis Sheep.
are the companions of their protector,— man ; and are always near them. Do^s, 'tis true, are often tutored to guard them ; as Arabian robbers are engaged to protect Caravans, from other banditti. But among dogs, their foes far out number their friends, irolves are forever prowling after them, in all countries. Yet every where they lap their ears ; though every where, there are ini- ceasing occasions for erecting them ; were the capacity of so doing in their nature. It does not appear that their causes of apprehension, cease with domestication.
I have dilated on this subject, not merely for the sake of discussion ; but to prevent (as far as in my small powers lies) the lap-ear sharing the fate of the broad tail: and ('is a guardian to my dumb wards,) to rescue the animal from the imputation of not being one of God's creatures, *' broiii^ht forth after its kind,'' — but a factitious product " whimsically" formed by the in- tcrventionof "the art of man."— And yet, I feel a little ashamed of taking any pahis to prove, what seems self- evident.*
Richard Peters.
Maij 22d, 1810,
* It is as difficult as vain, to oppose serious refutation to ranciiul conjecture. I have theielbrc, as much as possible, avoided it. Those the best qualified in grave and logical dis- cussions would only excite a smile, by applying them in op- position to Lord Monboddo's phantasm oi the Imman tail* No one would gravely combat an hypothetical assertion, that, because a negro a])pears a variety oi' the human species, he is an hv!)ridous African animal. Indeed, those ol this race have been treated as it* it really wtvt so : save that the " art
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of man" has been, most flagitiously, employed, not in their formation, but in their destruction. In the quarter ot the globe Inhabited i)y this variety oi men, varieties of animals are so numerous, that some not seen before are said, by a traveller, frequently to present themselves. Some men, and some sheep, have xvool ; while others, both men and sheep, have hair. There the colour of the human skin has every tint, from white to i)lack. The ears of some quadrupeds ai'C almost perpendiculnrly erect ; while others are invete- i*ately pendant ; being from one to two feet long. Such is the Mamhriria, or Syrian goat. While the Onrnng Outang, the head of the familv oi Simiic^ is entirelv without a tail j.the Papiones have short stumps. One more inclined than I am to indulge conjecture, might, with no small degree of plausi- bilitv, suppose, that this precedent set by nature afforded the hint to those who introduced the practice of docking the tails of sheep. One of the Cercopitheci, or tail-bearers, (a nume- rous branch) called Midas from the " monstrosity" of his ears, has a tail said to be three, and often four times, as long as his body. No person would believe (although all of this genus are pi*e-eminent among mimicks. — /mi- tatoreS'-^ervum pecns — J that the first followed the ex- ample of Lord Monhoddo's man ; and, by some artful contrivance, cast a tail he once possessed ; or Uiat the lat- ter had the faculty, by some kind of instinctive ductility, of running altogether into length, instead oi protuberance of tail. And yet I cannot perceive why art, turning to its advantage the playtulness of nature, may not root out and abolish, or incontinently extend, as well as protuberate and store with materials for " plenty of grease for the toilet and the kitchen," the tails of whole races of animals and their de- scendants. Provided always that the fact, of its having been done in either case, can be established. It w^ould be in the Simice tribe only, that one would look for and expect, " mon- strosities, sports and whims, excrescences and delormities."
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JKote, on Tunis Sheep.
No class of animals exhibits a more curious and extensive variety than that of the Simia. With whatever contempt, disgust, or levity, they may be commonly regarded, they afford one of the strongest instances of countless diversities, both as to forms and capacities, to be found, in any one species, m the animal kingdom.
it »9 bcttei to take things as they are, without speculating in ansatislactory hv pothesis ; to which estimable men, of otherwise higUlv useful talents and propensities, too fre- quently addict themselves. Nature^ in sober truth, is only secondary ; and regulated by
** The universal cause.
Who ** acts to one end, but acts by various laws.**
The omnipotence, wisdom, and goodness of the creator, arc shewn in nothing more wonderfully, than in the endless va- riety of his works. We are not therefore to consider as un- natural, what is to us uncommon. All things were created perfect in their kinds. Animals (to fit them for dispersion to replenish the earth) were suited in their forms and systems, to the spheres in which they were respectively to live and move. Anomalous varieties are exceptions ; produced by cli- mate, accidental mixtures, and sometimes, 'tis true, by the intervention of the art of man. But these, and especially the latter, are limited in their extent and duration ; and do not spread over vast regions of the earth ; nor unilormly pervade whole species, and successive races and generations.
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in the commencement of my endeavours to spread them through our country. By this time the qualities of these sheep must be known to the Virginians ; to whom I shall be obliged by information of their success. They will (if their sheep be of the race I have mentioned) smile, or be surprised, at my taking pains to describe its properties ; or deeming it ne- cessary to subdue prejudices against a valuable animal, which carries in itself its own recommendation ; and requires only to be well known to ensure estimation. I hope the Virginia sheep are similar to mine. Tunis sheep have varieties, good and bad, like those of all countries.
The mild winters and early vegetation of Virginia, and especially of a grass called, I think, oat grass in their lower country, will enable the planters there, to go into the sheep business with great advantages. I believe many of them are convinced, that no change in their rural economy can be for the worse ; in some parts of their country. It is indifferent to me what breed of sheep they adopt, if it be a good one. They will soon if they do not already know it, discover that race which best suits the climate and circumstances of their
country.
R. P.
VOJ.. II.
Og
11th August 1810. I have never known 'till this day, that some Tunis sheep have been brought into Virginia, or the Columbia district, five or six years ago, by Commodore Baron. I congratulate those who possess them on this acquisition. I earnestly wish they may be more sensible of their value, than have been those on whom I had the task ot operatmg,
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Certificates mid otJier Proofs.
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Certificates ; and other Proofs*
We have followed the trade of victuallers^ in the PhtladeU phia market, 25 years. We have killed very many sheep ; of all breeds commonly sold in that market. The subscriber^ William Rusk^ has confined his business, to the killing and. vending sheep and calves^ for the most part ; and has killed, many hundreds of sheep, in every year. We are well ac- quainted with Judge Peters's Tunis breed of sheep ; origi- nating from his stock, but purchased by us from 8ever4. farmers. They are the best sheep, compared with the gene- ral run of that animal, in the Philadelphia market. We have killed and sold them, for about seven years. They fat in the flesh, and on the ribs far superior to most others. The rough fat is as great in quantity as any common sheep ; it being most distributed in the flesh. They fat with less food, and are the most healthy, of any sheep wc ever knew. The lambs sell the highest of any in the market ; and are the most sought after. We never met xvith an unsound shecp^ in all our knowledge, of this breed. We have not kept an exact ac- count of weights. We killed a ram of one year old, better tlian half blood, weighed 23 pounds a quarter, well furnished with rough Tvit. A ewe three quarters blood — two shears — 20 pounds a quarter. A spring lamb bought of Edward George, 14 and a half pounds a quarter — killed the 10th of June ; 20 pounds of gut fat in the ewe. Major Reyhold in Delaware county, bought a three quarter ram of this breed from us. He weighed, alive, 214 pounds. The wool of the full, or high blood, or when crossed with good fleeced sheep^ is in great estimation ; and yields more to the fleece, the flock through ; than any other breed we have been acquaint- ed with. Witness our hands, 16th May, 1810. Signed,
George Lentz; William Rusk;
Test. John Thom4»s.
These victuallers, and others, vouch for another fact. The Tunis lambs and sheep, under, or arriving at, yearlings, fat as fast as any others at maturity.
I
I have been a victualler in the Philadelphia market very many years. (Above 30) I kill as good, and as many sheep of all breeds, as most butchers in the market. The vending of mutton is my chief employment. I have seen the certificate of George Lentz and William Rusk^ relative to the Tuiits sheep from Judge Peters's stock. My experience of the general character, weight, and fatting of the sheep, agrees with theirs. Save that I have known some sheep, especially some of the Leicester breed from Jersey, lay on fat as well. The lambs are always fine ; and the fat as well dispersed through the carcase of the sheep, as any other breed I have met with. The fat is always white ; and the colour of the meat, the best of any mutton I know. Witness my hand, 21st May 1810. Signed,
Joseph Groft.
Test. Thomas Bones.
Mr. Groff farther observed — ^That the hind quarters al- ways weighed peculiarly the heaviest. This was accounted for by the weight of the tail. Few aged wethers have been killed ; the fine rams having been kept for breeders ; and too many of the lambs killed.
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Certificates and other Proofs.
Certificates and other Proofs*
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Copy of a Letter from Major Fnitiv Reybold, Grazier and
Victualler ; to Richard Peters.
I have been brought up to, and followed, the trade of a victualler, and have attended the market in Philadelphia^ for myself, sixteen years and upwards. I think I have killed as many sheep, as most victuallers that have attended this mar- ket. I am, however, sure, that I have killed more of the broad-tailed^ or, as they are called, Tunis' breed of sheep, than any other person. I have killed upwards of two thou- sand of the latter. I have killed the Merino; and the Bake^ well and WalPs breeds originally from England ; the St. Johns ; and all the various other kinds of sheep : and I am decidedly of opinion, that the Tunis breed is preferable to all others, for the goodness of meat. They fatten on the ribs, and through the flesh, better than any others ; and the meat is superior in flavour ; and will sell, to judges of good meat, more ready than other mutton, or lamb. The lamb is sought after in preference to all others. I have known them to be put with other sheep, at many times, and at various seasons of the year, to pasture, to fatten ; and, in every instance, the Tunis sheep fattened the most speedy. It is a great mistake that they fatten only in the tail. They fatten in all parts. It is not confined to any particular part of their body. The sheep are uncommonly healthy.
I have slaughtered half blooded, and three quarter blooded lambs ; many of them weighed 14 and 15 pounds the quarter.
It is a fact, that these sheep, at a year old, fatten as well as other sheep at a more advanced age.''* And I have so
* All experienced farmers, graziers and victuallers, know, that it is a rare quality in young animals, either sheep or cattle, to fat in any degree equal to those aged. The food, in others than the Tunis breed, encreases the growth and size, without adding to the fat ; in any important pro- portion. R. P.
great an opinion of their goodness, and of the advantage to graziers to breed from them, that I have taken a number of them to the grazing farm in Delaware state ; for the purpose of breeding from them.
Philip Reybolij.
May 22^,1810,
I certify that I have in my flock, a Tunis^ three quarter blooded ewe, in perfect health, fat ; weighing 175 pounds, her fleece off. She was got by Judge Peters's original raiti Cara- melli^ and is now rising nine years old ; has never been sick or diseased in any way, and in 1808 weighed 192 pounds ; after shearing eight and three quarters pounds of washed wool. None of my sheep of this breed, except one who was injured by eating Laurel^ were ever in the least subject to any complaint, usual with sheep ; during the nine years that I have raised annually from 20 to 40 lambs of this breed : although in my flock, I have constantly had common sheep aff*ected with the several diseases incident to that animal. I have this day examined the ewe first mentioned. She has not cast a tooth ; and has now eight teeth, as perfectly sound, and as well set in the gum, as a common sheep 'at four years old.* Signed,
' Thomas Bones*
WitnesSy Charles Ross,
Samuel Breck. Lansdown Farm^ Blockley townships July tlth^ 1810.
* It is well known to farmers, and sheep breeders, that, in place of lambs teeth, a sheep in its second year, gets two teeth ; in its third it has four ; after three years old it has six ; and in its fifth year, eight teeth j when its mouth is full. Very soon after all its teeth are perfect, the mouth begins to break. Most sheep begin to fail in the mouth at six years old ;
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I have taken the liberty, with a worthy and intelligent correspondent John Gibbes Esq. of Charleston^ who is among the most respectable planters in South Carolina^ to extract from his letter to me, dated 18th June last, — the following paragraphs. I had sent from my little farm flock, and purchased from others, for my Carolina friends, within the two or three years last past, a number of fine Tunis sheep, of various glides of blood, from fifteen sixteenths, to half blood. They had notice of my opinions and experience, as to colour of fleece ; either from myself di- rectly, or through John Vaughan Esq. who transacted the business for them. But to indulge habits, in them, of predi- lection for white wool, I was obliged to select some sheep, not perfectly agreeable to my own judgment*
tSs±:
R. P.
Juhj 7th, iSlO.
** I am so much pleased with these sheep, that I have again ** written to Mr. Vaughan to send me four ewes and three " ram lambs, if they can be obtained of the three quarter- ** blood ; and choice short legged sheep ; and have requested *' him to procure one of the ram lambs, or a ram, of the best •' blood possible. These sheep are much spoken of in Carolina^
thoug-h many not 'till seven : few remain full mouthed at eight years old. I never saw one of tlie common sheep entirely free from some blemish ; but have known the greatest number, at that age, destitute of several teeth ; and with mouths in very bad condition ; thougli they will feed tolerably. It is rare for them to breed after seven or'eight : though there aje instances of it, at nine or ten. It is very uncommon for sheep to have strong and heiillhy lambs after eight years of age ; this being what may be called the age of a slicep ; as it respects health, vigour and usefulness. The Tunis sheep is the only exception known to me. Mr. Bones's certifi- cate will apply to all the breed. As to diseases of sheep, the catalogue ^nould be very snvall, if all flocks consisted of this race.
R. P.
" and are generally approved of; and I am very desirous to " procure a ram as near to the true breed as possible. My " object is not profit ; but to gratify a delight I enjoy in see- *' ing fine sheep : and this breed appears better calculated for ** our climate, than any race I have met with, either in J?w- ** rope or America,
** The form of the ram I have received is remarkably fine ; " but the ewe is too long in the legs ; and does not suffici- ♦' ently beai* the marks of the Tunisian breed. I now per- *' ceive my enor in attending too much to colour ; as the. mottled sheep which have arrived in Carolina, are observed to be, invariably, superior to the white sheep ; both in form *' and fleece. This diflerence I presume, arises from their •* nearer approach to the true breed. The whit£ resemble J' our native sheep."
(i
4(
It has become, I perceive by Mr. Gibbes's letters, a cus- tom, to send, coast wise, in large quantities, the wool of southern flocks, to Philadelphia (and perhaps to other manu- facturing cities and places) to be made up into cloth for their house servants and field slaves ; similar to what are called the best plains ; and it is done to their satisfaction. Let the iP Carolina gentlemen select out of the finer parts of the best Tunis fleeces (as I have done) wool for their own wearing. I will be responsible that their coats will not be disgraced in a comparison with any cloth (if well manufactured, and this can be done) of the best wool of this country. The Merino cloth I always except.
R. P.
J^ne rthy ISiO.
4
^'-m
[ 240 ]
On Tunj^J^ountain Sheejfr^vioo
t.
241
On Tunui Mountain Sheep — wool.
That I may complete the account of this sheep, I shall, as opportunity offers, collect and communicate facts respecting the wool: but, I fear, too few have suffi- ciently attended to it; the mutton having been the prin- cipal object. This has been a mistake almost as gross, as its opposite extreme, of making the use of the animal, for the most part, if not entirely, to consist in bearing a crop of wool. Most undoubtedly this is an important faculty ; but it should be combined with other quali- ties. The eaters J in a general convention, would far out vote the mere manufacturers. The side of the great majority would be that— of fine mutton and a comfort- able coat— in preference to a very superior garment, and proportionately inferior esculent. Very fine wool, and prime mutton are rarely, if ever, found together. If they can be combined, as it is alleged they may.— it is " a consummation devoutly to be wished.'* — And •*the experiment is well worthy our unbiassed attention, and best endeavours.
The great body of farmers (however it may be with a few) will find their account under present circum- stances, in the sheep, whose carcase both for quality and size, is always in demand for the market ; and its wool sufficient in fineness and plenty, for all purposes com- monly required ; of whatever breed it may be. Few Pennsylvania farmers could, or would, keep a flock, merely for the fleece. It is the general custom, to cull the flock after shearing ; and sell the fat sheep to but- chers. No temptation of wool, would induce many t©
# I ft
change this habit : especially those whose pastures are iuxuriaat, and fatten the sheep quickly. Flocks, on pastures overstocked, are thinned, by sales of those fat^ and of store sheep, for others to feed. Habits, good or b^d, are not easily discontinued. If flocks for fine wool, can be made a special business, none can wish more sincerely than I do, for its accomplishment. To pre- serve them, other good breeds should be encouraged.* When this plan is extensively executed, millions of acres, at this time called barrens^ ^yill be converted into sheep walks. They now throw up, in cleared spots, white clover in abundance. The difficulty will be -winter food^ for large flocks; or, what is more unattain- able, early spring succulent fodder ^ when they most re-
* In Great Britain, there are fourteen distinct varieties of sheep, some of them as indifferent as any we have. It would be an useful inquiry, if measures for ascertaining and distin- guishing the varieties of sheep in our country, were taken. In all breeds, the wool should be an object of great attention, but it has been too much neglected. Breeds might easily be kept distinct, and not (as they too often are) indiscrimi- nately mixed. The long wool and the short, the fleeces being applicable to different fabrics and uses, might, with no diffi- culty and a little care, be always kept from mixture ; and each brought to its appropriate perfection. If it be thought, as no doubt it will, that I have been prolix and too minute, let others condense their accounts of breeds and qualities of sheep. So that,v/hen every information is gained, a fair compe- tition and emulation may be excited. This will effectually ira^ prove all breeds, and greatly conduce to the public prosperity. In England, and all countries, particular breeds have the run of the day, get out ol fashion, and yield to torttinate competitors. v©L. II. H h
«
242
1
Mr. Dupant^s Factoitif.
Jiemrks on Form of Merinos.
2^3
ITTS
:^
quire it. Our winters, and other circumsftnces, forbid turnip-culture, in the extent practiced in Europe.
I have recently had much gratification in visiting the establishment of Messrs. Dupont & Co. (near Wilming- ton Delaware) for the manufacture of gun-powder. Mr. Dupont will do our country important service, whUe he gains, for himself and his associates, well earned repu- tation, by bringing to perfection a nationally interestmg manufactory, on a very extensive scale. It is not with- out some knowledge of the subject, (to which my pubhc duty called my attention during our revolutionary con- test) that I express my conviction, that these works are well worthy of national patronage; though, fortu- nately, their proprietors, by their own efforts, will en- sure success ; now they have overcome the difficulties, which, heretofore, they have encountered. It would do honour, in any country, to those who should found and conduct, such an establishment.
That he may, in some degree, balance the mischiefs, in which the lethal means of destruction he furnishes, involve mankind ; Mr. Dupont (in connection with the company) is commencing a work for their comfort and preservation. It is a l^rgt factory, for woollen and cotton fabrics; to be coi*ducted under the charge of his brother. As much to set an example, as to assist his views in ma- nufacturing, he is (in conjunction with Mr. Bauduy, one of his partners, who has some fine sheep on another farm) beginning a plan for establishing a flock of me- rinos; in which he has made very promising progress. His ram Don Pedro,^ is of the perfect breed, and his
*The projecting occiput of the merino head, behind the ears and horns, (of which latter ofal, it ha3 a plentiful swp-
ply) and the dewlap, or pendulous skin under the neck and throat, are marks of blood and race. I cannot conjecture why these should have been overlooked or forgotten, when the hroad'tail was called a sport of nature. I saw in Don PedrOy the first perfect merino sheep, I had ever attentively examin- ed, when stripped of its fleece. If the merino should be of African origin (as some suppose) nature, in that quarter, is singularly playful ; and addicted to strange pranks in the ani- mal kingdom : if it be really so, that broad-tails, bunches, pro* tuberant occipita and sheep's dewlaps, are her sporting aniuse- ments : and I see not that she should be confined to any one, (if so they are) of these eccentric fantasies. — But the truth is, that in Africa there are more original indigenous varieties of animals and plants, than in any other quarter of the globe. It was the scene of primitive creation; and not of nature's sports. It is common, I perceive, to dock the tails of merino sheep. A question of Mr. Duponfs — " Whether I thought that of the Tunis sheep could be safely cut off".^" (which he asked with a view to its facilitating the crossing a ewe with his ram) reminded me of an omission in n>y remarks on this sheep. The configuration of the under part of the Tunis tail, assists in carrying off" the excrement ; so as not to foul the wool ; and to preserve a general cleanliness in the hinder parts.*— This sheep rarely scours ; as do common sheep on succu- lent pastures ; owing to weak or diseased bowels. The ope- ration of excision, of the whole tail, would not be safe \ nor do the reasons exist, as to this, which induce the dock- ing other sheep. We sometimes cut off" the supplementary curl or tail, below the fleshy protuberance. This may be done with perfect safety, though it disfigures the tail, and is not essential to cleanliness. Crossing can be accomplished with no great difliculty, but it requires some management. It is fre- quently effectjed, without any auxiliary means, with a Tuni^ ewe.— R* P*
244 Companion of Tunis and M&iHoWool.
>■
to it) except ihat from Mr. Livingston's stock. 1 enter into no comparisons on this subject ; not professing to have sufficient qualifications for it. The celebrity of Col. Humphreys's sheep and wool, is generally known. But I have never seen any of his prime sheep, nor their wool ; though I have seen many of the mixed breed from his stock. I had with me at Mr. Duponfs, sam- pies of the Tunis wool: which I had the opportunity there of comparing with several specimens of the merino fleeces, from several quarters. W ith Mr. Duponfs wool, mine will bear no comparison. But I was myself sur- prised to find, thdt the wool of the ewe No. 2, in the ■plate, will compete with, and is considered by those who are judges, as fine in its fibre as, that of a sample of real merino wool, off a sheep imported into New- York from Spain ; and offered, with several others, for sale ; at the price of 1500 dollars each.. I should once have thought my own, and more particularly this merino wool, of a very extraordinary degree of fineness. But it required very little discernment, to distinguish the dif- fercnce, in favor of Mr. Dupont's wool I know mine (when justice is done to a flock, in selfection and keep- ing) to be evidently superior to most, and equal to any, of the \yool 1 have compared it with, except the me- rino. I have sent herewith samples, by which my opi- nion may be tested. Andjet the Tunis wool is by many, held in disrepute ; because those who have these pre- judices, have met with fleeces from crosses with coarse wooled sheep. I have myself seen multitudes of morti- fying instances of this kind of inattention ; and especially where large, or white, sheep, were the objects of crossing. It is iar from my intention, to hold up this wool, as to fineness, on any equality with a good merino fleece.
Breeding In and In.
245
But I wish to rescue it from mistaken and groundless objections, and to establish it as a most valuable house- hold material ; as well as for general purposes required in a woollen manufactory.
Breeding in and in.
Mr. Dupont believes (as do others) that he can, for any length of time, continue the race, in size and pu- rity, by breeding in atid in. As my experience, on the scale with which I have been acquainted, both in my own attempts to preserve the blood and breed of sheep, and other domestic animals, as well as in the practice I have observed in other farmers, has been otherwise ; I requested him to continue crossing and bringing up the blood in that way — as a branch — in combination with his plan of breeding from the same family. But he seems to prefer the latter exclusively ; though he is now, from necessity, obliged to cross. I never enforce for the sake of mere argument and persistence, any opinion of mine. I am free to grant, that if selections of breeders of the same race, ?ire made from several extensive flocks ; and the better if locality be distant (as was done in collecting, ameliorating and continuing the RambouiUet flock) much more certainty would exist. Perhaps permanency in blood and qualities, as well as size, would be ensured. The next best step, where the flock is small and fixed to a spot, would be to kill off", or sell to butchers, as I have often done, all inferior sheep and lambs, (and a good mutton sheep is on this account preferable) and keep none h\xt the most promis- ing for breeders. Probably selecting in a very large fiock
N
¥
246
Breeding In and Ik.
r 247 5
•zx
K:f.
of the same race, though it may be stationary as to place where it is kept, the best and most promising (of both sexes) for breeders which should have no intercourse with inferior sheep, would effect the purpose. I could enumerate many instances (some very recent) occurring under my own observation and that of others, in my own and neighbours flock's, where interchanging our sheep with distant farmers, for one or two seasons, has, in a most evident degree, materially improved the subjects of such changes, in fleece and every other respect. But where the parent stock is confined to a few, kept for a length of time on the same spot ; I never could, with all the care I could take, prevent degeneracy in the full-blood- cd progeny of the direct line, after a few descents, the number of such descents being uncertain ; and not go- verned, as to this eftect, by any fixed rules. The dete- rioration frequently, but not always, shews itself in the third or fourth descent ; when^ in the same number, the blood, size and fleece, brought up by judicious crossings, are approaching to perfection. It has been almost invariably so, in cases falling under my obser- vation ; and these have been numerous. To some of those who are of a contrary opinion, I am ready to yield, in doubtful, speculative, or abstract questions ; but I cannot, in this, be so compliant, as to abandon the rC;. peatcd evidence of my senses.
Richard Peters. June Qth, 1810.
I never heard of any difficulties or accidents in yeaning, ox:- eurring with Tunis ewes. They are broad and roomy in the quarters ; stand wide on their hind legs, and, being strong and healthy, they have easy births. R* P-
On Sheep-killing Dogs. By Richard Peters.
Read August 14thf 1810.
Since my communication respecting the Tunis sheep ^ and their wool^ my flock has been attacked, and much injured, by cfo^j; the flock having been imprudently left during the night, by my tenant, in a frontier field ; instead of being penned, near home, at nights, as should be done by every careful keeper of sheep. Caution is not always fortunate, but it should always be awake.
A single dog will commit extensive ravages ; but most frequently dogs prowl in pairs, or greater num- bers- The flagitious sagacity of dogs is almost incre- dible, when they are addicted to sheep-killing. They often kill both in the day and night ; but more com- monly in the grey of the moming, as do the human savages of our wilderness. Of this vice, when it is once fixed, they are never cured while living : death is the only effectual remedy. When a dog has set his devoted victims, he frequently collects confederates, to assist in the slaughter. They adroitly pierce the jugular vein, and gorge themselves with blood. They will not at first devour the flesh, if there is blood sufficient to glut them. They leave the carcases for a second repast, on returning to the field of carnage. In this second expe- dition, they expose themselves to the revenge of a watchful marksman ; and are often shot, while on their march, or feeding on the dead bodies. They do not always return, but seek for more victims ; preferring another f^ast of bipod, to the ffesh of those aiready slab.
248
On Sheep-killing Dogi.
On Sheep-killing Dogs.
249
^M}H,miii;»m Di>| 1 1 >H Ni.riMi i.w iji,;
t*.^^>.i^ijjt»^
A
The flesh is rendered worthless by their rabid bite, and
rapidly putrefies.
A gentleman, from Maryland, informed me, that, m his neighbourhood, a dog-trap was constructed, of strong common fence rails, ami so formed, that dogs can enter (inclined poles being placed outside, as gang-ways) but cannot escape. It is a strong pen, raised eight or ten feet high, and horizontally covered w.th heavy rails, except a small opening in the centre, through which a dog leaps down. It is baited with dead, or worthless living, sheep. Recently, near his residence, seven dogs were, in one night, caught in this trap. They had killed, in that neighbourhood, withm the ten days
preceding, 130 sheep.
A flock, after being worried by dogs, does not soon recover from the panic excited by their misfortune. But in time they become tranquil ; though, at first, the distant bark, but more the sight, of any dog afilicts them with dismay. Their consternation, for a time, imi- tates, in an humble degree, that of Milton^s victims to more fearful and merited vengeance ; when
« Horror on them fell. And horrid sympathy."
But I do not perceive, in my dicomfited flock, that the lap-ear is in the least erected, under their continual ap- prehensions. Their ears (which they project frequently but do not much elevate) still remain pendant ; yet, if they have any consciousness on the subject, they must feel a conviction, that their protector- nian— has not been vigilant in his guardianship. Their legs have the most sympathy with their fears, when a dog presents himself to their view. Though generally quiescent, yet,
on such occasions, as well as in their sportive frolicks, they decidedly prove that " the shepherd who first ob- served this Lusus Naturae^'* had none of this race **in his flock. So far are they from being "unwieldy," that, when terrified, or playful, operated upon by different stimuli, — they are "swift as the roes on the mountains." Thus were of old the Gadites ; who, being of the country in which broad tailed sheep originated, and were universal, probably were masters of flocks composed of this race of the Laticauda^ if they were as wise as they were valiant.* But it often happens, that sheep in their flight, however rapid at times, face frequently round; and, torpid with fear, await destruction.
A spirit for extending profitably our attention to the raising this highly useful animal the sheep, appearing now to be alive in all quarters of our country, it is Our interest, as well as a duty we owe to the community, to be assistant in ^very way ; and particularly to the exe- cution of the laws on the subject. It is in the power of every body to assist ; positively or negatively. No unnecessary dogs should be kept. If numbers were les- sened, those retained would be well fed ; and few or none compelled to wander in search of prey. Not only sheep killings but diseases and madness^ in dogs, are frequently effects, either immediate or consequent, of keen and long continued hunger ; which stimulates to gorging voraciously on whatever esculent they find; and not seldom on putrid and unwholesome food. The rabid
* It is not improbable that the kind we call Tunis sheep^ are to be found in parts of Asia ; where the Lat'tcaudcs are of great varieties.
VOL. II. I i
250
Pennsylvania Dog Law,
On Sheep-killing Dogs.
251
and feverish thirst for blood, is a species of mania; and it is sometimes the forerunner of complete canine madness. Sheep-killers can often be distinguished by a sharp and wild yell ; very different from the tones of other dogs.
Ourdog law is a good one; and it does not exclude the remedy, at common law, against a person keeping a dog knowing him to be addicted to sheep-kiUing. Our act imposes a tax on dogs. For one dog it is light, for a se- cond,kept by the same person, or in the same family it is heavier ; and it is so increased for a third, or a greater number, as to amount, if not to a prohibition, at least to a check, on tlie unreasonable multiplication of the num- bers of dogs. The tax is paid into the county treasury. The value of sheep killed by dogs is ascertained by the persons chosen, in every township, for the settlement of township accounts; and paid out of the county treasury, on the certificates of the appraisers. The balance re- maining, after the demands on the fund are satisfied, is to be laid out, by the county commisioners, for the purchase of merino, or other good sheep ; to be distri- buted for the benefit of farmers, in a mode prescribed. In the city, the tax is applied in relief of the poor rates. Those who are notified that their dogs have killed sheep, must kill them ; or subject themselves to conse-
quences.
This law is intended for the protection of valuable property ; and to encourage the breed of the best ra- ces of sheep. Appraisers should enter into its spirit and meaning, by just valuations of sheep killed by dogs. If they make no distinction between good and ordinary breeds, one great object of the law is defeated. Speculating and capricious price should not, 'tis true,
be the criterion : but a reasonable and current one, for the kind of sheep, and its use to the owner, while living, should certainly be the rule. Instead of viewing the subject in this light, I have been informed of some in- stances, where the value of a number of sheep, of an estimable and uncommon race, was fixed at the price butchers would give, for common sheep devoted to the knife.
Many dogs are faithful and useful animals, essentially necessary to the safety of our property, — even that of our sheep, — to our innocent and healthful amusements, — and to many profitable pursuits. There should be no hue and cry, or ill founded prejudices, indiscriminately raised against them. But they are kept in too great numbers, and of breeds, in many instances, worthless; and many, being ill fed and hungry at home, are com- pelled to prowl for sustenance.* It should be made dis- graceful and unciviCy in those who keep supernumerary, worthless, or starved dogs. They injure society, by ex- posing the persons of their fellow- citizens to disease and death ; and their property to plunder and destruction, when such dogs become mad, or ravenous beasts of
^
^ A baker's man was serving bread to a family in the city, at a house in which I was at the time. He had with him three large dogs ; and I expressed my surprise at the number. He said they were not the whole of those kept by his master; who had, — ^big and little,— e/evew. — I asked how he could support such a number? the reply was.^— "easy enough ; — ^they supplied themselves through the town ; — and often brought home some pretttj good thtngsJ^^
R. P.
I-
vt
! t
252
On Sheep-killing Dogs.
i
prey. No person should hesitate to sacrifice a vile and vicious dog; but, on the contrary, should assist in detecting and punishing his enormities. Many dogs will, however, chase sheep from wantonness, or ill temper; who have not tfie vice of sheep-killing. — They should be at once chastised, checked and watch* ed; as it may lead to vicious habits.* But I have known dogs worry, and even bite sheep, as they would tresspassing hogs, or cattle, who are not to be number- ed among the blood-sucking (for this is the test) gang
of sheep-killers.
A great number of my friends, through life, having been sportsmen, 1 would very unwillingly offend those who occasionally devote themselves to the amusements of the field. 1 have never disregarded the old saying— " love me, love my dog." — But truth compels me to say, that I have found among sporting-dogs, some of the worst enemies to sheep. Hounds are the most atrocious; and some pointers, spaniels and other water dogs — bad. I join in detesting curs and mongrels, they being pro- verbially vagrants and shecp-killers.
How to regulate the keeping of dogs, so as not to les- sen their benefits, while we are correcting their abuses, is a difficult task. In Great Britain, their varieties of
* A young dog, having wantonly bitten and mangled a large lamb, so that it died, was muzzled by one of my ser- vants, and tied to the dead lamb, for a day and anight, and severely beaten. He was entirely cured of his propensity for chasing sheep ; and would never afterwards approach
•
them.
R. P,
On Sheep-killing Dogs,
253
dogs exactly equal in number that of their varieties of sheep ; yet, 1 believe, fewer injuries occur from dogs ; owing to a strong sense of the value of sheep induc- ing more care, and more strict attention to the execu- tion of the laws. It would be beneficial to collect the regulations, whatever they may be, of all countries on this subject ; and epitomise, into a little code, such as are applicable to our circumstances.
Richard Peters.
June nth, 1810. To the Philudeljjhia Society for promoting Agriculture.
[ 254 3
Explanation of the Plate.
No. 1. A three quarter blooded ram— four years old— chiefly white fleeced. White face— cheeks and legs, tawney. A handsome, healthy, vigorous tup. If there are any objec- tions to him, they are, with me, that his fleece is too white for the breed ; though his other characteristic marks are good. These sheep were drawn when the fleeces were of three months growth. When full fleeced the anatomy, figure and points cannot be correctly shewn. On this account, I rejected drawings of them taken when unshorn.
2. A full blooded ewe rising five years old,— a fine heal- thy sheep ; from the original ewe Selima, and a full blooded ram. Cheeks black— face and fleece (with some dusky spots) generally white— legs swarthy. In ever>^ point an exact like- ness of her dam ; who was in her 12th yeafr when the lamb
was dropped. •
Selima, in the year 1804, had her teeth in full perfection ; and a mouth equal to any sheep at five years old. It has been gradually breaking since ; she has now some teeth, and feeds well. I think lier mouth is now as good as those of common sheep, at half her age. She is now in her \7\h year ; in perfect health, and retains her fleece ; though it is much lighter than It was a few years ago, and in its fibre not as fine.=^ She has not in general been attentively kept, but has borne neglect without injury. She has never been diseased in any way ; though she has constantly ran in mixed flocks, wherein al-
• Although these sheep will endure longer in health and qualities than others ; and, while their numbers were few, it was necessary to preserve the stock, I do not approve of keeping aged sheep too long.
Explanation of the Plate.
255
ae
most every disease, incident to sheep, has been frequent. She had lambs in 1807 and 1808, but, being lambed in an incle- ment season, they died. One of them was not a healthy
lamb.
The old ram died, in Lancaster county, at about 15 years old, in health and vigour, by an accident in some rencounter. He must have been out of luck; for I have seen him in a furious and awful conflict, in which he finally defeated a powerful young bull, in my farm yard, after a bitter contest of half an hour's continuance. Though he received some bad flesh wounds, he eluded every attempt to toss him ; and, at every fair opportunity, gave tremendous proofs of his being, lite- rally, an animated battering ram. I had determined to shoot the bull, though a valuable one, to save the ram; as they could not be separated. While I went for a musket, the victory was decided by the bull's retreat. He was generally gentle, good tempered and playful, though sometimes rough in his plea- santry. But when enfuriated, he was fearfully ferocious. He had a mode, like deer, of striking with his fore-foot ; so that the fiercest dog I had, dreaded and avoided him. He once saved a flock, by making battle against a dog, 'till a rescue arrived. All fled, but hi» partner Selima ; who, fixed to his fate, stood aloof, at a small distance from the combatants, not willing to desert her companion, to whom she was at- tached by habit and instinctive affection.
I have mentioned these traits of character, in the original pair, because they descend, though not always thus strongly marked, to all the race ; when care is taken of the crosses, and justice is done to the flocks.
3. A three quarter ewe, six years old. Generally white, with some tawney spots. Head, face, cheeks, and legs, tawney. Remarkably handsome ; with all the points and qualities of the breed.
'\ *i
1'
i
256
Explamtion of the Plate.
£ 257 3
4. and 5. The tails of the ram and ewe reversed. Those of the ewes are always the smallest ; as are the ewes them- selves.
Many of this race are mottled or spotted with hrown or tawney. The fewest have black spots ; some are black en- tirely ; ^but in no greater proportion than other breeds.
I regret that I have (impelled by a desire to serve the interests of others) conceived myself under the necessity of so much enlarging on the subject of these useful domestic animals ; which to many may appear not worth the pains. I am well aware that a very few lines, containing results of great pecuniary profits, would have carried stronger convic- tions, than a volume of other facts, or descriptions, written by a much abler pen than mine. If their value had been earlier and more generally known and attended to, I could have drawn together very important pecuniary inducements. If, even under all untoward circumstances, facts of profit could be collected ; I should not fear to assert, that the amount would magnetically attract those, in whom emolu- ment is the sole and dominant propensity.
R. Peters.
It would give me much more pleasure, and to every farmeic much more profitable instruction, to assist in diffusing the useful and valuable productions of Mr. Livingston, upon subjects beneficial to our agriculture and rural oeconomy ; to the prosperity whereof, his example, as well as precepts, have most essentially contributed. I think it just, however, that if I have misconceived what he has written, I may be
corrected by his own words.
R. P.
Extract from the Essay on sheep — their varieties i^c.
Pages, 27, 28.
** The race of sheep that I shall next notice is one that is more extensively di fused than any other^ since it is found throughout Asia and a great part of Africa, as well as through the north-eastern parts of Europe. I refer to the broad-tailed sheep. (Ovis aries lati-caudata ) These differ as the ordinary European race in the nature of their covering. In Madagascar, and some other hot climates, they are hairy ^ at the Cape of Good-Hope they are covered with coarse harsh wool ; in the Levant their wool is extremely fine, or in other words, they are adapted to the necessities of the people by whom they have been changed from their wild to their domes- tic state. These sheep are generally larger than those of Europe, in which circumstance only, and the form and size of their tails they differ from them. The broad-tailed sheep are of three species. In the one the tail is not only broad, but long, and so weighty, that the shepherds are compelled to place two little wheels under it, to enable the sheep to drag it. These tails are said sometimes to weigh from forty to
VOL. lit K k
'#>•'
258 Extract from Mr. Livingstones Essay on Sheep.
Extract from Mr. Livingstones Essay on Sheep. 259
fifty pounds. Another sjiecies have the tail broad and flat, but not very long, covered with wool above, but smooth below, and divided by a furrow into two lobes of flesh ; these are also said to weigh above thirty pounds : I should not however estimate the weight of those which I saw in the Menagerie at Paris, at more than ten or twelve pounds. In some species a small thin tail projects from the ceiiter of this fe^hy excrescence. The composition of this excrescence is said to be a mixture of flesh with a great proportion 6ifat^ and to be a very delicate food ; but the animal has little other fat, the tail being in him the repository of that fat -which lays about the loins of other sheep. In cold climates the fat of the tail resembles suet ; but in warm ones, as at the Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar &c. it is so soft that when Tnelted it will not harden again. The inhabitants mix it with tallow in certain proportions, when it assumes the consistency of hogs lard, and is then eaten like butter, or used for culinary purposes. Naturalists imagine that this excrescence is owing to some circumstances in the food of the sheep, which makes the fat fall down from the loin into the tail, and thus occasions this monstrosity. I do not, however, think this probable, since the prodigious extent of country through which this race is pro- pagated, must render the food as various as the climates in. which they are bred. I rather think that it owes its origin to the art of man, grounded on some of those sports of nature, which in all domestic animals, afford a basis whereon to en- graft his whims.^^
28. 29. " It may be asked to what end would man culti- vate this deformity, and that too through so extensive a re- gion as to forbid our attributing it to whim or fashion ? may not the shepherd rvhojirst observed this Lusus Natures in his flock have concluded, that he had made a very valuable ac- quisition, since he not only had a sheep that gave him as much wool, milk or flesh as the rest of his flock, but a tail^ which, in addition, gave him a comfortable meal, or what is
still more valuable among savages, plenty of grease for his toilet and his kitchen. This circumstance alone would make him attentive to cherish and propagate the deformity; and the rather as he must soon have found that it was attended with another important advantage ; the sheep being more unwieldy, would be less apt to stray or return to its savage state ; an object of considerable importance in the early state of society.
I i 3
proofs of the Origirudity^ and high Estimation^ of Broad-
tailed Sheep. , ^
Having found, for some years past^ that old wine is not to in« the milk of old agSy I hare contented myscli under the privation ; but have not parted with a moderate share of re- lish y^r old books. The oldest anct the best of all books, and the commentaries of some of its most instructive annbtators, afford most satisfactory proofs of the originality of the broad* tailed sheep. The discovery of the animal, or its uses, were not left to the fortuitous observation of an ignorant shepherd; nor was the tail devoted to " the toilet and the kitchen," of the occasional tenant of a mud-built hovel. The learned, splendid, and instructive work of scheuchzer, entituled " physic a sa- cra," printed at Ulm in Germany nearly 80 years ago, will fur- nish to those who have the curiosity to turn to it, a full account oftheoTES LATicAUDyE.* In the platcs cciv.ccv. Tom. i, pages 232, 3, there are drawings of these sheep (one very like my ewe No. 2) and of the ceremonies in placing the tails on the altars, by the priests of the Israelites. These plates would do credit to a modem engraver. They are in- tended to elucidate his learned commentary on the 22 verse, of chapter 29, of Exodus. The whole work is calculated to prove the agreement in the accounts given by the sacred writers, with what is known in modem times, in natural his- tory, and the arts and sciences ; whereof this extensive and amusing work, embraces the whole circle of knowledge in his time.
The words in our translation are, ^' and thou shalt take of the ram, the fat and the rump /" which Scheuchzer translates from the Hebrew " ToUes quoque adipem de ariete, et cau' dam.'^'^ " Thou shalt take the fat of the ram and its tail.^^
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The high Estimation qf Bfynid^iailed Sheep. \U'
The Israelites ^cTc expressly enjoined to select the best part$ §f the victims for the sacrifices ; but he cite^ TertuUian to reproach the FaganSyVfho placed on the altars of their ftdsc •ods the worthless parts, and reserved the best for them- selves ; contrary to their own sense of propriety. He shews that the sheep of Syria^ Arabia^ Persia and the African sheep generally, were of the broad-tadled race j and that the lails of other sheep were not worthy of consecration. ITic Hebrew word for the Laticauda is rh^-^ Allah ; but that for the tails of other animals is aar — Zanab ; and the modem Ara^ Hans preserve the same distinction. In Greek versions, tiie word ocrfw/, and not wf koo-, or «f<K, is used for the Laticauda. He describes the varieties of the Lauticauda ; and adds — **' sunt hujus modi caudae delicatissimus cibus.'^^— The tails of these sheep are the most delicate food :— and as such were worthy of being devoted to the altar,— nto fulfill the express injunctions of the scriptures. He produces authority from ancient writers to shew, that, according to the Jewish customs and rites, these Laticattdcty being ^^ partes opimxis vlctlmarumy* (the richest parts of the victims) were thus devoted. So that we find a more dignified and pious use for the Laticauda than diat of fumishing '* plenty of grease for the toilet and the kitchen,** of a squalid tender of shtfep.
Under the old dispensation, the Israelites were bound to sacrifice the best parts of the victims ; but we are now only called upon to lay on the altar, (not in honour of our creator, but for our own purification) the worst parts of ourselves. And notwithstanding it is a religious and moral duty, to sacri- fice, among those pfarts, an unwarrantable thirst for gain ; yet this selfish indulgence sometimes benefits society; although the sophisms of the author of the ^^ Fable of the Bees^^ are not generally justified. The high prices obtained for merinos have roused American enterprize. This crouds into our ports, and plentifully adds to the wealth of our country (procured from the wrecks of the fortunes of their former European proprie-
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The high Estimate of Broad-tailed She^.
tors) those inost valuable animab ; a small n^jmber whereof had been, here, in the hands of a very few persons. It would now be as difficult as unnecessary, to enumerate the indivi- duals who possess them. Instead of its being a rarity for me to see fine sheep of this breed, they have already become familiar: and that by an accumulation so rapid, as to appear a kind of magical delusion. Accessions must continue to ar- rive ; for speculation is alive and active. Their depressed owners must part with precarious property ; and the patriots oi Spain willingly assist in thinning their coun ry, of these subjects of monopolies, which have long been its scourge.— The laws and regulations in Spain, on the subject of sheep, have ever been oppressive on the people, and injurious to the agriculture of the^ountiy. The flocks and the system will dis- solve together. Whatever may be the final fate oi that country, it wiU be, for a long time, too much disturbed, to suffer the flocks or the system, to remain on their former estabUshments. ' Regaled as I have been by my excursion among the mert. not, I return, however, not only with undiminished, but with increased pleasure, to my Tunisians ; and the old author who celebrates their progenitors. He cxtt^ Herodotus b. 3. c. 115 Armors account oi Syria, Hist: b. 8. c. 28. Diodorus b 2' Php b. 8. C.48 ; and other antient authors (several whereof I have examined) as proofs of the description and good quali- ties of this race of sheep, in times the most remote. We in our day, have the opportun.ty o. testing, by easy and agreeable experiment, the verity of these old authors. We may com- pare them, too, with the more humble, but equaUy just proofs from the practical witnesses I have produced. I took Scheuchzer^s advice. He tells us "that to explain such texts and others like them, we must not only enter the store- houses o grammatical and other learning, but we hiust «, ' into the slaughter-houses ol the butchers ;-.^^ intranda laZ omm laboratoriar as weU as into more elevated anatomical
The high Estimafiorttof Broad tailed Sheep. iy
The carcass (which is as much entitled to celebrity for its mutton, as is the merino fleece for its filament) must not be forgotten. It wants no other proofe of its excellence, but the " intranda lanionum laboratoria." Yet we may find such proofs now, as well as in ages the most ancient ; and by tes- timony the most convincing. The flesh ol all victims sacri- ficed for sin, were wholly the perquisites o; the pri ests of the Israelites ; save when sacrifices were made ior their own, and the sins ol the whole congregation. In other sacrifices, desig- nated parts, or portions, were assigned to them. Pr iests, in all ages, have been practical judges oi good living; and, when they can righteously obtain it, are now so. I say not this to the dis- paragement of modem priests, for no one respects them more than I do ; nor is any one better satisfied than I am, that those who serve at the altar should live well by it. ' The divine author of the regulation, which demanded sacrifices of of the 'Wi^m et partes opimas," ordained, that the victims, of course, should be of the fattest and best animals. Worthless* perquisites might have induced Pagan temptations, to lead astray the Israelitish ministers at the altars. The richest parts 'tis true, were devoted ; but for their repasts, food suflicienUy inviting remained. Only the fat which could be easily sepa- rated (see Leviticus, iii. 16.) was the Lord's; (Humphreys's annotations 233) but " that which was intermixed with it the Jews ate freely of: the Gentiles also devoted the fat to dieir gods."— But in their feasts on the carcasses, the latter in- dulged in the most obscene and sinful orgies; and thought their gods partook of their gluttony and revels.
In Leviticus, chapter 22, and other passages of scripture it will appear, that the offerings of beasts consisted only 'of beeves, sheep, and goats. For burnt-offerings the males were exclusively devoted ; but for sin and peace-offerings, females might be used. They were to be without blemish, i. e. hybri- dous 'ntxture,deformity, disease, or uncltmntss. The carvlor omentum,^d other separable rich and fatty parts, being holy when dedicated to the altar, it was indispensable, that the ani-
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f%e high Estimation •f^JSroad^-tailed Sheep.
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mall from which they were requirif^S should be fat. These e}ieep(^LaticaudaJ then, were peculiarly fitted for holy victim»; the carcasses being rich and fat, and the tails being formed not only as ^^ partes optma^ but as guards against unnatural miX' tares with other animals. The cleanness and freedom from -disease and vermin, established in their original nature, and, in a former part of these communications, proved to be now continued in the race, perpetuate the goodness and bounty of the creator ; who gives to us, in our day, what, in the pri- imitive ages, and under the old dispensation, he had devoted to himself: not as things which could of themselves delight him J but as testimonies offered in his worship, and proofs of homage and submission to his will.
Those who are not fatigued by the subject (as I confess begins to be my own case) may prolong their patience, and read (perhaps not unprofitably) the following translation of a passage from Scheuchzer Tom. 1, page 231.
After enjoining us to devote to the worship of God, our best affections, pure hearts, and all the precious propensities of our nature and systems, he adds
** So in sacrifices was the fat^ which is the most valuable fluid of the body. Adeps means a juice or fluid, fat, oleagin- ous, congested in certain strainers fsacculis*J and therein, after many elaborate and curious processes, secreted in a manner highly useful to the animal system. This is the es- sence of the nutritive juices, or rather a superfluous nutri- tive fluid, which when aliment is deficient^ fows back to re- cruit the mass of blood and other parts of the system. This not only throws light on the text we have undertaken to ex- plain, but on others before cited ; according to the idiom of the language of eastern people. The God of Israel would
• Cclli of the mcmbrana adipota.
The high Estimation of Broad-tailed Sheep. y\
not leave to discretion or caprice, what parts should be ofr fered in sacrifices ; but determined himself to select and en- join them.
Scheuchzer was a celebrated physician and naturalist. His account oifat clearly refutes (if it wanted refutation, othey than its evident improbability) the idea, that the fat of any animal can reside exclusively in any particular part, while other parts are meagre, and " aliment therein deficient.'* It would flow back into the system^ to recruit and sustain it. Whatever may be the modem definition of the term adeps^ it is well known that fat animals will live the longest, withr out any, or slender supplies of food. It is found in fact, that the tails pf these sheep are small and flaccid, when the animal is generally lean. So that the tail cannot be (agreeably to the nature and structure of animals) neither in fat nor lean sheep, " the repository of all the fat," or any great proportion of it. And I know experimentally^ that the Tunis tail (or AlieK) consists, in its interior, much of rich mucilage^ without aa undue proportion of fat.
A view of the Tunis sheep, or any other of the pure and choice races of the Laticaudce^ would supersede all necessity for any other refutation of this groundless opinion. It is only to those who have not seen or feasted on them, and hay^ conceived prejudices, originating in misinformation, or want of suflicient reflection, that these observations can be, in an important degree, necessary or useful. Having long aban- doned rich food, I leave to others the experiment and enjoy- ment of It.
Richard Peters, September 25 th, 1810.
I have lately compared tome of my Tunu wool, hastily plucked from the backs of the sheep, with many neatly displayed samples off fine sheep of the English breeds in NewJeney ; whereof t tot of the t9uth 49wn wm fbe b^. aiy \i^\ wogl wm die loftcit; lutd ^a^ ia Ute filwnent.
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[ 260 3
Heads of Lease for Richard Peters^s Belmont Farm.
Peacl 14th, August 18 JO.
Belmont y June llthy 1810.
Dear &>,
Being frequently called on for my lease, by those who wish to let farms on shares, I thought it would conduce to the information of all who were desirous to make such leases, to send to the society the heads of my lease. If they think proper, the enclosed may be published with our memoirs.
One tenant, on my 'Bull far m^ has lived 15 or 16 years, under the terms stated in these heads or extracts. He has brought up reputably a large family ; and has got much before handy according to the country phrase- ology. Several tenants, on my Belmont estate, have lived five, six, and seven years, under this lease ; and all have thriven, I have not been rigorous in enforcing my privekges ; or holding them very strictly to all parts of their contract. But I am satisfied that I have done myself none, and them little good, by this laxit}% Small objects may be neglected ; but every tenant is the better and more exact and regular, by being kept to his agreement. Relaxations, from motives of libe- rality, may be occasionally granted. But I have found in all instances, that though at first accepted as yar;owr^, they are claimed thereafter as rights. There must how- ever, be confidence and liberality on both sides ; or such a lease will be a source of constant, and vexatious altercation.
Lease of a Farm^ on Shares.
261
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I believe it to have been occasioned as much by habit, as from conviction of its cHgibility, that I have con- tinned so long letting my farms on shares. I think more can be made in this way, if the landlord is strict and prying. But this has not been my course. I find that those who want watching the most, affect to be the most offended at even necessary and just investi. gation. In general I have lived with my tenants more agreeably (though perhaps not so profitably) than one who would hold a tighter hand.
The specific share received by the landlord is much the more easily paid or delivered by the tenant, in fre- quent portions, and, with short accounts. Such leases are favourable to tenants, in the highest degree ; as the landlord partakes of all ri^s and losses by casualties and bad crops. One who has a money rent to pay, must pay it under all circumstances, of good or bad seasons, good or ill luck. I should prefer a money rent; if such could be justly fixed. But I have found great difficulties in ascertaining its amount ; or getting tc- nants who would pay it. On the whole, though not satisfied in many things, I find myself as well as most who have let farms on money rents ; and than some much better. The advantages and disadvantages of mv lease, balance one another ; so that on long trial, I find nothing hard or unjust ; taken all together. Circum- stances must vary contracts : but I think my plan and its details, must be generally useful, to all who desire similar agreements, it will be the more to be depended on, on account of its being tested by long experience • and cannot faU of furnishuig outline ; though the oar^s
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Lease of a Farm^ on Shares.
may be variously filled up, accordingly as objects and circumstances require,
I have not ventured, with a new tenant^ to give a lease for more than three years. Trials of temper, industry, and management, are as necessary, in this kind of co-partnership, as is integrity. Those who have given any tolerable satisfaction, have always remained. Several have held over under the terms, without actual renewal of the lease, for many years. And these terms have been kept (never as exactly as they should have been) as well without as with the renewal of the instru- ment. A perfectly good tenant in this country, where property is so easily acquired, is so rare ; that I have generally found it prudent to be patient with one who was not absolutely bad ; and to be easy, under many thhigs I did not approve, with one above mediocrity.
Yours truly,
Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease. Secretary of the Philad* Soc. for promoting Agriculture^
C 263 ]
Ai
Heads of Richard Peters' s Leases to Tenants, on Shares:
Extracted from the Lease for Belmont Farm.
