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NAA AERA OLIMNN 20h Ot A ° "
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at — he ‘ Y nia aA Madea
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th Be ow ey ala Bap ag AAS. Mh nn dA hy hy Antes me "
- a
MMM ashanti oe
=100 Rh=103 Ag=108'°0 Cd=112 In=114 Sn=118 Sb=120 Te=128
Pd=106
e127 — Onn Cs 038) bale 7. lea — 038 ey — 140. Nd— 1446 2 46
? =152
Saeiso 9 nh
? =154 etc. etc. etc.
18 RAMSAY, The Newly Discovered Elements.
Now, the density actually found for impure xenon was
32°5, a number which implies an atomic weight of at least
65; it will be noticed, however, that 65 is the atomic
weight of zinc, and that there follow in order gallium, 7o,
germanium, 72, arsenic, 75, selenium, 79, and bromine, 80;
and that the first gap in the table occurs between bromine
and rubidium, as before stated. It is highly probable
that when the xenon has been sufficiently purified, its
density will prove to be about 41, implying an atomic
weight of 82. If this turns out to be the case, it will
furnish an additional proof of the correctness of the
interpretation of the theoretical ratio of specific heats,
on the kinetic theory of gases.
In conclusion, it will be remarked that there is still
room for an element with atomic weight 130 to occupy a
position between iodine and cesium. I do not despair of
its being found, possibly in air. It is not unlikely that it
may be present in extremely minute amount, for its
boiling point will doubtless lie not far below zero
centigrade. We may not unfairly expect a ratio between
the boiling points of neighbouring elements, such as the
following :—
Fluorine|Chlorine/Bromine| Iodine | Neon Argon | Xenon ?
PS, gol BS BRS | 929 | AST 33 86 | 1220 ara
TCettoo | = 35 | a5 | 26) [eu joann ous) |anse |= ies
With full acknowledgment of the speculative nature of
this inquiry at the present stage, one fact is certain; that
the boiling point of argon lies 152° lower than that of its
neighbour, chlorine. We are well aware, from countless
examples, that the boiling points of all substances are raised
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. xlztz. (1899), No.4. 19
by polymerisation ; and the low boiling point of argon,
which has an atomic weight somewhat higher than that
of chlorine, and which might be expected, therefore, to
boil at a higher temperature than chlorine, is without
doubt due to its mono-atomic nature. The boiling point
of neon lies below the lowest temperature which can be
reached by reducing the pressure on boiling air, a tempera-
ture which has been estimated as —215°C. And the
boiling point of xenon is so high, that at the temperature of
boiling air, its vapour pressure is only a few millimetres
of mercury.
Further research will solve these problems, which are
among those which suggest themselves in connection with
the newly discovered elements of the air.
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. xlitz. (1899), No. 5.
V. On the Slipperiness of Ice.
By Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, F.R.S.
Recetved and read February 7th, 1599. ~
The slipperiness of ice is, and has been, one of the
most noticeable, interesting, and important circumstances
under which we live, as well as one of the commonest.
Ice is not the only slippery thing in the world, but it is
the only one of all the solid substances which, in the
condition nature has left them on the surface of the earth,
possesses the property of perfect slipperiness. This being
so, and being commonly known to be so, it is certainly
remarkable that, whatever may be the reason, there
appears to have been little or no curiosity as to the
physical significance of the unique property which ice
possesses. Speaking for myself this is simply explained ;
ice was slippery when I was born, I never knew it other-
wise, and, to put it shortly, it was slippery because it was
ice, whereas it now seems to me that, of all the secrets
nature has concealed by her method of deadening curiosity
by leaving them exposed, in this her method has been the
most successful.
The cause of my ultimately discovering the secret,
unsought by me, was an accident, though brought about
by another line of research. The other sources of perfect
slipperiness are complex ; a smooth solid surface covered
by a viscous fluid, as a well-greased board, is perfectly
slippery just as ice is, which fact. had been taken for
granted much in the same way as the slipperiness of ice,
neither more nor less.
June Oth, 1890.
2 REYNOLDS, Ox the Slipperiness of Ice.
That surfaces of machines would not slip over each
other without grease was well known and followed out,
but the physical significance of the action was apparently
not questioned until, in 1884, Mr. Beauchamp Tower,* while
making experiments as to the resistance of a railway
journal, accidentally came across a fact of very striking
significance.
In this experiment, instead of using an axle, Mr.
Tower used an overhanging shaft driven by a steam
engine, the shaft being supported on bearings in the
usual manner. ‘The overhanging portion of the shaft was
turned to the same shape as one of the journals of a
railway wheel, four inches in diameter and six inches long.
On this journal the ordinary axle-box was suspended, the
load to correspond with the proportion of the weight of
a loaded truck being suspended from the axle-box under-
neath the shaft. The axle-box had the usual brass
wearing-piece, and the provision for lubrication was, as
usual, an oil or grease cup communicating through a
vertical oil-hole, so that the oil might descend by gravi-
tation through the brass on to the surface of the journal,
and thence escape, after being used, to the ground. This
was in the first instance, but, after experimenting in this
way, Mr. Tower proceeded to find what would be the
effect on the resistance if, instead of allowing the oil or
grease to escape freely from underneath the journal, the
whole under side of the journal was encased in a vessel,
so as to form a bath of oil in which the journal would be
completely covered.
In commencing these experiments with the bath, Mr.
Tower noticed with surprise that, although the oil in the
bath did not cover the top of the brass when the journal
was at rest, when in motion the oil escaped upward against
* Proc. Inst. M. E., Nov. 1883 and Jan., 1884.
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. «lize. (1899), No. 5. 3
gravity through the oil-hole, and as this was inconvenient,
tending to empty the bath, he drove a plug of wood into
the hole and tried again, when to his still greater surprise
he found that the oil forced out the wooden plug. This
led him to fit a pressure gauge to the hole; this imme-
diately rose to the top of its scale, 200 lbs. per square inch.
Then, realising that he had before him evidence of an
action in lubrication until then unsuspected, Mr. Tower
turned his attention to its experimental investigation,
finding that when the journal was run at 400 revolutions
a minute, the pressure on the square inch indicated on the
gauge was somewhere about 3/2 of the pressure necessary,
if distributed over the whole horizontal area of the section
of the bearing, to sustain the load. The pressure in the
oil-hole would be 600 Ibs. per square inch when the total
load was 9,600 lbs., whence, as the area of the horizontal
section was 24 square inches, the mean intensity of
pressure would be 400 Ibs. This, however, was only when
the speed of the journal was greater than a certain limit
depending on the load ; when the speed diminished below
this limit, the pressure on the gauge fell to any degree
below that necessary to sustain the load. But this was
not all. When the speed was such as to sustain the load,
the friction was I in 400, but when running slow the
friction reached 1 in 3, or the journal seized the brass.
Taking these two things together, it made clear the
fact which had never been surmised before, that the actzoxz
of lubrication consisted in the actual separation of the solid
surfaces by a film of fluid of finite thickness.
These discoveries of Mr. Tower excited great interest
at the time, and, being myself occupied in the study of
fluid motion, I was induced to undertake the theoretical
analysis of Mr. Tower’s experimental results, from which,
after two years’ work, I was able to publish a complete
4 REYNOLDS, Ox the Slipperiness of Ice.
theory of lubrication,* showing that not only in the case
of the oil-bath, when the thickness of the separating film
of oil was about 2/1,000th of an inch, but in cases of
ordinary lubrication where the thickness of the film is
less than ‘ooo! of an inch, the surfaces are separated by a
complete film.
This is very strikingly indicated by a rarely shewn but
simple experiment. Two cylindrical hard steel gauges,
male and female, one inch in diameter, made to gauge to
within 1/20,000th of an inch will not pass one into the
other, if wiped as clean as possible of all oil, without the
use of great pressure or of a mallet. If oiled and kept
moving they can be easily passed one into the other.
But should the motion be arrested for a second, they seize
and can only be separated by the mallet, which shows
that a film of oil less than the 1/20,000th of an inch is
sufficient to sustain perfect slipperiness, while the least
contact destroys this property.
My research also led to the recognition that the
property on which the lubricating action depends is the
viscosity of the fluid, and that all fluids are lubricants,
provided they are not corrosive. Air lubricates, as is
shown by the floating of one true surface plate on another
with perfect slipperiness. Now water had, at the time,
not been recognised as a lubricant; its viscosity is from
200 to 400 times less than oil, but from my research it
appeared that it is a lubricant in proportion .to its
viscosity. :
All this is. now matter of history, and its bearing on
the slipperiness of ice may not as yet be clear. But it has
a fundamental bearing nevertheless.
It was about 1886, while I had this subject of lubrica-
tion very fresh in my mind, that I was, for some reason,
* Phil. Trans. 1880, Part I., pp. 157—234.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. «lizz. (1899), No. 5. 5
~ using a common soldering-iron, and was in the act of
testing the copper point of the hot iron to see if it was hot
enough to melt the solder, when, from some cause or
another, instead of merely touching the block gently with
the point of the copper, I must have pushed the sloping
edge obliquely and somewhat roughly on to the flat top
of the block, for, to my surprise, instead of melting a little
pock in the surface, the square-edged side of the copper
slipped without friction right along the face of the solder.
It was a perfectly casual accident, but, under the circum-
stances, it caused me a sense of mental shock as I instantly
recognised the analogy to the skate.
_ The barely hot enough, parallel sharp edge of the
copper, pressed and pushed forward on the block, was
just able to melt the immediate surface, which completely
lubricated the iron on the solder beneath. The then well-
known property of the lowering of the melting point of
ice under pressure at once presented itself; the shock was
the result of the instantaneous reflection that I had never
before thought of considering why ice was slippery.
On trying to remember whether I had ever heard
of any attempt to explain the slipperinesss of ice in
any way—for I felt at the moment as though every-
6 REYNOLDS, Ox the Slipperiness of Ice.
one was laughing at me—I found that I could not
call any mention of the subject. And then, in self-
extenuation, I reflected that water was not recognised
as a lubricant, so that even James Thomson himself, or his
brother, Lord Kelvin, might have failed to realize that the
melting of the ice under the pressure of the skate would
lubricate the moving skate, and rendered the ice slippery
to any hard body pressed against it. I also reflected,
that had not my mind been full of the circumstances of
lubrication, including the lubricating properties of all
fluids, I should not have recognised in the slipping of the
hot iron the action of the lubricant, and that, even if
I had, I should not have attributed like properties to
melted ice.
Of course, this evidence as to the cause of the slipperi-
ness was altogether one-sided, and it was still open for ice to
have other properties which would account for the slipping
besides the property of melting under pressure, and it was |
at once plain that to render the evidence complete it was
necessary to show that, under circumstances of tempera-
ture and pressure such that the pressure was nowhere
sufficient to melt the ice, the property of perfect slippert-
ness of ice did not exist.
Looking carefully into the matter from the theoretical
side, with Lord Kelvin’s determination of the laws of the
melting point, oo14° F. for each additional atmosphere,
it appeared that taking a weight of 140 lbs., and an area
of 1-4/10(=1/7) square inch, a man skating would melt ice
of 31° F. with a skate-bearing of 1°4/10 square inch, while
to melt ice at a temperature of 22° F. the bearing must
be reduced 1°4/100 (=1/70) square inch. That is, the ice
at 22° F. would have to be able to sustain a pressure up
to 10,000 Ibs. on the square inch. That ice should stand
such pressure at first sight seems unlikely, but then our
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlizz. (1899), Wo. 5. 7
general impression as to the hardness of ice is derived
from ice at or near its melting point.
That this theory admits of experimental verification is
certain, but such experiments only become possible when
the general surroundings are at a temperature of 22°F.
It was this consideration which caused me, in the first
instance, to delay any publication of the facts I observed
until there came a frost sufficient for my purpose. There
have been frosts of sufficient extent when my preparations
were not ready, and my preparations have been ready when
there were no frosts ; until, at last, my patience has given
way and I have determined to wait no longer. In taking
this decision, however, I have been greatly influenced by
my general observations on the effect of the temperature on
the ease of skating, and on the liability toslip. I notice that
without great care you cannot walk on ice at 31%%° in
leather boots without nails, whereas you can walk safely
with boots with somewhat blunt nails under the same
circumstances; with a temperature of 27° you can walk
with leather boots almost as safely as on any polished
floor, while with somewhat blunt nails it is very unsafe to
walk on uneven ice.
On ice near 32° skaters find no resistance however
slowly they may move, while on hard ice it is necessary to
move quickly, or the skates seize, showing that the ice
melts under the edge, but owing to the small area of the
lubricating surface, the lubricant is squeezed out rapidly,
thus destroying the lubrication below certain speeds, as in
Mr. Tower’s experiment.
But the circumstance that has most confirmed me in
the view that the slipperiness of ice is due to the lubrica-
tion afforded by the melting under pressure is a casual
but emphatic statement made by Dr. Nansen, in his book
on Greenland, that at the low temperatures he there
encountered the ice completely lost its slipperiness.
f
2
ns,
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tetra
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. «lic. (1899), No. 6.
VI. The Plague in Uganda.
By the RIGHT REV. BISHOP HANLON, Uganda.
[Communicated by Alexander Hodgkinson, M.B.|
Received and read February 21st, 1899.
Having seen in the English papers of last July,
notices of Dr. Koch’s discourse on the ‘Plague in Uganda,’
I would remark on this point that Dr. Koch never came
up the lake at all, although I believe he did send a man
up. The only plague he can refer to is what is known
here as “Kaumpuli,” which I have previously described
in my letters as akin to the black plague which once
scourged London. It begins suddenly, there is high
fever, and a swelling, usually under the arm-pit. Like
many plagues, it has both a mild and virulent form.
The former is not attended with much fever, the
swelling moves about the body from place to place, and,
should it get near the heart or into the throat, death may
result. In the latter form the swelling seems stationary,
either under the arm-pit or in the fork of the legs; if the
patient be not speedily attended to, a fatal termination
results, as often happens to sufferers before their case is
known to a European. This form is considered very
infectious; the natives shun the sick person and will
on no account bury those who die of this form of
“Kaumpuli” ; they even remove from the neighbourhood
of the hut where the person died.
The French Fathers think that one of their mis-
sionaries died of it—years before our arrival—after
June Oth, 7899.
2 . HANLON, The Plague m Uganda.
attending a stricken man, they are not sure, however,
of this being the cause of his death. In our own ex-
perience of over three years, we have known of only one
case. The man lived near the mission of Nagalama, but
was dead before anything was known to the missionaries
about his sickness. He had been working at the mission,
well and hearty, the day before. Father Prendergast
could get no natives, not even the most intimate friends of
the deceased, to come and bury the body ; he was there-
fore obliged himself to wrap the body in several bark-
cloths and bury it. We frequently have cases of the
milder form, but I have not heard of any deaths through
it.
The natives have a remedy for the disease, but never
have it ready at hand when required; the missionaries
therefore prepare it. It consists of a certain insect—a fly
common enough here: many of which are crushed and
mixed with vinegar, and the mixture rubbed on the
swelling. The patients are so frightened when they have
an attack of the disease, that our greatest fear is lest they
die from sheer fright.
It is not correct to state that this disease, so long
endemic in Uganda, “has recently travelled to Buddu.”
Buddu has for many years been the centre of this plague
in its worst form. Dr. Koch, I see, states that it has
travelled from other parts of Uganda to Buddu, and
thence south to German territory. I believe the very
contrary to be the fact ; that it has come from the south.
What is now known as the German East African territory
has been for many generations—longer than anyone
knows—the chief Arab route into this part of Africa.
It was ¢he great slave route to and from the district of the
Lakes. Speke and Grant travelled by it, Stanley travelled
by it, the first Uganda Missionaries came that way, and
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlitt. (1899), No. 6. 3
the French Fathers have ever used it. Our northern route
is comparatively new.
Buddu, where, as far as I can make out, this plague
has always been worst, is the most southerly province
of Uganda and lies next to German territory. It is
on the route which has always been used, whether
by land or water, from the south to Uganda. The
eastern coast of Lake Victoria and the route north
through Kavirondo are comparatively little known even up
to the present day. Not only has this plague not recently
travelled to Buddu, but of recent years it has been less
severe there than formerly. I have quite lately heard
_from a German, who has just come from the south of
the Lake, that the plague is at present confined to a small
area in Bukola, in German territory, just below Buddu.
So that, if this plague has made its way to Central Africa on
the track of Arab caravans, I think we must in all fairness
assign German East African territory as the way by
which the plague has been introduced. Of course this is
only an opinion, resting on the arguments given above.
If the plague had been introduced by the Mombasa route
to Uganda, there ought to be traces of it between here
and the coast, but I have never heard of any. The same
remark, however, would apply to the German route.
But why should not such a plague have broken out here
from original germs as in China, or as the Great Plague
in London, without necessarily being introduced from
such long distances? The wonder is that there are not
many more plagues arising from the vast net-work of
undrained swamps in this part of tropical and equatorial
Africa.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlzzz. (1899), No. 4. I
VII. A New Version of Argand’s Proof that every
Algebraic Equation has a Root.
By Prof. HORACE LAmB, M.A., F.R.S.
Recezved and read March 7th, 1599.
1. The classical proofs of the theorem in question are
for the most part long, and to some minds not very
attractive. It may be worth while to indicate how by
means of a theorem which. although of a ‘ transcendental’
character, is (in another connection) thoroughly familiar
to most mathematicians, the matter can be presented in a
very simple form.
Denoting by f(z) a rational integral function of ¢ let
us write, as usual,
z=a+Ware™ : : : PAu)
| fls)=utiv=Re® : : na)
so that X and © denote the ‘modulus’ and ‘amplitude’,
respectively, of /(z), viz.,
R= /(u'+v’), @ =tan7= ; > (>
Since & becomes infinite with 7, and cannot be negative,
there must be some finite point in the plane xy at
which # attains a lower limit. This limit cannot be
other than o, for then log R would have a finite minimum
value. This is (by a well-known corollary to Green’s
theorem) impossible, since the function ¢=log & satisfies
the equation
One ; : : (4),
and is (together with its first and second derivatives) finite,
June 6th, 1899.
2 LAMB, A New Version of Argana’s Proof.
for all finite values of x and y which do not make R=o.
Hence there must be some finite value of z which makes
=@), j(S) =O:
The leading idea of this argument is identical with
that of Argand’s original proof,* but the theorem that a
function @ satisfying (4) and the other conditions indi-
cated cannot have a minimum (or maximum) value allows
the reasoning to be put very succinctly.
The method involves, of course, the assumption that
a continuous function (in this case a function of two
variables) does actually attain its lower limit. Scruples
on points such as this did not as a rule gain currency
until a much later period; but it is of interest to note,
as a matter of mathematical history, thai the stringency
of Argand’s argument was questioned at the outset, on
precisely this ground, by Servois.+ The reply made by
Argandt{ is hardly successful from a modern standpoint,
and indeed the genera! recognition of the fact that there
zs an assumption in the matter, and the formulation of a
regular demonstration by Weierstrass, belong to quite
recent times.
2. The proof above given forms, in a way, the counter-
part of a well-known investigation by Cauchy§ If ds be
an element of arc of a curve in the plane vy, and dm an
« Ann. de Math., t. 4, p. 1333 t. 5., p» 197 (1815). A modern version
is given in Chrystal’s Algebra, t. 1, c. 12, § 22, and in many Continental
works.
+ Ann. de Math., t. 4, p. 222. “Ce n’est point assez, ce me
semble, de trouver des valeurs de x qui donnent au polynome des valeurs
sans cesse décroissantes ; il faut, de plus, que la loi du décroissement amene
nécessairement le polyndme a zéro, ou qu'elle soit telle que zévo ne soit pas,
si ’on peut s’exprimer ainsi, 7 asymptote du polyndme.”
+ Zbzd., p. 197.
§ Reproduced by Todhunter and Burnside in their treatises on the
Theory of Equations.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlitz. (1899), No. '%. 3
element of the normal to ds, the positive directions of these
elements having the same relation to one another as the
positive directions of x and y, then ¢+7~ being any
function of ++7zy we have
oe aay tapy. I) a
dn as G3 ~ Gp = ; (5).
Hence, integrating round a closed curve which does not
pass through any singular points, we find
[Ba fa 3 : ‘ : (6),
[oe- - fay 2 (7).
As a particular case we may put
and
goleek, (P20) hos) eh 9@),
where #, © are defined by (3). Cauchy shows that the
value of
1)
/ dtan7?-
UU
taken round any circuit which does not include a zero of
7 (2) is zero, and it follows from (6) that for such a circuit
dlog R
yp oe (GSO . . (9).
From this we may infer the non-existence of a minimum
value of log R within any region not containing a zero
of (2).
It follows also from (7) that the integral
GD
eae
——— : , : 6 (ie)
“e+ vu"
taken round any closed circuit which does not pass
4 LAMB, A New Verszon of Argand’s Proof.
through zeros of /(z), vanishes, whether the circuit zwc/lude
such zeros or not.
3. Another proof of our theorem, still simpler than
that of §1, in that it does not involve the logarithmic
function, may be obtained as follows.
We have
Dee isk mae) (11)
F@) “vw Wrz? , }
The function w/(z+v*) vanishes at infinity, and it
cannot have a finite upper or lower limit since it satis-
fies (4). It follows that there must be some point for
which z=0, v=o, simultaneously.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlizt. (1899), No. 8. I
VIII. Some Preliminary Experiments on the Effect
of Pressure on Thermal Conductivity.
By CHARLES H. LEES, D.Sc.
Rececved and read February 21st, 1899.
Recent attempts which have been made to re-calculate
the age of the earth from the present rate of increase of
temperature downwards—the method used by Lord
Kelvin—have directed attention to the very small amount
of information we possess as to the effect of increase of
temperature and pressure as we proceed downwards, on the
thermal conductivity of a given substance. A short time
ago some information on the temperature effect was
published, and the present experiments are an attempt to
furnish information on the other point. They were
carried out with a simple apparatus consisting of three
horizontal circular steel discs 7-9 cms. diameter, between
which two similar discs of the substance to be tested
were placed. The centre steel disc 22 cms. thick had a
flat insulated spiral coil of platinoid wire embedded in it
with its plane parallel to the flat surfaces of the disc and
midway between them. The two ends of the coil pro-
jected from the disc and could be connected through an
ammeter and a regulating resistance to a number of storage
cells. The upper and lower steel discs 11 cms. thick,
formed respectively the bottom and top of two vessels
through which a constant stream of tap water could be
maintained. The thickness of each disc to be tested was
chosen so that approximately the same amount of heat
would flow through the various specimens under the same
June 6th, 1899.
2 LEES, Effect of Pressure on Thermal Conductivity.
difference of temperature. The surfaces of the steel
discs and of the discs of material tested were carefully
eround on a flat surface so that they would be approxi-
mately plane. Thermal contact between surfaces of steel
and specimen was improved by smearing both with
glycerine and sliding them together. On placing the pile
of discs in a small hydraulic press, and applying a
pressure equal to that at which the test was to be carried
out,any excess of glycerine was forced out and was removed
with a cloth. During subsequent decrease or increase of
pressure the edge of the film that remained was watched
to see whether glycerine was drawn into or forced out of
the interval between two discs, but no such motion
could be detected, and it has therefore been assumed
that the glycerine films remained of constant thickness
throughout an experiment. The pressure having been
reduced to a few pounds on the square inch or to zero,
water was sent through the upper and lower steel
discs, and a measured electric current through the coil
embedded in the middle disc. The heat generated in the
_coil raised the temperature of the disc in which it was
placed, and in consequence, a flow of heat from the middle
to the upper and lower steel discs through the discs of
material under test, was established. The temperature
of the discs, indicated by 4 thermometers in radial holes in
the steel discs close to the flat surfaces, became after some
time steady, or nearly so, and observation of temperatures
of discs and air surrounding them, and of current were
then made and repeated every 5 minutes for an hour. The
pressure on the discs was then increased to about 8oolbs.
per square inch, and after a short time observation
taken for another hour. Finally the pressure was
decreased to a few lbs. or to zero, and readings taken for
a third hour, The discs were then taken apart, one
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlzzt. (1899), No. 8. 3
of those under test weighed, the glycerine films washed
off, the disc dried and again weighed. From the decrease
of weight an approximate value for the thickness of each
glycerine film was obtained.
The temperature indicated by the thermometers not
being identical with those of the surfaces of the discs
tested, a small correction has to be applied to these
indications. Let 6, and 6, be the temperatures indicated
on the thermometers, the centres of the bulbs of which are
“4; and # cms. from the surfaces in contact with the
glycerine film, and let ¢ be the thickness of each of the
two glycerine layers between the surfaces of steel and
material. Then if 7 is the radius of the discs, and A the
amount of heat transmitted per second, the heat trans-
mitted per sq. cm.=/A//m7*, and if & is the thermal
conductivity of steel and & that of glycerine, this flow of
heat will cause falls of temperature HA/m7°2, and HA,/77*hk,
in the steel discs, and H/¢/mwr*2 in each of the glycerine
layers. If 0, is greater than 6, the temperatures of the
surfaces of the disc tested are therefore
ale
0, — = z +5 and 0, overs: A E+ 5
respectively.*
It was found extremely difficult to secure a constant
temperature of the outer steel discs owing to the slow
change of temperature of the water from the mains, and
this necessitated the treatment of the flow of heat and
distribution of temperature in the pile of discs as an
“unsteady” one.
* In the experiments mentioned at the end of this communication, H never
exceeds “4, and ¢ never ‘005, hence taking 4 for steel=°15 and for glycerine
"007, Since 77? =50, and ¢,=¢,="5, we see that the correcting terms never
exceed ‘027° for the steel and 006° for the glycerine, while 9, —9, was 3° or
4°. Inthe deduction of the results given, these corrections have therefore
not been applied.
4 LEES, Effect of Pressure on Thermal Conductivity.
The expression for the temperature at any point, which
admits of most easy treatment and is quite capable of
representing the changes to be dealt with is v= V+ Oe,
where (3 is a small constant and V and U are constants
chosen to best represent the observed temperature at any
one of the four surfaces of the two discs of material
tested.
A solution of the equation
du av
where a? = ue P=—=,
G gco
c the specific heat, g the area, # the perimeter of the
cross section, & the conductivity, Z the emissivity of
the disc tested,
which satisfies the conditions, v= V,+U,e% when +=0,
v=V\+ Ue when x=/ the thickness of disc, and
B>e, is
b 3
Vsinh— © Vo sinh -7—x
a a
Vo i, Q Di
U; sinh NE Cain eee
a a
be geal
@ =" Y,cosh”. Z— V,cosech — a
“ V+BI U, cosh V0? + By_ U, cosech ee
a a a
: bl .
or, since — is small,
a
= Hann +2 eat de) + EE (U.+ 40,1 |
Taking the mean value of each observed temperature
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlizz. (1899), Wo. 8. 5
during the time 7, and indicating it by Day Vos &c., we
have :—
av 0-4,
MS bon tA ye A lh ee be
mean j a ae (a, + jo.) +- iit 2G) I +—
~0, h
aot. e +h) +4 Bare 4en(o422)
a similar equation with 2, 2%, U1, a and / accented, holding
for the other disc.
