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MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

MANCHESTER

Pepe RARY & PHILOSOPH ee

r ' . ire
caso nla WStit, us

< an

o
AUG ¢- 1917 3]
ZAIAGBS /

ote

VOLUME LX, (1915-16.)

MANCHESTER :
36, GEORGE STREFT.
IQI7.

NOTE.

The authors of the several papers contained in this
volume are themselves accountable for all the statements
and reasonings which they have offered. In these par-
ticulars the Society must not be considered as in any way

responsible.

CONTENTS.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Animal Symmetry and the Differentiation of Species. By the
President, Professor SYDNEY J. Hickson, M.A.,
Dieses FURS. es ae ia ae Reteg 6) 3

([ssued separately, February 12th, 1910.)

#

MEMOIRS.

I. The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution
of Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines. By W. J.
PERRY, B.A. ~ And Remarks on Mr. W. J. Pexry’s
Communication. By Professor G. ELLIor SMITH,
Mian MDs BRS: With. 9 Maps. %. saan, Pee

(Issued separately, November 24th, 1915.)

II. Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes. By D. M.S. WaTson,
M.Se., and Henry Day, M.Sc. With 3 Pls. and g

DCE a 440 “3 Lak fe pp.
(lssued separately, February 7th, 1910.)

Ill. A Change in the Habits of the Black-headed Gull. By
aA COWARD, Fu7..5., FAEYS. ou. “ale cae, PRs
([ssued separately, January 17th, 1910.)

IV. The Money Cowry (Cypfvea moneta, L.) as a Sacred
Object among North American Indians. By J. WILFRID

PACKSON, F.G.Se: 22. oe fen nas vat (pe
([ssued separately, May 17th, 1916.)

V. The Aztec Moon-cult and its relation to the Chank-cult of
‘ India. By J. WILFRID JACKSON, F.G.S. See HPD
(Issued separately, May 17th, 1916.)

VI. The Geographical Distribution of Terraced Cultivation
and Irrigation. By W. J. Perry, B.A. With 7 Alap. pp.
([ssued separately, April 15th, 1910.)

VII. The Geographical Distribution of the Shell-Purple
Industry. By J. WiLFRID JACKSON, F.G.S.. With 7

Map. ai ea Se oe pp.
~ (lssued separately, May 22nd, 1910.)

I—I5
I—36
I— 52
I—6
I—I10
aS
I—25
I— 29.

vl CONTENTS.

VIII. Shell-Trumpets anc their Distribution in the Old and
New World. By J. W1LFRID JACKSON, F.G.S. With r

Map. ... ae ae ue = oe yams 5% I—22
([ssued separately, May 22nd, 1910.)

IX. A Résumé of Work on the Bleach-out Process of Colour
Photography. By JOHN H. SMITH, Ph.D., F.I.C.,
A.R.C.Sel. With 2 Pls.. a «pp. ee

(lssued separ aie, July 5th, a6

X. Quantitative Absorption Spectra. Part II. A New Ultra-
violet Photometer. By F. R. LANKSHEAR, B.A., M.Sc.

Prati g TLOKl 0s... 3 oe ae Ee I—4
Cssned separately, ee ee 5

XI. The Theory of Overvoltage. By EDGAR NEWBERY,
Discs IV wh Te. A EY, ee age) De I—34
([ssued separately, J oe ee 1910.) ©

X11 "Phe Geographical Distribution of the Use of Pearls and
Pearl-shell. By J. WILFRID JACKSON, F.G.S. [Vth +

Map =). es aA ae cs eA se. SPs L—54
(Issued separately, September 6th, 1916.)

XIII. The Use of Shells for the Purposes of Currency. By J.
WILFRID JACKSON, F.G.S. WWith 2 Maps and +

Text-figs. ... fi a a8 *f sd pp. I—72
([ssued separately, November 30th, 1970.)

XIV. The Specification of Stress. Part IV. ye By
R. F. GWYTHER, M.A. _... aeP Bs I—5.
(lssued separately, eae ee ree

PROCEEDINGS ... os! Bae See ax a chy i. —xlvi.
General Meetings ... - me i xi., XVIil., XVIM., Xa
Annual General Meeting ... . %s XXXIX,

Report of Council, 1916, with Sia notices of Dr. H. ee
F.R.S. 5; The Right Hon. Sir Henry Roscoe, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor Graf zu Solms Laubach. xlvii.—Ixiv.

Treasurer's Accounts ae ae .. Lxvi.—Ilxviil.
List of the Council and Memiens GE fhe amen as Ixix.—Ixxxiy.
List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal re es a Ixxxiv.
List of the Wilde Lectures es oe Fy or Ixxxv.—Ixxxvi.
List of the Special Lectures =o ie ses a me IXxxvi.

List of the Presidents of the Society ... * w. Uxxxyii.—Ixxxviil.

INDEX. Vil

INDEX.

M.=Mennoirs. P.=Proceedings

mecesons to, Mibrary.! E-) vill. 1x;, Xxy, XXIM., XRIV., XXVIll., XXX.,. XXX1.,
XXKVIle, XLV.

Algae, Paper-like Substance composed of. By W. H. Lang. P. xxiv.

American Civilization. See Smith, G. Elliot.

Animal Symmetry and the Differentiation of Species. Presidential Address.

Animal Symmetry and the Differentiation of Species. Discussion on Presi-
dential Address. P. xxv.

Annual General Meeting. P. xxxix.

Annual Report. P. xxxix.

efthe Council.” P.“xlvit.

Arithmetical Problem. P. xxxiv.

~Arrival of Homo Sapiens in Europe. By G. Elliot Smith. P. xlv.

Auditors. P. xxviii.

Awards of the Dalton Medal. P. Ixxxiv.

Aztec Moon-cult and its relation to the Chank-cult of India. By J. W.
Jackson. M. 5. P. xxii.

Bailey, F. See Coward, H. F.

Barnes, C. L. Arithmetical Problem. P. xxiv.

—— Lancashire Worthy. P. xii,

—— Seaweed. P, xliii. Visit to Dalton at Society’s Louse. (From “ Spas
of England.” 1841.)

Society’s House. P. ii.

Blae-headed Gull) -By IT. AxCGoward. M.:3. P. xxi.

Bleach-out process of colour photography. By J. H. Smith. P. xxvxi,

Brachiopoda, Punctation of. By F. G. Percival. P. xxi.
British Association. P, i.
Bunsen and Luminous Flames, By W. W. H. Gee. P. xxx.

Cerebral Cortex, Origin of. By G. Elliot Smith. P. xxxvii.

Chlorine and Hypochlorous Acid. By R. L. Taylor. P. xvii.

Chlorophyll, Optical Properties of. By D. Thoday: : By xxxii.

Coal Gas, Causes of Luminosity of. By H. F. Coward and F, Bailey.
Ee xy: ‘

Vill INDEX.

Coal Streaks, Variation in colour of. By G. Hickling. P. xxxiil.

Colour Photography, bleach-out process of. By J. H. Smith, P. XX

Conch-shell, Exhibition of. By S.J. Hickson. P. xxii.

Committees. P. 1.

Council, Members of, P. xl., Ixix.

Coward H. F. and Bailey F. A simple experiment illustrating the causes of
luminosity in coal gas flames. P. xxiv.

Coward, T. A. Changes in the Habits of the Black-headed Gull. M. 3.

Pe ex

Dalton. See Barnes, C. L.

Medal, Awards of. P. Ixxxiv.

Dawkins, W. Boyd. Lake Villagers of Glastonbury. P. xl.

Day, Hl. See Watson, 1. M.S.

Debus, Dr. Obituary Notice of. By F. J. P. lu.

Discussion on Presidential Address. P. xxv.

Distribution of Shell Trumpets. By J. W. Jackson. M. 8. P. xxix.

Election of Officers. P. xxxix.

Ordinary Members. P. xi.) XVit., XVill., XX. XXX.

Elephant, Notes on Pre-Columbian Representation of, in America, By G.
Elliot Smith. “P. xx.

Elliot Smith, G. See Smith, G. Elliot.

Gee, W. W. H. Experiments with Bunsen and Luminous Flames. P. xxx.

Geographical Distribution of Terraced Cultivation and Irrigation. By W. J.
Perry. M. 6. P. xxix.

____ sof the Shell Purple Industry. By J. W. Jackson.

M. 7ii) Pe Ree
Graft-Hybrids. Recent views concerning the nature of so-called. By F. E.
Weiss: Py eau.
Gwyther, R. F. Specification of Stress. Part IV. M. 14. P. xii.

Hemsalech, G. A. On the Spectra emitted by Metal Vapours in the

explosion region of the air coal-gas flame. P. xix.
Hickling, G. Variation in colour of coal streaks. P. xxxiil.
Hickson, S. J. Occurrence of. Protohydra. P. xxxiv.

__. Presidential Address, P. XXII.

INDEX. ; ix

Homo-sapiens, Arrival of in Europe. By G. Elliot Smith, P. xlv.

Honorary Members. P. Ixxx.
Hypochlorous Acid and Chlorine. By R. L. Taylor. P. xvii.

Irrigation and the Cultivation of Taro, By W. H.R. Rivers. P. xliv.

Jackson, Aztec Moon-cult and its relation to the Chank-cult of India. M. 4.
PS Xi.

—— Geographical Distribution of Shell-Purple Industry. M.7. P. xxix.

— —_________—____—_-—— of the Use of Pearls and Pearl Shell.
hes Py XXXIX,

—— Money Cowry as a Sacred Object among North American Indians.
Mir4a By xxi.

— Shell Trumpets and their Distribution in the Old and New World. M.

ayes XIX, ;

Use of Pearl Shells for the Purposes of Currency. M. 13. P. xxxix.

Jenkins, W. C. Rainfall in Manchester in 1915. P. xv.

Lake Villagers of Glastonbury. By W. Boyd Dawkins. P. xl.
Maneasmire Worthy, A. By C. L. Barnes. P. xii.
Lang, W. H. Discussion on Presidential Address. P. xxvii.

Paper-like substance composed of Algae. P. xxiv.

Lankshear, F. R. A New Ultra-Violet Photometer. M. Io.

Pipranyeewecessions. P. Vili., 1X.,-xX., XXIll., XXiV., XXVill., XXX., XXXI.,
XXXVIL., Xliv.

Luminesity of Coal-gas Flames. By H. F. Coward and F. Bailey. P. xxiv.

Luminous Flames. By W. W. H. Gee. P. xxx.

Megalithic Monuments. See Perry, W.J. M.1. P. xi.
Members Election of Ordinary. P. xi., xvil., xvili., xx., xXx.
of Couneil. - P. xl.

Miers, H. Discussion on Presidential Address. P. xxvi.

Money Cowry as a Sacred Object among North American Indians. By
ipewertackson, IM. 4, P. xxi.

Neolithic Phase of Culture—Commencement of. By G. Eliot Smith.
XE.

Newbery. Theory of Overvoltage. M.1r. P. xliii.

Nicholson, F. Presence of Wheatears on Old Infirmary Site. P. x.

xX INDEX.

Obituary Notices. Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S.; P. lii., The Right Hon. Sir
Henry E. Roscoe, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.; P. liii., lvi. Count Solms-
Laubach. P. Ixiii.

Officers. Election of. P. xxxix.

Optical Properties of Chlorophyll. By D. Thoday. P. xxxii.

Ordinary Members. P. Ixx.

Origin of the Cerebral Cortex. By G. Elliot Smith. P. xxxvii.

Palzeozoic Fishes, Notes on some. By D. M.S. Watson and H. Day. M.2,
P. xvii,

Percival, F. G. The Punctation of the Brachiopoda. P. xxi.

Perry, W. J. The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of
Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines. M.1. P. xi.

—— Geographical Distribution of Terraced Cultivation and_ Irrigation.
MG, 2 xix,

Photometer, A New Ultra-Violet. See Lankshear, F. R.

Piltdown Skull, Controversies concerning. By G. Elliot Smith. P. xxviii.

Pre-Columbian Civilization. See Smith, G. Elliot. -

Presidential Address. By S. J. Hickson. P. xxi.

Discussion on. P, xxv.

Protohydra, Oceurrence of. P. xxxiv.
Punctation of the Brachiopoda. By F.G. Percival. P. xxi.

(Quantitative Absorption Spectra. Part II. A new Ultra-violet Photometer.
By F. R. Lankshear. M. 10.

Rainfall in Manchester, By W. C. Jenkins. P. xv.

Recent Views concerning the nature of so-called ‘‘ Graft-Hybrids.” By
F_E. Weiss. P. xxxiv.

Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of Megalithic Monu-
ments and Ancient Mines. See Perry, W. J. M. 1. P. xi.

Rivers, W. H. R. Irrigation and the Cultivation of Taro. P, xliv.

Roscoe, Obituary Notice of. By A. W. W. P. liii., lvi.

Reference to deathof. P. xxiii.

Sea-weed. By C. L. Barnes. P. xliii.

Shell-Purple Industry, Geographical Distribution of. By J. W. Jackson.
M29. .P. zs

Shell-Trumpets, Distribution of. By J. W. Jackson. M. 8. P. xxix.

INDEX. xl

Smith, G. Elliot. Commencement of Neolithic Phase of Culture. P. xxxviii.

Evidence afforded by the Winged-Disc in Mexico and Central America
for the Egyptian Origin of Certain Elements of the Pre-Columbian
Civilization. P. xvi.

Further Evidence for the Derivation of Elements of Early American
Civilization from the Old World. P. xxii.

Further Notes on the Pre-Columbian Representation of the Elephant
imAmetica. < Pir.

Remarks on W. J. Perry’s Paper, Megalithic Monuments and Ancient
Mines. M. f.

Smith, J. H. Résumé of work on bleach-out process of colour photography.

Mis on) By -xxx1.

Society’s House. PP. ii.
Solms-Laubach. Obituary Notice of. By F. E. W. P. Ixiii.

Reference to death of. DP, xxiv.

Special Lectures. P. Ixxxvi.
Specification of Stress. Part iv. By Kk. F. Gwyther. M. 19.
Spectra emitted by metal vapours in the explosion region of the air-coal-gas

flame. By G. A. Hemsalech. P. xix.

Stress, Specification of. See Gwyther, R. F. M. 19.
Stromeyer, C. E. Water hammers. P. xxx.

Tattersall, W. M. Discussion on Presidential Address. P. xxv.
Taylor, R. L. Notes on Hypochlorous Acid and Chlorine. P. XvVii.
Terraced Cultivation and Irrigation. By W.J. Perry. M. 6.
Theory of Overvoltage. By E. Newbery? M. 11.

Thoday, D. Discussion on Presidential Address. P. xxvil.

Optical Properties of Chlorophyll. P. xxxii.

Treasurer’s Accounts. P. Ixvi.

Ultra-violet Photometer, A New. By F. R. Lankshear. M. 9,

Variation in colour of coal-streaks. By G. Hickling. P,. xxxiii,

Water-hammer. P. xxx.

‘

Watson, D. M. S., and Day, H. Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes. M. 2.

P. xvii.

Weiss, F. E. Recent Views concerning the nature of so-called ‘ Graft-

Hybrids.” P. xxxiv.
Keference to death of Count Solms-Laubach. P. xxiv.

Wheatears. See Nicholson, F. P. x.
Wilde Lectures, P. Ixxxv.

¥or. 6o:. Parr Tt,

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEG .

OF

THE MANCHESTER
SeITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOLE TY (1915-1986.

CONTENTS.

Presidential Address :
Animal Symmetry and the Differentiation of Species. By the
President, Professor Sydney J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc.,

PR. S. > - ~ - - - > - - ~ ‘pp. I—I5.
(Issued separately, February 12th, 1910.)

Memoirs :
I. The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of
Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines. By W. J.
Perry, B.A. And Remarks on Mr. W. J. Perry’s Com-
munication. By Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D.,

Ee Hh > Mais SS Ee ppt 136
(Issued separately, November 24th, 1915.)

II. Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes. By D. M. S. Watson,
M.Sc., and Henry Day, M.Sc. With 3 Pis. and 9 Text-jigs. pp. 1-52.
(issued separately, February 7th, 1916.)

Pe. ee Change i in the Habits of the Black- headed oe By T. A.

Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S.. - - - - ~ = - pp. 1—6.
(lssued separately, January 17th, 1910.

Proceedings - - - - - - - - - - pp. i.—xxiv.

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: an Ing;
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx, ey at Run
6 C

PRESIDENTIAL ADD B65, uae

Animal Symmetry and the Differentiation of Species.

Bye tHe PRESIDENT,
Eeeessoni 5 VONEY |.) HICKSON,. M.A., D.Sc., F.RS.

January rrth, ror.

In the early years of the 19th century Baron Cuvier
constituted four great divisions for the Animal Kingdom:
the Animalia Vertebrata, the Animalia Mollusca, the
Animalia Articulata and the Animalia Radiata. In the
first three of these divisions the organs of sense and
motion are symmetrically arranged on the two sides of an
axis. In the last division they are disposed like rays
round a centre.? .

This early attempt to establish a system of classifi-
cation of the animal kingdom based on a separation of
animals showing a radial symmetry from those showing
a bilateral symmetry never met with any real success.
Many of the groups of animals that were included in
Cuvier’s division Radiata proved to be widely separated
from one another by anatomical characters, and some of
them, such as the Echinodermes and the Entozoa, proved
to be more closely related to bilaterally symmetrical
animals than they are to the other Radiata.

But if we recognise, as we must, that body symmetry
is not a good guide to a scientific classification of animals,
it may be worth while to consider the circumstances that

1 «<Dans tous les précédens, les organes du mouvement et des sens
étaient disposés symétriquement aux deux cotés d’unaxe. Dans ceux-ci,

ils le sont circulairement autour d’un centre.” Cuvier. ‘‘Le Régne
animal,’ 1817, p. Of.

February 12th, 19106.

2 HICKSON, Axuzmal Symmetry.

led to the evolution of the two principal types of symmetry ~
and the influence that symmetry has had in the differentia-
tion of those smaller discontinuous groups of animals
which we call species.

In many of the higher groups of animals, such as the
Vertebrata, Arthropoda and Annelida, we find that the
body shows an almost perfect bilateral symmetry. If we
take such an example as a fish and divide the body
vertically in a plane running from the snout to the tip of
the tail, we divide the body into two equal parts in which
the organs of the one part are almost an exact reflection
of the organs of the other part. Moreover, this plane,
from snout to tail, is the only plane in which the body
can be divided into two equal parts with a similar arrange-
ment of the organs. The bilaterally symmetrical body
also shows an anterior end which goes first in movement,
and a posterior end which follows, a dorsal surface which
is heliotropic, and a ventral surface which is geotropic and
a right and left side.

This bilateral symmetry of the animal body is usually
accompanied by the power of rapid movement in a definite
direction. All Vertebrate animals, Arthropods and Anne-
lida, which possess the power of strong muscular move-
ments in a definite direction through the air or water or
on the land, have a definite bilateral symmetry. But
this is not confined to animate things. A railway train,
a steamship, or a motor car show an anterior and posterior
end, a dorsal and ventral surface, and a right and left
side. They are also essentially bilaterally symmetrical,
It is, in fact, an essential feature of objects that move
rapidly and efficiently by their own power that they should
have this kind of symmetry.

But although all animals that move rapidly are bi-
laterally symmetrical, it is also a fact that there are others

“Manchester M. emotrs, Vol. lx. (1916). 3

of sedentary habit, such as the Cirripedes, Tunicata and
| Polyzoa, that show a predominant symmetry of the same
kind. This symmetry can only be accounted for by appeal
to their phylogenetic history. It can be shown in all cases
that these sedentary animals with a bilateral symmetry
are derived from ancestral forms that had a previous
history of free movement in a definite direction. But
even in these cases there is a tendency for certain organs,
and particularly those that are connected with the inges-
tion of food, to assume a secondary radial symmetry.

The six pairs of legs of the Cirripede when in use are
not arranged in a bilateral series but form an almost
regular funnel towards the apex of which the food is
passed and the shells frequently assume an almost perfect
radial symmetry. Similarly the lophophore of Polyzoa
and the tentacles round the mouth of Tunicates usually
assume a radial symmetry when in action.

In the Coelenterate we find that the plan of the body
is usually that of. a complete radial symmetry. This
radial symmetry is expressed by the arrangement of the
organs along a certain number of rays proceeding from a
common centre. The body may be cylindrical, spherical,
or disc-shaped or any intermediate kind of solid radially
symmetrical form, but there are no ends that we can call
anterior or posterior, no right or left sides, and no dorsal
or ventral surfaces. We can usually distinguish an oral
end or an oral surface where the mouth is situated from an
aboral end or aboral surface opposed to it, but it is an
inaccurate use of terms to speak of either of these sur-
faces as anterior or dorsal as is sometimes done.

The radially symmetrical form is always correlated
with one of two habits of life, the sedentary habit or the
floating habit. As examples of animals of the former
habit we may refer to such examples as Hydra, the Sea-

4 HICKSON, Azzmal Symmetry.

anemone and the solitary coral. A solitary coral such as

Caryophyllia is permanently fixed to a solid object at the

bottom of the sea and obtains its food by seizing with its

tentacles the prey that floats or swims within their reach.

We may suppose that in shallow sea water with its con-

stantly shifting currents food may arrive within reach from

any point of the compass and the radial arrangement of-
the tentacles is the most efficient arrangement for catching

the food at the earliest possible moment.

In Hydra and in the Sea-anemone there is some
power of movement from place to place although the
feeding habit is essentially that of sedentary animals.
Hydra is perfectly radially symmetrical, with a cylindrical
body, a round mouth and a ring of tentacles, but in the
sea-anemone there is a subordinate bilateral symmetry
shown in the slit-shaped mouth and certain details of the
structure of the mesenteries. It would be an interesting
study to inquire into the origin of this subordinate
bilateral symmetry in the sea anemones and other zoan-
tharia, but, beyond expressing the opinion that it
originated at a time when the power of movement of
ancestral zoantharia from place to place was greater than
it is now, the matter will not be further discussed in this
address.

The radially symmetrical form of animal shape, then,
is the form that is best adapted for an animal that is
fixed to the bottom in still water, or in water with variable
currents from all directions. But it is also the form best
adapted for an animal that floats or drifts about at or
below the surface of the water, and we find numerous
examples of perfectly radially symmetrical forms of
Heliozoa, Radiolaria, and Foraminifera among the Pro-
tozoa as well as of Medusae among the Coelenterata and
in the group of the Ctenophora.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916). 5

The case of radially symmetrical forms is also com-
‘parable with certain inanimate objects, I cannot think
of any such objects that receive things from all directions
as a Sea-anemone receives its food, but many objects that
give out things in all directions, which is the same in
principal, such as electric light globes, lamp shades, many
forms of stoves, etc., are radially symmetrical. Similarly
objects that float or drift through the air, as a jelly-fish
floats in the water, are radially symmetrical. As an
example of this I may mention the old fashioned balloon,
which is radially symmetrical in contrast to the dirigible
or the aeroplane, which move rapidly by their self con-
tained engines, and are bilaterally symmetrical. |

Here again zoologists will be able to point out many
exceptions to the general principle I have enunciated.
There is the case of many of the Echinoderms for example
which show a very pronounced radial symmetry, but freely
move about from place to place. But the Echinoderms
have certainly a record in their family history of a pre-
vious sedentary habit, and their movements cannot at the
best be described as rapid. Moreover, in those forms such
as the Holothurians, which exhibit a strong development
of muscle bands in the body wall, there is a pronounced
tendency to assume a secondary bilateral symmetry.

The cases of sedentary animals that are bilaterally
symmetrical already referred to, such as the Cirripedes
and Polyzoa, might be compared to the old railway
carriage which has settled down in a field as a cricket
pavilion but still retains its bilateral symmetry.

In comparing animals that are bilaterally symmetrical
with those that are radially symmetrical the zoologist
observes that there is usually far more variation in the
“important organs of the latter than in the former. In

Hydra for example the only important organs are the

6 HICKSON, Anzmal Symmetry.

tentacles, but they vary in number from 5 to 10 in
specimens of the same species. In the Sea-anemone too,
there are similar variations both in the number of the
tentacles and in the number of the mesenteries. In the
jelly-fish Auvelza aurita Ehrenberg had recorded extra-
ordinary variations in the number of rays, of the gastric
pouches and of other organs.

All of these variations are what Bateson has called ©
meristic, and do not affect the general plan of radial
symmetry.

With bilaterally symmetrical animals on the other
hand the variations are far less frequent, and are usually
confined to organs of secondary importance. It is not
necessary to enlarge upon this point in this place because
the truth of it must be apparent to any one who has had
long experience in a zoological laboratory, but mention
may be made of the rarity of any variation from the
normal that we find in any of the important organs of the
Earthworm, Crayfish, Frog, Rabbit, and other animals
that are frequently dissected in the zoological classes.

But this difference as regards variability is just what
would be expected. Any variation from the normal ina
bilaterally symmetrical animal unless paired or exactly
median would interfere with the balance of the body on
the antero-posterior axis and impede the rapidity and
accuracy of movement. We can understand therefore
that in evolution any tendency to variations on an im-
portant scale are checked unless such variations are equi-
poised on the median line, but even bilateral or median
variations become rarer as the rapidity and co-ordination
of movement are increased. For example, in the slow
crawling Annelida variations in the actual number of
somites of a species are common but in the more rapid
Arthropoda and the higher Vertebrata variations in the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916). a

number of body somites are seldom found. It is others
wise with the radially symmetrical animals in which
variations from the normal do not in the same way inter-
fere with the movements of the body or power of obtain-
ing food.

But to return to the question of the body symmetries.
We have seen that a radial symmetry is frequently asso-
ciated with the sedentary habit and that this association
is probably correlated with the need for collecting food in
any direction from which it may approach the animal.

Another method, however, adopted by many classes
of sedentary animals for increasing the food catching
powers, is by the formation of colonies by gemmation or
fission from the original individual developed from the
egg.

Miivese ‘colonies, as seen in the Corals, Alcyonaria,
Hydroid zoophytes, Polyzoa, Tunicata, etc., are frequently
supported by skeletal structures of Calcium carbonate,
Chitin or Keratin, frequently attain to a great size and
assume an infinite variety of shapes. In many cases the
shape may be described as definitely radially symmetry.
In any well-equipped Museum there may be seen the
large dome-shaped masses of brain coral, the long cylin-
drical unbranched colonies of Juncella, the bush-like
growths of Seriatopora branching profusely in all direc-
tions from a common centre, and many other forms that
have a more or less complete radial symmetry, but still a
very large number of them show a method of growth and
branching which is clearly not on a radially symmetrical
plan, and the question arises: How can these other shapes
be accounted for ? |

A sedentary colony receiving food for its individual
members from all directions should be radially sym-
metrical, just as a Hydra or a Sea-anemone are radially

8 HICKSON, Azimal Symmetry.

symmetrical ; but in the struggle for existence between
these sedentary forms of animal life in rock-pools, coral
reefs and many other favoured localities at the sea bottom,
there is so much overcrowding that unless the colonies
are able in their growth to overcome the difficulties of
their environment by some modification of a definite
symmetrical plan of growth they would be starved and
stifled by their competitors. Overcrowding, however, is
not the only difficulty that the sedentary colonies have to
contend with in the struggle for existence at the bottom
of the sea. In localities where the population is not very
dense there may be the dangers associated with the
silting up of sand or mud, with intense wave action in
exceptional storms, with special or peculiar set of the’
currents and countless other varieties of conditions that
are met with at the bottom of the sea. The sedentary
colonies have become adapted to these various conditions
by strengthening their structures with deposits of calcium
carbonate, as in the Corals, by provision for extreme
flexibility asin many of the Hydroid zoophytes, alcyonaria
and Polyzoa, and by various modifications of their, archi-
tecture in adaptation to the complex forces that play
upon them.

But with all these varieties of form and structure of
the colony as a whole the general result has been to bring
the individual polyps of which the colony is composed
into such a position that their food supply may be ex-
pected from any direction, and the radial symmetry of
the individual is maintained.

If we take such examples as Madrepora or Millepora
among the Corals we find in each genus a very great
variety of growth, there are forms with profuse delicate
branches and with thick sparse branches, plate like forms,
cup-shaped forms, encrusting forms, etc., but the polyps

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916). 9

which build up these great colonial masses are alike: in
each genus and exhibit an almost perfect radial symmetry.
Similarly with the Alcyonaria in which group we find an
even greater variety of shape and structure in the colony
as a whole there is a most remarkable similarity in the
anatomy as well as in the general symmetry of the con-
stituent polyps.

Now if we consider the general structure of these
colonies apart from their shape or symmetry, we find that
in the first place there is a certain. general correspondence
between members of the same zoological groups as regards
the actual constitution of the skeletal elements. Thus in
all the Madreporaria the skeleton is composed of a crystal-
line calcium carbonate, in nearly all the Alcyonaria the
tissues are supported by defined and shaped spicules of
the same substance, in nearly all the Hydroid zoophytes
the skeleton is formed by secretions of chitin or keratin,
so that in a general way the zoologist can determine the
zoological affinities of a given specimen by the structure
of these common colonial structures. In the second place
the details of the structure in the colonial skeletons
frequently correspond with the zoological affinities of the
individual polyps. Thus the septa of the Madreporaria, the
axis of certain Alcyonaria, the thecae of the Calyptoblastea,
the minute tabulate pores of the Milleporina, the styles of
the Stylasterina, and many other characters can be used
with confidence as guides to zoological affinity.

But when we take the shape, the general symmetry,
or the method of branching as characters of a sedentary
colony, we find as a general rule that they are no safe
guides to zoological affinity. The various forms of pal-
mate, plicate, ramose, sub-ramose, foliaceous, and many
other types of branching occur over and over again in
different genera of Corals, and it is constantly found that

IO HICKSON, Axnzmal Symmetry.

two examples of sedentary colonies that look alike, when
placed side by side, may belong to totally different groups
of the animal kingdom.

Many examples could be chosen to illustrate this
point, but I will mention one which claimed my attention
a few months ago. There are two species described by
Jullien and Calvert named Hornera eburnea and H. verru-
cosa, and placed by them in the Order of the Polyzoa.
In examining the Polyzoa collected by the “Siboga”
Expedition, Dr. Harmer came across specimens of the
same species, but feeling some hesitation about their
systematic position sent them to me for examination. A
study of the minute structure of the specimens leaves no
doubt whatever in my mind that they are as Dr. Harmer
suggested, not Polyzoa at all, but members of the order of
Stylasterina.

The factors that determine the ultimate form and
symmetry of a sedentary colony are probably two, at
least, in number. There is a factor determining the
general plan on which the colony is to be built up, and
there is a factor of plasticity which enables this plan to
be modified in various ways according to the environment.
Probably these two factors occur in the determination of
the exact form of every animal, but the essential point
about the sedentary colony is that the factor of plasticity
is one of extreme importance as compared with its im-
portance in bilaterally symmetrical animals. The reason
for this is obvious. A bilaterally symmetrical animal by
its power of locomotion from one locality to another can,
to a certain extent, choose its own environment, but a
sedentary colony, when once it has fixed itself to its
support, must accommodate itself to the ever-changing
conditions of environment. A large measure of plasticity,
in other words, is a condition of its survival. If it were

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916). | II

unable to adapt its method of erowth according to the
nature of its support, the number and character of its
neighbours in the immediate vicinity, and according to
the set of the currents and the food they bring, the species
would soon be come extinct.

With this great plasticity in the method of growth
and therefore the great accommodation of shape to the
conditions of the environment many of the characters
used by systematists for the distinction of species must
Bewte@atced as of very little value. In many of the
genera of corals and alcyonaria I am convinced that there
is no series of discontinuous groups comparable with the
species of bilaterally symmetrical animals, and I think it
is very probable that when we have further detailed infor-
mation concerning the range of variations of various kinds
of Coelenterate sedentary colonies the attempt to sub-
divide the genera into definite specific groups will be
finally abandoned.

If this general conclusion is justified it must be
admitted to be one of far-reaching importance, because it
will necessitate a very different treatment of the systematic
zoology of many groups of Coelenterata to that which is
generally adopted; but after many years of laborious
work in striving to determine species of these animal
colonies I feel quite convinced that we have been engaged
in a more or less fruitless task. In some of the genera to
which I have paid special attention, such as Millepora,
Tubipora, Spongodes (Dendronephthya), Solenocaulon
and some others, the evidence afforded by the examina-
tion ofa large number of specimens from different localities
affords no support to any conception of discontinuous
species, and in others, such as Stylaster, Errina, Disticho-
pora, Alcyonium, the number of species could safely be
reduced to two or three. |

12 HICKSON, dAuzmal Symmetry.

Bernard’* has already come.to a similar conclusion as
regards certain genera of Madreporaria, and his view is
supported by some interesting experimental work by
Wood Jones.’? I may also call attention to the valuable
work by Matthai‘ on the corals of the family Astraeidae,
in which, by a comparison of the structure of the polyps
with that of the hard skeletal parts, he has shown that a
very considerable reduction in the number of species
attributed to several genera should be made.

Many years will probably pass before zoologists arrive
at a common agreement to abandon the present system of
making species in these groups, but the results of all
recent investigators point irresistably to the conclusion
that whatever limit we make to the extension of a specific
group, the species of these sedentary colonies are far more
variable than the species of the free bilaterally symmetri-
cal animals. A question of more general interest however
is whether there is sufficient evidence that the difference
in variability of the species in a group of animals which
show a series of gradations froma radial to a bilateral
symmetry. We have sucha group in the Sea-pens or
Pennatulacea and it has been my good fortune to have an
opportunity of studying.in detail specimens of nearly all
the known genera and a large proportion of the known
species.

The Alcyonaria belonging to the Order Pennatulacea
form colonies which are not attached to stones or rocks,
but are free and capable of a certain amount of movement
in the mud at the bottom of the sea. As nearly all the
Sea-pens are found in deep water we know very little

2 Bernard, H. M. Proc: Camb. Phil. Sots, 1901, x1., p. 2605 0ane
Lritish Museum Catalogues, Madrveporaria, Vol. 1V., 1903.

% Jones, F. Wood. Prec. Zool. Soc., 1907, p- 518.
*Matthai, G.. Zrans. Linn. Soc., XVII., 1914.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916). 13

about their powers of movement, but judging from their
anatomical structure it is clear that some kinds are a great
‘deal more mobile than others. Now in this Order we find
a series of forms beginning with the Veretillide, which
are radially symmetrical, and ending with the Pennatulidae
which are bilaterally symmetrical. Between these two
extremes there is a number of families showing a gradual
increase in the intensity of the bilateral symmetry.

The systematist who begins his studies with the
radially symmetrical Veretillide finds the group exceed-
ingly difficult on account of the extraordinary variability |
of the recognised species and genera, and the way they
run into one another. This great variability is seen in
the shape of the colony, the size of the zooids, the size
and shape of the spicules and in the colour. As an
example of this I may refer to the illustration given in
my memoir® of the spicules of three specimens of Caver-
nularia orientalis taken from the same locality in shallow
water at Amboyna. Attention may also be called to the
remarkable variations of Actznoptzlum molle from the Cape
of Good Hope, described by Dr. J. Stuart Thomson in a
recent memoir published by this Society.

In this family, too, we find that the axis which is
invariably present and of a definite kind in the bilaterally
symmetrical groups may be absent, imperfect or complete
in closely related species.

Passing on to the family Kophobelemnonide, which
shows the beginnings of the bilateral symmetry, we find
in some forms, and particularly in those species with the
bilateral symmetry less well developed, a similar varia-
bility. For example, in specimens of Sclerobelemnon
Burgert from Molo Strait the spicules have an extra-

> “*Pennatulacea of the ‘Siboga’ Expedition,” fig. 9, p. 53. (In the
Press. )

14 HICKSON, Axuzmal Symmetry.

ordinary variability in shape and in size (V. “Siboga”
Monograph, fig. 18, p. 84). But when the systematist
comes to deal with some of the families that show a
pronounced bilateral symmetry he finds that the species
are far less variable as regards certain specific characters,
and the species are well defined. Inthe genus Pennatula,
for example, such .species as Pennatula Murrayi, P.
Narest, P. grandis, and others, are perfectly well defined,
and can be easily identified. The spicules taken from a
particular part of the colony have a constant form—the
3-flanged spindle—and within certain limits a constant
size. Moreover, the axis, the arrangement of the zooids,
and even the colour, are far less variable than they are in
the Veretillidz. Similarly with the genus Scytalium, the
spicules are extraordinarily constant both in size and
shape, and the few species are comparatively well defined.

Of course there are difficulties even in these bilaterally
symmetrical Pennatulacea, witness the variability in the
shape of the leaves of Pennatula phosphorea, and the
variability as regards certain characters of the genus
Pteroeides, but these difficulties are trifling compared
with those that occur in the radially symmetrical groups.

In these few pages I have summarised the general
results of many years work on the structure of the Pen-
natulacea, but a great many more illustrations could be
given to indicate the way in which the gradual change
from a radial to a bilateral symmetry has been accom-
panied by a decrease in the variability of certain structures,
and the gradual differentiation of smaller discontinuous
types of colonies which are known as species,

We are still in ignorance of the extent to which the
assumption of bilateral symmetry is accompanied by an
improvement in co-ordinated movements of the colony as
a whole, but speaking generally we do find that the

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916). 15

bilaterally symmetrical forms are provided with a more
powerful and a more elaborate muscular system, particu-
larly as regards the rachis than the radially symmetrical
forms, and this indicates that the assumption of the
bilateral symmetry is correlated with increased powers of
locomotion.

Nor are we better informed as to the evolutionary
history of the group. The ancestral form may have been
a fixed sedentary colony or it may have been a floating
colony. For reasons I have given elsewhere I believe that
it was a floating colony, but in either case it was un-
doubtedly radially symmetrical.

It seems to me that these studies on the structure of
the Pennatulacea afford a very interesting and instructive
example of the way in which variable or plastic characters
may become less variable or rigid as we pass from the
radial to the bilateral symmetry and of the way in which
the increasing rigidity of certain characters leads in some
cases to the differentiation of the discontinuous groups
which are recognised as species.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1915), Vo. 1.

I. The Relationship between the Geographical
Distribution of Megalithic Monuments and
Ancient Mines.

Bye t. EERRY, B.A,

(Communicated by Professor G. Eliot Smith, M.A., M.D.,
FR.S.)

(Received and read October 5th, 1915.)

The aim of this communication is to set forth some
results of a preliminary survey of the facts in one depart-
ment of the general investigation with which Professor
Elliot Smith and I are at present occupied. Dr. Elliot
Smith has already presented before this Society some of
the evidence concerning the spread of the megalithic
culture and the elements of which that culture is com-
posed.! In the discussion on “ The Influence of Egyptian
Civilisation upon the World’s Culture,” ?’
at the Manchester meeting of the British Association of
this year, Dr. Elliot Smith put forward a list of the
elements of the megalithic culture. Under the headings
(7) and (g) he stated that the carriers of the culture
“practised weaving linen, and in some cases the use

which he opened

of Tyrian purple, pearls, precious stones and metals
and conch-shell trumpets, as well as the curious beliefs
and superstitions attached to the latter”; and (¢),
“adopted certain definite metallurgical methods, as well
as mining.”

1 Manchester Memoirs, July, 1915: republished under the title ‘‘ The
Migrations of Early Culture.” Manchester University Press, 1915.

2 “Report Brit. Assoc,, 1915.

November 24th, 1915.

PERRY, Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

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Map J.—Showing the distribution of megalithic monuments (stippled areas)
according to Fergusson, and the sites of ancient mines, gold (circular
spots), tin (T), copper (square spots), and silver (triangular spots).

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1915), No. ¥. 3

Certain considerations have led us to add these
elements to the megalithic culture. Some of the facts in
justification of this will now be placed before you. The
material included in this paper must be regarded as form-
ing a rough preliminary sketch of a larger scheme. Some
time must elapse before it will be possible to present the
case with any approximation to completeness, or to cope
with the inevitable complexities, and follow out the
extensive ramifications which always result from the
examination of new problems. Many lacunz will at once
be detected, but their presence is due to adventitious
circumstances and not to difficulties which cannot be
overcome. The facts quoted are those which have been
accumulated by independent workers: they have not been
chosen to fit any preconceived theories. On the contrary,
the facts themselves were of so remarkable a nature as to
call for some explanation; and the aim of the present
communication is to indicate that when the data are set
out impartially they themselves suggest the explanation.

Map I. shows France, Spain and Portugal. On it
the distribution of megalithic. structures as given by
Fergusson * is represented by stippling. If it be objected
that in using Fergusson’s map we are quoting an author
with whose views we are in sympathy, it may be ex-
plained that Fergusson’s map represents concrete facts
admitted as true by those who differ from him as to
their meaning. The distribution is peculiar and quite
unmistakable in its definite localisation, On the same
map is plotted out the distribution of ancient pre-Roman
and pre-Greek mine-workings and metal-washings in
those countries.» It will be seen at a glance that there

s “* Rude Stone Monuments.” London, 1872.
_ * See for example H. Westropp, Journ. Ethnological Soc., London,
1869, and Lane Fox’s (Pitt-Rivers’) comment upon his theories.

>.Gowland. oy, Anth. Zust., XUII., 1912.

4 PERRY, Wegalithic Monuments and Auctent Mines.

is complete coincidence. The distribution of megalithic
structures as given by Fergusson is the same as that of
the earliest seats of the metal industry which have yet
reported in these three countries. The extraordinary
nature of the pattern produced by the distributions, round
the coast of Spain and Portugal and right across France,
make it difficult to refuse to recognise the intimate
relationship that must exist between the building of
megalithic structures and the getting of metals.

An enumeration of the localities of ancient mines in
the region under consideration will serve to make the
matter more convincing.’ Gold has been worked or
washed for in Asturias, Galicia, the basins of the Sil,
Ebro, Tagus and Douro ; at Cordova, on the coast region
of Malaga and from Malaga to Cartagena ; in Andalusia.
In France, again, gold workings have been discovered
in the basin of the Adour, in the northern Pyrenees,
Limousin, Creuse, and Maine-et-Loire, some of the exca-
vations being remarkable for their size. De Launay
remarks that, “in the central plateau, at many points
which in many cases still retain the name of Auricre, the
trace of ancient detritus has been found where most pro-
bably auriferous sands must have been washed” (p. 89).
Siret has also demonstrated that most probably gold was
formerly washed in Morbihan and round the mouth of
the ‘Loire (20.10, par 140255:

This distribution is, in itself, well representative of
that of the megalithic structures. I shall have occasion
later to insist upon the wide distribution of gold workings

in the megalithic area.

$ My authorities are: Gowland, Journ. Roy. Auth. /nst., XLII., 1912
(Huxley Memorial Lecture, ‘‘ The Metals in Antiquity), 47ch., 55, 56, 57;
De Launay, ‘‘ The World’s Gold”; L. Siret, ‘* Les Cassiterides et l’Empire
colonial des Phéniciens,” ZL’ Anthropologie, Vols. 19, 20, 21 (1908-1910) ;
O’Reilley, Proc. Royal Irish Acad., 1900-2; C. W. King, “* Precious Stones
and Metals,’ Loncor, 1865.

_ Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1915), No. 1. 5

Copper was formerly worked in southern Spain and
Asturias. Tin was formerly worked in Spain and
Portugal, in Orense, Pontevedra, Beira, Minhos, Tras-os-
Montes, Salamanca, Cartagena and Almeria: in France in
Loire, Morbihan and Limousin. Cartagena, Linares and
Almeria were the chief centres of silver and lead mining
in Spain.’

Thus in three countries the mining districts were
those which contained megalithic structures. But, before
proceeding, one point must be made quite clear. The aim
of this grouping of facts is to demonstrate one thing only:
the coincidence in certain regions of the distribution of
the megalithic culture with that of ancient mining opera-
tions. No assumptions whatever are made as to chrono-
logy. Where the authorities report ancient mines, that
fact is indicated on. the map. Without doubt some
workings are later than others, but at present we are not
concerned with that. As far as the chronology of the
cultural intrusions into Spain and Portugal is concerned,
I am willing at present to accept the views of M. Siret
as a tentative working hypothesis. But the fact remains
that in all this welter of Neolithic, Celt-Iberian, Greek,
Roman, and other influences, which in varying degrees
played their part in the history of the Iberian peninsula,
one fact stands out quite clearly—the exact coincidence
of megalithic structures with the earliest seats of the
metal industry. The question as to the identity of the
people who were responsible for the megalithic structures
in various parts of the world and the complex culture
associated with them may also be left in abeyance for the
present. But so far as the special problem of South

* In the Oxford School Economic Atlas silver and lead mines are seen
to occur along the track of the megaliths (p. 62) in France, and the distribu-
tion in Spain is strikingly like that of megalithic structures.

6 PERRY, Wegalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

Western Europe is concerned I am in full accord with
M. Siret as to the identity of the carriers of the megalithic
culture into Spain. However, this paper is concerned
wholly with distributions, and all questions concerning
the why and the wherefore are left on one side for the
present.

It would be exceedingly interesting if such a detailed
survey'as is available in the case of Spain and Portugal
could be instituted for the rest of Europe. But, unfor-
tunately, I have not yet had the time to collect the
necessary information. I may perhaps be allowed to
mention that the same correspondence seems to hold in
the case of England and Wales. In the latter country
the counties where megalithic structures abound are pre-
cisely those where mineral deposits and ancient mine-
workings occur. In England the grouping in Cumber-
land, Westmorland, Northumberland, Durham and Derby-
shire is precisely that of old mines; in Cornwall the
megalithic structures are mainly grouped west of Fal-
mouth, precisely in that district where mining has always
been most active. In the case of Ireland, information
(derived both from archeological researches and from
folk-lore) is now coming to hand which promises to make
the identification of the carriers of the megalithic culture
and their association with gold mining most exact. The
absence in large parts of the British Isles both of mega-
lithic structures and of old mines, not to speak of mineral
deposits, is a most striking and conclusive negative com-
plement to the positive evidence provided by their
presence and coincidence elsewhere.

Leaving Europe on one side for a moment, let us
turn our attention to other parts of the megalithic region.
In this respect Africa is an area of extraordinary interest.
The regions of megalithic influence which are most defi-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol, lx. (t915), Wo. 1. 7

nitely marked upon the maps which Dr. Elliot Smith has
included in his work® are Tunis, Algiers and Morocco,
the West African Coast, and South-eastern Rhodesia.
Ancient mine-workings have been discovered in the north
African region® and in Rhodesia", while Herodotus
tells us that the Phcenicians went round to West Africa
for gold”. The distribution of ancient mines or washings
is therefore the same as that of megalithic influence.
The presence of gold in large quantities in Madagascar
is also significant in view of the presence there of mega-
lithic influence in a pronounced form.

India is another megalithic region which is peculiarly
instructive. The distribution of megalithic structures, as
given by Fergusson, Meadows Taylor, and Crooke” is quite
definite and peculiar (/ap //.). They are very common in
the basins of the Godavari and Krishna rivers, all along
the eastern and western Ghats, and as far north as the
Vindhya hills. Typical megalithic structures are found
in Chota Nagpur and Assam." All along the Himalayas,
in Khashmir, Nepal and Bhutan, in the Punjab, Rajpu-
tana, Sind, as well as in Thibet, we find traces of the
culture which Dr. Elliot Smith and I claim to be identical
with that of the megalithic people of South India. The
great sun temples, the menhirs, stone seats, terrace-culti-
vation, sun-origin, and many other things, all point to the

S “ The Migrations of Early Culture.” Manchester, 1915.
geereise. ““Globus,” XCIII., 1908.

10 Hall. ‘‘ Great Zimbabwe.”

11 The whole question is discussed in great detail by Dahse in Zez¢sch.
jf. Ethnol, 1911, p. 1 et seg.

12 Of. czt. ** The Rude Stone Monuments of India.” Proc. Cotteswold
Naturalists’ Field Club,” XV., Pt. 2, 1905.

78 P. R. Gurdon. ‘‘The Khasis.” Sarat Chandra Roy, The Ho
Mundas of Chota Nagpur 1912, The Oraons of Chota Nagpur, Ranchi, 1915.
The existence of the megalithic culture in Assam will be discussed in my

forthcoming work on The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia.

8 PERRY, Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

presence there of a cultural influence of a kind closely

allied to that of southern India.”

Copper was formerly extensively smelted in large
quantities in South India, Rajputana, Chota Nagpur, and

Og THIBET

SEPALS
ae Tea ‘~.__@HUTAN
ome s

: A
cause NAGPUR

ee:
MALABAR\: aa:

mavens

wi hd
w te a

coast VF

tee

a. oe te

lap LI, to show the distribution of megalithic monuments (stippled areas), ancient

gold (circular spots) and copper mines (square spots), diamonds

(lozenge spots) and other precious stones (crosses).

in places on the outer Himalaya, such as Kullu, Gharwal

Nepal, Sikkhim and Bhutan.”

14 Oldham. ‘*The Sun and the Serpent.” London, 1905.
16 Schoff. ‘‘ The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea,” p. 151.
r912: Gowland. /ourl. Roy. Anth. Inst., XLII., 1912.

Gold was formerly pro-

New York,

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1915), No, 1. 9

duced in large quantities in the Chota-Nagpur plateau :
also from Thibet, the gold produced there being called
‘ant-gold’: and in Assam and northern Burma. The
rulers of Assam used formerly to require their subjects
to wash for gold during a certain number of days each
year.

Three great centres of diamond-getting are reported
fe ltidia he frst constitutes the ,valleys of the
Godavari and Khrishna rivers ; the second is the Chota-
Nagpur region, and the third is in the Vindhya Hills.
Precious stones were found in various parts of southern
India and pearls were got from the Malabar coast and
from Ceylon. |

The distribution of megalithic structures in India
therefore corresponds with that of ancient gold-mining,
and the sources of pearls, diamonds and other precious
stones. ‘This is clearly shown in the map (Wap /7.)

The association between megalithic structures and
the early mining of certain forms of wealth serves to
throw a flood of light upon the cultural history of India,
and should serve as a basis for future research. The
support which is afforded for the conclusions suggested by
the European coincidences is precise and even startling
in its nature. Once again we see that the two general
distributions, mines and megalithic culture, agree one
with the other. But other considerations now force them-
selves into the argument. South India and Ceylon are
places where immense quantities of precious stones and
pearls were exported to the west. A great trade existed
in these things at the time when Dr. Elliot Smith and I
suppose that the great megalithic wave first set out from
Africa for the American coast, and a consideration of the
facts in India would lead to the association of precious
stones and pearls with megalithic structures. We are

10 PERRY, Megalithic Monuments and Anctent Mines.

(‘S¥I}Y OTULOUOCDT JOOYS ployxQ oy} wo usyxvy)
‘]]9Ys-[avod Jo uotnqiystp oy} Surmoys—7y7 Jo7y

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lr. (1915), No. 1. II

indeed told in Oldham’s work (p. 61) that the Naga
people of southern India lived under the sea in a place
called the land of gems; there they had trading ships
and fished for pearls. We can therefore include pearl-
fishing among their activities.