The legal form, is such as is common in leases re- serving rent in money. — The specific share, or the prod6ce of it in cash, when Richard Peters directs or consents to its sale, is subject to the legal modes of recovery ; and its safety insured, by its being a lien on the tenants property.
I i* ^^^ P^^^i^^^ ^^^ on shares SLTt clearly described. Reservations of such parts of the farm, mansion house *i^6; as are thought proper by the landlord are made. The tenant's house and barn &c. are at a distance from ^the mansion house; to prevent inconvenient inter- ferences, and sources of petty contests.
2. A fixed quantity of dung, from the tenant's muck heap, may be taken if the landlord chooses. Also straw, not exceeding an eighth part of the whole. '^^ 3. The landlord is to put all post and rail fences, and the tenant all worm fences, in good repair.* The tenant to hale all materials, found by Richard Peters, for both. ^The materials for the latter, and posts for the former, to be taken out of the landlord's woods : for worm fences and repairs of post fences, (after being put by landlord in good order) at the tenant's expence, or by his labour.
* This applies to the first period when the tenant arrives. Afterwards he is bound to keep the fences in repair as they require it. It would be inadmissible and unjust, to let them rot down, and call on the landlord for entire new fences*
264
Lease of a Farm^ on Shares.
If the tenant leaves the farm at the end of one year, he is to be allowed a reasonable compensation for the repairs of worm fences. Fences to be left in good repair.
4. The tenant is to hale to Philadelphia twenty cords ofjire-woody cut and corded at the landlord's expence, at a stipulated price for hauling. If the landlord choos- cs, he may use the farm team^ for hauling the whole or any part.
5. The landlord to have the use of a pair of oxen ; (furnished by him, and supported on the farm) when he thinks proper.
6. Pasture is to be allowed to the landlord^ for a fixed number of horses and corws ; when he chooses to turn in the number stipulated, or any part.
7. Allotments of proportions of all taxes are made. In general half to be paid by each. So of ferriage and pikage ; for transportation on joint account.
8. Neither the tenant, nor his family, are to pass through the reserved parts of the farm, without the landlord's consent.
9. Fire wood allowed for two Jires ; one jvhereof shall be in a stove. Dead and fallen timber, and tops off trees cut for rails and posts, to be first taken ; and every kind of economy, as to timber, duly to be ex- crcised. The part of the wood land for tenant's fire wood, is designated by the landlord.*
10. No lights to be used, about the barn or stacks. If this be done, the tenant is held answerable for conse- quences. »r
* It would be better to fix the quantity of fire wood, or its equivalent, if it be just that any should be allowed.
^^ease of a Farm, on Shares.
265
n. m tenant is to procure, and sow clover seed and/,W oi Paris. The landlo,^ to pay half the cost of purchase. The tenant must leave the fields of winter gram sown or not with clover seed, as he finds or not those on the farm, on his arrival, so sown, or not
19. The landlord may kill or sell his share of lambs or fat sheep ; and so may the tenant. But the stock agreed on must be kept complete, at joint expence. Ten wethers may be added by the landlord for his sole use to run with the flock in summer, if he so chooses •
dmded and losses equally borne ; unless occurring through tenant's negligence, or fault. ^
13. A fixed number of swine, the landlord's sole nro
perty, are to run, in summer with the farm stock
14 When the landlord shall require the use ^f the farm team,^t shall be driven by the tenant, or some person by h.m appointed. [But this is only occasion- ally; and must not obstruct the business of the farm
ho^l^^'' ''^'" ^'™"^ "P"'^''''"^ '•^'l"''-"^ the 15. The tenant to be allowed to take away as much hay and straw as he brings on the farm ; and no mo,^. The carrying off hay, straw, dung, or ashes, is prohi- bited ; with the foregoing exception.
Jt ^? Tt **" ''' ^"^' ^""^ '^^ ^^^l"«5ve benefit of the tenant aU, for sale or use, to be for joint account. Expence for covering horses, joint.
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VOL. II.
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Lease of a Farm, on Shares.
Lease of a Farm, on Shares.
267
Covenants to perform articles before enumerated: and some additions and explanations.
1. Relates to fences. Landlord to direct fww fields are to be divided, if such divisions are found necessary. All new division fences, directed by landlord, must be made at his expence. Fences being put in good repair, the tenant shall so keep them ; the landlord findmg materials as aforesaid, to be hauled by the tenant from any place not exceeding five miles distant. BuUdtngs delivered in good repair arc to be so kept by the tenant ; accidents by fire, not occurring through negligence or
fault, excepted.
2. Tenant to pay taxes in first instance ; and land- lord to allow the part allotted to him.
3. Landlord to pay for all manure hauled by tenant from other places ; but landlord to decide on price. Tenant to use all possible care and dUigence, to make and collect manure on the ferm.
4. The tenant is to do all the work on the farm at his sole expence. To find all implements of husbandry ; and articles necessary for the dairy. He shall sell and dis- pose of such products as are mutually agreed to be sold; accounting for proceeds: and seU landlord's share, or part thereof if so directed, as to any article or
thing.
5, Manure to be laid on places only, agreed on by
mutual consent. The fields cultivated, quantity, and species of grain sown, and the general husbandry to be fixed by both parties : and no cropping, or cultivation, but such -as shall be mutually agreed on.
aes!
6. The grain and other products^ usually so mea- sured, are to be divided by the bushel (such excepted as are agreed to be sold and the proceeds divided) and delivered into landlord's granary on the farm, or hauled by tenant, if landlord so requires, to any mill or place not exceeding five miles distance. Indian corn, first divided and stored in the cob ; but it shall be shelled or threshed by the tenant, when landlord requires. Half the Jlax to be delivered from the swingle. No grain to be stored, or kept by the tenant in the dwelli?ig house.
7. Landlord to find, or, at his option, pay for, one half of all seed; whether for the garden-truck, roots, or grain.
8. Landlord's share shall he delivered, or at his option safely stored; and properly sheltered and preserved ; or sold and proceeds accounted for by tenant, if landlord so require it.
9. Landlord is to receive one half of sM grain, butter, or other products, 2ind all increase of stock ; or, if sold, one half of the proceeds, for all things raised on or agreed to be sold off, the farm. Nothing, produced or supported by the farm, is to be raised made or grown [in the operations of agriculture, grazing, dairy, or other products of husbandry and rural economy]} but for joint benefit ; and to be equally shared between the parties. If bees are kept, honey, wax or profits, to be divided ; the stock originally to be furnished at joint expence.
10. Tenant to have out of the garden, what he wants for his family use. The residue to be sold ; and pro- ceeds divided.
268
Lease of a Farm^ on Shares.
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11. The number and species of stock to be mutually agreed on by both parties ; which is to be increased or diminished, according to circumstances. No cattle^ horses^ or sheep^ to be taken or kept on the farm, but with mutual consent, and for joint benefit.
12. The tenant shall do no business other than that required for the farm ; and such as may, by mutual consent, be connected therewith. If it be agreed to grazCy or deal in^ cattle^ original stock to be at joint expence, but all care, labour, &c. to be done and taken by tenant.
13. Risk of stocky horses except ed^ falls on both par- ties alike : save loss accruing from fault or negligence of tenant. Colts dropped raised or brought on farm, to be at joint risk and for mutual benefit.
14. No inmates or lodgers to be taken in by tenant.
15. Tenant to use every endeavour to destroy all noxious weeds J briars, bushes ; and put and keep the grounds in the best order.
16. The farm horses or team, &c. shall not be used for any other purposes than those of the farm, without landlord's consent : save for the accommodation and convenience of the tenant and his family.
17. Tenant 720^ to sell any timber. Only the cleared land rented ; but tenant may have the range of the woods, if young timber, subject to injury, be not on the part depastured. No stone quarries opened, or to be opened, are within the lease, but reserved ; and pas- sages to and from them.
18. All stock whether for dairy or grazing are joint property, laid in at joint expence and for joint profit. But tenant finds the horses at his expence and risk.
Lease of a Farm, on Shares.
269
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They arc supported with pasture and hay from joint produce; but not with short feed. Landlord finds and runs nsk of a pair of working oxen. Tenant has the use ot them, when landlord does not require them.
19. Tenant shaU plant and preserve from injury of cattle &c. fruit trees purchased by landlord. No cattle ' or horses to be turned into orchards, without landloixl's consent.
20. iiof^gstorun at large without m^^ or nails.'] If damage done by them or those of others, tenant shall '
mmedmtely repair it. [Grass grounds shall not be pas- ' tured too late m the fall, nor too early i„ the springVso as to mjure future crops.] ^'
21. If limeh^ put on the last year of the term, (or the first year, ,f tenant leaves the place at Uie end of it) mid tenant receives no adequate benefit,_compensation IS to be rnade for hauling. The landlord is to pay cost at the kiln, for all lime hauled by the tenant.
22. All the hay to be expended for joint benefit as well as the offals of the dairy for suppit of the stock Landlord finds feed for his share of ho'gs, when p m.tl' for fattmg ; or he may have them divided before put
pork to be divided by weight, or sold and proceeds divided ; or landlord's share sold for his benefit
23 Cyder io he made by tenant; landlord findin.. vessels for h.s share ; which shaU be delivered eS at the mansion house; or hauled to the city at landlord's option If landlord chooses his share of alplesTZtl. 7S:::r ^'^'■^^' andde,iverthem,as bt
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Lease of a Farm, on Shares.
24. Possession to be delivered at the end of the term. The usual mode, with a new tenant, is to make the first year one of probation. Either party may give no- tice to the other, three months before the end of the first year, of his intention to dissolve the agreement. The lease is personal ; and does not survive to repre- sentatives in case of death ; save until the expiration of the year in which the tenant dies. All crops go to re- presentatives ; subject to the terms of the lease, and stock to be divided. The lease cannot be assigned, without landlord's consent.
25. The landlord's share is exempt from debts of, or sales by, tenant unauthorized : and may be distrained and taken ; if not delivered on demand or otherwise. And the landlord is to have/ree ingress and egress at his pleasure into and upon the farm, buildings, and premi- ses. If tenant leaves the farm, or dies, before reaping the benefit of any manure he has hauled, compensation is to be made. All differences to be left to referrees, mu- tually chosen.
26. It is declared and agreed, that the leading objects on this farm, arc those of cattle and dairy. All cultiva- tion is to be carried on with a view to these objects ; and to such others as will produce profit in the Phila- delphia market. The raising of grain, is always to be considered as subordinate and secondary to the end on which the agreement is founded.
s
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, Note, On Lease of a Farm, on Shares.
It is understood and practised, that timber found by land- lord out of his woods, is standing timber ; selected with his approbation. Stock, being always proportioned to the forage^ shall be supported by the tenant. The landlord is not bound to support the joint stock either wholly or partially.
The tenant, having the care and charge of the stock, is solely answerable for tresspasses, if any committed by horses, cattle, hqgs, &c.
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[ 272 ]
^
On Liming Land. By Richard Peters.
Read August 14th, 1810.
'^The relation to the society in which I am placed by them, impels me to bring to their notice, many sub- jects, which I should not otherwise conceive myself bound to discuss. When no attention appears to be paid by others, to an important point, I venture to supply, however inadequately, the deficiency. This must be my apology for so often troubling them with my thoughts on topics, to which others, if so inclined, could do more ample justice. We have not a solitary communication upon the practice of liming lands; though carried to very great extent in our state. In no country is lime in more abundance; nor can it be of better quality. Chemical and theoretical accounts of it, may be found in many books. There are good writers on its properties, as they apply to agriculture. But we find in those writers, many positions and remarks, both theoretical and practical, unsuitable to the climate and circumstances of this country. It is more a topic for curiosity than practical use, with com- mon farmers, to enter into its composition chemically ; though to those who turn to profitable account such inquiries, they are indeed highly beneficial. I leave all theories ; — and wish to call the attention of the society to its practical uses. It would be very desirable to fall on means to acquire every information from those who can, from experience, give it ; and multitudes of our fellow citizens have the capacity to afford the fullest
On Liming Land.
273
satisfaction, in every point of practice required. It is more necessary to excite the inclinations of many of them to communicate their practical knowledge, than it is to give them instruction ; as this substance has, in many districts of our country, now become one applied in common course. It is annually becoming dearer to the farmers in old settlements; and especially in the vicinity of the city and large towns ; owing to the de- mand of this material for buildings, and the scarcity of timber for fuel. From twelve to fourteen cords of wood are consumed, in burning one kiln of lime of six hundred bushels. The quarries are inexhaustible. No other fuel equals wood for this purpose ; as we may see by com- parison of ours with the lime of our coal countries where it is tinged and discoloured ; and vitiated by the sulphur of the fossil coal used in its calcination. It would be on these accounts desirable to offer a pre- mium, or, in some way, to encourage improvements in the construction of lime kilns ; to save the consump. tion of fuel.* Coked coal might, where timber is ex- hausted, supply the place of wood.
* In our western country, /;i^co«/, and limestone, of the first quality, are generally, and in great plenty, found on the same spot, in strata ot from four to six feet in depth, or thickness respectively ; above or under each other, as they happen to be naturally placed. Coal may be as easily charred or coked (and much in the same way) as wood burnt into charcoal. In that country, furnished with such abundant means in aU quarters, manufactures, are rising, and may increase, with time and population, to an incalculable extent. Cheapness of pro- duce will forward them. Domestic markets will be created, VOL. II. Mm
V
^*]
274
On Liming Land.
The quantity, per acre, proper for soils of different textures is by no means fixed ; either here or in Eu-
to stimulate and reward the labours of husbandry : and thus the inconveniencies of the distance from the ocean, will be amply compensated. Although wood (to preserve which they take no care) may be now in plenty, the coal will be in the greatest demand. Most of the heavy materials used in the Staffordshire (Engliiih) potteries^ placed where they are principally on account of the coal for fuel in many parts of that coal country, are transported from a distance of 100 miles and upwards. Steam (in our western country) must be substituted for water powers, where the streams fail for several months in the year, beyond the western mountains.
I have had kilns of lime burnt on my Belmont farm, (which is on the tide water of the Schuylkill) from limestone brought down the river, through the great falls, in a boat carrying 12 to 15 tons. Enterprising persons might establish, on a large scale, some plan of this kind. The kilns might be erected on the tide waters ; and wood, or sea coal, for fuel, brought thereto, at a small expence. A profitable business might be thus established. A sufficient stock of stone for the season, could be transported, while the upper waters were boatable. The city being supplied wholly or partially from these kilns with lime, the country would have it in greater plenty, for agricultural purposes.
It is to be much regretted, that the lower, or Norristown, canal scheme has been interrupted, or failed. I have no doubt, however, but that, at no distant period, this canal will be com- pleted ; or one will be carried on the western side of the Schuylkill ; where I have been always of opinion (and so was the most intelligent hydraulic engineer we have had here) that it will be found to be the easiest, and least expensively practicable. Marble^ limestone^ lime, soap-stone (as well as
<
On Liming Lahd.
275
rope. I have been surprised, by what I have myself seen, and more by the accounts I have read in Euro- pean books, at the great, and to us incredible, quanti- ties of lime allowed by Europeans to an acre. Ours is the statute acre of 160 perches. The common com- puted acres of Europe differ in contents ; so that it is difficult always to understand what is meant by writers, even in England, by the term acre. But the lime of Europe, applied in the quantity of 160 bushels to a statute acre of 160 perches, at one dress- ing, must either be of inferior strength and quality to ours ; or there must be a vast difference in the ef- fects of climate. As to soils of most countries, they are much alike. There is not, on our globe, better nor worse land, with all the intermediate gradations, than can be found here. It is composed of all the varieties of materials, generally found in soils of other countries ; though no accurate analysis, of quantities, and propor-' tions of these materials, has been made. It would be highly useful, that geological explorations and inquiries should be more generally prosecuted throughout our
building stone J in inexhaustible plenty, could, by this means, be supplied ; and delivered in the city lor domestic purposes,' or exportation.
^
Since this communication I am informed, that a plan for burning lime on the tide waters of the Schuylkill, is com- menced. It has my sincere wishes for its success.
30^/i August^ 1810.
.>.>
276
On Liming Land.
On Liming Land.
277
tsam
country. Every fanner should analyze his own soil ;*• that he may be the better enabled to cultivate to advan-
* There is an excellent treatise, " on the analysis of soils connected with their improvement," by the celebrated Pro- fessor Davy^ chemical Professor to the British board of agri- culture. This might be read with instruction by one versed in such subjects ; and rendered more intelligible to practical farmers ; though I think it sufficiently plain in the most ne- cessary directions. Our extract from Lord Dundonald in vol. 1. is highly worthy attention, and can easily be practised upon.
The use of analyses of soils is very properly stated to be, for the purpose of enabling us to find and supply the defect of proportion in the primitive earths. Mr. Davy truly ob- serves
*' In supplying animal or vegetable manure, a temporary food only is provided ior plants, which is in all cases exhaust- ed by means of a certain number of crops ; but when a soil is rendered of the best possible constitution and texture, with regard to its earthy parts, its fertility may be considered as permanently established. It becomes capable of attracting a very large portion of vegetable nourishment from the atmos- phere, and oi producing its crops with comparatively little labour and expcnce."
It was to encourage our farmers and others in pursuits, having this object in view, that we offered our first premium, in 1 806, for " ascertaining the component parts of arable land." This (imd most others of our endeavours to promote a spirit of improvement) has been too little attended to. — While farmers are regretting the want of dimg^ limey and other artificial sup^jhes, they overlook materials for permanently fertilizing their fields, to be found on their own farms.
B. P.
tage, by knowing its texture, and applying the manure the most suitable to it. Three hundred bushels f Winchester J of lime, have been, at one time, spread on an acre, in England ! Half of that quantity, laid on at once here, would ruin any acre of land within my know- ledge. I mean a worn acre taken up for amelioration and recovery. Land reduced to sterility, by bad farming and over-cropping, is like the stomach of an animal in a state of debility. It must be recovered by gentle means applied repeatedly, and at proper intervals. Too much food is as destructive to the animal, as over-liming is to the impoverished land ; whatever may have been the original stamina of the one, or qualities of the other. It is essential to know what quantity per acre, is advantageous and proper here ; and the most bene- ficial modes of using it. When I began, in the early part of my life, to lay on lime, I was advised that the lime would spend itself as much if no culture were carried on, as it would by the severest cropping. I soon found that limed lands required as much care and good management, as others. The lime may sink, or part with its qualities ; but severe cropping and bad systems, injure limed, as much as other soils ; and, I think, leave them in a state more difficult to recover. I have myself experienced this, when I overtimed or overfarmed, from want of proper information. I there- fore suspect, that the lands said, in many places, to be lime-sicky must have been badly managed, and over- Avorked. And yet in some parts of our country wherein they have discontinued the use of lime, after having ^ long applied it (perhaps in too great quantities) there are good farmers. I believe land requires a change,
278
On Liming Land.
after a certain time, of manure as well as of crop ; though either may be, after proper intervals and with suitable auxiliaries, again introduced with equal bene- fit. I do not know enough of facts, relating to lime-sick lands, to give an opinion : and this is one among other reasons, why I wish the society to promote inquiries. I believe it is generally known and agreed, that the -4 poorer the land, either naturally or by wearing, the less hmc it will bear. So that 25 bushels will benefit, where t 50 would injure. Lime, being in itself no manure, must find, in the earth, or in the air, something to act upon, or co-operate with. And, that it may have constant communication with the atmosphere, it should be kept near the surface ; both in its first application, and by deepening the ploughings to bring it up when it sinks. I have made much use of it, in every way, and in great quantities, for a long course of years. My soil is vari- ous ; but generally a kindly loam, mixed with rnica (isinglass) and in parts sand, as well as clay. The sur- face is of every description, as to exposure, hill and vale. It had been much worn in some parts; and I have cleared off, from time to time, a considerable por- tion of the timber. So that I have had all kinds of soil to operate upon. I have generally begun with 40 bushels (sometimes 50, and often 30 and 35) to the acre. I prefer it to be laid hi half bushel-heaps, and water- slaked. But I frequently cover these little heaps with earth, and leave it thus to slake ; closing the cracks carefully, as they appear. Sometimes I leave it through the winter, in large heaps of 40 or 50 bushels (accord- ingly as I determine the quantity per acre) well pro- tected by earth and sod. I choose, when practicable,
On Liming Land*
279
to spread it in the autumn ; and either plough or har- row it in. The next season I take only a summer crop. Indian com I think the best ; as its culture mixes the lime most effectually with the soil. I have most fre- quently put lime on in the spring ; and I have cropped fields with winter-grain, when limed in the same sea- son. I have sometimes succeeded with nje ; but whea wheat was sown on land fresh limed, I have invariably suffered by mildew, smut, rust, or blight. I scarcely remember an instance to the contrary. The crop is retarded in its maturation, by the lime : and though it shews a deep verdure, and large heads ; the former is as deceptive as the blush of a hectic ; and the latter seldom, or never fill.* Yet in some European books, I
* It would seem that the fresh lime, acting on the sub- stances in the earth with ruinous energy, pressed on the plant more food than it could digest or contain ; and produced death by a fatal plethora. With a good glass one can plainly discern the bursting of the vessels and the extravasation of the sap, with all their consequences. The grain is shrivelled, though the plant, until its catastrophe, appears to thrive. If winter crops on fresh limed lands come to maturity, they ripen late ; and their risks of mildew are increased. I have observed this, even when dung is used with fresh lime. But with lime alone on exhausted lands, where litde or no vege- table or animal matter is found in the soil, I have seen wheat a star\'ed and worthless plant. Summer crops only should be sown on land fresh limed ; and Indian corn is the most suit- able. When I repeat the liming, as I have generally done with a greater quantity than that first applied, I commonly take a crop of Indian corn in the year before wheat ; to Wl the lime, according to the country phrase. The com', being
28q
On Liming Land.
see it recommended, to plough or harrow in the grain and lime together. I have never approved of dunging the ground at the time of liming ; having made compa- rative experiments. My course has been, to lime, — take a summer crop,— fall-plough,— and, the next year, an open fallow, or a covering, but inexhausting, spring- crop, preparatory to dunging for wheat. In this course I have invariably had success ; and therefore prefer it to any other. I have, when the field came in course again (in three or four years) limed ; and thus repeated the applications to 120, and in one field, to 160 bushels to the acre ; including all repetitions of liming, at dif- fcrent, and distant, periods. I have known 80 bushels to the acre (put on, at once, on such land as mine) in-
a gigantic plant requiring large supplies, will thrive on all the food that lime can furnish or prepare. ^ t 7 C/^ -
When I began to lime (45 years ago) I had no practical instructor ; for it was a novelty in my neighbourhood. I have lost whole fields of wheat on limed lands sown the first season of liming, in a few days after the deceptious verdure of the plant had induced me to count on a plentiful crop. The same fields produced clover in abundance. In their next turn for wheat (and especially if assisted by a light dunging) they amply retributed my former disappointment. My suc- cess was much increased after I used plaister on the clover crops ; which ameliorated the soil, and furnished vegetable matter for the lime. A moderate liming, (say 30 to 40 bushels to the acre) harrowed in on fall ploughed ground, and laying exposed through the winter, will part with most of its caustic qualities, and do with dung the succeeding spring, or autumn. But it would be much better to intermit whcat^ for another year.
On Liming Land.
281
jure the field for several years ; or until recovered by dung, or green manures ploughed in. It is said that clay will bear the heaviest liming. So that climate, strength and quality of lime, (I mean stone-lime, as ours generally is) differ widely in this, from those of other countries.
Farmers of what are called strong lands, have told me, that eighty bushels per acre, on the first appli- cation, were but a moderate allowance. But I have ever believed that it would have been better to lay- on forty or fifty bushels in the beginning; and in- crease, by repetitions, after proper intervals. Strong lands are precipitated into debility by over stimulation, as strong men, or other animals, are enfeebled by ex. cess, or over exertion. Some of our strongest lands are now thus reduced to a situation to be no longer benefitted by lime. In lime-stone countries, where lim^ is obtained on easy terms, I have known it spread with- out rule, or attention to exact quantity. I always pre* dieted, that repentance would, one day, follow when too late, this agricultural enormity.
In Europe, lime is heavily spread on a tough old grass lay ; and it meliorates the grass, so as to render it high- ly palatable to cattle, and hastens their fatting. It lies thus, twelve months (having been put on in the au- tumn) and the field is then ploughed, and taken up for a course of crops ; preparatory to being laid down again in grass. In this way, it is alleged, and it seems rea- sonable, that land will bear the heaviest liming ; espe- cially if it be a strong clay ; though it is known to be- nefit lighter soils the most.
VOL. II,
N n
282
On Liming Land.
Lime on clay has never succeeded with me, to any profitable extent. The idea of its durably warming cold clayey land, is unfounded. Heat is disengaged, when water or moisture solidifies, while lime is slaking: but it becomes shortly thereafter, a cold substance.*
* Moss or a green fungus, such as is seen on damp north walls, stones, or on the butts of trees growing in cold soils, will be often found on the ridges of limed lands, in great plenty, f have considered this as a sign of coldness, rather than heat, in the lime. I have conceived that hot, dry, and light soils were benefitted and corrected, by the cool and bind- ing quality of the lime ; as well as by its attracting and re- taining moisture ; independent of its other qualities. Mosses are found in all kinds of land, and especially in wet and cold soils. I think they abound on .limed lands, in by far the greatest quantities.
See Mr. Laiig's observations on lime — page 1 ; which are well worth attention. I unwillingly meddle with conjec- tures, however plausible they may seem ; leaving them in better hands. It is known however, to every body, that limey after parting with its fixed air, thirsts for its recover}^ I therefore believe with Mr. Lang (page 7) that it preys on the plant, for lack of other supplies ; and attracts all the carbonic acid it can obtain. And this is its process, rather than durably warming the land. Heat is not disengaged while it recovers its fixed air, as it is when it parts with it.. Dung gives it the pabulum it wants, both for its caustic and attractive qualities ; — so do vegetable substances found in
the earth ; of which poor and exhausted land affords the
fewest ; and therefore will bear the least lime. This fact I know ;— its theory I will not insist on ; — ^lime certainly (espe- cially when applied fresh) retards maturation ; and exposes the wheat crop to injury, if not tg ruin. I have repeatedly
On Liming Land.
283
Its particles are too small and fine to keep asunder those of the clay ; and such things as produce this ef- feet are the only proper auxiliaries for clay land. Gravel, sand, shells, unbumt limestone, are better than lime. In clay ridged and drained, and kept dry and friable, lime may be serviceable.
I have spread lime on a clover lay, and suffered it to remain on the surface, through a winter ; then plough, ed; and the lime being well incorporated by heavy drags or harrows, I have found it a very advantageous mode. I have always preferred, in this and every other mode o\ application, laying on the lime, and mixing it thoroughly with the soil by frequent stirrings, without dung. I have repeatedly observed, that fresh lime and stable manure, put on together, are by no means so ef- ficacious, as when the latter is applied in the season suc- ceeding the liming : green manures, with fresh lime,
found that dung, in equal quantities, put on the year of liming, is very inferior in profitable effects to that applied in the year succeeding the laying on the lime. In the contemporaneous application with lime, part of the dung is consumed, and goes to balance, or remedy, a/z evil: inst^ead of wholly ope- rating to effect a positive good; as it does when the lime, by losing its causticity and predatory qualities, is prepared to co-operate with the dung, in the salutary and beneficial purposes intended by their combined application.
The lime, when it has spent its noxious activity, operates as a mild solvent. It attracts, and, elaborates the acids in the dung, and the vegetable or other substances in the earth ; and prepares them to enter the plant, and to become its food and essential nourishment.
R. P.
-;'•
284
On Liming Land.
On Liming Land,
285
'ill
do better. Lime, like salt, in very small quantities is septic, and may with dung be useful : but in the quan- titles usually applied, it must be injurious, on chemical principles, and in fact, to both the land and dung ; which latter /a«m in its effect on the crop, compared to one with lime alone ; as dung will always shew itself in a greater or less degree ; but it will shew and act most effectually, when it is not neutralized or con- sumed by fresh lime.
The varieties of our lime, as to strength or compo- sition, for either masonry or agricultural uses, have been very little attended to. It would be important that some simple test or trial of the qualities of lime, should be established and promulgated. I know that there is in practical result, a great difference in the effects of equal quantities in bulk, measured, or weighed ; and the lightest is commonly the best. This I supposed was owing to its being better burnt ; so as to have less core. It is but recently, that this subject has been, in Europe, minutely examined. Some kinds of lime have been found, there, so composed, as to be prejudicial to agri- cultural operations. Here lime differs widely in effects, on land or crops ; so as to require greater quantities of one kind, than of another. I have found it so, in mortar.*
*In a conversation v/ith Mr. Langy I found that he had, very meritoriously and usefully, continued his investigations on the analyses of the lime ot this country . He believes that the greater part ot ours is the magnesian lime ; and that it is not attended with those deleterious effects attributed, by
It will be perceived, that I have avoided, (as much as possible,) technical disquisition. If I have not men-
English writers, to lime mixed with magnesia. If some pa- triotic chemists would assist us in analyzing lime from every quarter of our country, great advantages would be derived to agriculture. We volunteer our services ; and so must che- mists. Our limestone is of great varieties of texture, colour and composition.
Without knowing the composition of the lime which gave rise to my observations in the text, which are grounded on facts within my own knowledge, I am now satisfied that where the greater quantities were required, the lime was mild lime. I remember since Mr. Lang mentioned the subject, many instances where the lime soon exhausted all its powers. And I have always found that small quantities of strong, (or ac- cording to Mr. Lang'^ ideas, magnesianj lime were more serviceable and much more durable, than larger quantities of that which must have been of the mild species. From one lime-burner I always had what I called weak lime ; and dis- continued dealing with him. The discovery of the compo- nent parts of our lime generally, would diminish the surprise I always feel when I read or hear of the vast quantities ap. plied to land in Europe ; and it would, account for the small quantity of our lime, proper for our land. The Europeans must use what is called mild limre ; and we the strong or mag- nesian kind. Their lime cannot be many degrees stronger than chalk ; which also being a species of lime, contains the cretaceous or carbonic acid. Should our investigations of lime, proved by practical tests, turn out as now supposed, we shall correct another European error, on the subject of lime. It was long believed in England, that lime and gypsum were hostile. Yet they knew that the gyps is itself a sulphate of lime ; and therefore that it ought to have appeared reason-
^'".i
266
On Liming land.
[ 287 ]
tioned any thing new to experienced farmers, or others acquainted with the subject, I have, at least, endea- voured to set an example ; so as to invite their com- municating what they know to be mstructive. Putting a subject in requisition, always rouses attention ; and draws forth useful facts ; and discussion conveying in- struction, which would otherwise remain hidden, or confined to the knowledge of a few individuals. What may be familiar to experienced agriculturists, is never- thclcss highly acceptable, and essentially instructive, to those who want, practical knowledge.
Richard Peters. 2c/ July 1810.
To the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture.
able, as we find it in fact, that there is no hostilit}^ It is most probable, that the sulphuric acid of the gyps, being the strong- est, while the carbonic is the weakest, expels it,— sets it free to act on the plant,— and repels farther supplies of fixed air taking possession of the lime.
As to the point— whether the lime we commonly use is or is not of the magnesian species, it yet depends on more extensive examinations than have, in this early stage of inqui- ry, been made, before a decisive opinion can be formed. So far as the experiment Mr. Lang mentions reaches, the proof appears strong. And if specimens of the limestone in other quarters produce, when analyzed, the like results, the point
will be indisputably decided.
R. P.
September \7th, 1810.
See hereafter Mr. Lang's commuiucation.
Elkton, June 24fA, laiO. Read August 14th, 1810.
Gentlemen,
A few years ago, I informed you of a distemper in my wheat, which I call a decay in the root, others call U sedge wheat. This malady continues with an increas- ing spread.
From information that on land where the red chaff had been destroyed, the white wheat would succeed, by sowing it the next rotation of crops.
Last fall I tried the experiment, on about two acres, in a field that had been destroyed three years ago, by sowing part of the land that had been affected with red chaff and part with white wheat. The red chaff lart- guid : white recovering.
From about the 15th of March to the middle of May, the whole appeared nearly dead, or what is generally caU-' ed sedge wheat. At present the white wheat is making considerable progress; and if it ripens clear of rust, may be half a crop, while the red chaff, dont seem to recover. As there must be a cause for effects, my hypothesis, or reasoning on this subject is, that it is well known that the red chaff bearded wheat, dont stool or throw up as many stalks from the root, as other wheat, it requires more seed to produce a crop equally thick, of course, may not put out as many side roots, but depends more on the main tap root for nourishment.
The tap root being injured, prevents its recovering, as other wheats do. This may be the cause of the red*
288
On IVheat.
JVotCy on Wheat.
289
chaff, being injured by this pernicious insect, more than other wheat. Hoping some abler hand may make farther discoveries, on this pernicious insect. It appears all sorts of wheat are exactly alike, but the bearded dont recover as other wheats do. Rye is proof against it.
Your most humble servant,
Z. HOLLINCSWORTH.^
To the Philad. Jgric. Society.
* Conceiving then, as I now do, that the malady in the wheat was occasioned by insects ; soon after Mr. HollingS' worth's information to the society. (See our first volume 124, 5.) I wrote to him, suggesting some experiments for the destruction of these very pernicious vermin, of which we have no complete entomological description. I proposed that, on a small scale, every endeavour should be made to find out the means of their destruction. But I see not that any thing has been attempted ; and therefore conclude that my suggestions were deemed unimportant.
1. The best remedy would be to discontinue, by general consent of a neighbourhood infested with the worm, or in- sect, the cuhure, of wheat. It may be an indication of na- ture', that a change of crops is indispensable. And they may as well do willingly, that to which necessity will compeL
2. I proposed fall, or winter, ploughing; and frequent win- ter harrowing ; to expose the worm, or larvae of the insect, to the severity of frosts.
3. To lime lands infested ; and to spread salt (Marine) plaister of Paris, or any other substance known to destroy
insects or worms.
4. To try experiments on the living worm, or insect, be it a moth, beetle, fly, or in whatsoever shape the enemy may,
in any stage of its existence, be found ; to discover what will kill, or banish it. The change of one species of wheat for another, does not seem effectually to answer the purpose, I have thrown in my mite towards the relief of those who suf- fer ; let other members of the society contribute their assist- ance. The ravages of those insects are not abated ; and may spread to places, wherein their appearance is the least ex- pected. The Hessian fly began its desolating march, at a great distance from us: but its progress, though slow, brought a scourge, which will never cease to chastise us. It compels us, however, into good husbandry : as the only means of resisting it. The southern " decay of the root^'' most certainly owing to insects, may oblige the farmers afflicted with this misfortune, to banish many bad habits, such as sowing wheat among Indian com, and labouring over a vast surface, for very little proportionate profit, &c. It appears by the papers published in the pages following Mr. Hoi- lingsworth's former letter, that I am not singular in my opinion of the cause of the misfortune he complains of. Its appearing the most " where land is manured with scraping's about doors^ or where old buildings, fodder-houses, stacks of hay'' have been; is, to me, a decided proof, that insects, bred in such nurseries for them, are the enemies to be sub- dued. If manure, from the places described, must be used, let it (and the earth which had been the site of buildings, fodder-houses, stacks, &c.) be composted ; and mixed with lime, salt, or plaister ; as advised in our former volume. Mere change of one wheat for another, will not eventually cure the evil. Nothing likely to succeed should be left un- tried. Those who have access to them, might (as is done on the sea shores of New-Jersey) spread the hay, grass or sedge of salt marshes, sea weeds, or even salt water. These are hostile to worms or insects j and are in themselves powerful manures. See vol. 1, pages ITl, 2, 322.
R. Peters. VOL. ir. o o
I 290 3
h
f!;
II
Deterioration of Grain,
Read August, 14th, 1810.
Permit me to mention what with me, has always borne some analogy to my experience, with respect to animals kept long on the same farm. I mention, in our 1 vol. pages 214, 15. the Mandane corn. I had it, for two seasons, on my table in perfection on the 4th and 5th, days of July. It is now a large, though at first, a dwarf plant It is just setting to ear, and not so forward as other early corn. I pursued, in every particular, Mr. Cooper* s directions, as to my seed and planting dis- tant from other com. But it turns out exactly as I pre- dicted, page 215. " This corn will, in a course of time, change its nature, and assimilate with our own. I never had any seed that did not change, with all the care I could take." Mr. Cooper has great luck, as well as great judgment, in his more successful practice. I am mortified under the truth of my prediction ; though such mortifications are not new to me. This change in my com has occurred sooner than usual in such cases. Mr. George Bickham informs me, that he had the same kind of com fit for the table in June. He brought a few grains from the southward, and planted them last year. His time for change is not yet come. The distance from whence the seed came (and possibly a change of soil) has favoured him.
Richard P£T£RS. \&thJuly, 1810.
To the Philad. Soc. for promoting Agriculture*
C 291 ]
Advantages of Agricultural Tours. On Gleditsia Tria^ canthosy or Honey Locust, Hedges. By fVm. Bowie.
Read August 14di, 1810. My dear Sir,
I wish I could contribute to the stock of the society any thing deserving its notice. Mere theories are of little use to the public. Facts accurately described and well established ought to be laid in, before the work of the theorist commences. For these we must, in general, depend on a class of men, who, though liberal in coUo ' quial communications, are often unwilling to take up the pen. The practical farmer, kind and hospitable to his guest, delights to make his own experience and labours the subject of conversation ; but the mind un- accustomed to literary compositbn, is as averse to throw the same information on paper, as the hand, ren- dered rigid by daily employment, is often disinclined to the mechanical operation of the pen. The alternative is to go to them, for what they will not bring to us. Much useful knowledge might be collected, and many new and striking matters of fact made public, if agricultural tours, so common in England, were sometimes made here, with a view to publication. An intelligent man who woukl first begin with our own state, on the more important and best, and perhaps also, (as a contrast) the wor^^ cultivated part of it; who would visit the farmer at his homestead, closely examine his practice, hear • his narratives and his reasonings, look into every thing, br^^ :- o^oss and in ''--.il, and carefully note down,'
III
292
On Jgricultural Tours, &?<r.
On Agricultural Tours, £s?c.
293
on the spot, without trusting to subsequent recollection, what was worthy of public communication, would con- fer (not an incalculable) but a calculable benefit on the public. One section of the country would then learn the actual profit or loss of modes of husbandry pursued in another ; perhaps possessing the same soil and cli- mate, but deriving a greater or less advantage from them, in consequence of variations in their modes of husbandry. It would discover its own errors, or in- crease its own improvements, as the case might be, by comparison with others.— The publications of such tours, particularly under the sanction of a respectable society, would widely and promptly disseminate this useful knowledge. Is it not surprising, that with the example so long before us, of a nation whose language we use almost exclusively, and whose literature is the chief reliance of our booksellers and printers, and from whom we import so regularly every publication that appears, and, among others, the various tours, not only through Great Britain and Ireland, but parts of the continent, that we should not in a single instance, that I know of, have had a similar exertion made ? I ex- cept indeed some of those " notices'' of our agriculture, which a few hasty and prejudiced foreign travellers have inserted in their works. Men who have allowed too short a space of time, even for the secondary im- portance, in which this subject presented itself to them. Men, who have formed their theories before they be- gan their travels ; and, inclined beforehand to depreci- ate the progress of art in these new countries, are too blind to perceive, or too uncandid to confess, that art has already made a considerable progress among us ;
and, with proper assistance, might perliaps (to speak modestly) in time equal the improvements of our elder brethren. If the rest of the world possessed no other account of the agriculture of England, than what has been observed and published by foreign travellers among them, our information would be imperfect in- deed— It is wonderful that the benefits of the press, that rapid, cheap, and easy mode of communication' which brings distant nations to each other, and famili- arizes one half of the globe with the daily events and domestic transactions of the other, should have been neglected by ourselves on this important sul^ject. Slow, imperfect, and uncertain, as verbal communication is, it is as yet almost the only means of information ; and while we know distinctly and fully, by taking up a book, the course of husbandry in Norfolk, Sussex, and Lancashire, we cannot I believe, beyond a few scattered instances, find a single printed memorial of the course of husbandry of a state in the union. Like our tawney predecessors, we must depend on "the tajes of our old men," or the accidental arrival of an inhabitant from the place, before we can acquire the knowledge we want This is withholding the facility acquired by the art of printing, from that art ; which, as it is the most neces sary, must be admitted to be the most important to man.
Let me then venture to suggest, that as soon as a sufficient fund can be raised, and a suitable person found, an agricultural tour should be set on foot under directions of the society ; beginning in one of these counties, such as Lancaster or Berks, in which the ope rations of agriculture have hitherto been carried on with
^■■■,'■'■^:sl^
294
On Agricultural Tours, ^c.
the most spirit and success. The particular objects of inquiry to be given to him in charge by the society ; without precluding him from collateral pursuits of the same nature, particularly mineral productions and sta- tistical details, connected with the leading object.
Such a survey, when carefully taken of one county or district, with the closest attention to accuracy, would not only facilitate similar undertakings among our- selves, and possibly (as in the case of Arthur Young J at private expence ; but excite a similar spirit in the other states. I consider the utmost accuracy an insepa- rable ingrediei>t in the utility and success of the plan. The detection of an error, even of little importance, would excite doubts as to the rest of the work ; and diminish its popularity in the neighbourhood to which
the error related.
From this general subject let me now proceed to a particular one, on which the society has very justly bestowed a portion of its attention.
A cheap and certain substitute for the expensive fences, in use among us is truly desirable.
The pleasing and benevolent St. Pierre, comparing
architecture with planting, observes, that the moment
the building is finished it begins to decay ; while the
plant as soon as it is left, begins to improve, increase,
and reward the hand that set it in the ground. I have
not the book with me and am not sure that I quote cor-
rectly. The thought, however, is as I state it; and noth-
ing can be more beautifully just ; nor more applicable
to the difference between a live fence and a dead one.
But there is certainly some great impediment in the
way of raising good hedges with us. In very few twrts
tw Jtieages,
UV5
of the country do we see it attempted ; and frequently, after several years toil, it has been abandoned as a hope- less, or at least unprofitable effort.
One of the great objects of an American farmer, should be to compose his hedge entirely of an American plant.— Even if the white thorn, which may be import. ed from England, accorded better with our cUmate than from the experiments in the vicinity of Philadel- phia, I am inclined to think it does, the difficulties and
expence of importation form sufficient reasons to re- ject it.
I have on a small scale, made several experimems to raise a hedge, strong, handsome, and durable ; my wish was to raise from seed sown on the spot. I tried in the first ijistance the berries of the common cedar, and the next year the berries of the juniper, after finding tliut neither of them germinated, though the ground was well prepared, and care taken to keep it clear of weeds I made another attempt with the ced^r berries; endeavor ing to prepare them by a treatment assimilated to the process which takes place in the stomach of birds • who are known to be the great propagators of tiiese plants.-That is, I soaked them, for four or five hours m warm water ; then putting them with sand in a bajr' had It well shook, rubbed, and rolled for some time and immediately put the berries in the ground. Of this I tried a furrow of a few yards on'y by way of experi- ment, but was equally unsuccessful. I tiied (by advice) the pomace of a cyder-mUl in the autumn ; but I sus pect the field mice, with which my place abounds, de- feated me in this case. The cuttings of the privet sue ceeded ; but the privet forms rather a screen, than a
T^,l
296
On Hedges.
On Hedges.
297
hedge ; and I wished to find something capable of turn- ing back the horned cattle, which I have generally ob- served require a stronger hedge than horses. After some consideration I concluded to try the seeds of the honey locust, CGleditsia TriacanthosJ and of these in the autumn of 1803 I procured a quantity from Richmond point, near Philadelphia. The object was to secure them, when put in the ground, from my clandestine little enemy, the field mouse ; and supposing the smell of sulphur to be obnoxious to it, I steeped the whole of the seed, 24 hours in water, with pulverized brim- stone. The ground was the edge of a garden, loose and tolerably rich. The seed was sown in three rows ; on the first of April 1804. The young plants soon made their appearance ; and I believe not a seed was lost. 1 took no other care of them than occasionally to weed them ; but the next spring, conceiving that I could spare one row, I reduced the number to two ; by transplanting to anoUicr field. The plants thus removed throve exceedingly well ; though not equal to those which were left behind. I regretted this removal ; however, the following spring, when I found many of the original plants did not put out leaves, and on exa- mination I discovered that they had been destroyed by the indefatigable mice, by gnawing the roots under ground, so that the dead plant came up with a slight pull destitute of roots. Fortunately this had not been so general as entirely to defeat my plan ; and m the en- suing autumn I replaced some of the destroyed stocks ; and conceiving that tlie dead grass and accumulated rubbish, along the bottom of the hedge, had allured the mice, by affording them a warm cover, I had it all
cleared away :~dug a small trench on each side of the hedge, and inserted gravel and sand in them.— No injury has since been done to the hedge.— It has continued to thrive,_is annually headed down,_pre. sents a beautiful foliage to the eye. and, except in one place where too wide an aperture has been injudiciously left, IS without any artificial aid an eflFectual bar to cat- tie — Its length is 260 feet.
This plant though it passes under the general name of locust, is a distinct thing from the robitiia : which b the common locust ; and of which there are several va- rieties. I have four of the latter on my place, none of which would answer for a hedge—The roUnia pseudo acacia, and the robinm glutinosa, (brought by Michaux from the westward) both of which are liable to be per. forated by insects ; the thornless robinia, which I be. lieve is not a native, and the robinia hispida, often called the rose acam, which is merely an ornament for the shrubbery.
In the subjects for premiums the white mulberry is memioned. I tried this plant in 1794 at another place ; but found its growth too slow and desultory, to render it valuable in this point of view.
There are two other strong objections to it, the want of thorns, and the fondness of cattle to browse on it. The plant selected for this purpose should either be obnoxious to the taste, or defended by thorns; its growth should be compact and steady ; it should bear the shade, and drippings of trees, which we sometimes, for different reasons, are desirous of retaining in the line' of a hedge or near to it. This property i« not always
VOL. ir.
pp
298
On Hedges.
to be found in plants but the gleditsia will grow cheer- fully in the most confined situation ; and does not throw out suckers like the robinia.
1 am my deaf Sir,
Faithfully and affectionately yours
W. Rawle. Harleigh, July 51st, 1810. Hon. Richard Peters.
President of the Agric. Sob. Philad.
C 299 ]
Philadelphia, July 12th, 1810. R,ead August 14th, 1810.
Sir,
I conceive it a duty I owe the society, to commu- mcate through you, the result of some experiments which I had set about, for the purpose of ascertaining the best means of reclaiming old worn out land. I had fondly listened to the method proposed by some, of im- proving, with clover and plaister, without the use of lime ; and determined to try it. The field which I pitched upon for my experiments contains about four- teen acres ; it had been cleared about fifty-three or lour years ago, and continued in constont cultivation for upwards of thirty years, without manure of any kind. Some old people now living, say that they have seen as good crops of wheat cut from it, as ever they saw ; but it was kept in cultivation till the produce would no longer pay for the labour, and has been thrown out a common for more than twenty years, 'till I fenced it in. I had the whole of the field ploughed early in the spring* of 1808, in the month of May one part of it was plough- ed again, and sown with buckwheat ; this buckwheat was ploughed in when in blossom, and the land sown with buckwheat a second time, which was likewise ploughed in and sowed with rye.
The other part of the field was limed, at the rate of 25 bushels to the acre, and planted with corn. The lime which I used was of the hot kind, from a quarry which is generally approved of for land in those parts ; makes
ti
N
300
On Liming Land.
very strong mortar for building, but is not used for plaistering, being granulated and not very white. I sup- pose it to be similar to that described by Dr. Darwin, which he supposes to have been primitive lime, broken down by the action of water and petrified a second time, which he thinks is the strongest lime.
The following summer was very dry, which together with the heat of the lime, I supposed to be the cause why the corn became stunted and produced almost nothing. In the spring of 1809, the land was ploughed and sowed with oats and clover, the other part of the field which was now in rye, was likewise sowed with clover at the same time, and as soon as the clover be- gan to appear above ground, the whole field was sowed with plaister.
At harvest the oats was a very good crop, the rye was tall and well eared, but rather thin ; perhaps it was owing to this circumstance, that the clover among the rye looked better, and more plentiful than that among the oats. I had not seen it, until Wednesday the 4th instant, when I found that part of the field which had been limed, closely covered with fine clover, whereas on that part which was not limed, almost the whole of it had perished last winter, and what plants remained were weak and sickly, and abundance of wood-grass beginning to appear, with which the field used to be almost covered while it lay a common ; whereas not one plant of it is to be seen on that part which was limed. From this I concluded, that if the system of improving with clover and plaister without lime, should succeed in the end, it must be by a number of repetitions of the same process, which would require time and labour
On Liming Land.
301
equal to if not exceeding the expence of lime, and the result uncertain. I therefore ordered that the part of the field which had not been previously limed, should be hmed as soon as possible, twice ploughed, and sown with rye, and clover next spring.
It was the opinion of the man who farms for me as well as of others who made observations, that I missed It by planting com with the lime ; that if I had sown oats and clover the first spring, I would have had a profitable crop, besides gaining a year in my improve, ment, which was lost by £he failure of the com crop and part of the strength of the lime exhausted to no purpose.* I am fully aware of the objection which some have to oats as an exhausting crop, and therefore ill calculated for advancing the improvement of worn out lands. At the same Ume that I disapprove of the ab-
* However com may succeed upon fresh limed land in cases where the land was in good heart previous to the ap- plication of the lime , I here give my opinion not from con- jecture, but experience and observation, that in general it wiU be found better for the land, and more profitable for the far- mer, to defer either com or wheat, until clover have first intervened ; especially if the lime was of the magnesian kind, and the land poor ; and then the addition of a little dune will be ver,. useful. And in this opinion I am partly bor^ out,by that able and experienced farmer Judge Peters, Pre- s.dent of this Society; i„ a note at the bottom of pagl 28o of this volume, he has these words, "The same fields f where' wheat had failed) produced clover in abundance. ll ttlr next turn for wheat (and especially if assisted with a light Jungmg) they amply retributed my former disappointment."
I
i
302
On Liming Land.
M
ill
surd practice of some farmers, of sowing oats and buck- ♦ wheat, year after year, as the worst of all rotations ; I am convinced from long experience, that an occasional crop of oats is no more exhausting than wheat, rye, or corn; that it is an excellent nurse for clover, a profitable crop for the former, and the straw good fodder or litter, with- out which he cannot get much dung, the value of which is not sufficiently appreciated by many of our farmers. Every kind of grain which ripens its seed is an exhaust- cr, even clover which is the most ameliorating crop which we know, if it is but a moderate crop and left standing until its seed is full ripe, instead of improving, will be found to exhaust the land.
Before I conclude I must take some notice of the mild lime, which I mentioned in a note at the bottom of page 8. I then supposed the mild lime above mentioned, to be the property of Mr. Barnitt of Marl- borough township, but when I was with my friend Mr. John Mill's on the 4th instant, he told me that Mr. Btu-nitt's lime is the hottest and strongest lime in that neighbourhood, that the mild lime which I alluded to is the property of Mr. Baker of Newlin township. The two limes are not more than two or at most three miles apart, Mr. Mills's farm lays nearly in the centre be- tween the two, and he occasionally uses both. He says that it requires 130 bushels of the mild lime, to go as far on land as 100 bushels of the hot lime ;* that the
* This last brings a higher price than any limes in that neighbourhood, or from the valley ; being esteemed so much more valuable, as it goes farther on land &c. than either of these.
On Liming Land»
303
mild lime is in its effects on land somewhat similar to that of dung, as it gives out its strength to the first crop, but in one or two crops more it is all gone ; whereas though the hot lime sometimes, instead of helping, rather injures the first crop, its good effects continue for many years. He showed me a clover field, one part of which had been manured with Mr. Barnitt's hot lime, and the other with Mr. Baker's mild lime. I observed^ that wherever a heap of the hot lime had lain, not a blade of vegetation of any kind had appeared, though Mr. Mill's told me that every particle of it was shoveled off as clean as possible ; but on that part of the field where the mild lime was put, no such effects were pro- duced. He told me further, that the grain was best on that part where the mild lime was put, but the clover is greatly superior on the other part, (it was all plaister- ed alike) and I have no doubt that the succeeding crops will evince a decided preference, in favour of the hot lime. I expect to procure specimens of both the above limes, for the purpose of having them analyzed.*
Dr. James Mease.
I am sir, yours respectfully,
J. Lang.
i
* Having procured specimens of the above varieties txf limestone, and by the polite attention of Mr. James Cutbush have been favoured with a chemical analysis of each of them (for the results of which see the letter annexed) we are en- abled to judge ot the striking similarity, between these and the specimens which were analyzed in England by Mr. Ten-
S04
Note^ on Liming Land.
nent some years ago, as particularly noticed in the London Philosophical Transactions, and in the writings of Mr. Henry, Dr. Darwin and others.
We may remark that while the learned theorists in England and elsewhere, were exulting over the grand discovery,where- by the farmer might proceed with certainty in his choice of the lime most proper for manure, as if none but the mild or calca- rious kind, would henceforth be used for that purpose. In the #mean time, we find the great mass of practical farmers, whose practice is generally the result of long experience and obser- vation, who read very litde, many of whom seldom or never see a newspaper, far less the London Philosophical Trans- actions ; who never heard of Mr. Henry nor Darwin's Phy- tologia ; who are entirely ignorant of the grand discovery of the calcarious and magnesian limes, still giving the prefer- \i ance to the hot or magnesian lime, and paying a higher price for it, even where the mild kind is equally within their reach, notwithstanding they know as well as Mr. Tenncnt, that the ^pots where the heaps of it had lain will remain barren for at least two years to come ; they being at the same time sensible that with a judicious rotation it will produce them improved crops for a number of years, whereas the beneficial effects of the mild lime will be all gone in two years.
J. L.
[ 305 ]
L^
Analysis of American Limestone. By J. Cutbushy Che-
mist and Apothecary.
Philadelphia^ 13th September^ 1810. Siry
I have made the necessary examination of the lime- stones you wished me to analyze. The comparative quality, with respect to the inp'-edients of each kind (hard white, and black micaceous) we may, therefore, the more readily judge of.