If 7 is the mean rate of generation of heat in the
heating coil embedded in the middle steel disc, v, and v
the temperatures of the two halves of the disc, JV its mass,
C its specific heat, S its surface and / its emissivity, the
mean heat transmitted per second to the discs of material
under test .
= 7 MC mean OD a sea “)- ope
2 at at 2
| Lia ucpl~A(s4 Pe) yea
Hence
He cp “(1 +22) = es
2 2, 2
U1—U, Vie ee 7:
= + ; 4 Wirt $a) + 2 FMT + 4U) (1 EE )
=n7rk ; y oe ar
ah =O, 2 Whe 6 -_, 1
* 7’ Tame oF ari (Oi C2) tes |
or
| (5+45") ae \
2
Hap :
a @ i 4nrl ax ‘i ard Zi
2 6 3
| (="+ anr*col Oe amr cpl rr
2 6 12 : {rs om \
| i (="+ 2nrCpl ) Ui + anrcpl U7 2
2 6 12
0; = J, U —U,
ate 0 1 -
=7r2hy + 8 + : ;
Z l
6 LEES, Effect of Pressure on Thermal Conductzvety.
By means of this equation & can be calculated from
the observations.
In order to determine the value of % for the discs, an
experiment was made in which the discs under test were
air enclosed by a ring of silk ribbon. The heat conducted
through the air being small, the right-hand side of the
above equation is nearly zero, and the heat / is almost
entirely lost from the surfaces of the discs.
The materials tested by the above method were glass,
ebonite, marble, slate, sandstone, and granite, of thickness
varying from ‘2 to 2 cms., according to the conductivity
of the material Up to a pressure of 800 lbs. on the
square inch no change of thermal conductivity was found
_in the cases of granite and marble, a slight increase in
the cases of glass and ebonite, and an increase of 4 or 5
per cent. in the case of the soft sandstone.
As the changes are so small that the correction due
to the glycerine layer is quite comparable with them, it
is proposed to carry out the experiments with a contact
film of mercury instead of glycerine, and with this end in
view the surfaces of the steel discs have been copper-
plated and amalgamated.
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. xlitz. (1899), No. 9.
IX. Description of a genus and species, probably
representing a new tribe of Hymenoptera from
Chili.
By P. CAMERON.
[Communicated by J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.|
Recezved and read December 13th, 1598.
The systematic position of Westwood’s genus, 772-
gonalys, has been much discussed by writers on the group.
St. Farjeau (ymén. iii. 561) regarded its affinities as
doubtful, but hinted at its having some relationship to
Tzphia. That, however, it cannot be included in the
aculeate section of the order is shown by its antennz
having more than thirteen joints, and by the trochanters
being bi-articulate. By recent writers it has either been
regarded as the type of a distinct family or as a tribe of the
Evanide. The latter is the view of the Rev. T. A. Marshall,
who, in his Cat. Brit. Hymen., p. 133, places the genus
in the Aulaczdes, but it is not so included by Schletterer
in his monograph of that group (Aun. Hof-Mus. Ween,
1889-90). Foerster (Ueber den systemat. Werth des
Fligelgedders b. d. Hlymen., 1877) treats it as a distinct
family, in which he is followed by Cresson (Trans. Amer.
Entom. Soc., 1887, Supp., p. 23).
The systematic position of Zvzgonalys is undoubtedly
a difficult one, as is also the position of Pelecinus,
Stephanus, and the Australian genus Wegelyra, all of which
stand out more or less isolated from the /chneumonzde,
Lraconide and, to a less extent perhaps, from the
Evaniude.
In the Zvans. Entom. Soc., 1868, p. 328, Westwood
September 8th, 1899.
2 CAMERON, Hymenoptera from Chilt.
described a genus omadina from the Amazons, which
he correctly regarded as nearly related to 77zgonalys, and
which is undoubtedly closely allied to the present genus.
Both have a considerable likeness to a bee, as is indicated
by the Westwood’s choice of a name from the bee genus
Nomada. The two genera may be separated as follows :—
Wings with four cubital cellules ; the third cubital cellule
small, receiving the second recurrent nervure; the
first joint of the antennz small. LVomadina.
Wings with three cubital cellules; the third cubital
cellule large, extending to the apex; the second
cellule receiving the recurrent nervure. Liaba.
These two genera then will be included in the family
Trigonalide, which will now be divided into two tribes,
the differences between them being best exhibited in
synoptical form.
Antennz at least 21-jointed; head largely developed
behind the eyes ; wings with three transverse cubital
nervures ; the first recurrent nervure received in the
second cubital cellule, which is much narrowed, if
not petiolate, above; the second abdominal segment
larger than any of the others. Trigonalide.
Antenne 16-jointed; head not much developed behind
the eyes ; wings with two or three transverse cubital
nervures ; the first transverse cubital nervure received
in the first cubital cellule ; the second cubital cellule
not much narrowed above ; the abdominal segments
not differing much in length. Nomadine.
Trigonalys has a wide distribution over the globe, but
the species are few in number and, so far as I know, are
rare in collections. In North America a few species are
known. I have myself described six species from Central:
America, and species have also been recorded from South
America. In Britain we have one species, 7. anglicana
Shuck.
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. «lid. (1899), No. 9. 3
The only record we have of the natural history of
Trigonalys is a note by Smith (Trans. Entom. Soc., i.
(n.s.), p. 176), who states that he found a species in the
nest of a Polzstes. In connection with that observation,
it is worthy of note that many of the species described
have a considerable resemblance to wasps, while the
species I now describe has a great resemblance to a bee, |
as has also Nomadzna.
LIABA, gen. nov.
Antenne not much longer than the head and thorax
united, stout, placed immediately over the clypeus; the
first joint large, cup-shaped ; the second about one-fourth
of the length of the first ; the third and fourth joints about
equal in length ; the basal joints of the flagellum longer
than broad ; the apical broader than long. Head nearly
as wide as the mesothorax, not much developed, and
obliquely narrowed behind the eyes ; occiput margined.
Ocelli not quite forming a triangle. Clypeus small, its
apex rounded. Mandibles large, broad, about as broad as
long; its outer edge roundly curved, its inner half with
three large, sharply triangular teeth. Eyes parallel, large,
curved on the inner side, and distant from the base of the
mandibles. Palpi apparently minute. Thorax of normal
form ; the parapsidal furrows deep, complete ; scutellum
not much raised; metathorax with a gradually rounded
slope. Legs of moderate size; the trochanters with two
joints ; the tarsi stout; the patella distinctly developed ;
the claws bifid, minute. Wings with one radial and three
cubital cellules ; the radial cellule not reaching to the apex
of the wing ; the first cubital cellule is longer than the
second the third is the longest of the three ; the cubital
nervure issues from the transverse basal; the first recur-
rent nervure is received in the first cubital cellule, near the
4 CAMERON, Hymenoptera from Chilt.
first transverse cubital nervure; the second about the
same distance from the second transverse cubital; the
costal cellule is distinct; the first transverse cubital
nervure is sharply, the second slightly, oblique ; both are
bullated below ; the transverse median nervure is received
on the outer side of the basal; there are two discoidal
cellules, the upper being the longer and triangularly
narrowed at the apex; the sub-discoidal nervure issues
from shortly below the middle of the discoidal. In the
hind wings the cubital nervure is obliterated beyond the
transverse cubital; the discoidal is complete. The abdomen
has seven segments; the first is triangular; the second is
only slightly longer than the others ; the basal two ventral
segments are normal; the third in the middle projects
into a large plate, which is broader than long, not much
narrowed towards the apex; the fourth segment is
depressed ; the fifth is raised so that the plate on the third
segment is on a level with its top; the apical two seg-
ments are turned down; the last or seventh has the apex
roundly incised.
The front is furrowed down the middle; on either
side, behind the ocelli, is a depression next to the raised
occiput ; the antennz have a distinct pedicle; there is a
narrow, but distinct, longitudinal furrow on the meso-
pleure ; there is a similar narrow longitudinal furrow on
the mesosternum.
LIABA BALTEATA, Sp nov.
Flava 7 nigro-maculata; flagello antennarum rufo-
testaceo; pedibus flavo-testaceis, femoribus nigro-maculatis ;
alis hyalinis ; costa stigmateque flavo-testacets. ¢.
Long. 7 mm.
flab. Chili (Gervase F. Mathew, R.N.).
Antenne stout, if anything thicker towards the apex;
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. «litt. (1899), No. 9. 5
the scape and second joint pallid yellow, covered with
short, white hair; the basal joint of the flagellum blackish;
the others rufo-testaceous. Head shining, impunctate,
thickly covered with short, fuscous hair; the occiput, the
ocellar region, an oblique line on the vertex extending
from the eyes to the occiput, the oblique fovez over the
antenne, the frontal furrow, and the top and sides of the
clypeus, black; the mandibular teeth are piceous. Thorax
yellow; a large mark on the middle lobe of the mesonotum
rounded behind, the greater part of the lateral lobes, a
large, somewhat pyriform, mark on the scutellum, a line
on the apex of the scutellum extending to the wings, the
apex of the postscutellum, the base of the median seg-
ment continued shortly outwardly inside the spiracles, a
broad line narrowed in the middle on the propleure, the
base and apex of the mesopleure in the middle, the middle
furrow, the base of the metapleurz, an oblique line in the
middle, and the mesosternum, black. The front femora
are in the middle, the four posterior more broadly, dark
fuscous ; the base of the coxz and of the trochanters are
black; the calcaria are minute, sharp; the tarsi are stout;
the metatarsus not quite so long as the succeeding joints
united; the middle joints sharply project at the apex.
Abdomen smooth and shining; the base of the first seg-
ment black, the black produced at the sides and triangu-
larly in the middle; the ventral segments are black at the
base and apex.
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. xlitz. (1899), No. 10.
X. Experiments on the Relation between Uniform
Stress and Permanent Strain in Annealed Copper
Bars and Wires.
By GEORGE WILSON, M.Sc.
Demonstrator in the Whitworth Engineering Laboratory,
Owens College, Manchester.
Recezved and read March 21st, 1899.
The relation existing between the permanent set in
an iron bar and the uniform longitudinal stress inducing
it has been demonstrated experimentally by Dr. T. E.
Stanton in a previous communication to this Society,*
wherein it is shown that the stress varies as the fourth
root of the strain.
The extension of these experiments, using annealed
copper bars as described below, brings out the fact that in
this case the stress, instead of varying as the fourth root,
varies approximately as the square root of the strain,
the index altering slightly according to the method of
straining the bar.
In the experiments made by Dr. Stanton, each bar
operated upon was rapidly subjected to a pre-arranged
load. It was then allowed to stand under this load for a
period of thirty minutes, after which it was removed from
the machine and the diameter and extension measured.
Thus, by straining a sufficient number of bars, it was
possible to obtain a series of points on the stress-strain
curve. If, instead of the stresses and strains, the logarithms
of these quantities are plotted, according to the method of
* Manchester Memoirs, vol. vili., 1893-4.
September Sth, 1899.
2 WILSON, Stress and Strain in Copper Bars,
Professor Reynolds,* it is found that the points so
obtained all lie upon a straight line, inclined to the axis
at an angle whose tangent is ‘25, thus indicating a relation
of the form /= Ce”, where 7 is the stress in tons per square
inch of the reduced section of the bar, and ¢ is the per-
manent strain and equals
(stretched length —original length)/original length,
C being a constant.
The object of using a separate bar for each point in
the curve was to eliminate the time-effect of the previous
loading, whilst the continuation of the loading for 30
minutes after its full value had been reached allowed the
bar to complete its extension before measurement.
The stress-strain diagrams obtained in this manner
will differ from those usually drawn by automatic record-
ing instruments, inasmuch as the extension for a given load
will be less in the latter case than in the former.
For the copper bars the law of extension has been
obtained for both cases, viz., for the extension under a
continuously-increasing load, with no period of rest ; and,
secondly, for bars loaded in a manner similar to that
adopted for the iron specimens already described.
The copper bars used were 12 inches in length and
2-inch diameter. They were cut from drawn copper rods,
carefully annealed at the works of the manufacturers,
Messrs. the Broughton Copper Company who kindly
provided the bars, and were found to be sufficiently true
to do away with the necessity of turning them to a par-
ticular size.
A length of 54 inches, and in some cases 6 inches, was
set out upon a line scribed on each bar parallel to its
longitudinal axis. The ends of this length were indicated
by two small centre punch-marks, and into these the
* Phil. Trans., 1879, p. 753-
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. xlzzz. (1899), Vo. 10. 3
points of the extensometer screws were placed, thus
ensuring a correct attachment to the specimen.
This extensometer, which is shewn in /7%zg. z, con-
tained no multiplying arrangement, but simply afforded a
means of reading easily the extensions after yield point,
whilst the load was increasing.
It consisted of two tubes, the inner one of brass, coated
with white paper upon which was drawn longitudinally a
scale of inches and tenths, and an outer tube of glass, of
such a diameter as to slide freely over the inner tube
without too much side-play, and upon the inner surface of
the glass a vernier was attached, which enabled the
extensions to be read to the hundredth of an inch.
After the diameter of the bar had been carefully
measured by a micrometer-gauge, the extensometer was
attached and the whole placed in the testing machine.
Upon the pressure being applied, readings of the extension
were taken when certain pre-arranged loads were reached,
and both load and extension were noted.
Six bars were tested in this manner, the second how-
_ ever being rejected owing to the extensometer becoming
loose; with the remaining bars 24 points were obtained,
for which the logarithms of stress and strain have been
plotted, and are reproduced in Fzg. 2.
. The third bar of the series was carefully weighed
before testing and its specific gravity obtained. This
- was found to be 8017. After testing, a length was cut
out of the centre, the specific gravity of which was 8905.
For the purposes of these experiments the density of the
bars was therefore assumed to remain constant.
If P is the load, e the strain due to P, and A, the original
area, then assuming constant density,
stress on reduced section =or +e).
©)
4 WILSON, Stress and Strain in Copper Bars.
The values of e and Firte) have been calculated
for each bar, and are shewn in the appendix (Tables I. to
V). The value of z has been obtained by finding the slope
between each pair of points in the test and taking the
mean of the results, and has also been checked graphically
from the diagrams.
The corresponding values of C have been calculated
from the assumed values of z, and are shewn below.
Test. n. G
1 535 38°08
3 535 38°97
4 503 36°165
5 526 37°863
6 ‘519 37470
Means. "524 BuO)
The relation is therefore f= 37-91¢5*+
The maximum variation of z from the mean value
being 4% below and 2% above, whilst the corresponding
variation in C is 467% below and 2°87 above.
If, instead of plotting a stress-strain curve for any bar,
the extensions are plotted as abscissee and the corres-
ponding loads as ordinates, it will be found that, after the
elastic limit is passed, the curve so obtained falls away
from the straight line, the strains increasing much more
rapidly than the loads. At some point in the curve the
loads reach a maximum value, after which further exten-
sion is accompanied by a diminished load.
This maximum value of the load, when divided by the
original area of the cross-section of the bar, is called the
maximum stress, and it is simply stress per unit of
original area instead of stress per unit of actual area.
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. xlizz. (1899) No.10. 5
If the formula f= Ce” represents the variation of actual
stress with strain, then
will give the corresponding stress per unit of original
area.
By differentiation, the maximum value of this stress
will occur when
; n
% P72 ;
For annealed copper this equals 1-101 when: z is °524,
or 110 /, whilst the corresponding value for iron and steel
(w= 25) is 3337,
The maximum stress for annealed copper should
é
therefore be 18°98 tons per square inch of original area.
On testing a bar of the annealed copper cut from the
same rod as the previous ones, the stress at yield point
was found to be 2°23 tons per square inch, whilst the
maximum stress was only 15°5 tons per square inch, with
an elongation (by the formula) of 30°3 7. 3
In order to discover if the speed of the test could
account for this difference between the theoretical and
actual maximum stresses, a second bar, which was annealed
in the Laboratory, was tested very slowly, when it was
found that the maximum stress only amounted to 13°79
tons per square inch, whilst the elongation had risen to
4g / (measured).
This is only in accordance with the view expressed by
Professor Ewing,* that metals such as copper show to
greater advantage as regards breaking strength and less
advantage as regards elongation the greater the speed of
the test.
Further, as the first of these two tests was made at
approximately the same speed as those from which the
TEP OG ie Sag VOlEKKK 5 LO?
6 WILSON, Stress and Strain in Copper Bars.
law was obtained, it is evident that the difference cannot
be due to variation in speed.
On referring to the Records of tests made for the
public in the Whitworth Laboratory, to see if a stress of
I9 tons per square inch had been obtained, the highest
recorded stress for annealed copper rods was found to be
16°97 tons per square inch, with a corresponding measured
elongation of nearly 374 %. This bar curiously happened
to come from the same makers as the bars in question,
and the results obtained from it correspond very fairly
with the above formula, the theoretical stress for an
elongation of 374 Z% being 16°5 tons per square inch.
It is evident, therefore, that the annealed copper and
iron both refuse to follow the law any further when the
elongation has reached a certain value, about 33 / for iron
and between 30 / and 40 / for the copper.
In the case of the iron this occurs after the theoretical
maximum load has been passed, thus enabling the
theoretical maximum stress to coincide with the actual
maximum stress as determined from experiment, whilst
for the copper the theoretical elongation is never reached,
and hence the maximum stress from experiment is less
than its theoretical value.
To eliminate the time-effect of the load on the exten-
sions, a set of bars were loaded in turn to pre-arranged
amounts, each bar being allowed to stand under its load
for 30 minutes and being then removed from the machine.
This ensured that the viscous extension might have
time to cease before measurement.
After the 30 minutes’ interval the extension had
practically ceased, and each bar was removed and
measured. The result of these tests are shown in the
appendix. (Tests 7-15; tests 13,14, 15 being repetitions
Ol INOsa7Aro manne) s
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xliit. (1899), No. 10. 7
The logarithmic plotting is shown in fzg. 2, the
points obtained being indicated by the circles.
The mean value of zis 512 with a corresponding
value of C=40°25.
In finding 7, only those points which lie on the line
have been used ; with respect to the points Nos. 8, 13, 15,
an error of ‘oI inch in measuring the extension would
account for their variation from the mean line. Thus the
formula becomes f= 40'25¢'5'*
Intetines exapression 97—'Gc7C “represents the) stress
which will extend the bar to twice its original length. If
z be put equal to unity then the law represents the elastic
extension, C having a different value, viz., the modulus of
direct elasticity, but still being the stress necessary to
double the length of the bar.
The result of plotting the logarithmic stress-strain
curve for the elastic portion would evidently be a straight
line inclined at 45° to the axes of coordinates. The point
of intersection of this line with that previously obtained
would mark the yield-point.
Being desirous of obtaining a complete diagram before
and after the yield-point, and not possessing the means of
measuring the elastic extensions of the 32-inch diameter
bars, a series of copper wires were tested up to a stress
somewhat beyond the elastic limit.
These wires, which finally were cut in lengths of about
20 inches, were suspended vertically and loaded by
weights applied to the lower end of the wires by means of
a hanger. On the under side of the hanger was a projec-
tion, which could be brought into contact with the upper
end of a vertical screw working in a nut attached to
a disc divided circumferentially into 100 equal parts.
The screw was chased with Io threads to the inch, so that
extension of ‘ooI inch could be measured, and of ‘ooo!
inch estimated.
8 WILSON, Stress and Strain zn Copper Bars.
Each wire, after fixing, was stretched by loading the
hanger until permanent set took place, and then carefully
annealed whilst in position by means of a blowpipe.
This stretching and annealing was repeated until the
wire was apparently free from kinks and bends, after
which the length and diameter were measured and the
test commenced.
The increment of load varied from 4lb. to 2lbs., and, as
each successive load was applied to the hanger, the wire
extended, and when the extension had apparently ceased,
the reading was taken. As the tests each occupied some
hours, any change in the temperature of the laboratory
was noted and allowed for in reducing the results.
Again, as it was impossible to measure directly the
extension of the wire due to the weight of the hanger,
this extension was estimated by considering the elastic
portion of the wire and exterpolating accordingly.
After the test was concluded the wire was re-annealed ~
and stretched several times, and then re-tested in the above
manner. One wire was tested five times in this way,
altogether corresponding to 8 stretchings.
The results shown in the form of the logarithmic
stress-strain curve in Fug. 3 are those of the last wire
tested, and they may be taken as characteristic of the
other wires which were examined.
The curves there shown have the strains for abscissae
and the quantity P(1 +e) for ordinates.
To obtain the actual stress it is necessary to divide
by the original area of the cross section of the wire. To
measure this area for each additional load would be
difficult, hence the assumption of constant density was
again made, and the areas required were calculated from
the data afforded by the original volume and the change
in length. In order to show that this assumption was
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlizz. (1899), Vo.10. 9
justifiable the specific gravity of a length of unstrained
wire was determined. This was found to be 8918.
Coincidently a length of wire was tested with a load of
30lbs. and annealed, this being repeated three times. Its
specific gravity was then found to be 8'905, the alteration
in stress due to this would be 14 %. Returning to the
wires, it will be noticed that in the first test plotted there
are irregularities in the elastic portion, and further that
the yield-point is not definite, as the elastic portion begins
to curve away, and finally settles down into a straight
line inclined to the axis at an angle whose tangent
is ‘273. ‘The elastic limit is reached soon after the eighth
point on the curve, and the yield-stress is certainly not
lower than 1°22 tons per square inch.
After annealing, stretching, and re-annealing, the wire
was again tested. The irregularities previously observed
in the elastic portion of the curve were still repeated
though in a less degree, as can be seen from the
diagrams. The final value of z has risen to ‘423, and the
elastic limit though still slightly indefinite has been taken
to occur at the seventh point on the curve. This corres-
ponds to a yield-stress of III tons per square inch.
The wire was now annealed and retested. It will
now be noticed that the irregularities in the elastic
part have disappeared, and that the points form two
straight lines. The value of z is ‘413, and the elastic
limit, which is now quite definite, is at the fourth point, cor-
responding to a yield-stress of -715 tons per square inch.
Unfortunately the test of this wire was carried no
further, but the lowering of the yield-stress and the
gradual smoothing out of the curve are characteristics
which appeared in the wires tested previously to this.
Thus, as far as the experiments were carried, repeated
annealing and straining besides rendering the wire more
10 WILSON, Stress and Strain in Copper Bars.
homogeneous, have the effect of lowering the yield-stress
and increasing the value of xz, though how far the
lowering of the elastic limit would continue with further
strainings the author has not determined.
In this respect, however, the copper wires exhibit a
marked difference from the iron and steel bars tested by
Professor Unwin, who found that neither the elastic limit
nor the second part of the load-strain curve was altered
by repeated straining and annealing.
The tests of bars and wires described above were
made on the testing machine and apparatus in the
Whitworth Engineering Laboratory, The Owens College.
al IE IE 1 IM IDM AX
TEST No. I.
ANNEALED COPPER SPECIMEN.
Initial length 6”, Initial diameter °625”, Area *3068 sq. in.,
Value of z= "535.
Strain we
Load, P a & (: +3) Value of C
tons. Sai Ao Z (Calculated).
(tons per sq. in.)
2°0 04 6°78 37°04
2°5 "0625 8°658 38°16
3'0 ‘0917 10°675 38°33
$5 "1342 12°939 37°89
Mean value of C|/= 38:08
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlitt. (1899), No 10. 11
Tesr No.. I0l.
ANNEALED COPPER SPECIMEN,
Initial length 54”, Initial diameter ‘622”, Area *3039 sq. in.,
Value of 7 =°535.
Strain Stress ;
Load P pez F(1 +5) Value of C
in tons. 7 0 (Calculated).
(tons per sq. in.)
15 "0218 5043 39°05
2°0 0382 6°333 39°19
2°5 "0618 $°735 38°73
30 “0891 10°751 39°20
305 "1309 13'024 38°69
Mean value of C}/= 38°97
TEST No. IV.
ANNEALED COPPER SPECIMEN.
Initial length 5°5”, Initial diameter ‘622, Area °3039.
Value of z= "503.
Strain SUES
Load P a alc +3) Value of C
tons. e=7 A, 2 (Calculated).
(tons persq. in.) :
1S ‘02 57034 36°016
2°O 0364 6821 36°109
2°5 "0582 8°705 36°393
30 ‘o8QI HOP zsh 36°280
35 "1327 13°045 36'028
Mean value of C)= 36°165
12
TEST No. V.
ANNEALED COPPER SPECIMEN.
WILSON, Stress and Strain in Copper Bars.
Initial length 5°5”, Initial diameter ‘622, Area -3039.
Value of 2=°526.
| Stress
p(t)
_ (tons per sq. in.)
5°043
6°832
8°735
10°769
13°045
Mean value of C
TEST No. VI.
ANNEALED COPPER SPECIMEN.
Value of C
(Calculated).
37°728
38°053
37775
38°017
37°742
= 37°863
Initial length 5°5”, Initial diameter -622, Area °3030.
Value of 2="519.
Strain
Load P o
(tons). (c= ‘)
1°5 0209
2°0 70382
2°5 0600
3°O 70882
3D 1327
Stress
eu ne
ZA)
(tons per sq. in.)
5 239
6°332
8'720
10°742
13°045
Mean value of C
Value of C
calculated.
37°514
37°193
37554
37°878
37211
= 37479
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xliiz. (1899), Vo. 10. 13
Tests Nos. VII.—xXV.
ANNEALED COPPER SPECIMENS.
Initial lengths 6”, initial diameters °622”, areas *3039 sq. in.
Stress
No. of | Load Final | Final | tons per
Speci- 12 Strain | diam. area | sq. In. on n. C. Remarks.
men. | (tons) é (ins.). |(sq. ims.)} reduced
area.
omg 61 200 é | omitted, not
7 | 2545 407 9 SOON 5134 Hees ree
OM; O20) |:0233 G2 E2042) oro om x a
OMesss) | O4067 | 5609 5 | 12013) 93'6345) 3512) | 4o.n62
HOME O2 || 0732 603 | ‘2856 | 10°574 512 | 40°292
Tn eees 25) | 6OO7 OZ We27 53) | Teso4ml) 4582) |) 40205
I2 |4°015 | ‘1600 BG) | P2OR8 || usa » 99
wen PES Se 5) |NOl5 02)! 0202) ih 2010) | 5105 1 > 3
TAwl2O2) | ||:02122 | 61/35 72955 | O°836 | 3512) | 4o:260
POD s leLOgErOn) {570 il s2O24) | 15282 a 9
Means | ‘512 | 40°25
14 WILSON, Stress and Strain in Copper Bars.
THREE TESTS OF COPPER WIRE.
