=) ti SV Y) NW) =ive aS VES y SS a el. Al =N b i | SS WAV, =~ a CaN pl S ® Se fs 2 Ls ! ei AY ee eee ee cece ececcee ec oe seer ee ce ee eee eee es we eee we wee eee es ees e se eee ser ee A) NAAAAARAAARAAALG peat ADT ROat OG ES aD Wee > or) ‘ao oSR Loy Baw) we" aaeek ere fafa i pas Sue ae agen cas ta sitingeeceaens is Beegar: mae ioe . ee De ry r bn pi fe atte he cf i by oe nae 6) WF Sereda e aueen FoR hs ti BET, at Sar Peep peasy pled Ph he balde Pe Pe ee ribald CALL La iawunnme Ped Ts Ee av ane Es ig le Cilia cance riences inceeiea caGhar ee cr kam “Suu See riog eae a 2 a) Ce se Oy be i nary tree Cy eee Nae ‘ FA see beer Age i i AK i PERE VN Th Fy MURA Ry LET Me Het! HIRD ANN ea Af i Mt Ay k Muah ee) ; ; Unefone a tg MEMOIRS | _ WERNERIAN _ NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. "he j Ae By He Cat pee DANY ’ Mm HES Rivet CT - MEMOIRS ‘ns ino ony! | WERNERIAN i ul ’ sia 1. HISTORY SOCIETY. / A 3 a ’ Tt : * Pe oe | VoL. II. } , " ‘ he bo as 2 Ae ‘ FOR THE ae 4 1si1 —1816, \ i 7 Mpa 9 serene eens ans wif el "EDINBURGH: - PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTAB“ & €O AND ey * LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME’ BROWN, Lonpon. eo 1818. MAY 2 1989 LISRA.:. ade ‘ + , ~ Mid Go ma hed bole os ayia os ty aul Biren Leet. al aga en a eas GaTaraa co ADVERTISEMENT. In laying its Memoirs before the Public, this Socis- ty does not hold itself as responsible for the facts or opinions which may be advanced on the various topics of Natural History that are discussed. These, accord- _ ingly, must be distinctly understood, as resting entire- ly on the individual authority of the respective Wri- ters who have favoured the Society with Communica- tions. | CONTENTS VOLUME SECOND. Part I. I. Outlines of the Mineralogy of the Ochil Hills. By Charles Mackenzie, Esq. - - Pagel II. 4 Geological Account of the Southern District of Stirlingshire, commonly called the Campsie Hills, witha few remarks relative to the two prevail- ing Theories as to Geology, and some examples given illustrative of these remarks. By Lieutenant-Colonel Imrie, aids - 245 Ill. Chemical Analysis of a Specimen of Magnetic Iron-Ore from Greenland. By Dr Thomas Thomson, - 51 [V. Description of a Swordfish found in the Frith of Forth in June 1811. By ~ William Elford Leach, Esq. . 58 Vill VI. VIL , VILL IX. XI. XII. CONTENTS. . Some Observations on the Genus Squa- lus of Linné, with Descriptions and Outline Figures of two British Spe- cles. By W.E. Leach, tai, Page 61 An cape on Sponges, wih Descrip- tions of all the Species that have been discovered on the Coast of Great Britain. By George Montagu, Esq. Mineralogical Description of Tinto, By Dr eee - Short Account of the Rocks which oc- cur in the Neighbourhood of Dun- dee. By the Rev. John Fleming, Observations on the Mineralogy of the Neighbourhood of St Andrew’s in F; ife. By the Rev. Mr Heats, . Meteorological Observations. on a Greenland Voyage in the ship Reso- lution of Whitby, in 1811. By Wil- liam Scoresby jun. Esq. = A Meteorological Journal kept during a Greenland Voyage, 1812. By Mr Scoresby, L% Analyse de la Spath ncaa ( Chaux carbonatée ferrif ere perlée d’ Haiiy. ) By W. Hisinger, Esq. - 67 123 138 145 174 XIV. XX, i A XXII. CONTENTS. Outline of the Mineralogy of the Pentland Hills. By Professor ix Jameson, — ils Page 178 On Conglomerated or Brecciated Rocks. By Professor Jameson, r On Porphyry. By Professor Jame- son, ' “ » Mineralogical Observations and Spe- culations. By Professor Jameson, Observations on the Natural Histo- ry of the Colymbus Immer. By Dr | ' 232 Arthur Edmondston, _ a a bY batty butions to the Privish Fauna. _ By the Rev. Mr Fleming, — - . Description and Analysis of a new Species of Lead-Ore from India. — By Dr Thomson, _ Notice concerning the Structure of the Cells in the Combs of Bees and Wasps. By Dr Barclay, - Parr II, On the Greenland or Polar Ice. By William Scoresby junior, Esq. On the Mineralogy of the Redhead in Angus-shire. By the Rev. John Fleming, - 202 217 221 2388 252 259 261 339 4 CONTENTS. XXIII. Description and Analysis of Ni Specimen of Native Lron found at Leadhills.5 By Mr H. M. Dacosta, - Page 370 XXIV. Mineralogical Observations in | Galloway. By Dr Grierson, XXV. Lithological Observations on the Vicinity of Loch-Lomond. By Dr Macknight, - XXVI. Description of Ravensheugh. By | Dr Macknight, - 873 392 404: XXVII. Hints regarding the Coincidence. | which takes place in the Pres- sure of the Atmosphere, at dif- ferent Latitudes, and at near- ly the same Time. By the Right Hon. Lord Gray, ~ XXVIII. An account of several new and rare species of Fishes, taken on the south coast of Devon- shire, with some remarks on some others of more common occurrence. By George Mon- tagu, Esq. 7 - 410 413_ XXVIIL. XXXII. XXXIV. XXXV. CONTENTS. Observations upon the Alveus or General Bed of the German Ocean and British Channel. By Ki Robert Stevenson, Esq. Page 464 . Geological Remarks on the Cart- lane Graig. By Dr Macknight, . Account of the Irish Testacea. _ By Thomas Brown, Esq. . Remarks respecting the Causes of Organization. By Dr Barclay, . On the Genera and Species of Eproboscideous Insects. By William Elford Leach, Esq. On the Arrangement of Cstri- deous Insects. By Dr Leach, Observations on some Species of the Genus Falco of Linnaeus. By James Wilson, Esq. = + On the Geognosy of the Lothians. (Part First.) By Professor Jameson, - “ 491 501 537 547 567 569 618 Ku 7 ) CONTENTS. APPENDIX. History of the Society, ae Page 655 List of Members Diecind since the publica. tion of the First Volume of the Society’s ~ . Memoirs, — - ee i 664 + Index to both Volumes 8v0, 3 3 = _ 669 > “= (HL) ty) Directions to the Binder. Part I. * | Map of the Ochil Hills, to front page 1 Plate I. Campsie Hills, > 50 II. ~ - 64 Ill. @ ~ : 78 ' IV. - s 79 V. = - £3 hare VI. = - 82 Vit. > = 83 VIII. = - 84 IX. - - 85 X. - - ab. XI. = - 87 XII. = > 92 XIII. Z h 93 XIV. - 112 XV. ~ - 107 XVI. 2 ~' OG XVII. = - 242 XVIII. : coat NY eta Part II. - XIX. Map of Greenland - 261 XX. Barometrical Curves, 412 XXI. Raia chagrinea, - 420 XXII. Leptocephalus and Blennius, 436 - XXIII. Sparus lineatus, > 451 XXIV. Irish Testacea, - “501 XXV. xXVL f Eproboscideous Insects, 549 XXVILI. The General Title-Page and Contents for Vol. 2d, is given with the Second Part of that Volume. Page 38. 58. 63. ib. 77. 78. 612. 624. a ae ERRATA 1n Vot. II. Line ib. pro atro lege atra 16. pro pupillo palvinato dege pupilla pulverulento 18. pro nigricans lege nigricantes 22. pro cinerascenti lege cinererascente ult. pro Sponata lege Sponci® 2. pro Sponaia Britannica lege Sponciz Brit- TANNICE : Note, last line but one, for pelarins, read pelerins, 13. for occasionally marly, quartz, or calcareous mat ter, read marl,quartz, or calcareous matter, = OOO 2 Ss MEMOIRS, &c. I. Outlines of the Mineralogy of the Ochil Hills. By Cuaries Mackenziz, Esq. F.L.S. F.W.S., & Mem- ber of the Geological Society. (Read 14th November 1812.) Ir the true ends of science be promoted rather by careful observation than by vague hypothesis, the Geognosy of Werner has peculiar claims to admiration. Without the lofty pretensions which constitute the chief distinction of some specula- tions, it has established general principles, which facilitate the labours of the student, and prompt to continued exertion. A system which developes the great laws of nature, and is substantially im- proved by the examination of her works, is of all others the best calculated to promote every science ; and accordingly we find, that mineralo- gy has made the most rapid advances wherever this has been fairly adopted. Formerly, minera- logical inquiries produced nothing more than a mere catalogue of localities; but now many re- lations of individuals have been distinctly deter- VOR 11. A v4 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. mined ; others are daily ascertained, and the most doubtful will probably be accurately known at a period not very remote. The correctness of these observations, is shewn by the history of minera- logy within a very few years, during which there has been an immense accumulation of geognostic facts collected from portions of the whole known world. In Britain alone, has the comparative pro- gress of the science been unequal to the apparent © ardour with which it has been pursued, and un- worthy of the example afforded by our mdefati- gable and justly distinguished President. With a view of contributing as far as it is in my power to remedy this deficiency, I have examined the interesting district of the Ochil Hills; and I now beg leave to lay the general results of that exami- nation before the Society. In many instances they will be found imperfect and unsatisfactory. It would have been gratifying, had it been possible for me to have made them more complete; but as circumstances render that wish unavailing, I trust that others, whose opportunities may be more favourable, will be prompted to retrace my steps, — to correct my errors, and to add new facts to those I shall detail. - General Description. Modern seopraphers consider the Ochil Hills as the southern boundary of the Grampians ; and in that point of view, the eastern portion may be MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS.. 3. traced to the Seedlay Hills; while the western extremity should be regarded as a mountain-arm stretching into the extensive valley which reach- es from the verge of the Grampians, properly so called, to the shores of the Forth: but as the pre- sent object is to give a sketch of their particular structure, without entering more into their ge- neral relations than distinctness requires, it will be convenient to view them as a small mountain- group, which rises above the sea-port of Par- ton Craigs, on the right bank of the Tay, and, after having skirted the northern parts of Fiie- shire, traversed Perthshire, bounded Kinross-shire and Clackmananshire, through a course of more than fifty miles, terminates on the river Allan, near Dunblane, in Stirlingshire. This group consists of a high chain, the jetties point of which, at its first rise*, does not exceed three or four hundred feet ; but more lofty + sum- mits occur to the westward, until Bencleugh [ and Dalmyatt, rear their heads at an elevation of more Ag * Craig Law, above the village of Parton Craigs. + The following are the most remarkable, going from east to west. Norman’s Law, Glenduchy hills, Clachert Craig, the hills of Abernethy, Castle Law, Sea Male, King’s Seat, Bencleugh, _Dalmyatt ; besides many others which may be traced in the map. ¢ Above the village of Westertown, &c. 4 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. than 2000 feet above the level of the sea. Several smaller chains may be traced in a course nearly parallel to that of the most elevated, particularly to the south, where they may be distinctly seen gradually diminishing, until they are lost in the adjacent valleys. In a few instances, as at the south-eastern extremity, they diverge from the general direction, forming small mountain-arms, which bound some lateral valleys of great fertility and beauty. | The individuals of which this group is com- posed, are generally long round-backed hills, very richly covered with verdure, having occasionally conical and rarely tabular summits. Those of the first description, are most numerous between Par- ton Craigs and Abernethy, and those of the latter, between Dunning and the Yetts of Muckhart ; and it is worthy of remark, that the former are more completely covered up than any of the other hills. The acclivities look to the north, and are gene- rally rapid, though there are some remarkable ex- ceptions to this observation. ‘The declwities are very gentle, except at Bencleugh, where they are in many places nearly precipitous. _ A very large proportion of the Ochil Hills are cultivated to the very summits, and nearly the whole of the re- mainder are excellent pasture. ‘The’ natural con- - sequence of this is, that there are few openings, except in an accidental quarry, or some rare natu- MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. i) ral exposure *, circumstances which embarrass the mineralogist in no common degree. — The dip of the strata, with very few exceptions, is to the south-east, corresponding with the decli- vities ; and the direction from north-east to south- west, corresponding with the direction of the whole group, which runs about half of its course from east to west, and then, changing its direction, runs from north-east to south-west. Springs are very numerous throughout the whole of the Ochil Hills; in some instances they form pools, in others bogs, and in many they unite and give rise to several beautiful small streams, that meander through the neighbouring districts. ‘The Devon, the Allan, and the May, are the most remarkable of these streamlets; and they pour their waters into the Forth, the Tay, and the Erne. _ | The valleys are also numerous, separating the several chains, and the individual heights from each other. In general they are narrow, not ex- ceeding thirty or forty yards in width; their length depends on that of the chain, or mountain which they bound. ‘These valleys are most nu- merous at the western extremity of the Ochils, Ag * Such is exhibited in the magnificent range of Helians, which may be traced nearly from Craig-in-Crune te Clachert Crag. 6 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. where they are also most extensive. They im- perceptibly diminish both in size and importance to the eastward. It is, however, in the latter portion that the romantic valley occurs, in which the Lake of Lindores is contained. In this small spot, nature has crowded together all that can de- light the eye, and elevate the imagination. The Ochil Hills are bounded to the north and north-west by the Frith of Tay, Strath-Erne, and Strath-Allan ; to the south-west by the vale of Forth; to the south by the vales of Devon, of Kinross, and of Eden; and to the east by the left bank of the Eden, where it is lost in the right bank of the Tay. The prevailing rock throughout the whole of the northern boundaries, is a dark brick-red Sand- stone, which extends as far as Callendar to the west, and to Stonehaven * to the east, and is in all probability the old red sandstone. ‘The indepen- dent coal formation, according to Mr Bald +, forms the coal-field of Clackmananshire and Stirling- shire ; and the red sandstone, occasionally assuming _ the characters of conglomerate [, again occupies * See Colonel Imrie on the Conglomerate, &c. vol. 1. Werne- rian Memoirs. + See Mr Bald on the coal-field ak Clackmananshire, vol. 1. ne ian Memoirs. t This is distinctly the case immediately to the ‘north of oat in a small opening | made by the rivulet which empties itself into the Eden below the town. MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. yf nearly the whole of the valleys of Kinross and Eden; while grey sandstone, slate-clay, bitumin- ous shale, pitch-coal, and clay-ironstone, form the . right bank of the Eden, to the south of St An- drew’s. On the left bank, which is more imme- diately contiguous to the Ochils, beds of sand, clay and marl have been observed. et ee The rocks composing the Ochil Hills, occur in nearly the following order: | . Red sandstone.. . Amygdaloid. . Grey sandstone. . Limestone. . Slate-clay. Claystone. Tuff, . Basaltic clinkstone. . Greenstone. . Claystone porphyry. | . Felspar porphyry. . Compact felspar. Oma nA WHS fest heat _ » = © I. Red Sandstone. This rock occurs for the first time, in travelling from east to west, on the shore below Birkhill. It is also found in a quarry between Bambriech | Castle, and Newburgh ; in the small hills between A4 8 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. Pitcaithly * and Dunning ; and to the westward of the latter place. Its colour is a dark brick-red, brownish red, and reddish grey. It is coarse- grained, occasionally it becomes conglomerated, as to the south of Dunning, where it rests on the reddish-grey sandstone, and contains considerable masses of quartz, fine-grained sandstone, and scales of silver-white mica. This sandstone is occasion- ally highly crystalline, bearing some resemblance to iron-flint. When the mica predominates, it assumes a slaty character, and decomposes into — tables. It occurs distinctly stratified, dipping to the south-east, with an apparent direction from north- east to south-west. I have not seen it in con- nexion with any other rock, except below the Rumbling Bridge in the course of the Devon, where it alternates with a tuff ; and at the foot of the King’s Seat, near to the house of Harvieston +, where it rests immediately above a seam of slaty pitch-coal, six feet two inches thick. From the resemblance of its characters to those of another sandstone to be hereafter noticed, it is highly pro- bable, that they will be found to belong to the same formation ; ; but as they have not been traced in distinct connexion, it may be well to keep them a _ * This is a small village in Perthshire, celebrated for a Mis neral spring, to which considerable efficacy has been ascribed, + The seat of my friend Craururp Tait, Esq. MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. 9 separate at present. At the base of Alva hill, it seems to lie below greenstone. In a small valley which traverses the Ceiats, between Wormit Bay, and a lateral valley that divides Newton hill from Sanford hill, there are ~ several small hillocks of an ironshot sand, which contains masses of this sandstone. It is probable, that they have been derived from the decomposi- tion of the red sandstone just described. Although it has not been accurately determined, it is highly probable, that this red sandstone, from the number of points at which it occurs, and the - coincidence between’ its characters and those of the old red sandstone which occupies the adjacent valleys, that they will be hereafter found to be intimately connected. At present, I shall hesitate to fix the place of this rock in the system, and content myself with observing, that it seems to be the lowest of the series composing the Ochil Hills. Il. Amygdaloid. On the shore between Parton Craigs and Balme- rino, (a district of nearly nine miles), a coarse Amyegdaloid gradually passes into a finer variety of the same rock. ‘The former of these consists. chiefly of portions of the latter, binding together _ various substances. I could not discover the thick- ness of any of the beds; but I apprehend, from Te) MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS.: having seen a different rock at a small height above it, that it is inconsiderable. The basis of this rock is a greyish-green claystone, occasionally very much ironshot. The numerous cavities con- tained in it, are lined with white amethyst, flesh- red calcareous spar, white felspar, chalcedony, red flint, and common quartz. The chalcedony ap- pears to have been first deposited, and the quartz, to have been the last. The amygdaloid sometimes becomes porphy- rytic, containing crystals of felspar. It is dificult to assign to this rock its correct geognostic position. At Parton Craigs, it is below claystone porphyry. Near Newport, it alternates with basaltic clinkstone. At the western extre- mity of Wormit Bay, it is below the claystone, through which it seems to be connected with the tuff on the one hand, and with the claystone por- phyry on the other. On the water of Fargs, which runs from Damhead * to Abernethy, it oc- curs resting on a variety of greenstone, which is connected with the clinkstone. In this last situa- tion, it possesses a great variety of characters, ‘being extremely coarse at one point, where a bed of clay-porphyry rests upon it. More to the southward, the vesicles in the amygdaloid become * This place is about half way between Kinross and Aber- ‘wethy. MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. 11 very distinct, and contain a flesh-red variety of felspar. This rock is traversed by veins of calcareous spar, which exhibit a sea-~green colour, when fresh broken. Ill. Grey Sandstone. Above the amygdaloid *, beds of a yellowish grey sandstone alternate with tuff and claystone, which appear to be intimately connected with some varieties of the amygdaloidal rock. It con- tains a considerable quantity of scales of silver- white mica, and decomposes into slaty masses. It seems to pass almost imperceptibly into the varie- ties of claystone to be hereafter described. One variety of this rock has a very remarkable granitic appearance, and does in fact contain all the con- stituents essential to true granite. At the same time, however, it retains the distinctive characters of sandstone. The relations of this rock to the older rocks, is not clearly made out, except at Wormit Bay, where it seems to rest on amygdaloid. It occurs frequently between Wormit Bay, and the village of Dunning in Perthshire. It also occurs in the course of the Devon, where it may be seen alter- nating with the red sandstone, to which in all probability it ping ™ At the western extremity of Wormit Bay. 12 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. _ Its general dip is to the south-east, and its ssl rection from north-east to south-west. IV. Limestone. In a quarry at the base of Park Hill, not far from Bambriech Castle *, a saddle-shaped mass of yellowish grey Limeetane rests, between beds of slate-clay and grey sandstone ; and above the new- est sandstone, there is a bed of greenstone, the up- per part of which is much decomposed. This | limestone varies from an earthy to a highly crys- talline structure, resembling if not passing into calcareous spar. This is the only instance throughout the whole of the Ochils that I have seen limestone, although I have been assured, that other portions of it have been observed at a considerable elevation above the village of Abernethy. On examining the situa- tions to which I was referred, I could discover no tra- ces of limestone ; from which I have been induced to suspect, that the popular belief is unfounded. _ ¥ Bambriech Castle stands on a promontory of red sand- stone, which runs a short way into the Tay, from its southern bank, about three miles to the eastward of the small sea-port of Newburgh. Immediately to the south of the castle, the Ochils rise very rapidly, and receive different names. That of Park Hill, is appropriated to the hill half way between Newburgh and Bambriech. MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. 13> V. Slate-Clay. Thin seams of a bluish-grey Slate-clay, possés- sing the common characters, occur both above and below the limestone, ra baie it from the grey sandstone. : VIL Claystone. This is a very abundant rock, and some very beautiful varieties of it occur in the course of the Ochil Hills. At Lucklaw *, it appears to pass into basaltic clinkstone; below Birkhill+, it alter- nates with sandstone, tuff and felspar, passing on the one hand into the grey sandstone, and on the other, through all the varieties of tuff and clink- stone, to the perfectly compact felspar. It is also found between the Yetts of Muckhart and Alva, below the clinkstone, with which it pees al. ternates. It is fine-grained, having a large flat conchoidal fracture, and an uneven cross‘fracture. It occa- sionally contains scales of silver-white mica, parti- cularly where it alternates with the sandstone and tuff, as it does below Birkhill. The colour is various, even in the alternating strata; the most common, however, is between pearl grey and isa- -* This is a small hill between Cupar and Parton Craigs. + An eminence about five miles to the westward of Wood. haven. , 14 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. bella yellow. It sometimes, though rarely, isamyg- daloidal: the cavities of such varieties, are filled with green earth, and white calcareous spar: crys~ tallised felspar is dispersed throughout the mass. The claystone alternates with the grey sandstone and the tuff, between which it is most probably the connecting link ; for it passes almost imper- ceptibly at its extremities into each of them. It is doubtful, whether or not the claystone be of older formation than the limestone, as I have seen both in similar relations to the sandstone. The present location, therefore, of these rocks, in so far as they regard each other, must, until more ex- tended observations shall have been made, be con- sidered as entirely arbitrary. VIL. Tuff. A very remarkable tufacious rock occurs above the claystone at the base of Birkhill, and at the western extremity of Wormit Bay. In both of these situations, it alternates with the sandstone and claystone. In no other part of the Ochils have I observed a similar arrangement. This tuff is coarse, inclosing portions of felspar, which is sometimes lost in the prevailing mass. The chief colours are, flesh-red and Isabella yel- low. It appears to be one of the newest mem- bers of the sandstone series, and there is a gradual passage from it to the claystone. It is distinctly MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. 15 stratified, having the general dip, direction, and inclination of the whole mountain-group. VIII. Basaltic Clinkstone. From the first rise to the final termination of the Ochil Hills, Clinkstone is the prevailing rock, It occurs at Parton Craigs, resting on, and in one instance alternating with, the amygdaloid ; from Craig-in-Crune, (half way between Woodhaven and Newburgh, ) it forms the summits of the hills, occasionally exhibiting columns of more than 100 | feet in height, which rise precipitously from the low lands on the south bank of the Tay, and pro- duce a noble and imposing effect *. At the more western portions of this district, the clinkstone is connected with greenstone, felspar porphyry, and compact felspar. At Westertoun, immediately above the junction with the coal-field of Clack- mananshire, it occurs distinctly stratified, the beds being separated from each other by thin seams of leek-green steatite, which contains iron pyrites in considerable abundance. It occasional- _ly assumes the characters of basalt: at other times, it is more decidedly clinkstone ; but it most gene- * This is remarkably the case in the hills between Craig-in- Crune, and Norman’s Law. The columns there have a diame- ter of from five to seven feet. They are pentagonal, as it usual- ly happens, ~ | ge 16 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. ~ rally possesses chatacters intermediate between those of basalt and clinkstone; from which cir- cumstance, I have been induced to adopt the name of Basaltic Clinkstone, which applies equally to every variety. | Its colours are blackish-grey, blackish-brown, and sometimes it is much ironshot, particularly at the summits of the lower hills. Its fracture is slaty and rough, and in general it emits the clink- ing sound to which the species owes its name. Beautiful specimens of an amygdaloidal variety occur between Abernethy * and Kinross. The dip and direction of the stratified portions of this clinkstone, correspond with the general dip and direction. IX. Greenstone. Throughout the district which extends from Parton Craigs to Newburgh, the clinkstone fre- quently passes into greenstone ; and in the imme- diate vicinity of the latter place, it appears distinct- ly columnar, though its relations to every os rock are wholly undefined. - It is not improbable, from similar greenstone being found in higher portions of the hills between Newburgh and Woodhaven, that it alternates with * The hills in this district are very picturesque, and have (I believe) approj'riate names, though I could not learn them, as every shepherd furnished one of his own. MiNERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. 17 the clinkstone. Between Dunning * and the Yetts: of Muckhart, it occurs frequently above the clink- stone, and below felspar-porphyry ; but is seen in greatest abundance, variety, beauty, and distinct- ness between the Yetts of Muckhart and the western extremity of the Ochils, particularly in an exposure made by a streamlet which divides the King’s Seat from Craiginnan +, and in a sec- tion above the village of Westertoun. In this dis- trict, it forms separate hills, or their caps, and in the central parts of the group, it alternates dis- tinctly stratified with the basaltic clinkstone, which it connects with the felspar rock through the fel- spar porphyry. ‘The section above Westertoun, may be considered a beautiful epitome of these alternations, and it receives an additional interest from its exhibiting a fine vicw of the junctions of the Coal-field, with the newer rocks. The beds of greenstone have a dip and direction at right angles, to the dip and direction of the clink- stone, from which it is separated by thin seams of * The observation made on the hills between Abernethy and Kinross, applies to those of the above portion of the Ochil Hills. The confusion arising from a perpetual repetition of names, has - induced me, in many instances, to omit them altogether. _ + Craiginnan is the hill which rises immediatly behind Dol- lar, and is connected by a series of conical hills with the ro- mantic and precipitous Craig Rossie, which rises to the west- ward of the village of Dunning in Perthshire. VOL. II. B 18 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. decomposing steatite. ‘The beds of the greenstone itself are also separated by thin seams of this steatite, which contains considerable quantity of iron pyrites. The gradation * from the rock in which the hornblende predominates to that in which a beautiful flesh-red felspar prevails, is marked in a series of six alternating portions of greenstone and clinkstone, which commence at the above-named section, and may be traced in the face of Bencleugh beyond Alva. It is worth recording, that a bed of greenstone occurs in a coarse conglomerated rock in the hill of Balcanquhal +. It is of small extent, and may be seen in all sides except at its base. There can therefore be no doubt of its relations to the rock in which it is rmbedded,. from the characters of which it may be fairly presumed, that it does not owe its existence to volcanic agency {. The characters of the greenstone, are those which commonly occur, except in the higher al- ternating beds, where they assume those of the * Tt is a curious fact, that all the red varieties of rock that I have observed in the Ochils, occur at the highest points. It is difficult to form even a conjecture as to the cause of this. + About three miles from Kinross, to the north of the road between that place and Cupar. } If this bed of greenstone were spouted up from the centre of the earth, the intensely hot fluid mass must have acted on the bed through which it flowed. But of this action there is ne evidence. ~= MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. 19 tock, which Mr Jameson calls Sienitic Greenstone. _It is occasionally porphyritic, containing fine and indistinct crystals of rutilite. X. Claystone-Porphyry. On the south side of the Abernethy hills, a bed of flesh-red claystone porphyry, with crystals of glassy felspar, is above the clinkstone, and some varieties of greenstone, but its relations are wholly undefined. I. Felspar-Porphyry Forms the caps of the highest hills which lie be- tween Dunning and Dunblane. It is a compact ilesh-red felspar, containing crystals of white calca-- reous* spar. In the course of the streamlet which runs past Castle Campbell, it alternates with green- stone. It occurs in decomposed fragments on the summits of Craiginnan, King’s Seat, Bencleugh, and Dalmyatt. ‘These decomposed fragments have a vesicular appearance, from a very obvious cause, (the rapid decomposition of the included crystals). This appearance would no doubt be ascribed to BQ * This appears to be intimately connected with the sienitic ‘greenstone. Some beautiful masses of this rock are to be seen higher than the greenstone, at Craig Rossie, near to Dunning. 20 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. volcanic agency, by those whose zeal for hypo- thesis outstrips their love of accuracy. Only the lower portions of this rock contain crystals of hornblende, which give way at the higher points to those of calcareous spar. XII. Compact Feilspar. Very beautiful brick-red and flesh-red compact felspar, possessing all the usual characters, forms the caps of some of the smaller hills of the south- ern chain of the Ochils, which extends from the neighbourhood of Dollar, to the banks of the Eden. Near Cupar, it occurs so abundantly, as to be the sole material for repairing the roads. [It appears to be the newest member of the series, and to correspond both in its individual characters, and in its geognostic relations with the felspar of ‘the Pentland Hills, where it was first noticed for- ming distinct masses by Professor Jameson. At the summit of Lucklaw, this felspar passes into hornstone. A solitary bed of it is to be found in the alternating series of sandstone, claystone, and tuff, in Wormit Bay. : VEINS. Having thus briefly noticed the prevailing rocks, I shall now mention the veins traversing these MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. 91 rocks, in the order of the strata in which they oc- cur. Contemporancous veins are not uncommon in the clinkstone and greenstone; but true veins are more rare. ‘The following is the order of the latter : i. Calcareous spar. 2. Steatite. 3. Heavy-spar. 4, Iron. 5. Cobalt. 6. Silver. 7. Copper. 8. Lead. Calcareous Spar. ~ Highly crystallised varieties of the calcareous spar traverse the clinkstone, near Woodhaven, and the claystone near to the Rumbling Bridge. It has a greenish tint, and all the usual characters. The dip and direction not easily determined. The thickness from half an inch to two inches. | Steatite. Veins of this steatite, varying from one to two inches, divide the strata of the clinkstone, and of the greenstone, at the section above Westertoun and Alva. They occasionally contain iron-pyrites crystallised, in cubes, in considerable quantities. — BS. s Bes 22 MINERALOGY OF THE OCHILS. Heavy-Spar. Straight lamellar heavy-spar is the veinstone of the mine behind Castle Campbell, of those of Alva Hill, and Airthry Hill, in all of which it traverses the newer varieties of the clinkstone, which approach to felspar through the greenstone. They are four or six feet wide, with their out- goings to the south. Dip near 45° to the north- east ; but from the falling in of the roofs and other | accidents, it was impossible for me to ascertain any particulars respecting them. It is in these veins of heavy-spar, that the cobalt, silver, cop- per, and lead, have been deposited. Of the two first of these, I could discover no trace; though there is no doubt that both have been obtained in considerable quantity. The fullest account I have been able to meet with of the silver mines, is that contained in Sir John Sinclair’s Statistical Account of Scotland, under the head Alva. Of the cobalt, I have seen no published account. It appears, that both these melap were 1 OUR in the Alva Hill. Copper and lead are still to be found both in the mine behind Castle Campbell, and in the mines of Alva. But the specimens (which alone I could procure) at the entrance, are so much acted upon by the weather, that I cannot venture to at- MINEROLOGY OF THE OCHILS, 93 tempt any description of the varieties of ore that occur. The first named of these mines has been twice opened since the year 1760, but has been abandoned on both occasions. But it is not de- termined, whether or not the want of success has arisen from mismanagement, or from the unpro- ductiveness of the mine. From their present state, I found it impossible to make any accurate obser- vations on them. Such are the most important facts that I have noticed in the examination I have been able to give to the Ochils, Although the information I have collected be imperfect, I trust that the So- ciety will receive it as a pledge of my readiness to contribute all that I can to the science of mi- neralogy. It may be expected, that I should as- sign the geognostic place of the Ochils. With the limited observations that I have made, I could do no more than throw out conjectures, which would not conduce to the legitimate ends of science. Until more extended examinations shall have been made, I must beg leave to confine my- self to a simple narrative of facts, B4 Il. A Geological Account of the Southern District of Stirlingshire, commonly called the Campsie Fills, with a few remarks relative to the two prevailing Theories as to Geology, and some ex- amples given illustrative of these remarks. By Lieutenant-Colonel Iurm, F. R.S. Edin. (Read 1st February 1812. ) Tue tract of country to be here described, is at present denominated the Campsie Hills, and was formerly called Lennox. It is almost entirely si- tuated in Stirlingshire, and forms the southern dis- - trict of that county. Inthe west, it commences between the town of Dunbarton and the village of Drymen, and stretches from thence towards the east and north-east; in which direction, it is about twenty-two miles in length, but in its breadth it is variable. About the centre of the district, it is nearly ten miles broad, and this breadth di- - minishes towards its western and eastern extremi- GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. 95 ties. It is bounded upon the south by Dunbarton- shire ; and, on the north, by a lowly undulated tract of ground, stretching from the village of Drymen to the town of Stirling, which tract forms the southern part of the river district of the Forth. | , The general surface of the Campsie district, may, in the strictest language, be denominated highly undulated. Its surface majestically por- trays the Bay of Biscay after a western gale, and its high undulations follow each other in regular succession. These undulations are of great length from south to north, and, nearly in that direction, the most of them stretch from side to side of the district. The general contour of these lengthen- ed hills, individually, is somewhat uncommon, al- though not peculiar to that part of the country. Each hill has a considerable degree of curvature, the convex side of which, is uniformly presented to the west: the central part of that curve, forms the highest point of their elevation, and they gra- dually slope towards the extremities of the seg- -ments which their curvatures form. Upon their eastern sides, they rise with an equal acclivity of from twenty to thirty degrees; the rapidity of which, in some degree, diminishes as it approaches the summits, where they are somewhat round- backed. Their central or highest points seldom or ever exceed an elevation of from twelve to fif- teen hundred feet above the level of the sea; at which height, their western faces very generally a GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS, become abrupt and broken, and continue to be precipitous for a considerable depth under the lip of the hill; but these broken and abrupt faces seldom shew more of the stratification than that of the trap, which in such situations evidently points out its strong tendency towards columnar form. At the bases of these precipices, a long and rapid slope of debris succeeds, which are fre- quently covered by vegetation. The troughs or hollows between the undulations, generally form narrow dales or glens, but some few of them have a sufficient breadth to entitle them to the denomi- nation of valleys. ‘The most extended of these, . are the vales of Campsie, and of Fintry. Such is the general contour or outline of the surface of this district, with only one or two ex- ceptions ; the most prominent of which, is a hill of somewhat conic appearance, called Meikle Ben. This hill is situated a little to the south of the road which leads from Fintry to the vale of Campsie. It towers above all the other heights of the district, and rises superior to them at least 300 feet. As far as the interior of this hill can be examined, it is found to be composed of the same species of trap which is so generally the in- cumbent stratum of the Campsie district. From the base of this hill, issue the rivers of Carron, and of Endrick ; the first of these takes an eastern direction, and empties itself into the Frith of Forth ; the second takes a western direction, and flows into Lochlomond. ‘This circumstance of the * GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. 27 e two rivers rising nearly at the same point, and im- mediately flowing in directions diametrically op- posite to each other, sufficiently ascertains that this hill of Meikle Ben forms the saddle of this part of the country. I shall now proceed to describe the interior structure and composition of this hilly district. As far as this tract of country has been dipped into, the geological materials of which it is formed are as follow : A surface of vegetable soil,—trap,— sandstone, —limestone, —shale or slate-clay,—blue clays of various tints and of various consistences,— bituminous shales,—clay iron-ores, some of which are thinly stratified, and others are imbedded in the shale in lenticular forms,—coal,—and clay- marl; all of which materials, have been arranged by nature in the order in which they are here placed, from the surface-soil downwards. The wegetable surface-soil of this district, is but thinly scattered over the face of its hills: consists mostly of an argillaceous matter of a ae brown colour, much mixed with the small debris of the trap on which it generally rests, and from the decomposition of which it has evidently ori- ginated. ‘The quantity of iron in this soil is con- siderable, and it owes its colour to an oxide of that metal. : The rock which occurs immediately under the surface-soil, is trap, which generally, in this dis- trict, is of great thickness, and, in the broken 28 GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. western faces of the hills, it frequently shews this thickness in sections of from 70 to 100 feet, perfectly perpendicular to the horizon. These faces almost always display an arrangement of polygonal columnar forms, which generally rest upon sandstone: But, in some instances, I have observed this great body of trap divided into two beds of nearly equal thickness, the upper bed shew- ‘ing distinctly its strong tendency towards taking co- lumnar form ; but the under bed, upon which these columns stand, being perfectly amorphous, and shewing no tendency to any form whatever. The columnar forms of the trap in the upper bed, al- though clearly apparent, are very irregular in their constructions, as to size, sides, and angles ; no symmetrical similitude is to be observed among ‘them. They have in general from three to six sides, and are of various diameters, from one to seven feet. Their heights, at Murray’s Hall, may be traced, in the front of the precipice, from seven- ty to eighty feet, and their positions are in gene- ral vertical. Some of these columns appear to be jointed, but these apparent joints have no regu- larity in position or direction; and these appear- ances seem only produced by accidental cracks which cross some of the columns. The amor- phous part of the trap, which sometimes is inter- posed between the columnar trap and the sand- stone, is of the same composition as the upper bed, but their component parts differ in their propor- ‘tional quantities ; that is to say, that the under GEOLOGY OF THE GAMPSIE HILLS, 99 bed contains a much greater proportion of iron than the upper does, and their quantities of horn- blende and felspar also vary. When both of those beds are equally exposed to the external air, the under one is seen to be much more under the in- fluence of decomposition than the upper one. This rock is the Fletz-Trap of Werner; its composition consistsof hornblende, compact felspar, a few scales of mica, some minute portions of iron-pyrites, with an admixture of ferruginous particles, which, in the columnar part of the rock, seem to be but slightly oxidised. The sandstone of this district forms a very ge- neral part of its geological composition. The small quantity of cement, which is one of its com- ponent parts, and is the cause of the cohesion among its particles, is a white clay, which entitles it to the denomination of an Argillaceous sandstone. The thickness of the various beds of this rock here, is very unequal, and the layers of its strata are from three to eight feet thick. The upper stratum of this sandstone, upon which the trap rests, is generally of a whitish-grey colour ; but, in passing downwards, it becomes in colour a whitish-yellow, which at last tints down to a yel- lowish-brown, from a slight admixture of iron in its cement. Its granulations of quartz are small, and its texture is rather compact; but the adhe- sion among its particles, is in general by no means strong. 30 GEOLOGY OF THE GAMPSIE HILLS: Limestone also forms here a very general part of geological composition : it is found in almost every part of this district, and occurs in separate beds, which are, as to depth, considerably removed from each other. In the eastern part of the district, this limestone is found in two separate beds; the upper one of which varies in thickness from two to four feet, and is one hundred and seven feet un- der the surface. The second bed has generally a thickness of six feet, and is one hundred and twenty-five feet under the surface. ‘This last bed is in many places extensively wrought by mining ; it produces lime of an excellent quality. The limestones of these two beds, are both of a dark bluish-grey colour; they are of a glimmering lustre, and are opake. Their fractures are small splintery, and are somewhat brittle; they are nearly semihard inclining towards soft. Small portions of iron-pyrites and minute petrifactions of entrochi, are imbedded and thinly scattered in their masses. Both of these beds are much in- tersected by narrow veins of bluish-white cal- careous spar. The clays of this district. are ‘generally of a dark blue colour, and remarkably tenacious. The shales or slaty-clays are from a dark blue colour to almost that of black; in some places, this shale admits into its composition a small propor- tion of bitumen and particles of coal-glance. They are of various indurations from very soft to hard. The intervening strata between the two beds of GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLs. 31 limestone consist of sandstone, clay, shale, &c. ; for the natural position of all of which, see the list of strata and the section. Tron-ore is plentifully produced in many parts of this district, and it consists of two kinds. The first is found in thin strata, the beds of which are from four to fourteen inches thick ; and these beds are separated from each other by layers of blue clay strongly tenacious. ‘The second kind is the lenticular shaped or ball-formed iron-ore, which is found imbedded in blue clay, and also in shale, generally in the near vicinity of coal. Upon the southern confines of this district, in the parish and vale of Kilsyth, | examined with much attention one of the mines which is remarkably productive of this lenticular formed ore. I there found the balls imbedded in a soft shale, and regularly ar- ranged in strata; they rest upon one of their flat- tened sides, and their distribution is nearly lineal ; but in these lines, they are seldom imbedded so near to each other as to come in contact. The balls of each line were generally of the same size. In the deepest strata, the largest balls are found, and the smaller-sized ones are found in higher strata. The largest which I measured, somewhat exceeded a foot in diameter, and they diminish from this size down to a quarter of an inch. The interior arrangement of these lenticular forms, is so well known, that no description is here necessary ; they have, however, afforded a field for considerable discussion, and proofs to aid “eB GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. theory have been endeavoured to be drawn from their interior appearances. ‘The metal produced from this lenticular ore, is far superior, both in quantity and in quality, to that which is extracted from the ore that is found thinly stratified. Coal is very generally found around the whole of the border of this district, excepting upon its northern side ; and I have little doubt, but that the whole of the Campsie Hills are incumbent upon a coal-field. This, however, remains to be proved, as no coal has as yet been attempted to be found in the central part of the district, where the vast thickness of the trap stratum proves a bar to making trials of that kind at a moderate ex- pence. ‘lowards the western border, in the parish of Campsie, and at the eastern extremity of the district, in the parish of Larbert, coal has been long and extensively wrought. Coal has also been long wrought upon its southern basis, where its hills dip into the vale of Kilsyth. The beds and seams of coal that have been already wrought, are of various thicknesses in various situations ; but none of them exceed four feet. Their depth under the surface-soil, varies from seven to twenty- two fathoms. This coal is by no means of the best quality : it is very generally found to contain a considerable quantity of sulphur, and its bitu- minous ingredient is far from being ample. In burning, it emits a disagreeable smell, and leaves a very large proportion of ashes. / GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. 35 Its roof, or immediate covering in the stratifica- tion, and its floor, or what it rests upon, consist both of clay, with which the coal is much mixed, and of course much contaminated. The general dip of the whole of the strata in the Campsie Hills district, is to the south-east, varying in different places from an angle of six~. teen, to one of thirty degrees. The following is a Table of the Strata as they occur in the eastern part of the district at Mur- ray’s Hall, where the trap displays a perpendicu- lar face, of from seventy to eighty feet; anda Table of the Strata near its western extremity, in the vicinity of the village of Campsie, where the coal is found in its greatest thickness. VOL, I: C Two 34 GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. Two sections taken, one at Murray's Hall, and the other near to the Village of Campsie. DWUVVVWAOY The strata at Murray’s Hall. . Vegetable soil, about . Trap, columnar, = . Trap, amorphous, - A narrow line of trap much decomposed, . Trap, compact, = . Sandstone, > . A narrow strip of slate- clay. . Sandstone, - . Slate-clay, . Dark bluish-grey sie stone, ~ . Slaty-clay, mixed with glance-coal, . Sandstone, ~ . Slaty-clay, containing narrow lines of sand- Stone, - . Slaty-clay almost black, . Dark bluish-grey lime- stone, with entrochi and small particles of pyrites imbedded, . Bituminous shale pass- ing into slate-clay, . Bituminous shale, with a mixture of calca- reous matter and py- rites. ‘The thickness of this stratum not known. Feet in theckness. woesa 157 2 60 16 G9 O89 9 O9 The strata near the village | . A thin vegetable soil. . Blue clay mixed with . Sandstone. . Slaty-clay, soft. . Sandstone. . Slaty-clay, indurated. . Dark bluish-grey lime- . Slaty-clay with lenticu- . Coal. . Slaty-clay. : . Slaty-clay, mixed with . Clay-marl.—The miners of Campsie. VeVvewewes water-worn stones. stone. lar iron-ore. calcareous matter. Limestone, somewhat lighter in colour than No. 7. here have never pene- trated as yet to the | bottom of this stratum, and the thickness of each stratum in this section was not ascer- tained with a sufficient degree of accuracy, to be | mentioned here. The ; coal, No. 9., is four feet | thick, - GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS, 85 In the above section at Murray’s Hall, the coal has not yet been found, and by the other taken near to the village of Campsie, the trap does not exist; but this last-mentioned section was taken in one of the vales, in which situations, the trap sometimes disappears, and these disappear- ances seem, in a great. measure, to have been ef- fected by the attrition of rock masses, set in mo- tion by heavy and rapid currents of water. In all situations of this district, where the trap has disappeared, the vegetable or surface soil rests upon a strongly tenacious blue clay, much mixed with water-worn stones, and this blue clay rests upon sandstone. Among the water-worn stones imbedded in the clay, I seldom found specimens of the native rocks of the district 5 those which I examined, consisted mostly of rocks generally deemed of the oldest formations, such as quartz, porphyries, granites, &c.; the native beds of which, are far distant to the north and west of | that part of the country. [ have here mentioned above, that the disap- pearance of the trap in some of the glens and narrow vales, seems to have been produced by the effects of the attrition of heavy bodies set in mo- tion by a great force of water in rapid movement. But this hypothesis requires explanation, and an exposition of the phenomena upon which it rests. These, I shall here endeavour to describe, as they appeared in some parts of this district. Ca 86 GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS: In some of the glens and narrow vales, where the trap had not entirely disappeared, I perceived upon its surface strong indications and marks of attrition. In some places the surface of the trap was smooth, and had evidently received a consider- able degree of polish ; and this polish is almost al- ways seen marked by long lineal scratches. In other places, there appeared narrow grooves, apparent- ly formed by the rapid movement of large masses of rock having been swept along its surface; and I remarked, that these striz or seratches, were very generally, in a direction from west to east, excepting where inequalities of the surface, and sudden turns in vales had partially influenced the course of the current. In the eastern part of the district, there occurs a small elevated plain shghtly undulated.. Here the surface of the trap, in some places, had lost its covering of soil, and was left bare for inspection. Upon this plam, I agai de- tected some of these’ scratches, which were,. in this situation, generally in a. direction from west to east, sometimes deviating a little towards the south- west and north-east, and sometimes towards the north-west and south-east; but in taking the “average or medium of these directions, their ge- neral and true course seemed to me to be from west to east. Upon the surface there were scat- tered immense masses of the trap, which, from their apparent weight, seemed perfectly capable GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. 37 ef forming these scratches and grooves above de- scribed, had they been put in motion and impelled along the surface. Upon examining some of these huge masses, I found their surfaces scratched and worn in such a way as to prove sufficiently indicative to me, that they had been long subjec- ted to attrition in water; and I also observed, that many of them presented their principal or most pro- jecting angle towards the west, and sometimes to- wards the north-west, which, according to my opi- nion, strongly implies the direction of the current which left them in the position in which they now rest. It is not the object of this paper to dip inte the causes of this phenomenon ; but that such ‘currents as were capable of the effects which I have endeavoured to describe, have flowed over the surface of our globe, is to me, clearly evident, and these scratches and grooves here mentioned, are some of the minor, but clear proofs of its action. ‘To examine upon the great and true scale the proofs of these currents having existed, we must, in Scotland, enter among the Grampians ; and we will there see, that the mountains of that range - very generally present their most bluff and abrupt sides towards the west, and the north-west points, and tail and taper away towards the east and south-east. The above observations relative to this subject, may to some appear trivial and unimportant; but as 38 GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. I have here given them, as they relate to a phe- nomenon, which, I think, merits some attention, especially when the various changes that have taken place upon the crust of our globe, are taken into consideration. By the description here given of the general stratification of the Campsie Hills district, it will be perceived, that it presents nothing peculiar or very remarkable among its various strata, and is in a great degree similar in its formation to most of the coal-fields in Scotland. I may, however, perhaps be here permitted to except one dissimi- larity,—which is the immense bed of trap that is so generally the superincumbent stratum of this por- tion of the country. From the general configura- tion of this trap into columnar forms, it will be deemed by some geologists to be of volcanic origin, _ or that these forms have been produced by the ef- fects of internal heat. In consequence of the writer of this memoir having examined much of Mount Etna from base to summit, and having been fre- quently upon Vesuvius, as also having visited some of the Lipari Islands, he may perhaps be allowed to have gained some knowledge regarding the ap- parent effects of heat upon fossil bodies ; and, as- suming upon this knowledge gained by his fre- quent visits to volcanic regions, he proposes to venture here some opinions upon this controverted subject; and, in doing so, he must commence by GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. 39 stating, that, in the district above described, he could perceive no effects either as to matter or form, that might not have been produced by at- mospheric action alone; nor could he perceive any appearances in the various strata that occur under the trap, that indicated in any degree, in- terior heat having ever acted upon them. It is well known, that with regard to geology, there . are two systems very different from each other, and by the tenets of these systems, they are widely separated. ‘The adopters of these systems are in general keenly bent towards their support, and fiercely argue upon the propriety of their dif- ferent creeds. ) One class of those philosophers, hold, that the polygonal forms which have been here described as belonging to the Campsie Hills district, are of aqueous origin; and some of this class, even-go so far as to say, that the columnar forms found so frequently in the vicinity of volcanic regions, have not assumed that form in consequence of volcanic fire, but that such columns have been on- ly detached from their interior native rocks by the violence of volcanic shocks, and have been ejected in their native state unchanged by vol- cantevfire. % The other class of philosophers, hold these forms to have been produced by the agency of _ yolcanic fire, or from internal heat progersine G4 4.0 GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. | from some other cause. This last-mentioned class, do not, however, (as is generally thought,) hold all the formations of the crust of our globe, of which we can claim acquaintance, to be of igneous origin : they admit clearly that some of the-strata_ have been formed by a deposition from water ; but for the consolidation of these strata so formed, they think it necessary to call in the aid of inter- nal heat, and hold these polygonal forms to have been produced in consequence of its effects. Such, upon this point, is nearly the general outline of the difference of opimion subsisting between these two parties. But it ought to be remembered, that nature frequently produces the same effects by very different means, and that the columnar con- figurations are formed not only in the moist but also in the dry way ; which can be here easily ex- emplified. ‘The aqueous origin of these forms, may be observed upon any extended surface of clay or of mud, which has been the deposite of water, and where evaporation has taken: place. In such situations, when evaporation has taken ‘place to a considerable degree of dryness, the de- - posited soil gradually shrinks, cracks in various © directions, and takes polygonal forms. If the soil in such situations is shallow, the tabular form is exhibited ; but if the soil is of any considerable thickness, the columnar form appears. Beautiful displays of these forms on a small scale, may fre- GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS, 4l quently be seen in the operation of starch-drying, and in some of the preparations for pottery. Upon the large scale, this operation of nature is to be seen to the greatest advantage in warm climates, where evaporation is strong and rapid ; one example of which, I shall here beg leave to describe, it having struck me as being a remark- ably good and explanatory specimen of this phe- nomenon. ‘The notes which I took upon the spot where this specimen occurred, are now before me. — In the Mediterranean, on the coast of Africa, this example fell under my observation some years ago. In the near vicinity of a considerable rivu- let, deeply imbedded in a soft soil, there had ex- isted a piece of water of considerable expanse, ona level of about twenty feet above the stream of this rivulet ; one of the windings of this stream had undermined, and had carried off a great part of a rising ground that had served to imbank upon one side this former lake ; which bank, when broken down, had given drainage to it, and had laid open its deposited soil to a considerable depth. Upon this broken down side, the soil of _ the former lake displayed a beautiful arrangement | of columnar forms. These were in length about eighteen feet, and were from a foot and a half to three feet in diameter, but, as to their magni- tudes and forms, they varied much from each 42 GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. other; although, however, there was no very striking similarity to be observed among them, they were all angular, and their forms generally consisted of four, five, and six sides. ‘They were perfectly vertical in position, and their forms were to be traced nearly down to the stream which had invaded their situation. Upon examining the surface which the lake had formerly covered, I found it perfectly level, and divided into polygonal forms by fissures and cracks, stretching out in all directions, which, by intersection, formed the columns here described ; on the tops of which, I stepped from column to column, as upon a Giant’s © Causeway. Some of the cracks and fissures had been here filled up with dust of a blackish-brown colour, which gave some parts of this surface the appearance of mosaic work. The majority of the tops of the columns were certainly very irre- gular as to form, yet there were some among them that could be perceived approaching very nearly to regularity in sides and angles: two of these particularly attracted my attention, and which I found almost bore the test of measurement. These two were pentagons; the one was two feet, and the other a foot and a half in diameter. ‘The muddy clay of which the whole of these columns were composed, was almost of an im- palpable grain, and was of a reddish-brown co- jour ; it had gained a considerable induration in GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. AS the’ mass, but could be easily scratched by the nail. This example is drawn from classic ground : I discovered it in the vicinity of ancient Car- thage, where debris now only mark the former site of that great and important city. ‘Those geologists, who, upon the other hand, assert, that columnar forms are not produced by volcanic operation, must surely have never visited a real volcanic region. Proofs of this form having taken place in consequence of volcanic agency, are to be seen around the sites of almost every volcano where lava has been erupted. I shall, however, not now take up the time of this So- ciety longer, than by giving one of the many ex- amples that I could bring forward in proof of this assertion being well founded ; and this ex- ample I shall draw from a subject which cannot bear a dispute as to its being of volcanic origin 3; and which, according to my opinion, will alone prove decisive. The Eolean or Lipari Islands, are clearly as- certained to be of volcanic origin; the greater part of them have been visited by men of science, who, from their geological knowledge, were per- fectly adequate to ascertain of what materials they are formed, and to describe those materials scientifically. Felicuda, is one of the most west- ern of this group of islands. It is generally reckoned from eight to nine miles in circum- 4A GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. ference, and is entirely formed of lava and other volcanic productions. In the interior of this island, there is a mountain of considerable height, upon the summit of which may be traced the principal crater of this now extinguished vol- | cano. | The form of this crater is a regular cone in- verted, and its lip nearly measures half a mile in circumference. From this mouth, and from its sides, have flowed many streams of lava, some of which may still be traced in various directions. Where these streams had flowed over planes slightly inclined, their surfaces in general con- tinued to be tolerably smooth ; but where descents were more rapid, there in many places, the sur- face-crust of the lava had burst, and in such a situation, it presented a broken, rough, and rugged appearance. ; One of these streams of lava, I was enabled to trace until it arrived at the verge of the island, where it had dropt into the sea over a lava rock nearly perpendicular, and which rose from the level of the water to a height of not less than from sixty to seventy feet. ‘The lava here, even after it had passed over the verge of this precipi- tous declivity, still retained for a short distance a considerable degree of smoothness, but which was soon broken in upon by narrow longitudinal fur- _ FoWs appearing upon its surface. These lines at GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. 45 first, only slightly marked their directions; but, as they descended, they became deeper and deep= er, until their interstices began to assume an ap- proach towards form, and near to the water, these forms were seen perfectly columnar. At this place, the columnar forms thus produced, by the congelation and shrinking of the lava, had ge- netally three, and some of them four sides; one of which sides, always continued attached to the amorphous mass of lava from which the column had shrunk. Upon some other parts of the shores of this island, I observed these forms arrested in various stages towards complete columnar shape. In some of those situations, the striz or lines had only appeared, in others, form was slightly in- dicated ; in some places they were seen half form- ed, and in others, their formation was complete. Upon the sides of the island, where these forms occurred overhanging the sea, I observed that they seldom or ever arrived at a full completion of their figures, until they approached nearly the surface of the water, and they continued perfect in form as far under the surface of the water as I could distinguish them with my eye. The co- lumnar forms which I saw upon this island, were in general four-sided, but there also occurs among them many of three, and some of five sides; but those last of pentagonal form, are rare. The ge- neral run of their diameters seldom exceed two feet. 46 GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. _ In one part of this island, discovered a great accumulation of fragments of obsidian and of pumice; but these are two substances, which some geologists will not admit to be of igneous origin. With regard to this point in dispute, I must here repeat what I have already observed in another part of this memoir, that those who hold obsidian and pumice not to be of igneous origin, most certainly can never have trod true volcanic ground. | Proofs of these two substances being of igneous origin, are to be seen upon Etna, Vesuvius, and upon some of the Lipari Islands; and those proofs which I have there seen, appeared to me so evident, that their origin could admit of no dispute. One or two examples of these proofs, I shall.here beg leave to give, by copying some of the notes which I took while on the Island of Felicuda. Near the centre of the island, some- what to the south-east of the principal mountain which I have had already occasion to mention, I discovered the remains of a crater upon an in- sulated. hill, which I found entirely formed of different coatings of lava of various thicknesses. In two different currents of the lava proceeding from the broken crater of this hill, I observed obsidian which had been in flow with the lava, and now formed part of its congealed stream. This obsidian when in mass, appeared almost black and opake ; but, at the edges of its beautiful conchoidal fracture, it was in some degree trans- GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILis. 47 lucent, and there shewed a muddy-brown colour. In some parts of this obsidian, it is seen deviating from its brilliancy, and from its compact vitreous texture, and is evidently seen passing into a granu- lar lava; but the marks of this gradual transition are soon lost, and the lava into which the obsidian had passed, is then not to be distinguished in co- lour, in fracture, nor in texture, from the general lava of the other parts of the stream. Where this obsidian appears in mass, and in a state of perfect glass, it is very near to where it has been first ejected from the side of the crater, and ina Situation where it must have undergone a rapid cooling. In some parts of these congealed streams, I could trace a transition of the obsidian into pumice. In those places, the obsidian was seen to contain scattered air-globules, which were al- most always lengthened in the direction of the stream. These globules gradually augmented in number until the whole of the substance became a light, fragile and frothy pumice. At the place where I discovered the great ac- cumulation of obsidian and pumice, mentioned above, I saw and obtained many specimens of all the transitions here described. In the various streams of lava which had flowed from the prin- cipal and central crater of this island, I found many indications of pumice, but none of obsi- dian. , 48 GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS: The above observations relative to some of thé facts and tenets connected with the two theories in geology, which are so much at variance with each other, are certainly in a great degree foreign to the greater part of the subject which this paper was originally intended to embrace. But having, in the first part of this memoir, carefully avoided mixing description with theory, aud as a phenome- non occurs in the district described, which is one of the controverted points, I have presumed to lay before this Society a few of the facts which relate to both of the theories, and which consist of those alone which have fallen under my own observations when visiting various parts of the globe ; but, in doing so, I am afraid, that accord- ing to the opinion of some, and perhaps accord- ing to my own, I have been led into a digres- sion, which I have made too multifarious, and considerably too long ; for which I here beg leave to apologize. | J, however, cannot here refrain from adding one more observation relative to an extreme bad effect which a violent support of theory in geology leads to, and which I am certain, must have been ob- served and regretted by all impartial geologists. Where the too keen and extravagant support of theory has crept in, and where prejudice has taken root, we must bid adieu to all candid geolo- gical description. Not that I here mean to al- lege, that all describers of geological scenery, un- GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. 49 der these influences, would intentionally mislead ; but many of them stray into error without they themselves being aware of their giving false de- scription. ‘Cheir minds are warped without their knowing it; and their jaundiced eyes see all ob- jects around them yellow, and they describe ac- cordingly. Reasoning and argument may then be dropt ; as the strongly prejudiced mind is not to be convinced, even by a clear demonstration of truth. VOL, THM T D Explanation 50 GEOLOGY OF THE CAMPSIE HILLS. Explanation of Plate I. giving a view of the Strata at Murray’s Hall, Campsie Hills. No. of the strata. Colour. Feet thick. 1. Surface soil. 2 2. Trap, columnar. Lead-grey. — 60 3. Trap, amorphous. Rusty greyish-brown. 16 _ 4. A narrow line of trap much de- \ Ockry beatae ‘ composed, S. Amorphous trap, very compact. Dark blackish-grey. 3 6. Sandstone. Light greyish-white. 3 7. A narrow strip of slate-clay. Greenish-grey. 8. Sandstone. Pale ash-grey. 8 9. Slate-clay. Common lead-grey. 6 10. Limestone. Bluish-black. 3 11. Slate-clay, mixed with glance- \ Greyish-black and coal. | rusty-orange, 4 12. Sandstone. Pale yellow. \%3 13. Slate-clay, containing narrow \ Blackish-grey with lines of sandstone. _ bluish-grey lines. 8 14. Slate-clay. Blackish-grey. 17 15. Limestone, containing entrochi \ Bluish-black, 6 and specks of pyrites. 16. Bituminous shale passing into } Blackish-grey, with a glate-clay. tint of green in it. 6 17. Bituminous shale, containing cal- careous matter. The _ thick- ness of this stratum is not yet ascertained. No. 18. is the entrance to the mine | by which the limestone No, 15. is wrought, a ig 7 157 El lead-grey. ot = aH PLATE. I. - ~ = = ae Wern. Mem, Voli. Scale of Feet iid zo JO qo so ao 70 fo po 700 | St +-—_—_—_ . 7 rd f . x i i ee | “4 i M4 4 4 . og ah ; ° . ? =/ 5 | . i i \ » \ ) : : ' = ahs i iw i 4 iad 7, } yee elibhes ts ie Wen, Mem. VohLlP EZ. 6 * ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 37 tains a great deal of animal gluten, which in dry- ing, contracts and connects the small divisions. Plentiful in the estuary of Kingsbridge, cover- ing the stones at low water. 13. Rigida. With obtuse, spreading irregular flattish divarications, arising from the same base ; usually a short stalk. Plate xi. fig. 1, 2. This sponge is as coarse in texture as Spongia officinalis, and when fresh, is of an orange co- lour, which it partly retains if tolerably freed frcem the animal gluten: the divarications are ir- regular in size and shape, but usually originate | from one base or stem. When dried, it becomes rigid, but less so when it has been exposed for some time on the sea-shore, or, by repeated irriga- tion, the animal gluten is decomposed and washed out. Height, about an inch. What is conceived to be a small variety, has the divarications more numerous and distinct, spreading from a short pedicle. In this, the re- ticular fibres are greatly obliterated by the large quantity of gelatine retained, by the contraction of which, the fibres are connected, and the sponge is rendered hard and destitute of flexibility. Coast of Devon; rare. : F4 83 ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. kEE TUBULAR. 14. Coronata. A single tube, the summit crown- ed with radiating spines. | Spongia coronata. Ellis, Zooph. p. 190. t. 58. f. 8, 9. —Gmel. p. 3819. This curious little sponge, originally discovered by Mr Ellis in the harbour of Emsworth, 1s: not uncommon on many parts of the British coast; I have found it in the most southern spe and have been favoured with it from Zetland by Mr Fleming. ‘The specimen figured by Ellis, is very diminutive ; it 1s usually larger, and one in my cabinet is above an inch in length, but not near so large in proportion as the magnified figure in the Zoophytes. It should be remarked, that the specific character of being “‘ surrounded at top by a crown of spines,’’ is rarely identified ; but the spiculz that cover all other parts, form a lasting character. It is generally of a yellowish colour, sometimes of a shining silvery white ; and this we may conceive is its true colour, could all adven- titious matter be removed. Found on fuci and other marine bodies. ee en tr : Sess ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 890 15. 'Botryoides. Minute, ovate, tubular, in bunches, covered with triradiated spines. Spongia botryoides. Ellis, Zooph. p. 190. t. 58. f. 1.-4.—Giel. p. 3823. ; This species, originally described by Mr Ellis, is the only one I have not been able to identify amongst the sponges that zoophytist has given as British. It is very minute, and composed of ‘branches of little oval figures in the shape ef grapes, and each is open at the top, (probably tubular.) ‘‘ When the surface of this species 1s highly magnified, it seems,’’ says Mr Ellis, “ as if covered with little masses of triple equidistant shining spines.”” ‘These spines were described and figured by Walker in Yestacea Minuta Rariora, as a minute species of Asterias. My late valuable friend Mr Boys of Sandwich, favoured me with specimens of these triple spines, together with most of Walker’s minute shells, and they were admitted by that able naturalist to be the spines of Spongia botryoides. 1 do not recollect that Mr Boys had ever seen a perfect specimen of this ~ sponge, nor is it mentioned in his Catalogue of subjects in Natural History in the neighbourheod of Sandwich ; but Mr Walker says his Asferias triradiata is found on all the shores of Kent; so that we may conclude the sponge is not uncommon in that quarter. 90 ACCOUNT OF BRITSIH SPONGES. 16. Papiilaris. Sessile, flat, spreading, with seat- tered tubulous tubercles. Spongia papillaris. Gmel. p. 3824.—Pallas, Zooph. p. 391.—S. compacta, Br. Miscel. 1. t. 4:2 ? This sponge is usually attached to rocks, some- times intermixed with Corallina officinalis and others, spreading three or four inches. In a re- cent state, it is soft and yellow, the tubercles oc- casionally tipped with blue: when dry it becomes less soft, and turns to a brown or grey colour. When examined by a lens, the surface appears like gauze: the papilla are various in size, hol- low or tubular, and disposed without order, Common on the south coast of Devon on the rocks that are rarely left by the iahiicha tide. It will be perceived, that part of the synonyma prefixed, is given with doubt; but we suspect from the appearance of the compacta figured by Mr Sowerby, that it is really a fine variety of this species ; the surface appears to be the same, and - the difference consists in the tubercles being more lengthened, more numerous, and more connected. This fine variety, (as I suspect,) was probably thrown up from the deep, where all marine sub- jects of this nature, arrive at much greater per- fection than nearer the shore, where the continual agitation of the water causes depauperation. ef. ee ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 91 17. Tubulosa. ‘Tubular, branched, tough; the tubes erect, and slightly tapering. Spongia tubulosa. lis, Zooph. p. 188. t. 58. f. 7 — Lin. Syst. p. 1297.—Gmel. p. 3819.—Spongia fas- tigiata. Pallas, Zooph. p. 392. The external structure of this sponge is so fine as not to be discerned by the naked eye ; smooth, and destitute of any detached fibres; when ex-~ amined by a lens, it is observed to be finely, though irregularly reticulated with smooth fibres : the tubes are hollow throughout, nearly erect, and most commonly originate from a common base, but frequently so close together, as to be- eome more or less united; sometimes smaller “tubes issue from the sides of the larger: at the summit the tubes are as thin as paper. This sponge is not uncommon in the estuary of Kingsbridge at very low water, adhering to stones, and is occasionally taken by the trawl in the open sea on the coast of Devon. It rarely exceeds three inches in height, and four or five inches wide ; one specimen contains ten principal tubes of different lengths: the colour when fresh is yellow, but, by drying, it becomes of a pale brown or dirty white. Making allowance for climate, this approaches so nearly to the Batavian tubular sponge, that I have ventured to consider it a depauperated va- riety of the species described by Mr Ellis, rather 92 ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. than run a risk of unnecessarily multiplying species without evident specific distinction. 18. Foliacea. Of a fine texture, greatly compres- sed, and tubular; the inside finely reticu- lated. Spongia compressa. #'ab. Faun. Groenl. p. 448 ?—~ Gmel. p. 3825 ? Plate xii. This leaf-like sponge usually grows in clusters, each follicle being of an irregular shape, but ge- nerally more or less obovate, furnished with a short pedicle, by which it is affixed ; and the apex is contracted, having an opening to the tube: some specimens have one or two perforated tu- bercles on the lateral margin; others shoot into small lateral leaflets, which are also tubular. _ The remarkable character of this sponge, is that of being so thin or compressed, as at first sight to be mistaken for a fine P’/ustra, and yet being hol- low. Its colour is dull yellow when alive, and in that state, when adhering to the under part of projecting rocks, has so much the appearance of a young Flustra foliacea, that it might readily de- celve an experienced eye without close inspec- tion. It rarely exceeds an inch in length, and is of a fine texture. It is frequently mixed with stunted fuci, growing in the most exposed situa- tions, subject ta the severest agitation of the waves, and is always observed to be pendent. we —— ~ * ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 98 The only place I have noticed this sponge, is at Dawlish in Devonshire. This is probably Spongza compressa of Fabricius? which is mentioned as a production of the Scotish coast in Professor Jame- son’s catalogue of Vermes, given in the first volume of the Wernerian Natural History Me- moirs. re ‘The Reverend Mr Fleming favoured me with a very fine specimen on a fucus from ‘Zetland, under the denomination of Spongia compressa. The interior surface of this tubular sponge, is ele- gantly reticulated, having the pores larger than on the outside; and, when highly magnified, is. found to be formed of aggregate, simple spi- cule, | 19. Penicillus. With a yellowish gelatinous base, ‘supported by internal spicule, and bearing on its surface erect, white, flexible, spongy tubes. Plate xiii. fig. 7. This is an interesting species of Sponeta, as its internal conformation appears clearly to demon- strate its great affinity to larger pieces of six or seven inches in length, and half as much in breadth, are rude, shapeless, and usually have the terminating fibres worn away. It is in such older specimens that Balanus spongia, described and figured in Zestacea Britannica, makes os a ae i ‘ ee it Fey Fol. P12 bel. ue id % ; KN ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 113 4 lodgement. ‘The fleshy, or gelatinous substance which fills the interstices of the ligamentous fibres of every sponge, has not, that I am aware of, been detected in this species; from whence we reasonably infer, that it comes from the deep, and that, though it may by some accident be removed from its natural fixed abode, it is not ejected till it has lost much of its specific gravity by the de- composition of the fleshy parts, which, from ana- _ logy, we may conclude, are readily perishable. ~The inosculations of the fibres, are extremely vari- able, and form very irregular reticulations. Be- sides these uniting fibres, it is thickly interspersed with more minute unconnected branches, arising from the sides and angles of the anastomosing fibres. This sponge, which is by no means uncommon on the western coasts of England, especially those of Dorset and Devon, I do not find described as a native; but as it agrees in many particulars with lichenoides of Pallas, may it not be that spe- cies? It must, however, be remarked, that Sruti- _ cosa has a strong animal odour in combustion, whereas we are told, ltchenoides has a vegetable odour. MW OL. 11. H 114 ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 33. Fragilis. Fragile, friable, coarsely reticu- lated ; the fibres rugose as if covered with minute sand. Plate xiv. fig. 1, 2. The above specific characters are sufficient to distinguish it from fruticosa, with which it might easily be confounded by a cursory observer. The first obvious distinction to the naked eye, is a slightly frosted appearance, and the colour more usually brown: upon handling, the fibres readily break, and a slight friction between the finger and thumb, reduces it to powder like sand ; but this arenaceous appearance is found, by the assistance of the microscope, to be a tenacious vesicular substance, possessing in some points of view, (when examined under the condensed rays of the sun, or a lamp,) a micaceous lustre. A single specimen of this sponge in my cabinet, was originally collected for fruticosa, and the dis- tinction was not immediately discovered, Coast of Devon. =~ 34. Parasitica. Texture coarse ; form indefi- nite, determined by the body on which it creeps. | Frequent on Sertulariz, sometimes following the course of the branches individually, which it envelopes ; at other times spreading laterally, and uniting the branches together, becoming an un- formed mass: the texture is rather coarse, and the die, ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 115 fibres fimbriated. Sometimes in larger masses at the base of Sertularia antennina, and other vesi- -eular corallines. Not uncommon. 85. Fava. Irregular, extremely porous, rather hard and brittle, appearing like a piece of old worm-eaten cork. This sponge, though harsh to the feel, yields to * the pressure of the finger-nail without elasticity : when recent, is orange-yellow, and full of gela- -tinous flesh, but when exposed for a time on the shore, and the fleshy parts decayed and washed out, the pores are observed to be roufdish. When examined by a lens, has a slight resemblance to a honey-comb ; the pores, however, are not regular in size. If taken fresh, and artificially dried, the pores are greatly obscured by the contracted sluten, and the colour becomes of a dark brown. If it has undergone a natural decomposition of _the more perishable parts on the sea-shore, by the conjoined action of the water and the air, the pores are cleared, and it retains a light vellowish colour. A specimen in this state before me, is flat and broad; round the edges, (which appear to have been broken,) there are many large round open- ings, intersecting the smaller pores, and communi- eating with those on the flat surfaces. - This piece is three inches long, two broad, and about half an inch thick. | Coast of Devon; not common. HQ 116 ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES» 36. Plumosa. Irregular, rather soft and tough, when deprived of its gelatinous flesh, some- what resembling compressed tow. The texture of this sponge is not very fine, but _ loose, and pervious to light, not very unlike offici- nals, but of a paler colour, and not so compres- sible and elastic: it is composed of small fim- briated or feather-like fibres that intersect each other, interspersed with larger pores. It has not. been ascertained to what size this species grows, or to what it is naturally attached.’ One or two specimens only have occurred : these are of a yel- lowish-white colour, about three inches high, and more than two inches broad. Coast of Devon ; rare. 37. Coriacea. Shape indefinite, wrinkled and cavernous, not unlike a piece of burnt leather. | : The fibres that constitute this sponge, are com- posed of very fine spicula, and are intersected with numerous large pores and cavities, giving the appearance of singed leather, or a piece of | dark-coloured worm-eaten wood in a very decay- ed state. One side is rather smooth, with circular depressions or cavities. ‘The only specimen that ‘has occurred, is much depressed, four inches in jength, and about two in breadth, Coast of Devon, ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 117 *EEEE ORBICULAR. $8. Verrucosa. Globose, and externally verrucose ; internally fasciculate, with rigid asbestine radiating fibres. Alcyonium lyncurium. Lin. Syst. p. 1295 ?—Gmel. _ p. 3812? Alcyonium aurantium. Pallas, Zooph. p. 357? Plate xilifig. A, 5. It has long been a matter of doubt, whether some of the present Alcyonia, without evident stellate pores, and composed internally of asbes- tine spiculz, do not in reality belong to the genus Spongia. Mr Ellis was favourable to this opinion. Not having the means at present of com- paring all the figures given by different authors for the several orbicular species of supposed 4/- cyonium, it is with considerable doubt that I have referred to lyncurium for Spongia verrucosa, here- after described. Miiller has given an orbicular species which he calls Alcyonium cranium, Zool. Dan, iii. tab. 85., and has referred to the Linnean lyncurium. If this is truly the Linnean species, it is not in the least like what is here described ; though it is probably a Spongia. Miiller has also” figured what he considers the Linnean Alcyonium cydonium, Zool. Dan. iii. tab. 81.3 but this is clear- ly an Alcyonium, bearing innumerable polypi ; HS 118 ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. * and we cannot therefore think it is the same as the Alcyonium cotoneum of Pallas, which may be the Linnean cydonium, and is probably a Spongia. | With such insurmountable difficulty as that of affixing the synonyma to this, and many other sub- jects in this very intricate class of beings, I must solicit the indulgence of the scientific, and leave them to decide if the species here described, and accompanied with a figure, is, or is not, the Alcy- onium lyncurium of. Linnzeus. Spongia verrucosa is globous, of a yellowish co- lour, extremely verrucose, and fleshy, which be- comes very hard by drying, and is of considerable gravity even in that state: the warts on the sur- face, are approximating, irregular in shape, and destitute of any pore; the internal part or nu- cleus, is composed of fasciculate fibres, connected by the animal gluten ; these fill the whole inter- nal cavity, and radiate to the centre, appearing like threads of asbestus. The specimen from which the figure is taken, was found on the coast of Devon, and is about an inch and a quarter in its greatest diameter, for it is not quite a regular orb, but very slightly de- pressed ; ‘at the base, the coat is a little broken by separation from the body to which it was af- fixed, displaying the internal asbestine spicule. =a z = pes: Se ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 119 39. Pilosa. Globous, fleshy, covered with short thick-set hair: internally, fasciculate with rigid asbestine fibres, radiating from the , centre. , Plate xiii. fig. 1, 2. _ This is another of the solid orbicular sponges which may possibly have been confounded with Alcyonium lyncurium, or cydonium; indeed J cannot be certain it is not the latter divest- _ ed of its tomentose covering, when, by the as- sistance of a lens, a truly spongy surface is ob- servable. In this imperfect state, it might con- form to Subrotundum spongiosum flaoum leve ; but I dare not venture on synonyma. ‘The discord- ances of zoophytists are so great, and the syn- onymes so numerous, that it is utterly impossible to make out the species; aid we are constrained to form new species, where characters do not accord. This is nearly allied to the preceding Spongia ver- rucosa, which in some degree may be likened to Alcyonium lyncurium, because it is verrucose. The present subject, Spongia pilosa, was taken by Mr Fleming in Zetland, who favoured me with a spe- cimen. I shall therefore only give a description of it, and if any thing should be omitted in its usual characters, it is to be hoped, that, we shall receive from that naturalist any additional infor- mation, The specimen of Spongia pilosa before me, has the pilosity removed from one side, shewing the H 4 120 ACCOUNY OF BRITISH SPONGES. spongy reticulated covering, but which, in the other part, is perfectly concealed by a thick-set and very fine cinereous hair. Like Spongia verru- cosa, it is rendered hard by the drying of a large portion of animal gluten that forms the exterior part or coat, and which consequently gives rigt- dity to the spongy surface. The hairs which co- ver the surface when perfect, are in fact continua- — tions of those long asbestine-like spicule that fill the whole internal cavity: when the coating or fleshy part that surrounds these spicule is cut, and the sponge is pulled asunder, the fibres are drawn out their full length, and as the fleshy part con- tracts in drying, they derive an inclination to twist, and appear so numerous and prominent, as if they could not have been contained in the sphere. But to explain the subject more fully, a figure accompanies this, of the natural size, as well as the appearance of the surface when magnified. : Diameter about three quarters of an inch. Index “ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. 121 Index to the Plates. Plate iii. fig. 1. Spongia stuposa,——a branch. fig. 2. Supposed var. with palmated branches,—a branch. | Plate iv. Spongia stuposa?—with slender, ascending, | and very hirsute branches. Plate v- fig. 1. Spongia hispida. fig. 2. Ditto var.—with short forked tips. Plate vi. fig. 1. Spongia dichotoma,—a branch. _ fig. 2. Spongia oculata,—an anastomosing branch, Plate vii. Spongia digitata. Plate vill. Spongia ramosa. Plate ix. fig. 1. Spongia lobata. fig. 2. Spongia complicata,—double the nat. size. fig. 3. Ditto ditto, | —considerably magnified. Plate x. Spongia conus. Plate xi. fig. a Sponpia rigida. fig. 2, Ditto var.—with more slender divarications. Plate xii. Spongia foliacea,—a group attached to fucus. Plate xiii. fig. 1. Spongia pilosa,—a part of the pilose covering removed, shewing the spongy fibres. fig. 2. Ditto,—divided in the middle to shew the ase bestine nucleus. fig. 8. Ditto,—the spongy surface magnified. fig. 4,5. Spongia verrucosa,—two different views, the latter broken at the base, shewing the ra- diating asbestine fibres. fic. 6. A portion of the surface of Spongia verru- ' cosa magnified by the same lens as No. 3. fig. 7. Spongia penicilla. Plate xiv. fig.1. Spongia fragilis. 122 ACCOUNT OF BRITISH SPONGES. Plate xiv. fig. 2. Ditto,—shewing the fibres magnified, which are more reticulated near the base than at f the extremity. fig. 3. | Spongia fruticosa. fig. 4, Ditto,—the fibres magnified in different points of view. Plate xv. fig: 1. | Spongia scypha. fig. 2,3. Spongia limbata,—nat. size, and the pores magnified. Plate xvi. fig. 1,2. Spongia ananas,—nat. size, and magnified. fig. 3; Ditto, tomentose var.—on Cellaria scruposa, magnified. fig. 4. Spongia levigata. (oes) VII. Mineralogical Description of Tinto.. By Dr Macxnienr. (Read 11th April 1812. ) Tino, the subject of the following paper, is a mountain of Lanarkshire, which rises to the height of about 1700 feet above the flat, to the east of its base, and 2300 from the level of the sea *. Standing distinct from the mountain-ranges which appear on the south and east, and from which it is isolated by the intervening course of the Clyde, it forms a conspicuous and magnificent object, as viewed from the adjacent lower country, on the north and west. The name of Tinto, which signifies, it is said, “‘ the Hill of Fire,’’ seems to imply, that in ruder * This mode of estimating the height of Tinto, may pro- bably reconcile the very different statements of it, which have been ha Jameson’s Geognosy, p. 315. 124, DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. ages, its lofty summit had been regarded ‘as an object of veneration by the surrounding inhabi- tants, perhaps the scene of some particular super- stition ; or it may have been employed in time of war, as a signal or alarm-post for the neighbour- ing country. However this may be, the cairn or heap of loose stones, which forms the highest point of the mountain, and by some is considered as having originally been a Druidical temple, has probably been the gradual accumulation of many AES. As pasture-ground, the base and ascent of this qmountain on every side, must be extremely valu- able to the proprietors. But that circumstance lessens its interest, as a subject for either the painter or the mineralogist. The general form of its outline in a distant view, 1s beautiful and striking ; but its minute features, compared with those of alpine regions, are smooth and uninte- resting. Tinto presents no rugged peaks, serrated ridges, or bold precipitous fronts of rock ; it has few traits of alpine rudeness, and is rather a grand than a picturesque object. Hence its faci- lities of mineralogical examination, are so imper- fect, that on being conducted by the usual path to the summit, for the first time, in the whole of an ascent, extending nearly to three miles, I was unable to discover a single trace of rock in situ; so completely is the surface enveloped in soil and debris. Subsequent investigation, however, proy- ed more fortunate; and although by no means DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. 125 entirely satisfactory, from the smallness and in- frequency of the rocky masses which remain uncovered, was such, I trust, as has enabled me to ascertain the formation of the mountain, and to convey a tolerably accurate conception of its structure. : _ From these remarks, it may in general be pre- sumed, that Tinto is of secondary formation. ‘The eastern extremity of its base, forms the lowest boundary of the mountain-valley along which the Clyde flows. From this level, the base springs with considerable steepness, to the height or about 400 feet, where we arrive at the first stage or rounded back : and after ascending another height of perhaps 500 feet, a second platform, with an inclination towards the west, brings us to the ac- clivity, from which the elevation proceeds to the summit without interruption ; exhibiting the ele- gant conical or rather ellipsoidal figure of this noted mountain. From the foot of the western acclivity, Tinto stretches into a long and appa- rently unbroken ridge, which penetrates the coun- try for several miles to the south-west. The sketch which accompanies this paper, though very impertect, will enable the Society to follow the description I am now to give. Tinto, then, in the language of Werner, may be described as a floetz mountain superincumbent, I conjecture, on grey-wacke. For, of this rock, which is known to extend like a zone or belt across the country, from St Abb’s Head on the 126 DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. north-east, to the extremity of Scotland on the south-west, the great mass of the Tweddale hills in the vicinity of Tinto, seems to be composed. The substance which lies immediately over it, in the body of the mountain we are describing, is a conglomerate, having a basis of clay, with a dark greyish colour, and somewhat resembling an intimately mixed greenstone. ‘The fragments it contains, are from the size of a grain, to that of large balls ; and consist of rounded or. water-worn masses of transition rocks, such as grey-wacke, grey-wacke-slate, iron-clay, and common flinty- slate, with veins of quartz. There are also frag- ments or nodules of quartz, mica, felspar, splin- tery hornstone, and felspar passing into conchoidal hornstone. : This conglomerate, I conceive, forms the base ‘of Tinto ; as it is found, either zm situ, or in the form of debris, at various places around the lower part of the hill, particularly on the south side, a ‘little above the old ruin opposite to Lamington. Where the rock becomes finer grained, as on the north side, it exhibits scales of mica, and both in appearance and in composition, bears a strong re- semblance in some places to grey-wacke, and in others, to those portions of the old red sandstone which are conjectured to alternate with the newer members of the transition series. It is therefore ‘probable, that, were the base of the mountain laid bare, we should discover indications of what is DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. 127 here supposed. The colour of the rock to which I allude, is most generally greenish-grey. Over the conglomerate, which crops out at dif- ferent heights along the base on the south side, masses of claystone, greenstone, and greenstone passing into clinkstone and porphyry-slate, suc- cessively appear, till we arrive at the summit of the mountain, which is found to consist of com- pact felspar, and felspar-porphyry, with crystals of quartz, mica, felspar, and hornblende. The felspar rocks also contain thin layers or beds of reddish-coloured quartz. That these substances, composing the great body of Tinto, are disposed in beds, is sufficiently pro- bable ; but, it would be more than is warranted by my observation, were I directly to assert the fact, having been unable to do more than ascertain their separate existence and relative position in the order mentioned. So far as I could judge, if the felspar is in beds, they are almost vertical, and run nearly in the direction of north-east, and south-west. . The nature and characters of the felspar, which in general may be described as slaty-compact, are distinctly shewn by the cropping to be seen about half a mile below the summit, towards the south- west, where the surface over a great extent ex- hibits this variety of the rock, both im situ and in detached masses of all sizes, decomposing in plates or layers of various thickness, from a quarter of an inch to half a foot. i ‘ 128 DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. At the foot of the mountain in this direction, a quarry has been opened, in which I found it im- possible to procure a fresh specimen. ‘The rock seems to be a fine-grained sandstone, not unlike ~ grey-wacke-slate. ‘There is also a portion of com- pact greenstone. Returning eastward, on the south side, we come to a stream nearly opposite to Wiston Hill, in the course of which, about half way down the decli- vity of ‘Tinto, compact greenstone, and a rock in- termediate betwixt greenstone and porphyry-slate or clinkstone, appeared iz situ, a little above the conglomerate, over which they lie. I found here a vein of felspar, evidently filled from the supet- incumbent formation. The next object of any importance, which pre- sents itself in the same direction, is the Pap-Cragg. Here the substances just mentioned, ascend to a height not inferior to that of the slaty compact felspar already described on the south-west face of the acclivity ; but I could not discover the line of their junction with the felspar rock. The Pap- Cragg is an abrupt conspicuous front of some size and extent, containing greenstone, and greenstone with specks of earthy or mealy zeolite, which give it the appearance of an exact porphyry-slate. Among the debris below the Cragg, fragments of clinkstone occur abundantly. A little farther towards the east, and at an ele- vation somewhat lower, the conglomerate appears at its greatest height ; and from this point, seems. DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. 129 to stretch beneath a gradually descending line to the eastern extremity of the base. At this ex- tremity, and at a small height above the level _ ground, we observe the commencement of the claystone and felspar formation, which lies over the conglomerate and greenstone rocks, and by means of the reddish-coloured debris, above the line now mentioned, may be traced westward, along the brow and rounded back, to the summit of the mountain, forming the whole of its upper part. The claystone passes into felspar, and oc- casionally presents dendritic delineations and veins of heavy-spar. I am inclined to think, that be- twixt the conglomerate and the claystone, there Is all along interposed a mass or bed of the green- storie substance which appears in the Pap-Cragg, and which, here, might be supposed as in fact no- thing else than the base of the conglomerate un- mixed with the coarser fragments that occur to- watds the lower part of the base: but I had no opportunity of verifying the conjecture. On the declivity of Tinto, towards the north and north-west, similar substances occur: but the felspar formation descends considerably lower down than under the south side of the summit. The body of the mountain on the north side, is indented by three deep re-entering angles, and presents two vast projecting shoulders, one facing the north, the other inclining to north-west. These shoulders are evidently covered with the porphy- ry formation which composes the summit, and ex- VOR. 31. i 130 DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. tends over the eastern acclivity and ridge of the mountain ; but underneath it, the same rocks,. claystone, porphyry-slate, and conglomerate, with. the addition of the sandstone resembling grey- wacke, occur in the same relative position, as on the opposite side. ea. In particular beds of the north-west re-entering angle, the claystone assumes a brecciated appear- ance. Sandstone occurs, which appears to be a mixture of claystone and quartz. The overlying slaty-felspar, contains minute portions of a crys- tallized matter, like vesuvian or garnet. In other specimens, the felspar inclines to hornstone. The whitish debris of the felspar and claystone, is par- ticularly conspicuous, in the re-entering angle that faces the north under the summit, where It covers the whole of the east side, almost to the bottom of the ascent. | Along the Kirk-Burn, which runs eastward, from the great north-east re-entering angle, the — _usual phenomena of this mountain are to be ob- served. The felspar and claystone may be found an situ, at a lower elevation than elsewhere, and in the vicinity of the conglomerate and sandstone, which here form considerable heights to the north of the rivulet. Among the debris of this stream, I met with a beautiful specimen of the Petrosilex _ of the Swedish mineralogists; it is porphyritic compact felspar, approaching to hornstone, with crystals of hornblende, and a fracture compound- ed of the splintery and conchoidal. DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. 181i .. With regard to the environs of Tinto, the ris- ing ground called the Castle Hill, about a mile from the foot of the mountain, on the south-east, consists, as far as I could ascertain, from the minute croppings it affords, of greenstone, which, I presume, trends eastward to a consider- able distance, the quarry near the church of Sy- mington having uncovered a bed of that substance. This greenstone is probably newer than the grey-— wacke, which I suppose lies beneath the base of Tinto. On the Castle Hill, I found a variety of frag- ments and rolled masses, which serve to illustrate the nature of the rocks in this district: grey- wacke, common flinty-slate, flinty-slate with veins of quartz, felspar-porphyry with a violet hue, and specks of a greenish matter somewhat re- sembling the newly designated Pimelite of Kar- ‘sten; also sandstone with casts, and a very com- pact brecciated stone, having a basis approaching to greenstone, and including fragments of quartz, iron-clay and jasper. Amygdaloid, another member of the flcetz class, is the rock which forms the bed of the river, at the new bridge erected over the Clyde, on the Toad to Biggar. Its base is wacke, and it is sur- ‘rounded by beds of fine-grained and compact ‘sandstone, coloured with green earth. The vesi- cles are filled with nodules of calcedony, coated with green earth, and having quartz in the 1g 132 DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. centre. Other specimens contain quartz passing’ into flint, and amygdaloidal portions of steatites Calcspar, too, is an abundant ingredient of this rock. Where it joins the sandstone, there is a mixture of both substances,—a frequent appear- ance in such cases. Some miles to the westward of Symington, limestone occurs ; but I did not ex- amine it, or procure specimens. | On the other hand, the sandstone of which the whole inferior districts of Lanarkshire are com- posed, and which may be traced for so many miles along the course of the river, I consider as belonging to the same formation with the sand- stone-conglomerate at the base of Tinto; and as corresponding to what is called in the Wernerian © system, the Old Red Sandstone. It is tothe waste of this rock that we owe the splendid scenery of Cora-Lin, and the other celebrated Falls of the Clyde, which have long attracted the notice and admiration of travellers. In its descent to the lower country, it appears to be still accompanied with portions of the same substances which over lie it in the body of Tinto; as porphyry-slate and felspar-porphyry have been found near the Cora-Lin. Below the Fall of Stonebyres, the rock assumes a coarser texture; and, if I am tightly informed, again exhibits a conglomerate, similar to that of Tinto, by including masses of transition-slate, splintery hornstone, quartz, jasper, _and flinty-slate. | DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. 