While one variety, on the one hand, according to my experiments, corresponds to that mentioned by Mr. Tennant ; the other appears on the contrary, to be com- posed of more calcareous earth, and I presume would answer all the desirable purposes of agriculture.*
With respect to the limestone, when it comes under the head of magnesian limestone, agreeably to the name of Mr. Tennant, I would merely remark, that when the magnesian earth exceeds a certain per centum^ it might, with strict propriety be referred to this class ; for in most of the varieties of limestone, the magnesian earth is more or less abundant.
• Mr. Cutbush in this instance falls too hastily in with Mr. Tennant's hypothesis, in giving the preferance to the calcarious lime, for agricul- tural purposes. Whereas it is a fact well known, that Mr. Bamett's lime above noticed, (which agrees with Mr Tennant's magnesian kind) fetches a higher price than any other limes in these parts ; and such is the demand for it, that it cannot be got burnt fast enough.— When it is known that a kiln is ready, the waggons come the night before it is opened, and next" morning they never stop loading until the whole is finished. This is sold at fifteen cents per bushel at the kiln, while the others are bought for ^ twelve and an half cents per bushel. J. L.
VOL. II. (^ q
m
Ji
n
<^
V
306
On Analyzing Lime*
Oxalate of potash, added in a similar manner, also produced a precipitate.
The last experiment decided the presence of lime, and the former in a great measure, the existence of magnesia. To ascertain this fact, however, with more certainty, a portion of the solution was examined with carbonate of ammonia, and the precipitate formed, was separated. The filtered liquor was now examined with phosphate of soda, which occasioned a copious preci- pitate. The quantity of this appeared to equal the quan- tity obtained by oxalate of potash in the former experi- ment, or that caused by the carbonate of ammonia im- mediately preceding. On examining the precipitate formed by carbonate of ammonia with muriatic acid and oxalate of potash, the whole was discovered to be carbonate of lime.
The phosphated soda, according to Dr. WoUaston, added after the carbonate of ammonia, in the manner of which I have spoken, (when the carbonate is used in the common temperature of the atmosphere) n the most accurate test for the discovery of magnesia.
The experiment for determining the presence of magnesia was made in a general way, in fact, merely to ascertain if this earth existed under the circumstances we have already stated.
The other specimen of limestone, which is far more friable, and of a dark micaceous appearance, was solu- ble with more facility in muriatic acid. The solution was soon effected ; the addition of carbonate of ammonia separated the lime in an abundant precipitate ; and the filtered liquor, after adding the carbonate, gave a slight
■^
On Analyzing Lime.
307
tss
precipitate with phosphate of soBa. Magnesia, however, as already stated is always found, more or less, accom- panying lime.
With much respect, Sir,
I remain yours, &c.
James Cutbush. John Lang.
Course of Crops.
Advantage is taken, of the vacant space in this sheet, by the writer of the note, page 144, on General Armstrong's letter relative to the Draveil plough and the tenanes course of crops, p^^e 145, to correct an error. The words ''and his course of crops,'' should have been omitted. There cannot be a worse course than wheat, rye and oats, immediately succeeding each other.
■^
\
«*lif
I
[ 308 ]
Monsieur Thouin^s Letter y sent with a Box of Seeds.
The following translation of a letter from Professor Thouin IS published in acknowledgement of his highly beneficial civi- lities. Nothing can promote mutual benefits to distant coun- tries, more than such interchanges. We entertain a hope, that, not only the members of the society, but other citizens, will en- able us to reciprocate such favourable attentions. These seeds and all others so received, have been, and will be, diffused for general benefit. An unfortunate delay, not owing to any want of attention in Mons. Thouin^ prevented its arrival here for a great length of time, after its being sent from Paris. A sense of the importance to our country, of such valuable additions to our products, should stimulate our fellow citizens abroad, to exertion in forwarding their transportation.
(<
MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.
m
Paris 20th February, 1808.
" Professor thouin, one of the administrators of the museum of natural history at Paris, and member of the national institute of France, has the honour to present this collection of seeds to the society of rural economy of Philadelphia. He prays them to receive it as a pledge of his respectful attachment, and of his desire to concur with them, as much as lays m his power, to increase the agricultural resources of a people, whose wise laws he admires, whose freedom he esteems, whose indepen- dence he regards, and whose manners he respects.
<
Monsieur Thouin*s Letter.
309
" This assortment is composed of almost ^wr hun- dred little packets of seeds of trees, and plants ; exotics in North America, and which may be accommodated to every department of rural and domestic econon>y. The packets of the greatest part of the several species being in duplicate, contain a sufficient quantity of seeds to be capable of diffusion among a great number of the members of the society, who will cultivate thera in various soils, different situations, and by many modes of culture ; and thereby multiply the chances of sue cess. In this way more certain results will be afford- ed, than if the whole were sown in the same kind of soil, in one place, and in one mode of cultivation.
** If the collection now sent is agreeable to the society, or to any of its members, and they desire to receive one similar, they have only to communicate to me their re- quests ; and they will find me always disposed to pro- cure for them every thing I have at my disposal, in the extensive establishment committed to my care. The society will acquit itself with interest, by transmitting, described or not, some seeds of the vegetable products which grow between the Allegheny mountains and the South Sea, in the countries which American travellers begin to frequent."
Respectfully,
Thouin."
\
C 310 3
On JocelMi Patent Pruning Shears^ 311
-^- '"1
The following is published as promisingmuch benefit in small operations. It will be highly useful, for se- lectin g fruit, and detaching the nests of caterpillars from the trees, also in cutting off grafts and superflu- ous shoots. We are informed that instruments, on the same principles, exist in Germany, on a very large scale. We have conversed with an old Hannoverian gardener, who alleges he has seen and used one. This does not lessen the merits of the inventor ; who, as has happened in other instances, struck out the same thought in a distant country.
Directions for the Purcliaser of Jocelin's Patent Prun^
ing- Shears.
In the first place. Procure a spruce, or other light and strong pole, planed straight to the size of one inch in diameter at the upper, and one inch and a quarter at the lower extremity, when about twelve feet in length and for twelve inch arm shears of about two pounds weight, and less when shorter poles, or for lighter shears : — burn in the spike end of the shears, after boring the pole, as a file into its handle, then drive on an iron ferrule ; place the cord — draw it straight on the pole, and insert three or four wire staples, from a little below the shears, down to about half way, for the cord to run in.
In pruning, let the upper blade of the shears rest against a bud or twig, at the right hand; and by pulling the cord, the moveable blade is pressed against the
branch to be taken off, in an oblique direction ; and hay- ing an acute edge, the cutting is mostly upwards, and easily performed on live branches, three quarters of an inch in diameter, more or less according to the size of the shears and quality of the wood — the distance of 20 feet above the place of standing, more or less according to the length of the pole. Poles of different lengths can be applied to the same shears, as occasion may require.
Let the blades be screwed as close together as may be consistent with moving freely — keep the principal cutting edge in good order, and the friction parts well oiled, and wipe the blades after using; observing to hook the arms together to save fingers.
The pruning shears are used to great advantage, in trimming young fruit trees by timely taking off*, or shortening such branches as may be necessary for the health and beauty of the trees, and perfection of the fruit. For taking selected fruit cutting away worm nests, trimming goosberry and other shrubs, it excels.
Price single without pole or cord.
Twelve inch moveable arm, Five dollars.
Nine inch do. Four dollars and fifty cents.
Six inch do. Three dollars and fifty cents.
Four inch do. Three dollars.
All persons are cautioned against purchasing any of said shears without a card, containing a bill of sale in due form— specifying the size and price of the shears so purchased, and signed by the seller.
And also permission for using the same, signed by the patentee,
Simeon Jocelin.
ifiii.
312 On Jocelin's Patent Pruning Shears.
New Haven March 21th, 1810. Honorable Richard Peters Esq.
Bought of S. Jocelin. One o/* Jocelin's, nine inch patent Vrvjjisg Shears, Price At Dollars 50 CentSy Received Payment,
Simeon Jocelin.
The Proprietor of my patent Ml Pruning Shears, purchased as above I stated, is entitled to the use of the same in his HI or her service ♦ only. ■>
Simeon Jocelin, Pafe^nf^^.
.'•1^
■ ■ uum
C 313 ll
On Soiling Cattle, on Broom Corn, and Guinea Corn as Green Food for Cattle. By John Lorain.
Read, November 13th, 1810. Sir,
On the 20th ultimo I topped one row of com to as- certain how it would bear early cutting, and on the m 31st commenced feeding niy cattle with them, and they contmue to eat every particle with greater avidity than any other food; and I think thrive faster than on first crop grass: the blades will be given in succession, the husks and stalks will remain to be appropriated here, after: the former are relished by cattle more than any other part of the fodder; the latter weighs rather more than a^l the rest of the plant, and to reduce them to good food would be an object of no small consider- tion In the winter of 1808, my cattle eat all the stalks I had, after cutting them from two to three inches; but then their other provender was bad, and in 1809 when better provision was made for them, they refused the stalks cut m the same way although they were better saved; this induced me to give over further trial till I could fall on some better mode of preserving them with a larger share of their juices, by cutting or in some other way reducing them much finer without too much expense.
In your Encyclopaedia you mention some gentleman who cut them very fine with a very powerful cutting box, how this could be effected by manual labour with! outcostmg too much I cannot conceive, I have bruised
R r
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314
On Soiling Cattle.
them under a conical roller (an excellent cheap tool for threshing grain crops) but found them so tough and clastic, that 1 have been discouraged from sending a load to some tanners bark-mill, though that would be much more powerful, and perhaps somewhat similar to the best mode of bruising whin^in Ireland. Wishing this fall to resume the experiment, in order to deter- mine the full value of a good crop of com, I beg the liberty of asking whether any thing in the course of your practice or reading has occurred, that would ena- ble me to use them profitably as food for cattle.
As you appear highly interested in the success of soiling, it will no doubt give you pleasure to learn, that I have surmounted every difficulty in the practice of this summer, seven of my cattle have been sold since you saw them, and there are several more that I shall offer for sale in a few days, and to crown my success, fortune has thrown in my way an invaluable plant. On the 19th and 21st of May I planted a small patch of Guinea com in clusters from eight to twelve inches a part, and on the 23d another with broom com adjoin- ing it; the first has been cut with the scythe twice, and the second cut yielded full one- third more than the first, though not so tall; this was in consequence of the great increase of suckers: it bids fair for a third crop unless too little heat, or an early frost should afiect its growth. The other patch consisting of broom and Guinea, was not cut till about five feet high, the plants have suckered greatly, and no doubt will produce a plentiful second cut. My cattle were very fond of it, but the quantity was too small to form any opinion of its nutritive qualities, but those must be very consi-
'■•fm
On Soiling Cattle.
315
derable if the observations on this plant in your Kn- cyclopaedia are correct: the enclosed extract of a letter from Dr. C. Drayton Junr. accompanying the seed will cast a very considerable light on the subject which, after read please return. If I am not greatly mistaken, Guinea com will produce more green fodder than any other annual plant that has been used for that purpose, cither here or in England; and under this conviction I intend the ensuing spring, to commence with cutting for my cattle, half or perhaps the whole field designed for Indian corn the spring following, and that the plough and harrow shall immediately follow the scythe, till sown broadcast with Guinea corn, by which means I expect to obtain a large supply of green food coming in immediately after first crop grass is done, and vastly superior to the best second crop grass, with no other expense than seed and harrowing, and the sod will be better rotted than by fall ploughing. I regret that I did not try whether Indian corn would not bear re- peated cuttings if commenced before its disposition to sucker, ceased. If you have never examined the broom - or Guinea corn in the different stages of their growth, and their wonderful and profuse suckering after cut- ting with the scythe, you will I make no doubt be highly gratified in viewing my little patches, more es- pecially as you design to soil cattle. — I am generally at home every day after 12 o'clock, and on Sunday al-
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, On Soiling Cattle.
together, and if it suits your entire convenience shaU be happy to see you, and am your
Respectful humble servant,
John Lorain.
Dr. James Mease.
September I2th, ISIO. ^ ^
N. B. The first cut of the Guinea com was from three to two and a half feet high, the second from two to two and a half feet.
Remarks on the Culture of the Guinea Corn or Holcus Spicatus, referred to in the foregoing paper.
This plant being useful for fodder as well as grain ; some manage it thus :
Oats, they sow the first week in November in drills one foot apart. In moderate winters it is fit to be used as green fodder by the first week in February, at that time the leaves when extended may be 18 or 20 inches long from the earth, and then cut six or eight inches from the top- This may be repeated several times, and cut within eight or ten inches of the earth.
Guinea corn.— About the middle of March, remove entirely every other row of the oats, and sow the duinea com in drills very thin, 10 or 12 grains in the space of a foot. It being a tender plant, not bearing frost, it is thus sheltered by the oats.— In six weeks it is fit to cut, about six or eight inches from the top for fodder; then remove the oats wholly. Thus from the beginning of May, it may be cut every 12 or 14
Remarks on Guinea Corn.
317
days until fiDst. In June collect the blades together and cut them all off, one or two inches above the crown of the plant, indeed, if the plant be cut near to the ground it will sprout out repeatedly but not leaf so profusely though come to good seed. But this hitherto only re- lates to fodder, and the cutter will be regulated in his cutting, by seeing what part the creatures refuse from being too hard.
When seed is the object, then in these rows which are three feet asunder, the plants may be hoed off, leaving small clumps of six or eight stalks about four or five feet distant in quincunx order as it suckers much, it may be occasionally suckered on the common principle : and these plants are good fodder.
If the seed be sowed for a crop of seed, disregarding use as fodder, the rows may be four or five feet apart and the clumps as far apart in the rows ; sowing 10 or 12 seed, in each clump or hillock. If the soil be in good heart, it will probably not require a single hoeing , the plants stole so much, and abounding with leaves, the earth is almost entirely shaded, and in the more advanced stage, entirely so.
Like plants in general, it delights in a soil rich, dry and loose. In the West Indies it yields two crops an- nually—both yielding from 60 to 80 bushels of seed. Here* we set but one crop. In the field, the birds are fond of the grain ; and in the bam, the rats. It is ex- cellent for poultry, and where the seed is cleared from its husk, by beating in a mortar ; and boiled and eaten
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* In Carolina.
318
Remarks on Guinea Corn.
with butter or milk it is scarcely to be distinguished from small rice,* frost being the guage for its sowing and harvest, every clime must be regulated in the cul- ture by experience.
With the respects of
His humble servant,
C. Drayton Junr.
Mr. John Lorain.
* Small rice is the small pieces broken off in beating,
*
together with the eyes of the grain.
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Profit of Soiling Cattle. By John Lorain. Read December 11th, 1810.
Tackoney, 26th November, 1810.
Sir,
I have succeeded in soiling and selling the cattle mentioned in a former communication, and should your society consider the subject interesting to agriculture, . will with pleasure detail the causes of former defeat, and the management which has, and I hope ever will prove successful— At present, I propose confining myself to some observations on its very superior economy, com- pared with grazing, and to illustrate the subject from the practice of my own farm, shall subjoin the produce of this year, over and above soiling forty cattle and six horses, to wit.
1730 bushels of potatoes at 35 cents, the prices of this article are very fluctuating, and not always governed by a plentiful or mid- dlingcrop; they were rated at the same last year, and sold for more exclusive of riddling, and hauling to market, and a loss sustained by frost, - . ... g 605 50
817 bushels of com, at 60 cents; this may appear high to some, especially as it will shrink considerably in the crib. I do not seU till the crib is wanted for the new crop, at which time prices on an average are high, - . 490 20
Carried forward,
8 1095 70
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Profit of Soiling Cattle.
222 5a
618 75
85 66
Amount brought forward, S 1095 70 222 1 -2 bushels of barley delivered but no rice fixed ; the brewer informed me not long since, he expected the market would be fixed at one dollar per bushel, - - -
247 1-2 bushels of wheat sold for g 2 50 cents per bushel ; seed retained, rated at the same price the purchaser hauled it from my
bam, - - - • ^
Peaches sold for 85 dollars 66 cents, a trivial article, but the trees and gathering injured the crops on the ground near three acres,
76 tons of hay: 7 tons deducted, fed to the horses after the 10th of August, when proper grasses for the horses became very deficient. 69 tons at 1 2 dollars 50 cents per ton ; hay- sellers will consider this too low, but it must be judiciously applied to be worth as much when fed away on the farm,
1430 loads of compost estimated equal in nutrition to 587 loads of dung. Farm yard and stable dung unmixed, 804 loads, the whole 1391 loads of 32 cubical feet each at
SO cents, - -
^ The purchasers of manure will consider this much too low, but this price pays attendance on cattle, and every other expense till it is ready for the crops.
19 tons of corn stalks and husks, the tops and blades were given green to the cattle —
862 50
695 50
Carried forward, 8 3580 61
Profit ofSoiUng Cattle.
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A
Amount brought forward, g 3580 61 the farmer \n the practice of leaving his stalks i
in the field, and entangling his plough and horses among them in the spring, risking his shins at every step, would laugh at seeing them estimated in a crop. I find them cheap and excellent litter for the yards, they are with the straw not consumed by the cattle, charged together with raking woods, and hauling leaves every year to my manure account. — Price of stalks at three dollars per ton,
Barley straw and chaff, valued at the cost of threshing and cleaning the grain,
Wheat straw and chaff, valued in the same way,
57 00
27 81
37 12
S 3702 54
Dollars,
This produce has not been accumulated by a system free from errors and misfortunes : a large share of both has occurred very injurious to the crops, which will be explained, when I communicate the result of my corn and potatoe patch.
The tract 106 acres 85 in grass and under tillage ; the residue woods, roads, yards and garden : had those 85 acres been in grasb no better or thicker set, they would have been barely sufficient to pasture the stock, and tak- ing into consideration the forepart of the season, I doubt whether under the very best management they would have been enough. One acre of good land well set with grass, is considered sufficient for an ox; but grounds sub- ject to the plough, are rarely returned well set with artifi.
cial grasses, and are seldom rich enough to get quickly
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Profit of Soiling Cattle.
covered with natural grass, and it is well known that cat- tle soon devour an acre of clover nearly run out, or indeed any other thin set grass : however the grounds are open to observation, except about 10 acres of the worst, the greater part of which has been ploughed for spring crops, and between thirteen and fourteen acres top dressed with compost, since cutting the first crop ; but those are not yet so materially altered as to prevent
investigation.
As every thing heretofore advanced has been found- ed on actual experiment, except the capabilities of the grounds to graze the stock, I am sorry that rests on opinion, and consequently stamps some degree of un- certainty, on every conclusion that may be drawn from the whole ; but if this opinion is correct the produce stated above, has been rescued from oblivion by soil- ing, except the hay, which might have been mowed after the stock, as they decreased in number, had they been pastured on the grounds, and the advantage de- rived from their dung often dropped where useless, and seldom where it would be most beneficial.
An extra produce of 3702 dollars 54 cents, or of 43 dollars 55 cents per acre, on 85 acres, or of 34 dollars 92 cents per acre on the whole 106 acres, appears to demand some attention: and notwithstanding the prices forming this estimate, may be considered too high by many equally near to Philadelphia as myself, and must of course be curtailed to suit remote situations, the intrinsic value of the articles will still remain considerable, and if the numerous acres appropriated to pasture in Penn- sylvania, are in proportion to the soil capable of pro- ducing in the same ratio, soiling is an object of high
Froft of Soiling Cattle.
323
consideration, provided it should hereafter be found to answer all the purposes of breeding, rearing, and fatting animals, equally as well as grazing ; but of this very little is known in this country, and as far as my infor- mation extends, not much in Europe : a few experi- ments either here or there, cannot, ought not to overturn established and well tryed practice, yet as I believe it will answer all those purposes, having this year expe- rienced no other difficulties than those arising from too scanty a supply of proper grasses, and have discovered none improper except red clover, and that only in cer- tain stages of its growth, I cannot but wish to see enter, prising farmers, who are in the habit of carefully in- specting the business of their farms, trying the expe. riment on a moderate scale: those who depend on others should not engage in it ; any industrious observing far- mer might without the least risk try it in a small way, if he only commences with his horse and working oxen, and has enough of proper grass, I will venture to pronounce positively that he will never pasture them again, while in his power to soil them in the yard : a trivial breadth of grass will support them, they will be always full and at hand, and the manure saved for his potatoe patch and corn hills, very considerable.
If your society wishes further report on this subject I should be early informed, for it embraces such a va- riety of objects that it must of necessity be lengthy, and particularly as I conceive it ought to be accompanied with an abridgement of my farm accounts for this year, clearly stated and correctly balanced, to shew from them* what bearing soiling has on the profits of the farm, and whether under a judicious management of cattle, those
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Pfofit of Soiling cattle.
profits will pay a handsome interest on a capital of about 19,300, dollars vested in and employed on this establishment, which appears to me something like elu- cidating the point by mathematical demonstration.
As measurement and weight of bulky articles on a farm cannot be estimated with the same precision, as they are when carried to market I state below the mode on which the foregoing estimate is generally founded.
I am your very respectful humble servant.
John Lorain.
The first loads of potatoes were measured, and the carts marked, and afterwards filled to this gage ; they have heretofore overrun on being riddled, the small at first lay between the cavities of the large.
The corn was all correctly measured in a tub very similar to a Maryland corn barrel, one was shelled and measured from which the crop is estimated it ; is evi- dent this will shrink in the crib, but I have no certain rule to determine how much.
I consider eight square feet or 512 cubical feet forms a ton of hay in a well settled movv ; where it lies shallow oris not well settled, allowances should be made.
The mode of measuring dung is explained in a for- mer communication.
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On a TFool Micrometer. Read December 11th 1810.
Belmont, November 25th, 1810. Sir,
Dr. Logan has been so obliging as to be the bearer of a Wool Micrometer. I beg leave, on behalf of our worthy member RobertBarclay Esq. o{ London and Berry Hill n^&v Dorking, England, and in his name, to present this valuable instrument to the society. In his letter to me of the 31st July 1810. Mr. Barclay writes —
" By Dr. Logan I have sent you, for the use of our society, an instrument introduced by Sir Joseph Banks, only at the last IFoburn sheep shcaring,_a Wool Micrometer, to ascertain most accurately the quality of our wools ; which be pleased to present, in my name to our society ; as from the patriotic exertions lately made in the United States, to improve your native wool, by crosses of the true Merino, I presume this new instrument will prove acceptable."
I am much gratified, and, no doubt, the society will be impressed with feelings similar to mine, by this in- stance of polite and useful attention and kindness in Mr Barclay. AUhough highly acceptable, at any time, the arrival of this instrument, at this period, when its utility IS peculiarly important ; adds to its value, as it respects ourselves.
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On a Wool Micrometer.
The drawings accompany the instrument ; and di- rections for using it.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient ser\'ant.
Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease.
Secretary to thePhilad. Soc. for promoting Agriculture.
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We have not yet had time to arrive at a perfect know- ledge of this micrometer, so as nicely to discriminate between the samples of wools. The filament sent with the instrument IS j^StsTs parts of an inch, in fineness. The wool of my ewe No. 2 in the plate, is agreed, by all who have viewed its fila- ment through this micrometer, to be several degrees finer than that accompanying that instrument.
R. P.
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A WOOL MICROMETER. FIG. 2.
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Directions for using the Micrometer.
-\
Fig. I. A, The body of the microscope in which a tube is made to sHde containing the eye glasses ; this motion is necessary for obtaining distinct vision, b, the sHder by which the object is adjusted to distinct vision in the first case ; c, the plate on which the divi- ded glass is placed, d, the pinion, by which the divid- ed glass is moved.
Fig. 2. E, The plate on which the objects are to be placed ; this plate is made to turn on a centre, so that the diameter of the object to be measured may be placed at right angles to the motion of the divided glass f, f, two milled headed screws ; to hold the object, g, g, two springs for the same purpose.
h, The scale, k, the vernier, each division on the scale is equal to the 1000 part of an inch, seen in the place of the object, which is subdivided into ten by the vernier, k, therefore each subdivision is equal tg the Thiers part of an inch seen in the place of the object.
Great care should be taken to adjust the object to dis- tinct vision ; as on that in a great degree depends the ac- curacy of the measurement. There is a circle on the body A, fig. 1, which is nearly the proper place for the' slider, b. The filament of wool sent in its place, with this micrometer, will be found to measure t^ Jl^ of an inch.
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Farther Remarks on Mixed Crops of Corn and
Potatoes.
Read January, 1811
CN
Tackonetfy Uth Decemb^ylQlO.
Sir.
I resume the detail of my mixed crop of corn and potatoes, comTi(>encing where I left, off the 21st May last.— ^The com was earthed up once with the plough, and hand hoes immediately followed after it ; in this state it continued until it again became necessary to subdue the weeds, at which time the ridges were hand hoed barely deep enough to effect that purpose ; it was suckered three times, twice would have been sufficient, had not re-planting occasioned great irregularity in the growth ; the re-planted part was dressed with gypsum soon after it was up, hoping this would assist it to con- tend with the roots and shade of that which had taken the lead ; but it produced no perceptible advantage, op- pressed by its powerful neighbours, it became feeble, useless, and actually injurious (except in places where the first pljMiting had altogether failed) in a space suffi- cient to prevent injury from its roots and shade, and the extensive failure in the original planting required one fourth as much seed as was planted at first, from which I infer an immense loss in the crop. When the com wasirom 5 to 7 feet high, a tremendous storm le- velled it to the ground ; had it been left in the hands of nature, the injury would have been inconsiderable, but
On Corn and Potatoes.
331
all the hands I could get were employed in setting it up ; some of them being awkward, broke the plants, and sadly mangled the roots, and it was not until about seven acres had been set up, that I observed the active power of vegetation was performing the operation infi. nitely better than the most expert workman in the field. After this two other storms blew down a considerable quantity, when the ears were too heavy for it to rise, and although part of this lay flat on the ground, it was not observed that the filling of the ears were injured, but it became necessary previously to ploughing up the potatoes to remove those plants out of the way, which h was found had rooted from their joints fast to the ground ; with a sharp hoe those roots were easily cut, and the plants readily laid aside with but little injury, while I was present ; but other business demanded my attention, and the crop sustained very considerable damage from the carelessness of the person who did this work : these disasters, together with calculating the roller from its round instead of the round of the extremi- ties of the indentures, reduced the fruitful plants in the field to one half the number originally designed. They were ascertained by measuring a rod in various parts of the field, when the ears of the re-planted were well formed, and estimating the average of fruitful plants within those distances, and from that moment I clearly perceived my high expectations were blasted : but the disasters of this ill-fated experiment did not stop here ; early in August, it was discovered that proper grasses for soil- ing the cattle would soon be very deficient, and on the 20th of that month one row of corn was topped, to as- certain how it would bear early cutting, and it was
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On Corn and Potatoes.
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thought that it had received no injury, and on the 31st of the same month commenced feeding the cattle with the tops, cut daily as wanted, except the re-planted, which was considered too young: these lasted them 'till the 18th September, when the blades were stripped, commencing where the topping began, and these fed the cattle until the 5th of October. ' In the progress of topping and blading, one row was left entire along side of the row topped the 20th August; both those rows, and also another row along side of the row first mentioned, were all cut off by the roots on the 2d of October, and hauled in and set up separate, un- der my own inspection. They were husked and measur- ed on the 8th of November.
Produce of the row neiriier topped or stripped 9 5-8 bushels of corn in the ear.
Produce of that topped the 20th August and bladed 20th September, 7 6-8 bushels of corn in the ear.
And the produce of the one topped the 2d Septem- ber and bladed the 20th of same month 7 3-8 bushels of corn in the ear.
This experiment strongly indicates that if all the crop had been topped as late as the 2d of September, and bladed on the 20th of the same month, that the loss on the whole field from those operations would have been more than 230 bushels, but as those rows stood near where topping and blading commenced, it must have been less, yet certainly very considerable, for through- out the whole field the husks were generally dry and open, except on the row which had not been topped or stripped : on this they still retained a greenish hue, and
On Corn and Potatoes,
333
were close set to the ear : indeed the diflFerencg was so manifest at the time this row was cut off, that it alone convinced me, that necessity had urged a measure ex- tensively detrimental to the crop, and this in direct op- position to former practice founded on attentive obser- vation, that fodder was better saved with one half the expense by cutting off than by topping and stripping the corn, while the ears appeared to derive considerable advantage from the plants remaining entire.
The potatoes were once earthed up with the plough, after which the weeds likely to out top them were re- moved by the hand, and they would have been luxuriant had it been sufficiently considered that nature designed them to grow under the ground, for the high planting and dry weather while they were fruiting reduced their usual size considerably.
The ground where these crops grew measured 13 acres, 24 3-4 perches exactly : one half appropriated to the corn and the other half to the potatoes.
^ Produce 817 bushels of shelled corn, and 1730 bush- els of potatoes.
This forms an average of 263 bushels of potatoes, and 124 bushels of shelled com per acre, if I may be per- mitted to assign to each the ground they occupied.
It may appear strange that after growing such a crop of corn, the details of the injuries it sustained should be so lengthy, but it should be remembered that it was an experiment projected on an opinion, that close planting on well manured ridges, sufficiently distant from each other to give full scope for sun and air, would produce as much corn on each acre and save half the land for other crops, as could be produced if the whole ground
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On Corn and Potatoes^
had been occupied by com planted in the usual way, but of this the experiment has fallen short nearly one half, for 118 bushels of slielled com has been grown per acre ; this was a wager crop, perhaps too highly manured for wheat to follow, yet from my observations on the ridged rows of com last year. 1 did not expect to be far behind that very superior crop. The ears of my present crop have been generally larger than any 1 have grown here- tofore, two of the largest size which have been laying four or five weeks on a shelf close by a stove and are perfectly dry, have been shelled, and measure full a quart, or a pint each, but it is impossible to determine whether the ears of this crop would have been dimi- niiihed in size, or if so, to what extent, had the re-plant- cd been able to contend for their share of nutriment, and had the number of clusters originally designed been planted, this remains to be determined hereafter : but the result of this crop clearly determines, that this mode of planting will produce large crops of corn, while it reserves one half the ground for other valuable purposes, provided the quantity of plants do not exceed the num^ ber of fruitful plants in this field, to wit, about 33 with- in the length of every perch on each ridge ; and also, if topping and blading be omitted, and the plants are not cut off until the grain has nearly arrived to perfection, and the effect of storms are left with nature to repair ; and although re-planting is frequently beneficial to crops planted in the usual way, in the case under considera- tion it proves injurious, and every possible precaution should be used to render it unnecessary. I once suc- ceeded by planting eight grains where only three were designed to stand, and a boy of eleven years old, with
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On Com and Potatoes.
335
a little instruction and a trivial expense, thinned them to my entire satisfaction, as soon as they were out of the way of grubs and crows : and I expected to escape replanting thb year by dropping six grains where only two were designed to stand, and keeping a boy in the field to drive offcrows : the seed ears were selected and a litde shelled off each end of the cob, reserving the remainder for planting. I have since been informed by an observing farmer that the hearts of two or three grains from each ear designed for planting should be ex- amined with a sharp knife, and if they are found to ad, here closely to the flint on each side, and are otherwise sound and healthy, the ear from which they were taken may be relied on: perhaps this precaution in addition to an unusual quantity of seed might go far toward ensur- mg a sufficiency of plants if crows are kept off. ■s Potatoes cannot be grown extensively except for cat- tle, and it has been asserted by many who are well in- formed, that they will not pay for cultivating, if expend- ed in this \vay ; they are also a troublesome and perish- able crop, and come off too late for the corn to derive any advantage from turning the ground they occupied to it, consequently the space left between corn grown m this way, cannot be so extensively useful until plants are selected for this purpose, that iviU combine the des. truction of weeds, an eariy harvest, with a capability of withstanding a sufficient manuring for wheat, and grass seeds to follow, and that are not perishable, and do not require huckstering to get them off; and there are plants which it is believed will answer all those purposes, but I do not learn that they have been grown in this way, and perhaps some of those would better accord with
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On Corn and Potatoes.
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planting the corn one foot wider asunder without dimi- nishing the number of plants per acre, as much larger scope will be provided for their roots with the advan- tage of more sun and air.
The corn and potatoe grounds are now in wheat, sown with rather more than two bushels per acre, after one ploughing commenced in the middle of the potatoe rows (rendered flat by the cleaning harrow) and ending in the middle of the corn ridges on each side, forming beds of eleven feet each from the middle of the water furrows. The execution was easy, and when finished, equal in appearance to any field I have ever seen ; it will be sown with grass seeds in the spring, to be mown five years : one exhausting crop immediately following another of the same kind, seems to require an apology or explanation, and not knowing which would suit best, ' what is offered will be applicable to either ; manuring well for corn has so far secured me a good crop and left the ground clean and rich enough for wheat or barley, of which I have had superior crops free from weeds, and consequently easier and safer harvested, and the land left not too much exhausted for grass seeds. This short round I conceive produces more grain than a longer one would do on a larger breadth of ploughed ground, and leaves more land for grass, which, while it is adding to the revenue of the farm, is daily accumulating riches
for future grain crops.
Yours, &c.
John Lorain.
N. B. Tcrhaps it will not be known to all who may wish to plant potatoes among corn, that the vines of the
wm^
On Corn and Potatoes.
337
latter die nearly as soon in the shade of the rows as the early sorts. I have tried a variety, and find none answer near so well as a kind which are said to have came originally from Rhode Island ; they are not as soon fit for the table as the earliest variety, but by- harvest are as large, and soon attain perfection ; only- few grow at the root, and those mostly large and closely set to the stem, and will produce large crops if planted very close in the row ; if planted among corn, they should be first put in, that they may get as forward as possible before the shade of the rows becomes inju- rious.
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On Soiling Cattle. By John Lorain,
Read January, 1811.
Tackoney^ 20th December y 1810.
SJr,
I purpose at this time to enter no further into the subject of soiling, than what relates to the grasses for and against it, and the management of the cattle, unless as I proceed it may be considered better to make ob- servations now, on some other things connected with that system.
The varieties of grasses on this place are very incon- siderable ; green grass, timothy, and orchard grass, have been my principal dependence for soiling the cattle, but there is also some blue grass, white clover, and other native grasses, and to none of those have they disco- vered any marks of dislike, and they have been tried with some very coarse from a wet spot in a bottom meadow, to which they did not object; they will also eat crop or fall grass freely, likewise a multitude of weeds which they reject in the fields, and having been compelled from necessity to cut a barley stubble crop of tall oat grass for them, they also eat this freely, and as it has since grown sufficient for a short cut with the scythe, promises great usefulness in soiling.
If the cattle are fed with red clover in the spring be- fore the heads are beginning to form, they will in gene- ral eat but little of it for the first day or two, but after this feed more freely on it, and when the heads arc pretty generally formed or forming, they continue to eat
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On Soiling Cattle.
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it freely until the first crop gets rather old, when It pro- duces what is termed a salivation or slobbering ; this may proceed either from the suckers of the second crop springing from the roots, or from the poisonous sap (which is supposed to be produced at this season) ris- ing up into the old stem ; or by the decaying under leaves of the plant disposed at this time, from some hid- den cause to collect poisonous propc rties, for it is said the grain of wheat sometimes becomes highly impreg- nated with poison from damage sustained while stand- ing in the field ; but as insects of various descriptions have generally been thought the primary cause of most of the evils attending vegetation, and men of superior information confidently assert, that the sn.ut and ipil- dew in wheat are occasioned by them, and it may here- after be discovered that insects are the cause of this ma- lady in clover, and as the ravages of those have been generally periodical, it seems to accord with the prevail, ing opinion, that clover kis not long been affected in this way. The person who has cut grass for my cattle during the three years of soiling, has frequently inform- ed me, that after long continued rains, or drifting and moist weather, the red clover got affected with a rubty appearance on the stalks, which he considered the cause of the rejection of it by catiie. 1 have observed this ap- pearance on well saved second crop hay, yet it excited but little attention until very lately. If insects are the cause of this evil, perhaps with proper glasses, traces of their ravages may now be discovered in the stalks of the second crop hay, if not, the ensuing summer will afford ample scope for investigation^
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On Sdiling Cattle.
Unless a remedy for this malady in clover should be discovered, it cannot, consistent with the preservation of a necessary rotation, be used for soiling longer than until the green grass or orchard grass are ready, without ^ recourse to the plough, which, unless under certain cir- cumstances, may be found too expensive ; and if guinea or broom corn is sown for this purpose, a gap will be left between them and the clover, to be filled up with some other green food, for which purpose it is thought timothy might answer, if the Guinea com is sown early on a good soil ; the patch of that plant mentioned in a former communication, produced a better third crop than was expected, from the late planting and complete shade of woods on two sides of the patch ; it was left standing until frost, and found as tender, or perhaps more so than Indian corn. Qiiery^ would gypsum be a manure for this plant.
Clover from the first commencement of its being af- fected, has through the whole season afterward been in- jurious to the cattle, and that as far as could be deter- mined by the eye, in exact proportion to the mixture of it contained in each load, unless the quantity of it mix- ed among the other grasses was too small to produce any perceptible efltct; yet when the proportion of clover did not exceed above one-third, both cattle and horses cat it freely, and appear to do well, but as they still slob- bered some, it is thought they would have done still better, if the mixture had been much less, or if the red clover had been altogether absent ; it was also very ob- servable that they were not all afiected alike, for while the great majority were all but starving on clover, or too large a mixture of that plant, a few continued to eat
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On Soilinj^ Cattle.
341
sufficient to keep them up, and those did also better on the second crop clover hay through the winter and was soonest sold to the butcher. But it is not only in soiling and in the hay, that the detrimental eft'ects of second crop clover are felt ; grazing on this plant has been found by many a very precarious business, and a neigh- bour had to turn out his cattle last fall on the roads to prevent them from starving on a profuse pasture of this grass, yet on my farm cattle have done tolerably well while grazing on fields, parts of which had been previ- ously mown and given to them in the yards, and was found so obnoxious that they would scarcely eat suffi- cient to keep them alive, from which it would appear, that while at liberty in the fields, they either have saga- gacity to select those parts of the clover plant which are least injurious to them, or to find other plants calcu- lated in some measure to correct its baneful effects, and also that they may be soiled on the first crop of red clo- ver, until it becomes too old for that purpose, and after this turned out to graze, which would considerably in- crease the quantity of first crop hay, as well ae the ma- nure, by which means their soils with the aid of gypsum might in a short time be sufficiently enriched to grow grasses suitable for a regular continuation of soiling throughout the whole season.
That there may be other plants which will slobber cattle is by no means improbable, but it is thought they cannot be numerous on this place or their effects would have been discovered.
Orchard grass is excellent for soiling cattle, it starts early, continues late, grows rapidly through the whole season, and incomparably faster than red clover in the
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On Soiling Cattle.
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fall ; it starts instantly after the scythe with almost in- credible vigour, neither waiting the healing of its wounds or fresh shoots from its roots.
Timothy appears to suit the sellers of hay better than those who feed all their hay and grass on their farms ; after the first cut but little is to be expected from it, unless growing in rich moist bottoms, yet with the ad- dition of this grass, cattle may be longer kept on the first crop, and perhaps earlier fatted for market, and I ^ have observed none that they eat more freely or on which they thrive faster.
The green grass on this place has grown after clover which had run out, and as it has not been in my power to enrich those grounds until this fall, consequendy the crops have been light ; but I have observed on spots accidentally enriched, that the vegetation has been quick and luxuriant ; whether it will require too much ma* nure to bring the rest up to this standard, and to keep it so, is to me entirely unknown, but I find it forms a dose pile, springs early, arrives quickly to perfection, and stands the nipping frosts of winter perhaps better than any grass which grows on this place in sufficient quantities to excite attention ; and notwithstanding the ground was thin and the first crop cut late, it has gene- rally afforded a tolerable third cut, the greater part of which has been fed green to the horses and cattle in the yards. The mowing commenced the I3th of Novem- ber and continued until the third of December, when a fell of snow put a stop to the scythe, and it is likely to all further progress in this business, as the grass which is now left would, under the most favourable circum-
■T-^fe-(Hl?3
On Soiling Cattle.
343
stances, be rather short for the scythe, but if it were long enough I should certainly expect to proceed, as soon as the snow and ice are out of die way ; for a considerable snow which fell on the 1st and 2d of November, and laid for sometime on the grass which has been cut since, produced but trivial inconvenience. A little patch of tolerable grass of the same sort has been reserved, to ascertain whether the old foliage, together with the young sprouts, which it is expected will spring up soon- er under this warm cover, will not form an early and profitable cutting for cattle in the spring ; for if a late and early cut can be provided for the yards, no part of grazing can be managed as economical as soiling, and the rapidity with which the soil may be improved by the latter practice, must recommend it to attention when it has been sufficiently considered to what extent manur- ing may be carried on a farm, the grass grounds of which are all subject to the scythe, and the hay, grass, straw, leaves, weeds, corn stalks and their roots are all attentively gathered and brought into proper use in the yards, and that this may be effected in some situations without resorting to soiling is evident, but it is equally evident, that those situations are too inconsiderable to produce eff^ects materially interesting to agriculture. To illustrate the extent to which manuring may be car- ried, facts will be produced as far as they will go, and the deficiency supplied witli speculation, which 'it is thought will not fall far short of demonstration. This farm has been subject to this system only four years, and at this time may be justly considered in the infan- cy of improvement, and this year 13 acres have been highly manured for the summer fallow crops, and be-
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On Soiling Cattte.
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twecn 13 and 14 acres of grass top dressed, and there remains on hand of the manure collected during twelve months, a balance sufficient to top dress nine acres more, and it does not appear unreasonable to suppose, that the capability of producing manure will extend in proportion to the increased vegetation of the soil until it reaches its zenith of perfection ; it is considered pro- per to mention here, that when I moved to this place in the fall of 1806, twenty cart loads of dung were haul- ed on it, and the stock of hay being only ten totis (which was the whole that had been made that year on the farm) rendered it absolutely necessary to purchase that article, and when hay has fallen short some has been purchased since, the whole from first to last amounting to about 30 tons of hay and 2 tons of barley straw.
With respect to the management of cattle, it is in- dispensably necessary^ not only to their thriving, but likewise their health, that dry places be provided for them to stand and lay down upon during wet weather ; and litter is generally expended before soiling com- mences, if the common yellow loose clay of the yards is pitched into their sheds, until the floors are raised suf- ficiently high to give them a considerable sloping de- scent from the cribs, ending at the front of the sheds in a step of 6 or 8 inches above the level of the yards ; this purpose will be so completely effected, that without a wisp of litter they may be kept dry, throughout the longest continued summer or autumnal rains ; the cat- tle will tread those floors perfectly hard in a few days, unless rain should intervene, and in that case a thick covering of litter if put on in time will secure them from injury ; they should be kept covered after hard
On Soiling Cattle.
345
iSaz
frost commences ; when the dung is likely to incom- mode the cattle, the yards and sheds are scraped, and it IS hauled out and mixed into compost to prevent fur- ther evaporation ; this appears to be a very ivasteful ma- nagement of dung, and if the cattle would thrive equally as well tied up, the difference in labour would be more than compensated in the quantity and quality of the ma- nure ; and European writers say, soiling in airy sheds and cool stables answer, but whether difference in cli- mate or the habits of cattle are against that practice here, IS unknown to me ; but I suspect the difference in ex- pense would be found trivial or perhaps not any; for the scraping extensive yards as frequent as necessary, can be httle less expensive than the daily cleaning of the stalls, and the wheeling from the yards to the stercora- ries will be more scattered and distant, consequently more expensive than performing the same work daily from the sheds. If this reasoning be correct, there can be but little, if any difference in the expense as it re- spects the dung, and I strongly suspect, two cart loads of that properly saved, would produce more vegetation than three of that which had been drenched with the rain and scorched with the sun, and it only remains to make a set off against geering and ungeering the cattlertwice per day, (they do not require much water when on green food) and scraping the dung off from them once in the same time; and this it has been found may be spec- dily and sufficiently performed with a piece of an old scythe fixed into a wooden handle. When the cattie are tied up less than half the shed room will suffice, the cost of b&ilding, repairs, interest, and ultimate d. cay' will be saved ; it will be less expensive to spread the grass
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On Soiling Cattle.
in half the number of cribs, and it will not be injured by the cattle surrounding the cart, or the labourer hin- dered by their being in his way ; underling cattle wOl have an equal opportunity of feeding, and there wiU be less risk of their injuring each other, and this is a sub- ject of some consideration ; an ox was gored in my yard last spring, and it was not without considerable trouble and expcnise that his life was p;"eserved,and I had a cow killed last year in the same way, and if the cattle were tied up in wmter also, it is thought a sufficiency of litter might be saved for the summer, as it requires vastly more to keep yards property covered than would be necessary for stables and slieds.
1 have found cribs preferable to racks for soiling cat- tle : when grass is put in the latter, they get it quickly under their feet ; if the former are wide enough they feed with their heads over tliem, and the waste is incon-
sideraWe.
It has been my practice to give the cattle fresh grass
from the scythe morning and evening, but as the morn- ing feeding is sometimes later than would be desirable, perhaps the grass designed for the morning might be cut toward evening and left in swarth ; raking up grass until it is wanted should be avoided, as it is liable to heat, and it is also very improper to let it lay in the field exposed to tlie sun : in either case it is not relished by
the cattle.
The cribs should be carefully cleaned out every morn- ing, and the contents may be made into good hay in the cheap and easy way mentioned in a former communi- cation ; but this requires attention or it may not be pro- perly shook and spread out. and not onlyspoili butper.r
On Soiling Cattle.
347
3=£:
haps set fire to the building ; however after the gage of the cattle is known, there will be but little grass left over, if proper attention be given and the quality is good.
Labour appears too high in this country to admit of cutting straw with the grass, but it is likely tliat the love of variety might induce the cattle to eat some of the best quality, if attentively given in small quantities, and it has been considered by some a useful corrector of the purgative properties of grass.
The confined situation of the cattle in the yards, is peculiarly favourable to the prevention of loss from eat- ing green food too freely at first, but requires close at- tention for a few days in the beginning. When any of them appeu- rather full, they should be immediately placed where they can get nothing to eat or drink, and if this fullness is followed by a restlessness discovered from unusual movements, particularly with their feet, and an extension of their tails as if straining to discharge the wind, and generally accompanied with a disposition to lay down, it then becomes immediately necessary to keep them in pretty smart motion, which enables them to disengage large quantities of wind, which is some- times accompanied with frequent discharges of dung, and when their flanks get lank, further attention at that time is unnecessary ; there were only two in my yards this year, with which I had scarcely any trouble.
A little good first crop hay should be kept for feeding, when the weather is too bad to admit of cutting and bringing in grass, but during the whole feeding of last season, a resort to hay was -not found necessary more than three times ; a healthy Irishman who feared no weather, performed this work at 10 doUars per month,
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Oil Soiling Cattle.
with board washing and lodging ; but it was under an expectation of a present at the end of the year, if his conduct merited it ; but confinement every Sunday not being agreeable to him, the rest of the labourers on the farm took each his Sunday in rotation at this business, for which they were paid exclusively of their monthly wages, and at the same rate, but no compensation is expected for sunday attendance on the cattle during winter, such attendance being customary.
Numbers appear to dread the trouble and difficulty attending soiling, who cheerfully acquiesce in winter stall feeding ; and the cleaning of troughs, varying food, and humouring the appetite of animals, both in respect to quantity and quality, is submitted too without mur- muring, because they have been accustomed to it, not- withstanding it frequently happens, that accidental or injudicious feeding but once, satiates cattle so much, that it is found very difficult to get them to feed well afterwards : not so with soiling, if too much be given, the cattle will eat until they are fully satisfied, and if after this is done, they become displeased with the re- mainder in consequence of its having laid too long in their cribs, if the contents are removed and fresh grass given, they eat as freely as if nothing of this sort had occurred ; neither have I observed variety necessary to stimulate their appetites, but it is observable that al- though in the field they are fondest of the tenderest shoots, in the crib it is otherwise ; there, tender grasses form a compact mass, with which they are not so well pleased, as when further advanced in their growth, and this circumstance appears to form a solid reason, why it has been found in Europe, that the same cattle gained
Oji Soiling Cattle.
349
more by soiling than they did from grazing, for there can be but little doubt, that grasps at or near maturity contain a larger share of nutriment and are less disposed to purge the cattle. I have also noticed, that when the grass gets quite old and is dying as it stands in the field, they are not so fond of it, but still continue to eat It more freely than the young and tender grasses.
I have obtained an early cutting from rye sown thick on ground designed for potatoes, it was readv about the first of May, and proved valuable, as red clover was about a week later.
Cattle are fond of oats cut green, and it is said by many, that poor land is much improved by sowing them for pasture, and I observe one gentleman attributes a large share of the improvement to their roots but whether this is, or is not the case, it can scarcely be doubted that the improvement would be much greater by feeding the tops in yards.
And am. Sir, with respect.
Your obedient humble servant,
- ,, John Lorain.
James Mease, M. D.
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On the Salivary Dejiuxions in Horses.
The following papers were rvritten at the request of Mr. miliam Young near mimington Delaware,andby him forwarded to the society.
Read January 8th, 1811.
rVilmington December 25th 1810.
Dear Sir,
In conformity to promise, I communicate to you the result of some observations and experiments I have made on the SPOTTED ^vv&gz. Euphorbia maculata of Lin- neus, particularly relative to its being the cause of the salivation that has occurred so frequently among horses in this and the adjacent part of the country. Although my experiments have been but few and simple, I con- ceive they have been sufficient to establish the fact. The frequent occurrence of a profuse discharge of sa- liva from horses, and its rapid production of great de- bility and emaciation in that useful animal ; had not only excited the attention and surprise of many of the farmers; but had also given rise to many conjectures as to the cause of it.— Many opinions were founded on no substantial data, but originating only from conjec- ture ; by many it was imputed to a peculiar quality inherent in the second growth of clover,— its generally appearing first when horses were put to pasture on the second crop, and being almost exclusively produc- ed by pasturing in clover fields, were considered as cor- roborating evidences of the correctness of the hypothe- sis; but its not having occurred for many years after clo-
On the Salivary Defiuxions in Horses. 351
ver had been extensively cultivated ; and not occurring at all in many places, where horses are pastured almost altogether on clover; sufficiently proved that opinion to be erroneous. It was also imputed to the effi;cts of gypsum on plaister so frequently used to promote the growth of clover, but the occurrence of it on many forms where no plaister had been used, as well as its not having occurred on many where it had been used very copiously, proved this opinion equally incorrect with the fOTmer.
My friend Dr. William Baldwin of WUmington in- formed me, that a member of the Linnean society of Philadelphia had supposed, that the ptyalism was caused by a species of the euphorbia. He also politely favoured me with a specimen of the species to which it was im- puted, and gave me some information on the Euphorbia Americana in general, which extensive knowledge of botany enabled him to do. For the purpose of as- certaining the fact, I procured a small quantity of the Euphorbia maculata, and gave it to my horse en- veloped in a smaU quantity of clover carefully gathered stem by stem, and perfectly free from all other vegeta- bles or any extraneous matter whatever. A preterna- tural discharge of saliva took place in less than half ati hour. This experiment was frequently repeated, and invariably with the same result. To prove that clover did not contribute towards it, in some cases other grass was used as an envelope with the same effect. And when the horse was perfectly free from ptyalism, a conside- rable quantity of clover carefully gathered without the euphorbia was given to him, and no such effect was produced.
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352 On the Salivary Defiuxions in Horses.
These experiments I considered sufficient to prove that the Euphorbia maculata would produce salivation. And I am induced to think for reasons that I shall hereaf- ter mention, that it is the general, if not the only
cause of it.
There are three species of euphorbia common in our fields : the maculata, caniscens and corolata^o^lAn- neus. There are more species of euphorbia natives, and some exotic species now flourish in our country, but their peculiar habitudes confine them to certain dis- tricts. Of the three species above mentioned, either would probably cause salivation if masticated : but the peculiarities of the maculata render it the only one like- ly to be eaten by horses. None of them will be eaten if not so situated or presented, as to be taken into the ani- mal's mouth along with some agreeable grass, as clover. The corolata is a large plant towering above the gras- ses, and therefore easily avoided. The caniscens is an humble plant attaching itself close to the ground without elevating any of its branches, and seldom flourishing among the grasses; but generally confined to open grounds, or cornfields road sides &c. on these accounts it is seldom eaten. The maculata delighting in the well cultivated clover ground, and when closely surrounded by the clover attaining to about the same height, and sending off many slender spreading branches, it is very liable to be taken in with the clover by the larger mou- thed animals. Whether this species of euphorbia, has ^ flourished for a length of time in this part of the coun- try, or has but lately migrated into it, I have not ascer- tained, but in either case, its having but recently intrud- ed itself into the pasture fields can be easily accounted
On the salivary Deftuxims of Horses.
358
SIC
for. It comes forward, flowers and ripens its seed, about the same time with the second crop of clover. And aa^ clover seed is generally gathered from the second crop, it must be very liable to have some of the seed of the euphorbia maculata gathered with it, if any of it had grown among the clover; and in this way may be exten- sively diff'used over the country. The salivation was observed in the neighbourhood of West Chester, and other parts of Chester county, before it was seen in this wighbourhood ; and as the farmers here have generally- obtained their clover seed from thence, it seems highly- probable, that it has been introduced in that manner.
As but few of the grasses, except timothy, were pro- pagated by seed to any considerable extent in this country, before the introduction of clover, and as the low flat grounds on which timothy grows, and the closer sod it forms about its roots, are unfavorable to the eu- phorbia maculata, it is not singular, that, before the culti- vation of clover, it should have been confined to the margins of fields and open uncultivated grounds, its native place. As this plant is not furnished with any of those astonishingly curious apparatus for dispersing its seeds that many are, and not being eaten by any ani- mals except by accident ; it had not the advantages of any means of emigrating from its native location, pre- vious to its connexion with its friendly associate clover. All the plants of the genus euphorbia contain an ex- tremely acrid juice;— many of them stand at the head of the catalogue of vegetable poisons, many of them, when rubbed on the skin, will produce excoriation: andthekast acrid, when taken into the mouth, act as powerful masti-
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354 On the salivary Dejluxtons of Horses.
catories. The euphorbia maculata possesses its greatest acrimony when in flower, or alittle before: and at that time the salivation has been observed to be most prevalent. Most plants when thoroughly dried in the sun lose much of their virtue. This is also the case with the euphor- bia maculata, for this reason hay, containing it, tho- roughly dried in the sun, will not be near so produc*< tive of salivation, as when it has been slowly dried in cloudy weather. This circumstance I think worth at- tending to, in gathering hay containing it. Horses and hogs are the only animals, that I have observed, to be subject to the salivation. Why it does not afiect the ru- minating animals, I have not been able to ascertain. Probably future observation may enable mc, or some one else, to account for it. At present I shall not haz- ard a conjecture.*
From the foregoing observations I think it extremely probable, that the plant in question is the general cause of the salivation in horses. There are other plants be- sides the euphorbia, that will act as masticatories: but I believe that there are but very few of them flourishing in our fields, that are liable to be eaten by the grami- nivorous animals. I am perfectly satisfied that the euphorbia maculata will produce it ; and I have always observed it to abound in the fields where ptyalism was prevalent.
