S. LLIBRARY

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

bh AyY AND PEILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Da
a bre

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

THE MANCHESTER

MRE RARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY

FOURTH SERIES

of p Aan, V4

TENTH VOLUME

MANCHESTER
36, GEORGE STREET

1896.

eS ROG

INGO Mies
The authors of the several papers contained in this
volume are themselves accountable for all the statements
and reasonings which they have offered. In these particulars

the Society must not be considered as in any way responsible.

CONTENTS:

MEMOIRS. PAGE

On Helium and its Place in the Natural Classification of Elementary
Substances. With Plate. By HENRY WILDE, F.R.S. :

Science in Early England. By Cuartes L. Barnes, M.A., F.C.S. ..

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. By J. A. HARKER,
D.Sc., Berkeley Fellow in Physics in the Owens College, Man-
chester. Communicated by Dr. ScuustrEr, F.R.S. ‘

On the Indefinite Quantitative Relations of the Physical and Chemical
Forces. With Plate. By HENRY WILDE, F.R.S.

On a Sporangiferous Spike, from the Middle Coal Measures near
Rochdale. With Plate. By Tuomas Hick, B.A., B.Sc., A.L.S.,
Assistant Lecturer in Botany, the Owens College : Se

Notes on the Distribution of Simethis bicolor (Kunth). By James
Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S. a8 . Se O60

On an Earthen Vase found in the Boulder Clay at eer By
Tuomas Kay, Esq.

PROCEEDINGS.
Barnes, C.L., M.A. Ona Method of Producing Lissajous’ Curves ..
On a Paper by Jacob Perkins .. c
Bowman, Georce, M.D. On Two Receipts by I Dr. Dalton ..
BrotHers, ALFRED, F.R.A.S. On some Prints Produced in Two
Colours on 3¢ 20 Se oc
On Photographing the Solar Corona without an Eclipse ..
On Ruled Plates.. as O 30 O60 ae a:
Dawkins, Boyp, F.R.S, On a peculiar Spinning Property of
Neolithic Flint Celts as fe ae sis :
On the Use of Divining Rods ..
Dixon, H.B., F.R.S. Onan Oil Portrait of Dalton
HartoG, P. J., B.Sc.—On a Photograph of a Diseased Thigh-t bone Ee
means of the Roéntgen Rays aye x
Hoy te, W. E., M.A.—On the Rearrangement of the ass: s Library..
On some Flint Implements from Egypt
On some Butterflies of the genus Papilio, and a series of the Land
Shells of the Sandwich Islands
On Catalogues of Zoological Literature
JouNson, W. H., B.Sc.—On some Filaments of Tin from the interior
Ol AVinieg) 9 So") a oe 36 ae 26 O0 ee

38

61

Vi. CONTENTS.

Lamp, Horace, F.R.S.—On a peculiar Spinning Property of Neolithic

Flint Celts .. aie BE oe os 50 Bs -. «58

LEEs, C. H., D.Sc.—On some ban its obtained by Prof. Réntgen,
of Wiirzburg .. ae ae as Mis ae ae So BY
MELVILL, J. C., M.A., F.L.S.—On Plusia moneta. ae Bc do Gl
On the Shore Lark we ate ee Qinar ct ae ha O)7/

NicHotson, F., F.Z.S.—On the Se of Growing Thistles from
Seed .. ae : a be ae Bo ae BEL AST

Packer, D. E.—Attempts to Buen the Sun’s Corona by means
of a Pin-hole Camera o6 ae oe win me o. 95

_SCHUSTER, ARTHUR, Ph.D., PRS, F.R.A.S.—On Experiments show-
ing the Shifting of the Lines in the Spectrum of a Metal due

to pressure .. ae oe oe os fe are 50 5;
On the Réntgen Rays .. ae 3 a0 66 (5)
MAYEOR, Re, Ee Crs,., F.C. Ona Method of Tee Gases .. 99
TuHorP, THomMAs.—On a Diffraction Grating on Speculum Metal go. OS
Weiss, F. E., B.Sc.—On a Specimen of Dictyonema from the Man-
chester Museum .. a Bie os Ba ae Bo Sy
On some Specimens of Acctabulavia Mediterranea and Caulerpa
prolifera OM ae sis ws Se xe be a3 0
General Meetings ae =~ - as a os 3357 mos
Annual General Meeting fe A ede =H we in .. 100

Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section :—
Annual a8 re ays ars a sie oe O06 oo OY
Ordinary .. “is é ‘ i a Ba) 2 32, Sin FO, O32, OF

Report of the Council, foe 1896, with Obituary Notices of John

Lawson Kennedy, H. D. Pochin, William Crawford
Williamson, John Russell Hind, Thomas Henry Huxley,
and Louis Pasteur .. oe ths ae Be .. I02—138

Treasurer’s Accounts .. 5.0 56 a6 ait oe .. I39—142

Report of the Microscopical and Natural History Section, and
Accounts ae ac 00 ac be ae ae LAS ea

List of the Council and Members of the Society 30 -. I45—157

EINES. TO FACE PAGE
I.—To illustrate Mr. WILDE’s paper on ‘‘Helium”’.. a9 55 HO)

II.—To illustrate Mr. WiLpE's paper on ‘‘The Indefinite Quanti-
tative Relations of the Physical and Chemical Forces” .. 70

JII,—To illustrate Mr. Hicx’s paper on a ‘“‘Sporangiferous Spike’ 78

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

Ee MANCHESTER LITERARY “AND

Ale OSOr EME Al SOC Y.

Ordinary Meeting, October rst, 1895.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors.
of the books upon the table. _

Reference was made to the loss by death, since the
last meeting, of Mr. JoHN Lawson KENNEDY, Professor
W. C. WiLviamson, LL.D., F.R.S., THomas HENRY
LismevaeNinD. Ph.Dt, ED. D.C.1., P.P.R.S:, &e.,
and M. Louis PasTEuR, Foreign Member R.S., Membre
de l'Institut, &c., ordinary or honorary members of the
Society.

Mr. HENRY WILDE, F.R.S. (the Chair being taken
by Dr. EpwarRD SCHUNCK, meanwhile), read a paper on
‘‘ Helium, and its place in the Natural Classification of
Elementary Substances.” A discussion ensued, in which
Professor H. B. Drxon, F.R.S., Professor OSBORNE
REYNOLDS, F.R.S., and others took part. The spectrum
of helium obtained from Norwegian cleveite was exhibited,
and a method of distilling the same gas from some heavy
zirconiferous sand containing uranium, and found in large
deposits on the coast of Brazil, was also explained and
experimentally illustrated, the spectrum of the gas thus
produced being likewise exhibited.

2 PROCEEDINGS.

Ordinary Meeting, October 15th, 1895.

Epwarp SCHUNCK, Ph.D., P-R:S.) E-@is Nice
President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Mr. W. H. Jounson, B.Sc., exhibited some filaments
of tin sent down to the coast of Africa from the interior,
and received thence. This tin is the first which is known
to have been received from the African interior. A dis-
cussion ensued as to the possibility of Africa having been
a source of tin supply in prehistoric times for the bronze
implements then in use, in which Professor H. B. Dixon,
F.R.S., Professor Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., and others
took part.

Mr. HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., read a supplementary note
on ‘‘ The place of Helium in the Natural Classification of
the Elementary Substances.”

Mr: W. EB: Hoyre, M.A., M-Sc.; Honoraiey Tirana
gave an account of the progresss of the rearrangement of
the Society’s library under the provisions of the Wilde
endowment. The library is peculiarly rich in the serial
publications of academies and learned societies for very
many years past, and for these, in consideration of the
variety of the subjects treated, an alphabetical classifica-
tion according to countries and towns has been adopted.

Mr. CHARLES L. Barnes, M.A., read a paper on
“Science in Early England,” containing an account of
the writings of philosophers in this country from the
seventh to the thirteenth centuries inclusive, and termi-
nating with the works of Roger Bacon.

Helium in the Classification of Elementary Substances. 3

On Helium and its place inthe Natural Classification
of Elementary Substances. By Henry Wilde, F.R.S.

(Received October 1st, 18935.)

The announcement made by Professor Ramsay that a
gas from the mineral Cleveite showed the yellow spectral
line of solar helium 2X 5876, and was therefore identical
with that hypothetical element,* was received by physicists
with some amount of incredulity, as it was illogical to
predicate the identity of any element from the near
coincidence of a single line among the numerous lines
which belong to other elementary substances in the
gaseous condition. Nevertheless, the conspicuous bright-
ness and comparative isolation of the chromospheric line
D3 together with the statement by Crookes, that the
yellow line of the cleveite gas was single,t in agreement
with the reputed singleness of Ds, gave some force to
the idea that the solar and terrestrial gases were identical.
Lockyer} and Runge,§ however, subsequently discovered
that the yellow line of the new gas was double, and the
latter observer justly remarked “‘that the unknown element
helium, causing the line D3 to appear in the solar spectrum,
is not identical with the gas in cleveite unless D3; is also
shown to be double.” Runge further observed that the
less refrangible of the two lines was much weaker’ than
the other, and he found the difference in the wave-lengths
of the lines to be 0°323 tenth metres.

* Chemical News, March 29, 1895.
+ Chemical News, March 29, p. 151.
t Proc. Roy. Soc., April 25, p. 69.

§ Nature, June 6, p. 128.

4 Mr. HENRY WILDE on Heliwm and

The doubleness of the yellow line of the cleveite gas
led directly to a closer observation of the chromospheric
line by Huggins,* Lockyer, and Professor Hale of Chicago.t
Each of these observers has found that the solar helium
line is also double. Mr. T. Thorp, of Whitefield, the
inventor of several valuable spectroscopic appliances to
the telescope, has also, by means of a Rowland grating of
14,438 lines to the inch, and a fourth-order spectrum,
divided Ds, Through the kindness of Mr. Thorp, I have
been able to confirm the observations which have, up to
the present time, been made on the doubleness of the
yellow line of solar helium.

Not only is the doubleness of the chromospheric line
established, but its components are of unequal width, and
the weaker line is on the less refrangible side of the
spectrum, as in the gas from cleveite. Professor Hale has
determined the difference in the wave-lengths of the
components of Ds to be 0°357. Moreover, Lockyer has
observed that five other prominent lines of the new gas »
coincide with the chromospheric lines 7066, 6678, 5016,
4922, and 4472. The only question now open for dis-
cussion as to the identity of solar and terrestrial helium
is the difference in the wave-lengths of the double line
as determined by the several observers. Crookes, as we
have seen, pronounced the yellow line of terrestrial helium
to be single. Ramsay subsequently observed the line
double, and estimated the distance between them to be
zs part of that between the sodium lines}=o'120 tenth
metres. Runge and Paschen observed a difference of
0°323 between the components of the yellow line, while
Professor Hale, as I have said, makes the difference
between the same components of solar helium 0°357.

* Chemical News, July ro, p. 27. t+ Nature, August I, p. 327.
t Proc. Roy. Soc., June 13, 1895.
§ Paper read before the Chem. Soc., June 20, 1895.

its place in the Classification of Elementary Substances. 5

In none of these observations of the characteristic
yellow line of terrestrial and solar helium, would any
account appear to have been taken of the influence of
pressure and diffusion with other gases in varying the
width of spectral lines, especially on the more refrangible
side of the spectrum. I have already shown in my paper
on the spectrum of thallium (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1893) that
the expansiveness and brightness of the C line of hydrogen,
at atmospheric pressure, masked completely one of the two
principal lines in the visible spectrum of thallium for more
than thirty years, so that the sharp red line in the arc-
and spark-spectrum of this element is not mapped in the
recent tables of Thalén, and Kayser and Runge.*

I have recently repeated some of the experiments of
Ramsay and Lockyer on helium obtained by the distilla-
tion method from Norwegian cleveite, pitchblende, and
other minerals containing uranium. The result of these
experiments confirms the conclusion that the differences
in the determination of the wave-lengths of the com-
ponents of the characteristic yellow line are due to the
same cause which masked the red line of thallium.

The apparatus with which the experiments were made
is shown in Plate I., one-fourth the actual size. It
consists of a small steel cylinder heated from below by a
Bunsen burner, or the oxyhydrogen-flame. A bent iron
tube, of small bore, connects the cylinder with an air-
pump and a glass sparking-receiver in which the spectra of
the gases are produced. The mouth of the receiver is
plugged with a stopper of caoutchouc, through which are
thrust a pair of iron wires terminating with platinum
electrodes. Vacuum-gauges are mounted on the pump for
measuring the amount of rarefaction in the cylinder and
sparking-receiver to a small fraction of an inch of mercury.

* Ueber die Spectven der Elemente, Pt. VI., Berlin, 1892.
Brit. Assoc. Report, 1893, p. 403.

6 Mr. HENRY WILDE on Helium and

An induction-coil giving a 10-inch spark in air was
used in the experiments, and the density of the spark was
increased by means of a Leyden jar. The observations
were made with the same direct-vision spectroscope of five
prisms as was used in my research on the spectrum of
thallium.

The minerals, in coarse powder, from which the gases
are to be distilled, are fed into the cylinder through the
end into which the tube is screwed, and the joint is after-
wards made good by means of a washer of asbestos.

Dr. Burghardt, Lecturer in Mineralogy at the Owens
College, kindly placed at my disposal some heavy zirco-
niferous sand, containing uranium, which is found in large
deposits on the coast of Brazil. This sand is an abundant
source of helium, and, judging from the brightness of the
spectroscopic reaction, is not much inferior to cleveite.

Fourteen grammes of the sand were fed into the cylinder,
which, after being exhausted of air, was heated up by the
Bunsen flame. As the heat of the cylinder approaches
visible redness, the double sodium line and the C hydrogen
line make their appearance, and when the pressure in the
receiver increases to six inches of mercury, the yellow line
and the violet line 4472 of helium become visible. As the
heat and pressure increase, the lines of hydrogen and
helium widen out, till at a pressure of 15 to 26 inches the
helium and sodium lines are nearly of equal width, and
appear as single lines in the spectrum.

This experiment shows that, within certain limits, the
distance between the components of Ds is not to be taken as
the criterion of the identity of chromospheric and terrestrial
helium.

As solar temperatures are much too high for the forma-
tion of chemical compounds, the coincidence of the
characteristic lines of chromospheric and terrestrial helium
clearly establishes the elementary nature of the gas or

its place in the Classification of Elementary Substances. 7

gases producing these lines. Lockyer has indicated in
several papers* that the new gas obtained from wraninite
by his distillation method is a mixture, and that some of
the spectral lines common to the chromospheric and terres-
trial gas may belong to two or more elementary substances.
Professors Runge and Paschen have made further progress.
in this direction by showing that the gas from cleveite, after
being diffused through asbestos, gives two different spectra,
and is, consequently, a mixture.t One of these gases, from
its more rapid diffusion, is considered to be less dense than
the other. From a comparison of these spectra, the
German physicists further conclude that the denser of the
two gases, producing D3; is helium proper, but the lighter
constituent has not yet received a name.

It may be of interest for me to note here that, when a
strong induction-current is transmitted for a few minutes
through a newly-filled vacuum-tube of reputed helium, the
red line 7066 disappears entirely from the spectrum, and
all subsequent differences in the intensity of the discharge
fail to reproduce it.

In my classification of elementary substances in multiple
proportions of their atomic weights, each series or family
is considered to be condensations of the typical elements,
Pipe awrio, E4, Hs, 6, A7.. ) That some, ii not all, of
these elements exist in a gaseous condition, and are of
small specific gravity, appears to me to be highly probable.
M. Langlet, of the University of Upsala, has found the
density of the cleveite gas to be 2°02 (H = 1);§ while the
more recent determination of Ramsay has raised the density
of reputed helium to 2°13. Should, however, the conclu-

* Proc. Roy. Soc., April 25, May 9g, June 13, 1895.

+ Paper read before the British Association at Ipswich; Nature,
September 26, 1895.

t Memoivs Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1878, 1887, 1895. Chem. News,
Vol. XXXVIII., pp. 66, 96, 107.

§ Comptes Rendus, June 4, 1895. Chem. Soc. Journal, June 20, 1895.

8 Mr. HENRY WILDE on Helium and

sions of Lockyer and of Runge and Paschen be accepted,
1.e., that the new gas is a mixture, the density of helium
proper will be further increased.

The low specific gravity of the cleveite gas, and its
occlusive affinity for the platinum electrodes of the
vacuum-tubes during the transmission of the electric
discharge, as first noticed by Lockyer, indicate that
helium proper is the typical element H3 at the head of
the uneven series H32, homologous in position and
analogous in properties with hydrogen, and that the
lighter constituent of reputed helium is the typical element
H2 at the head of the positive even series Han. Further
research, however, is necessary before the characteristic
lines belonging to each of the constituents of reputed
helium can be determined with certainty, and the
complete separation of the other new gases obtained
from minerals by the distillation method is the problem
which awaits solution.

* I have shown in former papers that the characteristic
spectral lines of the alkaline metals in the series Hz, and
their homologues of position in the series H3m containing
thallium and its analogues, indium and gallium, advance
towards the more refrangible end of the spectrum in the
inverse order of their atomic weights.t The same relation
is also observable in the spectra of the alkaline-earth
metals, and in other well-defined series of elements.
M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran had previously formulated the
same relation towards the less refrangible end of the
spectrum, in the direct order of the atomic weights.t

* Note read before the Society, October 15, 1895.

+ Memoirs Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1878, 1887, 1895. Proc. Roy. ©
Soc., 1893.

| Comptes Rendus, Vol. LXIX., 1869.

its place in the Classification of Elementary Substances. 9

Professors Runge and Paschen, in their recent com-
munication to the Berlin Academy,* have pointed out that,
while the spectra of each vertical series of chemically-
related elements like Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, shift towards the
less refrangible side of the spectrum with increasing atomic
weight, the spectra of elements in homologous positions in
each horizontal series like Na, Mg; K, Ca; Cu, Zn; Rb,
Sr; Ag, Cd, shift the opposite way, so that the spectrum
of the element of greater atomic weight is, as a whole,
situated on the more refrangible side. An examination of
the spectra of the different elements will show that this
generalisation holds fairly good for the first and second
series, and is also observable, but in a much less degree,
in members of the third series. So great, however, is the
difference of displacement between the spectra of the odd
and even series, taken horizontally, that the spectra of
members of the third series shift in the same relation to
miemoccond as tie» spectra, of Li, Na} K, Rb, Cs, 2.¢., to
the less refrangible side of the spectrum with increasing
atomic weights. The same inversions of displacement are
also observable in the spectra of the odd and even
members of the vertical series Hn, H2n, H3m, as are
found in the horizontal series; the spectra of the heavy
Blements, like: Cu, Ae Zny Cd) shittme to the: more
refrangible side of the spectrum in relation to the
alkaline and alkaline-earth metals above and below them.

The spectra of members of the highest series of
elements, both vertically and horizontally, shift, on the
whole, towards the less refrangible side of the spectrum
with increase of atomic weights, like the spectra of the
alkaline metals.

Mendeléeff and others have pointed out the greater
resemblance of chemical and other properties which odd

* Sitzungsb. K. Preuss. Akad. zu Berlin, July 11, 1895, p. 759.
Phil. Mag., September, 1895. Nature, September 26.

10 Helium in the Classification of Elementary Substances.

or even series of elements have to each other than to the
immediately adjoining series. Hence the spectra of Ga,
In, Tl, in the third series, have a greater resemblance to
the spectra of their homologues of position, K, Rb, Cs, in
the first series, than they have to their homologues Ca, Sr,
Ba, in the second (even) series. The chemical and other
properties of hydrogen and the two constituents of
reputed helium (H, H2, H3) may, therefore, be expected
to stand in the same order to each other as their homo-
logues of position in the first, second, and third vertical
series of elements, Hn, H2u, H3n, as shown in my table.

Professors Runge and Paschen, in their endeavour to
bring the two new gases into a classification in accordance
with the requirements of Mendeléeff’s so-called periodic
law, have placed them in the first series between hydrogen
and lithium, notwithstanding that they, at the same time,
show that the spectra of these gases shift in the opposite
direction to the spectra of the alkalies Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs.

The German physicists can hardly have realised the
consequences to Mendeléeff’s system of placing the two
gases between hydrogen and lithium. In the paper which
I read before the Society in December last, I gave a
demonstration of the confusion that would be brought into
the so-called periodic system by the discovery of a new
element x in the particular series where these physicists
propose to place the new gases.* There is absolutely no
place in Mendeléeff’s system for elements with atomic
weights between lithium and hydrogen, as the Russian
chemist never contemplated the existence of elements with
properties and cosmical relations such as the new gases
have been found to possess.

* Memoirs Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. 1X., p. 77.

“OOS TIHd GNV LIT MYALSSHONYI ‘SONIGAAIOUd ANY SUIOWSN

2AP20209 GOB SOL LS

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Science mm Early England. II

Science in Early England. By Charles L. Barnes, M.A.,
E.C.S,

(Received October 15th, 1895.)

Under the ample shelter afforded by the words Literary
and Philosophical, I feel that a paper on the progress of
Science in England from the 7th to the 13th century
inclusive may find admittance, though that which is new,
and not that which is old, is more usually welcomed within
these walls.

The authorities from whom my remarks have been
gathered are, in the main, as follows:—

I. ‘‘Popular Treatises on Science written during the
Middle Ages in Anglo-Norman, Anglo-Saxon, and English,”
edited by Thomas Wright, and published for the Historical
Society of Science, 1841. This Society, whose existence
seems to have been forgotten, had for President the Duke
of Sussex, and for Vice-Presidents the Earl of Munster,
Lord Holland, the Bishop of Durham, and three others,
while several distinguished names appear on the Council,
viz., Augustus de Morgan, J. O. Halliwell, Sir Francis
Palgrave, the Rev. Robert Willis, Professor of Natural
Experimental Philosophy at Cambridge, Thomas Wright,
and several more. Another of its publications, also issued
in 1841, has the following title: ‘‘A Collection of Letters
illustrative of.the Progress of Science in England from the
Reign of Elizabeth to that of Charles II.,’’ and is edited by
Halliwell, afterwards better known as Halliwell Phillips.
A further list of books in contemplation is given in each of

12 Mr. CHARLES L. BARNES on

these volumes, but they are not to be found at the Reference
Library, and I have not been able to discover when or why
the Society dissolved, unless it died a natural death on the
publication of the Rolls Series.

II. ‘‘Biographia Britannica Literaria,’”’ by Thomas
Wright. 2 vols. Published for the Royal Society of
Witerabumens siz:

III. ‘Alexander Neckam, De Naturis Rerum,”’ edited
by T. Wright. 1863. Rolls Series.

IV. “‘Leechdoms, Wort-cunning, and Starcraft of
Early England,” edited by the Rev. Oswald Cockayne.
SB vols) 1866) )Kolls Senres:

V. “Roger Bacon, Opus Minus, Opus Tertium, and
Compendium Philosophiz,” edited by J. S. Brewer. 1859.
Also in the Rolls Series.

Many fragments have also been gleaned from the
Encyclopedia Britannica and the Dictionary of National
Biography.

This country, in its earlier days, lay quite outside the
sphere of scientific influence; remote from Egypt, Rome,
or Greece, and the arena of constant struggles between the
native races and their invaders, it offered more attractions
to warriors and missionaries than to philosophers, conse-
quently we may pass over, not only the whole Roman
period, but a considerable interval after the invasion of the
Saxons in 449, without finding a single circumstance to
dwell upon. The conversion of this people to Christianity
was begun in 597 by Augustine, at the instance of Pope
Gregory the Great, and the intellectual awakening which
followed from this event soon bore fruit in the development
of the language and literature. The poems of Caedmon,
Cynewulf, and the legendary Beowulf are the earliest
specimens of Anglo-Saxon achievements in a most difficult
art, and date from 660 to 700 or thereabouts.

In the 8th century the cultivation of letters was taken

Science in Early England. 13

up even by women, many of whom wrote Latin and
French with equal ease, while all ranks were in the habit
of making journeys to Rome, whence they returned laden
with books and ideas which they did their best to dis-
seminate.

The want of Anglo-Saxon scientific terms delayed the
translation of books into the vernacular, and those which
existed in any language suffered severely between the gth
and 11th centuries at the hands of the Danes, and in a
minor degree from an unfortunate custom of scraping the
letters off old MSS. to make room for new matter.

The barbarous Northmen, who have been described as
the curse of England at that period, were especially bitter
against monasteries and the treasures they contained, and
from the sacking of Lindisfarne or Holy Island in 793 till
the reign of Canute did incalculable damage. Under this
monarch, himself a Dane, the country had a temporary
prosperity. After him came the English restoration, then
the Norman Conquest, and so on; at no time were the
sword and implements of war laid by for long, and those
whose bent would have been towards philosophy under
happier circumstances were forced to keep silence or to fall
in with the popular current. These things must be borne
in mind before we judge our ancestors too harshly. It is
well known that the Saxons made furnaces for the evapora-
tion of salt in Cheshire and Worcestershire, and contrived
dishes of metal and even of transparent glass for domestic
purposes, while their agriculture was conducted upon
sound principles, though with rude instruments.

The sources of their scientific information were in the
first place Greek and Roman; but as they accepted without
question the authority of Aristotle and Pliny, they made
no advance worth speaking of till the 11th century. Much
progress had long before been made in other countries:
the great Alexandrian school, the closing scene of which

I4 Mr. CHARLES L. BARNES on

was the murder of Hypatia in 414, had been continued for
two centuries in Persia, thence it was carried by the Arab
conquerors into Spain, and flourished abundantly from the
gth century onwards at Granada, Cordova, Toledo, Seville,
and elsewhere; but owing to the lack of travellers suffi-
ciently versed in Arabic, and at the same time capable of
assimilating the new ideas, their diffusion into England
took place very slowly. The philosopher’s stone, and
potable gold, the elixir of life, were ansbean of till the
Arabian influence was felt, and chemistry and medicine
were in a state of which the less said the better.

Of those who endeavoured to keep alight the flame of
science in this country were, in the first place, Bede, the
monk of Jarrow (672-735), styled in after times the
Venerable, the Father of English learning, whose work,
De Natura Rerum, served as a foundation for other writers
for a long period, though it only represents a very small
part of his literary labours. It is chiefly a cosmography
and cosmogony, the same which had prevailed in Europe
for many centuries. The earth was the centre of the
universe, and the firmament a sphere, bounded by fire;
beyond this was heaven, the abode of angelic natures,
capable of human and superhuman functions. The planets
were seven in number, and revolved within the firmament;
- comets were stars suddenly developed, which portended
pestilence, revolution, war, or tempest; lightning was
produced by the collision of clouds, just as fire is produced
by striking two flints. This idea is to be found in
Lucretius, Ist century B.c., in Book VI. De Rerum
Natura: “‘It lightens then, when the clouds have struck
out by their collision many seeds of fire, just as if a stone |
were to strike another stone or a piece of iron, for then,
too, light bursts out and fire scatters about bright sparks.”’
Probably the same notion had been current for untold
ages before this.

Science mm Early England. © 15

Two other works of Bede’s were written to elucidate

questions connected with Easter, this feast having at all
times presented problems of a most thorny kind. Charac-
teristically enough, Bede believed that the world in his
day was old, decrepit, worn out, and in its sixth stage, and
that it would shortly come to an end.
_ Towards the end of the 7th century (in 668 to be
very precise), Theodore, a native of Tarsus, was made
Archbishop of Canterbury, and taught astronomy and
arithmetic in the schools, while Albert, Archbishop of York,
also diffused the higher branches of knowledge. Under
the system of the schools, learning was divided into seven
arts, the “Trivium,” comprising grammar, logic, and
rhetoric, and the “‘Quadrivium,”’ namely, arithmetic, geo-
metry (probably mensuration or surveying, not Euclidean
geometry), astronomy, and music. The number of arts
was, however, sometimes expanded to ten by the inclusion
of astrology, medicine, and mechanics, though these
occasionally replace grammar, logic, and rhetoric, instead
of supplementing them.

After these we have Gerbert, born about 950, better
known in later times as Pope Sylvester II., and his
followers, Ethelwold of Winchester (925-984), and Dunstan
of Glastonbury (925-988), the latter of whom subsequently
became Archbishop of Canterbury. Gerbert, though not
an Englishman, may be introduced as having made
Europeans acquainted with the Indian numerals, and
algebra, and with various mechanical inventions, such as
the clock pendulum. He had studied at Cordova and
Toledo, and acquired a great reputation, not unmixed with
obloquy, as a dabbler in forbidden arts. Ethelwold was
famed as an ingenious mechanic, and a treatise by him on
the quadrature of the circle is in existence at the Bodleian
Library. Dunstan fell under the same imputation as
Gerbert, and is recorded to have possessed a magic harp

16 Mr. CHARLES L. BARNES on

which played sweet tunes by itself when hanging on a wall.
He once survived the ordeal of being thrown into a pond.
His favourite studies were arithmetic, geometry, and
music, and a story of him in connection with a pair of
tongs and a forge has caught the popular ear.

Ailmer, a monk of Glastonbury, is credited with the
manufacture of a pair of wings wherewith to spurn the
ground; he broke his legs on coming down too roughly
after an attempt to fly from a church tower, but, with a
true scientific spirit, attributed his misfortune to the want
of a tail to the machine.

Robert, Bishop of Hereford (died 1095), wrote on the
motion of the stars, and the Lunar Computus (a method
of finding Easter). He also compiled a number of mathe-
matical tables.

Next we find Athelard of Bath, whose name is said
to be the greatest in English science up to the days of
Grosseteste and Roger Bacon. He travelled in Greece,
Spain, North Africa, Sicily, and probably to Bagdad, then
one of the chief seats of Arabian learning, and translated
Euclid from Arabic to Latin, thus introducing a text-book
which still survives amongst us. (A version in the same
tongue taken direct from the Greek is said to have been
made by Boetius, who lived from 475 to 525, but his
writings were not read till late in the Anglo-Saxon period.)
Later on, somewhere between 1110 and 1120, he founded
a school in France, where he taught the then new and
unpopular sciences he had learned.

Philippe de Thaun, writer of a Bestiary, to be noticed
presently; William of Newbury, who gave currency to
the fables of animals imbedded in rocks surviving their
accidental release, and to legends of dragons and other
monstrous creatures (probably founded on fossil bones),
Alexander Neckam (1157-1217); Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln (died 1253); and Roger Bacon complete a list which

Science in Early England. 109

is only meant to include the principal names. Of Neckam

and Bacon I shall have more to say presently; Grosseteste
‘has been favourably noticed by George Boole as having
had a glimpse of the principle of least action. Starting
with a datum derived from Aristotle, that there is greater
union and unity in a straight line than any other, and
assuming that all united virtue is more powerful than that
which is not united, he deduces that nature, operating in
straight lines, operates in the best manner possible. Hence
he infers that light travels in straight lines, and gives the
law of reflection correctly, but accounts for refraction by
hinting that the ray is less weakened by this process than
the other. He might have learnt all his optics and more
from Euclid and Ptolemy.

Now quitting the list of authors we may glance at some
of their works, taking here and there an extract where the
quaintness or interest appears to demand it.