The admirable volume by Ball on the Economic
Geology of India (Vol. IV. of the Manual of the Geology
of India, 1881,) has come to hand too late for use in this
paper. It is a storehouse of precise and detailed infor-
mation upon the distributions of ancient mines in India.
When a detailed distribution of megalithic structures has
been made out it will be possible to test the facts much
more stringently. I hope te be able to proceed to this
task shortly. At present it would seem that the two
distributions, megalithic influence and ancient mines, will
coincide with great exactness.

Keeping in mind the implied association between the
megalithic people and pearls, the next map (Map J///.)
becomes of great interest and importance. With one or
two exceptions it isa map of the littoral distribution of
the megalithic culture in the Indian and Pacific Oceans :
it is also that of the distribution of pearl-shell oysters.
In an area from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf right
away to the West Indies, the megalithic culture occupies
the region of pearl oysters. Both are present in the
Red Sea and Persian Gulf, India, Indonesia, Japan, the
Caroline and Marshall groups, Melanesia and certain parts
of Polynesia,and on certain portions of the American coast.

In the map, which is based upon one found in a
school-atlas, no indication is given of the presence of
pearl-shell on the coasts of Zanzibar and Madagascar,
two localities which are suggestive when the presence of
megalithic monuments in Khodesia and Madagascar is
recalled.

i2 PERRY, Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

Pearls and pearl-shell are found on the West Australian
coast, but so far as I know, no trace of megalithic influence
is to be.detected there. This fact I note, but have no
comment to make upon it at present. It is, however, a
striking commentary on the thoroughness of the search
carried out by the megalith-builders that in their exploita-
tion of the whole world they seem to have missed only one
pearl bed, that at Broome, in Western Australia. In South
America the megalithic area overlaps that of pearl shells,
but on the other hand, it is very closely defined by that
of deposits of metals and precious stones. In America
the geographical distributions of pearls and megalithic
culture coincide with remarkable precision. Peru is the
only exception to this generalisation.

Most of the area of distribution of megalithic influence
has now been surveyed. From Britain to America the
general relationship between megalithic structures and
the getting of metals, pearls, and precious stones has been
established.

In the Baltic area, however, a new aspect of the pro-
blem presents itself. Amber is an article of ornament
which is of great antiquity. It is found in conjunction
with megalithic structures in such places as Spain, France,
Britain, and elsewhere, which shows that the builders of
such structures were acquainted with the substance. Siret
makes a statement regarding amber which is of great
importance (20, pp. 138-142). According to him, amber,
jet, callais, ostrich egg-shell, elephant- and hippopotamus-
ivory are found in Neolithic stations in Spain. “On ne
les trouve pas aux phases anciennes de cette civilization,
et sauf un peu d'ivoire il n’y en a plus de traces a l’Age du
bronze .... Plusiers d’entres elles reparaissent dans les
colonies tyriennes (p. 142).

Amber came from Holland, Sweden, and: the Baltic

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1915), Wo. 1. 13

coast, particularly between Kénigsberg and Memel, and
from Denmark. The Baltic distribution is therefore
that of megalithic structures: places such as Finland, the
Gulf of Bothnia in the Baltic, and the North and North-
Western coasts of Norway being devoid of amber and of
megalithic structures. Moreover, the inland distribution
of megalithic structures in South Sweden and Norway
agrees very well with that of mineral deposits: I am
unable to say whether ancient mine-workings have been
found there. The coincidence of the distribution of
megalithic monuments and the sources of amber does
not prejudice the consideration of the routes by which
amber reached the Mediterranean: it merely suggests as
a possibility that the people who controlled the obtaining
of amber were megalith-builders.

The consideration of the places whence amber was
obtained in the past suggests a possible further develop-
ment, one, however, which presents enormous difficulties :
but as it concerns a region of ancient mining it cannot
be ignored. Amber ornaments and beads have been
found in considerable quantities in the lake-dwelling
regions of Switzerland and Upper Austria and the
Terramara settlements of Italy. These settlements range
from the earliest Neolithic cultural phases down to dates
well within the Christian era. It is commonly believed
that this amber came overland from the Baltic and that
the Terramara people reached Switzerland and Upper
Austria from the Danube basin”, but certain other
considerations cannot be disregarded. The main thesis
of Dr. Elliot Smith and myself is that Egyptian culture
has had an enormous effect upon the civilisation of the

16 Streeter. ‘* Precious Stones and Gems,” p. 240, e¢ seg. London,

1898.

17 T, E. Peet. ‘‘ The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily,” 1909,
p- 510.

14 PERRY, Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

earth. It is therefore significant to find many traces of
such influence in the earliest Neolithic lake settlements of
Switzerland. In the great work of Keller,® which
cannot be altogether ignored, even if it was published
more than forty years ago, some information is given by
Dr. Heer which seems to place beyond doubt the fact
that Egyptian influence was exerted in a very definite
way in the region under consideration. Perhaps I may
be allowed to place the facts once more before you. The
lake dwellers grew barley, and it was the same variety as
that of Southern Italy. Barley is also found in ancient
Egyptian graves, even as early as the oldest Predynastic
period”. Keller ‘adds \“ further, 2.2 ae
of wheat, which is still very commonly cultivated in
Fegypt, and yet is found in very ancient mummy cases,
came at least occasionally, into our districts. The Indian
millets have also very probably been introduced in the
same manner; they were much cultivated in Egypt, and
the Setaria (Fennick) is represented on a tomb of Ramses
Sethos and at. El-Kab.” He goes on to say that ime
lake colonists .... were also clothed in the same
manner, for in Egypt flax took the first place amongst
the plants used for spinning and weaving .... The
cultivation of flax and the art of weaving the thread may
frequently be seen on the Egyptian mural paintings,
while hemp was unknown as a plant for making thread,
and it is also entirely unknown in the remains of the lake

”

dwellings . . a remarkable thing when we remember
that both the Greeks and Romans grew hemp. Again,
the weeds of the fields betray the origin of the cereals.
Dr. Heer says that “a fact of great interest is the
occurrence of the Cretan catchfly (Sz/ene cretica, L.) in
the remains of the lake dwellings, as it is not found in

18 “* Take Dwellings.” 1878.
19 G, Elliot Smith. ‘‘ The Ancient Egyptians,” 1911.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1915), No. 1. 15

Switzerland and Germany ; but, on the contrary, is spread
over all the countries of the Mediterranean, and is found
in the flax fields of Greece, Italy, the South of France
and the Pyrenees. The presence of the corn bluebottle
(Centaurea cyanas) is no less remarkable, for its original
home is Sicily. As it had already appeared in the corn
fields of the lake dwellings, it indicates the way by which
the corn had come into the hands of the colonists.”

A converse statement can be added to this remarkable
series. Dr. Heer says that “the inhabitants of the lake
dwellings do not appear to have had any close connection
with the people of Eastern Europe, for they, at least in
the bronze age, cultivated rye, with which the lake settlers
must have been acquainted if there had been any mutual
intercourse.”* Add to this the use of head-rests, jade,
the existence of terrace-cultivation in Switzerland and
the Appenines, and many other things, it is only legitimate
to conclude that Egyptian influence must have been
prominent in this region from the beginning.

I do not propose to discuss the chronology of the
settlements, but shall confine myself to the statement
that they are situated near the sites of early mining opera-
tions. Copper mines have been found at Salzburg, within
reach, as Professor Gowland says, of the lake dwellers of
the Mond See and Atter See: iron workings were found
near Hallstadt and Laibach. In the Jura Alps numerous
iron-workings have been found well within reach of the
lake dwellers, and copper mines were worked in the Bernese
Alps. Another copper working was found at Mustchen-

stock, within reach of the lake dwellers of Robenhausen.”

2° Vole ly pp. 524 e¢ seq:

4& [bid Pp: 524.

22 Gowland. ‘‘The Metals in Antiquity.” Iluxley Memorial Lecture.
Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst., XLII., 1912, p. 244

““The Early Metallurgy of Copper, Tin, and Iron in Europe.”
Archeologia, 56, 1899, p. 309 ¢.s., Keller, p. 60.

16 PERRY, Jlegalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

Two large groups are thus left—the group round Lake »
Constance and the Terramara group of Italy. Here we
seem to be at a standstill until we remember that all the
rivers running into the Po still contain gold, and the
basin of the Po was famous in antiquity for its gold
washings; it is the only river in Italy which was so
famed. The Helvetii were said to wash their rivers
assiduously for gold and the sands of the Rhine, below
Basle, are still washed every summer for gold dust by
the peasants of the Grand-Duchy of Baden.” Lake
Constance gives rise to the Rhine, and therefore the
relationship between the pile dwellings and the gold is
suggestive, but the distribution of the Terramara settle-
ments is most precise. They are simply all crowded
together in the Po basin, and are not found at all in the
regions to the north and south.

I am quite well aware of the great complexities of
the problems which are presented by the lake dwellings
and Terramara settlements, and it must be clearly under-
stood why reference is made to them here. Once the
distribution of the earliest mining and washing settle-
ments are under consideration, it becomes impossible to
ignore Switzerland and Upper Austria, regions whose
early workings are well known. A survey of terrace-
cultivation, undertaken before I had any idea as to the
existence of such correspondences as are now put forward,
had revealed the existence of terrace-cultivation in the
Rhine valley, Switzerland and the Appenines, places
rather outside the area which Dr. Elliot Smith and I had
mapped out for the megalithic culture. It could not be
decided whether these terraces were ancient or modern,
but the discovery that Tuscany, Switzerland, and the
Rhine all came within the mining region at once gave

> Keller, p. 60. King, ‘* Precious Stones and Gems,” 104, 108.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1915), Vo. h. 17

rise to the suspicion or, at any rate, the possibility that
the terraces were of ancient origin, and that the same
cultural influence was at work in this region as in other
places. This suspicion was further strengthened when it
appeared that other signs of Egyptian influence were
present. That the inhabitants of the lake-dwellings
should have used cereals which undoubtedly were of
Egyptian origin, and that they were, on the other hand,
ignorant of rye, is surely a fact of the utmost significance.
Wie Moedyoi a) people’ is an item of fundamental
importance ; the transition from hunting to agriculture
is not made spontaneously, as we have been told, but
some definite cause, generally cultural, must be assigned
for such a change. |

Even those settlements in Switzerland where no
traces of metal have been found, show signs of contact
with relatively advanced cultures. Later on in the
same volume the relationship of the pile-dwelling culture
to that of the Eastern Mediterranean is again discussed,
and words are used which I quote as expressing exactly
my present position. “ When we speak of Egypt, as we
again and again have had occasion to do, we naturally
are not thinking of a direct intercourse between the lake
colonists and this country, but we simply mean to state
that it was the home of that civilisation which spread so
widely amongst the regions of antiquity, and which had
probably extended over the shores of the Mediterranean
further inland from their colonies, so that from these
original centres of the civilisation of that age, some
scattered rays may have reached even to our lake
dwellings.” ”
The almost complete absence of megalithic structures

24 Keller, pp. 88-9. 469 e¢ seg.
23 /bid. p. 526.

18 PERRY, Megaltthic Monuments and Ancient Mines.
Sh

is one fact which will have to be explained, even if other
elements of the megalithic culture or signs of Egyptian
influence be present.. Nevertheless it is a faci @itaat
these settlements are so situated as to be near mines or
gold washings, and their culture exhibits signs of Egyptian
influence. There the matter must rest for thesgeseme
and all questions as to the date of colonisation or the
means by which the Egyptian influence got there—
whether it was brought by those who came to work the
mines or in any other way—are left untouched.

Thus far the distribution of old mine workings
and of the cultural influence have occupied us. But
before drawing conclusions—which must by now have
become evident—I propose to go one step further
and to occupy myself with the technique of mining,
smelting and refining of metals. For this J shall have to
rely entirely upon the writings of Professor Gowland,
who, everyone must admit, will be a perfectly safe guide.
It will be seen that Professor Gowland considers the
mining and smelting operations of Switzerland and Upper
Austria as well as those of other places where there is
more convincing evidence that Egyptian influence has
been present. It must not be thought that I am claiming
Professor Gowland as a supporter for the thesis which |
am putting forward. On the contrary, we are, as it were,
viewing his facts from a different angle. It must be
remembered that we are considering the relationship
between old mine-workings and the megalithic culture,
and are not trying to determine the evolution or develop-
ment of the metallurgical art. But at the same time the
statements of Professor Gowland seem to afford very
strong support to our thesis, I shall keep to his own
words as far as possible so as to avoid any a
of personal misconstruction.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1915), Wo. f. 19

He first of all discusses Japanese operations. ‘The
method which was practised, and the furnace employed
by the early workers, still survive in use at several mines
in Japan at the present time.’ The furnace consists of a
hole in the ground, “ yet,” says Professor Gowland, “ by
means of it until a few years ago all the copper, lead and
tin produced in the country was obtained,....”” ;

The furnace had no hole in it, but the blast was led
in from the top, in the manner, say, of blowing over the
surface of water in a bucket by means of a pair of bellows.
The metal is not removed by a ladle, but water is sprinkled
on its surface with a straw brush. ‘This causes a thick
layer to solidify. This is raised by a hook, removed in a
shovel, and then thrown into water. The furnaces of
Korea are similar. Copper, when smelted, is allowed to
remain in the furnace until it is nearly solidified, when it
is brought out, placed upon a large stone, and broken up
by hammers. “In this case,” says Professor Gowland,
“the pieces of copper are identical in structure with those
of European copper hoards.” He goes on to say that—
“The copper thus produced in Japan is never cast direct
from the smelting furnaces into useful forms, but is always
re-smelted into crucibles, a mode of procedure which
undoubtedly prevailed in Europe during the early Metal
and the Bronze Ages.” |

“The crucibles used by the Japanese for this purpose
are very much larger than those employed during these
periods in Europe, and are also of an entirely different
shape. Yet, in composition, being made of ordinary clay,
mixed with chopped straw and chaff, they are precisely
analogous to those found in the pile dwellings of the
Swiss and Upper Austrian lakes.

26 Gowland. Arch., 56, p. 276.
2 iota. wep. 276: ef seq:

20 PERRY, Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

“The process of melting the copper in these crucibles
differs 2% ¢zoto from that practised in any other country in
modern times ; but, as we shall see later, it is exactly the
same as that by which prehistoric man melted copper
and bronze for casting his rude implements of these
metals. It is hardly necessary to point out that in melt-
ing metals at the present day the crucible is imbedded in
the fuel of the furnace, the heat necessary for their fusion
being applied to its exterior. In the Japanese process,
however, the exterior of the crucible is not heated, but
the fire is made in the crucible itself and above it” (Gow-
land, of. cet., p. 281). The blast is led over the top of the
_ crucible. “The exterior of the crucible when taken out
of the furnace is barely red-hot. The effects of the high
temperature are only visible on the upper part of the
‘rim and in its interior, exactly what we find in the
crucibles and melting Spoons of prehistoric man” *
“ Should the copper ore treated by the Japanese smelting
process contain foreign metals such as tin, arsenic, anti-
mony, nickel and lead, the resulting copper will contain
these metals in varying proportions according to the
quantities of each which may have been present in the
ore. Similarly, and for the same reason, these metals are
also found in the celts and other early objects of copper
29 Professor Gowland gives a table which
records the analysis of objects taken from various places :

in Europe.

“those given are representative types, and are amply
sufficient to show how closely analogous in composition
the Japanese copper is to that of prehistoric times in
Europe. The average percentage of copper is practically
identical in both series, the nature of the impurities only
being different, and the proportion of sulphur higher in

28 Gowland. Op. cit., p. 281.
*9 Thrd, 282.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1915), No. 1. 21

the Japanese examples.” Such a comparison is not
without value, as, although it does not prove with certainty
that the process and furnace used by prehistoric men in
. Europe was identical, yet it affords some evidence in
favour,of the view that they were not very widely different.”

The lumps of copper of the period of the Bronze Age
have the columnar structure, caused by breaking the
metal when it is just on the point of solidification. Pro-
fessor Gowland says “ This proves inconclusively that the
mode in which the copper had been removed from the
furnace is identical with that practised in Korea, as
already described.” The cakes found are fragments of
rough plano-convex disc-shaped masses, of diameter
8-12 ins. and greatest thickness 14 ins. “This would
indicate that the smelting furnace in which copper was
then extracted from its ores was a shallow conical or
hemispherical hole. . . resembling the primitive furnaces
of Japan.” *

Professor Gowland says that “the mines of Salzburg
were undoubtedly worked in the time of the lake-dwel-
lings of the neighbouring Mond See and Atter See. The
furnace which Dr. Much found there is, according to Pro-
fessor Gowland, “exactly similar to the Japanese smelting
furnace, excepting that it was built above the ground
level ; and was worked in the same way, that is, the blast
was led into it over its upper edge, and its contents, both
of slag and copper, were removed from its open mouth,
as in the Japanese practice.” »

The crucibles were everywhere made of the same
substance in the earliest times. Moreover, the sides are
so thick and the clay so fusible that it is impossible to

melt copper or bronze in them, by the application of
80 Tid, 283.
SP Tb7d. 285.
Pato. 255,e0 Seq.

22 PERRY, Vegalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

external heat, or by embedding them. The metal was
refined in them in the same way asin Japan. They are
put in the ground and a fire is piled up over them and
urged by a blast. “In consequence of this mode of heat-
ing, the lower parts of these vessels will, it is evident,
bear little or no traces of the action of heat, although the
upper edge and interior may exhibit a semi-fused vesi-
cular structure, and this is precisely what we find in all
these early crucibles.” *

The Japanese method of getting water out of a mine
is also, according to Professor Gowland, the same as that
employed in ancient European mines, the water being
baled into successive tanks.*

Professor Gowland has some very interesting remarks
about iron furnaces. The furnace which was used by the
ancient Egyptians, which was also used 60 years ago in
the Sudan, agrees “ very closely with the Japanese furnace
for copper, tin, lead, and to which it is similar in form.”
He goes on to say that “the furnace which was employed
by the Etruscans at a very early date, both in the island
of Elba and on the mainland, is very closely allied to the
furnaces of Kordofan .... that the Etruscan furnace had
its origin in Egypt does not at present admit of absolute
proof .... From metallurgical considerations only, we
would certainly be led to the inference that the Etruscans
had obtained their knowledge of the method of extracting
the metal from that source.”

“Closely analogous to the ancient furnace of the
Etruscans, in fact, in its early form identical with it, is the
Catalan furnace of the Pyrenean region of the north of
Spain and the south of France, which has been in use
from very early times up to our own day. That it had an

33 Tbid. 290.
$4 bids. PIO.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1915), No. 1. 23

independent: origin in that locality cannot be reasonably
maintained, and I think we may hold, on the strongest
grounds of probability, that it was introduced from the
Elban region during some part of the Etruscan age, In
connection with this it is worthy of notice, that in the
Mediterranean of Europe, west of the Apennines, no other
type of iron furnace has ever been in use until modern
times. In other parts of Europe it was also employed to
a certain extent, but was not usually the most important
form.”.*

As regards the British iron mines, “ The ancient slags
are of the same nature and composition as those produced
in the Roman period, and although they do not contain
Roman remains neither have they been found in direct
association with British objects”. . . +. JIam_of the
Opinion that the iron furnaces of Britain before Roman
times, and long afterwards, were simple low hearths,
resembling the Catalan furnace. The fuel was charcoal,
and the “bloom” of iron was taken out from the top of
fiectimemace |... . =” *

“Respecting the source whence Britain first derived
its furnace and the method for the extraction of iron from
its ore, | think we may reasonably conclude .
that it was the Mediterranean region of Europe, either the
Eastern Pyrenees or north-west Italy.”

Speaking of the smelting of iron in general he says
“The actual process for the extraction of iron from its
ores in Europe, in fact, in all countries in early times was
practically the same.” *

I do not propose to enter here into a discussion of
the smelting of iron. One important fact must be con-

Se Lbia. 302.er sége
oe) ho7a. @- 304,
Swine. STAs
Soba. 210.

24 PERRY, Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

sidered in the future. Two distinct forms of furnaces are
known: that, already mentioned, which is found in
Europe west of the Apennines; and another, in which the
blast is led in at the bottom, which is found to the east
of the Apennines.® The comparative lateness of iron
smelting in many places makes it quite unnecessary to
examine the matter here, pregnant though it is with
possibilities.

The statements of Professor Gowland which I have
re-produced here make it quite clear that he considers
the whole process of obtaining metals by mining and
smelting to have been essentially the same everywhere in
ancient times. The furnaces employed were similar:
the crucibles were of the same material and generally of
the same form: the process of smelting, first in the
furnace and then in crucibles was found everywhere,
even persisting down to present times in the absence of
any fresh cultural influence.

The study of the technique of mining and smelting
has served to consolidate the floating mass of facts which
we have accumulated and to add support for the con-
tention that one cultural influence is responsible for the
earliest mining and smelting and washing of metals and
the getting of precious stones and pearls.

In the consideration of these problems it is of crucial
importance not to forget that the mining and working of
metals had been carried on for several centuries around
the Eastern Mediterranean before the knowledge of these
arts burst the bounds of that region. Within the limits
of the latter the spread of these practices occurred
under circumstances very different to those that came

°° “Tt is important to note . . . that the type of furnace which
still survives in India among the hill tribes of the Ghats is closely analogous

to the prehistoric furnace of the Danube, and of the Jura district in Europe.
-? Gowland, Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst., XLII.. p, 279.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx.(1915), No.l. 25

into operation in the Far West and the East. In the
latter cases the new knowledge was carried abroad as part
of a definite culture, which was built up by an artificial
combination of practices within the area of the Eastern
Mediterranean. The argument here deals essentially with
the regions beyond its limits. The apparently contra-
dictory state of affairs in Northern Italy and Switzer-
land—the absence of megalithic monuments which are
invariably associated with ancient mines further west—
is due, no doubt, to the fact that the circumstances under
which elements of culture ultimately derived from Egypt
were introduced there differed essentially from those
which obtained in the west. They probably came into
operation earlier and more indirectly.

All the evidence put forward here enables us to reach
a generalisation which must have already become obvious.
In all the cases quoted some very good reason can be
assigned for the presence of the carriers of the megalithic
culture in any given place—gold, pearls, tin, and so forth
are known positively to have determined their presence
in certain localities: all this is well known. But now we
can sum the matter up quite simply.

The cause of the distribution of the megalithic culture
beyond the area of the Eastern Mediterranean was the
search for certain forms of material wealth.

Gold, tin, copper, pearls, precious stones, and so forth
were eagerly sought after, and where they were discovered,
there the megalithic influence soon made itself felt.

The search for wealth is the underlying factor in the
distribution, and it seems to provide the motive for the
wide-spread travellings of these people. To the Baltic
they went for amber, to France for gold and tin, to
Spain for many metals, to West Africa for gold and other
things: these are some of their wanderings. But the

26 PERRY, Jegalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

imagination is surely struck most forcibly by the thought
of these Ancient Mariners sailing to India, then to the
East Indian Archipelago, and thence right out across the
Pacific by way of the Carolines, Solomons, New Hebrides,
Fiji and Easter Island to the coast of America, there to
discover immense stores of all kinds of wealth, gold,
silver, pearls, and precious stones, and to settle down as
kings and over-lords, using their immense cultural
superiority 'to transform the indigenous cultures and to
found there the civilisations which have long been the
wonder and admiration of mankind.”

This wandering in the search for wealth is a remark-
able thing, and it has been the great civilising factor: it
is that which has caused the step from savagery upwards
to have taken place in many parts of the earth. For good
or evil, once it began, mankind was bound to gain in
knowledge, experience and wealth. When the details
are available it will be possible to make the picture com-
plete. At present we have the bare outlines. But none
the less the facts have grouped themselves so as to make
the nature of the picture evident. They also enable us to
state what appears to have been the most important form
of wealth for which the megalithic people sought. It was
sold. The search for that substance would seem to have
attracted those for whom it had great value to immense

*° The Greek colonisation of Spain was also determined by similar
motives. ‘*Qu’allaient faire les Grecs dans ces régions d’acces difficile ?
Si on cherche a répondre a cette question, on ne peut pas ne pas attrituer
une signification a ce fait que les traditions qui parlent des plus anciens
établissements grecs, les placent dans les régions métaliferes ; ansi la ville
d’ Ulysse est pres des mines les plus riches en argent ; parmi les colonisations
du Nord-Ouest, Ocela (Ocelum de Ptolémée) se trouve pres de Zamora,
précisément dans un des centres principaux des gisements d’étain en filons
et en alluvoins le long du Douro; c’est aux riverains de celui-ci que Stralon
attribue des moeurs Jacédémoniennes, et aux peuples de Nord-Ouest riche
en mines d’étain et d’or les différents coutumes grecques que nous avons
signalées.’ (Siret, 19, p. 158.)

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1915), Vo. 1. a

distances. A glance at the maps will at once show the
truth of this remark. Ireland, Wales, Devon and Corn-
wall, France, Spain, Switzerland, Italy, Macedonia,
Thrace, Troad, Lydia, Armenia, Nigeria, Arabia, Thibet,
Assam and Chota Nagpur, are among the places
where gold was washed in antiquity. This widespread
search for gold is highly significant. It implies that
gold had acquired a value as currency. Perhaps I may
quote Mr. C. W. King on this subject. “ Pliny,’ says he,
“launches out into a set of reflections in his own quaint
style, astonished as to what possible motives could have
induced all mankind to make gold, wherever known, the
first and chiefest representative of value. It was and
is indeed a strange coincidence in the notions of races,
however remote from or unconnected with one another,
that must early have puzzled every observer.”** And
so on. According to the thesis here put forward the wide
acceptance of gold as a standard would be the result of
Egyptian influence. It would seem that gold came to
have a standard of value in Egypt, and that it was the
first form of currency. This would mark an event in the
history of mankind of the first importance. With a
commodity capable of universal barter, wealth could be
stored up, and, where large quantities of it existed, there
could civilisations be founded. The Egyptians had
immense gold mines. De Launay tells us that “there
were manifestly several great mining centres in Asia
Minor five centuries before Christ, which are known to us
through Herodotus” In Chaldea, he says also, “gold
was present in lodes and sand.” Indeed, “the earliest
centres of gold mining were evidently in the zone of the
most ancient civilisations, in Armenia, Chaldea, Asia
Minor, and Esypt.”* These coincidences cannot be

ReetO DP. Ceo: OS.
VOD. Cll, PP» S2y 4:

28 PERRY, Wegalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

due to chance. It cannot be contended that in these
places, in addition to Tuscany, with its immense gold
washings in the Po Valley, and Thrace and Macedonia
and the Troad, gold suddenly came to acquire a value as
currency. It can only be that most. of these civilisations
sprang up on a gold basis. Since Egyptian civilisation
dates back furthest, it would seem that the Chaldean
civilisation and those of Asia Minor owe their existence,
directly or indirectly, to Egypt.

In short the whole history of the influence of Egypt
upon the rest of the world covers a period to be counted
by thousands of years. Beginning perhaps with gold-
washing colonies in Chaldea and Asia Minor, themselves
destined to grow into mighty civilisations, and extending
thence wherever gold and other desired things were found,

this influence spread in a series of waves. The greatest -

of these, the tidal wave which threw up the cargo of
customs and beliefs on the coasts of the remotest parts of
the world, reached its phase of maximum intensity at the
time when the Phcenicians, those apt pupils and amazing
adventurers and traffickers, reached the summit of their
activities,

ee

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1915), No. I. 29

Remarks on Mr. W. J. Perry's Communication.

Pen Professor G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D... F.R.S.

One of the most puzzling features of the geographical
distribution of megalithic monuments hitherto has been
the apparently haphazard way in which certain sites
have been selected and others left by the builders of these
curious stone structures. Mr. Perry has provided the
explanation. The coincidence of the distribution of the
monuments and the mines is far too exact to be due to
mere chance. Ancient miners in search of metals or
precious stones, or in other cases pearl-fishers, had in
every case established camps to exploit these varied
sources of wealth ; and the megalithic monuments repre-
sent their tombs and temples.

That the chief exploiters of the Iberian (and probably
also the Indian) mines in question were the Phoenicians
can now be regarded as definitely established” But
it is not so obvious why the Phcenicians should have
built monuments of the characteristically “megalithic”
type. It is probable that they recruited for these special
expeditions men who were expert gold-miners, in much
the same way as in our own times one sometimes meets
prospectors who have worked in turn at Ballarat, Cool-
gardie, the Transvaal and Klondyke.

There is a good deal of evidence to suggest that the
Phoenicians may have recruited many of their miners
from the Black Sea littoral, and especially from Colchis,
the land of the Golden Fleece, and that these men built

1 See L. Siret, of. cit. supra; and my article ‘‘ The Influence of
Ancient Egyptian Civilization in the East and in America”’ in the forth-
coming (January) Bulletin of the John Rylands Library.

30 6PERRY, Jegalithtc Monuments and Ancient Mines.

megalithic monuments in mining camps, as far apart as
Spain and India, in much the same way as they were
accustomed to do in their own country in the Caucasus.

These Colchian dolmens were certainly inspired,
directly or indirectly, by Egyptian models, such as the
mastabas.

Most modern scholars are inclined to regard the
account of the Colchians given by Herodotus as a mere
traveller’s tale devoid of any real justification. But there
is so much archeologicai evidence in support of his
statements, and moreover he gives such precise and
cogent reasons for them, that I am convinced there
is.an element of truth in his contention. “Foriine
Colchians were evidently Egyptians, and I say this
having myself observed it before I heard it from others ;
and as it was a matter of interest to me I inquired of both
people, and the Colchians had more recollection of the
Egyptians than the Egyptians of the Colchians; yet the
Egyptians said they thought the Colchians were
descended from the army of Sesostris ; and I formed my
conjecture, not only because they were swarthy and
curly-headed, for this amounts to nothing, because
others are so likewise, but chiefly from the following
circumstances: because the Colchians, Egyptians, and
Ethiopians, are the only nations of the world who, from
the first, have practised circumcision ” (Euterpe, Book IT.,
Sect.’ 104, Cary’s translation),)2 7 ="... “1 willie
mention another fact respecting the Colchians, how they
resemble the Egyptians. They alone and the Egyptians
manufacture linen in the same manner; and the whole
way of living, and the language, are similar in both
nations” (zbzd., Sect. 115).

This presumably means that some community,
amongst whom the Egyptian funerary practices of the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1915), 7 eae 31

Old Kingdom had survived, carried their customs to
Colchis, perhaps as sailors manning the ships of
Phoenicians or as soldiers in the army of an Egyptian
king, which the vague designation “Sesostris” of the
Greek historian suggests.

The reference to the swarthiness and curly hair of the
Colchians suggests an Ethiopian origin. In this con-
nexion it is perhaps significant that in the story told by
Herodotus “Sesostris” is said to have visited the Black
Sea in the course cf an expedition which began in the
Red Sea. It is perhaps possible that the criginal miners
of Colchis may have come from the Egyptian mines in
the Eastern Desert. In the account of the burial customs
of the Scythians (of the Black Sea littoral) given by
Herodotus, not only were Egyptian methods of mummi-
fication adopted (see “ The Migrations of Early Culture,”
p. 66), but also the practice of killing wives and attendants,
which [ regard as a Sudanese addition to the Egyptian
burial customs (of. cz¢., p. 56),

In the account of his excavations in the Kuban
district of Southern Russia, M. de Majewski describes the
finding of a curious clay model of a pile-dwelling, which
he refers “to a well-defined phase of pre-Mycenean cul-
ture at the latter part of the Neolithic.” *

After much searching for analogous dwellings else-
where, M. de Majewski ultimately found what he wanted
in the bas-reliefs at Dér el-Bahri of Queen Hatshepsut’s
expedition to Punt, and came to the conclusion that “il
parait donc que quelque part, sur les bords de la Mer
Rouge, ou sur les rives du Nil supérieur, on construisait
les habitations humaines de la méme facon que sur les
bords de la Mer Noire” (of. czz., p. 233).

? ** Habitation humaine (enclos) sur pilotis de la fin du néolithique,”
Bull, Soc. ad’ Anthrop. de Paris, April 3, 1913, p. 229.

32 PERRY, Wegalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

It is also not without significance that the same
expedition was responsible for introducing into Egypt, at
least for the sacred purposes of Queen Hatshepsut’s
Theban temple, the “myrrh-terraces of Punt” (Southern
Arabia). This is the earliest reference to terrace-cultiva-
tion (about 1500 B.C.).

On the present occasion it is not my- intention to
follow up the multitude of complex problems suggested
by these references. They have, however, a double bear-
ing on the present discussion, in that they afford a certain
amount of prima facie evidence in support of the conten-
tions, (2) that some time after the 16th century B.C.,
Ethiopian gold-miners may possibly have begun to work
in the Colchian area, and that the type of dolmen found
there may have been inspired from Egypt in that way ;
and (4) that Egyptian elements of culture may have
reached the Danubian area by way of the Black Sea.

But whether this be so or not the megalithic monu-

ments both of Spain and India represent the degraded.

survivals of monuments originally inspired by the methods
of tomb-construction that prevailed in Egypt many
centuries before, in the remote Pyramid Age. The crews
of the Phoenician ships, or the skilled miners who ex-
ploited the wealth of the distant settlements, were
responsible for distributing these customs far and wide.

The Black Sea littoral provides a most important
series of megalithic monuments ranging from Bulgaria to
the Caucasus, in every case in association with ancient
mining settlements. In fact, Mr. Perry might have re-
ferred to this area in the same way as South-Western
Europe and India have been used to demonstrate his
contention.

In his statements concerning the pile-dwellings and
Terramara of Switzerland and Italy, he has touched upon

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1915), WVo. 1. 22

a problem of extreme difficulty and complexity. To
have omitted specific reference to these sites of early
mining would have laid him open to the charge of shirk-
ing discussion of a case which seems to go against his
generalisation: for dolmens such as occur in association
with early mines in the East and West are lacking in the
Terramara area.’

Mire PH Feet tells us* that the “internal evidence
for the identification of the lake-dwelling and terramara
people with an invading race from Central Europe is
overwhelming.” Whether this is so or not, there can be
no doubt that along with such un-Egyptian burial customs
as cremation, and many other northern practices, they
combined others which were certainly derived, directly or
indirectly, from Egypt and the South. The suggestion
already made in a preceding paragraph may possibly
explain how certain Egyptian practices may have reached
Italy and Switzerland by way of the Danube from the
Black Sea. |

There can be no doubt, however, that the mining
settlements in northern Italy were established several
centuries before, and under circumstances vastly different
from those which, in comparatively recent times, the
Phoenicians were responsible for planting in the Iberian
peninsula. But once the investigator enters the domain
of the old civilizations the conditions become so com-
plex that it is no longer possible to rely upon those
clear indications of the definite source of cultural inspira-
tion which can be made use of beyond the limits of that

* A dolmen, however, has been recorded in association with the lake-
dwellings at Auvernier, near Lake Neufchatel (see De Nadaillac’s ‘* Moeurs
et Monuments des Peuples Prehistoriques,” Paris, 1888, p. 291 and Fig.

106,—in which he refers to Gross, ‘‘ Les Proto-Helvetes,”’ and Morel-Fatis,
*<Sepultures des populations lacustres de Chamblandes,”’ as his authorities).

* «The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily,” p. 510.

34 PERRY, Megalithic Monuments and Ancient M ines.

area. For the Phoenicians collected a series of customs
from every part of the Eastern Mediterranean, irrespective
of whether they were Egyptian, Babylonian, or Mycenean
in origin; and when they distributed them among the
more distant uncultured lands, they became sure indica-
tions of Pheniczan influence Once, however, the investi-
gator enters the area of these old civilisations, where the
various elements of the culture-complex originated, these
no longer can be used as tokens of Phoenician influence,
for all the circumstances of the case are then altered.
Northern Italy was probably influenced by these older
civilizations without the intermediation of the Phoenicians.

There is one other point in Mr. Perry’s communica-
tion which calls for comment—the important réle played
by pearl-shell in leading the distributors of the megalithic
culture to the East. In her interesting memoir on the
transmission of the use of the Purpura shell-fish from the
Eastern Mediterranean to Mexico, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall?
emphasised the intimate relationship that existed between
the use of purple for dyeing, conch-shell trumpets and a
special appreciation of pearls. Professor R. C. Bosanquet
has called attention® to the fact that the use of purple,

the discovery of which had been credited to the Phee-
nicians, was probably due to the Minoans. A collection
of crushed shells of Murex trunculus discovered by him
in Crete are referred to a date at least as veariyaye
1600 B.C.

Moreover, the conch-shell was used as a trumpet in
Crete, and is said to have been “a regular accompani-

ment of Minoan religious worship.” ’

6 A Curious Survival in Mexico of the Purpura Shell-fish for Dyeing,”
Putnam Anniversary Volume, 1909.

6 “An Early Purple-Fishery,”’ Refort Bret, Assoc., 1903, p. 817.

7 H. H. Hall, ‘* Augean Archeology, 1914, p. 155.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1915), Wo. 1. 35

When pearls first were sought after is not known:
but the intimate association of a special appreciation of
pearls with the use of purple and of the conch-shell
suggests that the persistent search for these other shells
may also have been responsible for the development of
the fashion for the pearl-shell.

The Phoenicians no doubt acquired from the My-
cenean peoples their knowledge of the making of purple
and the custom of using the conch-shell trumpet. In
course of time, as the demand for these shell-fish increased
and the Mediterranean supply became inadequate, it is
probable that the Phoenicians began to search the Red
Sea for them: this may have been responsible for the
inauguration of the definite trade in pearls and pearl-shell,
which was destined to be the primary incentive which led
the Phoenicians further and further to the East, until
eventually they themselves, or some peculiarly apt pupils
of theirs, were led right across the Pacific to the pearl-
beds of the American Coast, the Antilles and the Mis-
Sissip~emwone of the factors in developing the special
appreciation of the pearl-shell may have been an outcome
of the use of the conch-shell in religious ceremonies in
Crete. For it is known that when the use of the conch-
trumpet was introduced into India, perhaps in the seventh
century B.C., such importance was attached to its assocta-
tion with temple worship that special sanctity became
associated with the shell itself.“ A great variety of objects
were made from the “chank,” to which particular religious
and magical value was attached ; and the cult of white
shells spread far and wide in the Far East, Oceania and
America.

In India the geographical distribution of megalithic

8 James Hornell, ‘‘ The Sacred Chank of India,” Madras Fisheries
Bureau, Bulletin No. 7, Madras, 1914—See especially Chapter ITI.

36 PERRY, MWegalzthic Monuments and Ancient Mines.

monuments also represents that of the localities in which
the “chank” is commonly used, even in modern times.

[Since this was written, Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson has
called my attention to the important evidence relating to
the use of pearl-shell, the exploitation of purple, and the
importation of Red Sea cowries, in Ireland and elsewhere
in the British Islands (Edward Collier and Kobert Standen,
Journ. of Conchology, April, 1896, pp. 188 and 189: also
J. W. Jackson, same /ourvnal, April Ist, 1912). For the
evidence of the use of purple in Gibraltar, see Duckworth,
Journ. Roy. Anthr. [nst.. 1911, p. 363 ; and in New Zea-
land, see Colenso, 7vaus. N. Zealand Inst., 1881, p. 57.
The importance of this evidence in further corroboration
of the identity of the motives and the methods of the
culture-distributors who wandered respectively East and
West from the Eastern Mediterranean is obvious. I hope
that Mr. Robert Standen and Mr. Wilfrid Jackson will
undertake the interesting task of following up these clues
afforded by shells and present the results to the Society. ]|

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2.

II. Notes on some Palzozoic Fishes.

By D. M. S. Watson, M.Sc.,

University College, London,
AND

HENRY Day, M.Sc.,

The University, Manchester.

( Read October roth, 1915. Recetved for publication October 25th, 1915. )

(Plates I.—IlI. Text-Figs. 1—g.)

INDEX.
Introduction : - - E s
Systematic - 4 x i 3 : 2 :
Pentlandia nov. gen.
Structure - E d : : a : :

Floloptychius flemingzc - 2 - ‘ :

Glyptolepis paucidens - z - - “

Glyptopomus kinnatrd: - - - 2
Rhizcdopsis sauroides - : - 2 L

Gyroplychius microlepidotus - . - -

Tristichopterus alatus - - = - 7
Osteolepes macrolepidotus- : a ¢ x
Dipterus valencitennest - = a : :
Dipterus platycephalus - - : E :
Pentlandia macropterus - - c 2 =
Phaneropleuron andersont - : “ “

Sagenodus inequalis - ; - 5 -

Ctenodus?P - J s 2 : rs

Phylogenetic Discussion :—
Of Rhipidistia = - : . : :

Of- Dipnos - : - : i G
Summary - : : " ! i =

February 7th, 1916.

PAGE.

2 WATSON & Day, Wotes on some Paleozotc Fishes.

During the last few years the collection of fossil fishes
in the Manchester Museum has increased very rapidly by
gift, purchase and exchange, until it is now one of marked
importance, rich in specimens of morphological interest.
It is our purpose in this paper to describe some of these
of Palzozoic age belonging to the Crossopterygian and
Dipnoan orders. The work forms part of an investiga-
tion into the origin of the Amphibia on which one of
us has been long engaged. We intend to give as accurate
and as full an account as possible of certain types and
briefly to discuss their inter-relationships and certain
points of morphological interest.

Floloptychius flemingiz, Ag.

The structure of the small species of Holoptychius
which occurs so abundantly in the yellow sandstones of
the upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den in Fifeshire
has been described by Agassiz and Huxley.

Dr. Traquair in 1896 published a restoration of the
whole fish and E. S. Goodrich in 1909 an original restora-
tion of the head. These works have made us acquainted
with the general structure of the animal, its body form,
squamation, and the general external appearance of its
fins, being well understood. Investigations of Owen have
made us acquainted with the structure of its teeth, and
Rohon, working on Russian materials belonging to the
same genus has added to our knowledge of its skuil.

Despite all this, however, our detailed knowledge of
the skull structure remains very small. The head of the
restored figure by Traquair is by far the most accurate
contribution to a knowledge of its cranial osteology, but
even this is in some ways inaccurate.

Our study is founded on the heads of seven individuals

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2.

Text-fig. 1.—Holoptychius flemingzi, Ag. Restoration of head
(dorsal and right lateral aspects). Cu1., Clavicle; FR., Frontal ;
I.T., ‘‘ Intertemporal”; Ju., Jugal ; Op., Operculum ; Pa., Parietal ;
P.O., Post-orbital ; P.Op., Pre-operculum ; P.P., Post-parietal ; P.T.,
Post-temporal ; Qu.J., Quadrato-jugal ; S.CL., Supra-clavicle; Se.,
Squamosal; S.T., Supra-temporal; S.Op., Sub-operculum ; Tas..
Tabular. Whenever possible, bones are referred to under the names
by which they are known in Amphibia, but the nomenclature of the
clavicular apparatus is that of fish.

On

4 WATSON & Day, Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

from the classical locality, in the Manchester Museum.
Many of these are well preserved and although none
is complete, they supplement one another so as to
give clear information about the whole of the external
surface of the skull except in the premaxillary and
narial region.

As these skulls are not seriously crushed, we have con-
siderable certainty of their original shape. Holoptychius
had a body nearly circular in section at the pectoral girdle.
The head is very short, the orbits far forward and mainly
laterally directed. The dorsal profile does not form a
uniform curve but rises somewhat abruptly a short distance
behind the orbits, the anterior part of the head being in
consequence dorso-ventrally flattened.

The general structure will be best understood from
the restorations (/zg. 1) which have been drawn with
great care and are projections one from the other. At the
extreme back of the skull, in the mid-dorsal line, is a large
bone which corresponds with the two post-parietals which
are so constant a feature of early Amphibian and Reptilian
skuils. We propose to call this bone the post-parietal.
The post-parietal is bounded on each side and is in fact
overlapped to a large extent by the tabulars which are
large dermal bones ornamented with a slightly impressed
sculpture of ridges and grooves. In front of this trans-
verse row of three bones lie the parietals, which meet
one another in median suture, and together form a large
six-sided area on the top of the head. Each articulates
with five other bones in addition to its fellow. The lateral
margin from the tabular forward, articulates by a rather
close suture with a small oval bone which we intend to call
the “supratemporal ” because it is obviously homologous
with the bone which has commonly borne that name
in Stegocephalia.”! In advance of the “supratemporal ”

~

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. tx. (1916), Wo. 2. 5

is another bone much less closely connected with the
parietal, which we shall call the “intertemporal”’ The
anterior end of each parietal is very loosely connected
with the frontal, a small square bone having a median
suture with its fellow from which it is not separated by a
pineal foramen, and playing no part in the margin of the
orbit. In front, the frontals are connected with the shield
which covers the anterior end of the snout, but of whose
structure we are ignorant.

The orbit lies below the “intertemporal” and frontal,
separated from them by two bones, the posterior of which
articulates with the whole lateral margin of the “ inter-
temporal” and to some extent with that of the “supra-
temporal.” This bone articulates behind with a large
element on the side of the face, whose upper margin is
separated from the posterior part of the “supratemporal ”
and the tabular by a space to some extent filled by a
bone which will be described in connection with the
opercular apparatus. We propose to call this large cheek
plate the squamosal. The curve of its upper margin is
continued backward by that of another large triangular
element which articulates with it in a short suture, below
which its anterior border is separated from the posterior
border of the squamosal by a small triangular bone
which we dg not propose to name. The large element is
obviously pre-operculum. The lower margin of the pre-
operculum overlaps a small quadrate element the quad-
rato-jugal. The lower and posterior quadrant of the
margin of the orbit is formed by a bone whose dorsal
border articulates with the post-orbital and squamosal,
and whose lower edge is covered by the maxilla. As it

* We are aware that the use of this name is strongly to be deprecated,
but use it here in order to avoid the introduction of a new term because
the whole question is shortly to be considered by a committee of the
American Palzontological Society.

6 WaTSON & DAY, Wotes on some Palaozotc Fishes.

is preserved to us this bone does not reach back to the
pre-operculum and the quadrato-jugal but leaves a small
irregular opening in the long cheek, which may perhaps,
but very improbably, be original, but is more likely to
have been closed by a separate element of which indeed
some traces seem to be visible in a single specimen. The
maxilla is a long somewhat shallow bone lying entirely
in the skin and extending from the premaxilla to the
quadrato-jugal. It overlaps all bones which lie above it,
and its lower margin is tooth-bearing. The anterior
_ border of the orbit is surrounded by a bone or bones of
which we can say nothing. ~

Fitting into the gap between the squamosal and
tabular is a small quadrate bone whose lower and pos-
terior margin is connected with the upper border of the
large operculum. This element fits closely up to the
tabular and its posterior edge is rounded. It overlaps
the sub-operculum below it, whose anterior border fits the
pre-operculum. The remainder of the opercular appa-
ratus is not well shown in the Manchester specimens, but
the sub-operculum supports the posterior of the lateral
culars, which themselves articulate with the paired prin-
cipal gulars.

Articulated with the inner sides of the tabulars are
distinct post-temporals, thin derma! bones with a great
resemblance to scales. These support slender triangular,
supra-clavicles which themselves pass under the upper ends.
of the powerful clavicles, great sickle-shaped bones with a
wide exposure on the whole flank of the fish behind the
opercular apparatus. The lower ends of these bones over-
lap the upper ends of the infra-clavicles which are them-
selves triangular bones on the ventral surface of the fish
filling up the notch between the posterior margins of the
principal gulars. From the outer corner of each

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 2. 7

arises a special process with which the clavicle articulates.’

Our observations have served to convince us of the
great general accuracy of Dr. Traquair’s restoration but
one well preserved fish gives evidence of the occurrence
of a large scale covered lobe in the second dorsal, and a
similar but a smaller lobe in the anal fin. The external
structure of these fins is in fact quite similar to that of the
typically “Crossopterygian” pelvic limb.

Glyptolepis pauctdens, Ag.

The Manchester material does not permit us to add
anything to our knowledge of the skull structure of this
type, but a small slab collected by one of us at the famous
quarry of Achanarras shows numbers of well preserved
scales of Glyptolepis paucidens associated with the some-
what imperfect impression of the caudal part of the verte-
bral column. This specimen is scarcely in a condition to
afford detailed information but shows quite conclusively
that the vertebral column of Glyptolepis is of a temno-
spondylous nature. At the anterior end the elements are
naturally arranged and seen to show neural arches
attached to pleurocentra which extend about half the
height of the column, the condition being apparently
rhachitomous. Posteriorly the neural arches with their
attached pleurocentra have been dragged away from the
series of hypocentra so as to suggest that the condition is
nearly embolomerous. In both regions the ossitications
appear to be paired and are slender segments of rings.
Despite its imperfection this specimen is of considerable

2 Throughout this paper the terms for the clavicular apparatus are those
ordinarily employed by students of fish and are not to be interpreted as

implying the acceptance of any view of their homology with those of
Tetrapods.

8 WATSON & Day, Notes on some Paleosotc Fishes.

importance because it is the only fragment of a Palzozoic
fish showing a vertebral column of this type, and it is certain
that the Amphibia arose from fish with a temnospondylous
vertebral column of some form.

Glyptopomus kinnaird?, Huxley.

The structure of this fish has been described by
Huxley in a classical paper and Goodrich has published
a new restoration of the head and of the fish.

The heads of four specimens on a single slab obtained
in the recent excavations carried on by a committee of
the British Association at Dura Den, allow us to produce
a new and, as we hope, accurate restoration of this fish.
They are excellently preserved and well exposed.’

Glyptopomus is a remarkably elongated fish, and in
consequence its whole head and the bones composing it
are long and slender when compared with the corres-
ponding parts of Holoptychius. ‘The orbit is far forward
and somewhat small, whilst the gape is of great length.
The post-parietal and tabulars resemble those of HYolopty-
chius, especially in the very small exposure of the median
element. The parietals, and the “supratemporals” and
“intertemporals”” are closely articulated so as to form
one nearly flat plate. Loosely articulated with this plate
by a joint which was apparently flexible during life, are
the very large frontals. These appear to meet one
another in the middle line throughout their length, there
being no pineal foramen, although this opening has been
reported by Huxley and Goodrich. The nasals are

®’ Only one of these heads is attached to a well-preserved body, the
scales of which are badly shewn. It is conceivable that they really belong
to ‘* Gyroptychius heddlec” Traq. and not to Glyftopomus, although the

complete individual agrees well enough with one of Huxley's figures of that
fish.