* Several members of the Society have remarked, cattle sheep and swine as well as horses, to be affected by the se- cond crop of clover, and of other grasses.
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On the salivary Defiuxions of Horses. 355
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If this communication will afford any service or sa- tisfaction to you, sir, you are at liberty to make what use of it you may think proper.
William Young.
Your humble servant,
Abraham Perlee.
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On the salivary Defluxions of Horses.
fTilmingtoriy December 27th 1810.
My Dear Sir^
The plant that has been supposed to produce ptya^ lism in horses, of which I gave you a verbal account last summer, and of which you now wish a description, I take to be Euphorbia maculata of Linneus. It is placed in ,^e class of dodecandria^ and order rnonogyniay of the sexual system. The genus is characterised as follows, in the last edition of the system of nature.
Calyx 1 leafed inflated, inferior : nectaries 4 or 5, standing on the calyx : capsule on a pedicle 3 lobed.
The noxious species which is the particular object of our investigation, is thus described in the same work.
Forked : leaves serrate oblong, hairy ; flowers auxil- iary, solitary : branches spreading.
Leaves when young, marked with a brown spot.
The Euphorbia are a very numerous as well as natural family of plants, and all the species appear to possess a particular acrimony.
0\xi of one hundred and twenty-two species enume- rated in Turto?i^s edition ofLinneus^ only Jive of that num- ber are described as natives of North America ; several other species, however, are now known to the botanists. There are three species to be met with in this neigh- bourhood viz. The E. colorata, E. canescens,and E. ma- culata. The E. colorata is generally found growing in uncultivated situations, but mostly within uncultivated enclosures, as in hedges and by the side offences. It is an erect plant, and grows to the height of several feet; branch-
On the salivary Defiuxions of Horses. 357
ing outwards, and exhibiting a handsome appearance when its white flowers are fully blown. The E. canescens which Limeus has restricted to Spain, is an humble plant, trailing close to the ground, but without emitting radicles. Both these vegetables are found in dry si- tuations. But the E. maculata with which wc are more immediately interested, although it is to be mostly met with in greater abundance on the margin of dry pas- ture fields, is more generally diffused over the cultiva- ted parts than any of the other species ; and, begins to be m flower about the latter end of July, or the begin- ningof August, and continues to flower for several weeks; during which time it, no doubt, possesses the greatest acrimony ; and it is during this time, that the horses are most commonly affected with the disease known to the farmers by the name of slabbers.
A memoir was read a few years ago, before the Lin. nean society of Philadelphia on the ptyalism of horses, in which the author stated the E. maculata to be the cause ; but I have not seen this memoir ; nor have I been able to obtain any important information respecting it. In all probability your investigation will be more satis- factory and conclusive. In a conversation, however which I had a few days ago with Dr. Barton, he infor-' med me, that he believed several vegetables had a simi- lar effect with the E. maculata in producing the slab- bers: and that he has known this disagreeable disease to be produced by dry clover, which he supposed to be in a diseased state.
Dr. Abraham Perl
I am Sir,
William Baldwin.
££.
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C/ianges of Timber and Plants, Races of Animals
Extinct.
Read February 12th, 1811.
Belmont y February At/i, 1811.
Sir,
Last week, a British publication, entitled, " The Ec lectio Review," for July 1809, was put into my hands; and it was the first time I had seen it. It furnishes one of those minor means, designed or not, by which irritations (injurious to the interests of both) are kept alive, between the people of the two countries. I have nothing to do with such considerations, as a member of our society, farther than as tlicy tend to destroy the usefulness of facts, very innocently (whatever may be their relevancy) brought forward, to promote the objects we have in view. Had this publication been confined to the country in which it originated (without meaning to slight the opinions of the few, whose notice any thing relating to me would attract) I should have been perfectly indifferent about it, had I been informed of it. Its want of candour and truth, would only have excited an indignant smile.
Notwithstanding the superficial objections, made by the writer of the article in the British Review, to my relying on the changes of timber and plants, as an ex- ample set by nature, to shew the necessity of changes of crops ; I still continue of my former opinion. It may not be necessary in the old world, wherein almost every thing is artificial ; and the principles and practice of
Changes of Plants, and Animals.
359
husbandry are better understood. But here, where the wildness of nature is constantly in view, the attention of our farmers being called to her operations, will produce conviction, sooner than elaborate discussion, or technical example.
In my endeavour to shew the necessity of chaneinc crops and the utility of also changing the locality of ani ma^s (the former well known, in Europe, to be essential and the latter thought to be so by .any) I n^entionld in ou first volume, a number of facts within my own knowledge, and procured testimony from vcr, respec
k^lT":,'""';'*'''"^*'"^^ ''^'''^ as to changes m natural products of timber and plants, which are un.
deniably proved. I have known them to be true from 2 youth. I think them very strong indications 'of h^ ^solute necess.ty of changes of products, in agricultu ral operations. I also conceive, that great support is afforded to the opinion, that change of Mity is ^ce !
bTLlrT '°'""'" '"™^'^ '^^^ deterionation. by the facts, m frequent proof, that when one race of wild
ammals migrates, or becomes extinct, a different race
or races (m obedience to a natural propensity to changej
;s. or are. found in the haunts of those prLdenl" ^
the occupat.on of them. I had intended to have JZ
tnt Z '"1""^' '"^ '° accumulate a multitude of fects on th,s subject ; and I n.ay yet. at a time of leisure perform my promise. Mean time, I hold it a duty I owe' de7o7 H °"^''-''^^ I never have had the most distant
sZ^nZ^'l '"'° '"" ''"^' °'' ^"'^ °^her facts, to support hypothesis, or theory, of any kind. On he
on^ary. any candid reader will see. that I cautious^
avoid aU such vam and unnecessary- speculations. My
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Changes of Plants, and Ammals.
ass
object is, entirely, to recommend useful practice. I hold no opinions contrary to those generally received, as to causes of renovation, or changes, of vegetable, or other productions. As to changes of locality, or substitution, of animals in a state of nature, 1 never conceived any other mode of supplying the places of those which had been destroyed, or had migrated, than that of other ani- mals roaming, from other quarters, to fill the vacant haunts. If any objectionable opinions are held by others on these subjects, let them be responsible for their cor- rectness, or futility. There is,certainly, something unac- countable, to persons of common observation, in the facts, both as to timber, plants, and animals; and, for this reason, they were, at first, denied. It is only to preserve Xht practical force of them from being lost in contro-
vcrsv about causes, that I have troubled the society.
ft
If I had considered the case merely personal, I should not have deemed it of sufficient importance to notice. Yet I am charged by some Furnisher, in the employ of the Review-Maker (who, cursorily and acetosely, glides through our first volume) with "impiety" and "unphilo- sophical absurdity ;" and sentiments are attributed to me, which I never held;— ^o w7,— that "new and spon- taneous productions are brought into existence^ by a new onder of things.'' If this scribe means an "order" not warranted by Scripture, and the opinions of wise and good men ; I acknowledge, or believe in, no such new or old, " order of things."
The arrogance and fastidious prejudices of many of the tyro writers of articles in British periodical publi-
Changes of Plants, and Animals.
361
cations (when either persons or things,* in this coun- try, are the subjects) are so common ; that they excite in me no keen feelings of resentment. Although in themselves stingless, I regret, that the causticities of such writers are sometimes mischievous, when they foil in the way of those, who have not magnanimity to de- spise such hackneyed malevolence ; which is unequal- led by any thing, but the ridiculous, gross, and "shame- less," falsehoods, of their "coadjutors,"— the jaundiced Tourists, who haunt, and flit through, our country.
It has been only defensively, that I have mentioned the race of animals who feed on the products of calum- ny. They will not be extinct, while human nature re- tains its present condition. On their account, I should be ashamed of casting the least reflection on the coun- try to which they belong. Equally unjust would it be, \mh censure thrown on one individual for the opinions of another. The wandering part of this race, prove my allegation, that the propensity to change locality (not
* The piom and philosophical gall of the writer in the Ec- lectic Review, is roused by the unoffending Schuylkill bridge. With his usual candour, he misapplies the friendly testimony of that worthy and intelligent English engineer,— Mr. Wes- ton ; who writes, as to the western pier.—hxiWt of solid ma- sonry, whereof it contains 6178 perches, in a coffer-dam, on a bare rock, without footing for very many of the piles', in 41 feet water ; in the tide water of a river subject to frequent floods,—" it will afford you matter of well founded triumph, when I tell you, that you have accomplished an undertaking' unrivalled by any thing of the kind that Europe can boast of."— He stiles these expressions of his respectable C(?ww?rv- waw,— ^'American Vanity"!!!!
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Changes ofAtiimak and Plants. '
always for good purposes) exists strongly in man. De Jzara, in his travels in South America, furnishes proofs of the facts, as to changes of plants. I may and do be- Heve his facts ; but 1 utterly reject his opinions, as to local, multiplied, and recent acts of Creation.
The unaccountable results of chymical affinities, or the properties of the loadstone, are not new dreations. Forest trees planted, or grown from nuts or acorn*, where growths of the same species had perished, will not long thrive. Change of locality is essential in renewals of or- chards and nurseries oi fruit trees ; as I can shew from incontestable facts. The causes must be sought for in original, and not new, creation. My whole argument (be it strong or weak) as to animals, is founded on change of locality ; and not new creation. I do not rely on ana- molous instances ; but on a general current of facts.
Yours very truly,
RicHABD Peters.
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Philad. Agric. Society.
'm
(P^ Some communications in foreign languages are rcluctlantly omitted, for want of translations.
Anonymous papers cannot be inserted, agreeably to the design of the Society. Every person should be re- sponsible, for the facts and opinions he communicates. The Society claim no praise, and wish to incur no cen- sure, from the publication of such facts or opinions. This remark is made with no particular allusion ; but for the information of future correspondents.
I
APPENDIX.
SELECTIOJVS.
Observing that some of the papers introduced into this volume indicate a strong and laudable anxiety in their au- thors to have the hedging system introduced if they only knew how to proceed, and which plant or plants are best adapted to the purpose. In order to direct their exertions with cer- tainty, so that they may proceed without danger ofdisappoint- ment, I have taken the liberty ot presenting for insertion, the following small tract, which was presented to me by the author who is himself an honorary member ol this society.
Mr. Main has fully, proved by real experiment, that one of our native thorns is greatly preferable for hedges, to the English white thorn ; that hedges can be raised in this coun- try in shorter time, by two years, and at a great deal less expense than in England. Knowing as I do, that it is Mr. Mains wish, as well as his interest to do every thing to promote this elegant and useful improvement in the coun- try, I expect he will pardon this freedom which I have ta- ken without his knowledge. ^
J. Lang.
The Philadelphia society for promoting agriculture.
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562
Changes of Animals and Plants.
always for good purposes) exists strongly in man. De Azara^ in his travels in South Americay furnishes proofs of the facts, as to changes of plants. I may and do be- lieve his facts ; but I utterly reject his opinions, as to local, multiplied, and recent acts of Creation.
The unaccountable results of chymical affinities^ or the properties of the loadstone^ are not new dreations. Forest trees planted, or grown from nuts or acorns ^ where growths of the same species had perished, will not long thrive. Change of locality is essential in renewals of or- chards and nurseries oi fruit trees ; as I can shew from incontestable facts. The causes must be sought for in original, and not new, creation. My whole argument (be it strong or weak) as to animals, is founded on change of locality ; and not new creation. I do not rely on ana- molous instances ; but on a general current of facts.
Yours very truly,
Richard Peters. Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Philad. Agric. Society.
[CT* Some communications in foreign languages are rcluctlantly omitted, for want of translations.
Anonymous papers cannot be inserted, agreeably to the design of the Society. Every person should be re- sponsible, for the facts and opinions he communicates. The Society claim no praise, and wish to incur no cen- sure, from the publication of such facts or opinions. This remark is made with no particular allusion ; but for the information of future correspondents. ,
APPENDIX.
SELECTIOJ\rs.
Observing that some of the papers introduced into this volume indicate a strong and laudable anxiety in their au- thors to have the hedging system introduced if they only knew how to proceed, and which plant or plants are best adapted to the purpose. In order to direct their exertions with cer- tainty, so that they may proceed without danger of disappoint- ment, I have taken the liberty of presenting for insertion, the following small tract, which was presented to me by the author who is himself an honorary member of this society. Mr. Main has fully, proved by real experiment, that one of our native thorns is greatly preferable for hedges, to the English white thorn ; that hedges can be raised in this coun- try in shorter time, by two years, and at a great deal less expense than in England. Knowing as I do, that it is Mr. Mains wish, as well as his interest to do every thing to . promote this elegant and useful improvement in the coun- try, I expect he will pardon this freedom which I have ta- ken without his knowledge. ^
J. Lang.
The Philadelphia society for promoting agriculture.
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IRREGULAR PAGINATION
DIRECTIONS, &c.
Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or other Hedge PlantSy preparative to their being set in Hedges : with some practical obser- vations on the method of Plain Hedging. By Thomas Mairiy District of Columbia.
TRANSPORTATION OF THE PLANTS.
Such as are intended for a distant carriage will be packed in boxes, the price of which will be added to the charge. The seedling plants being commonly destitute of lateral twigs are naturally well adapted to lie in small compass ; ten or fifteen thousand may conveniently be deposited in a box, such as any labouring man can lift with ease. The largest seedlings are, however, in a fa- vourable season, of a size much superior to this calcula- tion, never the less always well adapted to be laid in little room.
WHEN A BOX OF PLANTS COMES TO HAND
They are to be managed according to the state of the weather, or the season of the year in which they arrive, the length of time they have continued in a state of confinement, and their apparent condition being also taken into consideration.
On Hedging.
IN OPEN WEATHER.
When the box arrives it is to he immediately opened and the plants taken out, but if late in the day it would be as well to defer it until the next morning ; when being carefully separated from the stuffing, they are to be laid regularly in small parcels of about fifty or a hun. dred, with their roots all one way. Each of these parcels are then to be washed, by plunging them up and down, or from side to side, in a vessel of water to refresh them, and to clear away any filth they may have contracted f during their confinement. They are then to be laid in a trench formed in some secure and convenient place for this purpose, being spread therein, pretty thin, in a sloping position, and covered all over with mould, ex- cept so much of their tops as just to shew where they are.
If, however, the season for planting them be at hand, they may be returned into the box after they are washed, laying a little of the stuffing over them, and the lid being shut to prevent injury from rats or mice, let the box be placed on the floor of a cellar, where it may remain until conveniency serves to have them planted. But if the proper season for planting is yet at a distance, and the ground happens to be extreme- ly wet when the box arrives, it may, with its con- tents, be lodged in the cellar until the soil is sufficiently dry to have the plants deposited in the ground as above directed. And if at such early season a sudden frost should detain them in the cellar for a considerable pe- riod they will suffisr no injury thereby, provided the box is well secured from vermin.
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IN FROSTY WEATHER.
Should a box of plants come to hand when the earth is shut up by the frost or covered with snow, it is immediately to be placed in a 'cellar, and to remain there until the frost is over, or the snow is gone, and the ground in a fit condition to have them trenched. If • there is reason to suspect, from the intensity of the cold, that the frost has penetrated to the plants, the box must not be opened until the mild warmth of the cellar has had time to dissolve the frosty particles; as handling the plants in that state might prove extremely injurious,
A sound discretion must therefore be exercised in such a case, and some days suffered to elapse before even curiosity itself is permitted to look into the box. Nei- ther must it be subjected to any sort of extra heat, but left to the influence of the cellar alone, or to the return of open weather, to effect a thaw, at which period the plants are to be treated as above described.
A BOX OF PLANTS LONG DETAINED BY
THE WAY.
If from some accidental circumstance this should happen to be the case, and the spring be pretty far ad- vanced when the box comes to hand, the plants must be taken out, separated from the stuffing and examined; if they are found to be still alive, they may probably be recovered, although in a sickly state, by proper ma- nagement. To this effect they are to be totally immer- sed in clear soft water, the coolest that can be obtained. They are then to be washed out clean, and particularly -
inspected, and any of them that may appear absolutely dead are to be picked out and thrown aside. The resi- due are again to be l^id in a change of the same cool water, and to remain entirely covered therewith for a few hours in a cool shady place. The plants are then to be taken out and the water thrown away, a fresh change being substituted in its place ; they are now to be set with their roots only therein, and so slack to- gether that the air may circulate freely among the stems • as many vessels being provided as may be necessary for this purpose. In the course of two or three days, shifting the water twice or three times a day, the plants will be sufficiently refreshed, and may then be planted out in the nursery as hereafter directed.
In our wintry climates, the best season for packing up plants that are to . be transmitted to a remote dis tance, is when the sap is in its most inert state, or short- ly after the fall of the leaf. Purchasers who arc so situ- ated, will therefore please to send their orders in the autumn, that measures may be taken to have their plants packed up before the setting in of severe frost
Plants that have a long journey to encounter, will always be packed in moss, if it possibly can be obtain- ed: when this cannot be had, oak leaves of the last fall a little moistened, will be substituted. Such as have only a few days journey require no stuffing whatever but will do very well tied up in a mat or other con-' venient wrapper. A box however is always the safest vehicle, as it most effi;ctuaUy prevents the plants from suffering by the weather or being injured by the carelessness of the carrier. Every person of common in- genuity will be able to supply whatever other manage-
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ment accidental circumstances may render necessary, remembering always that a small degree of moisture, more or less according to the state of the atmosphere, is necessary at all times for the preservation and health of the plants, while they remain out of the earth.
NURSERY FOR THE PLANTS-
The soil most fit for a nursery to the young pfents of the haw-thorn, is a free, rich, deep black loam, that has previously been in a cultivated state, rather inclined to moist than dry, rather situate at the bottom than the top of a height, rather on the flat summit than on the declivity of a hill, and where such a soil and situation cannot be had, that which comes nearest to this descrip- tion ought to be preferred. A soil that would suit for cabbages, and in a similar state of preparation as would answer well for that vegetable, will also answer for the most part of such plants as are used in hedging. It will, however, be of great advantage to have the piece of ground appropriated for this purpose, digged from fifteen to eighteen inches deep ; if the soil will not ad- mit of more than twelve inches in depth it may do, but less than that would be too shallow to produce fine thriving plants. If the state of the soil should render it necessary, it must be turned up rough or trenched by the spade in the beginning of winter, in order that it may be mellowed by the frost, and also that it may be clean from the remains. of former productions, and work free and easy when it comes to be turned over, levelled and dressed in the spring.
A p.ece of ground about twenty-one yards square will be sufficent for the transplantation often thousand plants, set ,n rows about fourteen inches wide one row from another, and three inches apart from plant to plant m the row.
The appropriate piece of ground being well secured from the mtrusion of catde. the work of planting is to ^ set about as early in the spring as possible, having
condmon of the ground ; for it is much more injurious to d,g and dress the soil when too wet, than to have the plants put m when the mould is rather inclining to 7a J^t'^?''' °f ^ '^'•y '"""Id can in part be obvi- ated by dipping the plants in water at the time of set fng; but to spade, rake, plant and tread upon a soil surcharged with moisture is often of very- bad con sequences But ahhough the earliest season is to be" embraced for this business that the nature and situation of things will admit of, yet so long as the hawthorn buds, m that part of the country where the work is to be
tZTAV"'"^'"'^''^'^'''''^^^'^'^ ^ '"good time, and If the cions have been buried in a northern exposure this will retard the sap a little, and afford mo e • time to wait for a favourable opportunity.
When the soil is in a suitable condition to work well with the spade, and break easily under the rake ^ opportunity of a mild calm day must be taken to beli the work. The ground is then to be neatly spaded breT >ngthe clods and levelling it properl/as the wot
d gged, that portion ,s to be raked smooth, and the planting immediately to commence, that the mo^M
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On Hedging.
On Hedging.
may be fresh and pliable, in which condition it will the more aptly close about and embrace the roots of the plants. As many planters as are to be employed in set- ting the plants, having provided themselves each with a dibble or setting stick for the purpose, about eight inches long, with a short handle naturally formed at a proper angle and sharpened to such a convenient point as experience will soon direct, a garden line is to be stretched one foot within the verge of the raked ground, for the first row.
So many plants as it may be expected the labour- ers can put in before they go to eat, being taken out of the deposit, their roots trimmed by a careful hand to about six or seven inches long, and placed in a tub of water near at hand, the planters are to take from thence small parcels, containing from twenty-five to fifty at a time, successively ; as they are planted these are to be held together in the left hand, and one of them being placed between the thumb and fore finger of the same, its root is to be put into the hole made by the dibble and held to a proper depth, the mould is then to be closed thereto by a smart insertion of the dibble conveying a small portion of soil perpendicular to embrace it, another flat stroke is applied by the same to fill up the opening and thus with three motions of the dibble, judiciously applied, the plants are suc- cessively planted and fixed upright in their place, each workjnan being careful to plant just so near the line as not to touch it, and also not to double up the roots when putting them in which would be extremely in- jurious to the future growth of the plants, observing always to keep a regular distance in setting them, and
to have the root always so deep in the ground that the yellow part or wind and weather mark, may be at least an mch under the surface. Each labourer having plant- ed kts own s/uire, is immediately after to fasten that pmion firmly in the ground, by placing a foot on each side of the row, and shuffling with impressive and short movements to the end of that portion which he hath planted. On the proper fastening of the plants success m a ^eat measure will depend ; it is therefore to be regarded with particular attention. The line is then to be moved about fourteen inches forward and the plant- .ng contmued, while the digging and raking are^L to be carried on at the same time, particularly when any considerable number of cions are to be planted, as a few hours wind and sun might reduce the surface mould into a dry crumbling state, which would not only be disconvenient for the planters, but might prove hurtful to the plants, not closing so well about their roots to exclude the air as when newly turned upand retaimng some degree of natural moisture.
The smaller the plants, the more susceptible they are of injury ; such therefore must be managed with the greatest care, and never be much exposed, when they are out of the earth to drying or frosty winds, but guard- ed therefrom as much as possible. These must also be planted on a surface more exactly smoothed by the rake and their delicate roots neatly trimmed, and correcuJ mserted into the soil ; for if these were left any way loose m planting, a few days or perhaps a few hours of high withermg winds would risk their destruction.
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On Hedginir,
It is also necessary here to observe, that plants left long immersed in stale unchanged water, particularly if it is in any degree warmed by the heat of the weather, may be injured thereby, being exposed to an insipient putrid fermentation.
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WATERING THE PLANTS.
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After they are planted this will seldom be requisite, except where they have been long detained by the way ; in which case, after they have been refreshed by immer- sion in repeated changes of cool soft water on their arri- val, as has been already described, observe that in planting them the place of every sixth row is to be left vacant, for the purpose of freely passing therein with the water- pot. A parcel of forked stakes, about eighteen inches or two feet long, being provided, sharpened at the butt end and stuck into the ground along each side of every bed, at the distance of eight or ten feet, a line of poles being laid from fork to fork on both sides, so as con- veniently to support a quantity of leafy boughs spread over the whole to screen the beds from the sun, and to impede the current of air, which particularly in the time of win^i: weather would be severe upon sickly plants. The shade and daily watering may be continued for several weeks, or until the plants shew by their vigor- ous appearance that they are evidently out of danger, the watering may then be discontinued, and the shade removed by degrees, which the gradual shrinking of its dead leaves will contribute to effect, taking the op- portunity of cloudy weather to remove it altogether.
On Hedging.
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Or should the proprietor, from a laudable motive of having large sized and excellent plants, be willing to incur this trouble and expense, the plants may be water, cd for a few weeks at first, although they have been planted at the proper season, and are no ways sickly. In the time of dry weather, when this watering will only be wanted, the water must not be sparingly used when once begun ; for if an inch or a little better of the surface merely is wetted, the plants in place of be- nefit, will be injured thereby ; as the soil farther down at their feeding fibres will still continue dry where moisture is most wanted, and that at the top will either do no good or stimulate the putting out of roots too near the surface. In the time of severe drought, theretorclet the soil be thoroughly drenched, if at all] and this regularly repeated every evening while the Arf weather continues. But, though in this last case the alleys, in place of every sixth row, will be wanted for the conveniency of passing to water the plants, there will be little occasion for any shade.
WEEDING.
This is an important operation, and must not be delay, cd at any time longer than the weeds are yet so low as to be hoed expeditiously. A small garden hoe is best for this purpose, the weedcr being careful to walk in the row not yet weeded, for his tread would tend to re-plant some of the weeds were he to follow after the hoe with his feet in the same row. The weeds among the stems of the plants are at the same time to be attentively pulled up by hand. The number of times which this operation is necessary in the course of the season depending upon
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upon the state of the weather, can only be determined by the appearance of the weeds
TAKING UP THE PLANTS.
If, after the fall of the leaf, they are judged to be of a proper size to plant in hedges, they are to be dug up with a strong spade, the workmen being careful to ob- tain with every plant a proper quantum of root, such as will evidently be sufficient to nourish it. The plants will be probably of different sizes, and it will there- fore be necessary to have them separated into three or four different sorts as they are taken up, and if there are some that do not yet appear of a size fit for hedging, these are to be placed by themselves and trenched apart until the next spring, when they are again to be plant- ed in the nursery. If the plants do not appear generally to be large enough for immediate hedging ; though a sufficient number to begin upon could be culled out from among the rest, these only may be taken up and the residue suffered to remain in the rows another year, fastening any of them that may happen to be loosened in taking up the others, by pressing down the earth about their roots with the feet. It will be hard to describe in an intelligible manner, the right size for hedging, as this depends not altogether upon the height that a plant may have attained, but also upon its strength and apparently healthy condition, not forgetting to take the size and number of its roots also into the estimate. Each of the different assorted sizes of the plants are to be trenched by themselves, and are to be carefully spread pretty thin in the trench in a sloping position, and the roots well covered v ith mould, and also half way up the
On I/edging.
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stems, mixing the earth therewith so as to exclude the air. Each row successively is to be managed in this manner, so as their roots may remain no longer exposed to the sun and air than what is necessary to have them assorted.
The sudden setting in of the winter, soon after the fall of the leaf, seldom leaves much opportunity to plant hedges before the spring ; but when such seasons oc cur, they ought eagerly to be embraced, particularly if the nature of the soil is dry where the hedge is intend- ed to be planted. When this is the design, the plants need not be laid in the earth, but deposited in a cellar until some thousands are in readiness for planting It would not be prudent, however, to have a large num- ber m such situation at once, as at this season of the year the weather might suddenly change to frost, and prevent their being planted. The haw-thorn is a plant that begms to vegetate among the earliest in the sprino- • therefore when a great number is on hand, it is always mdispensibly neces3ary to begin taking them up as soon as possible, as it is a slow and tedious piece of busmess. and a great deal of time is consumed in the operation. But when the number of plants is not great the taking them up may with propriety be deferred un ' tU spring; when as soon as the weather will permit they may be got ready for hedging.
A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD Of
PLAIN HEDGING.
A row of suitable shrubs or trees, planted at a proper distance from each other, on the plain cultivated surLc
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of the ground, in order to form a fence, is what here is meant by plain hedging, to distinguish it from the com- mon method used in Britain called hedge and ditch.*
Plain hedging is, in its aspect, somewhat similar to a drilled row of Indian com, and the culture and cleaning from weeds is equally simple in the one as in the other. The effectof a judicious cultivation is also of parallel effi- cacy in both cases, allowing for the slower growth of the perennial hedge, when compared with the rapid progress of the annual corn. There is no artificial elevation of the earth contemplated in this method, and where an em- bankment is brought into the .scheme, by way of assist- ance to the temporary fence, it is to stand exterior to the hedge, which is set in the usual upright position inside, where it is as susceptible of cultivation as if there was no ditching in the case.
A row of hedge plants, projecting almost horizontally from the face of a bank elevated over their roots, can be cultivated or assisted in their growth no other way after planting but by hand weeding; and in the pensile position in whioh the young cions are placed, the effects of dry weather would prove fatal to the health, if not to the life of the plants, in such a climate as this, the first severe
* Those who are curious to understand the manner of con- ducting this the old wny of hedging, will find in Mr. Ber- nard M'Mahon's American Gardener's Caljender," a clear and excellent description thereof, %¥ith much other useful information in this art, as well as in the various departments of horticulture, &c. That valuable book has lately been pub- lished in Philadelphia, and in my opinion is well deserving of public patronage.
On Hedging.
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drought, that might happen, if the soil was naturally inclining to dry, more especially where the face of the bank might be fronting either the meridian or the three o clock sun. A great deal more might be said as to the ditching method not being generally adapted for the United States: but those who have any doubts concern- ing the matter, and are desirous of being satisfied whether the way of plain hedging, Srthat of hedge and ditch IS preferable, can have it determined by experi- ment. and after trying both they can judge for them- selves which is the best. .
In a rich, flat, humid soil, not veiy susceptible of in- jury to theplantsfrom dry weather, or damage to the ditch by heavy rains or severe frosts, it is probable that the Hedge and ditch method of fencing may be suitable. The nature of such soils renders ditching much easier, when tree of roots, than in a strong heavy clay, or a soil inter, spersed with stones, made up of bedded flints, or render- ed almost impervious underneath by layers of cemented gravel. In such flat, soft grounds, independent of the notionofhedging.alarge deep ditch will often be wanted to dram the land, and therefore this expense cannot ^vith propriety be made an objection against the hedge and ditch mode of forming live fences. Whenever hedging comes into general repute, it is reasonable to expect there will be sufficient ingenuity found among the hus- bandmen in the various parts of the country, to dis cover what methods are best adapted for their several local situations and circumstances, and also, what other aids can be introduced into practice, will naturally from time to time become manifest to the attentive observer.
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On Hedging*
TEMPORARY FENCES.
As the method of plain hedging will always require •iorne protective defence, to guard the young quicks from cattle for several years after they are planted, it will be necessary to say something here concerning these. Where a field, intended to be inclosed by a hedge, is already furnished with a fence of rails, all that is then necessary is to have this temporary fence placed at a proper distance from the line where the hedge is intended to be set; this distance ought to leave a space so wide as to permit a breadth of five feet along the side of the hedge to be cultivated by the plough, whe- ther with one or two horses the nature of the soil must determine. A hedge on a tolerably good soil, may al- ways be calculated to extend its lateral twigs three or four feet on each side when full grown ; it will there- fore be proper in some cases, to plant at that distance from the bounden line of a public road, and rather some feet more distant from the line of a neighbour, who is not obliged to suffer another person's hedge to encroach upon his property, when he is not willing to receive a benefit from it. There must, also, be room left in this case to walk in trimming the hedge. Any person of common understanding will want no more than this hint to have such matters rightly regulated before hand, and sometimes, by permission, to have the temporary fence set a little out on the road side, or by consent, sometimes a few feet on the adjoining field of an obliging neighbour.
On Hedging.
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Where a post and rail fence is already erected upon the line, the hedge inside may be planted pretty near it if desirable; and the ground next the railing can be cultivated with the spade or the hoe when the hedge is in place, while the interior half of the hedge course can be cultivated by the plough, as hereafter describe^ Where there is good land altogether without fencing, and where timber for rails cannot conveniently be ob ' tained, a fence of wattled brush- wood, such as is com- mon in many parts of the country, if it last for six years, will answer the purpose of a protective fence as wejl as any other. Where stuff fit for wattling is scarce, if the land be pretty flat, free of stones and easy to dig with the spade, a mound of earth or sod, or faced with sod, sup- ported behind widi earth, and surmounted at the top by an addition of wattling, will in any of these modes make a sufficient temporarj^ fence for the purpose intended Fences something similar to these are not uncommon in America, where no hedge is contemplated, and I have often beheld with regret the labour that has been expended upon them, considering their transitory na- ture, and reflecting that had there been a live hedge set behind immediately afterwards, it would in the course of a few years, h^ive become a strong and permanent fence, rising as it where out of the ruins of the former. A post and rail fence of lasting materials, after protect- ing one hedge to sufficient strength, may be removed to defend another, and if it will bear two removals or last eighteen years, it may thus serve to protect three dis- tinct hedees in succession. - /
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For the purpose of aiding in the construction of tern- porary fences, plantations of chesnut, pine, cedar mul- berry, the common locust, &c. ought to be immediately set about in parts of the country where timber is get- ting scarce. A very few acres of such would produce materials sufficient for assisting to enclose many hun- dreds with live hedges. The chesnut, mulberry and lo- cust, would increase on their being cut down at a pro- per age, and their stumps would soon afterwards annu- ally afford a portion of stakes and poles for the above purpose, selecting one here and there, which had attain- ed the size, and letting the residue grow until another period. The young plants of all these species of trees would answer best lo be first raised in a nursery, and after transplanting them there and letting them attain to the age of three years, then to plant them in the ap- propriated field, v/ell cultivated before hand by the plough, and smoothed by the harrow, and the ground also afterwards cleared occasionally from weeds, by instruments of horse labour for a few years. The plants thus cultivated, would soon become fit for the purpose intended ; not forgetting also to have such plan- tation well secured by a good fence from the depreda- tions of cattle.
There will seldom be much occasfcn for any inter- nal defence to protect the young hedges, if matters can be so managed as to have no domestic stock to pasture in the enclosed field for the two first years, and in the tliird and fourth year if cattle are only kept out during the spring and the beginning of summer, they will not do much injury to the hedges in tlie after part
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On Hedging.
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of the season, as it is only when the shoots are young and tender that cattle will crop them. '
PREPARATION OF THE HEDGE COURSE.
When the soil is tolerably good and clear of impe- diments, the track of the hedge will require no other preparation than what is commonly bestowed on the contiguous field for a crop of wheat or rye. Deep ploughing, however, will always be found beneficial and where the trench plough is known, the use of it in preparing the course will be found greatly to conduce towards the strong and rapid growth of the hedges af- terwards. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that the spade is superior to the plough, in cultivating the soU, in all cases where the different amount of expenses are not taken into the account; but in common practice, and on an extensive scale, the plough will be perfectly sufficient, assisted by a neat harrow, to do the whole work of previous preparation, considering that methods of saving time, expense and labour are always, when practicable, matters of high estimate to the American husbandman.
Where the soil in which a hedge is intended to be planted is worn out by crops, or is naturally thin, good culture and manure also sometimes ought to be employ, ed to overcome its sterility ; when this is the condition of the ground, these beneficial preparatives ought to be applied several months at least before tlie planting of the hedge, and if done one whole year before hand so much the better. If the soil is not brought into a con- 'dition of being capable of producing strong weeds of
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On Itedgirtg.
On Hedging.
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aee
some sort or other, it will not be able to support a stout and vigorous hedge.
When an intended hedge*course chances to cross over any spaces of barren land, these are to be made equally fertile with the generality of the soil, if practi- cable. Such being frequently very differently constitu- ted, will require a peculiar preparation, as the nature of each may seem to demand. If broken rocks or stones should come in the way, they must obviously be clear- ed but to a sufficient depth, and their places supplied with good mould. And if such spaces are composed of an earth unwholesome or pernicious to vegetation, a trench must be dug in the direction of the hedge course, as far as is requisite, of six or eight feet wide, and some other soil, the best that can be obtained near at hand, substituted in place of the bad; in short, the sagacity of any farmer will be able in such cases to determine how to proceed. All such accidental im- pediments however, are to be considered in due time, and measures taken to overcome them before the hedge is planted, that it may thrive equally and be uni- formly strong throughout. The temporary fencing and the preparation of the hedge course being duly con- sidered, while the young plants are yet growing in the nursery, when the hedge comes to be planted every thing will be in an orderly train, and it will suffer no damage or detriment from an improvident conduct at the begin- ning. After all, in most cases the old fences being suffi. cient to last a few years, and the soil where the hedge is intended to stand, being in an ordinary state of clean cultivation, nothing else will be necessary, but to plough the hedge-course, harrow it smooth, run a deep furrow
straight ailong the middle thereof, in the manner here, after described, and plant the hedge.
PLANTING THE HEDGE.
If the soil is naturally dry, the most eligible season For planting a hedge thereon is immediately after the fall of the leaf, but if inclining to moisture or subject to be overflowed during the winter, the planting had better be deferred until the spring, the plants having been previously taken up and assorted, as hath already been adverted to; the immediate preparation on the same day that the planting is to commence must be conduct- ed in the following manner.
The hedge-course having formerly been laid off in the intended direction, cultivated and prepared as hath been already described, a deep furrow is to be run by the plough in the centre thereof, returning therein as often as may be found necessary-, to form it deep enough and render it clear of clods or other obstacles. This opera, tion is to be conducted in a straight direction, by the assistance of a number of slender poles, placed in the usual mode of rumiing lines in land surveying, and about thirty or forty yards apart from each other, but their distance must be regulated by the length of the garden line intended to be used in planting the hedge. The poles having been thrown down by the plough, are again to be set up in the trench, after it is made, to see if it is exactly straight, and shew if any farther cor- rection is necessary. The furrow, when evidently dee]) enough and no crook or bend appears in its whole length, is then ready for the reception of the plants. A
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On Hedging
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parcel of neat trimmed corn-stalks, provided for the purpose, are to be laid singly, about eight or ten yards from each other across the trench to support the garden line, which is now to be stretched from the first to the second pole, observing if it is not exactly straight through its whole extent, and having it rectified accord- ingly, the plants are to be set exactly in the direction of the poles, the line must therefore be placed on the op- posite side to that where the planters are to fix them- selves when performinjg the work. The planting is most conveniently carried on from the left hand to the right, and when the hedge is planted upon a declivity the planters will find it easiest to have their faces toward the uphill side. A quantity of the plants having been brought to the spot, as many labourers as are employ- ed in the business are to take a handful of them, and being distributed along the line at nearly equal distan- ces from each other, and each one with his own hand- ful of plants laid at his left side, one of the plants is placed upright in the trench with its roots spread in the bottom thereof, and held by the left hand at a little dis- tance from the line ; as much mould is to be drawn over the roots of the plant by the right hand as to keep it steady in its place; another plant is then to be set in the same manner about five inches from the former, or .at whatever distance has been determined upon;* the
* Where hogs are permitted to go at large, the distance
of the plants from each other may be from four to six inches,
according to the weakness or strength of the soil; the better
'the soil is the wider they may be set. Where these animals
On Hedging.
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planters are thus to proceed until the length of the line allotted for each is finished through the whole, the line is then to be cautiously removed so as not to disturb the plants, and with the corn-stalks carried forward and extended betwixt the second and third poles. Some of the labourers may now continue to plant, while others are employed in filling up that portion of the trench which hath already been planted. It is most convenient for two labourers to do this with spades, throwing in the mould thereby to both sides of the hedge at once, so that the plants may not be displaced by a pressure' on one side while the other is unsupported; a little prac tice will soon render the operation familiar to the work- men, and they will understand it better in a quarter of an hour's acquaintance, than by all that I am able to say to simplify it.
Each of the different assortments of plants are to be set contiguous without mixture in the hedge. When the ground is all of equal fertility through the whole extent of the course, it is best to begin with the largest plants; when these are done, let the next in size sue ceed them, and so on to the lesser sizes, if more than one or two of those in hand should be required; but if the soil is not of equal strength in different parts let the strongest and best plants be set on the weakest part of the ground. It is necessary here to observe, that no
are under restramt, there will be no occasion to set the plants so close, from six to eight inches will generally answer, and one foot will be as wide as in the best of soils, will be n^r quisite.
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On Hedging
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more length of trench must be opened at once than can be i)lanted in the course of the day, so that the mould may be always somewhat soft and n>oist, which will be of essential benefit to the new planted plants ; if the whole length of a side of a field can be set in the course of a forenoon, the plants being pretty well fastened by the hand and the roots completely covered with the mould, the filling in of the whole trench may be perform- ed by the plough, particularly if the soil is soft and clean and the surface evenly. Nevertheless, the whole of the plants are always to be fastened individually afterwards by the feet of the workmen, pressing them on each side, and also in the intervals between every two, and forcing them all to stand upright in the proper range of the hedge ; after which, a little of the soil scattered among their stems, will prevent the earth from cracking, and tend to keep moisture about their roots.
If the soil, as well as the weather, should happen to be pretty dry, it will be of advantage to have a tub of water at hand to dip the roots of the plants therein, in successive parcels, immediately before they are plant- ed. The bulk of plants that have been brought out, ought also to be covered from the influence of the weather, and sprinkled occasionally with a little water, if the condition of the roots seem so dry as to re- quire it.
When a hedge is planted m the fall, if the plants are rather small, it will be of good consequence to draw up 3ome mould, about four or five inches deep on each side of it, forming a ridge with the plants in the centre ; this will serve to prevent them from behig drawn up by
On Hedging,
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the frost, or the alternate freezing and thawing of the soil m the winter months, a circumstance very common in the middle states of the union. It is not safe, however to place leaves or litter for this purpose along the sides ot young hedges, as these afford shelter for ground squirrels and mice, which are apt to gnaw the tender roots of the hawthorn, either for food or pass-time.
After a hedge is planted, if the tops appear consider-' ably unequal, it will be proper to give it a slight trim- ming with the shears, clipping off just so much as to render it evenly. Or if the plants appear disproportion- ately tall and slender, they may then be shortened equal- ly, so far as may appear to be necessary to prevent their being violently agitated by the winds, or bent down- ward by the weight of the snow in winter.
>
SUPPLY OF VACANCIES.
This is a most important part of the art ; for if the generality of a hedge hv ever so strong, yet if there are gaps left here and there, it would be equally as bad as if a post and rail fence should be deficient in several of the pannels. These gaps or vacancies in hedging can never be so effectually remedied, as when the hedge is young. Such hedges as are planted immediately af- ter the fall of the leaf, are to be carefully examined at the return of spring, or the first open weather that may ensue after severe frosts, to see that none of the plants have been heaved up thereby, and if so, they are to be fastened down by pressing round about them with the foot, and if any of them have accidently been destroy, ed or Qut off near the surface, they are to be replaced
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On Hedging.
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by new plants, as soon as the state of the soil and the weather will permit.
Every person who attempts to form a live fence, ought to keep these supplies in early and careful re- membrance. Some fine large plants ought always to be retained in the nursery, to supply such accidental fai. lures as may happen in the infancy of hedges. Four or five plants for every hundred in a hedge, will generally be found enough for this use. As soon as the fall of the leaf takes place, all young hedges ought to be in- spected, and the supplemental plants being taken up with extraordinary care to save their roots as much as possible, are to be planted in the vacancies. Where the place of one plant only is vacant, an opening is to be made for the reception of the new one, with a grubbing hoe or narrow spade, and as this opening cannot be much extended in the direction of the hedge, it must, therefore, be opened the farther across, so as to take in a good proportion of the roots of the new plant with ease, the extreme fibres thereof having been pruned a little to prevent any occasion for doubling them, a thing which is generally inimical to the free growth of any plant whatever. The opening is then to be correctly filled up on both sides with the best mould at hand, and the plant fastened well in its place by the foot of the planter, scattering a little loose earth over the spot af. terwards. Early next spring, the hedge ought again to be examined, and if any dead plant has been passed over unperceived, or if any fresh accident has happen- ed, such are to be supplied accordingly. At the end of the first; and second years, or after the full of the leaf,
On Hedging.
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and early in the spring of these periods, this examina- tion and supply must by no means be neglected, as upon a faithful closing up of such gaps at the proper time, depends the whole effect of hedging as a sufficient fence. When the plants in the hedge are grown large It IS very difficult to introduce a brother of their own* kind amongst them, as the stranger wiU run more and more risque, the older the hedge is grown, of being stunted or destroyed by the contiguous plants. When from negligence or accident, any of these vacancies should happen to be left unsupplied until it is too late, the simplest and best remedy is to drive a stout season- ed stake of locust, cedar or other lasting wood, into die ground where the plant ought to have been. The length of this stake need not be more than eighteen inches or two feet, where only one plant is missing. And where the deficiency of a number hath left a wide gap, com- mon ingenuity will be able to find out proper ways and means to mend it widi stakes or rails. But a hedge with such patches, particularly if they are numerous and large, will appear very unsightly, and be a lasting mo- nument of the mismanagement of its superintendant.
CULTIVATION OF THE YOUNG HEDGE.
•
Through the course of the summer it is to be cleaned from weeds as often as may appear necessary. This operation will be most expeditiously performed by horse labour ; the common plough will generally do very well, and any one who has ever ploughed in a field of Indian com, ought to know without further direc- tion how to conduct this work to advantage. The fur.
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On Hedging,
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row ought to be laid towards the hedge at the first ploughing, and when the next becomes necessary, by the growth of the weeds, the mould is to be turned out- wards, being mindful then not to leave an open furrow close along side of the hedge, but to return the earth therein, by a slight scratch of the plough; or by a hand hoe, after the ploughing is finished. A small neat har- row with handles to guide it by, will not only fill up this last trench the most expeditiously, but also break the clods, help to destroy the weeds, pulverize the soil, and will in a very short period, run over a great extent of hedging. The weeds among the stems of the plants, are always, however, to be drawn out by the hand, after the horse labour is accomplished.
The hedge-course being well ploughed in the spring, . a harrow of the above description will, in a light easy soil, free of stones, &c. be the best instrument to weed young hedges through the course of the summer. If the nature of the soil will not easily yield to this, a cul- tivator, which is a sort of flat shovel plough that runs horizontally through the surface with an equal wing on each side, and is used with a coulter, is most excellent for the purpose of weeding young hedges.
It will in some places be prudent, after every dress- ing of the hedge-course, to open small water-ways across it, to prevent the accumulation of the rain water, and to throw it off piecemeal into the adjacent lands. This is indispensibly necessary in hilly situations, where, in the time of heavy or long continued rains, the multitude of riUs would soon gather into a torrent, or being con-
On Hedging.
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W
fined in the outside furrow would shortly enlarge it to a deep ditch, and perhaps undermine the hedge.
Whether nature intended the growth of weeds as an admonition for us to stir the soil in order to destroy them, it is not material for me to inquire ; but it is cer- tain that this occasional breaking of the surface to era- dicate them is of benefit to the land, and of great ser- vice in promoting the growth of such plants as are adapted for this method of cultivation, and perhaps there is no article susceptible thereof in which this be. neficial effect is more apparent than it is in young hedg- es. On a soil abandoned to an undisturbed state of re- pose, with the surface hardened by the sun and wind, and become quite impervious to the benign infiuence of the dews or light rains ; a hedge thus neglected to be cuhivated in its infancy, is apt to get bark-bound at the beginning, to be almost irrecoverable by the force of cuhivation afterwards, and a number of years will generally be seen to slide away before it can be brought into a thriving state : but by an early and assiduous attention continued for two, three years at first, the plants will quickly recover from the sickness occasion- ed by their transplantation, the weeds being carefully eradicated, and the soil kept loose and light by culture ; the young plants, if the first summer's affliction hatli left them in any tolerable state of health, they will the next year shoot vigorously, and soon attract the atten- tion of the proprietor, by the lively green appearance of a handsome miniature hedge. And if this should some- times not be quite the case in the second year, the effects
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On Hedging*
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of cultivation and clean weeding will to a certainty shew
themselves in the third spring. The number of years through which this course of
cultivation is to be continued, can only be ascertained by the strength of the hedge, but in general five or six years will be found sufficient. Vines, briars, sassafras, and all other insidious perennial plants, are still to be rooted out from time to time, if any of them should chance to make their appearance among hedges whe- ther young or old.
TRIMMING OF HEDGES.
When a new planted hedge has been equalized by the shears, it will require no further trimming until it hath completed its first year's growth, at which period if it appears to be considerably unequal in height, it is to be again reduced to an evenly stature, by a slight clipping after the falling of the leaf; but if it appears nearly uniform with only a shoot here and there higher than the generality of the hedge, these tall ones alone are to be cut off. The sides of the hedge need not be trimmed at this period, and here it ought to be obsery. ed tliat the lateral shoots are always to be sparingly dealt with, more particularly in young hedges, as upon the extension of those nearest the bottom the closeness of the hedge will a good deal depend.
At the end of the second year the top trimming is again to be attended to, and the hedge once more re^ duced to an equality of height.
At the third year's trimming, the operator need not tip it off so delicately as before, but having fixed oji a
On Hedging.
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determined height, according to the stature and strength of the hedge, he is to cut straight into it with the shears, so as to leave a good strong stubbage, out of which the next or fourth year's shoots are to arise. The sides of the hedge may also now be trimmed a littie next die top -the bottom being still spared to favour its extension. If It has grown well, it will now be about three feet in height after it has been trimmed— in order to have a stout thick hedge, the more gradually it is permitted to rise It wUl ultimately prove the stronger and mure equal throughout. .
At the end of the fourth year the hedge may be brought into its proper shape, by a judicious manage, ment of the shears. When the top is finished, the sides are to be shorn in a sloping direction : but where neat, ness IS only a secondary object, the breadth of the hedffc towards the bottom is to be impaired as little as possi- ble, It being always the most difficult to get the lateral twigs to extend themselves outwards, the sap naturally inclining to ascend in the upright shoots, and the shear- ing of the sides does not stimulate their growth as is cttected on the tops by cutting them.
The main purpose of trimming hedgesi that are mere- ly intended for fences, is to bring each individual plant into an equality of strength and stature ; but such as are intended for ornament as well as for use, are to be kept constantly trimmed, at least once a year On a strong sou, when the hedge is in its fifth year, if the shoots are large and rank, it may be trimmed about the latter end of June, when it has generally terminated its annual growth. It will be much easier to cut the hedge
32
On Hedging.
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while the wood is tender and succulent, than when ma- ture and hardened afterwards.
But, beauty and neatness being out of the question, it is evident that the trimming of hedges does not con- tribute to strengthen or enlarge the stems of the plants, as some people suppose theoretically that it ought to do ; thinking that by cutting off the top of a tree, the whole quantity of nourishment conjectured to be taken in by the roots alone, will be confined to that part which is left, forcing it to increase, swell and grow accordingly. The truth is, that every leaf of a tree is an organ attracting nourishment to the plant, not only by imbibing the fluids of the atmosphere, but also by its perspiration acting as a syphon to draw a continual current of new supplies through every root. There is a harmony in all the economy of nature, and the larger and more weighty the top of a tree is, it is evident that it will require a stronger stem to support it, and when the top is cut off, what occasion is there for the stem to become enlarg- ed?
MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS.
Mankind are all disposed to take the shortest road that leads to the object of their desires, though it is fre- quently not the best ; and it may be expected that ma- ny of those who have planted or intend to plant live hedges in this country, will be impatient to have them in perfection as soon as possible, or perhaps sooner than nature, assisted by all the efforts of art, has decreed that they should be so gratified. For the purpose of rendering half grown hedges fencible, many ingenious
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On Hedging.
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contrivances will, no doubt be invented hereafter. Such ideas as have come across my imagination to favour this end, shall now be freely communicated, leaving others to add thereto at their leisure.
METHOD XyF RENDERING A YOUNG HEDGE IMPERVIOUS TO BLACK CATTLE.
Our cattle being accustomed to go at large, and used to pushuig their way through brakes and thickets, we can only expect to debar them by live fences, through - sheer strength of the plants which compose the hedge, and if they possibly can divide it with the help of their horns, some of them will undoubtedly, at times try to force themselves through, without much regarding the spines of the common haw-thorn, which would do little more to a strong steer than to tickle his tough hide, but in order to check his progress, and keep him on the outside, or keep him in if his owner should choose to have him there confined, it will not be difficult nor expensive to assist the young hedge in the following manner.
When a hedge is four years old, let the top of it be trimmed at the proper season, to about three feet or three feet and a half from the ground, a number of neat rails, or seasoned poles, sufficient to run the whole length of the hedge being provided, these are to be laid one after the other, singly along the top, exactly in the middle thereof, their ends being lapped past each other, and tied together with a piece of hickory bark, or some such cheap and ready ligature, the stubbs of the shoots wiU easily support them there until the new growth secure
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them in their place. The hedge being annually trim- med as usual, in two years the rails will be found enclo- sed in the very center of it, so that any animal of a large size that may attempt to push its way through, will find it impracticable to divide the hedge.
METHODS FOR EXCLUDING HOGS.
When the old protective fence seems to be on the de- cline, while the hedge has not yet attained sufficient strength or closeness to keep out pigs or hogs, that arc permitted to go at large without yokes, the hedge may be strengthened to resist them by driving a short stake about two feet long in the vacancy betwixt each two of the plants; if these stakes are sufficiently durable to con- tinue firm for two or three years, the hedge will probably at that period, be strong enough itself to keep hogs out.
Another method to efiect this purpose, may be com- menced when the hedge has completed its second year, or when the stems of the plants nearest the ground, have attained the size of a persons thumb, then just be- fore the bud begins to open in the spring, let the whole hedge be cut oft' by a saw, to within an inch and a half of the surface ; the cultivation being continued as usual, the shoots that will arise from these stubbs will run up to four, five, or six feet the first season, and will be so numerous and full of thonis, that the hedge will in a few years be completely closed at the bottom ; the trim- ming being annually attended to as before directed under that article. But it is to be observed that these strong shoots are at first easily disjointed from the stocks, and therefore cattle of every description must
On Hedging.
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be carefuUy kept from them until they are out of dan- ger.
A better than either of these can be executed when, the field enclosed, is incommoded with stones.
Having the hedge-course ploughed and harrowed level m the spring of the fourth or fifth year, the stones are to be gathered from the land, and the largest ones first laid along side of the hedge; having marked a space m width, proportioned to the quantity that can be had, or is capable of containing as many of them as are deemed sufficient ; they are to be laid somewhat regular, so as to form a son of loose pavement or dia- gonal wall with its upright face about fourteen inches high, bearing against the stems of the plants. The in- terstices among the large stones may be filled up with the smaller, so as to close every opening against the growth of weeds or perennial plants.
This will not only be an excellent barricade against swine, but will also tend to enrich the soil and promote the growth of the hedge ; but it must not be attempted before the stems of the plants at the surface of the ground, have acquired the size of a stout walking cane, as the stones will harbour field mice, and other animals' that would gnaw the roots of small plants but will not trouble such as are of the sizt nicntioned.