138 In concluding the delineation of Tinto and its neighbourhood, I may remark, that the relative disposition of the several rocks composing its mass, corresponds with sufficient exactness to the geo- gnostic description of a flceetz mountain. The conglomerate every where occupies the lowest place, and is covered, in a manner perfectly con- formable to the most natural idea of deposition, with greenstone, claystone, and felspar, all evi- dently of flcetz formation, and assuming a finer and more crystalline texture as we ascend. This occurrence of claystone and felspar, in a position corresponding to what is found in the Eildon Hills, the Pentlands, the Ochils, Papa Stour, around Dundee, and in other places, ap- pears to favour the hypothesis of a particular overlying floetz formation, in which these sub- stances are prevailing ingredients, extending over a considerable portion of the lower country of Scotland. Iam informed, that the districts ad- joining to Hallé in Westphalia, are of a similar structure and description. ‘The conglomerate of the Grampians, seems to have been formed from the debris of older rocks. | It is also worthy of observation, that the cha- racters and relative position of the conglomerate on which Tinto rests, considered in its connection already described, with grey-wacke on the one hand, and the older sandstone on the other, seem to furnish an illustration of a very important fact ; 13 134 DESCRIPTION OF TINTQ. namely, that there are alternations between the — oldest members of the Floctz rocks, and the newest portions of the Transition series,—corresponding to a similar relation, which has been observed be- tween the newest Primitive and the oldest Tran- sition rocks. We thus learn, that the newest members, for example, of the primitive, do not immediately cease, or at once give place entirely to the transition rocks; but that, most frequently, before these are found completely to prevail in the order of succession, alternations, as now mention- ed, take place. And the remark may be gene- ralized respecting the junctions of all the succes- sive classes in the system, down to those of the latest periods, Tue account I have given of the structure of Tinto, approaches perhaps as near the truth, as the geognostic inspection permitted by the state of its surface, authorises. Future investigation will no doubt, correct or improve it. I cannot hope, that it will be found to contain much that is particularly interesting to the mineralogist. It records no oc- | currence of rare or precious minerals,—no irre= gular junctions, dislocations, or extraordinary phe- nomena of stratification, to raise the astonishment DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. 135 of the observer, or exercise the philosopher’s ta- lent of explanation. But he who exhibits a faith. ful picture of what he sees in nature undescribed before, contributes something to the progress of knowledge ; and, without pretending to assert, that the mineralogists of the German school have yet possessed themselves of all the domains to which they lay claim in the mineral kingdom, we may safely presume, that, at least, they are fairly on the way to accomplish at length a complete system of accurate description, without which, it is vain to expect, that geology will ever ascend beyond the rank i he aly theory, or become a science. ‘Ihave only to add, that if this mountain shall again be surveyed mineralogically, the observer need hardly promise himself, that the geognostic result of his examination of the ground over which he passes, will prove entirely to his satisfaction. At the same time, if he is fortunate in weather, and has a relish for the beauties of nature, he will be gratified in another way, by attending to the prospect seen from Tinto, which spreads before the eye of taste, an uncommon variety of agree- able objects, and a great extent of interesting il The expanse of country oe it embraces, ap- pears ‘unbounded on the west side; but towards the north, it is terminated by the majestic Ben- Lomond, and the lofty ranges of the Highlands, 14 156 DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. crowding irregularly into view, in a manner ex- tremely picturesque. In the opposite direction of the south-east, the prominent features of this view, are the bold undulating mountain-lines, the fine- ly grouped masses, and the alternate swells and deep hollows of the Tweddale hills ; amongst which, the most remarkable is Culter-Fell, dis- tinguished as the rival of Tinto itself, in size and height. These magnificent objects, presenting themselves on the one hand, form an admirable and striking contrast to the delightful appearance, on the other hand, of the leyel country that stretches along the banks of the Clyde. What adds to the effect, and can hardly fail to strike the eye at first sight,—the different places where the river displays its shining surface, seem, as if dis- posed with the happiest skill, for producing the impression of the picturesque. This noble stream, which shews in its course so many charms of natural scenery, and whose fine sweeps through the mountain-valley, and low- er districts of Lanarkshire, are so great an embel- lishment of the whole prospect, may in truth be said to carry along with it, beauty and fertility from its yery source. It is equally pleasing and unexpected, to find at the height of 600 feet above the level of the sea, a tract of land, so rich in soil, so well cultivated, and so extensively clothed with plantations, as the district spreading around the foot of the mountain, from Hyndford-house to DESCRIPTION OF TINTO. 137 Symington and Culter, and up the river to a con- siderable distance. ‘The effect of the landskip is completed by the number of villas, and other marks of population and comfort, which every where appear in the vicinity of the Clyde.—There are few elevations in the United Kingdom, where a finer assemblage of the grand, and the beautiful in nature, may be contemplated, than from Tin- to, (138° y VIII. Short Account of the Rocks which occur in the Neighbourhood of Dundee. By the Rey. Joun Friemine, Flisk. (In a Letter to Professor JamEson.) (Read 22d February 1812. ) Sir, Iw answer to the inquiries which you made some time ago regarding the position of the claystone and porphyritic rocks in the neighbourhood of Dun- dee, I send you the following remarks, which [I made, while walking along the shore of the Tay, from Invergowrie eastward to the town of Dun- dee. | In the bay at the old church of Invergowrie, the shore is level, and composed of gravel ; but, on the east side of the bay, the rocks of sandstone form a steep precipice. This precipice is about thirty feet high, and continues nearly to Dundee, \ ACCOUNT OF THE ROCKS NEAR DUNDEE. 139 ef the same height, independent of the variety of rocks, forming a steep bank on the north side of the river Tay. In this bank, there are some important sections of the strata displayed, which I propose to describe. | Where the sandstone begins at the east side of the bay, it occurs in thin strata dipping to the north- west, at an angle of about 15°. This sandstone ‘soon disappears, when a mass of porphyry forms the bank. Its western extremity is but indis- tinctly displayed ; its eastern extremity 1s cover- ed with sandstone, ‘This porphyry has a slaty structure in the great, is composed of a basis of compact felspar, and contains numerous crystals of common felspar, and a little basaltic horn- blende. ‘The sandstone soon gives place to the porphyry which rises below it, and forms the pre- cipice for a considerable distance. East from the Boothe, there is a mass of sandstone interposed, as represented at fig. @. ‘The porphyry, fig. 1., is disposed in strata about tour feet in thickness. It is traversed by a vein eontaining calc-spar, brown-spar, and sparry-iron- stone,—minerals which are nearly related, both in their oryctognostic and geognostic characters, The 140 ACCOUNT OF THE ROCKS NEAR DUNDEF. line of junction between fig. 1. and 2. is indistinct. . The other extremity of this mass of sandstone, rests — upon the porphyry, fig. 3. In this last-mentioned porphyry, fig. 3., there is a basin-shaped cavity, fig. 4. which has been filled up with sandstone. The strata of sandstone are parallel with the in- clined edges of the cavity. The same bed of por- phyry farther eastward seems to rest on the sand- stone, fig. 5.; but the appearances are indistinct. The ‘dn dion fig. 5., rests upon the mass of porphyry, fig. 6. This last porphyry varies in colour and composition in different portions of the bed. Some portions are of a grey colour, with imperfectly formed crystals of earthy felspar, while other portions are reddish-brown, and contain be- sides the felspar a considerable number of crystals: of hornblende. This porphyry soon gives way to another deposition of sandstone, fig. 7., both ex- tremities of which rest upon porphyry, and ex- hibit an instance of an upfilling. The last mass of porphyry, fig. 8., is again co- vered on its eastern side with another mass of sand- stone, fig. 9. This sandstone includes a bed of greenstone, specimen 5. | From the place where the last bed of sandstone, © fig. 9. commences, to the place called the Crescent, the mineral appearances are but imperfectly dis- closed, as may be seen in the figure, which, with the specimens, will convey all the information which I could obtain. : ACCOUNT OF THE ROCKS NEAR DUNDEE. 141 I | | Sandstone. The specimen No. 5. *, is greenstone ; its frag- ments sound like clinkstone. Specimen 6., is a greenstone abounding in felspar, in a state of de- composition. Specimen 7., is a soft claystone- porphyry. Specimen 12., is aclaystone-porphyry, with minute grains of sand. Opposite the Crescent, the rocks disappear, and the shore becomes level. Here, however, a rock of greenstone appears rising among the rocks of the shore. It abounds with hornblende, and is in some placesamygdaloidal. Specimen 8. is from it. Passing this mass of greenstone, the relations of which I could not ascertain, a bed of claystone, spe- cimen 11., equally imperfectly exposed, makes its appearance on the shore. After passing this claystone, rocks of greenstone now form the shore, and continue without interruption to the town of Dundee. Specimen 10., is from this bed of greenstone. In the neighbourhood of the town, the greenstone seems to pass into clinkstone,—a * The numbers refer to the specimens presented to the Wer- nerian Society, and deposited in their collection. 142 ACCOUNT OF THE ROCKS NEAR DUNDEE: transition, which, I think, I have observed in other places. - From the wendy descriptios, it will appear; that many changes have taken place in the posi- tion of these beds of sandstone and claystone since the period of their formation. But, of the cause of these dislocations or slips, we are entire- ly ignorant. The situation of the strata of sand- stone in the basin-shaped cavity of the porphyry; makes us acquainted with a fact in the history of stratification, of the greatest importance. The abettors of the vulcanic hypothesis contend, that all the strata of rocks were originally deposited ina horizontal position. The fact before us, is in opposi- tion to such an opinion. The strata in the bed of porphyry are nearly horizontal, whereas the strata of sandstone are highly inclined, being parallel with the sloping sides of the basin. If we sup- pose one of the sides of this cavity removed, and the inclined strata on the other side of the cavity left behind, a superficial observer would be ready to conclude, from such partial appearances, that — these inclined strata had been moved into their present angular position by an ascending move- ment of the inferior bed of porphyry. Instances frequently occur to every practical mineralogist, where highly inclined strata thus rest upon the ine- qualities of the fundamental rock, which, to all ap- pearance, has never been moved. The disciples of the German school embrace the opinion, that “ in ACCOUNT OF THE ROCKS NEAR DUNDEE. 143 strata composed of chemical precipitates, all the - variety of inclination depends on the inequality of the bottom ;”’ and in this they are confirmed, not so much by attending to appearances in small portions of rocks, such as here described, as by an examination of the structure of mountain masses. These few remarks certainly lead to little that is precise or important in the history of the strata, now described. ‘They indicate, however, the in- timate relation which subsists between the sandstone and the claystone. This relation, I had previously ascertained in my examination of the Island of Papa Stour * ; and the observations which I have recent- ly made on the south bank of the Tay, tend still further to confirm and illustrate it. At Flisk- wood, directly opposite to the north bank of the river, where the appearances detailed above are exhibited, the sandstone covers the claystone. Here the sandstone rests upon very soft clay-por- phyry, which passes into claystone. This clay. stone at last becomes more compact, assumes the amyegdaloidal structure, and then becomes con- nected with compact felspar. These appearances seem to indicate the ex- istence of a family of floetz-rocks, consisting prin- cipally of claystone, felspar, and sandstone, the relations of which are but imperfectly under- stood. — 3 * Wernerian Memoirs, vol, i. p. 162. 144 ACCOUNT OF THE ROCKS NEAR DUNDEE: : Should these remarks appear to you sufficient- ly interesting, I beg of you to communicate them ° to the Wernerian Natural History Society, with my best wishes for its prosperity. Iam, &c. 7 Cras’) IX. Observations on the Mineralogy of the Neighbourhood of St Andrew's in Fife. _ By the Rev. Joun Fremine, Flisk. (Read 5th February 1813.) Tae county of Fife contains two very distinct formations of rocks, which belong to the Fleetz class. The country to the north of the river Eden, which runs through Fife in a direction of west to east, contains strata which are connected with the Old Red Sandstone, and are geographically related to the beds of sandstone, porphyry and greenstone, which I formerly described to this Society, as ex- tending along the shore of the Tay, from Dundee westward, on the north bank of the river. The southern portion of Fifeshire, contains strata exclu- sively belonging to the Independent Coal Forma- tion, and forms an interesting part of the coal-— VOL, it. : K 146 MINERALOGY OF ST ANDREW’S. field which occupies the river district of the Forth. An overlying formation of Trap rocks, in the form of conical hills, or. irregular patches, covers the rocks belonging to these two formations, and may be observed to the south as well as to the north of the Eden. The city of St Andrew’s is si- tuated on the north-eastern extremity of the dis- trict occupied by the strata belonging to the inde- pendent coal formation. The rocks which occur in the neighbourhood of the city, present a few circumstances in their history, which deserve-to be noticed. These I shall briefly detail. In conformity with the plan pursued by the disciples of the celebrated Werner, I shall state my observations on 'the tocks which are consider- ed the oldest, and afterwards notice those which appear to have been deposited at a more recent period. The rocks, therefore, which fall to be considered first, are such as belong to the Inde- pendent Coal Formation. : The strata in the vicinity of St Andrew’s, pre- serve no regular line of bearing. In a few in- stances, they are horizontal, but in general they present basin-shaped or saddle-shaped undulations ; the strata at the margins of these bendings, in- cline to the horizon at various angles. The rocks are chiefly Sandstone, Coal, Slate- clay, and Clay-ironstone. The individuah beds are subject to great varia- tion in depth.’ The beds of sandstone in particu- ' MINERALOGY OF ST ANDREW’S., 14.7 lar, sometimes swell out to a considerable thick- ness, and farther on in their line of bearing, almost disappear. At a place called the Witch-Lake, a bed of sandstone rests upon a horizontal bed of slate-clay. ‘The surface of the bed of sandstone suddenly swells out into a knob, and the slate-clay deposited over this inequality, is seen to rise at a considerable angle on each side in opposite direc- tions, meeting at the top. The inspection of this appearance, will point out the cause of those bend- - ings in the strata to the eastward of the city, and convince the observer, that no other circumstance is required to produce those wavings, than an un- even surface of the inferior beds, and that these inequalities of the surface have been produced by the unequal attraction exerted by the beds already formed, to the matter depositing over them. I. Sandstone. - The sandstone occurs in thick beds, which are distinctly stratified. The grains of quartz are sometimes very minute, and the sandstone is fine- grained. In a few instances, the grains of quartz are large, and the sandstone approaches in cha- racters to conglomerate. ‘Lhe cement of all the sandstones in the vicinity of the city, is easily acted upon by the atmosphere, and hence they are EQ 148 MINERALOGY OF 8T ANDREW’S. very liable to decomposition. I observed that those sandstones which contained much minera- . lized vegetable matter, were the most easily de- composed, and were frequently so friable, that they could be crumbled down between the fingers. The sandstone occasionally contains a little mica, _ and likewise mineral charcoal, and not unfrequent- ly small globular pieces of iron-pyrites. II. Coal. A few beds of coal occur in the beds of sand- stone. ‘These are, however, of trifling importance, very seldom more than a few inches, and never exceeding a foot in thickness. ‘They are principally slate-coal, containing numerous petrifactions of reeds, flattened and compressed. ‘Thin layers of pitch-coal also occur, both in the slate-coal, and also in the sandstone. In one of the largest beds of coal, I observed globular concretions of sand- stone, having the thin layers of coal surrounding them on all sides. III. Slate-Clay. . ‘This rock occurs in beds of various thickness, and of every degree of hardness and density. It rhe MINERALOGY OF ST ANDREW’S. 146 _ passes distinctly into sandstone, by acquiring small portions of mica and quartz. It likewise passes into limestone and bituminous shale. It includes thin layers of sandstone, and often contains ve- getable impressions. I think it proper in this place to mention a fact not generally known, That slate-clay forms a ferti- lizing manure to sandy soils, by supplying the re- quisite portion of aluminous earth. In tie neigh- bourhood of Kirkcaldy, there are several ficlds of sandy soil which rest upon sandstone. ‘To these fields, slate-clay and bituminous shale have beer applied as manure, and with success: they were, previous to this application, unpreductive ; they now yield good crops of grain and grass. ‘To the west of St Andrew’s, there are extensive tracts of soil, principally composed of sand. Were the slate-clay, so abundant among the rocks in the neighbourhood of the city, spread upon these grounds, the most beneficial effects would result from the application. ‘The ground would become firmer, the soil more retentive of moisture, and better able to resist the drought of summer. Ig- norance and prejudice may prevent some from following the example of the farmers in the neighbourhood of Kirkcaldy; but I have no hesi- tation in asserting, that its imitation in many places of the coal districts of Scotland, where such soils and such rocks abound, would greatly contribute to increase the food of man and beast. KS 150 MINERALOGY OF ST ANDREW'S. IV. Clay-Lronstone. The common claystone occurs in beds from an inch to upwards of a foot in thickness. It con- tains a few vegetable impressions. The kidney~ shaped sub-species, is likewise common. Both of these are included in beds of slate-clay. They are sometimes collected and sent to the Carron Iron-works ; but the quantity so procured, is trifling. | | | In this place, I may take the liberty of observ- ing, that the closet mineralogist may indulge in hypothetical speculations regarding the formation of minerals ; but such conjectures will never aid the cause of science, or make us acquainted with the secrets of nature. I have no doubt, but that Dr Hutton, upon examining a specimen of the Septarium iron-ore, was gratified with the idea of having found a convincing proof of the igneous consolidation of fossils, and regarded his explana- _ tion of the singular structure of that mineral as the only one which approached the truth. But we hesitate not to say, that had that ingenious philosopher ever attended to the natural history of the Septarium,—had he ever examined it in its clayey bed,—completely surrounded with matter o MINERALOGY OF ST ANDREW’S. 151. which presented no marks of 1 igneous influence,— he could not have avoided drawing the conclusion, that since the bed of slate- clay, which contains | the septarium, presented no marks of the action of heat, the septarium contained had never been exposed to its iniluence. Having thus shortly given an account of the _ rocks belonging to the independant coal formation which occur in the neighbourhood of St Andrew’s, our attention will next be directed to a small por- tion of the Newest Flcetz-trap formation which covers these rocks. ies ae In many places in Fife, overlying rocks of Ba- salt, Clinkstone, Felspar, Porphyry- slate, and Claystone, occur resting on the rocks of the old red sandstone, and the rocks of the coal formation. But it rarely happens that distinct sections of these rocks can be found, or the relations which they bear to one another ascertained. On the sea-shore, to the eastward of St Andrew’s, a portion of | the newest flcetz-trap occurs in such a situation that ‘its geognostic characters can be ascertained with precision. | | This formation rests upon beds of sandstone, and the other rocks described above. It extends about 500 yards along the shore, and is connected with a more extensive deposition of the same kind, which stretches inland, but whose history K 4 152 MINERALOGY OF ST ANDREW'S. cannot be easily investigated on account of the thick continuous bed of soil with which it is co- vered. V. Trap-Tuff. The principal rock of this formation is trap- tuff, similar in composition toythe rock of the same kind which occurs in Arthur’s Seat. It contains globular pieces of quartz and granite, which have been water-worn ;—likewise frag- ments of grey-wacke, floetz-sandstone, and lime- stone containing petrifactions of entrochi. Small pieces of augite and felspar are likewise contained init. The inclosed fragments of the older rocks are sometimes of considerable size, meanres two or three entire feet. It generally happens, that the fragments of the oldest rocks, when observed imbedded in the new- er formations, are much rounded and water-worn : Whereas the fragments of the newer rocks, are rather angular, and seem to have suffered less from attrition :—a circumstance which points out with considerable precision the relative antiquity of rocks, and is entitled to a more careful examina- tion than has hitherto been bestowed upon it. The most curious circumstance which attracted my notice, in examining this bed of tuff, was the rock, which is well known in the neighbourhood MINERALOGY OF ST ANDREW’S, 153 of St Andrew’s by the name of the Rock and Spindle, and from which it is distant about a mile and a half. This rock is about forty feet in height. To- wards the base, there is a spherical concretion of basalt, in the form of five or six-sided lengthen- ed pyramids meeting at the apex, giving to the mass a stellate appearance. The mass is likewise divided into concentric layers. The basalt con- tains crystals of augite, with olivine, and glassy- fel- spar. ‘This concretion of basalt is surrounded with the tuff, into which it gradually passes; and must have been completely enveloped by it, pre- vious to its partial wasting away by the action of the sea and atmosphere, It may be mentioned in this place, that the regular basaltic columns at the Ely, are a portion of a spherical concretion con- tained in trap-tufl. Here the concretion is only about ten feet in diameter: at the Ely it is seve- ral hundred feet. | In other parts of the tuff, small masses of amyg- daloid and basalt occur, leading directly to the conclusion, that the bed is partly a mechanical, and partly a chemical deposit, since these rocks imperceptibly pass into one another. If the regular forms of basalt induced Dr Hut- ton to conclude, that they furnished proofs of the action of a central heat, he would have found considerable difficulty in applying his heat to these 154 MINERALOGY OF ST ANDREW'S. mclosed masses of basalt, without fusing the’ bed of tuff which surrounds them. Me He who has the boldness to build a theory of the earth, without a knowledge of the natural history of rocks, will daily meet with facts to puzzle and mortify him. ~~ x. Meteorological Observations on a Greenland Voyage in the ship Resolution, of Whitby, in 1811. | _ By Wim Scorzsey gun. M. W.S. (Read 22d February 1812.) ~ [y the following Table, those Latitudes and Lon- gitudes to which an asterisk is annexed, were as- certained by celestial observations ; consequently they may be considered as correct. The column of Winds, is according to the meg: netic meridian. Meteorological ( Therm. i | Latitude. | Longitud Bale cana Strength of Winds, a e. ongitude. |.7, o¢ Moen inds. rength o ings a Obs. Mean. 4 a In. ; i Sil] 56°26’N.| 0°53’ W. 1 472 |30 35 | W.erly, to N E | Light or mod. breeze e112} 457 16* | 0 40 W. 3 492 130 53 N Weerly Moderate breezes 413] 58 13* | 0 56 W. 3 50 30 58 | Do. orcalm } Light airs or calm — 14] 58 46 0 53 2 42: |30 59 | Calm or S.erly | To fresh breezes 15| 60 4 0 46 W. 2 43 30 43 S W.erly Strong breezes 16\}{60 9 1 8 W. 1 5l 30 33 Ditto Moderate breezes 17 1 Brassa | Sound. f 2 48 30 04 SW Ditto S| ae a 8 29 83 SW Fresh gales 19| Ditto Ditto 2 472 | 29 92 to W __ | Do. or light breezes 22) ESE —————| 2 45§ | 29 73 | to N W-erly —| Strong gales ai|__Ditto. |___Ditto 3 442 129 88 |Do. and W.erly | Do. to mod. breezes 22 te 2 50 |29 99 N W.erly | Fresh gales 23 2 484 |30 21 Ditto Moderate gales 24) 60 20 3 473 |30 29 ws Ww Fresh gales 25) Geol" 3 482 |30 06 SW Do. to fresh breezes 261 65 34* | 2 3 431 |29 42 S W.erly Strong or hard gales 247 | 66 56 I 3 244 a Ditto to NE_ | Do. to fresh breezes 98} 66 52% 1 3 19 30 43 N to W Calm to strong gales 29; 67 0 2 3 22 30 31 | N and variable | Do. to fresh gales 30 | 68 I7* 3 & 272.5130, 3% E calm Do. ar fresh breezes 31 | 68 30% 15 2 154 |30 26 |NEto NN W | Fresh breezes 1) 69dle 2 | 3 161 |30 00 toNE Ditto 2 2 69 40 1} 3 194 |30 24 | E.erly variable | Moderate breezes 3| tO 22% 2 3 28% |29 70; SWtoNW | Fresh gales 4| 70 33* | 5 3 272 [29 84 to N To fresh breezes 5| 70 49 7 3 112 |29 88 N variable | Fresh gales 61. 7L.23 10 3.18 29 50 |to NW & ESE To stormy 71 %1.29 10 25 32s 29 50 |ESE to EN E| Violent gales g| 70 56 {10 3 281 |29 50 ENE Do. squally 9| 70 25% | 8 a 19 29 89 | Do. to NN E | Do. to strong breezes 10| 70 32* | 6: 3 104 |30 10 N E.rly Fresh or. strong gales 11] 70 44 6 ‘ 3 211 130 26| NEtoENE | Ditto ae | 12{ 70 52* | 6 , 3 26 30 24 N E.rly Ditto 13| 70 18* | 8 . 3 27% |30 14 pe N W, variable} Fresh breeze or calm 14| 70 59* 18 yl 3 281 |30 23, Veryvariable | Strong gales,calm 15| 72 36* [13 3 30 |30 23! Swerly, do. | Fresh gales 16) $e ab). kG . 3 354 129 'B2 | SWtoW _ | Do. to strong gales W7| 75 34 15 te 8 33 29 82 | WtoSW_ | Fresh gales | 18} 75 34 j13 . 3 314 | 29 66 | toW NW {Strong gales 1D) Depo ke : 3 264 |30 12! tocalm, S W | Fresh gales, calm 7 90; %76 21* (12 s 3 1023 |30 12 'W.erly, N E.rly} Fresh breeze to calm | ae I al0Am. 29 29. b Noon, 29 64. Weather, &c. Aqueous Meteors. = a a ee 0 Morng. cloudy, noonclear “ Fine weather, hazy | Fine clear weather 14; Damp weather 15! Dull cloudy weather (16: | Fine weather 48" Ditto 8 Do. some rain 19 : Fine weather 20, Showers, hail or rain 21! Do. rain or sleet 22 | Do. and hail 23 | Much do. 24, Charming fine weather g 25. Ditto "96 | Need weather 97 Showers, snow “98 Ditto, aurora borealis 29 Much snow 30. Fair, aurora borealis 31. Fine weather, ditto Fine clear weather Some snow Much snow Fine cloudy weather April OOS tr wwe Snow showers Some ditto Some hail A few showers snow 10 | Some snow showers 11 | Ditto 12 | Ditto 13 | Fine cloudy weather 14| Showers of snow 15 Fine weather i6 | Thick hazy weather 17! Ditto, rain 18 Ditto, some snow 1S Some snow showers 20 , Fine clear weather Snow shwr: s. frost-rime i a a N, Time. Morng. 10 Am. 6 Am. 3 Pm. 2 Pm. Am. Am. Noon. Noon. Noor. 5 Pm. Morng. All day Am. Am. 10 Am. All day Am. Am. Am. All day All day Morng. Am, Am. Pm. Noon. & At 10 Am. Of the Clouds. Modifications, ot ———= Cirro-stratus. Cirro-stratus. © - Cirro-cumulus, &c. Cirro-cumulus, &c. Cirro-stratus. Cirro-stratus. Cirro-stratus, &c. Cirrus, &e. Cirrus. Cirro-cumulus, &c. Cirrus, &c. Cirrus, &c. Cirro-cumulus, &c. Cirro-cumulus, &c. Stratus. Stratus, &c. Nimbus. Nimbus, cumulus. Nimbus. Cumulus. Cirro-stratus, &c. Nimbus. Nimbus, Nimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus, cumulus. Cumulus, nimbus. Cirro-stratus. Cumulus. Stratus. Fog. Fog. Cirrus, nimbus Cirrus. Greenland Voyage, 1811. Birds, é&e. seen. a ee ee | Young gulls. Ditto and teisties. Youngs culls. A gum bird, and ditto. Gulls and small birds. Litto. Ditto, &e. &e. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto, wild ducks. Ditto, ditte. Ditgoye ditto. Ditto. Young gulls. Do. fulmars, looms, &c. Ditto, ditto, and land-bird. Many fulmars, gulls, &c. Ditto. Ditto. Fin-whales, fulmars. Ditto, snow-bird, seals. itte, fulmars. Bottlenoses, fulmars, &c. Fulmars. “itto, rotches, bottlenoses. Ditto, snow-birds. Litto, bottlenoses, Ditto. Fulmars, teisties. Ditto. Mitto, and rotches. Burgomaster, fulmars, &e. s0ttlenoses, fin-whale, &c, Ditto, fulmars, &ec. Ditto. Cetaceous animals, few birds. Fulmars, rotches, &c. Ducks, looms, &e. Ditto, ice-bird, kittywakes. Ditto. Ditto, razor-baeks. ( 158 ) Meteorological Observations on a Latitude. | Longitude. 76°32) | 11° O'R. 76 28 | 10 50E. 76 34% | 10 205. 16 45 10 45 E. 76 58 10 20 E. 77 0OO* | 10 20 E. 76 58 10 OF. 1 77 4'10"*}8 50'52”E.* 77 00 8 50 E. “TT 8 8 48 77 15 8 20E 77 LT* 8 10 E. 17 22 8 OE. 77 27 7 50 E. 77 34% | 7 50 E. “YT S2* 7 58 E. 77 28 8 04K. 77 24 =| 8 10K, 77 26 8 10 E. 77 10* 8 10 EK. 77 06 8 03 E. “TT OX 8 05 FE. 77 O4 8 10 E. 77 02 8 15 E. 77 02 8 56 E. 77 00 8 59 E. Th. OO. 9 00 E. 76 46* | 8 46 E. 16 54 8 38 E 77 05 8 30 E 77 20% 8 28 E 17 22 8 00 E 77 16 8 16E 77 14 8 50 E. 17 24 9 10 E. 78 00 9 50 E. 78 15 9 30 E. 78 20 | 9 30K. 18 22* 9 27 Ei. 78 28 5 40 KE. 7B 34 5 35 E. No. of Obs. Mean. G8 GO GO UO 69 GO 09 09.69 LO LO 4D GO 09 OO GO OO 09 69 GO LO HO O40 0D OO 60 60 0D 60 6 00 GD 00 a OD 09 00 OD 09 In. 130 19 30 30 30 47 30 12 a i | | E by s calm ‘Calm, N W, &c. N W, palon Calm, variable Chiefly calm To moderate tre | To calm To fresh gale 29 82 |N W to N E.rly| Variable breezes ” 30 02 30 07 | N Everly Ditto 30 17 ENE to North 30 05 ‘to N Eand N W 30 07 BU 17 30 17 29 87 29 75 29 71 29 78 29 80 30 02 30 03 | 30 08 30 15 130 00 29 63 29 73 | 29 92 29 95 29 80 30 0 29 94 29 77 29 89 29 68 30 06 30 16 29 98 29 90 29 86 29 90 30 08 30 09 29 98 SWtoSSE NEtoSSE to Kast E.rly to § E to oe: Fk aly Calm, variable N W.erly N W by N NN W SW toN W to North to NN W toS by WorSbyE toS Wor W byN to ) W N W and var. E.rly N.erly Ditto, variable Ditto, to S E.rly S E.rly to N E.rly S E.rly, IN E.rly N N E, variable to N N W N W.rly to North “N by E N by E N by E to N, variable to N W.rly Strong gales, &c. Lt. br. to fresh gale To light breeze To calm Fresh breezes Moderate breezes Ditto Fresh breezes Fresh gales Light airs ‘or calm Fresh breezes Strong gales Ditto, strong breezes Fresh gales Do. or mod. gales Fresh gales To light airs, &c. Hard gales Strong gales Fresh gales Calm, light breezes Moderate breezes Light breezes Do. and strong gales Hard gales, &c. Calm, light breezes Moderate breezes Light breezes Ditto To fresh breezes To strong gales Hard gales Strong gales Ditto Fresh breezes Light breezes fey.) Greenland Voyage, 1811. Of the Clouds. 4 m small; snow showers Am. ne ( 8 Pm. |All day Am. ear weather j11 Pm. now showers 3 Continual snow oy 2 Fine weather, little snow 9 Pm. 3} Snow showers Am. 4\ Much snow byggde 5} Snow showers jAm. 6 Benow showers Am. | Do. uneryst. snow 438 3| Do, crystallized 9 Snow showers 10|Showers small snow _—_—|Most day. i Slight show showers 8 Pm. 12) Ditto _ 3] Sho 141 ‘ito i Much ‘small snow ‘Snow showers 1 j Mage snow 18} Ditto 9 ae snow showers 20] Much small snow 9] Fine clear weather 22 A little snow eh lear fine weather 2 ine Weather, cloudy 25} Some snow 26) Fine weather 27| Some sg: snow showers 28] Cloud weather 29] Fine clear weather 30! Fine cloudy weather 31} Snow showers Cirrus, &c. Cirrus, &c. Nimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus. Stratus. ‘Nimbus. | Nimbus. Nimbus. | Cirro-eumulus, &c. Nimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus, &c. Cirro-stratus, &c. Nimbus. Cirro-cumulus. Cirro-stratus. Stratus. Nimbus. Cirrus. Cirro-stratus, &c. Nimbus, Nimbus, Nimbus. ““imbus. Nimbus. Nimbus. ‘Nimbus, cirrus. stratus. .| Cirrus, &c. Cirrus. | Cirrus, Stratus. Nimbus. Cirrus, nimbus, Cirrus. Cirrus. | Cirrus. | (Uncom. refract.) whales, narw. | | Fulmars and looms. 3 me Abo ‘gal a ss Birds, &e. seen. ie en een Time. Modifications. il Fine clear weather JAllday | Cirro-stratus. Narwh. seals, mysticetus, fulms, St Mygticetus, seals, fulmars, &c. 4 Seals, narw. fulms. burgomaster.! Ditto. Seals, &c. i Razor-backs, seals, &e. Seals, &c. birds. “Whales, narw. seals, &c. Ditto, birds, &c. Many common birds. Mysticete, &c. birds. Ducks, looms, whales. Few birds seen. Whales, fulmars, &c. Litto, snow-birds. Ditto. Ditto, snow-bunting. Fulmars, looms, snow-birds. Many common birds. Whales, narwals, seals. Ditto. Ditto, looms. Razor-backs, looms, &c. Common birds. Do. sea-horse, (walrus.) Walrus, narw. mystic. birds. Narwal, common birds. Common birds. i Narw. whales, seals, and ditto. | Ditto. Ditto, fulmars, &e. Ditto. arw. seals, ditto. Common birds. Ditto. Two whales. Bottlenoses, common birds. ‘Vv hales, common birds, Many whales, ditto, | Dates.. June July beet me eet (16) Meteorological Observations on a ’ Therm Latitude. | Longitude. No.of = Strength of Winds. 4 Obs. Mean In. Ay, 7OB4! 5°38 FE, )| 3) 5 30 04 | NWtoNE | Light or fresh breezes 2) %8 36 © 10) 3 224 |30 04 |N.erly, variable | To moderate breezes _ 3| 78 34 6 10 3 30§ | 29 96 | Very variable | Light breezes, calm | A 78 38 5 58 3 28 29 96 | E.rly, N E.rly | “Hitto 5| 78 29 5 54 3 29% | 29 83 to variable | Fresh to light breeze 6| 78 40 6 10 2 281 | 29 80 NEtoE Ditto to fresh gales _ 7| 7920 | 800 3 302 |2963| EtoSSE_ |Strong gales ’ 8} 79 10 7 50 3 291 | 29 63 | S.erly, variable | Fresh gales 9| 7358 | 7 00 3 303 | 29 92 |S by W to S W| Moderate breezes _ 78 58 6 58 3 333 |2995| toSorSE_ | Light breezes * 78 58* | 6 00 8 831 29 93 | E.rly, variable | To moderate breeze _ 78 56 5 50 3. 28 29 95 ' N E.rly Ditto : 78 40 5 30 3 29 |29 88} Ditto and var. | Light airs = . 78 45 5 15 3 303 |29 76 | Very variable | Light airs or calm 78 45 5 13 3 323 29 78 E.rly, &c. Ditto 78 42 5 10 a. eo 29 83 S E.rly, N E, &e.| Ditto 7840 | 508 3 321 |29 86 |N Eor NEbyN Moe or fresh br. 78 36 5 10 3 303 129 SF NE by N gales" 78 15* | 5 04 3 31 29 90 NEbyN_ | Fresh breezes 78 10 5 00 3 331 |2992] Variable | To light breeze 78 15 5 00 3 32 29 62 | S W.erly, var. Light airs, calm 78 Il 5 15 a, oo /29 62 | S.erly, variable Ditto 78.17 5 25 3. 23 29 66 | toE orSW_ | To moderate breeze 78 20 5 26 3 34 | 29 68 to W.rly Light breeze, calm — 73 21 5 26 3 3D 29 50 | Very variable Do. and mod. breeze — 18 35 5 54 g 39 29 64. | N \V,S.rly | Do. and fresh breeze ~ 78 15 5 50 2) 20 29 53 | Very variable | Ditto ditto 8 78 O4 5 00 3 322 | 29 94 Ditto Fresh gales, light br. 17 59’30°'*| 5 15 3 33 |30 10 |S E.rly, variable| Light to fresh breeze 78 50 } 6 40 3 352 |29 94 |' § E.rly, ditto | Do. or strong breeze 1 78 40 7 18 ; oo +20 30 04] Variable Light or moderate br. 2 78 20 6 30 13 34 30 13 S W.rly Moderate breeze 3 78 09 6 00 2 36 30 03 SWtoS Litto ie 4 77 58 5 40 3 40 29 88 | toSE by S_ | Moderate or fresh br. 5 77 56% | 6 00 2 42 29 94 toS W.rly | Light or moderate br. 6 77 48 6 58 2 40 29 98 | S.erly, variable Ditto 7 17 43 7 20 3 41 30 07 Ito S W, variable} Ditto or calm 8; 76 36 9 20 2 39 30 00 |W to S W by W| Fresh gaifes | 9 ght 407 ae 36 3 40 29 98 | W.erly, calm | Fresh breeze, calm ‘| 0 Wo Ad, \j ee Oo 2) oo 2995| SW.erly — | Ditto 1 74. 52* | 11 00 3 404 | 29 97 |W.erly, variable | Moderate br. or calm 2; %4 1o* | 11 00 8 414 129 87 E.erly Light breeze . { 161 ) i Weather, &c. Cane t galt hanes ’ . rae “pirds c. Seen. queous Meteors. Time. Mo difications. ’ (a 1 | Some snow showers ‘;Am. | Nimbus, cirrus. Whls. burgomrs. fulms. Nore es Cloudy, hazy Stratus, nimbus. Ditto. — - Beow sand showers |Am. | Nimbus, cumulus. | Numerous whales, narw.fulms. 4'| Snow showers ‘| Am. Yimbus, &c. ' |Several whales, — ‘ditto. _$| Hazy weather, some sn. ‘Nimbus, stratus. | Many common. birds. | Snow showers ‘| Often. | Nimbaus. Narwals, and a “few birds. ; ‘ ce. a ; Re us, stratus. | Few living animals. ei ow or haze " imbus. A narwal seen. 9 pe op e of snow Nabi, ae wal, fulmars, kittywakes. loudy or ditto | Nimbus. itto, ditto. 4 Fine ciear weather Am. | Cirro-cumulus, &c. | Whales, narw. seals, bears. Mf set meu Nimbus. ; Seals, some whales, | birds. mall showers snow ‘Nimbus. Ditto. 14 Rain or haze Nimbus. Whales, narwals. 15 | Fine cloudy weather Nimbus, &e. Many ditto, ditto. 16 | Haze or fog © | Midnt.| Stratus. — Ditto. Vf | Fine clear weather Am. _ | Nimbus, stratus. Ditto. 1 | Fine weather | Midnt-| Nimbus, cirrus. Whales, common: birds. I9 Cloudy or clear Cirrus, nimbus. Ditto, ditto. . hi showers i: mambas. Das narw. and ditto. itto i .| Nimbus, &c. Ditto, ditto. 22 | Small rain é Nimbus. Few ditto. | 23 Fog showers Cirro-cumulus, &c. | Ditto. . | 24| Do. or clear ‘Nimbus. Some whales and birds. ; 25 | Snow showers \g Cirro-cumulus, &c.| Ditto, —_— ditto. 26 | Do. or fog showers Nimbus. A few. ditto. | 27 Ditto Nimbus, stratus. | Ditto, ditto. | e gi or fog A a case me narw. beet: seals. og or snow showers imbus. itto, seals, &c. 30. Ditto Nimbus. 2 Whales, seals, fulms. rotches. > 1| Thick snow showers N imbus. Ditto. j» 2 Fog Cirro-cumulus, &c. | 2 Whales, ditto. _ 3 | Some rain Pm. | Cirro-cumulus, &c.{| Some whales and birds. _ 4 | Fine clear weather Noon. | Cirrus. Ditto, seals. Fee showers Am. Cirrus. Common birds. | og Nimbus, &c. One whale and ditto. : ae Do. or clear Noon. | Nimbus, cirrus. Razor-back, fulmars. | 7 a one . ie Ait pd few birds. | rers m. irrus. A few fulmars. © | 19 | Do. or haze Fog. Ditto. | i Do. rain Fog. Bottlenoses, razor-backs, 12| A little fog Noon. | Cirro-cumulus, &c. | Razor-back, fulmars. VOL. II. f Lj ( 162 ) Meteorological Observations on a Therm. $ . ‘ — Bar. at : | ‘i 8 Latitude. | Longitude. No.of Misear: Winds. Strength of Winds, Obs. Mean. rs In. re 403 | 29 87 ToSSE To fresh breeze tf ie Al 29 94 Variable To calm on 42 |3005| NWtoSW | Light breeze, or ditto 43 29 89 | S.erly, variable | Fresh breeze, &c. ‘ 4 43 29 94 | ix W, variable | Mod. breeze, calm — 2 46% | 29 97 S.erly _| Calm, to mod. breeze 46 |30 01] Ditto, &c. |Tolight breeze 46% | 30 00 S.erly Mod. or fresh breeze 462 |30 07 toSW . | Fresh gales, &e. e “a 46% |30 02/S. erly, variable | Mod. or fresh gales 47 29 54 Litto ___| To strong gales 13]. 73210’ | 9°28’ (514) 7217) | 7 87 T4115) 72.10 6 27 16| 71 24 3 5 17| 70 36 2 40 18} 70 30* | 2 05 19| 7015* | 1 05 W. 20} 69 31 3 50 21| 68 43* | 4 35 221 68 28 4 46 23| 66 48 5 11 DO DO GD GD aD AD GD DO OO YD GO GO GO 09 OO OO LO 09 CO CO OO OO OO a9 0 09 > =~ oles 24166 35'31*! 7 57 47 | 29 46 OM Ta fk Sipe gales 25| 6530 | 8 28 29 33] tof.erly |Tostrong gales ~ 26| 63 3* | 7 945" * 482 | 29 95 N by W To fresh gales ( 27} 61 33 4 43 52 |30 02 N W.erly | Moderate breezes — ri 28| 60 56 3 48 551 | 29 03 S.erly Ditto or calm 29 60 00x | : 1 50 564 30 09 to W. erly Light or mod. breeze 30| 58 39* !1 30 614 |30 25|}W ~ WorS W Ditto ¥ 31| 58 14% | 1 46 66 |3015| * WtoSE __ Ditto, calm « @ 1] 57 37* | 130 614 |3010| SorSW _ Fresh breeze bp 2| 57 69 1 44 603 29 82|}StoSWhbyS Fresh gales ¢ a 3| 56 37 217 56% | 29 76 | S.erly, variable To calm i 4| 56 14 135 63 29 78 | ».erly, variable To fresh breeze e 5| 5530 | 0 54 674 |2980| Weerly | Moderate breeze 6| 5450 10 26 654 |2963| SWtoSE |To light breeze 7 Whitby Harbour 66 29601 NWN Ww, W Fresh or mod. breeze s ae ; a. > 168...) Greenland Voyage, 1811. August Weather, &c. Aqueous Meteors. ee ee, Fog showers Much fog Ditto Some rain Fog Ditto Much fog Ditto Rain or fog Rain or fog Much rain or fog Fog or rain Ditto Cloudy Fine cloudy weather Some rain Showers of rain Ditto Fine clear weather Cloudy weather Showery Showers rain Much rain Some rain Some rain Showers rain Of the Clouds. Time. Modifications. Fog. Fog, Fog. Cirro-cumulus, &c. Fog. 11 Am,| Cirro-cumulus, &c. 11 Am.| Cirro-stratus. Fog. Fog. 8 Pm. | Cirro-cumulus, &c. Fog. 3 Pm. | Cirrus, &c. ; Nimbus, 11 Am.| Cirro-cumulus, &e. Am Nimbus. 10 Pm.|} Cirrus. 2 Am. | Nimbus, &c. Cirro-cumulus. Noon. | Cirro-cumulus, &c. Noon. | Cirro-cumulus, &e. Pm. Cirro-stratus, &c. Am Nimbus. Noon. | Cirrus, &c. Pm. Cirro-cumulus, &c. Am Nimbus, cirrus. Am Cirrus. Birds, &c. seen. eae ees, Fulmars. Razor-back and fulmars. Ditto and looms. Several ditto, looms, fulmars. Some whitish fulmars. Young gulls or kittywakes. Ditto, seal. Ditto, fulmars. Fulmars. Ditto. Several fulmars. Ditto. Ditto. Fulm. arc. gull,loom,solan-geese, Young gulls, ditto. Ditto, &c. Ditto. Young gulls. Cod-fish, turbot, skate, &c. Gulls, mackrel. Ditto. Gulls, gurnards. Gulls, looms. Gulls. Ditto. Ditto, &c. 164 JOURNAL OF A GREENLAND VOYAGE. Havinc now given a meteorological register, carefully kept by myself, on a voyage from Whit- by to Greenland, and back, I may be permitted to annex a few remarks on the great utility of the Barometer and Thermometer at sea. When these instruments are well attended to, they will seldom. fail to enable us to predict any great atmospheric change: and if the oscillations of each instrument be connectedly studied, not only the strength of the coming wind, but its direction and continuance may be guessed at, and with very considerable ac-_ curacy. An extract from my private journal will strikingly prove the truth of the above assertion, On April the 5th 1811, latitude 70°49’, and longitude 7°15’E, the barometer had stood at~ 29.88, for about thirty-five hours; the mean of three observations of the thermometer during the day, was 112°, the wind blowing a fresh gale from the northward. At noon, on the following day, we had a moderate breeze of wind at north- west, which, towards evening, increased to a fresh gale, exceedingly variable and squally, accompanied with thick showers of flaky snow. At 3 PM. the thermometer had risen to 17°, and at 6 PM. to 97°. This remarkable rise of 17 degrees of temperature in nine hours, made me suspect, a south-east wind was about to prevail, and because the barometer had fallen to 29. 50, a severe storm might be ex- pected. Since the barometer stands highest on JOURNAL OF A GREENLAND VOYAGE. 165 E. or SE. winds, had it not fallen we should have expected a storm, on its veering from N W. to the opposite quarter ; but, when accompanied by a fall of near four-tenths of an inch, a most violent gale would be likely to ensue. I walked the deck somewhat alarmed at the awful appear- ance of the sky, in the short intervals of the showers. At one time, a strong light, like that seen reflected on the horizon by the rising or setting sun, appeared stretching from the NN E, to the ESE, but more correctly corresponding with the phenomenon of the ice-blink, which is a strong light reflected from the ice into the at-— mosphere above it, and in clear weather is almost always seen when at the distance of fifteen or twenty miles from any compact body of ice. This white light, I svon ascertained, did not proceed _ from any ice*. The sun was neither in ‘the same quarter nor opposite. ** In the midst of a thick shower, iia still NW toNNW,) I cbserved the snow to clear away to lee-ward, which assured me of the wind being about to shift. Immediately all hands were ordered on deck to attend the sails, and every man at his station, awaited the event. In about ten L$ * Some time afterwards, when mentioning this circumstance to an old Greenland commander, he told me he had himself more than once seen the phenomenon I described, and always con- sidered it as a prognostic of a storm; at the same time, its po- Sition pointed out the quarter from whence it would commence. 466 JOURNAL OF A GREENLAND VOYAGE. minutes, a shivering of the sails was observed, and instantly afterwards they were taken flat aback; the wind, whilst blowing a fresh gale, had veered from NN W,to ESE. We steered by the wind N E.ward for an hour and a half, when the snow began to abate, and the wind of a sudden so in- creased, that we were obliged again to raise all hands to take in, and still furthet reduce the sails: with our utmost exertions, we were but just able to save them from blowing away. The wind now blew so furiously, that all sails were furled but a small storm-topsail, and close-reefed main- topsail ; and which, though new sails, we often expected could not withstand the fury of the tempest. Being in the vicinity of the ice to the N.ward, we wore the ship, and day to under those two small sails for srxty hours. The sea ran tre- mendously high. Wecarried a boat at each quar- ter of the ship, suspended by the davits, much above the deck ; on the second day of the storm’s continuance, a heavy sea struck the ship, and with dreadful violence came on deck, but happily did mo serious damage. It lifted up the weather quarter boat, and had nearly thrown it upon deck ; and the lee boat, with another in the ‘chocks, were completely filled with water. It lift- ed an eighteen pounder caronnade quite out of its place, and washed away or stove in the quarter and waist-boards, fore and aft. “ During the whole continuance of this gale, the barometer never varied one-fiftieth of an inch.’’ (* 167 j XI. A Meteorological Journal hept during a Green- land Voyage, 1812. By Witram Scoressy jun. M. W. S. (Read 22d February 1812.) In the following Table, the three columns titled — Latitude, Longitude, and Barometer, refer to the time of 12 o’clock mid-day. The Latitudes and Longitudes which have this mark (*) annexed, are from observations of some of the heavenly bo- dies : the rest are from the ship’s reckoning. The di- rections of the Winds are from the magnetical card. In the last column, Animals, &c. seen, I have, in general, used the vulgar names of the different ‘animals, not being certain of the exact’situation of some of them in the classification of Linnzus, especially of the cetaceous animal vulgarly called the Razor-back, from the angular form of its back, somewhat like the roof of a House: It is the largest of the whale tribe inhabiting the Green- land Seas, growing to the length of neat 100 feet ; its body, however, is much more slender than that of the commion whale. It corresponds tolerably well with the genetic character of the Physalus. The White Whale seems to be the Physeter Macre- cephalus albicans. L 4 ( 1687) A Meteorological Journal of a bas Therm. | par. at / Latitude. | Longitude. }—— Nao Winds. | Strength of Winds. oon. INo. of Obs. June > In. 74°30"N.| 15°13 Es | 3 25 |30 20 N WtoN _ |Fresh gales 75 23 14 25 ee 30 37 | N E to S E.rly | Mod. to fresh gale 75 35 10 43 eo 13 29 45 |toS E & E by | Very hard gales 74 36 | 10 O | 3 13 29 39 |i b N to NEb E/ Hard gales 73 41 10 40 3 12 29 75 to N Ditto 73 10: 10 18 3° RT 29 64 N-E Ditto 72 58 =f 10 19 3 22 29 89 toNNE Fresh gales _ 73 33 10 21 3 2h 129 94 |to N N W, var. | Fresh breezes 73 57 10 21 3 25 30 05 | Very variable | Light breezes 74 28:15" 93ST RE 30 03 | N W.rly, var. | Do. or calm 75 36* 8 8 mag 29 90 |SEby EH, E.rly,| Fresh gales 75 38 8 20 o *2T 2983 | NE, NNE_ |Light to strong br. 75 52* 9 20: 4 23 29 77 | N.rly, variable | Strong breeze 76 12 10 20 4 23 29 88 | W.rly,S.rly | Moderate breezes 76 15* 9.0 3. 32 29 T0,.|...StoS E Fresh breezes 76 20: 9 40 3 30 {29 50} WN E.erly Strong gaies 76 t* 9 30 Be Oh 29 35 to N N W Hard gales 76 37% 10 45 3 22 29 45 | Very variable | Moderate gales 76 30 10 45 3 20 29 93 N by W Strong gales. 76 30 10 30 3 218 30 03 N by W Fresh or strong gales 76 30 10 00. p ge EAS 29 80 N by W Strong gales 76 20 10 00 eer. 29 66 N by W Very strong gales 76 10%* 10 0 Pa ee 290 | to N W by N {Strong gales 76 35 10 0 3 27 30 00 | N W by N, var. | To light breeze "5 SS% 10 0 4 30 30 06 | N.rly, variable | Light breeze 75 50* 9 40: 21788 30 13 N E.rly Ditto 75 57 2 } SM: 30 16 Variable Inclinable to calm 75 50 9-20 Lape ae 30 28 | S.rly, S W.rly | Ditto 76 0 9 20 iS ao 30 28 | S.rly, S W.rly | Ditto 76 20 10 O 3 29 30 32 S E.rly Ditto 76 30 10 50 3 28 {3032 |S E,S\W.erly | Ditto 1} 77 14 > SE. = ov 30 37 | SWtoW | Moderate gales 2) 78 15 5 27 a SL 30 37 | S.rly, variable | Mod. br. and ditto 3| 78 50 0 3 31 |30 34 | S.E.rly, &c. | Strong gales 4) 78 30 5 30 3 32 |2996 | SEbyE | Moderate gales 5| 78 30 5 30 3 33 |2990! — Surly Fresh breeze 6| 78 26 ‘5 45 3 34 | 29 87 | S.rly, variable | Light breeze 7| 78 00 5 Ag 3 33 |2987 | Calm, bry |Catm, fresh breeze 8| 78 00 6 45 a ao 30 10 N to NW | Strong gales 9| 78 00 6 30 3 95 |3000] toWby N | Licht breeze 10| %7 54 6 15 3 89 |29 g0 | Nirly, variable | Fresh breeze June Weather, &c. is i zB - Aqueous Meteors. D nema SNES peer | ee , Qa 1] Cloudy weather 2| Do: much snow 3] Snow showers mM _ 9| Much snow 10] Snow showers 11] itto 12] Cloudy weather 13} Ditte 14) Do. snow { 15| Ditto 16| Much snow 17| Cloudy 18} Continual snow 19) Thick snow 20} Much snow 21] Ditto 22] Ditto 23] Some snow 24! Fine weather 28) Ditto 26) Ditto 27| Ditto 28! Ditto 29) Ditto 30} Ditto 31] Ditto 1| Cloudy weather 2) Much snow 3) Snow showers, fog | 4| Fog showers Thick ‘fog, rain §| Constant fog 7| Fog showers $| Fine clear meatlion | Ditto - LO) Snow showers ( 169 ) Greenland Voyage, 1812. Time. Am. Am. Pm. All day. All day. Am. Am. All day. . Pm. Of the Clouds. Modifications. oa | ‘Not distinct. 'F'rost-rime | Nimbus. | Nimbus. _ ‘Nimbus, cirrus. Cirrus, nimbus. Nimbus. ‘Ice-blinks. Ditto. ; Ditto. Dense clouds. WWimbus. Nimbus. Nimbus. Frost-rime. Ditto. Ditto. ‘Nimbus. Nimbus, &c. Nimbus, &c. Nimbus, &e. Nimbus. Cirrus, &e. Cirro-cumulus. Cirro-cumulus, &c. Cirro-cumulus, &c. Cirro-cumulus, ée. Ice-blinks, INimbus. Fog. Cirro-curnulus. Cirro-cumulus, &e. Cirrus, nimbus. Animals, &c. seen. SS, ' Ducks, fulms.looms, rotches, &c. Common birds, razor-baeks. Fulmars only. Fulinars, rotches.. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. | Ducks, fulmars, rotches. Many ducks, burgomasters, &c. Many seals, ditto, birds. Common birds, 2’ whales, 2 Whales, seals, common birds.} 2 or 3 whales, ditto. 1 whale, narws. seals, snowbirds. Seals and common birds. Ditto, ditto. { Ditto, ditto. | A whale. Narwal, seals, common birds. | A whale, common birds. ditto. No whales, ditto. Common birds. | Narwals. Ditto, whales, Some whales, narwals, &c. Ditto, seals, common birds. Ditto, ditto. Common birds. Ditto. Common birds. Seals, some whales. ditto. Ditto. Common birds. White whales, narwals, bbatd, &e. Several whales. Many whales. Many whales, narwals, ducks. June (5 alll ll eal ee le SEMDRA a & WO = July OMAR EWWHSS | Dates. a 2 2 A 2 Or & 0 2D = 2 29 aD 28 Latitude. 1B°44/ * 78 58 18 56 78 50 78 40 79 26 78 30 78 20 78 10 78 17 18 25 78 32 78 30 78 5 73 9* 78 10 “TT 59* 78 00 77 48 77 30 17 54 18 9* 78 20 78 18 78 10 78 OS 78 58 77 40 77 30 77 30 73 00 77 56 V7 46% 78.20 | 77 40 V7 AS 77 50* 77 59 78.00 78 00 78 00 78 00 (Q070> ) A Meteorological Journal of a Therm. Longitude. — no a Winds. No. of Obs. | “°° In. 6°30’ 4 25 29 77 N E.rly 6 30 4 24 29 88 |NEtoNNE 6 30 a) 20 29 68 | N.erly, variable 6 30 3 27 2977 |ENE,NNE 6 15 3 30 29 80 NNE 6 45 a ar 29 77 NE by N 6 00 4 29 29 86 N W 6 00 3 32 2980! W,SW,E 6 00 3 32. .|29 78] E, N E.rly, 6 00 2 26 29 79 NNE 6 30 aoe 29 70 NNE 6 30 3 28 29 TA NNE 615 3 30 29 80 Variable 6 35 3 33 29 55 Ditto 6 45 3 32 29 95 N E.rly 6 40 3 33. | 29 97 Nurly | 6 07 2 34 |29 86 INNE, NNW. 6 00 3 36 29 65 N.rly | 6 50 3 34 29 55 N.rly 6 45 3 33 29 50 | Very variable 6 155, 3 35 2945|ESEtoE JE 6 30 3 35 29 77 | Esrly, variable 6 30 2 SS 29 40 N E.rly 6 40 3.32 | 29 42 | N and variable 6 45 3. 32 29 72 SW 6 30 3 32 | 29 90 |S W and W.rly, 6.45 3 33 |30 00 W.ily 6 10 3 32 2990| WS W,SW 6 00 Bi S2 29 84| SWtoNNE 6 00 Fe a 4 2981} NNWtoN 5 30 4 32 29 90 INN EtoNNW 5 30 4 33 29 87 |INNWtoN E 5 27 3 of 30 03 N E to N 6 25 3 33 29 90 | N to NE by N 5 20 3 33 29 76 N E.rly 5 30 BS. oe 29 60 |NEtoE&SE} 5 7 o>. ol 30 10 SE 5 00 ee 4 30 32 |/toE&NNE 5 00 3 32 30 12 | N & variable 5 00 3 35 30 13 S W.rly 4 50 3 34 [30 20 S.rly to E 4 30 4 34 130 24 E.rly ss Strerigth of Winds, a ie, ¢ | . Fresh breezes i Light breezes, calm Calm, fresh breeze ; Fresh breezes j Strong gales | Fresh gales a Light breezes To strong gales - Fresh gales Strong gales Fresh breezes Strong gales Strong gales To fresh gales | Light breezes Fresh breezes Moderate breezes ' To fresh breeze Moderate breezes Ditto To fresh breezes Strong gales Moderate or fresh br. To strong breeze Fresh or moderate br Calm or light airs Moderate or fresh br. itto (x5 i To fresh gales Strong gales Ditto Fresh breezes Strong gales Ditto Mod. to strong gales — Strong gales Moderate breezes Light airs, calm Moderate or fresh br. Strong breezes’ Fresh breezes Greenland Voyage, 1812. Of the Clouds. Weather, &c. : Animals, &c. seen. Aqueous Meteors. ; Time. Modifications. a — Many whales. Ditto. | 2whales,razor-backs, com. birds. | . All day Cirro-cumulus, &e. Fine weather — All day Cirrus, &c. 13| Fine clear weather | Noon. | Cirrus, &c. oh ie Cirrus, &c. | Common birds. 15| Some snow All day Cirro-cumulus; &¢.| 3 Bears. 16 | Cloudy weather Ice-blinks. Some few birds. -17| Showers, snow Alt day Nimbus. Some whales, narwals, seals. 18 | Snow showers ; Fog. Razor-backs. 19| Much snow Nimbus. A few whales, razors, a bear. 90 | Cloudy weather Nimbus. Ditto. 21 | Fog or snow Nimbus. 1 Whale, 1 narwal, some birds. 99) Nimbus. Some whales. © 23 | Snow showers Nimbus. A few whales, narwal, &c. 94,| Fog or snow Nimbus. Several large whales. 95 | Fine tlear weather | Pm- Cirro-cumulus; &¢e.| Ditto, and narwals.: 26 Ditto Am. Cirrus, &c. Some large whales. 27 Showers snow Am. Nimbus. Some birds. 28, Fog or snow Cirro-cumulus, &¢c.| Some whales, narws. birds, &c. } 29 | Thick fog Fog. Two whales. — men Two whales. Some whales, seals, com. birds. Razor-backs, sharks, whales, &c. Ditto, some whalés, seals, &e. Several whales. All day Nimbus. All day Nimbus, fog. Noon. Cirro-cumulus. 30 | Thick snow 1 | Snow and fog 5 21 Thick fog 8) Much snow uly Snow showers Cirro-cumulus, &c. Some ditto Nimbus. Ditto, seals, razor-backs. Snow & fog shwrs. Nimbus. Ditto, ditto, narwals. Ditto All day Nimbus. Ditto, ditte. Cloudy or fog Fog. 2 or 3 whales. Fine hazy weather Do. showers. Several whales. Fine weather Pm. Cirro-stratus, &¢. | Many large whales, seals, &c. Whales, razors, seals, narwls. &c. Ditto, ditto, ditto. Common birds. ° 2 Whales, 1 razor, seals. Some whales, many seals. 3, ditto, thousands of seals Common birds, ditto. Nimbus, &c. All day Nimbus, &c. Am. Cirrus, &c. Am. Cirrus, &c. All day Fog, &c. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 | Snow showers 12 | Snow showers 13 | Fog showers 14} Ditto 15 | Ditto, or snow 16 | Thick fog 17 | Fog or snow shwrs. 18 19 20 21 Ditto Am. Cirrus, &c. | Several whales. Ditto Fog, &c. | | Many whales, seals, narwals. Fog showers Pm. Cirro-cumulus, &c. | Seals plenty, two sea-parrots. Fine weather Pm. Cirro-cumulus, &c.| Many whales, narws. seals, bears. 22| Hazy weather Pm, Nimbus. Whales, ditto, ditto, ditto. C We +) A Meteorological Journal of a Latitude. | Longitude. 78°00’ i 4 2241 78 6* 515 3 251 78 20 68 3 (961 77 44 6 39 3 a7| 16 4 6 48 3 28| 73 26 6 45 3 | 29| 71 18 3 45 3 130} 70 3 25 3 31| 68 24% eR | 2 fe 1] 67 32 138 kz./ 3 & 2| 66 47 |1 17'30’W.#| 3 2 3| 65 14 217 W.| 3 41 64 35 2 42 3 5| 64 18 4 1 3 6|63 3/29”* 316 3 7| 62 8 3 50 3 g| 60 13* 3 50 3 9| 58 57 1 55 3 10| 56 56 0 42 3 rl" "sss 1 12 3 12| 5431 0 30 3 Whitby Roads. SS W.erly SSW, W.rly W.rly, NE N E.rly ENE EN Evrly B.erly variable Calm, N W.erly S W to W.rly S to S Exrly § E.rly W to S W.rly 8 W or W.rly W variable | N.rly, variable N.erly, do. N E.rly | NEtoNNE NE.rly N E.rly Strength of Winds, a — —— a Light airs | 1s Ditto om i Calm chiefly { Strong breezes i Moderate breezes Fresh gales Strong gales i Moderate breezes Calm, fresh breeze | Light airs Moderate breezes Fresh breeze Light breeze Strong gale Light breeze Light or mod. breeze Strong breeze ‘g Strong gales - Moderate breeze Light breeze © Ditto (. 349 Greenland Voyage, 1812. Of the Clouds. n \ 3 Pi arin em ee ial aei4 me Animals, &c. seen. =) ‘isuiealss 0 waa Time. Modifications. 223 | Haze or fog Nimbus, &e. 1 Whale, common birds. 24 Fine weather, fog | Am. Cirro-cumulus, &¢,| 2 Whales, many narws. 3 bears. | 25| Thick fog Fog. Common birds and seals. | 26 | Ditto | Many fulmars. 271 Ditto Ditto, burgomasters. 28 | Cloudy weather No distinct modn. | Ditto. 29 | Rain Rain. Ditto. 30 | Thick fog showers | Fog. | Ditto. 31 | Thick fog : "ites" " : 1) Charming fine wea.| Pm. Cirro-cumulus, &c.| Bottlenoses, gulls, fulmars. f 2| Some rain All day. Cirrus, &c. Many gulls, arc.gulls, bottlenoses. { 3) Cloudy Noon. Nimbus, &c, Ditto, ditto, ditto. | 4] Fog Pm. Cumulus, &c. Ditto, fulmars. 5| Cloudy, rain, fog Many gulls. 6{ Fine weather Pm. Cirro-stratus, &c. | Many gulls. 7 | Thick fog Fog. Mollusca, sea-parrots, gulls, &c. $ | Cloudy weather Pm. Stratus, &c. Ditto, solan-geese, _— ditto, &c. _ 9| Fine clear weather | Am. | Cirrus. | Gulls, ditto. 10] Sealuminous. Light| ning. Gulls, fulmars. 11] Charming fine wea.| Am. Cirrus, &c. _ °} Gulls, willocks. _ 12] Ditto Pm. Cirrus, &c. } Gulls, willocks, &c. (. W4e9 XII. Analyse du Spath perlée, (Chaur carbonatée Serrif ere perlée d Haiiy. ) | By W. Hisinerr, Esq. Stockholm. (Read 20th November 1813.) Pari les substances minerales qui demontrent la nécessitée de l’application de l’analyse chimique a la classification systematique des mineraux, on pourra compter avec raison ceux que M. Haty, dans son Traité de Mineralogie, a rangé sous l’espéce du Chaux carbonatée ferrifére avec manganése, dans laquelle se trouve réuni le Fer spathique, le Spath brunissant (Braunspath), et sa variétée le Spath perlée. Dans le systeéme de M. Werner, ces deux substances sont considerés comme diffe- rentes, et le Fer spathique est placé dans la classe des Mines de Fer. Plusieurs analyses de Klaproth, C. Descotils, Bucholz, &c. ont deja consideré le Fer spathique comme une Mine de Fer carbonatée, ~ oe ee ee ANALYSIS OF PEARLSPAR. 175 et une analyse de M. Klaproth *, place le Braun- kalk sous la Chaux carbonatée magnésifére. Aussi les experiences suivantes prouveront que le Spath | perlée, jugé d’aprés ses parties constituantes, doit étre réuni 4 l’espéce de Chaux carbonatée magne- sifére. Le spath perlée qui vient d’etre l’objet de cet examen, est de couleur blanche, tirant un peu sur le jaundtre. La surface est drusique, d’un éclat et de refilets nacrés, formant une croute sur d’au- tres cristaux. Dans V’interieur il est seulement chatoyant. Une goutte d’acide nitrique y laisse une tache jaunatre. Le local inconnd, (Freiberg ?) g.—10 grammes de spath perlée traité au, feu pendant 3 d’heures, ont perdu 4.460 grammes. La couleur s’ est change en grisatre, et avee le borax il a donné au feu du chalumau une verre de couleur rouge-jaunatre. b.—10 autres grammes de la méme substance non rougi au feu, mais reduite en poudre, ont eté dissoute avee effervescence dans l’acide muriatique étendu d’eau. Dans la dissolution, dont la couleur étoit verdatre, ’ammoniaque caustigque occassion- noit un précipité verdatre d’oxidule de fer, qui _ pendant le lavage sur le filtre devenoit brun foncé. Ce précipite fut redissout dans l’acide muriatique mélée d’acide nitrique. La dissolution fut etendu d’eau, neutralisée parl’ammoniaque ca istique, et pre- * Beitrige, t. 4. 176 ANALYSIS OF PEARLSPAR. -eipitée parle benzoate d’ammoniaque. Le benzoate de fer, décomposé par le traitement au feu, laissoit 0.34 gr. oxide de fer. La liqueur neutralisée 4 froid par le carbonate de potasse, deposoit un pré- eipité blanc, jaunissant par la dessication, devenant noir au feu, et pesant 0.07 gramme. Au reste, il ‘se comportoit comme l’oxide pur de mangane. ‘Cela fait, ayant ajouté a la liqueur en ebullition du carbonate de potasse en excés, on obtint un ‘autre précipité, qui rougi au feu, devenoit grisatre, ‘pesoit 0.06 gramme, et qui fut enfin décomposé en 0.03 gramme d’oxide de mangane et 0.03 ger. de ‘la magnésie. : e.—La dissolution muriatique, qui dans: l’ex- ‘perience precedant (4) avoit été précipitée par *Yammontiaque caustique, fut un peu concentrée “par 'l’évaporation, et aprés etre mis en ebullition mélé avec du carbonate de potasse basique en -excés jusqu’ 4 la decomposition complette du sel ‘ammoniacal. Dans cet operation on ebtenoit un »précipité blanc, un peu gelatineux au commence- ‘ment, pesant 4.886 grammes, aprés etre lavé et traité aun feu trés vif pendant une heure, dans un vereuset decouvert. La couleur etoit grisatre. II “fut dissout au froid, et sans effervescence, dans 'Vacide nitrique étendu avec 30 parties d’eau, ‘qui laissoit quelques flocons -bruns -d’oxide de mangane, pésant 0.05 gramme apres etre rougi au feu. d.—En ajoutant un peu de muriate d’ammo- niaque a la dissolution, separé de mangane, elle ANALYSIS OF PEARLSPAR. 177 fut précipitée par le carbonate d’ammoniaque en excés, qui en séparoit le carbonate de chaux, dont le poids, aprés avoir été exactement et fortement séché, montoit 4 4.96 grammes, équivalent a 2.797 grammes de la chaux caustique. La dissolution du sel triple contenu dans la liqueur restante, fut mis en é€bullition, et decomposée par la potasse caustique. Le précipité, qui étoit blanc, se com- portoit en tout comme la terre de magnésie, et con- tenoit les autres 2.084 grammes de la masse préci- pité en c. nse ks Il résulte de l’analyse ci-dessus, que 10 gram- mes de spath perlée sont composés, De la chaux, d--++-++-+-e5: g.797 Magnésie, b, d.--+-+++-+++>- 2.114 D’oxide de fer, b..--.--.- 0.340 9.861 grammes, Mu, que 100 parties contiennent, ENE RM et 97.07 Ma MANESIC, fy = 5 26,02 2 ee on ale 91.14, Oxide de fer, 5) .keie. sine (Gia chiabiane 3.40 Oxide de mangane,-.-.-.-.. 1.50 Acide carbonique,-------... 44.60 ——-— 98.60 Perte,;,.+2+ +. ise lveltn gepetetniel @ 1.40 100.00 Képing en Suede, VOL. II. M bin Mod XIII. Outline of the Mineralogy of the Pentland Hills. By Professor Jameson. (Read 16th February 1811.) SECTION I. Tuts beautiful group of hills, is situated in the counties of Mid-Lothian and Peebles. The nearest point is distant from Edinburgh, in a straight line, not less than four miles. It stretches from south- west to north-east, and extends from Dunsyre Hill to Kirkyetten Craig. As we ap- proach its south-western extremity, it becomes gradually lower, and terminates in the flat country, which extends from Dunsyre Hill to the east bank of the river Clyde ; but immediately to the south, it is connected with the great southern ¥ MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 179 alpine land of Scotland, by means of Mendeck Hill, the Dolphington Hills, and other hills. Its north-eastern extremity is lofty, in some places precipitous and cliffy, and the most prominent point is Kirkyetten Craig. The breadth of the group varies from three to eight miles: the hills of which it is composed, exhibit considerable va- riety in shape: those to the west of the river Esk are generally more or less round-backed, whereas those to the east of the same boundary, besides the round-backed shape, display also the more elegant conical and tabular forms: and its height is considerable, several of the hills being 1600 or 1700 feet above the level of the sea. In this paper, it is my intention to describe on- ly a part of the group, viz. that portion of it which extends from the bridge of Caerlips to Kirk- yetten Craig, a distance of rather more than eight miles *; and which includes the whole of that part of the Pentlands contained in Mid-Lothian. The south-western extremity of this portion of the group, joins with Caerlips Hill, Mount Hill, and other neighbouring hills: its north-eastern extremity is composed of several hills irregularly grouped together, with small valleys between, and of which, the Kirkyetten Hills are the most MZ * This part of the group is laid down in Laurie’s map of the county of Mid-Lothian, published in 1763. 180 MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. considerable. The space between the two ex- tremities, is occupied by a double range of hills ; which are separated from one another, in the first part of their course, by a high muirish plain, which extends from the source of the North Esk river to Habbie’s How ; and, in the remainder of © their course, by a beautiful pastoral valley, through which Logan Water flows. A small range of low, generally round-backed hills, skirts the south side of the group, from Glencross Bridge, nearly to Caerlips ; and several small hills skirt the group from Swanston, by Bonailly to Kinleith. The hills vary considerably in height. The highest — hills in the group, are Black Hill and Caernethy Hill, whose summits are 1700 feet above the level of the sea; Kirkvetten is 1544 feet above the level of the sea; Castlelaw, 1390 feet ; and Spittal-Law, 1360 feet. ~ The hills also vary considerably in form. The most common shape is the reund-backed, of which we have examples in the Kirkyetten Hills, Turn- house Hill, Mucks Rig, Spittal Hill, Cock Rig, East Cairn Hill, Hare Hill, Black Hill, and Bald or Bield Hill. Others are conical, as the Kipps, Caer- nethy, Gastlelaw, &c.: and some are tabular, as one of the tops of the hill named East Side Black Hill. The acclivities of the hills, although in gene- ralsteep, are so covered with grass, as to afford excel- lent pasture: few cliffs occur, and none are of great height or extent: the most remarkable are those of Kirkyetten facing Edinburgh, and at Habbie’s MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 181 How, over which the Logan Water is precipitated. The mode of connection of the individual hills, varies ; in general they are connected by their summits or their acclivities, | The principal valleys in this portion of the eroup, are those of the Logan Water, and of the North Esk river: The Logan Water rises near the foot of the hill named Cock Rig, and runs for about a mile and a half, in a north-eastern di- rection, through the high muirish flat already mentioned, being bounded on the north side by Hare Hill, and on the south side by Spittal Hill and the Kipps, when it falls over a rocky precipice about eighty feet high at Habbie’s How, into the delightful pastoral valley already mentioned. It continues its course through the whole extent of this valley, which is nearly three miles long, to its further extremity at Castlelaw. The valley is bounded on the north side by Black Hill and Bield Hill; on the eastern extremity by Castlelaw ; on the south side by Turnhouse Hill, Caernethy and East Side Black Hill; and its westerfi or upper end, is bounded by the crags and cliffs of Hab- bie’s How. Its bottom is very narrow, not being above the sixth part of a mile broad any where in its course. At the base of Castlelaw, the Logan Water changes its direction, and flows in a vary- ing course, but in general in a south-eastern direc- tion, through the hills to Glericross Bridge, where it eseapes from the mountain group into the low and flatter country. That portion of the valley M 3 182 MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILES. of the North Esk river, which occurs in this group, extends from Cock Rig, where the sources of the river are situated, to Caerlips Bridge, where the Esk flows into the low country. [Ht is narrow, and is bounded on both sides by green hills of con- siderable height: these are Caerlips Hill, Mount Hill, and Cock Rig on’the one side, and — Hill on the other. Secrion II, Tue rocks of which this portion of the Pent- land Hills is composed, belong to the Transition, Fleetz, and Alluvial classes ; no fixed rocks of the Primitive class, as far as 1 know, having hitherto been discovered in any part of the group. The Floetz rocks, which are by much the most abun- dant, form the highest, and sometimes also the lowest parts of the group ; whereas the Transition rocks in general occur low down; and both sets of rocks are more or less covered with Alluvial substances, | We shall now describe these rocks in the order of their relative antiquity, beginning with the transition, which are considered as having been deposited before the flcetz and alluvial rocks, and lie deeper in the crust of the earth. : PO a ee ee a = a re en eee Oe a oe BAe eee R: Oe eee : 4 ; , é f f MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 183 Section III. TRANSITION ROCKS. Tue transition rocks which I have had an op- portunity of observing in this group of hills, are Clay-Slate, Grey-Wacke, Greenstone, and I be- lieve also Porphyry. | I. Clay-Slate. The colour of this rock is greenish-grey, ot greyish-black ; scales of mica are in general in- termixed with it, and these give it a glimmering lustre. ‘Its fracture is sometimes fine, sometimes coarse slaty, and in some instances the slaty is as- sociated with a splintery fracture. It is opaque. The streak is grey-coloured. It is soft, inclining to semi-hard ; it is easily frangible. It is distinctly stratified, and the strata run from south-west to north-east, and are nearly verti- cal. ; : | I did not observe in it either imbedded portions of quartz, or cotemporaneous veins of that mi- neral; and no felspar, or other imbedded mi- nerals, appear in it. Several of the varieties are nearly allied to Slate-clay, and even appear to pass into it; others again, particularly those ha- M 4& 184 MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. ving a greenish-black colour, appear allied to Com- pact Slaty-felspar, because, like it, they decay with a white crust, are thick slaty, and harder than the gsrey-coloured varieties. It sometimes appears more or less curved and waved in its structure, —an appearance not unfrequent in transition clay-slate, and which, like the curved and waved laminz of more regulatly crystallized bodies, is to be viewed as the effect of crystallization. Hare Hill, as far as I could ascertain, appears to contain much of this rock. It appears also on the north-east and south-west corners of Black Hill, and is frequent in the valley of the North | Esk river. It. Grey-Wacke. The grey-wacke which occurs in our district is very small granular, and has but little of the mechanical aspect of the common varieties of this rock. It is composed of felspar, quartz, and some- times a little mica; and these minerals are so con- ~ nected together, as to shew that this rock is a che- mical not a mechanical deposite. It occurs in beds varying from a few inches to two or three feet in thickness, and these alternate with the clay- slate already described. I observed it near Habbie’s How, and also in the valley of the North Esk river, MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 185 Ill. Greenstone. This rock presents the usual characters of green- stone. It occurs in beds sometimes twelve feet and upwards in thickness, situated in clay-slate. Neither the greenstone nor clay-slate, where in contact with each other, appear altered or inter- mixed. ‘Iwo beds of this rock occur ina oe of clay-slate above Bevelaw-House. {V. Porphyry. Upon the north-eastern extremity of the Black Hill, where the transition clay-slate occurs, fel- spar-porphyry and felspar-rock make their appear- ance and these are so connected with the clay- slate, that I cannot help suspecting portions of these rocks may here belong to the transition SeT1es. SECTION LIV. FLG@TZ ROCKS. Tue floetz rocks, of which by far the greatest part of this portion of the group is composed, are the following: Conglomerate, Sandstone, s 186 MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. Clinkstone, Clinkstone-Porphyry, Amygdaloidal Clinkstone-Porphyry, Greenstone, Compact Fel- spar, Claystone, Claystone-T'uff, and Porphyry. I. Conglomerate. This rock is composed of roundish, angular, and other shaped portions of quartz, grey-wacke, grey- wacke-slate, porphyry, felspar, flinty-slate, com- mon jasper, hornstone, and mica, The portions are from the size of a man’s head and upwards; to that of a pea, and the larger masses are con- nected together by a basis or paste of the smaller pieces, and these again are joined together without any basis, just as stones are which have been de- posited from a state of chemical solution. It varies in hardness ; two principal varieties may be dis- tinguished, a hard and soft. In the hard variety, the basis and the included portions run into each other, and are so crystalline and firmly joined to- gether, that it is only by means of violence that we can break off masses. This variety generally forms the mass of entire strata ; at other times we find it intermixed in cotemporaneous portions in the softer variety. The softer variety is so loose in its texture, that we can readily break it with the hammer, and even extract the imbedded por- tions with the fingers. It occurs, in general, more abundantly, than the hard variety. MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 187 The very small granular varieties of this rock, which are principally composed of felspar and quartz, are very nearly allied to the grey-wacke of this district ; indeed, in some instance’, it is difficult to distinguish the one from the other in single specimens *, This fact, in conjunction with one about to be mentioned, namely, That clay-slate occurs in con- _ glomerate, goes to support an opinion I have long entertained, that Transition rocks may alternate with the oldest Fleetz rocks; and, therefore, that the rocks of the transition and the fleetz classes are not separated from each other in the manner generally alleged by mineralogists. The conglomerate is sometimes very small gra- — nular, and earthy in its appearance, and then it is compact, and, both externally and internally, is not unlike certain varieties of basalt and wacke. Va- fieties of this kind occur at the base of ‘Turn- house Hill, also at Kirk Hill, and in the lower part of the West March Burn. It is distinctly Stratified, and coarse and fine granular strata alter- nate with each other. ‘The strata are in general inclined at angles from 10° to 30°. Thin lay- ers of a variety of greenish-grey coloured clay- slate occur in it. , * If the Grey-wacke of the Pentlands is a chemical deposite, the same must be the ease with the Conglomerate rock described in the text. 188 MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILL. It rests upon the transition rocks of the district; and occurs in very considerable abundance. It fornts the fundamental rock of Turnhouse Hill, Caernethy, East Side Black Hill, the Kipps, Braid Know, Black Hill, Kirk Hull, Castlelaw, the cliffs at Habbie’s How ; and nearly the whole of Bald Hill, Mucks Rig, Spittal Hill, and the small hills that extend from West Side to Gaerlips, are composed of this conglomerate. On the south-west end of Black Hill, it is associated with porphyry and fel- spar, apparently in beds; but of this I am not per- fectly certain, as the cover of debris prevented me examining the relative situation of the rocks with sufficient accuracy. Il. Sandstone. This rock is generally of a reddish-brown co- lour, of different degrees of intensity ; but some varieties, by the action of the weather, become white or grey. It varies from fine to coarse gra- nular, the latter forming a kind of Sandstone Con- _ glomerate. Its component parts are quartz, fel- spar, clay, and mica; of these, the quartz 1s by far the most abundant material. The quartz is of a grey colour, sometimes crystallized, more gene- rally in roundish or angular concretions ; the clay is of a reddish-brown colour, and is the substance which colours the sandstone; and the mica oc- MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 189 curs in small silver-white scales, I could not dis- cover that these minerals were connected together by any basis; on the contrary, they appear to be associated in the same manner as the felspar, quartz, and mica are in granite. Is it therefore to be con- sidered as a rock deposited from a state of chemi- cal solution? Sandstone, in a general point of view, may be considered as a continuation of the Granite series, and might be denominated Fletz Quariz-rock. It sometimescontains cotemporaneous portions of floetz-limestone, thus forming a kind of arenaceous limestone-conglomerate. The lime- stone even appears to form thin and short beds in the sandstone, as is the case in the sandstone rocks above Habbie’s How. ‘The limestone is of a grey colour, the fracture is foliated, and it includes co- temporaneous calcareous spar, and variously shaped concretions of compact limestone. Limestones of this kind have been described as brecciated stones, or as composed of fragments: thus, the transi- tion limestones often exhibit this brecciated cha- racter, and Brochant, in his valuable paper on Transition Rocks, in the Journal des Mines for 1808, maintains, although unsuccessfully, that these limestones are truly brecciated. Some varieties of the sandstone are not unlike the grey-wacke which occurs near Habbie’s How; and consequently closely resemble the fine granular yarieties of conglomerate. It is distinctly stratified ; }90 MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS, the direction of the strata, south-west and north- east ; and the dip varies from 10° to 30°. It rests upon the conglomerate, as may be ob. served in the course of the Logan Water above Habbie’s How, and appears also to alternate with it, as 1 infer from the appearances it presents in the conglomerate at the junction of the transition and flcetz rocks, above and a little to the eastward of Bevelaw House. It skirts the Mid-Lothian sialiad of the Pent- land hills, from the base of the Kirkyetten Hills to the south-west corner of the group, where it rises several hundred feet above the neighbouring country, forming the whole of the East Cairn Hill. It can be traced from the base of the East Cairn Hill, down the course of the Logan Water, to within a few yards of the waterfall at Habbie’s How, and it appears to cover a considerable por- tion of the high muirish flat traversed by the Logan Water, _ | Jil. Chnkstone, Clinkstone-Porphyry, and Amyg- daloidal Clinkstone-Porphyry. The clinkstone, when pure, is of a deep green- ish-grey colour ; but when iron-shot, which is ge- nerally the case, it is reddish-brown: the lustre of the principal fracture is glistening, of the cross fracture glimmering: the principal fracture is ee MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS, 19} slaty, the cross fracture uneven, passing into im- perfect and small conchoidal. It is translucent on the edges, hard, brittle, rather easily frangible, and rather’ heavy. , alt te nearly allied to felspar, and is to be observ- ed passing into the compact felspar, which occurs sO frequently in the Mid-Lothian portion of: the Pentland Hills ; ; it also sometimes inclines to clay~ stone, and in other instances nearly passes into ba- salt: ‘The darker-coloured varieties, those in- clining to basalt, sometimes contain imbedded co- -temporaneous portions of quartz, nearly an inch square : and the iron-shot varieties, are sometimes traversed by cotemporaneous veins of lamellar heavy- -spar. Crystals of felspar occur frequently imbedded in it, and then it forms clinkstone-por- phyry, or what is sometimes called Porphyry-slate. The crystals of felspar are sometimes of consider- able size, and in certain varieties of this rock, are remarkable for their breadth and thinness. Some- times the clinkstone- porphyry passes into a kind of felspar-porphyry, as on the west side of Glencross. Sometimes the amygdaloidal porphyry is inter- mixed with green-coloured sandstone, or the sand- stone appears imbedded in the porphyry in the form ~of fragments: in other instances, we observe the sandstone, which appears to occur in small beds in the. porphyry, including what at first sight appear to be fragments of porphyry. This mutual in- termixture of the sandstone and porphyry, the gradual passage of the inclosed sandstone into the 192 MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND)HILLS. porphyry, and of the porphyry imbedded in the sandstone, are proofs, not only of the cotem- poraneous formation of these two rocks, but also of the chemical nature of the sandstone. This porphyry is often amygdaloidal, and then it is named amygdaloidal clnkstone-porphyry *. The amygdaloidal cavities are more or less com- pletely filled with mineral substances of different kinds: sometimes they are entirely filled with green-earth, or the green-earth merely encrusts the vesicular cavities, and the cavity is filled up with agate. Theagate is associated with ame- thyst, and also with common calcedony, which latter is sometimes stalactitic, and is so circum- stanced, as to shew, that although stalactitic in form, it is not so in formation, being rather a crys- talline shoot, than a stalactitic deposition. Some- times the vesicular cavities are filled with a mix- ture of calcareous-spar, heavy-spar, and brown- spar. The agates and calcedonies are of consider- able magnitude, some specimens being several inches square. Some varieties of the rock con- tain diallage. The porphyritic clinkstone is some- times tufaceous, as in Glencross, and at first sight * Some of these varieties are grooved very deeply. These groovings are seen sometimes on the surface of masses, some- times in their interior, and we observe in this latter case that the grooves fit into each other: JI have noticed the bottoms of | ~ the beds somewhat convoluted. : . MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 193 Appears to be composed of rolled masses of porphy- ry or clinkstone, contained in a porphyritic basis ; but these masses are to be observed passing by im- perceptible degrees into the basis, and hence are of cotemporaneous formation with it, and cannot be viewed as fragments. This rock rests upon the conglomerate : ; but its immediate relation to the red sandstone, I had no opportunity of ascertaining. It occurs very abun- _ dantly throughout the Mid-Lothian partof the Pent- lands, but more frequently in the middle part, and _ the eastern extremity, than in the western. It ap- pears in general rather on a low level, near the foot of the hills; although in particular instances, as at the Kipps and the Kirkyetten Hills, it forms summits upwards of a thousand feet high. On the outside of the group, it extends from East Side to Kirkyetten, and onwards to Malleny, forming a nearly continuous mass. The smaller hills that skirt the group in this line of direction, are also composed of it ; and it is to be seen in the interior of the group in the Logan Water valley, at the foot of Turnhouse, Caernethy, and Castle- law Hills, where it rests upon conglomerate ; and fine sections of it are exposed | on both sides of Glencross. YoU. Ly, N ) 194° MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLSy 1V. Greenstone. - This is not a frequent rock in the ficetz series: of the Pentlands. It is in general small granular, and appears to pass into basalt, and sometimes to form that variety of rock named Basaltic Green- stone. It is at times amygdaloidal, and then it contains calcareous spar and. agate. It occurs: above the conglomerate at the north-east corner of Turnhouse Hill, and at the base of Black Hill,. about a quarter of a mile from Habbie’s How.’ Many rolled masses of alarge granular greenstone, along with. basalt and amygdaloid, occur in the bottom of. the West March Burn, but I did not find any of.these rocks in situ aly where j in ant course of the rivulet. , This rock appears to be RBA p fhe the: | clinkstone, and probably occurs in beds Reems or. in ‘it. V. Compact Felspar. ‘The colour of this rock, is flesh-red, or brownish: red ; sometimes greyish and yellowish- white, and ash-grey and yellowish-grey. Itis massive. The - ‘lustre is glimmering, and the fracture minute foli- ated, and splintery, and sometimes conchoidal, some- times slaty... _It.is semi-hard and brittle. Specific | . gravity 2, 7497 * *, , Some varieties ‘of the felspar exhi- * Vid. Mebhiacies en ‘Compact Felspar. ~ © Memoirs of the ® _ Wernenan Society,” vol, i, p. O17. po _ MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 195 bit a very deep- grooved surface : this is strikingly the case with the felspar of Braid Know. It is sometimes porphyritic, and then it contains im- bedded crystals or grains of felspar; sometimes also scales of mica, crystals of augite, and of common quartz, or of rock-crystal. A remark- able variety of this mineral occurs near Hab- bie’s How and other parts of the group, in which ‘beautiful globular concretions of light red.co- loured felspar are inibedded in dark-red felspar. These concretions are from one-sixth of an inch, to an inch in diameter. Other globular concre- tions occur in the felspar ; these are composed of ‘concentric lamellar layers of red felspar, and of a ‘green-coloured substance, which is probably very “minute granular hornblende, ¢ither pure or inter- mixed with felspar. Both these kinds of concre- tions are evidently of cotemporaneous formation ‘with the felspar in which they are contained, be- ‘cause théy are principally composed of that sub- stance, and exhibit no marks of attrition ; on the contrary, are to be observed gradually passing into ‘the surrounding mass. Compact felspar is observ- ‘éd passing, on the one hand, into hornstoné, and on ‘the other into claystond. It occttrs in beds, and in cotemporancous masses several feet square in conglomerate, at Habbie’s How ; and at the same place, it appears to rest on eee clay-slate. Te occurs abundantly in Black Hill, Bield Hill, Kirk’ Hill,” egal and Castlelaw, where it is ripe kt also occurs, but less Poa y and ait eanaly, z iN @ 196 _ MINERALOGY OF THE PENTEAND HILEs, | , a os Ne in the Kirkyetten Hills, Turnhouse Hill, Caer- nethy, East Side Black Hill, and Braid Know. VI. Claystone. The principal colours of this mineral, are grey, blue and red; and it frequently exhibits dendritic delineations. Its fracture is earthy and dull. It 1s opaque ; soft; rather brittle. Rather easily fran- gible. Feels meagre and rough. Does not ad- here to the tongue. Rather heavy. | It is stratified. It passes into compact felspar. Sometimes portions of the claystone appear harder than the usual varieties, and these are passing into | compact felspar: when they are imbedded in the common earthy claystone, the mass appears as if conglomerated or brecciated, and this appearance is rendered more evident when the basis is of a different colour from the harder portions, ‘These harder portions vary in shape and size, being some- times angular, sometimes more or less rounded, and from the size of a pea to that of a man’s head and upwards. Appearances of this kind have been con- sidered as proofs of the mechanical nature of the mass ; but the circumstance of these imbedded por- ‘tions passing imperceptibly into the surrounding mass, and of the ee transition, ee: the 4 J yet Hin, * a eae 5 oie ao es eo MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 197 that itis entirely of a chemical nature. Sometimes it has still more of the fragmented appearance, when it forms claystone-tuff, a rock to be described afterwards. It rests upon claystone-tuff ; is fre- quently intermixed with it, and probably alter- nates with it. It passes into porphyry, a rock which rests upon it; and is intimately related to compact felspar, into which it passes, and in which it is probably contained in beds. On the north-east, south, and south-west accli- vities of Turnhouse Hill, where the line of junc-_ tion can be discerned, it is to be observed resting upon claystone-tuif, and as far as I could ascertain, © never below or alternating with the clinkstone-. porphyry. In this hill, ‘its line of junction with — the clinkstone varies much in height: in some instances, as on the eastern, and north-eastern foot of the hill, being almost washed by the Logan Wa- r; but more frequently it is far above the level of the river, several hundred feet above the bottom of the valley. It occupies nearly the same general high level in Caernethy and East Side Black Hill ; and on the north side of East Side Black Hill, Isaw it resting on claystone-tuff, which appearsto rest on clinkstone-porphyry. From East Side Black Hill, eer along the western or upper end of the valley of 4ogan Water,’ it does not eer until we - pass to be e observed on the west side of ee valley, lead- go f rom Habbie’s How north-east towards Be- velaw, where It appears to be associated with com- 7 N 3 {§8 MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS, pact felspar. From ‘this valley, it may be traced more or less uninterruptedly along Black Hill, Kirk Hill, and Castlelaw, and onwards to the Kirkyetten Hills, where it forms a considerable portion of the striking recky face named Kirkyet- ren Craig. In the whole of this ccurse, it is as- sociated with compact felspar. . VIL. Claystone-Tuff- This rock 1s composed of claystone, in which are included apparent fragments, of various sizes and shapes, of claystone, porphyritic-claystone, conchoidal-hornstone, porphyritic-hornstone, com- pact felspar, and red flint. Jt is sometimes tra- versed by veins of conchoidal-hornstone and _por- phyry ; and these, as well as all the different kinds ‘of fragments, are of cotemporaneous formation with the claystone basis ¥. The conchoidal-horn- stone sometimes assumes a slaty appearance, and passes into striped jasper: it also passes into clay- stone, compact felspar, and into flint. Both the claystone and the conchoidal- hornstone are some- times beautifully dendritic. It appears in some instances to rest on conglo- merate, sometimes on clinkstone-porphyry, and is cue It is ey vident. that the formation of trap-tuff must also be : chemical, jose: a Ae ee ene MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 199 frequently covered with claystone. The finer gra- -nular varieties, gradually pass into claystone ; and probably it is contained in great cotemporaneous portions in the claystone, or alternates in beds with it, : It occurs in Turnhouse Hill, Caernethy, East . Side Black Hill, Kirk Hill, Castlelaw, and the Kirkyetten Hills, and in general it is situated on a higher level than the clinkstone. VIL. Porphyry. The basis of this rock varies in colour from grey, through blue to red. he fracture is earthy and dull. It is opaque, soft, sectile, rather easily frangible, and rather heavy ; so that it appears to be nearly of the same nature as claystone. It contains imbedded crystals of felspar, which are generally small, almost always in a soft or disinte- grated state, and in the bluish varieties nearly in the state of steatite. It passes on the one hand _ into claystone and compact felspar, and on the other it inclines to basalt and clinkstone. It rests on claystone, and is frequently inter-. mixed with it. It forms the higher parts of ~ ‘Turnhouse Hill, Caernethy, East Side Black Hill, © Castlelaw, and occurs also in Kirk Hill, Black ‘Gill, and amongst the Kirkyetten Hills. N 4 200 MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS, Section III. ALLUVIAL ROCKS. The alluvial substances are few in number, of little extent, and do not present great variety in appearance : they are, Rolled Masses, Gravel, Clay, and Peat. I. Rolled Masses. These are generally portions of the neighbour- ing rocks, which have been broken off by the in- fluence of the weather, and rolled in the water. _of the rivers and rivulets of the district. Amongst these, however, I observed several large masses | of what may be named primitive grey-wacke, and which 1s foreigntothispart of the country; its near- est native place being near Dunkeld in Perthshire. Similar masses occur in different parts of Mid- Lothian; also in Fifeshire. How have they been transported to their present situation? I. Gravel, Sand, and Clay. The gravel, sand, and clay, are portions of the te” >\0f the district, more or less completely bro- ee ae ga GSE me ee EE Es ca 3 -— in ed ee Ft cae MINERALOGY OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 201 ken down, and intermixed together. They are spread over the bottom of the valleys, and sides of the hills; but not in equal quantity, for the gravel and sand are more abundant than the clay. Ill. Peat. This well known substance, occurs in consider- able abundance in different parts of the district, but does not present any peculiar appearance. DURA YVPVVVVTVVAS T hope, on a future occasion, to be able to extend my inquiries to the western portion of the Pent- lands, and to accompany the description of that part of the group with a map of the whole range, and a more particular description than that which I now lay before the Society, of the Mid-Lothian division. } XIV. On Conglomerated or Brecciated Rocks. By Professor Jameson. | ‘(Read 4th December 1813. oh Aux the rocks included under this general head, are supposed by mineralogists to be mechanical deposites, and are said to be composed of fragments of different kinds, more or less intimately joined together by means of a ground or basis. It is the object of the present paper to point out the mine. ralogical relations of these rocks, and to shew that certain varieties of them are chemical, not me- chanical, deposites. ‘Seerion I. MINERALOGICAL RELATIONS OF CONGLOMERATED .. OR BRECCIATED ROCKS. Conglomerated rocks occur in Primitive, Tran; ” sition, and Floetz country. ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. 208 _ J. Primitive Conctomerater Rocks. The primitive conglomerated rocks occur in beds or strata of considerable magnitude, in Gneiss, Mica- Slate, remit, Porphyry, and Limestone. 1. Conglomerated Gneiss. The gneiss conglomerate, is formed of roundish and angular fragments, or portions of gneiss, horn- blende-rock, felspar, and quartz, connected toge-. ther by a ground or basis of gneiss, Sometimes the whole bed has the conglomerated character ; jn other instances, only a part of it is in this state ; the other portion, and frequently the largest, be- ingof pure gneiss. ‘This rock occurs near the Castle- town of Braemar in Aberdeenshire, at Valorsine and St Bernard in Switzerland, and also amongst the mountains of Norway, as appears from the following description by Von Buch: “ The in- terior of the rocks is here not less remarkable. At first, the quartz continues from Formo onward. {t then frequently resembles porphyry; for there are imbedded in the grey-coloured quartzy basis, dark crystals of quartz, and the rock is almost every where intersected by drusy fissures. At length, abot half a German mile from Formo, the gneiss also makes its appearance in the valley, and the quartz rocks disappear. ‘The gneiss rises immediately to a great thickness. The Rosten-: Co4, ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. berg commences immediately after its appearance, as well as the ravine towards Lessée ; and in these straits, it becomes very remarkable. It generally abounds in mica; the mica is not scaly-foliated, but in considerable folia, which are continuous, and it abounds with beds of quartz. But there is also every where considerable pieces of gneiss dispersed through it, in which the felspar predo- minates ; the mica only appears in separate iso- lated folia, and the quartz very sparingly. The mica in these pieces, forms more straight and paral- lel running streaks, than slate ; while, on the other hand, the slaty composition in the surrounding gneiss is more strongly marked and distinct. These pieces are all angular, and most of them even are quadrangular’; of so considerable a magnitude, as a foot and upwards, and they appear, in fact, very thickly heaped together ; but still in such a man- ner, that we always distinguish the connecting gneiss mass or ground. The streaks of the diffe- rent pieces lying near each other, are often parallel, but they also frequently take completely different directions. They do not consequently follow the direction of the slaty structure of the gneiss which constitutes the basis. This wonderful rock is not a conglomerate, the pieces being too small. The basis is too distinct, and too strongly characterised as eneiss. But it must be owned, that this ap- pearance bears some resemblance to the manner in which the puddingstone is found in gneiss at VYalorsine, and in the lower Vallais, according ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. 205 to Saussure :—an older gneiss which was destroy- ed in the period of the formation of the newer ¥.” 2. Convlomerated Mica-Slate. ‘The second kindof conglomerated primitive rock, is that which occurs in mica-slate. It is composed of variously-shaped portions of quartz and some- times of mica-slate, imbedded in a basis of mica~ slate. It occurs in the country between Dunkeld and Mullenzarn in Perthshire; and many years ago I saw a variety of this rock in Fetlar, one of - the Zetland Islands, as mentioned in the second volume of my “* Mineralogical Travels.” 3. Conglomerated Granite. This rock occurs principally in the newer gra- nite formations. It is composed of portions of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, quartz, and felspar, imbedded in a basis of granite. This granite rests upon clay-slate or other older primitive rocks. it occufs in Saxony and other countries on the Continent ; and a conglomerated granite, al- though sitobably of a different formation from the oeken, occurs in the Grampians. | r 7 Von Buch’s “ Travels in Norway and Lapland.” Black’s translation, p. 94, and 95. 206 ON CONGLOMERATED ROCE®.. 4. Conglomerated Rock associated with Porphyry. This rock is composed of portions or frag- ments of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, &c. imbedded in a basis of clay-slate. . It lies be- low what is termed the Overlying Primitive Por-— phyry, and over clay-slate and other older primi- tive rocks. It occurs in Saxony and other coun- tries in Germany ; also in Upper Egypt. 5. Conglomerated Limestone. This is the rock known to mineralogists under the name verd-antique. It is composed of lime- stone and serpentine, indeterminately aggregated together, and so intermixed as sometimes to pre- sent a conglomerated aspect. These are the principal primitive conglomerated rocks I have had an opportunity of examining. IL pF Panetrion Conetomenates — These are, Grey-Wacke, Sandstone, ae Limé- . Stone. ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. 207 1. Grey-Wacke. This rock is composed of piecesof clay-slate, grey- wacke, flinty- slate, felspar, and quartz, imbedded in a basis of the same materials, or a basis of clay- slate. The pieces or apparent fragments vary im magnitude, from that of a pea, to much above that ofa man’s head. It is distinctly stratified, and alternates with clay-slate, limestone, and other rocks, It abounds in the alpine country, to the north and south of the Firth of Forth, 2. Sandstone. This rock is composed of grains of quartz, seldom exceeding a pea in size, connected together with- » out any basis, just as quartz concretions are in mica-slate and quartz rocks. * 3. Limestone. Conglomerated limestone rocks are not uncommon in transition country. |They at first sight appear to be composed of fragments of limestone, imbedded in a limestone basis or ground. Sometimes POkr, : tions of compact limestone appear imbedded in granular limestone ; in other instances, portions * 208 ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. of granular limestone appear imbedded in coms: pact limestone. Ill. Fraerz Concromeratep Rocks. The conglomerated rocks of the ficetz class, are, Sandstone-Conglomerate, Sandstone, and Trap- Tuff. 1. Sandstone Conglomerate. This rock is composed of rounded and angular pieces of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, por- phyry, grey-wacke, felspar, jasper, quartz, &c. varying in size from that of a pea, to much above that of a man’s head. These fragments are con- nected together by means of a basis composed ei- ther of iron-shot clay, quartz, or of smaller frag- ments of the same nature as the larger. Tt usually occurs resting upon transition rocks, sometimes also lying on primitive rocks. It isa frequent rock in this country. te ¥ 9. Sandstone. This rock is principally composed of quartz, which is either in roundish or angular grains, or more or less regularly crystallized: it is seldom pure, more generally it is intermixed with scales \ ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. 209 of mica, roundish grains or crystals of felspar, and apparent fragments of different kinds: and all of them are connected together either by means of a clayey, calcareous, or quartzy basis, or are immediately joined together without any cement or basis, as is the case in granite. It is a very frequent and abundant rock, and occurs in the form of strata, beds, and veins, along with lime- stone, gypsum, siate-clay, coal, and other mine- rals. 3. Trap-Tuff. Trap-tuff is composed of masses of basalt, amyg- daloid, greenstone, wacke, felspar, clinkstohe, trap- tuff, limestone, sandstone, brown-coal, &c. im- mersed in a basis of trap, which is sometimes of the nature of basalt, sometimes of the nature of wacke. It is associated with floctz-trap rocks, and is very frequent and abundant in the middle di- vision of Scotland. Section II. THE MODE OF FORMATION OF CONGLOMERATED OR BRECCIATED ROCKS. Ler us now enquire whether these conglome- rated rocks are Chemical or Mechanical forma- tions. VOL. II. © 910 ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS, In all true conglomerated rocks, the fragments of which they are composed, are either water- worn, or present distinct fractured surfaces; they are not intermixed at. their edges with the ‘basis. in which they are contained ; we do’ not observe the’substance of the Fraetenae gradually passing into that of the basis, and we never see the basis by a series of gradations assuming the form of fragments. ‘Such appearances, however, occur in rocks having a conglomerated aspect, but which appear to have been deposited from a state of che- micalsolution. ‘These characters, therefore, when taken in conjunction with other geognostic rela- tions, afford us the means of distinguishing true conglomerated rocks from such as are probably. only so in appearance. The following short examination of the parti- cular characters exhibited by certain conglome- rated rocks, will afford us proofs of the plausibility of the opinion just stated, viz. that many conglo- merated rocks are chemical deposites. In the conglomerated gneiss, mica-slate, and gra- nite, the imbedded masses are only apparent, not true fragments; for, upon examining them, we do not find either water-worn or fractured surfaces ; on the contrary, they are intimately mixed with the basis at their junction with it ; and they are observed passing into it in so gradual and imper- ceptible a manner, that 'we cannot say where the one begins.and the other terminates. The same is the case with the conglomerated rock which ac-; * ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. 214% companies primitive porphyry, and with the verd antique or brecciated primitive limestone. Hence these rocks are to be viewed as chemical deposites, : and as they are the only primitive rocks exhibit- ing the fragmented aspect, we are entitled to in- fer, that, as far as we know at present, true con- glomerates do not occur in primitive country. _ Grey-wacke, the next conglomerated rock we described, has been hitherto considered as a me- chanical deposite. But the fragments in this, as in the rocks already described, are to be observed gradually passing into the surrounding mass, and intermixed with it at their line of junction, and apparent fragments of grey-wacke-slate, several feet in length and breadth, and not more than one-twelfth of an inch 1n thickness, which must have been broken into pieces, had they been true fragments, are imbedded in the grey-wacke. Fur- ther, the constituent parts of the rock are fre-_ quently connected together without any basis, in the same manner as the felspar, quartz, and mica in granite; and we also observe the ingredients concentrating in the basis into roundish and other shaped distinct concretions. ‘These facts go to support the opinion, that grey-wacke is a chemical not a mechanical deposite. In the conglomerated transition limestone, which has excited so much attention amongst minera- logists, the fragments have the same characters as those in grey-wacke, conglomerated gneiss, &c., and are therefore to be considered of cotempo- 02 212 ON GCONGLOMERATED ROCKS. raneous formation with the limestone in which they are contained, and consequently, the whole mass is to be viewed as a chemical forma- tion. The sandstone-conglomerate has much mote of the mechanical aspect than any of the rocks we have at present described. Indeed, its general appear- gnce is so much that of a mechanical deposite, that I long hesitated as to its true nature, and it was only after minute and careful investigation I was induced to believe, that some varieties at least of this rock are of a chemical nature, ‘This opinion, I started in my sketch of the Mineralogy of the Pentlands, read before the Society some time ago, and still find no reason to alter it. One of the best ex- amples of the chemical sandstone-conglomerate in this neighbourhood, is that at Habbie’s How in the Pentlands. ‘This conglomerate, as is men- tioned in my description of the Pentland Hills, is composed of variously- shaped masses of grey-wacke, grey-wacke-slate, flinty-slate, felspar, jasper, and quartz, immersed in a basis composed of smaller fragments, generally of the same minerals as the larger. The most abundant of these apparent fragments, are those of grey-wacke, which have generally a globular or oyal form, and vary in size, from a walnut to that of a man’s head and up- wards. ‘They are composed of felspar, quariz, and a little mica, which are connected together without any basis, or have the same mode of ag- gregation as that observed in crystalline rocks, suck ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. 