Amongst the arithmetical problems in vogue, we have
the following: ‘‘ The swallow once invited the snail to
dinner; he lived just one league from the spot, and the
snail travelled at the rate of an inch a day. How long
would it be before he dined?”’ This problem casts an
unworthy slur upon the powers of locomotion possessed by
the gasteropod, and even upon its intelligence, though it
does not specifically say that the swallow’s invitation was
accepted. Here is another, which has been battered to
and fro throughout the centuries, but which is still recog-
nisable as an old friend: “Three men and their wives
came to the side of a river where they found but one boat,
capable of carrying over only two persons at once. All
the men were jealous of each other: how must they con-
trive so that no one should be left in company with his
neighbour’s wife?’ A third instance shows that the
arithmetical bogey of school books, who, when asked a
straightforward question, answers it in the most crooked

B

18 Mr. CHARLES L. BARNES on

way he can think of, stretches his line far back. “An old
man met achild. ‘Good day, my son,’ says he, ‘may, you
live as long as you have lived and as much more, and
thrice as much as all this, and if God give you one year in
addition to the others, you will be just a century old,’
What was the lad’s age?’”’ To prevent a needless waste
of exertion, I hasten to say that he was eleven. These
problems were current in the roth and 11th centuries.

Some sciences were taught by dialogue, never a good
method even in our day, but it might have been given up
earlier with advantage if the following are fair samples.
To the question, ‘“‘ Where does the sunshine by night?”
the answer is returned that ‘‘ it shines in three places: first
in the belly of the whale called leviathan, next it shines in
hell, and afterwards on the island called Glith, where the
souls of holy men rest till doomsday.”

Q. Where is a man’s soul? A. In his head, and it
comes out at his mouth.

Q. Where resteth the soul of a man when his body
sleepeth? A. I tell thee it is in three places, in the brain,
the heart, and the blood.

Occasionally they degenerate into riddles. Q. What is
that from which if you take the head it becomes higher ?
A. Go to your bed and you will find it.*

The ‘‘ Popular Treatises on Science” above mentioned
comprise: I. A tract on astronomy in Anglo-Saxon,
abridged from Bede’s De Natura Rerum, by an unknown
author, probably about ggo. II. The Livre des Créatures,
by Philippe de Thaun. III. The Bestiary, by the same
author, in Anglo-Norman, about 1120. IV. A fragment
on science from the Metrical Lives of the Saints, about
1250, in English.

In the astronomical treatise we find, of the sun, that

* The head of the occupier is that which becomes higher.

Science in Early England. 19

“she is ever running about the earth, and so light shines
under the earth by night as it does above our heads by
day. On the side where she shines there is day, and on
the side where she does not shine there is night.” Further
on we read, “‘ Every day the moon’s light is waning or
waxing 4 points through the sun’s light, and he goes either
to the sun or from the sun so many points. Not that he
arrives at the sun, for the sun is much more elevated than
the moon. It happens sometimes when the moon runs
on the same track that the sun runs, that his orb intercepts
the sun so much that she is all darkened, and the stars
appear as if by night. This happens seldom, and never
but at new moon.” This partition of genders, still
retained in modern German, is also found in old Norse,
Arabic, Sanskrit,. Hebrew, &c., but not in the Latin or
Neo-Latin tongues. It is quite indefensible on optical
grounds, as the feminine quality, that of giving back after
it has received, is nowhere more clearly indicated than in
the case of our lesser light. But to proceed. ‘‘ The sea
and the moon agree between them; ever they are com-
panions in increase and in waning, and as the moon daily
rises 4 points later than he did the day before, so also the
sea flows always 4 points later.’ The origin of rain, hail,
and snow is given sensibly enough, but on thunder the
writer is rather vague. ‘‘ It comes of heat and moisture ;
they strive with each other with a fearful noise, and the
fire bursts out through lightning and injures the produce of
the earth ifit be greater thanthe moisture. Ifthe moisture
be greater than the fire, then it does good.”

The second treatise, the Livre des Créatures, or book
of created things, is in verse, and comprises 1,588 lines.
It deals with the signs of the zodiac, the days of the week,
lunations, epacts, the finding of Easter, and so on. It
appears to have no great value beyond its historic interest,
as many of the derivations are fantastic and misleading.

20 Mr. CHARLES L. BARNES on

For example, the writer says that ‘“‘September, October,
November, and December were called rains, for then there
are tempests, that is in Latin zmber, from which is derived
September, and the three others are derived thus.”
Modern philologists are content to derive these names from
the Latin numerals, septem, octo, &c., and Chambers adds
that the final syllable comes from the Persian word bar,
meaning a period of time. The book goes on to say that
February was the month which Pluto had, because he
caused no incumbrance to the soul when he went to hell.
One does not see the connection here; in any case the
matter is more clearly expressed in our dictionaries,
according to which February is the month of expiation,
after a Roman custom. With May and June he is again
not easily reconcilable with the moderns, as he derives one
from the elders or majores, the other from the juniors. We
connect them both with words which signify growth.

In the signs of the zodiac he sometimes touches on
delicate ground. ‘‘Cancer signifies that it cannot go
straight by land nor by sea, and when God came on the
earth to conquer our souls he went much from side to side;
he dared not come forwards, he feared much the Pagans
and the Jews, because they were to kill him and make him
a martyr.” ‘The fifth sign is placed in July, which is
called Lion, because he is very great before and his legs
are feeble behind; so the sun in the beginning takes all his
force, he is all boiling, very hot and burning; when he is
come to the middle he has hardly more strength than the
lion who has small flanks.”

We must now leave this treatise and proceed with the
Bestiary. This particular one was written for the instruc-
tion of Adelaide of Louvain, Queen of Henry I., to whom
she was married in 1121; but works on Natural History,
compiled from Greek and Roman writers, were common
under the name of Physiologus or Bestiary, from the

Science mt Early England. 21

roth or 11th century onwards; copies being known in Old
High German, Icelandic, Provencal, Arabic, Syriac, &c.,
not to mention Latin and French. Many strange quali-
ties. are assigned to real beasts in this compilation, and
stranger still to the fabulous ones. ‘“‘ Cetus is a very great
beast, it lives always in the sea, it takes the sand of the
sea, spreads it on its back, raises itself up, and will be in
tranquillity. The seafarer comes, thinks that it is an
island, and goes to arrive there to prepare his meal. The
whale feels the fire and the ship and the people, then he
will plunge if he can and drown them. This cetus is the
devil, the sea is the world, and the sands are the riches of
the world; the soul the steersman, and the body the ship
which he ought to keep, and the fire is love, because man
loveth his gold, his gold and his silver. When he per-
ceives that and he shall be the more sure, then he will
drown him. And this cetus, says the writing, has such a
nature, that when he wants to eat, he begins to gape, and
the gaping of his mouth sends forth a smell so sweet and
so good, that the little fish, who like the smell, will
enter his mouth, and then he will kill them, then he will
swallow them, and similarly the devil will strangle the
people who shall love him so much that they will enter
into his mouth.” Hardly a single one of these descrip-
tions is allowed to pass without a moral, the constant:
repetition of which becomes wearisome, not to say ex-
asperating, to a modern reader, as it probably did to the
ancient one. The salamander is of course found here.
“Tf it come by chance where there shall be burning fire,
it will immediately extinguish it ; the beast is so cold and
also of such a quality, fire will not be able to go where it
shall enter.” Also the wild ass which brays 12 times both
by night and day at the equinox; the beaver with a curious
instinct, and the serra with the head of a lion and tail of a
fish, which, when it sees a ship, rises up and keeps the

22 Mr. CHARLES L. BARNES on

wind off it. It is somewhat startling to read that ‘‘ the
turtle is a bird, simple, chaste, and fair, and loves its mate
so much that never during his life will it have another.
Always afterwards it will lament him; nor will it be any
more on the branch.” One’s appreciation of what appears
at first sight an amazing blunder is, however, spoilt by the
reflection that turtle here is the French fourterelle, and is
more familiar as turtle dove. Here is also the adder
which fears the voice of the enchanter, and to keep itself
from harm closes one of its ears with its tail and presses
the other to the ground; the eagle which, when its eyes
are dim, and its wings can no longer carry it, flies to the
highest regions of the sky, and when the sun has burnt
its wings and blinded its sight, falls into a fountain,
plunges therein three times, and is revived; and many
more too numerous to mention. The fable of the adder
stopping its ears is of great antiquity, being alluded to in
Ps. 58, v. 4 and 5: “ They are like the deaf adder that
stoppeth her ear; which will not hearken to the voice
of charmers, charming never so wisely.” Again, in Ps.
103, v. 5, the words, ‘“‘So that thy youth is renewed
like the eagle’s,”’
other one.

give at least an equal antiquity to the

In the ‘‘Leechdoms, Wort-cunning, and Starcraft of
Early England,” we are struck by the quaint Anglo-Saxon
expressions for medicine, botany, and astronomy, while at
the same time we recognise that the difficulty of translating
scientific works into the vernacular must have been very
great. The Leech book, dating from goo to 950, is com-
piled from Greek and Roman, as well as from Eastern and
Scandinavian sources. In it an ache or pain is usually
called ‘“‘wark,”’ a word which has survived to our own day
in the dialect of this county, with only a slight change.
“For tooth wark, burn white salt and garlic, make them
smoke on glades (ashes), roast and tear to pieces, add

Science in Early England. 23

pepper and clubmoss, and lay on.” No inconvenience is
too slight to find a remedy here. ‘‘Against a woman’s
chatter, taste at night fasting a root of radish; that day
the chatter cannot harm thee.”” Is a man weary and ill at
ease, ‘‘he may eat radish with salt and vinegar, soon the
world will be more gay.”

Empiricism and superstition have about an equal share
in the book, e.g., for a remedy to be efficacious a plant
must be gathered in a certain month when the moon is on
the wane, or it must be dug up without iron, and so on.
Time, and not material, prevents any more quotations in
this place.

In the Wort-cunning, many valuable qualities are
ascribed to plants which, in our degenerate days, are
utterly neglected. Of feverfuge, we are told that ‘‘This
wort, which is named Centaurea minor, and which some
call the lesser churmel, is produced on solid lands and on
strong ones. Also it is said that Chiron the Centaur found
these worts, whence they obtained the name Centaurea.
For bite of snake take dust of this same wort or itself
pounded, administer to the patient in old wine, and it will
produce much benefit. For sore of eyes take this same
wort’s juice, smear the eyes therewith; it heals the thin-
ness of the sight.’”’ And so on for many, many pages.
The Starcraft in this book is the same as that given by
Wright in the Popular Treatises, and has been already
quoted from.

We must now glance for a moment at Alexander
Neckam. Born at St. Albans in 1157, he migrated to
France at an early age, and obtained a professorship at
Paris in 1180, but in a few years returned to England. He
applied for admission to the great Benedictine Monastery
of his native town, but tradition relates that a jocular
reply of the Abbot nettled him so much that he joined the
Augustinians at Cirencester instead. The reply was as.

24 Mr. CHARLES L. BARNES on

follows: ‘“‘Si bonus sis, venias; si nequam, nequaquam.”
“If you are a good man, you may come; if you are a bad
one (a Neckam), we won’t have you at any price.”

He composed a Latin elegiac poem on science in ten
books, but his principal work is De Naturis Rerum, which
was written before the end of the iI2th century. it
includes an account of the Creation, and dissertations on
the four elements, on astronomy, natural history, and on
minerals. The earliest recorded mention of the man in the
moon occurs here, though only as a tradition; the marks
on its surface are ascribed to caves, hills, and valleys.
His remarks on Magnetism are worth quoting, as he is
the first English writer who mentions this subject. After
explaining the hanging of Mahomet’s coffin by this means,
he continues: ‘‘The sailors, moreover, as they sail over
the sea, when in cloudy weather they can no longer profit
by the light of the sun, and when the world is wrapped up
in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are
ignorant to what point of the compass their ship’s course
is directed, they touch the magnet with a needle, which is
whirled round until, when its motion ceases, its point
looks direct towards the north.’ In another treatise,
De Utilitensibus, also of the 12th century, he has another
mention of the compass, and says that ‘‘among the stores
of a ship there must be a needle mounted on a pivot,
which will oscillate and turn till the point looks towards
the north.”” The pivot is a distinct advance over a needle
floating on a straw. In view of the interest attaching to
early references to the compass, I may quote the following
extracts, sivem for the sake of reference, im ithemsamdte
volume. Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, Bishop of Acon, in
Palestine, in a History of Jerusalem, written about 1218,
says: ‘‘An iron needle, after having been in contact with
the loadstone, turns itself always towards the north, which,
like the axis of the firmament, remains immovable, while

Science in Early England. 25

the others follow their course, so that it is very necessary
to those who navigate the sea.” Again, Guyot de
Provence, in a love song of the early part of the 13th
century, has these lines :—

They know its position for their route,

When the weather is completely without light,
All those who employ this contrivance.
Whoever thrusts a needle of iron

So that it remains almost entirely outside

In a bit of cork, and rubs it on the brown loadstone
If it be put in a vessel full of water

So that nobody push it out.

As soon as the water becomes quiet,

To whatsoever side the point turns

There is certainly the polar star.

Lastly, Dante’s preceptor, Brunetto Latini, writing
about 1260, just after a visit to Roger Bacon, says: ‘“‘He
shewed me the magnet, an ugly black stone to which iron
spontaneously attaches itself. They touch it with a needle,
and thrust this into a straw, then put it in water; it swims,
and the point turns towards the polar star. If the night
be dark, and one can see neither star nor moon, the
mariners can keep their right course.’’ Bacon is the only
writer, as far as I know, who mentions magnetic repul-
sion—“‘ as the lamb flees the wolf,” he puts it.

Neckam’s remarks on animals are of little interest, as
they reflect all the popular errors. He is the only author,
except Bacon and Grosseteste, who deals with optics. He
describes the well-known basin and coin experiment (this,
however, was known to Cleomedes in the Ist century A.D.),
and speaks of glass mirrors. He tells us that in a concave
mirror the image is inverted, and in a plane or convex
one erect, but remarks despairingly, ‘‘ Who can assign a
sufficient reason for these things?”’ An interesting observa-
tion, which he might have learned from Eratosthenes, of
the 3rd century B.c., is that verticals to the earth’s surface
must be inclined to one another; he goes rather too far,

however, and says that the walls of buildings must

26 Mr. CHARLES L. BARNES on

diverge, so as to be in the direction of the earth’s radu.
He notes that all ponderable things tend naturally towards
the centre.

Here, also, we find an interesting fable, that the wren,
sitting on a branch on the 1st of March, complained to
February about the mildness of the weather. She at
length became abusive on the subject, whereupon he went
to his brother, March, and obtained permission to influence
the weather for two days. This he did with such effect
that the bird, battered with hailstones and half frozen,
lamented that the gentle February was past. It is well
known to meteorologists that there are nearly always three
cold days between the 11th and r4th of April, and that in
the Old Style these dates would fall at the beginning of the
month; but I am not aware that a converse state of things
has been noted in March. The old Scotch rhyme which
follows relates to the ‘‘ borrowed”’ days of April :-—

March said to Aperill,

I see three hoggs upon a hill,

And if you'll lend me dayes three,

I'll find a way to make them dee.

The first o’ them was wind and wet ;

The second o’ them was snaw and sleet ;
The third o’ them was sic a freeze,

It froze the birds’ nests to the trees.
When the three days were past and gane,
The three silly hoggs came hirplin hame.

The word ‘‘ hogg”’ here is a farmers’ term for a young
lamb between the time of its being weaned and having its
first fleece cut.

In Roger Bacon, the last author with whom I shall
deal, one feels instinctively, after even casually turning
over a few pages, that the style is vastly superior to and
more scientific than anything that has gone before. There
is a solidity and keenness of penetration about it which is
sadly wanting in his predecessors, who were content to
hand down what they had learnt without so much as a
show of criticism.

Science in Early England. 2

Roger Bacon was born at IIchester, in Somersetshire,
in 1214. He took the degree of Doctor of Theology in
the University of Paris, famed in those days above Oxford,
Salerno, or Montpellier, and acquired a mastery of the
‘Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic literature of his time.
He joined the Franciscan order of monks, but incurred
much opposition from them, even to the extent of being
thrown into prison on several occasions, on account of
having fallen under the suspicion of magic. His proposal
to repudiate Aristotle altogether, and appeal to nature by
experiment, was also very unpopular. He spent forty
years of his life in study, and over £2,000 in buying books
and materials, and in travelling; and his only reward was
neglect, poverty, and persecution. Fortunately for the
world, Clement IV., who had been his friend before his
elevation to the papal chair, encouraged him to write, and
at his instance he produced those works which have placed
him among the immortals, the Opus Majus, Opus Minus,
Opus Tertium, and Compendium Philosophiz. The first
of these, planned on a splendid scale, is divided into six
parts, as follows :—

I. On the four causes of human ignorance; authority,
custom, popular opinion, and the pride of supposed
knowledge. These seem to bear a kind of lurking
resemblance to Lord Bacon’s Idols of the Tribe,
the Cave, the Market-place, and the Theatre; but
for whatever connection there is, Francis, and not
Roger, must be held accountable.

II. On the causes of perfect wisdom in the Sacred
Scripture.
III. On the usefulness of grammar.
IV. On the usefulness of mathematics. This is again
sub-divided into
(a) The necessity of mathematics in human
things.

28 Mr. CHARLES L. BARNES on

(0) The necessity of mathematics in divine
things. These are enumerated as geography,
chronology, cycles, and natural phenomena,
arithmetic, and music.

(c) The usefulness of mathematics in ecclesi-
astical things, ¢.g., the certification of faith,
and the correction of the calendar.

(d) The usefulness of mathematics in the State,
for the sciences of hydrography, geography,
and astrology.

V. On perspective (i.¢., optics), treated under four
heads: The organs of vision, the propagation of
light in straight lines, reflection and refraction,
and the propagation of the impressions of light.

VI. Of experimental science.

Whewell says of this work that its plan was ‘“‘ to urge
the necessity of a reform in the mode of philosophising ;
to set forth the reasons why knowledge had not made a
greater progress; to bring back attention to sources of
knowledge which had been unwisely neglected ; to discover
other sources which were yet wholly unknown; and to
animate men to the undertaking by a prospect of the vast
advantages which it offered.”’ The work is thus a method,
rather than a treatise on science; but Part V., on
perspective, describes the anatomy of the eye, and is his
own work; he also discourses on vision, the laws of
reflection and refraction, and the construction of mirrors
and lenses. Part VI. is again devoted rather to the
philosophy of the subject than a description of experi-
ments; but it includes an investigation into the nature
and causes of the rainbow.

The Opus Minus is a summary of the Majus; Tertium,
a preamble and supplement to the other two. Bacon’s
fiery energy appears in the fact that all three must have
been written within eighteen months, though no trace of

Science in Early England. 29

haste or carelessness appears in them. There is evidence
that he intended all these works merely as a preliminary to
a still greater one, of which the Compendium Philosophiz
is a part.

To do justice to him, and to give extracts showing the
intellectual level on which he stood, would far exceed the
limits of a page or two. One can only regret that such a
man should not have been able to command the leisure
and encouragement which would have been his lot in a
more enlightened age. That he was a believer in alchemy
there is no doubt, but for this he cannot be blamed; nor
for a belief in magic, though he is most emphatic in
assigning it a subordinate place. The one quotation
which follows, from the Appendix to the Compendium
Philosophiz, will show to what extent he forecasted the
labours of engineers and mechanicians, while at the same
time he is evidently not letting his imagination run riot,
but keeps within reasonable bounds, as if he knew the
range of human powers. ‘‘ That I may the better demon-
strate the inferiority and indignity of magical power to
that of Nature and Art, I shall awhile discourse on such
admirable operations (of Art and Nature) as have not the
least magic in them. . . . And first of such engines
as are purely artificial.

“J. It is possible to make engines to sail withal, so
that either fresh or salt water vessels may be guided by
the help of one man, and made to move with a greater
swiftness than others which are full of rowers to drive
them along.

“II. It is possible to make a chariot move with an
inestimable swiftness, such as the scythed chariots were,
wherein our forefathers fought, and this motion to be
without the help of any living creature.

“TIT. It is possible to make engines for flying; a man
sitting in the midst thereof, by turning only an instrument

30 Science in Early England.

which moves artificial wings made to beat the air, much
after the fashion of a bird’s flight.

“TV. It is possible to invent an engine of little bulk,
yet of great efficiency, either to the depressing or elevation
of the very greatest weights.

““V. A man may easily make an instrument whereby
one man may, in despite of all opposition, draw a thousand
men to himself, or any other thing which is movable.

“VI. A man may make an engine, whereby without any
corporal danger, he may walk at the bottom of the sea or
other water. Such engines as these were of old, and are
made even in our days. All of them, excepting only that
instrument of flying, which I never saw, nor know any who
hath seen it, with an infinite number of other inventions,
are possible, such as the making of bridges over rivers
without pillars or supporters.”

As my intention is by no means to trace the early
history of science in general, but merely to record what
was done by English writers between definite limits of
time, I have of course to omit all reference to the work of
Geber, Albertus Magnus, Raymond Lully, and others. It
is only too evident that in these seven centuries science
would have fared very badly had its development been left
to Englishmen alone; but a noble recompense for this
neglect has been made since bya long line of busy workers
from the days of Boyle and Hooke down to our own time.

PROCEEDINGS. 31

Ordinary Meeting, October 29th, 1895.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Mr. F. NICHOLSON, F.Z.S., called attention to a recent
discussion on the alleged difficulty of growing thistles from
seed, and suggested that the explanation was that the seed
of the thistle does not fertilise until its second year.

Mr. ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S., exhibited some
prints produced in two colours, red and blue, the two
superposed impressions having, apparently, been slightly
displaced in the successive printings, with the result that,
when viewed through a pair of spectacles having a red
glass for one eye and a blue glass for the other, the images
were made to coalesce, and a stereoscopic effect was
produced. A discussion ensued, in which Dr. SCHUSTER,
ipsoressor El. LAMB, M-A., F..R.S:, and Mr. C. H. Less,
D.Sc., took part, as to whether two different images were
superposed in the printing or the effect was produced by
the same image superposed in two colours and slightly
displaced. Examples of photographic printing in three
colours were also exhibited and described.

Awpaper by Mic |. As RARKE RSD: Se2 on) Ame xpenri=
mental Determination of the Latent Heat of Water,”
was communicated by Professor SCHUSTER, F.R.S. The
experiments, which were in continuation of previous
experiments but with improved apparatus, confirmed
Regnault’s determination.

32 PROCEEDINGS.

[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Ordinary Meeting, October 7th, 1895.
OHN Boyp, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.
a

Mr. Rocers exhibited a branch of an acacia from
the Royal Botanical Gardens, Regent’s Park, the furcated
spines of which are hollow at the base, and serve as a
nesting-place for a species of ant, which defends the tree
from the attacks of leaf-cutting ants.

[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |

Ordinary Meeting, November 4th, 1895.

Joun Boyp, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.

Mr. W. E. Hoye, M.A., was elected a member of
ie Seerone

Mr. Hype exhibited a number of plants gathered near
Gatley, including the Xenodochus carbonarius. :

Mr. OLpHAM exhibited specimens of the British
palmated newt, so called from the palmated character
of the hind feet. He described the characteristics of the
species, one of which is a caudal filament, and mentioned
their adaptive and protective colouring, which becomes
darker or lighter, according to the colour of the ground on
which they live. The specimens exhibited were found in
a pond at Romiley.

PROCEEDINGS. 33

General Meeting, November 12th, 1895.
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected ordinary members
of the Society: W. W. KrirKMAN, Solicitor, 8, John Dalton
Street, Manchester; ARTHUR SHEARER, Chemist, Demesne
Road, Alexandra Park; James D. PENNINGTON, B.A.,
B.Sc., Oxford Road, Manchester; WILLIAM J. CROSSLEY,
Engineer, Openshaw; JuLius LrwxowitTscu, Ph.D.,
Consulting Chemist, Lancaster Avenue, Fennel Street,
Manchester; T. DE Courcy MEabDE, M.Inst.C.E., Ken-
more, Didsbury; P. |. Harroc, B.Sc., Demonstrator in
Chemistry, Owens College, Manchester; THomas HIck,
B.Sc., Demonstrator in Botany, Owens College, Man-
chester; CHARLES H. Legs, D.Sc., Demonstrator in
Physics, Owens College, Manchester; FRANK SOUTHERN,
B.Sc., Timber Merchant, Manchester.

34 PROCEEDINGS.

Ordinary Meeting, November 12th, 1895.
Francis NICHOLSON, F.Z.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Reference was made to the death of Mr. H. D. Pocutn,
F.C.S., elected an ordinary member of the Society in 1854.

Professor F. E. Weiss exhibited from the Manchester
Museum a specimen of Dictyonema formed by the sym-
biosis of the fungus Telephora with the alga Scytonema.
According to Moeller, Laudatea is only another form of
Dictyonema; while Cora is formed by Telephora and the
alga Chroococcus.

PROCEEDINGS. 35

Ordinary Meeting, November 26th, 1895.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Mr. W. E. Hoyte, M.A., exhibited some finely-worked
flints recently acquired by the Manchester Museum,
collected by Professor Flinders Petrie between Ballas and
Nagada, in Upper Egypt. These flints comprised knives,
spearheads, and forked arrows believed to have been used
for severing the sinews of gazelles, and the necks of birds.
The implements are of finer workmanship than any which
have been found elsewhere, and are among the evidences
which have been collected of the existence of a new race,
hitherto unknown, between the sixth and tenth Egyptian
. dynasties.

36 PROCEEDINGS.

Ordinary Meeting, December roth, 1895.
Henry WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Professor F. E. Weiss, B.Sc., exhibited specimens of
Acetabularia Mediterranea and Caulerpa prolifera, two sea-
weeds recently obtained from Naples for the Manchester
Museum. The latter is a single-celled alga differentiated
into stem, root, and leaves; the rigidity of the stem and
leaf-like expansions is maintained by solid rods of cellulose
stretching across the cell space from wall to wall. No
reproductive cells of the nature of spores are known in
this genus, reproduction by proliferation taking place.
The Acetabularia is also a single-celled alga fixed to the
rocks by root-like branches; the plant has great rigidity,
owing to the walls being strongly impregnated with car-
bonate of lime. The stalk and disk perish at the end of
the season, but the lower creeping portion is perennial.

Mr. THomas Hick, B.Sc., exhibited a specimen ‘or
Calanutes, and read a paper on a ‘‘Sporangiferous Spike
from the middle coal measures near Rochdale.”’

PROCEEDINGS. 37

[Microscopical and Natural History Section.]
Ordinary Meeting, December 16th, 1895. }
Joun Boyp, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.

Mr. StTirRuUP exhibited specimens of kelp from Tory
and Arran Islands, off the West Coast of Ireland.

Mr. MELVILL read a paper on “ The Distribution of
Simetlis bicolor (Kunth), and exhibited specimens from >
Branksome, Dorset.

Ordinary Meeting, January 7th, 1896.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Dr. C. H. Lees exhibited, on behalf of Dr. A.
SCHUSTER, F.R.S., some photographs obtained by
Professor Rontgen, of Wiirzburg, by means of radiations
of an apparently new kind. These radiations are pro-
duced in Crookes’ vacuum tubes, and pass readily
through paper, wood, and flesh, less readily through
glass, crystals, and thin films of metal, and are absorbed
by thicker films of metal and by bone. As far as
Rontgen’s experiments go, these rays are neither reflected
nor refracted, nor has a double refracting medium any
apparent effect in polarising them.

Mire Cas Mervin, Mea wraeSs, readra.) paper,
entitled ‘‘ Notes on the British Distribution of Szmethis
bicolor (Kunth), a wild member of the lily tribe only
found in the neighbourhood of Bournemouth and in one
station in Ireland, as regards the United Kingdom,
though having a wide range through Western Europe.
Mr. Melvill’s opinion is, however, that it is, nevertheless,
indigenous to the British Isles.

38 Dr. J. A. HARKER on

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. By
J. A. Harker, D.Sc., Berkeley Fellow in Physics in
the Owens College, Manchester. Communicated
by Dr. Schuster, F.R.S.

(Received January 23rd, 1896.)

Ina communication made some time ago to the Literary
and Philosophical Society of Manchester (Memoirs and
Proceedings, Eighth Series, Vol. IV., pp. 37-53), Mr.
P. J. Hartog and the author described some preliminary
experiments on the latent heat of steam made with a
modified form of the apparatus designed for the purpose
by M. Berthelot (Mécanique Chimique, Vol. I., p. 288).
The original object of the work was more to test the
accuracy of the results given by a small apparatus of this
kind than a redetermination or even control of the work
of previous observers.

A somewhat long series of experiments with variations
in many of the details—for example, the different means
of protecting from radiation the vertical tube down which
the steam passes to the calorimeter—led to the surprising
result that the value of L, the latent heat of condensation
of steam at 100°, came nearly 2} per cent. lower than that
found by Regnault in his classic researches, an account of
which was published in the Mémoires de |’Académie des.
Sciences in 1847.

On looking up the literature of the subject we found
that, except the experiments of Berthelot, which were
discussed in the paper alluded to, no results had been
published which could at all be regarded as a confirmation

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. 39

of Regnault’s work. I therefore resolved to try and ascer-
tain the cause of the discrepancy we had observed, and
with this intention resumed the work last year.

The results given by the five preliminary experiments
quoted in the paper (loc. cit.)* agreed well among them-
selves, though the duration of the experiment, the total
rise, &c., varied considerably. I thought it desirable,’
however, to see if a longer series of such experiments
agreed equally well among themselves, and made altogether
fifteen similar ones. Though most of these gave almost
exactly the same value of L as the ones quoted, I was
surprised to find one or two came out considerably higher,
giving a value approximating to that of Regnault.

Considering the various sources of error in an experi-
ment of this kind, one of the first things one might expect
to be accountable for such differences is the thermometer
used. All the experiments, including those to be described,
were made with the same thermometer, one of French
hard glass,,/by Baudin of Paris (No. 12,771), similar to,
and made in the same batch as the one used in the
calorimeter by Schuster and Gannon in their determina-
tion of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (Roy. Soc.
Trans., 1895, Vol. 186). This thermometer had been most
accurately calibrated and compared by them with a Tonne-
lot Standard, whose constants had been determined at the
Bureau Internationale des Poids et Mesures at Sevres.
The scale of the thermometer I used extended from
o°—13°, Dr. Schuster’s from 12°—25°, and by his kindness
I was allowed to obtain by direct comparison the correc-
tion of my thermometer at 12°. Thus from determinations
of the zero corresponding to this temperature, and a
calibration of the stem from oO—12, made with various

*The highest value was 5259, the lowest 5236, or, excluding one
experiment done under abnormal conditions, 5241, the mean in that case
being 524°8.

40 Dr. J. A. HARKER on

threads, one, two, three, and six degrees in length, I could
obtain the value of the fundamental interval and the
correction for each whole degree of the scale. Except
the one for the fundamental interval, the corrections were
found to be so small that even in the measurement of
an interval, where the two corrections had to be added
together, they were almost negligible.

The next question that might be raised is with regard
to the dryness of the steam formed in the boiler, and its
possible partial condensation on its way to the calorimeter.

In order to maintain regularity of boiling in the glass
apparatus, in all the experiments a few pieces of crumpled
platinum foil were put into the generator, and in no case
was the flame allowed to impinge directly on to the glass,
the whole of the glass surface being surrounded by a
double layer of copper gauze. In order to test if liquid
particles, formed by the bursting of steam bubbles on the
surface of the water, could by any chance pass over into
the calorimeter, the following test was devised :-—

The boiler was filled with a 5% solution of potassium
permanganate, and the distillate examined calorimetrically
in Nessler glasses. The experiment was repeated under
varying conditions and with different rates of boiling, in
some cases much faster than in any L determination,
but in no case could any certain colouration be detected
in the distillate, even though if one part in ten thousand
had been carried over in the liquid form it could easily
have been recognised.