Where stones cannot be obtained, another method may be taken to close the bottom of a hedge. After a course of flat rails, similar to those that are used in post and railing, are fixed along the inside, with their faces bearing against the hedge and raised a few inches from the surface— held in their places by small stakes or
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On Hedging.
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Other simple contrivances — ^a mound of earth is to be piled up in a sloping bank to support them — having first ploughed a narrow stripe at a little distance from the hedge course, the more easily to procure mould for the purpose. /
This mould would rather be of benefit than detri- ment to the hedge, although if both its sides were to be banked up to any considerable height, it might kill it entirely ; for there are few plants that can bear to be set much deeper in the ground than they grow naturally, but when the earth is elevated on one side only, the hedge will suffer no injury therefrom, and will thus ap- pear planted on the side of a bank without any ditch.*
HOW NEAR TO A WOOD OR GROVE OF TALL TIMBER TREES, MAY A HEDGE BE PLAN- TED, SO AS NOT TO SUFFER INJURY OR HAVE ITS GROWTH IMPEDED THEREBY ?
At the same proximity to such a wood as where In- dian corn would thrive, a hedge also will do well, that is about the length of the trees off, from where they stand, or a little farther. There are some species of trees, how-
* As to the method of splashing of hedges, it is not neces- sary to describe it here, as it is only adapted for such as are old, ill managed, or here and there detective of plants. Any person who is curious may see a full description of splashing, illustrated with a cut, in the American edition of the "Do- mestic Encyclopedia," by Dr. Mease, of Philadelphia ; a book that is or ought to be, in the hands of every husbandman and house-keeper in America,
On Hedging.
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ever, that are uncommonly noxious to whatever other plants are nrtroduced to their neighbourhood, particu- lary after they have acquired full possession of the soil and are grown up to their complete stature. The com- mon blackwahiut is one of these, and ixrhaps the lorn- bardy poplar .s also not a very innocent neighbour to a
f ' t' . "■'" '"'^' ^^ P'^"^^^^ ^' '^"^h a distance from hedges, as .s proportioned to their common size or almude-but to plant any of them in the line of a ftedge, ,s by no means advisable. Morella cherries plumbs peaches and quinces, may be set about fifteen
■ I^aT '"t"? "PP'"' ^"^°^^'"^ ^° ^he size that the different kmds attain to. may be set at the same or
a httle farther, and pear trees, heart cherries, &c. are all to be regulated in this respect, according to their usual ultimate height remembering at the same time, that there is a difference betwixt setting a hedge near full grown trees, and setting young trees near to full grown hedges, as in the latter case the old hedge will not be so easily injured by the youthful intruders, as if a young hedge were introduced to the neighbourhood of old trees. Ihepersimon is a very innocent tree, and perhaps will sometime or other be found worthy of cultivating in orcliards. for the value of its fruit and the many important purposes to which it can be applied in domestic economy.
WHAT SORTS OF HEDGE PLANTS ARE RAIS- ED FOR SALE AT MAIN'S NURSERY.
That kind which I have been most in the habit of propagating for some years, is a species of the Ameri-
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On Hedging.
can haw-thorn, which, after trying several others, seems to me to be the best adapted for hedges of any of the many different kinds of that plant which are natives of this countr}^ It is one of the several maple leaved sorts, to which I have given the name of the American hedge- thorn ; any farther description is at present unneces- sary, as my former customers are now in possession of it, and those who intend to purchase can soon also have an opportunity of seeing it. For this plant the foregoing directions are more particularly adapted, ahhough with a very little difference they will suit for the most part of plants used in hedging.
THE PYRACANTHA OR EVERGREEN THORN,
Is another plant, of which a few thousands are now on hand for sale the ensuing season. It is not a native of this country, but after a trial of several years it ap- pears to take well with the climate, and seems excel- lently adapted to form hedges. Being an evergreen, a hedge of it will be highly ornamental. When it comes to be about three or four years old it begins to bear fruit, and after that it is annually decorated with a pro- fusion of its bright scarlet coloured berries, the nume- rous clusters of which make a splendid appearance, from the beginning of September through the greater part of the winter. It is apt to run up to long slender and flexible shoots easy to be intwined at pleasure. It freely takes root by layers, for whenever any of the twigs lean upon the ground, or are but slightly covered with the soil, they will soon send out fibres, so that a single cion of it may quickly be made to cover a surface of ten or-
On Hedging.
39
twenty feet wide. No plant can be more suitable to fence in a poultry yard, as not the smallest chicken wUl be able to get through a fence of it properly trained.
THE HONEY LOCUST.
That horrid thorn, whose stem is armed with protrud ed clusters of spears pointing every way to guard an orchard against the attempts of the lurking thief, is the only other kind of plant on hand at present, fit for the purpose of hedging. Although I have not yet made much progress in experimenting its capacity for this end It has, 1 believe, been tried m other places, but how it answers I have nothing but conjectures to inform me I have, however, no doubt of its digibility to form strong and handsome hedges. Its foliage is extremely beautiful, and goes to sleep every evening, by folding the lobes of the leaves together, like the clover and ma! ny other plants related to that class, at which time the change of its appearance so suddenly effected, is amu- smg to the observer. Four or five thousand plants of the honey locust are now on hand for sale.
THE HOLLY
Is a plant of the first rate estimate for hedges, but I have unfortunately never been able to procure seeds of It since I commenced the nursery business in this place It grows plentifully in many parts of the country, and will probably thrive on a soil composed of an over pro- portion of sand for the haw-thorn to thrive.
40
On ffedgifig.
THE RED CEDAB
Will succeed on a very barren soil and bleak expo- sure, where perhaps none of the others mentioned would thrive. Hedges of it have been made in,several parts of the country, and if I am rightly informed some of these are now excellent fences. Had 1 an opportunity I would undoubtedly try the two last named plants.
Those five species above named, are the whole that I would choose to include in the list of hedge plants, as the best adapted in my opinion for the purpose in this country. Many others, indeed, might be mention- ed that are fit for ornamental hedges, and there is scarce a tree in the forest, but what its :ipecies might be im- pressed into the service of live fencing ; but while those that are superior can as easily be obtained, why should we use such as are but indifferent ?
A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a hedge cannot be recommended ; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good
fence nor look handsome.
Somewhat in contradiction to this rule, I last year (1806) planted a hedge in the spring, composed of the pyracantha and honey locust, set alternately about eigh- teen inches apart. The soil was an old field extremely poor, and quite worn out, scarcely capable of bcarmg grass, or the leanest species of weeds. I, therefore, scat- iered a little manure along the track, where the hedge was to be plimted, and turned it in with the plough. After smoothing the surface a little with a hand hoe, the plants were set at the distance described, the summer was very dry and unfavourable, but contrary to cxpee-
■i.
On Hedging^
41
tat on, both pyracantha and honey locust survived it
^ttr^^r-^ ^'''"'"^' ''^''^ ^" ' -"-J^ driving con dition The mtenfon of this mixture is to have the hot
torn of the hedge perfectly closed by the ^yrl^^'
and the body of it str.„gtlie„ed by (he honey W
both together may be expected to present such a thl;
mas^o^ntangled resistance as will preclude all i„t^!
S1011,
Perhaps if I had planted two distiuct hedges, one of
the pyracantha eighteen inches plant from p^t and
.another of the honey locust, about five feet ou" de of
^Ltm'btr *^^" '-'- ^^^"' ' -^^^^ ^-
It is not my present intention to persuade any person
T ' "''" ""' !:^'^*"^' °^ *° "- -y -guments for that purpose; such recommendation would come with
a better grace fromany other person than from one who IS in the habit of raising quicks for sale, and is con! sequently interested in disposing of them. It may, how- ever, be allowable for me to say, that this mode o^ fenc- ing whenever it is practised in the United States, wUl contribute its share to give an orderly and systematic turn to our plans of rural policy, conducive to a perma- nent neatness and regularity among arrangements that are commonly in a continual state of confusion and change.
It can scarcely be expected that gardeners or over- seers generally will be advocates for the introduction of live fences. To look for this, would be to look for more than human nature can afford, for who would volunta- nly seek additional care and trouble, with an additional
f *
l<i,
.'•:^
H'
42
Off Hedging
risk of blame, without any expectation of an additional recompence ?
CONCLUSION.
Those who have honored this trifling performance with a perusal thus far, will be enabled thereby to judge for themselves, whether or not its contents have any claim to the attention of the American agriculturist. I have, therefore, nothing further to observe, but that the friendly countenance and approbation of intelligent, sen- sible and reflecting characters, will ever be esteemed and sought after, as an essential part of my reward. For the use of those only who have felt themselves interest- ed, or curious enough to follow it this length, among whom 1 include all my former and future customers, this imperfect production is most respectfully dedica- ted bv
0
Their humble fellow-citizen,
Thomas Main.
JJISTRlCr OF COLUMBJJ,
September -ISth, 1807.
C 43 ]
Method 0/ stabbing Haven Cattle, to discharge the ran- Jiedair from the stomach, when they have been over fed With moist clover grass. Communicated by Mr. W. TFallis Maso7i, of Goodrest Lodge, near War wick. From Trans. Soc. Arts, London,^ vol. 26.
Gentlemen^ >
I beg leave to lay before you a trocar and canub for the rehef of cattle, when gorged or hoven. Since I have introduced it, it has been used with the greatest ■ success, having, in every instance tried, been proved a safe, easy and effectual remedy. I consider it will not be necessary for me to detail the dangerous conse- quences arising from cattle being hoven, as it is well known, that the public are annually deprived of num- bers of valuable cattle by this disorder. I am inclined to offer It as an instrument superior to that for which the society granted a premium in Uieyear 1796 ;* as I
* The instrument for which the Society of Arts rewarded the inventor by a premium of fifty guineas in 1796, was not a tube, but consisted of a cane six feet long, having a knob at one end, which was to be pushed down the throat of the ani- mal into the paunch, and thus to give free passage to the air extricated by the clover. The flexible tube mentioned was in- vented by Dr. Monro of Edinburgh in 1795, and consisted of iron wire twisted round a rod of polished iron ; the wire after being taken off the rod, is to be covered with leather.
J. M.
t"
44
Met/tod of stabbing Haven Cattle.
am of opinion, that flexible tubes may be forced down the passage which conducts to the lungs, by which most dangerous consequences would ensue. An instance of this kind occurred last year in this neighbourhood, when intending to force the passage of the paunch, and occasioned the loss of the animal.
Neither the farmer or bailiflT can be expected when going the rounds of the farm, to carry with him at all times an instrument so large as one of the flexible tubes ; even if he had it, he could not make use of it without the assistance of a second person, and the disorder would be fatal in most instances before such assistance could be procured.
I considered that the trocar and canula commonly used by surgeons, might be employed to advantage for the relief of hoven cattle. I have employed the instru- ment to answer better the purpose here intended of pe- netrating the tense hides of cattle ; and such alteration materially facilitates the operation.
The method of applying it is, to penetrate with the trocar and canula through the hide of the beast to the paunch on the near side, about six inches* from the back bone, at an equal distance from the last rib, and from the hip bone : then to withdraw the trocar, and to leave the canula in the wound until the air which the paunch contained has escaped. The canula may then be taken out, and the wound covered with a plaister of common
* A member found that six inches was too small a dis- tance, as the kidney of a cow was injured when stabbed at that distance from the back bone by a knife. J. M.
Method of stabbing Hoven Cattle.
45
pitch spread on brown paper,* about the size of a crown Pjece. All the danger incidental to the common mode of stabbmg with the knife is effectually prevented by the canula bemg left in the incision when the trocar I withdrawn. *"
The small expense of the instrument, its portability the ease with which it can be used by an inLdual t afety and efficacy in use. as it has not in any instance fail! ed of complete success, will, I hope, be sufficiently evi- dent to recommend it to the attention of the society. A great savmg would arise to the owners of cattle, arid to the country at large, from a general adoption of its use.
as ,f had never been affected by the disorder. Cows m calf are m no danger from its use. It has been found particularly beneficial in preserving rearing calves and young cattle, when afflicted with t'his disorder, wh ch had heretofore been fatal to great numbers of them
I beg leave to add certificates of a few of those gen-
lemen who have witnessed the utility of this metho .
and whose recommendations have stimulated me to
subn..t It to the society, i„ hopes that by their Hl^rd
roTpi;;r '- --''''''' ■-- ^---''^ ^^
I have the honor, &c.
W. Wallis Mason.
that the!T? '"■"• ''' '°"°"'"^ ^^"^'^-^^ ^"tified. that they had experienced the efficacy of Mr. Mason's
* Leather or coarse linen would answer better.
(•'
J. M.
46
Method of stabbing Hoven Cattle.
C 47 ]
trocar ; had proved the safety of the operation, and the instantaneous relief which it had never failed to pro- duce without leaving any blemish or dangerous conse- quence from its application.
John Ford Naish, Leek fFootoji.
Thomas Bryan, JVartvick.
William Oram, fVarwick.
William Y^ebbrooke^ North End.
Richard Cattle, Milverton.
REFERENCE TO THE CUT-
The blade of the trocar is of steel, fixed into a wood- en handle. The shape of the blade of the trocar is oval. The canula or sheath is an oval tube, which exactly fits the blade of the trocar ; tlie concave circular plate fixed at the end of the canula, forming a hilt, to pre- vent the instrument from giving too deep a wound when used : the end of the canula is worked down to a sharp edge, that it may not obstruct the passage of the instrument. if
FROM THE HAMPSHIRE GAZETTE.
On planting Corn. By Joseph Lyman. Referred to, page 46 of Memoirs. Mr. Butler,
Having heard of the advantages to be derived from planting and cultivating Indian com in. different A.^, *u ^ i"uian corn in a manner
ed fort °- ^o'^monly practised, Idetermin.
ed, for my own satisfaction to make the experiment I chose a field which the year before was in Zs L was turned up and cultivated without an; rn^e f^r raismg potatoes. When these were gathered and tt
oay ot a cart, to be earned on. The manure was composted, made chiefly from potatoe tops, com X and other vep-efihl^c . o i • i > ^^^ " i>tauws,
eoual to^oln 1 r "''^^' P"'"''^P^ ^e nearly
equal to 30 loads of common bam yard manure. When
pread equally over the field, it was ploughed again and fi^d by the seed hanow for planting. ! then"^ X the field mto three equal parts. One third was pllmed m h.lls two feet distant each way. three grain in a h^, One thn-d was planted at the common dftanc Tf .^ ad a half feet between the hills, three grains in a h II he other th.rd was planted as our farmer! usua% .1^ ' three and a half feet between the rows and six fee " twee., the hills, about five or six grains 'a '^ilt rt seed was poor, so that more than one in thre ' rS faUcd. My com came up vcn- unevenly, some h llf "
I
i
I
48
On Planting Corn.
^ng one, and some three stalks in a hill. After the first hoeing, a small handful of unleached ashes was put round each hill through the field. In those portions of the field where the com was planted thick, I directed ^the suckers when about eight or ten inches long, to be plucked oft; so as to leave no part of the shoot on the original stalk ; then the dirt was drawn about to prevent bleeding. The corn was suckered three times. When the shoots began to appear above the second joint they were left for bearing. The third of the field planted in the usual mode was left to nature, and was not suckered. The two feet corn was cultivated by hand hoeing. In the other parts, the harrow or the plough was used twice ; the two last hoeings were plain. The rankness and tenderness of the stalks would not admit of the plough. The eighteen inch and common way planting were well hilled : the two feet corn would not allow hill- ing, but in a slight manner. The corn planted in the usual mode suft'ered much more by falling to the ground than either of the other lands ; owing, I sup- pose, to the feebleness of the secondary stalks or suck- ers : the two feet corn stood the most firm and erect.
On the night succeeding the 31st of August, my field was so situated as to receive manifest injury from the frost. At harvest I was careful to make an exact measurement of the corn upon each portion of the field, by a half bushel, then examined by the town standard. The field I measured by the surveyor's chain ; it con- tained one hundred and eighty rods of ground. The produce on each part was as follows, viz. •
60 rods planted square, two feet distance, yielded 39 bushels and 1 1 quarts, which is 105 bushels to the acre.
On Planting Corn.
peck to the acre ^'''^''^^ ^"^ one
tiiird per acre. ^'ghty-five bushels and one-,
TJie whole field viekled i ns k u , nearly, which is nnn "''''^' '"^ '^"e peck
peck per act ' ' " '""^^' '' '^-^^l^ and one
h excelled the cor^Xuedt^^^^
this statement I make „t '''"""°" '"°^^- ^'^
corn, which up on tht loHr; "' ^'^ "' ^"' "^^^
eight bushels'of ears tvty ^Irr? '^ T '' estimate the shrinkae-e h.M u °'' *'""'^'^' «''«
«on. This win not X H '" "'''* '"^ "^^''^^^ ^^a- ^ound l" '' P'-oportion of each piece of
ground. J am persuaded tlnf th^ i. •
we... .o p,uck „p .hepoo.1 s^e/ 1^7^ "- leaving two for Krovvih Th™ ""'""»'
bnd be prepared ,o teve I^ZIT "'' "'''"■''• '" ""=
"..on each „,U of cjt „* £3.":" °^ ?""
exact as I have h^^.. ; ,' ^ ^^nnot be so
not inatte-i^e .o rpTrt T, ''''''''^' ^'^ ' ^^ little difference in at par of T n'"""^"'' ' ^°""^ planting, ashing, hoTLra' , f ^.^'""'•' ^^^^P^i"^ i"
lowing estimate c^mnlr "'"'^' ' '^'"'^ ^he fol.
fa «-sumaie cannot be far out of the w-.v Tk
g *
•^
50
On Planting Corn.
11
\\
'!!
call five days work on an acre : the eighteen inch, ele- ven days ; and the two feet corn, fifteen days on an acre. The two feet corn, besides exceeding in quality, has nearly twenty bushels more than the common planting : the greater expense is ten days work, or ten bushels of corn, by which means we make a clear saving of ten
bushels per acre. ,
In the eighteen inch planting, we make a saving of seven bushels over the common mode. The two feet planting exceeds the eighteen inch after allowing for la- bour, three bushels.
In these new modes of planting by suckering your corn, you turn the strength of your soil from the produc- lion of barren stalks to the production of solid grain : your lands yield greater profit : your work is brought into a narrow compass, and you have your other fields without any loss, left in a state to recruit, and be pre- pared for a future abundant harvest. The experiment was made upon easy land, free from stone. I conjectur- ed that the advantages would be still greater upon hard strong land, where the common mode of cultivation is
more expensive.
Joseph Lymak.
HatfiekU A'w. 1) 1796.
AGRICULTURAL INQUIRIES
ON
PLAISTER OF PARIS.
ADVERTISEMENT.
i
t
THE Society requested me to arrange, for republica- tion ,„ their memoirs, the contents of my little compilation on PtA„TER o. PARIS, in 1797. I have endeavoured to coU' lect from various quarters of our country a series of facts oc- currmg since that period. I should have combined them with * engfafted them on, the facts then drawn together; and' thus have formed a cbMpendious account of all we now know on the subject. But although I have been favoured by a few to Whom I had written, I have been generally unsuccessful. I shall persevere in my endeavours ; and either wait 'tiU my object is fully attained, or communicate, as I receive them, die results of my inquiries.
There is a most unfortunate indisposition in our feUow citizens, to reduce to writing the necessary information re- quired on agricultural subjects. Some are too busy, and some too indolent. Dread of criticism operates on some ; and false and reprehensible diffidence on others. There are few land- holders who cultivate their own soil (as do most in this coun- try) who cannot express their knowledge of facts sufficiently clear in writing, on a subject to which they are more compe- tent than literary theorists. No farmer is remote from some weU educated neighbour, who can write down and commu- nicate the facts recited to him. It is therefore the more to be lamented that any want of information on practical hus-
I-
IV
Advertisement
i!'
bandry, should retard the improvement this kind of know- ledge would promote. The few who engage in the task of dif- fusing agricultural knowledge and intelligence, are not assist- ed or supported as they merit. They must, however, be con- tent with doing all the circumstances and difficulties they en- counter permit. They must be satisfied with their own con- sciousness of the purity and usefulness of the motives which actuate them. The ribaldry of small critics (if any there be) who nibble at modes of expression not objects of literary scrutiny ; and the feeble sarcasms of those who, instead of encouraging, attribute laudable exertions to communicate and diffuse agricultural information to personal vanity; or to a rage for wh^t such puny (or, in their own phraseology, j&onei/) cen- sors call *' riding their hobby horse," must be disregarded* The numbers of such hypercritics must be so small, and their patriotism so much below the freezing point, that they should not excite even the momentary attention of those who wish to promote the prosperity of their country. One valuable improvement introduced, or made more generally known, through their agency, far over balances a thousand verbal criticisms, and sour or fanciful strictures. I say not this with any reference to myself (for I have not the presump- tion to claim any right to exemptions, or peculiar attention to my wishes or requests) but to impress on others, of more capacity but little active zeal, a disposition to render to their country the service it requires. This is not only called for, from those who can furnish the necessary facts, but it is more imperatively demanded from those whose talents, and literary, as well as other capabilities, can turn facts to the most profitable account.
Advertisement.
-**■
Men of sense and liberal tempers, do not look for elegance of diction, or classical arrangement, in agricultural communi- cations; in which those succeed the best who can confine them- selves to plain colloquial language j though this on every sub- ject cannot be done. When readers with well turned minds even meet with language, or phraseology, not usually within the comprehension of common farmers, they forgive, though they may not approve. I have my share of toleration to require on this, and every other, account. Those who seek for better entertainment than circumstances wUl admit, or as Sancho would say, "want white bread, where only wholesome brown is to be had," often risk, or lose, comfortable accommodation. I travelled, in early life, on my way to a county court, with a city acquaintance ; who, being a smell-fungus and fault-finder, had generally an unpleasant journey. At a countiy tavern' (where I always found plenty of the best fare to be expected in such places, though not served up, or sat out, in a style of elegant arrangement) he called (or capillaire,* and orgeade;^ to relish his beverage, in a hot August-day. He became petu- lant, when he was told, that no such things were either kept or known in the house. The landlady, who had really put her best foot foremost, to entertain us, was disgusted; and returned his testiness with compound interest. She concluded a highly sea- soned and flippant philippick, by requiring us "to go where we had a right to expect city dainties; or ride on 'till we learned that good country provisions were better than leckerhtssleinen»~. kickshaws,— ^\{yz\, she supposed what he had caUed fJr to
• CapiUaire.—Syr\x^ of the herb maiden-hair, t Orseade.—%\xga.ni barley-water.
\
■'[ ':
I 1
tl
Advertistffitetit*
be. She was a plain, but smart German. I pacified her, in her own language, with all due submission to existing circum- stances, essential for one who did not wish to lose a substan- tial dinner, because capillatre and orgeade could not be ob- tained. And if such unnecessary sirrups should have been found, out of their place, I should have been the last entitled to object to a dinner on that account. I soon restored her good humor, by some fortunate pleasantries, at the merited expence of my morose companion ; who experienced their profitable effects, without understanding them. If he had un- derstood them, he would only have sat me down for a widing. By these I succeeded in convincing her, that /, who had been a frequent and contented guest at the house, ought not to suf- fer, or the house lose advantages, because she had been teased and affronted by etn lecker phantast ; — in English— an over- nice pretender to delicacy of taste.
I have deemed it best (under the failure of my attempts fully to comply with the wishes of the society) to re-publish the AGRICULTURAL iNquiRiES, from the first impression, verbatim. This has created the necessity of adding notes, both to the text and former notes. The little book is out of print ; and much sought for, though not now of so much importance as it was thought to be at the time of its publi- cation ; when the subject was not so generally known. All my experience since, confirms the information then promul- gated. If I cannot now materially add to it, I have no cause to reproach myself with any omissions of endeavours so to do.
Richard Peters. Belmont^ 10th September ^ 1810.
AGRICULTURAL INQUIRIES
ON
PLAISTER OF PARIS.
ALSO
FACTS, OBSERVATIONS
AND
CONJECTURES ON THAT SUBSTANCE
WHEN APPLIED AS MANURE.
COLLECTED, CHIEFLY FROM THE PRACTICE OF FARMERS IN PENNSYLVANIA. AND PUBLISHED AS MUCH WITH A VIEW TO INVITE, AS TO GIVE INFOK- MATION.
WITH SOME ADDITIONAL NOTES;
AND xMORE RECENT FACTS AND INFORMATION.
if ill
BY RICHARD PETERS.
i*UlLADELPmA :
ltE.PRINTED BY JANE AITKEN, No. Tl, NORTH THIRD STREET.
1810.
INQUIRIES ON PLAISTER.
ii
!|
,1 l>
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
i
Queries proposed to correspondents by Richard Peters.
English analysis of plaister. Pages 17, 18.
William West, page 18. Answers to queries.
Application of plaister to land nearly a century under bad management^ how managed; and great benefits of plais- ter. What kinds of soils, what quan- tities of plaister per acre, and repeti- tions. What crops best adapted to, when to sow it and its durability. Notes on this communication.
Robert Frazier, page 22. His account of Col. Hannum's use
of plaister, on virgin soils^ and poor land, — quantity applied, — repe- titions; does not render ground ste- rile— products to which applied
time of scattering — quantity of hay per acre. Used with dung to great advantage. European and American plaister equally good.
Philip Price Jun. page 25. Length of time he has used plais- ter, on worn land. Quantity per acre, kinds of soils proper fqr plais-
***
CONTENTS.
/
sssc
r
/
ter. No effect on mellow land — ^note giving the reason why — no effect on other grains than buckwheat ; which is an exhausting crop. Most beneficial to clover. Not more active with, than without, other manure. This shewn to be other- wise in a note. Exhaustion by re- petition a mere bug-bear ^ note. — Indian corn does not succeed buck- roheatj advantageously. Gen. Edward Hand, page 35. Length of time he has used *- plai^ter, quantity, kinds of soils,
repetitions successful. Used with dung-. Does not render soil *^ri/f. Quantity sowed per acre. Rolling seed grain in plaister, highly beneficial — quantity of clover per acre— good»on vari- ety of grasses. Time of sowing it. — Used in connection with other manures — ashes and plais- ter assist each other, (so lime J duration — European and Ame- rican plaister equally good. John Cur wen page 41. Thoughts on the composition of the
gypsum* Period of his using plaister. On land exhausted by bad tillage ; though it had been limed and dunged. Quantity of plaister per acre. Kinds of soils. Repetition does not induce steri- lity. Hard cropping bad, with any ma- nure. Plaister chiefly good on red clo- ver. Its effects on corn doubtful. Time of scattering. Mode of applying to In-
CONTENTS.
rrsc
dian corn (Nott) — produce per acre of r^d clover. Agrees with dung 2Lnd lime. i American and European plaister equal.
Its duration. Plaister prevents pastures being injured by droughts ; and cattle prefer them. Beneficial in compost heaps i and preferable to hot lime. Note. John Sellers, page 46. General observations. Change of ma-
fiure. Applications of plaister ; modes,
state, and kinds of soil. Virgin soils
quantity per acre — and produce in hay^ • and feeding, whether clay soils favour-
able or not to plaister. Mr. W. Young's mode of ameliorating and preparing clay soily highly approved ; in a note — a concrete substance (allum) thrown up by plaister on wet clay. Mr. Sellers doubtful as to improvement by repeti- tion. Has not discovered bad effects by repetitions. Rotation of his crops. Most proper for red and white clover. Times to strew thinks lands laying in grass improved, and that both manures and products should be varied. Note on changes of manures, and crops. Edward Duffield, page 53. Length of time he has used plais- ter— ^i-epetitions and effects. Quan- tity per acre — kinds of soil. In- tervals of re-applications. Does not render the earth sterile^ in the least degree. On grasses, imme- diate effects. On grain^ not till well mixed with the soil, by ploughing &c. Times of scattering
m
/
CONTENTS.
■i. 1
plaister, on certain grounds and crops. On Indian corn^ three or four bushels over the whole ground best. Produce per acre. Duration* European and American plaister alike good. American makes the best cement. Tilth required for 1 , * Indian corn. Note. Mr. Duffield's
son dislikes plaister. (Note) Acid contained in plaister ; and not the calcareous earth is the cause of operation. Note. Experiments to prove the operative principle of plaister. Not credited, by chemists of that day. Rev. Dr. Wharton, page 58. Plaister much used on Af%,
stony and thin soils, intermixed with isinglass; C mica J. Quanti- ty sown. Soil not thereby impo- verished. Not mixed with other manure. Clover lands only bene- fitted. No effect on cold, wet, clay. 'Bwt on gravely clover doW" bled in quantity. Continuance. Sown in the spring. On Indian corny thinks it increases plant, but not grain. Note thereupon. Note. Tarring seed com, and other grain, guards against vermin. Re-planting. Trans- planting. Number of plants in a hill. Furrowing for corn, and leaving balks. Observ ations on this practice.
CONTENTS.
Algernon Roberts, page 62. Sowed on field, light loam andflin^
ty gravel. Improvement percepti- ble on clover—hxxx. injured by blue grass. On c>rc/iar^_ground in til- lage 60 years. Surface loam ; un- der stratum clay. Great improve- ment in crops of both clover and
timothy,— but on clover most
Voung apple trees highly bene- fitted. No difference in improve- ment on the different soils
Stijf loam. Age of moon^ hav- ing eflfect, a mere chimera. On land cleared 90 years : great be- nefit. Peach trees benefitted ,
^^y^^ on mixed grass-lay— waters ed meadoxv. Parts stagnated water; —results. Indian corn benefitted. No improvement on buckwheat. Does little for natural grass. Blue grass overruns clover, and plais-
• Plaister is so irregular in its phenomena, that it often nnaccoiintablv f«Ji« ^ ceed. Many attribute this to the times of so. ing ; acconlLTrre f^' '"^7"^ ' '""
the m.c.,. Whatever success or failure they ^.2CZTll »f '^ <=^'«- ««• ^-reas*-, of
ses. or situations, a general rule is form^LI ^r^ ^^^ "^ '^'■'"" "'-'''' »'^'
n^k ; because, in its ir^gular ope.tion:, it ha"' o ^Z^Z^T^ '" t ''"''* en>ps of e..^ specks ; bleeding, and su^^-al o^.tions oZLl^^^^^^^^^^^ ing of tx.es. Mr. R^. ,^k,, .Uh those Mho are governed by such "r/, J^' "l ^^1 h other facts, by denying the orthodoxy of this indulgence in Unllog^j ' "'" "' *"'
ntll'^'T ""'"""^^^^^ ™^''"^^'- Pivsenecsand much to U.e edification of seveml of hi. neighbours, who were gr^at believers in the monn, that our rlmi^ns never went rielrt IT Ume of the n,.on. I asked him, if he meant the full and change I He 7^ZZT^T T""^. bt'mtht/u:tuJaruJ/,ean ^ da, fuiuLt vnd lu-nz -- -nn.l . • m- , 7^' "°- ThesignshouM
die arme una handle :^^^r.ot ZL^XU^^^^^^ ' '" *''''^^'' ""^ '^ -'-- / -*»•
f ^ , ^ . ""'^ '*^"y»orthesceivts,orthearmsandhaiKls Whpfh*.^ .«, ii
B. P.
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- vsit.rw ■..•iv.fJlteacui.
CONTENTS.
I
ter ceases to be serviceable. On fields limed and dunged — ^highly benefits red clover* Repetitions still improve, but not always equal to first application. Again on limed land. Result superior. Repetition. Result equal to first application. Sowed on light soil — had been limed^ and lightly dunged — in til- lage 80 years. Superior in benefit. Miserable field before; now among the best. On field tilled 50 years — "" ^ sand — limed. Improvement equal to first sowing. Sowed six times in seven years^ on same field, with- out manure^ does not injure. Crop equal to any other. On field limed and dunged. Improvement and product superior : field tilled 60 years. Again on limed land — equal to any other field. Experi- ments on grain Jlax £s?c., discour- aging. Richard Peters, page 72. Remarkable improvement by plais-
ter, at Bethlehem^ in Pennsylvania. Period in which he has used plan- ter. Land worn out, full of weeds and pests, ^lantitijper acre. Point of saturation. Regulated hy substances It fnds in the earth. Salt; experi- ments on. Kinds of soils favourable to plaister. No success on clay. Re- petitions^ and with what auxiliaries. Dung; observations on. V^Yi^x. kinds of grain and grasses are benefitted, , or not. Manures ; times of applying.
CONTENTS.
Quantities of grass, clover. Prefer- ence by cattle to plaistered grass. Over luxuriant-grass not approved of— With manures. English opinion that platster and lime disagree— and that It is best on Virgin soils denied. N Comparison of crops of grain here
and m England and Ireland; and quality of -wheats. Sowing clover on winter grain. Opinion of its produc ing mildexv, erroneous. Duration. Weeds ; observations on them. Dung should be rotted or composted to de- stroy their seeds. Stercoraries ; mil serably mismanaged. Fences : hedge-
^•c^Tt^*— merit of one who would 3.to.
mze with a view to destroy weeds. St. Johns wort, ranstedox toad-fa^. Eu- ropean and American plaister equal ' I" quality. Miscellaneous obser. VATioNs. Prejudices against the use of plaister here, and in Germajiy. Un- certainties and intermissions of its effects, accounted for.^-Retentive of moisture. Dew remains on plaister-
Kichard Peters pa^e 8« PI ^^?"" '^'^ '" "'^^'^ ^'•"""^•
meters, page 88. Plaister attracts and retains mois- ture. Ingenhausz~his opinion on water; as \i feeds or conveys/,,^ to V^^nt^—Chaptars ideas. Grinding plaister;_and most profitable num- ber of bushels to the ton. 89. Calci. nation injures plaister. Analysis.— Mode of trying quality. 90, a the- ory of plaister; might be suppressed.
•*jt
I, \
i
J
^l:'l
Jtj)
COXTENTS.
92, Short account of Ingenhausz's ideas, as to oil of vitriol being ser- viceable to plants. Opinions of others. 92, 93, 94. Carbonic acid disengaged by putrefaction^ ib. Ingenhausz^s account of gypsum^ ib. ^antity of plaister per acre: and mode of apply- ing. 95, 96. Indian corn 96 — 7. Plais- ter must be kept superficiaU Its ope- ration not perceptible on winter grain* 97, 8. Plaister with dung, — Lot onxvhich it was first strewed^ 98. Manures produce carbonic acid* Plaister with animal or vegetable manures^ most efficacious, 99, 100. Mode and cause of operation ^ and repetition^ ib. Constant success with plaister. Clover with plaister, agrees the best of any other grass. Excessive operation^ exhausts its powers in a short time, 101. It is the sulphuric acidy which constitutes the operative principle of iplaisttr. postcript, 102, 3, 4. Dr. Priestly^s opinion of what constitutes thu'. food of plants. Obser- vations thereon, 105, 6, and opini- ons of Ingenhausz and Chaptal^ ib. English account of gypsum^ 108, 9, 10. Observations thereon. 111, 12, 13, 14. Success of Mr. Smythe^ in England. Extract of a letter from Robert Barclay Esq. of England. — Proposition of experiment to banish the Hessian fy; by means oi plais- ter^ or oil of vitriol^ 116, 117. Com-
CONTENTS.
Richard Peters.
aC3B
mon salt injurious to plaister, 117. Explanation of some of the terms^ used in the "Inquiries &c." 119,20. NoLAND William Esq. his com- munication on the improvement by plaister, in loudon county, Virginia^
121. Confirmation of principles and facts, contained in precedent pages,
122. Some cover the plaister — in- stance of success on corn in tassel. On cut potatoes for se* d. Rolling seed grain in plaister. — Service of plaister on wheat doubted. But land, ameliorated by clover and plaister, is always found best for wheats 123. Fixed opinion as to plaister. Care- less about land being poor or rich.— Prejudices against clover-hay con- demned, 123, 4. Names of Mr. No- iand^s correspondents. Salivary de- fluxions of horses and cattle, 125. See letter on ptyalism in the volume. Instance where plaister on virgin soil ineffectual. Compared with old land adjacent. Tobacco much benefitted by plaister, 126. Not successful on clay. Top dressings of plaister not only of no use on wheat ; but retard ripe- ning, and crop caught by mildew, 127. Query if mildew were not oc- casioned by some other cause.
Thanks to correspondents. Fac-simile of General Washington's hand writing; and
sketches of his private character.
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Agricultural /nguiries, &?«•.
St
III
"I
To GEORGE WASHINGTON, President of the
United States.
Sir,
THE following collection, on the subject of the agricul- tural properties and uses of the gypsum, having been under- taken by me at your desire, I have thought there was a pro- priety in presenCing it to you. However unimportant other parts may be, those which contain practical results, I Batter myself will be useful.
I have had frequent occasions of knowing, that the en- couragement of agricultural improvement and information, is among the favourite wishes of your heart. It is on this ac- count, and not with a design to give it an undue importance, by placing it under your notice, that I have been induced to inscribe to you this publication.
It is peculiary consolatory, when we can draw any portion of our comfort from our misfortunes. Your retirement from public life will afford you leisure and opportunities, by your patronage and example, to promote the interests of agricul- ture. Some compensation will be thereby afforded us for the loss we shall sustain, by your resigning the helm at which you have so long, so wisely, and so safely, steered our poli- tical barque.
,!«
.,' ^\lih
■ t.. >('■
M
Dedication.
Long may uninterri^ted health, that first of blessings, enable you to enjoy the splendid evening of a life, so much de- voted to your country, as to have been but little dedicated to yourself— And that you may be as happy as you have been eminently instrumental in making millions of your fellow-citi- zens, is my sincere and ardent prayer.
I have the honor to be. With the most true and respectful esteem,
Your obedient servant.
Richard Peters.
yanuary 3rf, 179T.
i
m
/'
PREFACE.
•
IT is to be lamented that It falls to the lot of an individual to risque the publication of the fol- lowing sheets, in which the agricultural part of the community are more immediately, though not solely, interested. An ineffectual attempt has been made to establish a state society of agriculture, whose useful and agreeable employment it should be to invite and promulgate communications> sti- mulate experiments, and cherish and reward, with honourable testimonies at least, the ingenious and industrious cultivator. An application was made to a former legislature of the state, for an act of in- corporation of such a society, and a plan there- with suggested. But no steps have yet been taken in the business. It is to regret, and not to censure, that I mention the circumstance. It is difficult, if not impracticable, to produce conviction in the minds of the generality of farmers, that persons who have not been educated or manually employ- ed in farming, can give much useful information in, or effectual energies to, agriculture. And yet
v»J
Preface.
Preface.
xm
itUtm
the greatest improvements in husbandry, have been cither suggested, or made, by those who were not professional farmers. If pecuniary assistance should be required out of the public funds, it should be afforded. A cent expended, with pro- priety, to aid and reward genius and industry, m pursuing agricultural experiments and researches, will add an eagle to the public stock. This is applying nourishment to the root of the public
prosperity.
Were it without example, it would be surpri- sing that legislatures, consisting for the most part of farmers, have done so little for the encourage- ment of a profession, which is calculated, above all others, to produce additions to the common mass of property, by creaiins coundess supplies, drawn from the earth.
In England, the establishment of a Board of Agriculture, under die patronage and pecuniary encouragement of the legislature, is recent, but its advantages are incalculable.
In France, agriculture is accounted, as it really is in all countries, the basis of public and private wealth and prosperity. Its patronage and encou- ragement are placed among the first objects of public attention ; and radically interwoven with the principles and system of their national policy and government. Perhaps the period is not distant
when the public mind here will be turned to this subject. Nothing will then be wanting towards the accomplishment of every thing wished for, by the friends to this important and invaluable art. They have received the highest gratification, and must conceive the strongest hopes, by observ- ing this subject recommended to ihe attention of Congress by the President, who has constantly mingled with his other patriotic solicitudes, an unabating desire to forward agricultural inquiry and improvement.
I began this collection of facts, &c. on plaister of Paris, with no intention to make it public. I found, in the course of my inquiries, much agree- ment as to general results, among my agricultural acquaintances and friends. I now think the collec- tion I have made, will be so beneficial, that I cannot resist the desire I feel to make an effort, towards rendering the knowledge of this valuable substance, more generally diffused. I hazard the disapprobation of the gentlemen (to whom I return my sincere thanks) who have favoured me with their communications; as I have not asked their permission to lay them before the public. But I trust they will pardon me, from the motive induc- ing me to take the liberty I have used. I have also a wish to see, whether agricultural publications will meet with a favourable reception.
XIV
Preface.
Preface.
XV
az
I
i
I had intended to form, from my own expe- rience, assisted by the materials I could obtain from others, an essay, in which all the knowledge we have of the agricultural uses of the gypsum might be concisely promulgated. But, on a subject in which practice is the surest guide, facts^ vouch- ed by men of practical knowledge exhibited in their own words, seemed to me best calculated to promote truth, remove prejudice, and to excite and encourage inquiry and exertion.
I had answered the queries on this subject for private information, chiefly from the know- ledge I had gained, in a long course of practical attention to the uses and effects of the gyps ; and I lind, since receiving the communications from my friends, that their experience and mine, in
general, agrees.
As to opinions and conjectures though they may not at first be solid, they may possibly lead to farther discoveries. In statements of agricultural facts, made to those who are to judge of the merit of experiments or practice, it is perhaps right to avoid opinions and speculations. But in the pre- sent publication, I have thought it proper to throw out opinions, and even slight conjectures. My view is to draw forth better opinions, and to set scientific men to thinking on the subject.
Terms are used in the following account of the gypsum, without nice attention to their force; as it is difficult more accurately to express our present ideas. The plaister, is, for instance, called a stimulant, a manure. Some substances are said to make a good footing for the plaister, that it wants something tojeed on. Sec. When we know more about it, we can establish a more appropriate and correct phraseology.
Several to whom I have applied for informa- tion have not favoured me with it, from a disin- clination, I presume, to throwing their thoughts on paper. This discouraged me from extending my correspondence. But I believe I have obtain- ed the most material facts. Those who Jiavc an- swered the queries, occupy land of every variety of description, so as to comprehend the whole range of the different soils on which the plaister is used. '0-,.
I shall be truly grateful, if any of those who have been in the practice of applying the plaister, will supply omissions, and rectify mistakes.
I indulge a hope that men of chemical and philosophical knowledge, will be induced farther to examine and analyze this powerful substance, with a view more accurately to discover its agri- cultural properties, and the causes of its operation on plants. The farmer, when taught by their dis-
'^^:i<a-^^^
i
XVI
Pre/ace.
coveries and experiments, will be enabled to ren- der this manure still more valuable, by the most judicious modes of application. It will then be felt by the cultivators of our soil, that science essen- tially promotes their interests and happiness. A practical conviction of the advantages derived from it, will urge them to afford to literary establish- ments, and men of useful learning, the public and individual support they so justly merit.
Richard Peters.
January 3d, 1797
♦*
"**{•
INQUIRIES, FACTS,
OBSERVATIONS AND CONJECTURES,
ON
PLAISTER OF PARIS.
Letter of Richard Peters, and Answers to Queries on Flaister of Paris, by Mr. JFilliam fFest, of Darby Towmhipy Delaware County,
Sir J
THE gpysum, or plaister of Paris, according to a late analysis of its component parts, as declared in an English work, is said to be compounded of a mineral acid, and a calcareous earth ; the first an enemy, the second friendly to vegetation. According as the one or the other prevails, it is said to be good or bad. It is said there, to operate on virgin soils with good effect, but not on grounds which have been long under cultiva- tion, and especially those that have been limed. The re- sult of your experience is requested on this particular point : my observations do not support this assertion. Make any miscellaneous remarks, founded on your experience, though they may not be immediately appli- cable to the queries I take the liberty to send to you.
0
18
On Plaister of Paris.
On Plaister of Paris.
19
i -^
f{ !
h 1
Head your observations with each of the queries to which they respectfully apply, and be pleased to favour tne with them as soon as your leisure will permit.
I am, with sincere esteem,
Your obedient servant,
Richard Peters.
Mr. W. West.
"■ ■ ■ / i
Query 1. How long have you used the plaister? Answer. About eleven years, without disappointment
in its effects.
Query 2. What state was your land in when you
began the use of it ?
Answer. My land chiefly when I began to apply it,
though naturally of the first quality, had been nearly a
century under bad management, and tired down. I
ploughed up about five or six acres, and dressed it
with a rich earth about old buildings that grass had
grown over, and rotted it down in itself, and applied
about thirty loads to the acre, sowed it with winter
barley, the spring following with clover, the next spring
with plaister of Paris ; its product in grass was allowed
to be equal to any that had any where been seen. I
mowed it two summers, and have grazed it ever since,
and the sod is now in good perfection. I redressed it
last summer with plaister, and its stimulationyvery good ;
the sod is green grass, white clover with a mixture of
red. This piece with a number of others, laid down in
grass with different kinds of manure, and plaistered,
will now feed as many cattle as acres, and from the
effect of their droppings may be kept up continually. I have continued the application of plaister every year from my first using of it to the present, and its most beneficial use is on grass, if rightly managed on the previous dressing of other manure and its preparation • aU which will require a system in itself to describe at large.
Query i. What quantity per acre have you general- ly used?
Answer. The quantity of plaister per acre, four and a half bushels, the redressing about three bushels ; but I would not recommend a second application when land has been mowed five or six years, without a light dressingof other manure. ^
Query 4. What soils are the most proper for this manure ?
Answer. The soils most proper for the plaister are warm, kind loamy ones ; land that is generaly deemed good wheat land -, that will sink the water quick in winter, not too level, and land moderately hilly. Land that takes lime well, will the plaister.
Query 5. Have you repeated the application of it with or without ploughing ?_at what intervals, and with what effect ?
Answer. The repeated application of it has a good effect, as I have mentioned above. It follows lime equal to any manure.
Query 6. In consequence do you find that it renders the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?
Answer. It does create something of sterility in five or six years by mowing ; then it may, as above men- tioned, be lightly dressed by dung or compost ; about
IRREGULAR PAGINATION
20
On Plaister of Paris.
twelve loads to the acre, will make a new footing for the plaister. This quantity will promote a wheat crop-
Query 7. To what products can it be best applied ? grain and what kinds? grasses and what kinds ? . Answer. It is best adapted to grass and every kind of summer grain.
Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it?
Answer. The time to strew it is in the spring, when vegetation is fairly abroad.
Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre of grass, &c. you have known by the means of plaister?
Answer. Respecting the quantity of grass per acre, I
have answered above.
%uery 10. Have you ever used it with other manure, and what ?— and the effects if any superior to the plais- ter alone ? • Query 11. Is there any difference between the Euro-
pean and American plaister ?
Answer 10 and II. I answer in one : have never used it with other manure ; thought inexpedient.*
As to its durability, the product for five years, mowed twice each year, and the third plaistered, will I believe be more than can be produced from dung, without re- striction of quantity.
* I am sorry I have not had the pleasure of a conversation with Mr. West since he was so obliging as to communicate his answers. I was obscure in stating to him the 10th query. I meant not a mixture of the g) ps with the dung, and a cotem- poraneous application. He has in his answer to the 6th queiy
met my ideas on the subject.
R. P.
On Plaister of Paris.
21
It is not very agreeable to fully express my experi. ence on agriculture, for fear the verity of it might be called in question ; but a visit from Judge Peters at my farm, would be agreeable, when conversation would add something more.
May 26th, 1796.
William West.
I have often since conversed with that most worthy and much lamented agriculturist Mr. ^st. I never could prevail on him to write more on this, or any other subject. He would evade, or what was more in character, at once refuse all my importunities. Mr. Sellers and Mr. West, having been among the first with whom I communicated on the subject of the plaister, and when they were unbelievers, I took occa- sion to address my queries to them and was highly gratified by their conviction of its efficacy and the results of their ex^ perience.
Mr. West did not begin the use of plaister, until many years after its being known here ; and used by all who could be prevailed on to believe in it. But he soon recovered his lost time. His fortunate plan of top-dressings with a kind of crea^ tion of manure, made from materials on his own farm, and such as are generally overlooked and neglected, succeeded most wonderfully as auxiliary to plaister. It seemed to ope- rate in connexion with his composts, with all grasses on his fields; and to set general rules at defiance.
Srptanher 1810.
R. P.
'Ik
[ 22 3
111
Letter from Robert Frazer, Esq. of fFest- Chester y con- taining an account of the use of Plaister of Paris ^ by Col. John Hannumj of Chester county.
Sir,
I have received no information from those into whose hands I put your queries in answer thereto, except from Col. John Hannum, to whom I delivered a copy a few days ago. Your anxiety to receive information on the subject, urges me to the most speedy transmission of such as 1 have obtained. Whether it will prove satisfac- tory or not, you will be best able to judge.
Qu&ry I. How long have you used plaister ?
Answer. Twelve years.
Query 2. What state or condition was your land in
when you began the use of it ?
Answer. I have used it on virgin soils, and upon old land ; sometimes very poor ; sometimes good strong land ; sometimes indifferent.
Query 3. What quantity per acre have you general-
ly used.
Answer. From one iofive bushels.
Query 4. What soils are most proper for this munure?
Answer. High ground and sandy soils.
Query 5. Have you repeated the application of it with or without ploughing? at what intervals, and with
what effect?
Answer. Frequently both, with and without plough-
ing, and generally with very great effect.
Query 6. In consequence do you find that it renders the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?
J
V'- r'-:A
On Plaister of Paris.
23
Answer. I have not yet found its useful effects to have ceased ; possibly owing to my mode of using it general- ly, which is, of applying one bushel per acre each year.
Query 7. To what products can it be best applied ? grain and what kinds ? grasses and what kinds ?
Answer. Beneficially to the production of wheat, rye, barley, Indian com, buckwheat, peas of all kinds, pota- toes, cabbage, clover, and all other grasses common amongst us.
Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it?
Answer. From the first of March, if the ground is clear of frost, to the first of May.
Query 9. W^hat is the greatest product per acre of grass, &c. you have known by the means of plaister ?
Answer. I have in some instances by means of plais- ter, taken three tuns of hay from land really poor ; but such cases are not common.
Query 10. Have you ever used it with other manure, and what ?— and the effects, if any superior to the plais- ter alone ?
Answer. Yes ; the land will in less time be much more productive. I have not found my land in good heart, in less than three years with plaister only.
Query 11. Is there any difference between the Euro- pean and American plaister ?
Answer. I have used both ; have sowed them on the same kind of ground, on the same day, and have ob- served no difference.
N. B. I have raised from two acres of ground, plais- tered three succesive years previously to sowing, with- out any other munure, 927 pounds of clean dressed or
24.
On Plaister of Paris.
1i
J
swingled flax, the land being at the first sowing of the plaister very poor.
If I receive any further information, it shall be forth- with forwarded to you,
I have the honor to be
Your very humble servant,
R. Frazer.
West-Chester, May ZOth, 1796, Richard Peters, Esq.
On wAeaf, rye, and ot\itr grasses x\vm clover, I have never succeeded by direct applications of plaister. Barley and oats rolled in plaister have been much benefited. But after clover plaistered had occupied the field for its usual time, wheat, lye, or any culmiferous crop, have highly profited by the amelioration of the soil.
R. P.
September, 1810,
C 25 ]
Answers to Queries on Plaister of Paris, by Mr. Philip Price, Jun. of East Bradford, Chester County.
Agreeably to thy request, I have endeavoured, ac- cording to the best of my recollection, t<^ answer the queries thou wast pleased to forward to me, which I have endeavoured to do in as explicit a manner as possible, and hope any incorrectness will be excused, as it is done in a hasty manner.
Query 1. How long have you used the plaister?
Answer. Ten years on two different farms ; four year^ on the first, and the present is the sixth year on the second.
Query 2. What state was your land in when you began the use of it ?
Answer. The first farm I lived on had been much re- duced and worn out, but was considerably improved with lime and stable manure, for a few years before I went on it, and began to make use of the plaister. The farm which I live on at present was also the greater part much reduced and worn, and but a small part either limed or manured.
Query 3. What quantity per acre have you generally used?
Answer. I have seldom used more than two bushels per acre in one season, but generally one and one and a half bushels per acre, which I find sufficient if repeat- ed yearly whilst in clover.
Query 4. What soils are most proper for this ma- nure?
"'^^
26
On Plaister of Paris,
On Plaister of Paris.
27
■ m
Answer. By the experiments and observations which I have made, I find a high, warm, dry, gravelly or loamy soil, to be much the best ; clay, cold or low lying land, is seldom favourable for it. I have known some low lying land which was dry and loamy agree with it, but not near ecfllal to the high.
€luery 5. Have you repeated the application of it with or without 4)loughing — at what intervals, and with
what effect ?*
jifiswer. I have fi-equently repeated the use of it both with and without ploughing. I sowed a field with it five years ago, which had some little appearance of both red and white clover, but had never been sown with any seed, upon which I put one and a half bushel of plaister per acre. I pastured the field, and although the season was very dry, it produced a great quantity of good pasture sufficient to keep about one and an half head per acre. The second year I sowed one bushel more per acre. The season being more wet, it was bet-
* The effects of the plaister detailed in this answer are in- variably proved by all experience, before and since this pub- lication. When I mentioned the operative principle of the plaister— i. e. the sulphuric acid (first set free itself, and then) decomposing substances in the earth, and thereby furnishing their food to plants and attracting moisture, the idea was either new, or little known. But it accounts for all the phae- nomena of plaister. Old fields are uniformly found to evi- dence the strongest effects. In them, decayed roots, and ve- getable putrefying or putrefied matter, is in the greatest
abundance.
R. P.
September^ 1§JC ^
CSC
ter than the first, The third year it was not plaistered,
but continued good. It was ploughed in the fall of that
year, which was very tough ploughing, but done by
two horses. The next spring I planted it with Indian
corn, and put half a bushel plaister per acre on, which
yielded upwards of fifty bushels per acre. The year
following I sowed the same field with barley, having
manured a part of it with barn yard manure the fall before
I sowed the barley, I then intended to have sown the field
with wheat, but the clover (without any seed being
sown) comingup and making so beautiful an appearance,
determined me to let it stand for a crop, which now looks
to be the best crop I ever had of grass, being a mixture
of red and white clover, with some blue grass. I sowed
one bushel more plaister last spring per acre. I could
mentionseveralotherexperiments which I made, that j^e
similar, on land of the same quality; as this field and two
more which I had, were in pretty good heart before I be-
gan to use the plaister.