213 48 granite and syenite. The basis in which these Apparent fragments are contained, is of the same “hature with the fragments themselves, and it therefore is also of a crystalline nature. But it may be said, that these apparent fragments ate in reality true fragments imbedded in a crystallized basis ; but this cannot be the case, because they do not exhibit water-worn of fractured surfaces, and are to be observed passing by imperceptible degrees into the substance of the basis in which they are immersed. A further proof of the truth of the opinion now stated, is afforded by the ap- pearance which the basis itself at times assumes. Thus, we sometimes observe the ingredients of the basis concentrating into indistinct globular masses, which ate harder than the general basis ; and, in other instances, the concentration of the parts, is still more distinct, and the globular con. cretions thus formed, are so strongly marked, as hot to be distinguishable from the large apparent fragments. | Sandstone, another of the conglomerated rocks we described, is in general supposed to be sand agglutinated by means of a clayey, calcareous, or quartzy basis, and hence it is said that all sand- Stones are mechanical deposites. This opinion, I suspect, is not correct, because appearances in se- veral of the sandstones of this country, seem to intimate, that these, at least, are more of a che- mical than of a mechanical nature. ‘hese sand- stones, when examined with the glass, appear to 03 D214 ON GONGLOMERATED ROCKY. be composed sometimes of crystallized quartz, connected together without a basis, sometimes of _quartz in angular or roundish concretions also join -ed together without a basis. ‘The quartz.is some- times intermixed with concretions or crystals of felspar, and these appear imbedded in the quartz in the same manner as grains and erystals of fel- spar are in porphyry or granite ; and mica occurs qn these rocks in the same mineralogical relations. These sandstones, then, do not differ from granite or porphyry in structure, and therefore are to be © considered, like them, as chemical formations, or as having been deposited from a state of chemical so- lution. Other sandstones are entirely composed of quartz in granular distinct concretions, and these are sometimes so pure, that they might in single hand-specimens be confounded with primitive granular quartz. If, then, primitive granular quartz be a chemical deposite, of which there earnot be a doubt, certainly this sandstone must also have been deposited from a state of che- mical solution. But this beautiful and highly erystalline quartzy sandstone alternates in beds with that variety of sandstone which resembles the common. building sandstone of this vicini- ty; it even occurs in the same stratum or bed with it, and there is an uninterrupted transition from the one into the other; if, therefore, the quartzy sandstone be a chemical deposite, the same must be the case with the common building sand- stone. The occurrence of a clayey or marly basis: oe ioe ne <= eh Ss os se = ; 7 # ates uy ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. ai3 in the sandstone, docs not affect the plausibili- ty of the opinion here stated. Sandstone some- times occurs in globular and concentric lamellar concretions, and in cotemporaneous veins, in Sandstone and trap rocks; also in kidneys, in slate-clay, amygdaloid, and other rocks, appear- ances expressive of the crystalline nature of the sandstone, because they occur only in granite, greenstone, and other crystalline rocks. If, then, the opinion just stated in a very general way, shall prove correct, it will afford us an easy explanation of all the varieties of curvatute, hardness, and po- sition, observed in sandstone strata; and the al- ternation of sandstone with limestone, trap, and other rocks, will no longer be difficult of explana- tion: ‘ Trap-tujf, the last conglomerated rock we enu- metated and described, is generally supposed to be entirely a mechanical deposite ; but [ am in- clined to view it more as a chemical than a me- chanical formation. ‘This opinion, I stated in my account of the Pentland Hills; and the following are some of the facts that still induce me to con- sider it as the most plausible explanation of the mode of formation of that rock, 1. The masses of basalt, amygdaloid, felspar, - and of other trap rocks contained in the tuff, are _to be observed gradually passing into the trap basis in which they are contained. : QO 4 246 ON CONGLOMERATED ROCKS. 2. Cotemporaneous veins of basalt and amyg- daloid traverse the tuff *. | 3. The tuff itself sometimes occurs in globu- lar concretions, and these concretions are again composed of curved lamellar concretions. 4. Some varieties of tuff, like basalt and green- stone, are entirely composed of globular distinct concretions. 5. Cotemporaneous veins of tuff traverse it in all directions. 6. Cotemporaneous veins, partly of the nature of tuff, partly of the nature of basalt, occur in the tuff. 7. The masses of basalt and other rocks in the tuff, are sometimes of such an enormous size, and so constructed of easily separable concretions, as to banish every idea of their being rolled frag- ments. 8. Lastly, The quantity’of mechanical intermix- ture, is in general inconsiderable, and it is prin- eipally composed of fragments of primitive, tran- sition, and older ficetz. rocks. From the preceding descriptions and observa- tions, it follows, that the quantity of mechanical mineral matter in the crust of the earth, is far less considerable than has been generally supposed. * ‘These veins agree in so many characters with the veins of basalt, porphyry, granite, pitchstone, &c. usually considered-of after-formation, that I am inclined to view many of these also as” of a cotemporaneous nature. XV. On Porphyry: By Professor Jameson. (Read 14th December 1811.) Accorpine to Werner, there are five different kinds of porphyry, viz. clay-porphyry, hornstone- porphyry, pitchstone-porphyry, obsidian-porphy- ry, and pearlstone-porphyry ; all of which occur in Primitive country, and either in a conformable or unconformable and overlying position *. He does not enumerate in his system of rocks any Transt- tion porphyry ; and in the Fleetz class, the only rock that can be considered as appertaining to this species, according to the Wernerian view, is his Porphyritic-stone, or Porphyritic claystone. * I may here remark, that it is not improbable that some porphyries described as overlying, are not so in reality, being merely conformable beds cut into variously-shaped masses by the action of the weather; and these, when viewed in particular di~ rections, appear to be uncomformable and overlying. 218 ON PORPHYRY. In the third volume of my System of Miné: ralogy, and in my Mineralogical Travels, I have shewn, that several of Werner’s Primitive por- phyries, occur in this country, and shall now prove, that we also possess Transition and Fleetz porphy- Ties. The transition porphyries have either a claystone or felspar basis, and, besides crystals of felspar, they sometimes also contain grains and crystals of quartz, scales of mica, and crystals of hornblende. They occur in beds which are from two to twelve or fifteen feet in thickness, of great extent, and alternate with grey-wacke and transition clay- ae SS 4 slate. I first noticed these rocks in the year 1804; during my examination of the county of Dum- fries, but hesitated introducing them into the sys- tem as porphyries, until I should have an oppor- tunity of examining them more particularly, and’ in other parts of Scotland where I might find them still of a greater scale, and more distinctly charac- terized. Last summer; during my stay in Dum- — friesshire and Galloway, I paid particular atten- tion to these rocks, and convinced myself that they are true Porphyries, and belong to the Tran- sition class, | In the tract of mountainous country which ex- tends from Langholm by Eskdaleniuir and Wham- phry, the district where I first noticed these porphy- ries, the beds are but a few feet thick, and cannot be traced far owing to the cover of soil and grass. They are contained in grey-wacke. In the mining ON PORPHYRY. 819 district of Leadhills, which is situated im transi- -tion rocks, I observed several beds of felspar, and some of claystone-porphyry. In.the great tract of transition country which extends from New Galloway to Dumfries, there are beds of | transition porphyry that alternate with grey-wacke, grey-wacke-slate, and transition greenstone. At Fassney Burn in East-Lothian, transition porphy- ry is associated with transition granite and syenite. These porphyries also occur in the transition rocks that occur so abundantly to the north of the Frith ef Forth. The fletz-porphyries, like those of the transi- tion class, have a basis of felspar, or of claystone ; and contain, besides crystals of common felspar, al- so crystals of glassy felspar and of common quartz, sometimes almost passing into rock-crystal. ‘They éccur in beds, often of great magnitude, that al- _ternate with the first or old red sandstone, or in vast mountain masses resting on that rock. ‘ They sometimes also appear in veins of great width, geventy feet and upwards, and of great extent, that traverse this sandstone. Fleetz clay-porphyry occurs abundantly in the Asland of Arran, in the form of mountain masses, beds, and veins, connected with the old red sand- stone of that island. Floctz felspar-porphyry oc- curs resting upon sandstone, in the islands of Raasay and Skye, and in the Ochil and Pentland Hills. Fleetz pitchstone-porphyry,and fletz pitch- stone oceur in beds alternating with clay-porphy- 220 ON PORPHYRY. ty and red sandstone in the island of Arran, ard frequently in the form of veins traversing the sandstone. meee I have given an account of the occurrence of porphyry in flcetz country, in my Description of the Island of Arran, published in the year 1798, and in my Mineralogical Travels published in the year 1800. In my System of Geognosy, publish- ed in the year 1808, I do not introduce the Floetz Porphyries into the Wernerian arrangement of rocks there explained, because I was not then con- vinced of the accuracy of my early observations. Having again visited Arran, and re-examined the appearances described in my early writings, I find that they are correct ; and, therefore, do not now hesitate to consider Porphyry as a member of the Fleetz class. | te ( iy RBAen 2 XVI. Mineralogical Observations and Specula- tions. By Professor Jameson. (Read 8th January 1814. ) I. On Stratification. Tue matter of which the solid part of the Earth is composed, is of a metallic nature, and is more or less oxidized. During its formation, oxidation, and combination, great degrees of cold, and also intense degrees of heat, were probably induced, and these latter may have occasioned fusions, &c., somewhat resembling those caused by volcanoes. This matter appears to have been formed in a de- terminate and regular order, in the form of tabu- lar masses or strata, which are to be considered as _ bearing the same relation to the Earth, as the folia of crystals do to the crystals in which they occur. These strata are not irregularly disposed: on the contrary, it is highly probable that they are so arranged, that when viewed in the great scale 222 ON STRATIFICATION, they will be found to meet under determinate angles, just as folia do in crystals *. The strata, according to this view, are to be considered as the cleavage of the earth; and con- sequently their formation must have been more simultaneous than is generally supposed. The prevailing opinion in regard to the formation of strata, is, that each stratum is a separate deposite ; that the strata are distinctly séparated from each other by what are termed‘the Seams of Stratifica- tion; and that cotemporaneous veins never pass from one stratum into another. But the follow- ing considerations induce me to call in question the accuracy of this opinion, and incline me rather to believe in the more simultaneous formation of strata. 1. The seams of the strata, or those lines which are said in all cases to mark the boundaries of a stratum, do not always continue throughout the whole mountain range ; on the contrary, we some- times find seams of several strata terminating in the substance of a larger stratum, and these again in the substance of a still larger stratum, in this way exhibiting nearly the same characters as those observed in the seaims of the distinct con-. cretions of crystalline rocks of the trap and por- * As the true figure of the earth is still unascertained, may we not conjecture from what is already known, that it is a poly- edron, and that the strata under determinate angles dorm the . sides and cleavage of this great crystal ? } ON STRATIFICATION, 223 phyry series, But these strata-seams are almost always parallel with the slaty structure of the rock, so that, when they disappear in slaty rocks, the direction and dip of the rock may be ascer- tained by attending to the position of the slaty structure, It would appear from this statement, that the seams of the strata are in many cases to be viewed as particular separations effected in the crystallizing substance, of the same nature, but on a larger scale, than the seams in the distinct concretions, ot the laminz of the slaty struc- ture *, 2. In primitive country, an uninterrupted tran- sition is to be observed from granite to clay-slate, in such a manner that the great masses are to be considered as principal formations, and the smaller as subordinate formations ; and these are so con- nected by intermixture and gradations, that we can say of any two contiguous portions of rock, whether separated by strata-seams or not, that they are of cotemporaneous formation ; thus, any two contiguous portions of granite, of gneiss, or of gneiss and granite, or of gneiss and mica-slate, are of cotemporaneous formation. * In Renal strata of sandstone and other rocks, we some- fiided: observe the slaty structure at right angles to the direction of the stratum : if, then, the slaty structure, and the strata seams are but varieties of the same character, it follows, that vertical strata have not been in general elevated into their present situa- tion by a force acting after their formation, but are in their ori- ginal position. oA ON STRATIFICATION. 3. Cotemporaneous veins, which in every theory are supposed to have been formed at the same time with the rock in which they are contained, are to be observed passing through several different strata or beds, as through granite and gneiss, or through basalt, amygdaloid, wacke, and trap-tuff, thus proving that these strata or beds are of simul- taneous formation, or that no cessation of the pro- cess of deposition took place after the formation of each of the individual rocks. 4. Beds of mountain rocks, as of granite in gneiss, are so connected with the surrounding stra~ ta, that we cannot hesitate in considering them as illustrative of the simultaneous formation of strata in general, Thus, these beds are sometimes of considerable extent, and terminate in every direc- tion in the rock in which they are situated, and are so intermixed at their meeting or line of junc- tion that it is difficult to say where the one begins and the other ends. Here, it is evident, that the granite of the lowest part of the bed is of co- temporaneous formation with the immediately sub- jacent gneiss; that. the granite of the uppermost part of the bed‘ is of cotemporaneous formation with the gneiss immediately above it; and that the granite of the great portion of the bed has been formed at the same time with the bound- ing gneiss. In other instances, these beds are of great thickness, and send out from them veins 2 " q of granite in all directions into the surrounding tock, | be i ON STRATIFICATION. 995 5. Certain appearances in trap rocks are illus- trative of the simultaneous formation of strata. In these rocks, we sometimes observe small im- bedded portions of limestone and slate-clay, so in- termixed with trap, as to prove their cotempo- raneous origin with it: in other instances, the limestone and slate-clay appear in the form of small layers, alternating with each other, and fair- ly included in the trap: and I have observed in some districts, beds of limestone, slate-clay, and clay-ironstone, alternating with each other, and of considerable extent; and all of them fairly included in an immense bed of trap. The quartzy sandstone which so often accompanies trap rocks, presents similar appearances with the limestone, &c. just mentioned. Other formations, as I shall particularly explain in a future commu- nication to the Society, present the same remark- able appearance of series of strata being contain- ed in one great stratum or bed, or in a series of strata of one species of rock. In the cases just stated, trap, limestone, slate-clay, and clay -iron- stone strata, have been formed at the same time; but the limestone, slate-clay, and clay-ironstone, being included in the trap, bear the same relation to it, that crystals of quartz do to the basis in which they are imbedded, or cotemporaneous por- tions of gneiss to the granite in which they are contained, VOL. ti, P 996 : ON VEINS. II. On Veins. _ ‘Two opinions prevail at present in regard to the formation of veins: According to the one, nearly all veins have been formerly open rents, which have been filled from above with the mineral sub- stances they now contain ; according to the other, these rents have been filled from below by the agency of subterranean heat. The latter opinion, I have always considered as untenable; and the former, although the most plausible, has, I sus- pect, been too much generalized. I am now in- clined to believe, that many veins said to have been filled from above, are of cotemporaneous for- mation with the rocks in which they are contain- ed, and may have been in many instances formed by the mere shooting or crystallizing of the veni genous matter across the direction of the strata, and therefore do not owe their origin to any previous- ly existing rent. ‘This opinion is illustrated by the following facts and observations: 1. In the kidneys of granite in gneiss, admitted in every theory to be of cotemporaneous forma- tion with the rock in which they are contained, we observe the granite shooting from the kidney in the form of veins into the bounding rock. This, then, is an example of the formation of veins without previously existing fissures or rents. « Raf ON VEINS. 297, _ 2. Veins that issue from larger masses of gra- nite, and cut across strata of gneiss, grey-wacke, or other rocks, are of the same nature, 7. e. are veins formed without previously existing rents *, because these masses are kidneys on the great scale. 3. Beds of limestone sometimes alternate with beds of trap, and consequently they are to be con- sidered as of cotemporaneous formation. These beds of limestone sometimes send off branches or veins into the surrounding trap ; consequently these veins are to be considered as of cotemporaneous formation with the limestone, and therefore may have been formed without any previously existing rent. 4, Beds of porphyry, sienite, greenstone, &c. which terminate in the surrounding strata, some- times, during part of their course, cross the direc- tion of the strata of the rocks in which they are contained, and thus acquire the character of veins : but these beds are of cotemporaneous formation with the bounding rocks ; hence this fact may be viewed as illustrative of the formation of veins without previously existing rents, and also of the cotemporaneous formation of porphyry, greenstone, and other veins. PZ * These masses have been sometimes viewed as fragments ; but that idea is inconsistent with their geognostic relations, and particularly their magnitude, for there are well ascertaineg * instances of their extending for miles. 228 ON VEINS. 5. In mica-slate, also in clay-slate, we observe cotemporaneous kidneys of quartz, from a few inches to many fathoms in extent: frequently these masses have an elongated form, and at length, by a series of gradations, become tabular ; in which form, they are to be considered as cotemporaneous veins, formed without any previously existing fis- sure. Similar appearances occur in trap rocks, where cotemporaneous kidneys and veins of greenstone occur in greenstone ; and cotemporaneous kidneys and veins of basalt occur in trap-tuff. 6. In some veins, even in those of a metalliferous nature, the seams of the strata are not interrupted by the vein, but fairly cross it. This fact is also in support of the opinion of the formation of co- temporaneous veins without any previously exist- ing rent. 7. Cotemporaneous veins frequently cross each other. This fact may be alleged as a proof in favour of the opinion of these veins having been formed successively, and in open fissures. But if these veins have been formed in the manner of crystals, the crossing may be accounted for on the same principle as that used for explaining the crossing observed in groups of crystals. If this mode of explanation should be thought satisfactory, then it would fol-. low, that the different venigenous, metalliferous and stony formations in a district, may be of co- temporaneous formation. 8. Cotemporaneous veins are pbset ae to occas sion shifts in the veins they cross. ‘This also i 1s & ON COAL. - 229 \ fact which might be stated as inconsistent with the idea of these veins having been formed with- out previously existing rents, if we did not know that similar shifts occur in cotemporaneous groups of crystals. 9. Some cotemporaneous veins are crossed in part of their course by a portion of the stratified matter in which they are contained: thus, veins of granite or gneiss are crossed by portions or thin beds of the gneiss: This fact is illustrative of the formation of veins without previously exist- ing rents: Similar appearances occur in crystals, as in those of schorl and tremolite. The metal- liferous veins in the Derbyshire limestone, which are frequently interrupted by beds of trap, are probably appearances of the same kind. — s Ill. On Coal. The generally received opinion in regard to the formation of this substance, ts, that it is vegetable matter more or less changed by natural processes but littl known to us. But the occurrence of coal in primitive country, where no organic re- mains have hitherto been discovered, and the par- ficalar geognostic relations of this mineral, incline ™e to believe, that glance-coal, and also black-coal, are original chemical deposites, as little connected with vegetable remains as the shells, &c. in lime- stone, are with the limestone in which they are k cabs: 430 ON COAL. contained ; but that brown-coal is formed from vegetable remains. ‘The following facts counte- nance the opinion just stated : 1. Glance-coal occurs in primitive country, in gneiss, mica-slate, and clay-slate, and is so asso- ciated with these rocks, as to be of cotemporaneous formation with them. y 9. Glance-coal occurs also in transition rocks, i where it is sometimes associated with vegetable re- mains, but these are few in number, and of but ( rare occurrence, and evidently bear the same re- lation to the coal which the petrifactions of shells and corals, in the transition limestone, bear to the limestone in which they are contained. 8. Glance-coal occurs also in flcetz rocks, and. is accompanied with more vegetable remains than in transition country, just as the shells in ficetz-lime- stone are more numerous than in. transition lime- stone. 4. Black-coal occurs only in floetz country, and: there it is frequently associated with vegetable re- mains ; but these do not bear a greater proportion to the coal than the shells, &c. in floetz-limestone 4 bear to the limestone. ca nee Black-coal occurs in veins, and these are of j cotemporaneous formation with the basaltic or sandstone rocks in which they are contained;—a fact, which proves, that, in this instance at least, | “ p) s sie | coal is an original formation unconnected with — eye wile vegetable remains. a i | ON COAL. 931 6. Black-coal occurs in concentric lamellar con- cretions,—a character which points out its crystal- line nature. 7. Some varieties of black-coal appear to have a determinate form, thus indicating their deposition from a state of solution. 8. The vegetable origin of brown-coal is shewn by its whole mass being either entirely composed of vegetable remains, or by those remains occur- ring in it in a preponderating quantity. - ( 932 3 XVII. Observations on the Natural History of the — Colymbus Immer. By Dr Artuur Epmonpston, (Read 27th April 1811.) Tue natural history of the Ember or Imber Goose,. is but imperfectly known, and the place of its breeding, and whether it can fly, have been the sub- ject of much speculation. I shall relatea few facts respecting this bird, the accuracy of which, as they are the result of personal observation, may be de- pended upon. : The imber varies in size and weight according. to itsage. The full grown bird measures often four feet and nine inches from the tip of one wing to that of the other, and three feet from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail. The weight too, varies from seven toten,and even ON THE COLYMBUS IMMER. 933 twelve pounds. The upper part of the plumage is of a bluish-black colour, and the feathers being edged with white, the whole has a speckled ap- pearance. The under-part of the neck, breast, and belly, are of a silvery whiteness, but a dark- coloured bar crosses the vent. ‘There is scarcely any difference of plumage in the sexes, but I think the male is the larger bird of the two. The imber possesses great strength, swims with amazing rapidity, and is capable of remaining a ‘long time under water ; when it dives, it moves by its feet only, and I have known it in this man-' ner, to traverse a space of more than 200 yards, without performing a single respiration. It feeds entirely on fish. The note is wild and melan- choly ; and when wounded, and in dread of be- ing taken, it utters a cry not unlike to the human yoice. | In the month of November, the imber geese are frequently met with in the bays in the Zetland Islands, in small flocks of four, five, and six, but the individuals composing them seldom approach close to one another. Afterwards they associate in pairs; and in the middle of winter and spring they are commonly met with singly.- From the middle of summer to the end of autumn, they are rarely seen, and this is the time when it _ would appear they leave the country for the pur- pose of propagating and rearing their species. The circumstances of this bird being said never to fly, nor to be met with on shore, have given 234 ON THE COLYMBUS IMMER. rise to'the whimsical notion that it hatches its BBs under its wings. | I had long thought that he colymbus immer was a migratory bird, and that, therefore, it ne- cessarily must fly ; but being a most perfect diver, that it never had recourse to its wings, unless when some urgent instinct induced it to employ them. Indeed, I had often seen birds which I took to be imber-geese, fly, and nothing but the prevailing belief to the contrary led me to suppose that I might be mistaken, Lately, I had an opportuni- ty of ascertaining the truth of a part of this opi- nion. On the 3lst of January 1811, I saw an imber-goose in Bressa Sound, and after a good deal of trouble, I got sufficiently near to fire at, and wound it. Immediately after receiving the shot, it dived, but in a few minutes thereafter, it came to the surface, raised itself with great ease from the water, and flew with rapidity above 100 yards from the place from which it rose ; when, exhausted by the loss of blood, it fell, and was soon after laid hold of. When on wing, L observed it to droop the head and tail a little, in the manner that the Colymbus septentrionalis does. JI have sent the skin, imperfectly stuffed, to the Society, and the following is a description of the bird : It measured two feet seven inches and a half from the point of the bill to the extremity of the eee ON THE COLYMBUS IMMER. 235 fail; and four feet five inches between the tips of the wings. Its weight was seven pounds and a half. The bill is straight, pointed, very strong, and measures four inches from the side of the mouth to the extremity. The upper mandible projects a little beyond the under one, and is black on its superior ridge. The under mandible is of alight blue colour. ‘The nostrils are placed near the base of the. upper mandible, and are divided near the middle by a cartilaginous kind of bar, which arises from the upper, and goes across, but is not inserted into the under mandible. The irides are of a beautiful bay-brown, bounded by a light blue line almost as broad. Back from the latter, or the sclerotic, 1s another brown circle, nearly of the dimensions of the iris, but less deep in the colour. ‘The external border of the eyes is white. The upper part of the head and sides of the face, are black and grey mixed. The chin is white. ‘The upper part of the throat grey and white. The neck is of a dusky grey and white. The breast and belly are white, and have a glossy appearance, A blackish bar crosses the vent. The tailis very short. The shoulders and scapulars are of a mixture of black and ash colour, and most of the feathers are tipped with white. The mnercoverts are white. ‘The feathers onthe back and rump are short, and of a dusky-ash colour, inclining to brown, The feet and legs are large 836 ON THE COLYMBUS IMMER: and strong, of a leaden colour on the fore, and black on the back parts. As this description agrees in almost every par- ticular with that given by ornithologists of the Colymbus Immer, with the exceptions of a slight difference in the size and weight, I am disposed to consider it as a young bird that had not attained the full growth. Indeed, there 1s a very obvious difference in the size of these birds, which, as it is more generally perceptible about the middle of winter than at any other period of the year, may fairly enough be referred to a difference of age. A Although the imber may be looked upon as one of those birds which is generally regular in its migration from Zetland for the purpose of breed- ing, yet | am disposed to believe that a few ac- tually breed in this country. A clergyman, who_ has bestowed a good deal of attention in studying the habits and economy of birds, assures me, that he has, on different occasions, in the middle of summer, seen an imber- goose, accompanied by two young ones; and an intelligent fisherman told me, that he once surprised a bird, which he af- firmed to be: an imber, on its nest, on a small islet or holm several miles from the shore. The nest was carelessly constructed among tufts of high grass very near to the sea, and contained three large eggs of a dark olive colour, spotted with black. ON THE COLYMBUS IMMER. 937 From thus having ascertained that the Colym- bus Immer can fly, and that it is regular in its disappearance from ‘Letland in the breeding sea- son, we can easily reconcile the apparently opposite statements given by ornithologists respecting the diversity of situation in which it has been said to have been met with. XVIII. Contributions to the British Fauna. By the Rev. Joun Fremine, F.R.S. E. DRLVVVVV2VAVV 80092 1. Sorex fodiens, or Water Shrew. Brit. Zool. vol. i. p. 126,—Plate xi. No. 33, Wecut, 128 grains*. Length of the body, 3 inches. Tail, 2 inches. Above, black. Be- neath, grey. Snout, long and a little compressed, Whiskers, long. Eyes small, concealed in the fur, with a small white spot above each. Ears like- Wise minute, with a paler tuft on the inside. In the middle of the throat, a black spot. A nar- row stripe of black along the belly. At the base of the tail, a triangular black spot. Inside of the feet and legs white; the outer side black, con- * Weight of another specimen recently obtained, 186 grains, — Se ati . i er — ee ee ee al CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. 239 fected with the back: Tail pointed covered with very short hair, with’a crest or ridge on the under side, of paler-coloured hair. ‘The fore-teeth are two in number, and long, especially in the lower jaw. : | Although usually described as an inhabitant of moist places, it would appear that this shrew oc- casionally prefers other situations. ‘The speci- men above described, was found dead on the top of a ridge of dry hills on the 3d September 1812. Mr Montagu appears likewise to have observed it in a similar situation, as appears from ‘his re- marks on this species.—( Linn. Trans. vol. viii. p- 276.) 7 This species chiefly frequents fields of clover and strong oats. It is by no means rare in the county of Fife. Merret, in his Pinar rerum naturalium Bri- dannicarum, p. 167. in all probability refers to this species, when enumerating the varieties of the common shrew, (Sorex araneus.) ‘ Inveni- tur (he says) nigri vel fusci coloris, et alter dorso mgro centreque albo, et parvus, griseus, et in par- tibus borealibus magnus, cauda brevi.”’ Our countryman Sir Robert Sibbald does not appear to have been acquainted with this animal, unless we suppose that he refers to it when he Says, “‘ varll mures sylvatici apud nos: quidam dorso nigro qui talpas occidit.”’ _ In the sketch of Caledonian Loology, composed by Mr Pennant, and prefixed to the Flora Scotica 240 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. of Lightfoot, this shrew is mentioned as being an inhabitant of Scotland and the islands. He says it is the ‘‘ Lavellan of some places ; supposed to be noxious to cattle.”” In his British Loology, however, he expresses himself with somewhat less confidence. When speaking of this animal, he says, “ I ima- gine it to be the same that the inhabitants of Su- therland call the Water-Mole, and those of Cath- ness the Lavellan ; which, the last imagine, poisons their cattle, and is held by them in great abhor- rence,”’ It appears from Sibbald’s description of the lavellan of Caithness, that Pennant has perhaps re- ferred it too hastily to the species now under con- sideration. ‘‘ Lavellan, (he says), animal in Catha- nesia frequens, in aguis degit, capite mustele syl- westri simile, ejusdemque coloris bestia est.’’—(Sco- tia wll. p. 11.) Noxious properties are ascribed to it. ‘* Halitu bestiis nocet, remedium autem est si de aqua bibant in qua ejus caput coctum sit.” The head of the water-shrew is by no means si- milar to the weasel, (Mustela oulgaris L.); nei- ther is it a beast of the same colour. What then is the Lavellan of Caithness? Should it be con- sidered as the Water Shrew? The late Dr Walker appears to have been un- acquainted with this animal as an inhabitant of Scotland, as no place is assigned to it in his M/am- malia Scotica, lately published in his posthumous yolume of Essays,—(Communicated 5th Decem- ber 1812.) H i rs Ms hi CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. Q4} 2. Pleuronectes punctatus. * Eyes on the left side of the head. The length of the specimen in my possession; is five inches and a half from the nose to the point of the tail ; and the breadth, two mches and six-eighths. Jaws nearly equal; teeth small : upper lip retractile and protrusile. Eyes middle- sized. The lateral line, which is rather tndis- tinct, begins a short way behind the crown of the head, is much bent above the pectoral fin, and then proceeds in a straight line to the tail. The dorsal fin consists of seventy-nine rays, with the first of them longer than those which immediate- ly follow. The pectoral fins contain nine rays ; but in the under fin, one of the rays is remarkably short. The ventral fins consist of six rays. The anal fin is composed of sixty-eight rays. The caudal fin consists of seventeen rays, and is a little rounded. The body and fins are AGA covered with im- bricated and denticulated scales. The denticles of the scales are from four to eight in number. Colour black, mottled with brown on the upper side, with a few scattered reddish spots. Beneath white, without any markings. _ This specimen had not attained its full size. I found it on the 18th Januaty 1810 in a fishing- boat, in Bixter-voe, Zetland. This species appears to ae been confounded by Gmelin, Shaw, and others, with the Whiff of VOL. 41, Q 942 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. Bi ST Ray. The characters which distinguish the two species, are sufficiently obvious, and have been pointed out with great ‘perspicuity by Mr Dono- van in his History of British Fishes, Plate li. when describing the Whiff of Ray.—(Communicated Oth December 1809.) 8. Lepas fascicularis.—Plate xvii. fig. +. Colour bluish-white, somewhat glossy. The first valve is narrow at the top, gradually swelling downwards to about one-third of its length from the base, where it forms an acute knob or apex 3, it then bends inwards, and increases in breadth to the base, where it is shaped like a hatchet. It has an elevated keel, which in some specimens ex- tends from the knob to the top, and in others through the whole length of the shell. It is wrinkled, and the wrinkles are parallel to the mar- gin, and diverge from the knob towards the edge. The large valves are obtusely triangular, with fur- rows parallel to the inner margin, and are diver- gingly streaked from the under point. They pro- ject a little at the base. The two upper valves are triangular, furrowed parallel to the inner mar- | gin, and are divergingly streaked from the upper point, which is a little produced and recury- ed. The valves are connected together by a — transparent colourless skin. The peduncle is from. i half an inch to near a foot in length, thin, 2 pellucid, smooth, and of a dusky colour when the aE animal is alive. The shell, which is thin, semi- s CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. 249 transparent and brittle, is about an inch and a half in length. This shell, like several of its congeners, 1s gre- garious, and is usually found’ in clusters attached to a white gelatinous spherical substance, which adheres to various bodies. The most curious circumstance in the history of this species, is the rapidity of its growth. The gelatinous substance from which the peduncles that support the shells proceed, is found adhering to various species of fuci, pieces of wood; and what is still more remarkable, I onte atieerved full grown specimens adhering to the quill-feather of a gull, The feather seemed very entire and fresh. Flustra membranacea sometimes covers it all over, and so completely incloses the mouth of the shell, as to destroy the inhabitant. It is likewise infested with Sertularia geniculata*. This shell was first observed by Ellis previous to the year 1776, and figured by him (Ellis, Looph, tab. 15. fig. 6.) from a specimen from St George’s Q2 _ * Pallas, when speaking of Loefling’s observations on Sertu- laria geniculata, says, “‘ Vitam torpidissimam habere polypos dicit, ut acu tacti vix sensibilitatis dent signa.” Elenchus Zooph. p. 119. This character of torpidity is by no means applicable to the S. geniculata of Ellis. When I touched the animals of this coralline with a needle, they speedily retired within the ca vity of their cups ; and when pulling away a small ascaris, which, by its motions, disturbed my observations with the microscope, it was instantly seized and devoured by one of these animals. 244° CONTRIBTTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA- Channel. It has since been found on the English. shores by the late Mr Bryer, and by Mr Mon- tagu. I observed it among the Zetland Islands in 1808. It is thrown ashore in great abundance during the gales of autumn *. Mr Donovan, in his British Shells, has Sea a shell which he considered the same as the Lepas fascicularis of Ellis, but to which he gave the name of LZ. dilata. ‘The figures of the two shells are essentially distinct, and never could have been given as representations of the same species. The pointed reflected apex of the upper valves, so cha- racteristic of the Ellisian species, is not expressed. in Donovan’s figure, where the apex appears blunt. A short way below the upper extremity of the dorsal valve, there is represented in Donovan’s figure, a sudden enlargement of the keel, which continues until. the valve bends inwards to join the peduncle. In L. fascicularis, the keel gradu- ally increases in size from the upper extremity of the dorsal valve, until it formsa small knob, where the valve bends inwards. Is the Lepas dilata of British Shells, therefore entitled to hold a place in the British Testacea:—(Communicated 9th De- cember 1809.) . *° Since writing the above, specimens of this’ lepas, adhering: to the stems of Fucus nodosus, have been picked up, in the Minch, between the Mainland and Harris Isles, by my friend. Robert Stevenson, Esq. . CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. 245 4. Hirudo verrucosa. - Encyclop. 7e Liv. des Pl. d’Hist. Nat.—Helminthologie, P]. 52. fig. 5. Head dilated ; margin smooth, with six small tubercles or warts. Body round, thickest at the base, tapering towards the head, and composed of numerous warty rings. There are upwards of fifty large rings, with many intermediate smaller ones. ‘These rings are studded in the middle with about twelve retractile warts. Tail nearly the size of the head, smooth and dilated. Length when stretched, nearly one foot. Found on the skate and thornback in Zetland and Leith. It leaves a black mark behind; and after being removed, is very tenacious of life. This species bears a near resemblance to the H. muricata of Linnezus. It may even prove to be the same, as I have never seen any specimen which I was convinced was the true H. muricata. The figure of H. muricata, as given by Linnzus in the Aduseum Adolphi Friderici, (and afterwards copied» by Pennant into his British Zoology, ) pos- sesses two horns or teeth, which are very conspi- cuous, and. the head is considerably smaller than than the tail. In the species above described, there are no appearances of horns or teeth, and the head is dilated, and nearly of the size of the Qs 246 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. The drawing of Bruguiére, referred to , above, exhibits a very just representation of the gene- ral appearance of the animal. He has omitted to delineate the small marginal tubercles of the mouth. : The genus Hirudo, as well as many of the ge- nera of the class Annelides, is in great confusion. The present species, and H. muricata, certain- ly differ in habit and external characters from the fresh-water species of leeches, and ought to con- stitute a separate genus. Unless such subdivi- sions of many of the Linnean genera take place, each genus of the Systema Nature will assume the rank of an order, and the families will occupy the station of genera.—(Communicated 9th De- cember 1809. ) 5. LEchinus miliaris. Shell whitish, tinged with violet. The avenues of the pores in pairs, dividing the shell into five small, and five large spaces.. The pores are placed in pairs, obliquely disposed in three rows: « The smaller spaces have a row of protuberances, the seats of primary spines, on each side close to the pores, with the'centre nearly smooth, or covered with very minute spines, divided by a Zig-Zag line down the middle. ‘These spaces ‘do not reach’ the top or vertex.’ The larger spaces are divided by a suture from the vertex to the mouth, more dis- tinct than in the smaller spaces, with horizontal CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. 947 sutures joining a line, which runs along the side of the pores, thus forming rhomboidal compart- ments. In the centre of each of these compart- ments, there is a large tubercle, with a few smaller ones. ‘Thus, there are but two rows of spines in each of the spaces between the pores. ‘The sides and middle of the larger spaces are nearly smooth. Anus vertical, circular, a little raised, closed by a coriaceous wrinkled muricated lid. Mouth beneath, central, circular, covered with a thick skin, beset with tufts of small spines. This is a more depressed species than the £. esculentus. ‘The spines are by no means so nume- rous, and a part of the spaces between the pores is smooth, which, in the other, is thickly set with spi- nules. ‘The teeth resemble those of E. esculentus, but the jaws are a little more obtuse. ‘The spines are stronger, blunt, finely streaked, and some of them are upwards of an inch in length. This specimen was found in deep water at the mouth of Sellavoe, Zetland, where I have also observed the following species: Echinus esculen- tus, there called Scaad (scabbed) man’s head: A species nearly allied to EL. spatagus, termed the sea-mouse. .cidaris, or Piper. The two last inhabit deep water. . pusillus, often cast ashore, but never found with the spines. Professor Jame- son found the E. placenta. I never observed the E. lacunosus in ‘Letland, although it is frequent in the Frith of Forth. vant Gee: oth Decem- ber 1809.) Q4 248 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. 6. Lucernaria fascicularis. Plate xviil. fig. 1, 2. Substance gelatinous ; colour dark-brown, near- ly opake. ‘Tail cylindrical, flexuous, wrinkled, extensile, and somewhat narrower at the base, where it adheres to broad-leaved Fuci. Body bell-shaped, sub-quadrangular, concave within, Margin divided into four arms, which are broad at the base, divided at the top, and concave with- in. On the top of each of the divisions of the arms, there is a fasciculus of tentacula, upwards of a hundred in number. ‘The mouth is placed in the centre, and consists of a loose tubular mem- brane, sometimes four-notched at the tip, but of- ten, at the pleasure of the animal, expanded, cir- cular, or striated. , | Internally, the animal appears to be divided in- to four compartments, reaching from the centre to the margin between the arms. ‘The divisions are formed’ by a thin membrane from the four corners of the mouth. On each side of these di- visions, a thick corrugated band extends from the centre, almost to the border of the margin. The bands are the intestines of the animal. The in- side of the mouth contains numerous white fila- ments. Rees WAAR ARS The animal contracts itself. into various shapes. It moves the’ tentacula very quickly, especially if muddy water is poured upon it. Although CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. 949 have kept it alive several days, I have never observed it in an upright position. It in ge- neral hangs downwards, as expressed in the Nakai sometimes, HOSES it is nearly horizon- tal. : : : It is chiefly found on thie leaves of Fucus digi- tatus, and F. esculentus, which grow in deep water, qt is common in ‘Zetland. At first I was disposed to consider this species as the Lucernaria quadricornis of Miller, (‘Lool. Dan. 1. tab. 39. fig. 1.) ; but a more careful com- parison of the figure and description with the Letland specimens, has convinced me of the pro- priety of viewing them as distinct species. In LL. quadricornis, the branches of. the arms are represented as terminating in a fasciculus of, about forty tentacula ; whereas, in Z. see. the tentacula are upwards of a hundred in number.— | (Communicated 9th December 1809.) 7. Caryophylia cyathus. (Lamark. ) Madrepora cyathus.—Ellis, Zooph. p. 184, tab. 88. fig. 1—4. Coral white, hard, striated:on the outside, and rough. Margin denticulated by the plates of the gills. Star oval, containing forty or fifty gills, with an equal number of intermediate smaller ones ; the latter reaching to the margin, but not to the centre as the larger ones do. In the centre of the star, there is a prominent ridge in the direc- tion of its greatest diameter. This ridge is com- 250 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. posed of curled plates on each side, of a substance similar to the plates of the gills. I have only observed two. specimens of) this zoophyte, which I ,found in a fishing-boat in the Island of Papa Stour, Zetland, the 3d August 1808. They were taken up from deep water on the cod-lines in. the fishing ground off Foulah. The largest of the two specimens, was half an inch in height, six-tenths in length, and four- tenths in breadth. They were both attached to a dead shell of Pecten opercularis, along with Bala- nus intertexa, and Serpula tubularia. 8. Fungia turbinata. (am.) Madrepora turbinata.—Lin. Syst. Nat. p. 1272—337. 6. Ameen. Acad. vol. i. p. 190. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, In the same boat in which I found the Caryo- phyllia cyathus, I likewise picked up a dead specimen of this coral somewhat defaced. It was of the shape of an inverted cone, with the base pointed. The star appeared to have been concave with entire gills. It was about five-tenths of aninch in height, and about the same in breadth at the top. From its shape, it appears probable, dian: it grows with its base fixed in the sandy bottom of the sea, as Pallas formerly conjectured. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BRITISH FAUNA. 251 9. Mustra Elhisi. Pl. xvii. fig. 1. nat. size, fig. 2. mag., fig. 3. side view. Substance firm, brittle, and gritty when dry. Colour yellowish-white. The base consists of small horny tubuli, by which it is fixed, These tubuli unite, and form narrow linear leaves dicho- tomously branched. The branches are somewhat rounded and celliferous above. The under side is carinated, and destitute of cells. The tubuli or fibres of which the substance is composed. on the under side, can be distinctly seen diverging from the keel towards the edge of the leaf, and forming two small denticles and a bristle on the upper side of each lateral cell. These bristles are about three times the length of the diameter of the branches, and are finely denticulated on one side. The cells are oyal, and obliquely disposed in two or three rows. This Flustra was brought up by the cod-lines froma hundred fathoms water, off Stenhouse, in the parish of Northmavine, Zetland, in July 1808. It Was growing on an aged specimen of Eschara cer- wicornis, in company with Retepora cellulosa. _ As this Flustra appears to be a new species, I have named it in honour of Mr Ellis, that able investigator of the natural history of Zoophytes, ‘whose works exhibit a striking example of perse- yering industry, and accurate investigation. ~ (252 ye XIX. Description and Analysis of a new Species of Lead-Ore from India. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D. F.R.S.L. & E. F.L.S. Fellow of the Geological Society, of the Wernerian Society, and of the Imperial Mb reise » Aca- demy of Petersburgh. (Read 12th February 1814.) Tue ore which constitutes the subject of this paper, was brought by Dr Heyné from Madras, where it is sold in the shops for medical purposes. He thinks it probable that it comes originally from Malacca, or the Island of Sumatra. As it differs in its constituents from every species of ore hitherto observed in Europe, it will not be amiss to lay a description of it, together with the result of its analysis, before the public. The external colour of the specimen which JI — examined, was blackish-blue, with green stains here and there, indicating very clearly, the pre- sence of copper, When broken, it exhibits the ANALYSIS OF A NEW SPEGIES OF LEAD-ORE. 353 appearance of steel-grained galena, only the colour is darker, and it shews the granular concretions which distinguish that variety of sulphuret of lead. But, in a few days, this fracture tarnishes, loses its metallic lustre, and speedily becomes similar to the external surface of the specimen. The fracture is small-grained uneven. The ex- ternal lustre glimmering, and semi-metallic. The internal lustre splendent and metallic. Soft, easily scratched by a knife, Streak, lead-blue. Rather sectile. Specific gravity, 6.590. But Dr Heyné informed me, that he had found pieces as light as 4.9. Strong nitric acid acts upon this ore, when re- duced to powder, with great violence; but when the acid is diluted with water, the action is scarce- ly perceptible. A hundred grains of the ore in the state of pow- der, were treated with an ounce measure of strong nitric acid. [he action was so violent, that I was obliged to moderate it by the addition of water. When this portion of acid ceased to act, it was de~ canted off, and an additional portion substituted in its place. After two days, all action was at an end. Part of the ore was dissolved, and part was in the state of a white powder. This white powder be- ing separated by the filter, washed and dried: in the open air, weighed 58.5 grains. When exposed to the heat of a lamp on.a watch-glass, it gave out fumes of sulphur, and the weight was reduced to OS$4 ANALYSIS OF A NEW SPECIES OF LEAD-ORE, 54.8 grains. The 3.7 grains driven off, I considet as sulphur. The white powder was now exposed to a red heat in a platinum crucible, but it did not lose any weight. Before the blow-pipe, upon charcoal, it was speedily reduced, and a button of metallic lead obtained. It was easy to recognize by these pro- perties, that the powder was sulphate of lead. The acid liquor being evaporated nearly to dry- ness, an additional portion of white powder sepa- rated, which, being washed and dried, weighed 16.6 grains. It was likewise sulphate of lead. Thus, 100 grains of the ore yielded 71.4 grains of sulphate of lead. Now, this salt is a compound of Yellow oxide of lead, 52.61 Sulphuric acid, - 18.79 71.40 From the table given in the Annals of Philoso- phy, vol. il. p. 42., it is easy to see that 52.61 grains of oxide of lead, contain 48.849 grains of lead. From the same table, we may ascertain, that 18.79 grains of sulphurie acid contain 7.516 grains of sulphur. The liquid from which the last portions of sul- phate of lead had been separated, being set aside for a few days, let fall small tetrahedral crystals of a white colour, which I recognized by their form to be nitrate of lead. They weighed 2.13 grains, and contained 1.21 grains of lead. Thus, the ANALYSIS OF A NEW SPECIES OF LEAD-ORE. 255 whole lead obtained from the 100 grains of ore, amounted to 50.059 grains. The solution being mixed with some: nitrate ak barytes, become slightly muddy, and let fall a white powder, insoluble in nitric acid, and there- fore sulphate of barytes.. It weighed 0.8 grain, and contained 0.112 grain of sulphur. The pre- sence of sulphuric acid, in a solution from which nitrate of lead had separated in crystals, is curious. I do not see how it can be accounted for, unless we suppose Berthollet’s principle of the effect of mass to be to a certain amounttrue. For there was present in the liquid, an enormous excess of nitric acid, when compared with the quantity of sulphuric acid. ‘Thus, the whole sulphur obtain- ed from the 100 grains of ore, amounted to 11.328 grains. The nitric acid solution, which wie a bluish. green colour, was now mixed with 90 grains of sulphuric acid, and distilled in a retort almost to dryness, to get rid of the nitric acid. The resi- due was dissolved in water, and a plate of zinc being introduced, was allowed to remain till the liquid lost entirely its blue colour, and assumed the light-green tinge, which indicates the presence of iron. Diluted muriatic acid was now poured upon the plate of zine, till it was completely dis- solved. The copper thrown down by this process;. being dried and weighed, was found to amount to 32,5 grains. 256 ANALYSIS OF A NEW SPEGIES OF LEAD-ORE. _ dA plate of fresh. zinc was’ introduced into the green solution, and allowed to remain till the,co- lour was entirely removed. Yellowish-red flocks were thrown down, which being washed, dried, and weighed, amounted to 2: grains, Being, dis- solved in muriatic acid, and mixed with prussiate of potash, the whole was jprecipitated in the state of Prussian blue. Hence it consisted of red oxide of iron. But 2 grains of red oxide of iron, are equivalent to 1.37 grain of iron. Thus it appears, that the constituents of the ore were as follows: Lead, - ... §0.059 Copper, - . $2.500 Iron, = - 1.370 Sulphur, - 11.328 Loss, | = = 4.743 100.000 If we conceive the loss in the preceding an- alysis to have been sulphur, which I think pro- bable from the violent action of the first portion of nitric acid, the ore was nothing else than a mixture or combination of the sulphurets of lead, copper, and iron, in the following propor- tions : ANALYSIS OF A NEW SPECIES OF LEAD-ORE. 957 Sulphuret of lead, - 57.269 Sulphuret of copper, _- 40.850 Sulphuret of iron, - 2.190 100.309 That this ore is not a mere mechanical mixture of these sulphurets, I conceive proved by this cir- cumstance. I attempted in vain to separate the sulphuret of copper from the sulphuret of lead, by washing the powdered ore upon an inclined plane. Yet the specific gravity of these two sul- phurets, is so different, that their mechanical Se paration ought to be easy, unless they be chemi- cally combined. Now, it deserves attention, that the ore, (neglecting the small quantity of sulphu- ret of iron, which is probably accidental,) consists of one integrant particle of sulphuret of lead, combined with two integrant particles of sulphu- ret of copper. Hence I am disposed to consider this ore as constituting a new species of lead-ore,— a species, however, of comparatively little value in a metallurgic point of view ; because lead and copper are mutually injurious to each other, and it would be difficult to devise cheap methods of separating them. As this ore has only been met with in apothe- Caries shops, and as we are ignorant of any mine of it actually existing, it may be supposed per- haps to be an artificial combination. From the ap- pearance of the specimen which I examined, ne VOL, 1. R 258 ANALYSIS OF A NEW SPECIES OF LEAD-ORE. such conclusion could be drawn. It had all the characters of a natural production. At the same time, it would be worth while to make a few ex- periments, in order to determine whether a si- milar substance could be obtained by melting to- gether sulphurets of lead and ee in the re- quisite proportions. | XX. Notice concerning the Structure of the Cells _ in the Combs of Bees and Wasps. By Dr Barcnay. (Read 18th January 1812.) Havince inquired of several naturalists, whether or not they knew any author who had mention- ed, that the partitions between the cells of the honeycomb were double, and whether or not they had ever remarked such a structure themselves ; and they having answered in the negative; I now take the liberty of presenting to the Society _ pieces of honeycomb, in which the young bees had been reared, upon breaking which, it will be clearly seen that the partitions between different cells, at the sides and the base, are all double; or in other words, that each cell is a distinct, separate, and in some measure an independent structure, agglutinated only to the neighbouring cells; and that when the agglutinating substance is destroy- ed, each cell may be entirely separated from the rest. 260 CELLS OF THE HONEYCOMB: I have also some specimens of the cells formed by wasps, which show, that the partitions be- tween them are also double, and that the agglu- tinating substance between them is more easily destroyed than that between the cells of the bee. I confess, that I do not know whether this structure has been observed by others before me; but whether it has or not, I claim no merit for the discovery, as I was led to remark the structure by mere accident, and not from any previous in- vestigation. | 4 ‘ f; ye wale we ‘aul Rs: 40 Y TAR aD aN i Sea ptabihb aa ud ii. en es Fovazembia f AP di) Comprising the Extent of the \ EAST & WEST GREENLAND ie: GREENLAND SEAS i A and anOulline of the - | ?O1aR ICE j ‘ din f . RY es f 2 i d é a | é & | Hotd with Hope Hudson 1607: oO avy ay Tt ae oot = “e Limit op ils } ¥ 2 ff the Greentana Sea by Act\of Parliamenh, Lat. 59°*N* 3 pax? T of \ \ = —— Meridian of & Brora by ReaD Lizare Bain AY . n \ HY \o a) fo) FSSA = SS NN QAAAAAAAAAAAAAANA NA OAAAAAA y Ss J SS S Sea [ KX { ] SaaS Ne SSss Engraved by W.&D.Lizars Bain? — SSS Fa SSS — SSS SANNA EVAR NNN VS NV NAN VA WANNA AN AAA ASANO NNN JO ANAL / SSISG SIGS Ss SSS SS SSNS OSSSSSSSSSS Meriditon of & Greenwich WRC = AWNADALAA IN yen . , ae . “, 7 ve t ary Phen A re ee Tb ee ola kL es Oc) | oa eee mentee 4 . . XT On the Greenland or Polar Ice. ze ik: By Witiiam Scoresay junior; M. W. ca , (Read 1th March 1815.) be Introduction. Grzntanp * is a country where. every object is is strikingly singular, or highly magnificent. The atmosphere, the land, and the ocean, each exhi- b remarkable or sublime appearances. With: Tegard to the atmosphere, several pecu- liarities may be noticed, viz. its darkness of colout : * ‘ 7 The name . Greenland, i is here to be taken in its common and most general acceptation, which is meant to signify, not only n »enland properly so called, but more especially : the land of pit. “bergen and adjacent islands, together with the seas inter 1ediate between these two coasts, extending from the farthest _ Ravi ape ae north, to the southern bits? ap of all ice’; 3 OF Be ee ee Oe ee iacieiaiemimauaniabilie % VOL, 11. * ae 5 ‘ 262 GREENLANY OR POLAR ICE. and density ; its frequent production | of ery ystal- lised snow in a wonderful perfection and variety of form and texture; and its astonishing sudden changes from calm to storm,—from fair weather to foul, and vice versa. The Jand is of itself a sublime object ; its stu- pendous mountains rising by steep acclivities from the very margin of the ocean to an immense height, terminating in ridged, conical, or pyramidal summits : ; 1ts surface, contrasting its native pro- truding dark-coloured rocks, with its burthen of purest snow ; the whole viewed under the densi- ty of a gloomy sky, forms a picture impressive and grand. Its most remarkable inhabitant is the White or Polar Bear, which indeed also oc- curs on the ice. This ferocious animal, seems to be the natural lord of those regions. He preys in- discriminately on quadruped, fowl, reptile, and fish; all behold him with dread, and flee his presence. The seals signify their fear of him by thei con- stant watching, and betake themselves precipi- tately to the water on his approgae- Carrion, therefore, (of which the carcase of the whale is _ at a certain season the most plentiful), affords him y a passive, sure, and favourite food. His sense of a smelling is peculiarly acute: in his march, he is — frequently observed to face the breeze, to rea his head, and snuff the passing scent, > whereby I GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 263 ean discover the nearést route to his odorous banquet, though the distance be incredibly great. viaree Bk nea? The water of the ocean, is not the least interest- ing of the elements, particularly as affording the bed, and partly the materials for the most prodi- - Bious masses of ice. Its colour is peculiar. Its products are numerous, and of particular import- ance. It is here that the huge Mysticetus, or Whalebone Whale, takes up his residence, and collects his food ;—it is here that he sports and astonishes, by his vast bulk and proportionate strength ;—and it is here that he becomes the ob- ject of maritime adventure, and a source of com- mercial riches. Ice, an titeresting production. Of the inanimate productions of Greenland, none perhaps excites so much interest and aston- ishment in a stranger, as the ice in its great abun- dance and variety. The stupendous masses, known ‘by the name of Ice-Islands, Floating- Mountains, or Icebergs, common to Davis’ Straits and some- a mes met with here, from their height, various forms, and the depth of water in which they ground, are calculated to strike the beholder with qe : | 52 ’ | wil 264 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE« wonder : yet the fields * of ice, more pecuhar to Greenland, are not less astonishing. Their defi- ciency in elevation, is sufficiently compensated by their amazing extent of surface. Some of them have been observed near a hundred miles in length, and more than half that breadth; each consisting of a single sheet of ice, having its sur- face raised in general four or six feet above the level of the water, and its base depressed to the depth of near twenty feet beneath. , The various kinds of Ice described. The ice in general, is designated by a variety of appellations, distinguishing it according to the size or number of pieces, their form of aggregation, thickness, transparency, &c. I perhaps cannot better explain the terms in common acceptation amongst the whale-fishers, than by marking the disruption of a field. The thickest and strongest field cannot resist the power of a heavy swell ; indeed, such are much less capable of bending without being dissevered, than the thinner ice which is more pliable. When a field, by the set of the current, drives to the southward, and being deserted by the loose ice, becomes exposed to the effects of-a grown swell, it presently breaks into a * A field is a continued sheet of ice, so large, that its boun daries cannot be seen from the summit of a ship’s mast. AA. Sc Sag a ES as A) a a GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. —— 865 great many pieces, few of which will exceed forty _or fifty yards in diameter. Now, such a number of these pieces collected together in close contact, s0 that they cannot, from the top of the ship’s mast, be seen over, are termed a pack. When the collection of pieces can be seen across, if it assume a circular or polygonal form, the name of patch is applied, and it is called a stream when its shape is more of an oblong, how narrow soever it may be, provided the continuity of the pieces is preserved. | Pieces of very large dimensions, but smaller than fields, are called floes: thus, a field may be compared to a pack, and a floe to a patch, as re- gards their size and external form. ; Small pieces which break off, and are septa from the larger masses by the effect of attrition, are called brash-ice, and may be collected into streams or patches. | Ice is said to be loose or open, when the pieces are so far separated as to allow a ship to sail free- ly amongst them ; this has likewise been called drift-ice. A hummock is a protuberance raised upon any plane of ice above the common level. It is frequently produced by pressure, where one piece is squeezed upon another, often set up- On its edge, and in that position cemented by the frost. Hummocks are likewise formed, by pieces of ice mutually crushing each other, the s3 266. GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, wreck being coacervated upon one or both of them. To hummocks, the ice is indebted for its variety of fanciful shapes, and its pic- turesque appearance. ‘They occur in great num- bers in heavy packs, on the edges and: oc- casionally in the middle of fields and floes. They often attain the height of thirty feet or upwards. A calf, is a portion of ice. which has been de- pressed by the same means as a hummock is ele- vated. It is kept down by some larger mass 4 from beneath which, it shews itself on one side. I have seen a calf so deep and broad, that the ship sailed over it without touching, when it might be observed on both sides of the vessel at the same time; this, however, is attended with consider- able danger, and necessity alone warrants the ex- periment, as calves have not unfrequently (by a ship’s touching them, or disturbing the sea near them) been called from their sub-marine situa- tion to the surface, and with such an accelerated velocity, as to stave the planks and timbers of the ship, and-in some instances, to reduce the weasel to a wreck. | Any part of the upper superficies of a piece of | ice, which comes to be immersed beneath the surface of the water, obtains the name of a tongue. ‘A bight signifies a’ bay or sinuosity, on the border of any large mass or body of ice. It is supposed to be called bight from the low word bite, to take in, or entrap; because, in this situation, GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 267 ships are sometimes so caught by a change of wind, that the ice cannot be cleared on either tack ; and in some cases, a total loss has been the consequence, : Comparison of Ice frozen from Sea-Water and Rain-Water. When the sea freezes, the greatest part of the salt it contains is deposited, and the frozen spongy mass probably contains no salt, but what is natu- ral to the sea-water filling its pores. Hence, the generality of ice affords fresh-water, when dis- solved. As, however, the ice frozen from sea- water does not appear so solid and transparent as that procured from snow or rain-water, sailors distinguish it into two kinds, accordingly as it seems to have been formed from one or the other. Ice frozen from Sea-Water. What ts considered as salt-water ice, is porous, white, and in a great measure opaque, (except when in very thin pieces), yet transmits the rays of light witha greenish shade. It is softer, and swims lighter than fresh-water ice, and when dissolved, ‘produces water sometimes perfectly fresh, and someiimes saltish ; this depends in a great measure on the situation from whence it is taken: such parts as are raised above the surface of the sea in the form of bummocks, appear to gain S 4 « 268 GREENLAND OR POLARACE. _ solidity by exposure to» the sun. and air, and are commonly fresh, whilst those pieces taken out of the sea are somewhat salt. Although it is: very probable, that this retention of salt may arise from _ the sea-water contained in its pores, yet I have never. been able to obtain, from the water of the ocean, by experiment, an ice either compact, transparent, or fresh. That the sea-water has a tendency to produce fresh ice, however, is proved from the concentration observed in a quantity ex- posed i in an open vessel to a low temperature, by the separation of the salt from the crystals of ice, in the progress of the freezing. Thus it is, that in the coldest weather, when a ship exposed to a tempestuous sea, is washed witli repeated Sprays, and thereby covered with ice, that in different places obstructing the efflux of the water over- board, a portion always remains unfrozen, and which, on being tasted, is found to contain salt highly concentrated. This arises from the freez- ing point of water falling in a certain ratio ac- cording to the degree of saltness; thus, though pure water, of specific gravity 1. 0000, freeze with a temperature of 92°, water of specific gravity 1. 0263, containing about 5202, (avoird.) of salt in every gallon of 231 eubig inches, that is, with the degree of saltness common to the Greenland Seas, freezes at 281°. Sea-water concentrated by freezing, until it obtains the specific gravity of y, 1045, requires a temperature of 132° for its GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 269 congelation, having its freezing point reduced 384° below that of pure water; and water satu- rated with sea-salt remains liquid, at a tempera- ture of —4°. Thus, we are presented with a natural process for extracting salt from the sea, at least for great- ly facilitating that process in a concentration of the saline particles, by the agency of frost. When salt-water ice floats in the sea at a freezing temperature, the proportion above, to that below the surface, is as 1 to 4 nearly ; and in fresh water, at the freezing point, as 10 to 69, or 1 to 7 nearly. Hence, its specific gravity appears to be about 0.873. Of this description is all young ice, as it is called, which forms a considerable proportion of packed and drift ice in general ; where it occurs in flat pieces commonly covered with snow, of various dimensions, but seldom exceeding fifty yards in diameter, Fresh-Water Ice. Fresh-water ice, is distinguished by its black appearance when floating in the sea, and its beau- tiful green hue and transparency when removed into the air. Large pieces may occasionally be obtained, possessing a degree of purity and trans- patency, equal to that of the finest glass, or most beautiful crystal; but generally, its transparency: 270 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. is interrupted by numerous small globular or pear- shaped air-bubbles: these frequently form con- tinuous lines intersecting the ice in a direction apparently perpendicular to its plane of forma- tion. - Fresh-water ice is fragile, but hard ; the edges of a fractured part, are frequently so keen, as to inflict a wound like glass. ‘The homogeneous and most transparent pieces, are capable of concen- trating the rays of the sun, so as to produce a con- siderable intensity of heat. With a lump of ice, of by no means regular convexity, I have frequently burnt wood, fired gunpowder, melted lead, and lit the sailors’ pipes, to their great astonishment; all of whom, who could procure the needful articles, eagerly flocked around me, for the satisfaction of smoking a pipe ignited by such extraordinary means. ‘Their astonishment was increased, on observing, that the ice remained firm and pellucid, whilst the solar rays emerging therefrom, were so hot, that the. hand could not be kept longer in the focus, than for the space of a few seconds. In the formation of these lenses, I roughed them with a small axe, which cut the ice tolerably smooth ; I then scraped them with a knife, and polished them merely by the warmth of the hand, supporting them during the opera- tion ina woollen glove. I once procured a piece of the purest ice, so large, that a lens of sixteen inches diameter was obtained out of it; unfortu- GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, O77}. nately, however, the sun became obscured before it was completed, and never made its appearance again for a fortnight, during which time, the air being mild; the lens was spoiled. _ The most dense kind of ice, which is per- fectly transparent, is about one-tenth specifically lighter than sea-water at a freezing temperature. Plunged into pure water, of temperature $2°, the proportion floating above to that below the sur- face, isas 1 to 15, and placed in boiling fresh water, it barely floats. Its specific gravity is about 0.937. Fields, bergs, and other large masses, chiefly consist of this kind of ice. Brash-ice likewise affords pieces of it, the surfaces of which are al- ways found crowded with conchoidal excavations when taken out of the sea. On the Formation of Ice on the Sea. some naturalists have been at considerable pains to endeavour to explain the phenomena of the progressive formation of the ice in high latituces, and the derivation of the supply, which is annually furnished, for replacing the great quantities that are dissolved and dissipated by the power of the waves, and the warmth of the climate into which it drifts. It has trequently been urged, that the vicinity of land is indispensable for its formation. ps Q s 272 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, Whether this may be the case or not, the follow- ing facts may possibly determine. I have noticed the process of freezing ‘from the first appearance of crystals, until the ice had ob- tained a thickness of more than a foot, and did not find that the land afforded any assistance or even shelter, which could not have been dispensed with during the operation. It is true, that the land was the cause of the vacancy or space free from ice, where this new ice was generated ; the ice of older formation had been driven off by easterly winds, assisted perhaps by a current; yet this new ice lay at the distance of twenty leagues from Spitzbergen. But I have also seen ice grow to a consistence capable of stopping the progress of a ship with a brisk wind, even when — exposed to the waves of the North Sea and Western Ocean, on the south aspect of the main body of the Greenland ice, in about the seventy- second degree of north latitude. In this situa- tion, the process of freezing is accomplished un- der peculiar disadvantages. I shall attempt to describe its progress from the commencement. __ Freezing of the Ocean in a rough Sea, The first appearance of ice whilst in the state of detached crystals, is called by the sailors sludge, and resembles snow when cast into water that is too cold to dissolve it. This smooths the ruffled sea, and produces an effect like oil in stilling the GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. . eas breaking surface. ‘These crystals soon unite, and would form a continuous sheet, but, by the motion of the waves, they are broken into very small pieces, scarcely three inches in diameter. As they strengthen, many of them coalesce, and form a larger mass. The undulations of the sea still con- tinuing, these enlarged pieces strike each other on every side, whereby they become rounded, and their edges turned up, whence they obtain the name of pancakes: several of these again unite, and thereby continue to increase, forming larger pancakes, until they become perhaps a foot in thickness, and many yards in circumference. Freezing of the Sea in sheltered situations. When the sea is perfectly smooth, the freezing. process goes on more regularly, and perhaps more rapidly. The commencement is similar to that just described ; it is afterwards continued by con- stant additions, to its under surface. During twenty-four hours keen frost, it will have become two or three inches thick, and in less than forty- eight hours time, capable of sustaining the weight of aman. This is termed bay-iee, whilst that of older formation is distinguished into /ight and heavy ice; the former being from a foot to about a yard in thickness, and the latter from about a yard upwards. 7 | : isd soil 274, GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE: It is generally allowed, that all that is necessary in low temperatures for the formation of ice, is still water: here then, it is obtained. In every opening of the ice at a distance from the sea; the water is always as smooth as that of a harbour; and as I have observed the growth of ice up to a foot in thickness in such a situation, duting one month’s frost, the effect of many years, we might deem to be sufficient, for the formation of the most ponderous-fields. There is no doubt; but a large quantity of ice is annitally generated in the bays, and amidst the islands of Spitzbergen: which bays; towards the end of summer, are commonly emptied of their contents, from the thawing of the snow on the mountains causing a current outwards. But this will not account for the immense fields which are so abundant in Greenland. ‘These evidently come from the northward, and have their origin between Spitzbergen and the Pole. On the Generation of Fields. _ As strong winds are known to possess great in- fluence in drifting off the ice, where it meets with the least: resistance, may they not form open- ings in the ice far to the north, as well as in lati- tudes within our observation? Notwithstanding the degree in which this cause may prevail, is uns certain, yet of this we ate assured, that the ice GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. . are on the west coast of Spitzbergen, has always a tendency to drift, and actually does advance in a surprising manner to the south or south-west ; whence, some vacancy must assuredly be left in the place which it formerly occupied. i _ These openings, therefore, may be readily frozen over whatever be their extent, and the ice may in time acquire all the characters of a massy field. ie It must, however, be confessed, that from the density and transparency of the ice of fields, and the purity of the water obtained therefrom, it is difficult to conceive that it could possess such cha- racters if frozen entirely from the water of the ocean ;—particularly as young ice is generally found to be porous and opaque, and does not af- ford a pure solution. The succeeding theory, therefore, is perhaps more consonant to appear- ances ; and although it may not be established, has at least probability to recommend it. It appears from what has been advanced, that openings must occasionally occur in the ice be- tween Spitzbergen and the Pole, and that these openings will in all probability, be again frozen over. Allowing, therefore, a thin field or a field of bay-ice to be therein formed, a superstructure may probably be added by the following process. The frost, which constantly prevails during, nine months « of: the year, relaxes. towards the end)of June or the beginning of July, whereby. the’ cover- 276 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. ing of snow, annually deposited to the depth of two or three feet on the ice*, dissolves. Now, as this field is supposed to arise amidst the older and heavier ice, it may readily occupy the whole interval, and be cemented to the old ice on every side; whence, the melted snow: has no means of escape. Or, whatever be the means of its reten- tion on the surface of the young field, whether by the adjunction of higher ice, the elevation of its border by the pressure of the surroundiig ice, or the irregularity of its own surface, several inches of ice must be added to its thickness on the returning winter, by the conversion of the snow-water into solid ice. ‘This ‘process repeated for many successive years, or even ages, together with the enlargement of its under-side from the ocean, might be deemed sufficient to produce the most stupendous bodies of ice that have yet been discovered; at the same time that the ice thus formed, would doubtless correspond with the purity and transparency of that of fields in gene- ral. | | heavy close packs, which, being cemented toge- ther by the intervention of new ice, may become " That | snow is deposited on the ice in’ high northern: lati- tudes, is here allowed, because no field has yet been met ol which did not support a considerable burthen of it. am x Fields may sometimes have their origin in ae - | GREENLAND OR POLAR IGE. O77 one solid mass. In this way; are produced such fields, as exhibit a rugged, hummocky surface. _ Fields commonly make their appearance about the month of June, though sometimes earlier :— they are frequently the resort of young whales ; strong north and westerly winds expose them to the Greenlandmen, by driving off the lcose ice. Some fields exhibit a perfect level plain, without a fissute or hummock, so clear indeed, that I imagine, upon one which I saw, a coach might be driven a hundred miles in a direct line, without. any obstruction. Most commonly, however; the surface contains some hummocks, which somewhat relieve the uniformity of intense light, by a tinge © of delicate green; in cavitics where the light gains admittance in an oblique direction, by passing through a portion of ice. The invariable tendency of fields to drift to the south-westward, even in calms, is the means of -many being yearly destroyed. ‘They have fre- “north. White bears here find an occasional ha- quently been observed to advance a hundred miles in this direction, within the space of one month, notwithstanding the occurrence of winds from every quarter. On emerging from amidst the ‘smaller ice, which before sheltered them, they _ are soon broken up by the swell, are partly dis- solved, and partly coriverted into drift ice. The Mion’ such, are supplied by others from the bitation, and will travel many leagues from land VOL, 1, T 278 GREENLAND OR POLAR IGE. upon the fields) They have been repeatedly met with, not only upon these continuous sheets of ice, but on the ice’of close packs, to the utmost ‘extent to which ships have penetrated. | On the tremendous Concussions of Fields. The occasional rapid motion of fields, with the strange effects produced on any opposing substance, exhibited by such immense bodies, is one of the most striking objects this country presents, and is certainly the most terrific. ‘They not unfrequent- ly acquire a rotatory movement, whereby their cir- cumference attains a velocity of several miles per hour. ageregation of drift-ice, he conceived the design of trying during the winter season to travel over the then more compactice. Accordingly, he pre- pared several of the country sledges, drawn by dogs, and, accompanied by eight persons, he set out on the 15th of March (O. 8.) from the mouth of the Yani, on the coast of Siberia, in latitude 71° N. and longitude about 182° E. He proceed- ed for seven days northward, until he reached the 77th or 78th degree of north latitude, when his progress was impeded by ice elevated into pro- digious mountains. From the top of these, he could see nothing but mountainous ice to the northward ; at the same time falling short of pro- visions for his dogs, he returned with difficulty : several of ‘his dogs died for want, and were given to the rest for their support. On the 3d of April he reached the Siberian shore, after an absence of nineteen days, during which he travelled 800 miles. Here, therefore, is a fact of a continent, if we may so speak, of mountainous ice existing, and probably constantly increasing in the ocean, at a distance of between three and four hundred miles from any known land: indeed, it must be so com- pletely sheltered by the exterior drift or field ice in every direction, that there seems every facility afforded for its growth, that a sheltered bay in the land could supply. _ 883 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. On the growth of Icebergs formed on the sea. As the difference in the appearance of the ice of fields, and of that formed in places within our observation, seems to require the deposition of moisture from the atmosphere for explaining the phenomenon ; so, the similarity of the ice of bergs with that of fields, (whether generated in bays of the land, or in regions nearer the Pole), is a rea- son for admitting the operation of the same causes in their production. If wecan conceive, from the before-mentioned process of the enlargement of fields by the addition of the annually deposited humidity, that a few years are sufficient for the production of considerable fields of ice, What must be the effect of fifty or sixty centuries af- fording an annual increase in undisturbed secu- rity? | If, therefore, we add to the precipitations from the atmosphere, the stores supplied by the sea, and allow the combination of these two by the agency of an intense frost, and conceive also a state of qui- escence, for the operation of these causes, secured for ages, the question of the mode of production of the most enormous ice mountains seems to have a sufficient solution. Loose icebergs, it has been observed, are but sparingly disseminated in the Greenland Seas, but in Davis’ Straits they abound in astonishing pro- fusion, Setting constantly towards the south, they are scattered abroad to an amazing extent. The - z ieee, ies SoS oe GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 289 Banks of Newfoundland are occasionally crowded with these wonderful productions of the frigid zone. They have been met with as far south as the latitude of 40° N., a distance of at least 2100 miles from their source. Icebergs numerous in the Antarctic Zone. The indefatigable Captain Coox, when exploring the regions beyond the antarctic circle, met with icebergs on every course, In great abundance, as well as of vast size; many, according to Forster, were one or two miles in extent, and upwards of a hundred feet above the water, and might be sup- posed to be sunk to ten times that depth. On the 26th of December 1773, they counted 186 ice- bergs from the mast-head, whereof none were less than the hull of a ship. | Icebergs useful to the Whale- Fishers. Icebergs, though often dangerous neighbours, occasionally prove useful auxiliaries to the whale- fishers. Their situation, in a smooth sea, is very little affected by the wind: under the strongest gale, they are not perceptibly moved; but, on the contrary, have the appearance of advancing to windward, from every other decription of ice moving so rapidly past them, on account of its finding less resistance from the water, in propor- _ tion as its depth beneath the surface is diminish- ed. From the iceberg’s firmness, it often affords 390 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. a stable mooring to a ship in strong adverse winds, or when a state of rest is required for the per- formance of the different operations attendant on a successful fishery. ‘The fisher likewise avails himself of this quiescent property, when his ship is incommoded or rendered unmanageable by the accumulation of drift-ice around, when his object is to gain a windward situation more open. He gets under the lea of the ice-berg,—the loose ice soon forces past the berg,—the ship remains near- ly stationary,—and the wished-for effect seldom fails to result. Mooring to lofty icebergs, is at- tended with considerable danger : being sometimes finely balanced, they are apt to be overturned ; and whilst floating in a tide-way, should their base be arrested by the- ground, their detrusion ne- cessarily follows, attended with a thundering noise, and the crushing of every object they en- counter intheir descent: thus have vessels been often staved, and sometimes wrecked, by the fall of their icy mooring. Men and boats are a weaker prey,—the vast waves alone occasioned by such events, at once overwhelming every smal- ler object, within a considerable distance of the rolling mountain. Fragility of Icebergs. All pure ice becomes exéeélingly fragile to- wards the close of the. _whale- fishing season, Bad ie GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, 991 when the temperate air thaws its surface. Bergs, on being struck by an axe, for the purpose of placing a mooring anchor, have been known to rend asunder and precipitate the careless seamen into the yawning chasm, whilst occasionally the masses are hurled apart, and fall in contrary di- rections with a prodigious crush, burying boats and men in one common ruin. The awful ef- _ fect produced by a solid mass many thousands of tons in weight, changing its situation with the velocity of a falling body, whereby its aspiring summit 1s in a moment buried in the ocean, can be more easily imagined than described! Ifthe blow with any edge-tool on brittle ice does not sever the mass, still it is often succeeded by a crackling noise, proving the mass to be ready to burst from the action of an internal expan- sion; 1n this. way, sometimes deep chasms are formed, similar to those occurring in the Glaciers of the Alps. It is common, when ships moor to icebergs, to lie as remote from the danger as their ropes will allow, and yet accidents sometimes happen, though the ship ride at a distance of a hundred yards from the ice. Thus, calves rising up with a velo- city nearly equal to that of the descent of a fal- ling berg, have produced destructive effects. In the year 1812, whilst the Thomas of Hull, Cap- tain Taylor, lay moored to an iceberg in Davis’ Straits, a calf was detached from beneath, and 292 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. rose with such tremendous force, that the keel of the ship was lifted even with the water at the bow, whilst the stern was nearly immersed be- neath the surface. Fortunately the ship was not materially damaged. From the deep pools of water formed in the summer season, on the depressed surface of some bergs, the ships navigating where they abound, are presented with opportunities for watering with the greatest ease and dispatch. For this purpose, casks are landed upon the lower bergs, whilst, from the higher, the water is conveyed by means of a hose* into casks placed in the boats, at the side of the ice, or even upon the deck of the ship. " Navigating amongst icebergs in the gloom of | night, has sometimes been attended with fatal consequences. Occurring far from land, and in unexpected situations, the danger would be ex- treme, were they not providentially rendered vi- sible by their natural effulgence, which enables the mariner to distinguish them at some distance; even in the darkest night, or during the preva- lence of the densest fog. * A hose is a long cylinder of canvass, used solely for the purpose of conveying water from one place to another. GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. (998 Abstract of the remarks on the formation of the Polar Ice. From what has been advanced in the preceding pages, on the mode and place of formation of the ice, occurring in the seas intermediate between East Greenland or Spitzbergen, and West or Old Greenland, the following conclusions seem natu- rally to result, and which will partly apply to the formation of the ice in other places of the polar circle : I. Drift ice. —That the light packed or drift ice is the annual product of the bays of Spitz- bergen, and of the interstices in the body of older ‘ice; and, that it is wholly derived from the water of the ocean. That the heavy packed or drift ice generally arises from the disruption of fields. {f. Jcebergs.—That some ice mountains or ice- bergs are derived from the icebergs generated on the land between the mountains of the sea coast, and are consequently, the product of snow or rain water. » That a more considerable portion may proba- bly be formed in the deep sheltered bays abound- ing on the east coast of Spitzbergen. These have their bed in the waters of the ocean, and are part- VOL. II, U QG4 GREENLAND OR POLAR ACGE~ ly the product of sea-water, and partly that of snow and rain water. And it is highly pro-« bable, ou That a continent of ice. mountains may exist m regions near the Pole, yet unexplored, the nucleus of which may be as ancient as the earth itself, and its increase derived from the sea and atmosphere combined. Ill. Fields.—That some fields arise from the cementation, by the agency of frost, of the pieces of a closely aggregated pack, which may have consisted of light or heavy ice; and, conse- quently, which may have been wholly derived from the ocean, or from the sea and atmosphere combined. That the most considerable masses are gene- rated in openings of the far northern ice, produced by the constant recession towards the south of that body lying near the coasts of Spitzbergen, ; and, j that such fields are at first derived from the ocean, but are indebted for a considerable portion of super- structure, to the annual addition of the whole, or part of their burthen of snow. And, | | und e IV. As to the ice in general.—That however dependant the ice may have been on the land, from the time of its first appearance, to its gain- ing an ascendancy over the waves of the ocean, sufficient to resist their utmost ravages, and to ar< x the land to the Southern Cape, and so completely v GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE: 9935 rést the progress of maritime discovery, at a dis- tance of perhaps from six hundred to a thousand miles from the Pole, it is now evident, ‘That the the proximity of land is not essential, either for its existence, its formation, or its increase. On the situation of the Polar Ice, and the effects produced on it by the change of seasons. The mass of ice lying between Old Greenland on the west, and the Russian portion of Europe on the east, though varying considerably in parti- culars, yet has a general outline strikingly unt- form. On the east coast of West Greenland, a re- markable alteration has, however, taken place: That part extending from the parallel of Iceland to Staten-Hook, was, before the fifteenth century, free of ice, and could always: be approached in the summer season, without hinderance. After a considerable trade had been carried on between Iceland and the Main for upwards of 400 years, singular, as it may appear, of a sudden the polar ice extended its usual limits, launched down by barricadoed the whole of the eastern coast, that it has not since been accessible. "The fate of the “wretched inhabitants is unknown ; but they are ges | is supposed to have rrerichrok from the want ug 206 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. of their usual supplies, or from the increased cold« ness of their atmosphere. | | In various countries, changes of climate to a certain extent, have occurred, within the limits | of historical record; these changes have been commonly for the better, and have been consider- ed as the effects of human industry, in draining marshes and lakes, felling woods, and cultivating the earth: but here is an occurrence, the reverse of common experience ; and concerning its causes, I am not Preparea. | to hazard any conjec- ture. This icy barrier, at present, with each recur- ring spring, exhibits the following general out- line. After doubling the southern promontory of Greenland, it advances in a north-eastern di- rection along the east coast, enveloping Iceland as it proceeds, until it reaches John Mayne’s Island *. Passing this island on the north-west, but frequently enclosing it likewise, it then trends a little more to the eastward, and intersects the meridian of London in the 71st or 72d degree of latitude. Having reached the longitude of 6, 8, or perhaps 10 degrees east, in the 73d or 74th - degree of north latitude, it suddenly stretches to the north, sometimes proceeding on a meridian to the latitude of 80°, at others forming a deep si- * Latitude 71° N.; lengitude about 53° W. GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, 207 nuosity, extending two or three degrees to the northward, and then south-easterly to Cherry Island ;—which having passed, it assumes a di- rect course a little south of east, until it forms a junction with the Siberian or Nova Lemblan coast. That remarkable promontory, formed by the sudden stretch of the ice to the north, constitutes the line of separation between the east or whale- fishing, and west or sealing ice of the fishers: And the deep bay lying to the east of this point, invariably forms the only pervious track for pro- ceeding to fishing latitudes northward. When the ice at the extremity of this bay occurs so strong and compact as to prevent the approach to the shores of Spitzbergen, and the advance northward beyond the latitude of 75° or 76°, it is said to be a close season ; and, on the contrary, it is called an open season, when an uninterrupted navigation extends along the western coast of Spitzbergen to Hackluyt’s Headland. Inan open season, therefore, a large channel of water lies be- tween the land and the ice, from 20 to 50 leagues in breadth, extending to the latitude of 79° or 80°, and gradually approximating the coast, until it at length effects a coalition with the north-western extremity, by a semi-circular head. When the continuity of the mass of ice, intervening between West Greenland and Nova Zembla, is thus inter- rupted in an open season, the ice again makes its ug 298 GREENLAND ‘OR POLAR ICE. appearance on the south of Spitzbergen, proceed- | ing from thence direct to Cherry Island, and then eastward as before. Such is the general appearance of the margin © er outline of the polar ice, which holds, with merely partial changes, for many successive sea- sons. ‘I*his outline, however, is necessarily more or less affected by storms and currents : their more than ordinary prevalence in any one direction, must cause some variety of aspect in particular places,, which becomes more especially apparent in the vicinity ‘of land, where its coasts afford marks by which to estimate the advance and re- treat of the ice. The line formed by the exterior of the ice, is variously indented, and very rarely appears direct or uniform. Open bays or arms occur, from a few fathoms, to several miles in length. None of ‘them, however have any determinate form or place, except the “ Whale-jisher's Bight,’ or great bay before described, in which the Green- landmen ever seek a passage to the fishing sta- tions. Bae ay The place where whales occur in the greatest abundance, is generally found to be in the 78th or 79th degree of north latitude, though from the 72d to the 81st degree they have been met with. These singular animals, which, on account of their prodigious bulk and strength, might be thought entitled to reign supreme in the ocean, GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 209 are harmless and timid. They seem to prefer those situations which afford them the most se- cure retreats. Among the ice, they have an occa- sional shelter; but so far as it is permeable, the security is rather apparent than real. That they are conscious of its affording them shelter, we can readily perceive, from observing that the course of their fight when scared or wounded, is generally towards the nearest or most compact ice. ‘The place of their retreat, however, is regu- lated by various circumstances; it may some- times depend on the quality and quantity of food occurring, the disposition of the ice, or exemp- tion from enemies. At one time, their favourite haunt is amidst the huge and extended masses of the field ice ; at another, in the open seas adja- cent. Sometimes the majority of the whales in- habiting those seas, seem collected within a smal] and single circuit; at others, they are scattered in various hordes, and numerous single indivi- duals, over an amazing extent of surface. To discover and reach the haunts of the whale, is an object of the first consideration in the fishery, and occasionally the most difficult and laborious to accomplish. In clese seasons, though the ice joins the south of Spitzbergen, and thereby forms a barrier against the fishing-stations, yet this bar- tier is often of a limited extent, and terminates on the coasts of Spitzbergen in an open space, ei- ther forming, or leading to, the retreat of the U4 300 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. whales. Such space is sometimes frozen over un- til the middle or end of the month of May, but not unfrequently free of ice. The barrier here opposed to the fisher, usually consists of a mass of ice from 20 to 30 or 40 leagues across in the shortest diameter. It is generally composed of packed ice, and often cemented ‘into a continuous field by the interference of bay ice, which incre- dibly augments the difficulty of navigating among it. : As the time that can be devoted to the whale- fishery, is, by the nature of the climate, limited to three or four months * in the year, it is of 1m- portance to pass this barrier of ice as early as pos- sible in the season. ‘The fisher here avails him- self of every power within his command. The sails are expanded in favourable winds, and with- drawn in contrary breezes. The ship is urged forward amongst the dri/t ice through the force of the wind, assisted by ropes and saws. When- ever a vein of water, as it is called, appears , * The fishery is prevented in the winter season, by the in- tensity of the frost,-~ the deficiency of light,—and the impracti- cability of reaching the usual fishing stations at that season ; and these obstacles are not considered sufficiently removed un- til the month of April. The other limit is occasioned by the prevalence of dense fogs, and the disappearance of the whales, which circumstances, generally close the fishery by the end a June or beginning of July. : GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, 30] in the required direction, it is if possible attained, It always affords a temporary relief, and some- times a permanent release, by extending itself through intricate mazes, amidst ice of various de- scriptions, until at length it opens into the desired place, void of obstruction, and the retreat of the whales. : The formidable barrier before described, is re- gularly encountered on the first arrival of Greenland ships in the month of April, but is generally remov- ed by natural means as the season advances. How- ever extensive, huge and compact it may be, it is usually found separated from the land, and di- vided asunder by the close cf the month of June; and hence it is, that however difficult and labo- rious may have been the ingress into the fishing country, the egress‘is commonly effected without particular inconvenience. That the ice should envelope the whole coasts of Spitzbergen in the winter season, and expose the western shore about the month of June ; that the ocean should be almost annually navigable on the meridians of 5° to 10° E., to the 80th de- gree of north latitude, whilst the ice in every other part of the world, can rarely be penetrated beyond the 74th degree, are facts highly curious, and certainly worthy of consideration. | On the recession of the ice from the west side of the land, a lane of water must be left from one extremity to the other; while to the south of - 302 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, Point Look-Out, a parallel motion of the ice, leaves no opening or evidence of its change of place ; for here, the ice meeting with no obstruc- tion to cause it to divide, moves on in a solid body, retained firm and unbroken by the tenacious solder of the interjacent bay ice. In the month of May, the severity of the frost relaxes, and the temperature occasionally ap- proaches within a few degrees of the freezing point: the brine then exerts its liquefying energy, and destroys the tenacity of the bay ice, makes inroads in its parts by enlarging its pores into holes, diminishes its thickness, and, in the lan- guage of the whale-fisher, completely rozs it. The packed drift ice is then loosed ; it submits to the laws of detached floating bodies, and obeys the slightest impulses of the winds or currents. The heavier having more stability than the lighter, an apparent difference of movement obtains among the pieces. Holes and lanes of water are formed, which allow the entrance and progress of the ships, without that stubborn resistance offered ear- lier in the spring of the year. Bay ice is sometimes serviceable to the whale: fishers, in preserving them from the brunt of the heavy ice, ‘by embedding their ships, and occa- sioning an equable pressure on every part of the vessel: but, in other respects, it is the great- est pest they meet with in all their labours: it is troublesome in the fishery, and in the progress to nd GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 3035 the fishing ground ; it is often the means of be- setment, as it is called, and thence the primary cause of every other calamity. Heavy ice, many feet in thickness, and in detached pieces of from $9 to 100 tons weight each, though crowded to- gether in the form of a pack, may be penetrated, in a favourable gale, with tolerable dispatch ; whilst a sheet of bay ice, of a few inches only in thick- ness, with the same advantage of wind, will often arrest the progress of the ship, and render her in a few minutes immovable. If this ice be too strong to be broken by the weight of a boat, re- course must be had to sawing, an operation slow and laborious in the extreme. When the warmth of the season has sontied the bay ice, the passage to the northward can general- ly be accomplished with a very great saving of labour. ‘Therefore it was, the older fishers sel- dom or never used to attempt it before the 10th of May, and foreigners are in general late. Some- times late arrivals are otherwise beneficial ; since it frequently happens, in close seasons, that ships entering the ice about the middle of May, obtain an advantage over those preceding them, by gain- ing a situation more eligible, on account of its nearness to the land. Their predecessors, mean- while, are drifted off to the westward with the ice, and cannot recover their easting; for, they — are encompassed with a large quantity of ice, and have a greater distance to go than when they first 304 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. entered, and on a course precisely in opposition to the direction of the most prevailing winds. Hence it appears, that it would be economical and bene- ficial to sail so late, as not to reach*the country before the middle of May, or to persevere on the seal catching stations until that time. There are, however, some weighty objections to this method. Open seasons occasionally occur, and great pro- gress may sometimes be made in the fishery be- fore that time. Also, although the majority of the ships do not commonly succeed in passing the barrier in close seasons before a certain period, yet some individuals, by superior exertion, per- severance, ability, or good fortune, accomplish the end considerably before the rest, and thereby gain a superiority in the fishery, not to be attain- ed by later arrivals. A week or fortnight’s soli- tary fishing, under these circumstances, has fre- quently gained half acargo,—an advantage of the most interesting importance, in a voyage of so li- « mited duration, and where the success is supposed to depend so considerably upon chance. That there is something resembling what is called chance or luck in the fishery, cannot be dis- puted ; but that the fishery is altogether a chain of casualties, is as false, as it is derogatory to the credit of the persons employed in the enterprize. For a person with a die to throw the highest point once in six times, is what might be expected from chance ; but for him to throw the highest c GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 805 point many times in succession, would afford a presumptive proof, that he employed some art in casting the die. So it is with the fishery. The most skilful,..from adventitious and unavoidable circumstances, may occasionally fail, and the un- skilful may be successful; but mark the average of a number of years, (that is where the means are equal, ) and a tolerable estimate may be form- ed, of the adventurer’s fitness for his undertak- ing. The change which takes place in the ice amidst which the whale-fisher pursues his object, is, to- wards the close of the season, indeed astonishing. For, not only does it separate into its original in- dividual portions,—not only does it retreat in a body from the western coast of Spitzbergen, but in general, that whole barrier of ice which en- closes the fishing site in the spring, which costs the fisher immense labour and anxiety to pene- trate, after retarding his advance towards the north, and progress in the fishery, for the space of several weeks, — spontaneously divides in the midst about the month of June, and on the return of the ships is not at all to be seen! Then is the sea rendered freely navigable from the very haunts of the whales, to the oie of the North- ern and Atlantic Oceans. This quality of the ice, is of the first import- ance to the navigator. It is this known property which gives him confidence in his advance, and en- 306 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. ables him to persevere without restraint, caleue lating on an easy return. As one-half of the fish- ing season is often spent in the ingress, were the regress as arduous, the sailing would occupy the whole time: besides, the return would be render- ed doubly hazardous by the prevalence of the summer fogs, which are thick in the extreme, and sometimes continue for days together, with- out any relaxation of density. _. Were the barrier of ice not passable, the haunts ' of the whales could not be attained; and were the regress not aided by natural facilities, every attempt to prosecute the whale-fishery with ef- . fect, would be attended with imminent danger ; I may say, with almost certain destruction. On the Properties, peculiar Mocements, and Dr ift- ing of the Ice. | 1. The ice always has a tendency to separate ~~ during calms. This property holds, both with regard to field and drift ice, and seems to arise from a repelling tendency between the individual masses. Hence it is, that when the heavy ice is released from its confinement by the dissolution of the intruding bay ice, a calm generally spreads its pieces abroad, and allows a free passage for ships, which befofe could net be urged forward with all the assistance to be derived from the © a ‘ wind combined with every effort of art, From 2 . re K Ya GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, 307 the same cause, it is, that ice, which with strong winds is formed into compact streams or patches, and allows a safe and commodious passage amidst these large aggregations,—on ‘the occurrence of one or two days of calm weather, will be dis- seminated into every opening, and seem to fill every space, allowing only a troublesome and si- nuous navigation. In this case, the dispersion is so general, that scarcely any two pieces can be said to touch each other. Openings in packs, and amidst fields, frequent- dy break out or disappear without any apparent eause. It is often of importance to the fisher to determine, whether any space be in the course of diminishing or enlarging. The freezing of the water generally affords an intimation of its co- arcting, as it rarely occurs on the extension of the bounding ice. The birds likewise instinctively leave the closing spaces, and fly in search of such as are in the course of opening. _@. The amazing changes which take place in the most compact ice, are often unaccountable. They astonish even those who are accustomed to their occurrence. Thus, ships immovably fixed with regard to the ice, have been known to per- - form a complete revolution in a few hours; and two ships beset * a few furlongs apart, within the * The word beset, is by the whale-fishers invariably used to indicate the state of a ship when fixed immovably by the ice. 808 GREENLAND OR POLAR IGF) most compact pack, have sometimes been sepas rated to the distance of several leagues within the space of two or three days, notwithstanding the apparent continuity of the pack remained un-— broken ! On the 7th of May 1798, the Dusies of Lon- don, (then commanded by my Father,) while forcing to the northward on the most eligible course, was suddenly stopped by a shift of wind, and enveloped by the ice at a very short distance from the land. The Volunteer of Whitby, and three other ships, were likewise arrested, a little way from the Dundee. During the day, three Russian convicts visited them, coming over the ice from the nearest shore; but as none of the crew could speak their language, they were prevented from deriving any information from them. ; The next day, a heavy gale of wind prevailed from the north-west ; the frost was intense, and: much snow fell. The pressure of the ice was very severe ; insomuch, that their zron-tiller was broken, the ship lifted above two feet, and forced within a mile and a half of the land. All the bay ice was squeezed upon the top of the heavy ice, and the whole was rendered so compact, that they could not find a hole sufficient ito admit a lead, for the purpose of ascertaining the depth of the water. They got their provisions upon deck, considering the ship in great danger. GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. “809 On the 9th, they were in latitude 77° 38'N. . The intensity of the pressure was not diminished. The Volunteer lay beset three miles off, under a like dangerous pressure. In my Father’s Journal of the 12th, appear the following remarks: “ N. B.