Manchester Memoztrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2. 9

paired and distinct, apparently not fused with the pre-
maxillae and other bones to form a shield over the snout.

Articulating with the posterior part of the lateral border
of the frontal and with the “intertemporal” is a small

Text-hg. 2.—Glyptopomus kinnairdi (Huxley). Restorations of
' the dorsal and right lateral aspects of the skull. x3. Reference
, letters as in Fg. 1 with :—I.CL., Interclavicle ; Lac., Lachrymal ;
Mp., Mandible; Mx., Maxilla; Na., Nasal; Po.Fr., Post-frontal ;

_ PR.FR., Pre-frontal ; S.ORB., Supra-orbital.

Io WATSON & DAY, Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

oval bone not represented in Hloloptychius. The post-

orbital articulates with this bone and with the frontal,
which is almost excluded from the orbital margin by a
special small supra-orbital bone and by the jugal. The
squamosal is a very large element articulating with the
post-orbital and jugal and having its upper margin very
free although for some distance it follows the “ supra-
temporal.” The pre-operculum has a narrow exposure
and its posterior edge continues the curve of the upper
border of the squamosal. The quadrato-jugal is a quad-
rilateral bone of a fair size articulated above with the
pre-operculum and the squamosal. The circumorbital
bones in addition to the post-orbital and jugal include
a smali crescent-shaped supra-orbital ossicle, a large
lachrymal which articulates both with the jugal and with
the supra-orbital ossicle, and a bone which is apparently
a pre-frontal articulates with the frontal, nasal, lachrymal
and the supra-orbital ossicle, and in front ends in contact
with a small bone whose anterior margin is a rounded
notch which has apparently formed the posterior border
of the external nares. The maxilla is the usual long
narrow slip forming most of the oral margin and over-
lapping all bones which lie above or behind it. A small
bone exactly similar to one which we have already de-
scribed in HAoloptychius fills up the gap between the
squamosal and the tabular. It is immediately succeeded
by a large pentangular operculum whose lower border
overlaps the narrow sub-operculum which itself is suc-
ceeded by the first of the lateral gulars. We have been
unable to observe any distinct post-temporal, but one
may be present. The supra-clavicle is a large flat bone
whose lower and posterior end passes behind the top of
the very massive clavicle. The infra-clavicle is an even
larger bone of indescribable shape. We have nothing to

OE ——

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2. II

add to the account of the gular apparatus given by
Huxley. One skull is so preserved as to show the dorsal
surface of the palate. As exhibited it consists of a broad
dorsally channelled parasphenoid whose lateral surfaces
are in contact apparently by specialised processes with
the pterygoids at about the middle of their length.
Where it is in contact with the parasphenoid the ptery-
goid consists of a nearly vertically placed sheet of bone
which is concave outwardly. As it is traced forwards
this concave shell becomes converted into a nearly hori-
zontally placed flange whose inner margin is in contact
or nearly in contact with its fellow in the middle line.
Behind the articulation with the parasphenoid, the verti-
cally placed shell is continued, its upper margin tending
to be directed outwards until at the extreme back of the
skull at the level of the quadrato-jugal the bone ter-
minates in an outwardly turned process which is in con-
tact with an ill-preserved mass representing the quadrate.
The quadrato-jugal lies to the outer side of this mass.
The lateral margins of the bone in the anterior part are in
contact with two bones, the posterior, the ectopterygoid
being a flat bone with a row of teeth near its outer edge,
the anterior the palatine, an exactly similar bone except
for the occurrence of a definite foramen whose border is
smooth and turned dorsally. The bone terminates just
in advance of this opening. Further forward lie the pre-
vomers, not well preserved, each of which is, however,
shown to bear a large tooth and to articulate with the
anterior ends of the pterygoids and palatines.

The remainder of the fish seems to agree well with the
restorations published by Huxley and Goodrich, although
the pectoral fin is not auite so acutely lobate as it is repre-
sented in the latter’s figure. This fin is represented in
Pl. 1, Fig. 4, from which its structure will be obvious. |

12 WATSON & Day, Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

Rhizodopsis sauvotdes. (Williamson.)

YN TY
Wea tiee

Nice
c

Ja

Text-fig. 3.—RKhizodopsts sauroides (Williamson). Restoration

of whole fish. Natural size of a small specimen.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2. - 13

Rhizodopsis saurotdes is of interest for many reasons.
In his original paper Williamson described it as “an extinct
salmon” on superficial. resemblance of squamation. But
even in his earliest paper he gave an account of a some-
what distorted fish showing all the fins. This specimen
was the first nearly complete fish to be found in the
Lancashire coal measures or indeed we believe in the coal
measures of England. It is now in the Manchester
Museum and has served us for a study of the median fins.
Our knowledge of the fish however really depends on a
classical description which Dr. Traquair gave in 1881, the
first thorough study of the cranial osteology of a Crossop-
terygian fish ever published in England. The materials
which we have used consist of eight specimens from the
Knowles Ironstone of Fenton, Staffordshire, and numerous
specimens in shale, two of which, one being Williamson’s
original, are important for the study of the median fins.
An entirely independent restoration of the head made
from this material agrees with that given so long ago by
Dr. Traquair in all important features but differs slightly
in the proportions of certain bones, and in-the general
shape. In addition we have observed a small process
rising from the anterior end of the maxilla, whose
anterior border forms a rounded margin which can only
be that of an external nostril. As this process is not
present in all specimens it is in all probability really a
separate bone. In addition we have observed the presence
of a series of well interlocked sclerotic plates in the eye-
ball bearing a very considerable resemblance to those
which are so familiar in /chthyosaurus. We have observed
considerable difference in proportion of bones in fish of
different sizes,

One remarkable specimen in the Knowles Ironstone
shows a good deal of the cartilaginous portions of the

14. WATSON & Day, Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

head, largely as a cast in gypsum of cavities left in the
ironstone by the decay of the cartilage. This specimen
shows us that there is a large cartilaginous cranium lying
to a considerable extent below the parietals but extending
far forward into the ethmoidal region. So incompletely is
it exposed that our account of it can only be very slight.
As exhibited it shows at its extreme posterior end a
narrow dorsal surface over the cerebellar region which
suddenly expands to form a pair of ridges presumably
housing the posterior vertical semicircular canals. For-
ward of this region the upper surface is essentially flat
and is closely applied to the under surfaces of the
parietals and “supratemporals.” The lateral borders are
produced in powerful and somewhat lengthy processes,
with the outer ends of which the hyomandibulars articu-
late. From here the brain case rapidly narrows, until
between the orbits it is far higher than wide. It then
expands again slightly in the ethmoidal region.

The palate is incompletely but satisfactorily exposed
in this specimen. The large pterygoidal element resembles
in its structure that which we have already described in
Glyptopomus, but the vertical part of the bone which in
that form is shown to lie behind the articulation with the
parasphenoid here rises to the top of the skull, so as
nearly or quite to come into contact with the cranial roof.
The posterior end of the bone is clearly shown to be
deflected outwards to surround the quadrate, the extreme
tip of which is visible and whose position is certain from
the known structure of the articular of the lower jaw,
which is still in natural articulation with it. The speci-
men leaves it uncertain whether the ectopterygoid and
palatine are really separate bones or are fused as in
Megalichthys, The specimen rather suggests that the
ectopterygoid is fused whilst the narrow palatine retains

Lext-fig. 4.—Rhizodops?s saurotdes (Williamson). Dorsal and
right lateral aspects of a head showing the dorsal surface of the
pterygoids and palatines, of the chondrocranium and the hyomandi-
bulars. x13. H™., Hyomandibular; P.Sc.C., ridge of the chon-
drocranium over the posterior vertical semicircular canal; Pr.,
Pterygoid ; II., foramen for the optic nerve ; Sc.P., Sclerotic plates.

15

16 WATSON & Day, Wotes on some Pale@ozote Fishes.

its individuality. In any case, these bones, instead of the
row of small teeth which they support in Glyptopomus,
carry powerful fangs, three of which are visible in the
specimen. This specimen is further of importance because
it shows the hyomandibular. This bone, although of
quite large size, seems to be extremely feebly ossified, the
bone forming a mere skin. It articulates with the special
process of the otic region of the chondrocranium which
we have described, passes backwards behind the posterior
border of the pterygoid, and then is either suddenly bent
at right angles so that its lower half is directed forwards,
or terminates, the lower half being a separate bone. In
any case, the lower termination of this bone, whatever be
its nature, rests on the pterygoid, where it sheaths the
quadrate just above its lower edge. This specimen on
both sides exhibits a foramen of medium size, which
' pierces the hyomandibular just below its head.

Two specimens give evidence of the presence of an
elaborate series of hyoid arches apparently entirely carti-
laginous in structure, but do not allow us to give any
description. |

In Rhizodopsts we have been unable to see any
specialised post-temporal but the supra-clavicle is a large
bone of ovate shape whose lower and hinder end passes
on to the visceral surface of the clavicle.

The clavicle is a very large bone consisting of two
rami one of which stands vertically being exposed on the
flank of the fish behind the operculum and sub-operculum,
whilst the other passes forward and downwards behind the
last lateral gular until it is overlapped by the small infra-
clavicle. There is some evidence of a feeble ossification
in the cartilaginous shoulder girdle, and the proximal
element of the fin is well, though superficially ossified.

The Knowles Ironstone specimens being compara-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No, &. 4

tively uncrushed, serve excellently for the study of the
trunk and of the paired fins, but none of those at our
disposal show the median fins. The pectoral fins were well
illustrated by J. Ward, and all the specimens which we
have seen agree with that which he has figured in having
pectoral fins closely applied to the ventral surface of the
body and inserted at the junction of the two rami of the
eeyicle, Whey are short lobate fins, the scaled area
being rounded and about half the length of the fin. The
pelvic fins stand free from the body vertically in the
matrix. They also, are short Crossopterygian fins, pre-
senting in themselves no special features, but each accom-
panied by a special free scale or spine arising from the
fin root between the fin and the body and passing back-
ward. This spine is not part of the general squamation,
and may perhaps be an intromittent organ analogous to
the Elasmobranch clasper, but it is present in all specimens
which might be expected to show it, which have come
under our examination. The anus lies between the
pelvic fins, its position being indicated by a slight modi-
fication of the squamation. (P/. /, Fzg. 2.)

Our account of the median fins is founded mainly on
Williamson’s small original specimen. The relative size
of this individual has been determined from its well
exposed operculum, but the known variation in proportion
of this bone suggests that the median fins shown in our
restoration are not necessarily of appropriate size, although
they cannot be greatly in error. Their structure will be
best understood from the figures, but attention may be
called to the occurrence of an elongated ridge scale
behind each dorsal.

Individuals of Rhzzodopsis sauroides differ very con-
siderably in size, our smallest fish having been about
fifteen centimetres long, and our largest nearly a metre.

18 WATSON & DAY, Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

They seem to show some differences in squamation, two
large individuals having nearly rhomboidal scales with a
definite chevron pattern of sharply marked ridges, whilst
the smaller individuals have more rounded and much less
definitely ornamented scales.

Gyroptychius microlepidotus. (Ag.).

Three well preserved specimens of Gyroptychius, one
from Tynet Burn, the others from the Enstabile Quarry
in the parish of Sandwick in Orkney, allow us to add to
the existing knowledge of this fish. The structure of the
head seems to be, as it has already been represented by
Traquair, nearly identical with that of Osteolepzs, there
being a single large cheek plate corresponding with
the squamosal, pre-operculum, and quadrato-jugal of
Rhizodopsis. The pectoral fin differs from that shown in
Dr. Traquair’s figure in its considerably greater size and
in the large somewhat bluntly pointed scaly lobe which
bears a great resemblance to that of Glyptopomus and
differs markedly from the broad bluntly terminated lobe
of the pectoral in Rfzzodopses. The specimen L. 8432
from Tynet shows very clearly the presence of a pair
of elongated elements, thick semi-cylindrical scales,
associated with the pelvic fins. These agree precisely
with the similar bones we have described in Rhzzodopszs.

The extreme attenuation of the scaly caudal lobe is very —

well shown in this fish, the whole of whose caudal
extremity considerably resembles that of A/zzodopszs.
One of the Orkney specimens, L. 8431, shows — the
ornamentation of the scales very beautifully. They are
quite rhomboidal scarcely more rounded than in Osteolepis
and ornamented with V shaped ridges directed backwards
on the exposed area of the scale.

OO

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2. 19

Tristichopterus alatus, Eg.

The fine series of 7vcstzchopterus alatus collected by
one of the authors at the Deerness Quarry, on the main-
land of Orkney, shows some features not displayed in
those which Egerton and Traquair figured. One indi-
vidual, No. L. 8429, a very large fish dorso-ventrally
crushed and viewed from the ventral surface, has had the.
cheek plates of the left side freed from the top of the
skull, and turned outwards on the maxilla as an axis.
They are now represented by the beautifully sharp im-
pressions of their visceral surface. This shows quite
clearly that, in addition to the large cheek plate described
by Traquair as a pre-operculum, there are present a real
pre-operculum and a small quadrato-jugal. The pre-
operculum is of interest because it shows a ridge on the
inner surface, which no doubt gave support to the
hyomandibular. Except for the much larger size of the
squamosal, the cheek region much resembles that of
Rhizodopsis. Another specimen shows the endoskeletal
supports of all the fins except the first dorsal. These
agree very closely with those already described by Eger-
ton and Traquair and very strikingly with those which
are well known in Austhenopteron foord:. A third speci-
men is remarkable for the beauty of preservation of the
fins of the posterior half of the body. It shows that all
the median fins and the pelvics are far larger than they
are represented in Traquair’s familiar restoration, the
second dorsal and anal reaching to a point half-way
between the origin of the caudal and its termination.
This specimen also shows that the dorsal and ventral
margins are produced in a way quite similar to that which
characterises EHusthenopleron.

20 WATSON & Day, Votes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

Osteolepis macroleprdotus, Ag.
The structure of Os/eolepis is so familiar from the ~
work of Hugh Miller, Pander, and Traquair that we

Text-fig. 5.—Osteolepis macrolepidotus, Ag. Restorations of the
dorsal and right lateral aspects of the skull. x2. Reference letters
as before.

:
:
:
|

cannot expect to add appreciably to our knowledge of
the fish, but we give here restorations of the dorsal and
lateral aspects of the head made from Orkney specimens,
in the hope that they may be of use, not only to readers

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2. 21

of this paper, but to other workers, as no modern restored
drawings of an Osteolepid have been published. Our
figure represents the most complicated arrangement of
bones in the ethmoidal region which we have met with,
other specimens showing a reduction in the number of
elements obviously due to fusion. These bones, whatever
their number, seem to be symmetrically placed.

In the small specimens from the Thurso Beds in
Caithness belonging to Osteolepes mucrolepidotus, Pander,
the whole fronto-ethmoidal region is fused into a solid
shield showing only very slight traces of sutures although
its shape is similar to that of the older specimens of
Osteolepis macrolepidotus described above. |

One specimen on slab No. L.8425 shows very clearly
that the enlarged ridge scales behind the dorsal fins really
form part of the general body squamation.

The fact that it is still unfortunately impossible to
recognise any distinct lines of descent even of the
broadest kind in Palzozoic Crossopterygians renders their
discussion a matter of considerable difficulty, and its
results of an unsatisfactory nature. The figures and
descriptions in this paper will serve to substantiate the
general belief in the close relationship of all the animals
which Smith-Woodward included in his sub-order.
Rhipidistia, but they show that along with this general
similarity in structure goes a far larger variability in
detailed skull structure than has previously been suspected.
We have been able to show the existence of several
undescribed bones in the heads of Holoptychius and
Glyptopomus and the problem now arises whether these
fish with a very complex skuil have arisen from types like
Osteolepis with a simple one or vice versa, In Tetrapods
it is a general rule that evolutionary change has led to a

22 WATSON & DAY, Wotes on some Paleozotc Fishes.

reduction in the number of elements in the head.
Seymouria, undoubtedly the most primitive of known
Reptiles, has in its “intertemporals” bones which occur
in no other reptiles, and all the later reptiles, birds, and
mammals show the gradual loss of elements, which seems.
to have taken place, in the majority of cases at any rate,
by a gradual reduction in size, followed by disappearance,
and not by a fusion of neighbouring bones. One would
expect that in fish also reduction of number of parts
would bea feature in evolution and that it would be
accompanied by the actual disappearance of bones and
not by their fusion with neighbouring elements. From
the restorations given in this paper it is perhaps possible
to gain some idea of the truth of this statement, which
may perhaps be done most easily by comparing
Holoptychtus with Glyptopomus. Vhe general homologies
of the bones are quite clear. Two small bones, the
supra-orbital ossicle and that lying between the _ post-
orbital and the frontal, which occur in Glyptopomus are
not found in AHoloptychius or indeed in any other
Palzozoic fish. The interesting region however is that
which lies on the cheek behind the post-orbital and jugal.
This region is in the one case covered by three bones, in
the other by four or five. Two of these the quadrato-
jugal and the pre-operculum are obviously homologous
and the only question left is therefore whether the two
or three plates in Holoptychius have arisen by the
fragmentation of the single large plate in Glyptopomus,
whether they have fused to form the single plate of
Glyptopomus, or whether the squamosal of Holoptychius
has expanded crushing the others out of existence.
Consideration of the actual form of the posterior border
of the squamosal of Glyptopomus which provides a step in
which the anterior corner of the pre-operculum is embayed

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2. 23

suggests that the squamosal has arisen from a more
complex arrangement and ts really formed by the fusion
of the squamosal of Holoptychzus with the other bones.
This view is supported by the fact that in the obviously
closely allied forms 7vzstzchopterus and Eusthenopteron
the same region is in the British form covered by three
plates which are replaced by a single one in that from
Canada. It is therefore not improbable that extensive
fusions may have taken place between the bones of the
head of Rhipidistians, a view which seems to receive
additional support from the condition shown in the
fronto-ethmoidal shield of these fish. The same line of
argument will suggest that the small element which, in
Holoptychius and Glyptopomus lies between the squamosal
and the tabular, has in the probably more advanced forms
fused with the operculum. : |

We have been fortunate in that our material has
allowed us to describe, imperfectly it is true, the structure
of the palate of two of these fish, a region which has
hitherto been practically unknown. The most striking
features of this palate are :—

(1) the presence of.a single very large pterygoidal
element which reaches back to clasp the posterior
surface of the quadrate and extends so far forward
as to articulate with the pre-vomers.

(2) the fact that in Glyptopomus this pterygoidal
element articulates directly with the sides of the
parasphenoid.

(3) that the pre-vomers are bones in the palate bearing
large fangs.

(4) that there are distinct ectopterygoids and palatines
bearing a row of teeth which may be represented
only by a few large laniary teeth.

(5) that the outer edges of these bones are directly and

24 WATSON & DAY, Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

firmly articulated with the maxilla at its thin
dentigerous edge. |

(6) that in Glyptopomus there is a special foramen in
the palatine, which is not merely a space left
between two bones by imperfect ossification, but
lies entirely in one bone. This opening agrees
exactly with the internal naris of early Stegocephalia.
It is quite certain that a suggestion, which has
occurred to us, that it might possibly have served
to receive the tip of a large tusk in the lower jaw in
the way that an analogous foramen does in certain
Stegocephalia, is incorrect, because it is far too large,
there is no tooth in it, and there is no tooth in the
lower jaw for it to receive. We leave to another
occasion all discussion of the extremely important
morphological questions raised by the occurence, in
fish, of an external nostril Jying above the junction
of the maxilla and pre-maxilla, which is shown in
our material of RAzzodopsts and even more clearly
in Megalichthys material with which we are not
concerned, and of internal nares on the palate,
shown so clearly in our specimen of Glypitopomus.

We are glad to be able to confirm Dr. Traquair’s
description of a hyomandibular in RAzzodopsis. The
very slight ossification of this element and the fact that it
is apparently divided into two are of considerable im-
portance, and the presence of a quite large foramen
piercing its upper end is of still greater interest, for such
a foramen is known in few fish and is a common feature
in the stapes of early Amphibia and Reptilia.

Another interesting feature, so far as we know hitherto
undescribed, is the occurrence of the spines or free scales
associated with the pelvic fins which we have found in
Gyroptychius and Rhizodopsis. It is not impossible that

————————

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 2. 25

a study of more satisfactory material will show that they
exist in other members of the group. In the meanwhile
their function must remain obscure.

The elongated scales which have long been known to
occur behind the dorsal fins of the members of this group,
although they bear a superficial resemblance to the pelvic
spines, are certainly of very different significance, because
they form part of the general squamation and are sot
free outstanding structures. They seem to have arisen
in the following way. Since the time of Egerton it has
been realised that there is a concentration of the endo-
skeletal supports at the base of the median fins shown for
example by the articulation of a number of radials with a
single basal element in the dorsal and anal fins of 7yes¢z-
chopterus and FEusthenopteron. This concentration im-
plies an actual and real reduction in the width of the
insertion of these fins. As shown extremely clearly in
_the specimen of Holoptychius which we have described,
the median fins are provided with a fleshy lobe whose
squamation is directly continuous with that of the body.
When the base of the fin is notched in from the back a
disarrangement of the squamation necessarily results, and
we hold that the elongated ridge scales have simply
grown forward to fill up the space so left.

The very marked resemblance which exists between
the paired pelvic fins and the median fins in Hloloptychius
suggests very strongly that they are of similar origin, and
that the median axis with paired radials which is the
characteristic “archipterygial” fin, and which occurs in
all Paleozoic Crossopterygian fishes, has been formed by
a concentration quite similar to that which produced the
dorsal fin of Tyzstéchopterus. It is difficult to imagine
that the primitive pectoral fin can have projected to such
an immense distance from the body and that it should

26 WATSON & DAY, Wotles on some Paleozoic Fishes.

have been of the great length which would have been
necessary if it were to have given rise by a basal concen-
tration to the elongated “archipterygia!” fin of Holoptychius
and we are therefore driven to the conclusion that the
elongated type of “archipterygial” fin has arisen from a
short fin similar to that of 7yrzstzchopterus.

The facts which we have brought forward throw doubt
on the usefulness of the current divisions of the Rhipidistia.
Fish so obviously closely allied as 7T+zstechopterus and
Eusthenopteron may differ considerably in their skull
structure, whilst fish with so exactly similar heads as
Gyroptychius and Osteolepis may have a family separation.
The distinction between the families Rhizodontidae and
Osteolepidae has been drawn essentially on the possession
of “cycloid” scales in the one and rhombic in the other
eroup. In other families of fishes, the Palzoniscidae,
Semionotidae and Dapedidae for example such difference
is not regarded as of family value, and known forms of
Rhipidistia exhibit a transition from one type to the other.
It is obvious that the condition of the caudal fin cannot
be used for family division amongst these fishes, nor can
we find any features in the skull which are more useful.

When we come to the Holoptychidz we seem to have
in the elongated pectoral fins a more satisfactory basis
of separation, but the quite elongated pectoral fins of
Glyptopomus, the discovery of which led Mr. Goodrich to
place that fisH’ in a separate family the Glyptopomidae,
are really intermediate in form between the fins of
Rhizodopses and those of Holoptychius. It appears to us
that only two courses are possible, to form a large series
of families each containing fish which are obviously closely
allied, which families would be at present impossible of
concise definition, or a recognition of only a single family.
As the institution of many almost indefinable families

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 2. iyi

would at present serve no useful purpose we prefer to
leave the sub-order undivided referring to individual

genera when smaller divisions become necessary.

By no means the least important outcome of Dr.
Traquair’s work on Old Red Sandstone fishes was his
demonstration that it was possible to divide the Middle
and Upper Old Red Sandstone into stages characterised
by different faunas. The lowest of these, represented by
the famous nodules of the Moray Firth localities, the
quarry at Achanarras, and the district of Stromness in
Orkney, yields a large fish fauna, the most significant
member of which is Plerzchthys. Succeeding these Strom-
ness beds are the Thurso Beds, represented at the Hill-
head Quarry, Dalcross, in Nairnshire, in the exposures
round Thurso and near Kirkwall. These beds contain a
majority of the fishes found in the underlying Stromness
beds, but Pterzchthys is absent and Coccosteus minor is
added. The John o’ Groat Beds which overlie the Thurso
horizon yield only Mzcrobrachius, “‘ Dipterus” macropterus,
and Jyrzstechopterus, the first and last of which are _re-
stricted to them and have only been found on the shore
at John o’ Groat’s and in the Deerness Quarry, Orkney.
In the Upper Old Red of the Moray Firth region we
have the Nairn horizon, which at Kingsteps yields A stero-
lepis maxima, Holoptychius decoratus, a Coccosteus and
other fish. Overlying the Nairn Beds are those of Alves
and Scaat Craig, of which the dominant fish is the great
Bothriolepis major. Succeeding these are the Rosebrae
Beds with Glyptopomus, Phyllolepis, and other peculiar
fish.

It is of importance to discover where in this series
the famous fish beds of Scaumenac Bay should be placed.
As they yield Bothriolepis it is certain that they belong

28 WATSON & DAY, Votes on some Paleozotc Fishes.

to the Upper Old Red, and, as Coccosteus occurs in them,
it seems probable that they belong to a low horizon in
that group. This view is supported by the occurrence of
Acanthodians and Chezrolepzs, types which in England
occur in the Middle Old Red. Chezrolepis has, however,
been found in the Upper Old Red in Shetland associated
with Asterolepzs, which form itself does descend into the
Middle Old Red, where it is found associated with
“ Dipterus valenciennest”*
Bothriolepis, however, does not occur below the Scaat

above the Gloup in Deerness.

Craig beds, although Mr. Taylor, of Lhanbryde, has found
it in association with Asterolepis at Whitemire.

The marked resemblance between Austhenopteron and
Tristichopterus also supports this determination of the
age, and we intend to regard the Scaumenac Beds as
practicaily contemporaneous with those of Nairn.

Dipterus valenctennest, Sedg. & Murch.

So far as we know no figure representing the arrange-
ment of the plates of the head of this “species,” the
original of which was found in the Stromness_ horizon,
has yet been published. There is in Manchester a single
specimen collected by one of us at the Achanarras Quarry,
which shows quite clearly the structure of the roof of
the skull in this “species.” This stru¢ture will be more
clearly understood from the figures. (PZ /, Fig. 1;
Text-fig. 8A) than from any description, The significant
features are, the occurrence of a transverse series of three
plates on the extreme back of the skull similar to the
post-parietal and tabulars of a Khipidistian, the anterior
edges of which articulate with another transverse row
also mainly composed of three plates. The middle one of

4 We are not convinced of the identity of these fish with the typical

valenctennesi of Banniskirk, although there are no obvious definable

differences.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lv. (1916), No. 2. 29

these is very large and its anterior end articulates with a
pair of large plates which themselves support an azygous

plate in front.

Dipterus platycephalus, Pander.

The structure of the roof of the skull, of the palate
and of many other parts of the large fish whose remains
occur abundantly in exquisite preservation, although in
a disarticulated state, in the neighbourhood of Thurso,
has been clearly described by Agassiz, Hugh Miller,
Pander, Giinther and Traquair. We give for the sake of
comparison, a figure (Zert-jig. 8. B) of the roof of the
skull drawn from specimens in the Museum from the
East Shore, Thurso. It will be noticed that this skull and
the others which have been figured from the same horizon,
differ from that. described above from the Stromness
Beds in the absence of the posterior row of three plates,
which seem in them to have fused with those in front.
Otherwise the two types have a great general resemblance.
The large series of such specimens in the Museum, allows
us to add somewhat to the accounts of the palate given
by previous authors. The large skull here figured is
unique in the fact that the well ossified brain case is
scarcely if at all crushed. It shows a basi-cranial region
whose posterior end is excavated by a large conical pit for
the anterior end of the notochord. Its lower surface is
not markedly convex, but is provided with a median ridge
separating a pair of shallow grooves in each of which lies
a small foramen. In this specimen the lower surface of
the basis cranii is soon faulted down, but is shown, by a
comparison of this and other specimens, to be covered by
the posterior end of the rhomboidal parasphenoid which
does not cover the whole of its lower surface. The lateral
surface of the brain case rises vertically from the edges of

30 WATSON & Day, Wotes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

the basis cranii. At the back, on each side of the foramen.
magnum, it is vertically grooved and pierced by three
foramina, the hindermost of which is really only a notch
whose upper and posterior border is formed by the lower

Text-fig. 8.—Diagrams of the dorsal surface of the head of :—
A., Dipterus valenciennest, (No. L. 8447.) Achanarras Quarry,
Caithness. (Stromness Beds); B., Dzpterus platycephalus, (No.

L. 10359) Thurso East shore. (Thurso Beds) ; C., Pentlandia macrop-
terus, (No. L. 10905) Newark, Orkney. (Deerness Beds) ; D., Scau-
end of a crescent shaped bone which overlies the spinal
cord and is unconnected with the brain case below. It
is in fact obviously the neural arch of a vertebral segment

incompletely fused with the back of the skull. It seems

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2. 31

not impossible that the ridging of the brain case in front
of it indicates that other segments have recently fused
with the primary chondrocranium. In front of this
region the brain case gives rise to a powerful process

menacta curta, (after Hussakof.); E., Phaneropleuron andersont,
(No. L. 10867.) Dura Den, Fifeshire. (Rosebrae Beds); F., Savenodus
tnequalis, (No. L. 10904), Upper Coal Measures; G., Ceratodus
forstert, (after Goodrich); H., Crenodus cristatus, (modified from
Smith Woodward), Middle Coal Measures. Reference letters as before.
which articulates with the roof of the skull, mainly indeed
with the outer of the posterior row of three bones. Below
this is an excavation in the side of the skull wall, marked

off behind by a ridge which rises to the process and

32. WATSON & Day, WVotes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

below by another ridge. Although we have no direct
evidence that such is the case, we believe that these ridges
mark the position of the posterior vertical and horizontal
semi-circular canals which in this case must be of great
size, just as they are in the living Ceratodus. In advance
of the otic region, the less well-ossified chondrocranium

Text-fig. 6.—Dipterus platycephalus, Pander. lestoration of
the palatal aspect of the head with the circumorbital and opercular
bones removed. Natural size.

joins the quadrate with which indeed it seems to be
continuous. The general structure of the parasphenoid,
pterygoids and quadrates has long been known, but we
would note that the quadrate sends forwards a ptery-
soidal process in front of the quadrate ramus of the
pterygoid, just as it always does in Stegocephalia.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2. 33

Several of our specimens show quite clearly the
presence of pre-vomers, which overlap the anterior ends
of the pterygo-palatines, passing back between the ends
of the large crushing “teeth” for some distance. They are
quite large bones of somewhat feeble structure, and bear
at least two and possibly three transverse rows of very
small bluntly-pointed teeth. Anteriorly they reach for-
ward to the lower edge of the cranial shield, with which
they articulate in some way which our material does not
clearly explain. We have observed a single row of
similar small blunt teeth on the lower margin of the
cranial shield between the notches which mark the
position of the nostrils. These show that that region is
really formed by the premaxillae.

The chief new features of importance shown by these
specimens are those of the brain case. The evidence
seems to us conclusive that the fusion of spinal elements
with the back of the skull, which is so marked a feature
of Cervatodus and which Barkas has shown to occur in
Ctenodus, had already begun in Dzpterus, although the
parasphenoid had not at that time developed the re- —
markable posterior projection lying below the anterior
part of the vertebral column which it subsequently
acquired. Another striking feature of the brain case
already noted by Traquair is its extraordinary complete
ossification. The vomerine teeth of Dzpterus have been
previously figured by Goodrich in a restoration but are
not quite accurately represented by him. Hussakof has
figured vomerine teeth in Scauienacia, but we shall show
later that it is possible that these really belong to the
premaxillae, although his identification may very probably
be correct. The occurrence of a definite series of pre-
maxillary teeth is interesting, as the similar teeth in the
dentary were described by Traquair long ago.

34 WATSON & DAY, Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

Specimen L 10863 shows the upper surface of the
palato-pterygoids and of the anterior part of the para-
sphenoid very well, the most significant feature being the
presence of a distinct ridge in the middle line formed by
the fused pterygoids, which suggests that the whole of
the upper surface of the palate was not in contact with
the chondrocranium but only with a narrow interorbital
septum. From the occurrence of a “ fault” in the region
of the quadrates which depresses the roof of the skull in
most specimens of the head of Dzpferus we are justified
in concluding that there were no massive ossifications in
the anterior part of the brain case corresponding to those
in the otic region.

Pentlandia macropterus. (Traquair.)
Dipterus macropterus, Vraq.

One specimen of “Dzpterus” macropterus from Newark,
Orkney, shows fairly clearly the structure of the. top of
the head, the bones being represented by an impression,
squeezes from which are readily intelligible. The bones
of the left side are in place, whilst those of the right are
mostly displaced or missing. The figure given by Traquair
agrees so far as it goes with our specimen, which however
shows many additional elements. The significant features
are, that the bones are loosely articulated, that there is no
solid covering to the anterior end of the head, and that
there are no median elements in advance of that which
lies at the extreme back of the skull. This difference is one
of importance. We shall show in a later part of this paper
that it depends on the fact that “ Dzpterus” macropterus
is a definite stage in the evolution of Dipnoi, derived from
Dipterus and leading towards Scaumenacza ; we therefore
give it the new name of Pentlandza, after the strait which
separates its two localities, John o’ Groats and Deerness.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. &. 35

Phaneropleuron andersonz, Huxley.

This species is represented by excellent material on a
slab from Dura Den obtained in the British Association’s

Text-fig.7. Phaneropleuron andersoni. WUuxley. Dorsal and
lateral aspects of the skull. Natural size. Reference letters as
before, with :—P.Mx., Pre-maxilla.

diggings of 1913. The most valuable evidence is pro-
vided by a single almost uncrushed and excellently pre-
served head, but the more incomplete remains of three
others enable us to check every feature which we describe.

36 WATSON & DAY, Wotes on some Paleosote Fishes.

Phaneropleuron has a broad depressed head with a nearly
flat top and laterally placed orbits about half-way between
the posterior end and the snout. The top of the head is
covered with a shield of unornamented bones whose dis-
tribution is shown in the figure. This shield does not
cover the whole surface of the head, a pair of large un-
ossified areas being left in the antero-lateral regions.
The orbit is surrounded by a single series of bones which:
unite with the dorsal shield posteriorly and above, but
separate from it in front where they support a very small
element directed towards the snout. This element on
the right side of the best skull is in the same line as, and
separated by only a very small interval from, another very
slender element which itself touches the outer end of
another small bone provided with a row of teeth. There
seems no doubt that the more lateral element is the much
reduced representative of the maxilla. The tooth-bearing
bone may be either the premaxilla or the vomer. Its
mode of articulation with the maxilla and the fact that
it lies at the level of thejéxtreme anterior end otjene
lower jaw suggests that it is more probably the pre-
maxilla. It seems to have a slight extension on the
palate which might be the case in either bone. ’ Phe
operculum is a thin rounded and remarkably large bone
lying immediately behind the circum-orbital ring. Its
lower margin is connected with the sub-operculum, of
which we can give no account. Little is shown of the
lower jaw beyond the fact that it extends from the back
of the orbit to the end of the snout, and that it includes a
dentary element apparently not fused with its fellow.
There is a trace of a bone passing backward from the
postero-lateral corner of the skull roof to the top of the
clavicle, which is presumably a supra-clavicle. The clavicle
itself is a large straight bone presenting no features of

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 2. My

interest. There is a large infra-clavicle passing within its
lower end. Our specimens add nothing to the existing
knowledge of the paired fins, but suggest, though we do
not wish to insist that they prove, that there is some
distinction between the dorsal fin and the upper lobe of
the tail, and that the lower lobe of the tail is supported
by a row of elements which articulate with the lower end
of the haemal spines.

Sagenodus inequalis. Owen.

The Manchester Museum contains a very remarkable
specimen of Sagenodus cnequalts. This is preserved ina
slab, apparently of cannel, containing specimens of a
Lamellibranch whichappears to be duzthracomya phillipsz.
Will. and therefore suggests that the specimen comes from
a horizon high in the Middle Coal Measures or in the
Upper Coal Measures. It is almost certainly of local
origin. The specimen shows the head of the fish with the
lower jaw in position much crushed dorso-ventrally and
viewed from the ventral side. The palate and lower jaw
are in natural articulation, but the plates of the dorsal
surface of the head have slipped backwards and to one
side. They are somewhat broken and to some extent
only represented by an impression but the whole shield
agrees fairly well with those previously figured by Barkas
and its plan is represented in 7ert-fig. 8 F. he anterior
part of the parasphenoid with both palato-pterygoids
articulated with it is well shown, the left upper tooth being
beautifully displayed. On the right side the tooth and its
supporting bone have been largely broken away so that
they are represented by an impression of the dorsal sur-
face and by asectional view of their outer part. With this
the corresponding lower tooth is in natural apposition,
The bone which bears it is mostly removed but the inner

38 WATSON & Day, WVotes on some Paleozotc Fishes.

aspect of the angular which lies outside it is very well
shown. On the left side the angular is incompletely
represented mainly as an impression, and overlapping the
angulars and quite symmetrically disposed at the front
end of the head is a small bone which can only be a
dentary.

Ctenodus ?

The Manchester Museum contains a large slab show-
ing a good deal of the skeleton ‘of a Dipnoan fish from
the Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny. It is a characteristic
example of Huxley’s Campylopleuron, as usual not show- .
ing structural details clearly, but of interest because it
shows with perfect distinctness the presence of a pair of
dentaries not fused in the middle line. Although 1
cannot be determined the interest of this fact, and the
difference which it presents to the condition in Sagenodus,
justify us in giving this short description.

If we arrange in order of age, as we have done in
Text-fig. 8, the drawings of the dorsal surface of the skull
in known Dipnoan genera we see at first glance that
general resemblance between them which has long been
known to cxist but we find that Dziplerus valenciennest
from the Stromness and Dzplerus platycephalus from the
Thurso horizons, Penxtlandia macropterus, Scaumenacta,
Phaneropleuron, Sagenodus and Ceratodus, form a series
each member of which differs from that which precedes
it in a constant way. Each step shows a reduction in
the number of bones, and in each this reduction takes
place at the anterior end. Dzpterus platycephalus differs
from Dzpterus valenciennesi in the fusion of the posterior
row of three plates with that which lies in front of them,
and in a narrowing of its anterior part owing to a loss of
two plates. Pentlandia macropterus has advanced over

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lr. (1916), No. 2. 39

Dipterus platycephalus in the breaking down of the great
shield over the end of the snout and in the loss of that
mosaic of small plates which in the older form separates
the two main pairs.of plates. Scaumenacza, as shown in
Hussakof’s drawing which we have been able to corro-
borate on a Manchester specimen, differs from Pentlandta
macroplerus in the narrowness of its anterior region and
certain other details. Phaneropleuron differs from Scau-
menacia in the loss of the lateral plates of the anterior
half of its head and in the fusion of the chief anterior
pair into one median bone. Sagenodus differs from
Phaneropleuron either, in the loss of this new anterior
median element and-in the fusion of the only remaining
pair of plates which meet in the middle line, or more
probably by their separation through a thrusting back of
this median element. Ceratodus differs by an extensive
fusion of an antero-posterior row of plates.

This series has every appearance of being a true
phyletic sequence illustrating that steady change in a
definite direction which is so constant a feature of true
phylogeny. It will be noted that these fish are the very
ones and in the same order as those which Monsieur Dollo
used to illustrate the production of the false diphycercal
tail of Cevatodus from the heterocercal tail with separate
dorsal fins of Dzpterus. Any attempt to read this series
in the reverse direction, which, on account of the occur-
rence of Uronemus with continuous median fins, and of a
Dipterine fish with two small separate dorsals in the
Rosebrae Beds at Elgin, might have been attempted if
the condition of the fins alone were taken into account is
now impossible, for none will be found to suggest that
the skull of Ceratodus is more primitive than that of
Dipterus. In any case the first known appearances of
these fishes in exactly the right order is itself far too

40 WATSON & DAY, Notes on some Paleosotc Fishes.

important a point to be overlooked. We have therefore
shown that so far as concerns the dorsal surface of its
head Ceratodus is a morphological descendant and very
probably a real descendant of Dipterus. Dollo has
already shown the same fact so far as concerns the
median fins.

Passing on to other independent structures we find
that in side view there is a very striking resemblance
between the heads of Ceratedus and Phaneropleuron, the
differences being mainly due to the further reduction of
the circumorbital and other bones. Paneropleuron, how-
ever, is in this region as in others obviously derived by
deficient ossification or by reduction from Scaumenacia
which itself has undeniable resemblances to Dzpterus. It
will be noticed that in all these genera the ridges of the
dental plates radiate from a point, and that there seems
to be a gradual reduction from twelve ridges in the
palatine tooth of Dipterus platycephalus, to seven in Scau-
menacia, six (seven ?) in Phaneropleuron, six in Sagenodus,
five in Ceratodus ornatus (Middle Trias, South Africa),
four and a rudiment in Ceratodus latisstmus (Rhaetic)
again suggesting that we have to do with a real genetic
series. Ctenodus, whose skull roof has not at present
entered into our discussion, differs from the members of
this series in its dentition, in the fact that the ridges on
the teeth are sensibly parallel, there being from twelve to
fourteen ridges in Ctenodus ztnterrupius from the Lower
Carboniferous of Scotland, twelve to fourteen in Ctenodus
cristatus from the Middle Coal Measures, and twenty in
Ctenodus murchisont from the Upper Coal Measures. It
thus apparently differs from the members of our series
not only in the parallelism of the ridges but also in their
tendency to increase in number.

If the diagram of the top of the head (7ext-jig. 8, H)

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lv. (1916), No. 2. AI

be compared with the other drawings in that figure, it
will be obvious that it cannot have been derived from any
form after Dzpterus platycephalus because of the occur-
rence of a median element separating two principal pairs
of plates, which is lost in Pentlandia macropterus and
subsequent stages. We therefore hold that Crenodus is
not closely connected with Sagexodus but represents a
different line long separated from it, which has a rapid
and different specialisation of its teeth, and is very con-
servative in the top of its head. Uvonemus is another
Dipnoan which is obviously not a member of our series,
if the account of its teeth given by Dr. Traquair is to be
relied on. The specimens in Manchester of Uvonemus
splendens only show one row of bluntly pointed apparently
flattened teeth the meaning of which is somewhat ob-
scure; they have been regarded by Dr. Traquair and
Dr. Smith Woodward as marginal teeth, but the evidence
so far as we know it does not completely exclude of the
Views etait they really represent the larger ends of the
ridges of dental plates perhaps very narrow in their palatal
expansion and perhaps with an exaggerated row of teeth
along the outer edge.

It now remains to consider the relation of the Dipnoi
to the Rhipidistia. We have shown that the skull of
Dipterus valenciennesz is the base of our series, and it is
the most primitive Dipnoan skull known. In Jert-fig. 9
we have placed it alongside a representation of Oszeolepzs,
into which we have introduced the supra-orbital plate of
Glyptopomus, and a division of the squamosal so that it
includes all bones known to occur in the skull of the
Khipidistia, so that it is really a schematic representation
of the most primitive form of skull in that order. For
clearness the circumorbital and cheek plates are represented
somewhat broadened. Comparison of these figures will

42 WATSON & Day, Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

show that except for the fusion of parietals and of a small
anterior pair of elements the two match bone for bone,

Text-fig. 9.—Dorsal views of “the skulls of :—A., a primitive
Dipterus with the circumorbitals, maxillae, pre-maxillae, etc., omitted.
Slightly schematic from No. L. 8447; B., a primitive Rhipidistian
(Osteolepis with the supra-orbital of Glyplopomus inserted); C., a
primitive Stegocephalian with all the bones known to occur in the
skulls of members of that group. Reference letters as before, with :—
I.Fr., Interfrontal; I.Na., Inter-nasal. (Interfrontal known in
Eryops, etc. Inter-nasal in Micropholts.)

except that two small bones which lie on the extreme
outer sides of the roof of the skull in Dzpzerus and which

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lv. (1916), Vo. 2. 43

by our series are shown to be homologous with the
“squamosal” of Ceratodus are not at first sight repre-
sented in the roof of the head of Osteolepis. Our finest
skull of Dzpterus platycephalus shows that these plates
cover the upper end of the quadrate, in this agreeing with
the “squamosal” of Ceratodus,

It will be noted that they carry part of the broad belt
of pits for the reception of lateral line sensory organs.
Their connection with the quadrate at once suggests that
they are represented by the squamosal and bones asso-
ciated with it in Rhipidistia, as we know that these are
actually applied to the lateral border of the quadrate. It
will be remembered that these cheek plates in Rhipidistia
do actually support a lateral line canal although, as we
have been unable to trace anything more than a very
broad parallel between the general distribution of lateral
line canals in Osteolepzs and Dipterus, such evidence is not
of any great value. The fact that up to now no repre-
sentatives of the cheek plates which form so large an
element of the Rhipidistian skull have been found in
Dipnoi, has always been troublesome to those who
believed in their close connection. It remains to be
shown that it is possible to explain the methods by which
this reduction of the cheek plates to two small bones on
the top of the head has been brought about, and the
reasons for this reduction. It is obvious that the Rhipi-
distia, taken as a whole, are a group of predacious fish
living mainly on other fishes. In many cases the massing
of large fins at the end of the body shows that they were
active rapid-swimming fish built for pursuing others.
The Dipnoi, on the other hand, have always been slow
swimmers, probably becoming slower as time went on.
Their flat crushing tooth plates are often very badly worn,
suggesting that their owners either lived on molluscs, the

44 WATSON & DAY, Wotes on some Paleozote Fishes.

hard shells of which they had to crush, or that they fed
on water weeds, which carried sand into the mouth. In
any case it is obvious from the dentition that their diet
required powerful mastication. It is a general rule, appli-
cable not only to fish but to reptiles and mammals, that
animals which live by the active pursuit and capture of
fish have elongated jaws which provide them with a wide
gape and by the oblique insertion of muscles into them a
very rapid snapping action. Those forms, however,
which have developed a powerful crushing dentition (eg.
Placodus and the Tortoises) have short jaws powerfully
built and muscles inserted on to them at right angles.
They close their jaws more slowly and then develop
pressure on the food. If we compare Dipferus with any
Khipidistian we find that the extreme shortness of the
jaw in the former is a very striking feature, which is
associated with the fact that its quadrate is inclined for- —
wards whilst that of the voracious Khipidistian is always
directed backwards, and is always associated with an
oblique suspensorium. We therefore suggest that, start-
ing from a stage resembling Osteo/epis, the Dipnoans,
during the gradual concentration of their teeth, resulting in
the establishment of a crushing dentition, have gradually
shortened their jaws by a swing forwards of the lower end
of the quadrate, a process which has squeezed the cheek
plates between the circumorbital bones and the operculum
until they have vanished entirely from the side of the
head and only remain in the triangular notch between
the quadrate, the edges of the “supra-temporal” and

)

“inter-temporals,’ and the post-orbital, as illustrated in
figure.
SUMMARY.
In the foregoing paper we have described in detail

and given restored figures of the skulls of Hloloptychius,

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 2. 45

Glyptopomus, Osteolepis, and of the whole fish of Rhzzo-
dopsis. These studies have shown that the Rhipidistian
skull is considerably more complicated than has previously
been supposed but that there is a great similarity amongst
all members of the group. We have described certain
new features connected with the fins which lead us to
conclude that the short type of paired fin found in Ezs-
thenopteron is older than and has given rise to the biserial
-“archipterygial” fin of Holoptychius. For the first time
we have been able to give a detailed description of the
feebly ossified hyomandibular of Rhzzodopsts which recalls
the stapes of Eryops in being perforated by a foramen
near its proximal end. In the same fish we have been
able to describe certain features of the cartilaginous brain
case. In Rhzzodopszs and Glyptopomus we have given an
account of the palate which considerably extends our
knowledge of the structure of this region,, and has a very
important bearing on the problem of Amphibian ancestry.
We describe for the first time the structure of the skull in
Phaneropleuron, and show that Dipterus valencrennest,
Dipierus platycephalus, Pentlandia macropterus, Scaumen-
acia, Phaneropleuron, Sagenodus, and Ceratodus form a
phylogenetic series showing how Ceratodus is derived by
a process of specialisation and reduction from Dzpteruas.
Uronemus and Ctenxodus are shown to belong to different
lines of descent, and the conclusion is reached that Dzp-
terus valenciennesi is the most primitive as it is the oldest
known Dipnoan. Its skull is then compared with that of
a generalised Rhipidistian and the two are shown to agree
bone for bone the differences being entirely dependent on
the totally different adaptations of the two types.

46 WATSON & DAY, Notes on some Paleozoic Fushes.

EIST OF WORKS CPD:

BarRKAS, T. P. 1873. ‘‘ Atlas of Carboniferous Fossils from
the Northumberland Carboniferous Strata.” Pl. X., figs.

244-246.

Dotto, L. 1895. “Sur la phylogénie de Dipneustes.” Bu/7/
Soc. belge Geol. Pal. Hyd. Vol. IX., 1895.

GoopricH, E.S. 1909. ‘‘ Vertebrata Craniata” in ‘‘ A Treatise
of Zoology.” Ed. E. Ray Lankester, London, zgo09.

GUNTHER, A. 1871. « Description of Ceratodus.” Phil. Trans.,
1871, p. 556, pl. XXXIV.

Hussakor, L. s1g912. ‘‘ Notes on Devonic Fishes ftom Scau-
menac Bay, Quebec.” eft. Wew York State Museum,
IQII, pp. 127-139, 3 pis., 6 figs.

Houxtey, T. H. 1861. “ Phaneropleuron anderson. Figs. and

descripts. Brit. Organic Remains.” J/em. Geol. Survey,
Dec.2X®, 'p..2:7. pia oe

Ibid. 1861. “Glptopomus kinnairdi. Figs. and descripts.
Brit. Organic Remains.” Mem. Geol. Survey, Dec. X.,

p. 41, pls. I. and II.

Ibid. 1861. “Systematic Arrangement of the Fishes of the
Devonian Epoch.” JAZlem. Geol. Survey, Dec. X.

MILLER, H. 1849. ‘Footprints of the Creator.”

PanprER, C. H. 1858. ‘“ Die Ctenodipterinen des Devonischen
System.” St. Petersburg, 1858.

Ibid. +860. ‘Die Saurodipterinen.” St. Petersburg, 1860.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. &. A7

Rouon, J. V. 1889. ‘‘Die Dendrodonten des Devonischen
Systems in Russland.” J/em. Acad. Imp., St. Petersburg,
“th Series, Vol. 36.

Traouair, R. H. £875. “On the Structure and Affinities of
Tristichopterus alatus, Eg.” Trans. Roy. Soc. Ldin., Vol.
os VES ppss3-305, 1 pl.