3rd Time. 5th Time. 6th Time.
rope Jefe] fo(ees) | aaa
-I75 || ‘00017 175 00032 175 00024 rnp
I°169 || ‘00027 1169 00092 1°169 "00179 I°I691
2°164 || ‘oo142 2°164 00402 2°1645 || (00306 2°1643
2°660 || 00247 | 2°660 00474 | 2°6607 || °00379 | 2°6605
3156 || 00307 | 371565 || ‘00519 | 3°1569 || 00489 | 371568
3°652 || 00349 | 3°6527 || ‘00609 3°6532 || “OO711 3°65 34
4°148 || 00355 | 4°1488 || 00752 | 4°1496 || 00844 | 4°1498
4°645 || 00460 | 4°6461 || 00967 | 476473 || ‘or108 | 4°6477
5°640 || °00578 56417 OIL517 5°6445 || 01773 5°6452
6635 || ‘00741 6:6376) || 02177 ||) 66425 |) -o27ina a Mosonae
7°629 || ‘cog41 | 7.6328 || 02987 | 7°6409 || 03696 | 7°6437
9630 || 01956 | 96400 || ‘05131 | 9°6558 || 07516 | 9°6676
11630 || 04262 || 11-6564 || ©7989 || 116785, || 12326 8 iran
13°628 || 07856 | 13°6852 || 12675 | 13°7182 || °18330 | 13°7580
15°622 || "12490 | 15°7262 "25941 | 15°8327
17°620 || "18125 | 17°7904 "33949 | 17°93I10
19°618 || 24824 | 19°8781 "43239 | 20°0590
eek 18°72” 19°14” TIG)PaIes
Area "001706 sq. in. 001669 sq. in. “001661 sq. in.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlizz. (1899), Vo. 10. 15
NOTE.
The Broughton Copper Company having kindly
offered to undertake an analysis of the copper bars
used in the preceding experiments, a piece was cut from
one of the specimens and forwarded them with the
following result.
Analysis of B.S. Copper :
Coppemume: sas ce ... 99°74 per cent.
Arsenic... ohh aor ey ec O2Ai ata
Lead eS ee es ae “AO) og
Bismuth ... Sue ae Aon [OOVMEES
Nickel ae EAE 56 PLACE
Antimony ... ap se sca aul
Oxygen (by diff.) ... ba ee COOO) 5
WILSON, Séress and Strain in Copper Bars.
16
SOU SCL S
FIC
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. rlttz. (1899), Vo.10. 17
‘Olas
18
WILSON, Stress and Strain in Copper Bars.
Log. P(le e)
ita
, fh aT a
Ry Naty is
Manchester Memozirs, Vol. xlztz. (1899), No. 11. I
XI. On Calinaga, the Single Genus of an aberrant
Sub-Family of Butterflies.
By JOHN WATSON.
| Communicated by J. Cosmo Meluill, M.A. |
Recewwed and read, April rrth, 1899.
In the catalogue of Lepidoptera in the East India
Company's Museum (pl. 3a, fig. 5.), Mr. Frederick
Moore described from Sikkim a male butterfly, placing it
in the family Nymphalide, giving the species, which
was described from a single specimen, generic rank under
the name of Calnaga Buddha. Subsequently, in 1871,
Mr. Kirby in his “Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepi-
doptera” placed it in the Pafzlzonzde as the second genus,
which position was in the “Supplement” (published 1877)
altered to the Vymphatine just after Hurzpus, Hestena and
Hypolymnas. Later again, Mr. Charles Oberthiir of Rennes
in “Etudes d’Entomologie” Livr. VI, p. 11, pl. 8, fig. 6, 3
(1881), described and figured from Thibet a pale form of
Buddha to which the specific name of Davzdzs was given,
erroneously I think as a specific designation, for from
various parts of Thibet and Western China I have a series
of this sub-species which runs insensibly into typical
Buddha ; so closely, indeed, in some specimens that if the
locality-labels were removed it would be hard to deter-
- mine with certainty which was Buddha and which Davzats.
In Trans. Entom. Soc., 1893, p. 121, Mr. Melvill described
from upper Siam the finest species of the genus, C. Sudas-
sana, the type specimen of which is now in Mr. C. H.
September 8th, 1899.
2 WATSON, Calinaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
Schill’s collection. Another of the three known specimens
of this beautiful species is in Mr. Hastings C. Dent’s
collection. Mr. A. G. Butler described the ? of a Catnaga
giving it specific rank under the name of Brahma and,
from a careful examination of this rare 2? and those of
Davidis, also scarce, Mr. F. Moore removed the genus from
the Nymphalid sub-family Vymphaline (where as I have
before mentioned it was placed by Kirby, and again by
Schatz in the Dzademen-gruppe along with the three
previous mentioned genera) and in “Lepidoptera Indica”
(Vol. II., p. 221) founded a new sub-family of the
Nymphalide to receive this genus, which consisted at the
most of three and probably only of two species. In the
Entomologist (Vol. 27, p. 100) Mr. W. F. Kirby in a
most interesting article on Mesapza says “Oberthiir (Etudes
d’Entom., 1V., p. 19, pl. II., fig. I.) describes under the
Papitionideé, a new genus and species from North China,
which he calls Davzdina Armandzz, and which he places
between Calznaga (now recognised as belonging to the
Nymphalide) and Parnasstus” thus Oberthiir evidently
included Calinaga in the Papzlionide along with Par-
nasstus and Davedina.
It will thus be seen that there exists an amount
of uncertainty as to where this most curious genus of
butterflies should be placed, and it was with this uncertainty
in my mind that I commenced to work out the morphology
of the exoskeleton of the genus, and I now am pleased to
be able to lay the result before you. The work has been
costly; so much so, indeed, that on this account I had
been tempted to abandon it, till I received most valuable
assistance from M. Charles Oberthiir of Rennes, and the
Hon. Walter Rothschild of Tring, who kindly placed at
my disposal a number of their duplicates of rare genera
which | wished to examine, and which I should perhaps
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlizt. (1899), Vo. Ut. 3
not otherwise have seen. I have prepared and examined
over 600 microscopical slides from these specimens, a
few of which I have photographed in order to show
important characters which refer specially to the genus
under discussion.
In placing before you the chief results of my exami-
nation, I may confess at the outset that the evidence
is incomplete, as in certain cases much more might
have been done in investigating the intimate struc-
ture of the exoskeleton, particularly in regard to the
Pierine genera Laltza, Mesapia and Davidina (which was
placed as a Papilionine genus), and which, owing to their —
rarity, I have been unable to obtain. In our present know-
ledge of the genera mentioned, some of the results ar
confusing, and will, I think, remain so, until a much larger
quantity of material is worked out and the results of the
comparison of these genera, along perhaps with the
investigation of the early stages of their metamorphosis,
have been tabulated.
In dealing with the subject I have thought it advisable
to divide my arguments into separate headings :
meeencreviclence of geographical distribution.
The evidence of the structure of the egg shell.
The evidence of the structure of the legs.
The evidence of the structure of the antennee.
The evidence of the structure of the basal cell of the
hind wings.
The evidence of the general neuration and facies.
THE EVIDENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
The habitat of the genus Catnaga is the Eastern
portion of the Himalayan chain (Suddha), Yunnan,
Western China and Eastern Thibet (Davzdzs), and Upper
4 WATSON, Calnaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
Siam (Sudassana), the three districts being on the south-
east borders of Thibet, and Davzdzs at least penetrates that
highly elevated plateau whose lowest valleys are at least
12,000 feet above sea-level ; one would thus expect the
whole of the habitat, on account of its great altitude, to
be inhabitated by forms of lepidopterous insects which
might exhibit to us types of very old derivation from the
original phylum, relics of an ancient lepidopterous fauna.
The first points which struck me in working out the
Calinaga habitat were that the species are found con-
tiguous to or in Thibet; and that in the various directions
radiating from and including Thibet, there are a number
of genera which possess well-marked characters belonging
to the sub-families—Pzerzne, Thaidine, Parnassiune and
Leptocircine—and especially that they all possess in
common one character, namely, that they are mostly
monotypic and rarely bispecific, and only in two cases
are there three species to the genus.
The following list will indicate the point :—
Sub-family. Genus.
Prerine ; Mesapia, One species, Tartary and N.E.
Thibet.
Baltia, Two species, E. Turkestan,
and N. W. Himalayas.
Davidina, One species, N. China.
Leptocircine ; Leptocircus,* Two or three species, Indo-
Malayan and West China.
The species from West
China (J/7eges) having simple
claws, and the Javan species
having double ones, as is
found in Pzerine.
* Leptoctrcus might truly be referred to as two genera, possibly this will
ultimately be done.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. «lite. (1899), No. 11. 5
S2b-family. : Genus.
Thaidine; Luehdorfia, Two species, Siberia and
Japan.
Teinopalpus, One species, Assam and
Thibet Border.
Bhutanitis, One species, Bhutan and
Thibet Border.
Armandia, One species, W. China and
E. Thibet.
Dorztis, One species, Turkestan, Syria.
[smene, One species, Turkestan.
Now what is the import of this remarkable fact of ©
the occurrence in or on the borders of one district of
great altitude, of a number of genera of only monotypic
or bispecific rank? In the first place it leads one to
think that they are genera whose evolution is in a
transitory stage, or else, as is more probably the case,
they are the representatives handed down to-day as
archaic types of genera which segregated in distant, perhaps
even glacial times. Let us see by analogy if this theory
can be supported by facts; for, if so, the first part of under-
standing the phylogeny of Calzmaga will be much simpler.
One of the most interesting papers I have read on
phylogeny is that of Dr. F. A. Dixey on the “Phylogeny of
the Pierinz” (Zrans. Entom. Soc., 1894), where in discussing
the evidence of their distribution, he says, regarding the
oldest form of Pierine Schatzza (Euchetra) socialis: “Its
nearest allies appear to be Behr’s two species of Meophasia
which inhabit the same region with itself, and the Pontzas
and Metaporias of the high lands of Central Asia, most
of which forms are known to retain the ancient larval
habit of spinning. These facts seem to point to the
conclusion that EHuchecra is the relic of an archaic group
of Pierines which once occupied the great mountain
6 WATSON, Calnaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
regions of both the Palearctic and Nearctic continents,
and whose immediate descendants, still represented in the
East by Metaporta and Pontza have in the West become
extinct (unless Behr’s Veophasza be a survival), after giving
origin to the group of genera headed by Catzastzcta” ; and
again (Loc. cet, p. 323) he says: “Turning now to the
Eastern etaporzas which inhabits the borderland between
the Palearctic and Oriental regions, we find it emitting
one clearly-defined branch in the Palearctic direction.
This is the branch to which belong the various species of
Pontia,as P. Nabellica, Hippia, Soracta, Belucha, Leucodice,
and Crateg:.’ In these remarks we thus have evidence
that the high lands of Central Asia (the home of the
peculiar monotypic genera before-mentioned) form a
locality in which we might reasonably expect to find
some ancient types of lepidopterous fauna. That it
is in highly-elevated regions generally or in regions
which, though their altitude is much lower, nevertheless
agree with them in an isothermal sense and in the
length of their summer, that these ancestral forms of
butterflies are most likely to be found, there is very
abundant proof in Weissman’s Studies in the Theory of
Descent, “On the seasonal dimorphism of butterflies,”
where he states, in discussing the parent form of our
common Pzerzs Napz (var. Bryone),a very dark-veined form
which is found in the higher alps of Europe, in Lapland at
low elevations, and in Alaska at sea-level. “In both regions
(meaning polar regions and higher alps) Bryone produces
but one generation in the year, and thus, according to my
theory, must be regarded as the parent form of Pzerds
Napz.” His subsequent temperature experiments amply
confirmed his theory. In Thibet we also get some very
dark forms of Pierids, closely allied to Aryone, one of
which, in Oberthiir’s opinion has enough claim to be
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. «litt. (1899), No. 11. i
specifically designated P. Dubernardi Oberthiir (Etudes
a’ Entom., Livr. 1X., pl. 1, fig. 6), and another form is
described (Bull. Moscow, 1890, pl. 8, fig. a) as P. var.
Intermedius. Numerous other cases could be adduced, as
in the genus Aporza,* but enough has been said to empha-
sise the fact that Thibet and the surrounding regions form
a habitat for ancient types of butterflies, and it is most
probable also, on this account, that Ca/zzaga is the represen-
tative of one of the earlier genera which existed there in
more remote times.
To summarise :—Catlnaga, as deduced from the study
of its geographical distribution, is an ancient derivate
from the original phylum of Butterflies.
THE EVIDENCE OF FORM AND STRUCTURE OF THE
EGG SHELL.
There is not much to be said on this point, as the
ova of so many species of butterflies are unknown. I have
not been able to get access to many exotic butterfly ova,
and what I have critically compared have been obtained
by maceration of the ? bodies in water, and teasing out
the ova from the mass and mounting the whole. I have
been fortunate enough in the case of Calnaga Davidis
to get the micropyle intact, and in another case to get at
least the upper half of an egg showing the longitudinal ribs.
The ova of the different families of butterflies present
various forms in the various groups. Those of Parnasszus,
Thats, and Tetnopalpus are round, wider than high, with a
fine granular surface, the centre of each granulation is
raised outwards and beautifully shown in P. /mperator ;
*In the genus Afgorza (Pontia. Dixey, Trans. Entom. Soc., 1894), the
Western China and Thibetan species, Bzet2, Olberthuri and Acrea are the
darkest species, whilst A7zffza, which is also found in Turkestan, and
Crategz, from Europe and also from Japan and China, are the palest
marked of all.
8 WATSON, Calinaga, Single Genus of a Subfamily.
there are no longitudinal or horizontal ribs, nor raised lines.
Thats and Teznopalpus have less pronounced granulations.
Inthe Vymphalide, Danats and Hestza (of the sub-family
Danaine) have a more or less sugar-loaf shaped egg,
half as high again as wide, with a series of very regu-
larly placed, raised, longitudinal ribs from which, at
regular distances, other finer ones run out horizontally,
and so circle round the egg. The shell thus has the
appearance of rectangular reticulations very evenly dis-
posed. Aestza has more symmetrical and more trans-
parent intercostal spaces, the term I give to the area
between the ribs.
There is a similarity of these Danaine eggs to those
of Pzerzs in general shape and structure, as will be seen
by comparing P. Brassica with the figure of Danas
archippus in Packard’s “ Text-Book of Entomology,”
(p. 521, fig. 496).
In the Mymphalne, another sub-family of the
Nymphalide, we get another type of ege ; for those of
Hypolymnas Salamacis, Bolina, and Anthedon are round,
squat, not so high as wide, resting on a flat base from
which rise 10—12 longitudinal ribs, which terminate
abruptly near the top, leaving a bare, almost structureless,
area, in the centre of which is the micropyle. There are
apparently no transverse ribs, the shell is of delicate and
extremely transparent texture. This egg agrees in
general characters with that of the British butterfly
Hipparchia Trthonus (Westwood’s Brit. Butt., pl. B, fig. 29).
Hipparchia is one of the Satyrznae, another sub-family of
the Vymphalde. The egg of Calnaga is apparently of
a similar shape and structure, but it has not perhaps the
perfect symmetry of Danazs and Hestza,; it is not quite
so tall, and the intercostal spaces at the top, which are
very unequal, remind one perhaps of a Pzerzs. as for
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. «litt. (1899), No. 11. 9
instance, Syxzchloe Sisymbryz (Edward’s Butterflies of
North America, Pieris, pl. I., fig. A3).
The evidence of the egg, meagre and incomplete
though it be, removes Calmaga from the Hypolymnas
section of Vymphalde and from Parnasstus,and places it
nearer to Hestza and Danats,
THE EVIDENCE OF STRUCTURE OF THE LEGS.
Probably the most important point in the histology of
this genus is to be found in the structure of the tarsi of
the forelegs of the 9, and in evidence of this I cannot do
better than quote from Mr. Moore’s MSS. notes, made
March, 1895, and of which he has been kind enough to
give me a written copy, from which the following is an
extract : |
“Note on Calznaga, made March, 1895.
Forelegs of male, pectoral; femur, tibia, and tarsus
clothed with fine, long hairs; tarsus % the length of
tibia, unarmed. Forelegs of female, somewhat longer
and more slender, much less hairy, the hairs shorter
and finer, especially on tibia and tarsus, which are
much shorter and bristly; the tarsus thicker, five-
jointed, the first joint nearly as long as the other four
altogether, the fifth as long as the third and fourth
together, the latter each with a short, lateral, very fine
and delicate spine, and the terminal joint armed with
a pair of rather long, prominent, stout, curved, forward-
projecting claws, these claws being very closely
approximate at their base; below these claws is a
pair of paronychia and pulvilli.”
And again (Lepidoptera Indica, vol. I1., p. 221):
“In Caltnaga, a genus hitherto placed in the
Nymphaline, the female of both the Indian and
Chinese species has the foretarsus perfect, the terminal
10 WATSON, Calinaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
joint being furnished with a pair of rather long, stout
curved, forward-projecting claws, paronychia, and
pulvilli. This genus we have assigned to a subsequent
sub-family, the Calznagine.”
It is thus seen that on this one character, the perfect
forelegs of the female, the genus was raised to the rank
of a sub-family. There is one other genus, Pseudergolis,
which is in the Wymphaline, in which the female sex
possesses claws and paronychia on the forelegs; this is,
without doubt, also an aberrant genus, but it is an
exception to Ca/znaga in this respect, that its position in
point of general resemblance and neuration is undoubtedly
in the Preces and /unonza section of the Vymphatine.
The fact that Calznaga possesses paronychia—lateral
flaps of toughish membrane which extend forwards from
the under side of the anterior end of the last tarsus, just
below the claws ; and also possesses a pulvillus or pad,
situate between the paronychia and under the claws, is
important, and its full import will be apparent when
other groups of Lepidoptera, and indeed other orders of
insects, are investigated for information on these points.
Amongst Lepidoptera these paronychia, pulvilli and
claws are fairly numerous. On the middle and hinder
legs of both sexes in the family Mymphalde@e they are
general, but in no case on the forelegs of the male, and
only in Calimaga and Pseudergolis are they found on the
foreleg of the female. For one of the finest types of this
structure we must look amongst Butterflies to the family
Prerid@ ; and in the sub-family Pzerzne they are found on all
legs of both sexes, the claws however are bifid. In
another sub-family, the Caldryine, certain genera,
Gonepteryx as an instance, have no paronychia or pulvilli
on the foreleg of the female, but only on the middle and
hind legs, thus indicating a stage of development approxi-
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. «lit. (1899), No. Ul, =I
mating to that of Mymphalidae. In the Papzlionzdae
proper, all the legs of both sexes are furnished with stout
simple claws, but with no paronychia or pulvilli, Amongst’
the moths there are also genera which are furnished with
paronychia; Platzamzsa a Nearctic genus, will serve as
an illustration. |
If we go into the examination of other insect orders,
we find these paronychia and pulvilli in Hymenoptera,
Diptera, &c. The honey bee is a good type, and in most
orders of insects they are developed, often differing only
in detail from those of the Lepidoptera.
It is generally assumed that the possession of these
structures is for the purpose of adhering to smooth
surfaces, as the claws are for attachment to rough.
Packard discusses the mechanism of insect locomotion,
and gives figures from Cheshire’s “ Bees and Beekeeping,”
in “The Text-book of Entomology” (pp. 114 to 116,
fags. 105, 106, and 135), particularly illustrating the
methods of application of these structures to rough and
smooth surfaces.
The significance of the occurrence in other orders of
insects of these accessory tarsal structures is that we have
here in Pzerzne and Calinagine a development of very
ancient character, as it is not likely that these structures
would be developed independently of each other in the
various orders of insects in which they are found. The
logical conclusion is therefore that they are characteristic
developments of the whole insect phylum, specialised in
certain cases, degenerated and rudimentary in others, and
obsolete in the Papzlzonide, &c.
It is also well known that the female sex is more
conservative in the retention of ancestral characters than
the male, and thus is explained the fact why it is the
male sex which has lost (as in Vymphalide generally) the
12 WATSON, Calnaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
claws and other tarsal.structures more completely than
the female ; for, although Danazs, Hestia, Amauris, &c.,
in the Danaine, and Hypolymnas, Hestina, &c., in the
Nymphaline have the tarsi developed in the female and
not the male, they are nevertheless almost abortive, and
in a degenerated stage generally, and the whole foreleg is
weak. |
Thus the female Calinaga shews in its tarsal structure
the’ most ancient’ type’ of leg of the whole jon @the
Nymphalide, and illustrates the stage of formation just
before the family lost these important structures.
With the adaptation of butterflies to an arborescent
habitat (which according to some indicates a higher type
of development) came the loss, evidently by atrophy, of
the disused tarsal appendages and first we get a type, as
in Papzlio, where the claws persist, and a later and higher
developed stage, as in typical female Danazs, where the tarsi
are abortive and the appendages are obsolete, and the
most pronounced of all is say a typical male Danazs,
where the ultimate tarsi are entirely wanting, and the
whole leg weak, and shewing an approaching atrophism.
THE EVIDENCE OF ANTENNAL STRUCTURE.
This is a point in the histology of the genus to which
I have been unable to give the attention I desired ; but
I will briefly state the comparison of the form.
The general form of antenna is more like that of
Euplea and Danazs than that of any other genus I have
investigated ; the shaft is rather stout, swelling gradually
to the club. It is on this account unlike Hestza, which
has a well-defined club, and still more unlike Hypolymnas,
which has a most pronounced club. In this respect also
Catinaga is unlike Parnassius, and most unlike the sub-
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlitz. (1899), No. Wl. = 13
family Pzerznae, which are generally very markedly
clubbed. So much for general form.
Ina splendid article by Dr. Karl Jordan, “Contributions
to the Morphology of Lepidoptera, I. The Antenne of
Butterflies” (Vov. Zool. Vol. V., August, 1898), dealing
with their structure ina manner impossible to me (p. 386),
referring to the sub-family Calznagzne, says : “ The scaling
is confined to the dorsal side of the proximal joints. The
scales are very narrow, resembling those of Luehdorfia
and certain Parnassius (stubbendorft).”
Now, if the scales of Lepzdoptera have been derived
from hairs such as are now found in /vzchoptera, and such
as, according to Jordan (oc. czt., p. 400), the antenne of
the Hlepzalidae are furnished with, then perhaps we have
evidence of microscopic histology which would lead
one to infer that Calzmaga, having very narrow scales on
the antenne in a transitory stage towards the ancient
derivate of lepidopterous antennez, is in unison with
Luehdorfia and certain Parnasszus.
Thus, in general form, Calznaga is similar to Danazs
and Ezplea, and in scaling like Parnasszne.
THE EVIDENCE OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE
BASAL CELL.
The basal cell of the hind wings of butterflies is a
small structure formed at the base of the wings in certain
genera by the peculiar conformation of the costal, subcostal
and median nervures in conjunction with another which |
term the “interno-costal nervule” and in its fullest
developed form (as seen in Papilio zalmoxis or Eurycus
cressida) is of a diamond-shaped form. . I take P. zalmoxis
as the type and for reference I have named the 4 limbs
of the basal cell (its 4 boundary walls as it were) by the
following terms,
14 WATSON, Calnaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
I. The first part of the costal nervure from its origin
at the base of the wing up to its emission of the
precostal nervule I term the aztecostal limb.
II. The basal portion of the subcostal up to the
emission of the short spur which in reality closes
in the basal cell (as the discocellulars close. the
discal cell) I term the szedzo-costal. It is generally
weaker than the antecostal limb.
III. The short length or spur between the costal and
sub-costal | term the zu¢erno-costal limb. It is
generally the weakest part of the basal cell.
IV. The other stretch of nervure between the pre-
costal and the costal proper (in reality of course
a part of the costal) I term the azsto-costal limb.
And it is the relative length and strength of these four
limbs which give all the character to the size and shape
of the basal cell. Now while the disto- and the ante-
costal are generally well formed, the medio- and interno-
costal are weaker. In Papzlio szalmoxis and Eurycus cresstda
they are of equal value; thus a well-formed, diamond-
shaped basal cell. But in Danazs, Hestza and other allied
genera, the ante- and medio-costals are long and lie in
apposition, whilst the disto- and interno-costal are so very
short that there appears to be no basal cell at all, and only
on careful examination is it made out; whilst, as perhaps
its antithesis, Papzlzo montezuma has an extremely short
medio-costal and the interno-costal is as long as the disto-
and ante-costals together.
In those cases where there is no basal cell at all, as
flypolymnas, Aporia, Pieris and others, it is because there
is no interno-costal.
The extreme value of the study of the morphology of
the basal cell is only apparent when large numbers of
butterflies are systematically examined, and their relation-
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. «litt. (1899), No. LE ea 3
ship, as evidenced by the degrees of development
attained, carefully investigated and compared with other
characters. I will illustrate my meaning by one case only
before I proceed to investigate carefully the case of
Calinaga. :
In the Indo-Malayan region, in Sikkim for instance,
is to be found a well marked genus of the Papzlzonide,
the representatives of which, being nauseous, are mimicked
by those of a similarly marked but morphologically
widely separated genus. In certain cases, pending the
revision of Papilionid genera by the Hon. Walter
Rothschild, I shall only refer to the species in their
specific character. It will, however, suffice by way of
argument. The first to which reference may be made is
the nauseous Papzlio philoxenus (Moore’s genus Lyasa)
which is mimicked by Bootes West. Now, without taking
into account the other well-marked characters of the two
genera, such as the general neuration of the wings, the
shape of the discoidal cell of the hind wings, the large
head of Bootes as compared to that of Phzlorenus, the
presence of an anal fold in the hind wings of the male
Philoxenus and its absence in Bootes, take the evidence of
one single character, a character too little appreciated and
recognised, viz., the form of the basal cell; and, however
similar the two species may be in general appearance (a
similarity to which Lootes owes its existence), it is at once
very easily seen from this evidence alone that they are
representatives of two genera. Lyasa philoxenus has a
peculiarly shaped basal cell having the portion between
the precostal and the costal nervures (the distocostal limb)
of a markedly arched conformation and relatively longer
than that of Aootes, and the portion between the base
of the wing and the point where the subcostal originates
(the mediocostal limb) relatively shorter than that of
16 WATSON, Calinaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
Bootes, thus the basal cell in PAzloxenus is wider slightly
at its furthest edge from the base of the wing than that
of Lootes, which. is roughly diamond-shaped and has
not the curvilinear form of P/iloxenus. The curvilinear
type of basal cell is found in a number of species which
belong to a group of closely allied genera, and probably
without exception to the nauseous type of Papilio. The
other type of rudely diamond-shaped or angular form is
found in a similar group of genera which invariably mimic
either those of the curvilinear type or else other offensive
butterflies. Thus Agenor @? mimics Varuna; Memnon
mimics Coon. This illustration may give some idea of the
value of the morphology of the basal cell for classificatory
purposes in such butterflies as it is found: but I will go
further.
The illustrations I have just given have been taken
from the Indo-Malayan region, but for further evidence
we will cross the Pacific Ocean and give a little attention
to the Papilios of South America.
In the valley of the Amazon, and indeed generally in
Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Central America
there are to be found a number of Papilios belonging to
the genera Exdopogon and FHectorides, possessed of a
curvilinear basal cell. They have also in common with
the Indo-Malayan genera, a small head, an anal fold in
the hind wing of the 3, containing scent hairs, they are
nauseous, and are in fact the representatives on the
Eastern shores of the Pacific of the nauseous genera just
mentioned from the Indo-Malayan shores. But the
important point is (though only what one who had critically
examined large numbers of these basal cells in other
analogous groups would naturally expect) that they are
mimicked by an inoffensive group of. genera which have
relatively larger heads, no anal fold of the ¢ hind wing,
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. «lit. (1899), No.4. 17
and with a basal cell of the characteristic rudely diamond-
shaped form, the limbs of which are straighter, indicating
by these various characters their affinity to the Old World
species. One species of these mimicking forms I will note,
namely, Hurelcon Hewitson, which is a good mimic, in
its typical form and variety, of the heteromorphic species
Vertumnus Cram.