The further question, as to whether the steam, even
though dry on leaving the generator, might not on its
way to the calorimeter lose some heat by radiation, and
thus hold condensed water in suspension, was more
difficult to decide. One obvious thing to be done was
to make the path of the steam from the generator to
the condenser as short as possible.

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. 41

With the Berthelot apparatus and the modification of
the same referred to above, the source of heat for the
boiler must lie underneath it and directly above the
calorimeter. Many different kinds of lids were used to
protect the calorimeter from the heat radiated by this
flame, but the total correction could seldom be reduced
below 3% of the observed rise, and on this there remained
some little uncertainty.

A metal apparatus was now designed in which the
heat was supplied by an electric current passing through
a coil of wire immersed in the water of the generator.
This is shown in Fig. 1. A cylinder of copper, A B,
8 cm. diam. and 20 cm. long, is provided above and
below with brass plates, which screw up against leather
washers, making a steam-tight joint. Through the lower
plate is fixed, centrally, a vertical brass tube 6 mm.
internal diam., which passes up the cylinder to just under
the upper plate and downwards to the steam-trap D,
consisting of a short piece of wider tubing having a
screw plug at F.

From this trap the steam passes along the inclined
tube to the three-way tap C, by which it can either be
led away by the horizontal tube or downwards to the
condenser. The whole of the tubes outside the boiler
were wrapped with #in. lead. pipe, known in the trade
as “‘twigging,” through which a current of steam from a
second boiler could be passed. I found this a most
effectual and convenient way of jacketing any pipes which
had to be protected from radiation, and it was often used
in these experiments.

The construction of the coil for supplying heat to the
water in the boiler gave considerable trouble. Although a
coil of bare wire could be wound on smooth supports so
tight as to be perfectly satisfactory when used in cold
water, yet at 100° it always became loose, and short

42

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Dr. J. A. HARKER on

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Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. 43

circuiting took place. In addition, platinoid, manganin,
and pure nickel wires were all strongly attacked at 100°,
when a current large enough for supplying the necessary
amount of heat is sent through them for any length of
time. Particularly with manganin, corrosion was found
to have taken place near the positive pole, and in this case
the liquid left in the boiler after an experiment had a con-
siderable quantity of a flocculent greenish yellow precipitate
in suspension, which was found to contain manganese.
The experiment showed, however, that the supply of the
necessary heat from an internal source had several advan-
tages over the flame, and since in this case the whole of
the boiler and tubes above the calorimeter could be
wrapped with felt or other non-conducting material, the
correction for the heat gained by the calorimeter from
external sources was greatly diminished. It was, therefore,
thought worth while to make a new frame wound with a
coil of platinum wire, which would not, at all events, suffer
from corrosion. A satisfactory form of frame was at last
constructed of stout brass wires, on which were slipped
corrugated pillars of ‘“‘red fibre,” a fairly good insulating
substance, which does not soften at 100° to the same
extent as ebonite. These pillars were held in position by
rings of the same fibre, through which the brass wires
carrying the current to and from the coil passed. The
leading-in wires were so arranged that the ends of the
platinum coil were as far apart as possible to reduce any
possible conduction through the water to.a minimum.
The upper ends passed out to insulated terminals on the
brass lid. Two thin platinum wires in parallel were found
to be more satisfactory than a single thicker one. The
resistance of the coil which gave the most satisfactory
results was about 5 ohms, and the current employed varied
from 53 to 74 amperes, according to the rate of boiling
desired. Both with this apparatus (when no steam is

44 Dr. J. A. HARKER on

passing through the jacket) and the Berthelot form, a con-
siderable quantity of water is volatilised and condensed in
the lower part of the tube before the water really boils.
Berthelot makes no mention of this, and it is difficult to see
how it can be allowed for in the calculation of his results.
By the provision of the small steam-trap described, any
condensed water can be drawn off when the boiling has
commenced, and even if this is not done it is prevented
from lodging in the pipe and afterwards being carried on
into the condenser.

Many experiments were made with this apparatus, using
the same calorimeter as in the earlier experiments, which
held about 1,700 grms. water, stirred by an up-and-down
stirrer. The condenser was of thin sheet copper with
spiral of narrow copper tube. It was joined to the vertical
tube projecting downwards by a piece of ebonite into which
it was screwed, and it was always arranged that the water
level of the calorimeter reached to the middle of this
piece of ebonite. By this means the otherwise very
considerable evaporation of the calorimeter water from
the surface of the vertical steam-pipe was entirely
obviated, conduction of heat downwards during the
initial and final periods of the experiments very much
lessened, and at the same time an efficient detachable
joint formed. It was some time before the cause of
the anomalous results obtained with this first condensing-
worm was explained. It lay in the fact that during
the passing of steam into the condenser, minute cracks
in the copper tube, caused probably by the strain of
the bending into its spiral form, allowed a small quantity
of water from the calorimeter to leak inwards to the con-
denser, even though when cold all remained quite tight for »
hours. This was obviated by the use of solid drawn
copper tube in all subsequent experiments, instead of the
usual kind with brazed seam.

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. 45.

When this alteration had been made experiments with
this apparatus also showed the curious result that though
the majority gave about 525 as the value of L, agreeing
with the results of the earlier work, yet occasionally a result
would come much higher, thus pointing to the hkelihood
of the existence of some undiscovered source of error.

XX SOOCOOF
° 3

1G, Be

After much seeking this was at last found to be a
defect common to all forms of apparatus where the
steam entered the condenser by a vertical pipe, including
the method just described and both Berthelot’s and the
modified form of glass apparatus. The defect was shown
by the followme experiment. (Fig. 2:) The steam-
delivery tube of the electrical boiler was fixed by means of
a cork into the mouth of a glass cylinder. The whole of

46 Dr. J. A. HARKER on

the steam tubes leading from the boiler, together with the
cylinder, were wrapped with the lead pipe described pre-
viously, and covered by several layers of green baize. A
side tube in the wall of the cylinder was arranged so as to
be nearly opposite the end of the steam-delivery tube,
and a small metal vessel was placed so as to collect any
drops from it.

After steam from a subsidiary boiler had passed through
the steam jacket for about half an hour, and steam from
the electrical boiler along the horizontal tube for some
minutes, the three-way tap was turned so that the steam
was sent downwards, and the point of the tube B was
watched for about ten minutes. During this time two or
three large drops (‘o5—"2 cc.) of condensed water formed
and fell off imto the vessel. ~The experimenters
repeated under varying conditions and with steam from
different sources, but always with the same result. The
average total weight of water condensed in the two small
forms of glass apparatus is only about Io grms., and this
amount of uncertainty is quite sufficient to make the results:
untrustworthy.

Before attempting to make a new apparatus, I wished
to ascertain if it were possible to efficiently stir a larger
calorimeter in order that by increasing the water equiva-
lent the amount of water condensed might be increased
without necessitating a greater rise of temperature than
had previously been obtained. The up-and-down stirrer,
which has the objection of being always more or less
inclined to shake the calorimeter, has the further dis-
advantage that unless the blades and supporting rod are
very thick, they require a cage of guide-rods on which to
slide, which occupies a considerable part of the space in
the water. On the other hand, in a round calorimeter, a
rotating stirrer is not efficient, unless the blades are large
in proportion to the vessel, and it requires also to be placed

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. 47

in a position about half-way between the centre and
~ circumference, leaving but little room for any large object
in the water. I found, however, that by making the
calorimeter oval in section and by placing the rotating
stirrer, having two or three sets of screw blades, near one
end, arranging the direction of its rotation that the water
was lifted, excellent stirring could be obtained. At the
same time a large amount of space in the calorimeter was
left free for the condenser, and the thermometer need not
be exposed to any danger from being caught by the fast-
moving blades. In cases where the space over the
calorimeter was not fully taken up, I found it extremely
convenient to fasten the brass stirrer shaft direct to the
armature of a small Cuttriss motor supported by a steel
rod, with universal joint, from a firm iron retort stand.
The motor can be driven by one or two small accumulators,
and its direction of rotation changed or speed altered
simply by rocking the brushes. This arrangement saves
all troubles with belts or gearing. Conduction of heat
along the stirrer shaft is prevented by a piece of ebonite,
into which the brass wire carrying the blades and the steel
spindle of the motor are screwed. When it was incon-
venient to have the motor so close to the calorimeter, a
framework of iron was clamped at a considerable height
to a heavy iron retort stand, carrying a rotating shaft
which could be driven from the motor by a cord and
suitable pulleys. This shaft was adjusted to be perfectly
vertical, and the stirrer was hung freely from it, being only
loosely screwed to it by one or two turns of thread, several
rubber washers being placed between the two parts. A
cup placed on the shaft prevented the oil from the two
bearings above from reaching the calorimeter. With this
kind of stirrer, when all is in good adjustment, the lower
part, when rotating in the water, steadies itself, and no
vibration is perceptible even at very high speeds, a condi-

48 Dr. J. A. HARKER on

tion difficult to attain if any third bearing be placed on
the shaft. In a calorimeter as described, holding 5 litres,
whose stirrer rotates at about 300 a minute, the level of
the water on one side remains permanently about one
centimetre higher than at the other, and any small objects
in the water can be seen to make the circuit from top to
bottom of the calorimeter many times in a minute.

After many failures, an apparatus was at length con-
structed in which the steam entered at the side as in
Regnault’s form, and in which only such steam as was
condensed within the calorimeter itself could possibly
reach the condenser. This is shown in Fig. 3. Since
a calorimeter of this form required a special ther-
mostat to hold it, I first endeavoured to find, whether
a double layer of the lead-tube jacket previously described
would protect any reasonable length of tubing through
which steam was passing from appreciable cooling, and
finding it to be satisfactory, decided to bring the steam
tube through a slot in the side of the thermostat. This
thermostat was a double-walled vessel of stout zinc,
holding about 50 litres, the interior being of such a size
that, the calorimeter being supported in it by cork feet,
a space of 5cm. was left around it on every side. The
inner wall, lid, and bottom of the thermostat were covered
with platinised copper sheet, which was capable of taking
a high polish, and did not tarnish with the rapidity of
a silvered surface. The detail of the leading-in tube is
shown in Fig 3. The steam from the boiler passes along
the jacketed tube A B, which is screwed into the ebonite
tube CD. This is cemented tight, and held by screws
in a brass collar, which is bevelled so that it is inclined
to the vertical at about 45°, and is soldered to a stout
brass plate, let into the flat side of the calorimeter. To the
condenser tube is fastened a similar brass plate, through
which are soldered steel screws projecting outwards. The

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. 49

ends of these pass through the plate on the calorimeter,
and the two plates are clamped tight by steel nuts from
the outside. By careful workmanship it is quite possible

Fic. 3.

to make a joint of this kind which will stand considerable

pressure, when the surfaces are slightly greased, provided

that all parts remain at the same temperature ; but it was

found impossible to keep such a joint tight when subjected
D

%

50 Dr. J. A. HARKER on

simultaneously to the heat ofthe steam within, and toexternal
cooling by the calorimeter water. Accordingly a washer of
thin sheet rubber, with the necessary holes for the screws,
was first moistened on both sides with a solution of pure
india-rubber in vaseline, and placed between the surfaces.
This formed an excellent joint, which never failed in a single
experiment, the condenser being at the same time easily
detachable for weighing. In order to prevent the crushing
of the rubber ring from closing the passage for the steam,
a very short tube H was soldered to the calorimeter
projecting downwards and inwards about 3 or 4 mm.
into the condenser tube. It will be seen that from the
highest point of the two inclined tubes the slope is such,
that whatever steam condenses in metal reaches the
condenser, and that condensing in ebonite flows back,
lodging at the bottom of the tube. As a drop of water
always remained hanging on the tube H, this was dried
in each experiment after removing the condenser by a
piece of weighed filter paper, and the increase in weight
added to that of the water in the condenser.

The steam jacket reached as far as a collar turned on
the ebonite tube CD, and before every experiment this
jacket was heated to a few degrees above 100°, so as more
quickly to bring the parts within it to that temperature.
It was found that when the lead coil was not directly in
contact with the pipes round which it was wound, and
steam at 110° had been passing through it for half an hour,
no appreciable superheating could be detected in a current
of steam passed through the central tube (about 50 cm.
long) even at a very slow rate. Hence it was thought
advisable to minimise all risk of condensation on the walls
of the steam tube proper, by maintaining the jacket always
above 100°. As the coil of lead was of considerable length,
and its small bore offered a fair resistance to the passage
of the steam, its temperature varied slightly from end to

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. 51

end. By governing the gas supply to the burner under
the boiler with a Moitessier’s glycerine gas-regulator, the
rate of boiling could be kept constant. Also the pressure
under which the water boiled could be adjusted to any-
thing up to 1,300 mm., by connecting the receiver in
which the steam from the jacket condensed, with a large
vessel provided with a manometer, a small compression
pump, and a Staedel’s pressure regulator. By this regulator
the pressure could easily be kept constant to within *5 mm.
of mercury.

Since for the new apparatus a larger supply of steam
was necessary than for the earlier experiments, it occurred
to me that by superheating the steam from an ordinary
boiler strongly, then reducing its temperature to a few
degrees above the boiling point, I should be able to get
rid of any particles of water which might possibly be
carried over, and at the same time, by measuring the
temperature of the steam just before it entered the
calorimeter, have a guarantee that no condensation had
occurred on the way, since it seems extremely improbable
that even very slightly superheated steam should contain
liquid particles.

The steam was generated in a flat-shaped copper
boiler, heated as uniformly as possible over its lower
surface by a ring burner. From this it passed to the
superheater, which consisted of a long coil of solid drawn
copper pipe placed in a horizontal furnace on the principle
described by Lothar Meyer (Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges.,
16a, 1087). Beyond the furnace was a wider tube in which
was a thermometer giving the temperature to which the
steam had been superheated. It then passed through the
salt-bath, which consisted of a vertical cylinder of stout
copper, through the walls of which was fastened a coil of
6—7 metres of copper pipe, surrounded by a salt solution
boiling at 103°. A reversed condenser prevented the con-

52 Dr. J. A. HARKER on

centration of this solution by escape of steam. Leaving
the salt-bath, the steam now passed through a wider
vertical tube in which was placed a second thermometer.
At the lower end of this tube was a large three-way tap,
which made communication either with an ordinary metal
Liebig’s condenser or the calorimeter. The inclined tube
leading to the calorimeter was provided near its centre
with a union joint, which permitted the parts beyond to
be detached when the condensing-worm had to be
removed for weighing.

The thermometer by which the temperature of the
steam leaving the salt-bath was measured was a very
small one of Jena glass, by Geissler, with milk glass scale
reading from 50°—105°, and passed through a piece of
sheet rubber, leaving only one or two degrees of the scale
projecting through it. It could easily be read to °05
degree, and its boiling point was controlled during the
experiments.

The water for the calorimeter was measured in a cali-
brated copper vessel with glass neck, holding approximately
4,900 grms. up to a certain mark. Its volume was
carefully determined in three different ways, and a table
constructed of its capacity at different temperatures. The
condenser was weighed before and after each experiment
on an Oertling balance to milligrammes, it having been
found that the grease used on its flange in making a
water-tight joint could easily be wiped off to within this
amount without any special precautions.

Its weight when empty was about 250 grms. In
the three first experiments of the series the temperature
of the steam as it entered the calorimeter was measured
by means of a nickel-copper thermojunction placed in a
narrow tube let into the stopper of the inclined piece of
ebonite fastened to the calorimeter. The other junction
was placed in a similar tube surrounded by steam at 100°,

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. 53

and the excess above this temperature of the measuring
junction was determined by direct deflection of a suitable
low-resistance galvanometer. As, however, this con-
siderably increased the work of an experiment, a second
observer not being available, it was omitted in the later
experiments, since it was found that after half an hour’s
heating the lower part of the ebonite tube always reached
100°.

As the calorimeter rose during the “‘ middle period”
about one degree per minute, the lag of the thermometer
was found to be considerable, and consequently was deter-
mined approximately for this rate of rise, the resultant
correction being an addition of about ‘1° to each of the
readings during the passing in of the steam.

The experiments were carried out almost exactly as
described in the preliminary paper, except that an auto-
matic signalling arrangement gave a warning, and indicated
the time for the thermometer readings to be made by the
observer at the telescope.

After one or two preliminary experiments to test the
working of the apparatus, a series of eight consecutive
determinations was made with superheated steam, the final
corrected results of which are given below. One experi-
ment is omitted on account of a slight uncertainty in one
of the corrections.

(1) 64072 Cer ey
(2) 638-7 (6) 64374
(3) 639°5 (7) 6416
(4) 639°9

Mean =640'9
Three experiments were also made, using steam direct
from the boiler without superheating; the mean of them
was 639°0, a little lower than the above result, but as the
probability in this case that the steam enters the calori-
meter in a dry state, is not so great, I prefer to omit
them from the general result. The mean of the above

54 Dr. J. A. HARKER on

numbers, 640°9, expresses the total heat necessary to raise
one gramme of water from 0° to 100° and convert it into
steam at that temperature under a pressure of 760 mm. of
mercury, the unit of heat being the amount necessary to
raise one gramme of water through one degree of the
mercury scale of the French hard-glass thermometer in
the neighbourhood of 17°, the mean temperature of the
calorimeter in my experiments.

Assuming with Regnault that 100°5 of such units are
required to heat unit mass of water from 0°—100°, we have
then from these experiments 540°4, a number differing but
little from the usually accepted number of Regnault, the
difference being in the opposite direction to that given in
the preliminary experiments. As it is quite possible that a
trace of the water which was always found condensed
in the ebonite ‘“‘leading-in”’ tube ought to have entered
the calorimeter, thereby increasing the weight of the
water found and lowering L, this small difference might in
this way be easily accounted for.

During the progress of my experiments, Mr. E. H.
Griffiths* has been conducting an elaborate investiga-
tion on the latent heat of steam at temperatures below the
boiling point. From the values he obtains from experi-
ments at 30° and 4o°C., Mr. Griffiths calculates by
extrapolation that at roo° the latent heat would be 536°6
mean calories, assuming from Regnault’s experiments that
L is a linear function of the temperature. This result is
a remarkable confirmation of the accepted value of
Regnault obtained nearly fifty years ago. It is to be
hoped that Mr. Griffiths will extend his observations over
the wider range he originally intended, 10°—60°, since
there seems to be some doubt as to the accuracy of
Regnault’s values for L at temperatures other than 100°.

* Phil. Tvans., Vol. 186, 1895 A, pp. 261-341.

Some Experiments on the Latent Heat of Steam. 55

Also the results of extrapolation over six times the range
covered by the experiments must necessarily be somewhat
doubtful.

I do not wish my work to be considered as at all
ranking as a determination of the value of L, but rather
as pointing out the errors into which an observer may
fall when designing a method and the necessary apparatus
for such a determination. With few exceptions, each
alteration I made in the apparatus and methods used
led me nearer to that of Regnault, and to understand
the great advantage of working on the large scale
adopted by him after many months of preliminary
experiments, and were I to continue the work with the
ultimate intention of making a redetermination of L with
the highest possible accuracy, I should not think of using
a calorimeter of less than 20 litres capacity.

In conclusion, I must express my thanks to Dr.
Schuster and to Mr. Hartog for the loan of some of the
apparatus used and for several valuable suggestions ; to the
Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society for aid
in covering some of the expenses; and especially to my
friend Mr. John Wild, in whose laboratory the greater part
of these experiments were performed, and who, on occasions
where more than one observer was necessary, was always
most kind in giving his assistance.

56 PROCEEDINGS.

[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Ordinary Meeting, January 13th, 1896.
CHARLES BAILEY, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. RoceErs exhibited 30 species of South and South
East African land shells, collected by J. S. Gibbons,
M.B., and gave a few interesting particulars as to
localities and habitats. Amongst them were specimens
of Cyclostoma transvaalense, Pretoria; Cyclostoma foveolatum,
Port Alphred, both species lately described by Messrs.
Ponsonby and Melvill; Bulimus Mozambicensis, Mozam-
bique; Cerithidea decollata, found on trunks of trees and
bushes in a marsh, Natal; and Melampus, sp., under a
human skull in a marsh, Zanzibar.

PROCEEDINGS. 57

General Meeting, January 21st, 1896.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected ordinary mem-
bers of the Society: CHARLES HENRY WoRDINGHAM,
A.M.Inst.C.E., Chief Engineer, Manchester Corporation
Electric Works; JOHN LawRENCE HINDLE, Cotton
Manufacturer, Padiham; WILLIAM THORBURN, M.D.,
B.Sc., F.R.C.S., Rusholme Lodge, Rusholme, Man-
chester; THOMAS THORP, Engineer, Whitefield, near
Manchester; FRANK ARMSTRONG, Optician, Oakfield,
Urmston.

58 PROCEEDINGS.

Ordinary Meeting, January 21st, 1896.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Professor HORACE LAmp, F.R.S., called attention to a
peculiar spinning property of Neolithic flint celts, or axes,
the implement readily spinning clock-wise on a plate of
glass, but refusing to spin in the reverse direction.

Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., attributed the
phenomenon to the fact that the celts were chipped
with the right hand, and had therefore a bias, an
explanation which Professor LAMB confirmed.

Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., exhibited an oil
portrait of Dalton, the history of which is unknown.

Mr. HENRY WILDE, F.R.S. (the chair being taken
meanwhile by Dr. ScHUNCK, F.R.S.), read a paper on
the ‘Indefinite Quantitative Relations of the Physical
and Chemical Forces.”

PROCEEDINGS. 59

Ordinary Meeting, February 4th, 1896.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Misi ARnOG Wa. 5e.,) called attention |to? va
photograph of a diseased thigh-bone taken through the
tissues by means of Réntgen’s rays at the Trousseau_
Hospital, Paris.

Mr. Henry WILDE, F.R.S. (the chair being taken by
Dr. SCHUSTER meanwhile); read an additional note on
‘“‘ The indefinite quantitative relations of the physical and
chemical forces.’”’ He exhibited a series of 50 test tubes
filled with a solution of copper sulphate, through which a
constant electric current was established, and urged that
as a constant amount of copper would be deposited in
each cell as well as in the Daniell’s cell, 50 times as much
copper would be deposited in the series as in the single
Daniell’s cell. He maintained that if the cells were
indefinitely multiplied the electrolysis would be inde-
finitely increased in the same way. He added that the
same principle finds expression in organic nature in the
indefinite increaseof physico-vital force from the multipli-
cation of microbia; in the indefinite multiplication of
higher organic species through individuals endowed with
special organs and functions; and in the transformation of
vital into mental force. A discussion ensued, in which
Professor HorACE Lamps, Dr. LEEs, Professor SCHUSTER,
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, and others took part.

Professor Boyp DAWKINS, F.R.S., made a com-
munication on the use of divining-rods for the discovery
of underground water, with special reference to some
recent prominent reports on the subject. In the course

60 PROCEEDINGS.

of his remarks he exhibited actual specimens of the forked
twigs used, and gave an account of personal observations
of the process. Walking with a ‘‘diviner’’ who used the
twigs, he marked the places where they ‘“‘pointed” on the
outward journey, and the walk being reversed, with the
twigs still in use, he made similar records on the return
along the same route, and found that the two series
did not coincide. He attributed the “pointing” to
the—perhaps unconscious—muscular movements of the
hands due to the constrained position in which the twigs
were held, and practically condemned “divination” as
entirely illusory and valueless.

Relations of the Physical and Chemical Forces. 61

On the Indefinite Quantitative Relations of the
Physical and Chemical Forces. By Henry Wilde,
F.R.S.

(Received January 21st, 1896.)

Among the generalisations founded upon modern dis-
coveries of the various properties of matter, few are of
greater importance than that of the definite quantitative
relations of the physical and chemical forces. Through
the labours of a number of illustrious workers in science,
this generalisation has come to be regarded as an absolute
and universal truth, embracing all cases where the forces
of nature are manifested or transformed.

While everyone will admit the truth of the principle of
conservation under the limiting conditions in which it has
been presented for acceptance, yet, there is another prin-
ciple in direct opposition, but at the same time containing
the principle of conservation, which, from its incommen-
surableness and other causes, is but dimly recognised by
modern scholastic science.

(I.) That equal weights balance each other, and are
balanced by equal mechanical forces, is a generalisation
which would be tacitly recognised by primitive peoples
ages before language was invented to express such
relations. The earliest demonstration of this elementary
truth is seen in the balances figured in the papyral Book
of the Dead,* and in the inscriptions on Egyptian tombs
more than 6,000 years ago.t Fig. I represents a simple

* Facsimile of the Papyrus of Aniin the British Museum. Plate 3.
t+ Sir Gardner Wilkinson’s Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Egyptians. Vol. III., p. 222.

62 Mr. H. WILDE on the Indefinite Quantitative

balance used for weighing gold, copied from one of these
tombs.

That unequal weights balance each other, and that an
indefinitely small weight or mechanical force will balance
and overcome the greatest, are propositions antithetical to
the preceding, which, before the discovery of the properties
of the lever, would be justly considered as false. This
proposition, which is now regarded as axiomatic, has its
most striking demonstration in the modern compound
weighing-machine, wherein the weight of a few pounds,
acting through a series of levers, will balance another
weight of many tons.

ISTE. be

In the historical development of machines for weighing,
it will be obvious that the simple balance preceded the
steel-yard and the compound-lever machine; the latter
inventions being the product of a higher order of intelli-
gence than the former.

It is difficult to realise the vast importance of the
lever (irrespective of its function in the mechanism of
animal life) in its several orders and forms as an agent of
civilisation. Without this power cities could not be built,
nor engineering works of any magnitude be constructed.
The numerous arts of life would have no existence, and
man could never have risen from his primitive savage
condition to a higher scale of being. The reputed saying

Relations of the Physical and Chemical Forces. 63

of Archimedes, “‘Give me a place to stand upon and I
will move the world,” possesses a far greater significance
in the infinite uses to which the lever is applied in our
complex civilisation, than in the hyperbolic enunciation
of the principle of the indefinite quantitativeness of the
mechanical forces recorded of the Syracusan philosopher.

(II.) That definite quantities of mechanical force will
generate definite quantities of heat has been tacitly recog-
nised for thousands of years by native races throughout
the world in the various methods of producing fire by the
friction of two pieces of wood. One of these methods,
shown in Fig. 2, is taken from a prehistoric Mexican
picture-writing, wherein a native is seen twirling a drill,
while the fire comes out from the hole where the point
revolves.*

FIG. 2,

Just as the smallest weight or force will balance and
overcome the greatest, so through the action of the lever
an indefinitely small amount of mechanical force will
induce an indefinitely large amount of heat. This
proposition finds abundant illustration in the friction
dynamometer; in brakes as applied to carriages and

* Lord Kingsborough’s Antiquities of Mexico. Vol. II. Bodleian
Laud MS.

Tylor’s Researches into the Early History of Mankind, p. 242.

64 Mr. H. WILDE on the Indefinite Quantitative

railway trains ; also in the shaping of materials by cutting
and abrasive processes, where the heat of friction is
induced by manual power multiplied through lever
arrangements and the expenditure of mechanical force.

(III.) That definite quantities of magnetic and electric
force hold each other in equilibrium is an axiomatic
proposition recognised by every student of physical
science, and is amply demonstrated in a variety of
instruments for the measurement of these forces.

That quantities of magnetism or electricity indefinitely
small will induce quantities of these forces indefinitely
great is an antithetical proposition which, not many years
ago, would have been justly regarded as absurd. I have
demonstrated elsewhere* the truth of this proposition by
showing that a small magneto-electric machine, easily
turned by hand, will generate an indefinitely large amount
of magnetism in an electro-magnet, and induce an amount
of electricity in an armature, revolving by steam or other
motive power, sufficient to fuse rods of the most refractory
metals, and to light up a great city with the electric light.

The most simple illustration of the principle of the
indefinite increase of the physical forces from quantities
indefinitely small, is shown in Plate II., Fig. 3, where the
short arm of a lever presses, through the intervention of
an iron segment, against the periphery of a wheel, also of
iron, revolving against it. With a constant velocity of the
wheel it will be evident that the amount of heat generated
at the rubbing surfaces will increase with the distance from
the fulcrum of the weight or force on the long arm of the
lever, and, if the length of the lever be increased indefinitely,
the amount of heat generated will be indefinitely great.
If, now, the iron segment constitute the pole of a powerful
electro-magnet excited by the current from a magneto-

* Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. XV. (1866) ; Phil. Tvans., Vol. CLVII. (1867).

Relations of the Physical and Chemical Forces. 65

electric machine, and the brake-wheel represent the
armature, we have precisely similar conditions for the
evolution of electric heat or of current electricity as exist
in the generation of heat by friction; the dimensions of
the electro-magnet and the power of the magneto-electric
machine being strictly analogous to the length of the lever
and the weight acting upon it in determining the
magnitude of the result.

I may also point out, in connexion with this illustration, .
the striking analogy which subsists between the cohesive
and magnetic forces in effecting the conversion of
mechanical power into heat and electricity, as well as the
important function which the cohesive force exercises in
its several modes in determining: (1) the essential
property of rigidity or stiffness of the lever, and (2) the
specific degrees of hardness of bodies through which,
under given conditions, the maximum of frictional heat is
generated.

The various degrees of cohesive force have also their
analogues in the specific conductivities of bodies when
rotating in the magnetic field; the highest conductivity
being correlated with the transformation of the greatest
amount of mechanical power into electric heat or current
electricity. The close agreement between the specific
conductivities of metals for heat and electricity, with
other analogies between these forces, are so well known
that I need only make a passing allusion to them.

Although I have demonstrated the Archimedean
principle of the indefinite quantitativeness of mechanical
force by means of the lever, the principle might be well
illustrated by the inclined plane in its several forms, as
exemplified by the wedge and screw in solids; by
hydraulic pressure in liquids; and by pneumatic pressure
in gases through the wedge-like action of spherical
molecules forced tangentially against each other.

E

66 Mr. H. WILDE on the Indefinite Quantitative

(IV.) That a definite amount of chemical action in
a voltaic cell will produce an equal amount of chemical
action in an electrolytic cell in connection with it, or, as
expressed generally by Faraday, “‘ that the electricity
which decomposes, and that which is evolved by the
decomposition of a certain quantity of matter, are alike,”
and ‘‘that their electro-chemical equivalents are the same as
their ordinary chemical equivalents,’’* is a law well estab-
lished by experiment, and finds important applications
both in abstract and applied science. But the antithetical
principle that an indefinitely small amount of chemical
action in a voltaic cell will produce an indefinitely large
amount of chemical action, is equally true, as I will now
demonstrate.

Let a, Fig. 4, represent a single Daniell’s cell, and
b, c, d, e four or more electrolytic cells containing a
solution of copper sulphate, with a pair of copper
electrodes in each cell. . Now, if one cell 6 be placed in
connection with the Daniell’s cell, an equal amount of
copper will be deposited in both cells, and the weight of
zinc and copper combining with the electrolyte will be in
exact proportion to their chemical equivalents. So far the
experiment is one of the best examples of the law of
definite electrolysis, and has its strict analogue in the
common balance, or the first unit of length on the lever,
Fig. 3. If, however, another electrolytic cell c¢ be placed
in series with the cell 6, and the amount of electrode
surface in contact with the electrolyte be doubled, without
any change being made in the Daniell’s cell, then will the
amount of copper deposited in each cell be the same as in
the previous experiment, and, consequently, the amount
of copper deposited in the two electrolytic cells together
will be double in the same time as with one cell.

* Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity. Phil. Trans. 1834,
pars. 868, 839.

Relations of the Physical and Chemical Forces. 67

By increasing the number of electrolytic cells in series
indefinitely, conjointly with the amount of electrode
surface exposed to the electrolyte, the amount of copper
deposited in each of all the cells in series will be the same
as in the first experiment with one cell only in circuit with
the Daniell’s cell. Hence we have from the chemical
action of a single voltaic cell, an indefinitely large amount
of chemical action produced simultaneously in the electro-
lytic cells, as shown by the galvanometer and by the total
amount of copper deposited. Again, if in an extended
series of electrolytic copper cells an indefinite number of
electrolytic silver-cyanide cells be coupled up in the same
series, an indefinitely large amount of copper and silver
will be deposited simultaneously in the copper-silver series
from the chemical action of a single Daniell’s cell. And,
generally, whenever an electric current is transmitted
through an electrolyte, without the evolution of gas at
the electrodes, an indefinitely small amount of chemical
_ decomposition in a single voltaic cell will produce an
indefinitely large amount of chemical decomposition in
deseties vor velectnolyiic cells) Moreover, as the electric
current from a small magneto-electric machine, turned by
hand, is an efficient substitute for the current derived from
a voltaic cell, the power of one man, or the chemical force
generated in the human body, from which muscular power
is derived, will, consequently, generate an indefinitely large
amount of chemical action in a series of electrolytic cells.

One of the earliest industrial applications, with which
I was associated, of the principle of the indefinite increase
of the magnetic, electric, and chemical forces, from
quantities indefinitely small, was made by Mr. J. B.
Elkington,* in the year 1867, to the electrolytic process of
refining copper. In this now important industry, in which

* James B. Elkington’s Patent, November 3, 1865, No. 2838.

68 Mr. H. WILpdE on the Indefinte Quantitative

many thousand tons of pure copper are produced annually,
slabs of crude copper containing gold and silver are sus-
pended in a number of electrolysing vessels containing a
nearly saturated solution of copper sulphate. Plates of
thin sheet copper are also immersed in the solution,
opposite the slabs of crude copper. A number of these
electrolytic vessels, ranging from 50 to 140, according to
different economical conditions, are coupled up in series ;
the crude copper constituting the anodes, and the thin
plates the cathodes of the arrangement. When an electric
current from a dynamo-electric machine is transmitted
through the series of vessels, the crude copper is dissolved in
the solution, and deposited ina pure state on the thin plates.
The gold and silver alloyed with the crude copper are
precipitated as insoluble deposits, and recovered subse-
quently by well-known metallurgical processes.

In the application of the principle of indefinite electro-
lysis to the refining of copper by quantities of electricity
indefinitely small, it will be obvious that an indefinitely
large amount of metallic copper and sulphate solution
would be required ; but, in order that the amount may be
reduced to the limits of commercial practice, powerful
dynamo-electric machines, absorbing some hundreds of
horse-power, are employed in many establishments. The
immense scale on which this process is now conducted in
various parts of the world masks, in no small degree, the
principle of indefinite electrolysis on which the economic
value of the process depends, and may account for the
principle being so little recognised by scholastic science.
Hence from the lke cause we may have the anomalous
spectacle of learned professors demonstrating the law of
definite electrolysis, and the definite magnetic action of
electric currents, as absolute and universal truths, by
means of copper conductors produced through the prin-
ciple of indefinite electrolysis, and by the use of dynamo-

Relations of the Physical and Chemical Forces. 69

electric machines acting through the principle of the
indefinite quantitative relations of the magnetic and
electric forces.

In viewing historically the Fevelopmient of the principle
of the indefinite quantitative relations of the physical and
chemical forces, it will be seen that, although the principle
is strictly correlated with, and holds good equally in each
of the several departments of science set forth in this
paper, yet, such is the slowness of growth of fundamental
generalisations, that the Archimedean principle of the
indefinite increase of mechanical force is the only one
which, up to the present time, has been universally
accepted; while the principle of the incommensurable
relations of the molecular forces has not advanced,
academically, much beyond the evolutionary stage of the
principle of conservation, tacitly recognised in the ancient
civilisations of Egypt and Mexico.

* The principle of the indefinite quantitative relations
of the molecular forces, as I have shown, is strictly
correlated with the same principle universally accepted
in regard to mechanical force. Exception has, however,
been taken to the demonstration which I have given of
the indefinite relations of the chemical forces in a
series of copper-sulphate cells, on the ground that the
polarisation of the electrodes, or back electro-motive
force, would limit the application of the pabate ree to a
small number of cells.

Although I might have contented myself with the
demonstration of the principle of indefinite electrolysis, by
the indefinitely large amount of electro-chemical effect
produced by powerful dynamo-electric machines, excited

* Note read before the Society, Feb. 4th, 1896.

70 Mr. H. WILDE on the Indefinite Quantitative

by a single voltaic cell, or by quantities of magnetism
indefinitely small, yet, the action of a Daniell’s cell on an ~
extended series of electrolytic cells was so comprehensive,
and, at the same time, suggestive of inquiry into the mode
by which electricity is propagated through liquids, that I
thought it would well serve as an illustration in support of
the principle enunciated in my paper.

That the principle of indefinite electrolysis holds good
in an extended series of copper-sulphate cells in connexion
with a single voltaic cell is demonstrated by the following
experiment.

Fifty test tubes were placed in series and filled with a
solution of copper-sulphate. Electrodes of thick copper
wire were bent into a U form with the legs immersed
in adjoining tubes. When a Daniell’s cell was placed
in the circuit (in which was included a galvanometer),
a constant current of 32° was established through the
series of cells for a period of thirty minutes. Now, by the
law of definite electrolysis, it is obvious that an equal
amount of copper would be deposited in the Daniell’s cell
and in each of the copper-sulphate cells during the time
the current was transmitted. Consequently, we have fifty
times as much copper deposited in the series collectively
as is deposited in the single Daniell’s cell.

There is no reason to doubt that the current from a
single voltaic cell would be transmitted through a much
more extended series of cells than those experimented
with, but enough has been shown to confirm the truth of
the principle of indefinite electrolysis in a number of
electrolytic cells.

An interesting relation between the law of chemical
combination in indefinite multiple proportions, and the
principle of indefinite multiple electrolysis, is seen in the
organic series C,Hy, in which the multiple combining
numbers exceed the experimental series of 50 electrolytic

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Relations of the Physical and Chemical Forces. 71

cells. Melene, C39H¢o, and melissic acid, CapH¢ Oo, the
highest member of the oxides of the extended and un-
broken series of negative formylic radicals, may be cited
as the best examples of chemical combination in indefinite
multiple proportions.

Considering the wide application of the principle of the
indefinite quantitative relations of the mechanical and
molecular forces, it might be expected, from the law of
continuity, that the principle would not be limited to the
forces of the inorganic world. Hence it finds expression
in organic nature: (1) in the indefinite increase of the
physico-vital force through the multiplication of organisms
from individual germs; (2) in the indefinite increase of the |
same force by the multiplication of higher organic species
through individuals endowed with special organs and
functions; and (3) in the transformation of vital into
mental force, through which we are confronted with the
principle of the incommensurable relations of mental
energy, in the definite thoughts of individual minds ruling
(for good or for evil) the lives, thoughts, and destinies of
mankind through past and future ages.

72 PROCEEDINGS.

General Meeting, February 18th, 1896.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected ordinary members :
GEORGE Bowman, M.D., Old Trafford, Manchester; Davip
SPENCE, chemical manufacturer, Manchester.

Ordinary Meeting, February 18th, 1896.

HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Mr. ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S., read a paper on
photographing the solar corona without an eclipse. It
was followed by a paper on the same subject by Mr.
D. E. Packer, who, by means of a pin-hole camera, had
obtained the photograph in question. This was exhibited
on the screen by the electric light, with a series of previous
photographs and drawings, taken during eclipses, for
comparison. The sensitive plate in Mr. Packer’s photo-
graphic apparatus was covered with a thin sheet of copper
to shut off the full sunlight. A discussion ensued, in
which Dr. SCHUSTER and Professor LAmB took part.

Mr. THomaAS Kay read a paper on an earthen vessel
found in the boulder clay at Stockport. The boulder clay
there overlies a bed of “‘wind-blown” sand, which is being
excavated from below as valuable for moulding purposes.
A block of clay fell from a height of ten feet, and a portion
of the jar became visible on the side of the clay.

Sporangiferous Spike from the Middle Coal Measures. 73

On a Sporangiferous Spike, from the Middle Coal
Measures, near Rochdale. By Thomas Hick,
B.A., B.Sc., A.L.S., Assistant Lecturer in Botany,
The Owens College, Manchester.

(Received December 10th, 1895.) .

At a meeting of the Manchester Geological Society,
held on December 11th, 1894, a fossil Fruit-spike, or
Siobilas, was exhilited by S. 5S. PLarr, Esq. F.G.S:,
of Rochdale, which attracted some attention, but was
not definitely determined. Through the kindness of Mr.
Platt, and the good offices of Mr. Bolton, of the Man-
chester Museum, I have had an opportunity of submitting
it to a careful examination, and have drawn up the
following description of it. The history of the specimen,
previous to its coming into my hands, is given as an
introduction to the description, but for this I am indebted
to Mr. Platt, who was good enough to supply me with
the necessary details. .

In the first instance the specimen was turned up by
a workman in a bed of shale that was being worked for
brickmaking at Coptrod, near Rochdale. The geological
horizon of the shale is the same as that at Sparth
Bottoms, which is a little above the Royley, or Arley
Mine, and possibly below the Neddy Mine, both of which
belong to the Middle Coal Measures. The shale is
irregularly bedded, and at intervals is traversed by bands
of the same material, which are harder and more con-
solidated than the rest. It would be from the top of
one of these harder layers that the specimen was obtained.

In the matrix in which it is imbedded, the spike lies.

74 Mr. THomas Hick on a. Sporangiferous Spike

as little more than an impression, and is imperfect at both
ends. It measures 125mm. (5in.) in length, and the
breadth across the bases of the bracts, to be afterwards
described, is I12mm., or about half an inch. Here and
there small fragments of coal, irregular in shape, lie upon
the impression, and suggest that it may have been covered
originally by a thin film of that material.

Like most of the fruit-spikes found in the coal mea-
sures, the one under description consists of, (1) a central
axis, which carries at intervals, (2) whorls of bracts, asso-
ciated with which are, (3) sporangia. On the characters
presented by these several parts, the affinities of the spike
will depend; but seeing that the fossil has no structure,
and only the surface of fracture is open to observation, it
will be obvious that whatever affinities may be suggested
they can only be regarded as probabilities.

The axis is faintly ridged longitudinally, and is for
the most part straight, presenting a slight curvature only
towards the base, which is probably accidental. It is
divided into about 20 internodes, which have a uniform
length of 6mm. (a little over 1-5th inch), save the lowest,
which measures 7 or 8mm. _ Its greater length suggests
the possibility of its being the first internode of the vege-
tative part of the stem that carried the spike. The breadth
of the axis is very uniform along the whole length, and
measures about 4mm. (rather less than 1-6th inch). The
nodes at which the bracts are attached are not swollen,
but are marked with a shallow transverse groove. In
those nearer the lower end are small depressions, which
seem to correspond to the insertions of the anterior bracts,
which have been lost. The depressions, however, are not
well defined, and appear to vary somewhat in position,
some being on the groove itself, and others above or
below it, so that this inference must be taken with some
reservation. It is possible, indeed, that the depressions

from the Middle Coal Measures, near Rochdale. 75

tepresent the points of rupture of the vascular strands,
rather than the insertion of the bracts, and, if so, the
variable position would not be difficult to explain.

The appendages to the axis consisted originally of
whorls of bracts arising at the nodes, but whether or not
they were connate at the base cannot be determined
with certainty. The presence of a midrib is also
uncertain. The specimen shows that the bracts stood
out from the axis horizontally for about 3 or 4mm.,
and then turned upward and outward at an angle
of about 120°, in which direction they continued for
upwards of 10mm. (2-5ths inch). The erect portion
of the bracts appears to have been very narrowly
lanceolate in shape, and to have had a somewhat
elongated apex. The number in each whorl was not a
large one, probably not more than 20; but an exact
determination is impossible.

The sporangia associated with the bracts are not
well preserved, but the appearances point to the con-
clusion that they were ellipsoidal in form, with the long
axis of each slightly inclined to the vertical and towards
the free portion of the bracts. The sporangial walls
exhibit something like longitudinal foldings; but whether
these existed in the living state or have arisen during
fossilisation it is impossible to say.

On the most critical point of all, viz., the relation
of the sporangia to the bracts and the axis of the
spike, the evidence of the fossil is practically. mi. In
no part of it has it been possible to make out the
presence of a sporangiophore, a structure whose charac-
teristics are of the first importance as a guide to natural
affinities. On the other hand, there is nothing in the
fossil to justify the definite conclusion that such a
structure did not exist. All that can be said is that
the sporangia seem to be sessile on the whorl of bracts

76 Mr. THomas Hick on a Sporangiferous Spike

—on the basal portion of the same, and near the angle
formed with the basal portion by the parts that are
erect. But this appearance might easily be brought
about even if sporangiophores were present, and con-
sequently too much stress must not be placed upon it.

From this description it will be seen that the materials.
for forming an opinion on the affinities of this interesting
spike are very scanty, and, as has already been said, can
only lead to probabilities. That its affinities are not
Lepidodendroid is suggested both by the general appear-
ance of the fossil and the details of its organisation, as
already described. Unless, then, it be of a type hitherto:
unknown, a view which the description given is quite
sufficient to negative, there are apparently only two groups.
to which it may possibly belong, viz., the Calamariee and
the Sphenophyllee.

Unfortunately our knowledge of the spikes belonging
to these groups is not as complete and as detailed as
could be desired, and palzobotanists have not yet suc-.
ceeded in accurately limiting and defining the various
types which they include. The latest attempt to define
and classify Calamarian spikes that has come under my
notice is that of Weiss,* but even this leaves something
to be desired. Taking it, however, as the best that is
available, it will be seen that, including Equisetwm, whose
existence in the Carboniferous period is still doubtful,.
Weiss recognises 10 types of Calamarian fruit-spikes,.
viz., Stachannularta, Calamostachys, Macrostachya, Huttonia, —
Cingularia, Paleostachya, Volkmanma, and Equisetum. Of
these he gives careful descriptions and diagnoses, from
which it appears that in all, save one, the sporangia
are borne upon special organs or sporangiophores, which
are distinct both in form and position from the sterile

* Beitvage zur fossilen Flora-Steinkohlen-Calamarien, mit besondeven Beriich—
sichtigung threr Fructificationem, 1876,

from the Middle Coal Measures, near Rochdale. 77

bracts which in most cases.accompany them. The excep-
tion is the type known as Volkmannia Sternbg., which
Weiss defines as mostly small cylindrical spikes, in which
whorls of bracts alternate with whorls of sporangia.

Now, in the Rochdale spike, as already intimated, it is
not certain that sporangiophores are altogether absent;
but at least it may be said that there are no sporangio-
phores comparable with those met with in all the
Calamarian spikes save Volkmannia. Hence, if the spike
1s to be referred to any of the types enumerated, it can
only be to that of Volkmanma, as defined by Weiss, and
it is an interesting coincidence that in this type the
presence or absence of sporangiophores is not certainly
determined.

But the mere fact of this uncertainty is itself sufficient —
to suggest a doubt as to whether Weiss’s Volkmannia is
properly placed when associated with the Calamarice,
because, in all other known spikes of that group, the
sporangiophores are more or less conspicuous structures,
and such as can hardly escape observation. Weiss
himself was alive to this, and pointed out that Volkmannia
might ultimately have to be associated with or merged in
the genus Sphenophyllum. This being so, we may now
turn to the spikes of Sphenophyllum, and see whether it is
possible to find among them a place for the Rochdale
specimen.

The majority of the fruit-spikes of Sphenophyllum
described and figured in the literature are little more than
impressions like the one before us, and, so far as I know,
there is only one type whose internal structure can be said
to be known. This is the spike described by Williamson
in 1871,* and again in 1874,f under the name of Volk-
manma Dawsom, and in 1890 and 1891 under that

*Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Series III,
Wol. IV.; + Phil. Trans., 1874.

78 Mr. THomas Hick on a Shorangiferous Spike

of Bowmamtes Dawsont.* Subsequently, Zeiller came to
the conclusion} that it was identical with the fruit-spike
described by him as that of Sphenophyllum cunevfolium,
and this conclusion has been adopted by Williamson and
Scott, except as regards the specific identity of the two.t

Now, in this type of Sphenophyllum fruit, sporangio-
phores are present, but they are very different structures
from those met with in the Calamariee. They are so
delicate indeed, and are attached to the bracts and
sporangia in such a way, that if other types have similar
characteristics one need not wonder that impressions of
the fruit-spikes of Sphenophyllum afford few or no traces
of them. In any case, in the absence of distinguishable
sporangiophores, though it is but a negative agreement, we
have one point in which the Rochdale spike agrees with
those of Sphenophyllum.

Figures and descriptions of the spikes of Sphenophyllum.,,
as seen in impressions, are given by both Renault§ and
Zeiller|| among recent writers on the subject. Com-
paring our specimen with these, there is certainly a
strong general resemblance between them, though some -
differences of detail are also met with. According to
Renault? the sporangia of Sphenophyllum are always
placed between the bracts but at the same level, or else
they are inserted upon the upper surface of the same. In
our specimen, the sporangia appear to be upon the upper
surface of the bracts, so that there is agreement on this
point, as there is also in the shape of the sporangia and.
their position with the long axes more or less vertical.
Among the published figures to which the spike bears
some resemblance, reference may be made to those given
by Zeiller of the fruit-spike of what he names Spheno.

* Phil Trans., 1890 and 1891. + Comptes rendus, 1892.

t Phil. Trans., 1895. § Cours de Botanique fossile, 2e Année, 1882.
|| Flove fossile de Valenciennes, 1888. {| Loc. cit., p. 86.

A Sporangiferous Sptke.

eres Vol X. Fiale I

SBBolas & C? Gllotype:

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS, MANCHESTER LIT. AND PHIL.SOC.

from the Middle Coal Measures, near Rochdale. 79,

phyllum cuneifolium var. Saxifragefolium Sternbg.* Here
we have whorls of bracts and sporangia arranged very
much as in our spike, and there is also a general similarity
between the form and appearance of the whole spike.
But, and this is an important point, Zeiller’s spike has,
the bracts connate for a short portion of their length
at the base, a feature which cannot be made out in
our specimen.

It will be seen, then, that the most that can be said
with regard to the affinities of the spike is that in its
general structure and appearance it strongly resembles
the spikes of Spenophyllum. To advance beyond this
we should require clear evidence of the absence or
presence of sporangiophores, as well as of cohesion or
the want of cohesion at the base of the bracts, and
this evidence the specimen does not supply.

The figure on the accompanying plate (Plate III.)
shows the general features of the spike. It is a little
longer than the natural size of the specimen in the ratio
Ole 10) LO;

* Loc. cit.

80 Mr. J. Cosmo MELVILL on

Notes on the Distribution of Simethis Bicolor
(Kunth). By James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.

(Recewed January 7th, 1896.)

I was conducted by the Rev. Edward F. Linton
towards the end of June last summer (1895) to the
isolated spot, just within the boundaries of Dorsetshire,
where this local plant occurs. It is abundant for the
space of some 12 to 15 yards square, nestling in the
soft, dry, peaty turf, at the foot of the pine trees (Pinus
Pinaster Aiton), with which the town of Bournemouth is
very extensively planted. Heather and Agrostis Setacea
Curtis, a grass almost confined, so far as England is
concerned, to the S.-W. counties, also occur in plenty.
Simethis belongs to the section Anthericee, of the order
Liliacee, and is the sole representative in this country
of a section which has several fine European representa-
tives, notably the St. Bruno’s Lily, Paradisea Liliastrwm, L.
so common on the Riviera; and the two Antherica, A.
vamosum L. and Lihago L. It is far more inconspicuous
than these, being weak-stemmed, the star-like perianth,
internally white, externally lilac tinged, almost reposing
on the moss and heather which surround them. The
leaves are all radical, gramineous or grass-like, and the
branches corymbose, diffuse, furnished with leaf-like
bracts on the lower branches of the panicle. The root
is fibrous, very deep-seated. The capsules are globular,
three-celled ; seeds black and arillated; stamens six, with
the filaments woolly below.

The Distribution ef Simethis Bicolor. 81

The following is the synonymy of the species :—

SIMETHIS Kunth, 1843. Enum. Pt. 1V., p. 618.
Syn. :

PuBILARIA Fafinesque. Fl. Tellur. 11., 27 (1836).

Moreacnia Bubani in Now. Ann. Soc. Nat. Bologn.
IX., 1842-3.

SIEBOLDIA Heynh. Nom I1., 664 (1846).

ANTHERICUM Linn. in parte.

PHALANGIUM Tournefort in parte.

BuLBINE Linn. in parte.

SIMETHIS bicolor Kunth, 1843.
Syn.

Anthericum planifoliwum Linn. Mantisse Plantarum.
eG, We (Ges
Phalangiwm planifolium. Pers. syn., Vol. I., p. 367.
Bulbine planifolia. Kom. and Sch. cf. Bertolim. Fl.
Ital.
Phalangium bicolor D.C. Fl. Fr. (1805 - 1813).
Wolk 0 3a, Ao)
Anthericum bicolor Desf. Fl. Atlantica (1798-99).
Morgagma bicolor Bubam cf. Parlatore-—Fl. Ttal.,
Wollsps Goo:
—Simethis planifolia. Wood’s Eng. Bot. Suppl., No.
2,952.

From the foregoing synonymy it would appear, if the
law of strict priority be followed, that Rafinesque’s name
of Pubilavia has precedence, and the Linnean specific
name of planifolia, 1771, must surely come in vogue
instead of Desfontaine’s name, given’ 17 years later.

Granted, however, that Pubilaria planifolia be correct,
we prefer to use the old familiar titles at present, and one
cannot help cherishing a hope, however dim, that the
present rage of name-revolution so especially rife in
America and Germany, but not altogether without its
followers in this country, as the last edition of the London

82 Mr. J. Cosmo MELVILL on

Catalogue bears witness, may yield in time to an inter-
national agreement that when generic or specific names
have been in general use for over 50 or 75 years without
let or hindrance, even though they be antedated by terms
obsolete and forgotten, these universally known cognomina
be permitted to be retained.

Formerly, then, included in Anthericum L., Kunth
separated his Szmethis bicoloy from that genus, owing to
the filaments being bearded in the lower half; in all
other respects it agrees with the larger genus, so well
known by the fine species A. Liliago L., which adorns
grassy hills in France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.

S. bicolor has the flower stalks more lax, so that they
with difficulty support the numerous capsules. The tuft
of fasciculated fibrous root-bundles is likewise charac-
teristic, as are also the bicolorous perianth, white within,
lilac exteriorly. The leaves also are flattened, more so
than in the true Anthericum of Europe.

As regards the distribution of this plant, it may be
called essentially an occidental European species.

Nyman (Conspectus Fl. Eur., p. 719) gives the follow-
ing localities :—

Hibernia (co. Kerry).

Anglia (Dorsetshire, nr. Bournemouth).

Gallia occidentalis, centralis, meridionalis (dep. Var.)

Lusitania.

Hispania borealis. Granada (S. Roque).

Corsica.

Sardinia.

Hetruria (La Maremma).

Outside Europe, it: is reported from

(a) Morocco.

cf. Ball. Spic. Flor. Maroccane in Journ. Linn. Soc.,
Vol. XVI., p. 693, where the localities are given :—

Maron. sept. circa Tanger, et copiosé in Monte

The Distribution of Simethis Bicolor. 83

Djebel Kebir (Salzmann) Tetuan (Webb Herb.)
(b) Algeria.
G. Munby et al.
This plant is well represented in my herbarium, and
that of Mr. Charles Bailey, F.L.S., from the following
sources :—
HIBERNIA.—Derrynane, co. Kerry; coll. Scully.
ANGLIA.—Bournemouth, only within the Dorsetshire
boundary ; coll. ipse, June 24, 1895, Rev. E.
P. Einton, “Auge Steuart.

GALLIA.—Environs de Toulon; E. Bourgeau, 1848
(comm. per H. C. Watson.)

Environs de Pau, Basses Pyrenees; coll. E.
Malinvaud, 1883.

“Pyrenees and South of France”; Dr. Southby,
per Botanical Society of London.

Hyéres, 4 Trois Ponts (Herbier Jordan), Bois de
Poré prés Saumar, Maine et Loire; coll. E.
Reveliére, 3 Mai, 1852 (E. Bourgeau).

Lande de Moncut a Dax. Dept. des Landes, Unio
Itin. (Endress.). Mai, 1831. ‘“‘ Var. foltis torti-
libus.”

Marée Maine et Loire; Hy. Gaston Genevier, 3
Juin, 1855.

Chinon; Indre et Loire, g June, 1876; coll. E.
H. Tourlett.

Forét de Luynes, Indre et Loire, May-June, 1854;
coll. J. Delaunay (Billot Exsiccata, No. 1,552).

Gy., Loire et Cher, 7 June, 1888; coll. E.
Martin (Magnier, No. 2,073).

Longueville Loire et Cher, 17 May, 1878; coll. E.
Martin.

Ste. Flaive, Vendée, 26 May, 1881; coll. ch.

_ Pontarlier.

La Teste, Gironde; coll. Chantelat.

84 Mr. J. Cosmo MELVILL on

LusITANiA.—Matta de Rangel, April, 1883; coll. A.
Moller (Schulz, 1876).
Girez, June, 18885" coll’) Rev. JRichardigmace
Murray.
Porto, May, 1891 ; Dr. O. Buchtien.
HIspANIA.—Sierra de Palma, Andalusia; E. Reverchon,
1887.
CorsicA.—Bonifacio, maquis de la Trinité, 29 May,
1880; Elisée Reverchon.
SARDINIA.—Maison Carée, March, 1879, et Birkadeus,
‘“‘in ericetis’’; A. Carriez.

Mr. Richard Spruce, in an account of the Botany of
the Pyrenees, gives the following account of its growth
(Hooker, Journ. of Bot., Vol: V:, p. 137): Oneronmmtae
most interesting plants to me was the elegant Phalangium
bicolor, which was found in a heathy tract of ground
called the Landes of Pau, growing in company with
Avena Alpina and A. Thoret.

The desolate region known as the Landes, between
Bordeaux and Bayonne, is evidently the head-quarters
for the Simethis. Here the two species of Pinus Pinaster
Aiton, and maritima D.C., are both planted very exten-
sively, as at Bournemouth. The late Dr. W. Arnold
Bromfield, in the pages of the Phytologist, O.S., Vol.
III., pp. 888, 889 (1850), in the course of some remarks,
too long to quote in full here, points out that, at the
time he wrote, Bournemouth was a perfect pine forest,
the P. Pinaster seeding and sprouting vigorously, and he
also added that the locality was almost on the meridian
of the Landes. He notes the fact that the pines were
planted originally in this latter district for the purpose
of binding the loose sand of that very desolate region,
where the peasantry walk about on stilts, and that they
have since become naturalised there.

The same author (Dr. Bromfield), in the same volume
of the Phytologist, p. 970, visiting the place where Miss

The Distribution of Simethis Bicolor. 85

Wilkins had in 1846 discovered the Simethis, viz, in
the woods of Branksome Tower, E. Dorset, makes the
following remarks, here quoted in full :—

““ Simethis bicolor, very recently discovered on moory
ground, about two miles W. of Bournemouth, towards
Poole, but within the Dorsetshire boundary, will, it
can hardly be doubted, be discovered ere long on
the Hampshire side of that vast heathy tract called the
Poole Basin, which is as remarkably uniform in its
botanical as in its geological features. I visited the
station, by Mr. Borrer’s directions, in October last
(1849), and ‘found the dried remains of the leaves, stems,
and flower-stalks. Its detection still more recently in
Ireland fully confirms it as a genuine native of Britain,
and leads us to hope that it will ultimately prove indi-
genous in many parts of the south-west of England.”

These hopes have not been realised. Upon insufficient
data the plant has been once reported from a similar
situation in. Hampshire; but it still remains, though
unfortunately now much threatened by building opera-
tions, restricted to the same peculiarly small area, but,
thanks perhaps to its tenacious and very deep-rooted
radical fascients, has been able to hold its own, and
slightly extend during the past 50 years.

Sipe. looker in wis last Edition IM of nis
~Student’s Flora,” calls it extinct in England. This is,
of course, erroneous.

The Derrynane locality has never for one moment been
doubted; but the plant is considered genuinely native
there. My own private opinion is that the known
geographical distribution of this plant being mainly
occidental, it is more likely to be an isolated survival of
an ancient indigenous vegetation in this one locality at
Branksome. I am bound to say, however, that no less
than three authorities, and these most competent to give

86 The Distribution of Simethis Bucolor.

an opinion—viz., the Rey. E. F. Linton, of Bournemouth,
one of our leading critical botanists; the Rev. H. M.
Wilkinson, Rector of Milford-on-Sea, Hants, who has paid
much attention to the flora of the locality under discus-
sion; and Mr. Charles Packe, of Stretton Hall, Leicester,
the proprietor of the Branksome Estate at the time of
the discovery,—all are inclined to believe the Szmethis .
was brought with young pines from the Landes district,
and so introduced; but there is no direct evidence to
prove this. I may add that Mr. Hewitt C. Watson
considered it to be an alien or denizen in our islands.

Arrhenatherum Thoret Desm. and Agrostis Setacea Curtis
are the grasses associated with it in the Landes district.
The latter occurs plentifully at Bournemouth; but Mr.
Linton informs me that there is no probability of the
former having been overlooked as the common A. avena-
ceum, for this grass does not occur there.

Mr. Charles Packe writes me, in a letter dated Novem-
ber 28, 1895, that he “‘ removed several large patches
from the original Branksome locality, and planted them
in the neighbourhood of the mausoleum (at Branksome).
They flourished there for several years, but now have
probably all died out, for the fibrous-rooted lilies have
not the vitality of the bulbous ones. Bentham states
the Simethis was introduced with the P. Pinaster from
the Landes, and I am inclined to agree with him,
though, as it 1s stated to occur im) Kerry, gandiiicmea
common occidental European plant, it may be indi-
genous.” .

This slight element of doubt, we are afraid, will
always cling round the plant; but, at all events, it has
been admitted for years to our native list, and no one
seeing it for the first time in its Bournemouth haunt
would consider it otherwise than as wild there as it is
at Dax or other localities in Europe.

Earthen Vase found in Boulder Clay at Stockport. 87

On an Earthen Vase found in the Boulder Clay at
Stockport. By Thomas Kay, Esq.

(Recewved February 18th, 1896.)

The subject of the glacial period i8 one which excites
the greatest interest in the minds of geologists, coming
so closely, as is supposed, to the vestiges of ‘“‘ man’s
first creation.” The discovery of a vase embedded
within the boulder clay of that epoch is my excuse for
bringing it before you. The vessel is of very rude
construction, made without aid from a potter’s wheel,
and the rude scratchings upon it (indicated in the
sketch) show a very infantile form of decoration.

Of course, the first consideration is as to whether
this vase was really, and in fact, embedded in boulder
clay im situ or not. As I was not present at the
time of its discovery, I can only give hearsay evidence
about it. But if I say that the oral evidence given to
myself and Mr. Axon was sufficiently clear, circum-
stantial, and apparently true to justify me in accepting
it, I think that I may venture to ask you to do the same.