Joid. 1878, ‘On the Genera Dipterus, Palaedaphus, Holodus
and Chetrodus.” Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. |5), Vol. I1.,
Peay ple ti.

Ibid. 1881. “On the Structure of Rhizodopsis sauroides.”
Dyans. Koy. Soc. Lain., Vol. XXX., p. 169.

Ibid. 1889. “Ona New Species of Dipterus.” G. M., Dec.
mere vol, Vi:, pp. 97-99, pt. LI.

ijj@eeoea, “the Extinct Vertebrata of the. Moray Firth
Prea in |. A. Harvey Brown and T. E. Buckley’s
“Vertebrate Fauna of the Moray Basin,” Vol. II., Edin-
burgh, 1896.

Ibid. 1900. ‘Presidential Address to Section D. Rept. Br.

Assoc.,’ Bradford Meeting, pp. 768-783.

WarpD, J. 1890. ‘‘The Geological Features of the North
Staffs. Coal Fields.” Z7zans. IV. Staffs. Instit. of Mining
and Mech. Engineers, Vol. X.

WititAmson, W. C. 1837. “Fossil Salmon.” Phil. Mag.,
memes Mil, Vol. XI., p. 300, pl. 1.

Woopwarp, A.S. 1891. “Cat. Fossil Fishes, British Museum,
Pier

~

48 WATSON & Day, Wotes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

Plate T.

Fig. 1.

fig. 2.

Lag. 2.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Head of Dipterus valenctennest, Sedg. and Murch. x 3.
Achanarras Quarry, Caithness. L.8447. M.M.

Pelvic region of Akisodopsis sauroides, Will. Ventral
aspect.” "x 2. Habeas: ” IM .M.

Knowles Ironstone, Fenton, Staffs.

P.F., Pelvic Fin; P.Sp., Pelvic Spine.

Head of Zristichopterus alatus, Eq. Ventral aspect
x4. L.8429. M.M.

Deerness Quarry, Deerness, Orkney.

P.Op., Preoperculum; SQ., Squamosal.

Pectoral fin and second dorsal of another individual
of Glyptopomus Kinnaird, Hux. x 2. L. 10867.
M.M.

Dura Den, Fifeshire.

Prc., Pectoral’ Fin: D*. 2nd Dorsal Fin.

Dorsal aspect of the palate of Glyptopomus Kinnatrdt
x2. Le10867. | MOM.

Dura Den, Fifeshire.

PAL., Palatine; P.N., Posterior nares; P.V., Prevomer ;

Pr., Pterygoid.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LX. (No. 2). Plate I.

50 WaTSON & Day, Wotes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

Plate 1.

fig. 6.

Pig 7,

Fig. 8.

Tristichopterus alatus, Kq., posterior part of fish x 3.
L. 10866A. M.M.
Deerness Quarry, Deerness, Orkney.

Holoptychius Flemingit, Ag., posterior part of fish.
x @. 1.8485.) MiMe
Dura Den, Fifeshire.

Giyptolepis pauctdens (Aq.). Part of vertebral
column x % L. 10915. M.M. | 7
Achanarras Quarry, Caithness.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. LX. (No. 2). Plate [1

52 WATSON & DAY, Notes on some Paleozoic Fishes.

Plate IM.

fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

Ventral aspect of crushed head of Savenodus
inequalis, Ow. x3 L.10904. M.M.

AnG., Angular; DEN., Dentary; Par.+, Parietals

and post-parietals ; Par. Sp., Parasphenoid.

Phaneropleuron Andersont, Hux. Dorsal aspect of
head x -93. LL. 16667->) Mi-M.

Crrc.-orB., Circumorbital plates; Op., Opérculum ;

PaL., Palatine; P.Mx., Premaxilla; Sp., Splenial

tooth.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LX. (No. 2).

ANG.

CIRC.-ORB.

Op.

Plate tir

Jee Wise.

* CIRC.-ORB;

Manchester Memortrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 3.

III. A Change in the Habits of the Black-headed Gull.

By) COWARD, F.Z.S., FES.
( Received and read November 30th, 1915.)

In 1910 Charles Oldham and I drew attention to the
fact that numbers of Black-headed Gulls roosted nightly
in autumn and winter on Rostherne Mere.* No special
notice has, however, been ,taken of the remarkable change
in habit which this fact denotes.

The Black-headed Gull, Larus rzdzbundus Linn., is the
most abundant British gull, and is far commoner in inland
localities than any other species. It frequents the coasts,
follows up rivers and canals, is plentiful on inland waters
and feeds freely on sewage farms and fields at a con-
siderable distance from the sea. I have seen it feeding
on the sewage farm at Water Orton, as central a locality
in England as one can imagine.

Within the last twenty-five or thirty years the bird
has steadily and rapidly increased ; all recent writers on
ornithology comment on this fact. There is every reason
to believe that this increase dates from 1880, when effec-
tive legislation gave protection to Wild Birds. At first
the increase was little noticed, and it was not until the
hard winter of 1894-95 brought large numbers into the
Thames and the starved birds became more or less tame
that the public generally noticed their presence. After
this Black-heads came regularly into London every winter,

* €¢ Vert. Fauna of Cheshire,” I., 428.

January 17th, 916.

2 COWARD, Change in Habits of the Black-headed Gull.

and many people imagined that they remembered the
welcome that they had received, failing to realise that the
numbers had increased and that the birds’ winter range
was extended.

For many years after this the appearance of the bird,
or of any gulls inland, was thought to be either an indi-
cation of rough weather at sea or an augury of storm.
Judging from remarks which appear in the press from
time to time, this idea still prevails to some extent.
Whatever may have been the case prior to this time, the
presence of gulls inland is mainly if not entirely due to
one of two facts—-the increase in numbers enforcing an
enlarged feeding area, or to passage migration. Every
spring and autumn large numbers of Black-headed and
lesser Black-backed Gulls travel through England, as well
as along the coasts, and other species pass, though not in
such noticeable numbers. The Black-headed Gull, though
abundant all the year round, is one of our most migratory
birds, but there is apparently no racial custom nor heredi-
tary family tradition to regulate whether the birds from
any particular area shall winter at home or travel to the
Mediterranean or African shores.

The colonial nesting haunts of the species are marshes,
islands on lakes, or saltings ; the first two may be miles
from the sea and at considerable altitude. There are
numerous and extensive colonies on the Pennines, the
Welsh moors, the Cheviots and the Lake Country uplands.
Others are on low-lying marshes either near the sea or
inland; the only large Cheshire colony is in the most
open but least frequented portion of Delamere Forest.
Some of the Cumberland and Lancashire colonies are
amongst sandhills, and at least two in the latter county
are on tidal saltings, where, as a rule, at least once during
the nesting season the whole marsh is submerged, swamp-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 3. 3

ing the eggs and young. Here the birds’ intelligence
fails them ; in spite of the fact that a brood is annually
destroyed they return again and again to the same spot.

When the young are able to fly some of them move
to tidal estuaries or the shore, but others may never visit
the coast. It is not, of course, possible to make any
dogmatic statement about the movements of young birds ;
they may visit the coast and return inland many times ;
but this we do know, that so soon as young gulls are able
to leave the Cheshire ‘gullery young birds may also be
seen feeding on the neighbouring meres, from which,
except for a few weeks, they are never absent. This,
however, is not the destination of all young birds reared
in Cheshire, for birds ringed at Delamere have been met
with in a variety of places. After the breeding season
the Black-head is common in inland Cheshire, but is most
abundant in the river valleys or near large sheets of
water. Round Delamere the bird is known as the “sea-
crow, either from its habit of following the plough or
from its somewhat corvine voice.

Not only in Cheshire but in most parts of our islands
this cull is steadily extending its inland range; we may
now look upon the Black-head as an inland as well as a
maritime bird. It is not, however, this general change of
habit, which of course includes a change of diet, which |
wish to emphasise, but a senondany and local change
caused by the primary one.

Anyone who has lived or stayed for any length of
time beside a tidal estuary or bay must be well aware
that this garrulous gull feeds at night as well as by day;
tidal flats are attheir best for a few hours twice in the
twenty-four, when the waters are receding, and the birds
if they can see at all do not waste those precious hours
of the ebb. Coastwise feeding gulls rest by day or night

4 COWARD, Change in Habits of the Black-headed Gull.

when the tide is running, but they do not need to be in
sight of the water to judge the right moment to leave the
roosting for the feeding ground.

The inland feeding Black-head either knows nothing
about tides or ignores their influence; they have ceased
to regulate its feeding times; it roosts, like any other
diurnal bird, when it gets dark. This, at any rate, is the
case with the gulls which frequent the country to the
south of Manchester, say between the Lancashire border
and Knutsford. Every afternoon, a little before dusk,
these birds leave their scattered feeding grounds in the

fields, the Carrington sewage works, and the various meres
~and pools, and trail to Rostherne, where in a compact
mass or masses they roost on the water. In the Dee and
Mersey estuaries the gulls rest during the flow on the
mud flats or marshes, sleeping or preening their feathers ;
on the coast they congregate on the shore, or in fields,
selecting positions from which they can command a wide
view to guard against the approach of enemies. The
centre of a large water like Rostherne gives them even
more security. Foxes, men, or other foes cannot steal
upon them,

In most animals hereditary habits survive long after
they have ceased to be of practical use ; one would imagine
that the habit of regulating feeding hours according to
tides would have persisted amongst these birds, which
only a few years ago were maritime feeders. How is it
that certain birds of the same species, which feed in con-
tiguous areas in the country south and east of the Mersey
estuary should have distinct habits? Some of the birds
near Warrington, for instance, must fly in a westerly
direction to feed whenever the tide ebbs, and others, but
a little further away, travel south at the approach of dusk
to roost at a time fixed relatively to sunset.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. tx. (1916), No. 8. 5

In November the gulls begin to gather at Rostherne
soon after 3 p.m. On the 5th, although only one bird
was visible at 3-15, over 300 were on the water by 3-30.
In the fading light it is impossible to count the birds
accurately, but towards the end of October I have seen
so many as 500 on the water by 3-30, Throughout
autumn and winter a number of Black-heads feed on
the mere at Tatton, and during the afternoon, just
before dusk, these birds rise in a body, as if by word
of command, and fly straight to Rostherne. Birds from
the north and north-west, which have been feeding along
the Mersey valley, arrive singly or in parties; twenty,
fifty or even a hundred may come in at once, and when
there are a number together they usually fly in chevron
formation. As a rule the earliest birds fly round ina
body before finally settling down, but the later arrivals
drop straight and join those already on the water.

It is exceedingly difficult to arrive at any estimate of
the numbers which thus roost together ; one can count
those which pass over one portion of the bank, but the
light, when the majority are coming in, is too far gone to
enable one to see those arriving from elsewhere. When,
however, from three to five hundred pass over a sky area
not more than a quarter of a mile wide, it is fair to guess
that at least three times this number may reach the water
from other points ; an estimate that a thousand birds are
often gathered together is probably far short of the actual
number. Indeed, on one winter evening, by counting a
group and multiplying by the whole area covered by the
settled birds, I estimated a thousand on the water
and a couple of hundred more passed over me as [I left
the mere. On moonlight nights, the keeper tells me, the
clamour from this multitude is extraordinary.

Almost certainly the increase of the Black-headed

6 COWARD, Change in Habits of the Black-headed Gull.

Gull is as much due to its ability to change habits as that
the changed habits are due to increase. Psychologically
the Black-head is an adaptive bird ; consequently it suc-
ceeds in the struggle and overcomes difficulties which
would spell disaster for a less go-ahead species. It is
bound by no hard and fast limits in the matter of food ;
the failure of any particular supply does not handicap it.
It can adjust its habits to marine or inland conditions.
It is a winner in life’s race as a direct consequence; thus
its numbers increase.

Prior to Wild Bird Protection two serious dangers
threatened the welfare of the species; its eggs were
systematically robbed, and its young, when just able to fly
and still lacking experience, were ruthlessly slaughtered
by gunners. Egg-collecting and casual shooting were
checked by legislation, and at once the bird increased.
Individual competition was overcome by the bird’s natural
aptitude ; it altered its habits so as to minimise the evils
of congestion. This change from a variable feeding time
to a constant diurnal habit, not as regards the species as
a whole but only so far as it favours individuals, is perhaps
the most extraordinary divergence from hereditary habits
in the life history of this progressive bird.

Vou, Go: Parr’ LE

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

hae MANCHESTER
mrpPeRARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
BOC TR PY, 1915-1916.

, CONTENTS.
Memoirs :
IV. The Money Cowry (Cyprica meoneta, L.) as a Sacred Object
among North American Indians. By J. Wilfrid Jackson,
F.G.S. - - - - ~ - - = . - pp. I—10.
Issued separately, May 17th, 1916.)

V. The Aztec Moon-cult and its relation tothe Chank-cult of India.
yd Wilttid Jackson, F:.G.S..- - ==) = ~= -= . pp. 1—s5.
(Ussued separately, Maye 7th, 1910.)

VI. The Geographical Distribution of Terraced Cultivation and

Irrigation. By W. J. Perry, B.A. JV7th + Map. - - pp. I—25.
(Issued separately, April 15th, 19/0.)

Vil. The Geographical Distribution of the Shell-Purple Industry
By J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S. [Vth 1 Alap. - pp. I—29.

(/ssued separately, May 22nd, 1919.)

VIII. Shell-Trumpets and their Distribution in the Old and New
World. By J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S. /vh 7 Alap.- pp. 1—22.
([ssued separately, Mlay 22nd, 1916.)

Proceedings - - - = - - - - ae ae =. ppy xxv. xb

cansoman Insti; oD
< 4

3 i) &
MANCHESTER: (4 APR111917

36, GEORGE STREET.\ WV
2

, @
“ional Muse
Price Four Shillings.
Nias 22th. 10th.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Presented.

Amsterdam.—Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen. Mnemo-
synon. Carmen Francisci Xaverii Reuss... Amstelodami, 1915.
(Recad. 17/22.]76.)

Christ Church, N.Z.—Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. The
Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand. Reports... Ed. by Chas.
Chilton. Vols. t & 2. Wellington, N.Z., 1999. (Recd. 17/722./76.)

——.— —— Index Faunze Nove Zealandix. Ed. by F. W. Tlulton.
London, 1904. (Lecd. 17/272./76.)

Kyoto.—Kyoto Imperial University. Catalogue of _Ta-jih-peén-hsii-
ts'ang-ching. Transliterated by Daitard Sacki. 1915. (Hecd.
77[2z.]76.)

London.—‘‘Athenaeum.” The Athenaeum Subject Index to Periodicals.
1915. Issued at the request of the Council of the Library Associa-
tion. Science and Technology. London, 1916. (Aecd. 15f2t./z6.)

»5 Theology and Philosophy. London, 1916. (Recd. rg/zz2./76.)

Richardson (R. P.) and Landis (E. H.) Numbers, Variables and Mr.
Russell’s Philosophy. By RK. P. Richardson and E. II. Landis.
Chicago and London, 1915. (Rect. 27/77./76.)

——.— —— Fundamental Conceptions of Modern Mathematics. Variables
and Quantities. By R, P. Richardson and E. H. Landis. Chicago
and London, 1916. (Recd. 23/22./76).

Washington.— Bureau of American Ethnology. An Introduction to
the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs. By S. G. Morley. (Bulletin
No. 57.) Washington, 1915. (Neca. 6/22zz./76.)

United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Kesults of
Magnetic Observations made by the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey in 1914. By D. L. Hazard. (Special Publication
No. 25.) Washington, 1915. (Wecd. 29/22.]z6. )

——.— —— [Latitude Observations with Photographic Zenith Tube at
Gaithersburg, Md. By F. E. Ross. (Special Pablication No. 27.)
Washington, 1915. (Recd. 30/222. /76.)

——,— —— Application of the Theory of Least Squares to the Adjust-
ment of Triangulation. By O. S. Adams. (Special Publication —
No. 28.) Washington, 1915. (Mecd. g/tzz./76.)

——,— —— Triangulation in West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana,
Illinois, and Missouri. By A. L. Baldwin. (Special Publication
No. 30.) Washington, 1916, (Recd. S/222./76.)

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 4

IV. The Money Cowry (Cy/7a moneta, L.), as a Sacred
Object among North American Indians.

by. AVILERID, JACKSON, F.

Manchester Museunr.

(Communicated by Professor G. Eliot Smith, M1.A.,

(Received and read December rath, rors.)

In a paper on “‘ The Midé’wiwin’ or ‘Grand Medicine
Society’ of the Ojibwa,”! the author, W. J. Hoffman,
gives some interesting particulars regarding the use made
of the money cowry, Cyprea moneta, L., in ceremonies
connected with the initiation of a candidate to the society
of medicine men. A somewhat similar account, by the
same author, is also given in his article on “The Meno-
mini Indians.” *

The use of this particular cowry amongst the Indians
is of great interest; in the first place, owing to it being
alien to the American continent, and in the second place,
in view of its adoption for religious and other purposes in
different parts of the Old World.

This well-known species is an inhabitant of the Indo-
Pacific seas and is not known to occur on any of the coasts
of the Americas. Its nearest habitat to that continent is

probably the Sandwich Islands.
| As a medium of exchange no other species of surely or

1 Bureau yt Ea (United States), 774 An. Report, 1891.
2 Td., rath Ann, Report, 1896, pt. 1.

May 17th, 19106.

yi
KMighh al use J

z JACKSON, Money Cowry as a Sacred Object.

form of shell-money, has had so extended a use as the
money cowry, C. moneta. It is in use as money in India
and many parts of Africa. In India about 4,000 pass for
a shilling. The use of the cowry for money in India has
a very considerable antiquity. In Bengal the principal
money finds, belonging to the period prior to Alexander
the Great, have been cowries, the metallic moneys being
comparatively few.®

In the Sudan, so far as the people trade, they have
no other currency than the cowry, of which 2,000 shells,
weighing seven pounds, are worth a dollar.

According to Pickering,’ this species was formerly
used as money in the Sandwich Islands,

Del Mar (of. cz¢., p. 19) also speaks of the use of
cowries as money in China in ancient times, and further
remarks (p. 147) on the use of cowries for money in trade
carried on between Jndia and Egypt, and China and
Egypt, at a very remote period.

Thus a series of cultural links are established by this
cowry-currency which can be joined up to form a com-
plete chain from the Sudan to America.

As an ornament, the money cowry has been used in
many ways. The Dyaks stick the small white shells in
the eye sockets of the skulls of their enemies, which they
keep. In India these shells are much used to ornament
the trappings of horses and elephants. They are also
strung like beads or sewed like buttons on their dress by
Brinjari women as personal ornaments.°

In Africa it is used to a considerable extent for deco-
rative purposes.

Cyprea moneta has been met with in several pre-

5 A. del Mar, ‘‘ Hist. of Money,” 1885.

+ ** Races of Man,” Bohn’s ed., 1863.
5 Stearns. Rept. U.S. Nat. Alus., 1887 (1889), pt. ii.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lv. (1916), Wo. 4. 3

historic sites in Europe and Asia at considerable distances
from its habitat, and other cowries of larger dimensions
have been discovered in pre-historic pit-dwellings and
Saxon graves, in our own country, and in Franco-Mero-
vingian graves in France.

The cowry is often referred to in the classics as Concha
Venerea, and the presence of cowry-shells in graves, etc.,
is looked upon as due to the part they played in ancient
times in connection with the cult of Venus, as symbolic
of the generative forces of nature.

The Ojibwa and Menomini Indians are both tribes of
the Algonquian family, which was more extensive than
that of any other linguistic stock in North America, their
territory reaching from Labrador to the Rocky Mountains,
and from the Churchill River of Hudson at least as far
south as Pamlico Sound of North Carolina.°

The Ojibwa, according to Hoffman (of. cet, 1891,
p. 147), is one of the largest tribes of the United States,
and it is scattered over a considerable area, from the
Emenee on Ontario, on the east, to the Red River of the
North, on the west, and from Manitoba southward through
the States of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.

The Menomini Indians, more nearly related to the
Ojibwa than to any other tribe, are located on a reserva-
tion in the north-eastern part of Wisconsin (Hoffman,
OP vere tOoO) p: 12).

Constant intercourse between the Menomini and
Ojibwa has influenced the ritual of the former’s medicine
ceremonials. It is moulded very perceptibly after the
Ojibwa’s, but during the process of adaptation much of
the ancient ritual has been lost and the ceremonies are
much curtailed and apparently worn down by careless
transmission from generation to generation. Living side

SJ. W. Powell, Bureau of Ethnol., 7th Ann. Repi., 1891.

4 JACKSON, Money Cowry as a Sacred Object.

by side from the earliest historical times, their medicine
ceremonials present a remarkable similarity.

The origin of the Grand Medicine Society, the Midé -
wiwin of the Ojibwa and Mita’wit of the Menomini, is
buried in obscurity. In this society, as maintained by
the Ojibwa, are preserved the traditions relating to cos-
mogony and the genesis of mankind, to the appearance
on the earth of an anthropomorphic deity whose primary
services consisted of interceding between the Good
Mystery and the Indians. It is looked upon by them as
“their religion,’ as they themselves designate it.

The hero-god of the Ojibwa is Minabd’zho; of the
Menomini, Manabush, both meaning “Great Rabbit,”
because of his ability to perform great deeds. The
method pursued by him is dramatically rehearsed at the
initiation of a candidate into the medicine society.

This society, which consists of an indefinite number of
both sexes, is graded into four separate and distinct
degrees, although there is a general impression that any
degree beyond.the first is practically a mere repetition.

At ceremonies held by this society the chief article of
value is the medicine sack, containing several small sacred
articles, and particularly the small white money cowry—
mi gis, of the Ojibwa; kona’ pamik, of the Menomini—
used in shooting at the candidate for admission to the
society and in conveying sacred or mystic influence to a
patient. During the ceremonies, which are prolonged to
a considerable extent in order to impress the candidate
and other observers with the importance and sacredness
of the proceedings, the initiate is acquainted with the
tradition of the creation of the Indians, the descent to
earth of the servant of the Good Spirit, who acted in the
capacity of intercessor and mediator, and the traditions
relative to the migration of the Ani’ shina’ beg—the

Manchester Memortrs, Vol. tx. (1916), Vo. 4. :

original people. The sacred emblem—the money cowry—
is shown to him and he is told how it came into the
possession of the medicine men through the hero-god,
Ma‘nabish or Mi’nabo’zho. Much dancing and tobacco
smoking’ is indulged in, and each medicine man in turn
breathes on his medicine bag and pretends to shoot it at
the candidate’s breast. The magic influence contained in
the medicine bag having been shot into the candidate’s
heart, and, being too powerful for him to bear, he becomes
unconscious and falls forward on his face. It is believed
that if the small sacred shell be swallowed by the medicine
man, all he is obliged to do to transfer his power to the
medicine bag is to breathe on it, the mysterious power
and influence being then transmitted by merely thrusting
the bag toward the desired object or person. The whole
number of assisting medicine men gather round the pros-
trate body of the candidate and lay their medicine bags
on his back, where they remain during the chanting of
certain phrases by the chief medicine man. Each man
then stoops to get his bag and the chief then places his
hand under the candidate’s forehead and raises it slightly
from the ground, when a sacred cowry drops from the
candidate’s mouth.

The whole of the ceremonies are carried out in a
specially-constructed medicine tent, which must always
be built so as to extend from the direction of the rising
sun to the direction of the setting thereof.

Amongst the Menomini the sacred shell appears
always to be the money cowry, Cyprea moneta, but
according to Hoffman, amongst the Ojibwa, it consists of

“The tobacco smoking among N. A. Indians seems to be connected
with the idea of sacrifice and propitiation.

‘The example figured by Hoffman, of. cz/., is interesting, as it is per-
forated at one end as if for suspension.

6 JACKSON, Woney Cowry as a Sacred Object.

a small white shell, of almost any species, but the one
believed to resemble the mythical mi’gis is similar to the
cowry, C. moneta. He states that nearly all the shells
employed for initiation purposes are foreign species, and
have no doubt been obtained from traders, J doubt very
much if this is the case with the money cowry, as there is
little evidence of trade in this Indo-Pacific shell amongst
the Indians. The fact of other shells being used by the
Ojibwa seems to imply that the money cowry is scarce
among them, and those they possess, doubtless handed
down from generation to generation, are regarded with
special veneration as being like that mentioned in the
tradition of Mi’nabo’zho and the origin of the Midé’-
wiwin, or Grand Medicine Society.

A particularly suggestive event is figured by Mallery
in his paper on the “ Picture-Writing of the American
Indians,”® which appears to me to have some connection
with the cowry shell-cult of the Ojibwa and Menomini.
In #zg. 825 (p. 577) he reproduces what he icallegea
dangerous trading trip,’ an episode taken from a birch-
bark record, known to have been more than 70 years old,
obtained in 1882 from the Ojibwa Indians at Red Lake,
Minnesota. This was interpreted by an Indian from that
reservation, although he did not know the author nor the
history of the record. It represents an Indian who visited
a country supposed to have been near one of the great
lakes. In his hand is a scalp taken from the head of an
enemy, after having killed him. His enemy is repre-
sented by a man wearing horns on his head, a common
symbol of superior power among medicine men. Of the
other figures on the record one represents a shell, and
denotes the primary object of the journey. It is stated
in the Indian’s interpretation that shells were needed for

° Bureau of Ethnol., roth Aun. Reft., 1893.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 4. a

making ornaments and to trade, but the shell figured on
the record is undoubtedly a cowry. This fact is signifi-
cant, and one would be justified in concluding that the
pictograph commemorates no ordinary trading trip, but
an expedition to secure some especially noted sacred
shell possessed by a rival medicine man.

As bearing upon the shell-cult just described, the
following account is of peculiar interest. Long, in his
“Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains,”
1823,” tells us that the Omahas possessed a sacred shell
which they transmitted from generation to generation.
Its origin was quite unknown. A skin lodge was built
for it, and a man appointed as guardian, who resided in
the lodge. It was placed on a standsand never allowed
to touch the earth, and was concealed from sight by a
number of mats made of skins plaited. he whole formed
a large package, from which tobacco, roots of trees, and
other objects were suspended. No one dared to open all
iieeemeovenes in otder to see the shell, for if. they
attempted to look upon it they were struck with instant
and total loss of sight. The sacred shell was taken by
the Indians on all their national hunts, and was also
consulted as an oracle before any expedition was made
against an enemy. The medicine men seated themselves
round the sacred lodge, the lower part of which was
thrown up like a curtain, and the external mat was
carefully removed from the shell, that it might have air.
Some of the consecrated tobacco suspended from the
coverings of the shell was'’taken by the medicine men
and smoked to the “Great Medicine.” During this
ceremony everyone listened most attentively, hoping to
hear a sound proceed from the sacred shell. At length
someone imagined he heard a noise resembling a forced

° As quoted in ‘‘ Flint Chips,” by E. T. Stevens, pp. 448-449.

8 JACKSON, JZoney Cowry as a Sacred Object.

expiration of air from the lungs, and this was considered
a favourable omen, and the tribe prepared for the expe-
dition, confident of success. If, on the contrary, the shell
obstinately remained silent, the result of the expedition
was regarded as doubtful.

This reverence paid to shells by the Indians of North
America has many parallels in the Old World. In West
Africa the natives in the Yoruba country have a cowry
shell house for a cowry shell god, the whole being entirely
made up of the money cowry.

The natives of Usambara, in East Africa, also attach
marvellous powers to a species of Achatina, imagining
that it can ward off all forms of evil and witchcraft. The
shell is held in high repute and placed in little enclosures
of stone in their fields, and at the gateways of their
villages, which are thus considered safe from the attacks
of the enemy or from disease."' The name of the species
is not given, but it may possibly be the dAchatina bloyete
var. fatalzs, a species which plays a part in the trials by
ordeal of the Wadshagga peoples, the accused whose guilt
or innocence is to be proved being compelled to take the
poison from it.”

In Asia we have the well-known chank-cult which is
current in India, Thibet, and ‘China.

In Polynesia one of the most interesting examples is
that recorded by the Rev. Mr, Hadfield, who came across
a fine specimen of the Orange Cowry (Cypre@a aurora) in
a native hu® in Lifu, Loyalty Is. where it was held
in much veneration by the occupant, who considered it a
kind of fetish.” Mr. Hadfield also gives some further

11K. Johnston, ‘* Notes on the Geology of Usambara,” 1879, as quoted
by Lovell ‘‘ Edible British Mollusca,” 1884, p. 198.

12 Tryon’s ‘‘ Manual of Conchology,” 2nd Ser., xvii., 1904, p. 37-

18 See Melvill & Standen, ‘‘ Lifu Mollusca,” /ozsnal of Conchology,
Vill .,, TSQ5,2p. 112.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 4. fo)

interesting information relating to this species. He tells
us that Mrs. Hadfield came upon a rare treasure in the
shape of a fine Orange Cowry which according to the
native report had been found by an old woman who was
struck on the forehead by a demon, who asked her why
she took the shell. The woman, it is stated, died from
the effects of the blow.*

APPENDIX.

Since this paper has been printed I have discovered
a most remarkable parallel in the use of the money cowry
in West Africa. In his description of the Human Leopard
Society of the Sierra Leone cannibals,” Major R. G. Berry,
A.S.C., gives detailed particulars of the contents of a
Borfimor, or medicine bag, used by Leopard-men in the
initiation of a person desirous of joining the society.
This Borfimor bag, now in his possession, figured pro-
minently in a trial which led to the hanging of thirty-
two men. On being opened it was found to contain
four smaller bags, one of which contained two tau-shaped
iron crosses, the stems of which were lapped with cotton,
and to the top of each was tied a cowry shell, or sign of
Hiews ihe tau cross, or crux ansata,’ Berry remarks}
“was the emblem of Osiris, and is called the Sign of Life,
the symbol of resuscitation and new birth, expressive
of the idea entertained by the Egyptians and other
philosophers, that nothing created was annihilated, and

14 Melvill & Standen, of. cz#., p. 131.

1° R. G. Berry, ‘* The Sierra Leone Cannibals, with Notes on their
History, Religion, and Customs.” Proc. Roy. Irish Academy, Vol. xxx.,
Sect. C., No. 2, May, 1912, pp. 45, 53, and 67.

10 JACKSON, Money Cowry as a Sacred Object.

that to cease to be was only to assume another form,
dissolution being merely the passage to reproduction.
In its association with the Borfimor we seem to have the
reflection of some such ideas, the fetish being animated
by the indwelling life of the victim and the spirit attracted
to it” (p. 67).

The Borfimor bag also contained a pebble made of
some earthy matter and lime, in one side of which was
incorporated a cowry shell.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lr. (1916), Wo. 5.

V. The Aztec Moon-cult and its relation to the
Chank-cult of India.

By J. WILFRID JACKSON, F.G.S.,

Manchester Museum.

(Communicated by Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D.,F-R.S.)
( Received and read December rath, 1915.)

The interesting evidence brought forward by Dr.
Elliot Smith before this Society, and in Wature, November
25th, 1915, p. 340, and December 16th, p. 425, regarding
the transmission from India or the Far East to America
of the design of an elephant’s head does not stand alone
as an indication of an element of Asiatic culture trace-
able in the old Mexican civilization.

Though the Mexican mythology is so complex,
anyone who carefully compares the Aztec and Hindu
pantheons cannot but conclude that the former is derived
to a very large extent from the latter. The whole sub-
ject, however, is far too vast to be discussed in this short
paper. I propose, therefore, very briefly to deal with a
most remarkable identity in the use of large conch shells
as trumpets and in the adoption of shells as religious
symbols.

Beyond figuring and describing the various shells
depicted on Mexican manuscripts, no one, so far as I am
aware, has hitherto called attention to their true signifi-
cance.

May 17th, 1916,

2 JACKSON, The Aztec Moon-cult.

In Professor Seler’s monograph on the Codex Vati-
canus and elsewhere, the Mexican Moon God is repre-
~ sented associated with a large marine snail shell as its
symbol.

As the emblem of the moon the snail’s shell is also
shown with the figure of a man, or merely a hand,
emerging from the mouth—the God in the Shell—which
might have reference to the waters being pent up, or
possibly to different phases of the moon. The Rain God,
Tlaloc, is thus seen emerging, and holding lightning in
both hands. The snail was also brought into association
by the Aztecs with conception, pregnancy, and birth.
Snail shells were also connected with the cult of Chantico,.
the Fire Goddess, and are figured as breast ornaments of
Quetzalcouatl, the Wind God, Tepeyollotli, the Heart of
the Mountains, etc.

In one place the Moon God appears as another form
of Xochipilli, the God of Flowers and Food Supplies, and
in another place he appears as the God of the Dance and
Music.

Turning to India, we find the same general ideas
prevailing in the chank-cult of the Hindus.

The Chank (Turbznella pyrum) is one of the two
important symbols associated by Hindus with Vishnu
and his many avatars or incarnations. Siva, also, is
sometimes represented holding the chank. Such an
association is of peculiar interest when one considers the
worship of the chank in the daily liturgy of the Brahmans.
Taking the shel] in his hand, the Brahman recites the
following prayer :—

“ At the mouth of this shell is the God of the Moon,
on its sides is Varuna, on its back Prajapati, and on its
apex, the Ganges, the Sarasvati, and all the other sacred
rivers of the three worlds in which they make ablutions

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 5. 3

according to the command of Vasudeva In this chank
is the chief of the Brahmans (Brahmendra or Brahmana-
spati). This is why we worship the sacred chank. Glory
to thee, sacred shell, blessed by all the gods, born in the
sea, and formerly held by Vishnu in his hand. We adore
the sacred chank and meditate upon it. May we be filled
with joy !

“JT offer (to the chank) everything needful for wor-
ship—perfumes, rice and flowers.” ’

In India the moon is believed to preside over the
growth of crops, etc., and in certain places, and especially
in Siam, the inauguration of the ploughing season is
celebrated by the Minister of Agriculture being borne on
a palanquin to the field, accompanied by priests blowing
loud blasts on chank shells. In Malabar, also, at the
bringing in of the first fruits, the priest comes forth from
the local temple, preceded by a man blowing a conch-
shell trumpet.

Thus we find embodied in the above prayer, and in
the harvest rites, the very elements which make up the
moon-cult of the Aztecs. Associated with the chank we
have (a), the God of the Moon, and (0), Varuna, the Hindu
god of the waters and of the west quarter, who is
worshipped as one of the guardian deities of the earth,
and in times of drought and famine. He is represented
in paintings as a white man seated on Makara, a mythical
crocodile. This god recalls Tlaloc, the Mexican Rain
God, who is sometimes associated with the crocodile, and,
as previously mentioned, is depicted as emerging from
the conch-shell. (¢), Prajapati, “ the father of all creatures,”
a personification of the sun, is emblematical of creation |
and birth. The snail or conch-shell, as we have seen,

1 One of the names of Krishna.
? Hornell, ‘‘ The Sacred Chank of India,” 1914.

4 JACKSON, The Aztec Moon-cult,

was also associated with conception and birth by the
Mexicans. .

The offerings made to the chank of the fruits of the
earth; the harvest rites accompanied by conch-shell
music ; and the use of shell-trumpets in Hindu temple
worship, have their counterparts in Mexican manuscripts
in the figure of the God of Flowers and Food Supplies
being carried in procession preceded by a priest blowing
a conch-shell trumpet,*® and in references to the blowing
of conchs in the temples at midnight as a signal for the
priests to arise and mortify themselves, to sing, and then
to go in procession to the bath.‘

In India both the ordinary and the rare and highly
prized sinistral forms of the chank are employed in
temple-worship, and it is not a little curious to find that
in the Mexican pictures both forms are also shown. It is
quite possible that here, as in India, the sinistral form
may have had a special significance.

It is altogether inconceivable that people so far apart
as India and Mexico could have independently associated
the conch-shell with the moon and adopted it as the
symbol of their Moon God, in addition to using it asa
trumpet, and one may justly conclude that we have here
definite proof of the transmission of an element of culture
from the Old to the New World.

If any further evidence is needed regarding the simi-
larity in the moon-cult of these two people, it is provided
by the fact that the ancient Mexicans, like the Hindus,
regarded what we call the “ Manin the Moon” as a rabbit,
and explained the present fainter brightness of the moon
by the myth that the gods flung a rabbit in the face of

5 See Edward Seler, ‘‘ Codex Vaticanus, No. 3,773,” 1902, Fig. 363,
p- 162. The shell figured, by the way, is a reversed Casszs cornuta.

47 b Za.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. tx. (1916), No. §. 5

the moon, which originally shone as brilliantly as the sun.
Strangely enough Dr. Seler points out this fact in his
description of the Codex Vaticanus, but makes no further
comment.

In Aztec picture-writings the moon is figured—usually
as a nasal crescent of bone with a rabbit seated in a watery
field—beside the Goddess of Filth—the old Huaxtec
Earth Goddess.

Manchester Memorrs, Vol. lr. (1916), No. 6.

VI. The Geographical Distribution of Terraced
Cultivation and Irrigation.

iby WW. J. PERRY, B.A.

(Communicated by Professor G. Elhot Smith, M.A., M_D.,
Ff LS. ).

(Recezved and read February Sth, 1916.)

The series of communications which are being made
by Prof. Elliot Smith to the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society is designed to demonstrate the
magnitude and far-reaching nature of the cultural influ-
ence associated with the practice of building megalithic
structures. In this communication I propose to put for-
ward the results of a survey of the practice of cultivating
by means of artificially built-up and irrigated terraces.
During the course of an investigation into the extent and
nature of the influence of an immigration of builders of
megalithic structures upon the cultures of the indigenous
peoples of the East Indian Archipelago and the Burma-
Assam region, the evidence, derived from native traditions
as well as from the distribution of various kinds of stone-
work, the cult of the sun, sacred chiefs, phallic ornamen-
tation, and so forth, agreed in ascribing the practice of
terraced irrigation to these stone-using immigrants. A
wider survey was instituted into the distribution of this
strange mode of cultivation in other parts of the world,
and the results of this survey will now be put before you.
These results are not yet complete, but they represent in
broad outline the area of distribution of the practice.
Details are yet lacking with regard to many places, but

April 15th, 1910.

PERRY, Terraced Cultivation and Irrigatton.

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Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. ©. 3

I put forward the results gained up to the present in the
hope that they will help in the discussion of the thesis
which Prof. Elliot Smith is maintaining.

The method of cultivating the soil by means of
terraces constitutes one of the most remarkable ex-
amples of the gigantic amount of labour which can be
expended by communities of human beings in order to
procure food. By means of retaining walls, generally of
stone, and with earth often laboriously transported from
elsewhere, huge staircases of fields are made upon the sides
of mountains; and a teeming population is supported
in places where otherwise life would be difficult. These
terraces are generally supplied with water, which is
often brought from a distance ; and some peoples in the
past have, as will be shown, performed stupendous feats in
the construction of irrigation systems, and have displayed
an astonishing knowledge of hydraulics.

The method of exposition adopted will be mainly by
means of quotations, for one of my aims is to lay stress
upon the intense astonishment expressed by travellers who
have examined systems of cultivation by means of irri-
gated terraces.

The survey will begin with Europe and will then work
eastward through the Mediterranean. Then we shall
proceed by way of Africa to Arabia, India, China, Japan,
and thence right across the Pacific to America.

Terraced cultivation was once practised in Great
Britain. It is mentioned by Sir Laurence Gomme! in a
work in which will be found a discussion of the terrace-
cultivation of Britain and the problems arising out of its
existence there. Sir Laurence Gomme gives accounts of
terraced cultivation in Wiltshire, Dorset, Hampshire,
Sussex, Bedford, Herts (and between Cambridge and

’

1 “The Village Community.” New York, 1890, pp. 72, 75-95.

4 PERRY, Terraced Cultivation and Irrigation.

Hitchin), Carmarthenshire, Llangollen, Yorkshire, the
Cheviots, the Tweed valley, Peebles, Argyle, and in
several parts of Ireland. Some of these terraces were
supported by stone walls. Sir Laurence Gomme says :—
“ Although of one place Mr. Chambers states ‘there is no
trace of masonry in there construction, he says of the
ground round Dunsapie that ‘it is quite evident that (the
terraces) have been carefully formed with a facing of wall
composed of rough blocks, and the faces of some of them
are so well defined and steep that it is barely possible to
climb them,’ and ‘the pastoral ground over which they
extend has many rough blocks scattered over it.” Sir
Laurence Gomme goes on to say “ Now though there does
not appear to be any sign of such constructive evidence in
the more southern examples, it is open to remark that the
lapse of ages account for the stone facing having been
gradually removed, or that in some districts where stone
was not plentiful some other material was used for the
purpose of construction. For instance, of the Wilts
examples Mr. Scrope says the late Mr. Cunningham
informed him that it was ‘a practice to dig in these
lynchets for flints.’ ”

Among others, Canon Greenwell mentions terraces in
England. He says “terraces of a peculiar construction
are found throughout large and various districts of Britain.
They still remain in some parts of the Wolds, as for
instance near Carnaby. .... These terraces have been
considered by many persons, and I think with every
probability, to be the places upon which some cereal crop
was grown under a system of agriculture not quite
intelligible to us.” °

2 Op. cit., pp. 76, 89.

> Of. ctt., pp. 89-90.
4 “¢ British Barrows,’ Oxford, 1877.
© Of. Cét., p. 114,

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 6. 5

inn the’ Craven distrieh-of the West Riding, says
Canon Greenwell, “there are abundant examples of these
peculiar terraces, which, found on the slopes of hill-sides,
were at one time supposed to mark ancient levels of water,
but which are, notwithstanding, clearly of artificial origin.

It is not easy to understand why such elaborate
works, calling for no slight expenditure of labour, should
have been constructed to aid the growth of any crops;
for though in some cases, where they occur upon a steep
hill-side, they might be needed to prevent the washing
away of the soil when it was broken up, and therefore
more subject to the action of water, in other cases they
are found upon slopes lying at such an angle as obviously
to preclude the necessity of such a provision. Canon
Greenwell describes terraces in the East Riding, West-
morland, Durham and Northumberland, “ Indeed, in the
county last named, some of them are found on the pre-
cipitous sides of the porphyritic hills on the banks of the
river Breamish, at such an elevation as to make it difficult
to believe that any cereal crop could ever have grown
upon them.”

Miss Semple’ says, “In Britain of the Bronze Age,
before the peoples of Aryan, speech began to swarm over
the island, the primitive inhabitants involved in constant
clan or tribal warfare, placed their villages on the hills,
and left in the indestructible terraces on their slopes the
evidences of a vanished race and an outgrown social
order.”

The next place where I have definite information
about terraces is Spain. Miss Semple says that terraced
cultivation was brought in by the Saracens from Arabia,

PROP. Cid: P. .374
" Ellen Churchill Semple, ‘‘ Influences of Geographic Environment on
the Basis of Ratzel’s system of Anthropo-Geography,” 1911, p. 563.

6 PERRY, Zerraced Cultivation and Irrigation.

but I doubt this. “They built walls of heavy masonry,
and brought water, loam and fertilising materials from
great distances. The slopes of Granada back of Malaga
and Almeria were covered with vineyards. Every foot
of land susceptible of cultivation was turned to account,
every drop of water from the ill-timed winter rains was
conserved for the growing season. The application of
intelligence and labour to tillage enabled the Hispano-Arab
provinces to support a dense population.* Terraced culti-
vation is found in Germany, Switzerland and Italy. Malta
has many terraces with masonry walls to sustain them.
“Tn the Cyclades every patch of tillable ground is culti-
vated by the industrious inhabitants. Terraced slopes
are green with orchards of various southern fruits, and
between the trees are planted melons and vegetables.””
Again, “ To-day, terraced slopes, irrigation, hand-made
soils, hoe and spade tillage, rotation of crops, and a rich
variety of field and garden products characterise the
economic history of the Mediterranean islands, whether
Elba, the Lipari, Ponza, Procida, Capri, Ischia, Pantellaria,
Lampedurs or the A<gean groups.” !°

The Phoenicians practised irrigation and terraced cul-
tivation in the plains of Sidon." ‘Terraces are especially
found on Mount Lebanon. When viewed from the sea
on a morning in early spring, Lebanon presents a picture
which once seen is never forgotten ; but deeper still is the
impression left on the mind when one looks down over
its terraced slopes clothed in their gorgeous foliage.” The
Phoenicians had a water supply brought through stone
aqueducts into masonry-lined reservoirs,”

Terraced cultivation was once practised in Palestine.
“ As to the present condition of the country: [In the plains

Ss Semple, p, 567. ® Lbid, p. 566. 10 Tétd, pe Any.
11 Rawlinson, ‘‘ History of Phoenicia,” London, 1889, p. 8.
247°O2, £72.; Pp: TO, 17, Tos BO; 7g.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. tx. (1916), Wo. 6. 7

the soil is wonderfully rich, and wells can be sunk, though
at considerable depths; the hillsides are bare, the soil
having tumbled to the bottom of the deep steep valleys.
The white skeletons of the old system of tenancy still
visible on the bare mountain sides, and the roots of trees
still peering from the rocky fissures attest the fact that the
hill country of Palestine was once cultivated in a satis-
factory manner. Walls of rough stone were built round
the hill-sides, three to four feet high, according to the
steepness of the slope, and the space between them and
the hill filled in with fat loam, then another wall, and
another, from bottom to top until the mountain side pre-
sented the appearance from the opposite hills of a series
of steps. | ©

The Berbers of North Africa practise terraced irri-
gation, and along the Saharan slopes of the Atlas
piedmont run a series of wadis and artesian wells.™
Irrigation is found in the Saharan oases: for example, that
of L’Oeud-Rir in Algeria is formed of irrigated gardens
separated by stone walls.

The irrigation systems of Egypt and Mesopotamia are
well known. The lives of the vast majority of Egyptian
peasants have for thousands of years been chiefly occupied
with the irrigation of the soil and the problems of the
water-supply.' The method of procedure which is charac-
teristic of Egyptian irrigation is to divide the land up
into compartments, and to allow the water to flow from
one sector to the other.

Terraced cultivation is present in Darfur of the Egyp-
tian Sudan. Only the mountainous districts are well

13 Sir C. Warren, Scottish Geographical Magazine, in Herbertson’s
Descriptive Geography of Asia, London, 1913.

c= Semple; ps 501:

+8 Dr. H. Weisberger, ‘‘ Notes sur L’Oeud-Rir et ses habitants,” Revie
a’ ethnographte, IV., 1885.

8 PERRY, Terraced Cultivation and Irrigation.

watered and thickly populated, and small terraces for
grain and melons cover all the slopes.* Among the
Wakamba and associated tribes of East Africa “the
artificial irrigation of their fields is a conspicuous achieve-
ment.” The tribes of the Baringo district of East Africa
are all experts at irrigation, “Of which they make use
to an astonishing extent. For instance, the whole of Ndo,
which is ten or twelve miles in length, is with the exception
of the last two miles at the north end watered by ditches
taken from a single river.” This will appear the more
remarkable when we consider the limited size of the popu-
lation... The Kalika “a tribe of serfs ... south of Makaraka,
land in 3 N, have extensive fields with stalks of durra as
tallasa man....small patches planted with lubia,....
pasture meadows on the gently sloping hills, cut up in all
directions by little watercourses, brooks, deep channels.” *
Werner says that the tribes of British Central Africa plant
maize “where there are bits of alluvial soil close to a
watercourse, which are either kept moist by the stream or
can be easily irrigated.” ** Terraced cultivation is also
found in Nigeria among the Angoss, “a savage negro tribe ©
who occupy part of the Murchison range in Northern
Nigeria.” They have mapped out all their sloping land
into little terraces, sometimes only a foot or two wide.” ®

Terraced cultivation is found in the Canaries. “On
the precipitous slopes of Teneriffe, every particle of
alluvial soil is collected to make gardens. *

Among the Marunga who live on the west face of the

16 Semple, p. 571-

17 Ratzel, ‘‘ History of Mankind,” II., p. 524.

18 Hon. K. R. Dundas, ‘‘ Notes on the tribes inhabiting the Baringo
District, East Africa,” Journal Royal Anth. [nst., XL., 1910, p, 64.

ae Satzel, Abi. gy. 770:

20 <¢ British Central Africa,” London, 1906, pp, 178-80.

21 Semple, p. 570.

22 bid, p. 569.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 6. 9

rift valley, containing lake Tanganyka, we are told that,
“Here Cameron found the surface not regularly terraced,
but retaining walls of loose stones dispersed at intervals,
which serve to hold the soil in place, without greatly
altering the natural slope. The scene recalled the
terraced heights of Switzerland, and the people working
there looked like flies on a wall.” ™

Still further to the south terraced irrigation has been
carried on to a remarkable degree in Rhodesia. Hall, in
an account of the Inyanga ruins, situated 250 miles north
of Great Zimbabwe says, “On the summits of the hills
are stone forts, possibly a hundred of these structures,
while up the sides of the hills, from base to summit, are
stone terraces. Round their lower flanks run stone
aqueducts, each, one, two or three miles in length.” He
further remarks that “the great extent of country covered
with these remains is simply marvellous.” He goes on
to say in another place, “one of the most extraordinary
features of the Inyanga Range is the vast number of old
aqueducts, some two miles or more in length, running
from artificial dams on the mountain streams, and
crossing from hill to hill in a most remarkable manner.
“Whoever constructed these aqueducts must have been a
people thoroughly conversant with engineering, for their
levels are beautifully and exactly carried out in spite of
all natural obstacles, and not an inch of fall is wasted
throughout the length of their courses. These are a
marvel to all modern engineers who inspect them.
Evidently they were used for purposes of irrigation. . . ”
And again he says :—“ Perhaps the feature which most
strikes the visitor to this district is the hill terraces.
These are found in hundreds.

“These terraces cover the hills from base to summit,

23 Ibid, pp. 570-1.

IO PERRY, Zervaced Cultivation and Irrigation.

but mainly on their northern side. As many as forty
terraces, one above and behind the other, are to be found
on any one hill. Most of these have earth behind them,
but from the inner sides of some the soil has in the course
of time been washed away. They have retaining walls,
and most probably were used for horticultural purposes.
Hill terraces also cover a small area as far south as
Swaziland.” *

Irrigated terraces are also found in Madagascar.
“The chief employment of the Malagasy is agriculture.
In the cultivation of rice they show very great ingenuity,
the efsa grounds, where the rice is sown before trans-
planting, being found in either on the margins of streams
or in the hollows of the hills in a series of terraces, to
which water is often conducted for a considerable distance.
In this agricultural engineering no people surpass the

37 25

Betsiléo. Arabia is a place where terrace irrigation is
and has been carried out on a huge scale. The Saracens
who entered Spain, “had come from the severest training-
school in all Eurasia. Where the arid tableland of Arabia
is buttressed on the south-western front by high coast
ranges (6,000 to 10,500 feet or 2,000 to 3,000 metres) in
Yemen, rich in its soil of disintegrated trap tock
adequately watered by the dash of the south-west
Monsoon against its towering ridges, but practically the
whole country is atilt. Consequently the mountains have
been terraced from the base often up to 6,000 feet.”