Thus, to recapitulate, we have evidence of the basal
cell structure of four groups of genera in two zoological
regions, and the structure of this basal cell shows that two
groups, one in each region, closely allied, respectively
mimic two other offensive groups, one in each region, and
also closely allied, thus:
: Old World.
—
{ Bootes mimics PAiloxenus. )
F allied.
| Eureleon mimics Vertumnus. }
allied.
Nees Se
New World. |
Having given some idea of the value of the basal cell
for classificatory purposes, a few illustrations of the
various forms in certain families of butterflies will not be
out of place.
In the family Papzlionzde, to a few genera of which
some reference has just been made, the basal cell is con-
stantly present, though its general form varies from a
large, well-developed form with all its limbs well defined,
a type of which is found in the African P. zalmoxis Hew.,
to a type with more elongated form, such as we get in
Vertumnus Cram. It is found in every genus of the
Thatdine which I have as yet examined; although
in Schatz’s figures it is not delineated as occurring in
Doritis or Ismene.
In every species of another sub-family, the Parnas-
18 WATSON, Catnaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
szine, \ find it developed, though in a varying degree
of development from a weak transitionary character,
as in P. apollo C., to a well-formed type as in Mnemosyne,
Glacialis, and Stubbendorfi.
In the Pzeride the basal cell is found also to exist in
a few genera. Calizdryas, the type genus of the sub-family
Callidryinae, shews it fairly well developed; the genus
Mesapia, of the sub-family Pzerzne, has it, and in the
diagnosis of the genus by Mr. Kirby in the Ezzomologzst
(Vol. XXVII., p. 101), he says: “A well-marked basal
cell.” In the Leptocercene a monogeneric (or perhaps truly
bigeneric) subfamily of Papzliondde it is also found. In
the Nymphalde it is, as | have stated, present in Danazs,
Amauris, Hestia, Caduga and allied genera of the
Danae; in the Morphine it is also found; but in the
Diadema section of the Vymphaline (the section in which
Calinaga is placed by Schatz and Kirby) there is no trace
of it whatever, but in Ca/zzaga it is found in a stage of
development (or degeneration) equal to and almost
identical in form with that stage as seen in Parnasszus,
that is the mediocostal is weak, the internocostal much
weaker and apparently not wholly tubular.
To summarise:—the evidence of basal cell structure is
that Calznaga is in its formation similar to Parnasszus and
dissimilar to the Danaine and _ still less similar to
Hypolymnas.
The existence of a basal cell in Ca/znaga appears to
have been overlooked, and I am pleased to be able to
shew the photomicrograph of this important structure.
In Schatz’s splendid work on neuration it is not shewn
neither is it shewn to exist in the genera of Thazdine
Ismene, and Dorttis, nor also is it figured in Parnassins
though, in various forms, it is found in every species
which I have yet examined.
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. «liz. (1899), No. 11. 19
The only point in which Calnaga approaches the
Diadema group of the Mymphalne is in the weakened
upper discocellular nervure of the hind wings and the
still weaker lower discocellular. In Dzadema, for an
example, the upper discocellular is similar in formation
to Calinaga, but the lower one is entirely absent,
leaving the wing cell open ; amongst the Pzerzve, however,
we get certain genera, Aforza, Metaporia, &c., where,
exactly as in Calznaga, the upper discocellular is stronger
than the lower; the antithesis to this is found in the
Danaine genera, Caduga, Danats and others, where the
relative position is reversed, the upper discocellular being
weak and the lower strong.
THE EVIDENCE OF GENERAL FACIES.
In discussing the evidence of wing-markings or general
facies I shall not go into a lengthy description of the
plan of coloration of the sub-family. There is not much
variation in the disposition of the wing-markings in either
of the two species, except one of degree. Generally
speaking all the nervures are black, and in the inter-
nervular area the centre portion is paler or hyaline
more or less split up by the running outwards from the
nervures of the dark scaling found on and contiguous to
the nervures.* The Thibetan specimens of Davzdis are
generally dark suffused all over, whilst the Western
China specimens are very much paler.
In the discoidal cell of the fore-wings of both species
there is a dark transverse fascia stretching completely
across the cell.
* An identical case of the breaking up of the internervular grey area
into two can be beautifully seen by comparing specimens of Afetagoria,
Largetant, Caphusa, Ariace, and Agathon.
20 WATSON, Caknaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
A characteristic of Sudassana is the beautiful rufous
yellow suffused anal angle of the hind-wings above and in
a very minor degree also below. The derivate of this
colouring may be found in certain specimens of buddha.
I have one specimen from Sikkim which shews the first
tinting of the anal angle. Buddha also shews a rufous
colour on all exposed surfaces of the wings when folded
over the back at rest. Another point of Sudassana is the
long straight costa of the hind-wings, which is also found
in typical Buddha and not in typical Davidis. Indeed it
might be quoted to separate Buddha from Davidis, but
however stable this character might be thought on com-
paring typical specimens it does not hold good when
a number areexamined. My own series, though not very
large, show every intergrade between typical Buddha and
the rounded and shorter costa of Davzats.
The females of Calzmaga are in the known species
semi-diaphanous and lighter in marking, a character not
general in the Vymphalide but of the utmost constancy
in the Agorza genus of Prerzme, in the genus Eurycus of
the Parnassiine@ and in the section of the genus Parnasszus
which includes Mnemosyne, Glactalts, and Stubbendorfi.
But what of the dark transverse fascia of the discoidal cell
of the fore-wings, which has no analogue in Danazs or
Hypolymnas, or in Nymphalide generally? It is very
like that found in the whole of the Parnasszine@, but in a
form more like Catinaga in the Glaczalts section.
I do not, however, attach too great importance to the
general resemblance of wing-markings, as it is well known
that the Lepidoptera are very susceptible to slight changes
of environment, which cause greater changes of wing-marks.
But, however, the similarity to Parnassius is there,
and the evidence of general facies re-iterates again and
again the affinity and convergence of the three sub-families,
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. xletz. (1899), Vo. 44. 21
Calinagine, Pierine (section Aporia), and Parnassiine
(section Glaczalis, Stubbendorfi, and Mnemosyne).
A few words now as to the phylogeny.
We have seen from the evidence of distribution that
itis probably an ancient butterfly, a probability I think
transformed into a certainty when the structure of the @
feet isexamined. The antennal structure shews an affinity
to Luehdorfia, Parnasstus, and Papilio, 3 genera repre-
senting 3 sub-families of the Papzlzonzde. The egg is
similar to Danazs and not to Hypolymnas, with perhaps
also a resemblance to Pzerzs.
The basal cell is strictly Parnassiine in its develop-
ment. The discocellular nervules of the hind-wing is
similar to Hypolymnas 2, but not the male. The general
facies is in part similar to Parnasszus.
Thus the whole evidence of structure of this aberrant
sub-family points to its being an archaic insect, with a
great similarity to the Papzlzonzd@, in the sub-families
Papilionine, Parnassiine, and Pzerine, and to Nymphalide,
in the sub-family Daxazne, but not to the sub-family which
includes Hypolymnas. Calinaga thus appears to be an
off-shoot, an early off-shoot, from the lepidopterous
phylum which gave rise to the Pzerzs, Papilio, Leptocircus,
and Parnassius and Nymphalid stock.
It almost marks the position at which the Pieris-
Papilio-Parnassius phylum separated from the Nymphalid,
but I think the male forelegs will place it on the Nymphalid
branch as the first stage of the phylum.
WATSON, Calznaga, Single Genus of a Sub-family.
I.
1S
e)
POEUN ATOM, QU TIEAVNES.
IP LATINA,
Calinaga buddha 8. Sikkim.
sudassana g. Up. Siam.
a by under side. Up. Siam.
davidis &. Thibet.
_ if Oo. W. China.
apex of egg (micropyle).
ay
” ”
. C. davidis portion of ova.
neuration of right hind wing.
”
. Danars limniace i “f
. Aporia crategt 2. ,, left hind wing.
. Lypolymnas bolina ,, right hind wing.
IPILAN IIB. WV,
. Calinaga buddha 3. fore leg.
» » o. 5th tarsus of hind les:
ne davidis 2. fore leg.
. Neophasia menapia 5th tarsus of fore leg.
. Euryades duponchellz 3-5 tarsi of fore leg. 6.
. Armandia thardina 3-5 tarsi of fore leg. 6.
. Aganisthos odius tarsi of middle leg. @.
. Hlestia lynceus tibia and tarsi. 9°.
. Hypolymnas salamaczs fore leg. 9.
. Hebomora glaucippe claws, &c. 9.
REFERENCE TO PARTS.
F =Femur. S =Sete.
Wars larsus, | Par = Paronychia.
C =Claws. | Pul = Pulvillus.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xliit. (1899), No. Wh. = 23
IPIEAT# VI.
BASAL PARTS OF HIND WINGS.
1. Calinaga davidis.
. Papilio montezuma.
. Aporia crategz.
5 glacialts.
2
3
4. Parnassius mnemosyne.
5
6
. Danais limniace.
REFERENCES TO PARTS.
B =Basal cell. Ci — Costalmenvnre:
A =Antecostal nervule. S =Subcostal nervure.
I =Internocostal ,, P =Precostal nervule.
M = Mediocostal _,, | Med. = Median nervure.
D=Distocostal _,,
7 ci fe
Manchester Memoirs. Vol. XLIII. Plate 4.
CALINAGA.
Manchester Memoirs. Vol. XLIII. Plate 5.
pei
SE
CALINAGA.
Plate 6.
XLITTI.
Vol
Urs.
Manchester Memo
CALINAGA
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. xlizt. (1899), No. 12.
XII. On a Biological Aspect of Cancer.
hen AR ADA ESIE.S,
Read April rrth, recetved June 6th, 1899.
By the medical man and the general public disease
is naturally regarded as an influence for the destruction of
life. To the biologist or, to use even a wider term, to the
philosopher who is fascinated by the deeper problems of
nature whether relating to inorganic, organic, or organised
matter, disease presents itself as a direction or evolution
of vital force influenced by and influencing the environment.
“Dead aerobies” Pasteur replied to Liebig, “become the
prey of new aerobies of different species or of their own
species.” From this point of view it is at least convenient
to provisionally assume the existence of Buffon’s living
molecules, whether we call them granulations or cells, the
blastema of Robin, or the microzyma of Béchamp. We
may conceive that, just as the elementary inorganic atoms
or molecules have had impressed upon them by the
Creator particular physical properties, combining pro-
portions and resulting characters, so the living molecule is
endowed with the special and equally permanent attribute
of vitality. The chemist and the physicist find an
inorganic molecule without its special properties unthink-
able, and we may at least imagine a living molecule
equally inseparable from its special properties. Just
as the display or development of the potential powers of
the inorganic molecule are largely dependent on the
solution in which it is immersed, or the physical conditions
to which it is exposed, so the living molecule may be said
September Sth, 1599.
2 FARADAY, Lzological Aspect of Cancer.
to act in relation to the environment. But, as Lord
Salisbury pointed out in his Oxford address to the British
Association, there is an essential difference between the
inorganic and the living molecules, in that the former do
not breed. An elementary inorganic molecule may, by
initiating a series of re-combinations, change the character
of a solution many times its own weight ; but it will not
change the solution into a colony of molecules identical
with itself. The living molecule decomposes or re-arranges
the solution or z/zeu in which it is immersed ; but it also
reproduces an indefinite series of organised beings like
itself by actually converting the surrounding material into
such organisms.
There is another characteristic of the living molecules.
They have the power of forming associations based on the
operation of the economic principle of the division of
labour. From this power results differentiation through
many intermediate stages into roots, stem, leaves, and the
various parts of the flower in the more highly organized
plants ; into blood vessels, nerves, ligaments, skin, and the
various organs of the more highly organised animals.
But, even still, regarded merely as a vital process, that is,
leaving out of the question those ethical problems and
results involved in the building up of a habitation for the
soul of man, and for the exercise of his spiritual powers,
the differentiations resolve themselves into merely a more
highly complicated method of reproducing the organism.
Apparently allied with this power of differentiation is the
production of “sporting” varieties, the complete organism
being thus itself liable to variation in its ultimate form,
and apparently retaining the power, under certain con-
ditions, of reproducing its variations so that the progeny
of the most highly organised resultant form tends to
reproduce in its own life-history all the differentiations of
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xliz. (1899), No. 12. 3
the parent or parents. The power of differentiation is
conveniently expressed by the word evolution ; the power
of the reproduction of the biological experience of the
parent cells apparently inherent in living matter, by the
word heredity.
Coming back now to our simple living molecules we
have to recognise in them two methods of breeding,
reproduction by mere scissiparity, the living cell dividing
itself into two or more, or reproduction by differentiation
as members of a community resulting in spores, or seeds,
or eggs, which seem to contain in themselves the organic
memory, if I may so express it, of all the phenomena of
their descent. The differentiation and division of labour
characteristic of the latter mode of reproduction may
extend even to a division into separate communities, the
co-operation of which is necessary for the reproduction of
either community as a whole, in other words into the evolu-
tion of the sexes as in moncecious plants and the higher
animals. It will be sufficient for the present to sum up
these two methods as reproduction by scissiparity and by
eggs, merely remarking that reproduction by true seeds or
eggs is a more advanced stage of differentiation, or com-
munal division of labour, as compared with reproduction
by spores, just as reproduction by spores is an advance on
reproduction by mere scissiparity, and may be spoken of as
a first attempt at communal work. But here we must
recognize that reproduction by scissiparity implies merely
the reproduction of the individual cell, while reproduction
by spores implies the reproduction of the primitive tribe,
and reproduction by seeds or eggs the reproduction of the
highly organised society. Both the simpler methods have
been observed in the lowest forms of life. Thus,anthrax may
grow as mere mycelium by cell division or, if cultivated
under appropriate conditions, it will produce spores which
4 FARADAY, 4iological Aspect of Cancer.
will be liberated as germs of independent communities or
growths through the dissolution of the mycelium, which,
like summer annuals, having surrendered its vital force to
its offspring, crumbles away.
Now, may we not carry the thought a little further and
assume that both possibilities are inherent in the original
cell or living molecule? The potentiality of variation,
division of labour, and co-operation must be assumed as
existent in every cell, otherwise how could cells ever have
become highly organised communities? Moreover, ex-
perience has shown us, what in any case we should have
been obliged to infer as the only possible explanation,
that the development of one or the other tendency must
be determined by the environment, or the conditions under
which the particular life has to be carried on. Thus the
character of the season will determine whether a tree will
make wood or flowers, whether the wheat plant will make
much straw or a full ear. Place a leguminous seed or
tuber in the darkened portion of a cellar, it will send forth
long shoots of mycelium until it obtains the direct contact
of the solar rays, when the differentiations which result in
inflorescence will begin. And whether anthrax will pro-
duce spores, or not, has been said by various observers to
depend on the presence or absence of free oxygen.
I have spoken of reproduction by eggs as a general
expression for reproduction by spores, seeds, or eggs as
distinct from reproduction by mere scissiparity. But,
technically, we apply the term spore to what may be
spoken of as the seeds or eggs of the lower forms of life; in
other words of the less highly differentiated communities of
cells. These may be regarded as representing an inter-
mediate stage between the simple cell or living molecule
and the highly complex organism, say man, in which what
I may call economic differentiation has attained its
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlitz. (1899), No. 12. 5
maximum development. May we not further suppose
that each stage is represented in the higher organism and
retains all its original and acquired potentialities? That
the cells of the higher organisms retain their power of mere
scissiparity we know, for it is by such reproduction that
the plant or the animal grows ; may not particular tissues
corresponding to the higher cryptogamic stage of plants,
above the thallophyta—say the ferns—have a tendency
under given conditions to revert to independent spore pro-
duction with the resultant decay of the parent mycelium ?
This would be as though the leaves of a phanerogam
forgot their duty to the community represented by
the whole plant and began to produce spores; or as
if the workers in a hive began to lay eggs instead of
leavines that ‘duty -to) the) queen) bee Some of the
phenomena of scarlet fever might perhaps be accounted
for as due to some condition which awoke in the skin-
tissue, the potentiality of independent spore formation.
The initial stages of cancer, and of the various forms of
epithelial proliferations may under this view be con-
ceivably due to some change of environment, which
setting free and even stimulating the power of independent
multiplication by mere scissiparity in a particular region
Or in one or more cells, at the same time arrests the
tendency to differentiation in the service of the community
or of the general organism. In that case the cancer, in
its initial stages, would be a case of arrested development,
or of reproduction not proceeding beyond the original
mere cell-forrnation stage, the result being a local growth
of an independent, or non-cooperative, character.
Cancer has been defined as epithelial proliferation
with an invading tendency, and this invading tendency
seems to be truly parasitical, as the invading cells appear
to destroy, or absorb, or replace the normal tissues around.
6 FARADAY, Lzologzcal Aspect of Cancer.
Assuming, then, the first stage to be merely the exertion
and stimulation of the inherent property of cell multi-
plication,with arrested differentiation into (let us say) blood
channels and nerves, the complete renewal of the cir-
culating and nerve systems of the subject being thus
locally interrupted, with consequent disturbance to the
general health, and a certain isolation of the affected part
(like a secret society of malcontents in a State), how do
the new cells acquire a parasitical character? An ex-
planation may possibly be found in what we know of
microbe life. Zymotic diseases are generally attributed
to the actual invasion of the body of the sufferer by a
previously existing pathogenic microbe, and cancer itself
has been declared to be probably infectious and to be due
to a pathogenic organism. The views which I am en-
deavouring to develope are not inconsistent with these
hypotheses. The immediate question is merely that of
the evolution of the mzcrococcus and of its malignant
character.
I have long held the opinion—as being most consistent
with the phenomena of the appearance and disappearance
of epidemics and with Pasteur’s attenuation experiments—
that pathogenic microbia are, to begin with, harmless or
even benignant saprophytes or organised ferments, which,
through changes in the environment, have been compelled
to take up a parasitical or malignant character in obedience
to the law of the struggle for existence. In a paper read
at the meeting of the British Association in 1882,* I based
on Pasteur’s discovery of the attenuating influence of free
oxygen on pathogenic microbia,and on the vastly increased
destructiveness, or fermenting power, of the harmless yeast
plant when cultivated in deep vats—which are speedily
* Report of the Fifty Second Meeting of the British Association, held at
Southampton in August, 1882, p. 578.
Manchester Memozirs, Vol. xlitz. (1899), No. 12. 7
exhausted of free oxygen and are protected from fresh
supplies by the layer of carbonic acid formed above—the
hypothesis that Koch’s tubercle bacillus is an originally
harmless saprophyte or digestive ferment which has
been converted into a destructive parasite by imprison-
ment in lungs inefficiently aerated, either in consequence
of hereditary weak breathing habits or other obvious
causes. The view is a more hopeful one than that
which indefinitely multiplies species by giving to every
pathogenic microbe a permanently specific character ;
for in the former case we may hope to escape disease
germs by sanitary conditions which prevent their evolu-
tion, while in the latter our escape is a mere matter of
good luck.
It is well-known that the cancerous growth after
removal by surgical operation, even to the extent of
amputation, will often ve-appear in other parts of the body.
Now, it is authoritatively stated that the cells of such second
erowths have always the characteristic form, not of the
epithelial cells of the locality of the second outbreak, but
of the region where the disease first appeared. Thus, let
us take two remote portions of the body, A and B. If
the disease first appears at A, then a re-appearance at
B will have the characteristic cell formation of the
epithelium at A; if, on the other hand, it originates at B,
and re-appears at A, the growth at A will have the
characteristic cell formation, not of the epithelial cells of A,
but of those of B. The only explanation yet put forward
is that a morbid cell from the original growth has escaped
and been conveyed by the blood vessels or the lymphatics,
as a travelling cell, to find a lodgment where it can parasiti-
cally develope anew colony. The characteristic form of the
cells of the morbid growths clearly indicates their descent
from the originally healthy cells of the epithelium where
8 FARADAY, Biological Aspect of Cancer.
the growth first appeared. Here then we have healthy
cells becoming malignant, in the first place through some
condition of the environment. Then one of the converted
celis escapes, travels, and sets up a_ parasitic colony
elsewhere. Such a travelling cell is, to all intents and
purposes, a pathogenic micrococcus evolved from originally
healthy cells. Let us recapitulate. We begin with a
healthy epithelial tissue, the cells of which are capable of
differentiation to fulfil the various co-operative functions
required, Owing to some change in the environment, or
say the food supply for the renewal of the tissues, they
lose their differentiation power and revert to, or remain at,
what I may describe as the simplest cryptogamic or
thallophyte stage of their life-history. Under the changed
condition their vital activity developes itself in purely
algaceous or fungoid growth, and for the same reason, and
under the influence of increasingly abnormal conditions,
they eventually develope a parasitic power. A cell then
escapes and, as a pathogenic micrococcus, sets up, under
the same favouring conditions, similarly parasitic colonies
elsewhere. Is not such an assumed development of
morbid virulence analagous to the variation from the
“vaccine” to the deadly contagzum vivum ?
But we have now to ask ourselves why this arrest of
development at what may be called the mere cryptogamic
stage, and why this development of vigorous parasitism ?
In endeavouring to answer these questions we must first
recognize the fact as demonstrated, that changes in the
chemical and physical environment have an extraordinary
influence on the lower forms of life. It has been abun-
dantly demonstrated that the cultivation of microbia in
the absence of free oxygen and sunlight developes
parasitic vigour in an extraordinary way, and that free
oxygen and sunlight are inimical to parasitic vigour.
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. xlitz. (1899), No. 12. 9
I would venture to express the view in a_ broad
generalisation :—Free oxygen and sunlight are favourable
to phanerogamic development, their absence to crypto-
gamic life. If we go back in geological history we find
that when the world was probably largely enveloped in
carbonic acid gas and the vapours of steaming seas, the
great filicinze, equisitaceze and lycopodine, and the enor-
mous lizards and other sluggish forms of life prevailed.
Their huge bodies testified to conditions favourable to the
growth of mere (relatively) undifferentiated mycelium,
rather than to the evolution of the complex nerve tissues
and highly elaborated system of well-ordered canal irri-
gation by means of sap and blood vessels characteristic
of the higher plants and animals. It does not seem
entirely fanciful to associate the prevalence of the
degenerative processes of cancer along river valleys with
this generalisation. There appears also to be a striking
relation between cancer and tuberculosis. Dr. Thorburn,
for instance, has found statistically that there is frequently
a family history of tuberculosis in cases of cancer.
Tuberculosis we know to be associated with deficient
light and ventilation, and the mists or vapours of river
valleys suggest less efficient oxygenization of the bloodthan
takes place in dryer localities. However that may be, such
deficient oxygenization does not seem an insufficient cause
to account for cryptogamic arrest, or reversion, on the
part of the cells or micro-cocci of which the human being
is built. In the case of cancer, a bruise, or any inter-
ference with the efficient oxygenization of the part by the
blood stream may initiate the local growth. But if we
assume imperfectly oxygenized blood throughout the body,
the escaping cell starting from the original centre in which
its malignant vigour has been nurtured, lodges amidst
tissues which are themselves being imperfectly renewed
Ke) FARADAY, Lzological Aspect of Cancer.
and which, therefore, fall an easy prey to its developed
parasitic virulence. Let us imagine the life of such a
colony. We begin with an imperfectly irrigated centre,
or a centre irrigated by poisoned streams, the cells
in which are consequently arrested at the cryptogamic
stage, while the surrounding tissues are themselves
weakened by an imperfectly renewed blood supply. As
the fungus growth proceeds and increases, the channels of
irrigation and the nerve fibres which should convey the
mysterious neuro-stimulus are themselves degenerated
and broken up, while the centre of the fungoid growth
itself is imperfectly nourished ; the peripheral cells, ac-
quiring increased cryptogamic vigour march on as an
invading army, feeding on the surrounding fields of tissue.
As the mass increases the famished area becomes larger
and the interior breaks down and ulcerates, becoming the
prey of still more residual vital forces or pathological
ferments developed or liberated in its own substance.
The practical conclusion is that there has been perhaps
too great a disposition to regard cancer as a foreign in-
vasion, and as pre-eminently a case for surgical treatment.
If there be anything in the reasoning which I have ventured
to present it would appear to be primarily a matter for
the care of the physician. As in tuberculosis, so in cancer,
measures for securing the more efficient oxygenization and
thorough circulation of the blood might possibly be tried
with advantage, and it also seems to be worth inquiry
whether the introduction of oxygen locally and in a con-
centrated form might not be practicable and advantageous.
The influence of free oxygen as a biological factor is
more extraordinary than is generally recognised. Let me
quote Pasteur’s statement* respecting ordinary moulds.
“Tf,” he says, “the plant has at its disposal abundant air,
* Etudes sur la Bigre. Par M.L. Pasteur. Paris, 1876. Page 134.
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. «litt. (1899), No. 12. 11
if it grows on the surface of a humid body or in a liquid
where the contained air can be renewed without being
displaced by carbonic acid gas, one observes an ordinary
mouldiness with a mycelium consisting of more or less
slender tubes, branched and interlacing, and producing on
the surface of the liquid aerial organs of fructification.
Everyone is familiar with such growths of common moulds.
But introduce the mould into a sugar solution with in-
sufficient air, the growth changes completely, as we have
already seen submerged jpenzcillium, aspergillus and
mycoderma vine change, only in a more pronounced
manner. The spores which are sown for the crop
become much enlarged, and the mycelium tubes which
proceed from them are much thicker and stronger
than in the normal plant. These tubes produce, at
relatively greater distances from each other, branch tubes,
which detach themselves and set up a separate vegetation
on their own account, producing at their extremities, or
having their own continuity broken by, chains of large cells
which can live by budding and reproduce cells similar to
themselves, which also grow into tubes.” Does not this
description of the change in the growth of a mould—from
a delicate moss-like structure to a mere thallophyte—in the
absence of free oxygen, with the enlargement and more
leathery consistence of the cells, suggest the alleged
enlargement and thickening of the characteristic epithelial
cells in the cancerous growth? While the higher organisms
or organizations of life cannot exist without oxygen, there
are lower forms of life which do actua!ly thrive in its
absence ; even the larval forms of higher organisms are
able to exist under gaseous conditions which would
be fatal to the fully developed creatures. It was not
without reason that oxygen was called the vital gas; in
its absence the living cells seem to forget their life
12 FARADAY, Lzological Aspect of Cancer.
history and to retain only their fundamental vitality,
limited as to form, but intensified in individual vigour.