In the spring of the year 1792, I fenced off a piece of about four acres, being a part of a large field that was much reduced, washed into deep gullies in many parts, and had been totally neglected for many years. The appearance was so disagreeable that I put no value on it when I purchased the place, though the field con- tained near fifty acres. The above said piece of four acres I folded my cattle on at nights, which were be- tween thirty and forty in number, for near three months, and sowed it with wheat. The spring following, I sowed it with clover seed and one bushel of plaister per acre ; SOOT after the seed came up, the clover grew strong that season. I applied one bushel more plaister per acre the
ff»;'V<'
!f\
i
28
On Plaister of Paris.
the next spring, and then mowed two good crops a year for two years ; then ploughed the clover down, after the last mowing the second year, and sowed it with wheat on one ploughing, which now is a good crop standing on the ground. I may here remark, that I have not apprehended the plaister to be of any benefit to a crop of wheat, when first sowed, upon it ; but after having been in with clover, it is in a very fine state for a crop of wheat and seldom fails producing a good one, if not left to lay so long as other grass, to get too strong
for the wheat.
Another experiment 1 made in part of the field last mentioned, on about eight acres that was extremely im- poverished, and thrown out of cultivation for a number of years. It lay very high and dry. I ploughed it in the fall of the year 1791, and let it lay until the next season, when 1 ploughed it again and sowed it with buckwheat, which was a light crop, notwithstanding a favourable season, not yielding above seven or eight bushels per acre. The next spring I sowed it with oats and clover seed, and then had five bushels of plaister sowed over the vvhole piece ; the crop of oats better than I expected and the clover grew so that it came out in bloom that season. The two next seasons I sowed it with plaister, the first with but three bushels on the whole where it appeared to be the weakest, the second year with one bushel per acre, and mowed the clover both years two crops which were good, and the clover appearing to stand well. I have sowed it again with one bushel per acre, which now promises me another good crop I have put no other manure whatever upon it, and it is now
On Plaister of Paris.
worth ten times what it was before I plaistered it, the face of the soil appearing to be entirely changed, and is admired by all who have heretofore known it, the plaister having had the effect they have known upon it. This has encouraged me to treat all the field in the same manner, wKich has been nearly done to the same good effect.
Query 6. In consequence do you find that it renders the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?^
Answer. I have nf ver yet found it to have any bad effect upon any land that I have put it on, and as I re- peat the use of the plaister as often as I sow with clover, I have not experienced the beneficial effects to be gone; but I find that in pasture land that has lain for four or five years or more, it occasions a stiff sward to plough; put when well ploughed and pulverised, it is as light and mellow as it has been before the plaister was put on : and I am fully of opinion, were farmers to be careful to mow all they possibly can where the plaister is used, the great addition they would thereby gain to their usual proportion of manure would render it almost im- possible ever to have that effect, as mowing is much
* The bugbear exhaustion has been long found to be a mere phantom. I have not a field which is not the better for repetitions of plaister. It is known that my applications were not only the earliest, but for many years on the most exten- sive scale. I continue to use the gyps freely and in large quantities.
R. P.
September^ 1810,
30
On Plaister of Paris.
On Plaister of Paris.
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less injurious to the soil; by not being trodden the clover will stand good longer and will not get into that tough state above described. It should never lay more than two years until ploughed for a crop of wheat, and I would recommend the following rotation of crops, as requiring the least ploughing or labour, and which I am endea- vouring to practice. First year Indian corn, potatoes and pumpkins ; secor^d year barley, when it should be manured and plaistered, after being sown with clover ; third year clover, to be mowed apd given to the stock, or made into hay ; fourth year to be used in the same manner, and ploughed after the second crop is mowed for wheat ; fijlh year wheat. The two years it is in clo- ver, it should be plaistered with one bushel per acre, if high and loamy land, but more if inclined to be heavy.
If five fields are farmed in this manner, the produce will be amply sufficient to manure one of them every year. I have somewhat deviated from the query, to shew the little danger their is to be apprehended from a proper management, where the plaister is used.
Query 7. To what products can it be best applied? — grain and what kinds ? — grasses and what kinds ?
Jnswer. I have found it more beneficially applied to Indian corn than any other grain, having never failed to have a good effect wherever I have applied it, except in two instances : one of them was in a field about a third
part of which had buckwheat in the preceding year;^ I left a row of com unplaistered, which run across the fresh broke up land and the buckwheat ground : in the latter I could perceive no effect whatever that the plais- ter had on it, being a very light crop ; in the fresh broke up land the crop was very good, and more than double the quantity where it was plaistered than in the row that was not. The other instance was in afne mellow rich piece oflandy that had been well manured the year before ; from which I had taken a good crop of potatoes and pumpkins. I left three rows unplaistered, but could perceive no difference whatever between them and the others, where I had sowed at the rate of two bushels per acre. The piece was sowed the spring following with barley and clover seed, and the plaister that had been put upon the corn without any advantage^ had a great effect upon the clover^ which was much better than where the three rows were omitted. This piece had been well limed before the pumpkins and potatoes were planted. The effects of the plaister here, as well as in many other instances which I have known where it has
* Many fanners are of opinion, that Indian com never does well immediately after buckwheat. I have never considered buckwheat an exhauster, as it is a bastard legume and a good covering crop. R. P.
I have changed my opinion, by more attentively pursuing experiments on buckwheat. I think it is a great exhauster, when permitted to ripen its seed.
K*^ P.
September^ 1810,
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On Plaister of Paris.
^fi Phistet of PdMi.
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been applied to Indian corn* in melloxv land and had nd effect, has been mysterious to me in its operations. I have never had it to have any effect (when first applied) on any other grain except buckwheat, when sowed on fresh broke up land.
I have found the plaister to be of the most advantage to red clover of any grass, but I believe will be helpful to any grasses whatever that are sown in such land as I have described in answering the 4th Query.
I believe it will also be useful to any kinds of graih put in after clover.
Quertj 8. When is the best time to scatter it ? Answer. 1 have found it to be the most advantage to clover to sow it with a small quantity soon after it comes up, and to repeat it again as soon as vegetation takes placed which I believe to be the most proper time for any grasses ; — or Indian corn, immediately after the first harrowing and moulding.
* I have had frequent instances of its failure in mellow land, and supposed that by tilth and exposure the putrefying ve- getable substances had been exhausted ; but here was dung to supply their place — If Mr. Price means dung where he says it " had been well manured the year before," it is an
instance of the whimsical effects of the gyps.
R. P.
I This is an excellent expedient to prevent the effects of drought, and give a stimulus to the tender plant in its first efforts when it is often destroyed. It also falls in with the ideas of those who think it best to sow it when vegetation takes place. Mr. Price's method secures both chances.
R. P.
•VAar-;:t.
' %iery &. What is the greatest product per acre of grass, &c. you have known by the means of plaister ? -* l^nswer. I cannot answer this query with certainty, liaiVing ri'^v^f weighed any. But by computation from :'^. ^^* ^^^ ''**" manured before it was plaistered, I Miri had from two crops of clover about four and a half turis per acre ; and from f>6br unmanured land, that I should not suppose would have produced, half a tun, I have had frequenUy one and an half, and perhaps two tun's. I propose trying the experiment, by weighing a small proportion of a piece I have plaistered, and another sowed with clovef at the same time, along' 313*, and treated every way in the same manner, except the plais- tering. The plaistered, I think, will produce at the rate of two tuns ; and the other I do not believe will produce at the rate of five hundred weight per acre.
Quert/ 10. Have you ever used it with other manure, and what ?— and the effect if any superior to the plais* ter alone ?
Answer. I have never found any kind of manure to be of any advantage to strengthen the plaister. I have put it on after lime and dung frequently, and have al- ways found the greate^ -differerice in the effect, where it has been put on entirely alone, both on clover and In- dian corn. fFhere the manure has been put the crop hat been the greatest, but their operations I believe to be fhtifely independent of each other.*
■' * Whether my idea of the sulphuric aci</being the active aj^nti in the gyps was original, or adopted, I cannot tell ; nor do Iclaim merit on such accidental thoughts. But since my conjeC'-
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On Plaister of Parti.
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Query 11. Is there any difference between the Ame- rican and European plaister?
Jnswer. Not in their effects upon grass or grain that I have ever been able to discover, as I have used them both on the same field. The European is the easiest manufactured, which makes it preferred; but the Ame- rican is found to make the strongest cement, and is generally used for that purpose. >
Philip Price, Jun. ntho/Gth Month. 1796.
Richard Peters, Esq. Philadelphia^
I have heard of none who have been more remarkably suc- cessful in the plaister system than Mr. West, and Mr. Price. They have brought old worn out lands to an astonish- ing degree of fertility and profit, by combining the plaister with other manures. The gyps was, however, the principal agent. As to results in general, my experience and theirs agree ; but I think I have proved that dung and plaister mutudly assist each other. It appears by Mr. Price's state- ment, that they do not disagree together ; for he states, that « where the manure has been put, the crop has been the greatest.*^ R p
tural then, but now well known, principle of operation has been tested by long experience, there remain no doubts of the mutual assistance afforded by dung, or any other animal or vegetable putrefying or putrefied substance, and plaister.
l^eptember, 181(5: --• rm,-:r»a; ir .
[ 35 ]
Answers to Queries on Plaister of Paris, by General
Edward Hand, near Lancaster.
Rock Ford, July 30th, 1796-
Dear Sir,
I sit down to answer your queries on the subject of plaister of Paris, so far as my own experience enables me ; that mdeed is confined, owing to the circumstance of my farm being generally managed by persons whose indolence, or prejudices proved great bars to experiment. That difficulty is now removed, and I hope hereafter to be able to conduct it on a plan more beneficial to myself, and by communicating my little experiments, to be of some use to the community. ,
Query 1. How long have you used the plaister ? Answer. Ten or eleven years. Query 2. In w^hat condition was your land when you began the use of it ?
Answer. That on which I first tried the plaister was apparently exhausted by injudicious management, and produced the most scanty crops of any on my farm.
Query 3. What quantity per acre have you generally used ?
Answer. Generally not less than three, or more than four bushels.
Query 4. What soils are the most proper for this manure?
Answer. My land is a sandy loam, on a lime stone of different qualities; the rock in some places so near the surface as scarcely to admit the plough.
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Query 5. Have you repeated the application of it with or without ploughing? — in what manner? — at what intervals ? — and with what eflfect ?
Answer. 1 have repeated it the seventh year after three crops of clover, one of wheat, one of com, and one of oats, with which clover was sown. The effect nearly the same as at first. I have this spring repeated two bushels per acre on the same ground, without plough- ing, on clover which had been mowed two successive years, but my expectation was not answered.
N. B. This ground, has been twice manured with barn yard dung ; once with corn, and once on the grass, since the plaister was first applied.
Query 6. Do you find that it renders the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?
Answer. On the contrary, the lands on which I have first used the plaister, though then in the state mention- ed in answer to the 2 Query, have since regularly yield- ed excellent crops of grass, grain, potatoes, corn &c. part of which never has had any other manure, at least for
twelve years.
Query 7. To what products can it be best applied ? grain, and what kinds? — grasses, and what kinds?
Answer. I have found considerable advantage from the plaister sown with oats in very small quantity, i. e. as much as would adhere to the wet seed. Applied to corn in the same way, it has an admirable effect ; indeed with me, equal to three or four times the quantity sown on the corn after it comes up.
I have sown it with barley and clover, at the rate of three bushels per acre at different times. The clover was always very fine, but I cannot say that the barley*
was any time benefited, and I have reason tq beUeve that It would have been as good a crop without the plaister. I have never tried it on any other small grain.
iyrasses. I have generally used it on red clover I have also sown it on mixed grass, as white clover, blue grass and timothy, always to good effect.
Query 8. What is the best time to scatter it ? Answer. I generally sow it in April, but have alsa applied It m June, after mowing the first crop ; the effect nearly the same.
Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre you have known by the means of plaister ?
Ansrwer. I once mowed eighteen tuns from five acres- the clover was sown with oats on old ground ; the oats was no more than a middling crop. Fifteen bushels of plaister were sown after raking the stubble in ApriJ and the grass cut the June following. '
I have frequentiy got two and a half tuns per acre never less than one and a half tuns ; the second crop is generaUy one third less. I have indeed heard of much more abundant crops of grass; but as I believe you do not admit hear say evidence, I sh^U not trouble you with it Query 10. Have you ever used it in connexion with Other manures, and what ?— does it agree with lime? and wliat effect has a connexion with other manures produced superior to the plaister alone ?
Answer. I have not used plaister in immediate con .nexion with other manures till this spring. On about an acre manured with barn yard dung, which was planted with potatoes last year without dung, was sown barley and clover, and immediately after three bushels of N. S. plaister. I this spring also sowed barley and cW
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On Plaister of Paris.
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ver on three acres, which had been manured with the same kind of dung, and planted with com last year. — Three bushels of N. S. plaister per acre immediately followed the barley. The clover in both, looks extreme- ly well, and may be cut this year if I chuse it. If a pre- ference can be given, it must be to the acre in potatoes last year, and manured this spring. They were both ploughed late last fall after taking in the crops. Lime I have not tried. I this spring sowed plaister on two pieces of mixed grass, and a few days after wood ashes at the rate of ten or twelve bushels to the acre, as near as I can guess, was sown on one of them ; they have been cut and fed green ; that on which the ashes were sown has been twice cut, the other but once, and at this moment they are both equally fit to cut again. Except in this instance of the ashes, I have never had more grass from lands previously manured for other crops, than from those which had not,* although an equal propor- tion of plaister and grass seed had been sowed on each.f
* The result of the dung applied on the barley ground, cannot be known until next year.
• f Plaister with lime, and with ashes, never fails to agree. There is an instance apparently contradictory in the memoirs, 2 volume, page 105. I never doubt facts asserted by respec- table men. But I suppose the grasses were not of the trefoil tribe. On other grasses, the plaister has little, if any, eflect, as repeated experience proves. I thereiore think that the plaister and ashes were not at variance ; but the grasses were
not of the kind liable to be benefited by the plaister.
B. P.
September 1810.
Query 11. Its duration?
Answer. In one instance I mowed the same ground four years successively after four bushels per acre of plaister had been applied, but I find that blue grass generaUy begins to appear the third year ; therefore I wish to mow or pasture the ground two years only, and then plough again.
Query 12. Is there any difference as to useful effects, between the American and European plaister ?
Answer. I cannot yet tell. The trials made with the American plaister on barley and clover this spring, mentioned in answer to the tenth quer}% are my first essays ; the prevalent report of its bad quality, prevent- ed my making an earlier trial. At present the effect of the American plaister appears equal to any thing that might be expected from the European.
I wish it had been in my power to have given fuller answers to the questions you have been pleased to ask me. In doing it I have confined myself to simple facts, avoiding comments and matters of opinion, supposing them foreign to your design.
With much respect,
I have the honour to be,
Dear Sir,
Your very humble servant^
Edward Hand. The Hon. Ricjetard Peters Esq.
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NotCy 6n General Hand^s Letter.
I am sorry that one so capable, as well from professional knowledge on chemical subjects, as opportunities of acquiring and making agricultural observations, has avoided comments and matters of opinion. Having hazarded these ifiyself, I should the more gratefully have received them from those more capable of forming just opinions and well founded con- jectures.
It. P.
yl^^ I ■'roi:. i)iitll|||ii!U!i(^' 'r^.".f<::.*.y^,-
Amwers to Queries on Plaister of Paris, by Mr. John Ctirwen, of Upper Merion, Montgomery County.
fF. Hill, August lOth, 1790^
Hear Sir^
Inclosed are my answers to your queries, agreeabfy to your request.
If the plaister is compounded of a mineral acid and calcareous earth, it may be suspected that both have a: share in its effects ; for it can hardly be supposed that such can be produced from it less than a bushel of caU careous earth to an acre ; and may it not be presumed tfiat some active substances, which in large quantities are poison to vegetation, may, in very small ones be friendly to it; or may not the compound have quali- ties, not found in any of its parts ?
If in England it has no effect on grounds which have been long under cultivation, and especially those which have been limed, America may boast of superior ad- vantages. My answer to the 10th Query shews the re. suit of my experience on that point.
Query 1. How long have you used the plaister ?
Answer. Ten or eleven years ; at first in small quan- titles, but finding it beneficial, have used a good deal for several years past.
Query 2. What state was the land m when you be- gan to use it ?
Answer. Generally on limed and dunged land which had been much exhausted previous to this by bad tillage without manure.
Query 3. What quantity per acre have you generally used? V F
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On Planter of Paris.
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Answer. I begun with'sT^birsliels, but gradually less- cried the quantity to one; and finding the immediate effect not materially (if at all) different, now put on only one, and repeat it every other or third year, supposing more produce is obtained from the same quantity in this way.
^wry 4. What soils are the most proper for this
manure ? ^
Ansiver. Dry loams. I have tried it on wet clay with- 6ut eftbct, though I have found its effects on the banks of watered meadows considerable; it does better on hilly than levt-1 land, perhaps because it is dry and lighter. ■yQxieril 5. Have you repeated the application of it with or without ploughing ?— in what manner?— at what intervals, and with what effect ?
Answer. I have repeated it on meadow and clover er^ry other or third year with good effect, and sown it several times on the same land, after ploughing, without oT5sei virtg its effects to decline : in the last instance the land was dunged ; in the former it was not.
^uerxj 6. Do you find that it renders the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?
Ar.^er. No, quite the reverse ; nor do 1 belieye any kindof numure has this effect ; though hard cropping of land, dressed with lime, has given rise to this opinion.*
n was deceived in my first applications of lime, by being told that /ime Will spend itseh as mucK without cropping, as with constant successions. 1 over cropped, without then knowing its mischief; Lime spends itseh, as it is called by exhausting ' th^vegetable matter in the earth, and nothing is more inju- rious than hard croppmg, with lime ; bad enough with any manures. I mean grain crops. ^\
September 1810.
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Q,uery 7. To what products can it be best applied ?— grain and what kinds ?— grasses and what kinds ? -
^Answer. I have used it most on red clover, and know no crop which it improves so much ; it does very well on white clover and mixed grasses, but not equally so as on red clover. I have tried it on Indian corn with different degrees of success. It enlarges the plant I think more than the product of the corn.* On wheat, rye, &c. if it did any good, it was very trifling.
Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ? Answer. This may be done at any season, but as it operates quickly, the least time is lost by putting it on when vegetation is coming on rapidly in the spring, or soon after mowing the first crop.
* I have sometimes suspected this to be the case, but have never bten able exactly to ascertain the fact. In some seasons I have had very large, and in others moderately sized ears of plants, which appeared equally vigorous. The plant gets the greatei- part of its growth belbre the ears begin to set. I have supposed that its earing, well or ill, depended not so much on the plaister, as upon previous culture ; and season and other circumstances at the time the ears are forming and fill ng. Let the ears in 'eaiy particular season be smaller or larger than usual with plaistered corn, they are always better than those on rows leit unplaistered in the same field.f
R. P.
t My practice now is to seattcr the plaister over the whole field (two bushels to the tiw) and harrow it m. I also dust a little on the plants wht n youn,? at the first drt ssing. I find the roott cominj? i,. contact, throusrhout the fieM, with the j^ypsum (operatiiig on the putrefied substance., and suppljiiig; food and moisture) has much ffreater efficacy.
Sepfemhcr 18 lo.
R. P.
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On Plaister of Paris.
Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre of grass, &c. you have known by the means of plaister ?
Jnswer. I have had clover which would have made two tuns of hay per acre the first crop, and that on ground which I am certain without plaister would not have produced one third of that quantity ; the second crop nearly one tun, and reserved the third crop for seed.
Query 10. Have you ever used it with other manure, and what sorts ?— or on ground previously dunged ?— and the effects, if any superior to plaister alone ?
Jnnver. I have never mixed it with manure previous to putting it on the ground, but generally used it on ground limed or dunged for both J not long before, and found its effects in a great degree proportionate to the manure in the ground (whether limed or dunged) though on ground exhausted and never manured, the effect was considerable.*
Query 11. Is there any difference between European and American plaister ?
Jnswer. I do not remember using any American be- fore this year ; and as I had none of the other sown at the same time, I caimot answer this query ; but it had
* Nothing is better than plaister to mix with compost beds. It forwards the putrefaction, (without consuming them) of the vegetable or animal matter composing them. Lime, in quantities, or hot, consumes and injures. I often diifered with my late friend William West on this subject. He was convinced he had begun with too much lime ; and lessened
R P
the proportions. i\. * •
September 1810.
On Plaister of Paris.
45
the desired effect, and I am inclined to think there is little or no difference. Query 12. Its duration ?
Jnswer. With me it has not been uniform. Whether it depends on the quantity put on, the nature of the soil, the difference in seasons, or the goodness of the plaister I cannot say ; but it will sometimes fail the second year ; sometimes it will last four or five, and where it has been put on the hills of Indian corn, and afterwards mixed with the soil by ploughing, I have known its ef- fects visible for six years, and continue the same length of time on an exhausted soil never manured.
It is no small addition to the value of plaister, that the grass lands on which it has been spread, are not near so much injured by drought as others, and that cattle love to pasture on them better.
The expence of raising red clover with plaister and a small quantity of dung, and raising it with dung alone (if bought at the common prices) may I think be esti- mated as one to five.
I am, Sir, your's sincerely,
John Curwek,
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On Plaister of Paris.
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rY-T-i—t-:^'..-
Answers to Queries on Plainer of Paris, by John Sellers, <.. Esq. of Derby Townships Delaware County.
August ISth, 1796.
^ . , » <
Deaf Friendy
*i It wdul^ afford me much pleasure to have it in my power ^ any observations generally use-
]^1 Dn*^^^«^ject of thine of the 19th of last month, to whiclxii^'t>kiging thee would be an addition. The analy sis'lhee mentions in an English work I consider as a useless inquiry, until we were able to know with the same certainty all the properties of plants, and the por- 'tions of the variety of elementary foods nescessary for the greatest promotion of vegetation. I therefore should suppose acids fri^nidly or untViendly^ according to the quantity of the other kinds and portions of manure ap-; plied therewith, as we know a due quantity of lime is friendly, and that too much is entirely destructive to vegetation, and that a greater quantity may with safefy be applied.with dung than without it. The knowledge inost to J^e depended on, is to apply such manures as frpm experience we find best to promote vegetation. I have thought a repetition of the same sort of manure en the same ground would not have so good an effect as a change, which perhaps may be as necessary as that of different kinds of grain, flax, potatoes. Sec. *"
My first use of plaister was in the year 1786, on land limed about fifteen years before, and afterwards manured with dung in a moderate degree. It was at that time sown with clover on the wheat in the spring,
from which the produce in grass was very great ; some judged three tuns per acre; I suppose there was cer- tainly two and a half per acre for several crops ; it how-' ever declined so that in five years their was but little clover, the old plants dying, and the new ones being overpowered or smodiered with green grrt4. I then at seeding time broke it up and harrowed in wheat , the next spring sowed it with clover and plaister on the wheat. The clover following this operation was light iii pf6portion to the former, perhaps owing to the roots of the green and other grass not being sufficiently killed by the one ploughing, thereby the plaister not having, so good an effect on a second application a^ the fitk. '-'
The next plaistered was with respect to having been limed and dunged, the same With the first and the con- tinuance of large crops of grass. It was then in the spring broke up and planted with corn, and the next summer sown with barley and spring wheat; and at or about the same time wiih clover and plaister, which suc- ceeded nearly equal to the first time sown with plaister.
The next second application of plaister was on the sward six years aftierthe first plaistering. This piece. of land had a dressing of rotten dung in the fall. The next summer first crop was light, the second crop better chiefly green grass and but little clover. The next spring where the dung had disappeared, and was incor- porated with the soil, it was sown with about two and an half bushels of plaister per acre, whfch was succeeded with a middling heavy crop, nearly one half clover, I suppose brought forward by the plaister.
On some other of my fields, within reach of my bam yard, that has frequently been dunged, the plaister had
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On Plaister of Paris.
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a very extraordinary effect, but has not been repeat* ed on distant fields that never have been dunged, its effects were wonderful, considering the state they were in ; one of the fields was sown with clover on the wheat and not exceeding two and an half bushels of plaister per acre, in March, 1794, on which I had upwards of forty cattle upwards of two weeks in the beginning of last May ; then inclosed it for mowing, and mowed it in thp *latter end of June and the beginning of July last, from which I had upwards of one tun per acre. This field without the plaister or clover seed, would not have produced pasture worth inclosing. It has been under cultivation in turn near or quite one hundred years.*
Here suffer me to express my utter astonishment and inability to account in what manner so small a quan- tity of matter of any kind should have so wonderful a power of promoting vegetation as appears in the above cases. Thy English author speaks of virgin earth being the most agreeable to plaister, it is likely it may. Land over poor appears most certain of being improved by it. It may be observed, that all my land, and indeed all in the state, was in a virgin state as to that kind of manure.
* Here is a strong instance of plaister on old cleared fields, without dung. Mr. S-llers's is one of the oldest settlements in the state. I very much doubt the theory of this English au- thor especially as it respects virgin earth. No doubt it wJl operate wonderfully on new land (which does not require it) because of the vegetable matter in it, but it is on this matter ^ and not the earthy that it works. But see at the end, an in- stance where plaister had no eft'ect on new land.
R. P.
September y 1810.
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Oh Plaister of Parts.
4,9
Query 1. How long have you used plaister ?
Answer. I have answered it in the foregoing.
Query 2. What state or condition was your land in when you began the use of it?
Answer. Before I used the plaister my land was full of twitch, or what is called blue grass, which afforded little pasture, scarcely sufficient to fatten cattle for my own use; since the use of it for several years back I have fattened from forty to fifty each year, besides mowing as much off the fields each year as afforded a sufficiency of hay for my team and family horses, and upwards of twenty cattle ; before that my dependance for hay was from bottoms and watered banks, the hay from which was very inferior to that from the fields.
Query 3. What quantity per acre have you general- ly used.
Answer. For several years I used between four and five bushels per acre, but the two last years not more than two or two and an half per acre.
Query 4. What soils are most proper for this manure?
Answer. A soil too light and sandy, or clay, I think unfavourable, and that called loam, not over stiff, most favourable.*
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• I had been informed of several instances oC plaister btinq; beneficbl to day. But in every Oiise I inquired intoj I found the clay compleUly drained, by bting thrown up in hi^h ridges; and all its moisture evaporauxl, or drawn off. See Mi-. Young's excellent mode oJ' ameliorating day- •oils; Agricultural Memoirs, vol. 2, page 186. This not only changes tlie texture and nature of the soil ; but adds the vegetable pabulum for filaister, or linw. Mr. Young's meritorious perseverance^ in this new and successful experiment, has earned tlie thanks of all farmers of such ungrateful soils. I have seen indications of the fact, and have been informed, that the vitriolic acid of the plaister on wet clay, has thrown np a concrete (alum) on the surface, tike a h«ar frost.
_ , R. P.
September \^\0.
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On Plaister of Paris.
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Query 5. Have you repeated the application of it with or without ploughing? at what intervals and with
what effect? • V ^A
Answer. 1 have answered above ; but I am inclined to think its effects will lessen by a frequent application, but not more so than the frequem application of any other kind of manure. Perhaps the improvement of land „»ay be something similar to that of animal improve- ment, which is better promoted by a change of nutn- ment, than bv being confined to any one kind.* ■ Query 6. in consequence do you find that it renders
the earth sterile after its useful effects are gone ?
Jnsrver. 1 have not observed any sterility yet to fol- low its use ; perhaps a greater length of time may pro- duce such appearances. For some years past my rota- tion ol crops and times of breaking up grass, has been asfoUoweth: I have seven fields ; one with Indian corn, one in fallow that was in Indian corn the year before, one in winter grain that was a fallow the year before, four in grass. Bv which rotation I have always four for pasture or mowing, besides the fallow and the wheat field from harvest the remainder of the grass season.
* Mr. Sellers was o^ the opinion I have often avowed on this subject. He gave me numerous instances, .n h.s long ex- perience, as to changes ot both plants and an.mals ; as well of individuals, as o, locality and nutriment. He earned X mte the change ol manure ; o) the benefit whereo. I have seen many striking and undeniable proos. He was uncommonly obseVvant J and one ol a strong mind, not destitute ol cdt-va- tion. September^ 1810.
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For several years past the Indian corn was in fields that had been plaistered four years before, which has been evidently much better by the effects of the plaister than it would have been without it.
Query 7. To what products can it be best applied? grain and what kinds? grasses and what kinds?
Answer. I think it improves any kind of grass, but more particularly red and white clover.
Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ?
Answer. I have scattered it at various times without regard to any thing but conveniency, and have not found any difference in the effect.
Query 9. What is the greatest product per acre of grass, &c. you have known by the means of plaister ?
Query 10. Have you ever used it with other manure, and what ? — and the effects if any superior to the plais- ter alone ?
Answer. 9, and 10. In the foregoing. Query 11. Is there any difference between the Euro- pean and American plaister ?
Answer. From the observations I have made, I prefer the American.
Although I may already have trespassed on thy pati- ence by the length and unconnected manner of treating the subject, my desire of communicating something useful on a subject which of all temporal concerns is the most beneficial to a nation, induces me to proceed; from my own observations, a piece of groimd used in the way of a garden, or indeed in any other tillage, per- haps several times a year for many years successively, although irequently manured, will not be as productive as a piece that has been under grass several years, and not
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had so much manure ; the former being much more subject to be injured by drought than the latter, from which I am of opinion, that to preserve the fertility of land it should lie under grass as long as it conveniently could, and to vary the kinds of manure and productions.
I am, sincerely thine.
John Sellers.
Richard Peters, Esq.
Answers to Queries on Plaister of Paris, by Mr. Edward , Duffield, of Lower Dublin Township, Philadelphia County.
Dear Sir,
I received your favor of July 20th, 1796, containing a number of queries respecting plaister of Paris, viz.
Query 1. How long have you used the plaister of Paris ?
Answer. Every year since ] 783.
Query 2. In what condition was your land when you began the use of it ?
Answer. It was under timothy grass rather poor, but was improved with three bushels to an acre the first year, the next year it was better, the third year about equal to the first, the fourth year I repeated the plais- ter at four bushels to an acre, when it was very good, at least two and an half tuns from an acre, and continu- ed so several years. This lot hath been plaistered five times since 1783, and is yet good.
Query 3. What quantity per acre have you general- ly used ?
Answer. From three to five bushels, according to the soil; if sandy three bushels; and more if loamy.
Query 4. What soils are the most proper for this xnanure ?
Answer. Sandy or light loam.
Query 5. Have you repeated the application of it with or without ploughing — at what intervals, and with what effect ?
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On Plaister of Paris.
Answer. I have generally found a good effect from it on grass ground, by applying it every third or fourth year without ploughing, and on Indian corn with
ploughing. , u . -I
Query 6. Do you find that it renders the earth sterile
after its useful efitcts are gone ?
Answer. .\'ot in the least decree that I could ever
perceive.*
Query 7. To what products can it be best applied ?— grain and what kinds ?— grasses and what kinds ?
Jnsiver. Its effect is immediate upon grass of all kinds, and upon Indian corn ; and upon all other kinds of grain the year following, when it is well mixed with the soil by ploughing, &c.
Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ? Answer. As clover is generally put in with barley or oats, I think the best time to apply the plaister is as soon as the barley or oat is taken off. as it gives a good growth to the clover before the winter sets in, which is apt to injure it when small. It may be put upon a sward at any time, and upon Indian corn as soon as it is up, and
*' Mr, Duffield's son, and successor on the farm, does not continue of his opinion. There must be some peculiarity, or shiftof circumstances, of a local nature. All my inquiries, else- where, result in the elder Mr. Duffield's opinion Perhaps, like /imc, plaister maybe used too long. I never found it so. But dung, or other animal or vegetable substances, must be applied with the gypsum, as often as its operation is required:
more especially aiter frequent repetitions.
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scattering three or four bushels per acre over the whole ground is best.*
Query 9. What is the greatest product you have known by the means of plaister ?
Answer. Of hay three tuns per acre ; as to corn I cannot say, as I have generally used dung as well as plaister.
Query 10. Have you ever used it in connexion with other manure, and does it agree with lime ?— and what effect has a connection with other manures produced superior to the plaister alone ?
j4nswer. I have never tried it in a compost with lime or other manures.
Query 11. Its duration?
Answer. Its effect is perceivable for four or five years.
Query 12. Is there any difference in quahty between the American and European plaister ?
Answer. I have used both without being able to dis- (iover any ; but have been informed that the Stucco
* This is the best though the most expensive way, as the roots of the corn spread far i'rom the hill, and fill the field at one stage or other of the growth of the plant. But it re- quires good tilth to keep down the weeds. Nothing requires more clean farming than corn, which is seldom ploughed often enough. Only those who have experienced it, can con- ceive the wonderful increase of corn, with a ploughing extra- ordinary after wheat harvest i if it is done when the weather IS moist. In a drought it is rather dangerous.
R. P.
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workmen and. the French burr milKstone manufac- turers prefer the American, as having a more binding quality ; whether that makes it a better manure I can- not say. -
You remark that « it is said in an English work, that plaister is composed of a mineral acid and a calcareous earth, and that it is good or bad according to the pre- valence or deficiency of the latter." I think it is of the former and not of the latter, because it would require a xnuch greater quantity of the latter (perhaps twenty five or thirty cart loads) to bring about the wonderful affects of three or four bushels of plaister.
\ou will find by Dr. Bergman, who has analyzed this fossil, that it contains twenty two parts water, thirty three parts calcareous earth, and forty five parts vitriolic acid* And you will also find in a small work of Dr. Home of Edinburgh, upon the principles of vegetation a variety of accurate experiments conti- nued for the space of four years, in order if possible, to discover the food of plants, the result of which was, that it is a compound of oils, salts and acids.
If these gentlemen are right, we may conclude, that the wonderful effects of the plaister are occasioned by the great quantity of acid it contains, and that clover, above all other plants, requires the most acid in us food,
* See hereafter Ingenhausz's theory of the supposed effects
of oil of vitriol on vegetation. v • n
See also the new theory of the carbonic aci^T being chiefly -
the food of plants.
On Plaister of Paris.
57
as the greatest effect of the plaister is discoverable upon clover.*
Your most obedient,
Humble servant, ^
• Edward Duffield. Benjield, August I6th, 1796.
The Hon. Richard Peters, Esq.
* I was gratified by Mr. D's agreeing in an opinion I had long held, and frequendy mentioned to many others. I had conversations with Mr. D. since this answer. He, with me, tried many experiments with the view to this theory ; and both were confirmed in it : though he, as well as myself, were not reckoned orthodox, by chemical savans. They insisted that the gyps was an insoluble compound, and that the acid must be first disengaged (which no doubt it is) before it can
act*
September 1810.
R. P.
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Answers to Queries on Plaister of Paris ^ by the Rev. C. ffnarton, D. D. near fVdmington, in the Delaware State. jVow of Burl ngton JV. J.
Prospect Hill, August I9th, 1196.
»
Dear Sir^
Since I was favoured with yours of the 20th uh. I have made inquiries amonf^ those of the neighbouring farmers from whom I could expect any information respecting the naiure and effi^cts of the gypsum. Much use 1 find is made of it in tlic upper parts of this coun- try, where the land in general is hilly, and the soil sto- ney and thin, intermixed with a great proportion of isinglass. On these hills the effects of the gypsum are * astonishing especially when spread upon clover.
One bushel or one and a half at most, is sowed upon an acre, and its produce is more than doubled by this procedure. They do not discover that the soil is any ^vays impoverished by the gypsum, but on the contra- ry rendered more able to support a rotation of crops for two or three years. I could not learn that they rriix- ed it with any other kind of manure, or that they ex- perienced much benefit except upon clover lands. They always sow it early in the spring, and have no other than what is brought from Nova Scotia. From my own experience, I am fully convinced of the advantages aris- ing from this substance to some soils, and its inefficacy upon others. A narrow vein of dry gravel mixed with clav, runs throug-h the firm on which I live; on each sklc oi" it ihe land is rather wet and a cold clay. On this latter 1 could never perceive any tflFcct from the
On Plaister of Paris.
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gypsum, while the gravelly soil was so much bcefited by It, as to lurnish at least double its usual quantity of red clover. Some lots upon which it was spread three years ago, have not been manured since that time, and have already been mown twice this summer, and novv ex- hibit the appearance of an abundant third crop. They were mown also three times last summer, but never pastured. I have never spread the gypsum but early in the spring, though I make no doubt but sown in a wet season, it would be serviceable at any time. For two years I tried this manure upon Indian corn ; I first covered it in the hill with the corn, and the next year I applied it at the time of moulding, the quantity to each hill about a table spoonful. In both instances the corn assumed and retained a deeper green during the whole summer, than what grew around it upon land of the same quality. I think likewise that it vegetated quicker, but I could not perceive that the quantity of grain was increas- ed by this application.* To farmers therefore who are
* Dr. W. seems to carry the opinion, on this point, farther than Mr. Curvven. There may in some seasons be some foundation "or it; but I think the ears are, in general, evident- ly increased by the plaister, thoiiK;h it may at times operate in greater proportion on the plant. Any other manure will do the same thing, according to the season. We have some- times a great prolusion ol straw, and ot course small ears of wheat, on our dungecl, or new land. If land be too highly dunged, or naturally too rich, this is constandy the case. It depends therefore on the strength of the ground, or quantity of manure, as well as season, whether we shall obta n prain or l>lant in proper or undut" proportion. It would be well to
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On Plaister of Paris.
in the habit of re-planting their corn it may be service- able; but as I always fart mine and so have no occasion
manure some part ofa field with other substances, and plais- ter the rest, to compare the produce. This should be done for a course of three or ;our years, as in one or two seasons the weather may be more favorable to dung, &c. than plais- ter,or vice versa. My observations in general are against this opinion ; though I have, at times, thought the plant had a greater proportion of the benefit of the gyps, than the ears. Great attention should be paid to destroy the suckers ; which draw off the supplies both irom plants and ears.
R. P.
fTarring the seed corn is good against mice and birds, though it sometimes indurates and prevents the germ 'rom shooting; but the cut-worm, or grub -* will, notwithstanding, cut off many ol the young shoots above ground. A decoction of hel- lebore, m:xed with sulphur, soot, and a little nitre, is equal- ly offensive to vermin ; and i: the seed, after being soaked in ths mixture, is encrusted with plaister, it remarkably forwards the growth. As to r^-planting, it seldoms comes to much. Transplanting o\ plants raised in the garden, or any . clean and rich corner of the field, is much more el gible. This is easily managed, by sowing in drills a small quantity of corn, at the time of planting the field. If the plants are not wanted, the loss, or trouble, is inconsiderable. Plants may also be had trom hills in which too many seeds have been drop- ped. It is too common to have more plants in a hill than are
•Many person! aver, that fnn-owinp out tluir fields in squares, and leaving the halks un-
l)lo\ighed, till th. com requires tlmt they so should be, effectunlly guards against the grubs ; which
f«!«l on the grass and roots in the halks. It may Ik' so, hut this umishis an excuse to glovenly
farmers, and precludes fall ploughujg, and perfect cleaning Uie soil. The remedy, or preventive,
is worse tlian the disease.
R. P.
Sffitmber, 1810.
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fbr that tedious piece of business, I shall discontinue the application of it in future to Indian corn.
1 shall be very happy to see the wonderful effects of th.s substance (I know not if I may call it manure) ac- counted for in a rational manner. At any rate the dis- covery of its virtues is extremely important to the Ame- ncan farmer, as it increases at so easy a rate the quanti- ty oi his herbage, and consequently of that species of ma- nure upon which the success of his business prineipallv depends. My intention is to make further experiments with the gypsum, and you may depend upon my furnish- ing you with the results of them.
I have, dear Sir, the honor to be,
With much esteem and respect,
Your humble servant,
Charles H. Wharton. Hon. Richard Peters, Esq.
necessary or profitable. Three at the most are sufficient. Although I mention the places where the corn is dropped, by the common appellation ol /»7/,9, we have for the most part abandoned the old practice oi" /lillin^. We do not omit the necessary use o; tlie hoc, but >v-e earth and tend our corn chief- ly witli the plough.
R. P.
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Minutes of the Process and Result of sowing of Plaister of Paris, from the 3d of J/jriL 1788, until the 5th of May, 1195, by Algernon Roberts ^ of Merion Mont- gomery County.
Process. April 3c/, 1788. f)rizzly evening wind at east, moon's age twenty-five days; sowed a half peck of plaister upon twenty perches in the high fit Id ; the soil a light loam mixed with flinty gravel, in cultivation at least four score years, without any manuring in my memory. Sown with red clover seed the spring twelve- months before sowing with plaister.
Result. 1789. This spring a perceptible improvement; the ground being subject to blue grass, and that not sufficiently destroyed by cultivation, rendered the im- provement trifling.
Process. ApriUih. Drizzly morning wind eastwardly, moon's age twenty-six days, sowed eight bushels of plaister upon two acres in the upper end of the young or- chard ; the soil in part a stiff* and in part a light loam, under stratum generally a stiff* clay, in tillage at least sixty years. A few years previous to sowing with plais- ter, limed at the rate of forty bushels per acre, and manured at random with barn yard dung, say fifteen cart loads per acre ; red clover and timothy seed sown upon winter gram, both of which were much over-run with blue grass.
Result. 1788. Upon mowing both first and second crop, an improvement of at least four times the quanti- ty, and the quality as much improved as the quantity of grass; the trees as apparently improved as the grass; h. clover more benefited than the timothy; no percep tible diff*erence of improvement in the different soils
•
Process. April Ith. Hainy evening, wind at east moon's age one day ; sowed a half peck of plaister up on five perches in the high field • everv 1 ^
appHcatle to April 3d. excfpt the L^Z, "t^Z and situation rather level, although high. '
B.sult. 1789. Spring; as yet no perceptible odds Fall; a very perceptible difference ; but the observa; tions of the above may justly be applied to this aIi perceived no difference in the age of the moon wht owed plaister. I of course discontinued minuting it as a chimera unworthy of notice.
/>«.«.. April m. Sowed the peaeh 1„, wl.l, p|ai.,„ about i„„r bu*e,s per acre, i„ coltivation „« CT.L n»«y years ; the soil a stiff ,oa„, „„,er stratunT t <ent,ye elay, ,„ard red and white elo.er. and green l!!
mihty of the soil very good; peach trees fust beT
ning to bear. ^ ^^^m^
Best^t. 1788. An improvement equal to the youn^ orchard ; the peach trees apparenUy benefited. ^
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On Plaister of Paris.
Process. April 8th. Sowed several spots in my mea- dow with plaister, at the rate of about four bushels per acre ; the soil in general a light loam, in parts inclining to a gritty gravel, although in parts so flat as to incline to stagnate waters ; under grass I believe at least fifty years, little or no manure put on it in my memory; quantity about five acres, about two whereof is watered with frebh spring water imitiediately from the spring head. Sward a mixture of red and white clover, and timothy, with many natural grasses.
Hesult. 1788. The improvement at least four fold, except in places on which the water stagnated for want of fall to carry it off, when I perceived no benefit from the plaister ; the clover more improved than the natural grasses ; the watered banks as much benefited as the unwatered, the water kept of after sowing till the opera- tion of the plaister was perceived, after which time it was watered as usual.
Process. 1798. April 6th. Sowed two bushels of plais- ter upon the peach lot sown before April 8th, 1788.
Pesult 1789. I believe no improvement, but continu- cd good. r
Process. April 20th. Finished sowing my meadow with plaister about four bushels per acre ; observations of April 8th, 1788, in general applicable.
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Hesult. 1789. As benefirJal oo ^u
^5 oenencial as the parts sown last
foils ''' °'^^""'^"^ °^ ^^- ^^- «PPl-bt
Process April 20th. Sowed that part of the young orchard wuh plaister that was left unsown the 4th of to this. ^^^^ '' *^' °'''"'"^^"°"« "Pon that part apply
Hesult. 1789. The same as last year.
Process. June 8th. Sprinkled two bushels of plais tcr upon about six acres of Indian corn ; an old tilled unmanured, gritty gravel soil. *
Hesult. A considerable improvement.
Process. August lUh, 1789. Sowed half a bushel of plaister upon about forty perches of buckwheat just sproutmg up ; soil light loam, old land and very poor.
Pesult 1789. No perceptible improvement.
Process. April 15th, 1790. Sowed two bushels of ©f plaister upon the peach lot.
Mr. Roberts continues in the opinion that plaister doe;^ htde for natural grasses. See 2d. vol. Page 121.
September., 1810. ^' ^'
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On Plaister of Paris.
Result. Continued good, I believe; not improved
V
from last year.
Process. April \5th. Sowed twelve bushels of plais- ter upon five acres of the young orchard, sown before the 4ih of April, 1788.
Result. 1790. No perceptible improvement, the clo- ver and timothy being over-run with blue grass.
Process. April eth, 1791. Sowed twenty-eight bushels of plaister upon the field above the orchard ; quantity sixteen acres ; soil a light loam, in parts mixed with a flinty, and in parts with a gritty gravel, under tillage at least sixty years ; a few years before sowing with pbister, limed at the rate of about forty bushels per acre, and several times in my memory manured with barn yard dung in parts, and lightly sown whh red clo- ver seed the 9th of April, 1789 ; the roots much injur- ed by a hard winter, but a profusion of young clover shooting up. .
Result. 1791. Although a dry and unfavourable sea- son for pasture, considerably improved in the fore part of the season, and ve.) greatly in the laticr part.
Process. April I5th. Sowed four bushels of plaister upon one a ,c, an half acre of the lot before the door; the soil a light loam, under tillage a century, and always,
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with bam yard dung ; sward fresh clover. Jiesult. 1791. As favourable as any heretofore.
plaister upon the peach lot.
Result. 1792. Still continued good.
ter^Itthe ■ ft f '^- ^°"^' '''' ""-^^^ -"h plais- ter, at the rate of four bushels
m 1789.
per acre; sown before
^tt^Il^;-^'^' '-'--'' '- -^<i"^
Process. 1793. Sowed one and an half bushel of plaister upon the peach lot.
Jesuit. 1793. Continued good, but no perceptible improvement from last year. ^
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frms. April 1«, 1793. Sowed 8ve and an half
^ZtV """"»'■*«« April 6>,, .792. in dll. age about ten years, and limed tivo years.
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1796. Upon mowing the first crop, the clover nearly
run out ; good crop of timothy.
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Process. April 2d. Sowed seven bushels of plaister upon the loi before the door, sown before with plaister the 13th of April, 1791.
Result. 1793. Equally improved with the first sowing. 1796. Clover almost over run with blue grass. ♦
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Process. April Qth. Sowed twenty-eight bushels of plaisu-r upon the upper field ; quantity fourteen acres sown with red clover seed the i9th of March, 1792 ; in tillage eighty years ; limed in the fall of 1790 ; and in parts lightly manured with dung ; sod a light ism- glass loam', with a small part mixed with gritty and flint) gravel. r.^-r
Eesult. 1793. Perfectly equal, if not superiorly im- proved with any heretofore; no perceptible difference between any of the differo .t qualitied soils.
1796 N B. This field was so remarkably unfavour- able to pasture, that it would not have subsisted fourteen sheep reputably through the season, although it is now one of the best of my pasture fields.
Process. April ItK 1794. Suwed twenty-five bushels of plaister upon fifteen acres in tlu sand fi^^l'l;'" ''"^S^ *t least fifty vears; limed in the falls of 1789 and 792, a about forty bushcis per acre each ume ; the soil a light
On Plaister of Paris.
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loam, and excessively poor before liming; sown with clover seed March 18th, 1793.
t.
Result. 1794. Improvement no ways inferior, if not superior, (the extreme poverty of the soil considered) to any heretofore.
N, B. 1796. The pasture considerably declined, al- though very good compared to its former state.
3
Process. April m, 1795. Sowed twelve bushels of plaister upon the young orchard sown with red clover and timothy seed March 11th, 1794; and ploughed, limed and dunged since sowing it with plaister, in April, 1790.
Result. 1795. The improvement perfectly equal to the hrst sowing.
Process. April 8th. Sowed the peach lot witii two bushels ol plaister, being the sixth time in seven years Without any other manure or tillage. '
Result. 1796. Upon mowing first crop appears equally good with any other crop heretofore ; which to- gether with many other experiments, convinces me that a repetition of plaister without an addition of any other manure, will not injure, if it does not improve the crops of grass.
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Process. April IZth. Sowed thirteen and an half bushels of plaister upon six acres in the strawberry
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On Plaister of Paris.
field; limed in the spring of 1790, and well dunged in the summer of 1793 ; in tillage at least sixty years ; soil a light and stony loam, sown with clover seed in March, 1794.
Result. 1796. The improvement so great, that after pasturing it down early in the spring, the appearance is in favour of mowing a good crop of grass, which I intend to do.
Process. May 5th. 1795. Sowed thirty-three bushels of plaister upon about eighteen acres of the far field, limed in the year 1793, and sown with clover upon oats in the spring of 1794 ; soil a light isinglass loam, and excessively poor before liming ; in tillage at least seven- ty years.
Result. 1796. The improvement equal to any of the soils of equal fertility.
Process. I have tried many other experiments with plaister, upon several kinds of grain, flax, and garden vegetables, but with such various and trifling success, as to discourage me from a farther continuation of ihem.
(tJ" I have unfortunately mislaid a letter from Mr. Heckewelder, of Bethlehem, giving an account of the use of plaister on the Brethren's farms there, by Mr. Bcidel and another, their superintendants. It is confir-
On Plaister of Paris.
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tTce n7 1^'7^^°""^^ •'^'•-'" before given, of the prac- tice of other farmers. The farm at Bethlehem consists
0 oam, and other soils fit for plaister, on a substra t of hme s one. I have known several of the fields now in grass for near thirty years. I think Mr. Beidel has used plaister near twelve years. The appearance of the grounds now under clover, was so much superior last summer when I saw them, to their former aspect, that
1 was surprised at the contrast. Nothing can exceed some of these g.-ounds. The low meadows on the Ma- nacasey, which were formerly neat and in high order appeared comparatively neglected, and some of them in very bud condition. I asked Mr. B. the reason of this alteration. He uiformed me that the advantages derived Irom the plaister on the up-lands, were so great, that It was questionable whether he should pay any fur- ther attention to the low meadows, except as grazing grounds. * o &
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Answers to Queries on the Subject of Plaister of Paris^ as a Manure; by Richard Peters, ofBlockley Town- shipj Philadelphia County.
Query 1. How long have you used the plaister of
Paris, as a manure ?
* Jtiswer. About twenty-five years. I was among the first who began the use of it in Pennsylvania.
Query 2. In what condition was your land when
you began to apply it ?
, Mswer. Worn out by long and bad culture ; full of weeds and other noxious plants ; some annual, others
perennial.
Query 3. What quantity per acre have you general-
ly used ?
Answer. From four to six bushels, at one strewin-g, I have formerly thought the proper quantity per acre ; but lately I have not commonly exceeded three bushels. I have had as much effect from two bushels, as from any greater quantity per acre, when season and other favourable circumstances combined. It is difficult to fix the requisite quantity, as effect much depends on acci- dents of weather, &c. which cannot be calculated with any certainty. There appears to be a certain point in the operation of plaister, which is not gained by addi- tional quantity, so much as by a combination with ex- traneous circumstances, difficuk to trace or account for, . When this point of saturation is arrived at, I ques-
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On Plahtfir of Paris.
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tion whether any increase of quantity will extend the effects, ^a^
(a J On the principle that gyfs is a salt, [vide note r.] a id salts check fermentation when applied in too great quantities, it may be presumed, that the requisite quantity ot plaister, is regulated by the fermentable putrelymg substances it finds in the earth on which it is strewed. L these be scarce, a great fl[uantity of plaister, beyond what is necessary to operate with them, is hurtful. I remember to have sowed, on a strip across afield, some years ago, a great dressing oi^la.ster; perhaps in the proportion o\ ten bushels to the acre. This strip prO" duced little or nothing, till I dunged the field for wheats twa 4r three seasons after the over dose of plaister. I was surpris- ed by this small strip recovering itseL, and remaining for years superior to any other part of the field. Yet I have heard of ten bushels to the acre, being strewed to good effect.* But I know not the state of the ground, as to the pabulum for the gyps. I never lound it beneficial, to sow the plaistef in any such quantity.
I, many years ago, divided half an acre of ground into square perches, to try the effects of common salt. I began by scattering a proportion ot two bushels of salt to the acre, increasing the quantity on every perch. I numbered the di- visions, and kept an account of salt sown, and the produce of wheat with which the whole was sowed. I have not the me- morandum of this experiment at hand, but I think the wheat dwindled with eight bushels to the acre, and nothing grew after, I believe, the proportion of twelve bushels of salt. I mention it now, because it seems analogous to the present subject ; for I recovered the ground by moderate dunging. The spot salted might be perceived for many years after^
* On inqwry I round this was a S^HembcTt 1810.
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On Pthtster'of Paris.
Query 4. What soils are the most proper for this ma-
nure.
Answer. Light soils, dry and sandy, or loamy. On
clay I never succeed, though I have heard of its being
used on clay with a degree of success Y*>' On wet soils
I have always failed. I have strewed it on mossy swamps.
On elevated spots in these swamps, it has killed the
moss and thrown up white clover wonderfully; but has
done nothing where the water around these spots con-
(^^J Where it has any success on clay, it is rare. The Presi- dent (whose lands at Mount Vernon and in its neighbourhood, are generally strong clay, or inclining thereto,) has frequently told me, that he has always been unsuccessful with plaister. I think he has tried it from one as far as twenty bushels to the acre, without any kind of benefit. That I might be accu- rate in this account, at my request, he was pleased to in!nrm me, that he had "tried the plaister of Paris on his land (which is stiff and cold) at the rate of from one to twenty bushels to the acre.— It has been spread on grass and plough- ed land On the latter it has been ploughed in ;— harrow-
ed in with a common tined harrow ; bush harrow :— and not harrowed at all. The effects in either and all the cases, were not more than if he had taken up as many bushels oi the same eardi and scattered them again over the suriace of the ground. Yet he beUeves inland is a friend to gypsum as a manure:'
wards, by the extraordinary verdure of the grass (chiefly white clover) which grew spontaneously on it.*"
• Th'fe cxpeAment i, allnded to in my communication on salt. 2 vol. Memoiit. 173. But by a typographical ^,rror,pouruh aie imerted for busheU. I weut a» for a» 20 buAels.to the a«t^^or m that proportion) most uselessly and injuriomly. * *
Septetriber, 1810.
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On Plaister of Paris.
75
' »
tinned on the ground in the smallest degree. I have heard of some instances to the contrary, but none have fallen under my observation.