“The country presents the aspect of vast agricultural
amphitheatres, in which the narrow paths of ancient
paving zigzag up and up through successive zones of
production. . .». The terrace walls are from tiwels

24 Hall, “‘Stone Forts and Pits on the Inyanga Estate, Rhodesia.”
Jourl. Roy. Anth. Inst., XX XV., 1905.
25) * Encyclop. Britt.,”” Xith Edition} XVII., p. 274.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. ©. II

eight feet high, but toward the top of the mountains they
often increase to fifteen feet. Though lined without
mortar, they are kept in perfect repair. Reservoirs filled
with water from the two rainy seasons supply the irriga-
tion channels. In the narrow valleys of the Nejd plateau
in central Arabia and on the mountain slopes of Oman
are found the same irrigated gardens and terraced plan-
tations,” *°

Mesopotamia, Persia and Central Asia, together with
Afghanistan and Beluchistan have, or have had in the
past, extensive irrigation systems.” Mr. Cresswell men-
tions several districts west of Persia in Chinese Turkestan
such as Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan where extensive
irrigation has been carried out. (Cf. also Semple, 359.)
The careful irrigation of Geok Tepe astonished the
Russians when they arrived there.* Terraced irrigation
is found in the provinces of Sze Shuan and Shen-shi in
China,* “Jn south-west China there are two or three
ranges between Ch’ung-Ch’ing and Lu-chou with summits
about 2,000 feet above the sea, but little hills and narrow
valleys form the distinctive features of this country. The
- rock is a soft sandstone and shale, often much displaced.
The softness of the stone makes terraced cultivation very
easy, and this system is carried to greater perfection here
than in any other part of China. Crossing one of the little
cols, and looking on the valieys that break away from it,
one is struck by the thought of the sum of human labour
expended to bring rugged hills into such complete sub-
jection, and one receives a most lively impression of the

eS Semple, p>) 567.

_ ** See an exceedingly interesting and suggestive article by Kk. A. C.
Cresswell, ‘‘ Fluctuations in the Population of Irrigated Countries.” J7Zaz,
1915, 40.

et ivatzel, LIT, pu 331.

29 Semple, pp. 568-9.

1 PERRY, Zerraced Cultivation and Irrigation.

patient industry of this wonderful people. From peak to
valley the whole hill-side has been levelled into terraces,
so that not a foot of ground is lost. More than this, the
terraces are cut up into fields—beds would be better
words—averaging 50 feet by 40 feet, perfectly level, and
enclosed by narrow banks. The outside bank of each
bed has a rough sluice to regulate the level of the water,
any surplus, after the ground is sufficiently covered for
paddy, falling into the bed below, and so on till the
bottom of the valley is reached.” ”

Terraced irrigation is wide-spread in northern India.
It is found in Kashmir, where “the terraces are irrigated
by contour channels constructed along the hill-sides,
which bring water for miles from distant snow-fed streams.”
Again, “the mountain sections of the native states of
Nepal and Bhutan present the view of slopes cut with
gigantic stairs, each step a field of waving rice kept satu-
rated by irrigating streams from abundant mountain
streams. Further north, where the Himalayas and Hindu
Kush meet, terrace agriculture is combined with irrigation
in the high Gilgit valleys, and farther still along that mere
gash running from the Pamir dome, called the Hunza
valley. Here live the once lawless robber tribes of the
Hunzas and Nagaris, ... . whose extensive terraces
of irrigated fields and evidences of skilful tillage are
strangely at variance with the barbarous character of its
inhabitants.” Irrigation is carried out in the valley of
the Sutlej, and in western Thibet in the Taklahat district.®
We are further told that “the western political boundary
of the Sind extends into the barren foothill of Baluchistan

°° Gomme, of. czt., p. 96, quoting from Blue Book, China, No. I., 1888,
p: 2.

51 Semple, p. 568.

52 C, A. Sherring, ‘‘ Western Thibet,” London, 1906, pp. 336, 168-70,
209. Semple, p. 572.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. [x. (1916), No. &. ra

only as far as the affluents of the Indus render the land
arable by irrigation.”* Miss Sykes speaks of terraced
irrigation between the Mashkid and Rakshan valleys in
Baluchistan. “All about this part of the country were
traces of a once wide-spread civilisation and the ruins of
many apparently large towns. The whole of the valleys
were terraced, tier upon tier of low slate walls often reach-
ing some way up the sides of the hills.”*

Irrigated terraces are found in Ceylon, where they
extend right up the sides of the mountains and are
accompanied by extensive irrigation works.

The Ho Mundas of Chota Nagpur have terraced irriga-

iT

tion. . the terraced don lands testify to the dogged
perseverance and indefatigable industry of the Mundas.
Years of patient labour of whole families of Mundas were
spent in embanking hill-streams, levelling river-beds and
valleys, cutting into stubborn ground higher up, and
forming them into little terraces of ¢éz lands. Generation
after generation of Mundas have toiled in the heat and in
the rain to prepare their terraced rice-fields. And still
they go on patiently reclaiming waste lands and prepar-
ing don lands, as their forefathers had done before them.” ®

The Khonds of Orissa have village fields “ formed in
a succession of terraces, to which water is conducted with
no mean skill.”** The hill villages of Madras are also
surrounded by terraced fields running along the sides of
the valleys. The Coorg system of terraced cultivation
takes place, we are told, “in the narrower valleys near the
Ghats, where the ground is terraced with considerable

¢ Semple, p. 350.

** Herbertson, of. cz/., p. 113, quoting from Macqueen, ‘‘ Through
Persia in a side-saddle.”’

5° Sarat Chundra Roy. ‘‘The Mundas and their country.” Calcutta,
1912, p. 390.

*6 Gomme, of, cz¢., quoting from Campbell, ‘*Wild tribes of Khondistan.”’

14 PERRY, Terraced Cultivation and Irrigation.

pains, the lower and broader fields having a rivulet
running through them, and these terraced up along the
sides being chiefly dependent upon the rainfall.” ”

Terraced cultivation is not found in Chittagong, but
it is present in Assam among the Meitheis, Kachari and-
Khasi.* Some irrigation is found among the Garo but it
is mostly in the hands of Rabhas and Kochs.*® Some of
the Naga villages have irrigated terraces but unfortunately
our information is not as definite as could be wished.
The Angami Naga are described by Hunter as cultivating
in terraces. “The terraces are constructed with wonderful
care and skill im the valleys’ and on -the hill-sides
ascending the latter for upwards of 1,000 feet, each little
field having its own retaining wall of stone 5 or 6 feet
high. Water is brought round for long distances in
channels cut with beautiful accuracy. The soil in the
terraces is manured.” ”

The Karen of Burma have terraces, each with walls
of stone 5 or 6 feet high Terraced irrigation is found
in Burma and the Shan states.”

The Batak of Sumatra have irrigated terraces but
they are surpassed by the people of Nias. “And yet the
Bataks do not represent the highest point attained ; this
is found in the remote little-visited Nias Archipelago.” *
Terraced irrigation is carried on to a great degree in
Java, Madura, Bali, Lombok, and Sumbawa." Wallace,

*7 Gomme, pp. 96-7 quoting from Shortt, ‘‘ Hill ranges of southern
India.” Richter, Manual of Coorg.

88 T, ©. Hodson, ‘‘The Meitheis;” S. Engle, “‘The Kachans; 7
P. Gurdon, ‘* The Khasis.”

SoA. Plaviai, * ThetGaros. ;

4° Gomme, p. 98, quoting from /our. Roy. Anth. Just., I1., p. 478;
XI, p. 62. “Shortt; “ 1a) Tribes of southern India, V. 9p. 705.

41 F. Colquhon, ‘‘ Amongst the Shans,” p. 65.

42 Ratzel, All... pp. 18-19:

ee L00d, 1s PuA2e:

+4) Semple, p- 456.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. ©. 15

speaking of Lombok says, “Soon after passing Mataram
the country began gradually to rise in gentle undulations,
swelling occasionally into low hills towards the two
mountainous tracts in the northern and southern parts of
the island. It was now that I first obtained an adequate
idea of one of the most wonderful systems of cultivation
in the world, equalling all that is related of Chinese
industry, and as far as | know surpassing in the labour
that has been bestowed upon it any tract of equal extent
in the most civilised countries of Europe. I rode through
this strange garden utterly amazed, and hardly able to
realise the fact, that in this remote and little known
island, from which all Europeans, except a few traders at
the port, are jealously excluded, many hundreds of square
miles of irregularly undulating country have been so
skilfully terraced and levelled, and so permeated by
artificial channels, that every portion of it can be irrigated
and dried at pleasure. Ascending as the slope of the
ground is more or less rapid, each terraced plot consists
in some places of many acres, in others of a few square
Memeo = ~ In some places the ditches were dry,
in others little streams crossed our road and were dis-
tributed over lands about to be sown or planted. The
banks which bordered every terrace rose regularly in
horizontal lines above each other; sometimes rounding
an abrupt knoll and looking like a fortification, or
sweeping round some deep hollow and forming on a
gigantic scale the seats of an amphitheatre. Every brook
and rivulet had been diverted from its bed, and instead
of flowing along the lowest ground were to be found
crossing our road half-way up an ascent, yet bordered by
ancient trees and moss-grown stones so as to have all the
appearance of a natural channel, and bearing testimony

to the remote period at which the work had been done.” ”
[oA Re Wallace, “" Vhe Malay Archipelago,” 3rd Edit., 1890, p. 126.

16 PERRY, Terraced Cultivation and Irrigation.

Irrigation is found in Sumba, and among the Dusum
and coast people of Borneo. Also in central Celebes in,”
the Sadang district and among the mountain group of
the Toradja. Terraced irrigation is also found among
the Bontoc, Infugao and Igorot of northern Luzon in the
Philippines. The cultivation is on an immense scale, the
terraces rising for thousands of feet up the sides of the
mountains. Terraced irrigation is also found in Formosa
and Japan.”

, Miss Semple tells us that “the islands of Melanesia
show generally fenced fields, terrace farming on mountain
sides, irrigation canals, fertilised soils, well trimmed shade
trees,and beautiful flower gardens.”* Irrigated taro gardens
are found in the Pelews and in Micronesia.” Irrigated
terraces are reported in New Britain, New Guinea, the
Solomons and the New Hebrides.” Dr. Haddon tells me
that irrigation in British New Guinea is confined to the
Massim District, but that drainage canals are made in
the Fly river district “and perhaps elsewhere in the
west.” He says that “the irrigation in the east is for taro,
and very elaborate irrigation works have been made a
long time ago which are still kept up.” Near Wamira,
Bartle Bay, is an aqueduct about 60 feet long over a gully
30 feet deep, “a very fine piece of work.” (Newton. In
far New Guinea, pp. 123-4.)

Terraced cultivation is found in the d’entrecasteaux
islands, and in Aurora. Mr. A. M. Hocart tells me that
“terraced irrigation (for taro always) occurs on a large

*6 Grubauer, ‘‘Unter Koptjagern in Central Celebes.” Leipzig, 1913.
A. Kruyt and N. Adriani, ‘‘ De Bare’e-spree kende Toradja’s.” ’s Graven-
hage, I9I2.

*7 Jenks, ‘‘ The Bontoc Igorot,” pp. 88-9.

**° Semple, p. 455-

o° natael, 1p 254:

fe Semple, p. 4565 Ratzel deny

Pl aRaiZel, Li, 250:

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 6. 17

scale in Nduke (on the maps Kulambangara) near New
Georgia. The terraces were banked up with stones.”
Dr. Rivers tells me that terraced irrigation is found in
the northern part of Santo in the New Hebrides.

An immense amount of terraced irrigation is found
in New Caledonia. Glaumont speaks of huge works for
taro cultivation consisting of terraces with stone and clay
walls, thus having the effect of steps on the sides of the
hills. “The valley of Téné was the bottom of a basin,
and the mountains which surrounded it were the sides ;

the spectator at the centre enjoying the same coup d’oeil
as if he were in the middle of a Roman circus.” *

According to the information of Mr, Hocart, irrigated
terraces in Fiji are “almost, if not quite confined to the
islands as opposed to Viti Levu. It must be noted that
Mev ii levyu they cin plant taro in dry land on the
slopes owing to the damp and possibly the soil. They
cannot in the islands, except Vanua Lava. . . . Irrigation
was used for taro in Hawaii... . Terraces do not occur
in Tonga unless it may be in Kao and Tofua, for the
simple reason that the islands are flat and have no
streams. I have seen none in Rotuma: they plant in
dry land.”

In the Marquesas, “ Dans toutes les vallées on peut
trouver des séries de gradins, de plates-formes plus ou
moins larges, plus ou moins longues, selons les indications
de la pente duterrein.” These terraces have stone support-
ing walls, and they have canals for their irrigation.”

Fenced fields, terraces and irrigation works are found
in the lesser Paumotus and in Easter Island.™

°° Glaumont, ‘‘ La culte de l’igaune et du taro en nouvelle-Caledonie.”
L’anthropologie, VIII.

°3 Dr. Toutain, ‘‘Notes sur les Constructions et Monuments des
Marquesas.” L’ Anthropologie, VIII., p. 542.

ta Inatzel, Is. p. 254.

18 PERRY, Zerraced Cultivation and Irrigation.

Our survey has thus led us right across the Pacific,
and has established a chain from Britain to Easter Island,
hardly any of the links of which are missing. It will now
be our task to examine the American continent, for there
terraced irrigation has been practised’ on an immense’
scale.

Irrigation and terraced cultivation were very widely
practised in Peru. Mr. Enoch speaking of the terraces in
the Andes says :—“ These azdenes, or one time cultivated
terraces, are a striking feature of the Andes. ... I have
journeyed among these interminable slopes in so many
parts of Peru, and marked the vestiges of cultivation on
the sides of these profound and interminable valleys,
where only scattered Indian hamlets and mouldering
ruins exist to-day. ... Nothing has more strongly im-
pressed me in the long periods spent in those elevated
regions than the evidences of the intensive way in which
the soil was cultivated by the early Peruvians. Sitting
astride our mules on some high ridge as the sunset
shadows fall athwart those littie known valleys of the
great Cordilleras, we may mark how the declining light
touches the irregularities of the slopes, giving a singular
rippled or chequered appearance. This effect is caused by
the innumerable terraces or andenes, the small fields, one
above the other up the precipitous hill sides, fashioned in
a way such as must be seen to be believed.

“ The andenes are formed by the method of excavating
the soil on the upper side and embanking it on the lower,
the earthwork thus levelled being surrounded on three
sides by rough retaining walls, slightly battered, as is the
case of all stone work of the Inca periods. Above the
first azden a second was made, followed by another, and
so on until the whole mountain side was covered, like a
gigantic flight of stairs. In some districts every hill-top

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. ©. 19

is or has been so covered, and the terraces must have
numbered millions. The lowest of these terraces are
naturally the longest, in conformity with the usual slope
of a hill, and they diminish in size as they go upwards,
ascending thousands of feet often, from the level of plain
and stream up to where they are hidden in clouds and
mists. In some cases on the steep ravines or semi-pre-
cipitous slopes the top terraces are of a size such as give
room only for two or three rows of maize, so industrious
were the people and so highly was land considered. More-
over they were served by irrigation channels, and these

. were at times many miles in length.””

“Further south on this coast-zone of Peru I en-
countered remains of long aqueducts, a line traceable for
eighty miles along the hill slopes.” *

Terraces are also found in Ecuador, but it is not said
whether they were irrigation terraces. “On many slopes
the terraces are one below the other, resembling an
enormous flight of huge steps.” *

Spence says, “ It was in works of irrigation, however,
Ptemedee race (of the Incas) exhibited its greatest
engineering genius. In the valley of Nasca the Incas cut
deep trenches to reinforce the irrigating power of a small
river, and carried the system high up into the mountains,
in order that the rainfall coming therefrom might be con-
ducted into the needful channel. Lower down the valley
the main watercourse is deflected into many branches
which irrigate each estate by feeding the small surface
streams, The system adequately serves the fifteen estates
of Nasca to-day! Another high level canal for the

irrigation of pasture-lands was led for more than a
eG ok. noch.) the Secret of the Pacific,” pp. 180-1,
56 Thee, p. 187,
57 M. Ii. Saville, ‘Contributions to South American Archaeology, The
Antiquities of Manati, Ecuador.’ New York, 1907, L., p. 22.

20 PERRY, Terraced Cultivation and Irrigation.

hundred and fifty miles along the eastern slope of the
Cordillera.” ”

The Maya and Nahara peoples of Honduras and
Mexico practised irrigation.” And the Aztecs had
irrigation works upon an immense scale.”

Bancroft speaks of a huge stone aqueduct and
reservoir at Tezco Zinco,* and he states that Mexico
City had stone aqueducts and reservoirs.” “ The garden
at Iztapalapan was divided into four squares, each
traversed by shaded walks meandering among fruit trees,
blossoming hedges, and borders of sweet herbs. In the
centre of the garden was an immense reservoir, four
hundred paces square, and fed by navigable canals.” ®

Fewkes reports irrigation in the lake regions of the
Haitian provinces of Xaragua, Yaquino, Bainoa, and
Caiabo.* Authorities report traces of irrigation in Cuba.
Terraced irrigation is found in New Mexico, Western
Texas, Arizona, and in East California among the Zuni.”

For example, in Verde Valley, Arizona, in Clear
Creek, stones are arranged so as to include rectangular
areas which are irrigated.” In the “ Handbook of American

68 Myths of Mexico and Peru.” London, 1913, p. 273.

59 Bancroft, ‘‘The Native Races of the Pacific States of North
America,’ London, 1875, II., pp. 349, 718.

6° Jord, IV., pp. 619, 632, 635, 668-70, 676.

61 Jbid, II., p. 569.

62 [bi4, IL, p. 565.

>The, AL. Bas:

64 J. W. Fewkes, ‘‘ The Aborigines of Porto Rico and Neighbouring
Islands.” Svzths. Rep., XXV., 1903-4, p. 50.

CSI DE, pe GU:

¢° F. H. Cushing, ‘‘ Pueblo Pottery and Zini culture-growth.” Swzzths.
Rep., 4, p. 4773; Smiths. Nep., XXTII., 1901-2. XIL., et seg.; F. W.
Hodge, Prehistoric Irrigation in Aurina, America,” <Azchropoiogist, VI.;
F. Russell, Swzths. Rep., XXVI., 1908, pp. 86 e seg.

67 Fewkes, ‘‘ Expedition to Arizona.” 1895. Smiths. Rep., XVIL,
1895-6, p. 538. C. Mindeleff. ‘‘ Aboriginal remains in Verde Valley,
Arizona.” Smiths. Rep., XIII., 1891-2, pp. 238, 244.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 6. 21

’

Indians” it is said that irrigation is found in the south-
west States on the Rio Grande and its tributaries. Irri-
gation canals, dams and reservoirs are found in the valleys
of the Gila and its tributaries in South Arizona.® The
Pima Indians of the Gila river irrigate by means of con-
duits and ditches leading from the river into reservoirs,”
The same author states that traces of ancient irrigating
canals and ditches are to be found in New Mexico.” In
Arizona, especially in the Gila bottom, irrigation is found.
The Moqui Indians on the Rio Grande had reservoirs
lined with masonry, “ the face of the cliff had been ingeni-
ously converted into terraces. These were faced with
neat masonry, and contained gardens, each surrounded
with a raised edge so as to retain water upon the surface.
Pipes for the reservoirs permitted them at any time to be
iihieated= =... A long flight of stone steps, with sharp
turns that could easily be defended, was built into the
face of the precipice, and led from the upper reservoir to
the foot of the town.”™ Again it is said that “ The walls
of the terraces and reservoirs were of partially dressed
stone, well and strongly built, and the irrigating pipes
conveniently arranged.”” Fewkes says in one place,
“Students of South-western Archeology are familiar
with rows of stones marking off the surface of the land in
rectangles of great regularity. Some of these. lines of
stones extend for several hundred feet. Similar sites are
found in the San Simon valley. “ They may be regarded
as the walls of terraced gardens, so placed as to divide
different patches of cultivated soil, and to prevent this
soil from being washed down to the plain below. “ Very

6® Op. cit., 1., p. 619—e? seq.

s* Baneroft, I., p. 539.

7® Bancroft, IV., p. 619.

'Y Bancroft, [V., p. 668.
2 fozd,, p. 670.

22 PERRY, Zervaced Cultivation and Irrigation.

extensive irrigated terraced gardens are to be seen not
far from San Jose. “It would seem from their distribution
that not only irrigation ditches watered the valley of
Pueblo Viejo, but also that water was in some way
carried up the hillsides, so that land now barren was in
ancient times cultivated by the people of this region.”
The use of terraced gardens still survives among the
Hopi Indians.”

A certain form of agriculture about which I know
nothing further than is recorded in the following extract was
once practised in the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi.
It seems to bear some relationship to that described in
the west and south-west of these regions. “ It is pretty
well established that since the time of the Mound Builders
and prior to the advent of the Indians, a race known as
the “villagers” occupied certain districts in this country
and made the “garden beds” found in northern Indiana,
lower Missouri, and in the valleys of the Grand River and
St. Joseph’s, Michigan. These beds exist in the richest
soil in that part of the country. Some of the lines of the
plots are rectangular and parallel, others are semi-circular
and variously curved, forming avenues, differently grouped
and disposed. The ridges are low, averaging four feet
in width, and the depth of the walk between them is about
six inches. They cover from ten to one hundred acres,
and sometimes embrace even three hundred acres. The
beds are laid out with great order and symmetry, and
have certain peculiar features that belong to no recognised
system of horticulture. These beds are entirely different
from the system of field culture as practised by the
Indians, and no similar remains are connected with the

enclosures of Ohio.”™

78 J, W. Fewkes, ‘‘ Two Summer's work in Pueblo ruins.” Sym¢hs.
Rep., XXII., 1900-1, pp. 176-8.
74 J. P. Maclean, ‘‘ The Mound Builders,” Cincinnati, 1885, p. 131.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. ©. 23

[Upon Mr. Perry’s map I have added some spots
around the head waters of the Yenesei to indicate that
agriculture with irrigation was carried on there in ancient
times (see E. H. Minns’ “Scythians and Greeks,’ Cam-
bridge, 1913, p. 246). The discussion of the interesting
type of culture associated with this practice in Siberia
must be reserved for some future occasion, for its con-
sideration involves some of the most complex problems
in the history of the Bronze Age. Mr. Perry’s map at
once suggests the source of the Yenesei culture.

F. W. Christian (“ The Caroline Islands,” London,
1899) gives an excellent account of the ancient terraces
in Yap, where so many instructive relics of the stone-
using people and their legends still persist.

Since the map has been printed my colleague,
Professor Calder, has called my attention to the remark-
able remains of extensive terraced-cultivation and irriga-
tion at Kara Dagh in Asia Minor (see Sir William
Ramsay and Miss Gertrude Bell’s, “The Thousand and
One Churches,” London, 1909, p. 31 e¢ seg.).

In his previous communication' to the Society, Mr.
Perry called attention to the intimate association between
the geographical distribution of ancient mines and mega-
lithic monuments, and incidentally referred to the con-
nection between these things and terraced-cultivation and
irrigation. I have met with a curious passage, quoted in
a memoir on “Commerce in Prehistoric Times,” by Miss
Buckland,’ which seems to throw some light upon this
matter.

Referring to the introduction of metals and mega-
lithic architecture into Ireland she says :—“ This change

* “The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of Mega-
lithic Monuments and Ancient Mines,” AZanchester Memoirs, Vol. 60, Part I.

2 Journ, Anthr. Inst., Vol. XIV., 1885, p. 8.

24 PERRY, Zervaced Cultevation and Irrigation.

we can only suppose to have been caused by foreign
influence, and for this foreign influence we must look to
countries already acquainted with the use of metal, and
practising that mode of architecture, and those religious
rites which they would seem to have introduced among
the Firbolgs, whose name Warner translates as “ creeping
or cave men,’ although Keating (“ History of Ireland”)
gives a legend that they were the descendants of the first
Greek colonists .... and he derives the term Firbolg
from Fir, signifying mex, and Bolg, a dag, from the
leathern bags they had been compelled to wear, to carry
clay dug from pits to the top of hills, to make a soil upon
the rocks for cultivation. I do not know what traces of
the terraced cultivation, so much in use in Southern
Europe, are to be found in Ireland.”

This is surely a remarkable confirmation of an asso-
ciation of practices at which Mr. Perry had arrived
inductively from other evidence derived from the Far
Fast.

He has not attempted to discuss the origin of terraced-
irrigation.

From time immemorial a system of cultivation and
irrigation, which presents many striking analogies to
the terraced-method, was in practice in Babylonia and
Egypt ; but we have no certain knowledge as to which
people was the inventor of it.

There can be little doubt that terraced-cultivation and
irrigation originated, probably in Southern Arabia, as a
modification of the more ancient Egyptian and Sumerian
method of cultivating and irrigating the banks of their
respective rivers.

The ancient Egyptian records contain the earliest
references to terraced-cultivation; for in the account
inscribed in Queen Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el Bahari

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 6. 25

(circa 1500 B.C.), it is recorded that the God Amon com-
manded the queen to search out the myrrh-terraces of
Punt, and that the temple was built as a reproduction in
Thebes of these terraces, in which were planted the myrrh
trees brought back by the expedition (see Breasted’s
“History of Egypt,’ London, 1906, p. 274). If, as most
archeologists now maintain, Punt was not in Southern
Arabia, but on the African coast, this record at Deir el
Bahari calls for a further addition (S) to Mr. Perry’s map,
or alternatively, is another argument for those who would
locate Punt in Arabia.
The geographical distribution tells its own story.

G. ELLIOT SMITH.]

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx.(1916), No. @.

VII. The Geographical Distribution of the Shell-
Purple Industry.

By J. WILFRID JACKSON, F.G.S.
Manchester Museum.

Hon. Librarian of the Conchological Society of Great Britain and
Lreland.

INTRODUCTION.

Among the many curious and ornamental uses to
which shell-fish have been applied, one of the most striking
and interesting is undoubtedly their employment for the
production of the famous dye known as “ Tyrian purple.”

Much has been written concerning this dye and the
subject has been discussed in its economical and _ philo-
sophical aspects by numerous writers.

By far the best and most comprehensive summary of
the various contributions to our knowledge of the subject
is the article on Purpura by Maurice Besnier, in Daremberg
and Saglio’s “ Dictionnaire des Antiquités.”! The biblio-
eraphy quoted by this author is astonishing and serves to
show how extensively the subject has been treated by
writers of different nationalities. rs he

But Besnier, and the authors he quotes, deal only with
the classical area or the Mediterranean. The aim of the
present paper is to trace out, as far as it is possible to do
so, the geographical distribution of this interesting
industry ; not only in the Old, but also in the New World.

Many data relating to the use of this shell-purple are
to be found in the historical records, but in some cases its

1 Vol. IV.—1., Paris.

May 22nd, 1910.

Purple Industry.

JACKSON, Duestributzon of the Shell-

RES Re

‘Ayysupuy adang-[[ays ey so uornquystq oy) Surmoys depy

a pa

a 7 ———

Manchester M emotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. %. 3

former presence in a particular area can only be inferred
from the finding of broken and crushed shells, which serve
equally definitely to distinguish certain ancient stations for
the extraction of the purple.

From the works of ancient writers, especially Aristotle
and Pliny, we learn that this famous colouring matter was
in great demand among the people of the Mediterranean
region. It was this purple dye, in fact, which was largely
responsible for giving to the textile fabrics of the
Pheenicians their world-wide reputation.

Both Aristotle and Pliny give the details of the process
by which it was procured from the shell-fish. They tell us
that the precious liquid was obtained from a transparent
branching vessel behind the neck of the animal and that
at first the material was of the colour and consistency of
thick cream. When the shells were small, many of them
were bruised together in a mortar; but when large, the
animal was taken out entire, usually by breaking a hole in
the side of the shell, and the sac containing the colour-
ing matter was taken out, either while the animal was still
alive, or as soon as possible after death, as otherwise the
quality of the dye was impaired. This was mixed witha
quantity of salt, about 20 ozs. to every 100 pounds of juice,
to keep it from putrefying. Three days,and no more, were
allowed for the steeping process, and the liquid was then
set to boil in vessels of tin or lead. The vessel was placed
at the end of a long funnel, which communicated with the
furnace, and while boiling the liquid was frequently
skimmed to remove impurities. The proportions were
about 500 pounds of material to every hundred amphorz
of water. About the tenth day, as a rule, the whole con-
tents of the cauldron were in a liquified condition, and a
fleece, freed from all grease, was then plunged in by way
of a trial; but until such time as the colour was found to

4 JACKSON, Destrzbution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

be satisfactory, the liquid was still kept on the boil. The
wool was left to soak for five hours, and then after being
carded, was thrown in again, until it had fully imbibed
the colour.

A very curious fact concerning this dye, which was
noted also to some extent by the ancients, is the trans-
formation through which it passes on exposure to
sunlight. The fluid is at first colourless, but on exposure
to the action of the sun it becomes of a bright yellow,
speedily turns to a pale green, and continues to change
imperceptibly until it assumes a bluish cast and thena
purple red. These changes of colour, which are faster or
slower according to the intensity of the sun’s light, are
accompanied by the production of a disagreeable foetid
odour, similar to that of essence of garlic.

This peculiarity was well known to the ancients and
is referred to by Pliny. It was probably the cause of the
extravagant use of perfumes by the wearers of “the
purple” in classical times. |

THE SOURCES OF THE PURPLE.

The vague descriptions of the Greek and Latin writers
has led to much discussion as to the exact species of
shell-fish used in the manufacture of the dye.

Pliny speaks of two kinds that produce the purple
colour. The smaller “ fish,’ he tells us, was called the
“buccinum,” from its resemblance to the conch by which
the sound of the buccinus or trumpet is produced ; the
other “fish” was known as the “ purpura,’ or purple, and
was studded with points up to the very apex, differing in
this respect from the. first kind.

The earliest attempt to discover the source of the
ancient purple seems to have been made by William Cole,

2 Pliny, “* Nat. Hist.,"axi, chi 62)

‘

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No, %. i

of Bristol, in 1686,3 who conducted experiments on shell-
fish (Purpura lapillus) found on the shores of Somerset-
shire, South Wales, and Ireland, in the course of which he
discovered the curious photogenetic properties of the
colour. These experiments were continued by other
observers, including Reaumur,’ du Hamel,’ Deshayes,° and
Lacaze-Duthiers.’ The general concensus of opinion on
the question is that the ‘purpura’ of Pliny is the Murex
trunculus, or the JZ. branderzs, of modern conchologists,
while the ‘ buccinum’ of the Roman naturalist is probably
the Purpura hemastoma, all three species being common
to the Mediterranean shores. The Purpura lapillus, so
abundant on the shores of Europe generally, is also likely
to have been employed in the production of the inferior
sort of purple.

The JdZurex-shell is almost constantly in evidence as
a design upon Tyrian coins from A.D. 112 onwards. The
shell here is quite distinct from the “so-called” Wuvex of
pre-Alexandrine coins (czvca 450-400 B.C.). The latter is
not a Murex at all, but is more like a 7rzfon, or trumpet-
shell ; and the same shell appears on the coins of Byblus
(c5oenc.) and of Tarentum (¢c 400-330 B.c.).. The
Murex of the imperial coins of Trye (A.D. 112 on) is
distinctly like Murex branderzs, one of the chief purple-
yielding shells.

Whether the design of the Murex (and so-called
Murex) on these coins had primarily any connection with

®Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Lond., xv., pp. 278—86, and plate.

4 Mém de (Acad. des Sciences, 1711, pp. 168-199 (Reaumur also
accidentally discovered that the egg-capsules of Pzfpura afforded the dye
in greater abundance, and with less trouble, than the animal itself).

° Lbid. 1736, pp. 49-68.

® ** Mollusques de la Méditerranée,” in ‘1’ Expéd. Scient. de Morée,
Section des Sciences physiques,” iii., Paris, 1832, pp. 189-192.

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., x., 1860, pp, 579-5843; also Ann. des Sci.
Nat. Zool, xii., 1859, pp- 5-84, and plate.

6 JACKSON, Déstrzbution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

the purple-trade of Tyre is doubtful, though this has been
suggested by leading authorities.

Judging from the associated symbols, particularly
those of the serpent, palm-tree, “ mundane egg,” etc., it
seems to have a greater affinity with serpent and phallic
worship.

At least two species of MWurex, and one of Purpura,
appear to have been employed by the Phoenicians in the
manufacture of Tyrian purple. Lortet records that in the
vicinity of Sidon, great banks, a hundred yards long and
several yards thick, occur composed entirely of broken
shells of Murex trunculus while at Tyre, according to
Tristram,’ large quantities of crushed and broken shells of
Murex branderis, have been met with. Tyre, which is
reputed to have produced the best purple in Asia, is
referred to by Strabo” as unpleasant, as “a place on
residence, owing to the great number of its dyeworks.

The Tyrian method of dyeing differed slightly from
that narrated by Pliny, for the dyers merely made a bath
of the liquid in which the wool to be treated was steeped
for acertain time. It was then taken out and thrown
into another boiler, which contained an extract from the
Buccinum, or Trumpet-fish, only. This process—the
so-called “ purpurea dibapha”’— gave to the stuffs a richer
and more vivid hue. Wool submitted to this double
process was so highly esteemed that, in the reign of

Augustus, each pound sold for one thousand Roman:

denarii, or about thirty-six pounds sterling. We need
not wonder at this enormous price, considering the tedious
nature of the process and the small amount of dye pro-
duced from each shell-fish. For fifty pounds of wool, the
5 L. Lortet, ‘‘ La Syrie d’aujourd’hui,” Paris, 1883, p. 102.
° H. B. Tristram, ‘‘ The Land of Israel,” 1882, p. 48. See also Besnier,
op. cit., p. 770, for other references, and the use of Purpura hemastoma.
10'Strabo; &Vi., c. 11, Pp. 75es

_ - b ss -.
ee

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. tx. (1916), No. 4. ih

ancients used no less than two hundred pounds of the
liquid of the Bucctnum and one hundred pounds of that
of the Purpura™

The best purple was stated by the ancients to be
exceedingly durable ; and when Alexander took posses-
sion of Susa, he found among the treasures of Darius, 5,000
talents in weight of purple cloth, from Hermione in the
Peloponnesus, which had been laid up there for 180 years,
and yet retained all its freshness and brilliance of colour.”

The purple-bordered przetexte of Servius Tullius,
with which the statue of Fortune dedicated by him, was
covered, lasted until the death of Sejanus; and it is a -
remarkable fact, that, during a period of 560 years, they
had never changed colour.”

The real Tyrian purple and purple-stuffs were essen-
tially articles of luxury, varying in price according to
times and quality.

They were always costly and vied in value even with
gold itself. Consequently we find them reserved for the
hangings of temples, or employed for the robes of priests
and kings. Moses, it is recorded, used purple stuffs for
the works of the tabernacle, as well as for the habits of
the high priest; and among the presents which the
Israelites made to Gideon the Scriptures mention purple
raiment that belonged to the kings of Midian. The
Babylonians are said to have devoted this purple to the
dress of their idols, and Tertullian speaks of its use among
the ancient kings of Egypt and Babylonia.” It was con-

sidered a noble and sacred colour by the ancients and

emblematic of the power of the gods, an idea which is
11 Mary Roberts, ‘‘ A Popular History of the Mollusca,” 1851, p. 120.
12 Plutarch, A/ex., p. 36.
12 Pliny, “‘N. H.,” viii., ch. 74.
14 “¢Tudges,” 8, 26.
SP Vertully, Detaal, We 1d.

8 JACKSON, Destrébution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

explained by Besnier by the resemblance of the purple to
the colour of blood, the principle of life.7

But this explanation is not convincing. The mere
price of the purple made the use of it a privilege of kings
and priests.

By the Greeks and Romans purple was regarded as
the peculiar insignia of royalty or of official distinction,
such as magistrates, military officials, priests, etc. It also
played an important réle in certain of their legends.

Its use was forbidden to the common people, and laws
were made inflicting severe penalties, and even death itself,
upon all who should presume to wear it under the dignity
of an emperor.

Though the Tyrian purple served principally as a dye
for cloth, generally of wool, but sometimes of silk, it was
also employed as a paint for the parchments of precious
books written in letters of gold, and as a colour for inks.”
It had a prominent place also among the toilet requisites
of the Romans and was applied in place of rouge to the
cheeks and lips." |

Attention might also be called here to the use of the
purple on the sails of vessels in the earliest times. These
sails were of rich colours, with floral and other designs,
and were in early use in Egypt, and seem to have been
bought by the Tyrians.’* The hem or border of these sails
was coloured according to the rank or station of the owner.
It is mentioned by Atticus that the sails of the large ship
of Ptolemy Philopater were of fine linen, ornamented with
a purple border. And we find the ship of Antony and

16 Besnier, of. cit., p. 777.

1% bd. D, 778:

18 Athenzeus, xiii., ch. 8, p. 604. See also Besnier, of. cét., p. 778, for
other references.

19 Ezekiel, 27,7... ‘‘ Fine linen, with embroidered work from Egypt,
was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sails.”

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. %. 9

Cleopatra at the battle of Actium, distinguished from the
rest of the fleet by having purple sails—a distinction which
is said to have been at that time the peculiar privilege of

the admiral’s vessel.”

THE CENTRES OF PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION
OF THE PURPLE INDUSTRY.

The Phoenicians have been accredited with the inven-
tion of this famous purple as well as with that of glass, but
modern investigators are depriving these ‘maritime pedlars’
of much of their former prestige. Glass has been shown
to have been first made by the Early Egyptians many
centuries before the probable date of the Phcenician occu-
pation of the Mediterranean coast, and the credit of the
invention of shell-purple has now been transferred to the
Minoans of Crete. R. C. Bosanquet, in his note on “ An
Early Purple-fishery”™ tells us that “ Leuke, the ‘ White
Isle’ (modern Kouphonisi), off the south-east coast of
Crete, was an important fishing-station in antiquity. The
tithes levied on the catch of fish and of purple-shell men-
tioned in an inscription of about 350 B.C., must have
been very profitable, for the possession of the island was
the subject of a long and bitter dispute among three neigh-
- bouring cities.”

This island was explored in 1903 by C. T. Currelly
and R. C. Bosanquet, and “ among sand-hills on the north
shore they found a bank of shells, some whole but mostly
crushed, of Wurex trunculus, which is known to have been
used in the manufacture of the purple dye.”

“Scattered through the heap were fragments of |
pottery, and of a stratile bowl which marked it as not
only prz-Hellenic but pree-Phoenician. Further digging

20 J. Napier, “‘ Manufacturing Arts in Ancient Times,” 1874, pp. 287—8.
Gr Rerils ASS. Uepley LGO3. PD. O17.

10 JACKSON, Destributzon of the Shell-Purple Industry.

within a few yards of the heap brought to light character-
istic Cretan vases of the Kamares type, and the foundations
of a house.”

“ The evidence shows that the extraction of the purple-

9) 29

juice was practised in Crete at least as early as 1600 B.C.

Though the Phcenicians were not the original dis-
coverers of the famous dye, they were largely instrumental
in spreading the knowledge of the art among the people
with whom they traded. Their two great centres of manu-
facture were Sidon and Tyre and the large quantities of
broken shells around these cities testify to the importance
and extent of the industry.

The purple of Tyre was greatly estimated and con-
sidered the best in Asia. The dyeworks of this city
endured for many centuries until the end of the Roman
Empire. The imperial manufacture of purple at Tyre is
mentioned in the reign of Diocletian before 300 s.D.,%
and in 383 A.D. the fabrication of purple of superior quality
became a state monopoly.”

Among other towns of Phoenicia cited as manufactories
of purple stuffs are Sarepta, Caesarea, Neapolis, Lydda,
and the port of Doros.* The inhabitants of the island of
Cyprus also carried on this industry. The Phcenicians
likewise introduced the knowledge into Egypt and a
private manufactory is said to have existed in the town of
This, near Abydos, in the 7th cent A:‘D. . But it aS
clear how the purple could have been made so far from
the sea.

°

22 Bosanquet, of. ciz.

23 wP Tiny, SIN AEs akg ach a0:

24 Besnier, quoting Euseb, Ast. Accles., vil., p. 32.

2© lbid. quoting Cod. Just. v.,\A0, p. 1.

2¢ Besnier, of. czt., p. 774. Being unable to obtain access to many
of the works quoted by Besnier, I give these and other references on his.
authority.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 7%. II

The search for the purple-bearing shell-fish seems to
have been one of the motives which lead the Phoenicians
to explore areas further afield than their own immediate
shores. The A*gean and the shores of Asia Minor were
visited by these ancient mariners, and important fisheries
were established at several places both here and elsewhere
around the Mediterranean.

Many of their stations are made known to us by
ancient writers, but the evidence of the existence of
others rests upon the discoveries of heaps of broken
shells.

In Asia Minor fisheries for purple-shells are cited by
meiseue- on the coasts of Caria, and the Edict of
Diocletian mentions the purple cloths of Miletus.” There
were purple dyeworks also at Phocza in Lydia,® and at
Hierapolis in Phrygia.” In Troas shells were fished at
Lectum and at Sigeum,* and one of the islands of the
Propontis (Sea of Marmora) was known as Porphyrione.”
Vitruvius mentions the purple of Pontus.” In the A“gean
Sea the islands noted for purple were Rhodes,* Nisyros
(formerly Porphyris),°> Coos, Amorgos and _ Chios.”
According to Herodotus, Itanus, at the eastern extremity

27 Aristotle, 7st. Az., v., 15, 3. In the time of Homer the women
of Caria trafficked in purple (Z/. iv., 141).

aero. Lz0cl., 24,6 & 7.

2° Ovid, Mer., vi., 9. Thyatira in Lydia was celebrated for its purple-
dyeing (cf Homer, //. iv., 141); at Philippi a seller of purple from Thyatira
was converted by St. Paul (Acts, 16, 14).

pees Beshier, 0p) cz7:, Pp. 775.

SA Aristotle, of. czz.

ae ean. ° Ne Els,” v.,. ch. 44.

SS Vitruvius, vil-, 13.

Se deed.

Se Pliny, pr Nwide, «Va, ch: 36:

$¢ cf. Besnier, of. cét., pe 775. (At Coos, cloths were probably dyed
with Kermes-coccus).

12 JACKSON, Distribution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

of Crete, was also an ancient Phcenician station and
probably a factory for the purple trade.”

In Thessalia purple was manufactured at Melibcea,
and a purple-establishment existed at Thessalonica in
Macedonia.*

In Greece proper the two most important centres of
the industry were the coast of Laconia and the Gulf of
Corinth. The purple of Laconia was considered the best
in Europe.” Large heaps of Wuvex branderzs are reported
by Tristram on this coast.” From the island of Cythera
the Phoenicians despatched to the east and the west the
celebrated “ Laconian purples.’* On the north shore of
the Gulf of Corinth, in Phocis, the purple-shells were so
abundant that half the peue een of Bulis was occupied
solely in their capture.*

Among other Grecian places famous for the purple
industry, may be mentioned the coast of Argolis, with the
port of Hermione, where the purple stuffs of Darius were
prepared ;* the east coast of Eubea; Eretria and Styra
in the same island ; and Anthedon in Bceotia.*

In the western Mediterranean, Tarentum, the modern
Otranto, was a most important station for purple from an
early date. Hardouin tells us that in his time there were
still to be seen the remains of ancient dyeing-houses, and
that vast heaps of the shells of A7Zuvex had been discovered
there.” Aufrere, in 1789, describes a hill called Monte

"Flere, avis 1p: tsa

5S cf. Besnier, of. c7t., p. 775.

39 9Pliny, “Ns Ee ake eps Ge.

4° H. B. Tristram, of. cz¢., p. 48 footnote.

*1 cf. Besnier, Op. cit., p- 775-

a2 Jed.

+3 Plutarch, Alex., 36.

S*) tf, BESDICL, -Of>ti1., PIA

*® cf. footnote in Bostock & Riley’s ‘*‘ Pliny, N. H.” (vol. ii., p, 447).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 7%. 13

Testaceo, behind the Alcantarine Convent at Tarento,
consisting chiefly of the shells of Murex branderts.*

The purple of the Adriatic port of Ancona is cited by
Silius Italicus. Dalmatia, Istria, Venetia and Sicily, Baiz
and Aquinum on the west coast of Italy, were also centres
of the industry in Roman times.” Fischer, in his “ Manuel
de Conchyliologie,” * refers to the discovery at Pompeii of
heaps of Purpura in the neighbourhood of many dyeworks.

Liguria provides us with interesting evidence of an
early search for purple. In two caves in this region, the
cave of Pollera and Caverna delle Arene Candide, both
said to be of Neolithic age, Don Morelli found the broken
shells of Purpura hemastoma. Mosso,” in referring to
these discoveries, overlooks their true significance, and
states that this mollusc has never been found in Italy, but
is very common along the West African shore. On this
account he suggests that the cave shells represent objects
brought by early mariners returning from Africa as votive
offerings for escape from the dangers of the sea. Regard-
ing the distribution of the species in question, Mosso is
somewhat at fault ; it is very widely distributed in the
Mediterranean, occurring on the coasts of Provence,
Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and elsewhere. There is no
reason, therefore, to assume that the cave shells came from
any great distance. That they had been collected locally
for the extraction of the purple dye seems evident from
their broken condition, and in this connection it is of
interest also to note that in the same caves Zvzton shells
were found which had every appearance of having been

#6 Lovell, ‘‘ Edible British Molusca,” 1884, p. 205, quoting Aufrére’s
bravels:

yo. Wester apart, Dy 775:

2 TSO 7s Pick Ae

*° Mosso, ‘** Dawn of Mediterranean Civilisation,” 1910, p. 269.

14 JACKSON, Distrzbutzon of the Shell-Purple Industry.

used as trumpets.” The importance of this fact cannot be
overlooked when one considers the intimate relationship
in Crete, and other places, between the use of shell-purple
for dyeing and the employment of conch-shells for
trumpets. A further point is worthy of mention here, and
that is the discovery of a_ pearl-shell (MWeleagrina
margaritifera), a native of Eastern Seas, on hut found-
ations near Reggio Emilia, N. Italy... The coincidence
of the occurrence of all three objects—shell-purple, conch-
shell trumpets, and pearl-shell—in North Italy, is most
remarkable, and seems to indicate definite contact with
the advanced cultures of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Regarding the geographical distribution of the purple
industry further west, we find that Vitruvius makes allu-
sion to the purple of Gaul,” while Strabo refers to that of
southern Spain, (Turdetania, near Carteia),” and to the
introduction of purple to the Balearic Islands by the
Pheenicians.* In these islands Purpura hemastoma is
still used by the fishermen of Minorca to mark their
linen ; Wurex trunculus is also known to them as yielding
a fixed and permanent colour.”

With regard to the purple of Spain, Duckworth, in his
“ Cave Explorations at Gibraltar,” mentions the discovery
of specimens of Purpura hemastoma with the apical
portion fractured in a curious manner, and suggests, on

5° Mosso, of. cz¢., p. 363, quoting Morelli, ‘‘ Resti organici rinvenuti
nella Caverna delle Arene Candide,” Genova, 1901, p. ITI.

51 Mosso, of. cét., p. 269, quoting Colini, Az¢tz della Societd romana
@ Antropologia, X., 1904.

52 Vitruvius, vil., p. 13.

53 Straho, ili., 145. Carteia lay east of Gades (Cadiz) and was a
colony planted by the Tyrians about B.c. 1130, cf Rawlinson, ‘‘ History of
Phoenicia,” 1889, p. 419. i

o£ Strabo, ii, 167; of. Besmicenop:icz7a,0p.°775-

53 Lacaze-Duthiers, Proc. Roy. Soc., x., 1860, p. 583.

56 Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Jnst., xli., 1911, p. 363, and pl. xl. fig. 3.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. %. 15

the authority of the Rev. A. H. Cooke, that the mollusc
was used for the preparation of its distinctive product,
ene “Tyrian Purple.”

In Africa, the island of Meninx (now Jerba) in the
Gulf of Cabes, was famed for its purple, as well as parts
of Getulia that border on the ocean.” The port of Zuchis,
on the mainland, close to Meninx, also contained factories

8

for purple dyeing.” Juba II., King of Mauritania, is said
to have established a manufactory of this dye, known as
“Getulian Purple” in the Purpurarie, or “ Purple Islands”
(probably the Madeira group).”

In the British Isles the art of purple dyeing from shell-
fish seems to have been known from very early times.
That it dates from pre-historic times in Ireland seems
evident from the discoveries made in 1895 by R. Standen
and his co-workers of “ Purpura-mounds” associated with
“ Kitchen-middens” of Patella vulgata, Littorina lttorea,
etc., at Portnafeadog (or Dogs Bay), Connemara, West of
Ireland.

In his paper on the subject® the author states that
the shells of Purpura lapellus in the “ Purpura-mounds ”
had all been broken in a peculiar manner. In each case
the apical whorls were smashed, leaving the lower whorl
with mouth intact, and in some cases portions of the
second and third whorls remaining along with the
columella. The broken Purpura shells were present in
enormous quantities and one large heap measured 55
yards in length, 15 yards across the broad end, and 3
yards across the narrow end. Two hundred specimens
were picked up from one square foot.

Heaps of the shells of the same species in a broken

57 Pliny, ‘N.H.,” ix., ch. 60.

BS SIIADO, XVIleg O35.

Bret liny.n ~ Nobby iVae5 ch. 36.

6° Journal of Conchology, viii., 1896, p. 187.

16 JACKSON, Destrebutzon of the Shell-Purple Industry.

condition and associated with other edible kinds, bones
of animals, stone implements, and flint flakes, have since
been noticed by several observers round the Donegal coast
in sites similar to those at Dogs Bay.

Regarding the Dogs Bay discovery, F. J. Bigger, one
of the 1895 party, writes :* “Shells of this species, either
whole or broken, had seldom been observed among other
remains in sandhills, and certainly never in any quantity ;
but here there was a large heap, all broken, which seemed
to have the same connection with the sites as the shells of
the other species.” :

Enquires were made in the neighbourhood as to
whether the Puzzpura was now used for any purpose, but
not even the oldest inhabitant could recollect hearing of
its being used as food, or bait, or in any way whatever.