88 Mr. THomas Kay on

The evidence of the boy and man who unearthed
this relic is to this effect: that a block of boulder clay
fell from a height of 10 feet; that a portion of the jar
became visible on the side of the clay, from which it
was removed; that two other vessels, one larger and
another smaller, were about it in fragments; that the
vase itself is stained with the peculiar bluish colour of
boulder clay, or “till,” as distinct from the yellowish
brick clay; and that it could not have fallen the height
it did without being smashed unless it had really been
fully embedded. In addition, so far as the credibility of
the witnesses is concerned, there was no object to be
attained by misinforming us. The employer presented
the vase voluntarily without consideration; the other two
jars being hopelessly smashed were of no value, in their
opinion, to anyone, and not worth preservation. These
fragments lie buried beneath the surface of the ground,
and are hopelessly lost. Some tons of material have
been removed in a vain search for them.

In relation to this subject it is well to consider the
geological conditions which haye existed in Stockport
and its neighbourhood. First, we have to the west the
new red sandstone rock extending from it to and beyond
New Brighton, on the Mersey Estuary. Eastwardly, the
new red sandstone existed, and partially does so yet,
covering the remains of an antecedent tropical time after
the coal measures were formed; but this easterly sand-
stone is not consolidated into hardened rock. It exists
as a friable stone, which is easily reduced by a blow into
globular or rounded grains of sand; which sand is of
great use and value for moulding iron and other metals.
This peculiar form of sand is like that of a desert such
as the Sahara. Its grains owe their rounded surface to
the action, by attrition, of the wind, for water contusion
produces angular sand, such as may be found on our

Earthen Vase found in Boulder Clay at Stockport. 89

shores—as at Southport—in rivers, and other places.
These rounded sands are found east of the great fault
which exists in the new red sandstone at Stockport, as
though indicating a prevalence of western winds which
drove them from the red sandstone area thereto, and this
is further indicated by the absence of pebbles. East of
this fault the land was raised. After this tropical period,
which formed the coal measures and new red sandstone,
there succeeded the Ice Age, which brought boulders from
Scotland, Westmorland, and Ireland into our midst, and
the crushing power of those from the Northern Pennine
chain of mountains ground away the new red sandstone
east and north of Stockport, and by this means brought
the coal measures within practical reach. The coal
measures are supposed to underlie the whole of this sand-
stone area. Not only did the icebergs grind away the
soft sandstone, but they deposited enormous beds of
boulder clay, in some places 50 yards thick, as above
the Reddish valley close to Arden, principally east of
the great fault. This fault passes from the Lancashire
side of the river Mersey through the Stockport market-
place, and so on to Poynton in a southerly direction.
It is in one of these beds of boulder clay that the vase
here shown was found, in a layer immediately over the
wind-blown sand, which is in process of being excavated
from below, and which is so valuable for moulding pur-
poses. In the process of excavation, a sufficient working
space having been obtained, the work is carried forward,
and, the soft red sandstone having been removed, the
clay is undermined until the superincumbent mass falls
in and fills up the vacant space. On Saturday, the 4th
of January, one of these falls took place, and this cup
was found as has been described. The vase was found
13 ft. below the present level of the land, of which there
is as follows :—

go Mr. THomas Kay on

SECTION OF PORTWOOD
WHERE THE VASE WAS FOUND.

SOIL. I foot.

GRAVEL. 34 feet.

ALLUVIAL Cray. 84 feet:
i Ve N= NS Ne Ve
VASE in situ.
53 feet above present river

Mersey bed.

BouLDER Cray. II feet.

MOULDERS’ SAND.

Depth
unascertained.

Sir Robert Ball, in writing of the Ice Age, summarises
his reasoning thus: ‘‘We have a picture of a series of
clusters of ice ages and genial ages, each cluster being fol-
lowed by the next, after hundreds of thousands of years.”

We possess this picture in Stockport, at Portwood.
We have these geological changes—these clusters, im situ,
exposed to view, and open to examination.

Earthen Vase found in Boulder Clay at Stockport. gt

The red sand is the drift of a desert which existed
before the glacial period. The boulder clay is the residuum
of aniceage. The alluvial clay, gravel, and mould repre-
sent a portion of the genial age wherein we live.

I know no reason why there should not have been
inhabitants in Britain during the glacial epoch, for are
there not Esquimaux in Greenland, Laplanders in
Europe, and Samoyedes in Northern Asia. If human
beings can now live in these glacialised districts, it
must have been equally possible in Britain when similar
conditions existed. There is, however, a remarkable
absence of evidences of human occupation in the remains.
found in the boulder clay, of which so much has been
excavated for industrial purposes in Great Britain.

My own observation is that the boulder clay at the top
is fissured as if a stream had coursed over its surface and
worn runlets on its face. Now, if any hollow vessel were
dropped into one of the fissures at a time when a river
flowed over it or it was a lake, it would have become filled
with boulder clay if an inrush of alluvial clay, sand, and
gravel came down, crushing in the sides of the fissures, and
burying it therein. The river or lake which in all proba-
bility at that time filled the Portwood valley, gradually
lowered as the red sandstone rock was washed away by
the Mersey, the bed of which river is now 53 ft. below the
level of the place where the vase was found. Hence, it is
required to ascertain the length of time it would take to
abrade for a depth of 53 ft. the Permian and Triassic
rocks in order to ascertain the date of the vase before you,
for there can be little doubt but that this vase was
deposited after the boulder clay was laid, before the
alluvials covered it, and when the river bed was 53 ft.
higher than it is now.

It is hardly fair to take Niagara as a basis of cal-
culation for the recession of a river, for it is a lofty fall

92 Earthen Vase found in Boulder Clay at Stockport.

of 164 ft. from a high rock upon a softer one below,
which, by attrition, is undermined and tumbles in. Its
rate of recession is rather more than 2 ft. per annum;
but it is to be observed that the river above the falls
has hardly lowered its original bed for thousands of
years. It is only at, and below, the falls that it chisels
out the rock before it.

The red sandstone rock at Stockport, as a barrier to
the ancient river Mersey, may be taken for the purpose
of this paper as ending at the present sewage outfall
opposite to Heaton Mersey, a distance of 9,800 feet
from the Permian sandstone fault at Teviot Dale Station.
If we take the retrogression of the Niagara Falls as a
basis of calculation, we have at least a period of 4,500
years since this vase was deposited upon or within the
boulder clay of Portwood.

There are, however, other conditions to be considered
before such a period can be accepted; and these are
the nature of the rock, which is not so hard as that of
Niagara, and the sawing through it by water instead of
its being chiselled out in blocks from its face.

Another point worth mentioning is, that there were
three vases together, of different sizes, to contain the
wine, corn, and oil, or, figuratively, anything which would
denote light, food, and nourishment, and that neither
was large enough to form an urn or cinerarium. As
such vessels were usually placed in mounds, it is obvious
that this mound must have been placed upon the boulder
clay before the inrush of alluvials occurred. Assuming
this, it is plain that the vase, along with the others, was
submerged from a higher level at some flood time, which
silted the boulder clay; and it must have occurred very
soon after, if not during, the glacial epoch. We have, there-
fore, possibly here a specimen of man’s remotest handi-
craft which has, perhaps, ever been found in these islands.

PROCEEDINGS. 93

[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Ordinary Meeting, February roth, 1896.
JouN Boyp, Esq., President of the Section, insthe Chair.

’ Mr. Hype exhibited a plant found in Chili which was
new to the members. It grows in dense isolated masses
Gia stey colour, which, from a distamee, have the
appearance of a flock of sheep. It is said to be used.
locally for fuel.

Mr. ALLEN exhibited a number of leaves of cabbages..
gathered within a mile of Widnes, some injured by fumes
and others showing natural decay. The former were
marked by black and blue metallic spots. Under the
microscope those injured by fumes could be easily
distinguished. The metallic particles (especially iron)
contained in the dust deposited as soot is acted on by
sulphuretted hydrogen and converted into sulphides,
which on leaves (or ice) are observed as metallic-looking
blue spots. These sulphides are principally observed on
damp mornings; they rapidly oxidize and are converted
into sulphates, which are corrosive and leave brown
spots on the leaves.

[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Ordinary Meeting, March gth, 1896.
Joun Boyp, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.

Mr. Rocers referred to the plant exhibited at the
last meeting as having been gathered in Chili, and stated
that it had been examined by Mr. Leo Grindon and

04 | PROCEEDINGS.

Professor Weiss, who expressed the opinion that it
belonged to the Composite, and was near akin to the
Pterygopappus Lawrencia, of Tasmania. The fact that it
was not in flower or fruit made exact identification almost
impossible.

Mr. Rocers also exhibited 17 new species ‘of land
shells of the Family Achatinelling, from the Hawaiian
Islands, which have been recently described and figured
by Mr. Baldwin in the Proceedings of the Academy of
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, for 1895.

Mr. CUNLIFFE exhibited several slides of diatoms
from Siberia and Istria, under the microscope.

Mr. Boyp exhibited sections of the earth-worm under
the microscope.

Mr) |. C. Mervine, MA’, PIL 3S.) exhibited tspeemncm
of Plusia moneta Febr., a striking addition to our English
lists, which has during the past five years been making
itself at home in our southern counties, more particularly
Kent. Mr. M. M. Phipps, of Tunbridge Wells, has been .
fortunate enough to breed some fine specimens from the
egg, he having on two occasions netted ¢’s, and he
forwarded Mr. Melvill four specimens in fresh condition.
One he gave to the Manchester Museum at Owens
‘College; the other three were exhibited.

For comparison Mr. MELVILL showed the other Plusig
in his British and European collection, amounting in all
to 23 species, and a few exotic moths of the same
genus, likewise showing that the inhabitants of the more
temperate climes are more beautifully marked, as touching
this genus, than the tropical. P. mya (V. argenteum)
and P. dives from Russia are amongst the most beautiful
Noctue known.

PROCEEDINGS. 95

Ordinary Meeting, March 3rd, 1806.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

notessor SCHUSTER, PF UR:S.,, save an account of
experiments which have been carried on in the Physical
Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, showing the
shifting of the lines in the spectrum of a metal due to
pressure ; and also exhibited photographs taken by means
of the Rontgen rays of a child’s hand and of the leg of
a frog, which latter showed that the leg had been broken
and had healed.

Mr. D. E. PACKER gave a supplementary account of
his attempts to photograph the sun’s corona by means
of a pin-hole camera with metallic screens over the
sensitive plate, and exhibited further photographs of the
results obtained.

Ordinary Meeting, March 17th, 1896.

Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDs, M.A., LL.D, F.R.S.,
Vice-President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Dr. ScHUSTER, F.R.S., warned the members against
placing too much reliance on published experiments with
the Roéntgen rays, on the ground that many’ single
observations made known had not been confirmed by
further investigations. Conclusions have been too hastily
drawn, and, therefore, have not been subsequently justified.
It seems, however, to be established that there is an
accumulation of evidence of a real state of oscillatory
motion; and that there may bea kind of phosphorescence,

g6 PROCEEDINGS.

as the rays appear to be found in some phosphorescent
states of natural substances, but not in the solar rays or
in the electric arc. A discussion ensued, in which
Professor Drxon, Professor REYNOLDs, and Mr. W.
THOMSON took part. .
Dr. SCHUSTER also described experiments of his own,
from which he has found that it is impossible to keep
an electroscope charged when a beam of the Rontgen
rays 1s passing at a distance of about rinch from the

plate.

Ordinary Meeting, March 31st, 1896.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., showed a method of pro-
ducing Lissajous’ curves by drawing a sine-curve on a
sheet of celluloid, which is then bent into a cylinder of
varying diameter. He also exhibited a specimen of
writing by the telautograph, an instrument for copying
writings and drawings at a distance by electricity.

Mr. THORPE showed a diffraction grating on speculum
metal by Professor Rowland, of Johns Hopkins University,
which divides the helium line in the solar spectrum.

Mr. W. E. Hoye, M.A., exhibited some fine butter-
flies of the genus Papilio, presented to the Manchester
Museum by Lieut. Ellis Leech and other travellers in
the West of Africa; as well as a series of the land shells
of the Sandwich Islands, almost the whole of which
belong to the family Achatinellide. This group is almost
peculiar to these islands, where it presents many slightly
different varieties, each valley often possessing its own.
A discussion on questions of mimicry and other matters

suggested by the specimens followed.

PROCEEDINGS. Q7

[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Annual Meeting, April 13th, 1896.
Joun Boyp, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.

The annual report of the Council and the Treasurer’s
statement were submitted and adopted.

The following gentlemen were elected officers and
Council for the session 1896-97 :—

President : CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S.

Vice-Presidents : JOHN Boyp; JAMES CosMo MELVILL,
Weep. Six. 2. CUNLIEFE! -

Treasurer: MARK STIRRUP, F.G.S.

Secretary : THEODORE SINGTON.

Council: J. F. ALLEN; T. A. Cowarp; ALEXANDER
Hopcxinson, M.B., B.Sc.; W. E. HoyvLe, M.A.; HENRY
wwe a PRANCIS, NicHorson, F.Z:5.; ~C: OLDHAM ;
THOMAS ROGERS. |

Mr. JAMES Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., exhibited
a fine specimen of the Shore Lark (Otocorys alpestris), shot
by his son, Mr. J. C. D. Melvill, in October, 1894, on the
seashore near Heysham, Morecambe Bay. It has been
submitted to Mr. John Wrigley, of Formby, who states
it to be the eighteenth or nineteenth specimen recorded as
captured in the county of Lancaster.

Mr. W. E. Hoye, M.A., described Mr. Field’s card
catalogue system of recording zoological literature. He
also showed a specimen number of the first instalment of
“Das Tierreich,” a work which has been. undertaken by
the German Zoological Society; when complete it will

98 PROCEEDINGS.

contain a diagnosis of all the species of recent animals,
and will, in fact, be for the end of the nineteenth century
what the “‘ Systema natureze”’ of Linné was in his day.

Mr. ALLEN exhibited a large, well-illustrated German
book on the injury suffered by forest trees in Silesia,
principally conifers, due to local industries, entitled,
““Waldschaden im Ober-schlesischen Industrie-bezirk,”’
by Prof. Dr. Bernard Borggrem. Frankfurt. 1895.

General Meeting, April 14th, 1896.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected ordinary mem-
bers of the Society: Mr. George Behrens, Fallowfield ;
Mr. James B. Bindloss, Eccles; Mr. James Clayton-
Chorlton, Didsbury; Mr. Thomas E. Stanton, M.Sc.,
senior demonstrator in the Whitworth Engineering Labo-
ratory, Owens College, Manchester; and Mr. Arthur
Harden, M.Sc., Ph.D., senior demonstrator of chemistry,
Owens College, Manchester.

PROCEEDINGS. 99

Ordinary Meeting, April 14th, 1896.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, F.R.S., exhibited a
slab of Itacolumite, a flexible stone which is associated
with the presence of the diamond.

Mii le. WAvEOR, ECS: FiC., exhibited: a simple
form of apparatus for liquefying some of the more easily
liquefiable gases by means of the compressed gas in an
ordinary cylinder of oxygen.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., read an extract from a paper
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1826, by Jacob
Perkins, ‘‘On the Progressive Compression of Water by
high degrees of force, with some trials of its effects on
other fluids,” in which the writer described the liquefac-
tion of air at 1,000 or 1,200 atmospheres, and of carburetted
hydrogen at 40 atmospheres and upwards. As no cooling
of these gases was described, it is obvious that the lique-
faction could not possibly have been accomplished, the
temperatures being far above the critical points. Professor
Dixon suggested that it was the aqueous vapour which
condensed. This explanation seems most probable in the
absence of any special attempt to dry the gases.

Mr. ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S., exhibited two ruled
plates containing 132 lines to the lineal inch, the plates
when revolved on each other producing remarkable diaper
effects. |

Dr. GEORGE Bowman exhibited two receipts by Dr.
John Dalton, dated respectively June 24 and September
29, 1831, for payments for private lessons in chemistry
at Is. 6d. each, as illustrating the low cost of scientific
education 65 years ago.

I0o PROCEEDINGS.

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, APRIL 28, 1896.
HENRY WILDE, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Mr. HERBERT BOLTON, F.R.S.E., Assistant-Keeper in
the Manchester Museum, was elected an ordinary member.

The Annual Report of the Council was presented, and
it was moved by Mr. J. E. Kinc, M.A., seconded by Mr.
R. L. Taytor, F.C.S., and resolved:—‘‘ That the Annual
Report be adopted, and printed in the Society’s Memoirs
and Proceedings.”

It was moved by Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY, seconded by
Dr. CHARLES BURGHARDT, and resolved :—‘“‘ That the
system of electing Associates of the Section be continued
during the ensuing session.”

It was moved by Mr. W. E. Hoy ce, M.A., seconded
by Mr. Jonn Boyp, and resolved :—‘‘ That the Council
be recommended to take the opinion of the members.
regarding the hours of meeting.”

Mr. Farapay intimated that the expression of his
inability to continue to act as one of the honorary
secretaries, contained in the annual report, was intended
to imply that his engagements would not permit him to
serve on the Council in any capacity during the ensuing
year.

On the motion of Professor REYNOLDS, seconded by
Dr. E. SCHUNCK, it was resolved :—‘‘ That this meeting
expresses the thanks of the Society to Mr. F. J. FARADAY
for the great services which he has rendered to the
Society during his 10 years’ tenure of office as honorary
secretary.”

- PROCEEDINGS. IOI

The PRESIDENT appointed Professor ARTHUR SCHU-
STER, F.R.S., and Professor Horace Lamp, F.R.S., to
act as scrutineers in the election of the officers of the
Society and of the members of the Council for the
ensuing year, and the following gentlemen were declared
elected :—

President : EDWARD SCHUNCK, PH.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

Vice-Presidents: CHARLES BalILey, F.L.S.; JAMES
Cosmo MeEtvitt, M.A., F.L.S.; OsBorNE REYNOLDs,
MeAS LiL.D., F-R.S.; ARTHUR SCHUSTER, PH.D., F.R.S.;
Eig Re A. S.

Secretaries : REGINALD F. ee M.A.; FRANCIS
Jones, F.C.S.

Treasurer : RUPERT SWINDELLS, M.Inst.C.E.

Librarian: WIL LiaM E. Hoy te, M.A., M.Sc.;M.R.C.S.

Other Members of the Council: HaroLtp B. Dixon,
M.A., F.R.S.; ALEXANDER HODGKINSON, M.B.,-B.SC. ;
J. E. Kine, M.A.; Horace Lams, M.A., F.R.S.; FRANCIS
NicHovsoN, P-Z.S.: Roperr L. TAvuor, F.C.S.

On the motion of Professor REYNOLDs, seconded by
Professor Dixon, the thanks of the meeting were given to
Professor SCHUSTER and Professor Lamp for aca as
scrutineers.

102 Annual Report of the Councerl.

Annual Report of the Council, April, 1896.

The Society began the session with an ordinary mem-
bership of 132. During the present session one former
member has been re-admitted, and 22 new members have
joined the Society; 3 resignations have been received,
and the deaths have been 2, viz.: Mr. John Lawson
Kennedy and Mr. Henry Davis Pochin. This leaves on
the roll 150 ordinary members. The Society has also
lost four honorary members by death, viz.: Dr. John
Russell Hind, F.R.S.; Professor Thomas Henry Huxley,
M.D.; PieD. LL.D., D.C.L., P.P.R.S:, eos) Magione
Pasteur, For. Mem. R.S.; and Professor W. C. William-
Soil} IOI IOs lala.

The financial position of the Society, as shown by the
accompanying balance-sheets, is more satisfactory than it
has been for many years. This has been due to receipts
from the Wilde Endowment Fund; to an extended mem-
bership list, mainly the result of cancelling the admission
fee ; and especially to another donation from the Presi-
dent, Mr. Henry Wilde, F-R.S., of (250. Whe ebjectron
this gift was, partly, to meet certain additional expenditure
in altering the electric installation in compliance with the
Fire Insurance rules, and for other necessary internal ac-
commodation, but mainly to have all liabilities discharged,
as far as was possible, by the end of the financial year.

The amount of cash lying at the Society’s bankers on
the 31st March, 1896, was £357. 2s. 7d., or £194. 5s. 8d.
more than it was at the corresponding period in the pre-
vious year. The details of the receipts and payments will
be found in the Treasurer’s Accounts at the end of this
report.

Annual Report of ‘the Council. 103

The amount of subscriptions from members shows a
gratifying increase; but, as explained in last year’s report,
the arrears were then much larger than usual, so that this
year’s receipts benefit from the circumstance. During the
last twenty years the number of members in arrear with
their subscriptions, on each 31st March, has been gradually
increasing, and it is very desirable that members should
take the earliest opportunity of forwarding their subscrip-
tions in response to the notice that they are due. The
sum of £24. 3s. has been transferred from the Wilde En-
dowment Fund, to meet the charges for the abolition of
entrance fees, and for the payment, in whole or in part, of
the subscriptions of members coming under the provisions
of the trust.

The Compounders’ Fund has been increased by another
composition, thus making the amount at its credit £230.
It might be well for the new Council to consider what
arrangements can be made for dealing with this account,
by funding the principal in whole or in part, and by
transferring therefrom an annual amount towards current
expenses, no provisions having hitherto been made in these
respects by former Councils. It has so far been maintained
as a book account, and no transfers have ever been made
from it to the general funds. The number of living com-
pounders is now six.

The Sectional Subscriptions are larger than usual, as
they include two years’ contributions from one of the
sections. The Physical and Mathematical Section con-
tributes £2. 2s., and the Natural History Section £5. 5s.
annually.

The total receipts from the use of the Society’s Rooms
are increased by the transfer of £50 from the Wilde
Endowment Fund under the provisions of the trust. In
accordance with its terms, limiting this source of income,
two of the societies which had been using the premises in

104 Annual Report of the Council.

previous years were requested to find accommodation
elsewhere, as the space which their libraries occupied was
required for the purposes of the Society. The only society
now accommodated is the Manchester Photographic Society,
which has given notice of its intention to terminate its
tenancy in September next.

The dividends from the Wilde Endowment Fund
constitute a full year’s income from that source, inasmuch
as shortly after the conveyance had been executed a six
months’ dividend became payable. This has enabled your
Council to spend a larger amount upon the maintenance
of the Library than would otherwise have been available
this Session.

It is gratifying also to record that the efforts of the
President to obtain from the authorities in London the
remission of income-tax upon the invested funds of the
Society have been successful, the debit side of the
Treasurer’s account showing a full return of the tax
deducted from the interest paid by the Manchester
Corporation for the £258 loan (Joule Memorial Fund),
and from the first dividend upon £3,000 Stock of the
London Gas Light and Coke Company (Wilde Endowment
Fund) ; also three years’ returns upon the £1,225 Great
Western Railway Company’s Stock (Natural History
Fund). Henceforth, application to Somerset House
annually will ensure the repayment of deducted income-
tax upon all these funds.

Upon the other side of the Treasurer’s Account will be
seen the various items of expenditure, of which a few need
special reference.

In Charges on Property the sum of £40. 12s. 3d. for
repairs and decoration has been charged to the Wilde
Endowment Fund. £75 has been expended upon an
alteration of the electric light and its attachments, and
£209. 7s. gd. has been paid for three new bookcases, &c.,

Annual Report of the Council. 105

and for the bookcase in the Natural History room, taken
over from the Manchester Architects’ Society when they
vacated the premises. Towards the cost of this new
Library accommodation, &c., your Council has authorised
the transfer of £100 from the Natural History Fund
(which leaves that Fund overdrawn to the extent of
£61. 12s. 4d.), and of £80 from the Wilde Endowment
Fund. |

In Administrative Charges a new item appears for the
salary of an Assistant Secretary and Librarian, an appoint-
ment made under the terms of the Wilde Endowment.
Your Council appointed to this office, in July last, Mr.
Charles Leigh, who had had nine years’ experience in the
library of the British Museum (Natural History) in South
Kensington; he is discharging the duties of his office Wnt
intelligence and with zeal.

In the charges for Publishing a considerable increase
is apparent, due to the two previous sessions’ printing
accounts not having been paid in time to be included in the
balance-sheets of last session. All invoices for printing
the ‘‘Memoirs” up to the completion of Volume IX. have
been discharged, and their amount is included in this
account. The invoices for the current Volume X., as far
as printed, were not rendered in time to be paid in the
present financial year. The cost of printing and illus-
trating the Natural History papers this session has again
been charged to the Natural History Fund.

Nearly all the charges for sustaining the Library
(except for Natural History works) which appear in the
wuesemt saccount, say £42. 19s. 11d., Out of a total of
£49. 1s. 11d., have been defrayed by a transfer from the
Wilde Endowment Fund.

In order to show the complete expenditure of the
Wilde Endowment Fund, a list is given of the items
making up the total outlay of £314. 6s. 8d. Many of

106 Annual Report of the Council.

these items appear also under the headings of the various
charges above to which they belong, and the account is
balanced by corresponding transfer-entries on the debit
side of the balance-sheet. The separate income from this.
Fund is £377.3s.7d., thus leaving a balance of £62. 16s. 11d.
at its credit. The annual appropriations for the Wilde
Gold Medal; for the selected Memoir and Dalton Medal;
and for the Lecture, have been made, but they have not
been awarded this session.

The Society’s Library has undergone considerable
changes during the past Session. The whole of the
volumes have been rearranged in accordance with the
scheme explained to the Society at) the) mectimeman
October 15th last. A considerable amount of space has.
been set free, owing to the removal of the Manchester
Geological Society and the Manchester Architects’ Society,
and several bookcases have been provided, partly from the
Wilde Endowment Fund, partly from the Natural History
Fund. It has thus been found possible to properly accom-
modate all the works on the shelves, and to leave some
room for future accessions.

The Library has, for purposes of arrangement, been
divided into two sections—Serials (including transactions.
of learned societies and periodicals) and Books. The
former division has been classified geographically, accord-
ing to the place of publication or seat of the academy in
question. The books have been classified in accordance
with the Decimal System of Melvill Dewey, which has
been extensively adopted in America, and is gradually
making its way in this country and on the Continent. A
card catalogue and a shelf list are in contemplation, and
will be proceeded with as rapidly as possible. Suitable
accession books have been prepared for entering the —
periodicals, transactions, and books received, and have been
carefully kept up to date by Mr. Leigh.

Annual Report of the Council. 107

The stock of back numbers of Memoirs and Proceedings
has been overhauled and rearranged, and a check-list of it
is being prepared.

Almost the whole of the work done in the Library was
accomplished during the months of August, September, and
October. Since that time Mr. Leigh has been so much
occupied with the routine work of the Session that com-
paratively little attention has been given to the Library.

The donations during the past Session (exclusive of
the usual exchanges) amount to 63 volumes; and the
books purchased (in addition to the periodicals regularly
subscribed for) to 13 volumes. The following is a list of
the donations :—

W.G. Brack. India Exhibition, 1895. Official Catalogue.
a On Meteorology at the Seaside.
Dr, GEORGE Bowman. Encyclopzedia Perthensis. 24 vols.

British Museum (Natural History). 14 Guides to the
Collections.

A. BroTHERS. Manual of Photography. 1892.

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY Press. Collected Mathematical
Papers of A. Cayley. Vols. VIII. and IX.

CANADIAN GOVERNMENT. Synopsis of the Airsbreathing
Animals of the Palzeozoic Era in Canada.

M. Foster. A Text Book of Physiology. 6thed. Part 2.

G. W. Hitt. On the Convergence of the Series used in the
subject of Perturbations. 1896.

‘‘ H1stToricus.” Cocoa: all about it. 18096.

INSTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS. Catalogue of the Library.
3 vols.

MANCHESTER MusEuM, OWENS COLLEGE. Library Catalogue.

METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE. Meteorological Charts of the
Red Sea.

FrRAU LotTHaR MEYER. Die modernen Theorien der Chemie.
Von Prof. L. Meyer. 6 Aufl. BuchI. Die Atome.
1896.

NATURFORSCHENDER VEREIN ZU RiGA. Festschrift. 1895.

R. MINISTERO DELLA ISTRUZIONE PUBBLICA (ITALY). Le
Opere di Galileo Galilei. Vol. V. 1895.

Sir H. E. Roscoz. John Dalton and the Rise of\Modern
Chemistry.

A New View of the Origin of Dalton’s
Atomic Theory. By Sir H. E. Roscoe and Dr. A.
Harden. 1896.

108 Annual Report of the Council.

Roya Society or Lonpon. Catalogue of Scientific Papers
(1874-1883). Vol. XI. 1896.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. An Account of the Smithsonian
Institution. 1895.

SociKTE D’AGRICULTURE, SCIENCES ET ARTS D’AGEN.
Archives historiques de l’Agenais. Tome I.

SociETE HOLLANDAISE DES SCIENCES. (Euvres completes
de C. Huygens. Tome VI. 1895.

E. Suess. The Future of Silver. 1893.
F. W. Very. Photometry of a Lunar Eclipse. 1895.

Owing to the expenditure necessitated by the provision
of new shelving, it has not been possible to do any binding
during the past Session, but it is hoped that funds will
shortly be available for that purpose.

The Council has received from Sir Henry Roscoe a
cabinet in which to preserve the Dalton Manuscripts in
the possession of the Society. Mr. B. A. Joule has also
presented to the Society the thermometers used by his
father in his researches on the equivalent of heat, and Dr.
G. Bowman has presented one of Dr. Dalton’s receipts
for his fees as a teacher.

The experiment initiated three years since, of holding
the meetings of the Society in the evenings and afternoons
alternately, indicated an attendance of members so much
in favour of the latter, that your Council decided to hold
all the meetings in the afternoon, during the present
session, with a result still more favourable in the atten-
dance. Letters have, however, been received by the
Council pointing out that this hour has precluded several
members from continuing their attendance, and the
Council has undertaken to invite the opinion of the
members on the question. The question of changing the
day of the meetings of the Society from Tuesdays to Wed-
nesdays, on the ground of general convenience, is under
consideration.

The Council recommends the continuance of the system
of electing Associates of Sections, and the usual resolution

Annual Report of the Council. 109)

authorising the same will be submitted at the annual
meeting.

The Council is sorry to report to the members that
one of the honorary secretaries, Mr. F. J. Faraday, who has.
also filled the office of editor of the Memoirs and Proceedings,,
is unable, from the pressure of other engagements, to.
continue to discharge the obligations of these positions...

It is with the greatest regret that the Council informs.
the Society that, owing to the increased demands upon
his time, Mr. Charles Bailey finds it impossible to continue.
. to discharge the duties of Treasurer to the Society. For
Ii years as Librarian, and for 19 as Treasurer, Mr. Bailey
has for the last 30 years exerted himself in the interests
of the Society in a manner which has few, if any, parallels.
in the past.