Query. 5. Have you repeated the application of it with or without ploughing ?— at what intervals, aud with what effects ?
Query. 6. do you find that it renders the earth ste- rile after its useful effects are gone ?
Ansiver. I have beneficially repeated the application with and without ploughing; but I succeed best in a repetition after cultivating, and dressing slightly with sta- ble manure, or with ploughing in green manures. I have ploughed in buckwheat in full blossom (which in a fort- night or three weeks, often in less time, becomes putrefi- ed and converted into excellent manure, having under- gone a violent fermentation) and sowed winter grain, on which I have sowed clover seed ; and having strewed plaister on the clover, similar, if not greater effects, have been produced than were received from the first dressing. Ploughing in clover affords a pabulum for the plaister, which fails often in mellow grounds in fine tilth, where the putrefied substances are scarce, or have been exhausted by ploughing and frequent exposure. In short, I find it must have something to feed on, as some farmers express it. In the first application, it has the decayed roots of vegetable substances it finds in the earth. 1 perceive no greater degree of sterility after plaister, than after dung. All manures are stimulants, and leave the earth wearied and vapid, from the exer- tions they have excited. Stable dung as bad as any if
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On Plaister of Paris.
not worse ; as it leaves the ground full of weeds, unless it be sufficiently rotted, or used in compost Yr>>
Query. 7. To what products c^n it be most profita- bly applied? — grain and what kinds?
fcj It is as much on account of its containing the seeds of weeds^ as its supposed inieriority in other respects, that the Chinese neglect the dung oi horses and cattle, as we do hu- man excrements. But they provide every where, " covered reservoirs for storing up what is dropped, in most countries, uselessly in the privies and streets," Ingenhausz is apparen- tly extravagant in his preference oi human alvine and urinous ejections, to those ot horses and catde. He goes so tar as to suppose, that these ejections from an individual, will manure as much ground as would produce more vegetables than he could consume ; and by selling the superfluous portion, he might purchase enough o I other lood, to render the vegetables palatable. However improbable this may appear, there may possibly be more solidity in the observation, than our inexpe- rience, and perhaps ideas oi delicacy will permit us to believe. The Chmese have as much knowledge of practical agricul- ture, as any people in the world. Their immense population compels them to concentrate their efforts to this point, so as to raise the most off the smallest possible portion o: ground. Antipathy, and habits of using other manures, will prevent our following the Chinese, in their practice of manuring. Lime, burnt clay, calcareous earths of all kinds, and even com- mon earth, deprive the most putrid and nauseous substances of their disagreeable qualities, and assist them in promoting sweet and wholesome vegetation. Night soil is so strong, that a fi th part is a sufficient proportion or a compost ; and it should never be used by itseli. Two loads, mixed with t^|i of earth, and one of lime, are sufficient for an acre.
On Plaister of Paris.
77
Answer. 1 never found any beneficial effects from strewing it on winter grain.rrf>^ It is useful for all legu- minous plants, (buckwheat, a bastard legume) flax, hemp, rape, and other plants, whose seeds produce oil. It is also beneficial for most products of the kitchen garden and fruit trees ; Indian corn and turnips. Oat and barley seed wet, and covered with as much plaister as will ad- here to them, are much benefited. I have found litde or no use in a top dressing of plaister, on either of these latter grains. It is generally most profitably used for red clover; though it will do excellent service to any grass.* White clover, being the natural grass of most countries, in certain soils, is most commonly thrown up by plaister, (as it is by several other manures) though there was no appearance of this grass before the appli- cation.
Query 8. When is the best time to scatter it ?
Answer. I have sown it in most seasons of the year. If strewed in the fall, and a dry frosty winter succeeds * much of the plaister is blown away. I have found it answer well, if sown at any time from the beginning of February to the middle of April, in misty weather. I I have frequently sown it on the snow in February,
CdJ See my remark on query 10th, which shews the opera- tion on clover, so as to ruin the wheat crop sowed with it.
* This assertion is too broad. I doubt its efficacy on grasses, others than those of the treifoil tribe. At least there are many grasses on which it has no effect.
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September^ 1810.
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' On Plaister of Paris.
and it has done well. Some do not sow it till the vege- tation begins. It seems to me, that if strewed at any season, it will have an effect; though, perhaps in a greater or less degree, according to the state of the weather, or other accidental ca.uses.Ce J
■«■«
' CO I believe that all manures put on as top dressings, are most beneficial in the spring ; %yhen the plant is active, and draws in the food they supply. Dung, or other manure, laid on superficially in the autumn or winter, loses nnich by the washmgsof the winter rams, &c. It can do litde serv.ce while the plant is torpid, except as a cover trom irost, and by depositing what ^ kit ot its salts and juices, ready to act on the plant when vegetation begins. ^^^
I am inclined to believe, from more attentive experience since, that my opinion, stated in the foregoing note, .s not generally founded in fact ; though the theory appeared to me plausible. I have been highly benefited by both compost and dung, as top dressings, in the autumn.- On one^field, I left a part to be covei-ed in the spring ; alter most of the ground had been dunged in the fall. The effect was greatly m layour of that dunged in the autu.^n. Plough.ng in manure, w.ll ef- fectually prevent its washmg away by winter rams. But I think the shelter given by dung or compost to the grass, or grain, as a top dressing, and the mixing of the salts or component parts of the dung, or comppst,by means of frosts and thaws in winter, with the earth, far. overbalance any loss by the washings of winter rains. The evaporation which carries off the volatile parts of the manure, is certainly less in winter, than in spring, or summer. With plaister strewed . in winter, I have succeeded as well as in any other season of strewing. September^ 1810.
On Plaister of Paris.
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Query. 9. What is the greatest product of grass per acre, you have known by the means of plaister?
Answer. As much as from any other manure. ^ I I never weighed, or kept an exact account. I think I have had five tuns per acre, at two cuttings, in one season ; and I have sometimes cut a third crop ; though I seldom do this, as I prefer feeding the third growth. The hay is in my opinion better than that produced by dung. The cattle waste less of it. I have dunged part of a field and plaistered the residue. The catde and horses will reject the grass on the dunged part, while they can get the smallest bite off that plaistered. I have never desired over luxuriant crops of grass. The hay of these is not so nutritive as that of a moderate growth. The stock will not consume it to advantage, though I often salt it. I am content if I get a tun and an half, at a cutting on the acre. This will stand well to the scythe, and does not, like over luxuriant grass, die, rot, or become feculent and musty at the root.
Query 10. Have you ever used it on ground dressed with other manure, and what? and the effects if any superior to the plaister alone?
Answer. The answers to five and six comprehend, for the most part, what I have to say on this query. In England, it is said the plaister fails where the " land has been limed :(f) that it operates best on virgin soils*
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CfJ It is said in a late English publication, that the gypsum chiefly consists of a mineral acid and a calcareous earth ; and as the one or the other prevails, it is good or bad.
^ See note page, 48.
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On Plaister of Paris.
and does not answer on lands which have been long under tillage." We find the direct contrary effects here. It is true we do not lime here, nearly as highly as they do in England. Our lands will not bear so much lime as theirs. We have as good and as bad land, as that of any part of the world. The poorer the land, the less litnc it will bear. But our best land wiU not admit of so much lime at two dressings,* as I have understood they put on in England, at once. Whether our lime is stronger, or our climate less favourable to it, I cannot tell A difference of climate may have an operation on plaister, as it has on products. Vegetation is here more rapid than that of England, and of course our harvests earlier. The straw of their wheat is, I believe, Eenerally shorter than thaton our freshor manured lands, Ld the ears larger and fuller, where the wheat is good} for they are not without a due proportion of bad wheat, with light and small grains. So that we do not generally cet so much wheat off an acre, as they do. But our wheat yields a greater proportion of flour. It is not so flinty, is thinner skinned, and of course we have less offal and more flour. Our grain grinds more lively, and without kiln drying. Much of their wheat requires kiln drying, before it can be ground to advantage and especially grain intended for exportation; owmg to its qualities produced by moisture and other circumsUn- ces of climate. In Ireland their grain, ground at their best mills, is generally kiln dryed. We know neuhe the necessity nor use of kilns in our mills, except for
r I 'r.^ tai«loTer limed, or limed tot •««», may be reftorwl, • I miglit have said three or four dressings. Land oter iimea, ^^
Vy green nuuiurei ploughed in, or dung. Stptemher^ I8ie.
On Plaister of Paris*
81
Indiaii corn. On the contrary, our mUlers sometimes damp the wheat, to prevent the bran from being ground so fine ^s to pass through the cloth, and speckle the flour. This account is given to shew the effects of mois- tyre in the English and Irish climate, in comparison with that of our country. I believe that plaister will nojt answer so well in a moist, as in a moderately dry cli- mate. A very wet season here, is not the most favourable to plaistered grounds. The advantages of the g}'ps, over other manures, are most perceptible in dry seasons. I doubt, however, be the effects of climate what they may, either on products or manures, whether in England, the plaister has had a long or fair trial. I find, by some late English publications, that the knowledge of it is not extensive, and its use confined to a few agriculturists ; some of whom give the most flattering accounts of their success in its application.
Many of my fields are limed as highly as they will « bear. Some part of my land is fresh ; a small part re- mains in an exhausted state. I apply the plaister to all, and do not find any difference unfavourable to that which has been limed. Some years ago, I sowed clover with wheat in the autumn, on a field highly limed. I plais- tered a part of this field, on the clover and wheat ; the whole having had a light dressing of dung. The succeeding season, the plaister threw up the clover in such profusion as to choak the wheat crop, in a great degree. I lost my wheat on the plaistered part, as I mowed, not being able to reap, the crop. The wheat on the other part was excellent, and the clover of moderate growth. I am aware that part of my misfor- tune in the loss of the wheat, may be attributed to the
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clover getting too fonvard, tiy being sown at the season of seeding wheat. Yet a comparison with that in the same field not plaistered, sufficiently shewed the effects of the gypsum. 1 have not repeated this mode of sowing clover, which I then practised to avoid the loss I had sustained from late frosts, which sometimes de- stroy the young clover, sown on wheat in the winter.
Some farmers object to sowing plaister on the clo- ver sown on winter grain, while the grain is in the ground ■,CgJ and do not strew the plaister till the next season. Perhaps this may be best. But I have met with no loss by strewing the plaister on the clover and wheat, when the clov«r seed was sown on the wheat m February. On the contrary, in a dry spring, it has saved my young clover, and forwarded the grass, so as to enable me to mow a tolerable crop in the autumn next after the wheat harvest, which, being cut with the stubble, 1 have given, in the winter, to dry cattle. What^ they rejected, increased my dung heap. It has been,* however, most common with me, to sow the plaister m the spring hext succeeding the grain harvest.*
• /
re- ) It is an opinion, perhaps founded in prejudice, among some farmers, that its quality of attracting moismre, assists in producing mildew. I have had fields plaistered, and those .vhich were not, equally mildewed, and equally free from .t, in the same seasons, according as the mildew prevailed or not, in the country surrounding my farms.
* This is now, and haslong been, my practice. I have found sowing the plaister on the clover and wheat too hazardou^.
September^ 1810.
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On Plaister of Paris.
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Query 11. Its duration?
Answer. When it throws up gentle and moderate crops, its efficacy is of the longest duration. If it is vio- lent in its first operation, it is of short continuance. I have known it exhaust itself in one year. But I haVe had benefit from one dressing of three or four bushels to the acre, for five or six years, gradually decreasing in its powers. I prolong tlie efficiency of dung, by plaistering the second or third year, when the clover, on dunged or any other ground, begins to fail. Perhaps the scattering it annually, or every other year, in small portions, will continue for a length of time gentle ope- rations, and prevent -violent eflbrts. I have heard of some who have practised sowing it frequently, and in small quantities, and obtained good crops of grass for twelve years and upwards.
The weeds of our fields, /^A^/ which have been at former periods under bad culture, forbid their laying in grass,
(^AjThe Japanese^ as well as the Chinese^ reject the dung of horses and cattle, because they contain the seeds of weeds, and . vise night soil, which their laws compel diem to save. " Their fields are for this reason, (among others) so free from weeds, that a celebrated botanist, passing lately through Japan, with the Dutch embassy, could scarcely find any other plants on the com fields, but the corn itself." Ingenhausz /oijc^ of plants^ page 15. li what has been quoted on this subject will have no other effect on our practice, it ought to warn us to be more careful in rotting or composting our dung of horses, &c. and to prevent the seeds of weeds mixing with our manure. Nothing in this country is in so miserable a stile as the mis- management (with some exceptions) of our stercoraries. The
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especially if only pastured, so long as it would be otherwise desirable. Cutting annual weeds, before they seed, will destroy them. Perennials cut at proper peri- ods, may in a great degree be conquered. At any rate, their seeding may be prevented ; and the old stock de- stroyed by ploughing. But the abominable custom of suffering weeds, briars, &c. to grow in comers and about fences, will forever afford nurseries of these pests, which will keep up a succession of these nm- sances, in fields otherwise well cukivated. The rotting of fences, articles of no small expence and labour, is not the least evil attending this negligent habit. The few farmers who are careful to destroy weeds in their own fields, are too often infested by those of their slovenly neighbours. In some parts of Europe there ' arc laws which authorize those who destroy weeds in their own, to cut those in the adjacent fields of an obstinate or negligent neighbour, and obtain summary process from a magistrate, to reimburse the expence. However unpalatable such laws might be here they shew that the destruction of weeds is considered highly important, in countries where a good ^^Ue of agri- culture prevaUs. The truth is, that a farmer should Be
dun^ is left exposed to rain and sun ; thrown about care- tl n our yards, when the catde do not drop it uselessly :te fields. The heaps, which are often n.ade in ho^s or lliw nlaces where the stagnant water prevents putretac hollow Pl^^;^J ^^ Jhed and trodden by our cattle,
tion, are permitted to p ^^^^
tZi., which .r. ™i„ou,ly d,sm.d to b. th. pe.u of our Mds, aoS Ihe deslrojers of our crops.
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On Plcnster of Paris.
85
in constant hostility against these formidable foes. His reward in & victory over them, will be a certain increase of his crops, v\ hich will be doubly benefited by every effort to destroy useless and noxious plants.
It would entitle any person to the gratitude of his fellow citizens, who could point out a mode of destroy- ing with the least expence and labour, the weeds which infest our fields. However contemptible it may appear on a slight view, it is an object worthy genius and in- dustry, to botanize for the perfect understanding of the nature and properties of weeds, for the purpose of their destruction. In my tours through this state for some years past, I have observed, with melancholy at- tention, the most destructive weeds, and particularly the St. John's Wort, overspreading our country. The ransted,* has now passed the mountains. The njore fertile the soil, the more it is subject to be over-run by them. Though I have subdued many, yet these weeds, and particularly the St. John's Wort,/^i>/ have baffled
* Toad-flax.
(ij Two well attended crops of Indian corn or potatoes, will conquer the old stock of this weed j but I have had, after I supposed it eradicated, a new growth from the seeds which had dropped, and remained in the earth. It grows from both roots, slips, and seed. I have destroyed this new growth by turning up the roots, by a shallow ploughing, to the trost of a severe winter. Those who have not yet been visited with this scourge, should be watchful to eradicate it, at any expence or labour, on its first approaches. A small degree of expence and attention will then prevent, what it is ex- tremely d fficult to remedy, when it has gained full posses- sion of their fields.
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0« Plaister of Paris.
my endeavours at their complete destruction. I have obtained temporary victories over them, bnt have yet to combat their ravages. I know of none in the pesti- ferous catalogue, so exhausting and destructive as the - St. John's Wort. Besides its being injurious to cattle and other stock, it is the greatest enemy the clover hus- bandry has to contend with. Plaister will, by forward- ing the red and white clover, and other grasses, over- power many weeds ; but it has little, if any effect on the St. John's Wort, or ransted.
Query 12. Is there any difference between the Ame- rican and European plaister ?
Jnswer. I have in general found the European plais- ter the best. But 1 have used the Nova Scotia (the only American plaister 1 am acquainted with) to equal advantage. 1 know not whether there has been any chemical analysis of these plaisters, to enable us to mdge of their relative qualities. The quarries m Nova Scotia may turn out better the more they are worked and explored. There is a variety in the American plais- ter, some being much better than others.*
*The Nova Scotia plaister I have used for many years. 1 find it equal to any imported from Europe. I have seen very little plaister from Europe ot late years ; as that from Nova Scotia answers all agricultural purposes perlectly.^And I believe all other uses, September^ 1810.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS
ON
PLAISTER OF PARIS.
> .»
t I
THE prejudices for and against this manure are equally violent; and their is no way of correcting them, but by the results draw^n from sober and continued experience. In Germany, where this fossil has been the longest known and used, opinions have been very opposite, and many of them very absurd and ridicu- lous. Not only sorcery and witchcraft have been charg- ed on those who used the plaister, but it has been said by some wor^derjully wise people there, that it produced or attracted thunder and lightning. Some of the petty princes of that country have made edicts against the use of it, urged, perhaps, by the bigotry of its opponents, and the unfounded German adage : "that it makes rich fathers and poor children." The peasants have, how- ever, in opposition to these weak and tyrannical prohi- bitions, sown the plaister on their fields in the night. I have seen a treatise in German, on the subject of gyp- sum, as applied to agricuhure, containing many excel- lent observations and useful lessons, mixed with some
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On Plaister of Paris.
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anecdotes and discussions, sufficienUy amusing, to cheer one through dissertations, on a topic apparently insipid
and unentertaining.
After all that our present experience enables us to say, we have much to learn on the qualities and effects of the gypsum, as it relates to agriculture. I have known it produce no effect for four years, and then throw up a xnost astonishing vegetation ; and this after repeated ploughings, for both winter and summer crops. In a field now in clover, I perceive it most luxuriant, where Indian corn hills were plaistered with no effect on the
corn, four or five years ago. This is one among many
instances I have had in my own fields, and have heard
from other farmers, of similar effects, r^r^
Whatever be the cause, dew will remain on a part
of a grass field plaistered, an hour or two in a morning.
after all moisture is evaporated from the part of the
same field not plaistered. I have also frequently seen his effect in my garden beds, which, if plaistered, will
rk)M^y not this be accounted for, by supposing that the ( kj may over-charge tor the
operative principle in the piaister.wd wu.^^ ;* ^id
fermentable substances then in Ae earth ; and that . d.d 2^t find enough of these substances to operate on.unt,! he tl when it'produced the vegetation here mentioned?- \y'ide note frj.]* ,
d„ng«l . fieW, «bieh had been l''-^'"' ,™ *1~"^' ';;'^ y^ been lavUh.y U.«.«n ... .he hill, ; and, unta the duug WW "PPlKd, femvned m con.b
page 174.
SeptenUfcrt 1810.
Pf) plaister qf J^aris.
89
retain moisture, in the driest seasons, when there is not the least appearance of it in those beds whereon no plaister was strevved. Jf water be, according to an old flj as well as modern opinion, " almost all in all^^^ in the ^od of vegetables, the plaister attracts, or retains, abundant supplies. ^m>^ . ■
1 4q pqt like the plai^J^pr ground too fine. It flies away in strewing, and is not so durable as that fpoderate- ly pulverized. 1 think it sufficiently fine, if it be grounjl so as to produce twenty bushels to the tun. It i^ most common now, to make twenty -four or twenty-five bush- els of a tun.^??>^ 1 haye endeavoured to prevent the finer
flj Lord Bacon*
(m) Ingenhausz is of opinion, that water is only a vehicle of the food of plants, and by no means the true nourishment of animals or vegetables,— the less so, as several plants c^ live without being in contact with water. Essay on the food of plants, page 1. But Chaptal thinks water so essential, that he says, (page 448, Philadelphia edition) " A plant cannot vegetate without the assistance of water ; and that it is the only aliment the root draws from the earth.''
CnjAs a caution to farmers, I mention, that, at a late trial of a cause in Bucks, between the buyer and seller of a horse, it appeared in evidence, that, after his death, several stonc/J, weighing in the whole 15 pounds (one of them 7 pounds) were found in the rectum and other viscera of that animal ; and these were said to have occasioned his death. In ano- ther instance (in the neighbourhood) of the death of a horse, 17 pounds weight of similar stones were found in his intes- tines. The proprietors of these horses had their horse-feed, for a length of time, chopped at a miU where plaister was ^ound ; and the grain for horse feed chopped by the same
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90
On Plaister of Paris.
parts from being blown away, by damping it. But I do not find that it can, in this state, be so equally dis- tributed; it being apt, when thus damped, to collect in lumps.
It should always be remembered, that calcination, however necessary it may be to make cement of plais- ter, lessens, if not destroys, its agricultural xis^^.foj
We have a simple mode of trying the quality of plaister. We put a quantity pulverized, into a dry pot over the fire ; and when heated, it emits a sulphureous smell. If the ebullition (arising from whatever cause, be it the escape of air, or dissipation of its water of chrystallization) is considerable, it is good. If it be
pair of mill stones. This circumstance, and the appearance of the petri factions, have occasioned a belief, that they were formed by collections of plaister, mixed with the feed, and taken in therewith by the horses, irom time to time. This opinion may not be well founded ; as calculi are produced in animals from other causes. But such calculi consist gene- rally of urinous partxles ; and are iound in the bladder or kidneys. They have not commonly foreign matter ior their hasis; though it sometimes happens otherwise. The bare pos- sibility of it should produce circumspection, to avoid the dan- ger of such accidents.*
Co J [Vide ChaptaVs Chemistry vol. 1, pa^e 212.] Where the analysis of the gyps is g ven, and it is said that it loses 20 per cent^ by calcination. Chemists say it loses only its water of chrystallization.
• Since I have discovered the violently purgative quaUty of the plaister, I doubt that these cat- cu« were fonned of the calcareous,or other, partof the gypium. Let thoae better qualified decide. Stftember, 1810. ^* ^*
Onjpjai^ter of Paris.
91
small, it is indifferent. If it remains an inert mass, like sand, it is worthless.
One might suppose, from this rude experiment, that plaister was good or bad, according to the quantity of' phlogiston it contained.* When phlogiston was iti fashion (for its existence is now denied) it was said to be a considerable ingredient in the food of plants. See Young^s experiments, in his Annals, on this point^ It may be also, that the greater the proportion of cal. careous earth, which absorbs the vitriolic acid in its composition, the better the gypsum. Some have suppo- sed mineral acids to be inimical to vegetation ; while others have asserted, that the vitrolic acid will greatly
* Although some of the theoretical ideas I have hazarded^ have since been useful in prosecuting practical experiments ; I should have omitted many of them, had I been enabled to accomplish my design of condensing the whole of what is now known, into a short and regular system. I leave them as they are, though some speculations might be suppressed* I believe Mr. Toung does not now value the experiments he exhibited, to prove phlogiston to be the iood oi plants.-— Practical farmers do best, when they content themselves with exemplary i acts. Theorists, agricultural as well as others, frequently employ themselves in groping in the dark. Light is, however, often approached, through dark and devious passages. The phenomena ot the gyps were so extraordi- nar}^, that all endeavours to develope its mysteries, seemed justifiable.
R. P,
September y 1810.
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(pyngenhausz a celebrated advocate for the new chemis- try, of which Mons. Lavoisier was the founder, has, this year, (1796) published " an essay on the food of plants, and reno- vation of soils." He imagines wonderful effects may be pro- duced by oil of vitriol (or any concentrated acid, much dilu- ted with Water, or mixed with earth) poured on the soil immediately befoV'e so^iiig. The cokt of Ais manui-e^^out two shilfings sterling per acre. He relkes some experiments on a smdl 4ci&e, conffrmatory of this hypothesis, but ac- knowledges it now to be mere theory. His opinion, and that of others cited by him, is, ibztjlxed air, now called, in the new nomenclature, carbonic acid, Qrom its being found plen- tifully in challcjlt is also called cretacious acid J is, in a great degree, the food of plants. He asserts, in opposition to Dr. Priestly and others, that plants thrive the best in oxygen or vital air; or at least cannot live without it. His theory, - which is among the most modem, is, that carbone (charcoal) thorfgh of itself no manure, is the foundation of the food of plants ; but must be mixed with oxygen or vital air. Plants,- according to this theory, decompose the air surrounding them; and, by this process, assist in producing their own food. That this process is performing at all times, by the roots and Howers, but is carried on by the leaves and stalks in the night, or shade, and inhaled by the latter in the cooler parts of the day ; but constandy from the earth (where it is chiefly deposited) by the roots. That plants accelerate, their growth in the dark, and advance the least in the middle of the day. That they possess the power of shifting carbonic arid from the air, by attracting its oxygen, and furnishing it with carbon; and that they also possess a wonder: ul faculty of changing water into oxygen or vital mr. That the oxygen is also acquired from the common
m Piaistef of pHrk.
93
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a due mixture of the acitl mth the calcareous earth,* ttKf t'iihi into wh6!e¥d*nJ? food, what of itself might be iiijtrf lous to vegetation. But as I chiefly relate agricul- tural facts, I leave the disciiSsion of such pdliits to phi- te^ophers and chethists. It is fenough for us if we kno1?«r effects. Causes are often Hidden, among the arcana of nature. Nothing has evidienced a greater diversity of opinion, among the most eminent men, than the ques-: tion. " What is the food of plants ?" Nor do they agree about the nature of the air contained in vegetables. Some assert it is mere atmospheric air, changed, or lia- ble so to be, into Jixedy by ebullition — -phlogistic^ by fer- ' mentation — or dephlogisticated by the sun, the light wheifeof operates a change in this air, not produced in
air, by the soil ; and this vital air^ being mixed with the ffdf%on^ becomes carbdhic aci^, and enters the plant through its roots. Jngenhausz*$ doctrine, in another place, (an old opinion) is that the earth, of itself, does nothing towards the support of plants, their food being chiefly acquired from the air; " the principal business of feeding being camedl on by the leaves in the atmosphere." The seed is skid to cdn^ tain the carbonic acid sufficient to forward the plant, till it is enabled to acquire fresh supplies from the air, and through the earth, which contains this acid in great plenty. I give but a faint, and perhaps inaccurate, recital of these theories, merely to shew the variety of opinions among men truly eminent on both sides ; and because those here mentioned are some of the most modem. Farmers shduldnot overlook theories ; but they should depend only on careful and ju- dicirfiis experiment and practice.
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On Plaister of Paris.
95
plants in the shade, fq J Of what nature or species is the air contained in plaister; or whether this substance ope- rates by its powers of attracting or retaining moisturCj^ and decomposing, preparing and communicating to plants, the air, the fittest for their nourishment; must be decided by others than practical farmers, to whom pro- fitable effects are more important, than the most learned and ingenious ihG.oxics.fr J
(q) Ingenhausz on vegetables page 184, 185, food of plants fc?c. Vital atr^ produced by vigorous plants in the sunshine, is of the gr atest purity in itseli. The air thrown out by them in the shade or in the dark, is of itself unmixed with other air^ the most active poison in destroying animal life.
(r) Ingenhausz^ page 12, Essay on the food of plants, &c. after observing, that "all the most powerful manures have one common quality, viz. to contain, or to disengage, a great quantity of carbonic acid, proceeds to suppose, that animal and vegetable substances probably act as manures only, -when in the act of decomposition by putrefaction, during which period a great quantity of carbonic acid, is produced. This putrefaction is promoted by almost all salts when mixed •with those substances in moderate quantities, but is checked by a large proportion of those salts, as Sir John Pringle found. It is thus with alkaline salts, with common sBlt,gyps^ which last is a vitriolic salt, with an earthy basis. This notion may account for the benefit, which the Germans and the Americans derive from employing gyps, as a manure. The latter find it even worth their while to draw this ingredient C gyps J from Europe." " According to these notions, we may perhaps understand, why all those manures which un- dergo the quickest decomposition ought to be oftner applied
'It is customar}^ with some farmers, to sow plaister
every year, on the same ground, in smaller quantities,
i. €. about a bushel to the acre ; and some sow less, for
'several successive seasons. Some sow it every other year.
Those who practice these methods (by all of which 1
have occasionally profited) consider them most bene-
ficial, for grass grounds particularly. I have generally
thought it best, to get abundant products in the shortest
time. I have therefore applied the gypsum in greater
quantities, to the clover husbandry; and its operations
were in full vigour, as long as the clover continued on
the ground. When the clover fails, I plough and pro-
ceed with the usual course of crops, till it falls again
into ^^ts common rotation. This generally happens in
the third year from my ploughing up the ley or sod, as
it succeeds winter grain, which I have seldom sowed
on my worn lands, unless they are previously limed, or
than some others, which, not being susceptible but of a very slow decomposition, such as chalk, lime, burnt and pounded bones, ^«//>^, impart, during several years, to the soil a pro- lific quality."* I had not seen this essay, when I gave an account of my experience on the plaister. But I am much confirmed in some of my conjectures, since reading this pro- duction ; and particularly in my opinion, that the plaister ope- rates most powerfully, when in connexion with animal or ve- getable putrefied, or putrefying, substances.
• Whether the decomposition of the gyps is slow or quick, is a mere conjecture. I find myself «fe.t when 1 adliere to facts. From the invigorated appeanince of vegetation, if a tain immedi. ately succeed, the Sowing the plaister, I have thought the gyps was quickly decomposed ; though mot so rapKlly. as not gradually to yield \u acid. I do not contend for theories, if results are sufflci- em without them.
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SeptcmbcTf 1810.
B. P.
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On Plaister of Paris.
97
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^dressed with stable manure,, Qr,b,upkvvheat ploughed in ^s a green dressing. I have sometimes ploughed in ^t la$t growth of the clover, of the second or third ye^r, and harrowed in on the sod, after once ploughing, wheat or rye, on which I have sowed clover seed, and plaister- ed again. I have done well enough in this practice, though I do not think it neat or good husbandry. It should not be done if tlie ground be poached, or foul with weeds or blue grass, which require frequent ploughing to destroy them,
I sow clover with spring grain generally, and scatter plaister on the clover and grain, but doubt its effects on the grain, as a top dressing. I often sow clover seed with plaister on buckwheat, and the plaister operates powerfully on both clover and buckwheat. Clover seed sown on flax, answers well. The plaister has a great effect on both these plants. The pulling die flax dpes no injury to the clover. If the buckwheat seed be wet, and strewed over with a coating of plaister, the crop is much behefited. I sometimes mix the clover seed with the plaister, ^nd sow them together.
There are, various opinions as to the manner and time of plaistering Indian corn. If season and other circum- stances are favourable, the mode then used is naturaUy conceived to be the best. But there is no deciding from one or two fortunate seasons. Some put it on the hill soon after, or at the time of planting; some at the time of moulding; and others at a later stage. Some suppose, that if it be put on, and could be confined to, the plant (though this is impossible, for the earth will receive the greater part, either while it is strewing on the plant, or by the washing of rains) it is the most
beneficial. I generally strew it on both plant and hUU* I Ijave put it on the hill only, and have scattered it over the whole field. I have met with success generally, but sometimes disappointment, in all these modes of appli- cation. The one I generally practice is, strewing it o^i the plant and hill^ when the leaves are fairly formed; or, at the latest, when the cora receives its first dressing which is most commonly done by harrowing over, and uncovering (if necessary) the plants, though the hoe is used when requisite. But the plaister is always strewed after this operation, that it may remain on the surface. I have always considered it necessary to keep the plais- ter, as much as possible, on the surface. In some anoma* lous instances, which I consider as exceptions to any ge- neral rule, it has operated when ploughed in; but for the most part it does best as a top dressing. I had been inl formed of a practice of sowing plaister with seed wheat, and ploughing both in together. This (and every other mode of application of the plaister to winter grain) has liad little, if any, success with me; though I have tried it in every way I ever heard of, or could imagine.
Good crops of winter grain have often succeeded clover, to which no other manure than plaister on the clover, had been applied. I attribute this to no imme- diate action of the plaister on the grain, but to the clover ; which always ameliorates the soil. It is an ex-
^ The spot in which the plant grows is yet often called a hill; but the practice of hilling com has been generally dis- continued, for a great number of years past.
R P
September^ 1810. •
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98
On Phister of Pam.
On Plaister of Paris.
99
cellent covering crop, and, like most tap rooted plants, does not exhaust ; bat on the contrary increases fer- tility. I have known a good crop of wheat, follow the ploughing in a luxuriant vegetation of young, succulent teazle and thistles ;— tap rooted plants. These appa- rent pests had for several years occupied the field- They had operated as a cover, and, when ploughed in, as a
green manure.
The lot on which I first strewed plaister, twenty.five years ago, has not been ploughed during that period. I have twice given it about half a top dressing of stable dung. 1 have repeated the plaister three or four times ; three, four and six bushels to the acre, at intervals of three', four and five years. I should have preferred ploughing, had it been convenient, as, in the second crops, I am often tormented with Indian grass and weed! But the ground is on a part of my farm, where the hay and pasture are more useful to me, than any other crops. After dressing with dung, I have left a part unplaistered, to compare it with the rest ; and al- . ways perceived a striking inferiority, where the plaister was not strewed. I once repeated the plaister on a part of it, without previously dunging, after it had been mowed several years, from the Vme it was first plais- tercd. The plaister seemed to have no effect. But on applying a slight dressing of dung the next year, this part was equally good with the rest.^^; This lot is
Csjl have notwithstanding this instance, frequently plais- tered here and in other parts o» my larm, and succeeded well without dung ; but never in the degree I have perceived
now in excellent common grass ; intermixed with red and white clover, and some blue grass — parts of it much layed, owing to the wet season.
I have, from this and many other occurrences, long been of opinion, that the plaister must come in con-, tact with some animal or vegetable manures, or pu- trefied substances, ^^>^ to give it its proper efficacy.
CtJ " Charcoal or carbon exists ready formed in vegetQ"
bles. Chaptal 36, 37."
. Ahhough Chaptal, page 452, asserts, that " we see the vegetable almost entirely formed of hydro^ene^ he, in the the same page says *'the nitrogenous gas (and he afterwards adds the carbonic acid) more particularly serves them for aliment, *' Hence it arises that vegetation is more vigorous when a greater quantity oj these bodies which afford this gas^ are presented to the plant; these are animals or vegetables in a state of putr^: action, '* Carbonic acid predominates in ih^ fungus^ and other subterraneous plants.'^'* Page 453. Ingen- hausz on the tood ot plants, 6. ^^ All manures^ principally dungy produces a great quantity ot the carbonic acid^ either by itself, or by decomposing the air in contact with it." Hassenfratz asserts, that the brown sediment of dung is carbone. And Ingenhausz, though he does not exactly agree with Hassen- fratz, allows that this brown sediment may become carbone by ignition. It appears then that the gaseSy which are the food of plants, according to the present theory, exist in vege- tables ready formed ; and in animal or vegetable substances
with dung. I must be understood here to mean, a repetition of the plaister. For in the first application, it has generally thrown up as great a burthen, as any combination could pro- duce.
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ISee note (r)."] And when so connected, a sniafl quan- tity of such manures or substances will give it act'ivit^i The auxiliaries necessary to draw forth the powers of the plaister, are within the reach of every^ farmer, of common industry and moderate capacity. The first ap- plication, without other assistance than that it finds in the earth, from the decayed and decaying roots, and other vegetable substances, will throw him up forage, and enable him to increase his stock. The more stock, the ihore animal manure for summer or winter crops, prepa- ratory to the repetition of plaister, with clover. The green manures only cost the seed which produces them. With these auxiliaries, I am satisfied, by actual and long experience, that the gypsum may be repeated as safely, and with more benefit and less cxpence, than can any other manure, on soils suitable for its application — a cir- cumstance which ought always to be kept in view.
in a state of putrefaction. It also is before shewn, that the titriolic acid in plaister, disengages from the substances con- taining, them, «// the gases.* This theory, therefore explains and coroborates the fact— that the plaister operates with most power, when it finds animal or vegetable putrefactions (dung, buckwheat ploughed in, &c. &c.) in the earth in which it is strewed. It, of courte,.shews why it will not ope- rate at all, when the animal or vegetable substances, or other bodies containing the gases, are not in places where it is strewed.
V, «»*.- -
•And no doubt it finds in the eartli chemical agents (whatever they may be) which by superior afflraties decompose the gypsum, and set the sulphuric acid free, to perform its operations.
R. P.
September^ 1810.
On Plaister of Paris.
101
3
In fine, I continue, after long c^d various experience, in the free and extensive use of plaister. I have been often disappointed, in the expected results of my numer- ous applications of this generally powerful, sometimes fugacious, and frequently ungovernable stimulant Ywy' But I have been successful in the far greater proportion, of my practice and experiments.
RicHABD Peters.
Bdlmont 30th May 1796.
^^fujl can with a tolerable degree of certainty, ft-om the appearance of an over luxuriant crop of clover, tell when it is about to quit me. When the plaister ceases its ope- ration, the clover departs with it, being overcome by twitch or other noxious grasses or weeds. It perishes in consequence of too violent efforts. Its fate is similar to that of an indi- vidual, who by living too fast accelerates death. I account for the phenomenon, of the sudden exit of the operative powers of the gyps, by its having prematurely decomposed the sub- stances containing the principles of vegetation ; and having exhausted those principles in too short a time. In the vio- lence of these operations it excites a vigorous, but fatal vegetation ; which, like the exertions of one in the parox- isms of fever, puts on the semblance of strength, but, in fact, is only a prelude to dissolution. There is no guard against this misibrtune, but the practice of sowing small quantities, and frequent repetition. This mode I like the better, the more I experience it.
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POSTSCRIPT.
I submit the following conjectural remarks, and their apT plication to the agricultural facts to which they refer ^ to the judgment of those who are better informed than I am, on chemical subjects^ with which I profess to have no more than a very slight acquaintance.
X?. JP» '
" IN 1755, Dr, Black, of Edinburgh, advanced, that limestone contains much air, of a different nature from com- mon air. He affirmed, that the disengagement of this air converted it into lime ; and, that by the restoration of this air, calcareous stone was regenerated." Dr. M^Bride, Mr. jicquin, and Dr. Priestly, are quoted, as having confirmed this doctrine by experiment. " This was then known by the name oi fixed air. In 1772, Bergman proved that it was an'' actd.^^ It has since been distinguished by various names ; ^ and, as soon as it was proved to consist of a combination of oxygene and carbone, or pure charcoal, the name of car- bonic acid was appropriated to it." Chaptal's Chemistry, vol. l,page 212.
It appears then, that the crude limestone contains the air (in a proportion of40'l(X)) which is said, by Ingenhausz, to be the food of plants. When it becomes limey it is deprived of this air, till it is slacked or effete^ and then it recovers the fixed air sufficientlv to act as a manure.
WPiiifl^
On Plaister of Paris.
103
ssatz
*
It should seem, that it is for this reason, that we find plaister to operate favourably on limed land. The sulphuric acid in the gyps, finds the carbonic or fixed air in the lime, which it disengages ; and puts in a state to act, with increased vi- gour, on the grass. '•
Although the chemists do not allow that gyps^ like lime- stone, contains fixed air^ yet it may have the faculty of communicating to the plant, by operating on other sub- stances, the carbonic acid, or whatever be its food. In Chaptal, page 186, it appears that 100 parts of gypsum; contain 30 of sulphuric acid, 32 o{ pure earthy and 38 waters It loses 20 per cent by calcination. In other experiments, a greater quantity of sulphuric acid is found, according to the plaister assayed. This analysis excludes fixed air^, from this substance. It could not reside with the sulphu-^i ric (vitriolic) acid, but would be expelled in a state of gas.
If Ingenhausz's ideas, of the almost magical powers of the oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) on vegetation, be just, in any important degree, the sulphuric acid may be considered^ either in itself or as it sets other agents at work^ the
MAIN SPRING OF OPERATION IN PLAISTER. It is COmmonly
used, by chemists, to separate the carbonic^ an4 all other acids, from their combinations, wherever they are found. The earth, according tb the theories before stated, is constantiy filled with the carbonic acidy by furnishing carbone to the air it inhales. It is found in calcareous substances, with which, in great varieties, the earth abounds : it exists in, or is produced by, the roots of decayiifg or decayed vegetables, trees, and all animal or vegetable manures. I therefore think it a corollary fairly to be drawn from this theory, and the actual analysis of the gyps, that it is this sulphuric or
VITRIOLIC ACID WHICH CONSTITUTES ITS OPERATIVE PRIN- CIPLE; and that, though it may in itself (nor is lime) be no ma- nure, yet, when scattered on the earth, it decomposes all sub-
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Stances in irhijch the feed air, or carbonic acid, is found. Itre- ki^ses this, feom th« bodies impregnated with it ; and, by put- ting in a state ofi activity, prepares it to enter the plants, ^aijtd be- come their food, in combination with whatever else is neces- sary, to their (existence and growth.
Why the plaister is applied, with greater proit on Itght^ than on c%, or other wet soils, it is difficult to account. It mav, possibly, be owing to the different materials it finds to operate upon* Moat daifs have a great proportion of tron^ in their composition;.— Chaptal, page 214, [Philadelphia edi- tion.] They are so retentive ol moisture, that they are gene- rally cold, wet, and sour.. The sulphuric acid^ when poured on iron or zinq, hy decompositifm of water, produces the hydro- genous gas^ or injiammable^ and not fxed^ cdr^ or carbonic acid. Chaptal, Page 61. Clays, and all wet soils have so much redundant moisture, that (by means of the sulphuric acid in the plaister, operating on the iron they contain) they afford an overcharge ol hydrogene. The hydrogene, accord- ing to Chaptal, page 97, fixes itsel' in vegetables, though it is otherwise in metals, &c. while the oxygen, or vital air^ necessary to be combined with it, as a nutrition to plants, IS disengaged and escapes. Thus the infiammable air, being left alone, and in too great a quantity, either does nothing, or injures vegetation^ . This infiammable air may, in small portions, in combination with oxygen, or carbonic acid, be, as Chaptal asserts it is, an, ingredient in the food. But when in great quantities, and of itself, it may be destructive. In light soils, the water and moisture are soon drained away. But the plaister counteracts the percolating, or porous, qualities of these soils, by attracting, arresting and retaining as much moisture (and perhaps no gieater quantity) as will answer all beneficial purposes. The superfluous water or moisture passes off. And thus the operative principle in the plaister produces no more, either of infiammable, or fixed air, than is necessary^ for the salutary supply of the plant. A shorter
.tMimtm^immm
Ofi Plaister of Paris,
105
and perhaps a better explanation, is, that in clay soils there is little or no calcareous earth, on which the plaister always operates the most favourably ; as it finds, in these earths, the carbonic acid in the greatest plenty.
Dr. Priestly, in a conversation I lately had with him, told me, he was preparing to analyze the g) ps ; with a view to farther discoveries of its nature and properties, both chemi- cal and agricultural. I wait, with much curiosity, to knovf the result of the experiments, of this able chemist and vene* rable philosopher. I am aware, that the doctor's opinions, and those of the followers of Lavoisiere, in several points, differ very materially. I am neither qualified, nor inclined, to determine which are right ; though I have ventured to make deductions, perhaps too hastily, from some of the new chemical theories. The Doctor asserts, that " some plants are chiefly nourished by hydrogene or infiammable air, such as the willow, &c." We see aquatic plants coarse, strong, and capable of being sustained (if so they are) by air which i^ found the most plentifully in wet grounds, where no tender plants, the occupants of dry soils, will grow. The air, nutritive to the one, may be poison to the other. Clover will not grow well in wet grounds, nor will plaister operate there | so that clover and plaister seem to be made for each other. The Doctor thinks, that the infiammable principle is th^ prevalent part of the nourishment of plants ; and that they thrive the best in vitiated or phlogisticated air. It will bq seen how much other eminent men differ with him, by what has been said by Ingenhausz, &c. The Doctor'j^ opinion of the carbonic acid being injurious to plants, is not in unison with that of Ingenhausz, Kirwan, and others. In Chaptal, page J 1 r, vol. J, it is said, " The carbonic acid is improper for vegetation ; Dr. Priestly, having kept the roots of several plants in water impregnated with the carboniq ficid, observed that they all perished ; and in those instance^ jjvhere plants are obseryed to vegetate in water, or in air which
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On Plaister of Paris.
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contains this g-as^ the quantity of gas is very small.*^ Practical farmers know, that an overcharge of any manure is destruc- tive. I have killed plants with dung water ^ too highly impreg- nated ; but have forwarded their growth surprisingly, with water moderately infused with dung. May not the water mentioned by Dr. P. have been too highly impregnated with the carbonic acid, when it destroyed the plants ? It is allow- ed, tbat plants vegetated in such water, when " the quantity of gas is very smallJ*^ Nature has provided, that plants shall, in ordinaiy operations, imbibe no more of their food than is proper for them. In extraordinary instances, a plant may, like an intemperate animal, be gorged with food, and, fall a sacrifice to excess. It may be, too, thar carbonic acid is only a part of the food ; and requires to be corrected or aided by some other ingredients, to produce salutary effects. Jngen- hausz allows that " Plants die in pure carbonic acid.^'* He says, oxygene^ or pure respirable air, and heat, are necessary to vegetation. [Fide Ingenhausz on food of plants j pages 9^ 10,11.] Plants absorb mephitic or phlogisticated air, and emit vital air. Man, on the contrary, is kept alive by vital air, and emits mephitic. ChaptalvoL l^page 117. But Ingen- hausz [food of plants page 6.] pointedly asserts, that, "all airs, which cannot be easily changed or decomposed into fixed air, as possessing no oxygene, are true poisons to plants, such as infammable air^ putrid air, and azote, contrary to Dr. Priestlv and Mr. Scheele. He further says, that all " other airs poi- sonous to vegetable life, are also destructive of animal life.'* Such is even the carbonic acid, concentrated, or without ^ great proportion of respirable air.
When I began to extract the accounts of the latest writers on chemistry, the food of plants, &c., it was under the idea, that the gypsum would be found to contain this food. Be this as it may, the theories I have mentioned may possibly afford amusement, if they are of no real use, to those who have not access to the works of tlie writers, who entertain, on thiis
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subject, the current opinions of the day. These, like the doctrine of phlogiston, though once held to be so strictly orthodox, may, ere long, become apocryphal ; and be placed, by future reformers in chemistry, among the lumber of the schools. Something useful, however, is always added to the common stock of knowledge and improvement, by the the- ones of mgenious and scientific men. Yet, after aU, the far- mer will find hisfeids the most convenient laboratories ■ his trmruments, of husbandry, his safest, most simple and iwelli- gible apparatus ; his crops his most instructive expositors • and experience his most faithful and unerring guide.
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As our practical results and opinions, differ* with the ac-- tount o^ the gypsum, given in the " outlines of a proposed general report from the (British) board of agriculture, on the subject of manures ; printed last year in London, and transmitted here by Sir John Sinclair., I think it best to publish th^{ account. It is the most recent, I have seen from England, on that subject. In the same report, there is a de- tail of eitperimetits b5F a Mr. Smythe^ of Kent, too long to insert here ; but very favourable to plaister, on sainfoin and cloven By this it appears, that they arc little advanced in the knowledge of the uses of plaister, though a desire to use it begins to increase among their farmers ; who, like most of those of all countries^ will not believe till they see. Mr. Smythe^s experiments were oh light loams, and poor calca- reous soils; the chalky soils particularly. Afriendof his tried it on clay^ and failed. Nor had it effect, with him, on grass ; 1 suppose he means, fether than sainfoin or clover. Nor OU corriy or turnips^ Wheat is there called corn.
GYPSUM.
" THIS article has hitherto been little used in Britain, as a manure, and, in the instances vi^here it has been employed, the accounts of its value are very contradictory ; in some cases it has been represented as producing astonishing effects ; in others no visible advantage has been derived from it, and in several instances it has done mischief.* Before we enter into any discussion upon the subject, it will be necessary to state, that gypsum consists of a mineral acid, joined
* I wish it had been mentioned what "mischief ?" I never knew it to do harm, even where it did no good. ,
j^BVcmbef 1810.
R. P.
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to a calcareous earth. This acid is well known to be asunfnendly to vegetation, as calcareous earth is favour- able to tt and upon the proportion of it contained in iypsum, the value of chat article, as a manure, depends. When calcareous earth is added to any of the acids they unite, and compose earthy salts, differently named' accordmg to the acid made use of. If this compound contains a due proportion of the acid and the calca reous earth, it is said to be neutralized; but if either the acid or the calcareous earth predominate, the compound then possesses acid, or earthy properties.
We suppose, therefore, that, in cases where calca reous earth is the prevailing principle in gypsum, its beneficial effects as a manure will be visible, because in that case, a portion of the earth will not be united vnth the acid, and will therefore be left at liberty to act upon the soil.
In cases where these two ingredients are equally balanced, the compound posseses very little solubilitv m water. It is, perhaps, in these cases where it produces little effect ; nor is it possible it can ; because unless the parts ofany substance are soluble in water, they generally can produce no effect on vegetation.
Lastly, where the acid predominates in gypsum, of which, however, we recollect no instances, its mischie
Since this pubUcation, the gypsum is used in England to profitable account. Its properties are better understood and I beheve, the use of it is much encouraged. How whimsical and mapphcable is this theory ! when we compare it with
Jacts generally knoxvn here.
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vous effects will be visible, as acids of all sorts are inimical to vegetation.
In this way we account for the different effects produc- ed by gypsum, and also for the gypsum, brought from certain places, being more valuable than that brought from others. In many cases its value will depend upon its containing more calcareous earth than acid. Upon lands, therefore, where no stimulating substance has been ap- plied, and which contain little or no calcareous earth in themselves, this sort of gypsum will be a good ma- nure ; accordingly, in America, where the soil in most places is composed almost entirely of vegetable earth, arising from the decayed herbage, and the deciduous parts of the trees which have grown and decayed there since the creation, and where scarcely a particle of calca- reous earth is to be met withy this sort of gypsum will stimulate the soil, and produce good effects ; even in this country, upon virgin soils, which contain no principles of that sort, its effects will be similar; but upon lands which have been long in a state ofcultivationy which have been frequently manured with substances containing much alkaline matter ^ or which have received a due proportion of calcareous earthy its effects will not be perceptible. Unless an enormous quantity be used. But in cases where the acid prevails, its bad effects will be visible at once. In all cases, therefore, where gypsum is intended to be used, it ought to be a matter of serious inquiry y first y whether the land has been previously limed? and next, whether the acid or calcareous earth prevails in its composition ? If the land possesses in itself no cal- careous matter, the gypsum, which contains most of it^
will produce good effects ; but in all cases where the acid prevails, it will certainly do harm.
" This account of the nature of gypsum we are en- abled to give, from having carefully examined different sorts of ,t. In some of these the calcareous earth pre vailed ; and in others the substance was a neutral com pound. We pronounce, therefore, that in all cases where the calcareous earth prevails in gypsum, it will be use- Jul, If the ground has not been previously limed.
In case^where the acid and earth are equally balanc ed, It will have other effects.
And in cases where the acid prevails, it will uniformly do harm: unless, perhaps upon chalk or limestone lanck. It IS therefore a manure that can seldom be used with advantage in this country upon arable lands, as there are few situations indeed in which the soil does not either contain calcareous matter in itself or has re- ceived it as a manure."
OBSERVATIONS.
THE writer of this article is misinformed when he says that « m America scarcely a particle of calcareous earth ts to be found." We have enough of it, mixed with a great variety of substances. Our attention has not been sufficiently paid to subterraneous explorations to enable us accurately to class or designate the seve' ral species, either of those unmixed, or in combination. We know most about the argillaceous (clayey) earths because we have had them more in use, and they arc more common. This account of gypsum, as to its agri-
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cultural uses, seems to be founded in mere theory. For we find by experience, of which theory is only the pupil;
1. That the gyps succeeds on limed land, quite as well as on that not limed; and some think better.
2. Although we never analyze chemically, to know the balance between the acid and the calcareous earth in our plaister, we find that the gyps, out of the same par. eel, does as well on limed, as on other land, let whatever parts of the substance prevail in its composition. ^
3. As to its alleged disagreement with alkalis, we do not find this, by any means, founded in fact. I have plaistered land previously manured with soap boilers ashes, and it has not only done well, but I think has had remarkable success. *Tis true these ashes are mixed with lime, and the alkali weakened by lixivation. But General Hand has placed the fact beyond a doubt. See pages 50, 31. He strewed ten or twelve bushels of (wood) ashes to the acre, which is much more than I ever strew per acre, for grass. The plaister, he states, had more effect, titan it had on ground dressed with other manure. Why it is so, is not of so much consequence, as the fact itself. But if the foregoing theory were pur- sued, we should find encouragement from the proper- iks of alkalis. Chaptal, pages 115, 119, 120, [Philadcl- l)hia edition] " all alkalis contain carbonic acid and are considered as carbonates. Hydrogene and nitrogene gas may be produced from mineral; and carbonic, from all alkalis:^ In other chemical writers it appears, that the salt found in ashes, may be purified, so as to contain half its weight of /xeJ c?r. Beside that it may be pre- sumed that vegetable alkalis furnish the most carbonc, it appears, that in both mineral and vegetable alkalis, the
On Plaister of Paris.
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sulphuric acid, in the plaister, finds sdfficient materials to set in motion, for the nutrition of plants *
r.t ^T r"? °^°P'"'°" '^ "^ ^''^^-' but it seems most hkely that the acid (vitrolic salt) in the plaister is
most soluble in water, though the earth be also solu ble-and, (if this be the criterion,) that it is the add more than the calcareous earth, which produces the effect. But I still conceive this effect is produced by " tile acid operating on other substances, and not imme- diately on the plant. If it be the calcareous earth, why do not other calcareous earths operate in a similar de- gree? It would take an immense proportion of other calcareous earths, to do what ishere supposedto be effect- ed by a small quantity in the plaister. Crude limestone, pulvemed has a considerable effect on gi^ss grounds! But it takes so much of it, as to preclude, by the ex- pense of obtammg, the profit of using it. Broken or powdered oyster shells, (which contain calcareous mat- ter as well as salt) are excellent for grass grounds. But their powers bear no reasonable proportion to those ot the plaister. Limestone gravel is pulverized, in some
* Since these observations were made, I have tried a ^reat variety of experiments, with lime and ashes respectively Tn large and small quantities, on land. I have, in n'o inst^'d found, that the English theoiy could be justifi'ed. Onthe Ton.' ^ary, the pla.ster has frequently drawn forth the powers of boththelune and ashes, and corrected them when too much
September, 1810.
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countries, and used as a top dressing. But the quantity necessary is enormous, compared with that of the
plaister.