Large quantities of broken shells of Purpura lapillus,
together with rounded pebbles of quartz, large enough
to break them, have also been found by the Rev. R.
Ashington Bullen in “ Kitchen-middens,” close to the
Late-Celtic cemetery, at Harlyn Bay, North Cornwall. ®

These discoveries of broken Purpura shells in the
British Isles have led to much discussion as to the possi-
bility of their use as food like the other associated species.
This question, however, has been ably dealt with by
Standen and Bigger, who point out the unsuitability of
this species either for food or bait, whereas the associated
species, Patella and Littorina, may be used for either
purpose. They suggest, therefore, that the Purpura shells
may have been broken in order to extract the animal for
the rich purple it affords. A similar suggestion is put
forward by the Rev. R. Ashington Bullen.”

61 Proc, Roy. Irish Academy, 31d Ser., v., 1899, p. 437-

62 Proc. Malac. Soc., v., 1902, p. 185, and 77zans. S. Eastern Unton
of Sct. Soc., 1903.

side ST A

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Neo. %. 17

Apart from the evidence afforded by the Mediter-
ranean instances of broken shells, this interpretation
receives strong support from the interesting statement
made by Lenormant and Chevallier in dealing with the
purple industry of the ancients. According to these
authors the Phoenicians “also procured from the British
Isles a dark shade, called ‘black purple, but it has not
yet been ascertained with certainty what species produced
lige

Further evidence of the antiquity of purple in Ireland
is furnished by Wood-Martin in his “ Lake Dwellings of
Ireland.” On p. 104 of this work the author tells us
that the MS. Book of Ballymote contains an ancient
Irish poem, which states: “ It was Tigearnmas who first
established in Ireland the art of dyeing cloth of purple,
and many colours.”

This King—variously given as Tighernmas and
Tiernmas—is alleged to have reigned about 1000 B.C.,,
and “was the first that smelted gold in Ireland.” ®

We have many instances of the survival of this purple
incustry in the British Isles. Johnston” tells us that the
Venerable Bede, who wrote in the eighth century, men-
tions the art as known in his time, and he was familiar
with the beauty and permanency of the colour.® The
same fact is mentioned by Richard of Cirencester,” and
also in a translation of Higden’s “ Polichronicon” made
in the year 1387.”

Purple shell-fish were largely employed from the 16th

°* “Manual of Ancient History of the East,’’ London, 1870, ii., p. 214.

®® Dublin and London, 1886.

°6 Kinahan, ‘‘ Geology of Ireland,” 1878, p. 340.

‘7 Jchnston, ‘‘ Introduction to Conchology,” 1850, p. 72.

(2 clist. Mecless Gent. Ang.” lib., ¢. 1:

oe Desc, ,or butane 29.

7° Book 1. ch. 38 of ‘* Bretayn.”

18 JACKSON, Distribution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

to 18th centuries for marking linen in Somersetshire,
Cornwall and other parts of England, as well as in Scot-
land, France, Norway and other parts of Europe.”

Purple robes were in frequent use in Ireland during
ancient times. In the tale of Eithne and King Cormac,
quoted by Whitley Stokes in his introduction to the Irish
“ Tripartite Life of St. Patrick,’ 1., p. xxxviii., fifty maidens
in purple mantles are mentioned. In the “ Book of
Rights,” p. 65, cloaks trimmed with purple are noticed ;
at p. 87, the King of Ara is said to be entitled to six
purple mantles from the King of Erie; at p. 147, the
stipend of the King of Ui Breasail includes three purple
cloaks. We are told that Medb presented Ferdiad with
a girsat cocra or purple waist scarf to induce him to fight
Cuchulaind.”

Apart from its use in the dyeing of fabrics, we find,
in Miss Robert’s work,® some interesting particulars as to
the employment of Tyrian purple, in Britain and else-
where, in dyeing parchments, or vellum. This was done
for the purpose of rendering still more splendid the
manuscripts, which were adorned with gold and silver
letters. This magnificent and expensive style of writing
on purple vellum was appropriated to Biblical manu-
scripts, and the libraries of princes. As examples of this
class of work we have the book of the Gospels, which
Louis the Pious gave to the monastery of St. Medard, at
Soissons, now in the royal library of France, and the
Book of Prayers, bound in ivory, and studded with gems,
formerly belonging to Charles the Bald, but now in the
celebrated Colbertine Library.

Similar manuscripts were also occasionally made in

71 See papers by Cole, Reaumur, du Hamel, Deshayes, and Lacaze-
Duthiers, 1. c.

72 F. J. Bigger, Proc. Roy. Lrish Acad., 3rd ser., iil., 1896, p. 730.
78 Roberts, of. cz¢., pp. 123-4.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. %. 19

England. The famous Wilfred ordered a copy of the
four Gospels to be written for the church of Ripon, in
letters of the purest gold, upon leaves of parchment,
purpled in the ground, and variously coloured on the
surface.

The Gregorian Bible, presented by a monkish mis-
sionary and his companions to the first Christian church
erected at Canterbury, was also of a similar description.

Eastward of the Mediterranean we find several indi-
cations and curious survivals of this ancient purple
industry.

According to Johnston,” the Chinese make use of a
similar dye. The extreme conservatism of Chinese tastes
suggests that the art is no recent importation amongst
them. Bancroft” also gives an interesting quotation
regarding the use of shell-purple by the Chinese settlers
in the Malayregion. Hetellsusthat * Mr. John Nicuhoff
relates that ‘abundance of purple snails are found in the
islands over against Batavia. ‘They are boiled and eaten
by the Chinese, who have a way of polishing the shells,
and prick out of the middle of the snail a certain purple-
coloured substance which they use in colouring and
making red ink.’”

That the purple was appreciated and sought for by
the ancient inhabitants of Japan is implied from the
discovery of certain broken shells in their “ Kitchen-
middens.” Professor Edward S. Morse, in his paper on
“ Shell Mounds of Omori,’” tells us that along with such
species as fusus inconstans, Hlemifusus tuba, Eburna
japonica, etc., the shells of Rapana besoar were exceedingly

abundant in the mounds and of large size with massive
f= Johmston, af.) ced, ps 74.
“> Bancroft, *‘ Philosophy of Permanent Colours,” i., 1794, pp. 93—4.
7 Memoirs of the Sctence Dept., Univ. of Tokio, Japan, vol. i., 2 Paes
No. 2539, 1879.

20 JACKSON, Destribution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

shell. Many of the specimens of this species had a
portion of the body whorl broken away “as if for the
purpose of more conveniently extracting the animal.”
The same species is recorded from the Okadaira Shell
Mound at Hitachi by J. Jijima and C. Sasaki,” who also
call attention to the fact of the specimens having almost
always an irregular opening in their body whorl as if
made for facilitating the extraction of the animal.

Why the shells of this particular species should be
broken and not the others is remarkable. The idea that
such a procedure was solely to facilitate the extraction of
the animal for food purposes does not appear to be con-
clusive. A far greater significance is attached to such an
occurrence when one considers that Rapana bezoar belongs
to the purple-bearing family, Wuriczd@, and is closely
allied to Purpura. It is not improbable, therefore, that
the object in breaking the shells was to obtain purple for
dyeing purposes. That these ancient people were not
wholly ignorant of textiles is evidenced by the occurrence
of spindle-whorls associated with the pottery and shells
of the mounds.

In the New World we have ample evidence of the
practice of this ancient industry at several places in Cen-
tral America, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Here the species employed is Purpura patula, which is
plentiful in the West Indies, and on rocks between high
and low tide levels on both the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts of Central America. It resembles the Purpura
hemastoma of the Mediterranean, one of the species used
by the ancient Tyrian dyers, and which, as previously
mentioned, is still used by the Minorcan fishermen to

mark their linen.”

77 Jbid., Appendix: No. 2542, 1882.

78 See Lacaze-Duthiers, ‘‘ Nat. Hist. of Purple of Ancients,” Proc. Roy.
Soc. London, x., 1860, p. 583.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. @. 2!

D’Argenville, in his ‘““Conchyliologie (1742, p. 181),
states that the “ Conque Persique” is made use of both in
Panama and Guatemala for dyeing purposes and, on that
aecount, is. called “ Poupre: de Panama.” The “Conque
Persique” (Purpura persica) inhabits the Indian Ocean,
and was distinguished from the Purpura patula of the
Pacific coast by Brugiere in 1789 and Lamarck in 1803.

In 1744, Don Antonio de Ulloa saw at S. Elena, in
what is now Ecuador, and also at Nicoya (Costa Rica),
purple colour produced from sea-shells. He describes the
process in his “Physical and Historical Account of
Southern and North-Eastern America” as follows: “On
the coasts belonging to the province of Guayaquil the
finest purple is found. The animals from which it is
derived are contained in shells, about the size of walnuts;
and live on rocks washed by the sea. They contain a
juice or humour, which is taken out, and yields the true
purple...’ Cotton, thread, and other delicate materials
are dyed with it. It gives a lively and durable colour,
which does not lose its lustre by frequent washings, but
is rather improved thereby, and does not fade through
long-continued use and exposure. Near the port of
Nicoya in the province of Guatemala the same kind of
shell-fish is found, and is used for dyeing cotton.....
Various processes are employed for extracting the juice
or humour. Some kill the animal. They take it out of
its shell, and, having laid it on the back of the hand, press
and squeeze it with a knife from the head to the tail, and
then separate the expressed juice, the rest of the animal
matter being thrown away. They treat in this way a
number of animals until they have a sufficient quantity
of juice. They then draw through the thread which they
histo dye, and no|more is required... .°. Others
express the juice without killing the animal. They do

22 JACKSON, Destrebution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

not take it entirely out of the shell, but only press it so as
to cause a certain quantity to be ejected, with which the
threads are dyed. The shells are then laid again on the
stones from which they were taken. They recover, and
after some time give a fresh quantity of juice, but not so
much as the first time.” ”

Thomas Gage,” an earlier observer, gives an account
as follows: “ About Chira, Golfo de Salinas, and Nicoya,
there are some farms of Spaniards, few and very small
Indian Townes, who are all like slaves employed by the
Alcalde Maior, to make him a kind of thred called Pita
[agave fibre], which is a very rich commodity in Spain,
especially of that colour wherewith it is dyed in these
parts of Nicoya, which is a purple colour ; for the which
the Indians are here much charged to work about the
Sea shore, and there to finde out certain shels wherewith
they make this purpie dye.”

Of the process of purple dyeing as practised in more
recent times by the natives of Nicaragua, Squier™ gives us
the following account: “Some of the cotton fabrics manu-
factured by the Indians are very durable and woven in
tasteful figures of various colours. The colour most
valued is the Tyrian purple, obtained from the murex
shell-fish, which is found upon the Pacific Coast of
Nicaragua. This colour is produced of any desirable
depth and tone, and is permanent; unaffected alike by
exposure to the sun and to the action of alkalies. The
process of dyeing the thread illustrates the patient assi-

79 Translation quoted by Dr. E. Schunck in ‘‘ Notes on the Purpie of
the Ancients,” Jez. Chem. Soc., xxxvil., 1880, Zvans., pp. 613-614.

80 «* The English-American, his Travail by Sea and Land: etc.,”
London, 1648 (quoted by MacCurdy, Alem. Conn. Acad. Arts & Sciences,
iii., New Haven, March, I9I11, p. 160).

S1 *¢ Nicaragua, .its People, Scenery, Monuments, etc.,” 1852, vol. i.,
p. 286.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. %. Do.

duity of the Indians. It is taken to the sea-side, when a
sufficient number of shells are collected, which being
dried from the sea water, the work is commenced. Each
shell is taken up singly, and a slight pressure upon the
valve which closes its mouth [operculum] forces out a
few drops of the colouring fluid, which is then almost
destitute of colour. In this each thread is dipped singly,
and after absorbing enough of the precious fluid, is care-
fully drawn out between the thumb and finger, and laid
aside to dry. Whole days and nights are spent in this
tedious process, until the work is completed. At first the
thread is of a dull blue colour, but upon exposure to the
atmosphere acquires the desired tint. The fish is not
destroyed by the operation but is returned to the sea,
when it lays in a new stock of colouring matter for a
future occasion.”

In connection with the Nicoya industry, the observa-
tions of C. V. Hartman® are interesting. On one of his
recent expeditions to the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica, he
visited Guanacosta, where he saw an Indian woman from
Chiriqui wading in the water in search of Purpura. She
would put the shell to her mouth and blow into it, causing
the snail to discharge a greenish yellow fluid, which she
applied to white cotton thread. The fluid in drying turns
to purple.

An even more interesting account of the existence of
purple dyeing in the New World is that recently published
by Zelia Nuttall, viz., “A curious survival in Mexico of
the use of the Purpura shell-fish for dyeing.”® In this
paper an excellent description is given of the dyeing of
cotton thread for the manufacture of purple skirts worn
by the women of Tehuantepec. In the spring the cotton

°? See Mac Curdy, of. cé¢., p. 160, quoting Hartman.
** Putnam Anniversary Volume, 1909, pp. 368-384.

24 JACKSON, Déstribution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

skeins are taken in boats by the fishermen along the coast
northward, where suitable habitats of the caracol or sea-
snail are visited. “Slipping a skein over his left wrist,
the fisherman wrenches one sea-snail after another from
the wet rocks, blows on it, causing it to exude the dye-
stuff, which resembles a milky froth, and then dabs the
cotton thread with numerous shells in succession, until it
is thoroughly saturated. When each shell had yielded its
small supply of liquid dye, some fisherman pressed it to
the rock and waited until it adhered thereto, but others
laid the shell in a pool. When treated thus the same
shells yielded a second, though diminished supply, when
the rocks were visited on the return journey” (pp.
369-370).

The late Professor von Martens, in a paper read
before the Berlin Anthropological Society on October
22nd, 1898, deals very thoroughly with the subject of
purple dyeing in Central America. In this vaiuable con-
tribution he discusses the evidence as to whether the
employment of the shell-fish for dyeing purposes was an
independent and precolumbian invention of the Indians,
or was introduced by the Spaniards. He rightly con-
cludes that it was practised in America in pre-historic
times.

Through Professor Edward Seler, Professor von Mar-
tens obtained information of the Tehuantepec industry,
and was shown not only a purple skirt, which the Zapote-
can women wear only on special occasions and which but
few can afford, but also kerchiefs with purple stripes such
as are worn by the Huave Indians, to the south-west of
Tehuantepec.

Professor von Martens found, on examining some of

“+ Verhand. Berliner Gesell. fiir Anthrop. Ethnol. u. Urgesch., 1898,
pp. 482-6. ;

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lr. (1916), No. 7%. 25

the only precolumbian textiles in existence, those of Peru,
preserved in the Royal Ethnographical Museum in Berlin,
a garment and some bands with narrow stripes, the colour
of which is identical with that of the Huave kerchiefs.
He also noticed the same in textiles from Chimbote,
Peru (Bolivar collection).”

In further support of his conclusion that the dye of
the Purpura shell was used in America in precolumbian
times, Professor von Martens refers to the use, alongside
of each other and in the New and Old World alike, of
two other shell products, viz., the conch-shell trumpets
and pearls. The interesting data concerning these two
products, and the evidence they afford in the spread of
certain elements of culture, wili be given in future com-
munications. It will be sufficient here to point out that
Professor von Martens’ conclusion is strikingly confirmed
by the further evidence produced by Mrs. Nuttall. She
tells us that in the ancient Mexican Codex named after
her, a beautiful purple paint is profusely used. This
Codex “contains pictures of no fewer than thirteen women
of rank wearing purple skirts, and five with capes and
jackets of the same colour. In addition, forty-six chieftains
are figured with short, fringed, rounded purple waist-
cloths, and there are also three examples of the use of a
close-fitting purple cap.” Priests and other personages
are also represented whose bodies, and sometimes faces,
are painted purple, and throughout the Codex the same
colour appears in combination with others in ornamental
designs and figures.

Mrs. Nuttall points out further that “the shade of the
purple paint used is identical with that of the purpura
dye, and until it is demonstrated to us that the native

S> Von Martens, of. czt., p. 485.
S* Nuttall, of. cz¢., pp. 380-1.

26 JACKSON, Destrzbution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

artists obtained this colour from some now unknown
mineral or vegetal dye, it may be assumed that they also
used the purpura dye in preparing their paint and in
depicting personages with body paint and garments dyed
by means of the same shell-fish.” *

The employment of purple paint in ancient Mexican
manuscripts is decidedly interesting and recalls the use
made of this famous colour for dyeing the ecclesiastical
parchments in Europe during early times. In like manner
the purple facial-painting of the Aztecs, as demonstrated
by their manuscripts, is a curious parallel to the em-
ployment of purple for the cheeks and lips in Roman
times.

Some further important evidence of the use of shell-
fish in dyeing in precolumbian times has lately been
furnished by the discovery of broken Purpura shells in
Inca graves in North Chile. L. E. Adams, in his “ Con-
chological Notes from Chile and Brazil,’ mentions the
occurrence of broken shells of Purpura in a “kitchen
midden” on the steep mountain-side at Pisagua. These
were discovered, along with other marine shells, in the
course of road improvements, the road in question being
found to traverse an Inca burying ground. Adams states :
“Several human skeletons were lying on or just below
the surface, all in the characteristic doubied-up attitude ;
they had been buried wrapped up in a coarse grass
matting. None of the skulls were perfect, the upper and
lower jaws were all missing, as if the excavators had taken
them to study the dentition.”

“Tn addition to human remains, were skulls of some
large species of dolphin, skulls of sea-lions (? Ofarza
jubata), the rib of a small whale, and dogs both large and

8” Nuttall, of. cz7., p. 301.
SS Journ, of Conchology, xiv., 1915, p. 349.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. %. 27

small; to one of the latter, which was enveloped in mat-
ting, the reddish hair was adhering.”

It is suggested by Adams, and by H. B. Preston who
identified the various shells, that the Purpura were the
refuse of food, the shells having probably been split open
to obtain the animal whole. The breaking of the Purpura,
however, seems to me to possess a greater significance.

Judging from the occurrence in the Old World of
similar heaps of shells broken in the same peculiar manner
in order to obtain the purple product, it is not at all
unreasonable to assume that here we have an indication
that the Incas were cognizant of the art of purple dyeing
by means of shell-fish. This discovery, therefore, is most
valuable, as it at once disposes of any further doubt
concerning the precolumbian use of shell-fish for dyeing
purposes, and, moreover, provides us with interesting
information as to the precise source of the purple colour
in the beautifully preserved textiles of Peru.

As already pointed out, this purple industry is closely
associated, both in the Old and in the New World, with
the appreciation of pearls and the use of the artificially
devised conch-shell trumpet. Each of these cultural
elements had their origin in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Stations for the purple industry, as we have seen, were
established by the early Mediterranean mariners in several
places in the Old World. In addition, we find that an
intimate relationship existed between this art and skill in
weaving, as well as the mining, working and Og in
metals, such as gold, silver and copper.

In the New World the purple industry is associated
with similar pursuits.

As Mrs. Nuttall points out, “we find that, in pre-
columbian times, the Zapotecs, whose descendants still
use the purpura, were famed as miners, as workers in

28 JACKSON, Destribution of the Shell-Purple Industry.

copper, gold and silver, as weavers, and as enterprising
traders who travelled far and wide, trafficking with these
products and the cocoa-bean.” ™ |

Similarly, the ancient Chiriquians of the Panamic
region, whose descendants, the Guaymis, still go in search
of the Puzpura shells, were metal workers in gold, copper
and their alloys.

That all the foregoing, in addition to other associated
elements of culture, could have developed independently
in the Old and in the New World is inconceivable. In
Mexico, Central and South America, the aborigines un-
animously disclaim their independent discovery of all arts
and industries and assign their introduction to strangers
of superior culture from distant and unknown parts.”

As Mrs. Nuttall justly concludes, “it seems almost
easier to believe that certain elements of an ancient
European culture were at one time, and perhaps once only,
actually transmitted by the traditional small band of .. .
Mediterranean sea-farers, than to explain how, under
totally different conditions of race and climate, the identical
ideas and customs should have arisen.” ”

The peculiar and distinctive character of the shell-
purple industry is in itself sufficient justification for this
conclusion, as it is altogether unlikely that different people
could have adopted so remarkable a custom, along with
identical methods of extracting the precious purple matter
from shell-fsh.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

In glancing over the facts quoted in this paper it will
be at once apparent that many gaps exist in the
geographical distribution of this remarkable industry.

$8. Nuttall; op. c22.4-p.. 301:
0 7bid)) pp. 262-3:
82 ‘bia. pp. 383-4.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. %. 29

These lacune, however, are probably more apparent than
real, and are due rather to lack of precise information,
than to an entire absence of the art in certain places.

I have been unable so far to trace any indication of
this industry in the numerous islands of the Pacific.”

Judging from the presence in these islands of other
associated elements of culture, such as shell-trumpets and
pearls, acquired by direct or indirect contact with the
Eastern Mediterranean, it seems possible that the art of
dyeing by means of shell-fish also spread in this direction.
Various circumstances, however, may have prevented the
adoption of so curious a custom. !

It must be remembered that particular kinds of shell-
fish were necessary for the production of the purple, and
much would depend on the presence of one or other of
these forms in the seas round the islands of the Pacific.
Murex and Purpura certainly occur in their neighbour-
hood, but they are totally unlike the purple-yielding shell-
fish of the Mediterranean—a fact that may have led to
their being disregarded by the bearers of the particular
culture. It is only when we reach the American coast
that we find a form of shell-fish analogous to that used by
Tyrian dyers of ancient times.

°* The reference to its use in New Zealand, given in Manch. Mem.,.
Vol. 60, 1915, No. 1, p. 36, is founded on a misunderstanding.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. &.

VIII. Shell-Trumpets and their Distribution in the
Old and New World.

By J. WILFRID JACKSON, F.G:S.
Manchester Museum.

Hon. Librarian of the Conchological Soczety of Great Britain and
Treland.

The wide-spread use of shells as horns or trumpets is
of very ancient origin.

The Latin word Auccina, or Bucctnum, a trumpet,
was indiscriminately applied by the ancients to almost
every kind of spiral univalve shell. Amongst the Greeks
the large Triton nodiferus, Lam., was the trumpet used
in land—and sea—fights, as well as for setting the watch
and calling together assemblies of the people.

Triton, Neptune’s trumpeter, is generally depicted
with a large conch shell in his hand, with which it is fabled
he convened the river deities around their monarch. It
is wreathed, like those called Szkanos, or Sea-horn,
common to India, Africa,and the Mediterranean, and still
used as trumpets for blowing alarms or giving signals.’

Itanian coins (czvca 200-67 B.C.) have the figure of a
sea-god or triton carrying a trident and blowing a conch-
shell.’

Triton holding a conch with both hands and blowing
into it is also seen on the coins of Agrigentum, Sicily
(before B.C. 406.)

1 Jeffreys, ‘‘ Brit. Conch.,” iv., 1867, p. 284.

® Mary Roberts, ‘‘ Popular History of the Mollusca,” 1851, p. 97.

5’ B.V. Head, ‘‘ Hist. Numorum,” 1887, p. 398.
+ Jbid. p. 106; and ‘‘ B.M. Cat. Greek Coins: Sicily,” 1876, p. 15.

May 22nd, 1910.

JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and their Distribution.

_ UOTAISUL TOF 9}L] OO} Pralure spurLys] YOIMpuLG oy} puL epIIOpy UT asn ae} Jo soUapIAy : 330N

‘syaduimazy-[[ayS jo uonnqiysiq, oy} Surmoys dep

pty - nO

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 8. 3

Pliny tells us that a deputation of persons from
Olisipo [Lisbon], that had been sent for the purpose,
brought word to the Emperor Tiberius that a triton had
been both seen and heard in a certain cavern, blowing a
conch-shell, and of the form under which they are usually
represented.’ And one of the Scholiasts on Homer says,
that before the discovery of the brazen trumpet by the
Tyrrhenians, the conch-shell was in general use for that
purpose.®

The larger species of Azuccinum is still used by
Italian herdsmen in directing their cattle. It is also
common in North Wales, Staffordshire, Lithuania, and
Muscovy, where they are also applied to pastoral pur-
poses.’ At Casamicciola, in the Island of Ischia, conch
shell trumpets are sounded to scare away thieves and
birds from the vineyards and gardens.® Sicilian fishermen
use 7rzton nodiferus as a trumpet, and Verany tells us
that at Nice this shell, with a hole at the top, serves as a
trumpet for the fishermen and country people, and that
the braying noise produced by it renders this unmusical
instrument indispensible for the old-fashioned charivari,
which he describes as a deafening serenade to signalize
the marriages of widows and ill-assorted couples.’ A.
Mosso relates that the Zyzton is still sounded in church
at Piedmont, and that during the services in Holy Week
at Chieri, when the choir was singing the psalms, and a
table was struck with sticks during the so-called tenebrz
of the sepulchre, the sacristan gave him a 7yrzton shell to

oPimy, “Nat; Hist.” ix., ch. 4. (Bohn’s Ed., vol. ii.,. p: 362).

° /bid. (footnote by Bostock & Riley).

7 Roberts, of. cz?., p. 97, and Lovell, ‘‘ Edible Brit. Moll,” 1884, p.

194.
§ Lovell, of. czt., p. 194, quoting Dr. Wm. Russell, ‘“‘ Memories of
Ischia,” WVzneteenth Century, Sept., 1883.

® Jeffreys, of. czt., iv., 1867, p. 303.

4 JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and their Distribution.

sound.” Issel also relates that during the services of
Holy Week in the Cathedral of Genoa, the 7rzton nodiferus
used to be sounded.”

In his paper on “Purple Dyeing in Central America,” ”
Professor von Martens refers to the survival of the use of
shell-trumpets at the present day in certain localities in
southern France, Elba, Corsica, and Sicily, for the sum-
moning of fishermen and field labourers.

In the 18th century the Corsican militia, under Paoli,
employed them instead of drums and trumpets.”

Triton shells are still in common use in Crete,
especially among the village guards, as a means of raising
an alarm or calling for help.”

As in the case of Shell-purple, the island of Crete
figures very prominently in the early use of shell trumpets.

Mariani has published a Minoan seal on which a
woman is sounding the shell of a 77z¢oz before the sacred

16

horns of an altar.” This seal, which was found in the

Idaean cave, is also described and figured by A. J. Evans
in his “Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult?™ “dere vsame
tells us, “a female votary is seen blowing a conch-shell
or triton before an altar of the usual Mycenaean shape.
Above the altar is seen a group of three trees, apparently
cypresses, and immediately in front of them the ‘ horns of
consecration. To the right of the altar is a rayed symbol,
to the left is apparently another altar base, with a conical

10 Mosso, ‘‘ The Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization,”

IQIO, p. 365.

11 oid, p. 365, quoting A. Issel, ‘‘ Revista Ligure di Scienze,
Lettere ed Arti,” Genova, 1908, p. 19.

12 Verhand, Berlin. Gess. Anthrop. Ethnol. und Urges., 1898, p. 485.

13 Von Martens, of. czt., p. 485, quoting Boswell, ‘‘ Description of
Corsica,” 1768, p. 183.

14 A. J. Evans, Journ. Hellentc Studies, xxi., 1901, p. 142.

15 See my earlier article.

16 TL, Mariani, ‘‘ Monumenti Antict,” vi., 1895, p. 178, f. 12.

Di AT. Evans, 6f::06h ope tae) aes

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. fx. (1916), No. 8. 5

excrescence, and behind the votary another tree. From
this gem it appears that the conch-shell trumpet per-
formed a ritual function in summoning the divinity.” |

At Palaikastro, and elsewhere, real 77zZfoz shells were
found which had been used for purposes of cult.*

R. C. Bosanquet points out in his “ Excavations at
Palaikastro, I.” that “the Z77zton-shell occurs as frequently
in early deposits in Crete as it does in Mycenaean orna-
inent—for the so-called A/urex on the later pottery is only
a degradation of the 777ton.””

A. J. Evans, in his account of the Knossos Excava-
tions, 1903,” illustrates a Minoan clay seal impression, on
which two 7y7z¢on-shells are represented. He also records
the discovery of an alabaster vase in the shape of a 7yzton-
shell.“ Miniature clay models of the same conch-shell,
with remains of a little terra-cotta Sanctuary, were also
found in an early basement on the East side of the
Palace.”

This Early Minoan rite spread in the Mediterranean
region, for eighteen unbroken specimens of the same
shell, Z7rzton nodiferus, were found by Don Morelli in
the Caverna delle Arene Candide, besides two hundred
broken ones; and as’they all had the apex removed it
can be concluded that they were sounded like trumpets.”
Other 77zton shells were found in the Caverna dei Balzi
Rosso, in the Cave of Galuzzo and the Cave of Pollera.™

18 Ann. Brit. Sch. Athens, viii., (1901-2), pp. 32, 89, 244, 296,

gagiee 1x. (1902-3), pp. 275, 201, 312, and 3353 x., (1903-4), pp. 197,
and 202.

49 Ibid. viii., (1901-2), p. 296.

ey fara. “ix (1902-3), p. 56, f. 34.

21 Jbid. ik., (1902-3), p- 36.

22 Jbid. viii., (1901-2), p. 32.

23 N. Morelli, ‘‘ Resti organici rinvenuti nella Caverna delle Arene
Candide,” Geneva, 1901, p. III.

24 Mosso, of. czt., 1910, p. 363.

6 JACKSON, Shell- Trumpets and their Distribution.

In another’ Ligurian cave, the. Grotta di Bergeggi, a
Murex trunculus pierced at the apex was found.”

In excavating the Minoan Sanctuary of Cannatello,
near Girgenti, Mosso also found pieces of the 77zZon.”°

In speaking of the 77zZoz shells found in the neolithic
caves of Liguria (see above), Mosso states that they are
too numerous for them to have been used for signals, but
“the fact that they are found associated with human
bones gives reason to suppose that even in neolithic times
these shells were sounded with a religious signification,
as we see on the Minoan seals of Crete.” ”

Amongst the various species of shells used as trumpets,
the chank-shell (7uvrbcnella pyrum) is of special interest
from its intimate connection with the religion of Hindus
and Buddhists.

In a previous paper on “ The Aztec Moon-cult and its
relation to the Chank-cult of India,’ °’* I have already
referred to the association of the chank with the Hindu
god, Vishnu, and his many incarnations.

The whole subject of Hindu chank-cult has been
recently treated ina most admirable manner by James
Hornell in “The Sacred Chank of India,” °°? and mites
of the following information is derived from his excellent
work,

In Hindu temple worship, Hornell tells us “the
chank fulfils important service. The ordinary and sinis-
tral forms are both employed whenever the temple
possesses them. The former is used in the menial duty
of summoning the god’s attention, announcing the com-
mencement of the principal rites, as well as in calling the

25 T, E. Peet, ‘* The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy,” 1909, p. 54.
26 Mosso, of. cz#., 1910, p. 364.

et bed, Wp: 363.

28 Manch, Memotrs (Lit. and Phil. Soc.), vol, 60, pt. ii., 1916.

29 Madras Fisheries Publication, No. 7, 1914.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol, lx. (1916), Wo. 8. Vi

devout to worship ; such are among the general explana-
tions given for its employment, but some ethnologists hold
that the innate and primitive significance of the use of the
blowing chank in temple worship is to scare away hostile
and evil-working spirits. This is a reasonable belief as
there is little or no doubt that the chank was used origin-
ally as a horn or trumpet by tribes holding animistic
beliefs prior to the development of the Brahman religion,
which appears to have adopted the use of the chank in
religious ceremonies together with many other rites from
the devil-fearing tribes who gradually came into the fold
of the new and higher religious belief.” ®

In Bengal it is customary to keep blowing-chanks in
the houses of the better class people for use in family
worship, and during eclipses and earthquakes these shells
are blown continuously till the eclipse or earthquake is

overt
Unlike the sinistral shells, which are usually mounted

in handsomely decorated golden settings, the temple
conchs are usually without any ornamentation, but the
Udipi temple owns one very beautifully mounted in brass,
and this is sounded whenever the god (Krishna) is carried
in procession in the temple car.”

Chanks used as wind instruments are chosen of as
large size as possible, and the only preparation they
require is to have the apex knocked off.

Apart from their actual use in temple ritual, chank-
trumpets are employed in connection with harvest rites,
marriage and funeral ceremonies, and in various other
ways in different parts of India. It is an essential part
of the professional paraphernalia used by certain castes

of religious medicants. “The Dasari,” Hornell tells us, “is
=) Ekormell, of. ¢ct.. ppi 134-5.
PoelOta. Pp. T35,
SAeG7d.= Pl. XViley tls Le

8 JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and thecr Distribution.

often seen in North Arcot and the Southern Deccan,
announcing his arrival in a village by blasts on the chank
shell.”

In Malabar, at the ceremony of the bringing in of the
first fruits, the priest comes forth from the local temple,
preceded by a man blowing a conch.

Similarly in Siam, conch-shell music is employed at
religious ceremonies connected with the ploughing festival.
The principal figure at these ceremonies is the Minister of
Agriculture, who is borne in a palanquin to the field with
an escort of priests blowing loud blasts on chank shells.”

At weddings, among all Hindu non-Brahman castes
in the districts of the south of India, the chank is blown
by the barber (ambattan) particularly at or immediately
after the tying of the za/¢ or marriage badge round the
bride’s neck. In Bengal this custom of chank-blowing
during weddings is even more general.

Though men are usually engaged to blow the chank
at weddings, the women of the family or of the particular
caste sometimes perform this duty.

A further interesting use of chank-trumpets is in con-
nection with the rite of circumcision which survives among
the Puramali nadu Kallans. This rite is carried out in a
grove or plain outside the village, and the chank is blown
at frequent intervals ex route and throughout the cere-
mony.”

Throughout the Tamil country all non-Brahman castes
which observe Hindu rites have the chank sounded at
death ceremonies. The chank sometimes has a place in
the death ceremonies of castes which are not Hinduised,
as the Cherumans of Malabar and Cochin. Here the
chank-trumpet is used for devil-driving.”

+= Elormell, op. c22.,| Dia 4e
34 Jbtd. pp. 144-5.
35 bid. pp. 148-9.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 8. 9

The chank is frequently employed upon native-owned
plantations in South India and Ceylon to summon the
workpeople to their duties.

In the Laccadive Islands it is used to call the people
together in cases of emergency and public requirements.”

In addition to the use of the chank, Zurbinella pyrum,
as a trumpet in India, T. Wilson, in his “ Prehistoric
Att,”* mentions other trumpets made from Casszs, or
helmet shell (called Gomukha) and from Péerocera (called
Barataka).

Speaking of the use of shell-trumpets in Ceylon,
Lovell* states, “ According to the most ancient annals
of the Cingalese, the chank-shell is sounded in one of the
superior heavens of the demigods (similar to the conch-
blowing tritons of Grecian mythology) in honour of
Buddha, as often as the latter wanders abroad on the
earth.” Hornell® also says, “In the purer Buddhism of
Ceylon the chank cult also finds place, and figures promi-
nently among the musical instruments employed to lend
eclat to the periodic procession (pferahera) of the tooth-
relic at Kandy.”

In Thibet, according to the writings of travellers in
that country, the call of the chank is amongst the most
familiar sounds to be heard in the monasteries and
temples of the Lamaistic faith. It is also the custom to
sound the chank as the body of a deceased monk or nun
is being conveyed from the place where death occurred.”

Chank-shells, especially sinistral specimens, are held
in special veneration by the Chinese, and are kept in the
Pagodas by the priests for use on special occasions.

SOT UGt, ai, 7 oe

37 Rept. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1896 (1898), p. 555.

o8 Lovell; ops aee.; Da. 105;

Swrlarnells of eite ph No.
2° 707d. pp. 137 and 140.

Io JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and thetr Distribution.

They are also blown to still the waves and ensure
safe voyages. The Chinese, likewise, use a large shell, a
species of Fusus, for their fog-horns.”

Both Huish® and Rein,* in their works on Japan,
mention the use of Zzz¢oz-horns in that country. Rein
tells us that shells of Z7zton trztonzs (Japan, Hora-gai)
“were formerly employed as signal horns and provided
with a brass mouthpiece to replace the tips. According
to Pinto, in blowing them, riot was indicated by one blast,
fire by two blasts, robbery by three, treachery by four,
though they also played a part as signal horns in war, and
were therefore also called Jin-gai, war mussel shells or
camp snails. Their blowers were the Hora-fiu, or Hora-
wo-fuku. Both these expressions for blowers of the
Triton’s horn have become in Japan the common desig-
nation for a person who is fond of boasting: ‘ Ano hito
wa hora wo fuku, he blows the Triton’s horn, zz, he is
bragging.”

In the East Indian Archipelago and the Pacific
Islands, we find many instances of the use of shells as
trumpets.

In describing the wind instruments used by the tribes
of Borneo, Shelford* relates that some Brunei Malays
recently informed him that a trumpet, made by merely
knocking off the top whorl of the large helmet-shell Casszs
tuberosum, was used by them for calling their buffaloes
together ; their name for the trumpet was “ buyong.” He
could hear of no other people in Borneo who employ a
similar instrument.

41 A. H. Cooke, ‘‘ Mollusks,” Camb. Nat. Hist., 1895, pp. 101-2.

42 Huish, ‘‘ Japan and its Art,” 1893, pp. 146-7.

25: J.J. Rein, ** Japan,” 1854; 3207.

+4 R. Shelford, ‘‘ Illus. Cat. Ethnog. Coll. Sarawak Museum: Pt. 1,
Musical Instruments.” /ouwrn. Straits Branch Roy. Asiatic Soc., No. 40.
June, 1904, p. 20.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 8. II

Von Martens refers to the use of shell-trumpets in
the Philippine Islands, in the island of Halmaheira (or
Gilolo)* and by the Alfurs of Ceram.”

A fine specimen of a trumpet made from a large
Triton tritonzs has recently been shown me by Professor
S. J. Hickson. It was obtained by him in the Celebes,
and is perforated on the side of one of the upper whorls.
It was used by the boatman who carried round the mails,
and may have originally come up from the south.

In Papua, or New Guinea, Casszs cornuta, Triton
tritonis, and Ranella lampas, are used as trumpets, having
a hole drilled as a mouthpiece in one of the upper whorls.”
In addition to the 7yvzton, Moseley™® tells that a large
conical Stvombdus, perforated at the apex, not on the side,
-as in Zyzton, is used by the natives of Humboldt Bay.
Among the musical instruments used by the natives of
the Admiralty Islands are conch-shells perforated on the
side as usual.”

The only instrument of the trumpet kind used by the
Torres Straits Islanders is a giant Fusus [| F. proboscidiferus,
meat occasionally a large’ 7yzton. The Fusus is
universally employed, and, according to Haddon,* the
mouth-hole is always lateral. It was employed for con-
veying signals, but now at all events is most frequently
blown when the natives are sailing, especially when going
fast or racing. |

*> Zezts. fiir Ethnol., iv., 1872, p. 34, fide Schmeltz, ‘‘Schnecken und
Muscheln im leben der volker Indonesiens und Oceaniens,”’ Leiden, 1894.

4° Verhand. der Berl. Anthro. Gess., 1898, p. 485.

go Dekel. Cooke, 6p), €2¢s,, ps 99-

48 Moseley, ‘‘ Notes by a Naturalist on H.M.S. ‘ Challenger’,” 1892,
p- 378.

*9 Moseley, of. czt., p. 407, also Jour. Anthrop. Inst., 6, 1876-7,
p- 411.

°° Probably Alegalatrachus aruanus (L).

61 ** Anthrop. Exped, to Torres Straits,’ Cambridge, iv., 1912, p. 283,
and fig. 248.

12. JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and thety Distribution.

There is a 77zfox-trumpet in the British Museum from
the mouth of the Fly River, British New Guinea, which,
according to Chalmers, is used for calling to arms and for
frightening away the evil spirits of sickness from the
village.”

W. H. R. Rivers, in his work on “The History of
Melanesian Society ”*® tells us that the conch-shell is one
of the objects used in Banks Islands, in the ritual of
initiation into the Swkwe. On the initiation of a candi-
date into Kwatagzav, the conch-shell is blown five times,
three long continuous blasts and two interrupted blasts.
It is also used at initiation into the Zamate lzwoa. In
Torres Islands the conch is blown at ceremonies of kava
drinking.”

From the same authority we learn that “the conch-
shell exists in two forms in Melanesia, one blown by means
of a circular hole in the side, and the other blown at
the end. The former is that used at the Swkwe and
in most parts of Melanesia, and this form is also in
general use in Polynesia. Its occurrence in Polynesia
points to its ascription either to the kava-people or
to the people who interred their dead in the sitting
position, and there is reason to suppose that it was of
especial importance in connection with the chiefs. It may
also be noted that, in Malikolo, it is used at the funerals
of chiefs. This connection with chiefs both in Polynesia
and southern Melanesia, suggests that it was the kava-
people who brought with them the use of the conch, a
conclusion in harmony with its prominence in the ritual
of the Sukwe.

“In the Solomons, however, the conch is of especial
importance in connection with head-hunting. It is used

52 Haddon, of. czt., p. 283.
53 2 vols., Cambridge, 1914.
6* Rivers, op: ci/., 1., Pp. G4, Ga, Ee:

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 8. 13

as a signal, especially in the ceremonies which accompany
the return from a successful expedition, and this suggests
either that it is an element of culture common to the
kava- and betel-peoples, or that it was taken over by the
betel-people from the earlier inhabitants.

“The only nlace in Melanesia where we know of the
existence of the conch-shell blown at the end is Efate
[New Hebrides], and its association here with a special
form of totemism suggests that it is connected with a
special development of the kava-culture which has been
responsible for the form of totemism found in this
region.” ”

In discussing the material culture of the inhabitants
of the Bismarck Archipelago, Rivers further relates that
“the conch made of the shell of the 77zZox is not only
definitely present in New Britain and New Ireland, but it
has that place in the ritual of the secret organisations
which we should expect if it were introduced by the
kava-people. When the members of the /ugzet take one
of their stone images from one place to another, its
approach is heralded by the sound of the conch which
warns all uninitiated persons to get out of the way.
When an uninitiated person hears the conch, he says,
‘Here comes an image from Nakanai,’ thus associating
the instrument with one of the more sacred images.
Another indication of the importance of the conch in the
/ngzed is that it may be shown to an initiate in place of a
stone image if one of these is not available, thus suggesting
that the conch may once have formed one of the mysteries
of the society, comparable with the werewere or meretang
of the Banks Islands or the bullroarer of the Matambala
and Rukriuk,”*

prusGrd. I1;,\p. 250:
Berra M.. D. 35

14. JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and thetr Distribution.

Zembsch, in his “ Katalog No. I verzeichniss einer
ethnographischen Sammlung aus der Siidsee”” gives a
photo of a clay figure of a god from Malikolo with a
Trzton-trumpet tied to each hand. The trumpets are
perforated on the side of the spire.

In the Solomon Islands, Guppy® teils us that the shell-
trumpets are made of large examples of both 7yztoux and
Casszs, with a hole pierced on the side of the spire.

In the island of Tanna, in the New Hebrides, shell-
trumpets are blown as signals to the disease-makers, or
sorcerers, to entreat them to stop plaguing their victims.
“These disease-makers collected any zahak, or rubbish,
that had belonged to anyone, such as the skin of a banana
he had eaten, wrapped it in a leaf like a cigar,and burned
it slowly at one end. As it burnt, the owner’s illness
increased ; and if it was burnt to the end, he died ; there-
fore, as soon as a man fell ill, feeling sure that some sorcerer
was burning his rubbish, shell-trumpets, which can be
heard for miles, are blown as a signal for the sorcerers to
stop, and wait for the presents which should be sent in the
morning. When a disease-maker fell ill himself, he too
believed that some one was burning his rubbish, and had
his shells blown for mercy.”*

Hedley, in his “ Ethnology of Funafuti,’® tells us
that the Ellice Islanders are called together to a trial or
other public ceremony by the blowing of a shell trumpet
made from the large Casszs cornuta.

The conch-shell also ranges among the musical instru-

57 Ethnographische Abteilung der Buchhandlung und Druckerei vor-
mals, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1897, pl. iii.

°S Guppy, ‘‘ The Solomon Islands, and their natives,” 1887, p. 143.

59 Lovell, of. cz¢., 1884, p. 195, quoting Turner’s “ Polynesia,” and
Taylor’s ‘‘ History of Mankind,” p. 128. See also G. Turner’s ‘* Samoa,”
etc., 1884, pp. 320-21.

569 Mem. Aust, Afus., ili., pt. 4, 1897, p. 299.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 8. 15

ments of the Fijians, and of the Maories of New Zea-
land.*

When Captain Wilson visited Tongataboo, in the
Friendly Islands, in 1797, four large conch-shells were
found on the floor of a large house sacred to the god of
Bretane. These were used to alarm the country in times
of danger. In these islands conch-shells were also blown
at the interment of chiefs.”

Shell-trumpets, made from Z7ztom tritonzs and other
large shells, enter largely into the religious ceremonies of
the Samoans.

In his description of the religion of these people,
Turner® relates that “in their temples they had generally
something for the eye to rest upon with superstitious
reveration. In one might be seen a conch shell, suspended
from the roof in a basket made of cinnet network; and
this the god was supposed to blow when he wished the
people to rise to war.”

The Samoans have a host of imaginary deities, and
these gods are supposed to be incarnate in some visible
object, the particular thing in which the god appears being
an object of veneration.

Faamalu (shade), one of the village gods, was repre-
sented by a trumpet-shell, and at the annual worship of
this god all the people met in the place of public gatherings
with heaps of cooked food. Another local god was called
Tapaai (Beckoning) and was a war god of a family on
Tutuila. He was supposed to be present in a trumpet-
shell. When the people were about to go to war the shell

61 Lubbock, ‘‘ Prehistoric Times,” 1865, pp. 358 and 369. Captain
Cook also mentions the ‘‘ Triton’s trumpet” as one of the sonorous instru-
ments of the New Zealanders.

62 G. A. Cooke, ‘‘System of Universal Geography,’ London, 1.,

1801, pp. 77 and 97.
es G: Turner, ““Samoa, etc.,”? London, 1884, p. 19.

16 JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and their Distribution.

was blown by the priest, and all listened. Ifit blew rough
and hollow it was a bad sign; but if clear and euphonic
all were cheered, and went off joyfully under the good
omen. In the island of Savaii a village god named Titi
usi (Glittering leaf girdle) was worshipped at the new
moon, and after prayer and feasting a man went about
blowing a shell-trumpet as a sign that the ceremonies
were over, and that the usual routine of village and family
life might be resumed.“ A further use of shell-trumpets
noted by Turner in Samoa was to herald the approach of
some important personage. A chief of importance must
have one, or perhaps two, large shells in his canoe, to
answer the purpose of trumpets, to blow now and then as

the canoe passed along.”
In Manahiki, or Humphrey’s Island, Turner states

that when the constellation Pleiades was seen there was —

unusual joy expressed by singing, dancing, and blowing
shell-trumpets.”

In the Society Is. large shells of Z77zton tritonzs, L.
are used as trumpets, and these are blown when proces-
sions walk to the temple, or warriors march to battle, at

the inauguration of the king, during the worship at the ~

temple, or when a tabu, or restriction is imposed in the
name of the gods. Ellis” tells us that large shells were
selected for this purpose, and these were sometimes above
a foot in length, and seven or eight inches in diameter at
the mouth. In order to facilitate the blowing of the
trumpet, a perforation, about an inch in diameter, was
made near the apex of the shell. Into this a bamboo
cane, some three feet in length, was inserted, and secured
to the shell with fine braid. The outside of the aperture

64 Turner,-of. cz... pp. 27, 54, 60.

65 Jbid. pp. 165-6.

68 bid. p. 270-

67 ** Polynesian Researches,” i., 1836, pp. 196-7.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 8. 17

was rendered air-tight by a resinous gum from the bread-
fruit tree. These trumpets are also used by the herald,
and on board the native fleets.

Captain Cook also speaks of the natives of Toobouai
Island blowing large conch-shells in a long tone without
any variation; but what it portended he could not ascer-
tain.”

Hutchinson” gives a casual reference to the shell-
trumpets of the Marquesas Islands, saying that they differ

)

from that known as “ Bosina” in Peru (see below).

In Micronesia, shell-trumpets are recorded as in use
at Ponape (Ascension Is.), Caroline Islands, and in the
Marshall Archipelago.” Of their use in the Pelew Islands,
Captain Wilson tells us that in 1783, as a preliminary to
an attack on a neighbouring enemy, the king, Abba
Thulle, ordered the conch to be sounded as a signal for
forming the iine of battle. Captain King also refers to
the blowing of the conch as a signal of defiance and
warning in the Sandwich Islands.”

In the New World we have several instances of the
use of shells as trumpets. A species of 77zton was used
formerly by the Indians of South America as a trumpet,
anoyeespecimen was dug up, at Cafiete,in Peru. The
shell was called “ Bosina,’ on account of the sound pro-
duced by blowing into it resembling the roar of a bull,
and it was used to announce the approach of any great
man into a town. It was ornamented with tassels of
human hair, and a leather strap of exquisite workmanship.”

PpGrr ny COOKE, 07. .c27., 1... p. 65.

a Journ. Anthrop. [nst., iv., 1874, p. 13.

7° Q,. Finsch, ‘‘ Ethnologische Erfahrungen und Belegstiicke aus der
Siidsee,” Azzal. des K. K. nathist. Hofmuseums, Wien, 1888—93, fide
Schmeltz, of. czz.

fo ha, Ain Cooke, 075 27575 i) pp». 300 and 353.

“2 Lovell, of. czt., p. 196, quoting Hutchinson’s ‘‘ Two Years in Peru,”
WOW, Pp. 134.

18 JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and their Distrzbution.

An interesting survival of this practise in .Central
America is recorded by Theobert Maler in his “ Researches
in the Central Portion of the Usumatsintla Valley.”” On
p. 33 of his paper he relates how his arrival at the Indian
settlements at Petha was greeted by the blowing of conch-
shell trumpets made from Stvombus gigas.

According to Pinart,” the musical instruments of the
present natives (Guaymis) of the Chiriquian region of
Panama are limited chiefly to the bone-flute and the
marine conch-shell. He describes one of their ceremonies,
the balza, in which the conch-shell plays an important
role. When a village has decided to give a balzaria and
the date has been fixed upon, notice is given to other
villages inviting the inhabitants to attend. Everyone is
invited, men and women, young and old. According to
the distance away, each family group sets out in time to
arrive at the place of meeting two days before the com-
mencement of the ceremonies. During the journey, the
invited guests blow from time to time on large conch-
shells in order to make known to all persons living near
the line of route their passage and the purpose of their
journey.