—I cannot, from the top-gallant-mast-head, see over the flat of ice to the north-east, into which the ship is frozen 5 and yet in fifty hours it has revolved from the south-south west, westerly to north, and carried | the ship with a semi-circular motion 15 or 20 leagues. On the 10th instant, we were within 12 miles of the land, whereas our distance is now 10 leagues, and our advance to the northward even greater. The Volunteer bse drifted out of sight in the south-west quarter.’ On the 15th, after labouring eight and forty hours ‘without rest, they escaped into a place of safety. 8. When speaking of the formation of fields, I had occasion to remark, that the polar ice has a constant tendency to drift to the south-westward ; with regard to which, it-may be observed, that in situations near the western coast of Spitzbergen, this tendency is seldom observed, but rather the contrary. ‘This may probably result from the ef- fects of the tide, eddies, or pectliar pressures. Its universal prevalence, however, at a distance from the land, though with some slight variations, may be illustrated’ by numerous facts of almost VOL, 11. x 810 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. annual occurrence. A few striking incidents shali suffice. From a narrative of the loss of several of the Dutch Greenland fleet in the year 1777, we learn, that the ship Wilhelmina was moored to a field of ice on the 22d of June, in the usual fishing- station, along with a large fleet'‘of other whalers. On the 25th, the Wilhelmina was closely bese¢. The crew were obliged to work incessantly for eight days, in sawing a dock in the field, wherein the ship was at that time preserved. On the 25th of July, the ice slacked, and the ship was towed to the eastward, during four days: laborious rowing withthe boats. At the extremi- ty of the opening, they joined four ships, and all of them were soon again beset by the ice. Short- ly afterwards, they were drifted within sight of the coast of Old Greenland, in about 752° of north latitude. On the 15th of August, nine sail were collected together ; and about the 20th, af- ter sustaining a dreadful storm, and an immense pressure of the ice, which accumulated around them twenty or thirty feet high,—two of the ships were wrecked. ‘Two more were wrecked four or five days afterwards, together with two others: at a distance from them. On the 24th, Iceland ~ was in sight ; some of the ice was in motion, and two ships seemed to escape. Another was lost on the 7th of September; and, on the 13th, the Wilhelmina was crushed to pieces by the fall of %y: OH +) a San ‘3 my aK: tabi bp GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 311 an enormous mass of ice, which was so unex- pected, that those of the crew who were in bed, had scarcely time to escape on the ice, half naked as they were. One ship now alone remained, to which the crews of four, and the surviving part of the crew of a fifth, (that was wrecked on the 30th Septem- ber), repaired. In the beginning of October, they had drifted to the latitude of 64° ; and, on the 11th, the last ship was overwhelmed by the ice and sunk. ‘Thus, between three and four hun- dred men were driven to the ice, and exposed to the inclemency of the weather, almost destitute of food and raiment. On the 30th of October, the miserable sufferers divided: The greater part betook themselves to the Continent, whilst the rest remained on a field of ice, until they drifted near to Staten Hook, and then followed the example of their comrades. About 140 of the men reached the Danish settle- ments on the West Coast of Greenland; the re- mainder, consisting of about 200, perished. Thus, it appears, that the ship which survived to the latest period, drifted with the ice in a south- westerly direction from the usual fishing- e stations, (probably in 78° to 80° of north lati- tude), to the latitude of about 62°; at the same _ time, from longitude a few degrees easterly, to that of more than 30° west; and, that the ice My SIZ GREENLAND OR POLAR ICK still continued to advance along the land to the southward. In the year 1803, the Henrietta of Whitby, while prosecuting the whale-fishery, was, by a southerly storm, entangled among the ice in the latitude of 80° north, and longitude of 6° east ; and afterwards accompanied it in its drift to the south- westward, at the datly rate of from ten to fifteen miles. ‘Fhey saw several bears; and at one time they conceived that the land of West Greenland was within sight. The ice pressed dreadfully around them, and accumulated in amazing heaps; but providentially, the ship al- ways escaped the heaviest crushes. After a state of complete inertion during seven weeks, the ice began to slack; when, with vigilant and labo- rious measures, they were enabled to make their escape, in latitude about 732° north, and long:- tude 9° west. When treating of the pressure of fields, I slightly alluded to a circumstance which occurred within my own observation on my last voyage to Greenland (1814). While it affords a suitable il- lustration of the tremendous effects produced by the collision of those prodigious sheets of ice, it is no less applicable to the subject in hand; I shall therefore give a sketch of the whole occur- rence. | In the beginning of May, we entered with. the ship Esk of Whitby, a spacious opening of GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 313 the ice, to a distance of ten or twelve leagues from the exterior, wherein we were tempted to stay, from the appearance of a great number of whales. On the 9th of May, the weather calm- ed, the frost was severe, and the ship was soon fixed in young ice. At the same time, the ex- ternal sheets of ice on the north-east wheeled to the south, formed a junction with the ice south- east from us, and completely enclosed us. Until the 16th, we lay immovable ; a break of the bay ice then appeared about half a-mile from us, to attain which, we laboured with energy, and in eight hours had made a passage for the ship. On the 18th, we pursued the same opening to its eastern extremity, and endeavoured, but without success, to force through a narrow neck of ice, into another opening leading further in the same direction. On the 20th, in accomplishing this object, we endured a heavy pressure of the bay ice, which shook the ship in an alarming mannet. The next day, we made a small advance; and on the 22d, after a fatiguing effort in passing through the midst of an aggregation of floes, against the wind, we obtained a channel which led us several miles to the south-eastward. On the 23d, we lay at rest together with four other ships. The day following, having sawn a place for the ship ina thin floe, we forced forward between two large masses, where bay ice unconsolidated had been eompressed, until it had become 10 or 12 feet x3 314 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. thick. We were assisted by about a hundred frien from the accompanying ships, which followed close in our rear; and after applying all our me- chanical powers during eight or nine hours, we passed the strait of about a furlong in length, and immediately the ice collapsed and rivetted the ships of our companions to the spot. As they declined our profiered assistance, (which indeed, at this time, would have been quite unavailing), we determined ‘to improve the advantage we had acquired, by pro- ceeding to the utmost limits of the opening. Ac- cordingly, we advanced, on various winding courses, amidst bay ice and fields, innarrow obscure passages, a distance of several miles.. We then discovered a continuation of the navigation, which, although contracted to the space of a few yards, in a chan- nel extending near a mile, between two immense sheets of ice, we determined to attempt to pass on. ‘The prospect was indeed appalling; but, perceiving indications of the enlargement of the passage, ra- ther than the contrary, we advanced under a press of sail, driving aside some disengaged lumps of ice that opposed us, and shortly accomplished our wishes in safety. Here, an enlivening prospect presented itself: to the extreme limits of the horizon, no interruption was visible, We made a predetermined signal to the ships we had left, in- dicative of our views. In two hours, however, our sanguine expectations of an immediate release, GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 315 received a check, for we then met with fields in _ the act of collapsing and completely barring our progress. As the distance across was scarcely a mile, and the sea to appearance clear beyond it, the interruption was most tantalizing. We wait- ed at the point of union, in the hope of the sepa- ration of the two fields; and on the morning of the 26th of May, our anxiety was happily re- lieved, by the wished-for division of the ice. The ship, propelled by a brisk wind, darted through the strait, and entered a sea, which we considered the termination of our difficulties. After steer- ing three hours to the south-eastward, as directed by the northern ice, we were concerned to dis- cover, that our conclusions had been premature. An immense pack opened on our view, stretching directly across our track. ‘There was no alterna- tive, but forcing through it: we therefore push- ed forward into the least connected part. By availing ourselves of every advantage. in sailing, where sailing was practicable, and boring * or _drifting, where the pieces of ice were too com- pact, we ai length reached the leeward part of a xX 4 * Boring, is the operation of forcing a ship through crowded ice by the agency of the wind on the sails. The impetus of , the ship is studiously directed against the opposing pieces, and 2 passage thereby effected. It can be performed only with fz- vourable winds. $16 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. narrow channel, in which we had to ply a consi+ derable distance against the wind. In performing this, the wind, which had hitherto blown a brisk breeze from the north, was increased to a strong gale: the ship was placed in such a critical si- tuation, that we could not for above an hour ac- complish any reduction of the sails, and she was thus alarmingly oppressed : while I was personal- ly engaged performing the duty of a pilot from the top-mast-head, the agitation and bending of the mast was so uncommon, that I was seriously alarmed for its stability. At length we were enabled to reef our sails, and for a while proceed- ed with less danger. We continued to manceuvre among the ice, according ‘as its separation was most considerable. Our direction was now east, then north for several hours, then easterly 10 or 15 miles ;— when, after eighteen hours of the most diffcult, and occasionally hazardous sailing, in which the ship received some hard blows from the ice ; after pursuing a devious course nearly ninety miles, and accomplishing a distance on a direct north-east course of about forty miles ; we found ourselves at the very margin of the sea, separated only by a narrow sea stream *,. The waves were * Drift ice exposed to the swells of the sea, is generally com pacted into the form of an extensive stream of ice, which, owing to its situation, acquires the name of a sea stream of i 1Ce. GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. $17 so great without, and the wind so violent, that we dared not to hazard an attempt to force through this remaining obstacle. After waiting about thirty hours, on the morning of the 28th of May, the weather cleared, and the wind abated. ‘The sea stream, which, the preceding day, did not ex- ceed two hundred yards in breadth, was general- ly augmented to upwards of a mile broad. One place alone was visible, where the breadth was less considerable ; to that we directed our course, forced the ship into it, and by prompt and vi- gorous exertions, were enabled to surmount every difficulty, and accomplish our final escape into the free ocean. I have been thus minute in the relation of the progress of our extrication from an alarming, though not very uncommon, state of besetment, both for the purpose of giving a faint idea of the difficulties and dangers which those engaged in the whale-fishery have occasionally to encounter, and also more particularly to shew, the extraordi- nary manner in which ships are imperceptibly immured amidst the ice, by the regularity of its _ drift to the south-westward. From this narrative, it will appear, that, not- withstanding we only penetrated 25 or 30 miles on our ingress, and among ice most widely dis- posed ; yet, before our regress was accomplished, we had passed on a direct course a distance of 350r 40 leagues, whereof one-half was in con- 318 GREENLAND OR POLAR -ICE. tracted channels, amidst compact and formidable ice. And, further, that in less than a fortnight, while at rest with regard to the ice, our drift, as ascertained by astronomical observations, had been 60 or 70 miles to the south, and a distance equally as great to the west. , Effects of the Ice on the Sea and the Atmosphere. The profusion of ice in the polar regions, pro- duces peculiar and marked effects on the sur- rounding elements. ‘The sea, in consequence, ex- hibits some interesting characters, and the at- mosphere, some striking «phenomena. Of these, the power the ice exerts on the wind,—on aqueous vapour,—on the colour of the sky,—and on the temperature of the air, are the most prominent ; and of those, accordingly as the ice or swell has the ascendancy, the results are varied and re- cult . When the wind blows forcibly across a solid oni or ficid of ice, its power is much diminished ere it traverses many miles: Insomuch, that a storm will frequently blow for several hours on ene side of a field, before it be perceptible on the other; and, while a storm prevails in open water, ships beset within sight, will not experience one- half of its severity. It is not uncommon for the ice to produce the effect of repulsing and: balancing an assailing wind. / GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 319 Thus, when a severe storm blows from the sea, directly towards the main body of ice, an oppo- site current will sometimes prevail on the borders of the ice; and such conflicting winds have been observed to counterpoise each other, a few furlongs distant from the ice, for several hours: the vio- lence of the one, being, as it were, subdued by the frigorific repulsion and lesser force of the other. The effect resulting, is singular and manifest. 2. The moist and temperate gale from the southward, becomes chilled on commixture with the northern breeze, and discharges its surplus humidity in the thickest snow*. As the quan- tity of the snow, depends considerably on the difference of temperature of the two assimilating streams of air, it follows, that the largest pro- portion must be precipitated on the exterior of the main body of ice, where the contrast of temperature is the ereatest : and since that contrast must be gradually diminished, as the air passes over the gelid surface of the ice, much of its superabundant moisture must generally be discharged before it reaches the interior. Hence, we can account for * It is almost needless to say, that the foundation of this, and some of the following remarks, is derived from Dr Hur- _ ToNn’s ingenious Theory of Rain, an able and beautiful illustra- tion of which we have in Professor Lesiin’s Essay “ On_the Relations of Air to Heat and Moisture,” p. 122. 320 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. the fewness of the clouds,—the consequent bright- ness of the atmosphere,—and the rareness of storms, in situations far immured nati the north- ern ice. From this consideration, it might be supposed, that after the precipitation of a certain small depth of snow on the interior ice, the atmosphere could alone replenish its moisture from the same sur- face, and that whatever changes of temperature might occur, it could only discharge the same again: or, in other words, that the very same moisture would be alternately evaporated and de- posited, without a possibility of adding to a limited depth of snow. Now, this would assuredly be the case, if nothing more than the same moisture evaporated from the snowy surface of ice, were again deposited. But, it must be observed, that notwithstanding winds from the north, east, or west, may not furnish any considerable quantity of snow; and that although those warm and humid storms which blow from the south, may afford a large proportion of their humidity to the exterior ice; yet, as the temperature of the north- ern regions would be gradually elevated, by the long continuance of a southerly gale, the advance of the wind must in consequence be farther and farther before it be reduced to the temperature of the ice; and, therefore, some snow would con- tinue to be precipitated to an increasing ¢ and un- limited extent, GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE; $21 Hence, as winds blowing from the north must be replaced by air neither colder nor less damp, and as every commixture with warmer streams, must produce an increased capacity for moisture ; therefore, no wind can occasion a detraction of vapour from the circumpolar regions : on the con- trary, as the snow deposited on the interior ice by southerly storms, (from the nature of the circum- stances), must be derived from evaporations out of the sea; it is evident, that there must be an in- crease of snow in the icy latitudes, and that we can- not possibly determine any limit beyond which it may be affirmed that no snow can be deposited. 3. On approaching a pack, field, or other com- pact aggregation of ice, the phenomenon of the ace-blink is seen whenever the horizon is tolerably free from clouds, and in some cases even under a thick sky. The ice-bdink consists in a stratum of a lucid whiteness, which appears in that part of the atmosphere next the horizon. It is evidently occasioned thus: those rays of light which strike on the snowy surface of the ice, are reflected in~ to the superincumbent air, where they become visible ; but the light which falls on the sea is in a great measure absorbed, and the superincumbent air retains its native ethereal hue. Hence, when the ice-blink occurs under the most favourable circumstances, it affords to the eye a beautiful and perfect map of the ice, 90 or 30 miles beyond the limit of direct vision, but less distinct in pro- 322 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE portion as the air is hazy. The ice-blink not on: ly shews the figure of the ice, but enables the ex- perienced observer to judge, whether the ice thus pictured be field or packed ice: if the latter, whether it be compact or open, bay or heavy ice. Field ice affords the most lucid blink, accompanied with a tinge of yellow; that of packs is more purely white; and of bay ice; greyish. The land, on account of its snowy covering, likewise occasions a blink, which is yellowish, and not much unlike that produced by the ice of fields. 4. The ice operates as a powerful equaliser of temperature. In the 80th degree of north lati- tude, at the edge of the main body of ice, with a northerly gale of wind, the cold is not sensibly greater than in the 70th degree, under similar cir- cumstances. tetas 5. The reciprocal action of the ice and the sea on each other, is particularly striking, which ever may have the ascendancy. If, on the one hand, the ice be arranged with a certain form of aggre- gation, and in due solidity, it becomes capable of resisting the turbulence of the ocean, and can with but little comparative diminution or break- ing, suppress its most violent surges. Its resistance is so effectual, that ships sheltered by it, rarely find the sea disturbed by swells. On the other hand, the most formidable fields yield to the » _ slightest grown swell, and become disrupted ‘into Fie ¢ a = GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. $25 thousands of pieces ; and ice of only a few weeks growth, on being assailed by a turbulent sea, is broken and annihilated with. incredible celerity. Ice, which for weeks has been an increasing pest to the whale-fisher, is sometimes removed in the space of a few hours. The destruction is in many eases so rapid, that to an inexperienced observer, the occurrence seems incredible, and rather an 11- lusion of fancy, than a matter of fact. Supposea ship immoveably fixed in bay ice, and not the smallest opening to be seen: after a lapse of time sufficient only for a moderate repose, imagine a person rising from his bed,—when, behold, the in- surmountable obstacle has vanished! Instead of a sheet of ice expanding unbroken to the verge of the horizon on every side, an undulating sea re- lieves the prospect, wherein floats, the wreck of the ice, reduced apparently to a small fraction of its original bulk! ‘This singular occurrence, I have more than once been a witness to. That ice should be forming or increasing, when exposed to the swells of the ocean, while the an- -nihilation of bay ice is so sudden and compicte, might seem an anomaly or impossibility, were the circumstances passed over in silence. It raust be observed, that the operation of a swell is merely to rend the bay 1 ice. 1 pieces, while its cestruc- tion is principally effected, by the attrition of those pieces against each other, and the wash- B24 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. ing of the wind-lipper*. Herein the essential difference consists : pancake ice is formed in masses so small and so strong, that the swell will not di- vide them ; and the effect of the wind-lipper is repressed by the formation of sludge on its sea- ward margin. Hence, whenever ice does occur in agitated waters, its exterior is always sludge, and its interior pancake ice, the pieces of which gradually increase in size with the distance from the edge. : When a swell occtirs ih crowded, yet detached ice, accompanied with thick weather and storm, it presents one of the most dangerous and terrific Nnavigations that can be conceived. ‘Each lump of ice, by its laborious motion, and its violent con- cussions of the water, becomes buried in foam, which, with its rapid drift, and the attendant horrid noise, inspires the passing mariner with the most alarming impressions ; whilst the scene be- fore him, is, if possible, rendered more awful, by his consciousness of the many disasters which have been occasioned by similar dangers. f * The first effects of a breeze of wind on smooth water is by seamen, called mind-lipper. From it, all high seas are derived, and it is always apparent on their surfaces, Oil cast upon the sea, suppresses the wind-lipper, and a similar effect is produced by the formation of ice sludge in the sea, from suddeni exiouee cold. im GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 325 On the approximations towards the Poles, and on the possibility of reaching the North Pole. Although I am sensible, that already I have trespassed too much upon the Society, in the un- expected extent of this paper, I nevertheless can- not think of dismissing the subject, without com- pleting my original plan, by noticing the com- parative approximations towards the Poles, which have been effected on different meridians ; and at the same time offering, with diffidence, a few re- marks on the possibility of travelling to the North Pole, together with a sketch of the reasoning on _ which the probability of success depends. Hirst, It has already been remarked, that the 80th degree of north latitude, is almost annually accessible to the Greenland whale-fishers, and that this latitude, on particular occasions, has been exceeded. On oneof the first attempts which ap- pears to have been made to explore the cireumpolar regions, in the year 1607, Henry Hupson pene- trated the ice on the north-western coast of Spitz- bergen to the latitude of 80° 23'N. In 1773, Ga Ba Puipps, on “* a voyage towards the North role, ”» advanced on a similar track to 80° 37’ of orth latitude. In the year 1806, the ship Re- Miition ies Whitby, commanded ° by my Father, (whose « extraordinary perseverance and nautical a- bility are w well appreciated by those in the Green- VOL a1." ne $26 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. land trade, and proved by his never-failing suc- cess), was forced, by astonishing efforts, through a vast body of ice, which commenced in the place of the usual barrier, but exceeded its gene- ral extent by at least a hundred miles. We* then reached a navigable sea, and advanced with- out hinderance, to the latitude of 814° north, a distance of only 1'70 leagues from the Pole ; which is, | imagine, one of the most Sabie: ap- proximations yet realised. In Hudson’s Bay, between the. longitudes of 50° and 80° west, ships can seldom advance be- yond the 74th degree of north latitude; and on- ly one instance is upon record, wherein the ex- — tremity of the bay in 78° N. has been explored. In Behring’s Straits, the adventurous Cook, on the meridian of 1611° W. (very near the Ameri- can coast), advanced to the latitude of 70° 44’ N., on the 18th of August 1778; and on the @6th, in longitude 176° W., they were stopped by the ice in 69° 45’ N. week his lamentable death, Captain CLerke directed the proceedings in the following year, and reached the latitude of 70° 33’ on the 18th of July, being about four leagues or of their former advance. The southern hemisphere, towards the Pole, was likewise explored by Captain Coox on a fal anpouaniea my Father on this voyage, in the capacity @i chief mate. ‘ fe: GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 327 former voyage, on various meridians, and with in- defatigable perseverance. On his first attempt in 1772, they met with ice in about 51° south, and longitude 21° east. They saw great fields in 55° south on the 17th of January 1773, and on February the 24th, were stopped by field-ice in 62° south latitude, and 95° east longitude. Again, on the second attempt in December of the same year, they first met with ice in about 62° south latitude, and 172-173° west longitude; and on the 15th, saw field ice in latitude 66°.- On the 30th of January 1774, they were stopped by immense ice-fields in latitude 71° 10’ 30”, and 107° west longitude, which was the. most con- siderable approximation towards the South Pole that had ever been effected. Thus, it appears, that there subsists a remarkable difference between the two hemispheres, with re- gard to the approach of the ice towards the equa- ~ tor; the ice of the southern, being much: less ‘pervious, and extending to much lower latitudes, than that of the northern hemisphere :— That the 73d or 74th degree of north latitude can be attained at any season of the year; where- as the 71st degree of south latitude, has been but once passed: —And, That, whilst the antarctic ne plus ultra appears - to be the 72d degree of latitude, that of the arctic extends full 600 miles further ; the nearest ap- Pay y g 328 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. proach to the South Pole being a distance of 1130 miles, but to the North, only 510 miles. Lastly, With regard to the probability of ex- ploring the regions more immediately in the vici- nity of the Pole than has yet been accomplished, or even of reaching the Pole itself,—I anticipate, that without reference to the reasoning on which the opinion is grounded, it might be deemed the frenzied speculation of a disordered fancy. I flat- ter myself, however, that I shall be able to satisfy the Society, that the performance of a journey, over a surface of ice, from the north of Spitz- bergen to the Pole, is a project which might be undertaken, with at least a probability of suc- cess. It must be allowed, that many known difficul- ties would require to be surmounted,—many dan- gers to be encountered,—and that some circum- stances might possibly occur, which would at once annul the success of the undertaking. Of these a classes of objections, the following strike me as ~ being the most formidable, which, after briefly stating, I shall individually consider, in their order : 1. The difficulty of performing a journey of 1200 miles, 600 going and 600 returning, over a surface of ice,—of procuring a sufficient convey- ance,—and of carrying a necessary supply of pro- visions and apparatus, as well as attendants, & GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 329 The difficulty may be encreased by (a.) Soft snow ; (b.) Want of the continuity of the ice ; (c.) Rough ice; and (d.) Mountainous ice. 9. The difficulty of ascertaining the route, and . especially of the return, arising from the perpen- dicularity of the magnetical needle. 3. Dangers to be apprehended, © (a.) From excessive cold ; (6.) From wild beasts. 4. Impediments which would frustrate the scheme : (a.) Mountainous land ; _ (b.) Expanse of sea ; (c.) Constant cloudy atmosphere. -1. It is evident that a journey of 1200 miles, under the existing difficulties, would be too ardu- — ous a task to be undertaken and performed by human exertions alone, but would require the as- 'Sistance of some fleet quadrupeds, accustomed to the harness. _ Rein-deer, or dogs, appear to be the most ap- propriate. If the former could sustain a sea voyage, they might be refreshed on the northern part of Spitzbergen, which affords their natural | Y3 330 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. food. ‘They could be yoked to sledges framed of the lightest materials, adapted for the accommo- dation of the adventurers, and the conveyance of the requisites. The provisions for the adventurers, for compactness, might consist of portable soups, potted meats, &c., and compressed lichen for the rein-deer. ‘The instruments and apparatus, might be in a great measure confined to indispensables, and those of the most portable kinds; such as tents, defensive weapons, sextants, chronometers, magnetic needles, thermometers, &c. | As the rein-deer is, however, a delicate animal, difficult to guide, and might be troublesome if thin or broken ice were required to be passed,— dogs would seem in some respects to be preferable. In either case, the animals must be procured from the countries wherein they are trained, and drivers would probably be required with them. The journey might be accelerated, by expanding a sail to every favourable breeze, at the same time, the animals would be relieved from the oppression of their draught. It would appear from the reputed speed of the rein-deer, that, under favourable cir- cumstances, the journey might be accomplished ~ even in a fortnight, allowing time for rest and ac- cidental delays. It would require a month or six weeks with dogs, at a moderate speed; and, in the event of the failure of these animals on the journey, it does not seem impossible that the re- GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, 331 turn should be effected on foot, with sledges for the provisions and apparatus. (a.) Soft snow would diminish the speed, and augment the fatigue of the animal; to avoid which, therefore, it would be necessary to set out by the close of the month of April or the begin- ning of May; or at least, some time before the severity of the frost should be too greatly relaxed. (b.) Want of continuity of the ice, would cer- tainly occasion a troublesome interruption; it might nevertheless be overcome, by having the -sledges adapted to answer the purpose of boats * ; and it is to be expected, that although openings amidst the ice should occur, yet a winding course might in general be pursued, so as to prevent any very great stoppage. (c.) Many of the most prodigious fields, are entirely free from abrupt hummocks, from one extremity to the other, and field ice, as it appears in general, would be easily passable. | (d.) The degree of interruption from moun- tainous ice, would depend on the quality of its surface. If, as is most probable, it were smooth, and free from abrupt slopes, it would not prevent the success of the expedition. ¥4 * The slédges might consist of slender frames of wood, with the ribs of some quadruped, and coverings of water-proof skins, or other materials equally light. 382 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. . 2. The direct route would be pointed out, for some part of the way at least, by the magnetic needle ; and when its pole should be directed: to- wards the zenith, should that position ever ob- tain, the sun would be the only guide. Or, the position of the true north being once ascer- tained, three sledges on a line, at a convenient distance apart, might enable the leading one to keep a direct course. A chronometer would be an indispensable requisite, as the opportunity for lunar observations could not be expected to occur suf. ficiently often. Were the Pole gained, the bear- ing of the sun at the time of noon, by a chrono- meter adjusted to the meridian of North-west Spitzhergen, would afford a line of direction for the return ; and, the position in regard to longitude (were the sun visible) could be corrected, at least twice a-day, as the latitude decreased. The de- grees of longitude being so contracted, any requir- — ed position would be pointed out by the watch, as the greatest precision. 3. (a.) Among the dangers to be cond the coldness of the air stands prominent. As, however, the cold is not sensibly different, between the latitudes of 70° and 80° with a strong north wind, it may be presumed that at the Pole itself, it would be very little more oppressive than at the borders of the main ice, in the 81Ist.degree of north latitude, under a hard northerly gale: And — since this cold is supportable, that of the Pole may be deemed so likewise. ‘The injurious effects GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE, 338 of the severity of the weather, might be avoided by a judicious choice of woollen clothing ; the ex- ternal air being met by an outward garment of varnished silk, and the face defended by a mask, with eyes of glass. The exterior garment, would, at the same time, be water-proof, and thus capable of shielding the body from accidental moisture. (b.) The white bear is the only ferocious ant- mal known to inhabit those regions, and he rarely makes an attack upon man. At any rate, he might be repulsed by any offensive weapon. And, as the prey of the bears is scarce in the most northern latitudes, they would not probably occur in any abundance, 4. Hitherto no insurmountable objection has been presented: a few serious obstacles, should they occur, remain to be considered. (a.) Mountainous land, like mountainous ice, would check the progress of the expedition, in proportion to the ruggedness of its surface, and the steepness of its cliffs. Its occurrence would, nevertheless, form an interesting discovery. (6.) From the pretended excursionsof the Dutch, many have believed that the sea at the Pole 1s free from ice; were this really the case, the circum- Stance would certainly be an extraordinary one ; but I consider it too improbable to render it ne- cessary to hazard any opinion concerning it. 334 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. (c.) From the facts stated in pages 319, 320 of this paper, I think we derive a sanction for calcu- lating on clear weather at all times but with south- erly storms ; and, as these occur but rarely, the pro- gress of the journey would not probably be sus- pended by an obscure sky, except for short periods and at distant intervals. | Notwithstanding I have now distinetly con- sidered every obvious objection and difficulty to be surmounted, I am nevertheless sensible, that in the realising of any project for discovery, whether at sea or on land, there will occur many adventi- tious circumstances which may tend to mar the progress of the best regulated expedition. There- fore, it may not be improper to confirm and strengthen the whole, by directing the attention, to what has been done, in journeying under dif- ficulties which may bear a comparison with the undertaking here alluded to, and occasionally un- der circumstances the most unfavourable for suc- cess. Ist, When treating of icebergs, I alluded to the journey of ALExzE1 Markorr, in which it ap- pears, that he performed near eight hundred miles across a surface of packed ice, in the spring of 1715, in a sledge drawn by dogs; and conse- quently, that he might be supposed to have en- countered the principal difficulties that could be expected in the proposed scheme, whilst we have the advantage of improving by his experience. GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 335 2d, Speaking of the south-western tendency of the ice, I have also noticed, the loss of several of the Dutch Greenland fleet in 1777, from which we learn, that part of the unfortunate suffering crews, under every privation of provision and clothing, and exposed to the severity of an arctic winter, accomplished a journey on foot, along the coasts of Old Greenland, from the east side near Staten-Hook to the Danish settlements on the west, a distance of near a hundred leagues. 3d, On contrasting the projected polar jour- ney with the catalogue of marvellous occurrences, and wonderful. preservations which are exhi- bited in the records of maritime disasters *, the difficulties of the undertaking, in a great measure vanish, and its dangers are eclipsed, by the won- derful results which necessity has in various in- stances accomplished. Note.—Ir may not be improper here to observe, that I am aware that the preceding remarks are capable of considerable extension, and of various , * See “ Shipwrecks and Disasters at Sea.” 336 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. illustrations. The consideration, that I was writ- ing for a learned society, prevented the necessity of entering into the mnutie of explanation, which would have been requisite in a communication intended for the world at large. For instance, I did not think it needful that I should inform the Society how the course of a journey to the Pole, in the event of the failure of the magnetic needle, might be regulated by the varying position of the sun; or, in what way the longitudinal situations would be determined by the chronometer. Ina work which Iam now preparing for the press, the preceding paper, amplified and illustrated, is intended to be introduced. My plan emDrages the ne general heads : I. An account of the ‘progress of discovery in the North, with a synopsis of the numerous voyages undertaken in search of a Northern Passage to India. II. An account of West Greenland :— its ex- tent, appearance, natural history, aborigines, colonies, manners and customs of the inhabi- tants, &c. III. East Greenland or Spitzbergen :—its ap- pearance, natural history, harbours, icebergs, ’ mountains, colonisation, products, &c. GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. 337 . IV. The natural history of the Greenland Seas; containing, 1st, An account of the Greenland Sea :—its si- tuation and extent, temperature both at the sur- face and at considerable pe currents, tides, depth, &e. 9d, The Polar Ice:—its varieties and eer ! ties, mode of generation, &c.:—its extent, s tuation, and variation ; with remarks on the prac- ticability of performing a journey over the ice to the North Pole. _ 8d, The Atmosphere :—its changes of pressure, &c. :—its temperature, probable temperature of the North Pole, &c.:—Wuinds, their duration and frequency of storms in the spring of the year, &c. :—Meteors, clouds, snow, and its numerous crystallisations, hail, frost-rime, aurora borea- lis, &c. 4th, The ‘oology :-—the whale and its va- rious genera:—the walrus, seal, bear, &c.:— birds :—non-descript mollusca, and other marine animals, &c. fer V. The History of the Northern Whale-Fish- al, those principles on which a successful fishery des ery; shewing its progress, with an account of pends, &c. ‘VI. The History of the Minor Fisheries :—for ‘seals, walruses, &c.:—-with the method of kill- 338 GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. ing these and other animals, inhabitants of the Greenland Seas. VII. A Journal of a Greene Whale-Fishing Voyage. : VIII. Appendix ; containing, a series of Me- teorological Tables :—Tables of the Variation of - the Compass, Latitudes, and Longitudes, &c. from original observations, XXII. On the Mineralogy of the Redhead i Angusshire. 3 By the Rev. Joun Fiemine, D.D. F. RS. E. (Read 4th February 1815.) In the beginning of the month of August last, I spent a few days at Aberbrothick in Angusshire, for the purpose of examining the marine vermes of that part of the eastern coast of Scotland. In my walks along the shore, I observed some ap- pearances in the stratification of the rocks, which attracted my notice, and from the notes taken of these at the time, I have drawn up the following observations, which I submit to the consideration of the Society. Between the Bay of Aberbrothick on the south- west, and Lunan Bay on the north-east, the coast is extremely bold and rocky ; and for the space _ of six miles, presents to the German Ocean, pre- * 340 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. cipitous, broken, and indented cliffs. The high- est point, where there is a precipice rising from the sea to the height of 254 feet, is at the flag- staff to the eastward of the House of Ethie, the seat of the Right Honourable the Earl of North- esk. All the rocks of this promontory, are of a reddish colour, and from that circumstance, it has been denominated by mariners the Redhead ; the _ inhabitants of the district, however, restrict the name to the high tocks which appear to the south of the ruins of St Murdoch’s Chapel. From this promontory, inland, the surface falls with a gentle slope, and at last forms the plain through which two small rivers, the Brothick and the Lunan flow. The Brothick Burn, towards its mouth, runs in a southerly direction, and falls into the sea at the Town of Aberbrothick, commonly | called Arbroath. It winds its course through a nar- row valley, which 1s from one totwo hundred yards in breadth. The sides of the valley, which con- sist of strata of sand, of coarse sand and gravel, though much waved, are in general parallel to each other, the salient angles of the one corresponding with the receding angles of the other ; the bottom consists of fine earthy sand and gravel. In the centre of this valley, there is a conical hill, on the summit of which the ancient Church of St Vigeans is situated. This hill is composed of soft sand- stone, which is covered to the top with a thick coating of gravelly mould. ti MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 841 The Brothick Burn appears to have formed its own channel in the soft alluvial strata through. which it flows. The bottom of the valley is of considerable extent, when compared with the nar- row bed which contains the river in the drought of summer ; but when the stream is swollen with autumnal floods, or choked with the ice and snow of winter, the valley itself, unless prevented by artificial barriers, would then become the bed of the river, as its smooth surface indicates it at one time to have been. When the present bed of the river shall have acquired sufficient depth to contain all the water which at any season flows in it, then a new flat will be formed on each side, and the banks will present that terraced appearance which may be observed on the sides of many streams which have scooped out their channels in loose and soft materials... The opposite banks of rivers, may always be expected to be parallel where the mate- rials of which they are formed are similar in com- | position: having obtained such a relation at first, they have been exposed to the influence of the same destructive agents in every subsequent period. The beds of gravel and sand, which form the banks of the Brothick, are connected with similar depositions, which occur in the neighbourhood. Near the Town of Aberbrothick, there are nu- merous hills of gravel, which appear to havea north-westerly direction. The gravel is frequent- ly coarse, and consists of rounded masses of granite, VOLN_I1, 7, a 342, MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. gneiss, mica-slate, quartz, porphyry, greenstone, basalt, and red-sandstone, with interposed layers of fine sand. It sometimes alternates with beds of sand composed of small particles of quartz and felspar, and numerous scales of silvery mica. The gravel is in many places so firmly cemented, that the hand is unable to separate the individual masses, and the particles of sand often cohere, and form a sandstone which can be divided into strata by means of a knife. Sometimes beds of clay oc- cur, which have a laminated structure, and indi- cate a deposition from a fluid but little agi- tated. | The eastern base of these hills, is truncated, and the intervening space between their extremi- ties and the shore 1s level, and consists of a soil composed of gravel, mixed with the remains of sea-shells. ‘The lower or southern portion of the Town of Aberbrothick, rests upon strata of sea- borne gravel, mixed with the fragments of seve- ral species of littoral shells. ‘This portion is ele- vated but a few feet above the ordinary rise of spring-tides, and is liable to inundations of the sea during great storms. It appears, that at a former period, a considerable portion of land had been gained from the sea, especially along the coast to the south of the town; but the currents having changed, Neptune is again resuming his dominion over those tracts which he formerly relinquished, MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD... 843 and is at present making very rapid encroachments upon the land. The Zunan Burn, which empties i008 into the German Ocean at the head of Lunan Bay, runs in a valley in every respect similar to the Brothick. The alluvial hills which occur towards its mouth, have been greatly altered in form by the opera- tions of agriculture, but they evidently present the same abrupt terminations towards the sea, which we have noticed above. They are de- fended from any farther encroachments of that element, by a number of low ridges of drifted sea- sand, closely held together by the roots of the Elymus arenarius, Arundo arenaria, Carex are- naria, and Triticum junceum. The structure of these hills of gravel, deserves very particular consideration. Far from being a mere heap of rubbish, the beds of sand are often continuous and of considerable extent, and the rolled masses of gravel are deposited in beds with considerable regularity. These beds do not al- ways possess a horizontal position, but present in their stratification a few of those appearances which are usually considered as peculiar to the _ More ancient strata. ‘Thus, on the banks of the Lunan, about a mile east from Kennell, I observed ‘beds of sand and fine gravel, inclining to the hori- zon, at an angle of 20°; and on the extremities of these beds, were deposited strata of gravel, dip- ping in an opposite direction at an angle of 15°. | Z2 $4.4 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. Another appearance of the same kind presented it- self to the north-east of the church of St Vigeans, in an opening made in a field for the purpose of obtaining gravel for the roads. Immediately un- der the soil, there is a horizontal bed of gravel, containing thin layers of sand, resting upon the ex- tremities of strata of coarse sand, dipping E. S, E. at an angle of 24°. It is assumed as a first principle in the Hut- tonian Theory, that all the mineral strata at their formation, were deposited on a horizontal plane. Loose materials, it is said, such as sand and gravel subsiding at the bottom of the sea, and having their interstices filled with water, possess a kind of fluidity, and therefore would arrange them- selves in horizontal layers. The figure of the lower beds deposited on an uneven surface, would be affected by two causes, the nature of that sur- face on the one hand, and the tendency to hori- zontality on the other; but the latter cause would finally prevail. ‘‘ Whenever, therefore, we meet with rocks disposed in layers quite parallel to one another, we may rest assured, that the inequali- ties of the bottom have had no effect, and that no cause has interrupted the statical tendency *.”” But the phenomena described above furnish evidence by which this assumption may be successfully resisted. Here are parallel strata of coarse sand, * Tllustrations of the Huttonian Theory, p. 43. MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 345 having an inclination of 24°, which have been deposited from a state of suspension in water. Had the water been in a state of rest, these strata must have assumed a horizontal position, but if we suppose the water to have been in a. state of motion, we have then the influence of a new agent to consider, which may Jead.us to the con- clusion, that the motion of a fluid depositing sus- pended earthy matter, modifies the statical ten- dency of that matter to horizontality. If the cause now mentioned be considered capable of giving an inclined position of 24° to strata form- ed from coarse materials mechanically suspended in water, at what angle are we to fix the maxi- mum of its effect, at 24° or at O°? and are we to confine its operation to the construction of the recent beds of gravel and sand, or suppose its in- fluence to have been exerted at the formation of the more ancient strata of the globe? We may add, that these beds of gravel occur at the eastern extremity of the great valley of Strath- more, and in all probability were formed at the time when this valley was an inland lake. The masses of gravel are neither smooth on the surface, nor regularly rounded, as we always observe in sea- gravel. It is also worthy of notice, that similar beds of gravel and sand had been formed in the ‘same place, but at a period more remote, which now appear in the form of solid rock. At Wormy Hills, near Aberbrothick, there is a mineralwell. The water is astrong chalybeate, and — Z3 346 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. deposites around its margin and that of the stream which runs from it, a copious ferruginous preci- pitate. I was surprised to find in the ochry mud, within a few yards of the spring, two species of fresh-water shell-fish, the Cyclas cornea, and the Lymnea putris. Having thus offered a few remarks on the form and structure of the Alluvial strata, I shall now state the observations which I had an opportunity of making on the Fleetz rocks of the district. The general line of bearing which these rocks observe, . is from east to west, varying in some places a few degrees to the north of east, and the south of west, The dip is towards the south, at various angles, but seldom below ten or above twenty-five de- grees, and the strata preserve nearly the same de- | gree of thickness in the different parts of their course. ‘The rock which we shall first describe, 1S, 1.—ReEp Sanpstone. The rocks of sandstone appear on the coast to the south of the harbour of Aberbrothick, and extend in a north-easterly di- rection to the flag-staff at Ethie, including a space of nearly five miles. Onthe great scale, they may be considered as forming one great bed, nearly two miles in thickness, divided into regular strata, MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 347 some of these exceeding four feet, others only a few lines in thickness. ‘These strata are divided by perpendicular rents, (or backs as they are termed by the quarrymen,) which run at right angles to the line of bearing, are parallel to one another, and often cause the rock to exhibit some- what of a columnar appearance. ‘This structure has enabled the sea to make great encroachments, and has contributed to give to the scenery its characteristic feature of boldness. When the sea undermines the base of these angu- lar masses, they fall with a tremendous crash, and leave the newly exposed surface of the rock a mural precipice. But it often happens, that the upper portionsof the columns are too firmly wedged by the surrounding rock to allow them to be dis- placed, so that the inferior portions only give way, and in this case, a small cave is formed, which is very speedily ula by the surf of an exposed and stormy coast In the Be ourory of the Redhead, there are a number of caves situated in the rocks of sand- stone, and some of them are of considerable mag- nitude. ‘These aflord the seal and the otter a safe retreat during the breeding season, enable the superstitious natives to contemplate the ghastly spectres of Pandzmonium, and have been sup- posed to exhibit to the geologist a proof of the sea having formerly exerted its influence at a higher level than the ordinary rise of its present Z 4 a 345 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. tides. The floors of many of these caves being elevated above high-water mark, have led some to infer a rising of the land or a depression of the level of the sea, subsequent to the period of their formation,—suppositions equally gratuitous and unnecessary. If a small cavity is once formed in the soft sandstone, (and caves are always situated in the softer parts of the strata), within the reach of the tide, it will speedily be hollowed out into a cave by the action of the surge, and this cavity will increase in length and height more rapidly. than in breadth and depth. The innermost part offering the greatest resistance, will be assailed most violently by the force of the sea; and the floor will acquire an inclination, rising as the cave increases in length, in consequence of the direc- tion given to the progressive motion of the littoral waves by the sloping position of the shore. During a storm, the external opening will act like a funnel, and conduct each billow, with its ascending motion, to spend its destructive force in the farthest part of the caye, and there scoop out a recess greatly be- yond the reach of an ordinary tide. If the out- works of this recess are removed by the action of the sea, a cave will then open to-day, with its floor higher than the present level of the ocean. ‘There are many caves both on the east and west coasts of Scotland, which have formerly been excavated by the action of sea, but whose pavements at present are never washed by the tide. These, in all pro- MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 549. bability, owe their origin to the cause which I have here pointed out. | The strata of sandstone in this district, observe the general direction and inclination of the beds \to which they belong, unless in a few instances, \where the structure of individual strata presents marks of irregularity of deposition. Thus, to he south of the harbour of Aberbrothick, the hin laminze which form a stratum, are often un- roma among themselves, while the roof nd pavement of the bed are parallel to each F other. Appearances of this kind are very common every sandstone-rock, and in every alluvial hill f water-borne sand. In the last of these, such ppearances have been occasioned by irregularities m the motion of the fluid which gave the par- icles their arrangement. May we not infer the agency of a similar cause in the ‘production of similar appearances in strata of sandstone ? In one instance, I observed a little irregularity to prevail, not only in the dip, but also in the di- rection of the strata, but which irregularity, in the great scale, did not affect the general disposi- tion. To the south of the last-mentioned place, ‘strata of soft slaty sandstone stretch E. by N. and W. by S., and dip at angle of g0° S. by E. When proceeding in this direction, they are interrupted ‘by other strata of sandstone, coarser and more compact, which stretch from 8.8. W. toN.N.E, and dip at an angle of 50° to the E.S.E.. These cross strata, which extend in their line of bear- 350 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. ing upwards of a hundred yards, are included on all sides by the regular strata, observing the general dip and direction, except on the western side, where the direction changes from W. by S. to W.S.W. The regular strata at the north side of this interruption, are much intersected by veins of limespar*. Can we account for this ap- pearance, otherwise than by supposing, that a par- tial change in the direction of the depositing fluid occasioned this limited irregularity ; a disturbing force acting laterally or from below, must have changed at the same time the position of the ac- companying beds. Such irregularities in the stra- tification, ought to be studied with care, as they yield instruction to the miner, and afford the geo- logist a touchstone by which to try the truth of his theory. | To the south of the harbour of Aberbrothick, the strata of sandstone are from one to three feet in thickness, split into thin laminz, and the par- ticles cohere very feebly. When pieces of this rock are first raised from the bed, they can be cut into slices with a knife, or crumbled to pow- dei by the fingers; but after they have been ex- * I have here used the term calcareous-spar, because sanc- tioned by use and high authority. Perhaps the name Iime- spar, a compound of two English words, would be more appro= priate, “and preserve a greater uniformity in mineralogical no- menclature. MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 851 posed for some time to the action of the atmo- sphere, they acquire a considerable degree of hard- ness. When a fresh piece of the rock is put into a glass with water and agitated, the cohesion be- tween the particles is destroyed, and when the fluid is suffered to rest, the ingredients of the stone divide themselves into three portions. At the bottom is found a fine gritty sand, in the middle small scales of mica, and at the top a portion of argillaceous matter, which continues longest sus- pended in the water. The hardness which the stone acquires by exposure to the atmosphere, is probably owing to the desiccation of this last sub- stance. In these soft strata, water-borne balls of quartz, granite, gneiss, mica-slate, porphyry, and trap, lie scattered without order, and in some places they are accumulated in such quantity, as to constitute the rock to which Colonel Imriz has attached the very appropriate name of gravelstone. Sometimes these strata include beds of coarse sandstone, composed of angular grains of quartz and felspar with a little mica, which are less liable to detrition from the action of the sea. ia Immediately to the north of the harbour, simi- lar strata prevail, but the quantity of gravel im- bedded in the strata is much greater, and the beds of gravelstone more numerous. In some in- stances, these rounded balls, which are from a tine to a foot in diameter, are cemented to- 8352 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. gether by lime-spar, which occurs’in great abun- dance. oe LC (oh Proceeding about a mile to the north-east of the harbour, the high cliffs of the Redhead com- mence. Here the sandstone is of a more compact texture, and appears better able to resist the at- tacks of the waves, so that while the strata to the south have been worn down, and the bay of Aberbrothick now occupies their place, those to the north, still form high and lofty precipices, and yield but slowly to the action of the sea. In ex- amining bays and arms of the sea, we invariably find, as in this instance, that they are situated in softer strata than those which occur on the neigh- bouring projecting shores ; and the recks which form the base of valleys, are less compact in their texture than those which constitute the surround- ing hills,;—facts which prove, that many of the inequalities of the earth’s surface owe their exis- tence to the long-continued action of air and water. The sandstone on this part of the coast, is of a pale reddish-brown colour, minutely freckled with grey. It frequently presents narrow stripes and circular spots of ash-grey, or primrose-yellow, and sometimes whole beds of a white colour, may be observed. It appears to consist of minute grains of sand, with a few scales of mica, connected by a basis of iron-shot clay-marl. The particles of sand in some cases are so numerous, that the stone has a very coarse texture, and in many instances appears in the form of gravelstone. When this MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 353 sandstone is first raised in the quarry, it 1s very soft, and is easily cut with the working-tools ; after exposure for a short time to the atmosphere, it becomes a little harder, but is by no means a very durable material for buildings. When exposed in a wall or house, the surface which has been dressed with the chisel, remains entire until the portion immediately beneath becomes disintegrated, when the external film falls off. After the arti- ficial surface has been removed, the particles crumble down in succession as they separate from the mass. Is it the pressure of the chisel in the dressing of the stone, which, bringing the par- ticles at the surface into closer contact, enables them to resist longer the influence of the atmo- sphere: Would it not be advisable to beat the surface of the stones with a hammer, before using them in building, in order to communicate the re- quisite durability? ‘The Old Abbey of Aberbro- thick is constructed of this kind of rock, and the mouldering surfaces of the stones make -the. ve- nerable ruins appear still more ruinous *. In several places, the rock is composed of blunt angular pieces of sandstone, imbedded in a basis of a similar composition.» This structure does not appear to the eye, uniess the stone has been ex- # ‘There was a considerable quantity of fibrous gypsum found s some time ago among the rubbish of this abbey. It may have — been found in the sandstone-rocks of the neighbourhood, but of this no proof exists at present. S54 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. posed for some time to the influence of the at- mosphere, the fresh fracture presenting a homo- geneous surface. These pieces, which appear at first sight to be fragments, are merely contempo- raneous portions of the rock; they present no rounded water-worn surface, and at one extremity, at least, pass by an insensible transition into the rock in which they are enveloped. The term sandstone-conglomerate, ought to be restricted to denominate this kind of rock, as it must either ‘mean sandstone in the form of fragments or balls, or sandstone in heaps. When the term includes the gravelstone of Colonel Imriz, it evidently has obtained too great a latitude of signification *. In all the preceding strata of sandstone, there occur beds of slate-clay, seldom above a foot in thickness, and of a similar colour to the surround- ing rock. The slate-clay is often in the form of angular pieces included in the sandstone, in which it also occurs in indistinct layers. ‘The longitu- dinal fracture is usually glimmering, the cross fracture dull. It passes, on the one hand, into * Limestone-conglomerate, in the restricted sense of the term, is a rock of frequent occurrence. It may be observed in Arthur’s Seat, at Innerkip in Renfrewshire, and near the Rumbljing Bridge in the county of Perth. In all these. situations, it appears to be an inmate of the old red sandstone formation. I consider Arthur’s Seat as a portion of this formation. Seve~ _ral facts in proof of eae may be found in Witirams’s Mineral Kingdom. j MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 355 _ fine-grained sandstone ; and on the other, into a mineral which may be termed compact clay. This mineral is of an ash-grey colour, some- times also reddish-brown ; fracture compact, even, passing into fine earthy; fragments indetermi- nately angular, rather blunt-edged ; translucent on the edges; dull; streak light-coloured ; soft, passing into semi-hard; easily frangible ; adheres a little to the tongue; rather heavy. When heated, and afterwards exposed fo the air, it crumbles down into a very coarse powder. This substance, which is probably a combination of silica and alumina, with a little iron, occurs in elobular-shaped masses, from half an inch, to nearly a foot in diameter. ‘These are compressed, with an irregular margin, and in general an un- even surface. ‘They lie on their sides in the beds of sandstone, especially where it passes into slate- elay, and often also where it is soft and micaceous. Although they occur insulated, yet they seem to preserve a regular direction in the beds in which they are included. The central parts of these Masses, are traversed by horizontal and vertical rents, which do not make their appearance at the surface. These rents are widest towards the centre, and are in general filled with limespar; sometimes completely, at other times, only in part. These balls appear to bear the same rela- tion to sandstone, which the septarium is known to bear to slate-clay in which it is usually imbedded. 856 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. In these globular concretions, which are much harder than the surrounding rock, different species of the shells termed borers, form their retreats. I observed the following :—Mytilus rugosus, Mya suborbicularis, Venus perforans, and Venus pul- lastra of the Testacea Britannica of Montacu. @.—SANDSTONE-CONGLOMERATE. The rock to which this name has been applied, consists of por- tions of the older rocks of granite, gneiss, mica- slate, quartz, porphyry, and hornblende. Theseare in the form of rounded balls, or blunt angular frag- ments, seldom above six inches in diameter. The interstices between the balls, are filled up with smaller fragments of similar materials, and the rock possesses a considerable degree of cohe- sion. Inthis rock, there are numerous narrow lines of sandstone, sometimes also thin beds parallel with the surface of the stratum which encloses them. Similar appearances are obsery- able in the hills of gravel. ‘This conglomerate, or gravelstone, occurs in two different situations. In the first, it alter- nates in beds with the sandstone, as we have already mentioned; and in the second, it occu- pies an unconformable position in regard to the sandstone. At the western extremity of the high cliffs, which terminate about a mile to the eastward of Aberbrothick, the strata of sand- stone rise with an inclination of 18°. ‘The ex- remities of these strata, are covered with a MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 857 miass of gravelstone, upwards of thirty feet in thickness, and extending in length a considerable way along the coast. The gravelstone is divided into horizontal strata, and contains numerous partial beds of sandstone. In one place, I ob- served in the gravelstone an angular mass of sand- stone, precisely similar to the beds of sandstone below the gravelstone, which mass was surrounds ed on all sides by calcareous-spar, or limespar, and the spar also filled up a small linear vein which penetrated to its centre. This fact incontestibly proves, that the sandstone below was formed some time before the gravelstone, and had even ac- quired a sufficient degree of induration to admit of fragments being detached, while the sharp edges of the fragments shew, that it had not travelled far from its original situation. The two rocks of gravelstone and sandstone, are separated by a well defined line, which also proves the posterior for- mation of the incumbent mass. In one, place, there is a small perpendicular rent in the inferior sandstone, wide towards the top, but becoming narrow, and at last terminating about four feet from the separating line, which divides the two rocks. Into the mouth of this rent, the smaller balls of the gravelstone have de- scended, and filled up the superior portion of the Cavity, and the finer particles of sand have filled up the inferior narrow portion. And it is re- markable, that the slaty fracture of the sandstone VOLs IL. i Aa 4 $58 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD: at the bottom of the vein, is. parallel with the sides of the fissure. ‘Lhe sandstone in the vein, is much impregnated with calcareous matter, and even contains interspersed crystals of calcareous-~ spar. ‘This is a very fine illustration of the theory of veins. | This conglomerate, in another place, appears in. an unconformable position with regard to the sandstone. A little to the south of the small fish- - ing village of Auchmithie, the common sandstone is suddenly intercepted bya vertical vein of Heavy- spar, nearly two feet in breadth; and on the other side of this vein, the gravelstone appears contain- ing many small beds of sandstone. This conglome- rate, which comes thus suddenly in contact with the sandstone, is seen to be in unconformable posi- tion, as at a little distance it rests its horizontal strata upon the extremities of the more inclined strata of sandstone. Similar appearances in the stratification, are observable in the beds of por- phyry and sandstone to the west of Dundee*. These two rocks which have now been -de- ‘scribed, must be referred to the class of mechani- eal deposits, as the eye is unable to discriminate between the sand and gravel, and the rocks of | sandstone and gravelstone, the form and structure of the beds beingthesame. Viewing them, there- - fore, in this light, whence have the materials, and * See p. 139. of this volume. we Md ge 4 & i) fs a MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 359 whence the cementing matter been derived? The origin of the former, is easily ascertained, as they consist of water-worn fragments of the ancient strata. ‘The cementing matter of the conglomerate, is in some cases calcareous-spar ; but in general the larger balls rest in a basis, consisting of minute grains of quartz and felspar, without any cement visible to the naked eye. The cohesion in this case, may be owing to disseminated, clayey, or _ferruginous matter, with which the water may have been charged during the period of deposi- tion, assisted by the great pressure to which the materials must have been subjected, both from. the superincumbent mass of water, and the weight of the materials of the superior strata. That the waters, during the deposition of this portion of the floetz class, were charged with ferruginous matter, is evident from the colour which characterises the formation, in whatever quarter of the globe it has been discovered, and which is not generally ob- served in the sandstone of any subsequent period. The quantity of clayey marl, which forms the basis of many of the strata of sandstone, may be regarded as in its original state, and may be view- /ed as bearing the same relation to the grains of sand and gravel, as compact limestone does to the animal relics which it encloses, The sand and | organic remains, must be considered as mechanical deposits, the former unaltered, the latter changed : by'he mysterious process of lapidification. fA Ye i. 5 ‘JNA | 360 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. These appearances of the sandstone-conglome-— rate and gravelstone, seem to indicate the opera- tion of a disturbing force, acting on the water, from which these beds were deposited, but of its nature or direction, we will probably forever re- main ignorant. I have before mentioned, that the rocks of sand- stone extend from Aberbrothick to the flag-staff at Ethie ; but to the north-east of the flag-staff, and near to the ruins of St Murdoch’s Chapel, these rocks terminate, and are succeeded by beds of trap, which form the cliffs on the shore to Lunan Bay, and towards Montrose. These rocks of trap, which are termed by the inhabitants scurdie, possess none of those perpendicular fissures which characterise the cliffs of sandstone, and hence towards the sea, they present a surface more irregular and broken. The beds are of considerable thickness, some- times upwards of ten feet, and at other places on- ly afew inches. Although somewhat irregular, yet the stratification can be distinctly traced, and it corresponds exactly with the sa andstone, both in direction and dip. This is very distinctly dis- played on the shore, where the line of junction is — visible ; and in the general direction of the rocks inland, numerous quarries being opened in the rocks of scurdie to obtain materials for repairing MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 361 the roads, and these mark the boundaries of the two rocks, Where the sandstone-rocks terminate, they are seen to rest upon a bed of porphyry-conglomerate. When this rock is fresh and untarnished by the weather, it presents a uniform surface ; but where it is beginning to decompose, its angular frag- ments become visible. ‘These are somewhat blunt in the edges, and generally pass imperceptibly in- to the basis in which they are imbedded, although at times, these pieces have a smooth surface on one or tivo sides, as if a little worn by attrition, while at the other extremity, they blend with the gene- ral mass. The whole bed is composed of the same kind of rock,—a claystone, with numerous crystals of earthy felspar. This bed is upwards of twenty feet in thickness, and rests upon a bed of slaty-sandstone-conglomerate, or a sandstone in apparent fragments, imbedded in a basis of a si- milar composition, and possessed of a slaty frac- ture. ‘The pavement of this sandstone, would have been invisible, had not a slp taken place, by which the strata are better exposed, and the sandstone is seen to rest upon a bed of porphyry- conglomerate, precisely similar to that which forms its roof. To this last bed of porphyry, succeed strata of amygdaloid, in many places pass- Ig into trap-tuff. , _ The amygdaloid varies much in its composition. The basis in some cases, appears to be wacke, in Aas S62 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. others claystone or compact felspar. It often as- sumes a homogeneous aspect, and passes into mas- sive compact felspar, felspar-porphyry, or por- phyritic-slaty-felspar. In other cases, the felspar passes into clinkstone, basalt, and greenstone, con- taining small specks of diallage. In this assem- blage, I observed several partial beds of fine- grained sandstone, of a grey, greenish, or brown colour. In some places, these occur in connected masses, upwards of a hundred yards in length and breadth, while they donot exceed a foot in thickness. It is impossible to consider these in any other light, than as beds of sandstone, originally deposited in the places they now occupy, as their direction is always conformable with the surrounding rock. Yn one place, 1 observed a partial bed of sand- stone, in the form of flat anastomosing branches 3 the intermediate spaces being filled with clay- stone-porphyry. In another place, the sand- stone was imbedded in felspar-porphyry, into which it passed by an insensible boundary, and included portions of the felspar, whose surfaces were intimately incorporated with the sand- stone. All these rocks, which I have mentioned as included in the amygdaloid, are seen to tra- verse it in the form of contemporaneous veins. Even the sandstone in one place formed a vein, intimately united with the amygdaloid at the sides, and having the direction of the slaty frac- ture parallel with the surface of the bed ; in this MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD, 363 respect differing from a true vein. It was about six inches in breadth, and could be traced for several yards. The vesicles of the amygdaloid, are frequently very small, but in general they are from half an inch to three inches in diameter, of a globular form, and in some instances compressed and club- shaped. ‘These lengthened vesicles observe no particular direction in the bed, being some- times parallel, and at other times perpendicular to its surface. When the rock is soft, these vesicles occur in greatest abundance ; where it is very hard and dense, they are seldom observed. These vesicles are filied with various substances, as limespar, quartz, flint, calcedony, jasper, and green-earth. ‘This last-mentioned substance of- ten fills up entirely the cavities, at other times on- ly partially. Quartz and calcareous-spar frequent- ly oecur together ; and the form of the crystal- ligation of the calcareous-spar is generally im- pressed on the quartz. Calcareous-spar and calce- dony are often associated together in the same cavity. ‘These balls of agate are completely in- sulated in the bed, and in general are sepa- rated from the rock by a thin film of green €arth or clay, so that with a blow they are readily detached. When in a state of decompo- Sition, the different concentric zones separate like the coats of an onion, each exhibiting all the fea- tures ef a perfectly hollow sphere. 3 Aad 364 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. The structure of this bed of amygdaloid, leads to the conclusion, that while a general disposition tostratification prevailed in the aqueous menstruum, there existed a number of partial spheres of aggre- gation. ‘Thus, while one portion of the fluid was depositing grains of calcareous-spar and quartz, and enclosing these with wacke, claystone or felspar ; another portion was depositing basalt, clinkstone and greenstone, together with nodules of flint, jasper, and calcedony, in the form of agate-balls, It appears evident from. simple inspection, that these agates must have formed a part of the ort- ginal composition of the rock, as the yesicles in which they occur, are in many places so nume- rous, that if empty, the rock could not sustain its own weight, much less the pressure of the super- incumbent strata. Had these agates acquired their form and structure from fusion by means of heat, the soft clay which often encloses them, and in many cases fills a portion of the same cavity, must have been melted at the same time, and the friable enclosing rock would now have exhibited in its superior induration some of the marks of ig- neous influence ; yet the clay continues loosely aggregated, and the enclosing rock, even where in contact with the agatey can be scratched with the nail. Besides, had these balls of agate ever been in fusion, we could not have expected to find, as we frequently observe, the fusible crystals of car- bonate of lime impressing their form on the almost MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. 865 infusible quartz, nor a large empty cavity occupy- ing the centre of the mass. The Wernerian hypothesis, which supposes these agates to have been formed by infiltration subsequently to the deposition of the bed, is equally liable to objections. Passing over the difficulty of accounting for the origin of these cells, by the extrication of air from the rock during its formation, we cannot conceive it possible for any flinty solution to have transuded through the pores of the soft bed on its way to fill the empty vesicles, without depositing some siliceous matter in these, and giving to the rock a greater degree of consolidation than it is known to possess. No umbilical cord of agate exists to point out the infiltration opening. And it is no uncommon thing to observe, in the same vesicle, a number of spherical concretions com- posed of concentric coats, and all enveloped in a continuous covering of agate, and surrounded with a crust of green-earth or iron-shot clay. These facts, in the history of agate-balls, prove their simultaneous formation with the rock in which they are enclosed. They in this respect re- semble the reniform ironstone which occurs in slate-clay, and the globular masses of flint im- bedded in chalk. These three phenomena have so many points of resemblance, that any theory formed for the explanation of one of them, ought S66 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. to explain the appearances exhibited by the others, : i There are no Veins of any consequence travers- ing the strata of this district. Veins of calcareous- spar and heavy-spar do occur, but present no cir- cumstances in their history deserving of particular notice. The rocks of the Redhead, appear to belong to the old red sandstone formation of Werner. This formation stretches across the island from the western to the eastern sea, and flanks on both sides the Grampian Mountains. On the south bank of the Murray Frith, it commences near Speymouth, and stretches towards Nairn, and includes valu- able beds of limestone, as at the Bridge of Find- horn and Inverugie near Duffus. The limestone, at the latter place, contains a considerable quan- tity of lead-glance, and irregular masses of firnt and calcedony. On the eastern coast, it com- mences near Stonehaven in Kincardineshire, and extends to the River Eden in Fifeshire. The southern boundary extends westward by Cupar, the north side of the Lomond Hills by Kinross, Alva and Kippen, towards Dunbarton. In the red sandstone of this district, are included many subordinate beds of porphyry, greenstone, clay- stone, clinkstone, compact felspar, amygdaloid, trap-tuff, slate-clay, and limestone. The rocks MINERALOGY. OF THE REDHEAD. 367 which I have described*, as occurring in the neighbourhood of Dundee, form a portion of this district ; and the Hills of Kinnoul and Moncrieff, near Perth, and the extensive range of the Ochils, all belong to the same formation with the red sandstone, and occupy a place in it in the form of beds. | | ‘The relations of the red sandstone of this dis- trict, with the older and newer rocks, are very dis- tinctly displayed. At its northern extremity, Colonel Imriz, in his valuable section of the Grampians from ,the plains of Kincardine to the summit of Mount Battock, has traced its junction with the transition rocks on which it rests. At its southern extremity in Fifeshire and Clack- manan, it is covered with the strata belonging to the independent coal formation. This fact of the red sandstone being the fundamental rock of the coal-field of the Forth, was first pointed out to me by avery intelligent observer, Mr R. Barn of Alloa, with whom I had an opportunity of examining that part of the Ochils, on which the Clackmanan coal-field rests, in the month of September 1807. I had previously been convinced, that the inde- pendent coal formation was newer than the red sandstone, from an examination of the coast of Renfrew and Ayr, (May 1807,) as I observed a * Page 138. of this volume. 865 MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD. junction of the two formations at Ardrossan Har- bour, where the strata of red sandstone stretch nearly north and south, and dip to the east at an angle of about 30°. Over these strata of red sandstone, are deposited beds of white- coloured sandstone, slate-clay, limestone, slate- coal, clay-ironstone, and greenstone. These are unconformable, as they stretch from east to west, and dip to the south. Near the line of junction, the newer strata are much inclined, but they approach nearer to the horizontal position, as they recede from the red sandstone *. The coal-field of the Forth, seems to rest in a cavity of the red sandstone, with which it is sur- rounded. On the north, 1t terminates at the red sandstone district of Fifeshire, and on the south, it is cut off by the same rock at Tranent; the red . sandstone there appearing, stretching eastwards by Haddington and Dunbar, westwards to the Pentland Hills, and south to the transition coun- try of the Lammermuir, where it ceases. Be- * In the red sandstone, no beds of coal have hitherto been discovered in the middle districts of Scotland. Mr Mackenzir, in his Mineralogy of the Ochil Hills, (Mem. Wern. Soc. vol. ii. p- 8.) mentions a bed of coal, as occurring under a red sand- stone, near the King’s Seat ; but this sandstone, I have reason to believe, is a member of the regular coal-field, although si- tuated at the base of the Ochils, MINERALOGY OF THE REDHEAD, 369 tween Haddington and Dunbar, the red sand- stone contains beds of limestone and clinkstone- porphyry, and probably the other trap rocks oc- curring in that neighbourhood, and considered at present as members of the newest floctz-trap _ formation. Manse of Flisk, Fifeshire,} 7th December 1814. 1 Cns7e *% XXII. Description and Analysis of a Specimen of Native Iron found at Leadhills. _ By Mr H. M. Dacosra, M. W. S. (Read 25th November 1815.) Tuis specimen of native iron, was found at Lead- hills in Lanarkshire, associated with galena. The history of its discovery, is as follows: The miners, on dressing a quantity of ore, were surprised to find, that a portion of it resisted repeated blows of the hammer ; this circumstance led them to examine it more particularly, when it proved to be a particular substance, which they immediate- ly carried to the mine-master, Professor Irvine. Tam told it is the second specimen of this rare mineral, which has been met with at Leadhills. Through the politeness of Professor Invinz, lam enabled to parent it to she Society. ANALYSIS OF NATIVE IRON, S71 External Characters. Its colour is intermediate between steel-grey and iron-black. It occurs massive. Its lustre is metallic and shining. The fracture is small-grained, uneven. It is opaque. It is malleable, but not in a high degree. It scratches glass. Specific gravity, 7.07. Mr Ai It is highly magnetic. Chemical Characters. It fuses ata white heat, with a lambent blue flame on its surface. It becomes soft when heated, but does not re- cover its original hardness on cooling. Analysis. It is needless to repeat the experiments, shew- ing its negative chemical qualities. The following are the principal features in the analysis. A. Eighteen grains of it heated gently in dilute muriatic acid dissolved slowly, giving out hydro- gen gas, slightly impregnated with sulphur. B. One grain ofa dark powder remained, which Fesisted the action of boiling acids. . This was bs = .- 872 ANALYSIS OF NATIVE IRON. fused with pure potash, when it dissolved in water, depositing pure silex on the addition of muriatic acid. C. Into the solution A, with excess of acid, pure ammonia was poured in excess, (after having ascertained that it neither contained copper nor lead); a precipitate was procured, which, when heated in contact with the air, weighed 37 grains. D. The filtered solution GC, did not give the slightest indication of metallic matter to hydro- sulphuret of potash or tincture of galls. Not a trace of nickel or magnesia could be discovered. A similar quantity was fused to dispel volatile matter, and dissolved in dilute nitric acid, which it did with great rapidity, and the copious evolu- tion of nitric oxide. The residue was boiled in muriatic acid, which dissolved all but one grain, which proved to be silex. Fhe same process was followed as with the first portion, and with the same results, except the loss of \ of a grain. It ° is therefore iron, nearly pure, consisting of Tron, - 163 Silex, tie | J Loss chiefly sulphur about, OF res 18 (0873: ) — XXIV. Mineralogical Observations in Galloway. By Dr Grierson. (Read 20th January 1816.3 Tus internal structure of the globe, pretty early attracted attention. On penetrating its surface to obtain the useful minerals, the singularity of some appearances could not fail to be observed. Shells and other organic remains, were discovered in situations where they could not previously have been expected. It was natural thence to speculate on the manner in which these’ bodies | should have come there ; for to suppose them to ae have been always so, or to have been originally | created in the state of waste and decay, in which they were then found, seemed too absurd to be admitted. This would have been equally un- philosophical as to have supposed, that our pre- sent peat-mosses were originally created full of VOLgil, ¥ '"» Bb 374 MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS those decayed and half-rotten trees, with which we now find them to abound. Something, therefore, it was necessary to de- vise, in order to afford at least a plausible expla- nation of the above and other similar phenomena. Theories in abundance, have been from time to time proposed, and have all had their day of vogue and admiration. But how few of them have been any thing else than mere fancies, or hypotheses pro- ceeding on by far too narrow an induction of parti- culars. Indeed, it would not be going too far to say, that the greater part of them have been purely _ gratuitous suppositions. What else can well be affirmed of the celebrated theories of Burnet, Burron, and many others? | The subject is abstruse and ah cane and tthe theorists have been adventurous. We are still probably very far from a true theory of the earth, or a knowledge of the real cause or causes. of geological phenomena. Nor is it very un- likely, that this knowledge may for ever elude our research, and that we may seek in vain for the actual manner in which the internal structure of our planet was produced. The bodies about which we reason, are in most cases concealed from our view; and it is only incidental glimpses of them, as it were, that we are able to obtain. It is only where the sea, or rivers, or mines, or quar- ries, have laid bare the rocks ; or where they are naturally exposed on the brows of mountains, in IN GALLOWAY. 375 ravines, of precipices, that we are able to examine them. Every geologist knows, that the points in which we can see and examine the rocks which constitute the crust of our globe, bear hardly any proportion to those from which we are altogether excluded, either by the ocean, or the soil which covers the earth, and, unfortunately for the science of geology, but fortunately for the existence of feologists, renders it a fit habitation for vegetable and animal life. Of the central parts, I believe, it must be confessed, that, in a geological point of view, we know little or nothing. What, then; shall we say of those, who, without having seen or examined one-millionth part of the earth’s surface, and certainly none of its central parts, take upon them to affirm, that such and such were the means by which it was brought into its pre-_ sent state, and that such and such agents exist and act in its central regions? 3 Of all the theorists of this sort, or intellectual adventurers, as we may call them, the late Dr Hutton of Edinburgh, was certainly the boldest, and the celebrated Werner of Freyberg,. is, I think, the most modest. The former took upon him to account, not only for the present appear- ance of the earth, but for all the revolutions it © had undergone in time past, as well as for all those it would undergo in time to come. He as- sumed as a cause, an agent of whose existence he could give no satisfactory proof, and of whose Bb2 376 MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS existence many have thought they could demon- strate the impossibility. ) WeRnER, on the contrary, took induction for his guide. He did not first form a theory, and then examine the mineral kingdom for its confir- mation; but he examined this kingdom, and thence drew a theory. He did, in short, for mineralogy what Linnzus had done for botany, and Newron for general physics. His first ob- ject was to distinguish, group, or arrange simple and compound minerals in cabinet specimens, ac- cording to their constant and most easily ascer- tained properties, and to introduce into the science a precise nomenclature. His next object was to trace the manner in which the rocks and other sub- stances forming the crust of the earth, were placed with respect to one another ; and to ascertain whe- ther nature here, as in other parts of her works, observes a regular system of arrangement. He found that she does, and that there is a regular system of arrangement among the mineral masses of the globe on the great scale. This part of the subject, he distinguished by the name of Geognosy, —a new science, entirely created by him, and which is nothing more than the inductive phi- losophy of Bacon, applied to the subject of geology. Having ascertained the nature and arrangement of the substances constituting the crust of the earth, WERNER next ventured to speculate on the IN GALLOWAY. 377 manner in which they had been formed ; and here, it must be confessed, that his conclusions are not always satisfactory. But while we admit this, we are at the same time prepared to maintain, that they are legitimate so far as they go, and af- ford, by much the most likely explanation that has hitherto been offered. The unsatisfactoriness of the theoretic conclusions of WERNER, arises not from the false and erroneous principles on which he proceeds, but from the difficulty of the subject, and the yet imperfect state of our in- duction. His opponents, themselves, have in ef- fect been compelled to admit this, and have ac- knowledged, that ‘* though he has not put us right, he has put us on the way of being right,”’ or has shewn us the proper mode of investigation in this subject,—a merit of no slight kind certain- ly, and in the highest degree honourable to the man who has had the good fortune to attain it. To set us on the right road, is doubtless the first step towards enabling us to reach the place of our destination. — Proceeding on his principles, WeRNER’s now numerous and widely scattered pupils have for these last thirty years been making rapid strides in geognosy. It is not much above the half of that period, since the science was, we may say, at all known in this island; and yet, by the genius and enterprize of many of the members of this Society and others, and particularly of our Pre- BDS 378 MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS sident, a great deal of the country has been ex- plored. We are already approaching a compe- tent knowledge of the structure of the British Isles. The purpose of this paper, is to attempt, in as far as my slender ability and information will per- mit, to promote the further progress of this very desirable object. I some time ago, and before ha- ving had the honour to be a member of this So- ciety, was flattered, by the approbation it was pleased to give, of a short paper of mine, read before it by the President, on the Extent, Na- ture, Position and Connection, of one of the Gra- nite Districts of Galloway. At present, it is my intention to detail a few observations, which I have since made on another of these districts. It is known that there are three of them, and that in all, the granite is at no great distance from the transition-rocks. It would, however, in the pre- sent state of our knowledge, be unwarrantable to say, that it is transition-granite. For though, at no great distance from the transition-rocks, yet, in only one place, viz. on the Burn of Palnure, as mentioned in my paper formerly alluded to, did I perceive the grey-wacke in actual contact with the granite. In all the other places, in so far as I have seen or heard of, there intervenes another rock betwixt them, totally different from either. But though the grey-wacke seemed to me to be in IN GALLOWAY. 379 contact with the granite in the Burn of Palnure, a little way below Craigdews, yet the former evi- dently rested on the granite, and not the granite an ite 3 ; I formerly found the middle granite district of Galloway, to consist of a nearly uniform mass of this rock; the felspar in general of a greyish- white colour, though in some varieties flesh-red, the mica black or brownish-black, and the quartz of the usual colour. No appearance of stratifica- tion; the highest mountain of the district, Cairns- muir of Fleet, rising to the height of 1737 feet above the sea level, and the whole district ten miles long from north to south, by about four broad from east to west. ‘The strata of the stra- tified rocks in the neighbourhood, I feund not to wrap themselves round the granite, or assume the mantle-shape, but to run all in the same general direction, viz. from north-east to south-west, and to dip away from the granite on both the east and the westside. I also, as before noticed, found, that every where that I could obs@rve, except in one place already mentioned, there intervenes be- twixt the transition-rock and the granite, another rock, consisting of felspar, quartz, and mica, ina yery compact form, and denominated by: Profes- sor JamEson, Compact or Fine-grained Gneiss. This compact or fine-grained gneiss, is in some places observable of a very great thickness. In one place, I saw it at least a mile from the gra- Bb4 880 MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — nite, but in other places it extends to only a few feet. | | The westernmost granite district of Galloway, or what has been called the Loch Doon one, is separated from the middle or Dee district, by about four miles of transition country. I was anxious to know, whether in this district, also, the same phenomena were observable that I had be- fore found in the other which I had examined. With a view to ascertain this, I left Brockloch on the Ist of September last, in company with Mr MacmiLian of Holm, to whose obligingness and hospitality, I had been several times before in- debted, and proceeded north-westward over a high range of transition hills, four miles towards Loch Doon. On coming into sight of this fine Jake, which we here did at a considerablé eleva- tion above its surface, we could not avoid being struck with the wild grandeur and beauty of the prospect. The forenoon was fine,—few clouds in the sky,—and the air nearly still. Before us lay: Loch Doon, stretching away toward the right in a serpentine line for nine miles, and beyond, to the N. W. in the distance, the rich county of Ayr, —the sea,—the Rock of Ailsa,—and the Isle of Arran, appeared. To the south, or on our left, and as it were beneath our feet, lay the upper end of Loch Doon, overhung by the steep and high mountains of Knockour, Lamlach, Corran, and Merrock, the latter greatly the most elevated IN GALLOWAY. 381 of the group, and supposed by Mr Macmitian to be the highest land in this quarter. It is pro- bably not less than 1750 feet high. The valley at the head of Loch Doon, is wild, and bleak, and sterile. No wood: heath and rocks almost solely appear to occupy the ground. A northern ex- posure; four human habitations only to be seen, and these merely thatched huts. In an inland, stands the Castle, a ruin, interest- ing from the wildness of its situation, and the antique simplicity of its appearance. It is of no great extent, and appears, like most of the old Scot- tish castles, to have been little more than a single tower. ‘The island on which it stands, is a bare granite-rock, of fifty or sixty yards in diameter, and which, the lake after a large fall of rain, or on the melting of the snow in winter, sometimes nearly overflows. The lake itself, as already stated, is nine miles long, stretching from about N.N.W. to 8.5. E., and is in some places nearly half a mile wide. It has no island of conse- quence, except that on which the castle stands, nor is there a tree or bush to be seen along its banks,—one wild scene of heath and bare rock. It has salmon, trout, pike, perch, and eels. It is not deep, readily freezing over by a night or two’s frost. It was, however, a good deal deeper for- merly than it is at present. For in the year 1790, the Earl of Cassixis, and the late Mr Macapam of Craigengillan, the proprietors on each side, by a cut $82 MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS or tunnel driven through the rock, over which its waters were discharged at the northern extremity, took nineteen feet from its depth. The object Was to gain ground on its banks. But though many acres of surface, have in this way been obtained, they are in general but of little value, being mostly barren sand or gravel, or rolled pieces of rock of considerable size. ‘The rock through which the above-mentioned cut or tunnel is made, is grey-wacke; and hence issues the ** Bonny Doon,’’ whose ‘* banks and braes’’ have been rendered classic by the immortal lays of our Scottish Bard. | 1. On proceeding, as I already mentioned, along with Mr Macmittan from his place at Brock- loch, distant from Loch Doon Castle four miles to the east, we came upon the junction of the granite with the stratified rock on the western face of the hill of Knockour, about a mile to the east of Loch Doon Castle. The stratified rock here, in con- tact with the granite, is the same as I uniformly found in contact with it in the Dee district, (ex- cept in one place), and is fine-grained or compact gneiss. ‘The strata are vertical, and the direction is N. and S. Where we made this observation, the ends of the strata run flush on the granite. 2. My next observation, was on the banks of the lake, still on the east side of it, not far from opposite the castle. Here is comipact gneiss ver- IN GALLOWAY, | 883 tical; direction as before, N. and S., touching the granite. 3. One mile north of the castle, compact gneiss, vertical ; direction N. N.E. Do not know how far aly the granite. 