JoHn Lawson KENNEDY was the son of John
Kennedy, one of a band of Scottish young men who.
came South towards the close of the eighteenth century..
Mr. John Kennedy joined in partnership with the
McConnels, of Ancoats, who became famous as spinners.
of fine counts of cotton yarn. His only son was born
December, 1814, at Medlock Hall, a mansion near to.
Holt Town, which was pleasantly situated, and com-.
manded a fine view of the valley of the Medlock. He
was educated at the school kept by the Rev. William
Johns, and was one of a number of boys—like the
Potters—who subsequently made their mark in their
native town. He entered Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and
took his degree, and subsequently entered at the Middle
Temple, and was called to the Bar in 1839, but did not
practise. Towards the middle of the century he began
business as a calico printer in partnership with Mr. John
Graham (whose brother, Thomas, wrote a valuable book on
chemistry, published by Bailliere) at Hartshead, he finding:

IIO Annual Report of the Council.

the capital. The concern prospered, and took rank among
the foremost printing concerns of Lancashire. His tastes
were refined; he was a great reader, was a lover of ,
pictures, and kept up his scientific knowledge of chemistry
as applied to printing and dyeing. But he was also a
great sportsman, and was extremely fond of hunting.
The writer of this notice saw him arrayed in faultless
“pink,” with top boots and apron, within a month of
his death. It is said that he was one of the ‘“ Three
Jovial Huntsmen” portrayed by Randolph Caldecott ;
certain it is that Caldecott often saw him at the Man-
chester and Salford Bank, of which Mr. Kennedy was a
director, and that there is a strong likeness of him in the
picture. He was a kind, hearty, liberal man, with a
strong will, which when crossed was unpleasant. He was
a Governor of Owens College, and a generous contributor
to its funds. One of those strong natures that make
themselves felt, he was resolute in opposition when he
thought he was wronged, but a good and generous friend
to those whom he favoured. He lived for a time at
Ardwick Hall, a stately mansion built by the Hydes; but
his latter years were spent at Whalley Range when he
made Manchester his home, and there he died on May
5th, 1895. He was elected a member of this Society in
1852. Je aie

HENRY Davies PocuIn, F.C.S., died at his seat,
Bodnant Hall, near Conway, on October 28th, 1895, at
the age of 71. He was a native of Leicester, and on
leaving school was apprenticed to a local chemist and
druggist. With characteristic energy and application he
studied the nature of the druggist’s business, and in 1848
took the certificate of the Materia Medica examination of
the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Through
the influence of an aunt of the name of Davies, he obtained

Annual Report of the Ceuncil. 303 56

a position in the shop of the late James Woolley, and
became acquainted with Mr. Halliday, with whom Mr.
Woolley was a partner, as chemical manufacturers, in
Quay Street, Salford. A discovery was made and patented
with respect to the manufacture of ‘“‘aluminous cake,” and
Mr. Pochin became manager of the works, then transferred
to Newton Heath. These were on a large scale, and
a very profitable business was carried on. Mr. Pochin
survived his partners, and made a large income. His
discovery of the method of distillation of resin with steam
at a high temperature is said to be the basis of the modern
manufacture of yellow and fancy soaps. Having proved
successful in one direction, temptations were placed before
him in others. The Limited Liability Act of 1855 opened
up an apparently unlimited prospect of fortunes to be made
by investment in limited companies. Mr. Pochin availed
himself of the opportunity, and became officially connected
with a large number of the most important manufactures
and industries of the kingdom. He is said to have
been a director of not fewer than 22 concerns. Many
men make money in their own business, but are just as
unfortunate when they engage in other enterprises. Mr.
Pochin was an exception to this rule, being, on the whole,
very fortunate in his speculations. - He served as Councillor
for Salford, and was elected Mayor of that borough in
1866-7-8, when he endeavoured to add to the dignity of
the office by the invention of a mayoral costume of velvet
with an attendant sword. He was a magistrate for the
Salford Hundred, and a deputy-lieutenant for the county
of Denbigh. Subsequently to a brief appearance in Par-
liament, to which he was returned as a member for Stafford
in 1868 (being unseated on petition in the following year),
he was little known in Manchester or in connection with
Manchester institutions; but he remained a member of
this Society, to which he was elected in 1854, until his

1 Annual Report of the Council.

death, and occasionally appeared at its meetings. He
was a donor of £125 to the Society’s Centenary Fund.
js

One of the personal losses of the Society during the
past session has been the late Professor W. C.
WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., a former president
of the Society. He was born at Scarborough on the 24th
November, 1816, and died at 43, Elms Road, Clapham
Common, London, 23rd June, 1895. Dr. Williamson’s
father was a gardener by occupation, but natural gifts
had made him a geologist on one of her most fertile
domains—the oolitic and cretaceous rocks of Yorkshire.
The late Professor Phillips tells us, in the preface to the
third edition of his classical work, ‘‘ Illustrations of the
Geology of Yorkshire,” how he had, in company with his
uncle, William Smith, “the father of English geology,”
gathered fossils beneath the romantic cliffs of Whitby and
Scarborough, and that in 1824 he had the good fortune
to become acquainted with two of the most valuable of
all his early friends, Mr. William Bean and Mr. John
Williamson (the father of the future professor), and to
profit by their admirable collections of recent and fossil
shells, crustacea, echinida, and corals, dredged from the
neighbouring sea, or hammered out of the adjacent rocks.
The elder Williamson naturally trained his son to pursue
studies which were so fascinating to himself, and with
pardonable pride the son, in later years in his college
teaching, paid many an eloquent tribute of gratitude to
his father for the tastes then implanted and fostered. He
also rejoiced in the happy circumstance which brought
* William Smith to reside under the elder Williamson’s
roof, as it brought him into close contact with the veteran
geologist, and with Smith’s nephew and biographer, the
late Professor Phillips.

Annual Report of the Council. 16208)

William Crawford Williamson’s early life was there-
fore strongly influenced by his father’s tastes and
friendship with William Smith, John Phillips, and
Wiliam Bean; but young Williamson had his own
way to make in life. After spending some years at
school in Yorkshire and in France, he was apprenticed
in his sixteenth year to a Scarborough surgeon, Mr.
Thomas Weddell, with whom he remained from April,
1832, to September, 1835, when he removed to Man-
chester. The versatility and indomitable energy of
Williamson were exhibited during the drudgery of his
apprenticeship, for in that period of his life, as recorded
-in the scientific journals of the day, he wrote at least
four papers, each of which represented a different line
of study. Conchology was illustrated by “‘A notice of
the localities, -habits, characteristics, and synonyms of a
rare British species of Mytilus,” published in 1834, in the
Magazine of Natural History, Vol. VII. Geology was
represented in the same year by a paper published in the
second volume of the Proceedings of the Geological Society,
as well as by the contributions he made to the Fosszl
Flora of Lindley and Hutton. Archeology also attracted
him, as about this time he published his first and last
paper in this field, viz., ‘‘A memoir on the contents of the
celebrated tumulus at Gristhorpe,” which was reprinted
during his later years. Ornithology, too, was closely
studied during his apprenticeship, as he published, in
1836, in Vol. IV. of the Proceedings of the Zoological
Society, ‘‘Notes on the appearance of rare birds in the
vicinity of Scarborough.” This range of research was
remarkable for so young an investigator; but it prepared,
him for the office which introduced him to the activities
of Manchester life, viz., the curatorship of the Museum of
the Manchester Natural History Society, in the building
in Peter Street now occupied by the Young Men’s

114 Annual Report of the Council.

Christian Association. He held this office from 1835 to
1838, and in these early years of his residence in this city
he was invited by successive Councils of our Society to
attend its meetings, a privilege he regularly used and
highly valued. In the autumn of 1838 he entered himself
as a student in the Pine Street Medical School of this
city. He completed his professional studies in the
London University College and Hospital, and in 1840
was enrolled a member and licentiate of the College of
Surgeons. In January, 1844, he began to practise
medicine in Wilton Street, Oxford Road, and shortly
afterwards was appointed active surgeon to the Chorlton-
upon-Medlock Dispensary. The engrossing nature of
a surgeon’s life leaves little leisure for outside studies,
but the number and the character of the geological
and other papers which he gave to the world during
this period of his life were not less remarkable than
those which originated during his apprenticeship. In
1836 he published in the Proceedings of the Geological
Society (Vol. II.), a paper “On the distribuitenmmen
organic remains in the oolitic formations on the coast
of Yorkshire’; in 1840 and 1842 similar papers
on Yorkshire fossils, ‘‘ From the lower lias to the Bath
oolite inclusive,” in the Tvansactions of the Geological
Society, Vols. V. and VI.; in 1836, ‘‘On the Limestones
found in the vicinity of Manchester,” in Vol. IX. of the
Philosophical Magazine”’; in 1837, ‘On Fossil Fishes in
the Lancashire coalfield,” in Vol. II. of the Proceedings of
the Geological Society, followed in 1837 and 1839 by allied
papers, ‘“‘On the affinity of some Fossil Scales of Fish
from the Lancashire coal-measures with those of ‘the
recent Salmonide,”’ in the Pluilosophical Magazine, Vol.
XI., and ‘‘On the Fossil Fishes of the Yorkshire and
Lancashire coalfields,” in Vol. III. of the Proceedings of
the Geological Society. At the Liverpool meeting of the

Annual Report of the Council. 115

British Association, in 1837, he contributed a section of
the carboniferous strata of Western Lancashire from its
highest beds at Ardwick down nearly to the millstone grit.
About the same time he contributed “A notice of two
hitherto undescribed species of Radiaria, from the marl-
croc OF mVomshine. 9. 4 1).) ) am. Vol IX.) ofthe
Magazine of Natural History. This is by no means an
exhaustive list of his contributions to science, but it is a
fine record of the work of a rising surgeon done before he
had passed the twenty-sixth anniversary of his birthday.
About this period of his life he turned his attention to
a group of studies which required the aid of a compound
microscope. His instrument, far from being ‘“ fearfully
and wonderfully made,’ lke so many modern instru-
ments, was a monocular of simple construction, but he
worked with it up to the close of his life, and it was his
constant companion in working out the life-history of
sponges, diatoms, foraminifera, and the plants of the
coal-measures. In after years its owner made it the text
_ of many a homily for the benefit of his students, enforcing
what could be done with a simple instrument and limited
means, if only the eye that was using it knew how to
interpret the structures which came within its field of
view. One of the earliest papers giving the results of the
use of the microscope appears to have been that published
in 1845, in the eighth volume, Second Series, of our own
Memoirs, ‘On some of the microscopical objects found
in the mud of the Levant, and other deposits, with
remarks on the mode of formation of calcareous and
infusorial siliceous rocks.” This was followed in 1846
by one “‘On the real nature of the minute bodies in
flints, supposed to be sponge spicules,” which is printed
in Vol. XVII. of the Annals of Natural History. Two
years later he published a paper on a diatom in the same
journal, “On a new British species of Campylodiscus.”

116 Annual Report of the Council.

In the same year (1848) appeared, in Vol. I., Annals of
Natural History, a contribution ‘‘On the recent British
species of the genus Lagena.” This latter paper, and
the previous one on Levant mud, with other papers on
foraminifera published in the Tyvansactions of the Mucro-
scopical Society, were preparing the way for his work on
““The British Foraminifera,’ which was published by
the Ray Society in 1858. In these investigations of the
structure and life-history of these organisms, perhaps
the most fascinating paper was that on Levant mud,
and it proved how, in the hands of an enthusiast like
Williamson, a whole Mediterranean of interest could be
evolved from a spoonful of silt; the memoir, too, was
adequately illustrated, and although it was the source
whence the information of many a subsequent paper was
derived, it was rarely referred to. The writer of these
lines well remembers, when he was the honorary librarian
of the Society, a visit paid by an American to Manchester,
for the express purpose of consulting this particular paper,
and of copying some of the drawings which illustrate it,
and how the stranger was sent on his way rejoicing with
a copy of the volume which contained it. But what must
have been Williamson’s own delight in his first investiga-
tions, when every pinch of dust revealed some previously
unseen beauty of form or structure ?

The late Professor Williamson became an ordinary
member of the Society in 1851, and was elected an
honorary member in 1893. He was President of the
Society during the two sessions 1884-85 and 1885-86; he
was a Vice-President during the sessions 1863-64, 1874-75,
and 1888-89 to 1891-92, and he served as a member of
the Council during the sessions 1865-66 to 1871-72, and
1877-78. He was one of 10 members of the Society who,
on the 23rd December, 1858, applied to the Council for
the formation of the Microscopical and Natural History

/
Annual Report of the Council. 17)
Section of the Society, and was its first President. He
served the Section as President from 1859 to 1862, and
in 1872, 1873, 1886, and 1887; as Vice-President in 1863,
1874, and from 1888 to 1891; and as member of its
Council in the years 1864 to 1871, and 1877 to 1885.

He was twice married; first in 1842 to Miss Sophia
Wood, daughter of the Rev. Robert Wood, and after-
wards, in 1874, to Miss Annie Copley Heaton, niece of
Sir Henry Mitchell. He leaves two sons and two
‘daughters.

In private life he was a staunch friend, and a genial
host and companion. During the last meeting of the
British Association in Manchester his house in Egerton
Road, Fallowfield, was the rendezvous of the many foreign
and British botanists who attended that meeting. When
these latter were photographed, by common consent he,
with his friend, the late Dr. Asa Gray, formed the centre
round whom they grouped themselves. He had gifts
of language, which enabled him to marshal his facts
and arguments with great perspicuity, so that his hearers
were never at a loss to understand his meaning. The
same clearness of thought characterises his writings. His
habit was to go directly to the heart of any subject he was
discussing. His viva voce summaries of his communi-
cations to the Society were models of simplicity and
exactness of expression. To these gifts he added a
singularly graphic power of delineating on the black-
board the salient features of any object he was describing.
His class-rooms at college, and the walls of his home,
were covered with his own beautiful drawings of animal
and vegetable life, and of scenery. His great skill in the
delineation of the structure of the fossil plants of the coal-
measures is seen in the admirable and copious illustrations
of that group in the Plulosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society. C. B.

118 Annual Report of the Council.

WILLIAMSON’S contributions to scientific knowledge
were both numerous and varied, and extended over an
unusually long series of years. His first papers were
written in 1834—in his eighteenth year—and from that
time his pen was continuously active until within a short
time of his death in 1895. For many years his researches
were general rather than special, and were occupied
indifferently with geological, paleontological, zoological,
and botanical subjects. Of the scientific value of many
of these earlier efforts, the present writer is not in a
position to speak from personal knowledge, but their
merits appear to have been widely recognised at the
time of publication, and some of them are, even at this
day, well worth the attention of those who are interested
in the subjects with which they deal. Among these may
be mentioned the Monograph on ‘‘ The Recent Forami-
nifera of Great Britain,’ published by the Ray Society in
1858; a paper on ‘‘ Volvox globator,” published in 1851
(Mem. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Socy., Vol. 1X., Second
Series), in which the structure of that remarkable Alga
was accurately elucidated for the first time; three papers
on “‘Zamia gigas”; a memoir ‘“‘On Some of the Micro-
scopical Objects found in the Mud of the Levant and
other Deposits, with remarks on the mode of formation
of Calcareous and Infusorial Siliceous Rocks” (Mem.
Manch. Lit. and Phil. Socy., Vol. VIII., Second Series,
1845), which was one of the earliest attempts—if not
the first—to investigate some of the problems of the
naturalists: and papers ‘“‘On the Histology of Dental and
sea-bottom which have since engaged the attention of
Allied Dermal Tissues of Vertebrate and Invertebrate
Animals” (British Journal of Dental Science, Vol. I., 1856-7).
By the middle of the century Williamson’s scientific
reputation appears to have been fully established. In
1851 he was appointed Professor of Natural History at

Annual Report of the Council. Ig

the Owens College, Manchester, and three years later was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. From this time
forward his work became more and more specialised,
particularly during the ‘“‘sixties,’”’ and numerous papers
published at this time show that the line he was con-
sciously or unconsciously marking out for himself was
that of fossil botany. The publications of this Society,
and other scientific journals of the period in question,
afford ample evidence of this in the papers he contributed
to their pages, of which perhaps the most important are
those entitled, ‘‘On the Structure of the Woody Zone
of an Undescribed Form of Calamite” (1868); ‘On
the Structure of an Undescribed Type of Calamodendron
from the Upper Coal Measures of Lancashire’’ (1868) ;
“On a New Form of Calamitean Stvobilus from the
Lancashire Coal Measures” (1870); ‘‘On the Organisa-
tion of Volkmanma Dawson” (1871); and ‘‘On the
Organisation of an Undescribed Verticillate Strobilus
from the Lower Coal Measures of Lancashire” (1871).
Thus at the beginning of the ‘‘seventies” he was fairly
launched on those investigations of the fossil plants
of the Coal Measures which were henceforth to be
the principal object of his life’s work, and which

C6

undoubtedly constitute the crown and glory of his
scientific career. At the outset of these investigations
Williamson deliberately determined to pursue his task on
independent lines, without concerning himself much with
the discordant views and statements of other writers on
Carboniferous plants. This attitude, with some small
modifications, he maintained throughout. From this time,
too, with few exceptions, his memoirs on the subject were
all communicated to the Royal Society, so that those
who have access to the Philosophical Transactions from
1871 to 1895 will there find the record of nearly the
whole of the important discoveries with which he has

120 Annual Report of the Council.

enriched palzobotanical science. Among the exceptions
special mention should be made of the really fine ‘‘ Mono-
graph of the Morphology and Histology of Stgmania
ficoides,”’ published by the Ray Society in 1887 ; the paper
“On the Relation of Calamodendron to Calamutes,” in the
Memoirs and Proceedings of this Society (Ser. IV., Vol I.,
1887); and the elaborate memoir in which he endeavoured
to elucidate the growth and development of the arborescent
Lepidodendra of the Coal Measures by a study of the details
of their organisation (Mem. and Proc. Manch. Lit. and Phil.
Socy., Ser. IV., Vol. 1X., 1894-5). Of the Royal Society’s
memoirs ‘“‘On.the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of
the Coal Measures,’’ Williamson published, independently,
1g in all, the first appearing in the Tvansactions for 1871,
and the last in the volume for 1893. On his removal to
London in 1892 he associated himself with Dr. D. H.
_ Scott, F.R.S., of the Jodrell Laboratory, Royal Gardens,
Kew, and a second series of memoirs, containing the
results of their united investigations, was commenced
under the title of ‘‘ Further Observations on the Organi-
sation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures.” The
subjects of all these memoirs are too numerous to be
enumerated here, and it is the less necessary to do so
since the contents of the independent ones are given in
detail’in the third part of the ~Index~ to themsamie
which Williamson published in our Memoirs and Pro-
ceedings for 1893-4. Let it suffice to say that there
is scarcely a type of carboniferous plants that is not
dealt with at greater or less length, and always with
the result of adding something to our _ previous
knowledge. The forms included under the well-known
names of Calamites, Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, Stigmaria,
and Sphenophyllum are prominent, as are several types
of Ferns, under the provisional name of Rachiopteris,
and a few Gymnosperms. But in addition to these we

Annual Report of the Council. 121

find a considerable number of less known forms dealt with
under generic names which Williamson himself instituted
for their reception, owing to the fact that they could not
be included in those previously established. Among these
are Astromyelon, Lyginodendron, Kaloxylon, Heterangium,
and some others, for our first knowledge of which we are
indebted to the memoirs under consideration. On a
cursory examination of some of the memoirs, they appear
to be made up of somewhat heterogeneous materials,
several distinct plants being dealt with, to each of which
a few pages only are devoted. Ina measure there is truth
in this; but the conditions under which the author was
compelled to work, often excluded a more systematic
mode of treatment. The fossils he had to deal with were,
almost without exception, of a fragmentary character,
sometimes well, but often badly preserved, disjecta membra,
in fact, in the widest sense of the words. Clearly, the
structure and morphological nature of these fragments
must be investigated in the first instance, before any
attempt could be made, with a reasonable hope of success,
to bring them into their proper relations with one another,
and reconstruct the organism of which they were the
scattered and fossilised remains. Recognising this,
Williamson dealt as completely as possible with such
fragments as came to hand from time to time, and by
linking on the new facts which were successively brought
to light with the older facts previously established,
gradually led up to as perfect a knowledge of the types
dealt with, as the specimens at his service would allow.
With regard to the joint memoirs, every palzobotanist
will admit that they are of high excellence and impor-
tance. Here it was possible to make the descriptions
more systematic and precise, and, by the addition of
further observations, to bring our knowledge of the
plants considered into line with that of recent forms.

a2 Annual Report of the Council.

At the time of Williamson’s death, four of these memoirs
had been read to the Royal Society, dealing with Cala-
mites, Calamostachys, Sphenophyllum, Astromyelon, Kaloxylon,
Lyginodendron, and Heterangium; but up to the time of
writing only the first two have appeared in the Transactions
(see Vols. for 1893, 1894).

It is as yet, perhaps, too soon to pass a reliable and
final judgment upon the merits of these palezobotanical
memoirs, and to institute a comparison of them with the
publications of other authorities on Carboniferous plants.
At any rate, such a task will not be attempted here.
But, whatever be the verdict of future palzeobotanists},
certain conclusions have already made themselves evident,
which it will hardly be possible, at any time, to ignore.

In the first place credit must be given to Williamson
for the fact that he was amongst the first to recognise
the value of thin sections of his specimens suitable for
the microscopical examination of their structure, and for
the share he had, not only in the introduction of such
sections, but in developing and extending their preparation
on scientific lines. Asa result of this, he was able to extend
our knowledge of the structure of carboniferous plants far
beyond the point at which it had been left by previous
workers; and whatever advances in the same direction are
made in the future, they are hardly likely to obscure the
fact that Williamson’s observations lie at the foundation
of this branch of the subject. In the next place it will
always stand to his credit, that he first demonstrated, in
opposition to the views of some of his contemporaries,
that the Vascular Cryptogams of the Coal Measures
had a mode of growth which in existing plants is almost
entirely restricted to Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons.
By means of this their stems, and sometimes other axial
organs, were capable of increasing in diameter by means
of one or more cambial layers, and so attaining to shrubby

Annual Report of the Council. 123

and even arborescent dimensions. This phenomenon of
secondary thickening he proved to be present in the
several forms of Calamites, in many Lepfidodendra, in
Stigmaria and Sphenophyllum, in Lyginodendron and its root
Kaloxylon, and in Heterangiwm. Lastly, to Williamson’s
researches we owe the proof that Brongniart and his
school were in error, not only in first assuming that
Vascular Cryptogams were characterised by the absence
of an exogenous mode of growth, but also in basing upon
this assumption the inference that the plants known as
Calamites were partly Gymnospermous and partly Crypto-
gamic. From the first inception of his work he opposed
both the assumption and the inference, and every step in
advance added something to the evidence in favour of his
own views, that the Vascular Cryptogams of the Coal
Measures often exhibit exogenous growth, and that all
forms of Calamites are essentially constructed upon one
and the same type.

To what extent this incomplete and preliminary state-
ment of our obligations to Williamson should be enlarged,
may be safely left to a later generation to determine, since,
the prominence and recognition his writings have already
attained, will ensure and even necessitate their careful
study by all who in the future come to tread the intricate
paths of Coal Measure Palzobotany. Be ol

With the story of the late Professor W. C.
WILLIAMSON’S scientific career not all has been said
about him that should be said in this place. A familiar
and loved figure in the streets and the homes, on the
platforms and at the social meetings of the community
which he also loved, he has left behind him a very sunny
memory. Devoted to his science, he was also richly
endowed with the expansiveness of a literary and an
artistic temperament. The sketches which adorned the

124 Annual Report of the Council.

walls of his residence—to which reference has already
been made—testified not merely to his skill with the
pencil and the brush, but to his poetic appreciation of
the mysterious beauty of landscape and of colour. The
primrose was to him much more than an illustration of
vegetable structure. He once told the present writer that
his one extravagance was his garden. Two characteristics
best recall his personality. One was his attitude with his
hands behind his back when he stood gazing down with
tender admiration, one might even say rapt adoration, at
his flowers ; the other was the bright cheeriness which lit
up his face when meeting an acquaintance. His long
residence of nearly 60 years in Manchester had given him
a pleasant sense, not only of being known to everybody,
as he was, but of knowing everybody: and had developed
in him a neighbourliness, a camaraderie, which was in
harmony with his instincts. The present writer first
made Williamson’s personal acquaintance at one of the
conyersaziones on the occasion of the Jubilee Meeting of
the British Association at York in 1881. Williamson
was standing surveying the crowd, not with a group of
scientific friends, but with the Lancashire Burns, Edwin
Waugh, and with the old soldier who, nearly 30 years
before, had led the attack on the Redan. It was Waugh
who performed the ceremony of introduction, and the
writer well remembers the pleasure given by Williamson’s
remark that it was unnecessary, as he had ‘‘ long known
young - Ltke” Angus: Smithy he bad@agspeer!

enjoyment in the society of younger men who had done
or were beginning to do something in any walk of life—
men who were, so to speak, ‘fon the margin of cultiva-
tion.” Hence the generosity with which he gave his
time to the junior scientific or other societies of the city
in which he lived; and there were afternoons and evenings
at Fallowfield which will be remembered with the never-

Annual Report of the Council. 125

to-be-forgotten Saturday nights in York Place. He had
the transparent and attractive egotism of a schoolboy or
of the “ Autocrat of the Breakfast Table”; and in his
latest years retained the juvenility of a happy spirit. His
last letter to the present writer was written only a very
few months before his death—and was prophetic. It
related to the last of his memoirs sent to the Society,
which was published in the Volume of its Memoirs and
Proceedings issued last year (Fourth Series, Vol. IX.) In
it he alludes to a difficulty which many authors experience
in revising their own proof-sheets, and he utters what

proved to be a farewell to the Society :—

My Dear F—
I much fear that I have given you and your printer a

difficult task. The fact is that, notwithstanding the acres of paper
that I have in my day covered with type, I am still one of the
worst of correctors of the press. My head is so full of the
essence of what I want to say, that I am apt to overlook what I
have said. : : : - ‘ : 5 . . . :
My only consolation is that, being now fairly launched into my
zoth year, the memoir now going through the press is the last one I
shall write alone. JI have numerous others on hand or prospective,
but the chief manipulation of them falls upon my younger colleague,
Dr. Scott, of the Botanical Laboratory at Kew. Hence this will, I
fear, be my last single memoir with which you Mancunians will be
likely to be troubled. Pray remember me very kindly to all my old
friends at George Street. I rarely pass over a Tuesday evening
without thinking whether or not it is the night of your fortnightly
meeting and longing to be with you.
I am, my dear F—_,
As ever yours,
W. C. WILLIAMSON.

Manchester will never have a more genial, a more
lovable, a better-known, or a worthier citizen than
William Crawford Williamson. His enthusiasm for his
science sprang from the same pure source as the hearty
grasp of his hand accompanied by the inevitable slap on

the shoulder—the joze de wivre. Je afer late

126 Annual Report of the Counctl.

JoHN RussELL HIND was born on May 12, 1823,
at Nottingham, and after being educated at the
Grammar School of that town, he entered the office of
a civil engineer. But the science of Astronomy had
attracted his attention, and he determined on the first
opportunity to devote his whole time to that subject. At
the age of 17 he obtained an appointment as assistant to
the Meteorological and Magnetical Department of the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, then under the director-
ship of Sir George Airy. In 1844 he took charge of Mr.
Bishop’s private observatory in Regent’s Park, London,
where he remained until he obtained the appointment
of superintendent of the Nautical Almanac Office, a
position he held until 1891. He died on December 23,
1895. Mr. Hind’s fame as an astronomer rests chiefly on
the discovery of 10 new minor planets, in addition to some
comets, variable stars, and nebulae. These discoveries
were the reward of much patient search and labour, and
at the time attracted a great deal of attention. He was
awarded the gold medals of the Royal Society and the
Royal Astronomical Society, was an honorary member of
many scientific societies, and received the degree of Hon.
LL.D. of the University of Glasgow. When a medal
was struck by the French Institute to commemorate the
discovery of 100 minor planets, Mr. Hind’s profile was
placed on the obverse of the medal, together with the
profiles of the Frenchman and the German who had
discovered the greatest number of these planets. Dr.
Hind was elected an honorary member of this Society on
Jan. 25th, 1848. ALES:

The late Right Hon. THomMas HENRY HUXLEY, who
died at his residence, Hodeslea, Eastbourne, on June
29th, 1895, was elected an Honorary Member of this
Society in 1872. He was born, as he tells us himself,

Annual Report of the Counctl. 127

‘about eight o’clock in the morning on the 4th of May,
1825, at Ealing, which was at that time as quiet a little
country village as could be found within half-a-dozen
MilesOnmyae Park Corner. <).) My: father,” he
continues, “‘ was one of the masters in a large semi-public
Benool, which atone time had a high’reputation. ~ ." «
Why I was christened Thomas Henry I do not know
but it is a curious chance that my parents should have
fixed for my usual denomination upon the name of that
particular Apostle with whom I have always felt most
sympathy.’”’ Almost the sole surviving tradition of the late
Professor’s childhood is of his turning his pinafore wrong
side forwards, and preaching a sermon to his mother’s
maids in the kitchen in imitation of the vicar, an instance
of the clerical affinities which, though insisted on by
Herbert Spencer, have escaped the notice of most ob-
servers in later years. His regular school training was
received at the Ealing School, and he shortly afterwards
entered Charing Cross Hospital as a medical student.
His natural inclination was always in the direction of
mechanics, and hence it is not surprising that he devoted
himself with special zeal to physiology. The habit of
regarding the animal body as a special form of machine
always remained with him, and he has not inaptly
described himself among biologists as an apostle of me-
chanical philosophy in partibus infidelium. Mr. Wharton
Jones, the eminent oculist, was at that time lecturer in
physiology at Charing Cross, and from him the ardent
young student received much encouragement. The ex-
tent and precision of the teacher’s knowledge, and the
severe exactness of his method of lecturing, were most
impressive, and Huxley worked hard to obtain his appro-
bation. Under his influence was published in the Medical
Gazette of 1845 his first investigation into the minute
structure of human hair, a part of the sheath of which,

128 Annual Report of the Council.

then described for the first time, is still known as
Saluxdewacwelayetens |

Having entered the naval medical service, he was
appointed in 1846 to the “‘ Victory” for hospital service
at Haslar, but did not long remain in this position,
for he was shortly offered, by the influence of Sir
John Richardson, the Arctic explorer and naturalist,
the appointment of assistant surgeon on board Her
Majesty’s ship ‘‘ Rattlesnake,” then being equipped
under Captain Owen Stanley for an exploring cruise
to the South Seas. This voyage afforded the young
naturalist unlimited opportunities of studying marine
life, of which he was not slow to avail himself.
Several memoirs of first-rate importance were the result
of these investigations, and on his return an effort was
made on the part of several scientific men to induce the
Admiralty to publish them in a suitable form, as a
recognition of their merit, and to act up to the spirit
of a pledge they had given to encourage officers to
undertake scientific work. These negotiations were not
completed when Huxley retired from the service, and
thereafter his memoir on the “Oceanic Hydrozoa”’ was
published by the Ray Society, with a characteristic
preface illustrating the encouragement offered by the
Admiralty to its officers to further the progress of natural
history. Other results of this voyage were papers on the
Medus@, on the anatomy of the Cephalous Mollusca,
and on the Radiolaria, which secured his election to
the Royal Society at the early age of 26, and also
gained for him the award of a Royal medal.