5. There is no country where limestone lands are to be found in greater proportion, than in this. I know many farmers of limestone lands, who use plaister. The results of their practice, much the same with those on other soils. It depends on the texture and staple, of the upper stratum of soil. Limestone is here found under clay, foam, and sand. In our coal countries, ge- nerally under clay. It is curious to observe the gene- ral uniformity of the strata, in our western country, beyond the mountains; where in many parts, they scarcely ever sink a well, without finding clay, coaljime^ stone, 2ind freestone, or slate, in strata, each of from four to six feet thick. The clay is generally on the surface, but it frequently happens otherwise. , ,
6. By a recurrence to the facts in the foregoing collection, it will appear, that the idea of plaister not being beneficial, where laitds have been long under cul- tivation, is unfounded. Mr. Robert's lands have been cleared 90 or 100 years. Some of mine above 60, Mr. Sellers's is an old farm, and so are those of Mr. Duf- field and Mr. Price.
1 have lately been informed, in a letter from Robert Barclay Esq. of London, a worthy member of our soci- ety, that plaister succeeds in some parts of England; where it has been used with various success; and often, in that kingdom, without any benefit. Mr. Bar- clay writes, under date of 31st July, 1810.
On Plaister of Paris.
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" Many years since, I republished your tract on the use of gypsum ; which had the effect to cause many experiments to be made ; but generally with little sue- cess.— However Mr. H. Smith (or SmytheJ a respecta- ble experimental farmer, near Feversham in Kent, has fortunately succeeded, on a calcareous soil. He assures me, that there are above six thousand acres under plaister, in his vicinage. He received the gold, or silver medal, from our society of arts and sciences."
It will be seen that we have as much success here on other soils, as we experience on those mixed with calca- reous matter. The vegetable or animal substances, found in the earth by the plaister, are here the causes of its efficacy. Probably this is the same Mr. Smythe before mentioned. It seems strange, that, in England, the plais- ter agrees with calcareous matter in the earth, and yet, there, it is said not to agree with lime; the basis whereof is calcareous matter.
Richard Peters, October, 1810.
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SINCE the foregoing collection has been in the press, I have been informed, but do not vouch for the fact, that plaister has a considerable effect in preventing the fly from injuring wheat. Whether, like a success- ful medicine, when much in vogue, the gyps is ima- gined to be a panacea^ and good for every thing ; or whether there be really foundation for this information, I cannot determine : but it is well worth inquiry. We know that some things are offensive to vermin, and drive them away ; and others destroy them. One or the other of these results (if it be of any use at all in this particular) may flow from strewing plaister on win- ter grain.
I have thoughts of trying the following experiments, on my wheat fields ; as the fly is among us. But I have not fixed on the time; — whether it shall be in the season when the old fly deposits its eggs, i. e. soon after the wheat is sown in the autumn; or in the spring, so as to destroy, or drive off, the young brood, as they are produced from the eggs. Perhaps it will be right to try the experiments in both seasons.
None of these to be so powerful as to injure the grain.
1. Brine two lands with salt and water, or sow com- mon salt thereon. #5
2. On two other lands, plaister of Paris.
3. On two other lands, soot, and a small proportion of sulphur.
4. On two others, lime just slacked.
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5. On two others, ashes or lye.
from''thr"""°" ."^' *""'' ^ ^PP"«^ ^' ^ distance ZrXf'" ' -'T '"^ "°^ ^"^^^^^ - - <=o-ts, ThU u Tu""^"""^' impregnated with sea salt
I'^ct :f t^ "?'"^^"' '^ ^P^"^^'"^ - -h other rit sdfa^d ' °;f^"^--^^^'by decomposing ma. TuL orT T ' """'•"•"^ W;.Wa«V/, are ma-
tlies,and other msects, from bedsteads wpll^ R. . ^' housp^j Tffi.« 1- . ^^*^^^»^^^*^s, &c.,mour
nouses. It the plaister is an enemv ir^ tU^ a - -
proved by ,.perie„cc, l„ge„ha„s. wouldrerdt es senual sernce, by hi. ,he„,^ of ,he W o/^,^" It would be well, if «.veral farmers wlr.^ 7 experiment of AU sort; AouO, TZ^T ^ '°'"''
whim.^Myeelds,^ner.Tp:is.red*:rwr
HtrEedXTa!t"trr'°'^^'^-^'
safph. r.e / ^' ^"* ^ '^»ve attributed the
ti:'2 "k • •" «^ •"* »" «• So tta
"g and vgorou, pla„,s, „Meh ^^j,, ,^^ J
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starved stalks, and grain sown early, fall sacrifices.^ There is something, too, in the species of wheat sown.
R. P.
* I have tried these experiments ; but have not been able
to ascertain accurately the eifects ; owing, probably, to my
escaping from the ravages of the fly. From their disinclination
to furnish facts, or try experiments, I know not what has
been done by other farmers.
R. P.
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EXPLANATIONS of some of the terms used hi the fore-
going sheets. >
ACID, a combination of vital air, with certain elementary substances; such as — ^nitric, sulphuric, muriatic, carbonic, &c. Acid comprehends all qualities of such combinations, sour- ness and causticity inclusive.
ALKALI, one of the divisions of salts, comprehending that class of chemical elements, which uniting with acids form perfect neutrals ; in opposition to the salts formed of acids with metals or earths ; which are called imperfect.
Carbone, charcoal.
Dephlogisticated, purified, by being deprived of me- phitic, or phlogisticated, qualities.
Gas, all aerial fluids, except of common air — The ebuli- tion attending the expulsion of elastic fluids, from substances fermenting, or effervescing.
Hydrogene, inflammable air. — With this biilloons are filled.
Nitrogene Gas, Azote, or atmospherical Mephitis, PHLOGISTICATED AiR ; Corrupted air, which has served the purposes of combustion, or respiration.
OxYGENE, vital air — the basis of all acids — discovered by Dr. Priestly in 1774. It always exists in combination, and cannot be obtained in purity, without decomposition. The atmospheric air we breathe, has 72 parts of nitrogene gas^ and only 28 of oxygene. These modifications are so ncces* sary, that without them we could not live. If we were to to respire vital air^ in its state of purity, it would quickh' consume our life. This virgin air is no more suited to our existence, than distilled water. Chaptal^ 82, 84. Thus we see that both plants and animals require combinations ; and do not exist in, or bv, anv air totally unmixed.
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Explanation of the Terms used.
Phlogiston, the principle of inflammability. Mephitic, ill savoured, noxious, poisonous air. The sweet- est flowers and fruits, always exhale this mortal poison. Hence the danger of laying in close apartments, wherein even an inconsiderable number of flowers are placed. Sudden deaths are not rarely the consequences of such mistaken gratifications j to which many persons have fallen sacrifices : thereby fatally depriving Mr. Pope's ridicule of its sting ; by proving that the strongest man, as well the most delicate of the sex, may-—
" Die of a rose— of aroniatic pain." Sec Ingenhausz experience stir les vegitaux. Pages 6r, 68.
C 121 ]
Improvement bv Plaiitfr .,-...
uy riaister; m ioudon county, vi«.
GINIA.
Since the foregoing compilation was n.,f tn and too late to embody them into the li^e wo k iT' received, through the favour of ^^Z 7/ 'i^'' a collection of FACTS relative. T ^'^^^ ^sq.,
the agriculture of x I *^' ™provements in
-gncuitureot xoudon county, in Vire-inia Ti,-. plaister of Paris has created in ti, / ^"^^'n'a- The renovation of their s^ 5 k '°""'^' '" ^""'''^
cultivation, anc^^b d " ;: " M^^ 7" °"^ '^ '^"^
finally Of the «rst . Ji;::^^^!::^^^^^^^
reprinted. The ::^t^Z^^tt: '''''' about twenty years ae-o nl^. I«: . ' """'""^y*
introduction, were infdelee ', '"' '"^""'"^ ''' ing here, in Ihe ::Z:"7^:'^^ 1^^ '"^^"- agricultural prosperity Its nL '""^ '° """^
whenconvicLLwdffrwf H-T "T "P'"' their .eal is greater than that elisTg^^^^^^ f^^ the most solid reasons, for enterta^^^LrV u ^ ^^""^ "ion of the capacities ^f tljp ^ ft h \"' ^P'' plenty and comfort, in place of wl'; '"'''*''"*"^
ence. Their lands hi ' °' '"^'"y ^"bsist-
pled in val e, t^ ZlToTTJ T^^ ^"^'^-■
wonderfully increased a^HtK k '' '"''"^'^ ^^^
fill. 1 c . "^'^^^^^°' and their bams and granaries ar*> fiUed Such mstances of rm^l prosperity, fxdte n ' - sensations inexpressibly delightful ! ""'
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I do not discover any doubts on the subject of its constantly ameliorating, instead of exhausting, the soil. On the contrary, some of the facts are stronger in favour of amelioration, than in my experience I have per- ceived. Some allege that ground long plaistered ploughs tough : so we often find it. The general opinion seems to be, that its application in small quantities, even as low as half a bushel to the acre, and frequent repeti- tions, are best. They are much in the habit o{ rol- ling all their grain, for seed, in plaister. Their times of application of top- dressings, are, in general, the same with ours. Many prefer coiymw^ the plaister, after spread- ing it over the whole field, in quantities of from one to two and an half bushels per acre. There is an instance of plaistering half a field of Indian corn when in tassel^ and its producing double the number of barrels of- of corn, compared with the crop in the unplaistered moiety. On clover they esteem it most efficacious, but they speak favorably of its effects on any kind of grass, or grain ; and find its efficacy increased by a small ap- plication of dung. They find, that seed potatoes cut and plaistered, produce more abundantly. I have ex- perienced the same effect. Lands producing, in their exhausted state, only seven bushels of com, and five of wheat to the acre, have been made, by plaister alone with clover crops, to bring 40 bushels of the former, and 30 of the latter, per acre ; and their fertility remains on the advance. They mix various quantities of plaister with their seed grain; from an half to a bushel of gypsum, to $ and 6 bushels of grain. The grain is, as is done by us,, wetted or soaked previously. Some of the Loudon farmers think, as I do, that topr dressing with plaister on wheat
does little service, if apy; but they all concur in the effi cacy of ro ling- the seeH ^^^^o ^"
accurate obsefv^L bdieve th. ''^"'"''^ "' '''' "''''' Plaistered Z v ^'^'^''^^^^''^ ^^""•■ses of clover crops
tTcrt T "'" '^' '°''' ''''' ^he following grain crops, m thtsrvay receive their advantages.
One of Mr. JVoland^s correspondents oblrves:-. he valuable properties of plaister are so weU ^7 bhshed .n th,s neighbourhood, that you mighTas weH ' ask a man if bread and meat were of any u!e to' , bourer. as to ask him if plaister i. nl ^'
lanH H^ ij piaister is of any use to his
^"^ "«s well, and is well watered. Its beine Door ornch. makes but very little difference in the pric7 a It IS so well known that one course of red clover well'
£ra:;^:;r-----.-outr-s
caUdl"! VT '"''""'''' ""'^ '^ ^'--t magi, cal adjunct-the plaister, does everj. thing for exhaus
^d lands; and much for any other sols. No oAer' grasses can compete^with it. for prompt amclio.to 1 see vvith pain, (because it discourages the clover system) prejudices growing against clerZ, To^ 20years lused but a small proportion of any othr and I never, during that period, had a sick horse. I ge^era,lv salted the hay, while it was stowing in the stock 5^
season, and carefully made; though I could have had bv forcing or overgrowing, a greater burthen. In the Iter I often damped, either with water alone, or weak pTck e over night, what was to be used next da^ For W „' careless hands, other hay may be better! But tt X
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racter of clover-hay is injured b^ the inordinate desire of getting too heavy crops, which are never sweet nor maturated ; and, at the root, the grass of such crops is always feculent, and often rotten. The seller may gam by two, three, and often more, tons to the acre at a cut- ting ; but neither the buyer, nor the farmer who con- sumes it, is equally benefitted. Horses reject, or suffer by, such over-luxuriant crops ; and, being rank, coarse, and often leafless, cattle waste a great proportion of them.
For milch-cows in winter, no other hay is equal to good well cured clover. I have often tried the com- parative merits, in this way, of clover and the best of other hay. The complaint, that it wastes, and is injurious to horses, is owing to its over luxuriance, and bad curing ; and not to any unwholesome qualities, in the plant. Every one of experience knows, that too heavy crops of any grass, never turn out wholesome, sweet, and profitable, in the consumption.*
Mr. Noland's correspondents were Lev en P owelty James Heaton^ Mahlon Taylor^ George Taverner^ Her-
* The idea that clover (plaistered or not) more than other grass, has a tendency to produce the running at the mouth of horses or cattle is uniounded. See vol. 1, of" agricultural memoirs, pages 167, 8. I have seen on all grass grounds, in the autumn, with a microscope, numberless red spiders, very small. Some say spreading hot lime kills them, and prevents salivary defluxions, irom horses and cattle. I cannot ascer- tain the cause of this uniortunate complaint, I have heard many, but no satisfactory, accounts of its origin, or remedy. Salt sometimes checks it ; and so does putting the horses, or cattle, to dry forage, or grain. R. P.'
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mrd Tat/lor, Robert Braden, James Moore, and Abel Jenners.—a\\ respectable citizens, and practical farmers, of Loudon county; and well acquainted with the general state of agriculture therein. He had the like difficulties in procuring information, with those constantly experi- enced here. '
Mr. JVoland informs me, that, about 14 years ago, the late Col. Clapham cleared about 20 acres oinew land,and ploughed in, on a part of it, half a bushel to the acre of plaister.* He planted ^6acco on tJie part plaistered, sowed also thereon, about half a bushel of plaister to the acre, broadcast/ There was no appearance of any benefit from the plaister, either on the crop to which it was then applied, or to any succeeding crops since. Mr. JVo- land, with a view to ascertain the effects, if any, on new or virgin soils, repeatedly took notice of this piece of land ; and has never been able to discern any diiference between that, and the adjacent new land unplaiiJtered. An old field of the same original quality, divided from the new land only by a lane, and entirely worn out, M'as taken up, for experiment, by Col. Clapham, and sowed generally with plaister ; but stripes were sometimei left
* Great numbers of farmers now harrow in, and some plough in the plaister, and give favourable accounts of their success. My opinion was originally against this practice ; but I always distrust my own judgment, when facts, well attested, oppose it. I often now harrow in the plaister on a com field; and find it highly beneficial. In genend I still use it as a top dressing : and never found advantage bv ploughing it in.
R. P.
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unplaistered, for comparison. The crops, especially of Indian corn, plaistered, yielded more than those on his rich bottom land. But when not plaistered, the corn was nearly worthless.
Mr. Nbland^s farm, though adjacent to Col. Clap^ ham^s, is not so much benefitted by plaister; and espe- cially on Indian com. Yet, having some years ago a piece of tobacco J neglected, overcome by crab grass, and not likely, from its appearance, to come to any thing, he scattered plaister lightly, after dressing them, upon each plant. The success was wonderful, and might be' per- ceived at a great distance. The crop was far superior to tobacco unplaistered, on better land. Col. Clapham also had similar success with tobacco plaistered ; and Mr. Noland now constantly plaisters that plant, and never fails to succeed.
Mr. Abel Jenners^ one of Mr. KolancPs correspon- dents, confirms what I have often observed, as to plais- ter strewed on clay. The soil mentioned by Mr. Jen- ner^ must be similar to some of that on the Mount Vernon estate. General lFasKington*s account of his abortive experiments on such soil, will be seen in page 74.
"To your second, I answer, — the first farm I went to live on was very poor ; — the soil, a flat, white oak, white, clay, — on which I used the plaister, in various ways ; but found no advantage from the use of it. I measured off one acre in an old field, on which I sow- ed one bushel ; and near that a quarter of an acre, on which I sowed another bushel. I viewed this ground
On Plaister of Paris.
• 127
•36=
for three succeeding years, and never discovered any difference in the growth at all. I had some red hills* adjoining my meadow, sowed with red-clover, of which I plaistered a part ; and had as visible an effect from it, as ever I had on any ground whatever."
i% other correspondent of Mr. N's, who is a friend to rolling die seed, of wheat, or other grain, in plaister, previously to sowing ; states, that, " top dressings of plaister, he found not only of no service to winter grain, but he had suffered by the plant being retaided ui its ripening the seed (though it was very green, and looked flourishing) so as to be caught by the mildew." The effect seems to be similar to that produced by hme ; whatever be the cause. Possibly the mildew oc- curred from other causes. I never new the plaister in. Jurious to any crop. I lost a crop by plaistered clover, choaking the wheat.
I cannot close the well intentioned, however inade- quate, efforts I have made, to establish the reputation, and shew the extensive advantages derived to agricul' ture, by the use of the subject of the foregoing sheets; without cordially expressing my best thanks, to those' who have assisted my endeavours.
To Mr. JVoland and his correspondents, I am pecu- liarly indebted ; as they are among the few who have complied with my requests, to communicate recent facts, relating to that part of our husbandry, in which
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* Hed hills, are light ; sandy, or gravellv.
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128
On Plaister qf Paris.
the gypsum is so highly efficient an auxiliary. I lament that circumstances have not permitted the insertion of their letters. I perceive some of them express, though not to me new, yet, very unnecessary apprehensions
of exposmg themselves to critical animadversions. But the diffusion of agricultural publications is so <kplo. rably limited, that either censure or praise, mul be ^ confined to a small circle. They would not suffer by can- did scrutiny ; and all other is mischievous and despica. ble. Our thanks are due to those who rectify errors • criticisms with this view being grateful and laudable! Our disinterested motives, in giving the best informa. tion m our power, must be a shield against, or consola. tion under, unmerited censure. I regret that my so frequently meeting with this excuse for withholding commumcations, compels a repetition of such observa! tions. 1 he difficulties attending the collection and dif- fusion of agricultural information, are only equalled by the arduous, and often fruitless, task, of prevailing on those for whose benefit it is calculated, either to read believe in, or practice upon, such information. Those who profit by the lessons we endeavour to afford bestow on us the most grateful eulogy, in the advanta' ges diey derive from our desires to serve them. And this is the best, and only, praise we covet.
Whatever apprehensions may be felt, by individuals who c?on.f give themselves the trouble of assisting in the diffusion of agricultural knowledge, and the facts on winch It IS grounded, I have every reason to believe ^ that those who do exert themselves, receive the appro-' bation oi all real friends to their country ^
>#
On Plaister of Paris.
129
So far as our society, and the individuals who com- pose it, are concerned in the subject, they have" no cause to complain. On the contrary, they have been honoured and gratified, by attentions from highly re- spectable individuals, and societies ; both at home, and in foreign countries. They are, and should be, sincerely • thankful for these attentions ; and rejoice that they are made the instruments (in whatever degree their capa- cities are competent and useful) of promoting the true and solid interests of their country.
Richard Peters. November y 1810.
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Facsimile of General Washington's %s^ Writing; hnd sketches of his Private Cpif^-AttR. ■•■^»'»'^"^
It liAi teen suggest
°.?"r"X^° me, by several friends, that a
c,SlSp7fct:- oTiSdr/ WSSfengton's hand writing, would be
«Sr.^Ibl^^ected\he shortest i«tX I can^^^^
lay «y.ll^on letf^'^^I^^jve^^aj^pj^pJi.tp ^^^J topic on which thi*^' I„quiries%^e written. He was ia, the habit of seekiB^g inforftiatioh up^ siiBjfest^T^^ndiy and rural &ffah-s-; whlelv gratified and amiwedhi^ few leieiire ^ hours. Bujhe^ecame^ nj^ e^i^^a^ed public labours smd cares, th^ I was happy, at all times, toTdlSve him from the pressure, T^a agricuUiiral cOiresponderice occasioned. A long and sincereMdro for him, had subsisted from' an early period of my life ; and he, without ceremony, required the slender assistance I cheerfully rendered. He would (as in * Tiiatteri- of gre*erVoi^ent)-correct, obsenre upon, and add to, any drait, or information, with a masterly ft^d : and on the-subject of husbandry, he was peculiarly zealous and intel- ligem. He generally gave more credit (nev^r less) tkuKthey merited, to those who gave him assJstMice,Vhich his 'situa- tion necessarily required, in the small, as well.ascgreat gpn- cems in which he was constantly occupi^'. HisWn mode of- expressing his thoughts was (in ihy opinion) better, than thatin which any other persqp could cl^^e them. Soften thought, that he was not sufficiently conscious ^«^jii*^ik style was formed and perfected, by his owt» efforts^^Sn' tbe bright career, which furnishes the firstthapftVwS^is. tory of his public life, at an age, when those who have tfie opportunities, are finishing a literar^' eWttfkion. He had a plamand clear style; natural, ^ndpeculiartp. himself ;
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ii Sketches of Ge?i. fTashingtons Private Character.
and he wrote with ease, but generally with deliberation. This was, once^ so well known to me, that I could, most generally, distinguish it, though copied in another hand. Whatever be the fact, of many public papers being wholly or partially written by his able friends, or ministers, as it is naturally to be supposed that they so were ; I only speak of what I know. This de- ducts nothing frona his candour, or cleamf?ss of judgment. I neither affirm nor deny, any such positions. But this must be allowed ; that his selection of papers deservedly celebrat- ed, was a striking evi4encC of the strength of his mind, and discriminating faculties. An acute lawyer has credit for drafting a perfect instrument ; but it is the worth and esti- mation of the name 'to the seal, which gives it force, cur- rency, and value. It is an old and well known saying of a British crowned head, when the credit of measures was
c. '
attributed to the administration ; that " a foolish king never chose wise ministers." I cite this observation, not for its royalty, but its consistency with common sense.
I wish to repel any idea of my claiming merit, or impor- tance, from the small assistance I could give him, on any occasion. '
If I wanted proofs to fortify my orvn convictions (for I presume not to decide for others) of the truth of my assertions, as to his literary capacities, I could find them plentifully in- terspersed through more than fifty of his original letters, in his own hand writing, now on my table. They were written, during a course of several years, to confidential friends (the most of them to one on whom he placed much reliance) on the most important, as well as less prominent, occurrences, of the arduous struggle, in which he was^^so eminently dis- tinguished. No rhetorical flowers, or finery of diction, will be perceived. But they display a clear and correct judgment, a constant and unshaken fortitude, a liberal mind, disinter- ested patriotism, and extensive views* They prove, invaria- bly, that the achievement of the liberty, union and happiness
Sietc/tes of Gen. TTashington^s Private Char
acter.
Had I not prescribed to myself bounds whirh r -n overleap, I could trace, distJctly, throu';' it ^ej:! Z the most promment features of his farewell address 5,et
were Zl '° "^" "^*"^^'' *^^ -P--''' - they fi^ were. But the senhments are substantially similar • th« k
some may be said to be in a state of a JJ^^-^j ^jj an expression be allowable. "^'•'— >t such
IHera^ assistance to him would ^^e^tfoTZS
pernutted h.m to depend solely on himself. I am not a hberty (nor ,s u required in this feeble sketch /f I character) to adduce passages in f^^qu en prl ^^'^ however, without regard to this poi'nt, J :^hoL al' nice selection, mention an instance of his ririd adh.* ^ to duty, at the exnense of J,;. • ^ adherence
y, tne expense ot his private accommodation and enjoyment. We who na<!<!<>,l *K..„ l l . """O" ^^'^ J } *c wno passed through the v cissitudes of
our revolution, well recollect, that the years irT9 .ndLo were among the most distressful .ras, of the variegated pro gress through our contest. It was in the winter of one o those years, that the occurrence happened, which I hi mentioned in volume first, page 232.' He was p^^s L ^v many ^rsonal friends, and particularly by one'p: '^ us confidence, and to whom he addressed one of ^1^ I have notKed, dated ^^Mi,,U Brook, December 12 h mT'' to spend his winter in Philadelphia, where all would LI - rendering his time happy, and his situation perli accomodatoiy. He writes in reply, from the patriot^ ^ ^ of his heart;-and without afl^ectedly quoting the in.n . T examples of Hannibal and Capua, L^ '"applicable
" Were I to give into private conveniency and amuse "ment, I should not be able to resist the invftations oTT;
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iv Sketches of Gen. Washington's Private Charatter.
Sketches of Gen, Washington's Private Character.
** friends, to make Philadelphia (instead of a confined room *' or two) my quarters for the winter. But the affairs of the ** army requ re my constant attention and presence ; and, ** circumstanced as matters are at this juncture, call for some *' degree of care and address, to keep it from crumbling.— " As peace and retirement are my ultimate aim, and the " most pleasing and flattering wish of my soul, every thing " advancive of this end, contributes to my satisfaction ; how- *' ever difficult and inconvenient in the attainment : and will " reconcile any place, and all circumstances, to my feelings, " whilst I remain in service."
In proof of the goodness and candour of his heart, I ex- tract a part of a letter, dated '-''West Point August 22d, 1779;" to the same confidential friend.
A tpost disastrous, and nearly ruinous, misfortune, had taken place, at an early period of the war. He, at that distant time, suffered under the reproaches, of some envi- ous, of a few malignant, and of more mistaken, malcontents; ^ for, although posterity may not believe it, such there were.'*
* Tliese would, either privately, or openly, censure (among other unjustifiable chari^es) his Fabian policy. I was continually, during all the active years of the war, in a situation to know the exact state of our army, and its strength, deficiencies, wants, or supplies; which I could not, at any time (unp officially) for any pui'pose, reveal. Without pretensions to military talents, or skill, I was alwap satis- fied, that this policy was our salvation. Although rejoiced when our army was strong iu its effective^ and redundant in its supplies; yet I sometimes feared, that zealous patriotism, and professional pride (honourable and appropiiate to soldiers, and sufficiently prevalent among our military characters) would ui'ge to pitclied battles. Under this idea, I had frequent occasion to draw comfort from mis- fortune. I thought, when impolitic measures had " crumbled" our army, and thinned its ranks, or withheld its supplies ; that, shielded by the guardianship of heaven, our weakness was our strength. If this had been substantive comfort, and not consolation derived from necessity, I should have been more and oftner satisfied under it, than I really was. Our weakness and necessities were, very frequently, seriously dangerous and alai-ming ; and the more so, when they were not gene- rally known, or believed. Supineness in the people, as well as in their representatives, was o.'ten the perilous consequence.
Many estimable men, both in ami out of the army, were uneasy under inactivity ; and thought the contest should be brought to a close, by general battles, or more frequent offensive operations. Such anxieties pressed on his |)atience, but he resisted them firmly ; without passing by opportu- nities, in smaller combiits often, and in importanlf enterprises, when necessity, or the magnitude 0f the object, justified. Hannibal and foAia* were cast in difterent moulds. Although the heroism and military skill of the one were indisputable; the patience, wisdom, and forl)carance, of the other, saved his country.
Kr judgmenl, in deference to the ocinion, „f Ji, , . true „e.)„i*,.h„„ ^ >in„, JZpe , tim f !f "" A resolution of Conjn-es! too w,. ■ "' , """•° «<'™e.
.*rei„,.i. o^ rpi„,„.. rZ':z:z f:rTS
^ cnaracter of the officer was unimDeachahli* w .u writes, in the letter cited •_" But tV P'^'"'^^^^^- ^^ ^^us « difmnoi • ; ^'^^^ concern received ad
<« bni'r"'^'' '"" ^"° considerations which wet
but httle known,-and one of them never will h. i. "to the world ;^ecause I never shall 1 ""''"
"there had been such a charj as 1st h " J ""'"'' " inqui.y into the causes of tJs Jsc^ ""'"^' ^"
Those only who knew his ' W^ r ^^fad^^ opportunity and ,ati«cation, /r adli^t^^r^ !
" under uhioh h i,,„ be done, «rf .he oon^TrJ . k"*^*"' ^ ^"'^' 'i««™.umee. -their „«„,^. Bu. .. , h«;e one g^.^n:"'";'' ^ '"''""''• "^ "'^^ ««» '■^' ^"^ ««caday p„„ue tite mean^ „kfc,, in^ i, d^enTr ' *" '™"'<f^ '" «*« «">•<« «f .hi, kind, -in,. b„. .ha. fte candM pan of n.^!.^' f? ' "" *" ""^ ''™'-P""™en. of i.. No. d«.b.. "..lowanee, for my inexp^nj^^ mI T ^ """""* """'' '^^'^■' -" >-*-' P-I-^
'Vomibk appointment. ^' ""* '""' *" *«"" '^ "^-o-". fomr, >«a higlUy rl
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vi Sketches of Gen. flashing f on* s Private Character.
and unassuming, though unaffectedly dignified, manners. He had been engaged in so many difficult and important trans- actions through his life, that he had acquired an habitual thoughtfulness, which gave a pensive cast to his features. But no person more relished cheerfulness, pleasantry, and disengaged conversation, when his undeviating attention to business and affairs, permitted relaxation. I mention this to shew, that his character in this respect has been, by many, mistaken ; and that he was not, in his disposition, gloomy, or saturnine. His countenance would brighten, and light up, with cheerful and innocent pleasantry ; — ^but no person ever saw, in his features, depression, despondency, or want of equanimity, under the severest embarrassments and dis- asters ; which were, at frequent periods in our revolu- tionary affairs, but too common. Correct in his religious opi- nions, he was exemplary in the unostentatious performance of his religious duties. Always, and openly, acknowledging in prosperity, the favours and blessings of the omnipotent and be- nevolent BEING, from whose bounty, life and all its enjoy- ments are derived ; he was submissive to his will in adver- sity. No unreasonable, or boasting, exultation, was ever perceived in his conduct, expressions, or correspondence, in military success ; nor did any querulous or unworthy bewail- ings appear, under defeat or disappointment. Yet he was neither insensible to the one, nor callous under the other.*
•His magnanimity under misfortune, was unifunnly observed. But the pleasure he received, on any great event favourable to his coimtr)', was at once perceived. A distinguished veteran of our revolu- tion, lately informed me, that, after the battle of GermantoN^n, the American army had retired, up the Skippack road, 18 or 20 miles from Philadelphia; and my informant was at head quarten, when a letter arrived announcing the capture of General Burgoyne's army. It was put into (General WwA- ingtori's hands to read ; it being a private letter. The GeneraPs sensibilities were so excited, and he was so deeply affected with the impoitance of the intelligence, and the great advantages derived from it.that he returned the letter to Col. Palfiry^ who had presented it to him (being himself unable to proceed) and desired him to finish it. My worthy old patriot and friend, observed to me, with much emphasis ;— ** Here were displayed the strong feeling^ of genuine patriotism 1 of a mind inca- " pable of envy ;— transported with joy at a victory, the honour of which would be another's ; but " which gave earnest of eventual success, in the great object of the war !"
Sketches of Gen. Washington^ Private Cha
racier, vii
approach him, withoul °" "^ "''' ^'' ""M
«.p.c.r„,r.™;;;;*t.z:;^Cf:iiT""=r
mgs, to his character • and v.. /.T*^'^""St*'eir own feel- Pulsive in his .anne^; oTco'^:: reTnt^-^ "' demeanor was polite and invitinT Tho K ''"^'^' ^^ circumspect, in great as well a sL,? ^^^ ''"^""^ '^"^ guileless and candid H. '°"'""'^' ^^ ^^
always in«e.ihl, t^, f^ ^ l^t^^^?-^ ^« other arrangements, calling, for thUi- ' f''^""'^ ^d Vet he was liheral', henevLnt n ^a ital^^^ "- casions required his assistance. He w7 " ''^"" °'=-
warm temper ; which his general conH . """"'""y^ "^ » not indicate. This shewedTts 1 T T '^^'^^^^^^ ^id denly occurring; but r^elv rll I "" '' "'^^*'°"«' «"d- in great mattefs I havTcI fde^'n V '''""' ^°'"^*-") tural temperament asTnenfl ' ''*=*"'^ °^^^ "^^ "--
I Have ^^^^sJ^^Z.Vl'STl^Xr ^^^-'^• n.y most unqualified admiration ; and vJt h h" K " u'^"*^^ that he was cold ; and without kel f' ''"''^°"Sht,
I heard a respectable iorZ^Z^^^T ""'""^• carried the idea to his own To n^^ ^ ^ d' 7 '°"'*' '^ other strangers, were not treated t the trlT"'' ^"^ easy and ^raciou. receptions. He added ha! hT ""'
rudeness, but the politeness was cold • a„H V"^"" "'^
intentional, and owing to thrnll;,. '^ '° ""' "'^-
-«. AH the reply I made was 1h f iTr™"' °' ""^ perceived this. I .„ew (or ^t ^r J ^gt' a^ ^^ ^^''^ veral other cases) that, at that period Tj T "" '"■
-actly proper, in the instance ci^ Ih'lh rd?" ^"^ tend to n.ce judgment in such matter . Ge„fral cha"' '"' often drawn from particular instances h.T ^"''" ''
He knew well.thaf it was due to h^' ^*'''' °' """"''•'''>'•
-ays to behave decorous" oVastis" "f '^--J^'^-
usiy , or, as u IS commonly expressed.
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viii Sketches of Gen. IFashington^s Private Character*
like a gentleman. But I have ever considered it incompati- ble with the propensities of" a candid mind, to practice thp hypocrisy and insmcerity of politeness, by affecting emotions not felt. What is 0.2^0,6. graciousness^ if it be indiscriminate- ly exercised, justifies (in my view of it) this remark. The address of a man of the -worlds politely, but not (according to his expectations) graciously received, would induce him to attribute it to general coldness of character ; lest it should appear, that there was something particular in his case.
In his family he was beloved. His affectionate attentions to one of the worthiest and best of women, were always con- spicuous ; and tenderly and constantly reciprocated by her. He xvould be obeyed, but his servants were devoted to him ; and especially those more immediately about his person. The survivors of them still venerate and adore his memory.'^
Xhe world are in possession of the facts, on which his pub- lic CHARACTER IS established. Whatever opinions may be formed as to his having been a great man^ (of which I never doubted, though I enter into no discussions on this sub- ject) those who enjoyed his friendship, and intimate ac- quaintance, must all agree, that a better man could not be found. If history should deem herself too elevated, t:o record
* His old and much valued servant William (a man of colour, once a slave, and known thraugh the army ; and by all who were acquaintetl in the General's family) still lives at Mount Vernon; where he is kindly and tenderly treated by its present propi-ietor, Judge IVashinp^on. He is much of a cripple ; being afflicted with the rheumatism ; the consequence of his campaigns with his master. His frequent jW/grw/jflgc is performed to Im master's tomb, on his sticks or crutches. A gen- tleman a few months ago, had the curiosity to talk with William ; who is intelligent and not dis- inclined to conversation, though not forward in loquacity. He treats the affairs of the world as matters in which he has now little concern, except as a looker-on. He observed—** And so 1 hear they talk of going to war.— What ! go to war, now my old master b dead ! No, no,— tlmt wont do ; let them wait, before they go to war, 'till they get such anoUier. But they will first have a long- long— peace indeed :— and so much the better. They would not like war, if they knew as much about it as ive di(V^
To another visitant at Mount Vernon— he was relating war occurrences. He stopped in his narrative—" Now we come to what passed in a way, that my master never thought I shoiild speak of it :— so I always skip such tilings."
Much honour^ it is tnie, cannot be derived frem the eulogies of such men. But it is an evidence of tlie kind treatment his servants received, when their gmtitude is thus strongly, and disinterest- edly, expressed.
Sketches of Gen. Washington^, Private Chara
cter. ix
«^ these traits of character, they are nevertheless useful - and contnbute to forminga correct estimate, and just opinioL
rilv to re" • ''^" " ^""'•'°' ^"^ P^^^' ^^^-^^ "ot ne'cessai nly to require ,t, to say what (chiefly) I personally know •
tTe Zl '"m " °^P°"""'*'" °^ understanding ZrL
the m St respectable sources ; and to pay n,y humble tri-
nd I "T"^ ^"''° P^^^°"^^^ -d P°-- -e gone ;
ht: evi'^u "''""" °' ""'' "^-"^ ^-« -^ -ti-
be ascrS 7 ' *^ ''"'^*' ^^ '' ™^"'^) " ™-t not to hft ""^ '"" presumption in me. that I can add
to h s character or fame. I have yielded to the irresistible impulses (unpremeditatedly excited in my s eaXfor h !
rX^-'t^irt ''''-' -' -^^^ fn'd tion rain. "' "'" "^^^'^ '^^^^^^ ^^^^^ "^^ -^ -ollec-
miZetf 'c '""'': *° ™ '"^ "°'^ ^^^ '' '-P-^« ^^e com- s^l . f ^'"'^^'^ ^'' Sreat plan of engrafting the subject of AGHXCUZ.TUK., into a national system of edu . t.on ; and placing the cultivators of the so 1 aTd b struct on and excitem,>ntc ^ • ' *'^^"' '"■
ana excitements to improvement in their art un
der national patronage. He was anxiously solicitou-t' th^
Ictn' of h ,% " r "'^'^ ^"°"^^ *° — P'-h it, no action of his life would have deserved more celebrity Lnd public gratitude. Lcieontj-, and
Nnv Tear's Day, 181 1.
Richard Peters,
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INDEX
Africa. More remarkable for varieties of animals and - P ants, than any other quarter of the globe,
Agricultural Instruments. Manufacto^ of the^ recom'- '"'''
Jnended ; and plan for an establish- ment,
Great utility and benefits of such es' tablishment, Analysis of soils, extract from Davy on
Apples-soils suited to, manure for .'« • " " D^^„„ ,. ' "'"""'^e tor, enemies to.
Ashes fresh, of. o;d,use;rmruVrL"'" '^• leeched-EiEcacy of them ; and how ap;,ied,' . Answer to assertion that plaister does not agree with ashed lands. (Note)
113
iir
276 79 90
140 49
105
106
«-i-
B
Baldwin Dr. on salivary defluxions of horses .
Barl, peelmg off fruit trees proposed as a iure for
bitter rot in apples,
Its success doubted Barley recommended for'laying down la^d to griss.
a t
350
as
99
50
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ii
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INDEX.-
INDEX.
ax:
■rr >'!■
Barton Dr. on ground moles, - . - - 137
Beans, southern. Cover of ameliorate and enrich when
ploughed in as manure : but are pre- judicial to grass and clover husban- dry^, - - - - 74 to be sown on heavy land, * - - 133 Bees on, - - - • - 107 Berard Mr. on efficacy of sulphur in promoting vege- tation, ... 206 Bethlehem, star of, and blue-botde. Highly injurious
to land. Attempts to eradicate them ineffectual, - - - 178-9
Bitter rot in apples, - - - - * 82
Blast, or black heads, of wheat, - - 54-5
Bones Thomas, certificate respecting Tunis sheep, 237
Breeding in and in. Observations on this practice, 245-5 Britain Great. Varieties of sheep and dogs there, 241-252 Broad-tailed Sheep. Tunis, - - ' - 211
Sec proofs of originality &c. Page ii. The Hebrews and modern Arabians^ as well as the Greeks^ distinguish by appropriate wordsy what we call the Broad-tail^ horn the tails of other animals. These words, or terms, mean a continuation of the loin^ or elongation of the rump, B\isti Paul on wild Garlic, - - - - 134
C
Carolina, South, Tunis sheep highly esteemed there, 238
Wool sent from thence to Philadel- phia, and .other cities of the U. S. to be manufactured, « - - 239
Cattle hoven on, - - - - - 39
^> on soiling, - 200-313-319-320-338
Chemists, requested to assist the society, by analyzing
the lime of different quarters of our country. 285
32 31 44 46
53
Cinders (Smidi's) given to hogs, fatting. Clover pasture, cures hogs of staggers and sore throat. Cooper Paul on hedges, ...
Com (Mayze) on, ... ^
Corn, (Indian) stalks. Cutting boxes for, expensive
on a large farm : best used as manure ; and how so used in Virginia, . ^^
Com, Indian, a mode of planting, with potatoes drilled, 203
and potatoes mixed cultivation of, on, 200 Crops course of, at Draveil in France. Wheat rye,
oats in succession a bad course, 144-145 D
Dogs. Sheep-kiUing, account of them. Dog trap. Mis- chiefs of keeping supernumerary dogs, Pennsylvania dog law, and* just mode of executing it. Vari- eties of, in Great Britain, 247 to 253 Draytqn Dr. on Guinea com, and broom com, . 315 Duct excretory. In sheep, mouth of it between the
clefts before. In catde also in the fore part of cleft. In swine in the hinder
part of the shank, its use, and diseases
arising from its stoppage, Dung hot and fresh ; remarks on, ... j 73.204 DupontMr. his powder works: and factory. Merino
fiock : and remarks on form of that sheep, 242-3
E
Earth of a field near Paris, analysis of. Euphorbia maculata, supposed cause of defluxions in horses,
F
Fruit and fruit trees on, - . .
Fruit trees and orchard, observations on, require shel-
ter against cold winds. Peach tree
220 221
144
350
79
I
*
''^
INDEX.
benefitted by loss of its limbs, - 183 Remarks, - - - isi
G
Garlic, Wild, modes of destroying it, 120-131-314
Gibbes, John Esq. Extract from his letter, on Tunis
sheep, - - - - 238
Gleditsia Triacanthos, on - - - - 291
Grafting, on and directions for - - - - 89 Grain, foreign ; sent by General Armstrong. Wheat, , ble d'*abundance rye, a remarkable fine
variety. Barley jTorg-efromenteSj 140
Remarks on - - - - 141-2
Deterioration of by change - 290
Gregg Mr. his husbandry on clay soils, - - 71-2
GrofF Joseph, his certificate on Tunis sheep, - 235
Gruchy de Mr. on diseases of hogs, - - - 28
Guarrigues Edward, communication on fruit trees 183
Guinea corn on, - . - • - 315
Gypsum. Colonel Taylor's account of his experi- ments on - - - 51-55-61 Application of it in Europe, cause of its ope- ration and effects - - 207-8-9-10
on.
51
utility of, in keeping off frost from apple trees, 87
H
Harrowing, wheat on, - - . . g
Haws black, recommended for hedges - • - 45
Hedges live, on, 24-34-44
Hollingsworth, Z. on disease of wheat, - - 287
Horses and cattle, middle sizes most profitable, - 219
Hoven cattle, - . - - - 39
Husbandry, small and extensive compared - - 63
Heavy crop exhausts, though said to ame- liorate land, - - - - 54.5
r-^—^.-'-SBt'-^A
INDEX.
Dead— or live— cover on land ameliorates, ibid. Indian com and wheat, in same field, con- demned, . - - - 66 Change of crop, recommended, by its con-
trarj- being injurious, - - 68
Fall ploughing recommended . 69-130
Drill husbandry, observations on. (Note) Clay soil mode of treating and cropping
husbandry on such soils, Implements used in this culture, English husbandry, its expense and bur- thens ; remarks on, - . . of Virginia, on.
Remarks on,
I
Insect kills wheat in Maryland, Jocelin's pruning sheai's on,
69
71-2 72
72-3 100 103
287 310
260 to 271
234 1
Lease of a farm on shares,
Lentz George and William Rusk. Certificates relating
to Tunis sheep, . _ _
Lime on, - . ^
On liming lands— mode-lime kilns— quantity per acre species of lime— English ideas of Mag- nesian lime— doubted,— mischiefs of over-liming, or too hard cropping— effects on various soils—' probable mode of operating— necessity of analy- sing lime, to discover its strength and qua- lities, - .
Tvr ,' .,• K ' " " ■ 2r2-286
No hostility between lime and gypsum, - 285
Lime kilns, coked coal, a substitute for wood in burn-
'"Sl™e, 273
Premium recommended for improvement in, ibid Erection of, on tide water,_for city supplies of ume,
* 273
I
'■^
)•
INDEX.
)
. > g
JJ
Lime analysis of, - - - - . - 305
Liming land on, - "- - - 272
Livingston R. R. extracts from his essay on sheep, ?57
Lorain John on soiling cattle, and mixed cultivation •
of com and potatoes, - - - 200
on soiling cattle, and mixed cultivation
> of com and potatoes, - - - 313
profit of, - • . - . 319
Further remarks on, - - 320-338
Lyman Joseph on Corn (Mayze) - - - 46
M
Magnesian lime generally used in U. States, 8-284
Manure of privies useful for onions, - - 22
Mease Dr. Eulogium on William West, by, - 147
Mildew on, - - - - - 164
remarks on, by Col. Pickering; who transmits thoughts on mildew, by "a New England-man, Moles ground, on, - - -
Newbold Thomas, on leeched ashes as a manure, 105
Oats an exhausting crop when it perfects its seed — ^not
necessary to kill garlic, but, requiring early
ploughing'^ gains the credit of that operation, 122r6
Oat pasture on, - - - - - 186
Oliver Peter, on mildew, - - - - - 166
Onions on by William Philips, - - - 17
by John Lang, - - »- - 19
Pattern farm, recommended to southern proprietors of
large farms, ----- TS'TS
Peach trees, lime preventive of diseases in, - - 13
Observations on, - - - - 16
164 137
INDEX.
250 127 132 350 41 33
113 to 119
- 120
13?
172
173
Pennsylvania dog^lazv account of and remarh on, Peas, field, recommended an ameliorating crop, *
Mode of culture, . , . '
Perlee Dr. on salivary defluxions of horses, " . Peters Richard, remarks on hoven cattle.
Remarks on diseases of swine. Observations on Colonel Taylors letter, 63 Virginia Husbandry, . . ^^3^^
Plan for establishing a manufactory of agricultural instruments ; and ware- house and repository for receiving and vending them. Extirpation of wild garlic. On the field-pea, - - .
Remarks on hot dung, On salt as a manure. On tough sod, star of Bethelem, and blue-bottle, . . 178 to 182
Remarks on fruit trees, particularly the peach, - . - . 185
on planting Indian com and potatoes and heavy manuring with fresh dung, 203-4 Translation of part of a French memoir on the vegetative efficacy of sulphur, 206-10 On Timis broad-tailed mountain
. ^^-A - - - . 211
wool, 240 Breeding in and in, . . g^-
On sheep-killing dogs, - . 34/
Originality, and high estimation of broad tailed sheep, . i ii iij i^ ^ ^j Heads of lease of a farm, on shares, 260-271 On liming land, . . 272-286
Note on wheat, with the decay of the "^*» ■ - - - 288-a •
•>
'I
INDEX.
290 12 17
164
On grain ; deteriorated by change and mixture, - - < - -
Phillips William, on peach trees, . - -
on onions, . , - -
Pickering Timothy, transmits with remarks, thoughts
on mildew.
Plough Draveil; Drawing of, sent by General Arm- strong, from France ; and account of its operation. Comparison with American ploughs and their simpli- city approved, - - 142-3-4-5 Plough, notice of a new one, « - - 142 Potatoe champion account of one sent from France, 141 Potatoe and com culture, - Preston Samuel on fruit and fruit trees,
on grafting and bitter rot, *
200 79 89
Queries on fruit and fruit trees, - - - -
R
Rags,— -utility of as a manure, - - -
Raybold Philip, letter on Tunis sheep,
Rawle William on agricultural tours, and hedges of
honey locust, - - . - -
Roberts Algernon, on wild garlic, Robinson A. on hedges, - - -
Rot bitter of apples on, - - - -
S
Scythe and cradle : American of superior form and
make, to that in England, . . -
Sainfoin remarks on, (Note) . - - -
Salt. George Redd's account of its being strewed be- neficially in small quantities. Facts of its efficacy to repel frosts, - - - 173-4-5
Notes on, - - . - - 177
79
5-7 236
291
120
24
79
145 142
« *
INDEX.
S=}
- 211
238
215
217
Sheep, Tunis broad tailed, account of original stock
brought into Pennsylvania : and endeavours to propagate them, - - - Highly valued in South , Carolina^ Value of Tunis sheep com- pared with others — ^wool and mutton,
1. Facts as to fleece. 2. Hardiness. 3. Tendency to fatten. 4. Gentleness and quietude. 5. Healthfulness. 6. Coupling. Black-Tongue said to be a sign of tendency
• -to breed black sheep. — 7.
• Tail the test of blood.
White fleece no desirable object ; and mark of depar- ture from race, Mr. Livingston's account of broad tailed sheep ani- madverted on, and proofs of non application to the Tu- nis sheep. 225-6 to 229 inclusive, Some of these sheep said
to be in Virginia. Parts of that state favorable to sheep
breeding, - 232-233
if
Certificates of and proofs, relating to Tunis sheep, 234-239 Have easy births, structure of hinder parts favorable to yeaning, - - - 246 b t
222
^
I
1
|p:fe;y-;i;Sip.
Sheep, Tunis,
\ I
XNDEX^
24 1
.236
The ti; 00/ ; comparison with merino, and other wool- docking tails ot sheep, 240-243 See note page, iv, " proofs originality," aAd (wool). — Explanation of the plate placed before page 211; and account of the sheep therein represented, - 254-256
Keeping different breeds of sheep separate and distinct, recommended, also mquiries into varieties of breeds in America, - - - Young sheep, except the Tunis, do not fat equal to those aged.
Dentition, and loss of teeth ; ages of sheep deemed cli- macterical, (note) Lap-ears of sheep, Sizes and qualities, deemed most eligible for breeders. Varieties in Great Britain, Extracts from R. R. Liv- ingston Esq. his essay on sheep.
Practice of Pennsylvania farmers as to their flocks, I Originality and high Atima-
tion of broad tailed shfep proved, - i ii iii iv v vi
Sickle toothed, American better than imported, smooth
edged reaping hook used in Europe, condemned, 145 Sod, mode of rotting and success of it, - 178-9
Soils, analysis of on Draveil farm, near Paris (France) 144
23r 229
219 241
257
240
"i\
'i'-i
•* •
W
J -
1 » ■,-
r^'
^
INDEX.
Professor Davifs treatise on analysis of soils ; and observations thereupon. Analysis of their own soils recommended to farmers here, objects
ofourpremium on that subject, - - - 276
Swine, diseases of, - - - - 28-29
Remedies for certain diseases in, - - 30-31 Sour wash, said not to be so good for, as that
sweet, - - - . . - 32 Cinders (blacksmith's,) substituted for rotten
wood given to hogs, ' - - - - 33
Observations on the above (note) - - ibid
Salt, on as a manure, '- - - - ^ - 1*73
Seeds, various French account of, grain - - 140
Smith Samuel H. on bees, - • - - 107
Soiling catthj on, - . - - . 313
Soils on improvement of, - - - 186
Sour gum tree recommended for hedges, - . 44
Star of Bethelem on, - ^ - - . 173
Steele J. D. on hoven cattle, - - - . 39
Sulphur promotes vegetation, - - 2O6
T
• . ^
Taxes comparison of taxes, tithes &c. on lands in En- gland with the light imposts on American farms, 72-3 Tayloe Colonel, his letter on Virginia husbandry, and
remarks thereon, - - 100-104
Taylor John on gypsum, various experiments with, 51-75
on utility of bird foot clover, - - 52
Thouin, professor, translation of his letter, - 308
Timber and, Plants changes of, - - 357
Tough sod on rotting of, - - - - - l^g
Townsend apple tree, observations on, - . 90
Tours agricultural on, - - - - 291
V
Vegetable cover and manure. Clover bird (foot) and other plants, sown to rot, or for ploughing
- it IJIDEX.
'i <t'
Sh(
r*
ERRATA.
52
in, without feeding, or cutting ; — ^to fur- nish vegetable matter for manure, and ame- lioration, « . . , ^
Said there to be best ploughed in dry
But see page 63. Alternation — Indian <iom and vegetable cover plaistered and ploughed in to pre- cede and follow, in constant biennial suc- cession, , . .
Col. Taylor*s account and explanation of his process on the foregoing plan. Benefits of restoring vegetable matter to the soil, -» - - -
Virginia Tunis sheep there. Parts of that state calcu- lated for sheep-breeding.
Vegetation promoted by sulphur, . . ^
W
West William eulogium on, - - - - 147
Wheat, on harrowing in the spring, - . 9
disease in, called decay of the root, - . 287-8
Remarks thereon, , - - 288-9
Worms, found in other sheep, do not breed in the Tunis
*
race, - - 222-6
Wool, Tunis in great estimation and yields more to the
fleece than that of common sheep, - 2W
Not equal to merino ; but superior to most oAers, 244 average weight of Tunis fleeces ; and description of them, - - • • 217
Comparison of Tunis wool with that of English fleeces, See note on proof of originality, - . - Vi
Wool micrometer on, - • - 325
ibid
75
71
233 206
- ' Young William on oat pasture and improvement of
soils, - - - -
186
"Errors in ortAofrfl/>Ay,^rflmwMir, and /jMnrtt/ation, deficient or redundant, must be left for correction, to the candid and intelligent reader. Memoirs, Page 2, H line from top read "never found to be injurious."
42, 2 paragraph, insert a, before quarter or half an ounce Crc
55, last paragraph,/or **rotted.** read rolled.
63, last paragraph should read (5 line from bottom,) "from
thirty to fifty bushels of wheat, per acre:' 66, near the hoitom^chaff^bearing, between culmiferous
and crops — should be in a parenthesis. 73, line 6, of note— insert _yct, before " we are assuredly." 91, 1, second paragraph— proprietor. 101, 5, second paragraph, dele At — ^before I. 119, 4, note, 2 paragraph dele "^are^f"— insert, offered.
7 line — indispensably. 145, 9, of note—" two and an half."
151, 3, dele**De."
173, Text 3 line, from the bottom j dele "pounds;' and in- sert bushels. 220, last line. Read, "swine have the mouth ©/"the duct, &c." 229, for "most sheep have, more or less, the lap-ear," read,
m,any sheep, &c. 239, at the end— June 7th, should be Jufy 7th. 246,/or flock's, read /oc^*. 352 for caniscens, read canescens. ii. Proofs of originality &c. The T Jod or Yod, is omitted ih the word Aliah, or Mieh-^read, nrtK. Magnus- fieri — to be made, or formed, large. S, read, oc^vyj OS^YL is Lumbus, the loin. Osphun means A continuation of the loin,
j^^yi^^a — ^kerkos, is cauda, — the tail. »^«, oura, is
also Cauda ; from S^oc-, terminus, the extremity.
*• ^ It would apply to the appendage, below the
oo^uy.— See the plate, iv, part of the sixth line should read—" The flesh, and the
fat intermixed, of all victims &c." v, " flows back, to recruit the mass of blood and other parts of the system."— This should read, "to recruit the mass of blood:'* ["and, consequently, other parts of the system."] The latter is an observation of the translator. Inqiulrics on Plaister, page 18. For "respectfully" read respecUvely. I2O, for " o/* aromatic pain" read, in aromatic pain. Adyertiscment, before Inquiries : for sat, read set.
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