Pinart believes the Guaymis to be the descendants
of the race that constructed the ancient huacals from
which so many Chiriquian antiquities have come. This
ancient race has left behind them numerous examples of
wind-instruments of clay, modelled in the form of animals
and birds. One of these figurines serving as a whistle
represents a mythical form holding something resembling
a fish or conch-shell a little distance from the mouth.”

73 Memoirs Peabody Museum, ii., no. 1., 1901.

74 Alphonse Pinart, ‘‘ Les Indiens del’ Etat de Panama,” Rev. @ethnog.,
vi., 1887 pp. 33, 117, (quoted by Mac Curdy, ‘‘ A Study of Chiriquian
Antiquities,” Alemoirs Conn. Acad. Arts and Sctences, ili., 1911, pp. 169-170).

75 Mac Curdy, of. czt., p. 185, fig. 315.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 8. 19

An analogous idea is expressed in a beautiful Chiriquian
gold casting of two human figures with elbows touching
and holding to their mouths something that resembles a
conch-shell or a fish.”

Robert Brown relates that the descendants of the
Incas, in Peru, under the rule of Francesco de Toledo, in
1568, held periodical festivals in memory of their beloved
sovereigns, when plays were enacted and mournful music
produced from the national instruments, drums, trumpets,
clarions, and pucatus, or sea shells.”

According to von Martens,® the Jesuit priest Arriaga,
at the beginning of the 17th century, also describes the
use of shell-trumpets in Peru, and in the Bolivar collection
of the Berlin Ethnographical Museum there is a pre-
Columbian trumpet made of Strombus galeatus.

The Portuguese writer, Suarez de Sousa, in 1589, and
Marcgrave, about 1640, report on the use of trumpets in
Brazil, made probably of Strombus goliath.”

In a paper on the ruins in Casa Grande, in Southern
Arizona,” J.W. Fewkes states: “Among the more numerous
marine shells which were found in Compound B of the
Casa Grande group of ruins are many large conchs, the
points of the spires of nearly all of which were ground off
and perforated as if for trumpets. Judging from known
ceremonies of the Hopi, it is highly probable that these
trumpets were used in dramatic celebrations in which
effigies of the great serpent were introduced, the priest
using the instruments to imitate the supposed roar of this
animal. More than a dozen complete specimens, and
many fragments of conch shells that may have been parts

7® bid. pp. 185. 209, and pl. xlix., fig. A.

pr’ Raees of Mankmd,” i., N.D., p. 316.

78 Von Martens, of. cz/., p. 485.

a ioeas Dp. Ass.

°° 28th Ann. kept. Bureau of Amer. Ethnology, 1912, pp. 144—5.

20 JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and thecr Distribution.

of trumpets, were found in the course of the excavations
at Casa Grande, the greater number being obtained on
the west side of Compound B. All these shells came
originally from the Pacific coast.”

G. H. Pepper, in his paper on “ The Exploration of a
burial-room in Pueblo Bonito, New Mexico,’ also records
the discovery of a shell trumpet, made from Strombus
galeatus. Ithad evidently been cracked in use and showed
signs of repair. Associated with it was a human skeleton ;
also Halzotes shells, and 26 perfect shell bracelets and 15
fragments. The bracelets, he adds, averaged 8°5 c/m. in
diameter, and are probably made from Pectunculus shells.
{n other parts of the room were further shell bracelets,
pendants, and beads, of Olzvella shells ; also ornaments of
turquoise and shell mosaic.*

Carl Lumholtz, in an interesting paper on “Sym-

”® sives us details of the

bolism of the Huichol Indians,
use of a species of J/urex as a trumpet at ceremonies and
feasts. After describing various other objects used at the
feast of tamales de maiz crudo, he states (p. 185): “‘ At the
same feast, but only on the eastern side of the river, sea-
shells are employed as a kind of musical instrument.
When the heap of ¢ama/les is dedicated to the gods by the
shamans, some of the people are appointed to blow into
such shells five times in the daytime and five times at
night. This is done as a signal to all the gods. After
the feast the shells are carried to Mesa del Nayarit, where
they remain through the wet season, to be afterwards
brought back again for the next feast of the same kind.
They are kept in Mesa del Nayarit in a god-house.
According to tradition, the Chichimecas brought them
first from that part of the coast where San Blas is to-day.”

S21 Putnam Anniversary Volume 1909, p. 226.
52 This mosaic recalls the beautiful a/zotzs inlay of Japanese artists.
53 Men: Amer. Mus. Nat. Hiést., iit. ; Anthropology, ii.,1900.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 8. 21

Lumholtz was unable to. procure any shell that had
actually been used at the feast, but he found one in the
god-house of the Sun (Tayau’) in Téaka’ta, which,
according to his informants, was smaller than those used.
The species is Murex (Phyllonotus) radix Gmelin, from
the South Pacific Ocean, west coast of America. In
Huichol it is called Ku’ra. Much difficulty was ex-
perienced in buying the specimen; the man who had
deposited it, and who was one of Lumholtz’ party, at first
absolutely refused to part with it. Although left some
years ago, it still remained to him a valuable prayer for
life. Through the acquirement of this specimen, which
was the only one seen in the god-houses, Lumholtz
learned of the interesting custom of blowing into shells
just related. The natural markings on this shell sym-
bolize to the Huichols grains of corn and water.

Probably the most remarkable occurrence of the use
of shell-trumpets in the New World is afforded by
Mexico. Von Martens™ refers to the finding, by Seler, of
prehistoric trumpets made from Fasciolaria gigas” and
Turbinella scolymus from the Caribbean Sea, and Fasczo-
laria princeps from the Pacific Ocean, in several ‘parts of

Mexico,
From ancient Mexican manuscripts we learn that

conch-shell trumpets entered largely into the religious
ceremonial of the Aztecs.

In Seler’s description of Codex Vaticanus, No. 3,773,
reference is made to the blowing of shell-horns in the
temples at midnight, as a signal for the priests to arise

and mortify themselves, to sing, and then go in procession
to the bath.”

$4 Von Martens, of. czt,, p- 485.

85 Probably /. g7gantea is meant here.

86 Edward Seler, ‘‘ Codex Vaticanus, No. 3,773 (Codex Vaticanus B),
an old Mexican pictorial manuscript in the Vatican Library,” Berlin and
London, 1902-3, English translation by A. H. Keane.

22 JACKSON, Shell-Trumpets and their Distribution.

In the same work and elsewhere mocaunz, the Fasting
Man, Ruler of the Nineteenth Day-count guzauz¢/, “ Rain,”
is figured blowing a conch-shell and associated with Zona-
tiuh, the Sun God.” A reproduction is also given of an
illustration from the pictorial manuscript in the Florentine
Biblioteca Nazionale showing Xochzpzllz, the God of
Flowers and Food Supplies, being carried in procession
preceded by a priest blowing a conch-shell trumpet.®

Further illustrations of the use of the shell-trumpet
are seen in Codex Borgia 14, where 7epeyollotl, the Heart
of the Mountains, God of the Caves, is figured blowing
the shell-horn, and in Codex Vaticanus, No. 3,773, sheet
22, where the same god wears the shell-horn as a breast
ornament and a second horn lies before him at the
threshold of the temple.®

The remarkable identity in the Hindu and Mexican
use of shell-trumpets in temple worship and harvest rites,
and the association of the shell with the God of the Moon,
has recently been pointed out in a previous article.”

Since this paper has been printed I have discovered
that on the appearance of De Soto’s soldiers in 1539
the Indians of Florida and the Chickasaw country were
roused to action by the blowing of horns and conch-shells,
and the beating of drums.”

87 Seler, of. czt,, p. 185, fig. 393, and sheets 28 and 94. The shell is
probably Fasczolaria gigantea.

88 Seler, of. cit., p. 162, fig. 363. The shell looks like a reversed Casses
cornuta. This species is common to the West Indies, Pacific Islands, etc.,
and is used as a trumpet in Papua and other Pacific Islands.

89 Seler, of. czt., p. 103, figs. 295, and p. 105, sheet 22. Here the shell
is like that of the Fasting-man, 1.e., asczolarza gigantea.

9° Jackson, ‘‘ The Aztec Moon-cult and its relation to the Chank-cult
of India.” Manch. Memosrs (Lit. and Phil. Soc.), vol. 60, pt. ii., 1916.

91 Grace King, ‘‘De Soto and His Men in the Land of Florida,”
New York and London, 1914, pp. 39 and 187.

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MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

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See te ry, (igi 5-1916.

CONTENTS.

Memoirs :

IX. A Resume OF Work on the Bleach-out Process of Colour
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im List of the Special Lectures : : : : =... “pp. lxxxvi.
@ List of the Presidents of the Society - - - - - : pp. lxxxvii—lxxxviii.

iM Title Page and Index : SS St nog ee clap Sola

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nr” hy

+
Bei
i c
a
Ae Vr
{
*
f
.
f
‘
,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LX (No. 9). Plate f.

=
a 4 ° }
5 toe 2 : - 3
ORIGINAL

SUPPORT OF BLEACH-OUT FILM

Fig. a. illustrating the result of printing upon a
bleach-out film containing three dyes.

7000

(S
2)
=
4

5900
5000
4000
HOI

FILM

Fig. 6. showing the result of printing upon a

bleach-out film containing six dyes.

FILM

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), ‘No. 9.

IX. A resume of work on the bleach-outvproeeds |

of colour photography. W

ehljy:
al
POVIOHN b oMiTE. Paik 1:C., A.R.C.Sc_I.

(Communicated by Mr. R. L. Taylor, F-C.S., F-L.C.)
(Read February 22nd, 1916. Received for publication March 23rd, 1916. )

The bleach-out process of colour photography is
based primarily upon the instability of certain natural
and artificial colouring matters to light. The fading
action of light upon many coloured bodies was observed
long before artificial dyes were discovered.

Grothuss (1) in 1819 seems to have been the first to
have attempted to formulate the nature of the action of
coloured light upon bodies, He writes: “ Coloured light
seeks to destroy, in bodies upon which it acts, those
colours which are opposed to its own while it endeavours
to retain its own or another analogous colour.” If instead
of “opposed” we substitute complementary colours, we
have the first reference to the fundamental principle
underlying the bleach-out process of colour photography.

Sir John Herschel (2) writing on the same subject in
1842 says: “The rays effective in destroying a given tint
are in a great many cases those whose union produce a
colour complementary to the tint destroyed, or at least
belonging to that class of colours to which such comple-
mentary tints may be referred. For example, yellows
tending towards orange are destroyed with more energy
by the blue rays, blues by the red, purples and pinks by
yellow and green rays,”

July 5th, 1916.

a
Muse™~

2 J.H. SMITH, Bleack-out Process of Colour Photography.

Becquerel (3) confirmed in 1848 in a general way
Herschel’s conclusions.

Draper’s law, which affirms that chemical action by
means of light can only result from the light rays
absorbed by a body, and not by those it transmits or
reflects, must lead one also to the same _ conclusions.
This law, according to Luther, should be attributed to
Grothuss, as the latter affirms (4) that “this absorption in
the substance of the body must be the cause, at any rate
in many cases, of a considerable chemical action.”

Liesegang (5) in 1889 was the first to propose a pro-
cess of colour photography based upon the bleaching out
of dyes in complementary coloured lights. He writes:
“The theoretically most correct method of colour pho-
tography is that which is based upon the following
principle. It is already known that a dye is decomposed
only by that light which it absorbs or by its comple-
mentary colour. Certain aniline dyes bleach very rapidly
in light. If we mix pigments of the three primary
colours, red, green and blue, we obtain black. If we pro-
duce this black upon paper by means of very sensitive
dyes, and place a red coloured picture upon it; light
green, z.¢., blue and yellow, will bleach out so that only
red remains. In the same way blue only remains under
blue, green under green, etc. Naturally the dyes must
correspond fairly well with the colours of the spectrum
and be of the same sensitiveness. The production of
such a print would occupy too long to be practically
useful. It is possible, however, to obtain the same result
with more sensitive materials. The aniline coloured print
must be protected from the further action of light by
varnishing, etc.”

According to this proposition of Liesegang, each
colour in the original will be reproduced in the bleach-

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. tx. (1916), No. 9. 3

out film, and we shall obtain a reproduction of the
- coloured original in its own colours dvect and not from
an intermediate negative as in ordinary photography.

The accompanying coloured plate (/zg. a) shows the
action of light upon a bleach-out film containing three
dyes, not of the primary colours as Liesegang suggests,
but of the secondary colours yellow, blue-green and pink,
as these are necessary on account of the greater lumin-
osity of the colour mixtures ; the bleach-out process being
based upon the subtractive process of colour mixtures
like three-colour printing. The three dyes in the film are
supposed to be applied in three separate layers in order
to simplify the demonstration of the process. The same
principle holds good in the case of dyes mixed up in one
layer, the process more generally employed. The coloured
original to be copied may be a natural spectrum, coloured
glasses, a coloured window transparency, natural leaves or
flowers pressed flat, a photographic three-colour trans-
parency or a Lumiere Autochrome photograph. In the
last-named subject, the most difficult of all to print, the
starch granules employed in the manufacture of the plate
are coloured in the three primary colours orange-red,
green and blue-violet, allowing only the light of the
visible spectrum to pass of approximately 7,000—5,900,
5,900—5,000, and 5,000—4,000 wave length respectively
as shewn in /zg. a. The position of the secondary colours
yellow and blue-green have been indicated by narrower
bands, while the pink not being a spectrum colour has
been shown outside. Narrow bands of black and of
transparency to the whole visible spectrum (white) have
also been added to show the effect of these also on the
bleach-out film. |

In the case of the transparent band all three dyes are
bleached out and we obtain a colourless band in the copy.

4 J.H. SMITH, Lleach-out Process of Colour Photography.

The light passing through the red of the original bleaches
the blue-green but not the yellow or the pink, and
these colours combined reproduce the orange-red of
the original in the copy ; yellow or red plus green light
bleaches both blue-green and pink leaving yellow, green
light bleaches pink leaving blue-green and yellow pro-
ducing green again in the copy; blue-green, allowing
green and blue light to pass, bleaches the yellow and pink
dyes leaving the blue-green in the copy; blue-violet
bleaches the yellow dye leaving the blue-green and pink
dyes producing the original blue-violet in the copy while
the pink allowing blue-violet and orange-red to pass
bleaches out the yellow and blue-green dyes leaving the
pink dye intact. As the black band allows no light to
pass, all three dyes in the film remain unbleached leaving
the black film unaffected. Other coloured mixtures, and
varied coloured intensities, or mixtures with grey, etc, in
the original are reproduced in the copy by partial or more
intense bleaching, etc., of the corresponding comple-
mentary dyes in the film.

Vallot (6) in 1895, and Neuhauss (7) and Worel (8) in
1902 were the first practical workers in this interesting
field, and some of the results obtained were fairly satis-
factory for the conditions obtaining at that time. Neuhauss
had difficulties in. getting results on paper, so he coated
his emulsions on glass and opal. Worel did not emulsify
his dyes, but used simply dye solutions which he trans-
ferred to paper. He discovered the use of anethol as a
sensitiser for the dyes. Neuhauss used peroxide of
hydrogen as a sensitiser, and was even able to obtain
direct photographs in colours in the camera with very
long exposures. The dyes he employed were erythrosine,
auramine and methylene-blue. Worel employed victoria-

blue and curcumine.

ee

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 9. 5

The results obtained at that time were crude; the
colours were not rendered harmoniously and the exposures
were very long. Still some very fair reproductions of
brilliantly coloured window transparencies were obtained.

These workers were soon followed by Szczepanik and
by myself. Szczepanik (9) patented a process by which
the separate dyes were embedded in different layers with
a view to preventing the dyes from reacting injuriously
on each other. He used practically the same materials
as Neuhauss and Worel, but his results were not much
better in spite of his much more complicated method of
working. His paper was, however, the first obtained by
coating a paper support directly with dyed emulsions.

In 1904, after prolonged research, I placed a bleach-
Sut paper on the market, the first of its kind. I had
naturally profited by the work of my predecessors, but
there were several noteworthy improvements in this first
commercial paper, introduced by my then co-worker Dr.
Merckens and myself. The dyes employed were to some
extent new and prepared by ourselves, and we were able
to bring all the dyes into ome emulsion layer upon paper.

Szczepanik (10) employed alternate layers of collodion
and gelatine for coating his dyes upon paper, while we
were able to obtain our dyes ina single layer of collodion.
To prevent the emulsion from penetrating into the body
of the paper we had a thin insulating film of gelatine
coated on the paper first. Anethol was used as a sensi-
tiser.

We studied the action of various dyes upon gelatine
and collodion, and found (11) that the basic dyes had
generally strong affinity for the collodion, while the acid
dyes showed more affinity for gelatine. The affinity of
the dyes is sometimes so great that they will not only
leave a medium of lesser affinity for one of greater affinity

6 J.H.SmituH, 4leach-out Process of Colour Photography.

which adjoins it, but they are capable of passing through
a layer of lesser affinity in order to reach a medium of
creater affinity, and that whether the layer of lesser
affinity contained already a dye of its own affinity or not.

Absolutely neutral media probably do not exist, and
it was not found practicable to separate dyes in media of
low affinity from media of high affinity by means of in-
sulating layers.

As former workers had used both acid and basic dyes
it was quite natural that they had met with the difficulty
of getting them to remain in one and the same vehicle,
and that Szczepanik had sought to overcome the difficulty
by separating the dyes into different layers. We had been
successful in finding a series of basic dyes which had no
tendency to migrate from their emulsion, collodion, as
long as this was separated from the body of the paper
support (for which the basic dyes have a similar, although
mostly inferior, affinity to collodion) by a layer of gelatine.

This first paper which I manufactured under the name
of “ Uto” paper was used chiefly for the reproduction of
coloured window transparencies, “Glacier” prints, natural
leaves and flowers, three-colour transparencies and the
like.

In the summer of 1907 the Autochrome plate was put
on the market by Lumiere Bros. in Lyons, and it was
hoped that the “ Uto” paper would be found adapted for
the reproduction of these plates. Unfortunately this was
found not to be the case. Many difficulties had still to be
overcome and improvements had to be made before this
result could be accomplished, and I was engaged upon
this investigation during the following four years,

It was found necessary to obtain :—

(2) The annihilation of the reproduction of the
Autochrome colour screen.

NE ee ee ee

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 9. 7

(6) More regular bleaching of the individual dyes,

(c) Quicker printing.

(2) Reduction of the heat developed in the Auto-
chrome plate by the long exposures.

(e) Greater saturation of the colours.

(f) Better fixation of the dyes remaining after
_ printing.

The reproduction of the agolour screen image could be
got rid of by the introduction of a thin celluloid film
between the Autochrome plate and the sensitive paper.
This precaution was not even necessary in printing in
diffused light, as there was sufficient diffusion in the sen-
sitive film in this case, but the exposure was of course
sreatly prolonged.

The equalising of the bleaching action of the indi-
vidual dyes gave most trouble. Although we have to-day
a few thousand different aniline dyes, they are for the
most part too stable to light to be employed even with
the aid of a strong sensitiser for the bleach-out process.
Amongst those which might be sufficiently fugitive, many
are excluded on account of their bleaching, not to a white,
but to another shade, giving a dirty appearance to the
print. Others are debarred from employment on account
of the colour of the dye being recuperated when the print
is left in the dark ; others could not be used for. want of
suitable companions of the correct shade of colour or
speed of bleaching ; while others again bleach in such an
erratic way as to preclude their employment.

I have examined many hundreds of dyes with regard
to their bleaching qualities, and I think I am safe in
asserting that no three are to be found which fulfil in a
thoroughly satisfactory manner all the varying demands
which are placed upon them, viz. :— |

8 J. H. SmituH, Bleach-out Process of Colour Photography.

Sufficient and equal natural sensitiveness to light.

Amenability to the influence of known sensitisers.

Bleaching in regular intervals from the full colour
always through the same shade of colour to
white.

No recuperation of the colour after printing.

The possibility of fixing the remaining dyes
thoroughly after printing.

The first and last of these conditions are hardly com-
patible with each other: a compromise has to be made.
I know of some fugitive dyes which can be sensitised to
such an extent as to give prints from Autochromes in
5—I10 minutes in strong sunlight, but it seems so hopeless
to attempt to find a satisfactory method of fixing these
dyes as to preclude their use altogether. I prefer to
employ dyes of fair natural stability, amenable to being
‘strongly sensitised, and to eliminate the sensitisers well
after printing.

In order to obtain sufficiently regular bleaching of a
dye there are some conditions which must be fulfilled
which have not been taken fully into account by writers
on this subject. On referring again to the coloured plate
it will be seen that the theory of the process requires that
a dye should be stable in the light of about half of the
visible spectrum and bleach-out in the other half of com-
plementary colour. Now this is far from being an ordinary
property of dyes. They usually absorb light in narrow
bands and this tends to produce degraded colours in
bleaching. There is a spreading out of the absorption
bands on prolonged exposure so that we get an approxi-
mation to the desired conditions. This spreading out of
the absorption bands on increased exposure occurs, how-
ever, in many cases only on one side of the spectrum, a
solid wall being built up on the other side beyond which

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 9. 9

no absorption takes place. /zg. 1 shows an example of
this form of absorption. Dyes which have their chief
absorption at that point of the spectrum where their exact
complementary colour lies, and whose absorption on in-
creased exposure spreads out equally on both sides of this
centre give naturally the best results.

Some dyes again have two or more absorption bands
as shown in /zg.2 This is not of much account so long
as they are not too far apart, the centre of the absorption
is at the complementary point, and the bleaching occurs
equally in all the bands. As dyes do not always bleach in
all their absorption bands this leads to many anomalies.
Many hlue dyes are peculiar in this respect. I was
astonished one day to find a blue dye which bleached
much more readily under its own colour than under the
complementary colour. This I found was due to the
action of the violet and ultraviolet rays where the dye
bleached rapidly, while there was little bleaching in the
absorption bands in the orange. The dye bleached practi-
cally as a yellow dve, and not according to Liesegang’s
bleach-out proposition. Under a yellow colour the violet
and part of the ultra-violet rays were cut off, so the dye
bleached slower than under a blue colour which allowed
these rays to pass. /vg. 3 shows an example of a dye of
this description.

Many dyes—and again, in particular, blue ones—had
other peculiarities. Some would recuperate their colour
partially in the dark, while others would bleach out but
have their colour restored on dipping in a weak acid
' solution. These dyes were of course valueless.

As I was not successful in finding three dyes which
fulfilled the necessary conditions sufficiently, I was led to
introduce a larger number of dyes into the emulsion, with
a view to the one equalizing the action of the other.. In

Io J. H. SMITH, Bleach-out Process of Colour Photography.

this way I have employed so many as eight or ten, and
even more dyes in an emulsion with advantage. I am,
in fact, of opinion that a series of six dyes, one set of the
three primaries and another set of the three secondary
colours, would be preferable to a series of three colours
only, if they could be found with the necessary properties.
Fig. 6, on the coloured plate, shows the bleaching action
on a film containing six dyes in place of three when
exposed under a coloured original to print.

I am quite aware that there would be some degrada-
tion of colour by the use of the primaries where their
mixtures are concerned, but if they were selected to
transmit two-thirds of the visible spectrum as the comple-
mentaries have to do, and not only one-third as is
required in the screen colours of the Autochrome plate
or in the screens for three colour photography, the degra-
dation of colour would not be so appreciable, and the
defect would be more than compensated by the purity
of the colours and their immunity from bleaching at
seven points of the spectrum instead of only at four
points (the pink being supposed to be represented by the
overlapping of the extreme ends of the visible spectrum).

I cannot claim that in practice the increase in the
number of dyes I employed was even an approximation
to these theoretical conditions, as I had to consider in the
first place the correction of the defects of my chief dyes
by supplementary ones.

In my endeavours to increase the sensitiveness of the
paper I discovered in thiosinamine a new sensitiser which
possessed many valuable properties. It sensitised for
many dyes twenty times more energetically than anethol,
the most active sensitiser known up to that time. It
possessed the further advantages of being easily soluble
in water and in alcohol, thereby being easily removable

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 9. 1

from the film after its work had been done, and in its
being perfectly odorless. ;

In order to obtain sufficient saturation of the colours
in the print it was necessary to incorporate much more
dye into the emulsion in the case of printing from Auto-
chrome plates than was necessary for printing from
window transparencies and the like, because there was
considerable loss of colour in breaking through the grey
tone of the Autochrome screen to produce good whites.
This led again to a slowing down of the emulsion, and it
was hardly feasible to obtain a quicker printing of an
Autochrome of medium density than in about two hours
in sunlight. The Autochromes would not stand such a
long exposure to the sun, they became over-heated and
the colours disappeared, a positive in black and white
ultimately resulting. This effect was not due to any
bleaching-out of the colours, but to a melting of the
varnish containing the coloured starch granules, thereby
mixing up the colours in the film and producing an even
grey colour. This difficulty was obviated by withdrawing
the printing frame from the sun at intervals, and allowing
the Autochrome to cool, preferably by applying a wet
sponge to the glass or using some such other device. By
taking adequate precautions it has been found possible to
print over a hundred copies from one Autochrome plate.

I am sorry to state that the fixing of the dyes has
only succeeded very imperfectly. The prints may be
kept any length of time in albums, but they are not per-
manent enough to hang up in rooms for any length of
time without sufferiny.

The sensitisers are washed out of the film, and an
attempt has been made to mordant the dyes, but the
results leave much to be desired.

In printing from Autochromes it is necessary, in order

12 J. H. SMITH, Béleach-out Process of Cclour Photography.

to keep the balance of the colours, to employ colour
screens in front of the printing frame. These may require
to be changed according to the nature of the light which
is employed. In sunlight the prints print redder in tone
and in diffused light bluer. The blue tone is obviated by
a light orange filter, and the red tone by a light green
filter. The yellow in the screens helps to negative any
bleaching action by the ultra-violet rays. In printing by
the electric arc, which is richer in orange rays, a deeper
coloured green filter must be employed.

In my experiments with the dyes, I found several of
the acid ones which could be sensitised very satisfactorily,
and as I was anxious to use gelatine as a vehicle instead
of collodion, on account of its many advantages, I ulti-
mately went over to gelatine emulsions altogether. I was
not, however, altogether dependent upon the sole use of
acid dyes, because in the meantime I had found that I
could obviate the wandering of many basic dyes out of
gelatine to some extent by the addition of a soluble oil
such as Turkey-red oil, for which these dyes have con-
siderable affinity.

In order to hasten the process of printing I devised a
special form of printing frame (12) surrounded by four
mirrors which reflected the rays of the sun or arc down
upon the plate. To prevent the Autochrome becoming
overheated a constant stream of water was flowed auto-
matically over the surface of the plate. By this means
the time of printing was reduced to about one-third.

My new bleach-out paper was placed on the market
in Paris, in 1911, under the name of “ Utocolor,’ and there
was always a certain demand for it until the war broke
out, when naturally the sales suddenly stopped.

Very little has been published in recent years on the
bleach-out process. Professor Limmer (13) has published

Manchester Memours, Vol. tx. (1916), Vo. 9. 13

a history of the process and done some interesting work
himself, both with regard to the bleaching and the sensi-
tising of the dyes. Dr. Gebhardt has also published some
useful work upon the nature of the action of light upon
dyes, and the treatment of the dyes to render them more
stable. Dr. Stobbe (14) also published some interesting
work with regard to the action of light upon dyes a few
years ago.

In 1913 Dr. Alex. Just (15) discovered a new sensi-
tiser, di-ethyl-allyl-thio-urea, which for a certain group of
dyes sensitises about three times more energetically than
thiosinamine (allyl-thio-urea). Unfortunately it has not
been found applicable for sensitising all the dyes required
in a bleach-out film. It is indeed hardly possible to find
a sensitiser which acts upon all the dyes employed. Even
in the case of thiosinamine the employment of other
sensitisers is necessary to assist in obtaining regular
bleaching action. In 1908 I published the results of an
extended investigation into the sensitising effects of a
very large number of bodies (16).

Attempts have been made to develop lightly printed
bleach-out prints by Kiimmel, Gebhardt, Limmer and
myself (17), and although certain results have been
obtained nothing of a practical nature has resulted from
the experiments.

It is a pity that there are so few workers in this in-
teresting branch of science. Two of my most active
co-workers, Dr. Neuhauss and Dr. Gebhardt, have fallen a
prey to the war, and the few remaining ones belong,
unfortunately, all to enemy countries.

I have brought a collection of thirty prints upon
“Utocolor” paper, mostly from Autochromes, to show the
nature of the results obtained.

14 J.H. Situ, Bleach-out Process of Colour Photography.

REFERENCES.

1. Jahresrerhandlungen der Kurlandischen Gesellschaft fiir
Literatur und Kunst. Band I., 1819. Seite 119-189.

2, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.
Wolvi32ip. 1dr.

3. Annales de chemie et de physique. 3 Serie, Vol. 22, 1848,
p. 458.

4. Von Grothuss’ Werke, neue herausgegeben, ‘ Ostwalds
Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften,” Vol. 152. R.
Luther and A. von Qettingen: “Ueber Elektrizitat
und: Micht.7 pemeac:

5. Liesegang’s Photographisches Archiv, 1889, No. 633, p. 328.
6. Moniteur de la Photographie, 1895, p. 318.

7. Photogr. Rundschau, January, 1902, and subsequent num-
bers. Eder’s “‘ Jahrbuch fiir Photogr.,” 1902, p. 20.

8. Anzeigen der Wiener Kats. Akademie der Wissenschaft,

13 Marz, 1902.

g. German patents 146,785. 148,293 and 149,627 in Class
578.

10. In the Photographische Industrie, 1908, p. 1069, I have
criticised Szczepanik’s method fully.

II. English patent 2461 of 1907.

12. Colour Supplement, Brit. 7. of Phot., January, 1909, p. 2.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 9. 15

13. Dr. Fritz Limmer, ‘‘ Das Ausbleichverfahren.” W. Knapp,
Halle 4.5.11. “Photoer. Korresp.,” -March, tooo.

14. Zeitschrift fiir Elektrochemte, 1908, No. 33: ‘ Die Photo-
chemie organischer Verbindungen,” Hans Stobbe.

15. Photogr. Korrespondenz, April, 1913, p. 168.
16. Colour Supplement, A772. /. of Phot., November, 1908, p. 81.

17. Colour Supplement, Brit. /. of Phot., August, 1913, p. 29.

LOO OO Se ea

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. LX. (No. 9). ote Le

S000,
[itis el

fig. 1 showing widening absorption
towards one side of spectrum on increased
exposure.

ie, 2 showing absorption of dye
in three distinct bands.

fi7g. 3 showing absorption of blue-
green dye bleaching chiefly in its less
intense (violet) absorption band.

ati

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 1.

X. Quantitative Absorption Spectra. Part II]. A New
Ultraviolet Photometer.

By FREDERICK RUSSELL LANKSHEAR,
BLAS (N.Z.)) MSe.-(V ict.).

(Read December 15th, 1914. Recetved for publication March oth, r9rs.)

In a previous communication (October, 1914) certain
quantitative methods of examining absorption spectra
were described and it was mentioned that an instrument
was being made with a view to overcoming difficulties
due to the intermittent nature of the light received upon
the photographic plate. The present communication is
a brief description of the instrument made by Messrs.
Bellingham and Stanley.

Optical System. Fig. 1 shows diagrammatically the
optical system used.

<> G va G

Ve

Ko
<<,
as

Fig. ¥.

All the optical work is of quartz. Light from the
spark source S falls on the condenser 4. This beam can

August 22nd, 1910.

2 LANKSHEAR, Quantitative Absorption Spectra.

for convenience be called the standard beam. It passes
through the centre of the adjustable sector disc H and
falls on the prism /. It is reflected by F on to the prism
E from which it emerges horizontally, coming to a focus
on the spectrograph slit G. The prism 4 transmits an-
other beam, of equal intensity, upwards through the
the condenser C, Then the’ prism: reflects them@eam
horizontally through the Baly tube or other containing
vessel for the solution under examination. The beam
comes to a focus on the slit immediately above and also
touching the standard beam.

The Frame. The frame upon which the optical parts
are set consist of two aluminium uprights held together
by three stout brass rods. That nearest the sommecuen
light carries a brass bracket on which are placed prisms B
and D along with the condenser C. This upright or end
piece carries the sector bush in which is mounted the
standard beam condenser. The other end piece carries
a brass bracket for the two prisms & and F.

’

The Sector. The chief feature of the apparatus is the
sector. Instead of slots out near the periphery as in all
other sector photometers, there is a single semicircular
hole out at the centre with its diameter passing through
the centre of the wheel (/zg. 2). A disc having a corre-

Gas

Fic. 2.

Oo

sponding hole init can be rotated on the face of the
sector wheel, thus altering the aperture of the sector.
The latter is graduated logarithmically because the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 10. 3

measurement is of log1,/1._ In view of the possibility of
slight defects in the condenser A, the sector has been
constructed to rotate if necessary. This can be done
either by hand or by clockwork.

Adjustment. A white disc bearing a small black
cross at its centre is set up in the position of the spark S
and illuminated by a lamp. The preliminary adjustment
is done by means of screws on the bracket carrying
prisms & and /. When this is properly done, the eye,
placed at Z, can see a circle of light bisected by a larger
semicircle. The eye is then moved back ten inches and
the other bracket screwed up until the upper portion of
the cross transmitted by the upper path is seen to form a
complete image with the lower portion of the cross trans-
mitted by the lower, or standard beam (fzg. 3). The

\ Lila. 3:

instrument is now in complete adjustment and has now
to be placed with the top prism Z& nearly touching the
middle of the slit and with the upper path in the optical
axis of the spectrograph. The spark S is placed in the
position of the illuminated disc.

Advantages. In all other methods of ultraviolet
photometry the intermittent nature of the light makes a
correction necessary. Schwartzschild’s formula is used, ze.

iti ip ayie e
In the case of Wratten panchromatic plates z=o'9. In
the Hilger instrument this difficulty is to a certain extent
obviated by calibrating the plates in terms of a piece of

4 LANKSHEAR, Quantitative Absorption Spectra.

glass of known extinction. This is somewhat tedious
and does not quite do away with the possibility of error.
The central sector acts by cutting down the beam, which
nevertheless falls continuously on to the photographic
plate. Further, in the Hilger instrument, the greatest
length of liquid which can be used is 5 cms. With the
new apparatus a Baly tube can be used, and with one
solution the extinction coefficient over a wide range of
the spectrum can be determined. © Finally, because the
image is focussed on the slit instead of on the object
glass an increased amount of light is obtained in the
spectrograph.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 11.

XI. The Theory of Overvoltage.
By EDGAR NEWBERY, D.Sc.

(Communicated by Professor Arthur Lapworth, D.Sc., F-R.S.).
(Recetved and read May oth, 1916.)

When a metal such as copper is placed in a solution |
of one of its salts, it immediately throws out ions of itself
into the solution, each carrying a positive charge and
leaving the metal itself with a negative charge. At the
same time ions from the solution carrying a positive
charge will deposit on the metal, and in a very short
interval of time a state of balance will be set up when the
number of ions leaving the metal will be equal to the
number arriving, ze. the solution pressure of the metal
will be equal to the osmotic pressure of the ions. When
this state is reached there will be a definite difference of
potential. between the metal and the solution (single
potential difference) which will depend on the nature of
the metal and the concentration of the solution.

If a gas such as hydrogen or oxygen be bubbled round
a thin sheet of metal, preferably of platinum or palladium,
the metal will act as if it were composed of a sheet of
conducting gas, its own properties being lost for the time,
‘and the gases on the metal will give out and receive ions
in the same way as a metal. If we take two such
electrodes, one surrounded with hydrogen and the other
with oxygen in an acid or alkaline electrolyte, we shall

July r7th, 19L0.

2 NEWBERY, Zhe Theory of Overvoltage.

have an electrolytic cell with an’ KE. M-P. of sabontsamne
volt.

This cell is reversible, that is to say, if we allow it to
give a current, hydrogen and oxygen will unite to form
water, while if we pass a current through the cell in the
opposite direction, the same gases will be generated from
the water present.

We should expect therefore that the same E.M.F.,
1°12 volt, when applied to the above cell, would be just
sufficient to decompose an acid or alkaline solution with
formation of oxygen and hydrogen. In 1899, Caspari
discovered that this was not the case, but that the E.M.F.
necessary to liberate these gases was alivays greater than
1‘12 volt, and further that the excess E.M.F. above the
theoretical value was different when different electrodes
were used, and was not the same for anode and cathode.

This excess: E.M.F. he termed the “Overvoltage an
the electrolytic cell.

In any electrolytic cell, therefore, when a current is
passed through, a back E.M.F. is set up at each electrode
opposing the applied E.M.F., and this back E.M.F. is in
each case greater than that which would be obtained if
the electrode were merely surrounded by the substance
which is being liberated at that electrode.

We may therefore call this ercess back E.M.F. at each
electrode the Cathodic and the Anodic Overvoltage res-
pectively.

Similar phenomena occur at the electrodes during
deposition or dissolution of a metal, a back E.M.F. being
set up at each electrode even when the same metal is
being deposited at one electrode that is dissolved at the
other. We may speak of such overvoltages as ‘metal
overvoltages, while the term ‘anodic or cathodic over-
voltage of an electrode’ will imply the overvoltage when

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. U4. 3

a gas is being liberated. Throughout this paper, cathodic
overvoltage with liberation of hydrogen is generally im-
plied, unless the contrary is stated. |

If we attempt to reduce a substance electrolytically
(in acid solution for example), then on applying a given
E.M.F. to the ceil, one of two things must occur at the
cathode, (a) either the discharged hydrogen ions will
react with the reducible substance present, or (0) they
will combine with each other and escape in the form of
gas bubbles.

Overvoltage hinders the formation of gas bubbles
and thus encourages the former action to take place to
the exclusion of the latter.

It might appear therefore that in order to reduce any
substance electrolytically, we have only to choose a
cathode of the right overvoltage, and given other suitable
conditions (temperature, circulation of electrolyte, etc.).
we should be able to obtain complete reduction before
any hydrogen is liberated.

In practice the problem is by no means so simple.

Many electrolytic reductions may take place along
two or more different paths leading to different end
products, and in some cases the substance of which the
electrode is composed may exert a specific influence in
determining the proportions of the original substance
which are reduced along the specified paths.

In such cases, overvoltage may be only of secondary
importance.

The following example will illustrate this :

Sodium Nitrate in acid solution is reduced by a
metallic cathode with formation of hydroxylamine and
ammonia. Tafel studied this reaction with different
electrodes and obtained the following results; current
density 0°24 amp. per sq. cm.—

4 NEWBERY, Lhe Theory of Overvoltage.

| Cathode. | O.V. % Hydroxylamine. | % Ammonia.
| Lead (rough) ..., 0’60 | 26°8 57°6

| », amalgamated, 0°85 | 69°7 19°9
Copper (smooth)...| 0°35 | 1a | 76°8

5 spongy .. | os Ke) | ae 938

| ‘Timafsmocth i se.) 0763 57] 45°8 38°3

|

The overvoltages (approximate) at the given current
density are given in the second column. From these it
appears that the metal with the highest overvoltage gives
the best yield of the less reduced product hydroxylamine.
This is evidently due to the fact that hydroxylamine
and ammonia are not primary products of reduction of
nitrates, but are obtained by independent paths since
hydroxylamine is not reduced to ammonia by a copper
electrode under the conditions of the experiment.

Nevertheless, in the great majority of cases, over-
voltage is the main controlling factor in electrolytic
oxidations and reductions, and hence a knowledge of the
overvoltage of the electrode in use under the given
conditions, is of the’ greatest service in carrying out such
processes.

Specially is this the case in the electrolytic treatment
of organic substances for the preparation of dye stuffs,
medicines, etc., where a slight change in the conditions of
the experiment, by changing the overvoltage, may com-
pletely change the nature of the product obtained.

Further than this, in order to understand the problem
thoroughly, it is necessary to obtain some idea of the
nature of overvoltage, its causes and controlling factors.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 1. 5

An immense amount of work has been done by a
creat number of experimenters in attempts to measure
and explain the causes of overvoltage, and it is proposed
here to give a very condensed account of—

1. Methods of measuring overvoltage.

2. The most important phenomena connected with,

and controlling factors of overvoltage.

. The chief theories put forward to account for over-

Go

voltage.

. Suggestions for a more comprehensive theory of

as

overvoltage to account for all the observed
phenomena as far as at present known.

1. METHODS FOR MEASURING OVERVOLTAGE.

a. By direct measurement of the potential difference
between each electrode and a standard electrode while
the current is flowing.

This is the method originally suggested by Caspari,
and used by many others.

A diagram of Caspari’s apparatus is given below.

6 NEWBERY, Zhe Theory of Overvoltage. .

In this diagram (Zext-jig. 1), A represents the experi-
mental electrode, C the standard hydrogen clectrode. A
gradually increasing voltage was applied to the electrodes
A and B from the battery & until the first gas bubbles
were observed on A, and then the potential difference
between the electrodes A and C was measured by means
of the potentiometer /. The electrolyte,normal sulphuric
acid, was contained in the reservoir by means of which
the height could be adjusted.

This method gives reliable values for the overvoitage
when an indefinitely small current is flowing, but unfor-
tunately is not -applicable to practical cases where
appreciable current densities are employed.

Some investigators have attempted to use it in such
cases and have drawn conclusions from their results which
are not justified by facts.

Imagine the case when a fairly strong current is
passing between A and 4. Measure the difference of
potential first between A and C, and then between & and
C. These added together will of course give us the value
of the applied E.M.F. Each of the above measurements
will therefore give us little or no information about the
overvoltage of either electrode, but merely shows the way
in which the E.M.F. of the battery is distributed between
the two electrodes and this depends on the relative size
of the electrodes, the resistance of the film of gas on each
electrode, the resistance of the solution and even of the
battery and leads. ‘The futility of such measurements
may be realised when it is seen that changing the size or
material of one electrode alters the apparent overvoltage
of the other.

In Caspari’s work, however, the whole of the applied
E.M.F. was used up in overcoming the back E.M.F. of
the two electrodes, and only an indefinitely small extra

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 11. VE

E.M.F. was applied to produce a steady current through

the electrolyte. Caspari’s results are therefore true over-
| voltages under the condition of indefinitely small current
density. i

b. The‘ Kuickpunkt’ method.

This method was adopted by Coehn and Dannenberg
and others, and consists in applying a gradually increasing
potential to an electrolytic cell and observing the current
which passes. At a certain potential, when decomposition
sets in, the current increases very rapidly with slight
increase of the applied potential. Hence the curve
obtained by plotting current against applied potential
bends sharply upwards and the position of the bend
(Knickpunkt) gives the decomposition voltage of the
electrolyte. The overvoitage of the cell as a whole is
then found by subtracting the normal formation voltage of
the decomposition products, and if one of the electrodes
is unpolarisable, the overvoltage of the other is given.
The method is unsatisfactory firstly, because it only can
give information as to the overvoltage at indefinitely low
current densities, and secondly because the exact position
of the Knickpunkt is ill defined and very doubtful as-
sumptions have to be made to decide on the voltage at
which the curve really ‘bends.’ Consequently the method
has given considerably varying results in the hands of
different experimenters.

¢. The bubble angle method.

This ingenious method was devised by Muller, who,
starting from the conception that overvoltage was due to
surface tension forces at the electrodes, attempted to
measure it by determining the angle which the surface of
a gas bubble makes with the electrode surface just before

8 NEWBERY, The Theory of Overvoltage.

liberation. This method is of course subject to the same
limitation as those already given, ze. it can only be used
with very low current densities. Also the fundamental
assumption is not correct, for though overvoltage does
depend partly on surface tension forces, there are other
equally important factors which have to be taken into
account. The results Muller obtained were similar to
those obtained by Coehn and Dannenberg.

The following table shows some of the results obtained
by these three methods, and will serve to illustrate the
great differences of opinion held by different experimenters
on this subject :—

Caspari. | Muller. Dace
| Platinum .:. 4. c..|) so°e05 Pvolt- oor volt. 000 volt.
| Goldin)" (2 ee 02 Aas | omoleye ee O"GS aie
[esilverv2s, .fic> Mo tonaa iis | O05 .., 0°07

| Nickel 2 Ae OT we ) wore: o"rAgen
Copper) 2% oF 0:23 ae ar eS, olga

| Palladium... ... e740u(%, | er 2 Aite ~o'°26 ,,

ao Breve Peay Se pm | o'Ga Soe | Oras a's, | O3eeam
Mercury: /rf.25 | O75. tas | G52 a, ea

a. Oscellograph method.

This method was adopted by Le Blanc, Reichenstein,
and others. The instrument used by Le Blanc consisted
of a very sensitive moving coil galvanometer, having a
coil and mirror together weighing only o5 mg., and

—- =

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. U1. 9

capable of recording vibrations as rapid as 6,000 per
second. A pencil of light was focussed on the mirror and
from thence on to a moving photographic film.

A diagram of Le Blanc’s arrangement is given below.

A = Gleichstrom-Ampetremeter
K = Kommutator
M = Mefschleife
IV, WV, IV, = Widerstande
Z = Versuchszelle

Text-fig. 2.

By means of the rotating commutator A, a current
was sent through the experimental cell Z from the battery
Veiomeaecertain interval, cut off for the same period;
reversed and again cut off, etc.

The maximum current allowed to pass through the
galvanometer was OOI amp., the fraction of the total
current passing through the galvanometer being adjusted
by means of the resistance VW,

W, was an induction free resistance made equal to
that of the experimental cell. The commutator was
generally rotated at such a speed that there were 50—60
alternations per second.

When a metallic conductor was put in place of the
electrolytic cell, the graph obtained on the photographic
film was of the type shown in 7Jext-fig. 3, which is taken
from Le Blanc’s book “ Die Electromotorischen Krafte
der Polarisation,”

IO NEWBERY, 7he Theory of Overvoltage.

| der Ordinate of M V
1mm “
cer Abszisse 0.0007 Sek

Text-fig. 3.

With platinum electrodes in a solution of iodine in
potassium iodide, a similar graph was obtained, showing
that the velocity of depolarisation in this case was prac-
tically infinite.

With platinum electrodes in normal sulphuric acid,
the graph obtained was of the type shown in 7Jert-fig. 4.

{ der Ordinate 60,8 M. V.

Fig. 1mm
eae | der Abszisse 0,00068 Sek.

Pt Le H, SO, | Pt. Geschmirgelte Elektrode von 6 gcm Oborfl. Strom = 95027 Amp. Widerstand
ariel

des Nebenkreises 202,7 Q Wechselzabl 56 pro Sek.
Text-fig. 4.

The actual potential of the platinum electrodes at any
instant is shown by these curves. The slope of the curves
is due, of course, to the gradual absorbtion of hydrogen
and oxygen by the electrodes, and its disappearance by
diffusion or re-combination. Hence these curves show
not only the maximum E.M.F. from which the overvol-
tage can be calculated, but also the velocity of polarisation
and depolarisation. The method, therefore, is of wide
applicability but unfortunately fails in at least one im-
portant respect,—it cannot be used for determining the
effect of passing the current for long intervals of time,
and since this is essential for practical purposes, other
methods must be used.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 11. i

e. The back E.M.F. method. |
This method was originally suggested by Le Blanc,
and largely modified by Dr. Pring and the author of this

paper.
The apparatus in its latest form is shown in 7ert-jg. 5.

_Pa
K,
4ifit&
By

Lext-fig. 5.

The battery &, sends a current through the potentio-
meter P,, and by means of movable keys K, and A, any
required voltage may be tapped off and applied to the
electrodes A and C through the milliammeter 17. The
voltage applied may be observed by means of the volt-
meter V.

By means of a rapidly rotating commutator X, the
cathode C is first connected to this source of current, and
then the circuit is broken and the cathode at once con-
nected with the potentiometer circuit P,, the standard
hydrogen electrode being now the anode. The key K,
is moved until no deflection is observed in the galvano-
meter G when the key A; is depressed, and this reading

I2 NEWBERY, Zhe Theory of Overvoltage.

compared with that obtained when K, is disconnected
and X, depressed, K, being in connection with the standard
Weston cell W.

Two points in connection with the commutator need
special attention here.

The brushes on the commutator must make a clean
sharp break in the primary current before connecting up
the galvanometer circuit. Any drag in the break due to
a loose wire in the brush will produce remarkable results
in the measured overvoltage which may be highly mis-
leading.

If the commutator is rotated at a speed greater than
1,000 per minute, no change is produced in the observed
overvoltage by variation of the speed above this limit.
At lower speeds, a slight fall in the observed overvoltage
is produced with some metals, but in most cases it is not
more than two per cent. lower at 500 revs. per min. than
at 1,000 revs. per min. This is important as it shows that
the fall of the back E.M.F. in 1/2000 part of a minute is
negligibly small under the given conditions. It was other-
wise in Le Blanc’s oscillograph experiments, owing to the
fact that he not only cut off the current, but reversed it.
Hence the accumulation of gas capable of setting up a
long continued back E.M.F. was prevented. The con-
ditions of Le Blanc’s experiments are not present in
regular electrolytic work, and therefore his results, though
of great theoretical interest, are not likely to be of the
same practical value as those obtained by the method
just described.

Observations of the effect of much slower commutator
speeds on the measured value of the back E.M.F. may
sive some useful information on the rate of depolarisation
of the electrodes.

With this apparatus therefore, the true value of the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 11. 13

~)

excess back E.M.F. or over-voltage is obtained, free
from any complications due to internal resistance of the
cell, gas films, etc. The relative positions of the elec-
trodes in the cell is immaterial since no current is passing
through the cell while measurements are being taken, and
no current passes through the galvanometer when the key
K, is in position, q

By reversing the current through P, and P,, anodic
over-voltages may be measured in the same way.

The standard hydrogen electrode AY, may be replaced
by more convenient electrodes—calomel, mercurous sul-
phate, mercuric oxide, etc.—allowance being made for the
difference of single potential in each case.

The experimental electrodes are best prepared from
small strips or rods of metal, the surface of which is
carefully cleaned with fine glass paper and coated with
sealing wax or paraffin wax, leaving I sq..cm. only un-
covered. The current density per sq. cm. is then obtained
by doubling the reading of the millliammeter J/, since the
current is passing for only half the time.

2, PHENOMENA AND CONTROLLING FACTORS OF
OVERVOLTAGE.

The number and variety of the factors affecting over-
voltage is so great that the merest outline of the most
important is all that can be given here.

We may discuss them under three heads :— °

a. In the electrodes—
Nature of electrodes.
Impurities in electrodes.
Nature of surface.
Previous history of electrode.