What can be more remarkable than the fact that the
presence or absence of a particular gas in a free form
determines, not the life of a plant, but whether it shall re-
produce by mere cell division or by the wonderfully complex
process of yielding spores or seeds, which contain in an
altered form the possibility of reproducing the parent ; or
that the presence or absence of light shall determine
whether a leguminous plant shall produce yards of mere
mycelium, or the extraordinary variation, elaboration, and
co-operation of inflorescence and fertilisation ?
The successful application of oxygen in cases of
pneumonia is also suggestive. In these cases oxygen is
applied for the purpose of maintaining the blood in good
condition and keeping up the action of the heart, in other
words the method is to do artificially what the lungs,
through the progress of the disease, have become incapable
of spontaneously doing. But it ought not to be over-
looked that this artificial application appears not only to
do the work of the lungs during their state of incapacity
but to stop the progress of the disease itself, thus
restoring the lungs to a normal state.
Notr, AUGUST 7TH, 1899.—Since the foregoing paper was
set up in type my attention has been directed to the fact that
Cohnheim’s hypothesis (with which I was not previously
acquainted), that morbid growths of the nature of cancer may
arise from minute portions of embryonic tissue which have
persisted in an undeveloped state amongst the mature tissues,
in some respects seems to be related to the hypothesis I have put
forward. With reference to this and other previous suggestions and
investigations, I wish to say that there are differences in detail,
and more especially in the point of view, which have appeared
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xlitd. (18¢9), No. 12. = 13
to me to justify the publication of my own speculation. On
this point I may perhaps usefully quote the remarks of an
esteemed correspondent, who is also a distinguished specialist.
“Your view of the etiology of cancer,” he writes, “is in some
respects parallel to that of Cohnheim, though it differs in this,
that whereas he regarded the cancer cells as cells which had
retained the undifferentiated embryonic characters, you (as I read
it) regard them as having 7e-acguived those characters by the
action of detrimental agencies acting upon them from within or
without. This, as you say, does not exclude the possible action
of parasites as the cause of the degeneration ; your bias is,
however, obviously towards the side of a physical causation, more
especially deficiency of oxygenization.”
With reference to my remarks on disturbed or interrupted
irrigation, my attention has also been called to the evidence of
an abundant supply of blood to the affected parts, which is
indicated, for instance, by the number of arteries requiring
ligature after an operation. On this point I wish to say that the
pathological descriptions of this phenomenon which I have read
suggest congestion rather than healthy circulation ; in external
nature we have sluggish water courses which tend to the forma-
tion of a miasmatic area. An excessive blood-supply, moreover,
seems mechanically and chemically inconsistent with complete
oxygenization.
Finally my appreciative and friendly critic points out that
cancer appears in (apparently) very robust persons ; that there is
a form of cancer which occurs almost exclusively on the area of
the body most richly supplied with blood, the face ; and that it
has been noticed that almost the only victims to this form in
Hamburg are sailors, who of all people may be supposed to be
most abundantly supplied with free oxygen. I wish it to be
understood that I refer to oxygen in the paper rather as an
illustrative speculation than as a suggestion on which depends
absolutely the general argument of the paper, that of a biological
change due to alteration of environment—say nutrition or nerve
stimulus. But in regard to a disease which is admittedly involved
in mystery, it is useful to have a definite working hypothesis.
If the oxygenization idea is adopted as such an hypothesis, then
the case of the Hamburg sailors will present itself as an exception
14 FARADAY, Biological Aspect of Cancer.
to the rule; and, with a due exercise of lateral vision, other
special conditions of the lives of German sailors might be found
competent to counteract the apparently healthy conditions, and
to produce such a de-oxygenized state of the blood as might be
expected in cases where the supply of atmospheric oxygen was
actually deficient. Even on the simplest hygienic principles,
the development of morbid growths in the presence of abundant
fresh air and sunlight must be regarded as exceptional in either
the vegetable oranimal kingdom. Should the lateral observations.
result in the discovery of competent causes, zzth or without
efficient oxygenization, the working hypothesis would have lived a
useful life and would have an honourable death.—F. J. F.
October 4th, 1898.| PROCEEDINGS. i
PROCEEDINGS
OF
fee MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
Pie OSOrMICAL SOCIETY.
Ordinary Meeting, October 4th, 1808.
James Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
It was announced that, during the recess, the Society had
lost by death four ordinary members :—Mr. H. M. Ormerod,
F.G.S., Dr. R. M. Pankhurst, Dr. James Rhodes, and Mr. John
Wright ; and three honorary members :—Professor Ferdinand
Cohn, Lord Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S., and Mr. Osbert Salvin,
RRS:
Mr. TRistRAM remarked on a phenomenon which he
observed in a bright sky and near the zenith, on Wednesday,
September 28th. The appearance might be described as a
double fragment of rainbow, the two parts resembling somewhat
the script letter x, one part being a short arc of a circle,
having the sun as centre, the reversed part touching it. The
colours were distinct but not bright, and the two parts were
about equal both in size and brightness. ‘The phenomenon was
observed during several hours both before and after noon, and
the effect seemed to be produced upon some exceedingly light
and elevated clouds. It gradually faded as the sun drew near
the horizon.
ii PROCEEDINGS. [October 4th, 1898.
Mr. H. W, FREsToN exhibited a male specimen of Asagena
phalerata, an extremely rare species of spider, which by itself
represents the genus Asagena, whose nearest congener is the genus
Steatoda. The present individual is the only male that has been
found, at any rate in recent years. Previously the habitat of this
species was unknown, but it would now seem to be a simple
Theridion snare in grass amongst rocks. This specimen was found
in August, on Redbank, above Grasmere. The most striking
features of the genus are a denticulated edge to the cephalo-
thorax and a denticulated socket in the front of the abdomen,
forming a stridulating apparatus, which would produce a squeak-
ing noise when rubbed against the rough hinder edge of the
thorax.
Mr. JOHN BUTTERWORTH read a paper, entitled, “Further
Research on the structure of Psaronius, a Tree Fern
of the Coal Measures, and on the Leaf Sheath sur-
rounding the Nodes of some of the Calamites of the
Lancashire Coal Measures.”
The PRESIDENT, Professor Weiss, and Mr. MARK STIRRUP
criticised some statements in this paper.
This paper has been revised by the author and is printed in
full, as revised, in the AZemozrs.
October 18th, 1898.) PROCEEDINGS. iil
General Meeting, October 18th, 1898.
James Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.LS., President, in the Chair.
Mr. E. W. Donovan, M.I.Mech.E., Prestwich, was elected
an ordinary member.
Ordinary Meeting, October 18th, 1898.
James Cosmo MELvILL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.
Mr. J. J. ASHwortH exhibited a plant (Zea mais) grown at
Wilmslow, together with a ripened and an immature cob.
A paper by Mr. PETER CAMERON was then read, entitled:
“Hymenoptera Orientalia, or Contributions to a know-
ledge of the Hymenoptera of the Oriental Region.
Part VIII The Hymenoptera of the Khasia Moun-
tains.”
This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
iv PROCEEDINGS [Movember rst, 1598.
Ordinary Meeting, November 1st, 1898.
James Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
A discussion on the aurora borealis, with special reference to
the display on September oth last, was opened by Professor
OsBORNE REYNOLDS, and part was taken in it by several of
the members present.
A discussion on the subject of electric tramway traction was
then initiated by Dr. F. H. Bowman with special reference to
the methods now adopted in Berlin.
Ordinary Meeting, November 15th, 1898.
James Cosmo MELviLL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
Mr. STROMEYER called attention to some difficulties which
he had met with in applying F ourier’s methods to the con-
sideration of the conduction of heat in boiler plates, and in
considering the motion of spiral springs suddenly released.
Dr. G. H. BRoapBent described the development and life
history of Vorticella putrina by means of 34 diagrams made from
his own observations. The development from the cyst was
fully given in each stage, the remarkable feature being that after
the extrusion of the organism through a very small aperture the
cyst wall remained quite circular and intact. The manner in
which the Vorticella leaves the stalk by means of the development
of basal cilia was shown, and it was stated that the free-swimming
form steers with these cilia foremost, whereas in the ‘‘ detached”
form—a special term used by the author—the oral cilia are fore-
most. He mentioned that he had seen the stalk contract on its
own account after the organism had already left it for several
seconds.
November 29th, 1898.| PROCEEDINGS. Vv
General Meeting, November 2oth, 1898.
James Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
Mr. Walter Behrens, Manchester; Mr. Alfred Hopkinson,
Q.C., B.C.L., Principal of Owens College; Mr. J. W. M’Connel,
M.A., Prestwich ; and Mr. F. W. Gamble, M.Sc., Demonstrator
in Zoology, Owens College, were elected ordinary members.
Ordinary Meeting, November 29th, 1898.
James Cosmo MELvit1, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
Professor Lams made some remarks upon Professor Klein’s
recent work on the motion of the top, and illustrated some
points by means of a gyroscope.
vi PROCEEDINGS. [December 13th, 1598
Ordinary Meeting, December 13th, 1808.
James Cosmo MEtvitt, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
Dr. G. H. BRoapBEnT described microscopical observations
he had recently made on the development of a rotifer existing in
an infusion, made in January last, of the mud deposited on his
bicycle. On Friday, the 2nd inst., the organism was found, and
on the 4th the ovum was extruded, and was under observation
until the 6th, when it was lost. On the 7th instant another was
found, and the stages of development observed day and night,
with only seven hours intermission, until the 31rth, when it
emerged from the ovum fully formed. His communication was
illustrated by a number of diagrams.
A paper by Mr. PETER CAMERON was read, entitled
“ Description of a New Genus and Species of Hymen-
optera from Chili.”
This paper will be printed in full in the JZemozrs.
Dr. J. Lawson Russet, of Todmorden, then read a paper,
entitled “‘Vestiges of Primitive Man found near Tod-
morden.”
January roth, 1899.| PROCEEDINGS. vii
Ordinary Meeting, January roth, 1899.
James Cosmo Me tvit1, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
Mr. C. L. Barnes called attention to a paper by Dr.
Wollaston in the Philosophical Transactions for 1824, ‘‘On the
apparent direction of eyes in a portrait.” The difference between
portraits in this respect is well known, the eyes appearing either
to follow a spectator all round the room, or to be always looking
in some other direction. Dr. Wollaston shews that the effect is
partly due to the apparent direction of the eyes considered by
themselves, and partly to the perspective of the nose and other
portions of the face. In the volume referred to are several
plates in which the same eyes can be viewed in connection with
different faces, and the change in the apparent direction is most
marked. Other descriptions of a similar kind are also illustrated
and explained.
Dr. Bowman called attention to a small light streak on the
upper limb of the moon when totally eclipsed on the 27th of
December ; the position appeared to be about what would be
represented by eleven o’clock on a dial, and had a small indent
in the centre. ‘The brightness was much greater than the
remainder of the copper-coloured surface, and the phenomenon
was never observed to entirely disappear during the whole time
of totality. Mr. Tristram noticed the same phenomenon during
the earlier stage of the totality.
Mr. GwyYTHER mentioned that he had seen a lunar halo,
lasting for a short time only, just after 10-30 on the night of
the 28th of December.
Viii PROCEEDINGS. [ January 24th, 1899.
Ordinary Meeting, January 24th, 1899.
James Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
The PRESIDENT announced that the Council had awarded
the Wilde Medal of the Society for 1899 to Sir Edward
Frankland, K.C.B., F.R.S., and the Wilde Premium to Charles
H. Lees, D.Sc. ; that Professor William Ramsay, F.R.S., had
been appointed to deliver the Wilde Lecture, and that the date
of presentation of the Wilde Medal and of the delivery of the
Wilde Lecture had been fixed for Tuesday, the 28th of February.
Dr. F. H. Bowman mentioned that he had recently seen a
specimen of wheat, grown in South Africa, consisting of about
420 stalks, apparently produced from one seed, each stalk having
an ear containing on the average 4o grains of wheat. The
President and Mr. C. Bailey agreed that the plant was most
probably Z7zticum compositum. Mr. Tristram stated that plants
consisting of 190 stalks had been grown in Lancashire.
Mr. C. E. STROMEYER exhibited a number of photographs
illustrating the extent and character of the damage effected by
the recent boiler explosion at Monton.
The PRESIDENT exhibited a specimen of Lichhornia speciosa
Kunth., and remarked that it cannot be too widely circulated
that very great danger attends the cultivation of this showy plant
or its introduction into tropical or subtropical countries, where
it might be thought to add to the beauties of lakes or ponds in
Botanical Gardens and elsewhere. —
Originally a native of South America, it was about nine
years since introduced into Florida, in an ornamental sheet of
water not far from St. John’s River. It was soon found to have
filled up this space, and a stray offshoot having accidentally
found its way to the river, the growth was so rapid and so
effectual as to convert portions of it into the semblance of green
January 24th, 1899.| PROCEEDINGS. ix
meadow-land, and, it is affirmed, to stop the progress of boats
and even steamers. In Louisiana similar disasters have occurred :
the climate seemed exactly to suit the plant, and Government
aid had at last to be invoked, and steam-dredgers used to extir-
pate it. This was very difficult, for if even a small piece of
the matted roots was left, fresh offshoots would rapidly grow, and
flower the first season. Indeed, in the Bayou St. John in the
same state (Louisiana), no means have been found effectual
to stop its incursions, where once it has obtained a footing.
The timber industry was threatened, as rafts could not be sent
down the river. Grand Lake, not far off the Bayou, has likewise
been invaded. ‘This vast expanse of water, forty-five miles long by
an average of six broad, is in parts already like a wide meadow,
spangled with most beautiful purple hyacinth-like flowers. Cold
weather alone seems to stop its increase, and it then sinks to the
bottom of the river, but, with the approach of warm weather,
rises again and propagates very rapidly.
Eichhornia Kunth, Enum. Pl, iv. 129 (1843) is a small
genus of the Nat. Ord. Pontederiacee, containing about seven
species, all natives of tropical America, except one W. African.
The four genera composing this small order, viz., Pontederza L.,
Lichhornia Kunth, Heteranthera R. and P. (inclusive of Schollera
Schreb.) and Moxochoria Presl, are all much alike, possessing
spikes of hermaphrodite flowers in most instances, often very
regular. Perianth usually six-lobed, stamens varying from three
to six, unequally fixed to the base of the segments, filaments
free, filiform. Anthers oblong. Style filiform or columnar.
Fruit loculicidally dehiscent, dividing its three valves with a
membranaceous pericarp. Ovary free as a rule, 3-celled, ovules
anatropal. The flowers are spathaceous, leaves sheathing cordate
or sagittate, with inflated petioles. Species about 33, Pontederia
being all American, Zichhornia (as already mentioned) American
and W. African, Heteranthera the same, and Monochoria entirely
of the Old World, one species, JZ. vaginalis, being of very wide
distribution.
If we consider the strict law of priority, the name Zichhornia
x PROCEEDINGS. [ /anuary 24th, 1899.
Kunth, 1843, is antedated by /zarvopus Rafin.,* 1836, and
the specific name speciosa Kunth by crasszpes Rafin. (2. c.)
Mr. CHARLES BaILey explained the structure of the peculiar
permanent sheath which encloses the extremity of each root and
rootlet of the Pontederia (Eichhornia) crassipes. ‘The specimens
exhibited to the members, under the microscope, showed that
these sheaths were like the long finger of a glove in shape,
and varied in size according to the age of the organ. The
organic connection between the root and its sheath is found at
its extremity at the bottom of the sheath. These are of
fair consistency, and are doubtless designed for the protection
of the plant which, by means of its inflated leaf-stalk, passes
its life floating upon the surface of the water; the growing
and tender extremities of the root are in this way guarded
against the attacks of the smaller aquatic animals. ‘The species
of the cryptogamic genus 4zo//a, which also pass their existence
in a floating condition, have a very similar root-sheath, but in
their case the organ is only temporary, being discarded before
the root reaches maturity.
The PRESIDENT read a note “On the occurrence of
Chenopodium capitatum Ascherson, near Llandudno.”
This plant, more commonly known by the Linnean name
Blitum virgatum, was found by myself at Craig-y-don, Llandudno,
on waste ground, locally abundant, not very far from the Little
Orme’s Head, in September, 1898. It has been from time to
time recorded as a casual in the British Islands, and Mr. F. J.
Hanbury informs me that he has a specimen in his herbarium,
collected by the late Dr. Boswell (Syme) at Fisherrow, near
Edinburgh.
It is figured in Curtis’ Bot. Mag., Pl. 276, and used in old
times to be cultivated for ornament, the scarlet, round, axillary
clusters of fruit being conspicuous and suggesting the trivial
name “Strawberry Blite.’” The flowers are very small, one-
stamined, two-styled.
Opinions differ considerably as to the exact generic position
* Fl, Tellur. II. 81 (1836).
January 24th, 1899.| PROCEEDINGS. xi
of this plant. Hooker (AZ. Grit. Zndia, V., p. 5), under the name
Chenopodium Blitum, places it in his third (Indian) section of
that genus, owing to its baccate fruit. Boissier (77. Ordentalis,
IV., p. 905) assigns it to the genus Bi&tum, associated with
Chenopodium LBonus-Henricus L. and C. rubrum L.
Nyman (Conspect. Hil. Eur. p. 623) gives two species,
B. capitatum L. and wirgatum L., the distribution of both being
much the same as far as Northern and Western Europe are con-
cerned, ranging from Norway and Sweden to Germany, Helvetia,
France, etc., but the latter (2. wrgatuwm) extends also to
Transylvania, Servia, Roumania, and Russia. Its geographical
distribution in the East seems also extensive (Boissier 7. c.),
including both Asia Minor, Armenia, Transcaucasia, Persia,
M. Libanus, and Afghanistan. It is also reported from
N. Africa, e¢g., Algeria (Munby) 2. capitatum merely
seems to be a large-leaved and fruited variety, with occasionally
leafless spikes as well as axillary inflorescence, and, as the plant
is connected with the typical Cenxopodia through intermediates
such as the above-mentioned C. rubrum L., it is no doubt the
wisest course to sink the genus Zzfwm in the larger assemblage
of Chenopodium. J may add that 1 have in my herbarium a
North American sheet of this plant (of the form 2. capztatum L.)
from Gilpin County, Colorado, collected by R. W. French
in 1874, and I have also specimens from a few other localities in
the United States.
The PRESIDENT also read a note “ On the order L/cinec.”
The Order Ilicineze comprises trees or shrubs, for the most
part evergreen, smooth, eglandular, the leaves being in all cases
alternate, without stipules, shiny, coriaceous, often margined,
crenulate or spiniferous. Certain of the sub-genus Prinos of Lec
are serrate, deciduous, tender. The inflorescence is either
axillary or terminal or both, occasionally solitary. Flowers
regular, dicecious or unisexual, usually white. Calyx mostly four
to six-partite. Petals, in Z/ex Aguzfolium four (occasionally, in
other species, five), hypogynous, imbricate. Stamens usually
the same in number as the petals. Filaments subulate. The
xii PROCEEDINGS. [ January 24th, 1599.
ovary is globose, free, mostly four to five-locular. The fruit is
carnose, with as many stones as cells in the ovary.
Three genera are admitted by Bentham and Hooker in
the “Genera Plantarum,”* and these are maintained by Durand,t
with the addition of Spenostemon Baill. (1875) from New Cale-
donia.
The three original genera are as follow:
1. Llex L. (Prinos L.) sp. 175. Orbis totus.
2. Lyronia Endl. sp. 3. Australia tropica; Ins. Sand-
vichenses ; Tahiti.
3. Lemopanthes Rafin. sp. 1. America borealis.
It will thus be seen that of the 180 species included in the Order,
no less than 3#ths belong to the widely-distributed //ex, of which
only one species, our common Holly, occurs in Europe, or
indeed in the region traversed by the “Flora Orientalis” of
Boissier.
The geographical distribution of the Z/ex Aguifolium L. is as
follows :
Europa omnis, preeter Scandinavyiam (tantum in Dania et
Norvegia meridionalif) Fenniam, Rossiam, Transylvaniam, et
Greeciam (solum in monte Delphi).
In Macedonia, Thracia, Euboea, Byzantio, Bithynia, Ponto,
Mingrelia, Iberia Caucasica, Persia boreali. (Boissier.)
In Africa boreali.
It does not, therefore, extend to India, nor is it found in
North America, where its place is taken by the superficially
similar Z/ex opaca Ait. (quercifolia Meerb.), with leaves of much
softer and less glossy substance.
The Holly varies in width and breadth of leaf, in quality and
quantity of spines and in coloration, the variegated forms being
extensively cultivated. Of these the state aptly named “‘fevox”
is one of the most singular.
The var. dalearica Desf. is a broad-leaved, almost espinose
variety, and it may be that the /. canartensis Poir., with giant
* Vol. I., p. 356. + Index Generum Phanerogamorum, p. 65.
t Nyman, Conspectus Hl. Eur., p. 144.
January 24th, 1899.| PROCEEDINGS. Xili
foliage, may only be another, subtropical form of this protean
species.
Amongst the many exotic forms the Z. vomitoria Soland.
(Cassine L.), which I have gathered commonly on. the sea-coast
of S. Carolina, a remarkably neat, dwarf shrub with shining
small crenate leaves, and crowded red berries, is mentioned by
Porcher * to be used in place of opium by the Indians, who
make a cold infusion of the leaves which is called the ‘“‘black
drink.” It was also used by the Creek Indians as a powerful
diuretic. It is used as an emetic in the same way as the
L. paraguensis A. St. Hil., the Maté, or Paraguay Tea. It is
locally called “‘Yaupon.” ‘The Inkberry (Z. gabra Gray = Prinos
glaber \..), another common species in the Southern States, is
also occasionally employed as a febrifuge and for making
decoctions of opiate tea.
I. (Prinos) verticillata Gray is a serrate-leaved form, growing
in swamps with the last-named, than which it seems an almost
more valuable plant, the bark and berries both being used, by
the Indians especially, for gastric diseases and as a corroborant
in dropsy.
Indeed, it is probable that almost all the species of the true
Hollies have similar qualities; the bitter principle is termed
“‘ilicin,’ and is considered by some to be almost as efficacious
as quinine (Cinchona). Lastly, birdlime can be procured from
the inner bark of the Holly, as well as from the berries of the
Mistletoe.
Of the two other genera consigned to this Order, Byronza
Endl. is much like //ex, and, indeed, Sir J. D. Hooker (77. Brit.
Ind., Vol. I. p. 598) states that the genus must be now suppressed,
as various important modifications of the ordinal character have
been made.
WNemopanthes Rafin. includes a North American species,
with deciduous, smooth, mostly entire leaves, flowers on long
axillary peduncles, nearly or quite solitary. This I have
gathered near Trenton Falls, N.Y.
* Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, by ¥. Peyre Porcher,
M.D., Charleston, 1871, p. 431.
XiV PROCEEDINGS. [ February 7th, 1599.
Specimens of about sixty varieties of £. Aguifolium L. and
many other subtemperate and tropical species of the genus, were
also exhibited, as well as specimens of the two other genera,
Byronia and Nemopanthes. :
General Meeting, February 7th, 1899.
James Cosmo Metvitt, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair
Mr. D. L. Chapman, B.A., Demonstrator in Chemistry,
Owens College; Mr. W. T. Lawrence, B.A., Ph.D., Demonstrator
in Chemistry, Owens College; and Professor A. S. Wilkins,
M.A., LL.D., Professor of Latin, Owens College, were elected
ordinary members of the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, February 7th, 1890.
James Cosmo MELvILL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
The PRESIDENT appointed Mr. Thomas Thorp and Mr. H. W.
Freston to be auditors of the Society’s accounts for the session
1898-9.
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, F.R.S., read a paper, entitled
““ Notes on the Slipperiness of Ice.”
This paper will be printed in full in the Wemozrs.
Mr. C. L. Barnes read a paper, entitled ‘‘ Science in the
Historical English Dictionary.”
The first subject to engage our attention is Astrology,
about which it is curious to notice that this word and
‘Astronomy’ have exchanged meanings since they were first
February 7th, 1599.| PROCEEDINGS. XV
introduced. Two quotations, dated respectively 1581 and 1625,
are given in proof of this statement, but the one most suitable
for mention here is from Evelyn’s ‘ Memoirs,’ 1676, “ Dined with
me Mr. Flamsteed, the learned astrologer and mathematician,
whom his Majesty had established in the new observatory in
Greenwich Park.” Now, Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal,
was anything but an astrologer in our sense of the term.
*‘ Astronomy ’ appears to have been the earlier word of the two
in O.F. and M.F., however, with the meaning we now attach to
astrology, but by the end of the 17th century the differentiation,
as now understood, had become confirmed.
The first recorded introduction of the word ‘Chemistrie’
into literature is found in 1605. Within half a century it appears
to have been held in very bad repute, for Gaule (1652) speaks of
it as “a kind of praestigious cheating covetous magick,” but
this is mild compared with what was to follow in still more
recent times. Praestigious, it may be remarked, means ‘ juggling’
or ‘cheating.’ Thus Bentham, in his ‘ Chrestomathia’ (1816)
describes it in this fearful language: “ Idioscopic or crypto-
dynamic Anthropurgics has for its single-worded synonym the
unexpressive appellation ‘Chemistry.’”
Of a number of words which are more or less intimately
connected with this great science, the word ‘ Alcohol’ has perhaps
the most curious history. The black native sulphide of antimony,
termed by the Arabians ‘kohl,’ was, as is well known, in early
use among Eastern ladies for purposes of adornment. Thus, in
2 Kings ix. 30, we read that Jezebel “ put her eyes in paint,” that
is to say, in kohl, and there is a similar allusion in Ezekiel xxiii.
40. The custom has been remarked by travellers from the most
remote times. Sandys (1615) says: “They put between the
eyelids and the eye a certaine blacke powder made from a
minerall brought from the kingdom of Fez, and called ‘ Alcohole.’”
Bacon, in 1626, has a similar passage. But even as early as
1543 the word had begun to mean any fine impalpable powder,
produced by trituration, or especially by sublimation, as alcohol
martis for iron reduced from the oxide, alcohol of sulphur for
XVi PROCEEDINGS. [February 7th, 1899.
flowers of sulphur, and so on. So late as 1812, Davy, in his
“Chemical Philosophy,” says: ‘‘I have already referred to the
alcohol of sulphur.” But as this reference to the finely powdered
state began to die out, so did the idea of sublimation, and, by an
easy transference, that of distillation gradually usurped its place.
For example, Libarius, in 1594, had already used the expression
‘alcohol vini’ for spirits of wine, and in the Phzlosophical Trans-
actions for 1672 we find it in English as ‘alcohol of wine.’ In
modern Spanish some of the older meanings are still in vogue;
thus, ‘ Alcohol’ in that language means either antimony or recti-
fied spirits of wine ; ‘alcoholado,’ spoken of cattle, means darker
round the eyes than over the rest of the body, as though by the
application of kohl; ‘Alcoholador’ means one employed in
rectifying spirits, or who paints or dyes with antimony;
‘ Alcoholar,’ most instructive of all, combines the three meanings,
viz., to paint or dye with antimony, to rectify spirits, or to reduce
to an impalpable powder. Once having touched upon antimony,
we come upon another philological discussion in connection with
that word itself. The remarks in the Dictionary are as follows :
“Probably, like other terms of Alchemy, a corruption of some
Arabic word re-fashioned so as to wear a Greek or Latin aspect ;
perhaps of the Arabic name uthmud, othmod, latinized as athi-
modium, atimodium,atimonium,antimonium. The earlier form of
the Arabic is isthmid, in which Littré suggests an adaptation
(quasi isthimmid) of the Greek orippud-a, a variant of orippu,
whencealso the Latin stibium. If this conjecture be substantiated,
antimonium and stibium will be transformations of the same
word.” ‘The word stibium, it may be remarked, comes directly
from the Greek oriupe, which means the same thing.