4. About 100 yards farther north, on the io _ of the lake, vertical strata of compact gneiss; di- rection N.N. W., within about 120 yards of the granite. | 5. The junction of the granite and gneiss, evi- dently crosses the lake about this place, running in an oblique direction towards the castle. ‘To. this, we now proceeded in a boat, and I found in the island on which the castle stands, on the south side, a mass of flesh-red felspar-porphyry, about 12 feet long by 3 feet thick, vertical as far as I could judge, (for this from its being about even with the granite all around, is not easily deter- mined), and running N.N.E. From its direc- tion merely, I should call it a bed rather than a vein. 6. I now proceeded to the west side of the lake, and found on its banks, to the 8. W. of the castle, granite veins in abundance ; or granite and com- pact gneiss alternating a vast number of times, and running in all directions on the nearly hori- zontal surface of the rock, laid bare by the waters of the lake. Some of these veins, or alternations, were three feet thick, and from this downwards to less than an inch. 384 MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS 7. About 400 yards farther down the lake, to the N. W. of the castle, at a sort of knoll, called Millgoan, I found the same appearances as at the former place. Compact gneiss running N. and S. with the granite mixed in it as before. I could not here determine the dip of the strata. I think they are nearly vertical, as they appear all to be about this place. In the granite of this district, I noticed a soma nomenon, which I had little opportunity of seeing in the Dee district. ‘There, indeed, I had ob- served it in a few instances, and on a very small scale; but here it 1s common, and its features prominent. I allude to fragments of compact gneiss occurring in the granite. I observed one of these fragments of a tabular shape, two feet long, about ten inches broad, and four thick. Some of them have disintegrated more rapidly than the granite in which they appear imbedded, and so have left hollows in it, and have indeed fallen out. Others of them have weathered more slowly than the surrounding granite, and are seen projecting from its surface. I could not observe any instance -of this rock (the compact gneiss) either in the ‘strata or the fragments alluded to, passing mto the granite, unless the manner in which this rock and the granite unite, be called so, which is in as distinct, but at the same time intimate a manner, as the alburnum or white wood of the oak, unites with the real or red wood.. The termination of = IN GALLOWAY: 385 the one, and beginning of the other, is seen dis- tinctly, but the mass is equally strong at the junc- tion, as any where else. The granite here, is of much the same texture as in the Dee district ; the felspar greyish-white, sometimes flesh-red ; and the grains both ef it, and the quartz, about a quarter of an inch or less in diameter. The mica, black, or brownish- black. Some varieties contain hornblende, but I did not here observe any shorl. Having made these observations on the north end of this granite mass, I wished to see also how it met the transition country on the south. And for this purpose, on the 6th of September, set off in company with my friend Mr Macmiutan of Viewfield, near New Galloway, whose obliging- ness, intelligence, and zeal, in these sort of pur- suits, 1 cannot too highly acknowledge. | 8. We first found the granite about eleven miles west of New Galloway, on the western side of the hill of Little Millyea, about half way down the hill, one mile and a half to the N. E. of Loch Dee. Here, in as far as could be observed, it appeared to be in contact with compact gneiss, in. so much, that though I did not expect the granite for more than a mile farther on, I observed to Mr Macmitian, that now we must be near it, for I perceived, we had come to the rock which always lay upon it, and in a few steps farther we 386 MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS found the granite. It is hete, however, so much covered up, that no junction can be seen. ' 9. In a rivulet that descends from the moun- tain, and falls into the Burn of Carnelloch, about a quarter of a mile to the 5. E. of the spot first mentioned, we observed a bed of reddish felspar- porphyry in the compact gneiss, at the least twen- ty-five feet thick. I could not certainly deter- mine its dip, the strata around it being so much covered up. All these in the above-mentioned mountain of Millvea, run in the direction N.N. E. highly inclined, or nearly vertical. | 10. In this quarter, we could observe no other junction of the granite with the stratified rocks; but in the Burn of Carnelloch, one mile N. E. of Loch Dee, is a bed of bluish felspar-porphyry in the granite. The direction of this bed, is 5. E., and it appears to be nearly perpendicular. It is traceable along the channel of the burn for more than 4.00 yards, and is in some places 30 feet thick. The boundary of the granite seems to run along ' the west side of the Millyea, about half way up the hill. — 11. Proceeding onward in a southerly direction towards Loch Dee, we saw no rock but granite, till we came to the Cooran Lane, a considerable stream, which, proceeding from the west, falls into the Dee about half a mile after the latter has left its source the Lake of Dee. Into this Cooran Lane,.the before-mentioned Burn of Carnelloch iN GALLOWAY. 837 falls. In the bed of the former, three-fourths of a mile north of Loch Dee, we found in the granite, a large bed of reddish felspar-porphyry, 40 feet thick, seemingly vertical, and we traced it at least 60 yards. Its direction is 5. E. by S. 1g. One mile farther down the Cooran Lane, we came upon another bed of felspar-porphyry in the granite, to be seen for 30 yards. Its di- rection is about 5. E. by $., apparently vertical. 13. Several yards farther down still, is another bed in the granite, seemingly in the same direc- tion. 14. In the first smail rivulet we came to, fal- ling into the Dee on its left bank, we found: ano- ther bed of reddish felspar-porphyry in the gra- nite, lying in the same direction as before, and to all appearance vertical. 15. Two miles nearly below Loch Dee, that is, down the river to the eastward, opposite a small burn on the right bank of the river falling down the Hill of Craigencaiilie, and another on the brae face of the low Hili of Garrery, is the junc- tion of the granite and the stratified rock. It runs directly across the river, and is distinctly to be seen, ‘The rock here, resting on the granite, is compact gneiss, of many yards in thickness, and the strata vertical. The direction is E.N.E. ¥ could neither here, nor any where else in this quarter, perceive a junction of the compact gneiss With the grey-wacke. 388 MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Loch Dee is a wild mountain lake, out of which the River Dee issues, about 15 miles to the S.S. W. of New Galloway. It is a mile in length, and perhaps about half as much in breadth. Its immediate banks are low and flat, consisting principally of peat-moss covered with heath ; but to the W. and N.W., at a few miles distance, rise the Hills of Glenhead, Buchan, and Merrock, to the height of 1000 to 1700 feet or more. On the east of it; is the Hill of Craigencaillie, and to the north, Millyea. The lake itself, is of no great depth, for it easily freezes over. I had no means of fathoming it. It contains salmon, trout, pike, perch, and eels. The scene around is as wild and bleak as can well be imagined. Nothing to be seen but heath and rocks. No human dwelling within view. Betwixt this lake, and that of Doon, is eight miles, and this appears to be about the extreme length of the Doon mass of granite. West from Loch Dee, runs Glentrool, where the granite probably terminates toward the south. I regretted not being able to explore this glen. Mr Macm1 tan informs me, that it is bold, beau- tiful, and romantic. As already observed, the river Dee issues from the above-mentioned lake or loch of the same name; takes a south-easterly direction, and, after a course of 18 miles, loses itself in the Lake of Ken, at ‘the beautiful seat of Airds, six miles . S.E. by S. of New Galloway. In its course, it IN GALLOWAY. 389 traverses three times the junction of the stratified country with the granite, the eastern junction of the Loch Doon mass, as I have already stated, near Craigencaillie, and both eastern and western junc- tions of the Dee mass, viz. the western junction at the Bridge of Dee, and the eastern one at the east end of. Strone Loch, about four miles farther down, as I formerly described in my account of the Dee district. The distance betwixt the western junction of the Dee granite district with the stratified country at the Bridge of Dee, and the junction of the Doon district on the east, with the stratified rock | at Craigencaillie, is four miles, and these appear to be about the nearest points of distance betwixt the two masses. I regret that I have not had it in my power to make the entire circuit of the Doon granite, so as to ascertain its mode of junc- tion with the stratified country on the western side also. I should then have been able likewise to have ascertained more accurately its extent. But as to the latter, we are pretty well informed, seeing we have an account of it from Sir JAMEs Haut, who made the above circuit in 1790, as he informs us, in his paper ‘‘ On the Convolutions of Strata, and their meeting with Granite,’’ publish- ed in the 5th volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: he found it to be about eight miles by four. VOL. I. cc 390 MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS No part of this granite mass, appears fo rise quite so high as the other two Galloway masses do, namely, in the Mountains of Cairnsmuir and Criffle ; for Merrock, the highest mountain in this quarter, appears to be transition. I say so, how- ever, merely from a distant view of the mountain, for I was not at it. There is much more verdure on Merrock, than is usually seen on granite hills, and its rocks are of a redder hue than the granite of this quarter puts on. But if Merrock be not granite, it must be immediately on the border of the Doon granite on the west. This mass of granite, appears to bear the same ‘sort of relation to the stratified country, as I for- ‘merly found the Dee mass to have. The grey- wacke, or grey-wacke-slate, no where that I could see, comes into contact with it, but is every where separated by the compact gneiss, and the strata of this rock observe the usual direction, not varying above four or five points; and their ends on the N.E. side of the granite, run directly towards it. On the east side of the granite, they meet it in a -conformable position, and are either vertical, or dip from it. They are much more highly inclined tham those which meet the Dee granite. “(he Doon granite in general, is of the same ‘etéxture with that of the Dee, but there are two peculiarities with respect to its relation to other rocks, which are observable. One of these, [have — already described, namely, the occurrence of frag- IN GALLOWAY. 391 tents of gneiss in the granite ; and the other is the occurrence of beds of felspar-porphyry in it. A small one of these has been described, as seen in the island at the Castle of Doon, and no fewer than five were observed by us towards the south end of this granite district near Loch Dee. Some of these beds are very large, of equal dimensions, and of the very same structure and appearance with the beds I described in my former paper, as seen in the transition rocks of the valley of Glenkens. I could in no place observe this porphyritic rock passing into the granite. It seemed in every place to meet it distinctly and abruptly. Insome places, the two rocks, at their junction, seemed not even to adhere. From the general appearance of the granite, and its relations to the neighbouring rocks, it ap- pears to belong to one of the newer formations, (392°) XXV. Lithological Observations on the Vicinity of Loch- Lomond. By Dr Macxnrcrr. (Read 18th March 1813.) ‘Tuts district has long been celebrated for the beauty and grandeur of its natural scenery. Many descriptions of its interesting features, are in the hands of the public ; and it has furnished a varie- ty of favourite subjects for the pencil. But no proper account of its mineralogy has yet been given. To supply this defect, in some measure, is the object of the following observations, al- though they are, I fear, but little deserving of the Society’s attention. Loch-Lomond stretches nearly in the line of | north and south, from its highest point in Glen- falloch, to the village of Luss; opposite to which, on the east and south, it expands to a great — a LITHOLOGICAL GBSERVATIONS, &c. 393 breadth, and presents those scattered groupes of islands, which render its appearance so extremely beautiful and picturesque. The portion of its neighbourhood which I examined, begins on the east side, about two miles south of Row Ar- dennan, and terminates at the north-west extre- mity of the base of Ben-Lomond, opposite to Tarbet: On the south side, it reaches from Tar- bet to the head of the Leven. In this district, the rocks which occur along the margin of Loch- Lomond on both sides, form a regular and com- plete series, from the older mica-slate, to the newer species of grey-wacke; including several subordinate beds and minerals, and followed by different sandstone formations, which compose the lower country, on the banks of the Leven, to- wards Dunbarton. | Before proceeding to describe the particular lo- calities and relations of these rocks, it is proper to notice, that the general structure of the country in this quarter corresponds to what is found throughout the whole of the Highlands, where mica-slate is the prevailing rock. The moun- tains and hollows appear to be formed by the ir- regular effects of decomposition and waste on the mass of alpine strata, which runs in the direction of N.E.and S.W. Thus, at the summit, and along the sides and base of Ben-Lomond, the strata of mica-slate are distinctly observed crop- ping out in the usual direction, and in a position ccs SO4 LITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS almost vertical ; from which it may be inferred, that they compose the body of the mountain it. self. And Loch-Lomond is in fact, a vast hollow scooped out of the same rocks ; for the strata on the west, are found to be only a continuation of those observed on the opposite side. In like man- ner, the islands are formed by the same rocks which occur on the mainland, in the general di- rection already mentioned: so that the whole must have originally constituted one great mass or line of strata, which has been broken or worn into its present shape. Ben-Lomond, which, viewed from certain posi- tions, has an uncommonly noble and majestic ap- pearance, rises to the height of 3200 feet. It is composed of mica-slate, passing frequently into talc-slate, and intermixed with vast beds of fel- spar-porphyry and greenstone, which lie in a po- sition conformable with the strata of the includ- ing rock. In this species of mica-slate, there is much quartz; particularly, towards the summit of the mountain, the rock appears remarkably pene- trated and traversed by that substance, in veins and masses of every size and form. Indeed, it is found to be the prevailing ingredient through- out the whole formation, and often gives the mica. slate a whitish colour, resembling at a distance that of pure quartz. I did not, however, observe quartz in regular beds. ON THE VICINITY OF LOCH-LOMOND. 395 About a mile from Row Ardennan, on the road to the summit, we meet with a rock approaching to greenstone, and containing pyrites. It is dis- posed in a conformable bed of great thickness, which may be traced penetrating the base toa considerable distance. Along the ascent, there does not seem to be much variety in the rock. At the summit, it 1s pure mica-slate, resembling that. of Benmore, and assuming the form of a sharp serrated ridge. | The mountain here, has a great precipice on the N. EE. side, with the same indented angular hollow, of which so many examples occur in the Highlands, It is a scene of rude and awful gran- deur, in the fore-ground of what is generally mentioned as the finest prospect in Scotland ; and were it not a subject already exhausted in the pages of travellers and describers, a new visitor, who is lucky enough to reach this interesting ele- vation under a favourable sky, might still be gempted to indulge his feelings of admiration and delight, in producing a picture of the numberless beautiful and striking objects which present them- selves in every direction. ‘The position, indeed, of so lofty a mountain, on the edge of the High- lands, and skirted by such a magnificent sheet of water, is peculiarly favourable for a commanding and picturesque view both of the alpine and of the low country. acct 896 LITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS The N. W. shoulder exhibits quartzy-mica- slate, tending to gneiss, which probably occurs at no great distance in this direction. ‘This species of mica-slate, is unusually undulated, and _ its structure affects a greater variety of singular and fantastic appearances, than any I have met with. It is also remarkable how much the layers of the stone are affected by the intermixture of pure quartz. Examining the base, which is thickly covered with brush-wood and debris, to the north of Row Ardennan, I found two beds of felspar-porphyry 3 but the existence of many more is ascertained, from numerous blocks and fragments of that sub- stance, scattered at certain distances along the shore. The mass of this rock is much pene- trated with hornblende, chlorite, and crystals of pistacite, generally crossing one another in pairs, like the shape of an X. These last are very nu- merous even in the smallest detached specimens, and produce an uncommon effect to the eye. There are also vast strata of porphyritic mica- slate, thickly studded with crystals of quartz, par- ticularly one, which may be observed near a cot- tage on the side of the Loch, about 21 miles N.E. from Row Ardennan. Its structure seems precisely the same with that of an extremely hard and indestructible kind, formerly described *, at * Wernerian Memoirs, vol. i. p. 287. ON THE VICINITY OF LOCH-LOMOND. 807 the side of Loch-Katterin; and it is probably of the same formation, as this substance may be traced for many miles in the general direction of the strata along the intermediate country. -On the west side of Loch-Lomond, between Tarbet and Luss, mica-slate, talcky, and talc-slate, with beds of greenstone and felspar-porphyry, are found occurring in the same order of relative po- sition, and with the same oryctognostic characters, as the beds and strata already noticed in the struc- ture of the mountain and its base: so that, com- paring the distances and positions of the corres- ponding rocks on each side, in the general line or bearing of the strata, we perceive that they are parts of one formation. Southward of Row Ardennan, the mica-slate approaches to, and passes into clay-slate, and also alternates with it. Clay-slate is found in the bed of a stream called Cullimore, which forms the southern extremity of the base of Ben-Lomond. Amongst the rocks in this direction, the most re- markable are two beds of felspar-porphyry, about half a mile from Row Ardennan, which may be traced to a great length, running from the water into the high ground parallel to each other, and separated only by a narrow stratum of mica-slate. This stratum appears to maintain the same breadth, so far as it is possible to follow the rocks; and along with the two beds, by which it is inclosed, lies conformably with the other strata in its vici- 398 LITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS nity. The porphyry contains crystals of horn blende and pistacite, with small portions of chlo- rite, and occasionally common garnet and pyrites. It also frequently affects a slaty structure. In the same direction, the clay-slate is succeed- ed and covered by grey-wacke, and grey-wacke with a slaty fracture ; both of a peculiar compo- sition, and probably alternating with the older rocks. ‘This substance is an aggregate of the usual fragments and materials, studded with blue quartz, common quartz, and crystals of felspar. It is found ascending to a considerable height above the level of the water, till it 1s lost under the heathy ground ; but it re-appears in the bed of the stream above mentioned. I did not find grey- wacke-slate, properly so called. In this portion also, of the formation we are describing, the same predominance of quartzy materials, which was formerly noticed, is still remarkable, not only in veins and separate masses, but pervading the sub- stance of the rocks. | The islands of Loch-Lomond, are placed in the line of clay-slate and transition-strata; and con- sequently, as already observed, are formed by the more durable varieties of these rocks, which may be traced in continuation, on the opposite shore around Luss. The quarries of Luss and Cam- stradden, in which the finest clay or roof slate is procured, are well known. They belong to the great formation of clay-slate, which has been ON THE VICINITY OF LOCH-LOMOND. 399 - traced in so many places, skirting the Highlands from S. W. to N. E. ; Near Rossdoe, we have grey-wacke, and a mi- neral approaching grey-wacke-slate. ‘These rocks are succeeded, towards Glen-Fruin, by the old red sandstone, in which we observe fragments of - quartz, clay-slate, flinty-slate, felspar, &c., and which occurs also intimately mixed with lime, so as to form a species of clay-limestone. It is seen cropping out on the road near Cameron, and con- tinues to the neighbourhood of Dunbarton, where there seems to be a second sandstone formation, deeply coloured with iron-ochre. All these suc- cessive rocks descend in their level and out-goings, agreeably to the System, till we reach Dunbar- ton, at which the strata are horizontal, or near- ly so. In the course of this examination, which has added another example to the many illustrations already existing, of the Wernerian Geognosy, I found no traces of metallic ores; nor was I so fortunate as to discover any imbedded individual, or valuable minerals, worth remarking, so that, to judge from what occurred to my observation, this part of the Highlands is probably more interesting to the admirer of natural scenery, than to the mineralogist. I shall now conclude this notice, with a remark or two, suggested by the phenomena of the rocks it describes. | 400 - LITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS i. The penetration of the rock by veins and masses of pure quartz, has been remarked. It is well seen in the clay-slate quarries; and it leads to the inquiry, whether the quartz, in the form of nests and small masses, belongs to the original structure of the stone, or is a foreign ingredient subsequently injected in a fluid state, by an ex- ternal force acting from below. Now, although the whole phenomena may be difficult of explana- tion on either of these two principles, the one first mentioned appears to me the most natural; be- cause the irregularity in the structure of the stone, which accompanies the occurrence of the quartz, is also to be observed not less frequently, where no separate portions of quartz are to be seen at all. Jt is a circumstance not a little favourable to this idea, that masses of quartz perfectly isolated may be every where observed, with the layers of the rock in which they are immersed, lapped round them, and obeying exactly the irregulari- ties of their various shapes. | 2. The internal structure of the pure mica-slate itself, furnishes another remarkable subject of theoretical discussion. Betwixt the layers, which observe the general direction of the strata, we find others in which the concretions are at diffe- rent angles to the direction of the including lay- ers, or follow waving irregular lines, in an end- less variety of forms, At times, these layers ON THE VICINITY OF LOCH-LOMOND. 40! even bend into the contrary direction, and ap- pear inserted concentrically into one another, in a kind of parabolic and conoidal shape. It is self-evident, that such a structure in stratified substances, could not have been the effect of any mechanical pressure or force acting with violence on the great scale, because the bent and straight layers alternate regularly with one another. Nor will it admit of being explained, by the hypo- thesis of desiccation after extreme heat. Wecan ascribe the phenomena in question only to the ac- tion of such natural powers, as silently and regu- larly affect the smaller particles or portions ot matter, while assuming new forms of aggregation or minute crystallization, after having been de- posited from a solvent. Other appearances of un- dulation in the layers, are manifestly those which would be produced in the course of deposition from a fluid affected by currents, or in a state of agitation, sometimes gentler, and at others more violent, as may be seen in the perpendicular sec- tion of any common sand-bank. However, therefore, the question respecting the vertical position of the strata may be decided, the difficulty of accounting for the internal structure of the stone will still remain in all its force, and is equally great, whether the strata were formed originally in a horizontal position, or inclined as we actually see them. For, if horizontal, then - 402 LITHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS we are sensible, by a simple inspection of the figures, that the minuter concretions must haye been formed in an inclined, or even, in many cases, a vertical position, and frequently also ina bent or waved line. From these remarks, it would appear to be not improbable, that further discoveries may after- wards shew us, that other powers, in addition to those of gravity, or even chemical attraction, have been concerned in producing the appearances now presented. Is it not possible, that magnetism and electricity, lodged in the great central masses of the globe, may have performed a more important part, in affecting the arrangement of the mate- tials deposited in the form of strata, than we are yet fully prepared to allow? And may not the action of a magnet on iron-filings, when a sheet of paper is interposed, as well as many phenomena of chemical and electrical attraction, convey some idea of what may have taken ie at the period of such deposition ? If action of this kind might be admitted on the’ small scale, no difficulty would remain, in con- ceiving that nature on the great scale might have formed strata, as we now see them, under any angle of inclination to the horizon, more especially when modified by the form of the nucleus or sub- stratum on which the deposition may be supposed to have taken place. In like manner, with re- gard to the size or mass of the strata, it is plain, ee — vee a — ON THE VICINITY OF LOCH-LOMOND. 403 that if a layer of only a few lines thickness could be formed by the agents now supposed acting in directions different from, or opposite to, that of gravity, and thus modifying the effects of that power,—layers or strata, of any magnitude ob- servable in nature, might have been formed in the same way. And unless this hypothesis be admit- ted, the appearances which have been described, must remain for ever inexplicable. | On the whole, the phenomena exhibited in the actual position, and internal structure, of the mica- slate of Ben-Lomond, may be quoted as an au- thentic and demonstrative record, attesting the reality of operations and events that have taken place at some former period in nature, by powers er causes, of which the action has not hitherto been recognized in our geological speculations. ob e04e ea) a XXVI. Description of Ravensheugh By Dr Macknicur. (Read 6th January 1816.) * Tx the following paper, I am to deseribe shortly a point of coast, which Professor Jameson, in his examination of East Lothian, had not an oppor- tunity of visiting: It is called Ravensheugh, si- tuated about six miles N.W. of Dunbar, and is part of the pleasure-ground belonging to the estate of Tyningham, on the north side of what are called Tyningham Sands. A small wooden summer-house is erected on the highest point of the rock, which commands a singular and exten- sive view of the surrounding ocean, and neigh- bouring country: The approach to Ravensheugh, on the land- side, is gradual and insensible in its rise; but to- wards the sea, there is formed a precipice or pre- cipitous front, which may be from forty to fifty ws & DESCRIPTION OF RAVENSHEUGH. 405 feet high. This projects into the shore in the shape of an obtuse angle, pointing nearly N. E.; and immediately behind the most prominent part of the rock, there is a considerable rent or chasm, lying in a direction W. of N., which, at full tide, when the sea is agitated, has a striking resem- blance to the Bullers of Buchan, by the rushing and foam and noise of the water. On the south side of the point, there is another opening into the shore, which might suggest the idea, that the headland, or point itself, had been detached by violence from the body of the rock. I.am satis- fied, however, that these rents have been occa- stoned merely by the action of the water; ona part of the rock, where perhaps a slight sub- sidence had taken place, before it was entirely consolidated. Ravensheugh is a trap formation of the newer series, apparently overlying, but in reality subor- dinate to, and contained in the old red sandstone. Its constituent members, are, basalt with crystals of hornblende; red and green trap-tuff, impreg- nated with lime; beautiful clinkstone; and clink- stone-porphyry, or porphyry-slate. This last oc- cupies the upper part of the formation ; and trom the regular structure of the stone splitting in uniform parallel lines, exhibits an appearance like basaltic columns lying horizontally. The layers of rock thus formed, are from a few inches to a foot and a half, or two feet thick, and, con- “VOL. B. nd y 406 DESCRIPTION OF RAVENSHEUG#. trasted with the irregular rude shapes of the great masses 1n which they appear, have a singular and pleasing effect to the eye. The sandstone formation, on veleici skid trap rests, and which forms the level part of the shore uncovered by the sea at low water, contains va- rieties of the old red, of different shades, alter- nating with layers of brown and grey. | Particu- lar portions of it have the usual characters of quartzy sandstone ; others are micaceous, and ap- proach to what is called sandstone-slate. In this formation, we also find beds of layers of clay- ironstone; of slaty argillaceous marl; of coarse limestone, with clay-balls of a greenish colour ; and of claystone, inclining to calcareous marl, in- cluding nodules of light-yelHow and green-colour- ed clay. Along the shore which was examined, and which extends for a mile and a half, or two miles, the dip and direction of these different beds or layers, are sufficiently uniform, excepting at the immediate junction of the trap and sandstone rocks, which presents an appearance extremely curious, and well entitled to the particular atten- tion of the geologist. Here the sandstone, deserting its usta dip and direction, seems to run beneath the basalt on every side, in the form of a vast cup or plate, filled with the solid mass of the trap, which rises upright from its edge. Consequently, the dip of the : sandstone underneath the north side of the ba- tie ons iby 9 : yh a erry othe (oak be , <# oe ie x DESCRIPTION OF RAVENSHEUGH. 407 saltic rock, is riearly the reverse of what it ap- pears to be on the south side. ‘The explanation of this curious and interesting appearance, is easy and natural, if we consider the trap of Ravens sheugh as a rock subordinate to the sandstone, and © belonging to the same period of formation; but the peculiarity which has been described, seems > to be altogether irreconcilable with the prin- ciples of the igneous theory. To perceive this, let us attend a little to what 1s meant by cotem- poraneous formation. It cannot be meant, that a whole mass of stra- tified or amorphous matter is instantaneously de- posited ; this appears inconceivable. But there is no difficulty in supposing, that layers or substances on the great scale, are formed by continuous suc- cessive accretion of matter deposited from a sol- vent, as we see in the instances of crystallization or deposition, which fall under our observation, either in nature, or in the laboratory of the che- mist. Let us, therefore, now conceive, that, after the sandstone was deposited, but before its com- plete consolidation had taken place, a mass of trap followed next in the order of successive de- position, What would be the consequence ? Would not the superincumbent mass sink by its gravity to a certain depth among the softer strata under- neath, presenting the very appearance observed at Rayensheugh, ——mere especially, if eeponnze ee te Bike: ety D d2- - 408 DESCRIPTION OF RAVENSHEUGH. as itis there, unconformably? Suppose a num- ber of strata or layers of a tenacious paste, or any soft elastic substance, overlying each other, and renee eee eee ey : Sao ——————oeeeO aaonatjzewaOaaee—eeeeee eee! ————— a SSS SSSSaaaaaqana— SSS SS Se a heavy body of smaller dimensions laid above - them, it is evident, that the weight of the body would press it downwards, and form a hollow corresponding to its shape, in which the layers would be seen bent, and running beneath the body on every side, exactly as we find in the pre- Sent instance. On the other hand, had this been a case of ignéous bursting from below, all the phenomena must have been precisely the reverse of what they are. The strata, instead of sloping quietly be- neath the mass, ought to have appeared as if forced up, with an inclination outwards from the projected rock, and with other symptoms of dis- location and ruin. But far otherwise, no marks of violence are to be observed. The out-goings of ‘the subjacent rocks on every side, though worn down in very irregular shapes, preserve their usual line of direction without disturbance, to the very bottom of the basaltic mass; and it is even pro- — bable, that at some period not very remote, they ; had embraced the trap-rock to a much higher level than at present ; all which, strongly favours — DESCRIPTION OF RAVENSHEUGH. 409 the idea of cotemporaneous formation, as here ex- plained. About a mile N. W. of Ravensheugh, there 1s another elevated rock, consisting chiefly of clink- stone and basalt, with crystals of hornblende, where similar appearances in relation to the un- derlying sandstone are to be observed. pd3 | (Adte 4 AXXVIL. Hints regarding the Coincidence which takes place in the Pressure of the Atmosphere, at different Latitudes, and at nearly the same Time. By the Right Hon. Lord Gray, F. R.S. Lond. & Edin. &c (Fiead 23d November 1816, ) Tue annexed plate * contains the observations of the barometer for two years, 1814 and 1815, at four and three different places in ‘Great Britain, from latitude 57° 38! to 50° 26'.. They are re- duced into curves, the more readily to shew the ereat harmony which subsists in atmospherical pressure. I was first induced to think much on * Plate xx. ON THE BAROMETER: All ‘this subject, by an article in the Annals of Phi- losophy, vol. i. p. 408, drawn out by Professor Pictet of Geneva, who furnishes the curves for one year at three places, viz. London, Paris, and Geneva. Being somewhat surprised at the gene- ral coincidence of those curves, I set to work to collect and reduce some series of observations which I had by me, in order to stir up inquiry, i as it certainly appears very probable, that the pressure is almost simultaneous from the North Pole to the Equator: And I feel extremely anxious to ascertain, whether the same harmony obtains from the South Pole, and whether it shall correspond with those of our side of the line. The only way in which this can be established, is by accurate observations kept at St Helena, the Cape of Good Hope, and Botany Bay. Weshould, by these, be able to see if there were any, or how much difference ; which would tend very greatly to elucidate this most curious and interesting sub- ject. If this should attract the attention of any per- son engaged in meteorological pursuits in the southern hemisphere, who would take the trouble ‘to send home the results of their observations for any year, directed to me at Edinburgh, I would pd 4 , 412 ON THE BAROMETER. esteem it a very particular favour, and acknow- ledge it as such. N. B.—The figures on the curves denote the day of each month, on which the extreme rise or fall took place. Kinfauns Castle, near Perth, 6th August 1816. § PLATE XX. + - AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. T NOVEMBER. DECEMBER. I Lat.57938) ) | 0 ‘Castle dors} ove the Sea [Ticiee)|\ BO Feet. — alt 2 Lat. 56223)50" Kinfauns Caste! 30: above the Sea [Tnche#! 129 Feet. i 3 Lat. 512 28'38" Royal 3075 Observatory [inher Greenwich: 4 Lat. 50° 26° sat ith | soy eet. Kinfauns ) soe Cnstle, Drea a Eraraved ty M21 haar Rdinbcrah a . : - * PLATE XX. R. NOVEMBER. DECEMBER. a A ey DP ce, aa ¥ XXVIII. An account of several new and rare . species of Fishes, taken on the south coast of -- Devonshire, with some remarks on some others of more common occurrence. By Georce Monracv, Esq. F.L. 8. & M. W.S. (Read 20th May 1815 *.) CARTILAGINOUS. Raia. Tuers is no genus in the division of cartilaginous | “fishes worse defined, or less understood, than that of the Ray. This circumstance proceeds from several causes not generally known, except by those who have studied the subject at the sea- _ side, where opportunity has offered for the exa- 4 “mination of a great number of specimens. Inde- pendent of numerous variations in colour and agtines to which some species are subject at all . ; * The author died in the month of July following.—Editors. 414. COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE ages, there are some characters which do not al- ways appear before a certain period of life. It is also deserving of notice, that sexual distinction should always be attended to, as it will be found, that, owing to the want of sufficient attention to that circumstance, species have been multiplied beyond their natural limits. Having had an opportunity of examining some. thousands of this class of fishes, either alive, or recently taken, amongst which, I noticed six or seven species, I am enabled to ) make the follow- ing observations. The males are distinguished by their genitals, of a most curious structure, hanging pendent, one on each side of the tail, between it and the anal fins: the testes are inclosed at the base of these, not obvious but by dissection. What accompanies this truly masculine distinction, are series of large reclined hooked spines, never to be found on the other sex, and which begin to shew themselves early in all the species hitherto examined ; these are placed in four distinct series, one on each shoulder or fore-part of the wing, or pectoral fin, and one on each angle of the wing. _ These spines are complete hooks resembling those used for fishing, and lie with their points reclined in- wards in two or three, and sometimes four parallel lines, but the number of rows, and number in each row, depends on age ; for in very young spe- SES ts = — Sa ENGLISH FISHES. 415 cimens, I have noticed only four or five spines in a single row*. These formidable spines, pecu- liar to the masculine gender, have occasionally been fixed on as a specific character; and as it does not appear to be generally known that it is only a sexual distinction, it has been thought proper to notice it for the advantage of others who may be pursuing the same track. There is another circumstance, which perhaps, in the dis- crimination of species, requires miore attention than usual; that is, the teeth of both sexes of each species. ‘The necessity of this, is particular- ly evinced by the great difference observable in the teeth of the two sexes of the Thornback, Raia clavata. | Having made these general observations, I shall proceed to notice some specific peculiarities under their proper heads, and to describe one or two species, which, if known, are not sufficiently de- fined to admit of synonyms. It may not perhaps be uninteresting, to remark in this place, the im- amense quantity of this tribe of fishes which are taken, and chiefly used for baiting crab-pots. It * For what purpose this formidable armoury is given ex. clusively to the males, is not known, but as the hooks are exe tremely sharp, and lie partly concealed, with their points a trifle reflected, the fisherman’s hands are frequently lacerated by incautiously handling the fish. 416 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE has been computed, that four boats employed in crabbing, consume in one season twenty tons of fish, principally Ray ; but it is probable, not less than forty tons of Ray are brought on shore by the fishermen of the small hamlet of Torcross on the south coast of Devon in one season, besides what are consigned to the deep immediately, as useless. When other fish are scarce, very small Rays are sometimes eaten by the families of fishermen, but never offered for sale, being considered by all classes in the neighbourhood as very inferior food ; but dogs, pigs, and gulls, regale upon what are left to putrefy upon the shore. The reason of this vast consumption of coarse fish in catching crabs, is, that they are extremely nice in the choice of their food, and will not en- ter the pots when the bait is the least tainted. In this particular, the crab differs from the lobster, which cannot be taken but by bait in a state of putridity. Raia clavata. In search of both sexes of this species, I was naturally led by the usually described essential character, of the teeth being blunt, and I was not.a little surprised. when, amongst several hun- dreds examined, not one male could be found ; ENGLISH FISHES. 414 but I noticed a Ray, not unfrequently taken with the Thornback, that was in every other respect similar, except that the wings were generally not so rough, and sometimes quite smooth about the middle. A variety also of this fish, had an ob- long dusky spot surrounded with white, in the middle of each wing. ‘The teeth of these fishes were not above half the size of those of the female Thornback, and, except a few of the outer series on the lips, were sharp-pointed. For a long time I was puzzled to discover, to what species of Raia these belonged, till, after an examination of a great number, I began to be as much surprised at not finding a female amongst such a quantity of these, as I was, at not finding a male amongst those with blunt teeth. These circumstances na- turally induced me to conclude, that the sexes of elavata had not been accurately defined, and that the leading character of blunt teeth might have been drawn from the female only. The fisher- men had not noticed the distinction of the teeth in these fishes, and had considered all of them to be Thornbacks. After much attention to the sub- ject, and after having offered a premium fora male Thornback with blunt teeth, an intelligent fisherman assured me, he had examined a vast number since I pointed out the distinction of. the teeth, and that he could not find one instance of a male with blunt teeth, nor a female with sharp teeth. It may therefore be fairly inferred, that ‘ 418 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE the sexes of the Thoinhack actually differ in thig particular, and that the male has probably been described as a different species, but under what \ title, it is difficult to ascertain, unless it be Raja Fullonica of some authors. It will be recollected, that the large hooked spines on the wings or pec- toral fins of this genus, have not been generally considered as peculiar to the masculine gender, and, therefore, are given as a specific character of | the fullonica, and -in fact, give origin to its name, from a supposed similarity to the instru- ment used by fullers for combing the wool. It will also be observed, that the Thornback has never been described to possess those reclined hooks. The species described by Pennant for the Fuller’s Ray, which he says is known at Scar- borough by the name of White Haus or Gullet, appears to be very distinct, and there is little doubt, is the same as the fishermen on this coast call Land Ray or French Ray *. The Rough Ray, R. rubus, is probably only another variety of the male Thornback; for, as to the tubercular spines with which both sexes of that species are occasionally furnished on the lower surface, as well as on the upper, there is no dependence on them, since some specimens have none on either ; 5 others very sparingly above, and none beneath ; * Rubus, Donovan, Fishes, 1. tab. 20. ENGLISH FISHES. 419 and it is only occasionally that many spines are observable on the under part. ‘The spines on the tail of the Thornback, are equally subject to much ~ variation, as I have noticed it with one, three, and five rows, and rarely without any ; but the males have usually three rows, which is the number Biocu, GMELIN, and some other writers, give to the Rubus*, -The species captured by PENNANT in Loch Broom, and which he considered as the Rubus or Rough Ray, was entirely covered with small spines, (meaning, it is presumed, that spiny asperity with which the skin of many species is covered), equally above and beneath. If such 1s his meaning, it certainly does not belong to the ‘Thornback, as neither that, nor any other species that has come under my examination, had the skin of the under part rough +. Dr SuHaw says, the under part of the Rubus is beset with very numerous scattered spines, but less strong than those of the back; an expression, that does not convey the idea of a rough skin, but detached _aculei, as we find occasionally on the Thornback. | This naturalist expresses a suspicion, that the Rubus and Fullonica are only varieties of the same species. Had it not been for the teeth of / * Sometimes described with five. +t PENNANT says, the teeth were flat and rhomboidal, als though placed in the division with sharp teeth. 420 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE the Rubus being sharp-pointed, and the supposi« tion that the teeth of both sexes of the Thorn- back were obtuse, (a circumstance on which he seems to lay much stress), he would probably have pronounced it a male of that species. What strengthens the opinion that the Rubus of most authors is the Male Thornback, is the mention of the spines on the flaps of the pectoral fins, (a pe- culiar mark of the masculine gender), and that the colour agrees with that fish. Having ventured to express doubts of any spe- cific distinction between Raja clavata, rubus and fullonica of most authors, and that the sexual difference in clavata, has probably occasioned this error ; I shall conclude the subject, with offering a conjecture, whether the Rata radiata, Donovan, British Fishes, v. tab. 114., may not be a young specimen of what some writers have called Rubus. Raia chagrinea. Chagreen Ray. Brit. Zool. iii. p. 87.—Shaw, Zool. ve p- 281. , Plate xxi. This species, originally described by Mr Pen- NANT, from specimens observed at Scarborough, appears to be little known. It should seem that Gmewin, who: has generally referred to the Bri- tish Zoology, either accidentally omitted it, or did 4 ten Mom Vola. P.P20. - ms benterreall = + ySe Tee: WEE ER WD? p ee N\ KL tCRALE: AL 2 Mitchell feulr * ENGLISH FISHES. 421 fot give our valuable countryman credit for it as a distinct species ; ard, what is more extraordinary, Dr Turton, in his edition of Gme.in, also o- mitted this fish, though he afterwards introduced it into his British Fauna, and unfortunately, as the leading character, says, “‘ the snout and tail with a triple row of spines.”” Dr SHaw, who, we may presume, was directed to this species by the Bri- tish Zoology of Mr Pennant, must have also strangely construed the description of that author, by saying, “ rostra caudaque serie aculeorum tri- plici,’”’ characters that do not belong to this fish. Mr Pennant particularly says, ‘‘ On the nose are two short rows of spines,’’ and “ on the tail are two rows, continued a little up the back.’’ He afterwards says, ‘‘ Along the sides of the tail, is a row of minute spines, intermixed with innumer- able little spicule.’’ Now, it must be evident, had these last rows of minor spines been meant in the description of those writers, they must have . called it four rows, not three. ‘This error in the description of the leading characters, demands particular notice, because it deprives the species of the singularity that so strongly marks its dis- tinction from all others of the tribe, that of ha- ‘ving no row of spines along the ridge of the tail, which it must have possessed, had it been furnish- ed with three rows. Mr Pennant has well de- fined this species by the tail; for it has only two rows of larger spines, and these are placed or VOL. It. Ee 422 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE each side the ridge of the tail, and project out- wards, giving it somewhat the appearance of the snout of a Sawfish: these spines are much hooked backwards, and extremely sharp. As to the row of smaller spines on each side, they are indeed small, and scarcely definable as a single row, be- ing intermixed with innumerable minute.-ones: little inferior in size. In fact, the whole tail is covered with minute spines, but along the margin, they rather increase in size, especially at the base ; and very little difference was perceived between the sexes. Most, if not all other Rays, that have spines on the tail, are furnished with one, three, or five rows, but never with two or four. — The Shagreen Ray described by PENNANT, is undoubtedly a female, or he would have noticed the reclined hooked spines on the wings. A male that was three feet long, including the tail, which was seventeen inches, and the breadth twenty-four inches, had nine or ten spines above the eye, but in the middle of the brow there was — a vacancy: on the snout, which is long, and much resembling that of the Sharp-nosed Ray, R. oxy- rinchus, there were several tubercular spines, but scarcely definable, in two rows: behind the head, were seven or eight spines on the dorsal ridge, ex- tending as far back as to be in a line with the branchiz: onthe wings of the male, were the 7 usual four series of hooked spines, very ee pointed, each series consisting of oye TOWS > the | ty iw y = a . Se Sen Roe = = . Fe. Eas met ENGLISH FISHES. 4.93 the masculine appendages connected with the anal fins, were nearly half as long as the tail. The colour uniformly cinereous-brown, except in one instance, where a few black spots appeared: the whole upper surface is rough like shagreen ; the under part white and smooth, except the head, breast and tail. sett La Cerepe, appears to have described. this fish under the title of La Raie chagrinée; but as I do not find a figure of it in any British work, I beg leave to accompany this with a correct outline, taken from a male, caught on the coast of Devon, where I have examined several of both sexes, but none larger than is mentioned above. Mr PeEn- NANT says, it increases to the size of the Skate. The Shagreen Ray is discriminated by some of the west country fishermen, and is called Dun- Cow. Raia oxryrinchus. ' Having had an opportunity of examining a great many of the Sharp-nosed Ray, and also of the Raia Batis or Skate, two species that are fre- quently confounded, and rarely distinguished by the fishermen on this coast, and then only sup- ‘posed to be a sexual difference, I shall offer a few observations on the leading characters. I cannot help noticing, that in the late edition of Pxrn- £eg.. 424. COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE NANT British Zoology, the identical figure whick stood in the former edition, for the skate is trans- ferred to the Sharp-nosed Ray. The same figure is also copied into SHaw’s Zoology, for the Skate. This circumstance adds to the difficulty, which the inexperienced ichthyologist has to encounter in distinguishing the fishes of our coasts, because those works are naturally consulted. The snout is the outline character by which these species may be best discriminated ; the figure in que- stion, therefore, cannot be supposed to represent both, and in fact, by this sort of accommodation, it is not a correct likeness of either ; it is not suf- ficiently long and slender for the Sharp-nosed Lye nor enough conic for the Skate. | The Sharp-nosed Ray has a slender snout, the margins of which, in a moderate size fish, run nearly parallel to each other for three or four — inches at the extremity. ‘The snout of the skate, ~ on the contrary, is truly conic. ‘The sharp-nose has its skin quite smooth. The skate is entirely rough above, or granulated like a dogfish, and. partly so beneath. The under part of the sharp- nose is white without: spots. The skate on that part is dusky-grey, covered with minute dusky spots, having a pale speck in their middle. Both species have three rows of spines on the tail when arrived at maturity, but those of the skate differ from most other Rays, by the points of the lateral rows turning forwards. The teeth of both are i ENGLISH FISHES, 425 sharp, with a broad base, but those of the skate are not near so long, and are more closely con- nected. ‘The sexes of both species are discrimi- nated by the formidable reclined hooks, as well as by the posterior appendages, both peculiar to the males. All I have examined of both species, were of a plain brown colour, without spots or lines on the upper parts, and not as represented in the figures before mentioned ; but the Sharp-nose is never of. so dark a colour as the Skate. | The spines on these fishes are not to be depend- ed on as characters. I have never observed the Skate with a spine at the angle of the eye, as sometimes described. One of four feet in length, had no spines on the tail, but only two or three buds or bony tubercles on the sides. ‘The Sharp- nose appears to grow to a very superior size. I have been assured by fishermen, that they have taken them above five hundred pounds weight by computation, and were obliged to cut them adrift from their lines, for, could they have hoisted them in by the common means of manual exertion of two men, (the complement of each boat), they could not have stowed them. Computing, from the dimensions of one I examined of about a hun- dred pounds weight, which measured six feet in length independent of the tail, and about five feet and a half in breadth, those of the former weight could not be less than double this dimension. If Ee3 426 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE this be the Manta of the South Seas, where un- doubtedly its size is vastly encreased, well a it be the terror of the pearl divers. | Raia maculata. Skin smooth, except round the margins of the pectoral fins; the upper part covered with dis- tinct roundish spots of dusky-brown: teeth sharp- pointed : tail armed with usually three rows of spines. Raia rubus. Gmel. p. 1507 ?—Bloch, 3. tab. 83, $4? — Donovan, Fishes, ii. tab. 20. foem. | Rai miraletus. Donovan, T'ishes, v. tab. 103. foem, Fuller Ray. Br. Zool. iii. p. $6. mas, | It must remain doubtful, whether this species was originally described as Rubus, though it is certain, some authors have referred to that fish for | it. That it 1s not the Rubus of PENNANT, does not admit of a doubt, and it is as certain that it is the Fuller Ray of that writer. Donovan has figured two varieties of this species; the first he refers to the Rubus, the other to the Linnzan miraletus. Under the difficulty of collecting the synonyms of a species which appears to have been so confounded with others, I have thought pro- pet to select it as a genuine species, and to give it a name derived from the most essential character, ENGLISH FISHES. AQ7 which more or less appears to attend it through all stages of life and season. It is the only truly spotted Ray hitherto discovered as British; and though in shape it approaches R. clavata, its smooth skin and numerous distant round dark spots at once mark its distinction. In fact, it is amongst the few of this tribe that bears such undeniable specific characters. , Donovan says, that Linnmus was either un- acquainted with this fish, or perhaps mistook it, as Buiocu observes, for a variety of the Thornback. How such a mistake could happen to any well- informed naturalist, 1 cannot conceive, since the cinereous rough skin of the Thornback, waved and mottled with paler lines, and occasionally a few irregular black spots, is so essentially different from the smooth brown skin of this species, in- variably spotted like the greater spotted Shark, but the markings more distant. This fish, says Mr Donovan, is known on the coasts of Pem-. brokeshire, by the name of Land Ray. By the same name, it is also known on the western coast, particularly that of Devonshire, where it is equal-. dy plentiful with the Thornback. The figure given in the British Fishes, being a female, the pectoral hooks are of course wanting. » As to the Miraletus of Linnaus being a dis- tinct species, it has long been doubted, since more than one species have been observed to occasion- ally possess an ocellated spot on the wing. Mr Ee 4& 428 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE Bonovan remarks, that he has noticed the same spots on the Skate in every stage of growth, and therefore suspects the Miraletus to be only a va- riety of some other, and mentions the Homer- ling as its probable origin. Now, as the pro- vincial name of Homerling or Hommelin, has (we are told in the late edition of Pennant’s British Zoology) been applied to the Skate as well as the Rough Ray, neither of which are even similarly spotted, as represented in Donovan’s figure, I am at a loss to guess what species is meant by the Homerling. In the first volume of the Wernerian Memoirs, p, 553., 1t will be seen, that in the List of Fishes found in the Frith of Forth by Mr NEILL, the name of Hommelin is applied to Raia: Rubus, and which is so clearly defined to be the male. Thornback, that we cannot omit transcribing the very significant description conveyed in a few words by that ichthyologist : ‘* This occurs some- times, especially when trawling-nets are employed, which sweep along the bottom. It resembles the Thornback ; but has pointed teeth, while those of the Thornback are obtuse.’’ ‘This so perfectly ac- cords with the opinion I have given, that it does not admit of a doubt that the male Thornback has been described for more species than one, and by many authors for the Rubus. It is rather sur- prising, that the Miraletus of Donovan, should have been likened to the Homerling, when that able ichthyologist had in a former part of his ex-. ENGLISH FISHES. 499 cellent work, figured a fish so very nearly allied in every appearance, admitting, as he did, that the ocellated spots were accidental. That these two fishes are varieties of the same species, there is no doubt; for I have noticed several varieties, some of which, have had the pectoral spots so faint, as scarcely definable ; and it has always ap- peared in small specimens, and the spots seem to be lost as they encrease to a considerable size. The principal varieties I have noticed, are, 1st, with a white circle round a large dark spot ; 2d, with a black spot within a white circle, the whole surrounded by five equidistant dark spots, similar to the figure in the British Fishes, except that the white speck in the middle was wanting. _ Both sexes of the Maculata have sharp teeth, and most commonly three rows of spines on the tail, the middle row running partly along the back; and after an intermediate space, a few more spines are observable in the same line near the head: on each side of the dorsal row, is a single spine, near the middle of the back: at the corners of each eye, are usually two spines, but very rarely a continuation of spines either over the eye, or along the whole of the back. In smaller specimens, there is frequently only one tow of spines along the ridge of the tail; in others, an addition of three or four spines on each side the base, the commencement of the lateral rows. The four series of hooked spines on the 430 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE pectoral fins of the male, like others of the class; increase in number and size, in proportion to age. This fish grows to a much larger size than the Thornback, but not so large as the Skate. Raia microocellata. Ray with the upper part pale-brown, covered with minute spines that roughen the skin: the under part smooth, white: one row of small hook- ed spines on the tail, continuing along the dorsal ridge to the head: eyes remarkably small. Comparing this fish with Clavata, Maculata, and other species of similar size, the comparative smallness of the eyes at once points out a material distinction*. It is in shape like Maculata, but rather more obtuse in front, and except a few scattered pale spots and lines, on the margins of the wings, its colour is plain brown: the teeth are unlike those of Maculata, or either sex of Clavata ; they are obtusely cuneiform, with a broad edge, that feels rough to the finger as it is withdrawn from the mouth ; in one jaw there are * The eyes of the specimen described, did not exceed half an inch in diameter from the opposite angles of the eye-lids ; whereas the Raia maculata,"and most others of similar size, haye eyes nearly double that diameter. ENGLISH FISHES. 431 §3, in the other 56 longitudinal rows, closely con- nected : in one specimen there was a single large spine, with a broad base before one of the eyes, so that it is possible older fish may be more spinous on that part; above the eyes, the spinule were rather larger than those which cover the whole upper surface. The only two specimens that have come under examination, were females; the largest of which, did not exceed twenty inches in length, of which the tail was nine: the breadth fourteen. As I have not been able to ascertain this fish as a de- scribed species, it may be proper to remark, that it appears to be confounded with Raia shagrinea, both being indiscriminately called Dun-cow by the fishermen in the west of England. Without entering into all the distinguishing characters of these two fishes, 1t will be sufficient to repeat, that the Shagreen Ray has invariably two rows of spines on the tail, but none along the ridge, and both sexes are similar. In Donovan’s British Fishes, a new species of Ray is denominated Radiata, from the supposed peculiarity of the base of the smaller spines being radiated ; this conformation, however, is not ex- elusively belonging to that species, for the small spines that roughen the back of Microocellata, and all other species, if examined by a lens, will be found of that structure ; this character, therefore, 432 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE is only more evident in Raia Radiata, in conse- quence of the superior size of the spines. APODAL. Liphotheca tetradens. Wernerian Memoirs, i. p. 82. tab. 2,3. Vandellius lusitanicus. Shaw, Zool. iv. p. 199? At the time I submitted an account of this fish to the Wernerian Society, I was not aware that Dr Suaw had described a species in his General Zoology, which so greatly resembles it, as to in- duce me to suspect it ts actually the same, al- though he has placed it in the Thoracic order, This circumstance caused the obscurity of Van- dellius lusitanicus, as no one could have expected to have found an Apodal fish placed in that di- vision. How that naturalist could have fallen in- to such an error, I cannot conceive, unless he con- sidered the pair of ventral scales as rudiments of those fins, cr what is commonly attached to the base of the ventral fins of some fishes, as may be observed in many Spari. It is the more extra- ordinary, as the description, it seems, was taken from a specimen in the British Museum, which was in high preservation, and yet no mention is made of these ventral scales, nor of ventral fins, although all the other fins are described. If then, it is the same species as the Ziphotheca tetradens, ENGLISH FISHES. 433 the Doctor must have concluded, that the ventral fins had been destroyed in preparing the fish, by placing it in the Thoracic order *. Risso, in his Ichthyologie de Nice, has discover- ed three species belonging to this genus, which he had described under the generic title of Lepidope, and has also improperly (I conceive) placed them in the Thoracic order, although he describes them as having no ventral fins. One of these species appears to possess many of the characters of SHaw’s fish; and Risso remarks, that he sus- pects Suaw’s fish to be the same as his Lepidopus Peronii, tab. v. fig. 18., although he says Suaw is silent with respect to the pair of ventral scales; and. that he also describes the three single fins (dorsal, anal, and caudal) to be united. | In this particular, Risso has certainly miscon- strued the meaning of Dr SHaw’s words, who, though not quite correct, or sufficiently defined in his description, (supposing V. lusitanicus to be the * T am aware it has been contended, that these abdominal scales are lamellated ventral fins. If so, we have yet to learn the definition of a Fin in the modern revolution of science. Those: who contend for the continuance of Vandellius of Suaw, or for the Lepdope of Risso being continued in the Thoracic order, must also constitute a new order for many fishes that haye such lamellated appendages, independent of two ventral fins. But I cannot admit of a simple corneous racale; : ene of motion, being a ventral fin. 434 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE same as ‘Z. tetradens) says, ‘‘ The dorsal fin is con- tinued from the hind part of the head throughout the length of the back, as far as the tail, which is small, and very much forked, with sharp tips. The anal fin is much shallower than the dorsal, and commences at the distance of but a few inches from the tail, to the base of which it is con- tinued.”? ‘This description does not imply an actual union of the three fins, but that the dorsal and anal fins extend as far as, or to the base of the caudal fin. I do not recollect any example of a forked termination of the fin of.a tail, where there is no division between the three fins. Risso also refers to Trichiurus caudatus, given by EupuraseEn in the vew Transactions of Stock- holm, vol. ix. p. 48., and to Watspaum’s Ich- thyologie d Artédi, ili. p. 694., who he seems to have followed in his genus Lepidope. Dr Suaw appears to have derived some ae. mation concerning his fish from Dr Vanpe ut of Coimbra, who had called it Trichiurus ensiformis, the name by which it was known in the British Museum. In the Vandellian fish described by Suaw, and that given in the Wernerian Memoirs, the larger teeth are only four, all’ situated in the upper jaw ; and the only difference in description, appears to have arisen from the circumstance of the two posterior ones not having been observed to be placed.on the palate, just within He arrange- ment of the smaller teeth. : hy ¥ ENGLISH FISHES. , 435 _ Rrsso’s fish had seven teeth larger than the rest, two in front of the under jaw, two in front of the upper, and three longer, crooked and moveable, adhering to the palate. These moveable teeth, did not exist in the Ziphotheca tetradens, nor does it appear that Risso’s fish had the two pos- terior fixed semisagittate teeth, belonging to this species. If we attend to the figure and descrip- tion of Risso’s fish, we shall find other circum- stances that appear irreconcilable in the same species. His fish has rounded pectoral fins ; ours, acutely pointed: his is described to have 200 rays in the dorsal fin; ours only 105,—a dispro- portion of which there is no instance in the same species *: the anal fin of his figure is longer by two-thirds, containing 40 rays, though the de- scription says 22; ours has 17 rays +: the oper- eulum of the gills consists of two plates in his fish ; in ours only one {. Russo’s fish is described to have been covered with silver, reflecting with gold, and shaded with pink and azure ; ours, as well as Suaw’s, were of a rich silver. These are differences which cannot be reconeiled in the same species: especially the vast disproportion of the rays in the dorsal fin, seems to forbid these fishes being brought together, for as it extends .* Swaw’s fish had 105. + 20 in Suaw’s fish. t Saw gays one plate, 436 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE the whole length in both fishes, the organization must be different, where double the number is contained in the same length. At the time I sent the account of Ziphotheca tetradens to the Wernerian Society, Ichthyologie de Nice was not published, from which it appears Risso had only seen one specimen of his Lepidopus Peroni. : ) Dr Suaw speaks of ‘his fish having been taken in the Mediterranean and Atlantic Seas, though rarely, and that it had occurred near Lisbon. Leptocephalus Morrisii. Plate xxii. fig. 1. It appears extraordinary, that, after the descrip- tion and figure given of this curious fish by Mr PENNANT, who personally examined it, and from which a drawing was taken, there should still ex- ist a degree of scepticism amongst the scientific, concerning the actual existence of such an animal. The editor of the late edition of the British Zoology, wishing to remove all doubts concerning it, and justly bestow all the deserved credit on so able a naturalist, to whom the world, and in par-. ticular his native country, is under so much obli- gation, has collected together several other in- stances of this fish having been taken on the coast of Wales. Here we find a letter from the Rever- ey = ° S iS = . J 8 & = 4 os & & We: Frg. 2. 7 EB. Mitchell Dorvelie Je za is Lt a=¥ gh 4 aw ethoyg diy alten 9 425 i : ; beep eitend) 4% : aps * meer ane LAR Ra bey Satan deen ; i‘ * ¢ © és “ ’ , ¥ se Bek i Wen ‘ } cM Sa A t= Fe ; jsuted * ' s 3 4 y ¢ ‘ ' . \or2 " ‘ , 4 ve Q ‘ ed \ Ly ) wy ie Ne aw Rie Ua i¥s h Wo Safety ENGLISH FISHES. 437 end Hucu Davies, declaring, “ that it has been his lot to see no less than four specimens, three of which were taken in the amusement of is een: below Beaumaris Green.”’ Another instance is related of a similar fish be- ing captured by Mr Lewis Morris, brother to the gentleman who sent the original specimen to Mr Pennant. Of this fish, Mr Morris took a short description, and a rude drawing, but suf- ficient to identify the species. ‘These are power- ful auxiliaries in proof of the existence of such a fish, if any thing was required, after we have Mr PENNANT’s assertion that he had the original, and sent an account of it to Gronovius, who de- scribed and figured it in his Zoophylaceum. tis, however, extraordinary, that neither Mr PEnNanr nor Mr Davies, should have preserved an animal so tare, and of so singular appearance, since it was attended with no other trouble than putting it into a small phial of spirits. It is a grateful task in bearing record of the verity of the writ- ings of a scientific friend, by existing facts, which ., I am enabled to do, by being in possession of two perfect specimens of Leptocephalus Morrisii. These were presented to me by my valuable scientific friend, Mr Ansrice of Bridgewater, having been taken near that place in the River Pervet, one in the year 1810, the other the fol- lowing year. Both were taken by a hand-net, near the surface of the water. As these speci- VOL. II. Ff ¥ 438 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE mens are in high preservation in spirits, they af- ford an opportunity of critically examining them, : and enable me to correct some mistakes into which Mr Pennant had inadvertently fallen, probably from the necessity of describing from a bad spe- cimen. ‘The most material defects in the origi- nal description, are the want of pectoral and caudal fins, as they form leading generic charac- ters, and bring it nearer to the Murena. The following characters would be more appropriate : Generic. Head small: body laterally compressed, and ex- tremely thin: fins, dorsal, anal, and caudal, united: branchial aperture small, transverse. _ Leptocephalus, Granov. Zooph. p. 13. fF wna Cepede, 11. 143.—Gmel. p. 1150.—Shaw, Zool. iv. p. 84. t. 10.—Brit. Zool. new edit. i. p. 212. oe. ‘The largest specimen is about six inches in length, and half an inch broad; the. thickness does not exceed the sixteenth part of an inch: the head is small, but is nearly ina straight line — ; with the back: the jaws nearly equal in length : i the teeth numerous, and all incline forwards: eyes large; irides silvery. The dorsal fin does not extend the whole length of the back, as ori- } ginally described, but commences at nearly ones. third of the length of the fish from the hea i ye “wit ae ixe ; filly ait ENGLISH FISHES. 4959. the anal fin commences immediately behind the vent, which is situated a trifle nearer the head. than the tail; these fins unite at the posterior end, and form a caudal fin, as in the Eel and the Ophi- dium imberbe: the pectoral fins are extremely small, not exceeding a line in length, so that it was scarcely possible that they should have been noticed in Mr PENNANT’S specimen, where the posterior end also had contracted into a point, des- titute of fin, probably from drying. That none of these characters, so different from what was - originally described by Mr PeNNani, should have been noticed by Mr Daviess, who says he has seen ~ four specimens, is only to be accounted for, by supposing, they had been suffered to dry before examination, by which the delicate texture of the fins was irrecoverably lost, as I found to be partially the consequence of one of my speci- mens having been put into a letter to preserve it till the captor reached home, when it was im- mersed in spirits. Yet, with this care, the caudal fin was obliterated, and the dorsal and anal incom- plete. I cannot discover any operculum to the gills, which are extremely obscure; nor is there any appearance of branchiostegous rays ; it is on-— ly in the living fish these parts can be expected to be ey definable *. FfQ : be, mi) (are: : * Mr Pennan’p, was certainly deceived with respect to the aperture of the gills, which he describes to be large. Woah shy Yt ve 440 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE In the original description, no mention is madé ef the minute black spots on the margin of the back and belly ; but 1t seems in Mr Lewis Mor- RIS’s memorandum, in the possession of Sir JosEPH’ Banks, mention is made of these markings: the Tateral line is nearly in the middle, and straight : the oblique strokes that meet at the lateral line, described by Mr PENNant, are formed by the vertebral bones: the colour, when alive, is very pale, destitute of any markings, except the mi- nute spots before mentioned, and the whole fish is semipellucid. | The drawing which accompanies this paper, is of the natural size of the largest specimen. The pectoral fins are extremely small, not discernible without a lens; in order to shew them, therefore, it was necessary to exceed the natural size and colour. JUGULAR. Callionymus Dracunculus. After what Mr Neitt has detailed in the first. volume of the Wernerian Transactions, it may appear useless to throw any doubts upon the opi- nion, that the Sordid and Gemmeous Dragonets are only different sexes of the same species; but — the singular fact hereafter related, though it re- vives suspicion, and may induce scientific persons to pursue their researches, does not by any means ENGLISH FISHES. A4AL prove to the contrary. It certainly was reason~- able to conclude, after several dozen of each had been opened by Mr Nett, and found to be con- stant in sexual distinction, that these two fishes were of the same species*. Mr NEILL, too, as- sures us in the same work, that he had these fishes brought to him in nearly equal numbers. ‘This is the more remarkable, since on the south coast of England, especially Devonshire, the Dracunculus is very common, and the Lyra extremely rare, Previously to the discovery of this circumstance, I confess, the great similarity of the two fishes, had induced me to suspect only a sexual distinc- tion. | At the fishery I am in the habit of attending on the coast of Devon, I have scarcely ever seen the _tack-net or ground-net used, that several of the Dracunculus were not entangled: I might ven- ture to assert, that more than a thousand are taken by the fishermen of Torcross alone, annually, and yet only one instance of the other species having been taken, has ever come to my knowledge, and eh was sent to me by a fisherman of that B f.2 * It is proper here to remark, that Mr Nett, like a true naturalist, always in search of fact, has candidly admitted, that his conclusions were drawn from having always found the Gem- meous Dragonet a milter ; but that he never could detect either row or milt in the Sordid. 442 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE |. place, as an extraordinary fish, unknown washes the fraternity. c With a knowledge of such facts, I cannot but be staggered in my opinion, and hope that the Secretary to the Wernerian Society may be in- duced to prosecute his inquiries by dissection, at different seasons of the year. The specimens of Dracunculus are not very large on this coast, sel- dom exceeding eight inches, more frequently not above six, and sometimes not so much as two inches; a circumstance, that proves without doubt, that it breeds contiguous to this coast. I have opened many in the months of July and _ August, but without having been able to ascertain the sex ; a circumstance not unusual in fishes, ex- cept at the critical time of the year, when the ova are enlarged, or the milt becomes tumid. Even. some viviparous fishes have long eluded the search for sexual distinction. The Dracunculus is held in utter detestation by the fishermen on this coast, from the supposed venom communicated to the wound inflicted by the tridentate spine on each side the head. From this circumstance, it has aequired the appellation of Stingfish, a name applied to the common. Weaver, Trachinus Draco, in other places. When the Dracunculus is caught, no. mercy is shewn to it, being indignantly buried in the shingle by a stamp of the foot. ENGLISH FISHES. 44s To the great astonishment of the natives, I col- lected some of this species for culinary purposes. In taste, and in the dryness of the fish, they much resembled the Common Gurnards. Blennius ocellaris. Blennius ocellaris. Lin. Syst. p. 441.--Gmelin, p. 1156. — Bloch, t. 167. p. 1.— Shaw, Zool. iv. p. 165. t. 24. Plate xxii. fig. 2. natural size. The Ocellated Blenny appears to be well known as a Mediterranean fish, but no one, I believe, sus- © pected it to inhabit our shores. I have the plea- sure, however, of adding it to the British cata- logue. In the summer of the year 1814, three of this species were taken by the dredge on the oyster- bed at Torcross, on the south coast of Devon, all of which came under my inspection, and I had the satisfaction of examining one in a living state ; but it did not survive the day, though the vessel in which it was placed was frequently replenished with sea-water, so different is its constitution from that of the Smooth Bienny, B. pholis, which Ihave kept alive for two days in a moist place, without being covered with water. oa It is possible that the Ocellaris may occasion- ally have been confounded with the Gattorugine, Ff 4 ‘444. COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE since that species has by some been described with a black spot on the dorsal fin; and I suspect the Ocellaris is not always furnished with that mark, as one instance has occurred where it was scarce- ly defined. As there are some peculiarities in this fish, which do not appear to have been noticed, I trust the following description, accompanied with a figure, will be the means of its being clearly identified, should it ever occur without the spot on the dorsal fin. Independent, therefore of the mark from which the name is derived, and which is not always ocellated, I submit the following specific characters : vy _ A crust over each eye, digitated on one side: along crooked tooth far back on each side.the under jaw *: one dorsal fin, the first ray of which is longest : ventral fin, with three united rays: a minute membranaceous flap on each side the back near the head ; another at the upper angle of each gill. _ The shape of this species is somewhat similar to that of the Gattorugine, but the forehead is more sloping: the eyes are placed high, but not above the level of the crown, as in the Gattorugine, nor has it any transverse sulcus behind. the head, _® Saw says B. cornutus has two. long teeth in the undet jaw. ENGLISH FISHES. | 445 asin that fish *: the teeth are numerous, closely connected, and even; the two fangs are observ- able only when the mouth is extended : the irides are silvery, with a golden tinge round the pupil, which is blue-black : the tentacula, or cirrhi, over the eyes, are pinnated only on the posterior edge ; the pinne are usually five, which are flat, the two lowest larger than the others, and broader at the end: the dorsal fin is very broad, indented about the middle, consisting of twenty-five rays, the first of which is sometimes one-third longer than the others; the eleventh ray is very short, from which the posterior half of the fin rises abruptly, the twelfth ray being double the length of the preceding. ‘This circumstance has probably oc- casioned the error into which Cepeps has fallen in describing two dorsal fins +. The dorsal fin is uniformly connected through- out, like that of the Gattorugine, but materially differs from it in the essential character of the first ray being longest. It should, however, be remarked, that in some instances the first ray is * #® Blennius sulco inter oculos, macula magna in pinna dor« sali. Art. gen. 26. Syn. 44. referred to by Gmetin for the Ocellaris, would appear to be an ocellated variety of Gatto- rugine. + Risso has fallen into the same error, as well as Linnzus. ArTEnI and Biocw are correct in giving it but one dorsal fin. 446 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE but a trifle longer, though in others it greatly ex» ceeds the rest; perhaps asexual distinction. The pectoral fin has twelve rays: anal eighteen: cau- dal twelve. The ventral fin has certainly three united rays, notwithstanding it has been usually described with only two; the outer is rather shorter than the inner, and the middle one the longest. In this particular, it also differs from the Gattorugine, whose ventral fin consists only of two rays: the colour of all that have come under ex- amination, was pale rufous-brown, mixed with bluish-grey, and slightly tinged with green in some parts: the sides of the head, throat, and branchiostegous rays, prettily spotted with rufous brown: the dorsal fin is also a little spotted and barred with olive-brown and white ; and between the sixth and eighth ray, is a roundish purple- black spot, sometimes surrounded with white. Hitherto, I have observed, that those with the most perfect ocellated spot, had the first dorsal ray very long. Length nearly four inches s ; se at the gills, about an inch. It must be recollected, that B. cornutus and B. tentacularis, have both an ocellated spot in the dorsal fin; these may be varieties of the same species, but appear to be distinct from B. ocellaris, whose dorsal and anal fins have not near so many rays in them as the others. *| ENGLISH FISHES, ‘ 4A4'7 Blennius Gattorugine. It appears extraordinary, that this fish should be by some naturalists described to have the an- terior rays of the dorsal fin spinous. GMELIN says sixteen rays; but as other authors are silent on the subject, I presume it is a mistake. None of the genus I have examined, possess any spiny rays in the dorsal fin, but generally terminate with a shining membrane. : There is a strong character which belongs to several Blennii, that does not appear to have been generally attended to, and which seems well cal- culated to form a generic character, and might with propriety be used to separate them from the rest. ‘This is a loose membrane or foliation of the skin, which passes under the throat from the epercula of the gills, enveloping the branchioste- gous rays. ‘This is equally evident in the Ocel- laris, Cristatus, and Pholis, as well as in the Gat- torugine. : This, like the three species just mentioned, has a flexure in the dorsal fin: the first and thirteenth ray are by far the shortest ; the fourteenth exceeds the preceding by nearly one-half: the following increase in length, except the few posterior ones ; the superior breadth of this part of the fin, and the indenture in the middle, gives an appearance 448 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE of two dorsal fins. The figure in PENNANT’s British Zoology, is a tolerable representation ; but the posterior part of the dorsal fin is not suffi- ciently rounded. ‘This author mentions the sulcus on the back of the head, but he is certainly mis- taken in calling the fourteen anterior rays of the dorsal fin spiny. In Donovan’s British Fishes, the posterior half of the dorsal fin is not repre- sented sufficiently broad, but the figure has pro- perly only one, although, by the author’s descrip- tion, we are induced to conclude, the fish has ac- tually two dorsal fins, as we are told “ the first dorsal fin contains thirty-two rays.”’ Having carefully examined several specimens, we are at a loss to discover what can be intended by the double lateral line described in the British Fishes. I take the liberty of making mention of this circumstance, as the lateral line in my fish is single, forming a considerable arch above the sweep of the pectoral fin, but there is no other line formed by the bones in a rectilineal direction from the head to that flexure. Both Dr SHAW, in his Zoology, and Mr Donovan, have described the Gattorugine to possess four palmated mem- branes on the head; the first pair over the eyes, the other over the back of the head. Other au- thors mention only two, and those situated over the eyes, which is conformable to the specimens now before mee | | | ENGLISH FISHES. 449 These circumstances are mentioned, because many of these smaller fishes are in great obscurity ; and possibly allied species, not yet clearly identi- fied, may be confounded. A specimen lately taken in a crab-pot, on the south coast of Devon, is seven inches long, and one inch and a half deep behind the head. ‘The colour plain rufous brown, without any markings, paler on the belly, as far as the vent; throat and fins red-orange, except the base of the dorsal and pec- toral fins: the cirrhi over the eyes, orange colour, broad and fimbriated each side. ‘The irides were orange-red, and when the fish was examined in profile, the eye stood higher than the crown, and the sulcus behind the eyes gave a gibbous appear- ance to the commencement of the back. Dorsal fin 33 rays; pectoral 14; ventral 2; anal 20; caudal 12. Gadus argenteolus. There is a small species of Gadus, which is occasionally found on the western coast, that is nearly allied to the Three-bearded Cod, Gadus’ _mustella, in most particulars, but the shape of the head and the colour are essentially different. It has very much the appearance of the fry of some larger species, and might have been suspected to be the young of the Ling, G. molva, had it not 450 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE been for a little difference in the first dorsal fin, and the two cirrhi which this has before the nos- trils. Ifa fourth cirrhus could have been discover- ed, suspicions would have arisen, whether it might - not have been the Cimbrius of Gmeutn. Its es- sential characters may stand thus: With two dorsal fins, the anterior very obscure, except the first ray, which is much the longest : cirrhi three, two before the nostrils, and one on the skin: upper jaw longest: back bluish-green : sides and belly silvery. The head is obtuse: eyes lateral; irides sil- very: all the fins are of a pale colour, and the whole fish is of a silvery resplendence, except the back, which is blue, changeable to dark-green : the pectoral fin is rounded with sixteen or eighteen rays: ventral six or seven, the middle ray con- siderably the longest, and placed much before the pectoral: first dorsal fin commences above the gills, and the rays are very minute and obscure, the first excepted, but more than thirty have been counted: the second dorsal commences close to the other, in a line with the end of the pectoral, and terminates close to the caudal; the rays are innumerable : the anal fin begins immediately be- » hind the vent, and terminates even with the dor sal : the caudal fin is nearly even at the end. Length about two inches. I first noticed many of these fishes browht up- on the shore in the south of Devonshire, i in the i Wern.Ienr VolU.P BEL. "i My Ekiza Dorwille pine! ENGLISH FISHES. AS 1. summer of 1808, and have taken two or three since. The fishermen called it White-bait, but I afterwards found they had mistaken it for the fry of Herring and Pilchard, which indiscriminately go by that name, and are together sold in some places under the name of Herring Sprat *. The Three-bearded Cod, G. mustella, is a very common species on the western coast, and which I have taken of all sizes, from the most minute, to its full growth of sixteen or seventeen inches, and never obseryed it to vary in colour, except, as it grows large, it becomes more rufous and throws out spots, which is never observed till 1: exceeds six or seven inches, but is invariably rufous brown in its infant state. THORACIC. Sparus lineatus.—Black Bream. Plate xii. reduced. The fish belonging to the genus Sparus, which is here described, is somewhat allied to that given _ _ * These are undoubtedly the same as the Sprat of the eastern and northern parts of the kingdom. The only difference, is, that the Herring fry only are caught on these coasts ; whereas both are taken in the west, at all times of the year, both of the first and second year’s growth, as well as full-grown fishes, | 452 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE by Dr Suaw, Zool. iv. tab. 62., called Bufonites ; but the great dissimilarity of the bony plates be- set with teeth, found in the fauces of these fishes, forbid their being brought together. Commer- son, who it seems presented Burron with a draw- ing of the Bufonites, observed also another species in the Indian Sea much allied to it, and which has been figured by Cepepe; but I should scarce- ly dare venture to refer to either of these lineated Spari, found to inhabit an oriental climate, even if other circumstances better corresponded. At present, I have searched in vain for synonyms to the lineatus ; at any rate, it is a species that has undoubtedly escaped the notice of all British naturalists who have written on native ichthy- ology, although it is by no means an uncommon fish on the south coast of Devon. Back much arched and carinated: the lower ~angle of the caudal fin shorter than the upper. The front of the head from the mouth, round the eyes, and for half an inch or more behind them, across the crown, is destitute of scales, of a yellowish-brown colour ; under the eye a scaly space, below which is another smooth part, taking in the margin of the upper plate, and the edge of the posterior plate of the operculum of the gills ; the smooth parts the same colour as the last, but the edge of the upper plate is blue; from the _ smooth part on the top of the: head, an arched | line runs downwards, which is also smooth and ENGLISH FISHES, 453 partly encircles a scaly space: in each jaw, one row of larger teeth, those of the upper rather su- perior in size; within these, the mouth is rough- ened with minute denticles : the irides are partly dusky and silvery. he colour is usually dusky- blue, with paler longitudinal lines. Sometimes they are of so very dark a colour, approaching to black, that the lineations are obscure, which .has induced the fishermen to call them Parsons. | By comparing this species with the Red Bream, Sparus Pagrus, of similar size, the following dis- tinction is obvious: The back is more arched be- hind'the head, and less sloping from the nostrils to the mouth in front: the tail is rather less fork- ed, and the angles unequal, which is not observ-~ able in the Red Bream: the eye of the Black Bream is one-fourth less; this has no dusky spot behind the head: the Red Bream has a spot above the base of the pectoral fin on the lateral line: all the fins of this are dusky, with a blue tinge; the fins of the other are more or less red: the mouth is more protruded, and not red within as in Pagrus: this is deeper in measurement, by near- Jy one-fifth ; is more compressed, and carinated on the back, than the other: the fins of both fishes have nearly the same number of rays, but they are much broader in this than in the red species : the teeth in the fauces are small and slender, si- milar to what are found in the other, and not in the least like the Bufonites. It does not grow to Vou i. Gg 454 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE the sizeof the Red Bream, but is frequently fif- teen inches in length, and five inches in depth be- hind the head. | ' The Black Bream is considered of less este than the Red; both are taken near shore by the hook, and sometimes by nets, in considerable abundance, but the Red is much more plenti- ful. . | | I shall take the liberty of remarking in this place, that in the late edition of PeEnnant’s Bri- tish Zoology, a little confusion appears with re-_ spect to the Rayan and Toothed Gilthead, which might occasionally perplex the inexperienced ich- thyologist.. It will be seen in the former edition of that work, the Rayan Sparus is figured and called the Toothed Gilthead. In the last edi- tion, the Toothed species, Sparus dentex, of the former edition, is referred to for Sparus Raii; but the same figure stands unfortunately with the ori- ginal name of Toothed Gilthead. engraved upon the pete LTrigla. Four species of this genus, out of the five or | six described as British, are usually confounded by the fishermen under the name of Tub, and it must be confessed, that persons of better infor- . = $e cet ~ — PS PET 0 Ow ate ENGLISH FISHES. . 455 mation are extremely puzzled to define them. This confusion is encreased by another species. be- ing blended with them, that hitherto does not ap- pear to have been described, though by no means rare. It has probably been mistaken. for the Sapphirine Gurnard, Trigla hirundo, from the great length and breadth of the, pectoral fins, but is at once discriminated from any other species, by the smoothness of its skin; from which cir- cumstance, it may with great propriety be called Smooth Gurnard, or Lrigla laevis. ; Head and body as far as the vent, large: body entirely smooth : pectoral fins very long and broad, reaching beyond the vent: spine on the oper- culum of the gills, very short. Front slightly bifid, a little roughened with denticles: on the side of the head, three spines as usual; that on the operculum of the gills, re- markably short and blunt, scarcely projecting be- yond the margin: lateral line straight and ele- vated, but quite as smooth to the touch as the rest of the body: on the upper anterior angle of the eye-brow, are two obtuse denticles: the back slightly serrated on each side the dorsal fins: teeth minute, numerous: first dorsal fin has the GgZ2 456 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE second ray a trifle the longest ; the rays spiny and ‘smooth: the rays of the second dorsal fin, are “nearly of equal length, except the first, which is shortest : pectoral fins very large. The colour above is pale yellow-brown, tinged with red, and faintly mottled : the first dorsal fin reddish; the ‘second is almost colourless: caudal fin red: the pectoral fin on the outside, has a dingy-blue cast, dashed with red on the webs, the rays white, with a blush of red ; on the inside dingy-blue, clouded, the margin bright-blue, the two lower rays red : ventral fins nearly white, tinged red at the end: anal fin white, tinged red: the under part of the fish is white, which colour commences some dis- tance below the lateral line. " This fish grows to a large size, some more than two feet in length, and very tumid round the belly. Were it not for the smoothness of the skin, it might be mistaken for the Sapphirine Gurnard by the pectoral fins being equally large, but they are never spotted with bright blue, as in that species. The inside of the mouth is white; un- der the gills the same, yellowish towards the up- per-angle: the caudal fin is slightly forked, but almost even when spread to the utmost, and the angles of equal length. First dorsal fin 9 rays ; ~ second dorsal 16 rays; pectoral 9; ventral 6; anal 15. | ¢ ENGLISH FISHES. 457 This species is taken by the shore-nets, as well as by hook, the finest when fishing for Whiting, by a bait of launce. It is sometimes called Yel- lock, at Torcross, by some of the fishermen, but generally confounded with the Sapphirine, the Red, and the Streaked Gurnards, under the deno- mination of Tub. For the table, none of the Gurnards are held in much estimation in this” part of the country, although the celebrated epicure, Mr Quin, set some value upon a west country Piper. The whole tribe requires good sauce, being naturally dry ; but the Smooth Gur- nard is not inferior to any. ! The air-bladder of this fish, is large and tri- lobated ; whether this is the same in all the other species, I am at present unable to determine. Trigla cuculus. There appears to be one striking character in the Red Gurnard, which is not generally describ- ed. In Suaw’s Zoology it is retained ; and the figure in the British Zoology represents it, al- though it is not mentioned in. the description. This is a remarkable black spot at the top of the first dorsal fin, which, as far as I have observed, by examining many specimens, seems to be con- ee F Gg 3 458 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE stant. ‘The name of Red Gurnard, given to this species, is misapplied, because it partakes less of that colour than many others ;. and consequently, the red variety of the Streaked Gurnard is gene- rally considered as this fish. The species in que- _ stion with the dorsal spot, 1s in colour more like the Grey Gurnard, T. Gurnardus, but with a rosy tinge ; it is a mixture of grey, yellow, and ro- seate, but possibly season and climate may incline it more to red. Biocu has made the dorsal spot an essential character; but the number of rays in the dorsal and anal fins is so very different from what I have noticed, that it is difficult to de- termine these to be the same *. It will be seen, that our fish has three spines less in the dorsal, and six rays more in the anal than Brocu’s fish. Pennant has given the same number as ours in the ventral, and two more in the dorsal. That the rays of the fins are by no means constant cha- racters, is well known; but the difference of one- third of the number i is greater than I ever ni lect to have noticed. , ees i It must be admitted, that the history of fis is yet very imperfect. Much is required to be done, in order to define nid 66 or of some intri- tee oF "gh Re *» Trigla corpore rubro, macula nigra in pinna dorsali prima. Dorsal 10, 18; pectoral 10; ventral 6; anal 12; caudal 15, ENGLISH FISHES: - 459 cate genera, so that we may with more certainty identify the individuals. Every information, therefore, which proceeds from actual exami- nation, must conduce to enlighten the subject. With this view, I shall shortly describe what appears to me to be acommon variety of Trigla cuculus. The forehead is more sloping than that of the Grey Gurnard ; the nose armed with three spines on each side: the spine on the operculum of the gills, and that behind it, are long and rough: Jateral line, and ridge of the back, each side ser- rated : a large black spot on the first dorsal fin at the margin, extending between the third and fifth ray. The whole body is rough: the spine on the gill-covers, extends nearly as far as the spine be- hind it: the lateral line, and ridges on the back, more strongly serrated, than on the Grey Gur- nard: the first dorsal fin has seven spiny rays; the second ray scarcely longer than the third when reclined, the two first rough, the webs tinged rosy : second dorsal fin nineteen soft rays, rosy towards the margin: pectoral fins not very large, with ten rays, of a bluish tinge, scarcely reaching to the vent*: ventral fins six rays, é ae * PENNANT says the pectoral fins are edged with purple. 460 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE white: anal fin eighteen rays, white : caudal fin rosy, and slightly forked when spread. Many of these are taken in the summer months on the coast of Devon, by the shore-nets ; their size Inferior to the other Gurnards, rarely exceed- ing a foot in length, and seldom above nine or ten inches. | Trigla lineata. There appear to be two distinct species of jineated Gurnards ; that originally described by Mr Jaco as a Cornish fish, introduced by Mr Pennant into the British Zoology, and one figured by Mr Donovan in his British Fishes. The former is one of the most common fishes on the south coast of Devon, where it is frequently called Red Gurnard, as well as Tubfish. It is extremely variable in colour, from a bright-red to a dark-brown, sometimes almost black upon the back. I have examined several hundreds of this species, which I consider as the same originally discovered in Cornwall. The fish described by Mr Donovan ri ‘the lineated Gurnard, has the remarkable character of the lines crossing the whole fish, being ele- vated and divaricating on the belly. In our fish, ENGLISH FISHES. © 461. the transverse lines are confined to the region of the lateral line, which they intersect nearly at right angles, do not exceed three quarters of an inch in length, and are cut nearly in half by the lateral line, so that their lower extremities do not reach above half way down the sides of the fish, and are destitute of divarications. It must also be observed, that these lineations are scarcely ob- vious in a fish recently taken, but become more definable as the skin dries. The lateral line is very slender, and not more rough to the touch than the rest of the fish, when the finger is rubbed in reverse ; the scales being serrated, occasions the roughness. Perhaps the following leading characters may be advantageously applied to this fish : Skin rough, with joint transverse striz across the lateral line: nose slightly bifid and crenated : above the anterior angle of the eye, two short spines: pectoral fin not extending beyond the anus: first dorsal fin with the second spinous ray very superior in size to the adjoining, and ex- ceeding them in length nearly half an imch when erect, and when reclined, extending as far as the base of the third ray of the second dorsal fin. | This fish is frequently of a beautiful deep rosy red on the sides; the back clouded with brown or 462 COLONEL MONTAGU ON NEW AND RARE cinereous, tinged with red, and occasionally deep-— brown, bordering on black: the sides of the head under the eye, usually red: the under parts from the chin to the caudal fin, white: the spine on the margin of the operculum of the gills, is short: the dorsal fins reddish, the two anterior spines excepted : pectoral fins underneath, orange- red, clouded and speckled with dusky and brown, the outside paler: the three digits brown, tipped with pale red: ventral fins white on the outside, pale red within: the anterior half of the anal fin is white, the rest bright orange-red : the caudal fin is mostly red, with a little mixture of dusky, and is a trifle forked when spread: the ridge of the back on each side the dorsal fins, strongly serrated. | The number of rays in the fins, are, dorsal 9—18 ; pectoral 10; ventral 6; anal 18. This species is taken in great abundance on i she western coasts, where it is generally supposed to be the Red Gurnard, though usually confounded with others under the provincial name of ‘Tub. . It rarely exceeds fifteen or sixteen inches in length. Is frequently taken by bait, fishing for Whiting, as well as by the shore-nets ; and as it is subject to so much variation in the colour, those of the darkest kind, with very little red on the head and sides, have been brought to me for a distinct species; for many in the highest per- _. ENGLISH FISHES. 463 fection of colour, appear to be more rosy than any other species of Gurnard. In all these va- riations, the second spine in the dorsal fin, (which is much longer than any other, and nearly double in diameter), appears to be the best mark of dis- crimination, (9 464) ~ XXVIII. Observations upon the Alveus or Gene- ral Bed of the German Ocean and British Chan- nel. By Rozert Stevenson, Esq. Civil Engineer. (Read 2d March 1816.) In the course af making professional inquiries re- garding the impression which the tidal waters of the Frith of Forth are making upon some of the most valuable properties situated ‘upon its banks, I have been imperceptibly led to compare these with other observations that have occurred to me in a pretty extensive survey of the coast of Great Britain and Ireland. On this subject, involving not only an important question regarding the Economical Interest of the country at large, but also some points connected with the Natural His- tory of the globe, I shall lay before the Society what occurs to me, in hopes that it may at least ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN, &c. 465 have the effect of turning the attention of more skilful observers to its further elucidation. fam therefore, in this introductory paper, to endeavour to prove, that the tidal waters of the British Channel and German Ocean, are acting upon the coast of this kingdom, and wasting its shores, by a constant and almost invariable pro- gress. ‘This is, perhaps, more or less obvious to every one; but I shall here bring it more dis- tinctly under the notice of the Society, in so far as my intercourse with the different parts of the coast has afforded an opportunity of observing ; and shall add such collateral remarks as may oc- cur in the course of this inquiry. Having in this manner established the point with regard to the wasting of the shores or margin of the land next - the sea, I shall, in a future communication, in- quire into the cause of this wasting, and endea- vour to account for it. Without supposing it to proceed from an increase of the waters of the ocean, or to depend upon any adventitious circumstances connected with the natural state of the tides, I propose to shew that it proceeds from a change upon the level or depth of the alveus, or general ‘bed, of the German Ocean and British Chan- Meh 12% _ It would open a field of inquiry too widely ex- tended, to enter upon the evidence of the water of the ocean haying in former ages occupied a Frith of Forth. Stirling and Clack- Manan, 466. ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN much higher level than it now does. | As already said, | am only at present to trace the encroach- ing or wasting effects of the sea upon the land. In doing this, I shall begin with the shores of the Frith of Forth, and then proceed northward along the eastern coast to the Moray Frith, Caithness, and the Orkney and Shetland Islands; next slight- ly notice the Lewis, and the western parts of Scot- land ; and then turn my attention. to the eastern shores of England, and to the British and St George’s Channels. From the extent of coast just alluded to, it will be obvious, that I can take but a very slight and partial view of the effects of the sea upon the shores at particular bays and creeks, which might deserve further illustra- tion. | The wasting operations of the sea are not con- fined to the more exposed parts of the coast, but are observable in our most sheltered seas, ‘up- on both sides of the Frith of Forth westward, or above Queensferry, where the shores are de- fended on all sides from the violent attacks of the sea in stormy weather: Even in this narrow part of the Frith, we find that the land is gradually washed away by the tides, as, for example, at Lord Dunpas’s estate at Grangemouth, and all the southern shore by the estate of Kinniel and the Earl of Horzroun’s lands, to Queensferry, at whiclr place the track of the public road is now literally within sea-mark, although at no great AND BRITISH CHANNEL. | distance of time it was defended from the sea by a tract of land. The same remarks are strictly applicable to the shores on the northern side at Culross, and along the estates of Sir RoBeRt Pres- ton and Lord Exein, and all the way to North Queensferry. From an inspection of the charts of the coast, it will appear, that these effects are not likely to have been preduced from any parti- cular exposure, as this part of the Frith is com- pletely dand-locked, and is otherwise well sheltered from storms. These appearances would therefore seem to imply a change upon the level of the ocean, occasioning an overfilling of the various in- lets of the sea. Below Queensferry, or to the eastward of it, these effects are perhaps still more remarkable. On the southern side of the Frith at Barnbougle Castle, the seat of the Earl of Rosrsrry, in for- mer times there was a lawn of considerable ex- tent on the eastern front, and on both sides of the castle: This lawn is now completetly washed away by the sea, and it has long since been found necessary to erect a bulwark for the safe- ty of the castle, which 1s rapidly approaching to an insulated state, so that the Noble Proprietor has in some measure been under the necessity of building a new mansion-house upon a more ele- vated situation. Tracing the same shore, along the rocky boundary of Granton and Royston, to Wardy and Newhaven, we are no less struck with Linlithgow. Shire o? Edinburgis. 