About this time he and his friend, the late Professor
Tyndall, were simultaneously candidates for the chairs of
natural history and physics in the University of Toronto ;
but, fortunately for English science, both ‘‘were elected to
remain at home,” and Huxley received in 1854 the sub-

Annual Report of the Council. 129

stantial consolation prize of the chair of natural history
at the Royal School of Mines, in succession to Edward
Forbes, who was to spend the few remaining months
of his short life as professor in his own alma mater of
Edinburgh. It was now that he began to organise that
system of practical instruction in biology, by means of
the thorough-going dissection and examination of certain
selected types, which has furnished the basis of all modern
laboratory work. About this time his studies brought
him into contact with Charles Darwin, who was engaged
upon those investigations which resulted a few years later
in the publication of the ‘“‘ Origin of Species.” It is on
record that Darwin said himself that if he were able to
convert Lyell, Hooker, and Huxley to a belief in his
views, the result would be the acceptance of the theory
of Natural Selection. This prophecy has been abundantly ©
fulfilled, and that mainly owing to the energy, acumen,
and gifts of clear exposition by pen and tongue of Huxley.
If Darwin planted, Huxley was the Apollos who watered,
or, to use his own phrase, he ‘‘acted for some time in
the capacity of under nurse,” and ‘for some years it was
undoubtedly warm work.’’ None the less, however, was
_ it the kind of work that showed his mettle and developed
his inborn faculties for controversy. A lecture at the
Royal Institution, and a long and able review of the
“Origin of Species”? in The Times, were some of the
incidents in this campaign; but beyond all question the
most exciting engagement was a discussion of the question
during the meeting of the British Association, which
culminated in a duel between Huxley and Bishop Wil-
berforce, much to the disadvantage of the latter. The
Bishop ‘‘so far forgot himself as to push his advantage
to the verge of personality,” and to ask ‘‘ whether Huxley
was related by his grandfather’s or grandmother’s side to
an ape.” This called forth the rejoinder: ‘I asserted,

o

130 Annual Report of the Council.

and I repeat, that a man has no reason to be ashamed
of having an ape for his grandfather. If there were an
ancestor whom I should feel shame in recalling, it
would be a man, a man of restless and versatile
intellect, who, not content with an equivocal success
in his own sphere of activity, plunges into scientific
questions with which he has no real acquaintance,
only to obscure them by an aimless rhetoric, and
distract the attention of his hearers from the real point
at issue by eloquent digressions and skilled appeals to
religious prejudice.” A writer in a contemporary periodi-
cal observes: ‘‘ The retort was so justly deserved and so
inimitable in its manner that no one who was present can
ever forget the impression that it made.”

It was one of Huxley’s most admirable characteristics
- that he was always ready to take up the cudgels on behalf
of any cause which he believed to be right, at whatever
risk of obloquy and unpopularity; thus we find him at the
Geological Society in 1862 supporting Ramsay’s newly-
advanced theory of the excavation of lake basins, when
it was received with coolness or opposition by men so
eminent as Lyell and Falconer. In the same spirit he
carried the doctrine of evolution to its extreme logical
limits, and lost no opportunity of expounding his views.
His addresses on ‘‘ Man’s Place in Nature” and on “‘ The
Physical Basis of Life”? in particular roused a storm of
discussion. Respecting the latter, he says it ‘‘ was intended
to contain a plain and untechnical statement of modern
biological thought, accompanied by a protest from the
philosophical side against what is commonly called
‘materialism.? The result of my well-meant efforts I find
to be that I am generally credited with having invented
‘protoplasm’ in the interests of ‘materialism.’ My unlucky
lay sermon has been attacked by microscopists ignorant
alike of biology and philosophy ; by philosophers not very

Annual Report of the Counctl. 131

learned in either biology or microscopy; by clergymen of
several denominations; and by some few writers who have
taken the trouble to understand the subject.”’ During the
three decades beginning with his return from the “ Rattle-
snake” expedition, a constant series of able memoirs
flowed from Huxley’s pen, and were published in the
Transactions of various learned bodies. These contain
his contributions to zoological science, and are marked
equally by skilful elucidation of detailed structure and
originality in synthetic comparison with other types.
In particular his Croonian lecture to the Royal Society
pine) Development of ithe /Skull? may be ‘cited
as having laid the foundation of the modern treatment
of the subject, whilst his close association of the
birds and reptiles as a single class of vertebrates
(Sauropsida) must be recognised as a stroke of morpho-
logical genius. Mention must not be omitted in this
connection of his remarkable series of papers on fossil
animals. These he studied with the greatest zest, for, as
he has himself put it, “‘ primary and direct evidence in
favour of evolution can be furnished only by paleontology.
The geological record, so soon as it approaches complete-
ness, must, when properly questioned, yield either an
affirmative or a negative answer. If evolution has taken
place, there will its mark be left; if it has not taken place,
there will lie its refutation.”

Great, however, as were Huxley’s contributions to
the progress of science, it was not these that earned
for him widespread notoriety and popularity, and
rendered his name a household word, so much as the
ability and clearness with which he expounded the
results of science for the benefit of the untechnical
public. In this department it is not too much to say that
he has never been surpassed, and rarely equalled. His
spoken lectures were models of pellucid exposition; his

132 Annual Report of the Council.

intellectual perception of his subject seemed so clear that
he had only to put it into words to make every point
obvious to his audience; whilst his remarks were from
time to time lighted up by those flashes of humour without
which no popular address can be regarded as an unqualified
success. The discourse to working men on ‘‘A Piece of
Chalk” may be cited as a striking example of his powers
in this direction: “Have you understood theglecmmerns
he asked one day of a student. ‘“‘ Yes, sir; all except one
or two passages, when you happened to stand between me
and the blackboard.” ‘‘Ah, well, you see, I do my best
to be clear, but I cannot be transparent,’ was the ready
answer. As an essayist Huxley was no less conspicuous
than as a lecturer, and the charm of his style would give
his writings a high position in English literature apart
altogether from the interest of the topics of which they
treat. When, however, it is remembered that his themes
were the great verities and mysteries of existence which
have occupied the minds of the greatest intellects as well
as of the average man ever since the human race had a
soul above its belly, the interest they have excited is
readily understood. Huxley traced his interest in philo-
sophy to two books which he read in his omnivorous
fashion, amongst others, treating of ‘‘all sorts of topics
from metaphysics to heraldry ’’—Guizot’s ‘‘ History of
Civilisation’ and Sir William Hamilton’s essay “‘On the
Philosophy of the Unconditioned,” which he came upon
by chance in an odd volume of the Edinburgh Review.
Such studies not only “filled many lawful leisure hours
and still more sleepless ones with the repose of changed
mental occupation,” but sometimes disputed his proper
work time with natural science. His position in regard
to these matters was simple and candid. “ Phere is
a path that leads to truth so surely that anyone who
will follow it must needs reach the goal whether

Annual Report of the Council. 133

his capacity be great or small. And there is one guiding
tule by which a man may always find this path
and keep himself from straying when he has found
tir Uns golden rule is: Give unqualitied assent ‘to
no propositions but those the truth of which is so
clear and distinct that they cannot be doubted.” To
describe his position he adopted the name ‘‘ Agnostic,”’
and defined his position in these words: ‘‘In matters
of the intellect follow your reason as far as it will take
you, without regard to any other consideration. And,
negatively, in matters of the intellect do not pretend
that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated
or demonstrable. That I take to be the agnostic faith,
which if a man keep whole and undefiled he shall not be
ashamed to look the universe in the face whatever the
future may have in store for him.’ Nothing was more
trying to his honest, outspoken nature than the suggestion
that inability to give an intellectual assent to theological
propositions implied or even tended to produce moral
obliquity, and it was in ‘the main because his clerical
opponents so frequently indulged in insinuations of this
kind regarding himself and other sceptics that he was so
particularly unsparing in his criticisms of their position,
and that, as was said with some truth, a white necktie
became to him as a red rag to a bull. He was as far
removed from blatant atheism on the one hand as from
orthodoxy on the other. Indeed he says, “‘ The cant of
heterodoxy is more distasteful to me than the cant of
orthodoxy, for the former professes to be guided solely
by reason, which the latter does not.”

Huxley was a zealous educational reformer, and was
elected a member of the first London School Board, on which
he did hard and useful work in the cause of undenomina-
tional education. The following published writings dealing
with these and kindred topics will repay careful perusal:

134 Annual Report of the Council.

‘““On the Advisableness of Improving Natural Knowledge,”
“A. Liberal Education and Where to Find Ijaa@m
the Educational Value of the Natural History Sciences,”
and “The School Boards: What they can do and what
they may do.” This last especially shows what careful
study he had given to the question in all its details. He
felt very strongly the importance of science in elementary
education, but not to the exclusion of other important
matters. “There are,” he says, “other forms olvenmltune
besides physical science, and I should be profoundly sorry
to . . . observe a tendency to starve or cripple literary
or zesthetic culture for the sake of science. . . . What
I mean is, that no boy or girl should leave school without
possessing a grasp of the general character of science,
and without having been disciplined more or less in the
methods of all sciences.” It is impossible in our space
to refer to all the important appointments that have been
held by Professor Huxley; but, amongst others, he has
been Fullerian Professor of Physiology to the Royal
Institution, Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy
and Physiology to the Royal College of Surgeons, Croonian
Lecturer to the Royal Society, Secretary and also Presi-
dent of the Geological and Royal Societies, President of the
British Association, Lord Rector of Aberdeen University,
Rede Lecturer at Cambridge, Romanes Lecturer at Oxford,
and was finally made a member of Her Mayjesty’s Privy
Council. His University distinctions included the LL.D.

degree of Dublin, Edinburgh, and Cambridge.
In him we have lost not only a man head and

shoulders above most of his fellows in intellectual endow-
ments, but, what is of more consequence, one who had
the courage of his convictions, and whose candour and
honesty have been beyond suspicion even in this critical

and censorious age.* Whe

*I am macwied to the proprietors of the Manchester Guardian for
permission to reproduce this notice.— W. E. H.

Annual Report of the Council. 135

Rous) eAstEOR must ‘be reearded as)one ol ‘the
grands imtiatewrs—to use Naville’s phrase—of the nine-
teenth century. Although he was not the discoverer of
microbia—that honour belongs to Leeuwenhoek—and
though it is to Cagniard La Tour and Schwann that we
owe the definite establishment of the so-called vegetable
nature of yeast, it is to Pasteur that we chiefly owe the
vast extension of the science of micro-biology and the
discovery of phenomena in the life-history of these
infinitely minute organisms, including their relation to
the etiology of disease and to the chemistry of all other
forms of life, which justify us in regarding them, in the
language of Dumas, as a third order of living beings not
exactly either vegetable or animal; creatures who can live
either with or without free oxygen. Pasteur’s researches
have opened up some of the most profound problems in
speculative science, and thrown a light upon them which
have given him a title to be regarded as the revealer of
a new world of research. The practical results of his
discoveries, in medicine, surgery, and industry, have
already been enormous; but even these are insignificant
in comparison with the possibilities of future discoveries
in regard to the mystery of life, heredity, and the relations
' between the organic and the inorganic. The son of a
soldier who fought in Napoleon’s army at Waterloo, and
who subsequently became a tanner, he was born in the little
town of Déle, in the French Jura, on December 27th, 1822.
To his father, who used to take the boy on his knee and
tell him stories of the battles in which he had fought, and
who also impressed him with his own strong religious faith,
Louis Pasteur owed the two most marked features in his
character—a profoundly reverential spirit, and a passionate
sense of patriotism; and these two sentiments had so
marked a guiding influence on his work that it may
truthfully be said that to them his discoveries were due.

136 Annual Report of the Counczl.

Throughout his career he instinctively opposed the
materialistic and materialising tendencies of the age. The
primary motive of all his researches was the demonstra-
tion of the existence of an impassable gulf between the
principle of life and its products, and the mere physical
forces of inorganic matter and its compounds. We
detect this idea in his mind in his earliest researches
as a chemist on crystallisation, resulting in his dis-
covery of the “left-handed” tartrate. The power of a
substance in solution to rotate the plane of polarised light
was to him associated in some mysterious way with the
principle of life; molecular disymmetry and unsymmetrical
crystals suggested the difference between his own right
and left hands. Symmetry was uniformity, death; disym-
metry was variety, growth, life. Hence when brought
face to face with Mitscherlich’s active tartrate and inert
paratartrate, both apparently identical, Pasteur attacked
the problem by searching for his disymmetrical crystals,
and proved that the inertness of the paratartrate was due
to its being a compound of right and left handed salts
which neutralised such other’s specific action on the plane
of polarisation. We see the same guiding thought in
Pasteur’s next attempt to establish a specific relation
between the right and left handed tartaric acids and the
life of specific organisms, demonstrating, for instance, that
particular fungi fed on the carbon of the right-handed acid
in preference to that of the left-handed acid. From this he
was led on to his researches on all fermentation as a vital
process due to the life of specific organisms, the nature of
the products obtained, whether agreeable, useful, nauseous,
or noxious, being dependent on the nature of the organism;
to his long and determined struggle with the believers in
spontaneous generation, and to his triumph’over them. His
great investigations into the silk-worm diseases, and into
the ‘‘diseases’’ of wine and of beer, were applications of

Annual Report of the Council. 137

his fundamental belief in a living cause of all such pheno-
mena; but in selecting, so to speak, these subjects of
research he was strongly influenced by his patriotism. He
aimed not merely at demonstrating the truth of his con-
victions, but at restoring prosperity to the ruined peasantry
engaged in sericiculture in the south of France; at in-
creasing the wealth of France, by promoting her great
wine industry, and (after_1870) by establishing a brewing
industry, which would make France the successful com-
petitor of Germany as a producer of beer. In regard to
his further memorable researches on anthrax and other
farm diseases, on fevers, and on hydrophobia, it is not too
much to say that his humanitarian aspirations, and his
desire to promote the welfare of his countrymen and the
glory of France, were even more influential than his love
for a science which he had made his own, which had
yielded such wonderful results already, and which held
out fascinating prospects of still more marvellous dis-
closures. Asa result of the ardour and persistence of his
five years’ investigation of the silk-worm diseases, Pasteur
was struck with paralysis, which left him partly a cripple
for the rest of his life. He died in Paris on September
28th, 1895. He was elected an honorary member of
this Society in 1886. In his “ Discours de Réception,”
on his election to the French Academy in 1882, as suc-
cessor to Littré, Pasteur modestly summed up his own
claims to the distinction as follows: ‘‘ En prouvant que,
jJusqu’a ce jour, la vie ne s’est jamais montrée a l’homme
comme un produit des forces qui régissent la matiére, j’ai
pu servir la doctrine spiritualiste fort délaissée ailleurs,
mais assurée du moins de trouver dans vos rangs un
glorieux refuge. Peut-étre aussi m’avez vous su gré
davoir apporté dans cette question ardue de l’origine des
infiniment petits, une rigueur expérimentale qui a fini par
lasser la contradiction. Reportons-en toutefois le mérite

138 Annual Report of the Council.

a application sévére des régles de la méthode que
nous ont léguée les grands expérimentateurs: Galilée,
Pascal, Newton et leurs émules depuis deux siécles.
Admirable et souveraine méthode qui a pour guide
et pour contrdle incessant l’observation et l’expéri-
ence, dégagées, comme la raison qui les met en ceuvre,
de tout préjugé métaphysique; méthode si féconde que
des intelligences supérieures, eblouies par les conquétes.
que lui doit Vesprit humain, ont cru qu’elle pouvait
résoudre tous les problémes.”” To this may be appended
the following passage from Renan’s reply of welcome to
Pasteur on behalf of the Academy: “‘ Votre vie austere,
toute consacrée a la recherche désintéressée, est la
meilleure réponse a ceux qui regarde notre si¢cle comme
déshérité des grands dons de l’Ame. Votre laborieuse
assiduité n’a voulu connaitre ni distractions ni repos..
Recevez-en la récompense dans le respect qui vous.
entoure, dans cette sympathie dont les marques se
produisant aujourd’hui si nombreuses autour de vous,
et surtout dans la joie d’avoir bien accompli votre tache,.
d’avoir pris place au premier rang dans la compagnie
d’élite qui s’assure contre le néant par un moyen bien
simple, en faisant des ceuvres qui restent.”’

F. J. F.

Treasurer's Accounts. 139

Note.—The Treasurer’s Accounts of the Session 1895-6,
of which the following pages 140 to 142 are summaries,
have been endorsed as follows :—

“‘ April 17th, 1896. Audited and found correct.

We have also seen, at this date, the certificates of the follow-
ing Stocks, &c., held in the name of the Society, viz.: £1,225 Great
Western Railway Company 5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos.
12,293, 12,294, and 12,323; £258 Twenty years’ loan to the Man-
chester Corporation, redeemable 25th March, 1914 (No. 1564);
£3,000 Gas Light and Coke Company [London], Certificate No.
47,544, Ordinary A Consolidated Stock, Transfer No. 73,627, 5th
July, 1895; and also the deeds of the Natural History Fund and of
the Wilde Endowment Fund, as well as the deeds conveying the
land on which the Society’s premises stand, and the Declaration of

Trust.
(Signed)
C. L. BARNES,

CHAINER Sabin i i Sie

140 Treasurer's Accounts.

MANCHESTER LITERARAeD

Charles Bailey, Tvreasuver, in Account with the Society,

Dr. Statement of the Accounts
1895-96. 1894-95.
1896.—March 31st :— fis. @. £ Ss. jd -QisuichaeGmcondes
To Cash in hand, 1st April, 1895 .. an 60 are do 162 16 Ir 244 13 IL
To Members’ Contributions :—
Admission Fees:—1894-95, 7 at £2. 2s. od... se so WL ©)
Half Subscriptions,1894-95, 4 at £1.1s. od... ae eA co)
” 1895-96, 9 ” oe oe 929) 10
Subscriptions:— 1893-94, 6at £2. 2s. od... Ns 55 12.12 ©
» 1894-95, 30 » ae 50 63 O ©
a 1895-96, 102 m9 ae 55, Out, 1 ©
— 318 3 0 205 16 0
Subscriptions:—Wilde Endowment Fund, (1) 1893-94,
(x) 1894-95, (2) 1895-96 .. at £2.2s.0d.= 8 8 Oo
Half Subscriptions, Wilde Endowment Fund, (3) 1895-96,
at ars Odl— so uncnnO
Admission Fees, Wilde Endowment Fund .. 90 55 1B 72 ©
— BM 3 © 000
Compounder’s Fee, 1895-96, one 26 5 0 0 0 0

To Members’ Donations :—
Mr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S. Aa ¢ ais 250 0 O @ 0) ©)

To Transfers from Wilde Endowment Find: ee ae —

Members’ Subscriptions and Admission Fees, £24. 3s. od.
(included above).

Use of the Society’s Rooms, £50. os. od. (included below).

Salary of Assistant Secretary and Librarian ap oo 7G WE ©
Maintenance of Society’s Library 50 90 60 HA iG) 3
Repair and Decoration of Society’s Premises 0 s- 40) 12) 3
240 3 8 @) 10) (0)
To Transfer from Natural History Fund, 1895-96 :—
Grant towards cost of new shelving, &c. .. ae a0 100 0 O @ 7K) 0)
To Contributions from Sections :—
Microscopical and Natural History Section, 1894-95 5 5 0 @ @ ©
» cA a 1895-96 oo » § 8 ©
Physical and Mathematical Section, 1894-95 ae 60 2 Bo 2 2. ©
— 11 © == 22 0
To Use of the Society’s Rooms :—
Mr. C. Bridgford, 24th—25th January, 1895 .. 30 0 0 0 BB @
Manchester Architects’ Society, rst January. to 3oth
September, 1895 ae 2D, WG) ©) 37 FO
Manchester Geological Satay, Ist avail 7804, io joth
September, 1895 Me 45 0 0 30 0 O
Manchester Photographic Society to 30th Sept. 2% 1895 oo 23 © © 25 0 0
oD . 00 12-13 April, 1894 and
T2—TAWEC Di iLOG OMe leo aO
Transfer from Wilde Endowment Fund, 1895-96 .. 66 50 © ©
—— ee OC === OL Q @
To Sale of the Society’s Publications, 1895-96 .. 00 O00 712 9 Yd) ©
To Wilde Endowment Fund, 1895-96 :—
Dividends £3,000 Gas Light and Coke Co., London,
Ordinary A Stock .. . 309 I5 O
Remission of Income Tax, dividend 3rd Sept. , 1895 so «6 OY ©
ge 376 2 6 Oo ® ©
To Natural History Fund, 1895-96 :—
Dividends on {1,225 Great Western Railway Co.’s Stock.. 59 4 2
Remission of Income Tax, three years’ dividends. . a © 3 8
: = 65 9 4 °F 3
To Joule Memorial Fund, 1895-96 :—
Dividends on £258 Loan to Manchester Corporation .. 7 9 10
Remission of Income Tax, dividends to 29th Sept., 1895.. 0 7 9 F
I I
To Bank ee 1895: 96 (credited to Wilde Endowment EMG 4
Fund) .. ae as AG ae se Sr Ti Se pl To) 6
£1,736 18 10 £624 14 7

1896.—April 1. To Cash in Williams, Deacon, Manchester and Salford Bank, Limited.. dass” 2. 9

Treasurer’s Accounts.

ima LeOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

from ist April, 1895, to 31st March, 1896, with a Comparative
for the Session 1894-1895.

141

Cr,

1896—March 31st :— 1895-1896.
fs G5 #2 Bb Gh
By Charges on Property :—

Chief Rent (Income Tax deducted) .. Jo BG co HE @ &
Income Tax on Chief Rent AG x O09 me ONS 7
Insurance against Fire .. oo aig ay? (0)
Repairs to Building, Gas, Furniture, and Decoration .. 40 12 3
Electric Light, Additions and Alterations .. aa oo 95} OD ©
New Bookcases and Shelving for Library .. Se bc AO) 7 ©)
Se SO TE 29
By House Expenditure :—
Coals, Gas, Electric Light, Water, Wood, &c. ae oo | (O5 WL GF
Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings .. I8 14 9g
Cleaning, Cleaning Windows, Sweeping Chimneys, &e.. 518 4
— go 7 8
By Administrative Charges :—
Assistant Secretary and Librarian 50 Bic n° oo GO im ©
Housekeeper O so OB & ©
Postages and Carriage of Parcels, and of “Memoirs” .. ar x
Stationery, Cheques, Receipts, and Engrossing .. no 1 1 O
Printing Circulars, Reports, and List of Members .. 55 AG 1s}
Legal Charges ere os bo 50 fe ba oof MG) UO
—————— 207) 120
By Publishing :—
Moiety of Honorarium for editing the Society’s publica-
tions, 1895-96 .. 25 0 0
Printing ‘“‘ Memoirs and Proceedings ” ’ from. sth January,
1894, to roth March, ed torcert Natural History
Papers) Ben LOOn 5) 10
Binding ‘“ Memoirs ” 8 6
Wood Engraving and Lane a) (except | Natural
History Plates) Ps : 6 3.0
——— 14217 0
By Library :—
Binding Books in Library 60 ne OOO
Books and Periodicals (except Natural Histor 1) aa oo By tA &
Assistance in Library ore oe 0 AG ae PO LOnNO
Library Stationery, &c. . 50 oo, kK WL ©
Palzontographical Society “for the year 1896. a Sou usa dane tetG)
Ray Society for the year 1896 .. oe Pe Bey ine en ae)
Zoological Record, Vol. 32 Oc aS dio 6 og) i OO
49 I It
By Wilde Endowment Fund :—
Wilde Medal (not awarded this Session) . 000
Selected Memoir and Dalton Medal (not awarded
this Session) we a6 © © @
Annual Lecture (not awarded this Session) 50 ee OM OMEO
Transfers to General Fund :—
Subscriptions of Members .. oe ye 50 og Hie TR ©
Entrance Fees .. O60 oo o6 ae on 50 1A TR ©
Use of Rooms .. 50 0 O
Salary Assistant Secretary ‘and Librarian from rath 6 6
August, 1895, to 31st March, 1896 ‘he AL
Maintenance of Society’s Library :—
Books and Periodicals .. ate aie oo | (fag a
Assistance in Library . 50 00 O0 310 6
Library Stationery, Be. af ate Il 14 9
Contribution towards Bookcases .. a0 80 0 O
— 122 19 II
Repair and Decoration of Premises .. ae sis ee) 402s)
gel (5) 3)
By Natural History Fund :— ;
Natural History Books and Periodicals an By Hl 3
Grant to Microscopical and Natural History Section, for
Books and Binding .. : A OROnO)
Plates for Natural History Papers i in “ Memoirs ” co 9 © ©
Printing Natural History Papers in ‘“‘ Memoirs” .. oo 37 te ©
Transfer to General Fund towards cost of newshelving .. 120 0 o
— Zs) it 3
By Joule Memorial Fund :— oe.
(No expenditure this Session) .. a ae ne ae © 0)
By Balance 31st March, 1896 .. Pe ia ac we pt 357 2) 7.
£1,736 18 10

ONNOONO

1894-95.

.d.

9OoOmanro

9omnoo

eo0000n 0

s. d.

<7

a 2

II0 15 7

142 Treasurer's Accounts.

Summary Balance Sheet, Session 1895-96.

General Account :— Lo By Gl; PB Sa Cle
Receipts during the Session 1895-96 :—
Subscriptions, Admission Fees, Sections, &c. .. 2330) 15) 0
Use of the Society’s rooms .. aie 55 a oo. OL TB ©
Sale of the Society’s publications .. 60 AG 60. Wf 22) @)
Donation from Mr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S. .. ° - 250 0 O
Transfers from Wilde Endowment Fund, as per st? in
General Balance Sheet, page 11. sr dis bo SL 3)
Transfer from Natural History Sua) a a0 -- 100 0 O
= 1,097 6 5
Balance against this Account, rst April, 1895 .. me sa EYL TG) GF
Expenditure during the Session 1895-96 :—
Charges on Property .. és ava ae ae 50 Ae ES ©
House Expenditure by ae ate 96 ee 50 GO 7
Administrative Charges .. oe DO ae So 50 ZU 12 ©
Publishing .. 50 A se A ae oe 50 WA Ty) ©
Library Qo 60 0 as sie 56 30 ao cle) sie sae 986 13 9

Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1896 ..

Wilde Endowment Fund :—

Receipts during the Session 1895-96 :—
Dividends on £3,000 Ordinary A Stock, Gas Light and
Coke Co., London .. : 56 3150) 205 O)
Remission of Income Tax, Dividend 3rd September, 1895 6 7 6
Bank Interest 0 ate mo i

Wi 3 7
Expenditure during the Session 1895-96, as per list in
General Balance Sheet, page 11 a8 fi aA a. BIOS
Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1896 ..
Compounders’ Fund :—
Balance in favour of this Account, 1st April, 1895 .. bo 203 15 O
Compounders’ Fee received during the Session 1895-96 ae 26 5 0

Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1896 ..

Joule Memorial Fund :—

Balance in favour of this Account, 1st April, 1895 .. 20 G 7 @
Receipts during the Session 1895-96 oo FLY F
Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1896 ..
Total Credit Balances .. 50 06 50
Natural History Fund :—
Balance in favour of this Account, rst April, 1895 ne 13) 07
Dividends on Great Western Railway Co.’s Grocke
£1,225, during the Session 1895-96 an a 50 4 2
Remission of three years’ Income Tax 00 a0 oo OO
—_——— 152) 20E0
Expenditure during the Session 1895-96 :—
Natural History Booksand Periodicals .. 5 yf ek 3
Grant to Natural History and Microscopical ection so 40 © ©
Printing Papers on Natural History in ‘‘ Memoirs” sa Sy) at (6)
Plates for Papers on Natural History in ‘‘Memoirs” .. 9 0 0
Transfer to General Account towards cost of new
shelving O0 ae ne o8 Ne Re so 10 GO © 213° 15, 3

Balance against this Account, 30th March, 1896

‘Cash in Williams, Deacon, and Manchester and Salford Bank, Limited, 31st March, 1896

110 12 8

62 16 IL

iS}
(e3)
fo}
°
°

15 5.4

418 I4 It

61 12 4

£357 2 7

Microscopical and Natural History Section. 143

Annual Report of the Council of the Microscopical
and Natural History Section.

The Council reports that owing to the rearrangement
of the library, the Natural History books have been
separated from the Tvansactions and periodicals: these
latter are now arranged geographically along with other
volumes of a similar nature. The books will be found in
the Secretaries’ room, and are at present being catalogued
and arranged.

During the Session one new member, Mr. W. E.
HoyLe, M.A., has been elected. The meetings have
been very fairly attended, and a large variety of papers
and communications read by Messrs. MELVILL, ALLEN,
ROGERS, Boyp, STIRRUP, HYDE, OLDHAM, CUNLIFFE,
and BROADBENT. The microscopes have also been
frequently used, and objects of considerable interest
exhibited. The Section now consists of 17 members
and 15 associates.

Members :—Messrs. J. J. ASHWORTH; CH. BAILEy,
Paes |. bOYD 7 1G. JE sBROADBENT, MOR: C.S:3) Hi:
BROGDEN; A. Brown, M.A., M.D.; S. Cottam, F.R.A.S.;
COWARD. | bc Wak CUNEInDES iC. Drnn. Ele) ;
Cri reywoop: Ws hie: Se: BaAC 3) A. HODGKINSON,
MEBs ocs VV. SB rowmir MA |. Cosmo Minti:
Me weualbe Sa ks INICHORSON, 1b. 2.5.30. de SCH Es:
VEGSomiRRUP,. FG .Sos FOES Wiss: Se:

“Assocvdtes -——|. fh. ALLEN; Wi. BLACKBURN, IRM. S.;
Lae AMERON,. FebeS..) ia As CowktRpe 2s (CUNLIFFE ;
ial. Jess py Jets JemSinns Oss, WIEID s (Ce Oiinsiwee Ane
KOGERS = \VVe Ke ScowcrRorprs) i. Sineron; (G. Nase
SKIPP; J. WATSON.

144 Microscopical and Natural History Section Accounts.

Mark Stirrup, Treasurer, in account with the Microscopical and Natural History Section
of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.

Dr. Session 1895-06. Cr.
1895. F £ s. d. 1895. £ sd
April 8. To Balance in Bank and May 17. By Palmer, Howe, & Co.,
Treasurer's hands .... 63 4 4 Binding Nat. Hist.Books 24 7 10
» 30. ,, Grant by Parent Society, June 19. ,, M. C. Cooke, “British
from Nat. Hist. Fund ...40 0 o Fungi,’’ 8 vols. ........ I0 10 O
Dec. 20. ,, Bank Interest .......... 0 6 8} Sept.rz. ,, T. Sowler & Co., Printing 0 4 o
To Subscriptions and Arrears from » 13. 5, West, Newman, & Co.,
April 6th, 1895, to April 9th, 1896 13 10 o “Jour. of Botany,” 1895 o 12 oO
Oct. 19. , W. M. Webb, ‘Jour. of
Malacology,” 1895 ...... O 4 4
Nov. 28. ,, H. Frowde, rmaee Kew-
ensis,”’ Part IV... sisanaeee eh 2)

» 29. , J. E. Cornish, “ Natura-
list,” Oct., 1894, to Oct.,

1895. —_cinetsiele ere 0 60
Zsa Bank Cheque Book...... @ 2 x
Oct. 31. ,, T.Sington, for Postage of
7806: Gircularsiien-seecee eee 0 5 3
Jan. 7. , Eason & Son, “Irish
Naturalist,” 1896 ...... 0 5 0

» 9: ,, David Douglas, “Ann,
Scot. Nat. Hist.,” 1896.. 0 7 6
mo Eb Gurney & Jackson, “This,”
Use ago aooocdccouaDcds zn ©
Feb. 18. ,, W. oa Herdman, “‘ Fauna
of Liverpool Bay,’ 4vols. 117 o
Mar. 26. ,, W.J.Lingley,GlassShade o 4 8

» 25. », Parent Society.‘ Sectional
Subscriptionweeeeeeree 5 5 0
April 8. ,, Charles Hordern—
Measeee rere £1 16 o

Postages ..f0 4 6 2 0 6
», B. O'Connor, Printing
Cards and Circulars .. 210 0
By Cash in hands of the Treasurer .. 1 8 4
, Balance in Manchester and Salford
Bank (St. Ann Street) .......... 63 8 6

£It7, 1 10 pei ako)

To Balance to Credit of Section ....£64 16 10

The Microscopical and Natural History Section of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society in account with the Parent Society, for Grant
for Books from Natural History Fund.