‘Ammonia’ has not been traced back previous to Bergman
(1782), but ammoniac, armoniack, and several other variants are
found centuries earlier. ‘Thus Chaucer in the Cazon’s Yeoman’s
Tale, written about 1386, which, by the way, contains a large
number of chemical terms, speaks of “ Arsenick, sal-ammoniac,
and brimstone.”
Some very interesting references are found under the heading
February 7th, 1899.| PROCEEDINGS. xvii
‘Atom.’ This word has a quotation dated 1477, but up to the
sixteenth century it was chiefly used in the Latin and Greek
forms, atomus or atomos. ‘These gradually gave way to the
French form atome, and finally the terminal e was elided
according to the ordinary English usage. Dalton’s work in con-
nection with this idea was, of course, in no sense etymological,
hence one is not surprised to find that his name is only intro-
duced incidentally under the heading ‘Atomic.’ The most
curious meaning of the word ‘atom’ is undoubtedly that of a
small interval of time, which appears to have been current in the
dark ages.
From Van Helmont one very important item is gleaned, viz.
that the word ‘gas’ is derived, not from the Dutch ‘ geest’ as
was previously thought, but from the Greek ‘Xaoc.’ His own
words areas follows: “ Halitum illum ‘gas’ vocavi, non longe a
Chao veterum secretum.” The Dutch pronunciation of ‘g’ asa
spirant accounts for its replacing the Greek yx. The principle
meanings of chaos are void or empty space, and confusion, but
Van Helmont does not enlighten us as to whether he saw in
spirit the particles of a gas jostling one another and hurrying to
and fro in hopeless disorder, or whether the apparent emptiness
of the space occupied by gas led him to invent the word. This
derivation appears to be a discovery of recent date, for even
the Century Dictionary is not correct upon the point, although it
quotes from the same source, “‘Ortus Medicinae,” “‘ Hunc spiritum,
incognitum nactenus, novo nomine ‘gas’ voco.” It therefore
deserves to be more widely known, and this mention before our
Society should assist in no small degree towards that end.
XViii PROCEEDINGS. [February 21st, 1899.
Ordinary Meeting, February 21st, 1899.
James Cosmo MELvVILL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
Dr. C. H. Lrzs read a paper, entitled “‘ Some preliminary
Experiments on the Effect of Pressure on the
Thermal Conductivity of Rocks.”
This paper will be printed in full in the Wemoirs.
A paper by the Right Reverend Bishop Hanton, of Uganda,
entitled “The Plague in Uganda,” was read by Dr.
Alfred Brown.
This paper will be printed in full in the AZemozrs.
Special Meeting, February 28th, 1899.
James Cosmo MEtvitt, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The PRESIDENT said the meeting was held to present the
Wilde Medal and the Wilde Premium awarded during this
session.
The Council of the Society, by an unanimous vote, had
awarded the Wilde medal this year to Sir Edward Frankland,
K.C.B., F.R.S., for his chemical researches. Unfortunately, in
consequence of the recent sudden death of Lady Frankland, Sir
Edward was unable to carry out his intention to be present and
receive the medal in person. From 1851 to 1856 he was Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the then recently established Owens College.
He afterwards accepted the professorship of chemistry at St. Bar-
tholomew’s Hospital, and subsequently held a similar post at the
Normal School of Science, South Kensington. Science owed
much to him for his researches in pure and applied chemistry,
and of these the President gave a brief outline. He asked the
February 28th, 1899.| PROCEEDINGS. . Six
Secretary to forward the medal to Sir Edward Frankland, with
an expression of the Society’s sympathy with him in his loss.
The Wilde Premium for 1899, the President proceeded to
say, had been awarded to Dr. Charles H. Lees, inrecognition of
his successful researches in physics, more especially with regard
to the thermal conductivities both of solids and liquids. They
had watched with great interest his distinguished career at Owens
College, which had culminated in 1895 in receiving the degree
of Doctor of Science. ‘They congratulated him on these dis-
tinctions, and wished him all success in the future.
Dr. Lers said he felt sure that in making the award to him
the Council must have looked with a very lenient eye on any
contributions he had made to the A/emozrs ; and he regarded it
rather as an encouragement to future work than as a reward for
anything he had done in the past. He proposed to use the
premium as a fund on which he could draw for the purchase of
apparatus which he might require in his future work.
Professor WILLIAM Ramsay, F.R.S., then delivered the
_Wilde Lecture, entitled: ‘‘On the newly-discovered Ele-
ments of the Air, and their Relation to the Kinetic
Theory of Gases.”
The Lecture will be printed in full in the emozrs.
SOS PROCEEDINGS. [JMWarch 7th, 1899.
General Meeting, March 7th, 1899.
James Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
Mr. Charles Henry Crombie, B.A., Science Master, Hulme
Grammar School; and Mr. Edgar Morris, B.A., 69, Shrewsbury
Street, Old Trafford, were elected ordinary members of the
Society.
Ordinary Meeting, March 7th, 1899.
James Cosmo MEtvit1, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
Professor Horace Lams, F.R.S., read a paper, entitled
“A new version of Argand’s Proof that every Algebraic
Equation has a Root.”
This paper will be printed in full in the AZemorrs.
Professor SCHUSTER exhibited some lantern slides, illustrating
some researches made by himself and Mr. G. Hemsalech on the
velocity of metallic molecules in the electric spark.
The results of these researches have been published in the
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
When the spectrum of a spark between metallic poles is
photographed ona film attached to a rapidly revolving wheel,
the air-lines remain straight, though slightly broadened, while
the metallic lines are seen to be inclined and curved. The
velocity of the metallic molecules may be calculated from the
measurement of the inclinations of the lines. In the case of zine
molecules the velocity was found to be about 500 m. per second.
The metals of low atomic weight, e.g., aluminium and magnesium,
give higher velocities, while in the case of bismuth the different
lines have different inclinations.
October 17th, 1898.| | PROCEEDINGS. xxi
[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Ordinary Meeting, October 17th, 1898.
Mark StirRvP, F.G.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.
Mr. Stirrup exhibited and described a large series of fossil
corals from the Devonian and Carboniferous formations in the
districts round Torquay.
Mr. BRroapDBeEnNT exhibited limestone corals from the Ingleton
district.
Mr. W. STANLEY exhibited and described a new form of
microtome perfected by Mr. Aylward, with a fine adjustment
capable of cutting sections 5% th of an inch in thickness.
[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Ordinary Meeting, November 7th, 1898.
Joun Boyp, Vice-President of the Section, in the Chair.
Mr. Hype drew attention to the number of sparrows at
Brooklands with white feathers occurring in the wing and tail
and on the breast.
Mr. JoHN BUTTERWORTH described and exhibited under the
microscopes a fungus attached to a fossil fern of the coal-measures,
found by him in the Oldham district. It occurred in a fork of
the fern and was recognised as being a fungus by the late Mr.
Brittain ; he drew attention to its similarity to the fungus known
to attack the potato.
Mr. MULLEN presented the Section with 18 rock-sections
for its cabinet of slides.
Mr. Boyp made a short communication on “ Springtails.”
These little insects belong to the Zhysanura. ‘The Thysanura
are divided into three families, 1. Campodide. 2. Poduride.
3. Lepismide. The “Springtails” are all included in the
Poduride. This family again is divided into three tribes,
1. Smynthuride. 2. Poduride. 3. Lipuride. After describing
Xxii PROCEEDINGS. [Vovember 7th, 1598.
the: chief charactistics of these three tribes, specimens of Swzyn-
thurus, Lepidocyrtus, Macrotoma, Degeeria and Isotoma were
shown in illustration.
Special attention was called to the peculiar forked springer
growing out of the antepenultimate joint of the abdomen, varying
very much in size in the various species shown; to the ventral
organ of attachment, which also sometimes acts as a retaining
holder for the springer ; and to the scales found on some species,
but absent in others. The use of these scales as test objects for
microscopical object glasses, and the vexed question of the true
interpretation of what was seen, was alluded to.
Mr. Boyd expressed the opinion that the real character of
the markings could only be ascertained by comparison of the
markings on the scales of a series of different species.
Commencing with the Zefzsma scale, he showed the longitu-
dinal ribs to be on the upper surface of the scale, whilst on the
lower surface there are cross ribs, and besides these there is a
series of ribs running parallel to the rounded edge of the scale.
In Macrotoma the longitudinal folds or ribs are uniform
and extend, at the lower edge, beyond the edge of the scale.
The cross ribs at right angles show as dots, whilst the third set
of ribs, very coarse, curved, and few in number, could only be
seen in scales the surface of which had been obliterated by
moisture.
In Degeeria the longitudinal ribs are very coarse, and are
not continuous in height or thickness, and so give the appear-
ance of marks of exclamation. The cross ribs are very faint,
being only indicated by dots, and the third series of ribs is only
seen near the margin of the scale.
In Zempletonia the exclamation marks are very coarse.
In Lepidocyrtus, the so called Podura test scale, the markings
are very much finer.
From this set of comparisons one can see that the ex-
clamation marks, so difficult to show clearly under the micro-
scope, are merely the longitudinal ribs or foldings of the upper
urface of the scale. The cross ribs here again are indicated
by small intermediate dots.
December 5th, 1898.| PROCEEDINGS. XXili
[Microscopical and Natural History Section.|
Ordinary Meeting, December 5th, 1898.
Mark STIRRUP, F.G.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.
Mr. C. H. Scurit exhibited collections of Australian
Cosside and Hepiatide.
Mr. J. Cosmo Metvitt exhibited a very unusual variety of
Vanessa urtice Linn., in the fore-wings of which the whole of the
six black spots and blotches, viz., the three bordering on the
front costal margin and the three central blotches, are all suffused
together by a semi-circular black-brown band, the innermost
of the three costal blotches just mentioned above being still
perceptible, while the red-brown system is restricted to a small
central area extending through a narrow passage (the two parts
of the semi-circular blotch) to the anal margin. The neuration
passing through this red-brown area is also markedly black.
The hinder marginal blue spots are likewise absent, there
being instead a cinereous black semi-transparency and suffusion.
Hind-wings quite normal in every way.
The specimen was captured by the Rev. A. H. Melvill, M.A.,
at Freshwater, Isle of Wight, in 1889, and may be considered
one of the most striking colour-aberrations of the small
tortoiseshell butterfly yet discovered.
Mr. H. W, FResvron exhibited a fine pair of Dystens crocola,
found near Bristol; a pair of Z7ochosa cinerea, captured in
Montgomery last August, and a pair of Zegenaria atrica from
Gloucestershire. ‘These large spiders are rarely seen, owing to
their remaining concealed during the day under stones along
river banks ; the last recorded specimens were found in 1836, in
Yorkshire.
Mr. Mark Syxzs exhibited and described specimens of the
genus Phrynus, intermediate between scorpions and spiders.
Mr. J. R. Harpy exhibited specimens of Phryganita maclach-
lania, caddisflies from Japan.
X xiv PROCEEDINGS. [ January 16th, 1899.
[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Ordinary Meeting, January 16th, 1899.
Mark STIRRUP, F.G.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.
Mr. J. CosMo MELVILL exhibited and described the series of
the order //cinee in his herbarium.
Mr. Henry Hybe exhibited a collection of ferns from
New Zealand and Australia.
Mr. THomas RoGers exhibited specimens of (Helichrysum
paronychioides, one of the Composite, from the Orange Free State,
and also cudweeds and grasses from Natal and Cape Colony.
| Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Ordinary Meeting, February 13th, 1899.
THomas ROGERS in the Chair.
Mr. JoHN Watson exhibited under the microscopes living
embryos of the Mexican Axolotl, AZenobranchus pisciformis Harlan,
showing circulation in the gills.
Mr. THomas RoceErs exhibited a collection of plants recently
made in Ireland, including Stsyrinchium angustifolium and S.
californicum, the latter being a species new to the British Flora.
[Microscopical and Natural History Section, |
Ordinary Meeting, March 13th, 1899.
Mark Stirrup, F.G.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.
Mr. M. SvKeEs and Mr. J. F. ALLEN were appointed Auditors.
Mr. RoceErs exhibited leaves of a North American plant,
Gelax, also a stem of an Aloe with a large circular black fungus.
Mr. Stirrup exhibited and described a large collection of
silurian, devonian, and carboniferous corals.
April roth, 1899.| | PROCEEDINGS. ROSY)
[Microscopical and Natural History Section. |
Annual Meeting, April roth, 1899.
Mark STIRRUP, F.G.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.
The Annual Report of the Council was read and adopted.
The following Officers and Council were elected for the
session 1899-1900: President, CHARLES BatLey, F.L.S.; Vice-
Presidents, Mark Stirrup, F.G.S., J. Cosmo MELVILL, M.A.,
F.LS., Joun Boyvp; Treasurer, G. H. Broappent, M.R.C.S. ;
Secretary, THEODORE Sincron; Council, J. F. ALLEN, R. E.
CuNLIFFE, W. E. Hoyts, M.A., M.Sc., HENry Hypr, THomas
’ Rocers, Mark Sykes, F.R.M.S., C. H. ScHILL, JoHN WATSON.
Mr. BuTTreRwortH described and exhibited dendritic
markings formed on paper labels about thirty years old, and
presented a specimen for the cabinet of the Section.
Mr. JoHN Watson read a paper on Calinaga.
XXVI PROCEEDINGS. [March 21st, 1899.
Ordinary Meeting, March 21st, 1899.
J. Cosmo MEtvit1, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
Dr. C. H. Lees described the Wehnelt current-interrupter,
and gave an account of some experiments he had made. The
effect of substituting it for the mechanical make and break of
an induction coil used for producing Rontgen rays is that the
action of the Rontgen ray tube is intensified, but the anti-
cathode is rapidly heated, and seemed in its hot state to be
much less effective in producing the rays.
Mr. GeEorGE Witson, M.Sc., read a paper entitled
““Experiments on the Relation between Uniform Stress
and Permanent Strain in Annealed Copper Bars and
Wires.”
Messrs. F. H. Bowman, Stanton and Thorp took part in the
discussion which followed.
This paper is printed in full in the Aemozrs.
April 11th, 1599.| PROCEEDINGS. XXVii
General Meeting, April 11th, 1899.
J. Cosmo MEtviut, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
Mr. Hardman A. Earle, Salford Iron Works, and Mr. O. V.
Darbishire, B.A., Ph.D., Owens College, were elected ordinary
members of the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, April 11th, 1899.
J. Cosmo MeEtvitt, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
Mr. JoHN WaTSON read a paper entitled: “On Calinaga,
the Single Genus of an aberrant Sub-Family of
Butterflies.”
This paper is printed in full in the AZemoirs.
Mr. F. J. Farapay, F.L.S., read a paper entitled: “On a
Biological aspect of Cancer.”
This paper is printed in full in the AZemozrs.
Annual General Meeting, April 25th, 189g.
James Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
On the recommendation of the Council, the following
gentlemen were elected honorary members of the Society :—Mr.
R. H. INGiis PatGRaveE, F.R.S., F.S.S., and Professor WILLIAM
Ramsay, Ph.D., F.R.S.
The Annual Report (as amended) and the statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was moved by Dr. F. H.
XXVill PROCEEDINGS. [April 25th, 1599.
Bowman, seconded by Mr. G. H. BROADBENT, and resolved :—
“That the Annual Report, together with the statement of
accounts, be adopted, and be printed in the Society’s Proceedings.”
It was moved by Mr. Joun Boyp, seconded by Mr. C. L.
Barnes, and resolved :—“ That the system of electing Associates
of the Sections be continued during the ensuing session.”
The following members were elected officers of the Society
and members of the Council for the ensuing year :—
President: Foorace Lamps, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice- Presidents : OSBORNE Reyno.ps, M.A., LL D., F.R.S.;
CHarRLes BaILey, F.L.S.; J. Cosmo MeLviLt, M.A., F.L:S.;
W. Bovp Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries: R. F. GwytTHer, M.A.; Francis JONEs,
IRIS ldey 1P(CaSh
Treasurer: J. J. ASHWORTH.
Librarian: W. E. Hoye, M.A., M.Sc.
Other Members of the Council: Haro.p B. Dixon, M.A.,
F.R.S.; Francis NicHoLson, F.Z.S.; J. E. Kinc, M.A.; R. L.
TAyior, F.C:S.; F. J. FARADAY, F.L.S.; W: Hi. JOHNSONesSe
Ordinary Meeting, April 25th, 1899.
James Cosmo MEeEtvitt, M.A., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.
Professor Dixon described an apparatus for bringing
together nitrogen peroxide and nitric oxide in order to determine
whether any combination occurs between the gases.
Annual Report of the Council. XXiX
Annual Report of the Council, April, 1899.
The Society began the session with an ordinary membership
of 152. During the present session 10 new members have joined
the Society ; 7 resignations have been received, and the deaths
aves beens viz Viren @harles) Lowe, JH:C:S. > Mir. EME
Ormerod, F.G.S.; Mr. R. M. Pankhurst, LL.D.; Mr. James
Rhodes, F.R.C.S. ; and Mr. John Wright. This leaves on the
roll 150 ordinary members. The Society has also lost 5
honorary members by death, viz.: Professor Ferdinand Cohn,
For. Mem. R.S.; Professor Sophus Lie, For. Mem. R.S.; Lord
Playfair, G.C.B., F.R.S.; Mr. Osbert Salvin, M.A., F.R.S. ; and
Professor Gustav Wiedemann, For. Mem. R.S. Memorial notices
of these gentlemen appear at the end of this report.
The Treasurer commenced the year with a balance in
favour of the Society of £236. 1os. 7d. (including £44. 19s. od.,
balance of the Wilde Endowment Fund), and reports that the
total balance, exclusive of the amount still owing by the
Natural History Fund, but including the Wilde and Joule
Funds, at the bankers and in hand, at the close of the year, of
Al4o. os. 74d.
The Treasurer reports that the session closing March 31st,
1899, has been an exceptionally expensive one to the Society.
‘The necessary repairs to the Society's house and the new
Bookcases required amounting to £65, with the large amount
spent on bookbinding, will leave the balance at the Society’s
Bankers comparatively small, but as this expenditure will not be
required again for many years, the Treasurer feels that the Society
is in a favourable position financially.
The large amount spent on new Bookcases arose through
an exceptional opportunity occurring from the sale by Owens
BOOK Annnal Report of the Council.
College of surplus shelving, which was acquired by the Society on
very favourable terms.
During the year the Wilde Fund, consisting of £3,000
Consolidated 10% Ordinary A Stock of the Gas Light and Coke
Company, was exchanged for £7,500 4% Ordinary Stock, in
conformity with the Company’s Act of Parliament.
The Council has printed in the JZemozrs an abstract of the
paper ‘‘On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat,” by Professor
Osborne Reynolds and Mr. Moorby, published in the Phzlosoph-
zcal Transactions of the Royal Society, and has charged the
expense to the Joule Fund.
The re-cataloguing of the library has been continued during
the session and substantial progress made, 11,275 volumes
having been catalogued, stamped and pressmarked, 11,181 of
these being serials, and 94 separate works. There have been
written 2,193 catalogue cards; 2,040 for serials, and 153 for
separate works. The total number of volumes catalogued to
date is 20,019, for which 5,483 cards have been written. The
books catalogued up to the present include the serial publications
issued in Great Britain and Ireland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden,
Holland, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Switzerland, Germany,
Austria-Hungary, Russia, Greece, and India; also the separate
works relating to Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry,
Botany, Zoology, and Medicine.
During the session, 122 volumes have been borrowed from
the library, as compared with 234 volumes in the previous
session ; it is hoped that, as the cataloguing progresses and
affords increased facilities for quickly finding any work required,
members will make further use of the valuable collection of
books possessed by the Society.
Attention has again been paid to the completion of sets,
with the result that 108 volumes or parts have been obtained
which render 16 sets complete, whilst 57 volumes have been
acquired which partly complete 12 sets. These 165 volumes,
Annual Report of the Council. See
with the exception of one purchased, were presented by the
respective societies publishng them.
A considerable amount of binding has been done, 633
volumes having been bound in 549, and 125 volumes have
undergone repair.
A record of the accessions to the library shows that, from
April, 1898 to March, 1899, 665 serials and 54 separate works
were received, a total of 719 volumes. By allowing for the 165
volumes obtained to complete sets, it will be seen that the normal
increase to the library has been 554 volumes. The donations
during the session (exclusive of the usual exchanges) amount to
50 volumes and 126 dissertations ; 4 books have been pur-
chased (in addition to the periodicals on the regular subscription
list).
During the past session the Society has arranged to exchange
publications with the following: American Mathematical
Society, New York ; Astrophysical Journal, Chicago ; Augustana
College, Rock Island; Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences ;
Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde, Berlin; Illinois
State Laboratory of Natural History, Urbana; Instituto
Geoldgico de México; K. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum,
Vienna ; Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sydney ; Museo
Nacional de Montevideo ; Philadelphia Commercial Museum ;
Science Abstracts, London ; South African Museum, Cape Town ;
University of Toronto; Wisconsin Geological and Natural
History Survey, Madison.
Through the co-operation of the Free Reference Library,
the Owens College, the Manchester Museum, and the Concho-
logical, Geographical, Geological, Medical, and Microscopical
Societies, the Council was enabled to publish, in December last,
a “List of the Current Scientific Serial Publications received by
the Principal Libraries of Manchester,” which includes the serials
received by the above-mentioned institutions as well as those
taken by this Society.
XX xXil Annual Report of the Council.
At the request of the Council, the President accepted the
position of delegate to the Fourth International Congress of
Zoology, held at Cambridge, August 23-27, 1898.
The University of Cambridge having requested the Society
to take part in the proceedings on June 1 and 2, 1899, to
celebrate the Jubilee of Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart., as
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, the Council has nominated
Mr. R. F. Gwyther, one of the Secretaries, as delegate to
represent the Society on the occasion.
The Council has awarded :—
The Wilde Medal for 1899 to Sir Edward Frankland, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., for the great services he has rendered to science by his
researches in pure and applied chemistry ;
The Wilde Premium for 1899 to Mr. Charles H. Lees,
D.Sc., for a series of papers on the subject of thermal con-
ductivity, communicated to the Society.
Professor William Ramsay, F.R.S., was appointed to deliver
the Wilde Lecture.
The Medal and Premium were presented and the Wilde
Lecture was delivered on Tuesday, February 28th, 1899.
By the death of FERDINAND JULIUS COHN on the 25th of June,
1899, the Society lost a most distinguished honorary member.
Born in Breslau in 1828 Cohn, after studying both in his native
town and at the University of Berlin, became Privatdocent in
Breslau in 1856, Extraordinarius in 1859 and ordinary Pro-
fessor in 1872. But though his life was thus confined to the
Silesian capital, his name and his work were familiar to all
botanists. His tastes inclined him particularly to the study of
minute organisms, chiefly algze and fungi, and his investigations
on these twe groups of plants led to the publication of his very
important “‘ Beitraege zur Biologie der Pflanzen” commenced in
1870 and brought to a conclusion in 1896. Besides numerous
separate memoirs on various cryptogamic plants he was also
responsible for the ‘‘Kryptogamen Flora von Schlesien ”
Annual Report of the Councel. XXXiil
published (1876-94) by the Schlesische Gesellschaft fur vater-
landische Kultur. His singular ability as a popular lecturer
is evident from a perusal of his collected lectures in ‘ Die
Pflanze.” In these he has related in fascinating way and in
simple language the results of many botanical investigations,
including many of his own observations, and has described some
of the problems still awaiting solution. Cohn was elected
Foreign Member of the Linnean Society of London in 1876 and
awarded the Linnean Medal in 1895.
He was elected Honorary Member of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society on April 30, 1889.
A year before his death, on the occasion of the jubilee of
his doctorate, he had conferred upon him the freedom of the
city of Breslau, his native town.
A fuller account of his life and work will be found in the
Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London (Oct. 1899).
Ite dehy WV
‘The distinguished Norwegian mathematician, SapHus Liz,
died at Christiania on the 18th of February, 1899.
Professor Lie was born at Nordfjordeid at the end of 1842.
After graduating at Christiania, he held’ an appointment as
extraordinary professor there, till he was called, in 1886, as
ordinary professor to Leipsic. Just before his death he returned
to Christiania to fill a specially created chair.
The number of mathematical papers by Lie is very large,
and shew great originality and masterly skill. The subject which
he developed and with which the greater part of his work is
concerned is the theory of continuous Transformation-groups
and in particular that of tangential transformations. The
purposes to which Lie applied this theory are very varied.
Although in the first place a geometrical theory, perhaps the
most successful application was to the theory of Differential
Equations.
The originality and wide extent of his labours have provided
a field for the many workers whom his genius has inspired, and
XXXIV Annual Report of the Counctt.
the fundamental character of his investigations and methods
make his fame secure.
Fuller details of his work can be found in the Comptes
Rendus, February 27, 1899.
Lyon PLaAyratr, son of Dr. George Playfair, Chief Inspector-
General of Hospitals for the Presidency of Bombay, was born in
Meerut on 21st May, 1819. His early education was obtained
at St. Andrews, where his grandfather had been Principal of the
United College. When fifteen Lyon Playfair went to Glasgow
to study medicine, but was attracted to chemistry by the
teaching of Thomas Graham. After a short visit to India he
returned to England, and studied chemistry under Graham,
who had meantime been appointed Professer at University
College, London.
At the age of nineteen Playfair began work under Liebig,
at Giessen, and after two years published his first paper. When
Liebig came to England on the invitation of the Prince Consort
to lecture on “ Agricultural Chemistry,” Playfair accompanied
him as assistant and interpreter, and thus obtained an intro-
duction to the Prince.
For some two years Playfair managed the chemical depart-
ment of Messrs. Thomson’s print works, at Clitheroe. In 1843
he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institu-
tion, Manchester. The writer has heard Playfair describe the
emotion he felt when the venerable Dr. Dalton came to hear
him lecture. At Manchester, Playfair joined hands with Joule
in a series of researches on “‘ Atomic Volume and Specific
Gravity,” printed in the early memoirs of the Chemical Society,
of which Playfair was an original member.
In 1846 Playfair was appointed Professor of Chemistry in
the School of Mines; in 1858 he was appointed Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, where he not only
greatly improved the laboratory and practical teaching, but was
largely instrumental in securing the introduction of degrees in
Annual Report of the Council. — XXXV
science. In 1868 Playfair first entered Parliament and sat in
the Commons till he was raised to the Peerage in 1892.
In 1844 Playfair began his official work for the Government
by serving on the Royal Commission on the sanitary condition
of large towns. He was special commissioner for the 1851
Exhibition ; then one of the joint secretaries of the Science and
Art Department which grew out of the Exhibition, and Inspector-
General of Government Museums and Schools of Science.