468 ON THE BED Of ‘THE GERMAN OCEAN the powerful effects of this element. Betweett Newhaven and Leith, where the subsoil consists of strong clay overlaid by a deep cover of alluvial — matters, it is in the recollection of some old fisher- men still living, that an extensive piece of Link ground or Downs existed in front of the lands of Anchorfield and along these shores, on which they used formerly to dry their nets, and which is now entirely washed away. From. the fishing village of Newhaven to Leith, the direct road was along shore on the northern side of Leith Fort; but the road being now carried wholly away, and the sea having penetrated considerably into a field on the eastern side of the houses of Anchorfield, the car- riage road takes a circuitous route by another way ; and there is reason for believing, that at a former petiod the land here had extended, pro- bably as far to the northward as the Martello Tower or Black Rocks. . Of the wasting effects of the sea on the shores of the shire of Edinburgh, some striking proofs are adduced, and others may be drawn from Maitrianp’s History of Edinburgh, in which he speaks of a tract of land on both sides of the Port of Leith, which has now wholly disappear- ed. In particular, at Newhaven, a village which appears to have been established in the beginning of the 15th century, by King James the IV., who there caused a harbour to be constructed for the reception of vessels, and a dock-yard or arsenal, ' AND BRITISH CHANNEL. 469 swith rope-works for building and fitting out ships, the remainsof which, as alsoof a glass and salt work, were visible in 1750, when MairLanpb wrote. He mentions, also, that the great ravages of the sea upon the coast, between Leith and Musselburgh, have occasioned the ‘‘ public road to be divers times removed further into the country, and the land being now violently assaulted by the sea on the eastern and northern sides, all must give way to its rage, and the Links of South Leith probably in less than half a century will be swallowed wp} It is also well known, that this process has in no- wise abated, as the road alluded to has of late years been again and again removed from the sea, and is now in some places defended by bulwarks of stone, to preserve the present line. Even the New Baths erected but a few years since at a con. siderable distance from the high-water mark, have now barely the breadth of the high-way between them and the sea, which has overthrown the bul- wark or fence in front of these buildings, and is now acting upon the road itself. | | ' Proceeding along the southern shores of the Haddington Frith of Forth from Leith to Berwick-upon- 5,755. Tweed, many instances are afforded of the waste of the land by the sea. The shores near Mussel- burgh, at Morison’s Haven, and Prestonpans, have _ suffered greatly from the sea. An instance of this p. is remarked of the link-ground or downs of the op r place, where goME Duke of Albany and VOL. 11, | abe 3 Fife. 4.70 ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN York, when he resided at Pinkie. House in that neighbourhood, used to take the amusement of olf; but now these extensive grounds are almost entirely swept away. The Earl of Wemyss’s lands of Gosford, Gullenness, and all the shores extending from Dirleton Common to North Ber- wick, the Earl of Haddington’s lands of Tyning- ham, Dunbar, Broxmouth, Dunglass, to St Abb’s Head, Eyemouth, and the River Tweed, all bear the marks of wasting. ‘To enter into particulars as to the appearances upon these shores, would be prolix, and perhaps uninteresting: But at all of them, I have been eye-witness to the rapid waste of the land, and the progressive encroachment of the sea. 4 If we turn our attention to ‘tien aan shores of the Frith of Forth, we shall find instances of the same kind no less remarkable. Of these may be mentioned the shores at the estates of the Earls of Moray and Morton, and Mr Ferguson of Raith, the damage done to numerous properties bounded — by the sea, at the towns of Kirkcaldy and Dysart, and the very remarkable and fantastic appearance of the rocks, produced by the wasting effects of the sea, along the shores in the neighbourhood en of Wemyss Castle; indeed, all the towns from ~ Methil to Fifeness, particularly the Elie, Wester- 4 ‘Anstruther and Crail, have suffered by the en- * croachments of the sea, which, in some instances — in this quarter, has also taken away parts of the: ™ public coats, thrown down the incloqmnns, of g ar- vy a . AND BRITISH CHANNEL. 471 dens and. fields, laid waste the piers, and even undermined and carried away dwelling-houses. In the parish of Grail, some slender remains of a Priory existed so late as the year 1808, which are now washed entirely away, with its ancient gardens, &c.; but the adjoining grounds still retain the name of the Croft Lands of the Priory. The point called Fifeness, affords an- other proof of the desolating effects of the sea upon the land. The section of the coast here exhibits strata of a very soft and friable sand- stone, with ironstone and shale. This section I have distinctly traced between Fifeness and the Carr Rock, which lies about a mile and a half off Fifeness: the whole distance between it and the shore forms a tract of shoals and half-tide rocks; and as this series of rocks, so easily worn away by the sea, can again be traced near Kingsbarns, at the opposite side of the bay, it seems extremely probable, that, at no very distant period in the history of the globe, this space between the Carr Rock and the land of Fifeness, may have consisted of firm ground. Along the shores of Balcomie and Cambo, be- longing to the Earl of Kellie, and the estate of Pitmilly, considerable sums have been expended in building and re-building fences against ‘the en- croachments of the sea; and, indeed, many of the proprietors along the shores of the Frith of Forth, finding this an endless task, have, for the present, given it up asa hopeless case. At St Andrew’s Hh 2 ' Forfar and Kincardine 472 ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN the famous castle of Cardinal Beatoun, which is said originally to have been at some distance from the sea, now almost overhangs it; and, indeed, this fine ruin must ere long fall a prey to the waves: from St Andrew’s, northward to Eden Water and the River Tay, the coast presents a sandy beach, and is so liable to shift, that it is difficult to trace the changes it may have under- gone. It is certain, however, that within the last century, the sea has made such an impression up- on the Sands of Barry, on the northern side of the Tay, that the light-houses at the entrance of that river, which were formerly erected at the southern extremity of Button-ness, have been from time to time removed about a mile and a quarter farther northward, on account of the wasting and shifting of these sandy shores, and that the spot on which the outer light-house stood early in the seventeenth century, is now two or three fathoms wader water, and is at least three quarters of a mile within flood-mark. These facts I state from information obligingly communicated to me by George Clark, Esq. Master of tie Trinity-House, Dundee, from the records of that corporation. From the Tay all the way along the coast of Forfar and Kincar- dine to Stonehaven, the shores exhibit’ rocks of se- condary or newer formations, as sandstone and brecciz, &c. and here the effects of the sea are in many places very perceptibie: particularly about _ * half a mile to the westward of the town of. Ar- AND BRITISH CHANNEL. 473 broath, where the public road bounds the sea shore. Within the last thirty years, the Trustees for the highways have been under the necessity of removing the road twice within the fields; and this operation it has now become again necessary to re- peat, for the safety of the traveller. ‘The shores of the estate of Seaton in this neighbourhood, and the Earl of Northesk’s estate of Aithie, including the promontory called the Redhead, exhibit the most unequivocal marks of decay from the same cause; and ona very slight inspection, the conti- — nued progress of disintegration is deducible from — the appearance of the shores at Montrose, the North Esk river, Johnshaven, Dunottar Castle, and the bay of Stonehaven. From thence along the shores of Aberdeen and Banftshire, with little. exception, the coast consists either of extensive tracts of sand or of primitive rocks, as granite, porphyry and serpentine. The shifting nature of the sands, which, when dry, have been blown in- land, and have covered nearly the whole parish of Furvie, belonging to the Earl of Errol, necessarily prevents the effects of the sea from being so easily traced as upon the softer kinds of rocks, or on al- luvial grounds ; and although these rocky shores do not yield so readily to the impulse of the waves, yet even the granite itself cannot withstand the continued force of the sea, which here rolls its surges upon it, in north-easterly gales, with un- interrupted violence, all the way from the coasts Hay? Aberdeen and Banff, Elgin. Inverness and Cromarty. 474 ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAR ~ of Lapland and Norway. We are not, therefore, so much surprised to find zmcisions made into the hardest rocks, exhibiting such extraordinary ca- Vities as the Bullers cf Buchan, and other striking appearances on this coast near Peterhead, as to ob- serve its destructive effects upon the more shelter- ed shores of the Frith of Forth, formerly described, or those of the Moray Frith, which we are now approaching. After passing the river Spey, the rocks on the shores belong to the sandstone or coal formation, and here again the wasting effects of the sea be- come more apparent. At the ancient town of Burghhead, an old fort or establishment of the Danes was built upon a sandstone cliff, which, tradition says, had a very considerable tract of land beyond it; but it is now washed by the waves, and literally overhangs the sea, Between Burghhead and Fort George, a space of about twenty-five miles, the coast is one continued bank ef sand, which has undergone very great changes ‘from the blowing of extensive sand-banks, that has buried several hundred acres of the estate of Cubin, and covered many houses; nor have the ravages of the sea been less felt than those of the sand-flood in this quarter, as the old town of Find- horn was destroyed by the sea, and the site of it is now overflowed by every tide. At Fort George, the encroachments of the sea are likely to produce considerable damage upon the walls of the fort, AND BRITISH CHANNEL. 475 sonie of the projecting bastions, formerly at a dis- tance from the sea, ate now in danger of being undermined by the water ; and it has been found necessary to construct a kind of chevaux de frise, to break the force of the waves before they reach the walls. ‘The same remarks regarding the de- structive effects of the sea, are also applicable to the shores of the Frith of Dornoch, and moré shel- - tered Frith of Cromarty, and the great basin above Fort George; and even of Loch Beauly. The coast of Caithness, the islands of Orkney, and the southern parts of Shetland, consist chiefly of sand- stone rocks, and from their great exposure to the sea, it is no wonder that they appear in many places to be rapidly wasting. in Orkney it de- serves particularly to be remarked, that the Start Point of Sanday, which is now formed into an. island every flood-tide, was, even in the recollec- tion of some old people stili alive, one continuous tract of firm ground ; but at present, the channel between Sanday and the Start Jsland, as it is now called, is hardly left by the water in neap tides 3 and since a light-house was erected upon this Point about ten years ago, the channel appears to have worn down at least two feet. It would in- deed be an endless task, to enter into minutic re- garding the waste observable upon the western coast of Scotland, including the shires of Suther- land, Ross and Inverness, although defended from the heavier breach of the Atlantic Ocean, by the Hh 4 Caithness, Orkney and Shetlands s utherland Ross, Kc. Lewis, Harris, &c. Argyle. Shores of Galloway and the Clyde, &c. # 476 ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN Chain of Islands, consisting of the Lewis, Harris, Uist and Barra, extending about 120 milesina north- eastern and south-western direction, and commonly called the Long Island, while the Isle of Sky and the Argyleshire coast are sheltered by the Western He- brides, including the Great Islands of Mull, Jura, and Isla; yet even in the most sheltered places of this coast, as we have seen of the Friths of Forth and Moray, the sea in many places is rapidly wasting the shores. These effects, however, are not less obvious on those islands which are ex- posed to the direct breach of the Great Western Ocean, as, for example, on the western shores of the the Lewis and Uist Islands. In Uist, particularly, the sea has overrun considerable tracts of land, forming every tide extensive pools and many ford- able channels. The extensive low link grounds, and all the sandy shores of these Western Islands, and also of Orkney and Shetland, consist almost wholly of broken or pounded shells, thrown up in the first instance by the sea, and afterwards nad by the winds upon the land. All along the coast of Galloway, and danke of the shires of Ayr, Renfrew, and Bute, the wasting effects.of the sea are no less remarkable. In Loch Ryan, for example, the whole verge of the land round the Loch is visibly wasting, and the margin of the sea is extending outwards. At the town of Stranraer, the houses along the shore had formerly gardens, between them and high-water mark, but AND BRITISH CHANNEL. 477 of late years, the inhabitants have been under the necessity of erecting bulwarks, to secure the walls © and approaches to their houses. At the village of ‘Kirkcolm, a neck of land called Scar-Ridge, ex- tended into the loch about half a mile, on which cattle used formerly to graze, which is now nearly washed away, and in high tides is laid wholly un- der water. Observations of a similar nature oc- cur on various parts of the shores of the Frith of Clyde, where they strike the mind with more force than perhaps in any other part of the kingdom ; for here the shores are not only comparatively well sheltered, but the tides are so languid as to rise only from nine to eleven feet perpendicular, while the corresponding tides on the eastern coast of Great Britain, rise from fourteen to sixteen feet. Observations upon the wasting of the land by the encroachment of the sea, might, with great propriety, be made upon the shores of Ireland, of which I have seen many instances on the western, northern and eastern coasts, from Loch Swilly, in the county of Donegal, to the Tusker Rock, off the coast of Wexford. But, without enlarging upon these shores, we shall now turn our attention to the coast of England, which, with the opposite shores of Holland and France, form the apices of the German Ocean and British Channel. From the more soft and yielding matters of which these shores are formed, particularly those of England, Ireland, England. Northums berland. Durham. 47% ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN which are at the same time exposed to the violent attacks of the sea in storms from the north-eastern and south-western directions, the wasting effects of the sea are altogether so very remarkable, that it may in general be affirmed that these shores are in a progressive state of decay. Beginning with the north-eastern coast, examples of this will sug- gest themselves to the recollection of those who are acquainted with the shores of Northumber- land, Durham and Yorkshire, as at Holy Island, for example, and the shores near Bamborough Castle, where the sea has made considerable in- roads upon the land. ‘Tynemouth Castle, situated at the entrance of the river Tyne, which now, in a manner, overhangs the sea, had formerly a con- siderable extent of land beyond it; Tynemouth Head being composed of a soft sandstone, is gra- dually worn away by the action of the sea and the effects of the weather, and every season it falls down in such quantities, that the degradation is quite observable to the inhabitants of the town of Tyne- mouth. Upon the southern side of the entrance to the river Tyne, many acres of land have been washed away from the extensive ebb called the Middens: the same thing has happened along the whole shores of the county of Durham, particu- larly between the rivers Tyne and Weir, where the coast is chiefly composed of a soft friable lime- stone; and indeed the land is obviously in a state of waste all the way to the Tees, Here the an- AND BRITISH CHANNEL. 47% cient borough of Hartlepool presents a wonderful example of the encroachment of the sea: it is built upon a projecting point of land, which is fast approaching to the state of an island. Part of the borough lands are every season disappear- ing, and the tide now flows within the gates of the town. ‘The wasting effects of the sea on the soft friable stone of the isthmus on which the town of Hartlepool stands, is altogether so strik- ingly remarkable, that it seems curious and high- ly interesting to the eye of a stranger. On the southern side of the great sand-banks forming the mouth of the Tees, we enter upon the coast of Yorkshire, which extends to the estuary of the River Humber, being upwards of a hundred miles. This coast consists chiefly of sandstone and chalk- hills, and in many places exposes a precipitous face to the sea, which is acting upon it, and in general producing its rapid destruction; of this, many ex- amples are familiar to those on the spot, parti- cularly in the neighbourhood of Whitby and Scar- borough. For a few miles both on the northern and southern side of Flamborough-head Light- house, the section of the coast is almost perpendi- cular, and consists of chalk, intermixed with por- tions of clay. At the eastern extremity, or pitch of the head, the chalky cliff is about seventy feet in height: from this point the coast declines all the way to the Town of Bridlington, and from reat Yorkshire, Lincoln and Norfolk. 480 ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN thence to Dimblington Cliff, near the entrance to the Humber, it is a low sandy shore. From what has been already stated of the effects of the sea upon the hard or more compact shores of Scot- land, it is easy to imagine what its operation must be on the line of coast just described. Accord- ingly, the inhabitants at Flamborough-head, and indeed all along the Yorkshire coast, are too often kept in mind of this, by the removal of their land-marks and inclosures ; and there are many — traditions of churches, houses, and whole fields having been overrun by the sea in the neighbour- hood of Hornsea, Kilnsea, and the Spurn Point on the northern side of the Humber. The widely ex- tended mouth of this estuary, and the manner in which it is cumbered with sand-banks off the coast at Clea and Saltfleet in Lincolnshire, and in- - deed the appearance of the coast all the way to Boston, shews that much of the land has been swallowed up or overrun by the sea; of which there are many striking proofs, both of ancient and modern occurrence. evring The same remarks are also applicable to the great ebb, called the Wash, forming the entrance or navigation to the harbours of Boston and Lyne. Here, it would appear, that the sea has made a breach through the chalk hills, which are ob- servable on each side of the Wash, in the coun- ties of Lincoln and Norfolk, where it is obvious, -that the land has at one time extended further in- AND BRITISH CHANNEL} 481 to the sea, and is at present undergoing the pro- cess of actual waste. Perhaps evidence of this may also be drawn from the works of William of Matlmesbury, who represents the whole of the Fens of Lincoln to have been in a state of high cultivation in the eleventh century. But certain- ly a most unequivocal proof of this is afforded from the discovery by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Joseph Correa, mentioned in the 89th volume of the Philosophical Transactions, of the remains of a sub-marine forest on this coast, now several fa- thoms under water, where the roots, boles and branches of trees, particularly of the birch, of large size, were observed: from the account of the fishermen of this coast, these appearances are to be seen for many miles along the shore, in the form of a range of small islets; and trees have been often found, the timber of which was so fresh, as to be fit for economical purposes. ~The inhabitants of the country likewise represent, that at one time the parish-church stood greatly within the present sea-mark, and that the walls of houses, of a former village, have been seen at low ebbs ; and they allege, that even the c/ock of the present parish-church, is the same that was in the church, the foundations of which are now overflowed. It seems therefore probable, and indeed it is of the greatest importance to the drainage of this tract of country to know, that the present state of the "Fen Country arises from the encroachments of the Fens of Lincoln. Suffolk and Essex. 482 ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN sea, occasioned by the szdting or filling up toa certain degree of the alveus or bed of the German Ocean, rather than from the gradual retreat, or subsiding of these waters; and that the sea, not- withstanding some anomalous instances of reces- sion, which shall afterwards be noticed, is invariably trenching upon the land. In exploring and com- paring the present with the ancient state of our shores, we cannot enough. lament the inaccu- racy of the older maps and charts of our coast ; and every one must rejoice at the prospect this country has, of scon possessing maps founded on the “ Trigonometrical Survey of Great Britain,” now in progress, under the direction of the Board of Ordnance. This great national work, will en- able future generations with accuracy to appre- ciate and compare, the effects ww hein we are now describing. Proceeding southward, we next traverse the coast of Suffolk and Essex, where numerous in- — stances occur of ravages which the sea is making upon the shore: It has already been ascertained, _that the sand-banks of Yarmouth Roads have, of - late years, considerably altered, and that the depth of water is, upon the whole, lessened, a circum- stance most severely felt by the mariners on this . part of the coast, and indeed all the way to the Thames, the entrance of which is now so much encumbered with deposited matters, in the 5 5. Oe form of sand-banks, as to render that navigation - Sa. cal AND BRITISH CHANNEL. A83 extremely difficult, irksome and hazardous. Some pretty extensive additions have also been made to the land in this neighbourhood, at the junc- tion of the rivers Alde and Butley, in the great gravelly beach which extends no less than about eight or ten miles in length, varying in breadth from a few hundred feet to about a mile; and similar appearances are to be found on this coast, as at Harwich, near the confluence of the ri- vers Stour and Ipswich, where a considerable addition has been made to the land on the southern side of Landguardfort: yet these, and other examples of the same kind, are trifling, im proportion to the astonishing effects of the sea in destroying the laud in this very neighbourhood. Near Leostoffe, Dunwich, and Aldborough Castle, on the Suffolk coast, the sea is daily making im- pressions upon the land, which is apparent to the observation of every one acquainted in the slight- est degree with that coast, and is at some places _ severely felt by the proprietor, or even by the te- nant during the short endurance of his lease-hold. At the Naze Tower, near Walton, and indeed all along the coast of Essex, the same appearances are no less obvious. Crossing the numerous sand- banks and shoals which greatly encumber the mouth of the River Thames to the Kentish coast, we are every where presented with instances of the degradation of the land by the encroach- ment of the sea. From Sheerness along the Kent, 484. ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN shore of the Isle of Sheppey, and from the en- trance of the River Swale to Margate and Rams- gate, at various places, very large portions of the chalky cliffs are continually giving way. to ‘the sea, At Sheppey Island, Thanet and Sandwich, — there are proofs of the land gaining somewhat up- on the sea: of this, the Goodwin and other sand- banks may also be considered as examples; but these cases, arising from the shape of the coast, and the set of particular currents of the tide, are rather so many evidences of the sz/tzag up of the alveus or bed of the ocean, and shall be afterwards alluded to as proofs of the consequent tendency of the sea to overflow its banks. But to continue, it may further be noticed, that the Streets of Deal are often laid under water, and houses there have occasionally been washed down by the sea; and, | indeed, the wasting effects are very striking all along this coast, and the opposite shores of Frage the Netherlands, and Holland. British At Romney Marshes, in the British Mes ; Channel nel, labourers are constantly employed attending — and repairing the fences and sea-dikes of these low shores. On the precipitous shores from Deal to Dover, Folkstone and Hithe, large portions of the chalk cliffs are frequently undermined and carried away ; particularly at the South Foreland and Cliffs of Dover, where I happened to witness — the effects of the recent fall, some years ago, Of. ? an immense quantity of these extraordinary chalk. ih AND BRITISH CHANNEL. 485 cliffs, the ruins of which appeared to cover several acres of ground, and must have contained many thousands of tons. A fall of this kind, near Beachyhead, on the Sussex coast, is noticed in a paper by Mr Webster in the Transactions of the Geological Society: the portion which gave way extended 300 feet in length, and was 70 or 80 in breadth ; a clergyman who happened at the moment to be walking on the spot, observing the ground giving way, had just time to escape when the whole fell with a dreadful crash. Shoreham _and Brighton also afford many examples of this kind, particularly the latter, ‘‘ where a whole street has within these few years fallen into the sea.”’ In the same manner, the opposite coast of France is understood to be acted upon; and the numerous Islands lying off that coast and the coasts of Germany and Holland. I might also extend these observations to the shores of Hamp- shire, Dorset, Devon, Cornwall, particularly to the Isles of Wight and Portland, and the Scilly Islands; the wasting of the land, and the en- croachment of the sea, being every where remark- able, and always in proportion to the nature of the ‘strata or rocks composing the coast, whether allu- vial, chalk, limestone, sandstone or granite. _ Nor are these effects of the sea confined to the shores of the German Ocean and British. Chan- nel; for the wasting of the land is no. less remark- able in St George’s Channel and the Irish Sea, in- VOL Ir. : ri St George’s and Bristo) Channels. Swansey. North Wales. Liverpool and Dublin. Solway Frith. 486 ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN cluding the coast of Ireland on the one side, and _ on the other, the shores of Wales, Lancashire, ‘Westmoreland, and the counties of Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, &c. where neither the rocky coasts, and exposed situations of the Islands of Anglesea, Man, Copland, Craig of Ailsa, and the Islands of Cumbrae, nor the sheltered and alluvial shores of the Bristol Channel, are exempted. A striking example of this has been obligingly communicat- ed to me by Cuar.es Stokes, Esq. Secretary of the Geological Society, which occurs off Swansey, where the receding tide exposes a large deposite of trees, within 60 yards from high-water mark. The encroachment of the sea upon the Welch — coast, is briefly noticed by ArTHur Arkin, Esq. in his interesting Journal and Mineralogical ‘Tour through North Wales, p. 229. &c. in which he enumerates several examples of this along the broken and irregular shores between the Severn and the Mersey. Even the granitic coast at Du- blin Bay, and indentations of the sandstone shores at Liverpool and Lancaster, and the more extensive Frith of the Solway, are also subject to the un- varying destructive effects of the sea upon the land. gs + gael “RY Were proofs of the generality of the wasting effects of the sea upon the land to be taken from foreign countries, we should find them no less striking. Whether we look to those coasts and islands which are washed by the expanse of thr’ rom aa See eee F* 4 = = iP AND BRITISH CHANNEL. 487 Atlantic Ocean, or consider the more sheltered shores, as those of the Adriatic, we shall find an almost invariable tendency to the enlargement of the margin or boundary of the sea. - Observations to this effect have been obligingly diilvatecated to me by a gentleman resident at ‘the island of Granada, who is also well acquaint- ed with Barbadoes, and all the West India islands to sea-ward, commonly called Leeward Islands, On several of these he states, that the sea is making a visible impression, and particularly men- tions, that, of late, one side of a street in the town of Granville, in the island of Granada, has been washed away by the sea. A gentleman who visited the city af Venice and the shores of the Adriatic in the summer of 1816, writes me, that the Venetians believe, and confi- dently assert, that their ancient city, founded about 1400’ years since, must by this time have been al- most entirely washed away and laid in ruins by the increasing advancement of the sea, had it not been protected and defended bya great mole or sea- wall and embankment, which became necessary and has now been erected about eighty years. Any parti- cular description of this mole is perhaps abstractly more a matter of interest to the engineer than to the geologist; but from the magnitude of the work, and the direct purpose to which it is applied, it is pre- sumed, that, even here, its general outline may be — given, as affording some additional interest to the Mis West Ins dies. Granada. Venice and the Adria- tic. 488 ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN subject. This great work is situate about’ fifteen miles southward from the city of Venice, is built across part of the apex of the Adriatic Sea, and is almost three miles in extent. In part of its course, it is carried through a morass, from L’Isle’ de Chiusa on the west, along L’Isle de Murasse to the Bocca di Porto on the east. The depth of the foundations of this stupendous work varies according to the nature of the bottom, and the depth of the water, which at some places is said said to be sufficient to float a frigate quite close to the wall. The masonry terminates in a wall of about ten feet in height, with a walk of four feet in breadth, forming its thickness at the top, from which this immense wall and embankment is seen to slope and fall majestically into the Adriatic. This proud monument of Venetian greatness, which interrupts the natural current of the water, is the scene of great contest, in stormy weather, between the fury of the waves and the obstinate gravity of the ponderous materials of which the greater - part of it is composed, and which are also firmly cemented together with Puzzolano-mortar. The sloping face of the wall in some places extends fif- ty feet in breadth to the water’s edge of solid ma- sonry, beyond which is an irregular stratum or heap of mound stones, consisting of large loose blocks, which are notwithstanding at times set in motion, and the smaller pieces thrown over the wall by the waves. | PMB BREGIGE CUA NEL -.. 489 » Without further examples, however, we may i the present venture to assume, that the disin. tegrating and wearing effects.of the waters of the ocean are general. Whether we contemplate them upon the land by the immediate and power- ful impulse of the waves at the base of a rocky shore, or, with the elegant and profound illustra- tor of the Huttonian Theory, trace it in the form of rain, rills and torrents, in the higher regions, we shall find its effects all tending to one unvary- ing principle, producing the degradation of the land, and consequent tendency to filling up at the bottom of the sea; while, at the same time, from the, magnitude and extent of the surface, and other occult causes, we are not aware of the elevation of its level in any sensible degree. Nature seems to have created a kind of compensating power to counterbalance the seeming conflict of the ele- ments of Earth and Water: for while the ocean appears to be extending its surface, it seems also probable that the quantity of its waters are upon the whole lessened, and that part of them under-— goes a complete and permanent change of form after the process of evaporation; and that the earthy particles continually accumulating at the bottom of the sea, have a direct tendency not only to preserve a uniform level, but even in some in- stances to make the water overrun what we have been accustomed to consider its boundary. If we attentively inquire into the generality of the wast- ing effects of the sea upon the margin of the land, 118 Conclusion. 490 ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN, &c- it will perhaps appear, that the instances in which the sea can be considered as just taking a portion of land from one part, while it adds in like propor- tion to another part of the coast, will come far short of the instances of detrition in all quarters of the globe. Having now pointed out, from actual observa~ tion on about one-half of the coast of Ireland, and on all parts of the shores of Great Britain, from the Scilly Islands to Unst, or northmost of the Shetland Islands, That the land, on the mar- gin of the sheltered bays and friths as well as on the most exposed promontories and open shores, is undergoing the process of waste and decay from the impulse and action of the sea; I shall in a future paper, with the indulgence of the ‘So- ciety, endeavour to shew that the Cause of this effect, particularly on the shores of the German Ocean and British Channel, is, in a good measure, owing to the immense quantity of debris which must be accumulating, at least toa certain ett in the bottom of the ocean. ) E2392: X XIX. Geological Remarks on the Cartlane Craig. By Dr Macxnigar. (Read 12th February 1814. ) | Ir is remarkable, that amongst the phenomena of ‘the mineral kingdom, on which the two geologi- cal theories now in discussion, have been founded, there should be so many that do not admit of an “unequivocal or exclusive application to either side of the question at issue. A great number of these appearances ' may be explained on the principles of both systems, so as to render it a matter of doubt with some enquirers, to which of them we ought to give the preference; nor is there per- haps a single fact yet observed, which is acknow- ledged on all sides as possessing distinctly the cha- racter of what may be called an experimentum crucis, to decide the faith of mineralogists. 14 4 492 GEOLOGICAL REMARKS Of the former description here alluded to, I have lately found a striking instance, in the Cart- lane Craig, which is a vast chasm, in the sand- stone formation, above Lanark, traditionally cele- brated as one of the places where the heroic but unfortunate Wattace concealed himself from the search of the English. It is evidently form- ed by the under side or projecting shoulder of a round backed mountain-mass, somehow detached from the body or upper part. The general line of this enormous and singular rent, which runs - nearly in the direction of N. E. and S.W., is that of the segment of a circle, sweeping to a distance of at least three-fourths of a mile from the one extremity to the other. Its greatest depth can hardly be less than 400 feet ; and its width above, at the highest point, probably ex: — ceeds 600 feet, although at the bottom, it is little more than the breadth of a small stream, called the Mouse, which finds its way, by,this opening, into the Clyde. ‘Towards the .extremities, the height on both sides gradually declines, till the chasm entirely disappears, .as may be easily con- ceived from the shape of the mass or projecting — shoulder in which it occurs, and which approaches the figure of a spherical segment. From the up- per extremity to the lower, there is a. considerable descent of level. | ON THE CARTLANE CRAIG. 493 The whole extent of the Cartlane Craig, along its edges and steep faces, particularly on the low- er side, is richly fringed and beautifully clothed with plantations and brush-wood, so as to exhibit one of the finest and most romantic pieces of natural scenery, that can be imagined. In spite, however, of this covering, and of the waste which must have gone far in the course of ages, to disfigure the face of the rock, and destroy the traces of its fracture, the more remarkable fea- tures of this extraordinary mineral appearance, are still discernible on the slightest inspection. It presents a succession of projecting and re- entering angles, reaching from the top to the bot- tom of the solid front, which are most distinctly observed towards the centre or highest part : each projection on the one side having its correspondent recess on the other, and the opposite faces or edges of the disrupted strata shewing their origi- nal continuity. | | These circumstances, render it probable, that the chasm in question has owed its existence to the operation of some cause, not of a slow and silent kind, as the wearing of water, or the de- composition of the rock, but more sudden and violent in its action: and to explain it satisfac- torily, 1, would now propose, as a geological problem, of no inconsiderable curiosity and in- terest, 494 ; GEOLOGICAL REMARKS. For this purpose, it must be further stated, as a part of the description of the Cartlane Craig, that near the middle of the great fissure, we find the channel of the stream crossed, by a mass of green- stone, or flcetz-trap rock, which traverses the strata in a direction almost perpendicular to the course of the hollow at that place. In the neigh- — bourhood of the greenstone, smaller ,veins or por- tions of the same substance may be traced running in a similar direction, and exhibiting at some places the characters of basalt. The immediate connection of these smaller branches or veins with the largest mass, is concealed by the soil and coppice-wood, and debris in the bed of the water ; but in the language of the Huttonian School, they would be described as shooting from it. _ Now, on the principles of the igneous theory, the presence of greenstone in the position which it occupies here, affords at once the solution re- quired ; and the Cartlane Craig becomes an example.on a large scale, of disruption and dislo- cation produced by a melted or fluid’ mass; burst- ing upwards from the bowels of the earth. (9 On the other hand, the first part of the deserip- tion I have given, clearly resolves this phenome- non into the effect of what 1s called in the aqueous theory, subsidence, of which it possesses all the data to form a-case. Such an explanation, every . appearance and circumstance connected with the ON THE CARTLANE CRAIG. 495 subject, inclines me strongly to prefer, on the following grounds, which I submit with defe- rence to the observation and judgment of geo- logists. — I. Admitting the fusion of greenstone by heat, the mass in this case, considered as a mechani- cal power, seems totally inadequate to the ef- fect produced ; as it does not exceed a few feet in thickness, while the mass of strata displaced, is almost a square mile in extent, with a depth of at least a hundred yards. II. The relative position of the mass or vein, so far as it appears, is incompatible with the sup- position of its having been the agent in this dis- placement. Had the greenstone followed the di- rection of the great chasm, appearing every where along the bottom, or in its vicinity, such an in- ference might have been plausible. But far otherwise, as already noticed, it runs almost di- rectly across the hollow ; so that the fissure which has taken place, is nearly at right angles to that which the laws of mechanism would teach us to expect, from the presumed disruptive force of the greenstone. - III. The strata fractured and separated, exhi- bit no' marks of having been burst asunder by the 496 GEOLOGICAL REMARKS ~ power of explosion; nor indeed any appearance, but what would naturally be found, in a case of subsidence or desiccation. ‘Those on the uppe or mountain side, preserve throughout their original position, which, with little exception, is almost horizontal, with their edges presented to the eye ; and they seem to run'backwards undisturbed into the body of the mountain: while, on the lower, or detached side, they have precisely the appear- ance and inclination which might be expected, if they had fallen off or slipped down from. the higher mass, of which they originally formed a part. In confirmation of this hypothesis, it may be observed, that the precipitous front on the mountain-side, approaches in general much nearer to the perpendicular, than on the opposite side, which shelves so considerably that I was able at one place, not far from the centre, to clamber from the bottom up to the top. 2 ois See MOR IV. Whether the Cartlane pecchasiaaen has been an eruption from below, or a deposition «from above, or in whatever way we may suppose it to have been formed ; every thing in the appearance and position of ‘the rock, demonstrates, that the greenstone itself also, must have originally been a part of the great mountain-mass, previous to the period of its being rent as we now see it. In fact, the greenstone on the one side has evidently ON THE CARTLANE CRAIG. 497 been broken off from the opposite, as well as the sandstone. If so, the conclusion I have drawn, is unavoidable. ‘'V. To complete the evidence of this explana- tion, all the circumstances which strike the eye, in surveying the neighbourhood of the Cartlane Craig, and especially the great declivity towards the Clyde, which runs at a level of several hun- dred feet below, decidedly favour the opinion, that the separation of the rocky mass has been occa- sioned by its sinking on that side, where it had been left without support. From the lowest ex- tremity of the great opening, to the bed of the Clyde, at the nearest point, there is a rapid descent of half a mile; and the course which the stream of the Mouse must have followed along the base of the dislocated mass on the outside, had no dis- location taken place, is too obvious to escape no- tice at first sight. This apparently original course, though unobstructed by the fundamental rock, is indeed entirely blocked up by a ridge of con- siderable height, on which the house of Baronald stands. It is plain, however, that this ridge has been formed only by the debris from the dis- located rock filling up the hollow behind it, and accumulating in the progress of time ; so that the water of the Mouse, after having probably been collected to some depth, in a large bason, still ex- 498 GEOLOGICAL REMARKS isting on the north-east of Baronald House, and presumed to have been the commencement of the original course, had been forced to work its pas- sage through the present channel, which the dis- placement of the strata had opened to it, and which it has no doubt worn and deepened. Such are the reasons which induce me to adopt the explanation of this appearance, suggested by the principle of the aqueous theory. It may al- so be thought, that the effect of earthquake might be taken into account, as assisting the failure of support on the lower side. But withcut insisting further on such topics, I leave the solution now proposed, to the decision of future observers, whom. curiosity may afterwards lead to visit a scene so remarkably striking and attractive to the eye of taste as well as of science. Points, in fact, of this nature, will not be decided satisfactorily, without the most accurate observation and ex- perienced judgment, in the progress of geological knowledge. : I have only to add, that the Cartlane sandstone may be described as belonging to the class of rocks immediately subsequent to grey-wacke, in the order of succession. It has in general, all the characters of old red sandstone, approaching to erey-wacke ; and it occurs alternating with that substance, among the undermost strata of ‘the for- mation, as may be seen in the lower country along ON THE GARTLANE CRAIG. 499 the banks of the Clyde above Lanark. ‘The frag- ments it contains when coarse-grained, are angu- lar pieces and rolled masses, of quartz, felspar, grey-wacke, clay-slate, jasper, flinty-slate, &c., often so large, that some of the beds may be re- garded as conglomerates. But the greater por- tions of the strata are fine granular, composed of quartz, felspar, and mica, minutely aggregated, in some varieties without a base, in others with a cement of clay ; and the mixture is so pure, as to render these varieties excellent specimens of what Professor JAMESON is inclined to consider as true chemical depositions. Quartzy-sandstone also oc- curs, with facettes of felspar. In this formation, most of the rocks exhibit numerous scales of mica. We find in others, _ specks of embedded copper-pyrites. Lime, too, frequently appears in the lowest strata, pervading the substance of the rock, as a kind of base, or penetrating it in the form of cotemporaneous calc- spar veins. In the former case, we have what may be called arenaceous limestone, which may be found in the bed of the river above Clyde Bridge. Veins of heavy-spar sometimes occur. The variety of colours in the different strata, seems to depend on the greater or less abundance of iron. With regard to the trap-rock, of which the po- sition has been described, its oryctognostic cha- racters do not exhibit much variety. The great- est mass, is a compact greenstone, intermixed with 500 GEOLOGICAL REMARKS, &c.. calc-spar: the smaller veins approach to: basalt, with olivine and augite. Other varieties are inter- mediate between basalt and clinkstone; and con- tain small portions of blackish-coloured clay, to- gether with calc-spar, crystals of felspar, and little shining facettes of hornblende. i | The examination of the Cartlane Craig, will al- ways interest the mineralogist; and the fatigues of Mr Licutroot, in clambering over its broken rocks, were rewarded by the discovery of several rare and curious plants. H.P? FO. Y € pga ‘O rn. Lb erar.V He é. W \\ 7 LDhonvas Brown col? i XXX. Account of the Irish T. estacea. By Tuomas Brown, Esq. F.L.S. M. W.S. M. K. S. &e. (Read 16th Dec. 1815.) SIR, Naas Barracks, Ireland, 20th August 1815. For the information of the Wernerian Society, I herewith send you an enlarged Catalogue of the Irish Testacea. You will observe I have madea considerable addition to that I sent on the 14th November 1814. - With the exception of a few species, collected in places I have never visited, by persons on whose veracity I can depend, they have all come under my own observation. In the catalogue will be found several new species, which have not hitherto been described, drawings of which I have annexed. | pow k 3: Ps = a 502 ON THE IRISH TESTACEA. My residence having been in situations remote from the coast, has prevented me from making the list of the marine species more complete. The variety to be met with in one day on the beach of Dublin Bay and Portmarnock, exceeds any thing I ever before witnessed. And it appears to me, that the Land and Fresh-water Testacea, are more plentiful in Ireland than in Engiand or Scotland, as almost every ditch abounds in shells; and I have frequently seen old ditches cleared out, with a solid mass of decayed shells, from twenty inches to two feet thick at bottom. I have the honour to be, SIR, Your most obedient humble servant, THOs. BROWN, Captain Forfar Regiment - To Professor Jamison, President of the Wernerian Society, Se. &c. Fc. See 2 ee a ieee eae = 9) ie . fascicularis. » Marginatus. . levis. . Balanus. . Balanoides. o Tintinna- bulum, (: 503° ) ACCOUNT OP THE IRISH TESTACEA., Orper I. MULTIVALVE SHELLS. CHITON. Linn. Trans. viii. p.21. t-1.f. 1.—Wood, Gen: Conch. p. 16. t. 2. f. 6. On oysters from Killinchy, Lough Strangford ; plentiful. Linn. Trans. viii. p. 21. t. 1. ff 2.—Wood, Gen. Conch. p.21.t. 3. f. 4. Pigeon House, Dublin Bay ; plentiful. Pennant, Brit. Zool. 4. t. 36. f.3. Rathgar- mont, Lough Strangford, on oysters; rare. LEPAS. Donovan, Nat. Hist. Brit. Shells, t. 30. f. 1.— Wood, Gen. Con. p. 43. t. 7. f. 3. Dublin Bay, Portmarnock, and Killough. Donovan, Br. Shells, 36. f. 2.—Wood, Gen. Con. 44, t. 7. f. 1. Pigeon House, Killinchy, and Killough. | Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 148.—Wood, Gen. Cons 38. t.6. f. 1, 2. On drifted wood at Howth. Kk 2 504 4, rugosa. 5. intertexta. §. anatifera. 1. Dactylus. 2. candida. 3. crispata. I, truncata. 2, arenaria. _ 8. declivis. 4, preetenuis. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. Wood, Gen. Con. 41. t. 6. £ 4.; Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 160. L. borealis.—Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; common. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 36. f. 1.—Wood, Gen. Con. 57.t.9. f. 5. L. verruca. adhering to the Buccinum undatum ; rare. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 7.—Wood, Gen. Con. 65.t. 11. Fixed to rotten wood at Howth. Portmarnock, PHOLAS. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 118.—Wood, Gen. Con. 77. t. 13. f: 1, 2, 3. One valve, about 31 inches broad, at Howth, by Mr O’Kelly. Donovan, Brit. Con. t. 132.—Wood, Gen. Con. 79. t. 14. f. 3, 4. Dublin Bay, rare. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 62. & t. 69. P. parva. Portmarnock, rare; Belfast Lough, not un- common. Orpver II. BIVALVE SHELLS. MYA. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t.92.—Wood, Gen. Con. 90. t. 17. f. 1, 2. Dublin Bay, and Portmar- - nock ; very common. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t.85.—Wood, Gen. Con. Hit. 17st a End, Dublin Bay, and at Portmarnock ; com- Buried in the sand at Ring's mon. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 82,—Wood, Gen. Con. 93. t.18.f. 2, 3. bene. Dublin Bay; and of» large size in Belfast Lough. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 176.—Wood, Gen. Con. 94. t. 24. £7, 8,9. Belfast Lough; — rare. ! LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 505 5. pellucida. (Plate xxiv. fig.1.) Shell oblong-ovate, white, pel« Incid, thin, and rather convex ; umbo small, placed nearly central; posterior side a little truncated, and a little turned to one side;- anterior side rounded ; covered with a fine transparent olivaceous epidermis ; pretty strongly wrinkled concentrically, the wrinkles more strong and sharp, and rather rugose, at each end; the outside is covered with a fine waved striz at each end, but smooth towards the centre of the valves ; from the umbo an oblique furrow runs to the end of the ante- rior slope; in each valve is a spoon-like ca- vity, sloping downwards, to which the carti- lage is fixed. Inside of a very fine pearl- aceous hue, and smoothly wrinkled, corre- sponding with the outside. Breadth, 14 inch ; length, ths of an inch. Two opposite valves, of different sizes, of this shell, were found by Miss Hutchins at Ban- | try Bay, and are now in the cabinet of Dr Taylor of Dublin, who obligingly favoured me with them, to describe and draw from. 6. margariti- Donovan, Brit. Shells, t.773.—Wood, Gen. Con. ta. | 107) t.23. £1, 2,3. Inthe’ river: Slany, : Ennescorthy. 7. inequival- Montagu, Test. Brit. 38. Sup. t. 26. f. '7.—Linn. vis. Trans. viii. 40. t. 1. f. 6. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock. ; SOLEN. 4. Vagina. A striking characteristic of this shell, which has not been noticed by any author, is, that the epidermis on each valve extends about half an inch beyond the valves, on the sides farthest from the hinge—Donovan, Brit. Shells, Kk3 506 wm . Siliqua. . Ensis. . Legumen. . antiquatus. . vespertinus, » minutus. 1. Ferréen- sis. 8. donacina, a. jugosa. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. t. 101. S. marginatus.—Wood, Gen. Con. 119. t. 27; f. 1. Dublin Bay ; plentiful. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 45.—Wood, Gen. Con. 118. t. 26. f. 1,2. Dublin Bay, and Port- marnock ; very common. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 50.—Wood, rey Con. ° 122. £228: 41, 2) Diiblin Bay, and Port- marnock ; common. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 53.—Wood, Gen. Con. 124. t, 28. f. 4, 5. Dnblin Bay, plentiful, and of a very large size, measuring 33 inches in breadth. ‘This is a rare British shell. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 144.—Wood, Gen. Con. 125. t. 29. f. 3. One valve was found at Portmarnock. Donovan, Brit. Shells,-t. 41. f. 2. Tellina va- riatabilis— Wood, Gen. Con. 135. t. 33. f.2, 3. Bantry Bay, attached to the Ostrea edulis. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 53. t. 1. £. 4.—Wood, Gen. Con. 139. t. 34. f. 5,6. Portmar nock, adhering to the roots of fuci. TELLINA. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 60. T. trifasciata.— Wood, Gen. Conch. 164. t. 45. f.1. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; verycommon. This beautiful shell is very rare on the British coasts. Linn. Trans. viii. p. 50. t. 1. f. 7—Wood, Gen. , Conch. 161. t. 45. f.5. Bantry Bay, and one valve at Portmarnock ; rare. (Plate xxiv. fig. 2.) Shell ovate-oblong, con- vex, opaque, and strong ; with numerous very sharp, elevated, concentric ridges, not regu< lar, but somewhat waved and broken at ins tervals, and feel rough to the touch: the in« . terstices are decussated, with extremely mi-< LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 507 nute, concentric, undulated striz ; the lateral "more regular, and diverging from the apex to the base, and can only be distinctly seen by means of a strong lens : umbo rather small, and placed considerably to one side: hinge with two central teeth and one lateral one in each valve ; in the left valve is a large, broad, bifid, reflected, elevated tooth, which bends outwards, pointing to the umbo, two-thirds of which rises above the margin of the shell ; the other tooth is very thin, and runs ob- liquely alongside the lateral tooth, which rises at the apex, and obliques towards the anterior slope, over which is placed the liga- ment: in the right valve one tooth is ob- long, with a spoon-like cavity in its centre ; the smaller tooth similar to that in the oppo- site valve, but somewhat stronger and ob- tuse; the lateral tooth the same as in the left valve: inside of a yellowish-white, with numerous glassy circular spots, and a very large muscular impression, extending from the margin (which is plain and glossy) two- thirds across the shell: anterior slope much produced ; posterior slope rounded. On the outside, a subulate depression runs from the apex to the base, in an oblique direction, near the anterior slope. Length one inch ; breadth one inch and three-eighths. A complete shell and odd valve, were found by Miss Hutchins in Bantry Bay, and are now in the cabinet of Dr Taylor of Dublin. 4, depressa. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 163.—Wood, Gen. Con. 171. t.45. f.3. Dublin Bay, and Port- marnock ; not uncommon. | 5. Fabula, Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 97,-Wood, Gen, Con. Kk 4 ; 508 10. ba 12. Is: . tenuis. . Radula. - crassa. . rotundata. flexuosa. solidula. cornea. amnica. . medium. » exiguum. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA, 156. t. 45. f. 4. Dublin Bay, and Portmar- nock ; common. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 19. sfivan smaller fi-« gures.— Wood, Gen. Con. 155. t. 44. f. 3, 4. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; common. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 130. Wenus borealis. Wood, Gen. Con. 183. t. 42. f. 4,5. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; common. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 103. T. rigida.—Wood, Gen. Con. 186. t. 40. f.1. Dublin Bay ; very rare. Montagu, Test. Brit. 71. t. 2. f. 3.—Wood, Gen. Con. 187. Bantry Bay ; rare. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 42. f. 2. Venus sinu- osa.—Wood, Gen. Con. 188. t. 47. f. 7, 8 Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; sparingly. - Wood, Gen. Con. 193. t. 46. f. 2.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 63. Dublin Bay, and Portmar- nock ; very common. | Donovan, Brit. Shells, t.96.—Wood, Gen. Con. 196. t. 46. f. 3. Ina stream in the Bog of Allen, near Clonooney ; and en in the Grand Canal. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 64, f. 2. T. rivalis.— Wood, Gen. Con. 158. t. 47. f. 6—In a stream near Clonooney: in the Grand Cae nal ; and in the Liffey ; plentiful. “ CARDIUM. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 32. f. 1.—Wood, Gen. ~ Con. 211. t.50. £3. One valve from Rath- garmont, Lough Strangford. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 32. f. 3.—C. pygmeum. Wood, Gen, Con. 212. In sand from Port- marnock. _ | - aculeatum. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 6.—Wood, Gen, Con. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 509 207. t. 51. f.1. Dublin Bay, and Portmar- nock ; very common, and of a large size. 4. echinatum. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 107. f. 1—Wood, Gen. Con. 208. t. 49. f. 1, 2. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; very common. 5. ciliare. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 32. f. 2—Wood, Gen. Con. 209. t. 49. f. 3, 4. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; rather scarce. _ 6. levigatum. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 54.—Wood, Gen. Cons222, t, 53. £4, 2. ‘, 7. edule. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 124. f.2.—C. rusticum. Wood, Gen. Con. 226. t. 55. f. 4. Common on most sandy shores. I found a valve in Dublin Bay, one inch and six-eighths in in length, and two inches and a quarter in breadth. They are common of this size at Wexford. MACTRA. 1. Stultorum. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 106.—Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 94. Dublin Bay, and Dundrum Sands; very common, and in the former place of a very large size, and very strong. 2. solida. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 61.—Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 92. Dublin Bay, plentiful. 3, truncata. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 126.—M. subtruncata. | Edinburgh Encyclopedia, art. Conchology, p- 93. t. 205. f. 14. Dublin Bay, and Port- marnock ; not uncommon. 4, subtrun- Montagu, Test. Brit. p, 93.—Edinburgh Ency- cata. _ clopedia, art. Conchology, p. 93. t. 205. f. 15. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; sparingly. 6. Listeri. | Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 64. f. 1. Tellina plana. eal | —Pennant, Brit. Zool. No. 52. Venus bo= realis. Dublin Bay, rare ; Babrigging, plen= tiful. 510 7. Boysii. 8. lutraria. 1. Trunculus. 2, denticu- lata. 1. verrucosa. 3. Casina. 3. fasciata. 4. sulcata. 5. Gallina. 7. Islandica. 8. Ovata. 8. tigerina. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. Linn. Trans. 8. p. 72. t. 1. f. 12.—Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 98. t. 3. f.'7. Portmarnock ; rare. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 58. go ann: Trans. 6. t. 16. f. 3, 4. Dublin Bay, and Portmar- nock ; very common. A DONAX. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 29. f. 1—Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 103. Dublin Bay, Portmar- neck, and Dundrum ; very common. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 24. Don. crenulata.— Montagu, p. 104. One very small valve in sand from Portmarnock. VENUS. Pennant, Brit. Zool. 4. t. 54. f. 48. a. Venus erycina.—Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 44. & t. 115. V. cancellata. Wexford; rare. Linn, Trans, viii. p. 79. t. 2. f. 1.—Pennant, Brit. Zool. 4. t. 54. £48. Dredged at Bray, where it is not uncommon. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 110.~V. paphia.—Do- novan, Brit. Sh. t. 170. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; rare. : Linn. Tr. 8. p. 81. t.2. £.2. Dredged at Bray. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 68. V. striatula—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 113. V. striatula. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; commen. Donovan, Br. Sh. t.'77.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 114. Dublin Bay, and Bray ; plentiful. Linn. Tr. 8. p. 85. t. 2. f. 4.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 120. Dublin Bay, Portmarnock, and Lough Strangford. Linn, Tr. 8. p. 86, t. 2. f, 5—Montagu, Test. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. §11 Br. p. 119. t. 1.14. Rings-End. Dublin Bay ; rare. 9. undata. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 121.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 118. Dublin Bay, plentiful ; and of a large size in Belfast Lough, A rare British shell. 10. exoleta. Linn. Tr. 8. t. 3. f£. 1.—Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 42. f. 1. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock, of a large size, and several varieties. 11. decussata. Linn. Tr. 8. p. 88. t. 2. f£.6.—Donovan, Br. Sh- t. 67. Thousands of this shell are to be found on the shores in the neighbourhood of Dublin, and of a very large size: they must live in very deep water, and at a great dis- tance from the shore, as I never found a pair of valves united. 12. Pullastra. Linn. Tr.8.p. 88, t. 2. f. '7.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 125. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; plentiful. 13. perforans. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 127. t. 3. f 6.—Linn. Tr. 8. p. 89. Portmarnock; and in stones at Howth. 14. virginea. Linn. Tr. 8. p. 89. t. 2. f. 8—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 129. Dredged at Bray, rare ; and at Portmarnock, not uncommon. 15, aurea. Linn. Tr, 8. p, 90. t. 2. f. 9—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 129. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock, by Dr Turton. Bantry Bay by Dr Taylor ; and in Carrickfergus Bay by Dr Macdonnell ; rare, 16. sinuosa. Donovan, Br. Sh. t, 42. f. 2.—Pennant, Brit. Zool. 4. t. 55. f. 51. a. Dublin Bay; rare. CHAMA. { Cor? Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 134.—Wernerian Memoirs, i. t. 8. f..7. One valve of this very rare shell was found in Dublin Bay by James Tardy, Esq.; and 512 rN) - minuta. ris. » pilosa. . Nucleus. . barbata. \ LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA, there is a complete shell in the cabinet of Dr Blake of William Street, Dublin, who received it from Mr Green, fishmonger : it was given to him by a fisherman who dredged itin Dublin Bay. My friend Mr O’Keily, informed me he made inquiry concerning this shell at the fishermen, who assured him they got five or six specimens before, but threw them away, thinking them of no use. I am thus particular, because I have great doubts of Chama cor being an inhabitant of the seas around Great Britain, or its neighbouring islands. ARCA. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 78. A. caudata.—Linn. Tr. 8. p. 92. One valve in Dublin Bay. . Glycyme- Linn. Tr, 8. p. 93. t. 3. f. 3. One valve of this rare shell was found by Mrs Clewlow at Spring- vale ; and several odd valves at Carrickfergus by Dr Macgee. Linn. Tr. 8. p. 94. t. 3. f. 4.—-Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 37. A. glycimeris. One specimen at Portrahan Donnabate, by M. J. O'Kelly, Esq. | | Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 63.—Linn. Tr. 8. p. 95. Dublin Bay and Portmarnock ; plentiful. (Plate xxiv. fig. 3.) Lister’s General Conch. t. 231.—Rumphius, Mus. t. 44.—Linn. Syst. Nat. 2. p. 1140. <“ Shell oblong striate, bearded with byssus: beaks approximate ; margin closed. Shell pale chesnut under the byssus, sometimes mixed with white, and marked with decussate stricee: the fibres in the angle of the section are nodulous.”—Tur- ton’s Linné, 4. p, 250. With an oblong-ovate, strong, white shell, very _ finely reticulated, and covered with an oliva- ne LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 518 ceous-brown epidermis: from the umbo to the margin diverge a number of almost equi- distant flat ridges, covered with very fine, short, and thick set brown hair: all round the margin, it is beset with a byssus of ra- ther long and strong hair: in the hollows at the anterior and posterior slopes, it is thickly covered with bristles of a dark umber colour: teeth of the hinge, at the umbo, rather small ; but they increase in size as they diverge out- wards, and oblique in opposite directions. The inside is moderately glossy, growing — dimmer as it approaches the cavity of the shell: the margin is finely crenulated; and the whole inside has very pale glossy rays, and clouded with a pale chestnut colour. This very perfect, and new shell on our coasts, was found alive, adhering to an oyster, from. Killinchy in Lough Strangford, by Dr Mac- gee, Belfast. OSTREA. 1. maxima. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 49.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 143. Portmarnock, rare; more plentiful at Bray; and common in Lough Strang- ford. 2. varia. © Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 1. f. 1.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 146. Portmarnock, not uncommon. Very fine and perfect specimens are common on the Lough Strangford oysters. 3. opercular- Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 12. Pecten subrufus.— mee Montagu, Test. Br. p. 145. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; common. 4, lineata. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 116.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 147. Dredged at Bray. 514 LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 5. sinuosa. Donovan, Brit, Shells, t. 84. Pecten pusio.— Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 148. Pecten. distor- tus. Portmarnock, rare; in Lough Strang- ford not uncommon. 6. obsoleta. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 1. f. 2.—Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 147. Portmarnock, rare. A very beautiful and perfect specimen was taken by the dredge at Bray, 7. edulis. Pennant, Brit. Zool. 4. t. 62. f. '70. inferior. Carlingford, Lough Strangford, and Carrick- fergus. ANOMIA. — . Ephippium. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 26.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 155. Dublin Bay, two specimens ; and in great plenty on oysters from Carlingford and Lough Stranford. . Squamula. Pulteney in Hutch. Dorsat. p. 37. t. 13. f. 4.— Montagu, Test. Brit. p 156. & p. 561. Not uncommon, adhering to Carlinford oysters. - aculeata. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 157. t. 4. f. 5. Linn. Tr. 8. p. 103. In sand from Portmarnock ; not uncommon. : . undulata. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 153. 157. & 580. t. 4. f. 6.—Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 45. Ostrea stri- ata. Callina Bay, and Rathgarmont, Lough Strangford. . pellucida. Shell orbicular, slightly wrinkled, thin, pellucid and of a bright amber colour ; umbo small and margined, below which is a chalky-like spot, of a roundish shape; under valve flat, upper valve very convex. Diameter about an inch. I first discovered this new shell on Color. Coats Sands, near Tynemouth, Northumberland. Portmarnock, and Dublin Bay ; rare. Sid 4. rugosus. 2. edulis. 3. incurvatus. 4, pellucidus. ; Modiolus. er 6. umbilicatus. 7. cygneus. = anatinus. 9. discors. 10. fuscus. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 515 MYTILUS. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t- 141.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 164. Portmarnock ; not uncommon. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 128.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 159. Common on all the shores. Linn. Tr. vii. p. 106. t. 3. f. '7.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 159. Dublin Bay; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 81.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 160. Dublin Bay, and - Portmarnock ; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 23.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 163. Dublin Bay, and Donaghadee ; plen- tele Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 40.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 164. Dublin Bay ; rare. Lough Fanla, King’s County, and in the Grand Canal, about twenty miles from Dublin ; very plentiful. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 109. t. 3. f. 2. & 3.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 179. Linn. Tr. viii. t. 3. f. 1. & 4.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 171. In the Shannon, at its junction with the Bresna, and in the Pond of the Botanic Garden at Glasniven, near Dublin. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 111. t. 3. f. 8. &9. Port- marnock and Dublin Bay; rare. Plentiful in Lough Strangford. Shell oblong, narrow, with very fine transverse striz: one side emarginate, the other round- ed: beaks prominent, curved. Shell minute and brown. Turton’s Linné, iv. p. 297. Lister’s Conchology, t. 359. f. 197. . This is a new shell in the British seas. It was found at Sligo, and is in the cabinet of Dr Mac- donnell, Belfast. 516 1. ingens. i. crispus. tS . Beccarii. 1. Pediculus. 1. aperta. 2. ligniaria. 3. Akera. 7 . fontinalis. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. PINNA. Dorovan, Br. Sh. t. 152. P. levis, Linn. TP. viil. p. 112.; a very fine specimen was found at Portrush, county of Antrim, by Mrs Clewlow of Belfast. ) Orper III. UNIVALVE SHELLS. ( NAUTILUS. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 187. Supp. t. 18. f. 5. In.sand from Portmarnock ; not uncommon. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 186. Supp. t. 18. f. 4. In sand from Portmarnock. _CYPRAEA. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 43.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 201. Cy. arctica. Dublin Bay; rare. Portmarnock ; not uncommon. BULLA. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 120. f. 1.—Montagu, Test, Br. p. 206.' Dublin Bay ; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 27.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 205. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; not uncommon. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 79. B. resiliens. Amongst sea-weed at high-water mark at Warren Point, in vast numbers. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 126, t. 4. f. 3.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 226. In ditches at Clonooney, Banagher, and Naas, and in the Botanic Garden Pond at Glasniven. er oy aj on AS) is) a rh) i) cad a Hypnorum. - cylindracea. . obtusa. . tornatilis. . denticulata. . alba. . hepaticum. . Lapillus, . undatum. reticulatum. Macula. ’ Pes Pelecani. VOL, II, LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. Bh Linn. Tr. viii. p. 127. t. 4. f. 3.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 228. In ditches at Clonooney and Naas; not uncommon. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 120. f.2.—Montagu, Test . Br. p. 221. t. 7. f. 2. Portmarnock ; rare.. Montagu, Test, Br. p. 223. t. 7. f. 3.—Linn. Tr. viii. p. 128.—In sand from Portmar- ~ nock ; not uncommon. VOLUTA. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 57.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 231. Portmarnock. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 234.—Supp. t. 20. f. 5. —Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 138. Vol. triplicata. Several specimens in Dublin Bay. Walker’s Test. Min. Rar. f. 61.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 235. Dublin Bay. BUCCINUM. Montagu, Test. Br. pe 243. t. 8. f. 1—lLinn. Tr. vill. p. 135. Lough Strangford ; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 11.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 239. ; common on every shore. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 104.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 237. Portmarnock and Dublin Bay. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 76.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 240.; very plentiful at, Portmarnock. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 138. t. 4. f. 4.—-Montagu, Test. Br. p. 241. t. 8. f. 4. B. Portmarnock and Dublin Bay. _ STROMBUS. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 4.—Montagu, Test. Br. -p. 253. Portmarnock and Dublin Bay ; plentiful. 3 ht 1. Erinaceus. 2. gracilis, 8. Nebula. 4, costatus. 5. septangu- laris. 6. Turricula. 7. rufus. 8. antiquus. 9g. corneus. 10. purpureus. 11. muricatus. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. MUREX. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 35.—Montagu, Test. Br.. p- 259. Portmarnock; common. Dublin Bay ; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 169, f. 2. M. emarginatus.. —Montagu, Test. Br. p. 267. t. 15. f. 5. & p- 586. house. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 143.—Montagu, Test. Br. p-. 267. t. 15..f.6. Portmarnock, and Dublin Bay ; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 91.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 265. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; rare. ‘ Montagu, Test. Br. p. 268. t. 9. f. 5.—Dono- van, Br. Sh. t. 119. f. 4. Dublin Bay ; scarce. Montagu, Test: Br. p. 262. t. 9. f. 1.—Dono- Sh. t. 156. M. preriniaess rare. Two specimens at the Pigeon- van, Br. marnock ; _ Montagu, Test. Br. p.263. Insand from Port- marnock ; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 31. M. despectus:—Mon- tagu, Test. Br. p. 256. M. despectus.—Linn. Tr. viii. p. 146. Portmarnock, and. Dublin Bay; plentiful. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 258.—Donovan, Bre Sh. t. 38. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; jplen- tiful. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 260. t. 9. f. 3. fs sand from Portmarnock. a % Montagu, Test. Br. p. 262.t.9.f2. Insand from Portmarnock. 12. reticulatus. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 272.—Dacosta, Br. Con. py 117., ti 8. f 13. Strombiformis re- ticulatus. Not uncommon on the western coast, and at Carrickfergus, — Port-.,3 ray by mee LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA, §19 TROCHUS. 1. Magus. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 8. f. 1.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 283. Portmarnock, rare ; not un- common in Donaghadee. . cinereus. Donovan, Br. Sh. t: 155. f. 2.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 289. Dublin Bay, very rare. . lmeatus. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 74. large and two smaller figures. —Montagu, Test. Br. p. 284. T. ci- nerarius. Dublin Bay, Portmarnock, and Balbrigging ; very common. . umbilica- Montagu, Test. Br.-p.286.—Donovan, Br. Sh. tus. t. 74. fig. med. Portmarnock, Dublin Bay, and Killough, common. . tumidus. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 280. t. 10. f. 4. Porte marnock, and Dublin Bay, of a large size. : erassus. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 71.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 281. Dublin Bay, one specimen ; plenti- ful on the rocks at Limerick; and not un- common on the rocks at Killough. . papillosus. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 127.—Montagu, Test. Br. p: 275. t. 10. f. 3. Tr.:tenuis. One speci« _ men in Dublin Bay ; and fine specimens have been taken by the dredge at Bray, by Mr Nuttal. . Zizyphi- Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 52.—Montagu, Test. Br. nus, p- 274. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock, ; plentiful. . discrepans. Plate xxiv. fig. 4. Shell conic, terminating in rather an obtuse point, with seven rounded volutions, well defined by a hollow, broad, and deep division: from the lip to the apex runs a deep concave groove ; the whole shell is wrought with indistinct spiral ridges. In i other respects, this shell agrees with the Tro- chus zizyphinus, and is probably only an ac« C12 §20 LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA, cidental variety of that shell. In comparing it with specimens of the zizyphinus of the same size, I find it is shorter in proportion to the breadth of the base ; and the apew is consi- derably blunter. Length, six-eighths of an inch ; breadth, seven-eighths. One specimen of this shell was found at Holy- wood, in Belfast Lough, by Miss Templeton of Belfast, who kindly favoured me with it to draw from. 10. rugosus. Plate xxiv. fig. 5. Shell subovate, milk-white, rather opaque, with four moderately raised whorls, which are well defined by the sepa- rating line: from the aperture to the apex, there is a pretty deep groove, which runs spirally very close to the suture of the spire : the body whorl is somewhat inflated, on the base of which there are three distinct spiral lines, which rise in the edge of the outer lip, and terminate where the lip is attached to the columella. The whole shell is covered with strong undulated striz: on the under part they commence in the umbilicus (which is pretty large and deep), and diverge towards . the sides ; in the upper part of the shell, they in the same manner seem to diverge from the apex. Aperture suborbicular, and not much depressed ; inner lip rather strong, and very slightly reflected near the umbilicus. Found in drifted sand at Portmarnock by Dr Turton, who says it is not uncommon. Size of the shell scarcely an eighth of an inch. 11. erythro: Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 155. f. 1. Tr. conicus.— leucos. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 278. Tr. striatus. Rings-end, Dublin Bay, by Dr Turton; rare. 1. littoreus. 2. rudis. 3. crassior. 4, Ziczac. 35. Cimex. 6. Pullus. 7. Ulve. 8. sub-umbi- licatus. 9. Cingillus, 10. graphicus. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 52}, TURBO. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 33. f. 1, 2.—Linn. Tr. viii. p- 158. t. 4. f. 8, 9, 10, 11. common on all _ the shores. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 33. f. 3.—lLinn. Tr. vii. t. 4. f. 12, 13. Common on most shores. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 309. Supp. t. 20. f. 1. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 178. f. 4. T. pallidus. Dublin Bay, by Dr Turton. Montagu, Test. Br. Supp. p. 135.—Linn. Tr. Vili. p. 160. t.8. f.14. In sand from Port- marnock ; and in Lough Strangford. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 315.—Donovan, Br. Sh, t. 2. f. 1. Portmarnock, among loose stones and sand at high-water mark. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 2. f. 2.-6.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 319. In sand at high-water mark, Portmarnock. | Linn. Tr. viii. p. 164.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 318. Very plentiful at high-water mark, Portmarnock. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 165.—Montagu, Test. B. p- 316. Portmarnock, in sand rather scarce. Montagu, Test. Br. p.. 328. t. 12. f. '7.—Dono- van, Br. Sh. t. 178. f. 1. T. vittatus. Port- marnock, by Dr ‘Turton; rare. Plate xxiv. fig. 6. “* Shell conic, pellucid light horn-colour, with moderately rounded spires, and generally two pale yellowish bands on the lower one, finely and regularly striate . throughout, in a spiral direction : apex point- ed: aperture sub-oval, with a thin even mar- gin,*not turned back on the pillar. It differs from the Turbo insculptus, i in its colour, and pointed apex, and in haying no duplicature E13 11. interrup- tus. 12. vinetus. 13. quadrifas- ciatus, 14. elegans. 15. fontinalis. 16. Nautileus. 17. cristatus. 18. Clathrus. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. or sub-umbilicus on the pillar lip, and being without the small tooth. adil a line and a half ; breadth not a line, «* Found in Dublin Bay, at the South Bull, aaa is in the cabinet of Dr Turton. i “* A variety we found more conic and _ paler, with yellowish marks on the body whorl, which is larger in proportion to the rest, and all are more rounded and deeper defined.” — Dr Turton. Montagu, Test. Br. Supp. p. 126. t. 20. f£. 8.— Linn. Tr. vii. p. 166. In sand from Port- marnock ; not uncommon. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 307.; Supp. t. 20. f. 7. Rings-End, Dublin Bay, by Dr Turton. _ Montagu, Test. Br. p. 328.; Supp. t. 20. f. 7. In sand from Portmarnock ; rare. . Donovan, Br, Sh. t. 59. T. striatus.-—Mon- tagu, Test: Brit. p. 348.: Supp. t. 22. f. 7. Portrush, in the cabinet of Dr Macdonnell, Belfast. | Montagu, Test. Br. p. 348.; Supp. t. 22. f. 4. Common in almost all ditches, and in the Grand and Royal Canals. | Montagu. Test. Br. p.464. H. nautileus ; Supp- t. 25. f. 5.—Linn. Tr. viii. p. 169. t. 5. f. 4 Two specimens in a ditch at Naas. ‘Montagu, Test. Br. p. 460. vignette ee 7, 8. H. cristata. Plentiful near Naas; and in several ditches at Clonooney, King’s County. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 28. —Montagu, Test. Br. p. 296.—Linn. Tr. viii. p. 171. t. 5. f 1. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock, rather plen~ tiful, and of both var ieties of the shell. 19. pentangu-~ Plate XXIV. fig. 7. Shell with eight whorls, Jaris. | i aac tapering toa pout, and terminating 20. nitidissi- «mous. 21. Terebra. 22, nigricans. 98, Musco- rum, 1. Lapicida. 2, Planorbis. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 523 in a sharpened apex. The first, or body’ whorl, is completely detached from the other volutions. It has two very elevated spiral ribs, running from the base to the apex, at the base and centre of the whorls, the lower one giving a strong division to the spires ; the whorls are strongly wrinkled longitudi- nally ; aperture perfectly round. Colour of a deep chestnut. When viewed from the base, the detached or body volution gives it the appearance of being deeply umbilicated, Length, 3 inch; breadth 1. One specimen of this new shell was found in Dublin Bay by Dr Turton. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 299. t. 12. f. 1.—Linn. Tr. vil. p. 175. Portmarnock, rare. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 293.—Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 22. £2. Dublin Bay, Portmarnock, and Killough ; common. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 72. T. perversus. nee tagu, Test. Br. p. 357. t. 11. f. 7. T. bidens. On a mossy stene at Clonooney ; in old walls at Ferbane ; and near Downpatrick. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 80.—Montagu, Test. Br. Pp 855.5 Supp. t.:22. f4.8,\/ In the crevices of a large mossy stone, Clonooney ; in an old wall near Ferbane ; and in the sand-banks at Portmarnock Burrow, very plentiful. HELIX. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 435.—Donovan, Brit: Sh. t. 39. f. 2. In the neighbourhood of Bel« fast by Dr Macdonnell. Linn. Trans. vill. p. 188. t. 5. f. 13.—Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 450. H. bcp gs E Supp. ss Mi ae 594 LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. t. 25. f. 4. In ditches at Clonooney, plenti- © ful, and of a large size; in several ditches near Naas ; and in the Canal. . pianata. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 189. t. 5. f. 14.—-Montagu, Test. Br. p. 450.; Supp. t. 25. f. 1. H. carinata, In aditch at Clonooney, rare ; not unfrequent in a ditch at Naas. - Vortex. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 454.; Supp. t. 25. f. 3.— Donovan, Br. Sh. t.'75. Ina stream on the -bog near Clonooney ; in a ditch at Shannon Harbour ; at Ferbane, Naas and Downpa- trick, plentiful. . corneas Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 39. f. 1.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 448. In a ditch at Maynooth, near the Royal Canal, not uncommon. . Spirorbis. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 459.; Supp. t. 25. f. 2. —lLainn. Tr. viii. p. 191. In a ditch at Sal- lins, near Naas. . contortae Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 99.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 457.; Supp. t. 25. f. 6. Not uncommon in ditches at Clonooney, Naas, and Ferbane, and of a large size. 8. alba. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 1192.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 459.; Supp. t. 25. f. 7. In ditches with the above ; and in the Canal; rare. 9. fontana. Montagu, Test. Br. p 462. t. 6. f. 6.—Linn. Tr. 10. 11. 12, viii. p. 193. In a ditch at Ferbane, rare. paludosa. Linn: Tr. vii. p. 193. t. 5. f. 5.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 440. Plentiful in the sand at Portmarnock Burrow. Ericeto- Montagu, Test. Br. p. 437.; Supp. t. 24. f. 2. rum. Donovan, Br. Sh. t..151. f. 2. This shell abounds in all dry places in Ireland. virgata. » Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 63. H. zonaria.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 415.; Supp. t. 24, f.1. Come mon in most dry situations. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 595 13. rufescens. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 420.; Supp. t. 23. f. 2. —Donovan, Br. Sh. t.157. Common in dry places. : 14. nitens. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 198 t. 5. f. '7.-—Montagu, Test. : Br. p. 425. H. lucida ; Supp. yt. 23. f. 4. Under stones at Naas, Clonooney, and Down- patrick. 15. hispida. | Montagu, Test. Br. p. 423.; Supp. t. 23. f. 3.—Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 151. In a field near Dublin; at Naas and Downpatrick. 16. radiata Montagu, Test. Br. p. 432.; Sup. t. 24. f 3.— , | Linn. Trans. viii. p. 199. At Portarlington, Enniscorthy, Clantarf, Naas, and Downpa- trick. 17. umbilicatae Montagu, Test. Br. p. 434. t. 13. f. 2.—Linn. Tr. viii. p. 200. In the crevices of a mossy stone at Clonooney Barracks. 18. elliptica. Plate xxiv. fig. 8. Shell imperforate, sub-um- bilicated, sub-depressed, and nearly elliptic: - aperiure sub-oval ; whorls three, and scarcely elevated above the body of the shell : colour yellowish, very pellucid, and glabrous. Size of the shell 13 eighth of an inch. I found one specimen of this new shell in moss, on the stump of an old tree, at the Gate of Gul- lan, Ferbane, King’s County ; and one speci- men under a stone on a mud-wall at Down- patrick. 19. Arbusto- Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 136.—Montagu, Test. rum. Br. p. 413. In a field near Dublin. 20. janthina. ‘‘ Testa sub-imperforata, sub-rotunda, obtusa dia- phana, fragilissima, apertura postice dilatata, labro emarginato. Animalculum vivum ma- det sanie violacea, manus altrectantis infi- cliente.” 526 LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. Habitat in Europa, Asia, Africa ;.in M. Mediz terraneo frequentior ; etiam pelagiea.—Linn. Syst. Nat. ii. p. 1246. No. 689.—Turton’s Linné, iv. p. 528. | Shell nearly imperforated, roundish, obtuse, diaphanous, and very brittle ; aperture dilated behind, with an emarginate lip. The colour of the shell is violet, with a sub-triangular aperture : the animal, when alive, shines by night, and stains the hand with a violet or purple dye. Many hundreds of this shell were found at Port- rush, county of Antrim, by Mrs Clewlow of Belfast, and Miss Kelly, after a storm, with the animal alive in them. Some of them were found floating on the surface of the water, and they seemed to be buoyed up by a little reticulated membrane, of a purple colour; there also exuded from the body of the animal a fine purple mucous substance. This shell is well known as a West India species, and we can only suppose they have been car- ried on the surface of the water, during a long continuance of westerly winds, which prevail- ed at the time, as they have never since been met with. 3 The account given by Mrs Clewlow to me of this shell, agrees in a great measure with the description given by Brown, in. his Account of Jamaica, which IJ shall here quote: ‘* Purple Ocean Shell. The creature which forms and inhabits this shell, is a native of the ocean, ‘ and lives frequently many hundred leagues from any land ; but having met with many of the kind between Bermudas and the Wes- tern Islands, in my voyage from Jamaica, it LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 597 _ enables me to communicate the following ac- count of them. The creature probably passes the greatest part of life at the bottom of the sea, but rises sometimes to the surface, and to do so, it is é * obliged, piscium more, to distend an air-blad- der, which, however, is formed only for the present occasion, and made of tough viscid slime, swelled into a vesicular transparent - mass, that sticks to the head of the animal, at the opening of the shell. This raises and sustains it while it pleases to continue on the surface ; but when it wants to return, it throws off its bladder, and sinks. I have taken up many of these insects alive, with the bladder yet affixed to the aperture of the shell, and still preserve some with it on, in spi-~ rits. I have also observed many of the ve- sicula themselves swimming upon the surface of the.water about that place, which induced me to think they were thrown off as the crea- ture retired. It is observable, that on touch- ing the body of this insect, it diffuses a beau- tiful purple liquor, of which colour the shell generally appears when fresh.” —Brown’s Ja- : maica, p. 400. 21. vivipara. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 87.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 386. Inastream at Newton Ardes, coun- ty of Down ; rare. 22. nemoralis. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 13.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 411, 412. H. hortensis. Common on every road side, and in all its varieties. 23. hortensis. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 407. H. aspersa.—Do- a novan, Br. Sh. t. 131. Common in every hedge and garden. 528 LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA, 24. elegans. Plate xxiv. fig. 9. Shell sub-pellucid, some- what glossy, with seven ventricose and very deeply divided volutions, tapering to rather an obtuse apex: the first, or body whorl, is - much inflated: a white band runs spirally from the base to the apex, giving it a strong appearance of being carinated, and the volu- tions are slightly wrinkled across: It is fur- nished with a deep and wide umbilicus, which viewed directly from the base, is partly hid by the reflected lip of the shell: aperture sub- rotund, lip very thin, and reflected on the columella. ‘The colour is of a dirty white, with several interrupted dark umber-coloured bands, which run spirally from the base to the apex. Length, $ths of an inch; breadth, 34 eighths. One specimen of this very elegant shell, was found in a field beyond Kilmainham Jail, near the turnpike of Golden Bridge, Dublin, by Mr Edward Stephens, and is now in the cabinet of M. J, O’Kelly, Esq. who kindly favoured me with it to describe and draw from. There is a shell in Turton’s Linné, vol. iv. p- 524. which bears the name of Helix ele- gans; but the learned authors of the Cata- logue of the Brit. Test. in the 8th vol. of the Linn. Trans. have superseded that name, by calling the shell Dr Turton refers to in Lis- ter’s Conchology, tab. 61. fig. 58, Trochus terrestris. Under these circumstances, I may be justified in adopting this name, as no other could be more appropriate. 25. Cochlea. Plate xxiv. fig. 10. Shell of a dark horn co-« lour, with seven tapering rounded volutions ; 26, elegantis- sima. 27. polita. 28. bifasciata. 29. Lackham- ensis. 30. obscura. 31. lubrica. “a LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. 529 the three next the apex are twisted like a cork-screw, and terminate in a sharp point ; the five lower whorls slope gradually to a ca- rinated ridge, which commences in the centre of the outer margin of the lip, and loses it- self in the fifth whorl, giving the volutions the appearance of being flat at bottom: the whorls are slightly wrinkled obliquely across ; the lower whorl is considerably tu- mid. Aperture somewhat angulated, sub- oval, and a little depressed ; lip very thin, and reflected on the columella at the base, with a deep and wide umbilicus. Found by Mr Thomas Stephens in a pond in the College Botanic Garden, and is in the cabinet of Mr O’Kelly. Both this and the preceding were found in his presence. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 179. f. 1. Turbo acutus.— Montagu, Test. Br. p. 298. t. 10. f, 2. Tur. elegantissimus. In sand from Portmarnock ; rare. Donovan, Brit. Shells, t. 177. Turbo albus.— Montagu, Test. Br. p. 398. Bantry Bay, rare. Donovan, Br. Sh.,t. 18. f.1. T. fasciatus.—Mon- tagu, Test. Br. 346. Supp. t. 22. f.1. Very plentiful on the sand hills at Portmarnock Burrow. | Montagu, Test. Br. p. 394. t. 11. f. 3.—Linn. Trans. viii. p. 212. Linn. Trans. viii. p. 212. t. 5. f. 11.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 391.; Supp. t. 22. f. 5. One specimen on a dry mud wall near Clonooney. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 390.; Supp. t. 22 f. 6.— Linn. Tr. viii. p. 213. t. 5. £12. Under stones on the banks of the Bresna; near Fer- 330 32. vitrea. 33. arenaria. 34. stagnalis. » 35. palustris. 86. fossaria. 37. succinea. 38. putris. 89. limosa. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA, bane ; and on the sand hills at Portmarnock Burrow ; common. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 321. t. 12. f. 3.—Linn. Trans. vill. p. 213. In sand from Portmar- nock ; rare. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 322. t. 12: f. 4. Tur. de- cussatus. In sand from Portmarnock ; rare. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 51. f. 2.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 367. t. 16. f.8. Ina ditch and stream at Clonooney, two inches from the apex to the base: in several ditches at Naas; and in the Canal. Linn. Tr. viii. p. 216. t. 5. f. 8.—Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 175. f. 1. H. fragilis & f. 2. H. fonti- nalis.. In ditches at Clonooney, Naas, and Downpatrick ; also in the Canal; plentiful. Linn. Trans. viii. p. 217. t. 5. f. 9.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 872. t. 16. £9. Ina ditch on the Bog of Clonooney ; in the river Bresna ; at Ferbane; and in a ditch near Down- patrick, on the Strangford road. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 376. t. 16. f: 4. H. putris. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 168. f. 1. H. putris. In ditches at Clonooney, Naas, and Downy — patrick ; and fine specimens in the Canal. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 373. t. 16. f. 3. H. peregra. —Linn. Tr. viii. p.219. Common in almost every ditch. Plate xxiv. fig. 11. “ Testa imperforata, oblon- giuscula, pellucida, acuta, apertura ovata.” —lLinn. Syt. Nat. u. p. 1249. No. 706.; Turton’s Linné, iv. p. 539. Shell imperforate, somewhat oblong, pellucid, acute, with an ovate aperture. It inhabits wet meadows of 7 Europe; and according to Dr Turton, is an indistinct species. | | ¥ LIST OF THE IRISH TESTACEA. §81 chaps | I have no opportunity of referring to the figures pointed out by the above authors in their sy- nonyms ; but the shell before me is very dif- ferent from the H. putris, although at first sight it may be mistaken for it. It differs from that shell in being more oblong, the aperture narrower, the spire longer, and more tapering and acute, the volutions more promi- nent and rounded, and very deeply divided by the separating line, and in having one whorl more more than the H. putris. Co- Jour of a reddish-brown. I found them plen- tiful in a ditch on the Bog of Allen, near Clo- nooney Barracks. 40. tentacu- Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 93.—Montagu, Test. Br. lata. p- 389. Inastream at Clonooney; in ditches at Naas ; and in the Canal plentiful. 41. canalis. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 309. t.12. f.11. In sand from Portmarnock. } 42. auricula- Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 51. f 1.—Montagu, Test. PAM ria. Bro p. 275. t..16. f. 2) and. p. 381. t. 16. £ 1. 4 : H. limosa. In a ditch at Clonooney ; and in al the pond of the Botanic Garden, Dublin. | 43. levigata. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 382.—Donovan, Br. Sh. r | t. 105. Plentiful at high-water mark, Port- marnock. NERITA. 1. Canrena: Donovan,. Br. Sh. t. 167. N. intricataa—Mon- tagu, Test. Br. Supp. p. 148. Portmarnock, one specimen. 2. glaucina. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 20. f. 1.—Montagu, Test. ; ) Br. p. 469. Dublin Bay, Portmarnock, and ae : Portrush, plentiful. I found one specimen in : 2 - Dublin Bay, measuring 1% inch from the 539 $. fluviatilis. 4, littoralis. 5. glabrissi- mus. 1. tubercu- lata. 1, vulgata. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. base to the apex, being fully half an inch longer than any specimen hitherto found on the British coasts, — Od Montagu, Test. Br. p. 470.—Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 16. f. 2. In a stream at Clonooney ; 5 in the Shannon and Bresna ; and in some places of the Canal, adhering to stones. Linn. Trans. viii. p. 226. t. 5. f.15. Common cn most shores. Plate xxiv. fig. 12. N. with a pellucid, and al- most globular shell, of a bluish-white colour, with four volutions, covered with rather wide: strie, which crosses the whorls obliquely : the whorls are pretty deeply divided, and somewhat inflated: the spire does not rise much above the body of the shell: aperture sub-lunated: umbilicus long and narrow, co- vered with fine regular longitudinal striae: lip very thin, and slightly reflected on the base of the shell. Size of the shell one-eighth of an inch. Found by Dr Turton in Dublin Bay. | HALIOTIS. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 5.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 473. One specimen was got by the dredge at Springfield, by Mr Templeton of Belfast, who assures me several specimens have been picked up on the shores of Down, particularly in the neighbourhood of Springfield. PATELLA. cart Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 14.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 475. Common on all rocky shores. | | : 10, Wonk . ungarica. . militaris. lacustris. oblonga. . pellucida. - coerulea. . Virginea. . Fissura. Greca. . entalis. — VOL. 11. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. $38 Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 21, f. 1.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 486.—Dvublin Bay, and Portmarnock, rare ; but not uncommon, and of a large size, adhering to oysters, &c. in Lough Strangford. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 171.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 486. t. 13. £11. Dublin Bay, and Port- marnock, Montagu, Test. Br. p. 482. P. fluviatilis.— Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 147. In a mill-race, about a mile below Naas ; plentiful. Montagu, Test. Br. p. 484. P. lacustris.—Do- novan, Br. Sh. t.150. Adhering to the wa- ter lily in a stream on the Bog of Allen, near Clonooney. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 3, f. 1.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 477. Portmarnock ; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 3. f. 1.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 477.—Linn. Trans. viii. p. 234. -P. pel- lucida, teste seniores. Dublin Bay, and Portmarnock ; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh, t. 21. f. 2.—Montagu, Test. Br. p. 480. Portmarnock, and Dublin Bay, rare ; not uncommon in Lough Strangford. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 3. f. 2.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 490, Portmarnock ; rare. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 21. f. 3. P. reticulata — Linn, Tr. viii. p. 236.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 492. P. reticulata. Portmarnock, rare ; not uncommon in Lough Strangford. DENTALIUM. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 48.—Montagu, Test. Br. p- 494. Portmarnock, and Dublin Bay; rare, Mm 534 LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. SERPULAL ON 1. Spirillum, Montagu, Test. Br. p. 499. & p. 504, S. sinis« sd trosa. Portmarnock ; rare. 2. spirorbis. Donovan, Br. Sh, t. 9. f. 1, 2.—Montagu, Test. -? p. 498. Common at Portamncee Dublin Bay, and Balbrigging. 8. granulata. Donovan, Br. Sh. t. 100. —Montagu, Test. Br. p- 500. Very plentiful in pools of water a little north of Balbrigging ; and at Donagha- : | dee. 4. lucida. Linn. Trans. viii. Pp: 243. Adam’s, svat Tr. a v. t 1. f 31, 32. Not uncommon in Lough Strangford. 5. vermicus Montagu, Test. Br. p. 509.—Linn. Trans. Milly laris. p- 243. Dublin, Portmarnock, Lough Strang ford ; plentiful. Be 6. triquetra. Donovan, Br. Sh, t.95. S. veritatis, 20ers P | tagu, Test. Br. p. 511. Dublin Bay, Port. | : marnock, and Lough Strangford ; plentiful. a ae 4 Sah es) iil * = a LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. §35 ADDENDA. _ Stncz the first part of this paper was printed off, I have received a letter from my friend Mr O’Ke tty of Dublin, informing me of the habitat of several of the rarest Irish Testacea having been extended. I also add three species omitted 4 by myself, _ Tellinadonacina, At Bray, by M. J. O’Kelly, Esq. 2 a Ba So ge Ss Chama Cor. A magnificent specimen of this rare shell, was found at Cork, by Samuel Wright, Esq., measuring 41 inches in length, and 32 inches in breadth. Pinna ingens. Bantry Bay, by Samuel Wright, Esq. Murex carinatus. Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 109.—Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 257. One specimen of this very rare shell, was found by M. J. O’Kelly, ’ Esq. at Portmarnock. Turbo labiosus. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 400. t. 13. f£ 7. Helix labiosa, Pulteney in Hutch. Dorset. p- 45. t- 18. f. 16. Turbo costatus, Linn. Tr. viii. p. 164. Portmarnock and Ban- try Bay, not uncommon. Mim 2 536 Turbo Bryereus. Helix caperata. Helix janthina. LIST OF IRISH TESTACEA. — ipitcire Test. Brit. Pp 313. t- 15. el 8. \ vi —Donovan, Brit. Sh. t. 178. f 3. i "i costatus. One specimen at Portmarnock. Montagu, Test. Brit. p- 430. t. 11. f. 11.— Linn. Tr. viii. p. 196.; not uncommon at Naas, on mud walls. ee Bantry Bay. Lehinch, county of Clare, bad | Dunmore, Waterford, by Samuel Ww Esq. It would appear from this : eh ell ha- a ving been found on the east coast of Tre- land, and in different places, that it is ace tually an inhabitant of our seas. somewhat singular, it should have been so — a Jong of being discovered by conchologists ald ‘ oe Sea Beer rods (ieee Sat 415 sepia : : ‘ath h Py ie i " ight, But it is : a Me é eR ee i Se se § we / exe tek > 5 pate * Pu ¥ oe CRT wat % é 4 wie is a he ty , {ah aly A peta , 4A i Pe AY A vat *ih t i ry ri ae tha ft | ee ee ae Weert nit Lsureathicama? 4 i ages ‘ ee 9 SHH ( 537 ) XXXI. Remarks respecting the Causes of oo Lanization. ” By Dr Barcuay. (Read 28th December 1815.) 1 have been led to the following observations, from pefusing a description of a monstrous fetus, by the late Dr Sanpirort, Professor of Physic, Anatomy, and Surgery, in the University of Ley- den*, The foetus he describes, is in many re- spects similar to one in my own collection, and which was sent to me some years ago by a friend Mm 3 - * This description consists of eighty-six pages in quarto, and is accompanied with several engravings. It was published at Leyden in the year 1784, and has for its title, “ Anatome In- ie cerebri destitutt.” 