Dr. Session 1895-96. Cr.
1895 £ s. d. 1895. eSomce
Apl. 2. To Grant by Parent soci Apl. 8. By Balance due to Section .. 19 12 8
per Treasurer .....0.... 40 0 O| May 17. ,, Binding Natural History
Books.» 2225 eeee 24 7 IO
Juneig. ,, “British Fungi,” 8 vols.,
Wi (Cr (GCOES sascoonc Io I0 oO
Nov. 28. ,, ‘Index Kewensis,” Part
iefoiaieseletetotoleetetetersiers 220)
1896.
Feb. 18. ,, ‘‘Fauna of Liverpool
To Balance due to Section .......... 18 9 6 Bay,’ 4 vols.,Herdman 117 0
£58 9 6 £58 9 6
By Balance due to Section ...... Sonus O &

The Council. I45

THE COUNCIL AND MEMBERS.

| President.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

Vice-Presidents.

ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.
CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S.

Secretaries.
_ REGINALD F. GWYTHER, M.A.
FRANCIS JONES, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

Tyveasurer.
RUPERT SWINDELLS, M.Insvt.C.E.

Librarian.
W. E. HOYLE, M.A., M.Sc., M.R.C.S.

Of the Council.

HAROLD B. DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.
ALEXANDER HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc.
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, ERZS:
HORACE LAMB, M.A., F.R.S.

J. E. KING, M.A.

IRS IE; MUANALOIR, IF(C.S.. INC:

146

Date of Electton.
1870, Dec. 13.

‘1861, Jan. 22.
1896, Jan. 2r.
1895, Jan. 8.

1837, Aug. IT.
1887, Nov. 16.

1865, Nov. 14.

1888, Nov. 13.

1888, Feb. 7.
1895, Jan. 8.
1894, Jan. 9.
1896, April 14.

1895, Mar. 5.
1868, Dec. 15.

1896, April 14.
1896, April 28,

1861, Jan. 22.

1896, Feb. 18.

1875, Nov. 16.
1889, Oct. I5.

1894, Mar. 6.
1855, April 17.

1861, April 2.

1889, April 16.
1844, Jan. 23.

1860, Jan. 24.
1886, April 6.
1893, April 18.

Ordinary Members.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Angell, John, F.C.S., F.I.C. 6, Beaconsfield, Derby Road,
Withington.

Anson, Rev. George Henry Greville, M.A. Birch Rectory,
Rusholme.

Armstrong, Frank. The Rowans, Harboro’ Grove, Harboro’
Road, Ashton-on-Mersey.

Armstrong, Geo. B. Clarendon, Sale, Cheshive.

Ashton, Thomas, LL.D. 36, Charlotte Street, M anchester.

Ashworth, J. Jackson. 39, Spring Gardens, Manchester.

Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College Road, Whalley

Range, Manchester.
Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.
Bailey, Alderman Sir W. H. Sale Hall, Sale.
Barnes, Charles L., M.A. 10, Nelson Street, Chorlton-on-
Medlock.
Beckett, J. Hampden, F.C.S. Corbar Hiil House, Buxton.
Behrens, George B. The Acorns, 4, Oak Drive, Fallowfield.
Behrens, Gustav. Holly Royde, Withington.
Bickham, Spencer H., F.L.S. Underdown, Ledbury.
Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles.
Bolton, Herbert, F.R.S.E. 94, Dickenson Road, Rusholme.
Bottomley, James, D.Sc., B.A., F.C.S. 220, Lower
Broughton Road, Manchester.
Bowman, George, M.D. 594, Stretford Road, Old Trafford.
Boyd, John. Barton House, Didsbury Park, Didsbury.
Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S. Sunnyside, Whalley Range.
Broadbent, G. H., M.R.C.S. 8, Avdwick Green, Manchester.
Brockbank, William, F.G.S., F.L.S. Chapel Walks,
Manchester. :
Brogden, Henry, F.G.S. Hale Lodge, Altrincham.
Brooks, Samuel Herbert. Slade House, Levenshulme.
Brooks, Sir William Cunliffe, Bart., M.A. Bank, 92, King
Street, Manchester.
Brothers, Alfred, F.R.A.S. 14, St. Ann’s Square, Manchester.
Brown, Alfred, M.A., M.D. Sandycroft, Higher Broughton.
Brown, F. E., M.A. Hulme Grammar School, Manchester.

Date of Election.

1846, Jan. 27.
1889, Jan. 8.

1889, Oct. 15.
1872, Nov. 12.

1894, Nov. 13.
1893, Jan. Io.
1854, April 18.
1895, April 9g.
1896, April 14.
1895, April 30.
1884, Nov. 4.
1895, April 30.
1853, Jan. 25.

1859, Jan. 25.

1895, Nov. 12.
1876, April 18.

1853, April 19.
1895, April 9.
1894, Mar. 6.
1879, Mar. 18.
1887, Feb. 8.

1895, Jan. 8.

1883, Oct. 2.

1895, April 30.

Ordinary Members. 147

Browne, Henry, M.A. (Glas.), M.R.C.S. (Lond.), M.D.

(Lond.) The Gables, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Brownell, T. W. 64, Upper Brook Street, Choriton-on-
Medlock.

Budenburg, C. F., M.Sc. Bowdon Lane, Marple, Cheshire.

Burghardt, Charles Anthony, Ph.D. 35, Fotntain Street,
Manchester.

Burton, Wm., F.C.S. The Hollies, Clifton Junction, near
Manchester.

Chadwick, W.I. 2, St. Mary's Siveet, Manchester.

Christie, Richard Copley, M.A. Ribsden, near Bagshot,
Surrey.

Claus, Wm. H. 31, Mauldeth Road, Withington.

Clayton-Chorlton, James. Didsbury Priory, Didsbury.

Collett, Edward Pyemont. 7, Wilbvaham Road, Chorlton-
cum-Hardy.

Corbett, Joseph. Town Hall, Salford.

Cornish, James Edward. Stone House, Alderley Edge.

Cottam, Samuel, F.R.A.S., F.R.Hist.S., F.C.A. 49, Spring
Gardens, Manchester.

Coward, Edward, Assoc. Inst. C.E. Heaton House, Heaton
Mersey, neay Manchester.

Crossley, William J. Openshaw.

Cunliffe, Robert Ellis. Halton Bank, Pendleton.

Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., F.S.A. St. James’
Square, Manchester.

Dawkins, Wm. Boyd, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology.
Owens College, Manchester. —

Delépine, A. Sheridan, M.D., Professor of Pathology.
Owens College, Manchester.

Dent, Hastings Charles, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
Square, London, S.W.

Dixon, Harold Bailey, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry.
Owens College, Manchester.

Dreyfus, Charles, Ph.D., F.C.S. The Clayton Aniline Cc.,
Lid., Clayton.

20, Thurloe

Faraday, F.J., F.L.S., F.S.S. Ramsay Lodge, Slade Lane,
Levenshulme.

Flux, A. W., M.A., Lecturer in Political Economy. 1o,
Amherst Street, Withington.

148
Date of Election.
1886, Feb. 9g.

1895, April
1881, Nov.

1888, Feb.
1892, Nov. 15.

1875, Feb. 9.

1896, April 14.

1890, Feb. 18.
1862, Nov. 4.
1895, Nov. 12.
1873, Dec. 16.
1890, Nov. 4.
1890, Mar. 4.
1889, Jan. 8.

1833, April 26.
1895, Nov. 12.
1895, Mar. 5.
1896, Jan. 21.
1884, Jan. 8.
1889, Oct. 15.
1870, Nov. I.
1878, Nov. 26.

1890, Jan. 7.
1891, Nov. 17.

9
it
1874, Nov. . 3.
7

Ordinary Members.

Gee,-W. W. Haldane, B.Sc. Technical School, Princess
Street, Manchester.

Green, Arthur G. 18, King’s Drive, Heaton Moor, Stockport.

Greg, Arthur. Eagley, neay Bolton.

Grimshaw, Harry, F.C.S. Sunnyside, North Road, Clayton.

Grimshaw, William. Stoneleigh, Sale, and 75, Princess
Street, Manchester.

Groves, W.G. The Larches, Alderley Edze.

Gwyther, Reginald F., M.A., Fielden Lecturer in Mathe-
matics. Owens College, Manchester.

Harden, Arthur, M.Sc., Ph.D., Senior Demonstrator of
Chemistry. Owens College, Manchester.

Harker, Thomas. Brook House, Fallowfield.

Hart, Peter. Messrs. Tennants & Co., Mill Street, Clayton,
neav Manchester.

Hartog, Philippe Joseph, B.Sc., F.C.S., Demonstrator in
Chemistry. Owens College, Manchester.

Heelis, James. 71, Princess Street, Manchester.

Heenan, H., M-Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. Manor House,
Wilmslow Park, Wilmslow.

Henderson, H. A. -£Eastbourne House, Chorlton Road,
Manchester.

Heywood, Charles J. Chaseley, Pendleton.

Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 26, Kensington
Palace Gardens, London, W. f

Hick, Thomas, B.Sc., Demonstrator in Botany. Owens
College, Manchester.

Hickson, S. J., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology. Owens
College, Manchester.

Hindle, John Lawrence. 24, India Buildings, Cross Street,
Manchester.

Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc. 18, St. John Street,
Manchester.

Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., Keeper of the Manchester
Museum. Owens College, Manchester.

Johnson, William H., B.Sc. 26, Lever Street, Manchester.

Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Manchester Grammar
School.

Joseland, H. L., M.A., Manchester Grammar School.

Joyce, Samuel, Electrical Engineer. Technical School,
Princess Street, Manchester.

Date of Election.

1886, Jan. 12.
1891, Dec. 1.

1895, Nov. 12.
1893, Nov. 14.
1890, Nov. 4.
1884, April 15.
1895, Nov. 12.

1895, Mar. 5.
1895, Nov. 12.

1895, April 30.
1857, Jan. 27.

1870, April 19.
866, Nov. 13.
1859, Jan. 25.

1875, Jan. 26.

1864, Nov. I.
1895, Nov. 12.

1873, Mar. 18.
1879, Dec. 30.
1881, Oct. 18.
1894, Feb. 6.

1873, Mar. 4.
1889, April 16.

1862, Dec. 30.

1884, April 15.
1844, April 30.

Ordinary Members. 149

Kay, Thomas. Moorfield, Stockport.

King, John Edward, M.A., High Master, Manchester
Grammar School,

Kirkman, W. W. The Grange, Timperley.

Lamb, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics.
Medindee, Burton Road, Didsbury.

Langdon, Maurice Julius, Ph.D.
Manchester.

Leech, Daniel John, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica.
Owens College, Manchester.

Lees, Charles Herbert, D.Sc., Demonstrator in Physics.
Owens College, Manchester.

Levinstein, Ivan. Wilbraham Road, Fallowfield.

Lewkowitsch, Julius, Ph.D., F.C.S.
Fennel Street, Mancnester.

Liebmann, Adolf, Ph.D. 38, Clyde Road, Didsbury.

15, Dickinson Street,

Lancaster Avenue,

Longridge, Robert Bewick. Yew Tyree House, Tabley,
Knutsford.

Lowe, Charles, F.C.S. Summerfield House, Reddish,
Stockport.

McDougall, Arthur, B.Sc. Fallowfield House, Fallowfield.

Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S. Whalley Range.

Mann, John Dixon, M.D.,.F.R.C.P. (Lond.), Professor
of Medical Jurisprudence. 16, St. John Street, Manchester

Mather, William, M.Inst.C.E. Ivon Works, Salford.

Meade, Thomas de Courcy, M.Inst.C.E., City Surveyor.
Town Hall, Manchester.

Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S. Brook House,
Prestwich. r)

Millar, John Bell, M.E., Lecturer in Engineering. Owens
College, Manchester.

Mond, Ludwig, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Waunnington Hall, ;
Northwicn.

Mond, Robt., M.A. Wénnington Hall, Northwich.

Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. 84, Major Street, Manchester. .
Norbury, George. Hillside, Prestwich Pavk, Prestwich.

Ogden, Samuel. 10, Mosley Stveet West, Manchester.
Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S.. Overley,. Langham Road, Bowdon.
Ormerod, Henry Mere, F.G.S. 5, Clarence Street, Manchester.

150

Date of Election.
1892, Feb. 23.

1861, April 30.
1876, Nov. 28.
1895, Nov. 12.

1892, Nov. 15.
1885, Nov. 17.
1854, Feb. 7.

1888, Feb. 21.
1869, Nov. 16.

1883, April 3.
1880, Mar. 23.

1864, Dec.
1858, Jan.

Dif
26.

“17893, Mar. 21.

1842, Jan. 25.
1873, Nov. 18.

1895, Nov. 12.
1890, Nov. 4.
1890, Jan. 21.

1886, April 6.
1895, Nov. 12.
1896, Feb. 18.
1896, April 14.

1894, Jan. 9.
1894, Nov. 13.

1892, Nov. 29.

Ordinary Members.

Pankhurst, Richard Marsden, LL.D. (Lond.), Barrister-at-
Law. St. James’ Square, Manchester.

Parlane, James. Rusholme.

Parry, Thomas, F.S.S. Grafton House, Ashton-under-Lyne.

Pennington, James Dixon, B.A., B.Sc. 254, Oxford Road,
Manchester. .

Perkin, W. H., jun., Ph.D , F.R.S., Professor of Organic
Chemistry. Owens College, Manchester.

Phillips, Henry Harcourt, F.C.S. 183, Moss Lane East,
Manchester.

Ramsbottom, John, M.Inst.C.E. Fernhill, Alderley Edge.

Rée, Alfred, Ph.D., F.C.S. 1, Brighton Grove, Rusholme.

Reynolds, Osborne, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.,
Professor of. Engineering, Owens College.
Road, Fallowfield.

Rhodes, James, F.R.C.S. Glossop.

Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S-E., P.Ri@22)) (onde):
Ravenswood, Broughton Park.

Robinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. Westwood Hall, Leek.

Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield, B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.C.S. 10, Bramham Gardens, Wetherby Road, London,
S.W.

Ladybarn

Schill, C. H. 117, Portland Street, Manchester.

Schunck, Edward, Ph.D,, F.R.S., F.C.S. Kersal.

Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of
Physics. Owens College, Manchester.

Shearer, Arthur.= 36, Demesne Road, Alexandva Park.

Sidebotham, Edward John. Ervlesdene, Bowdon.

Sidebotham, James Nasmyth, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield,
Groby Place, Altrincham,

Simon, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Lawnhurst, Didsbury.

Southern, Frank, B.Sc. Burnage Lodge, Levenshulme.

Spence, David: Pine Ridge, Buxton.

Stanton, Thomas E., M.Sc., Senior Demonstrator in the
Whitworth Engineering Laboratory.
Manchester.

Stevens, Marshall, F.S.S. Bolton Lodge, Eccles.

Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. High Thorn, Stamford Road
Bowdon.

Swindells, Rupert, M.Inst.C.E. Walton Villa, The Firs,
Bowdon.

Owens College,

Date of Election.
1895, April 9.

1893, Nov. 14.

1884, Mar. 18.

1873, April 15.

1896, Jan. 21.

1889, April 30.
1896, Jan. 21.

1895, Mar. 5.

1879, Dec. 30.

1873, Nov. 18.

1892, Nov. 15.

1895, April 9.
1859, Jan. 25.

1859, April 19.

1888, April 17.

1889, April 16.

1860, April 17.
1896, Jan. 21.

1863, Nov. 17.

1865, Feb. 21.

1895, Jan. 8.

N.B.—Of

Ordinary Members. I5I

Tatton, Reginald A., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer to the Mersey
and Irwell Joint Committee. 44, Mosley Street, Manchester.

Taylor, R. L., F.C.S., F.1.C. Central School, Deansgate,
Manchester.

Thompson, Alderman Joseph. Riversdale, Wilmslow.

Thomson, William, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C. Royal
Institution, Manchester.

Thorburn, William, M.D., B.Sc.
Manchester.

Thornber, Harry. Rookjield Avenue, Sale.

Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, near Manchester.

2, St. Peter's Square,

Ward, Adolphus William, LL.D., Litt.D. Principal of
Owens College. The Hollies, Fallowfield.

Ward, Thomas. Wadebvook House, Northwich.

Waters, Arthur William, F.G.S. Sunny Lea, Davos Dorf,
Switzerland. :

Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., Professor of Botany, Owens
College. 4, Clifton Avenue, Fallowfield.

Whitehead, James. Lindfield, Fulshaw Park, Wilmslow.

Wilde, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge.

Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Vale Bank, Knutsford, Cheshire.

Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. Spring Gardens,
Manchester.

Wilson, Thomas B.
Manchester.

Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Salford.

Wordingham, Charles Henry, A.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelhurst,
Urmston Lane, Stretford.

Worthington, Samuel Barton, M.Inst.C.E. Mill Bank,
Bowdon, and 37, Princess Street, Manchester.

Worthington, Thomas, F.R.1I.B.A.
Manchester.

Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E.
Polygon, Cheetham Hill.

37, Arcade Chambers, St. Mary's Gate,

46, Brown Street,

2, Wilton

the above list the following have compounded for their

subscriptions, and are therefore life members :—

Brogden, Henry.

Johnson, William H., B.Sc.

Bradley, N.

Lowe, Charles, F.C.S.

Bailey, Charles, F.L.S.

Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc., &c.

152

Date of Election,

1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.
1894, April 17.
1887, April 19.

1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.

1886, Feb. 9.
1886, Feb. 9g.
1886, Feb. 9g.

1895, April 30.

1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.

1886, Feb. 9.

1860, April 17.

1888, April 17.

1889, April 30.

1866, Oct. 30.

1889, April 30.

Honorary Members.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Abney, Capt. W. de Wiveleslie, C.B., R.E., F.R.S
Rathmore Lodge, Bolton Gardens South, S. Kensington,
London, S.W. 3

Amagat, E. H., Honorary Professor at the Faculty of
Sciences, Lyons. 34, Rue St. Lambert, Paris.

Appell, Paul, Membre de l'Institut, Professor at the
Faculty of Sciences. Paris.

Armstrong, Wm. George, Lord, C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S. Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Ascherson, Paul F. Aug., Professor of Botany. Berlin.

Baeyer, Adolf von, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Chemistry,
1, Arcisstvasse, Munich.

Baker, Sir Benjamin, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Place, Westminster, S.W.

Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S., F.L.S. Royal Herbarium, Kew.

Berthelot, Prof. Marcellin, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de
l'Institut.

Beilstein, F., Professor of Chemistry. Technological Insti-
tute, St. Petersburg.

Boltzmann, Ludwig, Professor of Physics.

Brioschi, Francesco, Pres. R. Accad. dei Lincei.

2, Queen's Square

Paris.

Vienna.

4, Place
Cavour, Milan.

Buchan, Alexander, F.R.S.E. 72, Northumberland Siveet,
Edinburgh.

Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Prof.
of Chemistry. Heidelberg.

Cannizzaro, Stanislao, For. Mem. RS., Prof. of Chemistry.
University of Rome.

Carruthers, William, F.R.S., F.L.S., late Keeper of
Botanical Dept., British Museum. Centval House, Central
Hill, London, S.E.

Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Prof.
of Natural Philosophy. New Museum, Oxford.

Cohn, Ferdinand, Professor of Botany. 26, Schweidnitzer

Stadtgraben, Breslau.

Date of Election.

1887, April 19.

1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.
1886, Feb. 9g.
1894, April 17.
1888, April 17.

1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.
1895, April 30.

1889, April 30.

1889, April 30.

1889, April 30.

1860, April 6.

1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.

1895, April 30.
1892, April 26.

1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.

Honorary Members. 153

Cornu, Professor Alfred, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de
l'Institut. Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.

Curtius, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry. Kiel.

Darboux, Gaston, Membre de 1’Institut, Professor at the
Faculty of Sciences. 36, Rue Gay Lussac, Paris.

Dawson, Sir John William, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S. McGill College, Montreal.

Debus, H., Ph.D., F.R.S. 1, Obeve Sophienstrasse, Cassel,
Hessen, Germany.

Dewalque, Gustave, Professor of Geology.
Liége.

Dohrn, Dr. Anton. Zoological Station, Naples.

Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of
Physiology. 15, Newe Wilhelmstvasse, Berlin.

Dyer, W. T. Thiselton, C.M.G., C.1.E., F.R.S., Director of
the Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew.

University of

Edison, Thomas Alva. Ovange, N.J., U.S.A.
Elster, Julius, Ph.D. 6, Lessingstrasse, Wolfenbitttel.

Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany. Harvard College,
Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Flower, Sir William Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Director of the British Museum (Natural History).
Cromwell Road, London, S.W.

Foster, Michael, M.A., M.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Professor
of Physiology. Tvrinity College, Cambridge.

Frankland, Edward, Ph.D., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,
WEE CS) kes Con Mera alnsi mim (Acad ei Sci,),
&c. The Yews, Reigate Hill, Reigate, Surrey.

Friedel, Ch., D.C.L., Membre de 1’Institut, Professor at
the Faculty of Sciences. 9, Rue Michelet, Paris.

Fiurbringer, Max, Professor of Anatomy. Jena.

Gegenbaur, Carl, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Anatomy.
Heidelberg.

Geitel, Hans. 6, Lessingstvasse, Wolfenbiittel.

Gibbs, J. Willard, Professor of Mathematical Physics, Yale
University. Newhaven, Connecticut, U.S.A.

Glaisher, J. W. L., D.Sc., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

Gouy, A., Professor at the Faculty of Sciences. Lyons.

Guldberg, Cato. M., Professor of Applied Mathematics.
Christiania, Norway.

154

Date of Election.
1894, April 17.

1894, April 17.
1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.
1888, April 17.

1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.

1859, Jan. 12.

1851, April 29.

1892, April 26.

1894, April 17.
1895, April 30.
- 1892, April 26.
1887, April 19.
1894, April 17.
1892, April 26.

1887, April 19.

1889, April 30.

1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.

1889, April 30.
1892, April 26.

Honorary Members.

Harcourt, A.G.Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.. Lee’s Reader
in Chemistry, Christ Church. Cowley Grange, Oxford.

Heaviside, Oliver, F.R.S. Paignton, Devon.

Hermite, Ch., For. Mem. R.S., Membre de l'Institut.
2, Rue de la Sorbonne, Paris.

Hill, G. W. West Nyack, N.Y., U.S.A.

Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm, Professor of Physics. Polytech-
nicum, Miinster.

Hoff, J. Van't Professor of Chemistry. Uhlandstvasse,
2, Charlottenburg, Berlin.

Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, K'C.Si) C3) VEekes:
Sunningdale, Berks.

Huggins, William, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,

Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.) 90, Upper Tulse Hill,
Brixton, London, S.W.

Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S,, F.R.S.E., For. Assoc. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.),
Professor of Natural Philosophy. 2, College, Glasgow.

Klein, Felix, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Mathematics,
3, Wilhelm Weber Strasse, Gottingen.

Konigsberger, Leo, Professor of Mathematics. Heidelberg.

Lacaze-Duthiers, Henri de, Membre de 1’Institut, Prof.
7, Rue de l’Estvapade, Paris.
3, Kaiser Wilhelm

a la Sorbonne.
Ladenburg, A., Professor of Chemistry.
Strasse, Breslau.
Langley, S. P. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A.
Lie, M. Sophus, Professor of Mathematics. Lezpsic.
Liebermann, C., Professor of Chemistry. 29, Matthat-
kivch Strasse, Berlin.
Lockyer, J. Norman, ©.B:, W.R:S:, Corr. Menmeinsie bine
(Acad. Sci.) Science School, Kensington, London, S.W.
Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
15, Lombard Street, London, E.C.

Marshall, Alfred, Professor of Political Economy. Bailiol
Croft, Madingley Road, Cambridge.

Mascart, E., For. Mem. R.S., Membre de 1’Institut, Pro-
fessor at the Collége de France. 176, Rue del’ Université,
Paris.

Mendeléeff, D., For. Mem. R.S. St. Petersburg.

Meyer, Victor, Professor of Chemistry. 55, Plockstvasse,

Heidelberg.

Date of Election.
1895, April 30.

1892, April 26.

1894, April 17.

1894, April 17.

1887, April 19.

1894, April 17.

1892, April 26.
1894, April 17.

1851, April 29.

1892, April 26.

1866, Jan. 23.
1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.
1849, Jan. 23.
1886, Feb. 9g.
1889, April 30.
1889, April 30.

1894, April 17.

Honorary Members. 155

Mittag-Leffler, Gésta, Professor of Mathematics. Djursholm,
Stockholm.

Moissan, H., Membre de 1’Institut, Professor at the Ecole

7, Rue Vauquelin, Paris.

‘Challenger’ Office, 45,

Supérieure de Pharmacie.
Murray, John, LL.D., D.Sc.
Frederick Street, Edinburgh.
Neumayer, Professor G., Director of the Seewarte.

Hamburg.
Newcomb, Simon, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Mathe-
matics and Astronomy. Johns Hopkins University,

Baltimore, U.S.A.

Ostwald, W., Professor of Chemistry. 34, Briiderstrasse,
Leipsic.

Perkin, W. H., V.P.C.S., LL.D., F.R.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow.

Pfeffer, W., Professor of Botany.
Leipsic.

Playfair, Lyon, Lord, K.C.B., LLD., Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., V.P.C.S., &c. 68, Onslow Gardens, London,
S.W. :

Poincaré, H., Membre de.l’Institut, Professor at the
Faculty of Sciences. 63, Rue Claude Bernard, Paris.

Prestwich, Sir Joseph, F.R.S., F.G.S., Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.)

Botanisches Institut,

Shoreham, neay Sevenoaks, Kent.

Quincke, G. H., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics.
60, Hauptstvasse, Heidelberg.

Raoult, F., Dean of the Faculty of Sciences. 2, Rue des
Alpes, Grenoble.

Rawson, Robert, F.R.A.S. Havant, Hants.

Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Lord, M.A., D.C.L.
(Oxon) PD (Univ \icGill) wisec. ke Shut kALS.
Tivling Place, Witham, Essex.

Résal, Henri, Membre de 1’Institut, Professor of Mechanics.
Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.

Routh, Edward John, Sc.D., F.R.S.
Cambridge. ;

Rowland, Henry A., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

Newnham Cottage,

156

Date of Election.

1872, April 30.

1889, April 30.

1892, April 26.
1894, April 17.
1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.
1869, Dec. 14.

1851, April 29.

1894, April 17.

T3860) Heby <9}
1895, April 30.

1861, Jan. 22.

1868, April 28.
1895, April 30.
1894, April 17.

1872, April 30.
1894, April 17.

1886, Feb. 9.

1894, April 17.

1894, April 17.
1892. April 26.

\

Honorary Members.

Sachs, Julius von, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of
Botany, Wairzburg.
DD, DiGLy LED eEeReSss

Provost's House, Trinity

Salmon, Rev. George,
Regius Professor of Divinity.
College, Dublin.

Salvin, Osbert, M.A., F.R.S.,F.L.S. Hawksfold, Fernhurst,
Haslemere, Survey.

Sanderson, J. S. Burdon, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Regius
Professor of Medicine. Oxford.’

Sharpe, R. Bowdler, LL.D., F.Z.S. British Museum
(Natural History), Cromwell Road, London, S.W.

Solms, H. Graf zu, Professor of Botany. Strassburg.

Sorby, Henry Clifton, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. Bvoom-
field, Sheffield.

Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, Bart., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
E.RS:, Cor, Mem. Inst. Er) (Acad )Sci))iencasian
Professor of Mathematics. Lemnsjield Cottage, Cambridge.

Stone, E. J., M.A., F.R.S., Radcliffe Observer. Radcliffe
Observatory, Oxford.

Strasburger, Eduard, D.C.L., Professor of Botany. Bonn.

Suess, Eduard, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Geology,
9, Africanergasse, Vienna.

sylvester, Jiames Joseph, MlA®, DiGi.) ieee rakes
Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Savilian Professor of
Geometry. New College, Oxford.

Tait, Peter Guthrie, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural
Philosophy. 38, George Squave, Edinburgh.

Joseph John, Sc.D., F.R.S.,
Experimental Physics. 6, Scvope Terrace, Cambridge.

Thorpe, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. Laboratory, Somerset House,
London, W.C.

Trécul, A.. Membre de l'Institut. Paris.

Turner, Sir William, M.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor of .
Anatomy. Edinburgh.

Tylor, Edward Burnett, F.R.S., D.C.L. (Oxon), LL.D.
(St. And. and McGill Colls.), Keeper of University
Museum. Ovxford.

Thomson, Professor of

Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sherardian
Professor of Botany. Headington Hill, Oxford.

Waage, P., Professor of Chemistry. Christiania, Norway.

Walker, General Francis A., Professor of Political Economy.
237, Beacon Street, Boston, U.S.A.

Date of Election.
1894, April 17.

1894, April 17.

1894, April 17.
1892, April 26.

1889, April 30.

1886, Feb. 9g.

1888, April 17.

1895, April 20.

Honorary Members. 157

Warburg, Professor E. Physikalisches Institut, Neue Wilhelm-
stvasse, Berlin.

Ward, H. Marshall, Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany.
Cambridge.

Weismann, August, Professor of Zoology. Fveiburg-i-.B.

Wiedemann, G., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics.
35, Lhalstrasse, Letpsic.

Williamson, Alexander William, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.) High Pitfold, Shotter-
mill, Haslemere, Surrey.

Young, Charles Augustus, Professor of Astronomy. Princeton
College, N.J., U.S.A.

Zirkel, Ferdinand, Professor of Mineralogy. University of
Leipsic.

Zittel, Carl Alfred von, Professor of Palzontology and
Geology. University of Munich.

158 Corresponding Members.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Date of Election.

1866, Jan. 23. De Caligny, Anatole, Marquis, Corr. Mem. Acadd. Sc.
Turin and Caen, Socc. Agr. Lyons, Sci. Cherbourg,
Liége.

1850, April 30. Harley, Rev. Robert, Hon. M.A., Oxford, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Hon. M.R.S. Queensland. Rosslyn, Westbourne Road,
Forest Hill, London, S.E., and The Atheneum Club,
London, S.W.

1882, Nov. 14. Herford, Rev. Brooke. 91, Fitzjohn’s Avenue, Hampsiead,
London, N.W.

1859, Jan. 25. Le Jolis, Auguste-Francois, Ph.D., Archiviste-perpétuel
and late President of the Soc. Nat. Sc., Cherbourg, &c.
Cherbourg.

1857, Jan 27. Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Mem.
Brit. Met. Soc., &c. Shivenewton Hall, near Chepstow,
Monmouthshire.

SOChOUY:
1895-90.

CONTENTS.

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n Helium and its Place in the Natural Classification of —
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Science in vei England. By. Charles. Barnes, M.A.,

Some Bie pecindtits on the Latent Heat of : Steam. By J. A.
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A. Brothers. Manual of Photography. 1892.

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Naturforschender Verein zu Riga. Festschrift. 1895.

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On a Sporangiferous Spike, from the Middle Coal Measures,
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