The most important scientific work published by Playfair was
that done in collaboration with Joule on “ Atomic Volumes,”
and his papers on “Catalytic Action” and ‘‘The Nitro-prussides.”
He himself used to declare that the greatest discovery in pure
science that he had made was the discovery of Frankland and
Dewar. But Playfair brought science to bear on many important
practical problems, and the position taken to-day by science and
scientific men in England is largely due to Playfair’s activity and
influence.
He was elected an Honorary Member of this Society on
April 29, 1851, and his death occurred in London, on May 209,
1898. Jat; 18), 1D).
OSBERT SALVIN, F.R.S., who died on the ist of June,
1898, at his home, Hawksfold, near Haslemere, in Sussex,
was born at Finchley in 1835, and was the second and only
surviving son of the late Mr. Anthony Salvin, the well-known
architect. Shortly after graduating at Cambridge as Senior
Optime in the Mathematical Tripos of 1857, he made a Natural
History Expedition to Tunis and Algeria, in the company of
Mr. W. H. Hudleston and Canon Tristram, both of whom
survive him. In the autumn of the same year he made the
first expedition to Guatemala, a country with which his life’s
work was to be largely associated, where he stayed chiefly in
company with the late Mr. G. U. Skinner, the well-known
collector of orchids, till the middle of 1858, revisiting the same
region in about a year, and for a third time in 1861, in company
with his friend and future coadjutor, Mr. F. D. Godman. After
XXXVI Annual Report of the Council.
his marriage, in 1865, he with his wife made a fourth journey
to Central America. Mr. Salvin was a lepidopterist of note as
well as an ornithologist, and these expeditions in ‘Tropical
America furnished him with material not only for the monu-
mental work, the Bzologia Centrali-Americana, but for the
remarkable and numerous series of papers published subsequently
on the ornithology of Central and South America in Ze Lis,
the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, and the
British Museum Catalogue of Birds. It is quite impossible in
this short notice to do justice to the work accomplished by
Mr. Salvin, but this may be truly said—that he was an almost
unrivalled “all round” ornithologist and his name will ever
remain amongst the most prominent of those who have made
this rich field the special subject of life-long research. He was
elected an Honorary Member of this Society cn April 26, 1892.
Fuller notices of his life are to be found in the Proceedings of the
Royal Society, vol. 64, pp xili-xvi.; the Awk, vol. 15, pp.
343-5, and the /é7s, 1898, pp. 626-7. Ee Ne
By the death, on the 23rd March, 1899, of GusTav
HEINRICH WIEDEMANN, Professor of Physics at the University
of Leipsic, the Society has lost one of the most distinguished
and widely known of its honorary members. He was born
at Berlin, on the znd October, 1826, and, after losing his
parents at an early age, was brought up by his grandparents. He
received his early education at the Kollnisches Real-gymnasium
at Berlin, and in 1844 entered as a student at the University,
determined, as he himself has stated, “to study thoroughly as
auxiliary subjects Mathematics and Chemistry, and then to
devote himself to Physics.” After studying under Mitscherlich,
Dirichlet, and Magnus, and after receiving his Docentship in
1851, he married Clara Mitscherlich, and in 1854 he was
appointed Professor of Physics at Basle. After nine years of
active scientific work he was removed to Brunswick, again in
1866 to the Hochschule at Carlsruhe, and finally in 1871 to the
University of Leipsic, where he remained till his death. His
Annual Report of the Council. XXXVII
health, which had shown signs of failing in 1895, began again to
trouble him in 1898, and he had made arrangements for retiring
when death overtook him.
His scientific work was carried out mainly in the field of
Magnetism and Electricity, in which he made the subject of the
the magnetisation of bodies his particular study. He made one
of the earliest determinations of the Ohm, made observations on
the electromagnetic solution of the plane of polarisation of light
just discovered by Faraday, and was the first to call attention to
the relation between the conductivities of the metals for heat
and for electricity. The great work of his scientific life was,
however, the publication in 1861 of his ‘* Lehre vom Galvanismus
und LElektromagnetismus,’ since called ‘“‘ Die Lehre von der
Elektricitat,” and the incorporation in its successive editions of
the results of further research, The fourth edition, which he
was able to complete before his death, will remain for years a
monument to his industry and critical powers.
Wiedemann was one of the oldest members of the Berlin
Physical Society, and was from 1877 to his death the editor of
the Annalen der Physik. He joined tc a rapid comprehension
of a subject the power of giving a clear exposition of it, was most
courteous in debate, and a good correspondent. He was
present at the British Association meeting in Manchester in
1887, taking a prominent part in the work of the Mathematical
and Physical Section.
Further particulars of his work can be found in the Verhand.
der Deutsch. Phys. Gesell., 30th June, 1899.
(Gosh Gy
Henry Mere OrmeEroD, who died on the 26th June, 1898,
in the 83rd year of his age, had been in continuous membership
with the Society for the long period of fifty-five years, the date
of his election being 30th April, 1844. He belonged to an old
north-country family which has produced a long line of scholars,
theologians, historians, and naturalists, who have left their mark
upon the literature of this and neighbouring counties. His
XXXVili Annual Report of the Council.
father, Dr. George Ormerod, was the learned author of ‘“‘The
History of Cheshire,” and Henry Mere Ormerod was the fourth,
and last survivor, of his seven sons.
He was born in London, on the toth of January, 1816.
He was a pupil of Dr. Arnold’s, at Rugby, where he met among
his schoolfellows many who became men of mark in after years.
Upon leaving school he embraced the profession of the law,
and through the circumstance of his being articled to a firm of
Manchester solicitors, he became a resident, and to the close of
his life he identified himself with the scientific, artistic, and
literary life of the district. For many years he acted as the
Society’s solicitor, and in that capacity was instrumental in
effecting its incorporation: some of the older members will
recall the precision, in every detail, with which its various stages
were carried through, Mr. Ormerod being almost pedantic in the
strict observance of all that was necessary legally, as well in the
council as in the general meetings of the members. '
Mr. Ormerod was at one time president of the Manchester
Geological Society, and, prior to his death, was the last surviving
founder of that society. He also gave considerable time to the
affairs of the Royal Institution, in Mosley Street ; he was its
honorary secretary for several years, and was its president at the
time when it passed into the hands of the corporation of the city.
He was a fine man physically, and he attended to his professional
duties until the close of his life. Hehada great fund of humour,
which, though subdued, was effective and good-natured ; his
stories of a bygone generation and of the men he had met
throughout his long life making him a most enjoyable companion.
Cc. 15.
RICHARD MarsDEN PANKHURST, who joined the Society
on February 23, 1892, was the only son of Mr. F. H. Pankhuist,
a well-known auctioneer in Manchester. He was educated at
the Manchester Grammar School, and at the Owens College,
whicn he entered in 1855, taking the courses of study arranged
for the University of London, and graduating B.A. in 1858, and
Annual Report of the Council. NOOK
LL.B., with honours, in the following year. In 1863 he was
made LL.D., and awarded the gold medal. After practising for
a short time as a solicitor, Dr. Pankhurst was called to the Bar
at Lincoln’s Inn in 1867, and subsequently practised on the
Northern Circuit and in the Palatine Chancery Court. As a
jurist Dr. Pankhurst took a high place, and had not politics
occupied his time to such a considerable extent, he would
undoubtedly have achieved the highest distinction in the theo-
retical branches of legal science. As it is, he had a large share
in the scheme for the reform of the Patent Laws in 1866, and
published various addresses and essays of importance on questions
of scientific jurisprudence and legal reform. Amongst these
may be named “ Local Courts and Tribunals,” “ International
Law,” “Arbitration,” and ‘‘Systematic Study of the law.”
Dr. Pankhurst began his professional career during one of the
transition periods of English law, when it is suddenly realised
that the historical methods and ideas so long in vogue have
ceased to be in agreement with the times. At such a time the
danger is that a policy of compromise between the new and old
will end in confusion and complications. Dr. Pankhurst, who
was ever among the extreme reformers, was sure to attract
attention at such a time, and by the boldness of his ideas, and
the clearness of his views, had a very great influence on current
thought. He was a prominent member of the now defunct
Social Science Association, and as a member of the Manchester
Chamber of Commerce paid great attention to questions of
Commercial Law. Dr. Pankhurst also took very keen interest
in the education movement, and was from 1863 to 1876 honorary
secretary of the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes.
He made three unsuccessful attempts to enter Parliament, as a
Liberal at Manchester in 1883, and at Rotherhithe in 1885,
while in 1895 he stood as a representative of the Independent
Labour Party at Gorton. In 1879 he married Miss Emmeline
Goulden, of Seedley. However great the public disfavour his
extreme views gained him, his brilliant ability as a speaker and
a thinker, and the charm and kindliness of his manners in private,
xl Annual Report of the Council.
never failed to secure for him the personal regard of those
who met him. Into all work with which he was concerned
Dr. Pankhurst threw an extraordinary amount of vigour, his
temperament being undoubtedly conducive to his untimely
decease. Dr. Pankhurst was an Associate and a Governor of
the Owens College. He died on July 5th, 1808.
We Behe
James Ruopes, F.R.C.S., who was born at Tintwistle in
1830, died at Glossop in his sixty-ninth year, on April 21, 1898.
Dr. Rhodes commenced his medical practice at Milltown, but
subsequently succeeded to the practice of his relative, Dr. Turton,
under whom he had originally served at Glossop. His private
practice was large, and extended widely through the High Peak,
and the duties of the appointment of Medical Officer were
discharged by him for many years. Dr. Rhodes was also one of
the earliest members of the Glossop Town Council. During a
very busy life he kept up a continual interest in both literary
and scientific subjects, and was the author of several papers and
articles marked by a clear philosophical spirit, and his annual
reports on sanitary and medical matters were highly esteemed,
and his attendance at the meeting of the Society was frequent.
Dr. Rhodes’ manner was markedly genial, kindly, and courteous,
and his loss is deplored by all who knew him. His wife died in
1882, and he leaves three sons and a daughter. He was elected
a member of this Society on April 3, 1883.
Mr. JoHN WRIGHT was connected with the Society for all
too brief a period, his election to membership dating from 20th
October, 1896. Though not himself an original investigator, he
was always alert to utilise the investigations of others by putting
their conclusions to practical tests. He belonged to a Derby-
shire family, but was born at Cheetham Hill, on the 18th
November, 1844, and was educated at the Cheetham Collegiate
School. In his early years he became connected with the
large manufacturing, home-trade, and shipping firm of
Annual Report of the Council. eee
Messrs. John Rylands & Sons, Ltd., ultimately becoming
one of its directors. He threw all his energies into bringing
the various departments which he _ superintended into
the highest state of efficiency, by adopting all the latest
improvements, and infusing much of his strong common sense
into those who carried out his instructions. Up to the period of
his death he was the chairman of the Dyers’ and Bleachers’
Association of the Manchester District. A good portion of his
limited leisure was spent as honorary secretary to the Penitentiary
in Embden Street, which for many years had the benefit of his
wide experience in the machinery used in the industrial work of
that institution, and in strengthening its finances. He interested
himself also in the work of the Hulme Dispensary, and in insti-
tuting the Manchester Lifeboat Saturday Fund. In private life
he was the soul of honour, most genial in his address, and a
thorough friend. His early and unexpected death took place in
his 54th year, on the 27th August, 1898.
(C, 1B.
xlit Treasurer's Accounts.
MANCHESTER LITERARY A
Dr. J. J. Ashworth, Treasurer, tn Account with
To Cash in hand, Aprilist, 1898
To Members’ Subscriptions :—
Half Subscriptions, 1898-99, 8 at 4£r. rs. od. 8 8 o
Subscriptions:— 1896-97, 1 at 42, 2s. od. 2 2) 10
o6 1897-98, 17 ,, 6 ae as a ae Be Fels SE4t. Xo)
99 1898-99, 112 ,, 59 Me ate Bio 56 25 4 ©
1899-1900, I ,, oA ae Fi 90 o6 a6 BD ©
To Wilde Endowment Fund :— —
Half Subscriptions, 1898-99, 8 at 41. 1s. od 5A Ja 60 a Be 8 8 o
Subscriptions, 1898-99, 2 ,, 42. 2s. od. oe es be we is “& A ©
Admission Fees 68 ee 60 Ss ee Pe ne ae wee By eB LD ©
To Donation :—
G. A. James Rothney, Esq.
To Contributions from Sections :—
Microscopical and Natural History Section, 1898-99. . a Be oe a 3 5 ©
Physical and Mathematical Section, 1898-99 .. oh A: ae oe bs 22 0
To Use of the Society's Rooms :—
Transfer from Wilde Endowment Fund, ogee 99
To Sale of Publications
To Dividends :—
Natural History Fund .. wes ae a0 a re fe ae co Siu 2
Joule Memorial Fund Be ses as oe ap Bo Sh ae os 7 9 10
To Income Tax Refunded :— ===
Natural History Fund ae ao a6 no 36 oc bo a0 wis 2 010
Joule Memorial Fund ie a ae ge ye 36 ne aA © 5 ©
fo Bank Interest
1899.—April 1. To Cash in Williams Deacon and Manchester & Salford Bank, andin hand .
To Balance from 1897-93
To Dividends on £3,000 Gas Light and Coke Company's s Ordinary A) Stock
To Remission of Income Tax, eee
To Bank Interest ;
NATURAL HISTORY
4s. d
To Dividends on 41,225 Great Western Raley, Companys s Stock A Pi ne 60 59 942
To Remission of Income Tax, 1898. ae ae Ln oe Bo 2 070
To Balance against this Fund, eal tst, 1899 30 oe ie re a ite a6 aie Ioo 13 II
#161 18 rr
JOULE MEMORIAI
Bs.
To Balance, April ist, 1898 ae Be ae a as e 30 15 Oo
To Dividends on £258 Loan to Manchester Corporation Me oe 66 06 Bs 0° 7 gto
To Remission of Income Tax, 1898.. eis 5 00 ate a on ne oe 20 Oo 3 ©
438 9 10
————
IILOSOPHiCAL SOCIETY:
a From rst April, 1898, to 31st March, 1899.
Treasurer's Accounts.
Suds Ss
7 Bharces on Property a a ¢
Chief Rent (Income dee deducted) TZ) Oo
Income Tax on Chief Rent i Om 7;
Insurance against Fire ‘ ig} iy
Repairs to Building, &c. .. r2 MH 4
Joule Thermometer Case.. 3 Sf ©
Bookcases for Library 5 © Oo
ealousemimpenditures———e 07 5 I
Coals, Gas, Electric Light, Water, Mees &e. 37, 8 6
‘Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings 916 7
Cleaning, Sweeping Chimneys, &c. 2 4 62
Administrative Charges :— — a 49 9 7k
Housekeeper ; aa 60 (Cee eo) FA
Postages, and Carriage of Parcels and of ‘‘ Memoirs” 40 ©
lonery, Cheques, Receipts, and Hagrossing jm ©
rinting Circulars, Reports, &c. od n® Bg 3)
cellaneous Expenses .. (Oy
blishing :— = 124 2 Io
onorarium for Editing the ‘ ‘Memoirs,’ 1898-9 50 0 0
' Printing “‘ Memoirs and Proceedings” (less amount ‘charged to Joule Fund) . I02 4 0
Printing “‘ List of Scientific Serials in Manchester ” wa 19 0 oO
Wood Engraving and Lithography (except Natural History Plates) @) mg 3
Library :— === 180 17 3
Books and Periodicals (except on Natural History). . 40 12 8
Library Appliances 614 6
Subscription of Delegate to the International ‘Congress of ‘Zoology 2) 20
Natural History Fund :— SS ea 49 9 2
(Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund) 68 7 «
Joule Memorial Fund :—
{Item shown in the Balance Sheet of this F und) Ee)
Balance at Bank .. nA ae 60 0 8
5, in Treasurer’s hands 5 0 oF
’ 65 o &
4649 13 OF
IND, 1898—1899.
@ & d 4 8 a
\ssistant Secretary's Salary, April, 1898, to March, 1899 12I 10 oO
aintenance of Society’s Library :—
Binding and Repairing Books 87 18 2
Book Supports gu 6)
pee oe Se 9r 9 2
peold Medal and Engraving Same ao 18 19 6
Wilde Premium for Selected Memoir .. 15 2s} ©
remium to Lecturer HG us ©
Transfers to the Society’s Funds :—
“Subscriptions of Members I2I2 0
Entrance Fees 1212 0
Use of Society's Rooms 50 0 oO
Saar 75 4 0
Cheque Book o 2 6
Balance at Bank, April 1st, 1899 74 19 11
L413 15
IND, 1898—1899.
&£ s. d.
Ealance against, April ist, 1898 . 93 II 10
Natural History Books and Periodicals. 2 a7 oR
Plates for Papers on Natural History in “‘ Memoirs” ar 6 ©
:
IND, 1898—1899.
Printing Reynolds and Moorby’s Faye “On the Mechanical Hauivalent of Heat’
Balance, April rst, 1899
Axor 18 rx
4s. da
I5 2 0
23 7 Io
438 9 10
xlii Treasurer's Ac iil
counts. Treasurer's Accounts. xliii
MANCHESTER LITER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
ARY AND
Dr. ~J. Ashworth, T,
TS: » *Teasurer, in Accoyns With the CE sociely, from rst April, 1898, to 31st March, 1899. Cr.
To Cash in Bash Abele 9 ep oe ae aa bast sad 4. 5 e Bios die 36si de
o Members’ Subscriptions :— a7 = 0 ‘es on Property :—
Half Subscriptions, 1898-99, 8 at &r. 1s, od. Soy ps Chae F Rent (Income Tax deducted) - Be iz 9 8
Subscriptions :— 2500; 9 1 at £2. 2s. od. a5 8 2 eee Tax gh Cae Rent ine oid a = Be a9 S 7
1097-96, 1 . 55 iy is msurance agains! on HE os an ac) <9 &
4 1893-90, si # 3 ae ae an ef. 2) ESS aio} Repairs to Building, &c. . on 8 oa o a2 = Be Ai) weet. Zh
1899-1900, I ,, 2 ee = 5 0 EE he Joule Thermometer Case.. a oe 3c Re ry be wie te HG
ee Nits Endowment Funds Set A ear Bookcases HOWL es 5a wl Sich 2 SRM ote A es AY ea rch
alf Subscriptions, 1898- 8 at £1. 1s. . 3 aa House Expenditure -— ———-—
reeeinrcred : 1898-90, 2 S as oe od ies es i 2 8 Bo 283 10 0 By Coals, Gas Electric Light, Water, Wood, &c. Is sie a0 46 te 37, e 6 Tiga
Admission Fees 6S AS oe 5a 35 ‘i Se e 5 4 4 0 Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings .. cic ED &o AD or = on 916 7
To peavene = : ‘a ae ae SMa END ey Cleaning, Sweeping Chimneys, &c. .-. oA Bo 30 bie oe ae 2 4 6%
G. A. James Rothney, Esq. a se a me a5 = I24 21
To Dien es o om i os 5 £ mn Eirenoraniiim for Editing the ‘“ Memoirs,” 1898-9 50 0 oO :
Natural History Fund 34 Printing ‘! Memoirs and Proceedings” (less amount ‘charged to Joule Fund) . 102 4 0
Joule Memorial Fund 3) 59 4 2 _ Printing “‘ List of Scientific Serials in Manchester” aS PCG MOMG!
iis Treome Tx jel eid He = % 20 S: Ao ae a 7 9 10 « Re earns and Lithography (except Natural History Plates) ne O00 9 Za ae
noaleitlenenat Hund a8 2 010 cas y? Books and Periodicals (except on Natural History). . os Ao Br ORLA ae
GO Library Appliances ae 40 614 6
fo Bank Interest a 2 510 Subscription of Delegate to the International ‘Congress of Zoology va 29 AB @)
Sf fiir 1 5 6 y Natural History Fund :— ——— 49 9 2
(Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund) .. ob Hh dics an 68 7
oule Memorial Fund :—
Ttem shown in the Balance Sheet of this und) a * ae “2 15 200
y Balance at Bank .. ae 90 a be Ae ae oe -- 60 0 8
i ay Treasurer's hands. Sn oe ae oo eo ae an 5 © of
SSS 65 o 8
£649 13 gh 4649 139k
1899.—April x. To Cash in Williams Deacon and Manchester & Salford Bank, andin hand 465 0 Bb 3
WILDE ENDOWMENT UND, 1898—1899. eg ee
To Balance from 1897-98 =... s. d. So s.
He pirralaye on £3,000 Gas Light and Coke Company's 's Ordinary @) Stock ae ee Pe re 2 ‘ Nee iciance ot secety's Libecr: toe) Gp MME) BE) 62 a ey + beets
To emis ionior Income Tax, = 2898 - O06 a a0 ci I2 10 o Binding aud Repairing Books .. aa a On ne ne bc -- 87278 2
i g a : oA ie an - : ais an To nreex Book Supports an ae a as an se ce fg aS on Bao
== Or 9 2
By Gold Medal and Engraving Same 39 ae Fie. ate ie fe me 18 19 6
yy Wilde Premium for Selected Memoir .. +s a0 ae za rio oh 15 15 0
“Sy Premium to Lecturer... ae os 50 20 a Ba an I5 15 0
‘By Transfers to the Society's Funds :-—
Subscriptions of Members a oe oa Ge be Xe oe ay iaer2 lo.
Entrance Fees ae «. be: ch Bo np oe on hes SR X2et25KO
Use of Society's Rooms .. 40 A on 76 aD an oe an BG) @)
—= a4 oO
yy Cheque Book ae zie es Be io oo 66 G2 (5
y Balance at Bank, April ist, 1899 56 a as a5 a5 be a 74 19 Ir
9
A413 151 4433 15 1
NATURAL HISTORY |FUND, 1898—1899. oe
£s. da s. d.
To Dividends on £1,225 Great Western Railway Compan: oe k os 2 By Balance against, April ist, 1898 . + oo : . oo . - a 93 11 Io
To Remission of Income Tax, 1898.. y PY ies oc Ei ae ei =A * s ra By Natural History Books and Periodicals. a bic on ras ae ae a0 37 mon
To Balance against this Fund, April rst, 1899 oa Sa a a ce ry, Be a 100 13 IT ly Plates for Papers on Natural History in ‘ Memoirs” a0 56 ae pe are vs zpe (o) Gl
#161 18 17 4#16r 18 rr
— Sa
JOULE MEMORIAL UND, 1898—1899.
s. d, Asad
To Balance, April rst, 1898 Bi ee af ah x A as 15 0 ly Printing Reynolds and Moorby’s Paper fe Ont the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat’ nO I5 20
To Dividends on £258 Loan to Manchester Corporation a a ee we - 5 7 910 ¥ ly Balance, April 1st, 1899 .. . . 5 “ Ac . - .- . 23 7 x0
To Remission of Income Tax, 1898.. z ‘ a0 a a oe ie on + o 559 EN
438 9 10
—__
xliv Treasurers Accounts.
NotTe.—The Treasurer’s Accounts of the Session 1898-99
of which the foregoing pages are summaries, have
been endorsed as follows:
April 24th, 1899. Audited and found correct.
We have also seen, at this date, the certificates of the following
Stocks held in the name of the Society :—£1,225 Great Western Railway
Company 5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,294, and 12,323;
£258 Twenty years’ loan to the Manchester Corporation, redeemable 25th
March, 1914 (No. 1564); £7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary
Stock, (No. 6389); and the Deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde
Endowment Fund, those conveying the land on which the Society’s premises
stand, and the Declaration of Trust.
(THOMAS THORP.
( Stoned
Be) la. W. FRESTON.
The Counczl. (i)
Pa EyGOUN C1 L
AND MEMBERS
OF THE
MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
(Corrected to April 25th, 1599. )
President.
HORACE LAMB, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice- Presidents,
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S.
JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.
W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries.
R. F. GWYTHER, M.A.
FRANCIS JONES, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
Wreasurer.
J. J. ASHWORTH.
Mibrarian.
W. E. HOYLE, M.A., M.Sc., M.R.C.S.
Mf the Council.
HAROLD B. DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.
Jo Bs KONG, WMA,
R, i, IDAVLOR, BCS:
F. J. FARADAY, F.L.S.
W. H. JOHNSON, B.Sc.
(ii)
Date of Election.
1870, Dec. 13.
1896, Jan. 21.
1895, Jan. 8.
1887, Nov.
1865, Nov.
1888, Feb. 7.
1895, Jan. 8.
1894, Jan. 9.
1896, April 14.
1895, Mar. 5.
1898, Nov. 29.
1868, Dec. 15.
1896, April 14.
1896, April 28.
1861, Jan. 22.
1896, Oct. 6.
1896, Feb. 18.
1875. Nov. 16.
1889, Oct. 15.
1894, Mar. 6.
1896, Nov. 17.
1861, April 2.
1889, April 16.
1844, Jan. 23.
1860, Jan. 24.
Ordinary Members.
ORDINARY MEMBERS.
Angell, John, F.C.S., F.1.C. 6, Beacovsfield, Derby Road,
Withington, Manchester.
Armstrong, Frank. The Rowans, Harboro’
Harboro Road, Ashton-on-Mersey, Cheshire.
Armstrong, Geo. B. Clarendon, Sale, Cheshire.
Ashworth, J. Jackson. 39, Spring Gardens, Manchester.
Grove, -
Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College Road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.
Bailey, Alderman Sir W. H. Sale Hall, Sale, Cheshire.
Barnes, Charles L., M.A. 10, Welson Street, Chorlton-on-
Medlock, Manchester.
Beckett, J. Hampden, F.C.S. Corbar Hall, Buxton.
Behrens, George B. Zhe Acorns, 4, Oak Drive, Fallow-
field, Manchester.
Behrens, Gustav. Holly Royde, Withington, Manchester.
Behrens, Walter L. 22, Oxford Street, Manchester.
Bickham, Spencer H., F.L.S. Onierdown, Ledbury.
Bindloss, James B. lm Bank, Eccles, Lancs.
Bolton, Herbert, F.R.S.E. Zhe AZuseum, Bristol.
Bottomley, James, D.Sc., B.A., F.C.S. 220,
Broughion Road, Manchester.
Bowman, F. H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Mayfield, Knutsford,
«Cheshire.
Bowman, George, M.D. 594, Stretford Koad, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
Boyd, John.
Manchester.
Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S. Sznnuyszde, Whalley Range,
Manchesier.
Broadbent, G. H., M.R.C.S. 8, Avdwick Green, Manchester.
Broderick, Lonsdale, F.C.A. Somerby, Waulmslow,
Cheshire.
Brogden, Henry, F.G.S.,
Altrincham, Cheshire.
Brooks, Samuel Herbert.
Manchester.
Brooks, Sir William Cunliffe, Bart., M.A. Bank, 92, King
Street, Manchester.
Brothers, Alfred, F.R.A.S.
Lower
Barton House, Didsbury Park, Didsbury,
M.Inst.M.E. ale Lodge,
Slade House, Levenshuinie,
78, King Street, Manchester
Date of Election.
1886, April 6.
1846, Jan. 27.