588 DR BARCLAY in the country. It wants all the bones of the cranium, excepting the bones and the parts of bones which enter into the formation of the base. On this base, there rests a soft substance, divided into similar halves between right and left, but ex- hibiting no character of a brain, in its form, mag- nitude, colour, or structure, only that the nerves, . which are regular in appearance, and which pass through the usual foramina of the cranium, are all connected with it. | HO The object of the Doctor, is to explain how this and other similar productions could have pos- sibly been formed without a brain; and in ma- king the attempt, he inclines to adopt the opinion of Hauer, that at one time the several processes of organization had been going on in the usual manner, when, interrupted by some accident, a disease had been induced, which occasioned the destruction of the parts that are wanting. In corroboration of this opinion, he informs us, that.some of the mothers of such children, had dis-. tinctly recollected particular injuries which they had-received during their pregnancy ; and that in cases where such were born at a twin-birth, the other child was frequently complete in all its parts. He adds, too, that it would be otherwise ‘difficult to conceive, how the nerves issuing through the base of the cranium, and supposed by him ‘to originate in the brain, ‘could exhyrbit the healthy and natural appearance, or how the Mm ON THE CAUSES OF ORGANIZATION, 839 bloodvessels approaching the base should have exactly the usual characters of those that are des- tined to nourish a regularly proportioned organ, But though such an hypothesis may illustrate the case of which he is treating, it will not ex- plain how the other fetuses to which he alludes, are formed, without the head,~some without the head and the neck,—some without the head, the neck, and the shoulders,—ainnd some without the abdominal viscera. It is not insinuated, nor is it - believed, that the parts wanting in these fetuses had ever existed; and it is therefore admitted, that a great number of the organs may be formed without the aid or co-operation of those that are considered as of principal importance. Hence, the hypothesis, that growth and ils in all circumstances, are necessarily dependent on the action of these organs, is proved to be false, and to be founded, like many other physiological deductions, on what Bacon calls Experientia vul- garis,—a kind of experience that but rarely leads to certain conclusions. It is true, that in most animals, if the head, the brain, or abdominal viscera were to be remov- ed, the consequence would be the immediate death of all the other parts. Nay, from the connection, the mutual dependence, and the powerful sym- pathy occasionally subsisting among the different parts of the system, it is even true, that a slight injury inflicted on parts which usually are con- MMm4 540 “DR BARCLAY sidered as of trifling importance, has sometimes proved fatal to the whole structure. But from these facts, are we hastily to conclude with» the vulgar, that the joint co-operation of all the or- gans, or the principal organs, is necessary to pro- duce the phenomena of life? orare we to suppose, that because these phenomena are only perceived through the medium of organs, that these organs are essential to the existence of Life itself? Organization, or those processes by which the or- gans themselves have been formed, connected and arranged, are among the most striking phenomena of life; and, therefore, the life, or a principle of life, must necessarily have existed, and even ope- rated, before a single organ could be formed ; it being impossible that the organs could precede, regulate, or be the cause of, those processes by which they themselves are brought into existence. The geologist, therefore, with reason infers, that all fossil, organized substances, of whatever order, genus or species, had once lived im a state of con- nection either with the animal or vegetable king- dom, being evidently the effects, and not the cause of the vital processes of organization. | Even Bicuar and RicHeranp, and several more of the French Physiologists, sufficiently disposed to ascribe much to the ponderable, materials of which organized systems are composed, and espe- — cially when assisted by what SprenczL calls the Corpora imponderabilia, as heat and light, the ON THE CAUSES OF ORGANIZATION. §41 electric, magnetic, and galvanic fluids, with the singular phenomena of their polarisations; are unable to explain how a plant or animal, that on- ly furnish the materials of nourishment, can or- ganize the systems of their offspring, or how, the materials being the same, can, by their chemical or mechanical properties, arrange themselves into such a diversity of varied, intricate, but regularly defined and specific structures, as are found in the. animal and vegetable kingdoms. Even these Physiologists have been under the necessity of calling in the aid, of what they denominate Vital Laws,—laws that operate in conformity to the plan on which the species of the plant or animal is to be constructed, not according to the proper- ties of the food and drink, or the air that is in- spired by the individual. Unwilling, however, to invoke here the assistance of Deity, or to ad- mit the operations of a vital principle, they are laws enacted by no Legislature, and enforced by no agent that has yet been named; but laws or regulations that are self-created, and which, when. personified by the power of fancy, have, accord- ing to the courtesy of French Physiology, the powers and privileges of real substantial inde- pendent beings. Now, these laws being as incon- ceivable as those organs that construct themselves, the celebrated Leiznitz, Bonnet, and Burron, not able to imagine how life could exist without a regularly organized structure, or how such struc- 542 DR BARCLAY tures could possibly be formed in the present times, when the Deity, as their hypothesis im- plies, no longer exerts either his creative or super- intending powers, are inclined to believe, that all organized systems were created at once in some of the remotest periods of antiquity, and being en- dowed with a slight degree of perception or irrita- bility, are ready to expand into maturity assoon as they meet with a proper nidus, suitable nourish- ment, and appropriate excitement. ‘Till then, they. are floating in countless myriads, through the ele- -ments of air, water, and earth, in the state of ex- tremely minute and invisible atoms, which Lziz- niTz calls monads,—BonneEt, germs,—and Bur- FON, organic particles or molecules, road So far, these eminent Philosophers agree, though differing considerably when descending to detail, excepting that they all somewhat approach to a system of fatalism ; and LeiBni1rz, the most, de- nying the existence of cause and effect, and sub- stituting for them what he calls harmony,—a crea- ture of his fancy, that does not seem to be very intelligible. None of them account for the pro- duction of hybrids or mules between different species. Bonner, who attempts it, is rather un- successful, and, on his principles, would be equal- ly embarrassed in accounting for either excesses or deficiencies of organs in monsters, . Instead of soaring on the wings of fancy inte these boundless regions of conjecture, would it ON THE CAUSES OF ORGANIZATION. $43 not be preferable, in such investigations, to take for our guides patient experiment and cautious observation? ‘They may not carry us so far or so fast as many will in general be inclined to go; but, so far as they conduct us, they will do it on certain and on safe grounds. Inquiring at them, they give us no information whatever respecting any previous existence of plants or animals float- ing invisibly through the regions of space, in the state of infinitely minute organized atoms: - They only inform us, that the first materials out of which organized structures are formed, are fluids secreted from the vessels of the parents, and that something operating within these fluids begins to arrange them into systems of organs similar to those belonging to the species of the individuals that supply the materials, and that this something, continuing to operate on the same plan, making always a selection of what is useful, and rejecting what is hurtful, arranges the materials that are afterwards supplied from the food and drink, and the air that is inspired, till the organs be completed: That the system of organs thus formed, is the medium of inter- course between it, and surrounding objects; so that they are found mutually to re-act upon one another : That in some animals, when powerfully excited, it employs a part of these organs to de- stroy the rest; and often, when the organs are de- ficient or injured, or in a state which it cannot re- 544 DR BARCLAY ~ pair nor carry on its destined operations, it deserts” them entirely, leaving them to the fate of theit own inherent chemical affinities, which sooner or later dissolve the temporary arrangements of their particles, and mingle them again with the mass of _ dust from which they had been taken. wey . Tf the philosopher be anxious to know what is the nature of these Agents that thus organise the various ‘structures of plants and animals, he can only know them from their Effects; and as these are different in different structures, he may safely conclude, that their orders, genera, and- species, are as many as are the orders, genera and species of the structures which they form. Of their rea/ essence, as of that of any other substance in na- ture, he must be content to remain ignorant. But should he wish merely to know them, as he knows other substances, from their effects, in that way he may know more of them than of any others that have ever happened to engage’ his attention. No substances produce such a number. or’ such a variety of specific effects, or in such a regular or- der of succession as they do in constructing their systems ; and, in acting through the medium of these systems, no substances exhibit such a num- ber or such a diversity of specific operations ; while the systems themselves, in each species, dis- play additional discriminating characters, in their form, magnitude, and colours ; in the number of their organs, in the varieties of their kinds, in ie : bi i by “ring ON THE CAUSES OF ORGANIZATION. 545 their relative iene temas, connections and propor- tions. The wonder is, that Pei agents or active sub- stances, possessed only of limited powers, and frequently re-acted upon by their organs, and through the medium of these organs, by external causes, can, amidst the diversities of climate and circumstance, and from such an immense variety of materials, as must often occur in the food and drink, be able to construct regular systems so fre- quemly as they do. In this view, a monstrous production Pond cease to be a matter of any surprise, as, weigh- ing and deliberating on every circumstance, those which are termed zatural productions, seem by much the greater wonder of the two. And when we consider how accurately preserved are the regular proportions between the sexes and accompanying instincts in sex and species, not- withstanding the powers bestowed upon many of regulating their temperature to a certain ex- tent, we are tempted to suspect the superin- tendence, direction, and assistance of some suw- pertor power and intelligence that is not embar- rassed by these differences of time or place, or the changes of circumstance in which they are pro- ‘duced. At the same time, from observing that this ‘power is not extended to unlimited degrees, ‘and to fewer degrees with regard to individuals 546 DR BARCLAY, &c. than species, and with regard to species than to genera, there is reason to believe that it is rather limited from wisdom than from physical re- sistance ; and hence are circumstances allowed to operate to the injury, mutilation, and the destruc- - tion of numerous individuals, while their species, notwithstanding, is regularly preserved ; in other words, are permitted to operate only in propor- tion to the more or less abundant supply of the new individuals that are successively brought in- to existence for continuing the species. | | (54%) XXXII. On the Genera and Species of Eprabos- cideous Insects. By Wiruram Etrorp Leacu, Esq. (Read 10th April 1810.) INSECTA EPROBOSCIDEA. Character Essentials. Caput a trunco sutura saltem discretum. Haustellum valvulis duabus tectum’ aut supertectum. Ungues compositi. Gharacter Naturalis. 4° CORPUS* subovatum depressum: abdomen maxima parte excepta cute coriacea solidiuscula vestitum.” « CapuT sepé thorace angustius, suborbiculatum : oculz late- rales subovales immersi distantes quandoque vix discer- nandi: ocelli in plurimis deficientes:” antenne ante ocu- | los 32 548 DR W. E. LEACH los in clypeum vel ad clypei latera insert, brevissime nunc lamella dentiformes nunc tuberculiformes setigerz: “ haustellum e tuberculo enascens e setis duabus constans, at setam unicam cylindricam elongatam porrecto-arcuatam referens ; seta superiore subtus fornicata et inferam reci- piente:” valvule duz subcornee lamelliformes longitudi- nales elongate angustz subzeque late pilose obtuse ad margines internos conniventes haustellum tegentes aut supertegentes: labzum membranaceum szpius concavo- impressum. “ Truncus subtrapeziformis et anticé pauld angustior vel qua- dratus linea transvers4 impressa posticé seepius notatus ; margine antico in multis retrorsum arcuato seu concavo et capitis marginem posticum excipiente; stigmata qua- tuor distincta, duobus ad angulos anticos, allis posticis : ale, haltares et squamule modo existantes modo defici« entes : ale horizontales subincumbentes aut divaricate : pedes breves crassi extensi, antici duo ab aliis remoti ; tarsi omnes 5-articulati, articulo ultimo majore -erasso : ungues duo validissimi quasi duplicati aut ternati, basi bi- dentati aut tridentati.” | , - © ABpoMEN latum subtrigonum vel suborbiculatum distenden- dum supra ad basin transverse coriaceum, ultra molle spon« giosum et infra saltem inarticulatum.” «¢ T,ARVA in matris abdomine nutrienda ad transformationem excludenda.” * PUPA larve cute indurata obtecta, ad unum apicem subor- e e e os a GS Mi *, biculatim impressa. | Bs i Stirpium 45 Pe a, Werner. ere . Tab. XXV. i. Wer. Lem. Tab. AL: Z. M2 IE Lk Me Ny ie hd , Wer .Menr. Tih, XXVIT . 8 ss | : oD) Sader ae iat ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA. §49 Stirpium Generumque Synopsis. Stirps I. | Ale due; cellule limbales tantim inchoate. Thorax anticd acuminatus integer. (Collum distinctum.) . fens | Hirroposca. Ocellz nullis ; ace - hf i , hy : ad ’ : } oh aig: ~~ ay oe Hae ih: 4 ing pi Stirps Il. Ale duz ; cellule limbales complete. Thora dnticé arcuator emarginatus capitis marginem posticum excipiens. * Ale subeque feré late apice rotundate. Genus 2. Frronia. Ocellz nulli. +——~ 3. OrnitHomyia. Ocelli tres: ** Ala acuminate. — 4, STENEPTERYX. a tres. 5. OxyPTERuM. J nen 4 Ale nulle: Thorax anticé arcuato-emarginatus capitis margia ginem posticum excipiens. Genus 6. MELopuacus. Ocelli nulli. a * Characteres a et Generum: iM Pati Wahl G? STIRPS I. _ Caput trunco angustius ; collum distinctum. Ale duz cellulis limbalibus tantum inchoatis. Pectus anticé impressum non emarginatum. “VOLS Bi. Nn *. 550 " DR WoORLERCH Gen. 1.—HIPPOBOSCA. Hiprogosca, Auctorum. Antenne tuberculiformes in clypei fossulis recepte ; seta dorsali elongata. Labium subtriangulare. Haustellum cylindricum paululum incurvatum valvulis eequantes Ocelli nulli. Ocult valdé distincti ovati. Tarsi ungue singulo valdé. dentato: dente infero obtuso; basis infera etiam brevissima et obtuse producta. ‘Ale subseque feré late, apice rotundate. STIRPS II. Caput trunco angustius margine postico in trunci emargi- nationem recepto. Ale duz cellulis limbalibus completis. Pecius anticé emarginatum. thy « e 5 Gen. 2.-FERONIA. a ' Antenne: tuberculiformes, hirsute in foveolis recepta’. Labium breve semicirculare. | Hausiellum cylindricum subincurvum valvulis paulé brevius. Ocelli nulli. Oculi valdé distincti ovati. Tarsi unguibus bidentatis. Ale subaequé feré late, apice rotundate. ie Gen. 3.~-ORNITHOMYIA. Oenrtuymyia, Laireille, Olivier. Hiproposea, Auctorum. Antenne lamelliformes hirsute in clypeum ante oculos insertz. Labium apice rotundatum, emarginatum aut rectum. Pit 1 ar 2 i ed ia "fy, Mae y ass. 4 . n ¢ ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA. 551 Haustellum breve aut elongatum. Ocellz tres in foveolis verticis receptee et in triangulum dispositi. Oculi valdé distincti ovati. Tarsi unguibus tridentatis. Ale subzequé feré latee, apice rotundate. 4 * % Gen. 4.—STENEPTERYX. Ornituomyta, Latreille, Olivier. Hirrogosca, Auctorum. Antenne lamelliformes hirsute (divaricate.) Labium apice arciiato-subrotundatum. Haustellum yaldé elongatum (valvulis longius.) Ocelli tres in verticis foveolis recepte et in triangulum dispositi, Oculi valdé distincti ovati. Tarsi unguibus tridentatis. Ale anguste apice acutissime. Gen. 5.—OXYPTERUM. Oxyptrrum, Kirby, MSS. _Ornituomyia, Olivier. Hiprogosca, Scheffer. Antenne dentiformes hirsute ad clypei latera ante et inter ocifs los inserte. Labium subconcavum margine antico rotundato. Haustelium valvulis zquale, Ocellt nulli. Ocult parvi ovati laterales. Tarsi unguibus tridentatis. Al@ acuminate. STIRPS III. Caput trunco paulo latius aut illius latitudine. Ale nulle. Pectus anticé emarginatum. | Nn@2 552 DR W. E. LEACH Gen. 6.—MELOPHAGUS. Me xoruacus, Latreille. Hrprozosca, Auctorum. Antenne in fossulis recepte. Labium coriaceo-membranaceum subtriangulare ? Haustellum longum arcuato-incurvum valvulis paulo brevits. Ocellt nulli. Oculi parvi laterales lineares. Larst unguibus subtus breviter unidentatis. Ale nulle. Ea —_ Synopsis Specierum. I. HIPPOBOSCA. 1. Maculata. Scutello nigricante maculis tribus flavis; media majore. | 2. Francillont. Scutello flavo immaculato. 8. Equina. Scutello nigro macula transversa flava. 4. Camelina. Scutello fusco-ferrugineo macula longitudinali flava. , Il. FERONIA. 1. Spinifera. Piceo-atra alis’ obscuris ; angulo anali subhya- lino-nitente, thorace anticé utrimque spina acuta armato. 2. Americana. Lutescens, thorace angulis anticis in tubercula obtusa productis, alis subiricoloribus. 3. Macleayi. Luteo-flava, thorace angulis anticis in tubercula acuta productis, alis lutescentibus. III. ORNITHOMYIA. * Antenne magne deflece vaginam supertegentes : haustellum et vagina breves. a. Labium apice rotundatum. 1, Australasie. Capite pedibusque testaceis, corpore fusco. + ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA. 553 2. Nigricans. Corpore nigricante, scutello thorace anticé pe- dibusque fuscescentibus. b. Labium apice arcuato-subemar ginatum. 8. Erythrocephala. Corpore perfusco, capite rubro, pedibus fus- cescentibus. ¥* Antenne parve divergentes : haustellum et vagina elongate. 4. Viridis. Pterigosteo extimo marginali apice curvato. 5. Avieularia. Pterigosteo marginali extimo recto. IV. STENEPTERYX. 2% 3 Hirundinis, Corpore pallidé fuscescente aut testaceo, V. OXYPTERUM. 1. Pallidum. Corpore testaceo, abdomine fusco, alis acutis. 2. Kirbyanum. Corpore fusco-testaceo, alis acuminatis; apice rotundatis, VI. MELOPHAGUS. I. Ovinus. Corpore testaceo piloso, j , : Descriptiones et Synonymia Specierum. I. HIPPOBOSCA. 1. Hippobosca maculata. Tab, xxvi. fig. 11.—13. H. scutello nigricante, maculis tribus flavis ; media majore. Hippobosea equina ex India Orientali. Fab. Syst. Ant. 338. lin. 9. Habitat in India Orientali haud infrequens. Mos. Dom. Francillon, Marsham, MacLeay, Leach. CaputT flavum: oculi piceo-nigricantes: labiwm pallidé flavum: heustellum nigrum ; vagina nigro-atra pilis canescentibus Nn3 55m DR W. E. LEACH vestita: frons flava ; medio laté exarato obscuriore: elypeus politus flavus, medio tenuiter sulcato; margine pallido- _ brunneo; anticé acuté emarginatus ; laciniis parim divari- - " catis subtruncatis, posticé subrotundatus tenuiter emarginas tus. THorax piceus flavo-maculatus irregulariter profundiis-stri- gosus, striis seepe confluentibus quasi crenulatis: scutelium nigricans aut intensé nigro-piceum maculis tribus flavis transyersé dispositis, media majore, margine postico albo-ci- liato : pectus nigro-piceum transversim strigosum : ale an- ticé inter pterigostea hyaline, posticé obscure ; plerigostea picea basi flava: pedes fusco-lutescentes pallidé villosuli ; an- teriores immaculati ; quatuor postici apice tibiarum annulis« que femorum nigris ; tibiis posterioribus medio nigris ; tarst picel ; wngues atri. | ABpomeN pilis cinerascentibus velutinum ; lateribus sepe nudis luteo-fuscis. 2. Hippobosca Francillom, Tab. xxvi. fig. eae H. scutello flavo immaculato. Habitat Mus. Dom. MacLeay, Francillon, ~Caput flavum : oculi atri: labium pallidum: haustellum luteum apice obscurius : vagina picea pilis albidis tecta: clypeus flavus medio longitudinaliter sulcatus, posticé rotundatus, anticé acuté emarginatus ; laciniis parim divaricatis lanceo- latis :; frons flava, medio late exarato. i Tuorax pallidus irregulariter strigosus disco piceo: scutellum ) pallidum immaculatum posticé pilis albidis ciliatum : pectus punctulatum pallidum lateribus piceo-atris, transversim stri- gosum : ale obscure : pterigostea flava apice piceo-nigra : pedes testacel ; anteriores immaculati ; intermedii et poste- siores tibiis femoribusque annulis duobus nigro-piceis orna- ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA. 55a ‘tis : tarsi anteriores lutei; posteriores et medii obscuriores ; — ungues atri. ApBpomeEN fuscum pilis incanis obtectum. 8. Hippobosca Equina. Tab. xxvi. fig, rt he H. scutello nigro macula transversa flava. Hippobosca pedibus tetradactylis, alis cruciatis, Geoff. Ins. ii. 547. 1. pl. 18. f. 1. ; Hippobosca fusca, alis magnis fuscis, unguibus simplicibus, De Geer, Ins. vi. 275, 1.-pl. 16. fig. 1, 2. Musca Equina tenax, Act. Ups. 1736, p. 31. 27. Hippobosca Equina, Linn. Syst. Nat, xii. i. 1010. ‘ Fn. Sv. ed. alt. 1921. \ , Fab. Syst. Ant. 337. 2. Panz. Faun. Ins. Germ. fas. 7. tab. 23, Schell. Gen. des Mouch. dipt. tab. 42. f. 1. Latr. Gen. Crust. et, Ins. iv. 365. Scop. Ent. Carn 1022. Schrank. Enum, Ins. Aust. 1007. Pod. Mus. Gree. 120. Vill. Ent. iii. 610. 1. % Foure. Ent. Paris. ii. 504, 1. Oliv. Encycl. Méth. Ins. vii. 91. 1. Ross. In. Etrus. 337. 1591. & Scuteilo toto favo (mas?) Habitat in Buropa, Africa. Habitat in Europa * frequentissima, equorum pestis, (Ang- licé Forest fly.) @ Mus. Macleay, Leach. CapuT flavum; vertex pallidus utrinque seta distincta nigra : ~ ocult piceo-nigri: labium pallidum: haustellum nigrum ; va- gina piceo-atra pilis nigris vestita: clypeus pallidus medio longitudinaliter impressus, anticé acute emarginatus ; laciniis divaricatis obliqué subtruncatis, apice acutis : frons flava, medio laté exarata obscurior. * Var. « habitat in Lgypti capra, observ. Savigny, que exempluin mihe communicavit anno 1815. . Nn 4 556 DR W. E. LEACH THorax nigro-piceus pallidé flavo-maculatus, irregulariter stri- gosus ; striis sepe confluentibus, nonnunquam etiam quasi crenulatus ; scutellum nigro-piceum macula flava ovata trans. versa notatum: pectus piceum lateribus obliqué strigosis atris : ale obscure: pterigostea lutea fuscoemarginata : pedes lutei pilis nigris obtecti; anteriores immaculati; tibize fe- moraque mediz annulo unico, posteriores annulis duobus fuscis ; tarsi lutei: ungues atri. ABDOMEN luteum aut brunnco-luteum, pilis nigricantibus_palli- disque obtectum. 4, Hippobosca Camelina. Tab. xxvil. fig. 11.—14, H. scutello fusco-ferrugineo macula longitudinali flava, Hippobosea Camelina, Savigny MSS. , Habitat in Egypti camelo. Mus. Savigny, MacLeay, Nost. ex Savigny dono. Duplo major H. equina. Capur flavum: oculi piceo-atri; labiwm pallidum ; haustellum flavum: vagina fuscescens : clypeus flavus, posticé puncto impresso, antice emar ginatus ; laciniis apice 1 rotundatis : frons flava, lateribus interne arcuatis, medio exarato obscuriore. Tuorax ferrugineo-fuscus flavo-maculatais irregulariter strigo- SUS; scutellum fusco-ferrugineum macula longitudinali flava notatum : pectus sordide- ferrngineum lateribus transversim strigosis ; striis posticé arcuatis ; ale obscure: plerigostea lutea fusco-marginata : pedes sordidé Jutei pilis pallidis ob- tecti: femoribus quatuor anticis, femoribus _posticis apice ti- biisque apice basique saturatioribus ; tarse fubferruginei : ungues atyl. | : AppomEN pallido-hirsutum : dorsum sordidé fusco-luteam : ven- ter sordide fulvescente-luteum. | | 8 Femoribus anticis concoloribus coxis pallidis, tibiis intermediis apice basique obscusioribus. ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA. 557 II. FERONIA. 1. Feronia spinifera. Tab. xxvi. fig. 1.—3. F. piceo-atra, alis obscuris ; angulo anali subhyalino nitente, thorace angulis anticé utinque spina acuta armato. » Habitat Mus. Dom. MacLeay. —_—_———. CaruT nigrum: oculi rufi; labzwm albidum: vagina picea. Tuorax piceo-ater anticé spina acuta utrinque armatus: pectus piceum ; ale obscure angulo anali subhyalino nitente: pte- rigostea picea; limbalibus basi pallidis : pedes supra. picei, subtus testaceo-picei: ungues atri. 2. Feronia Americana. Tab. xxvii. fig. 1.—3. F. lutescens, thorace angulis anticis in tubercula obtusa pro- ductis, alis subiricoloribus. . Habitat in America, (Georgia.) ’ Mus. Dom, Francillon. CapuT lutescens : ocwli atro-nigri: antenne nigricantes ; labiwm album : haustellum luteum : vagina picea pilis nigris obtecta : clypeus subquadratus luteus anticé laté emarginatus ; laciniis divaricatis acuminatis : frons brunneo-lutea ; marginibus ele- vatis glaberrimis : vertex elevatus glaberrimus luteus. TuHorax subbrunneo-luteus obscurius irregulariter strigosus de- pressione cruciformi notatus: scutellum subbrunneo-luteum medio impressum : pectus pallidum glabrum medio sulcatum lateribus subcrenulatis, anticé bifurcatum; laciniis rotundatis : ale subiricolores: plerigostea picea et lutea: pedes lutei : tarsi obscuriores : ungues nigri. AxgpomEN flavo-luteum punctulis nigris Loobinikt basi medioque supra obscurius. — i 558 DR W. E. LEACH, 8. Feronia Macleayi. F, luteo-flava, thorace angulis anti¢is in tubercula acuta pro; ductis, alis lutescentibus. Habitat in Australasia. Mus. Dom. Francillon. Magnitudo omnino Ornithomyie viridis. III. ORNITHOMYIA. * a. 1. Ornithomyia Australasiz. Tab. xxv. fig. 6.—8. O. capite pedibusque testaceis, corpore fusco. Hippobosca Australasia, Fab. Syst. Antl. 337. 1. Ornithomyia Australasie, Oliv. Encycl. Méth. Insect. viii. 544. 1. Habitat in Australasia, Mus. Dom. MacLeay. CapuT testaceum : oculi nigro-fusci: labium pallidum apice acuté subrotundatum ‘deflexum : vagina fusca pilis saturatioribus vestita: antennae testacee : vertex triangularis elevatus. TuHorax saturaté fuscus sublevis substrigosus : pectus testaceum politum anticé acutissimé bidentatum: ale obscure; pteri- gostea marginalia picea, limbalia flava; pedes testacei: tars fusci apice albi: wngues atri. | 2. Ornithomyia nigricans. Tab. xxvii. fig. '7.—10. ©. nigricans, scutello thorace anticé pedibusque fuscescenti- bus. Ornythomyia nigricans, Latrezlle, MSS. Habitat in India, (Bengal. ) | Mus. Brogniart, Latreille, Leach,—communicavit Latreille. ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA. §59 Carut fuscum : ocult piceo-atri: labeum pallidum: vagina fla- vida apice fusca: clypeus testaceus: frons saturate ferrugi« nea: canthus oculorum externé et vertex flavi. Tuorax fusco-ferrugineus irregulariter strigosus, antice saturaté ferrugineus : scutellum saturate ferrugineum aut luteum : pectus ferrugineo-luteum: ale subfuscescentes: plerigostea marginalia fusco-ferruginea, limbalia albida: pedes sordidé viridescentes femoribus supra tibiis lateraliter tarsisque nigri« cantibus: ungues atri. | AspomeEN sordidé testaceum pilis nigricantibus vestitum: dor- sum nigricans. qd. Bab ; 3. Ornithomyia erythrocephala. Tab. xxvii. fig. 4.——6. \ O. corpore perfusco, capite rubro, pedibus fuscescentibus. Habitat in Brasiliis. Mus. Britann. Communicavit Dom. Reid. Caput rubrum infra sordidé viridescente-testaceum : labeum al- bidum. ‘Tuorax perfuscus anticé sordidé testaceus; scutellum perfus~ cum: pectus sordidé viridescente-testaceum: ale pallidé fuscescentes : pterigostea marginalia fusca, limbalia albida : pedes fuscescentes infra sordidé viridescente-testacei : tarsi quatuor anteriores sordidé testacei nigro-marginati, posticé nigri: ungues atri. Axspomen luteum nigricante-hirsutum : dorsum saturatius. 560 DR W. E, LEACH, * = ae 4. Ornithomyia viridis. Tab. xxv. fig, 1.—3. O. pterigosteo extimo marginali apice eurvato. Hippobosca viridis alis hyalinis fuscis, De Geer, Mém. sur les Ins. vie 285. 2. pl. 16. f- 21, 22. Hippobosca Coryi, Scopol. Ent. Carn. 1026. Oliv. Eucycl. Méth. Insect. vii. 92. 4. Ornithomyia viridis, Latr, Hist. Nat. des Crust. et des Insect, xiv. 402. Latr. Gen. Crust. et Insect. 4. 362. , ; Oliv. Encycl. Méth. Insect. viii. 544, 2. Habitat in Angliz, Galli turdis, corvis, picis frequens. Carur testaceum : oculz nigricantes : labrum album: gula polita levis cornea testacea lucida: haustellum pallidum: vagina fusca. Tuorax fusco-viridis suturis pallidioribus; scutellum fusco-vi- ride; pectus viride-glabrum politum anticé laté emargina- tum ; lacinie breves divaricate subobscure: ale hyaline subobscure : pferigostea testacea fusco-marginata, limbali- bus albidis : pedes virides : tarsi virides apice picei: ungue piceo-nigri. ABDOMEN cinereo-viride nigre hirsutum : venfer basi utrinque processu ovato subcariaceo-membranaceo pallido instructum. Sexus alter ? Var. 8. Pectore anticé acuté emarginato, laciniis subcom- pressis dentiformibus. Habitat in Anglize Corvo monedula. Mus. MacLeay, Leach. Capur testaceo-fuscum : oculi nigri: labeum album : vagina su- pra testacea, subtus fusca: gula polita levis cornea testaceo- fusca. Tuorax fuscus suturis testaceis : scutellum fuscum : pectus politum glabrum anticé acuté emarginatum ; laciniz dentiformes sub- compressee apice subacute: ale obscure; plerigastea picea, _ ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA, $61 limbalia sordidé albida: pedes virides: tarse virides apie¢ nigri: wngues nigri. ABDOMEN obscurum lateribus nigro-ciliatis. He varietates sexts mihi videntur., | §. Ornithomyia avicularia Tab. xxv. fig. 4, 5. O. pterigosteo marginali extimo recto. Ornithomyia avicularia, Linn. Syst. Nat. xii. 1 Fn. Sv. Vill. Ent. iii. 610. 2. Habitat in Gallid vulgatissimé ; in Anglie Tetraone te« trice et in alauda pipit dicta rarius *, Mus. Linn. Samonelle, MacLeay, Stephens, Leach. CaruT fusco-viride aut testaceum : o¢ulZ picei aut nigri: labium album: vagina fusca. Tuorax fusco-viridis aut testaceus suturis lineisque pallidiori- bus: pectus politum viride aut testaceum: ale subobscure : pterigostea picea limbalibus testaceis. ABDOMEN viridescente fuscum : venter utrinque basi szpius pro~ cessu ovato instructum. * Mense Decembre in Danmonia meridionali legit Pater meus, 562 DR W. E. LEACH; IV. STENEPTERYX. 1. Stenepteryx Hirundinis. Tab. xxv. fig. 9.—11. S. corpore pallidé fuscescente aut testaceo. Hippobosca hirundinis, Linn. Syst. Nat. xii. 1. Fn. Sv. Scopol. Ent, Carn. 1023. Vill. Ent. iii. 611. 3. Fourc. Ent. Par. ii. 504. 2. Ross, Fn. Etrusc. si. 337. 1592. Walck. Fn. Par. ii. 416. Ornithomyia hirundinis, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Insect. iv. 362. Oliv. Encycl. Méth. Insect. viii. 544. 3. " Hippobosca pedibus sexdactylis alis divaricatis, Geof. Ins. ii. 54, 1. 2. Habitat in Hirundine urbica. Capur fuscescens: oculi piceo-nigri: labium album: gula cor- nea polita: hazstellum testaceo-fuscum : vagina fusco-testa- cea: facies fusco-testacea : vertex polita. TuHorax fuscus strigosus: pectus politum glabrum antice pro- ductum acutéque emarginatum : ale hyaline: plerigostea testaceo-viridia: pedes virides : ungues piceo-nigri. AxgpomeEN fuscum posticé emarginatum. ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA. 563 V. OXYPTERUM. 1. Oxypterum pallidum. Tab. xxv. fig. 12,—14. O. testaceum, abdomine fusco, alis acutis. Hippobosca, Scheff. Elem. Ent. tab. 7. ——-— Icon. Insect. Ratish. 53. f. 1, 2. Ornithomyia pallida, Oliv. Encycl. Méth. Insect. viii. 544, &. Habitat in (Cypselo nigro) Hirundine apum, Linn. - CapuT testaceum: ocult fusci : labium album : haustellum satu- raté fusco-testaceum ; vagina fusco-testacea nigro-pilosa: an- tenne testaceee nigro-ciliate. Tuorax subquadratus glaber anticé profundé emarginatus ; la- ciniis productis pilosis : scutellum pilosum : pectus glabrum ~ transversim substrigosum : ale hydline : pterigostea viri- descente-fusca, costali apice subsaturatiore; pedes fusco-tes+ tacei: tarsi obscuriores: ungues atri. ABDOMEN fuscum. 2, Oxypterum Kirbyanum. Tab. xxv. fig. 15, 16. O. fusco-testaceum, alis acuminatis apice subrotundatus. Habitat in Anglia. Mus. Kirby, qui in com. Suffolk semel legit. Caput fusco-testaceum : oculi fusci: labium album: haustellum : vagina saturaté fusca valdé pilosa: antenne testacese nigro-ciliate. . Tuorax subquadratus crenulatus anticé profundé emarginatus ; laciniis productis pilosis : pectus transvergim strigosum ; ale 564 DR W. E. LEACH, ; f hyaline ; plerigostea testacea, costali vix apice saturatiore < pedes fusco-testacei : tars¢ lati obscuriores ; ungues atri. ABDOMEN fusco-testaceum. VI. MELOPHAGUS. = ¥ 1. Melophagus ovinuss Tab. xxvi. fig. 14, 15. M. testaceus pilosus. Aes 3x FE >> ne Hippobosca ovina, Linn. Syst. Nat. xii. 1. Fn. Sv. Vill. Fnt. iii. 611. 4. Fab. Syst. Antl. 339. 7. Schrank, Enum. Insect. Aust. 1008. Oliv. Encycl. Méth. Insect. vii. 92. 5¢ Panz, Fn. Insect. Germ. 51.—14. Melophagus ovinus, Latr. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. 24. 197. 598. Hist. Nat. des Crust. et des Insect. xiv. 403, Gen. Crust. et Insect. iv. 3636 ee en ee Habitat in Ovem arietem. CapuT testaceum ; oculi picei. : THorax testaceus: peelus punctulatum : pedes testacei: ungues - nigri. — : ABpoMEN fusco-testaceum. Hippobosca 1. Vespertilionis et 2. Longipennis, Fabr. Syst. Antl. 8. Cervi, Oliv. Encycl. Méth. 4. Uralensis, Gmelin; necnon Omithomyia 1. Turdi, 2. Brunea, Oliv. Encycl. Méth. Insecta mihi invisa. Eproboscideorum species omnes petit W. E. Leach. ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA. 565 TABULARUM. EXPLICATIO. “TAB, XXV. Fig. 1. Ornithomyia viridis, mag. nat. 2, O. viridis caput auctum. 3. O. viridis ala amplificata. 4, Ornithomyia avicularia, mag. nat. 5. O. aviculariz ala.ampl. 6. O, Australasiz, mag. nat. 7. et 8. O. Australasia caput et ala ampl. 9. Stenepteryx hirundinis, mag. nat. 10. et 11. S. hirundinis ala et caput auct. 12. Oxypterum pallidum. 13. et 14. O. pallidi ala et caput auct. 15. Oxypterum Kirbyanum, mag. nat. 16, O. Kirbyani ala amplificata. TAB. XXVI. Fig. 1. Feronia spinifera, mag. nat. 2. et 8. F. spiniferee caput et ala ampl. 4. et 5. Hippobosca equina, mag. nat. 6. et 7. H. equinze caput et ala auct. 8. Hippobosca Francilloni, mag. nat. 9. et 10. H. Francilloni ala caputque auct. 11. Hippobosca maculata, mag. nat. _ 12. et 13. H. maculate ala et caput auct. 14, Melophagus ovinus, mag. nat. 15. M. ovini caput auctum. VOL, IE. 00 j; f 566 DRW.E.LEACH ON THE EPROBOSCIDEA. FAB. XXVIL. pine: 1. Feronia Ane mag. nat. is ] 2. —— capite amplifcato. a ae a i, 3. - ala aucta. , 4. Opuidigenss Sip Hoce ial: mag. ap 5. oO. erythrocephalee caput auctum., ‘6 6. Ejusdem ala aucta. si ue ee ™ i a i. Ornithomyia nigricans, mag. nat. | 8, 9. et 10. Pes anticus, caput alaque 0. ni- gricans, mag. nat. oh 11. Hippobosca cameli, mag. nat. 12. H. cameli caput auctum. — 13. Ejusdem ala amplificata. ; 14. Pe aun. t (hi ea ee ) a! &. a ‘ 4 y Able Aa ia fis Peis i ae ig A ee iD a tesa vi GS : ie NRE aR fe ae ae SO getaaint ee. re « a P XXXII. On the Arrangement of Gistrideous Insects. By Wituram Exrorp Leacn, Esq. (Read 6th April 1811.) CESTRIDEA. Character Essentialis. Ale due. Os clausum ; instrumentis cibariis imperfectis. Genus I. GESTRUS. CEstRUs auctorum. Ale cellulis duabus limbalibus exterioribus perfectis; interiori« bus terminalibus. Thorax superficie inzequali. Abdomen apice deflexum : F@MIN#& acuminatum. Oculi distantes ; MARIS approximatiores. * Thorax punciis elevatis scabriuscutus. Sp. 1. Ovis. (Estrus ovis, Lixn.—Clark, Trans. Linn. Soc. iii. ** Thorax maculis glabris nitidis nudis tessalatus. Sp. 2. Bovis. {Estrus bovis, Clark, Trans. Linn. Soc. iii. 00g 568 ON G&&STRIDEOUS INSECTS, Sp. 3. Ericetorum. | (E. fulvescens, collo thorace posticé abdomineque basi superné albido-villosis, thorace supra abdomine dorso femoribusque nigris. 3 i (Estrus hemorrhoidalis, 6 Clark, Trans. Linn. Soc. iii. 328. Habitat in Ericetis tempore vernali. Minor Cistro Bovig, Gen, II. GASTEROPHILUS. (Estrus, Auctorum. Ale cellulis limbalibus omnibus, terminalibus. Thorax superficie levi. Abdomen apice inflexum : raMIN#& valdé elongatum attenuatum. Ocul in utroque sexu cequaliter distantes. Sp. 1. Equi. CEstrus bovis, Linn. Syst. Nat. (Estrus equi, Clark, Trans. Linn. Soc. iii. Sp. 2. Hamorrhoidalis. QGEstrus hemorrhoidalis. Linn, Syst. Nat. 970. Sp. 8. Clarkit. G. capite thorace pedibusque fulvo-villosis ; abdomine | nigro. fascia villosa basi pilisque albidis. Habitat in Anglia Occidentali. Apud Bantham prope Kings, bridge a meipso captus. at ie *. ite al tat Sh AS) ( 569 ) XXXIV. Observations on some Species of the Genus Fauco of Linnzus. By Jauzs Wison, Esq. (Read 1st February 1817.) I am induced to tay the following observations _ before this Society, with the hope of exciting the attention of its members to a subject in natural history, which has been much neglected in this quarter of the island, and which, from our natu- ral opportunities, we certainly have the means of | cultivating to greater advantage, than our southern neighbours. I am aware of the numerous subdivisions which have been recently made in the Linnean genus Falco, but~do not consider it necessary to adopt them in this paper, as part of the subject may be more clearly illustrated by adhering to the more generally received and familiar terms. 00 3 F. fulods. F. chry- Saétos. 570 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE It is the prevailing opinion among many French ornithologists of the present day, that the Failc¢ fulvus, or Ring-tailed Eagle, is specifically the same as the Falco chrysaétos, or Golden Eagle. Having lately examined several of the conti- nental collections, 1 have had an opportunity of observing the variations presented by age and sex, and the effects of climate on many species of the feathered race. In the celebrated collection of Swiss birds, formed by the late M. Spruneti of Berne, the specimen of the Golden Eagle resembles in all re- spects, that in the Parisian cabinet ; but the bird in the latter collection, supposed to be the young of that species, by some of the French naturalists, though described as a distinct species by preced- ing writers on ornithology, under the name of _F. fulvus, or Ring-tailed Eagle, is not the same as the young of the Golden Eagle preserved by M. SPRUNCGLI. This, conjoined with some other circumstances, induces mé in this instance, to doubt the accu- racy of the Parisian nomenclature. In the Swiss specimen, which is kiiadae to be the young of the Golden Eagle, the tail has no appearance of a ring or band at the base. The feathers there, are bluish-black, barred with brown and ash colour, the overlying central tail feathers being likewise barred, but the ground colour 1s brownish-black. The bill is of a deep blue co- LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 571 lour, darker towards the tip. Cere and irides yellow. Head and neck brown and tawny ; the feathers long ard pointed, and, particularly to- wards the back of the neck and hinder part of the head, tinged with bright ferruginous or rust colour. The general colour of the plumage is dark brown, with shades of tawny and ferruginous. Quill-feathers, of a chocolate colour, with white shafts. Legs yellow, large, and feathered to the toes ; toes large and scaly ; claws black. It bears a close resemblance to the adult bird, but the fea- thers on the thighs are lighter in colour, and spot- ted irregularly with white. To enable us to compare the two species, it will be necessary to give an accurate description of the Ring-tailed Eagle. The bill is bluish-horn colour, with a black tip. Cere yellow. Irides hazel. Head and neck brownish-black, mixed with rust colour. Fea- thers on the lower part of the back of the neck, of a ferruginous white colour at‘their extremities. Chin, throat, breast, and belly, black ; some of the feathers tinged with brown towards the base. Feathers on the thighs brownish-black, with paler points. Legs feathered down to the toes, with short downy plumes, of a hair-brown colour. Back, scapulars, and primary and secondary quill- _ feathers, black. Lesser wing coverts, black and blackish-brown, mixed with hair-brown. Great- er wing coverts, brownish-black. There are a 004 é 372 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE few pale brown feathers on the angle of the shoul- der. Tail perfectly white for two-thirds of its length, and black at the extremity. Vent-fea- thers, and under tail-coverts, brown and white in- -termixed. Feet yellow; claws black. On the ‘whole, the Ring-tailed Eagle is much darker, and more uniform in its plumage than the Golden Eagle, and the broad white band on the tail, is a ‘distinguishing character, and which, according to PENNANT, it maintains through every stage of life, and in all countries where it is found. The colour of the irides is also different ; but this cha- racter being subject to change, cannot be insisted on as a specifie distinction. | Besides these particulars, certain general consi- derations strengthen the belief of their being dis- tinct. In Britain, the Golden Eagle tas always been very rare; yet, amongst the Western Isles, and Highlands of Scotland,’as I have myself had an opportunity of observing, the Ring-tailed Eagle is not uncommon, being well known under the name of Black Eagle. I never understood, that ‘in France, Germany, or Switzerland, the Golden ‘Eagle was abundant, yet the species about to be confounded with it, is called L’ Aigle commun by Burron, and the other French naturalists of the last century. 1G genes Colonel Montacu, whose accuracy in shi dis- erimination of specific character, no one will feel -LINNEAN GENUS FALCO,. 578 inclined to doubt, never supposed the possibility of their belonging to the same species. In his Supplement to the Ornithological Dictionary, he mentions the Falco fulvus, as a species which had been observed by himself in a wild state in the Highlands of Scotland; but, under the title of Golden Eagle, he states his opinion of the extreme rarity of Falco chrysaétos, and adds, that during the long period of his own ornithological studies, no individual of that species had ever fallen under his examination, or been observed by him in any British collection, except that of Sir AsHToNn Lever, now dispersed. From this circumstance, among others, I incline to the opinion of their be- ‘Ing distinct ; because, had they been actually the same, the one must necessarily have been as com- mon as the other, and in that case, would not have escaped the notice of so unremitting an observer. Besides, if the birds in question were specifical- ly the same, and supposing the white band to be merely the colour of immaturity, would not the individuals in the more advanced state of plumage approximate more nearly to the adult bird, so that, by degrees, all distinctions must be effaced, and they could not be recognised but as one and the same?’ whereas, on the contrary, I have found that the more perfect the plumage of the bird becomes, the more apparent are those characters which have hitherto entitled it to rank asa dis- _ tinct species, and that it is chiefly between the 574 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE young of the two species that there is a difficulty | in discriminating. On what ground, therefore, cana eee mark- ed and constant difference in the plumage of two birds, be accounted for, but on the supposition of their being distinct, particularly when that diffe- rence, instead of gradually disappearing as they approach maturity, and which, if it were the re- sult of immaturity, it must necessarily do, becomes ‘every day the more obvious and defined? | An examination of the fine specimen of the full-fledged Ring-tailed Eagle, now exhibited, will carry conviction, that it is not in the plumage of immaturity *. * I find in Cuvier’s late work on Natural History, that he does not credit the supposition of the two species above describ- ed being the same. | I may here state the opinion of that illustrious observer con- cerning the F. albicilla ,and F. ossifragus, from which it would appear, that these birds, though long described under different names, are not really distinct. His words are: ‘‘ Ne forment qu’une espése qui, dans ses premiéres années, a le bec noir, la queue noirtare, tachetée de blanchatre, et le plumage brunatre, avec une flamme brun-foncé sur le milieu de Ja plume (enl. 112. et 415.) et qui, avec l’age, devient dun gris-brun uniforme, plus pale A la téte et au cou, avec une queue toute blanche et un bec jaune-pale, (Frisch, 70. tT)” + ‘© On a vérifié plus d’une fois ce changement a la ménagerie du Mu- séum.” He further observes in the same note: “© Quant au petit pygargue, F. albicaudus, ce n’est que le male du grand FP, albicilla.” LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 575 Tam informed by M. Srerr cer of Berne, keeper of the Sprunglian Cabinet, that it 1s ascertained beyond the possibility of doubt, that the Honey Buzzard, ( Falco apivorus, Linn.) and the Whitish Buzzard, the Falco albidus of Gmu.in’s System, (p. 267. No. 79.) are the same species; the for- mer being the female, the latter the male. Though the plumage differs greatly, yet the ge- neral figure of the birds, the form of the bill, shape of the head, and other unvarying charac- teristics, are in favour of the truth of this opinion. One objection, however, immediately occurred to me, which was, that though the Ff. apzvorus is not uncommon, no individual resembling the Falco albidus had ever been seen in Britain. This I mentioned to some of the Swiss ornithologists, and they were as unable as myself to reconcile such a seeming contradiction. But as the fact of their being actually the same species, has been proved by the only perfectly conclusive method, that of rearing the young birds, nothing more could be objected. Nor in truth, on considera- tion, does the objection hold good. If these observations are correct, our Sea Eagle, and the Lesser Whate-tatl- ed Eagle of Latham, (F'’. albicaudus Gm.) should in future be considered ag synonimous with the White-tailed or Cinereous Eagle of English ornitho~ logists, and the specific name of albicella should be retained as applicable to the species in its adult state. | F. apivorus. FP. albidus. F. variega- tus. 576 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE x No European ornithologist has any doubt of the Hen Harrier and Ring-tail (F. cyaneus and £. pygargus) having been properly identified as’ male and female. Yet supposing the objection urged above to be valid, a North American natu-: ralist might with equal justice deny that the dif- ference between the two last-mentioned birds is merely sexual, from the circumstance, as singular and little accounted for, that no bird in the plu- mage of the Hen Harrier has been observed in America, though the Ring-tail is well known there. It thus appears, that, under certain mo- difications of climate, the change in the plumage of the male does not take place, but that of the female is retained ; and this opinion I find con- | firmed by a remark of Dr Pattas. ‘ The Ring- tail (he says) is extremely common in Russia as well as in Siberia. In more temperate, and open countries, it 1s certainly not to be distinguished — from the Hen Hatrier.”?—Latruam’s first he i ment, p. 24. What the Falco cyaneus ts in America the Falco albidus is in Britain, and the history of the changes’ in the plumage of one species being well known, leaves us in little doubt as to those of the other. It still, however, remains a problem difficult of solution, that in one species, a change which we usually consider as allied to those frequently ob-. servable in cold climates, should be effected in France and Switzerland, and resisted in Britain ;_ ~ LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 577, and that in another species, an analagous change should take place in Britain, and be resisted in North America. | What Latuam anticipated, has now taken place. Speaking of the Ring-tail, he observes, «* The above hints may urge others to make fur- ther observations, in order to procure a certainty in this; and may, at the same time, lead us to discriminate other birds supposed of different spe- cles, perhaps proving on a more intimate acquain-. tance, to be merely owing to opposition of sex.’’ To the Falco apivorus, it is probable that ano- ther species is also referable. Dr GMELIN gives the Falco albidus and Falco variegatus, or Speckled Buzzard, as separate species, though he mentions in a note his suspicion of their being the same. Dr LatrHam, however, considers them as forming one species, and in his Index Ornithologicus, (p. 24. No. 48.) refers to both GmELIN’s species as sy- nonyms. If the Falco albidus, or Whitish Buzzard, is ad- mitted to be specifically the sameas the Falco api- vorus, or Honey Buzzard, it follows, that such birds as have been described as varieties of the one per- tain likewise to the other; so that if the Speckled Buzzard be really identical with the Falco albidus, it should, in common with the latter, be considered ‘as synonimous with the Honey Buzzard. The general characters of the Speckled Buz- zard, certainly agree well with this supposition, 578 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE and it is interesting from another circumstance. It affords, as it were, the connecting link between the two other varieties, and presents itself in a state of plumage intermediate between the Falco albidus and Honey Buzzard, furnishing an addi- tional proof, if such were wanting, a (6% birds are specifically the same. Although the Falco variegatus, or Speckled Buzzard, in its plumage resembles more nearly the Honey Buzzard or female, than the Whitish Buzzard or male, I should be inclined to consider it, on account of its inferior size, as an immature bird of the male sex; it being well known, that in such species as differ essentially in the plumage of the sexes, the young males are at first not to be distinguished from the females, and for many months bear a striking resemblance to them. It may therefore be considered as a young male about to attain the plumage of maturity, at least, such as distinguishes that state in some coma countries. fy I shall next describe briefly, and in as ipa teristic a manner as possible, the three varieties which I am of opinion should be referred oma Falco apworus or Honey Buzzard. ) = . The first‘is that described as a distinct speci 28, peril the name of Falco albidus. This is of the male sex. ‘The legs are yellow; body white with LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 579 brown spots. ‘Tail brown, barred, and spotted with white *. ‘The second, and connecting variety, is the Falco mariegatus of GMELIN, the Speckled Buzzard of Latuam’s Synopsis, and Buzzardet of the Arctic Zoology. ‘The head and neck are whitish; the shaft of each feather irregularly marked with rusty-brown. ‘The prevailing colour of the upper plumage is brown, but several of the feathers, especially on the wing-coverts, are spotted with white. The tail is dark brown, crossed by seve- ral nearly obselete bands of a paler.hue. Under parts white, with longitudinal brown spots, _* The German ornithologists consider the F. albidus asa dise tinct species, but nearly allied to the F. buteoof Linn. Brcker says, he has examined it in its young and old state, and con- siders it as a distinct species, and in this opinion he is followed by Brcustern, who is further inclmed to consider PENNANT’s Buzzardet as a variety of the F. albidus. Cuvier, on the other hand, is of opinion that the Falco coms “munis Juscus, F. variegatus, F. albidus, F. versicolor, Gm. “ ne sont que différens états de la buse ordinaire.” In regard to the F. versicolor, the Spotted Falcon of the Bri- tish Zoology, I may remark, that Dr Suaw, in his General Zoology, gives it as a variety of the Common Falcon. Mon- ‘Tacu, from its superior size and predominance of white plu- Mage, suspects it to be a variety of the Ger-Falcom, 580 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE which increase in size as_ they apieech the belly *. The third, and most common variety, is that de- scribed as the Falco apivorus, the Honey Buzzard of the English ornithologists. The legs, as in the preceding varieties, are yellow. Head, ash- coloured. Upper parts, brown. Under parts white, and either spotted or barred. with rusty- brown, according to the age of the individual. The younger birds, like the preceding variety, be- ing marked on the breast and belly with longitu- dinal-shaped spots, which in the adults are dis-. posed in regular bars. The tail is brown, and barred with different shades of the same colour. These bars seem to vary in number, as Linnzus says there is only one, LatrHam two, and Pen- NaNnT three, and the specimen described by Aus BIN was without any bars on the tail. From the preeeding description, it will be seen, | that these varieties are intimately connected, and — doubtless, if many specimens could be procured of different ages, and from various climates, they would be found to approach each other by almost imperceptible gradations. * The F.. variegatus, BecusTEIN considers to be a variety of F. buteo. 2 ‘LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 581 ERE “There is no subject in ornithology, so intricate and confused as the natural history of the Falcon tribe, and almost every endeavour to illustrate this branch of the science by the accurate de- scription of species, has unfortunately tended to increase the darkness which surrounds it. Without attending to those changes which are incidental to age or sex, to the climate of parti- cular countries, or the season of the year, natu- ralists have assumed, that such individuals as dif- fered remarkably in the general colour and mark- ings of their plumage, were specifically distinct, and thus as many species have been created, as there are variations in the transition from youth to age. - Another great source of error originates in the misconstruction and improper application of the technical language of Falconry, and in the inde- finite nature of that language itself. Certain terms intended, in the first instance, mere- ly to designate the degree of excellence to which individuals of different species may have attained in the sports of the field, have been applied by na- turalists as the specific appellation of particular kinds ; and being again introduced into the lan- guage of falconry, with a signification altogether Veeeelt. Pp ia” §82 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE different from that which they were originally in- tended to express, they have occasioned a con- fusion which it will be difficult to clear up, as long as such vague and indefinite expressions are permitted in scientific details. As this confusion has probably originated . in the terms of falconry not being understood by orni- thologists, it may not be improper before entering into an examination of the history of particular species, to mention a few of the terms in most common use, and their proper application to the sports of the field. We find, on referring to books: on falconry, that the term Gentle or Gentil, was not originally applied to distinguish any particular species of hawk, but merely to characterise such individuals of different species as were manny or manageable, that is, tamed, and trained to kill game, and suf- ficiently docile to be used in the fields. It was soon, however, considered as the name of a species, and accordingly occurs both in systematic works on natural history, and in modern treatises on falconry, with this erroneous signification. ‘Thus, it is described under the name of Falco Gentil, by Gesner, ALDROVANDUS, WILLUGHBY, Ray, ALBIN, Brisson, Linnzus, PENNANT, and La- THAM ; and CampBELL, in his treatise on Modern ~ Falconry, under the chapter entitled, “ Of the — chusing of the Faulcon Gentle,’’ says, “‘ This bird has received the epithet of Gentle, on ac- 7 a r : LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 584 count of her mildness, and easiness to be reclaim- ed. No hawk exceeds her in strength according to her size, or is hardier to endure fatigue. She is excellent to sport with at either field or brook.”’ The next term which I have to notice, is the word Haggard. This expression has not been so generally applied as a specific name, but it has oc- casioned some confusion. Thus, we find a bird described sometimes as a variety, at other times as a distinct species, under the titles Falco gibbosus, Le Faucon hagard, ou Bossu, and in English, un- der the name of Haggard Falcon. It is now, however, said to be only the Common Falcon, ar- rived at an age when the bird is fond of sitting with its neck shortened, and the head sunk be- tween the shoulders, assuming a deformed appear- ance. Thus, Larnam, speaking of the Falco gtbbosus, says, ** Hic jam ad senectutem pro- vectus est ; tum collum contorquet, illudque inter scapulas quasi abscondit, ita ut gibbum gestare videatur ; unde gibbosi nomen.” This explains very properly the application of the Latin specific name, but does not apply to the English term Haggard, which is a sporting ex- pression, and does not seem to have been satisfac- torily explained in any scientific work. In books on falconry, I find that it has never been applied to any particular species, whatever its external appearance might: be, but in the language of the field denotes a hawk taken wild from the sky by Pp?2 | '84 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE means of a lure, in contradistinction to those that are reared from the eyrie. In old books on the subject, there are chapters with such titles as these: “ Of the Haggard Falcon :” “ Of the Su- periority of the Falcon from the Eyrie over the Haggard Falcon :’’ ‘* Of reclaiming the Haggard Falcon,’”? &c. ; and there is likewise frequent mention made of the Haggard Gyr-Falcon, and the Haggard Goshawk, the latter of which is said to be of all others the wildest, and consequently most difficult to be reclaimed. In a work en- titled the Gentleman’s Recreation, published in 1674, there is a chapter allotted to the Sparrow Hawk, in which the different varieties of that species are described. The enumeration con- cludes thus: ‘‘ Lastly, Haggards are they which prey for themselves, and do also mew in the woods or at large. ‘This division of kinds is not pecu- liar to the Sparrow Hawk, but common to all,” oe | Haggard Falcons were much esteemed by some falconers on account of their superior strength and velocity; but two objections have been brought against them. ‘They are naturally given to check, that is, to fly away from game after rooks and pigeons, for when they drive the game into cover, unless the falconer be active in serving them, and careful to keep them low and nigh himself, they rake off or fly from the game with the first birds that spring. The second objection arises from LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 585 the first ; for when they are fu’footed in the even- ing, that is, have struck a bird, and cannot be found that night, they are apt to fly away next morning before the falconer comes to the field © in search of them, being well acquainted with the country, accustomed to shift for themselves, and consequently able to live without human as- sistance. On the other hand, hawks from the eyrie, are said to be free from checking, and will remain where they are lost for some days, or, if they know the ground, will fly home to the heck or place, where they have been accustomed to be fed *. | | The term Haggard, therefore, was applied to every hunting hawk, without regard to its species, which had been reclaimed from a state of nature after it had left the eyrie. It did not apply to any peculiar character in its external aspect, but to the less degree of confidence which could be placed in it, and its greater liability to prove false or forsake its master. That this is the true signification of the word, may be learned from the writings of the old dramatists, who were par- _ ticularly fond of allusions borrowed from the art of falconry. For example, in SHaKkzEsPEARE’s Othello, where the Moor begins to suspect the Pps * CAMPBELL’s Treatise on Falconry. 586 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE fidelity of his wife, we have the omnes ne sage : “‘ If I do prove her haggard, Tho’ that her jesses were my dear heartstrings, I'd whistle her off, and let her down the wind To prey at fortune.” And without multiplying quotations, it may be observed, that the old English word haggard, is most generally used in a similar acceptation. Falcons are likewise known by different names, according to their age or sex. Thus, the young females are called Red Hawks, or Red Falcons, and the young males Red Tercels. When full grown and feathered, the females are called Falcons, and the males Tercels. T hese ex- ptessions, however, are not confined to the Pere- grine Falcon, as Monracu seems to suppose, but are applied to different species *. While they continue in the eyrie, they are call- ed Eyesses, and afterwards are known by the dif- ferent names of Ramage Hawks, Soar Hawks, Slender Hawks, Carvists, and Enter-Mews ; and to these, and very many more, there have been _ corresponding varieties, or even species, described by naturalists. * The name of Tercel is applied to male hawks, on account of their being usually one-third less than the females. LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 587 Brisson enumerates not fewer than twelve va- rieties of the Common Falcon, without including the Falcon Gentle, or a doubtful species called the Lanner, and in. this list, he is followed by La- THAM, with the exception of the Sacre *, which the latter author is of opinion should constitute a distinct species. I shall now take a short review of the different opinions entertained by ornithologists regarding particular species of the genus Falco ; adding such observations as have occurred to me from an in- spection of several interesting series of varieties. In the opinion of Burron, the Gentle Falcon is the Common Falcon in full plumage. That it 1s the Common Falcon, there cannot be any doubt ; but it is equally certain, that it is that bird in a state of immaturity, the Common Falcon, as will be afterwards seen, being trans- versely barred in the adult state. Brisson, Linnzus, Pennant, Sonnint, and Daunin, describe the Gentle Falcon as a distinct species. I trust what has been already said con- cerning the original application of the term Gentle, is sufficient to shew the inaccuracy of that opinion. Pp4 * Cuvier is of opinion, that the Sacre is synonimous with the Ger-Falcon. — F, gentilis. F. gentilis. §38 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE In the earlier works of Latuam, it is described as distinct. In the Second Supplement, however, to the General Synopsis of that author, we find the following observation: ‘* The young of the Goshawk is very different from the adult, and it is not at all clear, that the Falcon Gentil of the British Zoology, No. 50., is not the Goshawk its first feathers.’? The truth of this remark, i confirmed by a comparison of the specimen of bie Goshawk now before you, with the figure of the Gentle Falcon given by PENNANT in his British Zoology *. | Monracu, in his last work, entirely womantes in-the above opinion ; and, on this subject, I may add that Colonel Tuornton, of sporting celebri- ty, applies the term Gentil to the | Peregrine Fal- con ie The difficulty of identifying the Falcon Gentle, results from the desire of tracing it to one species, when it is clear, upon examination, that the young males and females in a particular state of plu- mage, both of the Common Falcon, as it is called, and of the Goshawk, have been described under that appellation. : * The figure referred to, is the 21st plate of the last edition. + BecusTeIn says, the Falco ene is He at bird of the F, pallens a he LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 589 - In some authors, we find the Falcon Gentle de- scribed as somewhat larger than the Goshawk. Its bill of a lead colour. Cere and irides yellow. The head and upper part of the neck rusty, streak- ed with black. The back and. wings brown; scapulars tipped with rusty ; quill-feathers dusky, outer webs barred with black; the lower part of the inner webs marked with white. ‘Tail long, and marked with alternate bars of black and ash colour, and tipped with white. The legs yellow ; claws black. The wings extend exactly to the tip of the tail. I consider this bird as one of the numerous va- rieties of the Common Falcon, as it agrees with that species in its early plumage. It is well dis- tinguished from every modification of the Gos- hawk by the length of the wings. | Other authors have described the Gentle Fal- con ina somewhat different manner, viz. Bill, cere, and irides, as in the former. Head inclining to ferruginous, with oblong black spots; upper part of the body and wings brown; each feather of the last tipped with ferruginous. The whole under sides yellowish-white, the points of each feather marked with heart-shaped spots; coverts of the wings and scapulars, brown, edged with rust colour. ‘Tail barred with black and cinereous alternately. Legs yellow; claws black. The wings extend only half the length of the tail. | F. gentilii, B gentilis. 590 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE The bird now described, I have no doubt is the young of the Goshawk. It is at once distinguish- ed by the shortness of its wings; and an exami- nation of the specimen of the immature Goshawk now exhibited, will shew the agreement of the other characters. _ | On this subject, I have to correct a slight mis- take committed by Montacu. Having describ- ed the Gentle Falcon, he adds, “* A variety sup- posed to be young birds, are described to have transverse bars on the breast.’?’ Now, the reverse of this is really the case. I have examined many specimens both of the Goshawk and Peregrine Falcon, and have always found that the young birds are marked with longitudinal spots, and do not acquire the barred plumage of the breast till they are nearly mature. The error seems to have originated with Pennant, who not being ac- quainted with the nature of the changes in the plumage of hawks, has described the young birds as distinguished by transverse bars, instead of cordated spots, which he supposes to characterise such as are mature. . ‘ The observation, however, affords a anil proof of the Gentle Falcon being merely the young of another species, as the varieties alluded to by Monracu, are the individuals about to as- sume the plumage of the adult Goshawk. We may fairly conclude, that such authors as have described the Gentle Falcon with the wings LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 591 reaching to the end of the tail, have confounded F- gentilis the Common Falcon in a state of adolescence, and that those who characterise it by the wings ex- tending only to the middle of the tail, have de- scribed the immature Goshawk. The name of Falco gentilis, should therefore no longer be used as a specific appellation. _ LT have next to consider the Goshawk or Falco yee palumbarius of Linnaus. This species is very widely distributed. ‘They breed in Scotland and the Orkney Isles, and have been observed in Spain, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the North of Italy, They are common in Denmark, Norway, Russia, and Siberia, particularly about Lake Baikal. Among the Uralian Mountains, they are said to be white, mottled with brown and yellow, and a somewhat similar variety is found in Chinese Tartary. In Kamtsckatka, the most abundant va- riety is nearly of an immaculate white; and these white birds, according to PENNaNT, are the most esteemed in falconry. From Chinese and Indian paintings, we learn, that the Goshawk is known in the warmest regions of Asia ; and judging from a drawing, which I had an opportunity of ex- amining, the individuals found in India are darker in their plumage than the common variety found in Europe. They are generally diffused over the Continent of North America, but whether they have been observed in Africa, I do not know. They abound in the 4zores, and these islands, in F. palum- barius. 592 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE the opinion of some authors, derive their name from this circumstance, as the word Azor signi- fies a Goshawk in the Spanish language. si Considerable confusion has arisen in ornithology, from the differences between the plumage of the young and old birds of this species. The former, as we have seen, has been described as a distinct species under the name of Falcon Gentle, and the latter has so seldom fallen into the hands of na- turalists, in a state of complete maturity, that it does not seem to have been accurately described at all. I am inclined to think, that this bird is exceed- ingly rare in England, if it is ever found at pre- sent in the southern division of the island. I should rather suppose it confined to the northern districts of Scotland. In the Western Isles, the name is sometimes improperly applied to the Ring- tail, (Falco pygargus), but I have no reason to suppose, that the true Goshawk occurs there. The adult male Goshawk, measures in length rather more than one foot ten inches. Its bill is blue, tipped with black, and lead colour at the base. Cere greenish-yellow. Irides yellow. ‘The top of the head, back of the neck, and all the upper parts of the body, are of a deep bluish- black, with a few darker coloured spots, and in some places slightly tinged with brown. On each side of the neck above the shoulder, there is a’ broken patch of white, and over each eye there LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. $93 is a whitish line. The throat, breast, and belly, are white, with numerous transverse lines of a blackish colour. ‘Thesé markings commence from the base of the bill, and extend to the extremity of the feathers on the thighs. The tail is long and consists of alternate bars of black and black- ish-brown, but so dark as not to be easily distin- guished without near inspection. The legs are yellow, and the claws black. The wings do not reach nearly to the end of the tail. The foregoing description, will be perceived to differ from that usually given of the Goshawk, which is said to be of a deep brown on the upper parts of the plumage, with the tail ash-coloured, barred with dusky. ‘This is owing to the resem- blance which the two sexes bear to each other when immature, and to the iength of time which the male requires to attain his perfect plumage. The first change which is observable, is in the markings of the under plumage, which, from being longitudinal, become transverse. The dark blue shades of the upper part of the plumage, are not acquired for several years ; and the observations of naturalists on this species, seem to have been made before the male had undergone his second change. Except in as far as regards size, the male Goshawk, on a general view, bears a con- siderable resemblance to the Sparrow Hawk, (Falco nisus. ) F. palume barius, F Py pal um<« barius. 594 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE The female, as is usual in birds of this family, is larger than the male. Her plumage is brown- er above, and less regularly barred below. ‘The markings on the breast and belly, are more lon- gitudinally disposed. The tail is ash-coloured with dusky bars. | The individuals of both sexes tn a state of im- maturity, differ from the adults; but they bear a much nearer resemblance to the females than to the males. The following is a dcceviraial af the Goshawk in its early plumage: Bill lead colour, black at the tip. Cere and irides yellow. Crown of the head blackish-brown, edged with ferruginous. Sides and back of the neck similar, but more pale, and in some specimens marked with yellow- ish-white. The pale streak above the eye is near- ly obselete. Sides of the head greyish-brown, minutely streaked with black. ‘The whole upper parts of the plumage are brown, edged with fer- ruginous. Wing-coverts marked with pale brown or yellowish-white. Primary and secondary quill- feathers greyish-brown, obscurely barred with black ; the latter ‘bordered at their extremities with dirty white; under parts of the plumage yellowish-white, in some tinged with ferruginous ; each feather being marked down its centre with an elongated blackish-brown spot. These markings are minute, and numerous on the throat; they are fewer in number, larger and he mW % § ; ‘ } if ld hy AP & +i U y a = ee LINNEAN GENUS FALGO. 595 more distinct on the breast and belly, and extend to the vent-feathers and under-coverts of the tail. The feathers on the thighs are like the ground- colour of the breast, and are marked on the centre with narrow arrow-shaped lines pointing upwards. The tail extends*five or six inches beyond the ex- tremity of the wings, and is alternately barred with black and ash-colour, the tip is nearly white ; legs yellow ; claws black. This will be found to approximate so nearly to some of the descriptions which have been given of the Gentle Falcon, as perfectly to warrant the conclusion which has been drawn, that many F, palums. parius. — birds described under that name, are the young | of the Goshawk. The next species whose history requires to be considered, is the Common Falcon*. * When I had the honour of presenting this paper to the Society, I was not aware that several of the observations which it contains had been anticipated in the work of a foreign na-~ turalist, with whose writings I was at that time unacquainted. The publication to which I allude, is the Gemeinidzige natur- geschachte Deutchlands, von J. M. Beckstern. It does not appear to have been much consulted by the ornithologists of this country, nor are the remarks which it contains, in as far as I have had an opportunity of judging, familiar to the French writers. Through the kindness of Professor Jameson, I have recently been enabled to compare the remarks of Becksrer ® F. commu- nis: EF. commu- nis. 596 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE This I have never been able to identify as a dis- tinct species in any collection, either British or foreign, and though it may not at present be ge- netally admitted, I have no hesitation in asserting, that it is not specifically distinct from the Falco peregrinus of Gmetin and LatHam. ‘They are similar in size, and the colour of the bill, cere, irides, and legs, is the same in both. Of the Falco communis, there are twelve varieties de- scribed, many of which shew distinctly the tran- sition to the Peregrine Falcon, and have occa- sioned a contrariety of opinion concerning which species they ought to be referred to. JI have seen individuals in which the characters of the Com- . mon and the Peregrine Falcons were combined in on some of the species, whose history I have endeavoured to illustrate, with my own observations ; and I find that in several instances, I have drawn conclusions similar to those of the Ger- man naturalist. On account of this circumstance, [I at first felt inclined to exclude some of the following observations, but in so doing, I found that the remainder must necessarily be pre- sented in a less intelligible form. I have therefore allowed the paper to remain as it was originally written, in the belief that it may not be the less acceptable in consequence of its agree- ment in some respects with the Gemeiniitzige Naturgeschichte Deutchlands, to such as have not had an opportunity of con- sulting that work ; and to those who have, I trust that this ex- planation will be deemed sufficient. Ihave added a few notes from BrcksTEIN and others, te point out those particulars in which we coincide or differ. .* . -LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 507 such a manner as to render it impossible, in the belief of their being distinct, to determine to which they should have been assigned, and the descriptions which have been given of the Com- mon Falcon, approach so near to the Peregrine in one stage of its plumage, that I have no doubt it is merely the young of that bird. Monracu was latterly inclined-to this opinion, and but for the scarcity of the falcon tribe in this country, and the inaccessible nature of ‘their haunts, his belief would soon have been confirms ed *. . ° * BecusTem is of opinion, that the F. communis of Gm. is a two year old F. buteo, the Common Buzzard of this country, as they agree in size, form, colours, &e. It is very possible, that Brisson, in whose works the numerous varieties of the Falcon Seem to have originated, may have taken his description from the Common Buzzard. This is the more likely, as he certainly does not mention the dark patch on the cheek of the Falcon, al- though that character (which would decidedly prove it to be the young of the F. peregrinus,) has crept into the descriptions of most of the later ornithologists. I therefore agree with that naturalist, in supposing that the F’. communis of Gm. is merely the F. buteo of Linn. Brisson, from whom Gme.in borrowed, appears, in fact, to have taken his description from the bird figured by Friscu as a Falcon, but which is in reality the Com- mon Buzzard. Still, however, there can be no doubt that the Common Falcon as generally characterised, both in scientific works and books on falconry, if not by its external marks, at least by its habits, and acquirements in the sports of the field, VOL. Il. Qq F. commue nis. 598 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE Those varieties which have been referred’ by one naturalist to the Common Falcon, and by another to the Peregrine Falcon, are the connect- ing links between the immature dress of the one, and the perfect plumage of the other, and a know- ledge of this circumstance removes much of the obscurity in which the history of the falcon rite has been enveloped. Hy _ The alterations which take place in the plu- mage of birds,:like other changes in the animal economy, are not the result of chance, one ve regulated by certain physicallaws. ==) These, as applicable to the falcon tribe, though more complicated, and notwithstanding many seeming variations, are not less regular in their ef- fects than they are in ge at to other atin of ‘birds. The different individuals dp ceanas by Brisson _anid other naturalists, are not to be considered as accidental varieties, depending upon no fixed prin- ciple ; on the contrary, many of them represent the gt Sota changes which take place i in the oF hibes cannot be supposed to have originated in any variety of th F. buteo. The Buzzard is the most sluggish, cowar ly, nd in- active of all birds of prey, and the least fitted for the art of ‘falconry. The Common Falcon, generally so called, to what- ever species it may be traced, is undoubtedly derived from a -long-winged or hunting sili and not fy any ¢ of ae short- winged species. LINNEAN GENUS FALCG. 599) tage of these birds, and which are found to bear an exact relation to age or sex. | No doubt, great alterations are sresibirmes a fected by external causes, particularly by the dif= ference in the degrees of heat and cold. Thus, the prevailing colour of the Goshawk in Kamts« chatka, is white, in Tartary brown and yellow, in Europe bluish-black, tinged with brown, and in India nearly black ; but few individuals of the same species, and of similar age, either of the Goshawk, or any of its kindred species, will be found to differ from each other in the same coun- try, notwithstanding, the general belief of the great irregularity in the plumage of the tribe. ‘The different varieties of the Falcon described by authors, are therefore not the effect of accident, but are referable to a particular age and sex of the individual, and to the country in which it has been bred. Most hawks, whose plumage is barred or trans- versely mafked in the adult state, dre longitudinal- ly spotted while immature, and there is no in- stance of any species, whose colouring on attain- ing maturity, is longitudinally disposed, being characterised in youth by transversé markings. The barred appearance of the plumage, is a sure sign of at least a considerable advance towards © perfection, and the want of it in any individuals of a species which is known to be at any time aqe 600 ON SOME SPECIES OF. THE _? oo Avohncesbiias by it, is as sure a mien» wal imma-. turity. ote ta pba: Attention to these general laws, will rit fa- cilitate our endeavours to illustrate war aay of obscure species. | Assuming, therefore, the Peregrine Falcon to be the species to which most of the varieties of the Common Falcon should properly be referred, I shall proceed briefly to review these and some ° other varieties described in the works of Brisson and others, in order to determine the relation which they respectively bear to the Falco ap i grinus from which they are derived. Before doing so, however, it will be necessary to give an exact description of the | con in its adult state. - The bill is lead-coloured, tipped with black. Cere and irides yellow; the latter in some, dusky. Crown of the head, back of the neck, and whole upper plumage, bluish-black, or deep lead colour, darkest about the head. The back, scapulars, ai d greater.and lesser wing-coverts, crossed by nearly imperceptible bars of black, and a few feathers on these parts tinged with ferruginous. Primary quill-feathers black ; the inner webs tinged with brown and spotted with white; the secondaries rather paler, with a shade of cinereous, and pale edges. Throat and sides of the head, yellowish- white. From the inner angle of each eye, pro- LINNEAN GENUS FALCO, 601 — ceeds a broad black streak down the side of the head, in the form of mustachoes. ‘This charac- ter is seldom so distinct in the female as in the male, and is scarcely perceptible in very young birds of either sex. ‘The under parts are pale, with transverse blackish-brown bars. These markings commence on the lower part of the breast, and descend to the vent-feathers. The feathers on the sides and thighs are likewise crossed, and it is on these parts, when the bird begins to assume its perfect plumage, that the transverse markings are first discernible. The throat is pure. The upper part of the breast is characterised by a few longitudinal streaks. Tail black, with numerous transverse cinereous bands, and yellowish-white at the tips. Legs yellow; claws black. The old and young birds bear the same relation to each other as those of the Gos- hawk. The old are transversely marked, the young longitudinally ; and intermediate birds oc- cur, with some parts transverse, some longitudinal. As the Sparrow Hawk may be said to represent the Goshawk in miniature, in like manner, the Hobby nearly resembles the Peregrine, before the latter has assumed the transverse markings. _ In the Goshawk, the breast has a light bluish tinge, in the Peregrine a brownish one; and in ‘the former, I have remarked, that the perfect plumage of the under parts is first acquired, but in the latter, the longitudinal spots on the breast Qqs F. peregri- nus. F. hornoti- nus F. (com.) fuscus. 602 on SOME SPECIES OF THE and belly may be observed for some time _— the dark plumage of the ys is completed. _ The jirst variety of the Peregrine clges which I shall notice, is the Yearling Falcon; Fal- co hornotinus of Brisson; Le Faucon ‘sors of — Burron. This 1s the young bird in its early plu- mage. It is of a lightish phe an with an ash- coloured tinge * The second variety, is the Brown Faleon 5 ; Falco fuscus of BRIsson. The upper plumage is ferruginous-brown, ith black streaks ; beneath white, with brown spots. The young of the Peregrine Falcon occurs in this ‘state in France and Switzerland. I should con- sider it as an immature female +. aha weihy * According to the German ornithologists, this is the yearling Peregrine Falcon, Indeed, it is quite obyious from Burrow’ s plate of Le Faueon sors, (Enl. “ 0.) + Burron considered the Faucon br un ‘* moins un Faucon quun Buzard.” Cuvier has adopted a similar opinion; and considers it synonimous with the Common Buzzard, f La | buse ordinatre. ) The F. (communis) fuscus of Gmetin, sects ib Brck- ‘STEIN, is a distinct species ; it is the F. fuscus of the latter au- thor. He is also of opinion, that the F. fuscus of Brisson is probably the same as his F. Pigets and i i aaa ti distinct from the F. Peregrinusy | LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 603 The third variety, isthe White-headed Falcon ; falco leucocephalus, Briss. I have never had an opportunity of examining any falcon which corresponds with the descrip- tion given of this bird. It cannot be consider- ed, like most of the others, as forming a link in the gradations of plumage from the yearling Falcon to the adult Peregrine. In contradis- tinction, therefore, to such as present the regu- Qq4 BECKSTEIN says in regard to the F. fuscus, that he at one time agreed with Burron in considering it as a variety of F. buteo, but was induced, from the observations of Becker, and those of sportsmen, to consider it as a distinct species. In this. opinion, he was probably confirmed by his belief that the Pere- grine Falcon may in every stage of its plumage be distinguished by the dark feathers on the side of the head. I have, however, good reason for believing, that that dis- tinction, particularly in immature females, cannot always be re- lied upon, and should therefore be unwilling to constitute the F. (communis) fuscus a separate species, unless it can be shewn. from other causes than the occurrence of an individual wanting some of those characters which usually distinguish the Pere- grine Falcon, that they are really distinct. - At all events, I would rather incline to the opinion of Bur- Fon and Cuvier, that it is referable to the F. buteo, which would be more in the spirit of BecksTEIN’s own opinion re« garding the F. communis, Ga. to which the J. fuscus appears tp | " ‘nearly allied, F. (com,) leucoce- phalus. F. (com.) leucoce- phalus. 604 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE lar changes, I should term it an accidental varie- ty *, eT é Wi) _ * In the opinion of Becxstern, the White-headed Falcon is specifically the same as the F. lagopus of Gmeuin, the Rough- legged Falcon of the British Zoology, (App,) To the same species, Dr Suaw refers the Dusky Falcon of the Arctic Zoology, and Monvacu thinks it probable, that th foe’ ghee! the be found synonimous with the F. lagopus. I have pies oye several specimens of the Rough-legged Falcon, but they varied so much in colour, that I am still ignorant of the fixed state of plumage i in that species. I have, however, little doubt, that PENNANT" s Dusky Falcon is in reality one of its varieties. Whether BECKSTEIN’S opinion concerning the I. (communis ) leucocephalus be correct or not, can only be determined by the examination of a suite of specimens. With regard to the other supposed variety, the F. pennatus, 1 may observe that it is on- Jy known to naturalists from the description of Brisson. Its native country seems quite unknown. The F. lagopus, from which I do not believe it to be distinct, is found in Denmark, Norway, and the Alps of Switzerland. Its geographical dis- tribution, however, will be! greatly extended, if, as Latin supposes, (2d Supplement, p. 24, No. 14.) it is synonimous with Ea Buse Ganiee of VaILuANT, a species met with in the country about the Cape of Good Hope, particularly in the Forest of P44 Hottinquas. This last mentioned variety, according to La - THAM, has a less mixture of white in its ‘plumage ; a circum- ix stance which we are naturally led to expect from, the difference of its physical position. “Burron was of opinion, that the F. leucocephalus, Briss. was a variety of his Common Falcon, As the latter species is LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 605 Allied to the preceding, is the fourth variety, the White Falcon; Falco albus, Briss. « It is white, with minute yellow spots. _ Some are im- maculate, with the extremities of the greater bie feathers blackish. . Burron is of opinion, that every white bird synonimous with the Peregrine Falcon, the opir. expressed in the text, is in conformity with that of the Fiench. natu- ralist. | | Having recently, however, considered the descriptions of this bird, and the opinions of Becksrein and Cuvier, I feel inclined to adopt their ideas, and view it as distinct from any variety of the F. peregrinus. Its characteristic distinction con- sists in the legs being feathered to the toes. _ The specific name adopted by Cuvier, is La Buse patue (F. pennatus ), from which it appears that he considers it synoni- mous with the Booted Falcon of Laruam. I have no doubt that it is described in ornithological works under many denomina- tions, though I cannot at present venture to give the synonyms, The following extract from the “ Regne Animal” of Cuvier, shews the opinion of that naturalist concerning the confused and intricate state of the species : “‘ Cette buse (the Buse patue) est quatre fois dans GmeE tn, sans y étre jamais a sa place. Cvest le Falco lagopus, Brit. Zool. App. t. 1.3; le Falco communis 3 leucephalus, Frisch. '75.; le Falco pennatus, Briss. App. pl. 1.; le Falco Sancti-Johannis, Arct. Zool. pl. ix.” I may add, that BecksTe1n considers the Sclavonian Falcon as synonimous with the Falco lagopus. Indeed, Dr Laruam had previously suspected that it might prove a variety of that species. The German ornithologist is of opinion, that the F, pennatus i is also a variety of the Falco lagopus. F. (com.) albus, -F. com.) albus. 606 ON SOME. SPECIES OK THE of this genus is a variety, and nota distinct spe- cles *. * Under this head, ornithologists have arranged white varie- ties of the F. peregrinus and the F. palumbarius. In the opi- nion of BrecxsTeIn, the #. albus of Brisson, (F. communis albus, GM.) is a variety of EF. peregrinus. Cuvier, on the other hand, considers it as synonimous with Burron’s L’oiseau Saint-Martin, (erroneously described and figured in the Histoire. des Oiseaux as a distinct species), and by consequence the same as the F. pygargus and F. cyaneus, the Ring-tail and Hen Harrier of our ornithologists. CuvIER seems impressed with a deep sense of GMe.in’s in- accuracies, and not without reason. But he appears to proceed rather too far in his opposition to that author’s species. Thus, he not only refers the F. communis albus to the Ring-tail (La Soubuse, F. pygargus), but also the F..montanus B, the F. griseus, and the F. bohemicus. I shall not insist on the diffe- rences in plumage, as characters drawn from colour are not to be depended on. But there are such essential distinctions be- tween the three last mentioned species themselves, that it is scarcely possible they should all be referable to the same spe- cies. Thus, from the description of the Grey Falcon shot in York- shire, we learn that it is as large as a raven; its legs long, naked, and yellow. The F. bohemicus is said scarcely to exceed a foot in ‘ength, i and the legs are thickish and feathered below the knees, — ~The &F. montanus B bears a considerable resemblance both in size and plumage to the male Ring-tail, but differs greatly from the preceding species. It is one foot nine inches in length, and is the only one an the three supposed. varieties ae r LINNEAN GENUS FALCO,. 607 The fifth variety, is the bird which has been described as a distinct species under the name of Common Falcon *. The prevailing colour of the plumage is brown, edged with ferruginous. The tail is transversely barred with shades of light and dark brown. The bill is blue; cere, irides and legs yellow. On each cheek, a large brown patch or spot +. should feel inclined to refer to the F. pygargus. BrcksTEin is of opinion, that it is an old male of that species. | With regard to the Grey Falcon, I may remark, that Mon- ‘TAGU was informed by an experienced German falconer, that it is the Tercel or male of the Ger-falcon in its first plumage. BECKSTEIN seems inclined to consider it as a distinct species, and thinks it is painted in the Gallery of Tenneberg at Walter- hausen. * I must again refer to the distinction which I suppose to exist between the Common. Falcon usually so termed, as de- scribed and characterised by many of the French and English ornithologists, and in books on the art of falconry, and the in- dividual whose description has been given in the works of Brisson, Gein, &c. The former is undoubtedly the young of the Peregrine Falcon, the latter may be considered as synoni- mous with the F. buteo of Linn. | + The last mentioned character does not occur in Brisson. This has probably induced BEcKsTEIN to adopt the opinion be- fore mentioned, that the F. communis is a two year old F. buleo. Cuvier describes the Common Falcon as follows: “ Grand ‘\ comme une poule, se reconnait toujours 4 une sorte de tache Common Falcon. Common Faleon. 608 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE _ This bird has long been considered as the type or proper representative of the numerous varie- ties of the Falcon. That it is merely the Pere- grine Falcon in a state of immaturity, I have al- ready attempted to prove, and I am convinced that no doubt can be entertained on the subject by any person who takes the trouble of comparing the varieties * which follow with those which have been enumerated +. triangulaire noire quwil a sur la joue,” &c. If the above de- scription could be relied upon as uniformly applicable to the Common Falcon in every state of plumage, it might be ad- duced as a strong proof of the accuracy of BEcKSTEIN’s opi- nion regarding the F’. communis of Gm. and would induce me to refer the F. fuscus to the Common Buzzard. I have, how- ever, seen a specimen of falcon which I have no doubt was the female of F. communis, (the F. peregrznus in a state of imma- turity), eon which the black patch had not become perceptible. * It will be observed, that I have altered the order in which the varieties I am now considering have hitherto been placed. This is necessary, in order to illustrate more clearly the opinion I am anxious to establish, and to exhibit at one view the gradual transition from the state of immaturity to the plumage of the adult bird. + In Cuvier’s new work, published since this paper was written, I find that his opinion is similar to the one expressed above. I cannot, however, see the propriety of retaining the - LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 609 The Common Falcon itse! If, is one of the first varieties in which we perceive an approach to the name of Falco communis, which does not in any ornithological work apply to the species in a state of maturity, and has by some authors been applied to a bird which does not belong to the falcon tribe. It is besides, necessarily associated with so many vague and contradictory descriptions of ill-defined spe- cies, that if used as a specific name, it will long continue to be the source of error and confusion. The specific name of F. peregrinus, on the contrary, is not liable to any such objection. The species has been well and clearly defined, and has never been confounded with any other species, except indeed by means of such of its immature varieties, as have been included under the unfortunate title of Falco communis. Besides, the assump- tion of such a title as that of F. communis, Gm. by Cuvier, is in contradiction even to his own opinion. It will be seen by re= ferring to his late work, (Regne Animal, Note p. 310.) that, when stating his opinion in regard to the inaccuracies of GMELIN respecting the Common Falcon, he observes, that the variety « Friscu, 74. should be considered not as a Falcon but a Buzzard. Now, this variety «, is in fact the very F. com- munis which he has adopted as the representative of a species ’ which he considers is synonimous with the F. peregrinus and all its varieties. I trust that enough has been said to shew the propriety of the name of F. communis being no longer used as a specific ap- - pellation sand that consequently the title of F. peregrinus should be retained, to designate the species which has always borne that name, as well as such immature varieties as had been referred to another species, but which recent obstrvations have proved are not really distinct. Common Falcon. Common Falcon. F. gib- bosus. ®. rubeus. 610 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE ~~ - adult-bird. This is obvious in the large brown patch or spot on the cheek, which in the mature Peregrine becomes black, and forms a distinguish- ing character. It may be considered as that bird after’ ree dine passed at least one sia The sixth variety, is rhe Hag siti Falcon 5° Falco gibbosus, Briss. ; Le Faucon Hagard ou Bossu, Burr. This bird differs from the preceding, in being darker and more advanced in its plumage. It has been erroneously described as an aged bird, but the markings of its plumage prove the contrary. It assumes the hunch-backed appearance, not from age, but on account of its being about to cast its feathers. This I have observed. in other hawks during the moulting season. As has been already observed, the term Haggard was not originally applied solely to this or any other variety or spe- cies, but to such hawks as were reclaimed ah a state of nature after leaving the eyrie. ial The seventh variety, is the Red F alcon 5 Falco ‘rubeus, Briss. f. dp tithe It is similar to the Common Falcon in its plu- mage, with this difference, that the feathers of the wings, instead of being marked with white, are, spotted with Fed and black. We he LINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 611 The eighth variety, is the Red Indian Falcon ; Falco ruber Indicus, Briss. * . From the description given by Brisson, the _ male appears greatly to resemble the adult Pere- grine Falcon of Europe. The upper parts of the plumage are nearly black; of the wesc cine- reous brown. The ninth variety, is the Spotted-winged Falcon, Falco maculatus, Briss. This bird shews plainly the transition to the adult Peregrine Falcon}. The upper plumage is brown; the rump and tail cinereous, with trans- verse black bars; and Brisson observes, “ In utroque capitis latere majuscula, est macula longi- tudinalis nigra, infra oculos orta, et ad colli ex- ortum usque protensa;’’ and again, “ Ala, su- pra lineis ¢ransversis, nigricantihus variegate.”’ LATHAM enumerates this among: the varieties of the Common Falcon; but he seems to have been aware of its relation to the Peregrine Falcon, as it is again given as a variety of that specics, and the same synonyms are referred to. Burronconsider- ed it as the young of the following variety. * The F. ruber Indicus is conjectured by BEcKsTEIN to be a distinet species. The same ton was adopted by Burrow. | + I find that BecxsTsin also aun ei it as the Peregrine Falcon. F. ruter Indicus- ¥. (com.} maculatuse F. niger. 612 ON SOME SPEGIES OF THE _ The tenth variety, is the Black Falcon ; Falco niger, Briss. This differs so much from the bist dorcel under the name of Common Falcon, that although generally given as one of its varieties, Burron considéred it as a distinct species; and indeed it would have been difficult to believe otherwise, supposing, as Burron and all the ornithologists of his time did, that the Falco communis and sh d peregrinus were specifically distinct *. Latuam follows Brisson, and gives the Black Falcon as a variety of the Common Falcon, but in his Supplement he hints at the probability of its being a variety of the Peregrine. He says it _* This is the true Faucon Pelerin ou Passager of Burron, considered by him as distinct from the Common Falcon, and in a state of complete maturity. It is figured in the Hustoire des Oiseaux, under the name of Le Faucon noir et Se te: (En. 469.) I have endeavoured to shew, that it is the F. peregrinus ap- proaching to maturity, oni not distinct from the Common Fal- con of BuFFoN. 7 BECKSTEIN says it is she two year old Peregrine Falcon, which is just the age I should have assigned it from an inspec- tion of the plumage. ae I am happy to find that Cuvier also considers it an imma- ture variety of the Peregrine Falcon, (now the Faucon ords- naire of the French.) He observes, ‘“‘ Ceux qu'on appelle -Faucons: pelarins, Enl.: 469. paraissent des jeunes | un pew esa noirs que les autres.” - LINNEAN GENUS FALCQ. 613 is a larger bird; but this may be accounted for F- nise. on the supposition of his specimen being from America, where both the Peregrine and Goshawk are larger than in Europe. Epwarps supposes that this and the last mentioned variety, are male and female, and form a species of themselves. This confusion no doubt arises from authors having described the Common and Peregrine Fal-. cons as distinct. The two last varieties combin- ing in a certain degree the characters of both, have occasioned, like some others, a difficulty re- garding the species to which they should have been referred ; but all variance of opinion is re- conciled by considering the Common Falcon as merely the young of the Falco peregrinus. _ Ihave seen a specimen of the latter from North America, which agrees in every respect with the Black Falcon, except in the colour of the legs, which were yellow instead of blue. I may here ~ remark, that the colour of the legs is not to be constantly relied upon as a specific character. I have seen the Peregrine Falcon with greenish legs, and one out of three taken from the same nest, was observed by Monracu to have the legs of a bluish-grey colour*. The upper plumage of the. * It is well known that the colour of the irides and legs of birds is subject to change, and that individuals of the same spe- cies are not always characterised by a similarity of colour in those parts. In addition to what I have stated in the text in VOL. Il, : “RT F, nigers 614 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE Black Falcon, is of a deep. blackish-brown approaches nearer to the adult ai han any of proof of this fact, I may add the following extract Sbiirvon, when describing the Balbuzzard, observes, eb rie a ‘Tes jambes nues et ordinairement de couleur bleuatre; ependant iy en's quelques-uns qui ont les jambes et les pieds jaunatres.” In ther place, he adds on the same subject, “ Ce charactére we | donc beaucoup moins fixe qu’on ne Vimaginoit,” &e. ( Hist. , des Ois. pp. 82. & 418.) and Cuvier, under ie article pcan cbs by tantét bleus.” Fiche y eee p. “8173. 5 $ “a a I have beea the more circumstantial in this matter, as i # ornithologists have maintained that the colour of the cere, irides, and legs, is invariable in the same species ; in which case, the F. niger, as described by Brisson, could not be assigned t to the Peregrine Falcon. On again referring to the ‘Synopsis Metho- dica of Brisson, I feel inclined to suppose, that the individual — therein described under’ the name of F. niger, Was about to = perience a change in the colour of the legs, by which it wo have been even more closely allied to the Peregrine Faleon. In regard to'the variety in question, I believe I shall be able to trace in a sufficiently satisfactory manner, some ‘important’ changes to which it is liable, by which means I shall obviate any objection which might be urged against its being considered as synonimous with the Peregrine Falcon. On comparing the different descriptions of the F. niger, I find that there is ‘a singular gradation in the colour of the légs, by which the furs thest removed varieties are connected by means of an inters mediate link, with such as approach most ont to the ontiaary Peregrine Falcon. eee the ae. é Fe ‘ Prd Thus, in the account given by Burron. of Le Faucon noir, it eu en nature, avoit le pieds d'un bleu bien décidé,” &e. (E des Ois. p- 213.) Brisson, in his description ¢ of the same spes is remarked, ‘ Nous observerons que cet’ oiseau que nous avi ‘so a ‘LLINNEAN GENUS FALCO. 615 the other varieties, and is distinguished by the mature plumage of the head: “ In utroque capitis cies, observes, ** Pedes sunt plumbeo-viridescentes ; 3 prope di- gitos magis ad flavum inclinant,” (Syn, Meth. p. 95.) Epwarps describes it with the legs of a “* greenish-lead colour” inclining to yellow 3 and, according to Burrow, it is described and figured by Friscu with the legs of a yellow colour, as in the generality _ of falcons. __ The preceding quotations, it will be observed, are conclusive | in regard to the variation in the external characters of the F. niger ; and the descriptions by Brisson and Epwarps, when taken in conjunction with the other two, demonstrate the pro- bability of a change sometimes taking place in the same indivi- dual, as the birds described by Epwarps, and in the Synopsis Methodica, appear to have been intermediate between Burrows and Friscw’ S, or, as it were, losing the blue tinge, and ac» _ quiring the yellow one. This circumstance is interesting, both ~ in a general view, as connected with the physiology of birds, and as illustrative of those variations, a knowledge of which is necessary to enable us to ascertain with tolerable certainty the. distinctions between individuals exhibiting accustomed or acci- dental changes, and such as maay be considered as peculiar and permanent varieties, and in assisting us to determine the species to which particular varieties ought to be referred. The color of the legs in the F. niger, therefore, cannot be considered as forming in any degree a specific distinction be- tween it and the Peregrine Falcon. There is probably in diffes, Tent individuals, either a transition in colour from blue to yele low, as I suppose to have been exemplified in the four birds des ‘scribed by Burron, Brisson, Epwarps, and Friscn, or the distinction is permanent, and may be considered to result from that peculiarity in the constitution of the bird, which produces the Variation in the shade and markings of the plumage. wi RITZ. FE. niger. Pe niger, ¥. tartari- cus: ¥. barbarus. ‘that there is just ground for believing, that the 616 ON SOME SPECIES OF THE . latere macula est nigra, ab oris angulis procedens, et deorsum tendens, mystacis instar.’ It. has not assumed the transverse markings of the lower plumage, but is spotted longitudinally ; and this agrees with the observation which 1 “form merly made, that the upper plumage of the Peregrine Falcon is first completed, although in ats Gos- hawk the transverse lines on the breast are observ- able before the darker shades of ae back — quired. — It will be seen from the sjuaas ate opinion which I have adopted is correct. . By pre-) senting them in the order in which they: have been arranged, the gradations in plumage are di- stinctly perceived ; and there is little room left to doubt, that the common Falcon and the Peregrine Falcon are the same. Many more varieties have been described, but those enumerated are ‘suffici- ent to illustrate the subject, and the others, being for the most part merely accidental, have been pur- posely omitted. To the same species may be referred the Falco tartaricus of Brisson ; and it Is probable that the Falco barbarus of Linnzvus is also either the young, or an accidental weg of on Peregrine Falcon *, | Niiaeioh ate , SES WRB d sas CR er ial Nil * With regard to the F. tartaricus, BEcksTeIN has ri the same opinion. Both Becxstern and Cuvier consider the fF. barbarus as the young of the Peregrine Falcon. LINNEAN GENUS FALCO, 617 I trust that the few observations which I have made, may be of use in calling the attention of others to the study of a tribe of birds, whose his- tory is the most obscure and problematical within the range of ornithological science, _ Tam now of opinion that the F. barbarus and F. tartaricus, are the same variety. Burron seems to have considered them as such, and in the old work before mentioned, there is the following passage: “ The Barbary, or, as some call her, the Tartaret Falcon, i is a bird seldom found in any country, and is’ called’a passenger, as well as the Haggard.” “ They are called Barbary Falcons because they make their passage through that country and Tunis, where they are more frequently taken than in any other place, namely, in the Isles of the Levant, Candy, Cyprus and Rhodes.” (Gentleman’s Recreation, p. 124.) To the other varieties of the Common Falcon, Cuvier has added the F. stellaris of Gm. Rr$ 8 0g XXXV. On the Geognosy of the Lothians. By Professor Jamzson. — (Read 17th December 1814.) Few districts in Scotland afford greater variety of mineralogical phenomena than the. Lothians ; and in none. of them are the various transitions, junctions and alternations, of the beds and strata, and crossings of the veins, more distinctly and sa- tisfactorily exhibited. In this beautiful tract of country, the rocks are those of the transition, floetz, and alluvial classes, and of these the floetz formations are the most interesting and important, rom the numerous and unexpected relations which they display, and the various useful minerals they contain. Red sandstone occurs in such quantity, as to form an important feature in the geognosy of these counties, but the coal formation is that which most powerfully excites our attention. I.—On tHE Rep SANDSTONE AND Coal Forma- TION IN THE MippLE DistricT OF SCOTLAND. In order to render our, description of the Lo- thians satisfactory, it will be useful to premise a 4 cgcoe ss - Ghoenos? OF THE LOTHIANS. 619 shott general account'of the Red Sandstone and Goal Formations, as they occur in the Middle Dis- _ trict of Scotland, tothe north of the Frith of Forth *. Red Sandstone. 