1889, Jan. 8.
1889, Oct. 15.
1872, Nov. 12.
1896, Nov. 3.
1894, Nov. 13.
1893, Jan. 10.
1899, Feb. 7.
1854, April 18.
1895, April 9.
1895, April 30.
1884, Nov. 4.
1895, April 30.
1859, Jan. 25.
1899, Mar. 7.
1895, Nov. 12.
1896, Nov. 3.
1876, April 18.
1899, April If.
1853, April 19.
1895, April 9.
1894, Mar. 6.
1879, Mar. 18.
Ordinary Members. (iii)
Brown, Alfred, M.A., M.D.
ton, Manchester.
Browne, Henry, M.A. (Glas.), M.R.C.S. (Lond.), M.D.
Sandj'croft, Higher Brough-
(Lond.) Zhe Gables, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Brownell, T. W., F.R.A.S. 64, Upper Brook Street,
Manchester.
Budenberg, C. F., M.Sc., M.Inst.M.E.
Marple, Cheshire.
Burghardt, Charles Anthony, Ph.D.
Manchester.
Burke, John, B.A. Owens College, Manchester.
Burton, Wm., F.C.S. Zhe Hollies, Clifton Junction, near
Manchester.
Bowdon Lane,
35, Hountaen Street,
Chadwick, W. I. 26, Azug Street, Manchester.
Chapman, D. L., B.A. Owevzs College, Manchester.
Christie, Richard Copley, M.A., &zdsden, near Bagshot,
Surrey.
Claus, Wm. H.
chester.
Collett, Edward Pyemont. 7, Wilbraham Road, Chorlton-
cum-Hardy, Manchester.
Corbett, Joseph. Zown2 Hall, Salford.
Cornish, James Edward. Stone Howse, Alderley Edge,
Cheshire.
Coward, Edward, Assoc.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. Heaton
House, Heaton Mersey, near Manchester.
Crombie, Charles H., B.A. 163, Chorlton Road, Brooks's
Bar, Manchester.
Crossley, Wm. J., M.Inst.M.E. Ofenshaw, Manchester.
Crowther, J.,. A.R.S.M. TZechnical School, Swansea.
Cunliffe, Robert Ellis. Aaltox Bank, Pendleton, Man-
chester.
31, Mauldeth Road, Fallowfield, Man-
Darbishire, O. V., B.A., Ph.D. Owens College, Man-
chester.
Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., F.S.A. 1, St. James’s
Square, Manchester.
Dawkins, Wm. Boyd, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology.
Owens College, Manchester.
Delépine, Sheridan, M.D., Professor of Pathology. Owens
College, Manchester. ;
Dent, Hastings Charles, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 20, Zhurloe
Square, South Kensington, London, S W.
(iv) Ordinary Members.
Date of Election.
1887, Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold Bailey, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Che-
mistry. Ozvers College, Monten
1898, Oct. 18. Donovan, E. W., M.Inst.M.E. Az/ton House, Prestwich,
Lancs.
1899, April11. Earle, Hardman A. 40, Oughton Road, Birkdale, Lancs.
1883, Oct. 2. Faraday, F. J., F.L.S., F.S.S. Ramsay Lodge, Slade
Lane, Levenshulne, Manchester.
1897, Oct. 19. Faraday, Wilfred B., LL.B. Ramsay Lodge, Slade Lane,
Levenshulme, Manchester.
1895, April 30. Flux, A. W., M.A., Jevons Professor of Political Economy.
57, Parsonage Road, Withington, Manchester.
1897, Nov. 30. Freston, H.W. 6, S¢. Pazl’s Road, Kersal, Manchester.
1898, Nov. 29. Gamble, F. W., M.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.
1886, Feb. 9. Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc. Technical School, Princess
Street, Manchester.
1896, Nov. 17. Gordon, Rev. Alexander, M.A. Memor. tal Hall, Albert
Square, Manchester.
1881, Nov. 1. Greg, Arthur. ag/ey, near Bolton.
1897, Jan. 26. Grossmann, J., Ph.D. Harpurhey Chemical Works,
Harturhey, Manchester.
1875, Feb. 9. Gwyther, Reginald F., M.A., Fielden Lecturer in Mane
matics. Ovwezes Colleen Manchesion
1890, Feb. 18. Harker, Thomas. S7vook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.
1895, Nov. 12. Hartog, Philippe Joseph, B.Sc.. F.C.S., Demonstrator in
Chemistry. Ozezs College, Manchester.
1890, Nov. 4. Heenan, H., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. Manor House,
Wilmslow Park, Wilmslow, Cheshire.
1890, Mar. 4. Henderson, H. A. Eastbourne House, Chorlton Road,
Manchester.
1889, Jan. 8. Heywood, Charles J. Chaseley, Pendleton, Manchester.
1895, Mar. 5. Hickson,S. J.,M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology.
Owens College, Manchester.
1884, Jan. 8. Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc. 18, S¢. John Street,
Manchester.
1898, Nov. 29. Hopkinson, Alfred, Q.C., M.A., Principal of Owens
College. azzjfieli, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1896, Nov. 3. Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Oakdgh,
Timperley, Cheshire.
1889, Oct. 15. Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., F.R.S.E., Keeper of the
Manchester Museum. Owens Collece, Manchester.
Date of Election.
1896, Nov. 17.
1870, Nov. 1.
1896, Oct. 20.
1878, Nov. 26.
1891, Nov. 17.
1886, Jan, 12.
1891, Dec. 1.
1895, Nov. 12.
1893, Nov. 14.
1890, Nov. 4.
1899, Feb. 7.
1884, April 15.
1895, Nov. 12.
1895, Mar. 5.
1857, Jan. 27.
1896, Nov. 3.
1898, Nov. 29.
1866, Nov. 13.
1859, Jan. 25.
1875, Jan. 26.
1896, Oct. 20.
1864, Nov. I.
1873, Mar. 18.
1896, Nov. 3.
Ordinary Members. (v)
Jacob Edwin. 648, Hlamzlton Terrace, London, N.W.
Johnson, William H., B.Sc. 26, Lever Street, Manchester.
Jones, A. Emrys, M.D. 10, St. Johz Street, Manchester.
Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Manchester Grammar
School.
Joyce, Samuel, Electrical Engineer. Latchford House,
Greenheys Lane, Manchester.
Kay, Thomas. Joorjield, Stockport, Cheshire.
King, John Edward, M.A., High Master, MMJanchester
Grammar School.
Kirkman, W. W. Zhe Grange, Timperley, Cheshire.
Lamb, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics.
6, Wilbraham Road, Fallowfield, Manchester.
Langdon, Maurice Julius, Ph.D. 15, Dzckenson Street,
Manchester.
Lawrence, W. T., B.A., Ph.D. Owezs College, Manchester.
Leech, Daniel John, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica.
Owens College, Manchester.
Lees, Charles Herbert, D.Sc.. Demonstrator in Physics.
Owens College, Manchester.
Levenstein, Ivan. Wilbraham Road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
Longridge, Robert Bewick, M.Inst.M.E. Yew Tree House,
Tabley, Knutsford, Cheshire.
Lynde, James Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Auckland, Ashton-on-
Mersey, Cheshire.
McConnel, J. W., M.A. Wellbank, Prestwich, Lancs.
McDougall, Arthur, B.Sc. /allowfield House, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
Maclure, Sir John William, Bart, M.P., F.R.G.S.
Whalley Range, Manchester.
Mann, J. Dixon, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Lond.), Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence at Owens College. 16, Sz. /ohuz
Street, Manchester.
Massey, Leonard F. Ofenshaw, Manchester.
- Mather William, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M,E. JZvon Works,
Salford.
Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S. Srook House,
Prestwich, Lanes.
Milligan, William, M.D. Westbourne, Wilmslow Road,
Rusholine, Manchester.
(vi)
Date of Election.
1881, Oct. 18,
1894, Feb. 6.
1899, Mar. 7.
1873, Mar. 4.
1889, April 16.
1862, Dec. 30.
1884, April 15.
1876, Nov.
1895, Nov. 12.
1892, Nov.
1885, Nov.
1888, Feb.
1869, Nov.
1880, Mar.
1864, Dec.
1897, Oct.
1893, Mar.
1896, Nov.
1842, Jan.
1873, Nov.
1898, Jan. 25.
Ordinary Members.
Mond, Ludwig, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. Winnington
Hall, Northwich, Cheshire.
Mond, Robert,M.A., F.C.S. Winnington Hall, Northwich,
Cheshire.
Morris, Edgar F., B.A.
Trafford, Manchester.
69, Shrewsbury Street, Old
Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. 84, JJajor Street, Manchester.
Norbury, George. Hillside, Prestwich Park, Prestwich,
Lancs.
Ogden, Samuel. 10, Mosley Street West, Manchester.
Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Overley, Langham Load,
Bowdon, Cheshire.
Parry, Thomas, F.S.S. Grafton House, Ashton-under-Lyne.
Pennington, James Dixon, B.A., M.Sc. 254, Oxford Road,
Manchester.
Perkin, W. H., jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic
Chemistry. Owezs College, Manchester.
Phillips, Henry Harcourt, F.C.S. 183, Joss Lane East,
Manchester.
Rée, Alfred, Ph.D., F.C.S. Gzzldhall Chambers, Lloyd
Street, Manchester.
Reynolds, Osborne, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.,
Professor of Engineering, Owens College. 19, Ladybarn
Road, Fallowfield, Manchester.
Roberts; D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S E., F.R.C.P. (Lond.).
Ravenswoot, Broughton Park, Manchester.
Robinson, John, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. | Westwood
Fall, Leek, Staffs.
Rothwell, William Thomas.
Heath, near Manchester.
Heath Brewery, Newton
Schill, C. H. 117, Portland Street, Manchester.
Schmitz, Hermann Emil, B.A., B.Sc. Manchester Gram-
mar School.
Schunck, Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Aersal, Man-
chester.
Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of
Physics. Owens College, Manchester.
Schwabe, Louis. Aart Hill, Hecles Old Road, Pendleton,
Manchester.
Date of Election.
1895, Nov. 12.
1890, Nov. 4.
1890, Jan. 21.
1886, April 6.
1895, Nov. 12.
1896, Feb. 18.
1896, April 14.
1894, Jan. 9.
1894, Nov. 13.
1897, Nov. 30.
1892, Nov. 29.
1895, April 9.
1898, Feb. 8.
1893, Nov. 14.
1873, April 15.
1896, Jan. 21.
1889, April 30.
1896, Jan. 21.
1897, Jan. 206.
1879, Dec. 30.
1873, Nov. 18.
1892, Nov. 15.
1895, April 9.
1859, Jan. 25.
Ordinary Members. (vit)
Shearer, Arthur.
Manchester.
Sidebotham, Edward John. Eyrlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
Sidebotham, James Nasmyth, Assoc,M.Inst.C.E. ark-
field, Groby Place, Altrincham, Cheshire. —
Simon, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E., ZLawzhurst,
Didsbury, Manchester.
Southern, Frank, B.Sc.
Manchester.
Spence, David. Pine Ridge, Buxton.
Stanton, Thomas E., M.Sc. Unzverszty College, Liverpool.
Stevens, Marshall, F.S.S. Bolton Lodge, Eccles, Lancs.
Stinxup, Mark, F.G.S. Aigh Thorn, Stamford Road,
Bowdon, Cheshire. .
Stromeyer, C. E., M.Inst.C.E. Steam Users’ Association,
9, Mount Street, Albert Square, Manchester.
Swindells, Rupert, M.Inst.C.E. Welton Villa, The Frrs,
Bowdon, Cheshire.
36, Demesne Road, Alexandra Park,
Burnage Lodge, Levenshulme,
Tatton, Reginald A., Engineer to the Mersey and Irwell
Joint Committee. 44, Mosley Street, Manchester.
Taylor, Rev. Arthur, M.A. 49, Egerton Road, Withington,
Manchester.
Taylor, R. L., F.C.S., F.I.C. Central School, Whitworth
Street, Manchester.
Thomson William, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C.
Institution, Manchester.
Thorburn, William, M.D., B.Sc.
Manchester.
Thornber, Harry. Rookfield Avenue, Sale, Cheshere.
Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, near Manchester.
Tristram, James Floyd, M.A., B.Sc. 180, Préncess Road,
Moss Side, Manchester.
Royal
2, St. Peter's Square,
Ward, Thomas. Wadebrook House, Northwich, Cheshire.
Waters, Arthur William, F.G.S. Szzny Lea, Davos Dorf,
Swetzerland.
Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
Owens College. 4, Clifton Avenue, Fallowfield, Man-
chester.
Whitehead, James.
Cheshire.
Wilde, Henry, F.R.S.
Cheshzre.
Lindfield, Fulshaw Park, Wilmslow,
The Hurst, Alderley Edge,
(viii)
Date of Election.
1899, Feb. 7.
1859, April 19.
1888, April 17.
1896, Dec. 1.
1889, April 16.
1860, April 17.
1896, Jan. 21.
1863, Nov. 17.
1865, Feb. 21.
1895, Jan. 8.
1897, Oct. 10.
Ordinary Members.
Wilkins, A. S., M.A., Litt.D., LL.D., Professor of Latin.
Owens College, Manchester.
Wilkinson, Thomas Read.
Cheshire. ;
Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E.
Spring Gardens, Manchester.
Wilson, George, M.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.
Wilson, Thomas B. Jellor, near Marple, Cheshire.
Woolley, George Stephen. Vectoria Bridge, Salford.
Wordingham, Charles Henry, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E.
Hazelhurst, Urmston Lane, Stretford, Manchester.
Worthington, Samuel Barton, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E.
Mill Bank, Bowdon, and 37, Princess Street, Manchester
Worthington, Thomas, F.R.I.B.A. 46, Brown Street,
Manchester.
Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc., M.Inst.C. E.
Polygon, Cheetham Fizll, Manchester.
Wyatt, Charles H. Chelford, Cheshzre.
Vale Bank, Knutsford,
2, Wilton
N.B.—Of the above list the following have compounded for their
subscriptions, and are therefore life members :—
Bailey, Charles, F.L.S.
Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S.
Brogden, Henry, F.(.S.
Johnson, Wilham H., B.Sc.
Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc.
Date of Election.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1894, April 17.
1887, April 19.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1886, Feb. 9.
1886, Feb. 9.
1895, April 30.
1886, Feb. 9.
1892, April 26.
1886, Feb, 09.
1860, April 17.
1888, April 17.
1889, April 30.
1866, Oct. 30.
Honorary Members.
(ix)
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Abney, W. de Wiveleslie, Capt. R.E., C.B., F.R.S.
Rathmore Lodge, Bolton Gardens South, S. Kensington,
London, S.W.
Amagat, E. H., For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.), Honorary Professor, Faculté des Sciences,
Lyon. 34, Rue St. Lambert, Paris.
Appell, Paul, Membre de !’Institut, Professor of Theoretical
Mechanics, Faculté des Sciences. Paras.
Armstrong, Wm. George, Lord, C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S. Mewcastle-on- Tyne.
Ascherson, Paul F. Aug., Professor of Botany. Uxzversztat,
Berlin.
Baeyer, Adolf von, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Chemistry,
1, Arcisstrasse, Munich.
Baker, Sir Benjamin, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S. 2, Queen’s
Square Place, Westminster, S. W.
Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S., F.L.S. Royal Herbarium,
Kew.
Beilstein, F., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry. St Lzne,
NV. 17, St. Petersburg, W.O.
Berthelot, Marcellin, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de I’Institut,
Professor of Chemistry. arcs.
Boltzmann, Ludwig, Professor of Physics.
Setat, Vienna.
Buchan, Alexander, M.A., LL.D.,
42, Heriot kow, Edinburgh.
Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., For.
Assoc. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Chemistry.
Universitat, Heidelberg.
K. K. Univer-
Bases ela eaters
Cannizzaro, Stanislao, For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb.
Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Chemistry. eale
Oniversita, Rome.
Carruthers, William, F.R.S., F.L.S.
Norwood, London, S.£.
Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Prof
of Experimental Philosophy. Mew Museum, Oxford.
14, Vermont Road,
(x)
Date of Election.
1887, April 19.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1886, Feb. 9.
1894, April 17.
1888, April 17.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1895, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1860, April 6.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1895, April 30.
7892, April 26.
Flonorary Members.
Cornu, Marie Alfred, For. Mem. R,S., Membre de
l'Institut, Professor of Physics. Ecole Polytechnique,
Paris.
Curtius, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry. Unzversztat, Kzel.
Darboux, Gaston, Membre de l'Institut, Professor of
Geometry, Faculté des Sciences. 36, Rue Gay Lussac,
Parts.
Dawson, Sir John William, C.M.G.,M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S. McGzll College, Montreal.
Debus, H., Ph.D., F.R.S. 4, Sch/angenwee, Cassel, Hessen,
Germany.
Dewalque, Gustave, Professor of Geology. Unzverszté,
Liége.
Dohrn, Dr. Anton. Zoological Station, Naples.
Dyer, Sir W. T. Thiselton, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A.,
F.R.S., Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens. ew.
Edison, Thomas Alva. Orange, NV./., U.S.A.
Elster, Julius, Ph.D. 6, Lessengstrasse, Wolfenbittel.
Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany. Harvard College,
Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
Flower, Sir William Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Corr. Memb. Inst, Fr. (Acad. Sci.). - 26, Stanhope
Gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.
Foster, Michael, M.A., M.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Professor
of Physiology. TZ7rzzzty College, Cambridge.
Frankland, Sir Edward, K.C.B., Ph.D., M.D., LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., For. Assoc. Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.) Zhe Vews, Redgate Hill, Reigate, Surrey.
Friedel, Ch., D.C.L., Membre de l'Institut, Professor of
Organic Chemistry, Faculté des Sciences. 9, ue
Michelet, Puris.
Fiirbringer, Max, Professor of Anatomy.
versitat, Jena.
Grossherz, Uni-
Gegenbaur, Carl, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Anatomy.
57, Leopoldstrasse, Heidelberg.
Geitel, Hans. 6, Less¢ngstrasse, Wolfenbuttec.
Gibbs, J. Willard, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Mathe-
matical Physics. Vale University, Newhaven, Con-
necticut, U.S.A.
Date of Election.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
1804, April 17.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1888, April 17.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1869. Jan. 12
1851, April 29.
1892, April 26.
1894, April 17.
1895, April 30.
1892, April 26.
1887, April 19.
1892, April 26.
Honorary Members. (xi)
Glaisher, J. W. L.,Sc.D., F.R.S., Lecturer in Mathematics.
Trinity College, Cambridge.
Gouy, A., Professor of Physics, Facultédes Sciences. Lyovs.
Guldberg, Cato M., Professor of Applied Mathematics.
Christeanza, Norway.
Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Lee’s
Reader in Chemistry, Christ Church. Cowley Grange,
Oxford.
Heaviside, Oliver, F.R.S. Avadley View, Newton Abtot,
Devon.
Hermite, Ch., LL.D. (Edin.), For. Mem. R.S., Membre
de l'Institut. 2, Rue de /a Sorbonne, Paris.
Hill, G. W. West Nyack, N.V., U.S.A.
Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm, Professor of Physics.
nicun, Minster. A
Hoff, J. van’t, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of
Chemistry. 2, Uhlandstrasse, Charlottenburg, Berlin.
looker s sire) osep lan Waltons GaC Sale, @.ioe,) Co le-,
F.R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Zhe Camp,
Sunningdale, Berks.
Huggins, Sir William, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). 90,
Opper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S.W.
Polytech-
Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord, G.C.V.O., M.A.,
D.C.L., L.L.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., For. Assoc. Inst.
Fr. (Acad. Sci.),- Professor of Natural Philosophy.
2, College, Glasgow.
Klein, Felix, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst.
Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Neibermaiiies, 3, Witheli
Weber Strasse, Gottingen.
Konigsberger, Leo, Professor of Mathematics.
flerdelberg. ge
Oniversitat,
Lacaze-Duthiers, F. J. Henri de, For. Mem. R.S., Membre
de l'Institut, Professor of Zoology and Comparative
Anatomy, 7, Rue del’ Estrapade, Paris.
Ladenburg, A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry.
Withelm Shane. Breslau.
Langley, S. P., For. Mem. R.S. Gyuisonian Lnstitution,
Washington, T&A.
Liebermann, C., Professor of Chemistry.
Kurch Strasse, Berlen.
3, Kaztser
29, Matthaz-
Gait)
Date of Election.
1887, April 19.
1889, April 30.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26,
1889, April 30.
1895, April 30.
1892, April 26.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
1887, April 19.
1894, April 17.
1899, April 25.
1892, April 26.
1894, April 17.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1899, April 25.
Flonorary Members.
Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S., Corr. Memb.
Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Royal College of Science, South
Kensington, London, S. W.
Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
15, Lombard Street, London, E.C.
Marshall, Alfred, M.A., Professor of Political Economy.
Balliol Croft, Madingley Road, Cambridge.
Mascart, E. E. N., For. Mem. R.S., Membre de 1’Institut,
Professor at the College de France. 176, Rue de
2? Université, Paris.
Mendeléeff, D., Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Unzverszté, St.
Petersburg.
Mittag-Leffler, Gosta, D.C.L. (Oxon.), For. Mem. R.S.,
Professor of Mathematics. Djursholm, Stockholm.
Moissan, H., Membre de l'Institut, Professor at the
Ecole Supérieure de Pharmacie. 7, Rue Vauquelin,
Paris.
Murray, Sir John, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F-.R.S.
Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.
Neumayer, Professor G., Director cf the Seewarte.
Hamburg.
Newcomb, Simon, For. Mem. R.S., For. Assoc, Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.), Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy.
Johns Hopkins Uneversity, Baltzmore, U.S.A.
Ostwald, W., Professor of Chemistry. 2/3, Lzunéstrasse,
Letpsic.
Palgrave, R. H. Inglis, F.R.S., F.S.S. Gelton, Great
Varmouth.
Perkin, W. H., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. Zhe Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow.
Pfeffer, Wilhelm, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Botany.
Botanisches Institut, Letpszc.
Poincaré, H., For. Mem. R.S., Membre de l'Institut,
Professor of Astronomy. 63, Rue Claude Bernard, Paris.
Quincke, G. H., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics.
Universitat, Heidelberg.
Ramsay, William, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry.
12, Arundel Gardens, Notting Hill, London, W.
Date of Election
1892, April 26.
1849, Jan. 23.
1886, Feb. 9.
1897, April 27.
1889, April 30.
1894, April 17.
1889, April 30.
1894, April 17.
1892, April 26.
1892, April 26.
1869, Dec. 14.
1851, April 29.
1886, Feb. 9.
1895, April 30.
1868, April 28.
1895, April 30.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
Honorary Members. (xiii)
Raoult, F. M., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.),
Professor of Chemistry. 2, Awe des Alpes, Grenoble.
Rawson, Robert, F.R.A.S. Havant, Hants.
Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Lord, M.A., D.C.L.
(Oxon.), LL.D. (Univ. McGill), F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Zerling Place,
Witham, Essex.
Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield, B.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.).
10, bramhan Gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.
Routh, Edward John, D.Sc., F.R.S. Mewnham Cottage,
Queen’s Road, Cambridge.
Rowland, Henry A., For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst.
Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Physics. /ohnus Hopkins
University, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Salmon, Rev. George, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.) Provost's House,
Trinity College, Dublin.
Sanderson, J. S. Burdon, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Regius
Professor of Medicine. Uzzverszty, Oxford.
Sharpe, R. Bowdler, LL.D., F.L.S., F.Z.S. British
Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Koad, London,
SW.
Solms, H. Graf zu, Professor of Botany.
Strassburg.
Sorby, Henry Clifton, LL,D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Broomfield, Sheffield.
Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, Bart., M.A., LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., Corr. Mem, Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.),
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. Lezsfield Cottage,
Cambridge.
Strasburger, Eduard, D.C.L., For. Mem. R.S., Professor
of Botany. Universitat, Bonz.
Suess, Eduard, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst.
Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Geology. 9, A/ricanergasse,
Vienna.
Cniversitit,
Tait, Peter Guthrie, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natura
Philosophy. 38, George Square, Edinburgh.
Thomson, Joseph John, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Experimental Physics. 6, Scvope Terrace, Cambridge.
Thorpe, T. E., Ph.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Laboratory,
Somerset House, London, W.C.
Turner, Sir William, M.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
Professor of Anatomy. 6, Hton Terrace, Edinburgh.
(xiv)
Date of Election.
1886, Feb. 9.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
1894, April 17.
1889, April 30.
1886, Feb. 9.
1888, April 17.
1895, April 20.
Honorary Members.
Tylor, Edward Burnett, D.C.L. (Oxon.), LL.D. (St. And.
and McGill Colls.), F.R.S., Professor of Anthropology.
Museum House, Oxford.
Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sherardian
Professor of Botany. Headington Hill, Oxford.
Waage, P., Professor of Chemistry. Chrzstianza, Norway.
Warburg, Emil, Professor of Physics. Phystkalsches
Institut, Neue Withelinstrasse, Berlin.
Ward, H. Marshall, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Botany.
Botanical Laboratory, New Museums, Cambridge.
Weismann, August, Professor of Zoology. Unzversztdt,
freiburg tz. Br.
Williamson, Alexander William, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
V.P.C.S., Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.) Avzgh
Pitfold, Shottermill, Haslemere, Surrey.
Young, Charles Augustus, Professor of Astronomy.
Princeton Collese, N.f., U.S.A.
Zirkel, Ferdinand, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Mineralogy.
Thalstrasse, 33, Leipsic.
Zittel, Carl Alfred von, Professor of Palzeontology and
Geology. Universitat, Munich.
Corresponding Members. (xv)
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Date of Election.
1866, Jan. 23. De Caligny, Anatole, Marquis, Corr, Mem. Accad. Sci.
Turin, Soc. Agr. Lyons, Soc. Sci. Cherbourg. Lzége.
1850, April 30. Harley, Rev.Robert, Hon. M.A.(Oxon.), F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Hon. M.R.S. Queensland. Rosslyn, Westbourne Road,
forest Hill, London, S.L., and The Atheneum Club,
London, S. W.
1882, Nov. 14. Herford, Rev. Brooke, D.D., 91, F2tzohn’s Avenue,
Hampstead, London, N.W.
1859, Jan. 25. Le Jolis, Auguste-Frangois, Ph.D., Archiviste-perpétuel
and late President of the Soc. Nat. Sci. Cherbourg.
Cherbourg.
1857, Jan. 27. Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R. Met. S.,
F.G.S. Shzrenewton Hall, near Chepstow, Monmouth-
shire.
(xvi) Awards of Medals and Premiums.
Awards of the Wilde Medal under the conditions of the
Wilde Endowment Fund.
1896. Sir GEORGE G. STOKES, Bart., F.R.S.
16O74) Sins WinriAnM HUGGUNS, KGB eyhekes:
1898. Sir JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, G.C:SAE, Gabe
F.R.S.
1899. SIR EDWARD FRANKLAND, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Award of the Dalton Medal.
1898. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Awards of the Premium under the conditions of the
Wade Endowment Fund.
1897. PETER CAMERON.
1898. JOHN BUTTERWORTH, F.R.M.S. |
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