1. Red Sandstone. This deposite forms seve- ral tracts of country in the middle district of Scotland ; and of these, the most extensive is that “to which we shall at present confine our atten- tion. It stretches from Stonehaven in Kincardine- shire, to the west side of the Island of Arran, in the Frith of Clyde; and it varies in breadth from a few fathoms to many miles. In some places, ‘as in Kincardineshire, it forms extensive flats or plains, whilst in others, it rises into hills, or ranges of hills; and of these latter, the most extensive and highest are the Ochil and Seadly ranges, some ‘of whose summits are 2600 feet above the level of the sea. On the coasts of Kincardineshire and Angusshire, and also on the shores of Arran, it forms striking sea-beat precipices ; or is hollowed into caves of great grandeur and magnificence. RY4 + * The Middle District of Scotland, is that bounded’ on the south by the Frith of Forth, and on the north by the line of the "Caledonian Canal. : hg 620. ON THE RED SANDSTONE OF THE It is also intersected and broken by the violence of the waves; and the continued. action, an the. waters of the ocean, has carried. away enormous portigns of it, forming in its stead bays of greater or less extent. . These bays do not appear to. be always on the increase ; on the contrary, they seem in general to have limits set to their progress. After a longer or shorter period, depending on. the nature of the rocks, their positions in. regard to the sea, and their relations to the other bays and promontories on the coast, they begin to be filled up with allu-. vial matter, which, in the course of time, extends outwards to the furthest promontories, and even — beyond them; and thus, again, secures the land, for a time, from the CPE effects” of: the ocean. pd, eRaty od A There are teed in the surface mr coe aad stone tract, which are filled with water, thus forming lakes; and everywhere we observe it traversed by rivers and rivulets, which either follow the direction of natural rents, or original inequalities of the sandstone, or have worn their way through it. In the lower parts of the river districts, in particular, there are beautiful displays of alluvial terraces; but I have not met with any of these high up on the sides of the valleys *. * It may here be noticed, that alluvial terraces occur fre« quently in the course of rivers, not only where they pass through. MIDDLE DISTRICT OF SCOTLAND. 621 Mineralogists, in general, distinguish two red sandstone formations ; one, the oldest, rests imme- diately on transition or primitive rocks ; the other, and newer, rests on beds of magnesian limestone, coal, and mountain limestone, which are super- imposed on the oldest-formation. ‘The mountain limestone, in a general view, may be considered as a transition limestone, contained in the lower part of the red sandstone formation, and bearing the same relation to it, that. the beds of red sand- stone in the upper part of the transition series do to grey-wacke. Thecoal and magnesian limestone are frequently wanting, and then the two red sandstone formations come to rest upon each other. When the sandstone formations are thus arranged, it is difficult to distinguish the one from the other. It may be that they are both only portions of the same great red sandstone formation, and that the coal and magnesian limestone are but subordinate members, that may or may not occur in it, with- out affecting the general characters of the depo- sit as a great formation in the series of mountain rocks. In illustration of this conjecture, it may be stated, that in some extensive red sandstone di- alluvial tracts, but also in rocky and mountainous situations, where they flow through valleys, or expand into lakes. These terraces, whether they appear on the banks of lakes, or high up on the sides of valleys, or in low alluvial flats, are to be viewed as the effects of water seeking a lower level, whether suddenly er slowly. Ds 622 ON THE RED SANDSTONE oF tit stricts, the trap and porphyry rocks occupy threes fourths of the whole mass; yet these rocks may be wanting without their absence affecting the ge- ‘neral characters of the red sandstone formation. In the same manner, the various subordinate beds in the clay-slate, such as whet-slate, drawing-slate, and alum-slate, may be wanting, and still the cha- racters of the clay-slate, as a distinct ee ‘Yemain. 3 dork In several places on the sea coast, as nena the mouth of the North Esk, and in the tract ex- tending from Montrose to Lunan Bay, where the subordinate trap and porphyry rocks: prevail, there are striking rugged sea cliffs. pyvianct ti _ The red sandstone rests on Primitive oes on rocks of the Transition class. It is distinetly stratified, and the strata vary from the horizontal to the nearly perpendicular position. The strata are sometimes waved, but are more’ frequently straight. Sometimes vertical strata are to be seen meeting others which are in a horizontal post- tion, and occasionally vertical strata appear to be contained in great masses of nearly horizontal or slightly inclined strata. Occasionally the strata in a small district appear disposed in every pos- sible position ; and at first sight suggest to us the idea either of great original inequalities, or of violent action on the strata after their forma ion, but which, upon more careful examination and consideration, would seem rather to intimate that * MIDDLE DISTRICT OF SCOTLAND: 623 — he whole mass of strata is in its original posi- tion, and composed of a series of distinct con- eretions, in each of which, the layers or ap- parent strata vary more or less in position, in _ these respects resembling what we observe in Pe etonsy porphyry, and other similar rocks. _ Enormously thick but short beds of sandstone, are: sometimes surrounded with thin. strata of sandstone, slate-clay, and other rocks. It occasion- -ally happens, that in a ravine or valley, the one side will present a vertical face of red sandstone, without any marks of stratification, thus intimat- ing the presence of a thick massive bed, while the opposite side will exhibit numerous thin beds of sandstone and slate-clay, dipping towards the mural precipice. Here all the rocks are in their original position; there has been no sinking of strata on the side with the mural precipice ; for, the thin strata, if continued to the pre- ‘cipice, would either rise toward it, or termi- nate suddenly upon it without any change in their direction, just ‘as we observe to be the case with the thin sandstone strata, where they come in contact with thick beds of the same rock. Many of the pretended sinkings and shifts enu- merated and described by geologists, are of this description. Indeed it would appear, that these mechanical actions are. much less frequent than has been generally imagined, and that the crust 4 } if 624 ON THE RED SANDSTONE OF THE of het earth is more firmly gp —. 18 admitted | by some speculators. ait The strata sometimes rest on the orimieteU transition rocks in a conformable position, or they are unconformably disposed ; for in some exten- sive tracts, the primitive and transition rocks dip to the S. E., while the superimposed strata of red sandstone, dip to the S.W. The sandstone is generally composed of roundish and angular grains of quartz and felspar, with scales of mica. These are elther connected together by a basis 0 of iron- clay, ironshot slate-clay, which is occasionally marly, quartz, or calcareous matter, or no per- ceptible basis or ground is to be detected. When the common basis or connecting material of the grains is awanting, then the sandstone has much of the aspect of a crystallised rock, and we can observe portions of the grains of quartz and fel- spar, and of the scales of mica shooting into each other in the same manner as occurs in shi gneiss, and other crystallised rocks, Some varieties of the sandstone might be mis- taken for grey-wacke: indeed, so strong is the resemblance, that even experienced mineralogists have occasionally committed the error of describ- ing as grey-wacke varieties of red sandstone. But this error will always be avoided, if we re- collect, that formations are to be distinguished by the characters of the rocks as they occur on the great scale, and not from such accidental va- MIDDLE DISTRICT OF SCOTLAND. 625 _ vieties of appearance as are sometimes exhibited in hand specimens. Cotemporaneous veins of a granitous rock, of the same general character with the sandstone, sometimes traverse it; in other instances, cotemporaneous veins of quartz, or of felspar, also occur in the sandstone *. | When the basis of the sandstone increases in quantity, the sandstone gradually passes into slate- clay, or into iron-clay, quartz, or limestone, accord- ing to the nature of the basis or ground. The iron- elay is often amygdaloidal, so that there is then a transition from the sandstone into amygdaloid. Many veins of sandstone are to be observed shoot- ing from the sandstone rock into the amygdaloid and other similar rocks, and portions of sandstone imbedded in beds of trap and porphyry, send out veins or branches from all sides. In other in- stances, portions of amygdaloid are imbedded in the sandstone, and either intermixed with the sandstone at the line of junction, and gradually pass into it, or they send out branches into the inclosing sandstone. But this is not all the varie- ty of appearances presented by the sandstone. — * Rocks having the same structure and general appearance as red sandstone, appear occasionally in transition, and also in primitive districts, as in countries abounding in clay-slate and gneiss,—a fact which at first sight appears inconsistent with the general distribution and arrangement of the different rock fore mations, 626 ON THE RED SANDSTONE OF THE® The individual strata have sometimes a’ slaty structure, and this structure is generally parallel with the direction of the stratum, but sometim it is at right angles to it. It is either straight slaty, or undulating slaty, and the layers are some- times disposed in a concentric manner, ania Us the stratum appears composed of a congeries balls or globular concretions. Some beds e sand- stone have a conglomerated or brecciated aspect, the rock appearing to be composed of blunt and sharp angular fragments set in a basis of sandstone. But these are merely apparent fragments, and are to be considered as varieties of structure of the sandstone, probably produced by the process of crystallisation. The careful and connected study of these conglomerated appearances as they occur in sandstone, limestone, quartz, granite, gneiss, clay-slate, and other rocks, leads to very nr ienpenae - and interesting conclusions. The sandstone contains many diffeusit cockigats _ beds or veins. The most important of these are the following : Conglomerate, slate-clay, claystone, clay-ironstone, trap-tuff, amygdaloid, basalt ? clinkstone, felspar, porphyry, greenstone, pitch ~ stone, limestone and iimestone-congl aa and Engin! the "al Sh ee 5 * The occurrence of trap ch in ae sandstone, ia stated in the Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles, which I published in 4801. 7 ‘f sat MIDDLE DISTRICT OF SCOTLAND. 637 A. Conglomerate. This rock, which is com- posed of roundish, and sometimes angular masses, of various kinds and sizes, imbedded in a basis or ground, occurs in beds varying in thickness from a few feet to several hundred yards. It is dis- tinctly stratified, and the strata, although general- ly horizontal, yet are occasionally much inclined, even sometimes nearly vertical. ‘The beds of con- glomerate are generally conformable with those of the red sandstone, and sometimes unconform- able, the nearly horizontal beds of conglomerate resting upon pretty highly inclined strata of sand- stone, and these horizontal beds being again cover- ed with inclined strata of sandstone. It alternates with, and frequently passes into, the red sandstone. Sometimes, small granular conglomerate is con- tained in the coarse, in the form of . roundish balls or concretions, from three to five feet in diameter. ‘These remarkable concretions at first _ sight, might be confounded with the rounded balls of granite, which are imbedded in the con- glomerate. _ The roundish and angular masses of which ies conglomerate is chiefly composed, vary in size from that of a few inches to several yards in diameter. They are of different rocks and minerals. Thus, at Crawtown, a few miles from Stonehaven, por- phyry is the predominating imbedded rock, and 1s associated with granite, gneiss, quartz, &c. At Bervie, the most abundant masses are of quartz €28 ON THE RED SANDSTONE OF THE and porphyry, associated with masses of granite, containing garnets, syenite, gneiss, r 1ica-slate, clay- slate, hornblende rock, a wena loid, jasper, and red sandstone. Of these sub- stanees, the amygdaloid, sandstone, and ‘in gene- ral the porphyries, are of the same ‘species with those which occur in beds and veins ipso nied red sandstone formation. At the Bridge of Prosen the conglomerate contains principally masses of porphyry and_amygdaloid, with pieces of quartz. At Blairgowrie, where there are stupenduous rocks of conglomerate, the most frequent im- bedded masses, are porphyry and amygdaloid, With quartz and mica-slate. Near Comrie, they are principally porphyry and amygdaloid. At Callender, the imbedded masses are chiefly por- phyry and amygdaloid ;-and in Arran, the con- - glomerate contain masses of porphyry and trap. These masses are usually connected together’ ‘by a basis or ground of smallerfgrains of the same rocks and minerals. Sometimes the imbedded porphyry and amygdaloid is intermixed with the cement at their line of junction, and we observe branches shooting from them into the basis or hee etd ground. 2. Slate-clay. This “ae occurs in the sidnilatines and also in the conglomerate, i in beds that vary in thickness from a few inches to’ several fathoms. Its most general colour is reddish-brown, and MIDDLE DISTRICT OF SCOTLAND. 629 ‘sometimes a greyish-black. The red-coloured variety is oftentimes variegated with stripes, layers, and circular portions of a green colour. Some varieties of this rock are so highly impreg- nated with carbonate of lime, that they may be considered as impure kinds of slaty marl. It passes into eclaystone, and sometimes also into clay- ironstone: | 3. Glaystone. This mineral occurs in beds that vary 1n thickness from an inch to several yards. It alternates with slate-clay, and also with red sandstone, and with some other rocks which are subordinate to that formation. - 4. Clay-ironstone. It occurs in layers, OF in ir- regular or globular-shaped masses, generally in- eluded in slate-clay.. A beautiful transition is to _be obsetved from the slate-clay into the ironstone : at one extremity of the series is the pure slate-clay, at the other the perfect clay-ironstone ; and the middle part of the series, is a substance mnterme- diate between the slate-clay and the tronstone. It follows from this fact, that all the phenomena ex- hibited by the clay ironstone, such as globular forms, ¢otemporaneous veins, &c. are of the same general nature with those of the slate-clay, and that if slate-clay owes its characters to deposition from a state of aqueous solution, the same must have So WOL. Ir. lis. 630 ON THE RED SANDSTONE OF THE : been the case with the ironstone. It is frestcciguibert | inineral in several red sandstone! districts. we Bie hi ‘ seis Trap-tuf. This soci rock occurs in beds, often of a great thickness, in red sandstone. It passes not only into claystone, but also into the red sandstone. Jt is by no means an uncommon rock in some of the red sandstone districts in the tract of country we are now as 6. Sadebiia toi This rock collie chet dif- ferent minerals, either in its vesicular cavities, or imbedded in it. ‘These are calcareous-spar, stea- tite, quartz, agate, zeolite, and felspar. It occurs in beds, and also in veins: the beds vary in thick- ness from a few feet.to many fathoms. It is fre-— quently traversed by veins of sandstone ; and beds of sandstone and. also conglomerate, many hun- dred feet in extent, and of considerable thickness, occur in the cliffs of amygdaloid in different parts of this district. Cotemporaneous masses of amygdaloid occur. imbedded in the sand- stone. It passes into trap-tuff, and also into sand- stone. | 7. Basalt. A rock having several of the cha- racters of basalt, occurs, in beds and vaips in the red sandstone. “ aE ee 5 ’ MIDDLE DISTRICT OF SCOTLAND. 631 98. Glinkstone. This beautiful rock occurs; in eds and veins, in the red sandstone. eae. pi ‘ip, Compact Felspar. Compact felspai, gene- rally of a red colour, and often passing into clay- ‘stone, occurs in beds in this red sandstone district. 10. Porphyry. This interesting and beauti- ful rock occurs in considerable abundance in beds and veins in the red sandstone and conglomerate. Claystone, ironstone, and felspar-porphyries, are those met with in this tract. ‘There are some- times amygdaloidal; and occasionally the crystals of felspar, are wanting, when beds or veins of claystone or felspar appear in place of the charac- teristic porphyry. ‘The claystone-porphyry ap- pears to pass into claystone,—this into sandstone. Sometimes the porphyry is conglomerated, and then it sometimes contains imbedded balls of gra- nite, and angular wanes of hornblende rock and clay- slate. 11. Greenstone. ‘This rock occurs in beds, ime- bedded masses, mountain masses, and a in the ted sandstone and conglomerate. 12. Pitchstone. Green and black-coloured va- rieties of this rock, are met with in the form of imbedded masses, beds and veins, in red sand- sfone. 5.9.9 632. oN THE RED SANDSTONE. OF anil ae beds of these rocks oc nt ) i had 3 and | beautiful ae host the imme stone ‘ the surrounding sandstone and trap, “ i " | ae aE Me of 1 tare occurrence. i 2 ai 3! ye | watt ; oe le 14. ab ‘Seven species of cia important mi- nefal occur in the red sandstone, as glance-coal, slate-coal, and pitch-coal. They are cau " disposed 1 in beds, more rarely in cla ira, and. veins. ! o) ie From the short description just given, it is evi-_ ‘~ that the Red Sandstone Formation is much more interesting than has been generally imagin- ed. The great variety and abundance of porphy- ry and trap rocks contained in it, their transitions into each other, and into sandstone, limestone and clay, are very striking facts in theit natural his- tory, and deserving’ the. particular attention of those who take an interest in the volcanic and neptunian theories of their formation. Those na- turalists who are inclined to think favourably ab, the opinion which maintains the chemical forma-_ - h 4 Cages pe he wee ( 685 ) ae r APPENDIX. HISTORY oe OF THE SOCIETY. Tus first meeting of the Society for public busi- ness took place on the 2d March 1808, in the College Museum, when Professor JamMESon read a paper on Cotemporaneous Veins. ‘This paper is inserted in the First Volume of the Memoirs, p. 1.—7. Professor JaMEsOoN read some observations on the colouring Geognostical Maps. inserted in the First Volume of the Memoirs, p- 149.—161. He also laid before the Society a series of Mineralogical Queries. These Queries are inserted in the First Volume of the Memoirs, p. 107.—125. This paper is: Apr - Professor _ Jameson on 1808. March 2. Professor Jameson on Cotempo- raneous Veins. 1808. April 9. Geognosi'. cal Maps, and Mine« ralogical Queries. . 1808. May 14. Professor Jameson, Mineralogi. cal Queries; Mr Wal- ker’s List of Birds in the neighbour- hood of Edinburgh. 1808. June I]. Captain Laskey on Pinna in- gens. Dr Anderson. on Inch. keith. Dr Thomson © on Fluor spar. 1808. July 16. Mr Neill’s List of — Fishes. Colonel Montague’s Observa- tions on . the Gannet, ‘and De- scription of anew | Insect. Membrane of the Gannet. 636 APPENDIX. Professor JAMESON finished the scsibiga of his Mineralogical Queries, illustrating them by res marks. Mr Wa txer then laid before the Socie- % ty a List of Birds found in the Neighbourhood of — ~ Edinburgh, with observations on the rare’ vidoes puted Species, gens. of the Nheswket Pe 102.—106. sles ‘of the Geognosy of the isla af Tnch- keith, in the Frith of Forth, as preparatory to. a a more detailed account. Dr THomson read a i paper on Fluor-Spar, which is published in the: First Volume of the Memoirs, p- spe: eet , Mr Wert laid before sie Sosy a Hist of such Fishes as he had ascertained to be natives of _the waters in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, -accompanied with specimens of the rarer species. This list is contained in the First Volume of the Memoirs, p. 526.—555. Two communications from Colonel Montagu were then read; one of them upon the characters and tidied of the Gannet, Pelecanus Bassanus, and the distributi yn of the Air-Cells in that Bird; the other de- scribing a new Insect, found in the Cellular | These papers 41 HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 637 ‘inserted in the First Volume of the Memoirs, p. 176.—200. wh +4 A ele a k Dr James Ocrrsy laid before the Society an interesting view of the Geognosy of East Lo- thian, illustrated by an extensive series of speci- mens, arranged according to their Geognostic po- Ametnomnetet. was Bichd. Then a paper by the Reverend Mr John Fleming, containing an ac- count of the Geognostic relations of the rocks of | the Islands of Unst and Papa Stour, which con- tained answers to the President’s queries concern- ing the Serpentine and Sandstone of Shetland. The Mineralogical account of Papa Stour is in- serted 1 in Volume First of the Memoirs, p. 162. — 175. There was read a Communication by Mr Mac- KENZIE, younger of Applecross, containing an ac- count of the Coal Formation in the Vicinity of Durham. This paper is inserted in the First Volume of Memoirs, p. 605.—608. At the same meeting, Dr Ocitsy read observations on the’ Veins of the Floetz-Trap Rocks of East Lothian, ‘bei ng a continuation of his description of that country, which 3 is inserted in the First Volume of 1808. August I. Dr Ogilby on the Ge- ognosy of East Lo- n thian. 1808. Nov. 12. Rev. A. Ja- meson on Meteorolo- gical Ta- bles, and descriptive of a new Anemome- ter; and Mr Fle- ming’s Ac- count of the Rocks of Unst and Papa Stour. 1808. Nov. 19. Mr Mac- kenzie on Coal For- mation of Durham. Dr Ogilby on Veins in Fletz- trap Rocks. (638 Mr Neill on the great Sea Snake. 1808. Dee. 10. Mr Fle- ming’s De- scription of the Nar- ~ wall. Dr Ogilby’s Account of the Rocks of Fassney. 1809. Jan. 14, Dr Thom- son’s Ana- lysis of Copper- glance. Dr Bar- clay’s Re- Marks on the Animal of Stronsa. . 1809. Feb. 11. Professor Jameson on Cryolite. of the Cryolite from West Greenland. APPENDIX. Memoirs, p. 469. And Mr Nerxz read an ac- count, compiled from documents sent from the Orkneys, ofa singular Animal, of great size, and cor- responding to the description given by Ecrpr and PonrTopPripan, of the Great. Sea Snake of the Northern Ocean. om vs a There was read a description by the tae 1: Mr Frieminc, of a Small-headed Narwal, cast ashore in Zetland. This description is. insert- -ed in Volume First of Memoirs, p- 131.—-148. ! And Dr Ocitsy read the conclusion of his Mi- neralogical description of East Lothian, which — contained an account of the Rocks of Fassney, | which is inserted in Volume First of Memoirs, p: 126.—130. Dr Tuomson read a description and Analysis of a variety of Copper-Glance from North Ame. ~ rica. Dr BarcLay communicated to the Society — remarks on some parts of the Animal that was cast ashore on the Island of Stronsa in September 1808. These remarks are inserted in the First Volume of Memoirs, p- 418.—444. et Professor JAMESON read an account of the O. 4 ryctognostic characters and Geognostic relations Tis, paper is inserted in First Volume of Memou p. 465.—468. Three communications were then ee a - Stronsa, accompanied with remarks, a laid before the Society. HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 639 1. A singular instance of the intrepidity of the Common Oiter in de- fending its young, by Captain Laskry. 2. An account of an Animal resembling a Toad, found imbedded in a stratum of Clay in Govan Col- liery, by Mr Dixon of Govan Hill, communi- cated by Mr Russet. 3. A copy of the affida- vits made before the Justices of the Peace at Kirkwall, concerning the Great Sea Animal of These affi- davits are printed in First Volume of Memoirs, p. 431. Mr Nervi read some account of a Fin- Whale stranded near Alloa. This account is in- serted in First Volume of Memoirs, p. 201.—214. The Secretary read Colonel Monracu’s ac- count of a non-descript Fish, named by him Zi- photheca tetradens, and descriptions of four rare species.of English Fishes taken on the Coast of Devonshire. ‘These descriptions are inserted in ist vol. Mem. p. 79.—101. Captain Lasxey laid before the Society an ample Catalogue of North British Shells, with remarks on the new and rare species. :IThis Catalogue is inserted in Ist vol. Mem. p. 370.—417. And Dr Yute read obser- yations on Monocotyledonous Plants, and on the natural order Graminee. ie Vj The first part of a description of the Coal , Formation of Alloa, by Mr BaLp, was read by Captain Laskey on the Otter. Mr Rus- sel’s com- munication respecting -a Toad found in Clay. Affidavits in regard - to the Sea snake. Mr Neill’s Descrip- tion of a Fin Whale. 1809. March 11. Colonel Montagu’s Description of some « rare and new En- glish Fishes. Captain Laskey’s List of Bri- tish Sheils. Dr Yule on Mono- cotyledon- ous Plants. 1809. April 8. 1st Fart of Mr Bald’s Description of tse Coal Field of ~ Alloa. Mr Stew- art’s List of Insects found nevr Edinburgh. 1809. May 13. Rev. Mr Fleming’s enumera- tion of the Plants of West Lo- thian. Mr Wal- ker on Eels. Continua- tion of Mr Bald’s pa- per on the Coal For- ~ miation of Alloa. Letter con- cerning the Sea Snake. Mr Don’s List of | Plants in the King’s Park. 1809. Nov. 4. Mr Brown on the ore der Ascle- piadez. 640 i APPENDIX. the Secretary. Mr Srewarr then laid ‘hetite | the Mersey a list of Insects found by. ig the — poet This list is et in Ist vol fem. p- 566.—577. s daig tS aaah Oe tiie Ti * Revered Mr Fen laid before the Society an outline of the Flora of West ; enumerating only such Plants as are omitted LicutTroot, or marked as uncommon — by Dr iq Suir. Mr Watxer read an account of some ~ Eels which had lived for fourteen years in a sub- 4 terraneous pool at Drumsheugh. The Secre- tary read the continuation of Mr Batp’s descrip- tion of the Coal Field of Alloa. Likewise a let- ter from the Reverend Donaup MACLEAN 0 Small Isles, describing the appearance of a — Sea Snake, or marine animal of some sort, iat . the Hebrides in June 1808. And a communica. tion from Mr Greorct Down of Forfar, contain- 7 ing a list of Plants growing in the King’s Park, but not included in Mr YatpeEn’s list publis hee at the end of the Flora Scotica. © eee The Seine laid before the Society a ed Botanical paper from R. Brown, E on the Asclepiadez, a natural order of parated from the Apocinee of JussIzv. portant Memoir is inserted in ‘the ist vol. Meum q 2 s ee ae a > soe = + : HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 641 p. 12. ie, ‘The first part of an essay on Me- teoric Stones, by Mr G. S. Hamitton, was then read. Professor JAMESON laid before the Society a list, with remarks, of Marine Vermes found by him in the Frith of Forth, and other parts of Scotland. ‘This list is inserted in 1st vol. Mem. p. 556.—565. Professor Jameson then laid be- fore the Society a fine collection of Topazes, late- ly found in the Highlands of Aberdeenshire, with remarks on their probable Geognostic relations. These remarks are inserted in 1st vol. Mem. p. 445. And the Secretary presented to the Society an ample Catalogue of the rare Plants to be found in _ the course of a day’s excursion from Edinburgh, communicated by Mr Ropert MAuGuan senior. This paper is inserted in the ist volume of the Memoirs, p. 215.—248. The Secretary laid before the Society a Com- anunication from Mr WiLL1aM Scoressy of Whit- by, comprising a Meteorological Journal of seve- ral Voyages to Greenland, and an account of _ different Crystallisations of Snow observed there. _ The Journals are: published in Ist vol. Mem. p. 249.—257. ‘The Reverend Dr Macknight then _ read a Mineralogical description of Ben-Ledi and the neighbourhood, illustrated by a series of spe- cimens of the different rocks. Mr Hamil- ton on Mee teoric Stones, 1809. Dec. 9. Professor Jameson’$ List of Vermes found in Scotland. Professor Jameson on the To- paz of Scot- land, Mr Maughan’s Catalogue of rare Plants near Edinburgh 1810. Jan. 13. Mr Scores- by’s Metee-~ rological Tables, and description of Crystali- Sations of Snow. Dr Mac- night’s Mi- neralogy of Ben-Ledi. 181A, Feb. 3, Dr Mac- hight’s Mi- neralogy of Ben-More and Glen- coe. ' Professor Jameson on the Stron- tian Lead- glance Fors ration. Mr Scoreés- by’s Voyage to lat. $10 12! 42” N. Mr Scores= by’s de- scription of the com- mon Greene land Whale. Tt810. March 10. Dr Mac- night’s mi- *neralogy of Ben-Nevis and Stron- tian. Dr Ed- monston’s Natural History of Zetland theep. 642 APPENDIX< The Reverend Dr Macknicur tfead: 4 Mine. 4 ralogical desctiption of the Mouiitain of Bens | More, and the Valley of Glencoe, which he il- — These descriptions are — lustrated by specimens. insetted in Ist vol. Mem. p. 294.—318. Profes- sor JAMESON exhibited some specimens said to have been found near Dunkeld in Perthshire, from which he thought it probable that the Galena or Lead-Glance Formation of Strontian, might be expected in that neighbourhood. ‘The pape on the Strontian Lead-Glance Formation, inserted in the Ist vol. Mem. p. 461., contains the obsérva= tions then laid before the Society. The Secretary read a Journal kept by Mr Scoressy of Whitby, of a Voyage to Lat. 81° 19' 42” N., along with some curious remarks on the Common Whale ; and he exhibited an original drawing of that Antmal, presented to the Society by Mr Scorzs- zy, Mr Scoressy’s account of the Whale, is in- serted in Ist vol. Mem. p. 578.—586. Dr MacxknicuF¥ read a continuation of his Mi- neralogical tour to the Highlands of Scotland, em- bracing a description of Ben-Nevis and Strontian. These descriptions are inserted in Ist vol. Mem p- 319.—357. on the natural and medical history of the Zetland Sheep. This Memoir is inserted in Ist vol. Mem. p. 258.—273. The Secretary then read com- Dr EpmonsTone read observations _ HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. fiunications from Lieutenant-Colone! Imrie, and from Captain Lasxzy ; the former mentioning the occurrence of Greenstone in Glencoe in the form of Veins; und the latter containing some observations on the Lepas dilata. Ban ita Ny . Dr Macxnicnt read a continuation of his ac- count of the Highlands, embracing the country from Ben-Lawers, through Glen Tilt and Braemar. ‘This paper is inserted in ist vol. Mem. p. 353.— 369. ‘The Secretary read a communication from Colonel Imrit, on the Conglomerate Rock, which stretches along the south front of the Grampians. This communication is inserted in 1st vol. Mem. p. 453.—460. There was then read the third and last part of Mr Bap’s account of the Coal Forma- tion of Clackmananshire. This paper is publish- ed in Ist vol. Mem. p. 479.—503. The Reverend Mr Fremine read an account of several Marine Animals found by him in Shet- land. Dr Barctay read some remarks on parts of the structure of the Animal-cast on shore in _ Stronsa last year, shewing that it could not be a Squalus maximus, as te by Sir Everarp Home. The Secretary read 2 communication from ~~ Wintitiam Firron, Esq. on the Porcelain-earth 643. Colonel Imrie on the Green- stoné vein of Glencoe. Captain Laskey on Lepas di- lata. 1910. April 96 Dr Mac- night’s mi- nervalogy of Glen Tilt and Brae- mate _ Colonel Imrie on the Congl6- merate of the Grams pians. 3a Part of Mr Bald’s Coal For- mation of Clackman+ anshire. 1810. May 19. Rev. Mr Kleming on the Marine, Animals of Zetland. Dr Barclay ov the Afimal cast on shore at Stronsa. 181¢@. May 26. Dr Fitton on the Por- of Cornwall. Dr Yule on the Germi- nation of the Grami- nee, 1810. July 21. Mr Camp- bell on the Antilunar Tide. Dr Thom. | son on Ga- seous com- bination of Hydrogen and Car- bon. 1810. Nov. 24. Colonel Montagu’s communi- cation. Mr Mac- kenzie’s Analysis of Compact Felspar. Mr Scores- by’s Green- land Jour- nal, 1810. 1811. Jan. 12. Professor Jameson’s Geognostic descripiton of Arran. 64:4 APPENDIX. of Cornwall; and Dr Yure read a paper on the celain-earth | Germination of the Graminee, illustrating his ei marks by specimens and drawings. Dr Yutx’s paper is inserted in lst vol; Mem, p. 587.—= 604. ae Mer Campsety of Carbrook read some objer- vations on the cause of the Antilunar or Inferior Tide, impugning the Newtonian theory on that subject ; and Dr Tomson read a paper on the Gaseous Combinations of Hydrogen and Carbon, Dr Tuomson’s paper is inserted in Ist vol. Mem. | | The Secretary read an additional communica- tion on the Fasciola trachea, and on the Zipho- a theca tetradens, from Colonel Montracyu3 andan account of the Analysis of the Compact. Felspar of the Pentland Hills, by Cuartes Mackenziz, q Esq: ; and he laid before the Society a Me- * teorological Journal of a Greenland Voyage per- formed this year, by Mr Witttam Scorespy juntor. Professor Jameson read the first part of a Geognostical description of the Island of Arran, illustraied by numerous specimens. The Se- eretary laid before the Society a Meteorological : i. HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 645 Journal kept at Clepham House, Hudson’s Bay, for 1808 and 1809, by Mr Peter Fipier, com- - municated by Witiiam AuLp, Esq. ty _. Professor Jamrson read the second part of his - Geognostical description of the Island’of Arran, illustrating it by sketches and specimens. Professor JAMESON read an account of the Pent- land Hills, illustrating his description by sketches and. ‘specimens. This paper is inserted in 2d oe Mem. - 178.—201. The Be ciniy read a communication from Dr ‘THOMSON, containing an Analysis of an Iron- Ore from Greenland; also a communication from : ee Epmonstone of Lerwick in Shetland, on the Larus glaucus; and from Dr Barctay, on the Cells of Bees and Wasps. Dr THomson’s com- ~ munication is inserted in 2d vol. Mem. p. 51. sil al Dr Barciay’s in 2d vol. Mem. p- 259. Mr Witttam Eirorp Leacu read an account of the natural tribe of Diptera, called Epro- “Doscidea by- LATREILLE, with descriptions of the “species, which he illustrated by drawings and spe- cimens. At the same meeting, Professor Jamz- SON gave an account of the occurrence of Coal in Red Sandstone, in several districts on the Con- VOL. Il. ot Fidler’s Meteorolo- gical Jour- nal. 18il. Feb. 2: Second Part of Professor Jameson’s Account of Arrati. 181]. Feb. 16. Professor Jameson on the mi- neralogy of the Pent- land Hills. 1811. Mar. 9. Dr Thom- son’s Ana- lysis of. Iron-ore from Green- land. Dr Edmon- stone on the Larus glaucus. Dr Barclay on the Cells of Bees. 18i1. April 6. Mr W. E. Leach’s Ac- count of Eprobosci- dea. Professor Jameson’s Account of Coal in Rea Sandstone. 1811. April 27. — Professor Jameson on Iceland Crystal. Mr Ellis on the Wind of a Ball. Dr Edmon- stone on the Ember Goose, Dr Gor d on Sound, and the musical Ear. 1811. J uly QT. Mr Mac- kenzie on Hemp from Plantain Tree. 646 . . APPENDIX. tinent of Europe, from whence he inferred the possibility of Coal existing in a similar situation in Scotland. Professor JamEson read a paper on the Geognos-. tical Situation of that variety of Calcareous-spar found in Iceland, and named Iceland-spar. A paper from Mr D. Exuis was then read, shewing that the effects of what is called the Wind of a Ball, depend on an accumulation of the electric fluid.. The Secretary next read some remarks by Dr Epmonstone on the Colymbus immer, or Ember Goose. ‘This paper is inserted in 2d vol. Mem. p.232.—237. And Dr Gorpon read a paper, consisting of Observations and Experiments on the Qualities of the Sensations of Sound; on the dif- ferent modes in which sonorous vibrations are communicated to the auditory nerve; on the ideas of the distance, and of the angular position of the sounding bodies with respect to the ear, which are associated by experience, with the dif- ferent qualities of sounds; and on some of the more remarkable differences in the sense of hear- ing, both original and accidental, which are occa- sionally observed among individuals, and particu- larly on the Musical Ear. Mr Mackewnziz read a paper on manufacturing Hemp from the Plantain Tree cultivated inthe _ West Indies. And the Secretary read a Descrip- tion by Mr Leacu of a Sword-fish caught in the a HISTORY-°OF THE SOCIETY. 647 Frithof Forth. This description is inserted in 2d vol. Mem. p. 58.—60.. The Secretary read a communication from Dr Epmonstong, entitled, Observations on the La- rus parasiticus. Professor Jameson then gave a short Description of some specimens of Sy. enite from Galloway, containing Zircon and Sphene. The Secretary read a communication from the Reverend Mr FLtemina, describing a Bed of Fossil Shells which occurs near Borrowstounness ; and the Description of a new speciesof Echinus, observed by Mr Lreacu in Bantry Bay, and which he proposed to call E. lithophagus. Professor JamEson read a series of Observations on the Geognostical relations and Formation of Granite; and also Observations on the mode to be followed in describing Petri- factions, which he illustrated by the description of an undescribed camerated fossil shell from Sici- ly. ‘The description was accompanied by a set of very highly finished drawings. The Secretary read the description of a new ‘Craniometer proposed by Mr Leacu. Likewise a series of ‘Thermometrical Observations on the Temperature of the Gulf Stream, communicated Mr Leach’s Description of a Sword Fish. 1811. Nov. 16. Dr Edmon- stone on the Larus pa- rasiticus. Professor Jameson on Syenite from Gallo- way. 1811, Nov. 30. MrFleming on a bed of Fossil Shells. Mr Leach’s description of a new Echinus. Professor . Jameson on Granite, and on the mode of describing Fossil Or« ganic re« mains. 18sli. Dec. 14. Mr Leach’s Cranio- meter. Dr Mansox on Gulf Stream. . Professor Jameson © on the _ Geognosy ~ of the Stew- artry of Kirkcud- bright. 1812. Jan. 18. Mr Leach’s description of two new Species of ‘Shark. - Professor Jameson on Forphy- Ty. _ 1812. ‘Feb. I. Col. Imrie on Geology of the Campsie Hills. 1812. Feb. 22. Mr Mae- gregor’s Mineralogy of Lanark. Mr Scores- by’s Meteo- rological Journal in Greenland for 1811. Mr Huey’s notice of a . Sea Snake, by Dr Manson. 648 APPENDIX. ~ Professor JaMESON then read a General Account of the Geognosy of the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, and exhibited specimens of the different species of rocks. . Mr Leacu read a description of two species of Shark, as illustrative of a proposed subdivision of the genus Squalus of Linnazus. He likewise com- municated an Analysis of the Bones of the Orkney | This paper is insert- Animal, by MrJoun Davy. ed in the 2d vol. Mem. p. 61.—66. Professor JAMESON read a paper on Porphyry. This paper is inserted in vol. il. p. 217.—220. of Memoirs. The Secretary read a communication from Co- lonel Imris on the Geology of the Campsie Hills. This paper is inserted in the 2d vol. Mem. p. 24, — 58. The fe helane read a communication from Mr Joun Macerecor, Surgeon to the 25th Regi- ment, describing the Mineralogy of the country around Lanark, illustrated by specimens and sketch- es. Professor Jameson read extracts from a Me- teorogical Journal kept by Mr ScorzsBy junior in Greenland, in 1811, which is inserted in vol. il. Mem. p. 155.—166.: also a Note from Lieutenant ALEXANDER Huey of the 73d Regiment, describ- ing the appearance of a large Sea Snake in the Antarctic Ocean, accompanied with a sketch, He HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 649 then read a Mineralogical Account of the Rocks near Dundee, communicated by Mr Fiemine, which is published in 2d vol. of Mem. p. 138.— 144, i The Secretary read an Essay on British Sponges, by Colonel Monracu, which is inserted in 2d vol. Mem. p. 67.—122.; and Dr Yue read Observa- tions on the Natural Method in Botany. Profes- sor JAMESON exhibited specimens of Native Copper and of Red Copper-ore from Unst in Shetland. The Secretary presented a Journal by Mr Joun AITKEN, surgeon, containing a Thermometrical Register and Meteorological Journal from New- castle to Davis Straits, and back again, communi- cated by Dr Barctay. Professor JAMESON gave an account of a Fleetz Serpentine which eccurs in Fifeshire ; also of the occurrence of Basalt and Quartz rock in the coal formation of that country ; and of Fibrous Gypsum in Berwickshire, illustrat- ing his remarks by specimens. Dr Leacu read a description of the Pig of Orkney and Shetland, which he considered as a distinct species, and named Sus borealis. Dr Macgntcur read a Mineralogical Descrip- tion of Tinto Hill in Lanarkshire, illustrating his account by specimens and sketches: this paper Tts Mr Fle-:. ming’s de- scription of the Rocks of Dundee. a 1812. Mar. 7. Col. Fvion=* tagu on Sponges. Lr Yule, natural me- thod. Native Cop- per. 1812. March 28. Mr Aitken’s Meteorolo- gical Ob- servations. Professor Jameson’s Mineralogi- cal Obser- vationg. Dr Leach’s description of the Ork- ney Pig. 1812. April 11. Dr Mack- night’s de-« scription of Tinto. ’ Governor Graham’s Meteorolo- gical Ob- servations in Hudson’s Bay. 1812. May 16. Dr Yule’s Account of a new Al- loy. Dr Leach on the class Tnsecta. 1812. Nov. 14. Mr Mac- kenzie’s description of the Ochil Hills. 1812. Dec. 5. Mr Fle- ming on Sil- ver Mines at Bathgate. Professor Jameson on the di- stribution of Carbon. 1813. Jan. 16. Mr Scores- by’s Green- land Jour- nal for 1812. 650 APPENDIX. © is inserted in vol. 1i. Mem. p. 123.—137. ‘The Se- cretary read extracts from a Meteorological Re- gister kept in Hudson’s Bay by Governor Ona HAM. Dr Yue read an account of a New Alloy em- ployed forthe making of Types in the East Indies ; and he also read a continuation of his Botanical Observations. The Secretary communicated to the Society some Observations on the class Insecta of Linnzus, by Dr Leacu. Professor JamEson read a Description of the Ochil Hills, communicated by Cuartes Macken- z1E, Esq. and which is inserted in vol. 11. Mem, p- 1.—23. ‘The description was accompanied with a series of specimens, and a map of the district. The Secretary read a description of the Sorex fodiens, and of the Old Silver Mines in the Bath- gate Hills, by the Reverend Mr Fiemine. Pro- fessor JAMESON read a paper on the Distribution of Carbon in the Mineral Kingdom. The Secretary read a communication from Mr ScORESBY, containing his Greenland Journal for 1812, with some curious particulars concerning some G-eenland animals, especially the Polar Bear. At the same meeting, Professor JamEson read a a Be HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 651 paper on Formations, general and partial, and more particularly on those described by Cuvier and BRONGNIART as occurring around Paris. The secretary read a communication from Mr Syme, shewing the advantages of a double or enlarged Bee-hive ; and also a paper from the Reverend Mr Fiemrne, describing the rocks near St Andrew’s. This last is inserted in 2d vol. Mem. p. 145.—154. Professor Jamrson read a paper on the Arrangement of Simple Mine- rals. Dr Macknicurt read a Lithological Account of the Environs of Loch Lomond, and illustrated his description with specimens of the rocks and simple minerals. ‘This paper is inserted in 2d vol. Mem. p. 892.—403. The Secretary read a paper from James Hoy, Esq. Gordon Castle, describing a species of Tri- chiurus lately cast ashore near Fochabers. Pro- fessor Jamzson read a series of Observations on Granite Veins; and also a communication from the Reverend Dr GrizRson. The Secretary read an account of an Analysis of Pearl-spar, received from Professor HistncER, dated Koping in Sweden. The paper is inserted in 2d vol. Mem. p. 174.—177. Tt4 Professor Jameson on Formas tions. 1813. Feb. 16. Mr Syme on Bee- hives. Mr Fle- ming on Rocks around St Andrew’s, Professor Jameson on simple Minerals. 1813. March 13. Dr Mack- night’s Ac- count of Loch Loe mond. 1813. April 17. Professor Jameson on Granite Veins. Communi- cation from Dr ‘Grierson. 1813. Nov. 20. Professor Hisinger on Pearl- | spare 1813. Dec. 4. Professor Jameson - on Conglo- merated Rocks. Captain Brown’s List of Shells. 1814, Jan. 8, . Captain Laskey’s Account of Fossil Shells. Professor Jameson on Stratifi- cation, &e- 1814. Jan. 21. Professor Jameson’s Mineralogy of Burnt- island. 1814. Feb. 12. Dr Mack- night on the Cart- Jand Craigs, near La- — nark. Dr Thom- son cn new Lead-Ore. 652 “APPENDIX. Professor JamEson read a paper on Conglome. rated Rocks, which is inserted in 2d vol. Mem, p- 202.—216.; and the Secretary read extracts from Captain Brown’s List of the Shells of the | coast of Northumberland. The Secretary read a letter from Captain Las-. KEY, giving an account of a Bed of Shells laid open in the course of digging out the new Ca- Professor JAMESON then read a paper on the Stratification of Rocks ; the nature of Veins, and the origin of This paper is inserted in 2d whi Mem, p- 221.—231. ‘ei nal between Ardrossan and Paisley. — Coal. Professor JAMEson read a particular account of the Geognostical relations of the Strata, Beds, and Veins, that occur in the Parish of Burntisland in Fifeshire, Dr Macxnicnr read an account of the Cart- land Craigs near Lanark, illustrating his descrip- tion by specimens. The Secretary read a de- scription and Analysis of a new species of Lead- Ore from India, by Dr THomson; and ee a specimen from Millburn Tower of the flow of an Acacia, which had never before tuvered in this country, HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 653 _ Professor Jameson read a paper by the Rever- end Dr Grizrson, on the Dee Granite District in Galloway, which was illustrated by specimens and sketches. The Secretary read a communication from the Reverend Mr Fteminc on the different species of Mus found in Scotland ; likewise an account by Mr W. Buttock, of various rare Birds which he had observed in the north of Scotland, and Ork- ney and Shetland Islands. Then Professor Ja- MESON read the first part of his description of the Geognostical Structure of the Country at the Needle’s Eye in Galloway. The Secretary read a description by Dr FLem- ING, of ten species of the genus Orthocera, il- lustrated by drawings. He also read Mr Hucus’s Note of the Strata cut through at the Coal-Pit of Brora in Sutherland, transmitted by Mr Demp- sTER of Dunnichen. Likewise an account by Mr Nicot, Lecturer on Natural Philosophy, of a Fleetz- Limestone possessed of flexibility, which he dis- covered near Tynemouth Castle in the county of Durham, of which fine specimens were exhibited. ‘There were also laid before the Society Meteoro- logical Journals kept during Voyages to Davis Straits during the years 1813 and 1814, by Mr WILLIAM ScoresBy junior of Whitby. 1814. March 5. Dr Grier- son on the Dee Gra- nite. 1814. April 16. Mr Fle- ming on the genus Mus. Professor Jameson on the Geognosy of the Needle’s Kye. 1814. Nov. 12. Dr Fle- ming’s de- scription of Orthocera. Section of Brora coal pit. Mr Nicol’s account of the discos very of Flexible Limestone. Mr Scores- by’s Metea- rological observa- tions in Davis’s Straits. 1St4, Dec. 3. Captain Brown’s description of new Shells. M.Gieseke’s descriptions of new and rare Green- land mine- rals, Dr Yule on the Asple- nium Ruta- muraria. 1814. Dec. 17%. Letter from Mr Scott regarding the junction of Transi- tion and Floetzrocks. Professor Jameson on the mi- neralogy of the South of Scotland. Mr Miller on Flexible Sandstone from Ayr- shire. Mr Scores- by on the nature of Polar Ice. 654 APPENDIX. \ The Secretary read a communication from Cap- tain Brown, describing five new species of Shells, observed by him in Ireland, illustrated with draw- ings, and giving a list of the Shells found by him in Dublin Bay. Then Professor Jamzson read Mr Girsexe’s descriptions of some rare and new Minerals observed by him in Greenland. Dr Yue gave an account of his having succeeded in raising from the seed, one of the smallest of the British Ferns, the Asplenuim ruta-muraria of Lin- NUS. Professor Jameson read a letter from Mr Scott at Ormiston, describing the junction of the Transition and Floetz Rocks near Jedburgh, and mentioning the occurrence of Granite in Rox- burghshire. Professor JamEson then read the first part of his observations on the Mineralogy of the Southern Division of Scotland, including a general account of the Floetz Formations in the Middle Division of Scotland, and a particular de- scription of the Rocks which occur on the coast of East Lothian. Specimens of Red Sandstone were presented by Mr Mitrzr junior, from Bar- skimming in Ayrshire, which, when cut into long thin bars, possess a degree of flexibility, the flexibility being considerably increased when the stone is wetted. ‘The Secretary then read the first part of Mr Scoressy’s paper on the nature of the Polar Ice. HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 655 ‘The Secretary read the continuation of Mr ScoresBy’s account of the Polar-Ice, Then a description of some remarkable Atmospheric Appearances observed during a Thunder Storm on the 29th of July last, by Mr P. Syme, with beautiful sketches. Professor JAMESON con- tinued his account of the Mineralogy of East Lothian. Mr Cuartes WuitLtow from Ameri- ca, exhibited specimens of a new species of Ur- tica, found by him in Upper Canada, which af- fords a fibre, considered to be superior to that of hemp. The Secretary read a communication from Dr YuLeE, on the germination and physical economy of Ferns; and also the first part of a paper by Dr Fieminec, on the Mineralogy of the Red- head. The conclusion of Dr FLEmMING’s account of the Redhead, was read, and illustrated by spe- cimens. Professor JamESON read a short ac- count of the Geographical and Physical distribu- tion of the Fossil remains of Animals of the Ele- phant tribe, and exhibited a mammoth’s tooth, discovered by Mr Autp during his residence in Hudson’s Bay, this being the first time such re- mains have been observed so far north in Ame- 1815. Jan. 21. Mr Scores- by on Polar Ice. Mr Syme on a re- markable meteoric appearance. Professor Jameson on the mi- neralogy of East Lo- thian. Mr Whit- low ona new species of Urtica. 1815. Feb. 4. Dr Yule on Ferns. Dr Fleming en the Red Head. 1815. Feb. 25. Dr Fleming on the Red Head. Professor Jameson on the fossil remains of the Ele- phant; and of MrAuld’s discovery of the mam- moth in Hudson’s Bay. Professor Jameson . on the Tale of Unst. 1815. March 11. Professor Jameson’s mineralogy of East Lothian. Mr Scores- by on Polar Ice. , 1815. March 25. Mr Wil- . son’s de- scription of Aquatilis undulatus. Mr Scores- by’s paper on Polar Ice conclu« ded. 1815. April 15. Mr Gilby on rocks of Bristol. Colonel Montagu on rare British . Fishes. 656 ‘rica. APPENDIX. Professor JamxEson also read a notice | COll- cerning the Indurated Talc which occurs in quan- ba fh tity in the Island of Unst, one of the Zetlands, and which, he stated, might be profitably brought to market, the article being in demand for remov- ing stains from silks, &c., and selling at a con- siderable price. Professor JaMEson read a continuation of his Mineralogical Description of East Lothian, il- lustrating it by sketches and specimens. The Se- cretary read the continuation of Mr SCORESBY’ s paper on the Polar Ice. Mr Witson read the description of a new spe- cies of Water Ouzel, named by him Aquatilis undulatus ; and a specimen of the young bird, and a drawing of the bird in a state of maturity, were exhibited. The Secretary then read the ¢on- cluding part of Mr Scoressy’s paper on the Po- lar Ice, with his remarks on the practicability of travelling to the North Pole. This paper is in- serted in 2d vol. Mem. = 261.—338. The ele eiiley read a communication from Mr Gixtsy on the Rocks around Bristol. The first part of a paper by Colonel Montacu on some rare or new British Fishes; was then read. i fa ‘bi i ele, HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 657 The Secretary read the remainder of Colonel Montacu’ s paper on rare British Fishes ; and also his account of a species of Delphinus, killed in the River Dart in Devonshire. The tees read a notice from Mr H. M. Dacosta, regarding Native Iron from Leadhills. This notice is published in 2d vol. Mem. p. 370. Also several descriptions of Shells, by Captain Brown. The Secretary read the description of an im- proved Rain Gauge, by Mr Kerr. _ The Secretary read Dr Macxkwnicut’s Mine- ralogical description of Ravensheugh ; and Pro- fessor JAMESON communicated extracts of an in- teresting Letter from Dr Mircuetit of New- York. The Secretary read a Mineralogical description of the country around Loch Doon in Ayrshire, by Dr Grizrson, and the description was illus- trated by an exhibition of specimens. Captain Laskey presented a drawing of an uncommon Petrifaction, resembling an Actinia, found by him in sandstone. Mr Campse tL read the first part of his paper on the upright growth of Vegetables; and the _ a 1815. May 20. Conclusion of Colonel Montagu’s paper on Fishes. 1815. Nov. 25. Mr Dacos- ta on Na- tive lron. Captain Brown’s description of Shells. 1815. Dec. 16. Mr Kerr’s Rain Gauges 1816. Jan. 6. Dr Mack- night’s on Ravens= heugh. Dr Mit- chell’s let- ter. 1816. Jan. 20. Dr Grier- son’s de- scription of Loch Doon. Captain Laskey’s drawing of a petrifac- tion. 1816. Feb. 3. Mr Camp- bell on the upright growth of plants. Mr Wilson on the Cirl Bunting. 1816. Feb. 17. Frofessor Jameson on the Fos. sil Elk of the Isle of Man. Mr Camp-. bell on the uprignt growth of vegetables. Dr Holder on the in- teneration of flesh by the juice of the papaw tree. TS16. Mar. 2. Professor Jameson on Lepidolite. Mr Steven- sen on the bed of the German Ocean. 1816. Mar. 16. Dr Wal. ker’s acs count of his own studies, é 658 APPENDIX: Secretary read a communication from Mr Wit SON, containing remarks on the characters of the Cirl Bunting, and announcing the fact of a spe- cimen having been shot near Edinburgh; which specimen was presented. Professor JAMESON read a series of observations on the extinct species of Cervus, and a communica- tion concerning the skull and horns of an extinct species of Elk, found in the Isle of Man, differing in several respects from those of the Irish Elk; trans-. mitted by Mr Scort, Receiver-General of that Island. Mr Campse tt of Carbrook read the se- cond part.of his paper on the upright growth of Vegetables ; and the Secretary read a communi- cation from Dr Ho.Lper on the inteneration of butcher-meat or poultry, by means of the juice or exhalation of the Carica papaya or Papaw- tree. Professor JamEson read a paper on the Lepi- dolite of Scotland; and the Secretary read the first part of Mr STEVENSON’s paper on the pro- bability of a change constantly going on in the level of the Bed of the German Ocean. Professor JAMESON read an account of Dr Wat- KxxER’s Mineralogical Studies, and a description of his Collection, written by himself. ‘The Secre- i 4 HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 659 tary then read a notice concerning a variety of the Common Rabbit, found in the Isle of May, remarkable for the length and silky fineness of its hair. The Secretary read Dr Hotper’s communica- tion concerning the fall of Volcanic Dust in Bar- badoes in 1812; and also Dr GrixErson’s ac- count of his visit to the Giant’s Causeway, 1- lustrated by specimens of the Rocks and Mine- rals. The Secretary read an account of a Portable Boat contrived by Mr Bruce of the Naval Yard, Leith. At this meeting, no public business. The Secretary read Dr YuLe’s communication on the utility of the Bark of the Larch-iree in tanning sole-leather, accompanied with speci- mens of the bark and leather. Dr Barciay afterwards read a communication on the Causes of Organization. This paper is published in 2d vol. Mem. p. 237.—246. The Secretary read a communication from Mr Dacosta, in regard to the Mineralogy of the Giant’s Causeway. Professor JamEson read a communication, transmitted to him by Principal 1816. Mar. 16. Dr Holder on volcanic dust of Bars badoes. Dr Grier- son on the Giant’s Causeway. 1816. April 15. Mr Bruce’s portable . boat. 1816. June &. 1816. June 22. Dr Yule on the bark of the Larch Tree, Dr Barclay on the cau< ses of or- ganisation. 1816. Nov. 23. Mr Dacos- ta’s notice regarding the Giant’s Causeway. 660 APPENDIX. s Sa apn Bairp, mentioning some very remarkable Heights — countof in Northern India, ascertained | by Lieutenant the great heightsin WeEBB, In the service of the. Honourable East In- Indi gee dia Company. ‘ I oe em rae ine nity The Secretary read an account of the dimen- Mr Neill’s sions, and some of the external characters of the description ofthe Bee Beluga which was killed in the Frith of Forth in en June 1815. “i alan SR | oe ats bs) Dr Barctiay read anaccount of the dissection DrBar- of the Beluga which was killed in the Frith of section of Forth in June 1815. the Beluga. _ : veh My ee Dr Macxnicur read the first part of an ac- Jan. 4. Dr Mac- = count of the Mineralogy of Ben-Cruachan, and knight’s : mineralogy of the country from thence towards Fort Wil- of Cruae chan. liam. 1817. tee Pee: Jan. 18. Dr Macxnicur read the remainder of his Dr Mac- night’s mi- Mineralogical description of the country between sips 4 Cruachan and Fort William, and towards Cairn- liam and Cairngorm. Sori 1817. | si uf Feb. 1. The Secretary read the first part of Mr Wit- | Mr Wilson fi f on the ge- goN’s paper on the Genus Falco; and Profes- nus Falco. 4 Professor. Sor JAMESON read an account of the Mine- Jameson on a the country. Lalogy of the country between Perth and Garvie from Perth to Garvie- MOTE. more. HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 661 The Secretary read the remaining part of Mr 1817. sa ‘ ; Feb. 15. Witson’s paper on the genus Falco of Lin- Mr Wilson on the ge- NUS. nus Falco. The Secretary read a communication from Mr_ 18!” March 1. ScoREsBy, on the effects of the pressure of the oy ong | y on the Waters of the Ocean at great depths; and Pro- Pressure at reat fessor JAMESON gave an account of some remark- Dente. é s Professor able geognostical appearances observed by him on 5.70" the east coast of Scotland, particularly near to ‘he Geos- nosy of the Montrose. east coast of Scotland. Professor JAMESON continued his description 117. 3 March 16. of the Geognosy of the east coast of Scot- ~*" land. The Secretary read a communication from A1t- — 18!” April 19. EXANDER STEWART, Esq. of Calcutta, mentioning Mr er : : 2 on the oc- the occurrence of the ‘Tapir in the Malay Penin- currence of the Tapir in ‘sula, accompanied with a reduced drawing of Matacca. the animal, and a representation of the skull : Professor of the natural size. Professor JAMESON CON- Jamesenon the Geog- tinued his account of the Geognosy of the ast | sony of the coast of Scotland. east coast of Scotland, Professor JAMESON continued his observations 417. , a es on the Geognosy of the east coast of Scot. M9 land. 5 Fs a VOL. Il. Ul ul $817. May 17. Communi- cation from Mr Lauder Dick. 1817. June 7. Communi- cation re- garding the remains of an Elephang found in Ayrshire, Communi- eationsfrom Mr Braid, surgeon, Leadhills, 1817. Nov. 15. The Society adjourn on account of the death of the Princess Charlotte of Wales. 1817. Dec. 6. Mr Scores by’saccount of Jan May- én’s Island. 662 | ' APPENDIX. The Secretary read a communication from Tuomas Lauper Dicx, Esq. contained in a let- ter to Dr Gorpown, giving an account of the trans- portation to some distance, by natural means, of a mass of rock, weighing about eight tons, si- tuated near Castle Stewart in Inverness-shire. The Secretary read a communication from Mr Joun Mackenzie at Irvine, addressed to Colonel FULLERTON, giving an account of some Fossil Bones, apparently those of an Elephant, found in tirring a sandstone quarry in Ayrshire ; also two communications from Mr Brain, surgeon at Lead- hills, addressed to Dr Cuartes ANDERSON, Leith, the one describing a Thunder Storm which occur- red on the 15th February 1817 ; and the other, giv- ing an account of some curious effects of a noxious Gas on several persons exposed to it in the Mines. The Society having met for the first time this Session, it was moved by Professor Jameson, and unanimously agreed to, That in consequence of the melancholy event of the death of the Princess CHARLOTTE of Wa tes, the Society should imme- diately adjourn, without proceeding to business. Professor Jamzson read a communication from Mr Scoressy, containing an account of his ex- amination of the remote and desolate island, named Jan Mayen’s Island, and which appeared te him to be principally composed of Volcanic Rocks, and those of the Floetz-Trap Formation. iiISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 663 OFFICE-BEARERS, 1818. Office-Bearers elected at the Meeting on the ‘6th December 1817. » President. - Roser? Jameson, Esq. Prof. Nat. Hist. Edin. Vice-~Presidents. Colonel Imrie, | Joun CampBett, Esq. Lord Gray. Sir Patrick WALKER. Secretary, Pav. Neitz, Esq. Treasurer, Witu1am Exus, Esq. Librarian, James Witson, Esq. Painter, P. Syme, Esq. Council, Dr Mackniaut. D. Brivaes jun. Esa. C. S. Menteatu, Esq. Dr D. Ritcur, Dr Wricat. D. Fatconer, Esq. Dr Yue. T. Sivwrieut, Esq. uUug 664 APPENDIX< List of Members of the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh pad from the First Volume. | RESIDENT. 1811. July 27. Mr Tuomas Dicxson, Leith Walk. Dec. 24. The very Reverend Grorce Bap, D.D. Principal of the University of Edinburgh. i ee i o iy 1812. April 11. Mervitte Burp, Esq. James Wixson, Esq. Edinburgh. May 16. Tuomas Horxirk junior, Esq. Nov. 14. James Heriot, Esq. of Ramornie. 1813. Mar. 13. The Right Honourable Lord Viscount Anpuranot, The Right Honourable Lord Gray. I Major-General Dice, Edinburgh. is 1814. Dec. 3. Davin Bgeannes, ei of Carlourie, WatTer ApAM, Esq. Edinburgh. 1815. gabe all de Feb. 4. Joun TRA Ungunarr, Esq. Advocate. ee. 1816. x Jan. 20. Dr Davin Rircutr, Professor of Logie. in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. 23 Dr Witiiam SoMERVILLE, Edinburgh. <— 1816. March 2. 50. HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. ALEXANDER Miuuer, Esq. of Rosebank. Artuur Nicoxson, Esq. of Lochend. ‘Dec. 7. ALEXANDER ApiE, Esq. Edinburgh. 1817. ’ Jan. 4. Mar. 15. May 3. 17. Dec. 20. 1811. April 6. Nov. 16. 30. 1812, Mar. 7. Nov. 14. 1813. Mar. 13. Dec. 4. —6«dLB LA. Jan. 8, 1815. April 15. 1816. Jan. 6. 20. Feb. 17. Oct. 16. Tuomas SivwricuT, Esq. of Meggetland. G. Rosertson Scort, Esq. of Hedderwick. Captain Freperick Marryat, R. N. Colonel Davip Wiiuiamson, Portobello. Witiiam Newsiaeine, Esq. Edinburgh. NON-RESIDENT. EpmunD Lamptuen Iron, Esq. Dr Cottn CurtsHoum. Colonel Georce Arnsiiz, 26th Regiment. Stuon Wixkins, Esq. Norwich. Ricuarp Rawuins, Esq. Dawlish. J. NripHam, Esq. Leicester. James C. Pricuarp, M.D. F.L.S. Witu1am Buttock, Esq. London, F.L.S. Dr James Proup Jonnson, Shrewsbury. Captain Tuomas Brown. Epmunpb Lockyer, Esq. Plymouth. Dr Grierson, Cockpen. M. Dacosta, London. Captain Cotsy, London. Dr Houper, Barbadoes. 6635 Wituiam Courer, M.D. Lecturer on Mineralogy, Glasgow. uus ‘666 APPENDIX. TO RE ae: Nov. 23. Joun Fremrne, Esq. London. — nh Dec. 7. James Srewart Monteatu, Esq. Closeburn. 21. THomas Epineton, Esq. Glasgow. 1817. Jan. 18. Captain James Verrcn, Royal Engineers. May 3. James AcNnew Farret, Esq. Larne, Antrim. June 7. James Stracnan, Esq. eee Inspector of Has- pitals, Banff. Dec. 20. Sir Joun MeEane, Tipperary, Ireland. M. Kenney, Esq. Royal Artillery. Joun Butter, Esq. Surgeon. Dr Samuet Hissert, Manchester. FOREIGN. 1812. , Feb. 1. Don Timoteco AtvarEz VERINA. 1814. Dec. 17. Professor Smita of Christiania, Norway. Joun Serx, M.D. Munich. Professor SCHWEIGGER, Berlin. ‘ G. R. Von Soémmerine, Privy Gennester of State, Munich. : Professor Kurt Sprencex, Halle. M. Lucas, Paris. Franz. Von Pauta Scurank, Munich. Dr G. H. Scuusert, Niiremberg. Herr Von Scureiser, Director of the Royal and Imperial Cabinet ot Natural History in Vienna. Kar Von Raumer, Professor of Mineralogy, Breslaw. JosepH Von Baaper, Principal Captain of Mines, Munich. ) 1814. Dec. 17. 1815. | Feb. 4. Nov: 25. 1816. Jan. 20. Feb. 3. 1817, Jan. 18. May 3. HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY. 667 J. F. L. Hausmann, Professor of Mineralogy, Got tingen. . Hans Conrap Escuer, Counsellor of State, Zurich. Baron Von Vitinenorr, Petersburgh. Jutes Cesar Savieny, Paris. Henri Ducrotay De Buainvitie, M.D. Paris. F. A. Boneiu, Prof. Zoology, Turin. Joun W. Francis, M.D, Professor of Materia Me« dica, New York. | Honourable De Wirr Cuinton, New York, Davin Hossacx, M.D. New York. Dr Lyars, Moscow. Professor ZINKEN Somers, Altona. M. De Bresisson of Falaise. M. Gustavus Kunze, Leipsic. Freperick Parrot, M. D. Petersburgh. Moritz Von ENGELHARDT, Petersburgh. M. Larpy, Counsellor of Mines, Lusanne. Professor JuRINE, Geneva. Jouw Von CuHarpentier, Director of the Salt Works of Bex. : G. Broccut, Inspector of Mines, Milan. Luie1 De Ruaatero, Professor of Mineralogy, Naples. M. Gismonn1, Professor of Mineralogy, Rome. Baron Von Ovpet, Dresden. H. C. Strém, Counsellor of Mines, Drontheim. Dr J. H. Kopp, Hanau. F. S. Voter, Counsellor of State and Professor, Jena. His Excellency Count ALExis Razoumorrsky, Minis« ter of Public Instruction, Moscow. UU 4 I 668 1817. May 17. Dr GorrHetr eatin, Professor of Natural History, APPENDIX. Moscow. . 4 Baron Herme.in, Stockholm. f Georce WauLensere, M. D. Upsal. M. De Monrterro, Professor of Mineralogy, Coim- bra. ’ CuarLes Biope, Counsellor of Finances, Dresden. Cuarves Borricer, Counsellor of State, Dresden. Chevalier. THYNNEFELDT, Gratz. Professor CLEVLAND, Boston. HH. Licntenstein, M. D. Professor of Natural Hise tory, Berlin. M. Von Escuwece, Director of Mines in Brazil, G. R. Treviranus, M. D. Bremen. — J. G. Esex, M.D. Zurich. | ae =e" TO - VOLUME FIRST ano SECOND, | The Roman numerals indicate the volume, the Arabic figures the pages.] A Affidavits concerning the Orkney Animal, - Air-cells in Birds, - - artificial inflation of, in the Gannet, - Alloa, aecount of Fin-Whale stranded near ai Amygdaloidal Clinkstone-Porphyry of the Pentlands, Amygdaloid of Papa Stour, - — of the Ochils, - —_—-———_—- of the Redhead in Angusshire, ~ oe Analysis of Fluor-Spar, by Dr Thomson, - — of Cryolite, by Klaproth and Vauquelin, ——=--— of Compact Felspar from the Pentland Hills, by Charles Mackenzie, - ——— of Magnetic Iron-Ore, by Dr Thomson, o————- of Pearl-Spar, by W. Hisinger, Stockholm, — of the Middle District of Scotland, . il. Page ~ 431 179 180 201 190 i. 166 ii. 9 361 630 i. 8 466 616 if. 51 174 670 INDEX. Analysis, description and, of a new species of Lead-Ore from India, by Dr Thomson, — - ———— description and, of Native Iron, - ———— chemical, the surest mode of distinguishing ani- | mal from vegetable substance, _ Angusshire, mineralogy of the Redhead in - Apocinee, Robert Brown on the section of, most nearly related to the new order of Asclepiadez, with a ta- bular view, i. 59.—Echites, ib.—Ichnocarpus, 61.— Holarrhena, 62.—Isonema, 63.—Vallaris, ib.—Par- sonsia, 64.—Lyonsia, 66.—Apocynum, 67.—Cryp- tolepis, 69.—Prestonia, ib.—Balfouria, 70.—-- Nerium, 71.—Strophanthus, 72.—Wrightia, 73.—-Alstonia, 75. | Avpendix, History of the Society, - Ascarides, found in Zyphotheca tetradens, - Asclepiadee, Robert Brown on the, a natural order of Plants separated from the Apocines of Jussieu, i. 12. ——Observations on the Flower-Bud of Asclepias Sy- riaca, 14.—-Pollen in masses, determinately fixed to the processes of the stigma, an essential character of the order, 17.—General characters of the order, with a tabular view, 19.—I. Asclepradee. vere > Ceropegia, 21.—Huernia, 22.—Piaranthus, Stapelia, 23,—Caralluma, Microstemma, 25.—Hoya, 26.— Tylophora, Marsdenia, 28.—Pergularia, 31.—Dis- chidia, 32.—Gymnema, 33.—Leptadenia, Sarcolo- bus, 34.—Gonolobus, 35.—Matelea, Asclepias, 36. —Gomphocarpus, 37.—Xysmalobium, 38.—Calatro- pis, Kanahia, 39.—Oxystelma, 40.—Oxypetalum, Diplolepis, 41.—Holostemma, 42.—-Cynanchum, 43. —Metaplexis, 48.—Ditassa, 49.—Deemia, Sarcos- temma, 50.—Eustegia, 51.—Metastelma, 52.—Mi- Page 1,252 370 Ate 339 ii. 635 1. 85, INDEX, croloma, 53.—Astephanus, 54.—II. Secamone, 55. —III. Periplocee ; Hemidesmus, 56.—Periploca, 57. —Gymnanthera, 58.—New and amended generic characters of the most nearly related section of the Apocinee strictly so called,—See Apocinee. B Bald, Robert, on the Coal Formation of Clackmanan- shire, “ Barclay, Dr, his remarks on some parts of the Animal that was cast ashore on the Island of Stronsa, September 1808, i. 418.—Af- fidavits, &c. respecting the animal, i. 431. ——-———— his notice concerning the structure of the Cells in the Combs of Bees and Wasps, ——_-———_— his remarks respecting the causcs of Or- ganization, - Barometer, its utility at Sea, - Basaltic Clinkstone of the Ochills, _ - — rock of the Middle District of Scotland, - Bear, White or Polar, inhabitant of Greenland, - ——— ——-— rarely attacks the human species, Bees, peculiarity in the structure of the Cells in the Combs of . Ben-Lawers, mineralogy of - Ledi, mineralogy of - More, mineralogy of - Nevis, mineralogy of = Vorlich, mineralogy of - Blennius, Galerita, observations on, and description of Ocellaris, remarks on, ii. 443.—B. Gattoru- gine, ii, 447. 671 Page ir 479 i. 259 537 164 15 630 262 3338 259 i, 859 279 299 322 295 1. 98 672 INDEX. Page Blubber of the Greenland Whale described, - i, 581 Braemar, mineralogy of - | 368 Bream, Black, remarks on ON a ii, 451 Breccia of Papa Stour, 4 i. 168 Brecciated Rocks, Professor Jameson on ‘. i. 202 Brown, Robert, on the Asclepiadex, a natural order of Plants separated from the Apocinez of Jussieu, i. 12. Tabular view of the Genera, 19.—His new and amended generic characters of that Section of “Apo- cine, strictly so called, most nearly related to the preceding order, 59.—Tabular view of the Sec- tion, ib. Brown, Thomas, his account of the Irish Testacea, il, 501 C Calcareous-Spar, veins of, in East Lothian, a 1. 477 — the Ochils, - i. 21 Callender, mineralogy of its neighbourhood, - i. 276 Callionymus Dracunculus, Montagu’s observations on iil. 440 Campsie Hills, Geology of, by Colonel Imrie, - 24 Carbon, Hydrogen, and, Dr Thomson on the Gaseous Combinations of - 1. 504 Cartland Craig, Dr Macknight’s Geological remarks on il. 491 Caryophyllia cyathus, description of ~ 24 Cellular Membrane of the Gannet, evident communica- tion between the, and the Lungs, i. 181. — ——-———-— curious Insect inhabiting the - 191 Channel, British, observations on the General Bed of ii. 464 Clackmananshire, on the Coal Formation of - 1. 479 Clavicles united to the breast-bone in the Gannet, 186 Clay-Ironstone near St Andrew’s, - ii. 150 of the Middle District of Scotland, 629 INDEX. 673 Page Clay-Slate of the Pentlands, ths atg ii. 183 Claystone of Papa Stour, ~ 1,171 the Ochils, - li. 13 ——_+__—_— the Pentlands, - 196 — Porphyry of the Ochils, ~ 19 —— Tuff of the Pentlands, - 198 of the Middle District of Scotland, - 629 Clinkstone of the Pentlands, - 190 - Basaltic, of the Ochils, - 15 ——— ——- Porphyry of the Pentlands, hte 190 sai and Me), —Amygdaloidal © « ib. - of the Middle District of Scotland, = 631 Coal of the Campsie Hills, = g2 near St Andrew’s, eer 148 —-— Professor Jameson’s observations on - 229 —— Glance and Black, not derived from vegetable mat- ters, but original Chemical deposits, | - ib. Brown, of vegetable origin, s 231 _—— Formation, on the, of Clackmananshire, by Mr , Bald, i. 479.—Alluvial rocks, 480. Measurements of the Seams of Coal, 487.—Of the North Coal Field, 487.—The Mid Coal Field, 489.—The South Coal Field, 491, —Of the Coal Formation in the North Coal Field, 493.—Tabular Section of the Strata, 496.—Or- ganic remains found in Coal Stra- ta, 502, ———-—_— —— at Durham, account of the, i. 605.— Section of the Formation, 607. of the Middle District of Scotland, ij. 639 Colymbus Immer, observations on the Natural History of 232. ee 674 INDEX. Page Combs of Bees and Wasps, notice concerning the struc. _ ture of the Cells in, by Dr Barclay, = ii, 259 Compact-Felspar of Papa Stour, - i. 170 the Ochils, “abi ii. 20 _______.__—- Fleetz series of the Pentlands, 194 Vea Se ewe — Analysis of, from Pentlands, si i. 616 ——-— of the Middle District of Scotland, ii. 631 Conglomerate Rock of the Grampians described, - 1, 453 ——.—-—-- Pentlands, - ii. 186 —__._-__ ___-———- Middle District of Scotland, 627 Conglomerated or Brecciated Rocks, Professor Jame= son on - 202 its) smeics deseribéd, “ 203 bee ae, - | 205 —+-—_—_———._ Limestone, - 206 —— Rock associated with Porphyry, ae ae Craig, Cartland, Geological remarks on, by Dr Mack- miele, - - 49% Cryolite, Professor Jameson on, i. 465.—Its External Characters, 466.—Geognostic Relations, 467. Cyclopteris Montagui, observations on, and descrip tion of, by Montagu, i. 91.—Where found, 94.— Peculiarities in the Eyes of C. bimaculatus, 94.— Variation between the early and adult state of C. bimaculatus and cornubicus, 92. D Dacosta, H. M. his description and Analysis of Native Tron, a - ii. 870 Dundee, account of the rocks in the neighbourhood of 138 Dungairdghall, its vitrified Fort, | “ 1. 351 Durham, account of the Coal Formation at — ie 605 ¢ { * 3 INDEX. E. 675 Page Eagle, Golden, young of, described, ii. 570.—Of rare | occurrence in Britain, 572. ——— Ring-tailed, description of - East Lothian, on the Veins of the Fletz-trap Forma- tion of ~ a ¥chinorhynchus, a species of, found in Ziphotheca tetra- dens, a 2 Echinus miliaris, description of - Edinburgh, list of the rarer Plants observed in the neighbourhood of, i. 215.—Addition to, i. 626. Edinburgh, list of Fishes found near : Insects found in the neighbourhood of Edmonstone, Dr, his observations on the natura! and medical history of the Zetland Sheep, 2 ~———_—- ———-— his observations on the natural his- tory of the Colymbus Immer, Eproboscideous Insects, Dr Leach on the genera and species of as Esk of Whitby, Greenland ship beset in the Ice, - * iE Falco, observations on some species of the Genus, by James Wilson, ii. 569.—F. fulvus described, 571.— F. apivorus, albidus, and variegatus, considered sy- nonimous, 575, 577.—Elucidation of terms used in Falconry, 681.—F. gentilis, 587.—F. palumburius, 591.—¥F. communis, 595.—Distinction between the plumage of young and old Hawks, 599.—F. pere- | grinus, 600.—F’. hornotinus and (com.) fuscus, 602. —F. (com.) leucocephalus, 603.—F. (com.) albus, 676 ? INDEX. 605.—Common Falcon, usually so named, 607.—F. gibbosus and rubeus, 610.—F.ruber Indicus and (com.) maculatus, 611.—F. niger, 612.—F.tartaricus and barbarus, 616. Fasciola, account of a species of, which inhabits the Trachea of Poultry, with a mode of cure, by George Montagu, i. 194.—somewhat similar Animal observed by Dr Wiesen- thal, 199. —— Trachea, additional remarks on ib Fassney, Transition Greenstone (or Granite) of, de- scribed by Dr Ogilby, - Fauna, Contributions to the British, by the Rev. John Fleming, ii. 238.—Sorex fodiens, 238.—Pleuronectes punctatus, 241.—Lepas fascicularis, -242.—Hirudo verrucosa, 245.—Echinus miliaris, 246.—Lucernaria fascicularis, 248.—Caryophyllia cyathus, 249.— Fungia turbinata, 250.—Flustra Ellisii, 251. Felspar, Compact, of Papa Stour, i - the Ochils, - a a eee, Middle. District of sSeatlanns ——--—-____~_-_—— Filggtz. Series of the) Pent- lands, i =e ae ee — from the Pentlands, “Analysis of a ne ——-— Porphyritic Slaty, Hip cn ——_-— Porphyry of the Ochils, Oe —— Beds of, in Granite, - Feronia,. generic characters of, ii, 550.—Description of the species, 557. Fin-Whale, stranded near Alloa, P. Neill’s account of Page i. 624 126 i. 170 ii. 20 631 194 — i. 616 172 ii. 19 391 i. 20b Fishes, Account of five rare species of, by George Mon- — tagu, i. 79.—New species of the Apodal Order described, 82.—Remarks on the British species: ef Syngnathus, with descriptions, 85.—S8, INDEX. sequoreus first described as British, 88.—De- scription of Cyclopterus Montagui, 91.—Of Ophidium imberbe, 95.—Of Blennius re ta, 98. Fishes, account of new and rare English by the same, ii. 413.—Cartilaginous ; Males of the Ray, how distinguished, 414.—R. clavata, 410.— R. chagrinea, 420.—R. oxyrinchus, 423.—R. maculata, 426,.—R. micro-ocellata, 430:—Apo- dal; Ziphotheca tetradens, 432.—Leptocepha- lus Morrisii, 436.—Jugular ; Callionymus dracunculus, 440.~—Blennius ocellaris, 443.— B. gattorugine, 44'7.—Gadus argenteolus, 449. —Thoracici; Sparus lineatus, 451.—Trigla levis, 455. sop, cuculus, 457.—T. lineata, 460. ———— list of, found in the Frith of Forth, and Rivers and Lakes near Edinhurgh, with remarks, by Patrick Neill, i. 526.—Apodes, 527.—Jugu- lares, 529.—Thoracici, 534. — Abdominales, 540.—-Amphibia nantes ; Brancheostegi, 546. —Chondropterygii, 549. | F leminig, the Reverend John, his description of a Small- - Headed Narwal, cast ashore in Zetland, i. 131.— His Mineralogical account of Papa Stour, 162.—His account of the Rocks which occur in the neighbour- hood of Dundee, ii. 138.—His observations on the Mineralogy of the neighbourhood of St Andrew’s, 145.—His Contributions to the British Fauna, 238. —His Mineralogy of the Redhead, 339. Fletz, Conglomerated, Rocks described, - - Rocks of the Pentlands, — ua? ——- Trap Formation of East Lothian, Dr Ogilby on the Veins of ~ VOL. Il. bp. il, 208 185 i, 469 678 INDEX. Page. Fluate of Lime.—See Fluor-Spar. Fluor Spar, Analysis of, by Dr Thomson, i. 8.——Occurs chiefly in Veins, ib.—Composition discovered by Scheele, ib.— Analysis of, by Kirwan and Gren in- correct, ib.—-Experiments on, by Dr Thomson, 9.—— Composition of, 11.—Similar result of Klaproth’s Analysis, note, 11. | | Flustra Ellisii, description of -— | i. 251 Formation, on the Strontian Lead Glance, by Professor Jameson, - 1 AGE —————-= Coal at Durham, account of = bh 605 ————— Fletz-Trap, of East Lothian, on the Veins of si dal fey ‘ 469 Fort, vitrified, of Dungairdghall, - i. S51 Forth, Frith of, list of Fishes found in the 526 = Vermes found in the ape SSG ———————— Dr Leach’s description of a Sword Fish found in the ~ i. 58 Fungia turbinata, description of . 250 G Gadus argenteolus, remarks on, - ii. 44:9 Galloway, Dr Grierson’s Mineralogical observations in 373 Gannet, (Pelecanus Bassanus), observations on the structure of the, by George Montagu, - i. 176 Gapes, disease called the, in Poultry, i. 194.—Mode of Cure, 195. Gaseous Combinations of Hydrogen and Carbon, Dr Thomson on the - ! 504 Gas, Dr Thomson on Carburated Hydrogen . 506 ee Olehant, fs 514 ——__—__—___—— Oxycarburated _ ee = 523 Gentil Falcon, Description of n ii, 587 INDEX. 679. Page Geognosy of the Lothians; Professor Jameson on the ii. 618 Geological remarks by Dr Macknight, Lotti Wile BSB». BOS - on the Cartland Craig, by the same, il. 491 Geology of the Campsie Hills, by Colonel Imrie, ii. 24. —General description, 24.—-Trap, 2'7.—Sandstone, 99.—Iron-Ore, 31.—Coal, 32.—Table of Strata, 34.—Observations, 35.—Remarks on the two pre- vailing Geological Theories, $9. Germination of the Graminez, Dr Yule on ph " i. 587 Glenco, Mineralogy of = 311 Glen-Nevis, Mineralogy of - 348 Glen-Tilt, Mineralogy of : - 862 Gneiss, Conglomerated, description of - ii. 203 — Compact, fragments of, in Granite, - 884 Goshawk, description of ~ 591 Graminez, on the germination of, by Dr Yule, i. 587. —The Cotyledons, 590.—The Sheaths of the Se- tinal Bulbs, 591.—The Seminal Tuber, 592.—The Tubera of the Stem, 596.—Viviparous Grasses, 598. Grampians, Conglomerate Rock of, described, “ i. 453 Granite, Conglomerated, described, “ ll. 205 Gray, Lord, on the Coincidence which takes place in the Pressure of the Atmosphere, at different Latitudes, and at nearly the same time, « 410° Greenland or Polar Ice described, by Captain Scoresby, 261 Analysis of Magnetic Iron-Ore from, by Dr Thomson, | - 51 ~-_—_——— Meteorological observations made during Voyages to, i. 249, 609.— ii. 155, 167. ————— Ship Esk, beset in the Ice, - 312 —————— Ships lost in the Ice, - 310 ————— West, remarkable change on the East Coast of - a 295 tere Whale described, a i. 578 4 % © 680 INDEX. Page Greenstone, Transition, of Fassney, Dr Ogilby on is 126 — Veins of, in East Lothian described, _— = ANT A: ————_-— of Papa Stour, ~ 167 —____ the Ochils, \ “ 19. va 16. et Pentlande) = ; 185 —____.———- Fleetz series, = 194 — ——- Middle District of Scotland,. 631 Grey-Wacke of the Pentlands, - 184 —— Conglomerate, - 207 Grierson, Dr, his Mineralogical observations in Galloway, 373 H Hawks, description of different species of (i 587 Heavy-Spar, Veins of, in East Lothian, = i. 476 ee the Ochs, = M. 22. Hills, Grampian, remarks on the Conglomerate Rock of, __ by Colonel Imrie, - 1. 453 Campsie, Geological Account of, by the same, ii, 24 — Ochil, outlines of the Mineralogy of, by Charles Mackenzie, = 1 Pentland, outline of the Mineralogy of the, by Professor Jameson, - Gi. 178 Hippobosca, Generic Characters of, ii. 550.—Descrip- tions and Synonyms of the Species, 553. Hirudo verrucosa, description of = 245 Hisinger, W. of Stockholm, his Analysis of Pearl-Spar, 174 History of the Society, - 634 Hydrogen and Carbon, Dr Thomson on the Gaseous Combinations of, i. 504.—Carburated Hydrogen Gas, 506.—Its Properties, 507.—Method of taking the Specific Gravity of Gases, 508.—General result of Experiments on the Combustion of Carburated Hy- drogen Gas with Oxygen, by Electricity, 510.— gee ae INDEX. 681 Tables of Experiments, 511, 512.—Composition of Carburated Hydrogen Gas, 513.—Of the Gas called Olefiant by the associated Dutch Chemists, 514.— Its Analysis, 515.—Properties of the supposed Oil formed by its mixture with Oxymuriatic Acid Gas, 516.—This Liquid not referable to the Class of Oils, 518.—Tables of Experiments, 518, 519.—Compo- sition of Olefiant Gas, 520.—Oxycarburated Hy- drogen Gas, 523,—Its Composition, 524. I Ice, Greenland or Polar, Captain Scoresby on the ii. 261. —vVarious kinds of Ice described, 264.—Sea-Water Ice, 267.—Fresh-Water Ice; 269.—Formation of Sea-Ice, 271.—In a rough sea, 272.—In sheltered situations, 273.—Generation of Fields, 274,—Their tendency to drift to the south-westward, 277.—Tre- mendous concussions of Fields, 278.—Icebergs, 282. —Magnitude of Icebergs, 284.—Their origin in Bays, 285.—At a distance from Land, 286.—Growth of Icebergs formed on the Sea, 288.—Numerous within the Antarctic Zone, and useful to Whales Fishers, 289.—Fragility of Icebergs, 290.—Ab- stract of remarks on Formation of Polar Ice, 293. —Situation of Polar Ice, and the effects of change of season, 295.—On the Properties, Movements, and Drifting of Ice, 306.—Destruction of Dutch Greenland Ships, $10.—Besetment of the ship Esk, 312.—Effects of the Ice on the Sea and Atmosphere, 318.—Ice-Blink, 32 1.—On the approximations to the Poles, and the possibility of reaching the North Pole, 325. \ es 682 INDEX, Icebergs, description of » Ice-Blink, description of - Imrie, Colonel, his remarks on the Pudding or Conglo- merate Rock of the Grampians, 1. 453.—His Geolo- gical account of the Campsie Hills, ii. 24. Insects, Stewart’s list of, found near Edinburgh, i. 566. —Coleoptera, 570.—Hemiptera, 572.—Le- pidoptera, 573.—-Neuroptera and Hymenop- tera, 574.—Diptera, 575.—Aptera, 577. Eproboscideous, Dr Leach on the Genera and Species of = Céstrideous, on the arr angement of, by the same, Trish Testacea, list of, by Thomas Brown, = Iron, Native, description and Analysis of - Ore, of the Campsie Hills - Magnetic, from Greenland, Dr Thomson's Analysis of = J Jameson, Professor, on Cotemporaneous Veins, i. 1.— | Mineralogical Queries proposed by, 107.— On Colouring Geognostical Maps, 149.— ‘On the Topaz of Scotland, 445.—Addi- tion to, 628.—On the Strontian Lead~ Page i. 282 321 i. 547 567 501 370 31 51 Glance Formation, 461.-. On Cryolite, 465.—His Catalogue of Animals of the Class Vermes, found in the Frith of Forth _and other parts of Scotland, 556. ——--——— His outline of the Mineralogy of the Pent- land Hills, ii. 178.—On Conglomerated or Brecciated Rocks, 202.—On Porphyry, 217. — Mineralogical Observations and Speculations by, 221. on the Geognosy of the Lothians, - oe J " : a ¥ ig BS INDEX. 683 Page Jaspers, Veins of, in East Lothian, -_— i, A'74 Journals, Meteorological, kept during Voyages to Green- land, by Captain Scoresby, i, 249, 609.—ii. 155, 167 K King’s-House, Mineralogy of its Neighbourhood, i. 307 Klaproth and Vauquelin, their Analysis of Cryolite, 466 L Laskey, Captain, his Elucidation respecting the Pinna ingens of Pennant’s British Zoology, i. 102.—His account of North British Testacea, 370. Leach, Dr, his description of a Swordfish found in the Frith of Forth, ii. 5 .—His observations on the Genus Squalus, with descriptions and outline figures of two British Species, 61.—On the Genera and Species of Eproboscideous Insects, 547.—On the Arrangement of C&strideous Insects, 567. Lead-Glance Formation, on the Strontian, by Profes- sor Jameson, ; - i. 461 Ore, description and Analysis of a new species of, from India, by Dr Thomson, ii. 252.—Its Con- stituent Parts, 256. - Hills, Native Iron found at * i. 370 Leptocephalus Morrisii, Montagu’s remarks on -~ 436 Lepus fascicularis, description of “ 242 Limestone of the Ochils, - 12 of the Middle District of Scotland, = 632 os" Conglomerated, described, = 206 siphictin — of the Transition Series, ~ 207 Lithological Observations on the Vicinity of Loch- Lomond, by Dr Macknight, " 392 XxX 4 684 INDEX. Loch-Katterin, Mineralogy of its environs, = = —— Lomond, Lithological Observations on the Vici- nity of BE d = | Lothians, Professor Jameson on the Geognosy of the Lucernaria fascicularis, description of - M Mackenzie, Charles, his Analysis of Compact Felspar from the Pentland Hills, i. 616.—His outlines of the Mineralogy of the Ochil Hills, ii. 1. ———+ Thomas his account of the Coal Formation at Durham, - Page i. 285 ii. 392 618 248 . 1, 605 Macknight, Dr, on the Mineralogy and Sic Siéaar y of certain Districts of the Highlands of Scotland ; Part Ist, i..274.—Part 2d, 294.—Part 3d, 319.—Appendix, 358. —_-——_———-- Mineralogical description of Tinto, by, . ii. 123.—His Lithological Observa- tions on the Vicinity of Loch-Lomond, 592.—His Description of Raven- sheugh, 404.—His Geological re- marks on the Cartlane Craig, 491. Magnetic Iron-Ore, from Greenland, Analysis of Maps, Geognostical, Prefessor Jameson, on the Colour ing of, i. 149.—Rules to be followed, 150.—Symbols employed by Werner, 151.—Elucidation of those Symbols, note, 154.—Manner of delineating the re- lative position of Rocks, 156.—Of representing the Dip of the Strata, 157.—Tabular view of Colours to be employed, 158. - 3 Maughan, Robert, his list of the rarer Plants observed in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, : ii, 51 i, G15 EO Re a ar Di Se PS ee a oe INDEX. 685 Page ‘Melophagus, Generic Characters of, ii. 552.—Species, 564. Meteorological Journals kept by Captain Scoresby during Voyages to Greenland, i. 249, 699.—ii. 155, 167. Mineralogical account of Papa Stour, by the Reverend John Fleming, OPN ap i. 162 -____—__—-- description of Tinto, by Dr Macknight, ii. 123 ———- ——-——- observations and speculations, by Profes- sor Jameson, ii. 221.—-On Stratificas tion, ib—On Veins, 226.—On Coal, 229.—F acts illustrative of Glance and Black Coal. being Chemical Deposits, 230.—Brown Corl of Vegetable Ori- gin, 231. ————- observations in Galloway, by Dr Grier- son, ii. 373.—Fragments of Compact Gneiss occurring in Granite, $84.—Oc- currence of Beds of Felspar-Porphyry in Granite, 391. —- Queries proposed by Professor Jameson, 1. 107 Mineralogy, on the, and local scenery of certain Districts of the Highlands of Scotland, by Dr Mac- knight, i, 274.—Callender 276.—Ben- -Ledi, 279.—Loch Katterin, 285.—Geo- logical remarks, 288.—Ben-Vorlich and Stuic-a-chroin, 295.—Ben-More, 299.— Tyndrum and King’s-House, 307.—Glen- co, 311.—General Geognostical Survey, 316.—Strontian, 320.—Ben-Nevis, 322. —Shape of the Mountain, ib—Its Struc- ture, 324.— Oryctognostic Characters, $27.—Its Base, 328.—Its Acclivity, 329. —Its Summit, 333.—Stoneburn, 337.— Precipitous side of Ben-Nevis, 340.—Its South Declivity, 34'7.—Glen-Nevis, 348. 686 / INDE. ig —Adjacent Rocks, 350.—Vitrified Fort of Dundgairdghall, 351.—Geological re- marks, 353.—Appendix, 358.— Ben- Lawyers, 359.—Glen-Tilt, 362.—Brae- mar, 368. Mineralogy of the Ochils, outlines of the, by Charles Mackenzie, ii. 1..-General Description, : 2.— Particular Rocks, 7.—Red Sandstone, . 4 ib. Amygdaloid, 9 —Grey Sandstone, 11. —Limestone, 12.—Slate-Clay and Clay- Slate, 13.—Tuff, 14.—Basaltic Clink- stone, 15.--Greenstone, 16.—Claystone- Porphyry and Felspar-Porphyry, 19-— Compact Felspar, 20. — Veins ; — Of Calcareous-Spar and Steatite, 21.—Of Heavy-Spar, 22. ——-——--—- of the neighbourhood of St Andrew’s, Reverend John. Fleming’s observations — on the, ii. 145.—Sandstone, 147.—-Coal _ and Slate-Clay, 148.—-Clay-Ironstone, 150.—Trap-tuff, 152. of the Pentland Hills, outlines of the, by Professor Jameson, ii. 178.—Transition Rocks ; Clay-Slate, 183,—Grey-Wacke, 184.—Greenstone and Porphyry, 185.— Fletz Rocks ; Conglomerate, 186.— Sandstone, 188.—Clinkstone, Clinkstone-~ Porphyry, and Amygdaloidal Clinkstone- Porphyry, 190.—Greenstone and Com- pact Felspar, 194.—Claystone, 196.— Claystone-Tuff, 198.—Porphyry, 199.— Alluvial Rocks, rolled Masses, Gravel, Sand and Clay, 200.—Peat, 201. — “a INDE Mineralogy of the Redhead in Angusshire, by the Reverend John Fleming, ii. 339.—Mi- neral Well near Aberbrothick, 345.—Red 687 Page Sandstone, 346.—Sandstone Conglome- rate, 356.—Porphyry Conglomerate, and Amygdaloid, 361. ——-———— of the Middle District of Scotland, by Pro- fessor Jameson, 1i1.619.—Red Sandstone, ib. — Conglomerate, 627. — Slate-Clay, 628.—Claystone, 629.—Clay-Ironstone, ib. —Trap-Tuff, 630. — Basalt? ib. — Clinkstone, 631.—Compact Felspar, ib. -——Porphyry, ib.—Greenstone, ib,—Pitch- stone, ib.— Limestone, 632.—Coal, ib. Mole of Venice, general description of % Monodon vulgaris, specific Characters of - microcephalus, - Montagu, George, his account of five rare Species of British Fishes, i. 79.—-His observations on the Struc- ture of the Gannet, with an account of an Insect in- habiting the Cellular Membrane of that Bird, 176. —His aceount of a Species of Fasciola which in- habits the Trachea of Poultry, with a mode of Cure, 194.—Addition to 624.—His Essay on Sponges, with descriptions of all the Species that have been discovered on the Coast of Great Britain, ii. 67.— . His account of several new and rare Species of Fishes taken on the South Coast of Devonshire, with some remarks on some others of more common occurrence, 413. N Narwal, Small-headed, description of, by the Reverend John Fleming, i. 131,——Distinctive Characters of il. 487 1, 145 146 688 i INDEX. the Common and Small-headed Narwal, 141.—Ne- cessity of adding another Species to the Genus Mon- odon of Linnzus, 142.—Propriety of retaining the Linnean name of the Genus, 143.—Supposed deri- vation of the word Narwal, 144.—Error of La Ce- pede regarding the Country where his Small-headed Narwal was captured, 147. Neill, Patrick, his account of a Fin-whale stranded near Alloa, 1. 201.—His list of Fishes found in the Frith of Forth, and Rivers and Lakes near Edinburgh, with remarks, 526. 2 O Ocean, German, upon the general Bed of, by Robert _ Stevenson, : Ochil Hills, outlines of the Mineralogy of, by Charles Mackenzie, - Page ll. 464 (Estrideous Insects, Dr Leach on the arrangement of, ii. 567.—-CEstrus, ib.—Gasterophilus, 568. Ovilby, Dr, on the Transition Greenstone of Fassney, i. 126.—On the Veins that occur in the Newest Flectz-Trap Formation of East Lothian, 469. Olefiant Gas, Dr Thomson on - Ophidium imberbe, observations on, and description of, by George Montagu, i. 95.—Not identified by mo- dern authors, ib.—Distinct from Ophidium barba- tum, 97. Ore, Iron, of the Campsie Hills, = Magnetic, from Greenland, Dr Thomson's , Analysis of, “ Lead, description and Analysis of a new Species from India, by Dr Thomson, - t 514 INDEX. 689 Organisation, remarks Tespetiine the Causes of, by Dr Barclay, - . 537 Orkney Animal, Dr Barclay’s remarks on, i. 418.—Not synonimous with Squalus maximus, 423.—Affidavits concerning it, 431. Ornithomyia, Generic Characters of, ii. 550.—Descrip- tion of the Species, 558. Oxypetrum, Generic Characters of, ii. 551.—Species of, 563. P Papa Stour, Mineralogical account of, by the Reverend John Fleming, i. 162.—Sandstone, 164.—Slate-Clay and Amygdaloid, 166.—Greenstone, 167.—Breccia, 168.—Compact Felspar, 1'70.—Claystone, 171.— Porphyritic Slaty Felspar, 172.—All the Beds of Rocks in Papa Stour belong to one Formation, 174. —Probably to the Independent Coal Formation, 1793. Pediculi of the Gannet, i. 192.—Do not characterise the Species of Birds, 193. Pelecanus bassanus.—-See Gannet. Pentland Hills, outline of the Mineralogy of the, by Professor Jameson, = il. 178 Pinna ingens of the British Zoology, elucidated by Cap- tain Laskey, = i. 102 Pitchstone, sub-species of, in the Island of Arran, 114 — of the Middle District of Scotland, ii. 631 Plants, list of the rarer, observed near Edinburgh, by Mr Maughan, 215.—Addition to, 626. Pleuronectes punctatus, description of - 241 690 INDEX. Polar Bear, most remarkable Animal of Greenland, ii. 262.—Said rarely to attack Man, 333. Ice, Mr Scoresby on the Greenland or - Pole, North, on the possibility of reaching the, ii. 325. —Difficulties to be encountered, 328. Poles, on the approximations towards a Porphyritic Slaty Felspar of Papa Stour, = Porphyry, Claystone, of the Ochils, - Felspar, of ditto, - ——__——-- of the Pentlands, - ——_—_—- ———_— Fleetz Series, - ——_——— Professor Jameson on, ii. 217.—Transition Porphyries, 218.—Fleetz Porphyries, 219. -——- ———- Conglomerate of the Redhead in Angusshire, Primitive Conglomerated Rocks described, - Pudding or Conglomerated Rock of the Grampians de- scribed, 2 és Q Queries, Mineralogical, proposed by Professor Jameson, R Raia clavata, Montagu’s remarks on, ii. 416.—R. cha- grinea, 420.—R. oxyrinchus, 423.—R. maculata, 426.—Its varieties, 429.—R. micro-ocellata, 430. Ravensheugh, description of, by Dr Macknight, ii. 404. —A Trap Formation, 405. Redhead in Angusshire, Mineralogy of, by the Reverend John Fleming, ~ Rock, Pudding or Conglomerate, of the Grampians, de- scribed, | | “ Conglomerate, of the Pentlands, - | ———«—= Of the Middle District of Scotland, li. 539 1. 453 i 186 627 INDEX. Rocks, Reverend John Fleming’s account of the, near Dundee, ~ ——- on Conglomerated or Brecciated, by Professor Jameson, ii. 202.—Mineralogical relations of Primitive Conglomerated Rocks ; Conglome- rated Gneiss, 203.—Conglomerated Mica-~ Slate and Granite, 205.— Conglomerated Rock associated with Porphyry, 206.—Con- glomerated Limestone, ib,—Transition Con- glomerated Rocks ; Grey-Wacke, Sandstone, and Limestone, 207.—Fleetz Conglomerated- Rocks ; Sandstone Conglomerate, and. Sand« stone, 208.—Trap-Tuff, 209.—Enquiry con- cerning the Formation of Conglomerated Rocks, ib. S St Andrew’s, Mineralogy of the neighbourhood of, Sandstone of Papa Stour described, - oes of the Campsie Hills, - ~——_-—_—--- near St Andrew’s, - ——— of the Pentland Hills, - ——-——— of the Cartlane Craig, sin a of Ravensheugh, & —————- ——— Conglomerate described, a cee ne ne —- of the Redhead in Angusshire, —— —— —__ —___ —_—. -——-- Fleetz Series, = —— —— Grey, of the Ochils, > -_—_—— Red, of the Ochils, ya of the Redhead in Angusshire, “ - of the Middle District of Scotland, —~wtnmernnmen in Gnejss and Clay-Slate, - Stee Genera) ote eee eee een 691 Page 138 6692. INDEX. Sceresby, Captain, Meteorological Journals kept by, during Voyages from Whitby to Greenland, i. 249, 609.— ii. 155, 167. ———-----——— his account of the Balena Mysti- cetus, or Great Northern or Greenland Whale, “ ——_—___--__--_— his account of the Greenland or Polar Ice, “ Scotland, on the Mineralogy and local scenery of cer- tain Districts of the Highlands of - on the Topaz of, by Professor Jameson, i. 445. —Addition, 628. Catalogue of Animals of the Class Vermes, found in the Frith of Forth, and other parts of, by Professor Jameson, - Sea, Mr Sievenson’s account of the Encroachments of the, on the Shores of Britain, ii. 464.—Forfar and Kincardine, 472.—Aberdeen and Banff, 473.—In- verness and Cromarty, 474.—Caithness, &c. 475.— Argyle, Galloway, Clyde, 476.—Northumberland and Durham, 478.—Yorkshire, 479.—Lincoln and Norfolk, 480.—Suifolk and Essex, 482.—Kent, 483. British Channel, 484.—St George’s and Bristol Channels, &c. 485.—Mole of Venice, general de- scription of, 487.—Conclusion, 489, Section of Strata in the Coal Formation of Clackman- ed Came anshire, - of the Coal Formation at Durham, bi . of Strata at Murray’s Hall near the Village of Campsie, - Sertularia, the Species of, found on Leith Shore, _ Sheep, Zetland, Dr Edmonstone, on the natural and me- dical history of the, i. 258.—When overwhelmed by Page i. 587 il. 261 1. 274 i. 556 i. 496 607 i. 34 i, 564 INDEX. Snow, appear to feed on Wool, 264.—Blindness in the, ib.—Its supposed Causes, 265.—Other Diseases of, 268. Ships, Greenland, lost in the Ice, a Shores of Britain, account of the Encroachments of the Sea upon : - - Shrew, Water, described, ~ Slate-Clay of Papa Stour described, - _.— of the Ochils, = near St Andrew’s, “ —— of the Middle District of Scotland, “ Society, History of the ~ Sorex fodiens, description of - be Heavy, Veins of, in East Lothian, “ — Veins of, in the Ochils, - Calc, Veins of, in East Lothian, i - Veins of, in the Ochils, - ——— Pearl, Analysis of, by Hisinger of Stockholm, ii. 174.—Result of the Analysis, 177. Speculations, Mineralogical observations and, by Profes- eee sor Jameson, = Sponges, Essay on, by George Montagu, with descrip- tions of the British Species, ii. 6'7.—Differences of opinion regarding the nature of, 71.—-Chemical Anas lysis; the surest mode of distinguishing Animal from Vegetable Substances, 73.—Food of Sponges simi- lar to that of Plants; 75.—Description of the Spe cles, 78. Squalus, Dr Leach’s observations on the Genus, ti. 61. ~ —New Genera proposed by, 62.—Squalus selano- nus, 64. ' Steatite, Veins of, in the Ochils, - Stevenson, Robert, his observations upon the Alveus or General Bed of the German Ocean and British Chan- nel, E VOL, II. yy 693 Page hie 310 464 238 i. 166 ii. 13 148 628 635 221 Us 20 - 694 INDEX. Page Stewart, Charles, his list of Insects found in the neigh-— bourhood of Edinburgh, - i. 566 Stone-Burn, Mineralogy of | = 337 Stratification, observations on, by Professor Jameson, ii. 221 Stronsa, the Island of, remarks by Dr Barclay on some - parts of the Sea Animal cast ashore on - i. 418 Strontian, Mineralogy of - 320 Lead-Glance Formation, Professor Jameson , on the - 46 Stuic-a-chroin, Mineralogy of de 295 Summary of experiments and observations on the Ger- - mination of the Graminez, by Dr Yule, ss 587 Swordfish found in the Frith of Forth, Dr Leach’s de- scription of : - ii, 58 Syngnathus, Montagu’s observations on the British Spe- _ cies of the Genus, i. 85.—S. typhle considered as - synonimous with S. acus, ib.—S. zquoreus described, $8.—Confusion which pervades the description of S. , ophidion, 89.—Larger Specimens described as the ; ophidion, probably varieties of zquoreus, 90. | | fa _ Testacea, account of North British, by Captain Laskey, i. 370.—Multivalve, 372.—Bivalve, 374. —Univalve, 395.—Addition to, 628. list of Irish, by Thomas Brown, i. 501.— Multivalve, 503.—Bivalve, 504.—Univalve, | 516.—Addenda, 535. | Thermometer, its utility at Sea, - ii, 164 Thomson, Dr Thomas, his Analysis of Fluor-Spar, 1. 8 —————- on the Gaseous Combinations of Hydrogen and Carbon, - 504 ec INDEX. 695 Page Thomson, Dr Thomas, his Chemical Analysis of a Spe- cimen of Magnetic Iron-Ore sii from Greenland, = il, 51 ——__—__-____—- his description and Analysis of a new Species of Lead-Ore , from India, - 252 Tinto, Mineralogical description of, by Dr Macknight, 123 Topaz of Scotland, Professor Jameson on the, 1, 445.—- Addition, 628. Trachea of Birds, of importance in discriminating the Species, Note, i. 184.—Account of a Species of Fasciola inhabiting the Trachea of Poultry, 194, 199. Transition Greenstone of Fassney described, “ i. 126 wae Roeks of the Pentlands described, - i. 183 —— Conglomerated Rocks described, = 206 Trap of the Campsie Hills, ~ 27 Tuff near St Andrew’s, * . 152° —— Professor Jameson’s description of - 209 ences in the Middle District of Scotland, - 630 Trigla levis, observations on, ii. 455.—T. cuculus, 457. ——T’. lineata, 460. Tuff of the Ochils described, = 14 Claystone of the Pentlands, - - 198 Tyndrum, Mineralogy of the neighbourhood of — i, 807 V Vauquelin and Klaproth, their Analysis of Cryolite, ' 466 Veins, On Cotemporaneous, by Professor Jameson, i. 1. —Description of true Veins, ib.—-Of Cotempo- raneous Veins, 2.—Why termed Cotemporane- ous, 3.—Occur in every Mountain Rock, ib.— _Composition frequently distinct from that of the Rock in which they are contained, 4.—Remarks on some peculiarities in the opening of, 5, 6. 696 INDEX. Page Veins, Dr Ogilby on the, of the Newest Fleetz-Trap Formation of East Lothian, i. 469.—Green- stone and Jaspers, 474. —Quartz and Heavy~ Spar, 476.—Cale-Spar, 477. ——— Description of, traversing the Rocks of the Ochils, ii. 20.—Calcareous-Spar and Steatite, 21.— Heavy-Spar, 22. Professor Jameson’s observations on pe Forma- tion of - - ii. 226 Venice, general description of the Mole of ~ 487 Vermes found in Ziphotheca tetradens, af 1. 84, 85 found in the Trachea of Poultry, — - is Catalogue of the Class, found in the Frith of Forth, and other parts of Scotland, by Pro- fessor Jameson, i. 556.—Mollusca, 556.— Testacea and Crustacea, 559.—Corallia, 500. —Zoophyta, 565. Vitrified Fort of Dundgairdghall, “ 1. 851 Viviparous Grasses, ~ 598 Ww Wacke, Grey, of the Pentland Hills, “ ll. 184 —— Conglomerated, described, - 207 Water Shrew, description of - 238 Wasps, peculiarity in the Structure of the Cells in the Combs of ~ - 259 Whale, Fin, stranded near Alloa, Mr Neill’s account of i. 201.—Carcase useful, if used as Manure, 206. —Determination of the Species to which it should be referred, 207. e———— Greenland,: or Great Northern, described by Captain Scoresby, i. 578.—Dimensions of two, 583.—Food of the Whale, 584. INDEX. 697 > Page Whzplebone, size of the Whale estimated by the length of ~ - 1. 579 Wiesenthal, Dr, his observations on the Disease of Poul- try, called the Gapes, - 199 Wilhelmina, Greenland Ship, lost in the Ice, - ii, 810 Wilson, James, his observations on some Species of the Genus Falco of Linnzus, - $69 ‘Wool eaten by Sheep in cases of extreme hunger, _ i. 264 Xiphias Rondalitii, described by Dr Leach, : ii, 58 gladius, probably Native of our Seas, og OP A Y Yule, Dr, his summary of Experiments and Observa- tions on the Germination of the Graminezx, i, 587 Z Zetland, Dr Edmonstone’s observations on the Sheep of i. 258 Ziphotheca, a new Genus of Fishes of the Apodal or- der, formed by Montagu, i. 81.—Contains only one Species, Z. tetradens, 82.—-Addition to the Natural History of, 623.—Further remarks on, ii. 432.. END OF VOLUME SECOND. Neiut & Co, Prihters. ee ae ON ey eda: pene ent a rey, hy ‘ Sareid ( 699 ) This day is Published by Arch. Constable §- Co: Edinburgh, and Longman, Hurst, sea Orie and Brown, London. VOLUME FIRST OF THE Memoirs of the Wrernerian Natunau History Society. With Fifteen Engravings. Price One Guinea in Boards. CONTENTS. _Mereorotoey. Journals of Greenland Voyages in 1807, 1808; 1709, and 1810, by Mr Scoresby.—Cuemistry. Analysis of Fluor-Spar, and on the Gaseous combination of Hydrogen and. Carbon, by Dr 7. Thomson. Analysis of Compact Felspar of the Pentland Hills, by Mr C. Mackenzie-—Zooireacy. Remarks on some parts of the Stronsa Animal, by Dr Barclay. On the Gan- het, and on an Insect which infests the Trachea of Poultry, by Colonel Montagu. On the Greenland Whale, with a Plate, con pi the only correct figure of the Animal ever published, by Mr Scoresby. Description of a Narwal cast ashore in Zetland, by Dr Fleming. On the Zetland Sheep, by Dr Edmondston. Ac- count of North British Testacea, and on the Pinna ingens, by Cap= tain Laskey. List of the Scottish Animals of the Class Vermes, by Professor Jameson. List of Insects found near Edinburgh, by Mr C. Stewart. Account of a Fin-Whale stranded near Alloa, and List of Fishes in the Frith of Forth, &c. by Mr P. Nedl.— Botany. On the natural order Asclepiadee, by Mr Robert Brown of the Linnean Society. On the Germination of the Gra- mine, by Dr Yule. List of rare Plants in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, by Mr Maughan. —MInErRaLoey. On wr ee ous Veins; on Geological Maps; on the Topaz of Scotland ; the Serontidis Lead- Give Formation ; on Cryolite ; and Mine. ralogical Queries, by Professor Jameson. On the Mineralogy anc Local Scenery of Ben-Ledi and its Environs, Pass of Leny, Bala- helish, Strontian, and Ben-Nevis, by Dr Macknight. On the Conglomerate Rock of the rds tise by Colonel Imrie. Ac- count of the Island of Papa Stour, by Dr Fleming. On the Coal Formation of Clackmananshire, by Mr Bald, Civil Engineet. On the Coal Formation at Durham, by Mr 7. Mackenzie. On the Rock at Fassney in East Lothwan, and on the Veins of the ohio Prap of that county, by Dr Paul Ye ALSO, VOLUME SECOND OF THE Meioirs of the Wernerran Natura, ews Socimty. With Twenty-Seven Engraving. CONTENTS. Part I. (Price 12s.) Mertorotocy. Observations made in Greenland in 1811 and 1812, by Mr Scoresby.—CuEmistry. Analysis of Magnetic Iron- Ore from Greenland, and of a new species of Lead-Ore from In- dia, by Dr Thomson of Glasgow. Analysis of Pearl-Spar, by M. Hisinger.—Zootocy. Account of British Spenges, by Colonel Montagu. Description of a Swordfish killed in the Frith of Forth ; observations on the Genus Squalus of Linneus, by Dr Leach of the British Museum. Contributions to the British Fauna, by Dr Fleming: On the Colymbus Immer, by Dr Edmondston. On the structure of the Cells in the Combs of Bees and Wasps, by Dr Barclay.—Mineratogy. On the Mineralogy of the Pentland Hills ; on Conglomerated or Brecciated Rocks; on Porphyry ; and Mineralogical observations and speculations, by Professor Jameson. Geological account of the Campsie Hills, by Colonel Imrie. De- scription of Tinto, by Dr Macknight. On the rocks in the neigh- bourhood of Dundee; and on those near St Andrew’s, by Dr Fleming. On the Ochil Hills, by Charles Mackenzie; Esq: PartIl. (Price 16s.) _ Mergorotocy. On the coincidence in the pressure of the Ate mosphere, in different Latitudes at nearly the same time, by Lord Gray.—Hyprocraray: On the state of the Polar Ice, by Mr Scoresby. On the tendency to filling up in the German Ocean, by Mr Stevenson, Civil Engineer.—Curmisrry. Analysis of Native Tron from Leadhills, by Mr Dacosta.—Zeootoey. Account of some new or rare British Fishes, by Colonel Montagu.—Description of Eproboscideous and Cistrideous Insects, by Dr Leach of the Bri- tish Museum. On the Genus Falco of Linnaeus, by Mr James Wilson. On the Irish Testacea, by Captain Brown. On the causes of Organization, by Dr Barclay.—Muneratoey. On the Geoenosy of the Lothians, by Professor Jameson. Deseription of the Cartlane Craig in Lanarkshire, of the Vicinity of Loch-Lo- mond, and of Rav rensheugh in East Lothian, by Dr Macknight. Description of the Redhead in Forfarshire, by Dr Fleming. Mi- neralogical observations in Galloway, by Dr Grierson. | “A history of the proceedings of the Society, from its origin te the present time, is subjcined ; and also an I ndex to bo the 8vo _ yolumes. 4 7 aise Bi “ Ce tte ft! 7S Web GOR Ub ans 1 oe t BE me a eS are a Serta: fy ek R= I EO) TD fe chm a sone Sar won We yee ems « der ASTD) ry ¥ > OE: a BB “oa oa pede ~ see te We se eeay eas Dek Nou . eeeeee ee” biter se oe 8 4 a reir ana R ey PARR 2498 ARS ay ’ Uphey + ; i i sau Bae BOR Sam c Mim s ogee SARE ame 4% , ; } pa TS ¥ tt PLLA beanie \ Wy AW ym cer ae papi at el Be iH ane seu a (ane ant eb as . at eri La ae ae a ik Fe) 2 yee mis ze eh oS : a Nea! a. et rm ry ice ty a ert iS Aalto aNGs ri ty ro) ee ‘ peeates ie is mate 2 4 ah ; Be ry Ree. a WRT, Ont IRAN Crna ie Ws Mth9 ts gar 7 Tr Lf 2B Gah. i ee yarn jauana Nahe bl ASHES peat 7 Kn let zs rt Pa f Bi : n wee aoe Pitia) ADS sae geen s ey a RM Raed gt 2 ray LR ite Reo sm spi ‘ ; } fy ki Mn 1 ee aN Sheds Te i it We ks SSN at a lead mnt Hens Ear a Te SRT te is i Py 5 3 ime as SROs NmB ete Ht +h : A eal ap 4 Does aae nal ; Yee . ran Pa Mis ite Bs the: aces Be ea Fs euseetire S ee meee E Bate For a5 gees ET 3 pees, ty % e 6m rat e~ NOE TE AER BY OS UP sata \ Lf aut