14 NEWBERY, Zhe Theory of Overvoltage.

6. In the electrolyte—
Nature of ions present in electrolyte.
Concentration of electrolyte.
Impurities or additions to electrolyte.
¢. General—
Current density.
Time.
External pressure.
Temperature.
[onisation of gas liberated.

a. In the Electrodes.

The table of overvoltages already given is sufficient
to show how greatly the metal chosen affects the
magnitude of the overvoltage. Of the pure metals,
platinised platinum has the lowest known cathodic over-
voltage, and zinc or mercury under certain conditions the
highest.
| Slight impurities in a metal frequently produce great
changes in the overvoltage. Scratching the surface of a
lead plate with a platinum wire renders the plate useless
as a cathode for powerful electrolytic reductions, while a
trace of mercury covering an impure zinc plate raises
the overvoltage sufficiently to prevent the zinc dissolving
in dilute acid.

Hard forms of a metal have different overvoltages
from soft forms, sometimes higher sometimes lower, so
that hammering, tempering, annealing, etc., all exert a
considerable effect on the overvoltage of some metals.
This effect however usually disappears after the electrode
has been in use for some time.

Generally speaking, rough surfaces show lower over-
voltages than smooth ones but this is not always the case.
A plate of polished lead when subjected to a high cathodic
current density, becomes roughened, and at the same time

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. Uh. 15

its overvoltage falls greatly. If the surface be roughened
by making it the anode in dilute sulphuric acid for a
short time and then reversing the current, its overvoltage
rises to a very high value. Hence the £zd of roughness
of the surface as well as the nature of the surface itself
may produce very great changes of overvoltage. Since
the nature of the surface depends largely on the previous
history of the metal, a knowledge of this is frequently of
value in estimating the best conditions for attaining a
‘certain overvoltage in electrolytic work.

It has long been known that the nature of the surface
of the electrode affects the liberation of a gas from it, but
only recently has it been shown that the converse of this
is also true. When a polished platinum electrode is used
as anode or cathode in dilute acid or alkali at high current
density, its surface after a time becomes roughened, and
if electrolysis is continued for a long period, a black coat-
ing is observed, which chemical tests show to be pure
platinum. Other electrodes show similar behaviour and
microscopic examination shows the presence of innumer-
able small craters, suggesting most forcibly that the

surface has been blown open by a series of tiny explosions.
See Plate.

b. In the Electrolyte.

The nature of the ion liberated at the electrode affects
the overvoltage in much the same way as the nature of
the electrode. If hydrogen is liberated at an electrode,
its overvoltage will as a rule be quite different from that
when oxygen or chlorine is being evolved. Platinum has
a very high oxygen overvoltage but a very low hydrogen
overvoltage. Nickel is low in both cases and lead high,

The overvoltage when a metal is depositing or being
dissolved is, with rare exceptions, very small compared
with that when a gas is being liberated.

16 NEWBERY, Zhe Theory of Overvoltage.

When a given ion is to be liberated at a given elec-
trode, the choice of electrolyte has comparatively little
effect on the overvoltage so long as no chemical action
takes place between the liberated ion and the electrolyte.
Thus the cathodic overvoltage of most metals is nearly
the same in N/1 H.SO, N/1o HaSO, N/t Na@leiere
As a general rule the overvoltages in the last electrolyte
are slightly higher than those in the other two, but there
are exceptions. Change of concentration of the electro-
lyte produces comparatively little change of overvoltage
in most cases, but as a rule cathodic overvoltages are
lower in more concentrated electrolytes. This is partly
due to small concentration changes near the electrodes,
and the difference therefore is less if the electrolyte is kept
in motion. It is most marked in very dilute solutions,
and since this concentration polarisation is not a part of
true overvoltage, it should be avoided where possible by
using fairly strong solutions.

Certain impurities in, or additions to the electrolyte
produce marked effects upon the overvoltage, and in the
case of metallic deposition, still more marked effects upon
the nature of the deposit. .

The presence of an oxidising agent such as chromic
acid, permanganate, etc., reduces the cathodic overvoltage
by assisting in the Bie of the liberated hy ae and
also by increasing its ionisation.

The action of colloids and poisons is remarkable.
Generally speaking, small quantities of colloids (oor to
o'r %) such as gelatine, dextrin, gum arabic, etc., increase
the overvoltage of most metals by anything up to ol
volt. Larger quantities sometimes produce still greater
effects, but often produce no effect at all.

Thus 0'05°% dextrin raised the metal overvoltage of
zinc by 004 volt, but had no effect on the hydrogen over-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 11. 17

voltage of lead, while 1:0 % of the same colloid had no
effect on the overvoltage of zinc, but raised that of lead
by o1 volt. Again 0702 Y% gum arabic lowered the over-
voltage of lead by ool volt, while 4°5 % had no effect.

Poisons such as strychnine, brucine, nicotine, etc.,
sometimes raise and sometimes lower overvoltages.

It is evident, therefore, that no definite statement can
be made as to the effects of colloids or poisons in general.

One point is, however, of interest here. The over-
voltage of platinum is hardly affected by the presence of
005% gelatine at low current densities, but at higher cur-
rent densities the overvoltage is kept practically constant,
while without the colloid the overvoltage changes con-
siderably. The colloid here appears to exert a stabilising
effect, preventing the fall of overvoltage at high current
densities—a phenomenon intimately connected with the
concurrent lowering of the ionisation of the liberated gas.

The following table illustrates this :—

Overvoltage.
Current density per
sq. cm. /
| With colloid. Without colloid. |
|
| 20 milliamperes | 008 volt 0°06 volt
| |
! ie
| 5° ”? Oo O9 3 one) oo)
TOO 53 | Oath hi Go? °-,,
200 cf ae GeEOo s. aos ,,
|
| |
500 3 | GEG 5: G:G57* ,;
|
1,000 $9 ] SLOT Ww G O26’,
| |
| |
2,000 “4 | GzOQ..3 = 6°02 | 5, |

18 NEWBERY, Zhe Theory of Overvoltage.

The colloidal residue from aloes after the extraction
of aloin is finding considerable application in electro-
deposition of certain metals, as it tends in a high degree
to induce the metal to form smooth coherent layers,
instead of the rougn uneven surfaces normally obtained.
No parallelism has been found between this effect and the
effect on the overvoltage.

When a metal such as lead has been used as electrode
in an electrolyte containing a colloid which raises its over-
voltage, it retains its raised overvoltage when washed with
water and used in a pure electrolyte. Even lightly scrap-
ing the surface is not sufficient to destroy this high over-
voltage, though heavy scraping does so at once. Weare
bound to conclude therefore that the colloid penetrates to
an appreciable depth into the electrode surface, and it
does not exert its full effect on the overvoltage until this
penetration has taken place.

The following idea of the action of colloids during
metal deposition may appear somewhat fantastic, but it
certainly has the virtue of possibility.

Colloid molecules differ from others chiefly in their
very high molecular weights, most of which are probably
several thousand. As shown above, the ions by virtue
of the attractive power of their electric charges, carry
along with them some of these heavy molecules up to and
into the metal surface. When these colloid carriers get
near the electrode they will move much more slowly than
free ions and will be thus under the influence of the
electrical attractive force for a longer time. This will
produce a high momentum in the colloid and carrier
which will strike the electrode with considerable force.
A continual hammering action by big molecules, which
in many cases lose their carrying ion and rebound from
the surface as soon as the ion gives up its charge, can well

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 11. 19

produce the flattened polished surfaces which are obtained
during metal deposition in presence of colloids.

c. General.

The effect of current density has been referred to
several times already. It varies greatly with different
electrodes and is sometimes so great that any statement
as to the overvoltage of a particular metal is useless
unless the current density is also stated. In the case of
mercury the overvoltage may vary from a very high value,
07 volt, to a negative value, —o'05 volt, when the current
density is raised from a low to a high value. |

In aimost all cases the overvoltage rises with the
current density to a certain maximum and then falls
with still greater current density.

The current density required to produce this maximum
varies to a remarkable extent and is affected to a greater
degree than overvoltage itself by the nature of the
electrodes, impurities in the electrolyte, time, etc,, etc.

With some electrodes (Hg, Ag, W for example) it is
difficult to apply a current density low enough to obtain
the true maximum, specially when time effects are
present; with others (gas carbon, amalgamated zinc,
tantiron, etc.) the maximum is barely attained with the
enormous current density of 200 amperes per sq. dm.

Generally speaking, the harder and the more porous
the surface of the metal, the higher will be the current
density required to produce maximum overvoltage, but
this rule has exceptions.

The effect of time is similar to and largely dependent
on current density.

The general rule to which there are few, if any, ex-
ceptions is that at low current densities the overvoltage
increases with time up to a certain maximum and then

20 NEWBERY, Zhe Theory of Overvoltage.

keeps more or less constant about that maximum. At
higher current densities, it rises to a maximum and
then falls to a more or less variable minimum. The time
taken to reach this maximum varies from a few seconds
to as many days, and is less with greater current density.
The following table shows the variation in the overvoltage
of a plate of polished platinum with time, the current
densities being 300 mil. amps. and 400 mil. amps. per sq.
cm. respectively. Platinum attains its maximum over-
voltage with a current density of about 350 mil. amps. per
sq. cm. under the conditions of the experiment so that
one of the current densities used was a little below and
the other a little above that necessary for producing the

maximum.
Volt. Volt.
Overvoltage after 1 min. ... set [i CROWS 0'060
| 9 Sanit 9°080 0'068
e TS 0088 | 0'092
‘3 BOs o'100 | O°104
: rt hour O12 0°120
Say oe hehe: 0'236
- Tae, o°401 0'200
‘, DA ars ap oat SOn5Ma 0120
After 5 mins. rest with no current ... | o'o80 | —
| », further ro mins. with current... omize —
| |

After each series the platinum was examined under
the microscope ; in the first case it was hardly changed

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 11. 21

in appearance, the surface being still bright and polished,
but in the second case the surface was dull and the
craters already referred to were clearly visible.

It would be difficult to obtain more conclusive proof
than this of the fact that the ions of gas penetrate the
surface of the electrode and set up great pressures within
the electrode. If the current density is great enough,
the internal pressures are sufficient to burst open the
surface, thus releasing the compressed gas and lowering
Eewovervoltace. If the current density, or rather the
applied voltage, is not great enough to produce sufficient
pressure to burst the surface, the gas accumulates in the
metal and can only escape by re-dissolving in the ionic
form. This it tends to do the more vigorously the greater
the pressure, and hence the strong overvoltage. A rest
for five minutes with no more ions pressing for admittance
is sufficient to allow the greater part of this occluded gas
to diffuse back into the solution, while a renewal of the
applied E.M.F. rapidly sets up the high pressures again.

Considerations of this kind would lead to the con-
clusion that an increase of external pressure might
alter over-voltage if only the pressure can be made great
enough.

It is easy to calculate the effect of such pressures.

Let & =measured single potential of electrode libera-

fing: £7,
£, =normal potential of a 772 electrode in same
liquid.
Then by Nernst’s well known formula
RAG 23 RT EK
Saree A De rs a

where K is a constant, p the osmotic pressure of the
hydrogen ions in solution, and fy, the pressure of the

22 NEWBERY, Lhe Theory of Overvoltage.

gaseous hydrogen in the experimental electrode. (The
pressure of hydrogen round the standard electrode is of
course unity.)

Then the overvoltage
Yt) deipte:
BE lit Dz.
= 0'0209 log fy, at 18°C.

Hence for an overvoltage of 0'5 volt

0°029 log fy, = 0°5
*. pu, = 48 x LO" atmospheres:

It is evident that a change of pressure of 100 atmos-
pheres will produce a negligible effect upon such an
electrode, a conclusion which is fully borne out by ex-
periment.

Temperature has a relatively small but appreciable
effect upon overvoltage, the rule being that rise of tem-
perature decreases overvoltage. This effect has not been
very fully studied, partly owing to the great difficulty in
eliminating the effects of other confusing factors (time
specially) while the temperature is changing.

Townsend (PAzl. Mag., 1898 [v], 45, 126) has shown
that electrolytic gases carry with them a considerable
electrical charge, and it is probable that this charged gas
exercises an inductive effect upon the electrode. Gases
may also be ionised by bubbling them through certain
liquids, and the smaller the bubbles the greater the degree
of ionisation. Thus hydrogen acquires a positive charge
when bubbled through dilute acid by means of a very fine
glass jet.

If hydrogen is liberated easily from an electrode of
low overvoltage, one would expect the bubbles to be
smaller than when it is liberated under higher pressure
from one of high overvoltage, and further, that any

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lz. (1916), Vo. 11. 2G

changes which tend to raise overvoltage will lower the
ionisation of the escaping gas. All this is fully justified
by experiment and it has been found that in all cases the
overvoltage of a metal and the degree of ionisation of the
gas liberated show an inverse relationship.’ Since the
pores in the metal are very much smaller than any which
can be produced artificially, the ionisation of electrolytic
gas is always much greater than -that produced by
bubbling through glass jets, etc. At high current densities
the inductive effect is so great that in some cases the
measured overvoltage is reduced to a negative quantity.

3. THEORIES OF OVERVOLTAGE.

Sufficient has perhaps been said to show how complex
a phenomenon that of overvoltage really is. We are
probably dealing with a mixture of chemical, electrical,
and mechanical forces, and a complete theory of over-
voltage must take account of all.

The following outline of the chief theories so far
suggested is given but it is impossible to do full justice
to each theory in a paper of this type. For fuller infor-
mation the references given at the end of this paper should
be consulted.

Nernst considers that before a gas can be liberated
from an electrode it must first penetrate into the metal
which therefore occludes a certain amount of gas. If the
solubility of the gas in the metal is small, the process of
electrolysis must compress more gas into the electrode
before it can be liberated. Hence the overvoltage should
vary inversely with some function of the solubility. This
theory fails to account for metal overvoltage, fall of over-
voltage with high current density etc., but it certainly

contains fart of the truth.
17. Chem. Soc., 105, 1914, 2428—2431.

24 NEWBERY, The Theory of Overvoltage.

Tafel also considers that the gas penetrates the
electrode but further assumes that the formation of
gaseous H2 from H”" ions is a process requiring time.
H* ions (or atoms) will therefore accumulate at the surface
of the electrode under pressure and tend to re-enter the
solution thus giving rise to an excess back E. M. F.
Some metals he considers exert a catalytic influence on
the reaction 2 H” = 2 @ + H. and thus lower the over-
voltage.

This ascribing of a ‘catalytic’ influence to the metals
is not an explanation, but merely a substitution of one
term for another, neither of which is understood. Hence
this part of the theory has been passed over by most
scientists, though an attempt has lately been made to
revive it in America.

Lose assumes that the gas dissolves in the metal and
is there dissociated into atoms which take on electrical
charges. Particles of electricity are present in the form
of ‘neutrons, © ©, and the metal behaves as a solvent
dissociating these and also the H,. The free H then
combines with a +” charge forming ions which tend to
pass into the electrolyte giving rise to an excess back
E. M. F., ze. to overvoltage.

This theory is open to so many objections that it has
received little or no support recently and is now practically
abandoned.

Reichenstecn considers that overvoltage is a measure
of the difference between the rate of formation of ions
and their disappearance by combination to form com-
plexes or by other means. The ion, after giving up its
charge, passes into a metastable form of gas or metal,
which further changes to the stable form, each process

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. il. 25

requiring time. Also the gases liberated penetrate to a
definite distance into the electrode, and the product of
this distance and the area of the electrode surface gives
the “electrode volume.” If this volume is great, the
metastable particles take longer to come into contact with
each other: hence the gas must accumulate to a greater
extent and the overvoltage will rise.

This view is to some extent in opposition to that of
Nernst, who considers that overvoltage is low when solu-
bility of the gas is high.

The solubility of hydrogen is high both in platinum
and palladium, specially in the latter where the electrode
volume of a thin sheet is practically the volume of the
siieetmitselt, while in metallic zinc it is very low. The
overvoltage of platinum and palladium are normally very
low but can rise to quite high values, while that of pure
gme@reamee highest of any single metal. These facts
cannot be reconciled with Nernst’s or Reichenstein’s
theories. Pring, by depositing films of metal of vary-
ing thickness on cathodes of different metals and
measuring the overvoltage of the compound strip, was
ame to determine the approximate depth to which the
hydrogen ions penetrate. His results were as follows:

Mii 4. XS 10> mm. fn Si 5352 Fora uma,
fot WO xX 10°° «,, LoN hy Mi eOuS@enOg sor,
eee AD x O°, se alee: (On Oy ye,
meet aA x TO?

The order in which these metals lie with regard to
Overvoltage is Pt Au Ni Cu Sn Pb Zn. Hence the order
in which they lie with regard to electrode volume does not
agree with the overvoltage order and the discrepancy is
still greater if the actual values of the overvoltages be
taken into account.

26 NEWBERY, The Theory of Overvoltage.

Like Nernst’s theory, this probably contains a part of
the truth.

Foerster suggests the formation of a solid solution ot
oxide or hydride on the surface of the electrode which
would generate a high back E.M.F. :

This theory, better than any other, explains the high
anodic and low cathodic overvoltage of platinum but it is
unsatisfactory in many important respects. [his also may
contain part of the truth.

Le Llane suggests two factors to account for overvoltage.

1. The discharged ion does not separate at once but
remains dissolved forming a supersaturated solution, in-
creasing supersaturation producing increasing overvoltage.

2. The ions in the electrolyte are hydrated (com-
bined with the solvent) and time is necessary for the
reaction—ion hydrate = ion + water—in both directions.
Hence there will be excess or deficiency of non-hydrated
ions near the electrodes which will also produce an excess
back E.M.F.

Le Blanc thus locates the source of overvoltage in the
electrolyte while Nernst, Reichenstein, etc., locate it in the
electrode. Le Blanc’s theory furnishes the most satis-
factory explanation of metal overvoltage, but fails to
explain the great influence of the nature of the electrode
surface during liberation of gas. This again appears to
contain part of the truth.

4. SUGGESTIONS FOR A FULLER THEORY OF OVER-
VOLTAGE.

The following are the most important known facts
upon which the theory must be built.

Manchester Memoztrs, Vol. tx. (1916), Vo. 14. 27

1. Ions of gas-substance penetrate into the electrode
surface, set up very great pressures which under certain
conditions are sufficient to break open the surface, and
also set up an excess back E. M.F which falls: when the
surface breaks.

2. Most of the ions in solution are either hydrated or
at least are largely influenced by the neutral molecules
round them.

3. In some cases certainly, in all cases probably, an
alloy or solid solution is formed from the gas and the
electrode material, which has a different single potential
difference from that of the original electrode material.

4. Overvoltage and the ionisation of the escaping gas
show an inverse relationship.

We may now picture to ourselves what goes on during
electrolysis in the following way.

_ (1) The ions have to pass through the series of changes

a b G ad
Ion hydrate ->free ion -> free atom —> molecule

and molecules, the same series in the reverse order.

Of these changes, J—c takes place at the moment of
electrical contact of the ion with the electrode. The other
two require a measurable time, and hence there may be
produced an excess or deficiency of 4 and ¢ in the elec-
trolyte and at the electrodes respectively, which gives rise
to overvoltage. This effect will be proportional to the
current density and occurs with all ions, gaseous or
metallic. It is the sole cause of metal overvoltage, but is
never very great, since metal overvoltages are small com-
pared with gas overvoltages.

(ii.) When the current is first applied, the outer surface
of the electrode will rapidly become covered with new

28 NEWBERY, The Theory of Overvoltage.

free atoms and molecules. If these are gaseous, they will
be held against the electrode surface partly by the attrac-
tion of the metal due to its electrical charge and partly
by the pressure of incoming ions, The latter will find
the nearest portions of the electrode already occupied,
and therefore will have to get further and further in to
the electrode before finding a vacant spot where they can
make electrical contact and give up their charges.”. When
they have given up their charges they will unite to form
molecules and then escape as they are knocked off by the
general disturbance taking place.

The electrode surface probably compares with an ion
much as a bundle of sticks or a pile of loose stones does
with a bullet. Hence there will be many cases where ions
will enter a hole too small to allow molecules to escape.
Enormous pressures are thus set up by the imprisoned
molecules which can only escape by re-ionising or breaking
the metal surface. The deeper the hole, the greater the
pressure. The overvoltage of an amalgamated zinc
cathode in dilute sulphuric acid can rise to over 0°87
volt under certain conditions. The calculated pressure to
produce this is 10° atmospheres. While it is evident that
the pressures in the electrode are very great, such a
pressure as this passes the bounds of credibility. It is
necessary therefore to consider further what happens to
the gas at the electrode before it is liberated.

(It has of course been assumed that hydrogen behaves
as a perfect gas, an assumption which cannot be true at

2 Rapid stirring of the electrolyte reduces overvoltage considerably by
‘brushing’ away some of the adhering surface gas. Also during overvoltage
measurements, cases are frequently observed where the overvoltage remains
perfectly steady but the current passing through the experimental cell is
erratic, the jerky variations being sometimes greater than 10% of the main
current although the applied E.M.F. is quite constant. This variation of
reststance between the electrode and electrolyte is evidently due to distur-
bances in the gas film adhering to the external surface of the electrode,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. U1. 29

such high pressure. Also the fraction of the overvoltage
produced according to Le Blanc’s theory has been neg-
lected, but even when these things are taken into account,
the pressures we must assume are still incredibly high).

(iii.) When hydrogen is bubbled round a palladium
plate in dilute acid, an alloy or solid solution is produced
having a single potential quite different from that of the
pure metal. If the same plate is treated cathodically,
still more hydrogen is absorbed and the potential may
rise O'5 volt if the current density is kept low, Platinum
behaves in much the same way. It seems more than
probable therefore that this is true to a greater or less
extent with all metals and that part at least of the
measured overvoltage is due to the high single potential
of an alloy formed on the surface by the discharged
ions (free atoms) uniting with the electrode material.
This alloy is of course super-saturated with gas which
is continually endeavouring to form another alloy of still
higher gas content.

When this alloy is prepared with hydrogen at normal
pressure, its potential must be the same as that of a
hydrogen electrode in the same liquid, for if it were not,
then a current could be obtained capable of doing work
by hydrogen dissolving at one electrode and being liberated
at the other. Since the same quantity of hydrogen is
involved in each case, the process could go on in an
isolated system, and perpetual motion would be obtained.

When the alloy, already saturated with hydrogen at
normal pressures, is further treated with gas at higher
pressures, other alloys of greater hydrogen content will
tend to form, and these will have potentials which cannot
be calculated from the gas pressures by Nernst’s equation,
since the concentration of the hydrogen is not propor-
tional to the pressure,

30 NEWBERY, Zhe Theory of Overvoltage.

The hydrogen in the alloy; is probably in the mon-
atomic condition, as has been proved in the case of
palladium, and this would explain the so-called catalytic
effect of palladium, platinum, etc., in promoting the com-
bination of hydrogen and oxygen. When the current is
stopped, the alloy will tend to decompose spontaneously,
thus liberating gas within the electrode, which will further
increase the pressure beneath the surface.

In the case of anodic overvoltage, which can rise to
much greater values than cathodic, the alloy or solid
solution is probably formed in many cases, not from the
gas itself but from a compound of the gas and the elec-
trode material. With certain metals, the presence of the
alloy produces passivity.

(iv.) Lastly, when the gas comes out of the electrode
in the form of a tiny bubble, it acquires an electrostatic
charge on its surface as soon as it comes into contact
with the electrolyte. This charge is very close to the
electrode and therefore acts inductively on the electrode
reducing the measured overvoltage. The reduction is
directly proportional to the current density and also
varies inversely with the size of the escaping bubbles.
Experiment shows that the size of the bubbles varies with
the electrode chosen but is practically constant with a
siven electrode. Hence at high current density there
may be a considerable lowering of the overvoltage from
this cause, in fact with platinum and mercury the over-
voltage can be reduced to a negative quantity at very
high current densities.

An interesting experiment which serves to confirm
some of these views was made with a mercury electrode
I sq. cm. surface area, This was used as cathode in N/I
H, SO, for a short time until its overvoltage was 0o°6 volt.

® Winklemann: Drade’s Anun., 6, 104 (1901).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 11. 31

The current was then cut off for half a minute to allow
surface hydrogen to escape by diffusion, and the electrode
then connected with a mercurous sulphate electrode
through a galvanometer reading 10°° ampere. A current
of 30x Jo-° amp. passed at first and fell rapidly, but after
20 mins. was still 2x10 °amp. This means that about
10-2 coulombs was given by the hydrogen alloyed with
Premmetcury, or about 1 cu. mm. H, per sq. cm. of surface.
A-similar experiment with two copper electrodes gave a
still higher result, the current remaining at 30x 107% amp.
even after the electrodes had been taken out of the liquid,
replaced, and short circuited for 20 seconds. Further
experiments on these lines will be carried out later.

A strip of thin sheet-iron when used as cathode in
dilute sulphuric acid becomes much stiffer and aimost
brittle. When used as anode in the same liquid, this
stiffness disappears and the metal becomes very soft and
pliable. This again suggests alloy formation on the surface.

Electrolytic oxidations and reductions may be pro-
duced (i.) by the action of the electrode alloy, (ii.) by
the action of the discharged ion, (ili.) by the action of
electricity itself.

(i.) is evident from the fact that in cases where the
alloys are obtainable in the free state, they are able to
produce similar effects to those obtained electrolytically.
Thus palladium-hydrogen or platinum-hydrogen alloys
combine directly with free oxygen giving water and the
free metal. Also platinum oxide is a very powerful
oxidising agent and is probably formed at a platinum
anode giving rise to the very high anodic overvoltage of
0'86 volt.

(In /.C.S., 105, 1914, 2422 and 2423, the anodic over-
voltage of platinum is given as 0°56 volt. The error was
not observed until after the paper was printed).

22 NEWBERY, Zhe Theory of Overvoltage.

As the composition of the alloy varies, its back E.M.F.
will also vary, and hence the most powerful oxidising or
reducing action will be exerted when this back E.M.F.
is greatest, z.e. when the overvoltage is greatest. Part of
the fall of overvoltage at very high current densities is also
due to this variation of the composition of the alloy, since
one with very high gas content may have a lower back
E.M.F. than one with less gas.

(1i.) is probably the main source of high-efficiency
oxidations and reductions. When an easily oxidisable
or reducible body is present, the discharged ions react at
once before time is given to form a higher alloy or pro-
duce any appreciable pressures in the electrodes. Hence
the presence of these bodies will reduce the overvoltage
to an extent dependent upon the speed of the secondary
reaction, a conclusion fully proved by the extensive
researches of Le Blanc.

(iii.) only occurs when the oxidisable or reducible
body is itself ionised or capable of being ionised. It is,
however, of very common occurrence: thus copper sul-
phate is reduced to metallic copper by adding a negative
or subtracting a positive charge from the copper ion ;
ferrous sulphate is oxidised to ferric sulphate by adding
a positive charge to the ferrous ion, etc.

SUMMARY.

The following suggested theory of overvoltage is com-
posed of parts of the theories of Nernst, Le Blanc and
Foerster, with additions.

The overvoltage of a metal is determined by four
factors.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 1h. 33

1. Supersaturation of the electrode surface with non-
electrified gas under very high pressure, due to the
permeability of the metal to the ionised gas, but non-
permeability to the molecular, and also to the spontaneous
decomposition of the alloys containing the same gas.

2. Formation of a series of alloys or solid solutions of
gas (or gas+electrode-— material compound) with the
electrode surface.

3. Deficiency or excess of non-hydrated ions, charged
and discharged, in the immediate neighbourhood of the
electrodes.

4. Inductive action of the escaping ionised gas on the

electrode.

ELECTRO-CHEMICAL LABORATORIES,
MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY. |

REFERENCES.

Le Buane. “Die Elek. Krafte der Polarisation” Knapp,
Halle, 1910—TZrans. Faraday Soc., 1914, 9, 251.—
Zeit. Phys. Chem., 5, 469 (1890).

BosE. Zezt. Phys. Chem., 34, 701 (1900).

CaspaRi. Zeit. Phys. Chem., 30, 89 (1899).

CORHN AND DANNENBERG. Zet?¢. Phys. Chem., 38, 618 (1901).
CRABTREE. /our. Chim. Phys., 12, 493 (1914).

ForrsTER. Zeit. Llektrochem., 16, 353 (1910).

34 NEWBERY, The Theory of Overvoltage.

HaBer. Zeit. Elehtrochem., 8, 539 (1902)—Zeit. Phys. Chem.,
47, 257 (1904).

Marie. Compt. Rend., 147, 1,400 (1908).
Mutter. Zett. Phys. Chem., 65, 226 (1909).

Nernst. Theoretical Chemistry, English translation, p. 766
(19II).

Newsery. /. Chem. Soc., 105, 2,419 (1914).

Princ. TZyvrans. Far. Soc., 3, 50 (1907)—Zeit. Elekirochem., 19,
255 (1913).

REICHENSTEIN. Tvans. Far. Soc., 9, 228 (1914)—Zet. Elektro-
chem, 15, 734; 913 (1909); 16, 916 (1910); 17, 85
(1911); 18, 850 (1912) ; 19, 672 (1913).

TaFEL. Zeit. Phys. Chem., 34, 200 (1900) ; 50, 641 (1905).

TownsenD. Pil. Mag. [V.], 45, 125 (1808).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LX. (No. Wh). Plate.

Zinc before. Zinc after.

Platinum before. Platinum after.

Microphotographs of metal cathode plates before and after electrolysis
with a current density of I ampere per sq. em. for two hours. Magnifi-
cation 320 diameters.

aa gi

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12.

XII. The Geographical Distribution of the use of
Pearls and Pearl-shell.

By, |. WIETRID* JACKSON, F-G.s.
Manchester Museum,
Hon. Librarian of the Conchological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland.

(Communicated by Professor G. Eliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F-R.S.)
(Read April ath, 1916. Received for bublicalion June oth, 7916. )

For many centuries pearls have been objects of
commerce between nations, and from their peculiar
beauty and splendour they have been held in high esti-
mation among many peoples, civilised and barbarian.
Superstitious reverence in one form or another has also
been accorded them, and they have been considered as
symbols of purity, beauty, and nobility, besides being
regarded as emblematical of conjugal bonds. More
curious still is the fact that for ages pearls or pearl-
shells have been supposed to possess valuable medicinal
qualities, and have been used in medicine, either as a
powder or as one of the chief ingredients of pills, es-
pecially in Oriental countries.

Regarding the origin of pearls many wild and ex-
travagant ideas have been advanced in the past by
different peoples, one of the most curious of these notions
being the belief that they were formed from drops of rain
falling into the gaping valves of the pearl-shell. This
“congealed dew-drop” theory is remarkable for its wide
distribution. It was current among the ancient people of

September Oth, 1910.

2 JACKSON, Daestribution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

mw = Marine.

Freshwater.

O=

Map showing distribution of the Use of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

Manchester Memortrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. 3

the Mediterranean, spreading from there to India, China,
and other places, and was found by Columbus to exist
among the inhabitants of the New World.

In previous papers attention has been called to the
intimate association which exists between the special
appreciation of pearls and the geographical distribution
of elements of a culture, including amongst other things,
the use of shell-purple for dyeing, and of conch-shells for
trumpets. The evidence concerning the spread of these
latter cultural elements has already been: given,’ and the
object of this paper is to present some of the facts
connected with the distribution of the use of pearls and
pearl-shell.

The remarkable manner in which the sources of pearls
and pearl-shell coincide with the distribution of megalithic
structures has been emphasised by Mr. W. J. Perry in his
recently published paper on “The Relationship between
the Geographical Distribution of Megalithic Monuments

9

and Ancient Mines. Some further facts in justification
of this are included in the present communication.

When the fashion for pearls and pearl-shell was first
instituted is not known, but the available evidence
suggests that it originated somewhere in the vicinity of
Peypt, if not in Egypt itself. From this centre the
fashion spread to surrounding nations of antiquity, and at
a later time, together with an extraordinary collection of
fantastic practices and beliefs, it was carried far and wide,
eventually reaching the Far East, Oceania, and the New
World. Phcenician influence was undoubtedly largely
instrumental in the distribution of the appreciation of the
pearl, and in the course of trade these ancient mariners
inaugurated extensive pearl-fisheries in many of the places

* Manch. Memozrs (Lit. & Phil. Soc.), vol. Ix. (1916), Nos. 7 and 8.
* Manch. Memoirs (Lit. & Phil. Soc.), vol. Ix. (1915), No. 1.

4 JACKSON, Destributcon of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

they visited. Not only were the highly-prized marine
pearls sought for, but also those from the freshwater pear]
mussels of the family Unionide.

The Red Sea is probably the most ancient of the
known sources of pearls. Gems from this neighbourhood
were known many centuries before the Christian era, and
the fishery was in a flourishing condition in the time of
the Ptolemies. These pearls are referred to by Strabo,
fElianus, and other classical writers.» The most inter-
esting feature in connection with these fisheries is the fact
that the ancient inhabitants of the shores of the Red Sea
were acquainted with an artificial method of producing
pearls. According to the philosopher Apollonius,‘ the
inhabitants rendered the sea smooth by flooding it with
oil; they then dived into the sea and halting alongside
the pearl-oyster they induced it to open by holding out a
case of myrrh before it as a bait. The oyster was then
pierced with a long pin and the liquid which exuded from
the wound was received into an iron block which was
hollowed out in regular holes, where it petrified in regular
shapes, just like the natural pearl. Though the details as
to the method of procedure are scarcely credible, it is
not improbable that the story has some sound founda-
tion, and that attempts were really made at that early
time to stimulate the growth of pearls. This interesting
fact is of some importance in connection with the artificial
production of pearls in India and China, to which atten-
tion is called on later pages,

From the proximity of the Red Sea to Egypt it is not
surprising that the pearl-shell was known to the Egyptians

8 Kunz and Stevenson, ‘‘ The Book of the Pearl,” Wew York, 1908,
Pp. 139 Seg.

4 Philostratus, ‘‘ The Life of Apollonius of Tyana,” bk. iii., ch. Ivii.
(Edit. Conybeare, vol. 1., 1912, ,p. 343).

Manchester Memoirs, Vel. lx. (1916), No. 12. 5

at a very early period in their history. In their search
for the Red Sea cowries, and other shells, used as
desirable objects for placing in the graves of the dead in
Pre-dynastic and later times, they must have soon become
familiar with the mother-of-pearl shell.’

According to Kunz and Stevenson (of. czz., p. 6) the
pearl-shell was in use as an ornament in ancient Egypt as
early as the VIth dynasty. In investigating the ruins of
ancient Thebes, Dr. J. T. Dennis discovered several of
these shells bearing cartouches of that period. In graves
of the xIIth dynasty, Red Sea pearl-shells have been
found engraved with the name of Senusert 16 These
shells are perforated with two holes for wearing as a
pectoral pendant, as in the Pacific Islands and elsewhere.
In the ‘pan graves’ of the same period, mother-of pearl
bracelets occurred made of narrow strips of shell, per-
forated at each end and threaded together, thus forming a
flexible band.’ Similar discoveries have been made in
Nubia ®

The presence of the marine pearl-shell in Egypt has
been looked upon by some authorities as indicating an
early trade with India. On this point Lacouperie? re-
marks: “Commercial. relations between the Kushite
emporia of South Arabia, the West coast of India, and

5 Tt is of interest to note that the use of cowries is intimately associated
with that of pearls in most of the area occupied by the megalithic culture.

6 W. M. Flinders Petrie, ‘‘ Amulets,” London, 1914, p. 27, pl. xliv.,
fig. 112a. An exactly similar specimen, engraved with the same name, from
Rifeh, 1907, is in the Manchester Museum.

7 W. M. Flinders Petrie, ‘‘ Diospolis Parva, The Cemeteries of Abadiyeh
and Hu, 1898-9,” 1901, p. 46, pl. xl.

8 G. A. Reisner, ‘‘ The Archzeological Survey of Nubia.” Report for
1907-08, vol. 1., Archeological Report, Cairo, 1910, p. 54, pl. 704.

® T. de Lacouperie, ‘“‘ Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilisation,”
London, 1894, pp. 97-98.

6 JACKSON, Destrzbution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

the South as far as Ceylon, were perhaps already opened
at the time of the xlth dynasty of Egypt.” But, he
goes on to say, “the proof is not above suspicion. It
consists of a shell of mother-of-pearl, such as those of
Ceylon, which, inscribed with the cartouche of Usurtasen,
was bought in Egypt in 1883 by Professor Sayce. It
may have been engraved long after the reign of that
sovereign.” There is no reason, however, to doubt the
authenticity of this specimen in the light of the more
recent discoveries mentioned above, but the evidence of
its Ceylon origin is untrustworthy. As the same species
of pearl-shell inhabits the Red Sea, it is more probable
that this was its true source.

In addition to the mother-of-pearl shell, pearls them-
selves were used by the Egyptians, though from an
examination of representations of the costumes of ancient
Egypt, they do not appear to have been employed to any
great extent in their decorations.” They are represented
on old Egyptian monuments, and diadems of pearls have
been found from time to time in ancient sarcophagi.
From about 1500 B.c. Egyptian women wore earrings,
generally simple loops of gold, from which hung pendants
of precious stones and pearls. They, likewise, wore neck-
laces made of alternate rows of shells (cowries, etc.), coral,
scarabei, precious stones and pearls. One ornament worn
by both sexes was the gorget, upon which pearls were
embroidered in elaborate patterns." It was not, however,
until after the Persian conquest in the fifth century B.C.
that pearls were used extensively.”

The Egyptians were also familiar with their own local

10 Kunz and Stevenson, of. czt., p. 6.

11 E. W. Streeter, ‘‘ Pearls and Pearling Life,” London, 1886, pp.
33°34-

12 Kunz and Stevenson, of. czt., p. 6.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. G

freshwater pearl mussels, Aetherza (Nile oyster), Uzzo, etc.
at a very early period, using their valves as receptacles for
paints, etc., in Pre-dynastic and later times. Whether
they cbtained pearls from these is not known, but the
pearly nature of the shells themselves may have led to
their being objects of appreciation. The Aetherze occur
in the Nile as high as the cataracts of Robatas in Upper
Nubia, and are described by Cailliaud, in his “ Voyage
a Méroé,’ as being a common article of food. Their shells
are collected by the natives in order to decorate the tombs
of deceased relatives.* Perforated discs of this shell were
found in some numbers in a tomb of the XvilIth dynasty
grave D 114) at Abydos," but whether they were used for
ornamental purposes, such as necklaces or armlets, is
difficult to decide. Judging from their size (diam. 27 mm.)
they would not prove suitable objects for this purpose.
There is no evidence to suggest that they were employed
as a form of currency.

Beyond the reference by Pliny” to pearl fisheries on
the Mauritanian coast—probably inaugurated by the
Phoenicians, who visited West Africa for gold—little is
known of the use and exploitation of pearls in this part
of Africa.

On the east side of the African continent, pearl
fisheries are known south of the Gulf of Aden. According
to Kunz and Stevenson (of. czt., p. 153) “little information
exists as to the origin of these fisheries. In a paper
published by the Lisbon Geographical Society, January,
1903, Sefior Ivens Ferranz states that, according to
tradition, in remote times the Ibo Archipelago, on the

7% Mary Roberts, ‘‘ Popular History of the Mollusca,” 1851, p. 311.

Zoedjs Paice Peet and W-. lS: Loat, “<The Cemeteries of Abydos,”
pt. lii., 1912-13. 35th Alem. of Leypt Explor. Fund, 1913, p. 30, pl. xii.

Selinive > NEL. 52 blk. 1x... chet 56,

8 JACKSON, Destrzdution of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

north-east coast of Portuguese East Africa, was inhabited
by a Semitic colony, which located there to fish for pearls,
and these were carried through the Red Sea to King
Solomon. He adds that there is little doubt that, after
the great emigration which started from the Persian Gulf
-in 982 and founded Zanzibar, Kilwa, and Sofala on the
coast, some Arabs engaged in fishing for pearls about the
islands near Sofala.”

The evidence of early pearl fishing on the coast of
East Africa is significant in view of the implied association
between megalithic culture and pearls. In the map which
illustrates Mr. Perry’s paper (of. ¢z¢., p. 10), the presence of
the pearl-shell is not indicated on the coasts of Zanzibar
and Madagascar “two localities which are suggestive when
the presence of megalithic monuments in Rhodesia and
Madagascar is recalled” (p. 11). Another important link
is afforded by the discovery of beads made from the shell
of the common Unio or fresh-water mussel ( Uuzo verreauxz)
in graves in the vicinity of Bulawayo, Rhodesia."

The Persian Gulf has been famous as a source of
pearls from ancient times. A very early origin of pearl
fishing here seems to be indicated by a cuneiform in-
scription on a broken obelisk, erected presumably by a
king of Nineveh, which has been translated by Jules
Oppert, the eminent Assyriologist.” The fisheries were
well known in the time of Alexander, and are referred to
by Pliny’ as yielding the most valuable pearls. Isidorus
of Charace, a Greek historian, czvca 300 B.C., mentions
the pearl fishing in this neighbourhood in his account of
the Parthian Empire, and gives a fanciful story of the
influence of thunderstorms on the breeding of pearls.”

16 Kunz and Stevenson, of. cé?#., p. 513.

17 Jbid., p. 85.

26 “Pliny, SN. 34.,* ok. ioe sch Sa.

129 Athenzus, ‘‘ Deipnos,” bk. ili., ch. 46.

Manchester Memorrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. 9

The inhabitants of the Island of Bahrein—the Tylos
of Ptolemy—have been devoted to pearling from time
immemorial, and the fishing to-day is carried on much as
it was 2,000 years ago. This island was in touch with
Chaldean civilization, and one of the traditional sources
of the Phoenicians, and whence came that fish-god who—
according to the Babylonian myth—bore the ark over the
deluge.” ,

In Persia, pearls were almost certainly known in the
Sevemtn century B.C.; they are not méntioned in the
extant fragments of ancient literature, but pearl ornaments
of great antiquity have been found among Persian re-
mains. Assyrian and Persian bas-reliefs show that pearls
were used profusely for adornment by the sovereigns and
great personages of those countries. The portraits of
Persian queens on coins and gems commonly show ear-
pendants of pearls” Portraits of Sassanian kings show a
pearl pendant of large size hanging from the right ear,
and among Persian nobles it was the custom to wear in
the right ear a golden ornament containing pearls. The
women also wore a ring through the left nostril, upon
which three pearls were strung, and round their heads
was a band with pendant jewels or pearls. The kings of
the Medes and Persians wore bracelets and necklaces of
pearls, and these gems were employed lavishly in their
trappings and equipages. At the present time pearls
play a prominent part in great festivals in Persia.”

mmene the ancient Persians a solar origin was
attributed to the pearl.

Babylonian dignitaries and priests, it is stated, wore

2° Kunz and Stevenson, of. cé¢., pp. 90 seg

21 /bid., pp. 5 and 404.

@aucikeeler, op: cz. pp. 30-31?

GLO yt Pog:

10 JACKSON, Destrzbution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

strings of pearls, most of which no doubt came from the
Persian Gulf fisheries.“ In the ruins of Babylon, however,
no pearls have been found ; the relatively moist soil con-
taining much saltpetre may account for their non-survival
for so many ages.”

According to Kunz and Stevenson (of. cit., p. 405),
one of the most interesting examples of the use of a pearl
in ancient times is a beautiful prehistoric pearl pin from
Paphos, on the Island of Cyprus, which is mounted with
a large marine pearl measuring 14 mm. in diameter, and
weighing about 70 grains. It is surmounted by a small
fresh-water pearl 4 mm. in diameter.

In excavations made in the Huaran district in Syria,
a number of pearls were found in a rock-cut tomb said to
be of Roman origin. The pearls were still attached toa
bronze wire with which they had been strung. A pearl
pin and a single earring bearing a pearl have also been
recorded from a rock-tomb at Czsarea, in Syria.”

Pearls were esteemed by the Greeks in the time .of
Homer, who appears to allude to them under the name
TplyAnva (triple drops or beads) in his description of Juno,
in the Iliad, xiv., 183; and in the Odyssey, xviii, 298.
Classical designs of Juno usually show the three pear-
shaped pearls pendent from her ears. The pearls of the
ancient Greeks were obtained probably through the
medium of the Phcenicians, and during the Persian wars
of the fifth century B.c., they doubtless extended their
acquaintance with these beautiful gems.”

The necklaces and earrings, on the heads of female
divinities, goddesses, and nymphs, represented on Greek

coins from the fifth century B.C., are considered by many
24 dbid,, P:23%:
275 Kunz and Stevenson, of. czt., p. 5.
26 Lbid., p. 406.
27 Jbid., p. 8.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. tv. (1916), No. 12. 11

numismatists to be intended to represent pearl orna-
ments.”

Theophrastus, writing about 300 B.C., mentions the
gems, and describes them as the product of shell-fish. In
his day they were valued for necklaces or bracelets.
Pliny also refers to other Greek writers on the subject.
Like the Persian nobles, Grecian men of rank wore one
pearl earring in the right ear, while the women wore one
impeach ear.”

Interesting evidence of the ancient appreciation of
pearls in the neighbourhood of the Crimea is furnished
by the discovery of gold earrings with pearl centres,
probably of the first half of the third century A.D., in a
tomb close to the site of the ancient town of Chersonesus,
and of earrings and pins set with pearls, from the
neighbourhood of Tiflis. An earring of fourth century
date made of gold wire, on which seven pearls are
threaded, said to have been found on the site of the
ancient Greek colony of Olbia, is of special interest in
view of the fact that the pearls are drilled. Another
interesting find, also of the 4th century A.D., is that of a
brass dress pin with a sphere of amber, surmounted by a
pearl, found near the village of Mzchet Caucasus.”

The custom of wearing a ring, ornamented with
corals, pearls or precious stones, was prevalent among the
fashionable Tartar ladies of Astrakhan, in the 18th cen-
tury. ‘This was worn suspended from the perforated
right nostril, and recalls a similar practice among the
women of Persia (supra, p. 9). ™

ES 0ia., D."400.

29 Streeter, op. cez., p. 35; Kunz and Stevenson, of. czz., p. 8.

5° Kunz and Stephenson, of. c7¢., p. 410.

51 G, A. Cooke, ‘‘ System of Universal Geography,” London (1801),
vol. 1., p. 448.

12 JACKSON, Distribution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

From Greece the admiration for pearls spread to Rome,
where they were known under the Greek word margarita,
as well as the Roman name wzzo. According to Pliny
(bk. ix., ch: 59}; the Romans used the latter namevse
distinguish a pearl of remarkable size. This celebrated
Roman naturalist, who regarded pearls as formed by dew
or rain falling into the gaping shells of the pearl-oyster,”
tells us that after the surrender of Alexandria, these gems
came into common, and indeed universal, use at Rome;
but they first began to be used there during the Jugurthan
wars.”

‘Che Romans were deeply affected by pearls, and these
gems took precedence over all others. Roman ladies
wore necklaces and ear-drops of pearls, and dresses were
lavishly covered with these gems. They were worn even
at night that in their sleep the owners might be conscious
of the possession of such valuable jewels. Pliny* gives us
a graphic description of the pearls and other ornaments
worn by the Roman empress Lollia Paulina at an ordi-
nary wedding entertainment. It was not unusual for the
Komans to adorn their horses and other favourite animals
with splendid necklaces ; and it is said that “ Incitatus,”
the favourite horse of the Emperor Caligula, wore a pearl
collar. Pearls also decorated the altars in the Roman
temples, and the furniture of the houses, while their war-
chariots shone with them. Philo Judzus speaks of the
couches upon which the Romans reclined at meal-times
as being ornamented with tortoise-shell and ivory, and
shining with gold and pearls. Healso adds that upon the
couches lay purple coverings embroidered in gold or
pearls. Under successive emperors sumptuary laws were

32: Pliny, °° IN AGL? ‘dolk. a5 enn ga

BS: Jbi@., De. 1e2,°ERo “RO:

34 Tbid., bk. ix., ch. 58.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lv. (1916), No. 12. 13

issued in order to stem the tide of extravagance which
threatened the ruination of all classes. Julius Czesar
issued an edict, prohibiting the use of purple and pearls
to all persons who were not of certain rank, and the latter
also to unmarried women.”

The mother-of-pearl was evidently appreciated in
Northern Italy long anterior to the time of the Roman
Empire, as the shell of the pearl-oyster of Eastern seas
has been found in ancient hut foundations, reported to be
of Neolithic age, near Reggio Emilia.* This discovery
would seem to indicate very early intercourse with the
g@emencea culture of the East. Further evidence in
support of this is furnished by discoveries of conch-shell
trumpets and broken Purpura shells in Ligurian caves, to
which attention has been called in earlier papers read
before this Society (see footnote i.).

It is probable that the ancient Hebrews valued pearls
for ornamental purposes, doubtless obtaining them by
commerce with the Phcenicians. It is remarkable, how-
ever, that the Hebrew word, gabish, translated “ pearl,”
occurs but once in the Old Testament. Some doubt
exists even here as to the true significance of the word,
some writers claiming that it relates to some other sub-
stance, probably “crystal.” In the New Testament and
in the Talmud are to be found frequent references to
pearls, which show how these gems were estimated by
the Jews. Mother-of-pearl is still a commodity of general
traffic in Palestine, where it is carved by the inhabitants
into various religious ornaments.”

5° Loveil, ‘‘ Edible British Mollusca,” 1884, p. 92; Streeter, of, cz,
pp. 39-40; Kunz and Stevenson, of. c7t., p. 9. .

®6 Mosso, ‘‘ The Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization,” 1910, p. 269,
quoting Colini, d/¢z della Socteta romana a’ Antropologia, vol. x. 1904.

“7 Streeter, of. cat., p. 32 ; Kunz and Stevenson, of. ciz., pp. 6-7.

14 JACKSON, Dzstrzbutzon of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

Although the pearls used by the ancient people of
the Mediterranean were largely those obtained from the
true pearl-oyster, pearls from other sources seem also to
have been employed. Pliny * informs us that they used
formerly to be found in the seas of Italy, but more
frequently about the Thracian Bosporus; they were of a
red colour, and small, and enclosed in a shell-fish known
by the name of “ mya.” Off the coast of Acarnania they
were obtained from a shell-fish called “ pina,” *® but the
pearls were ill-shaped, and of marble hue ; those found
about Cape Actium were better, though of small size.

Pearls have been associated with the name of Britain
from very early times. According to Suetonius, the great
motive of Czesar’s expedition into Britain in 55 B.C. was
to obtain its pearls, which were so large that he used to
try the weight of them by his hand. Pliny ” confirms
this, saying that Cesar dedicated a breastplate covered
with British pearls to Venus Genetrix, and hung it in her
temple at Rome. The British pearls, doubtless obtained
from the fresh-water pearl-mussel, AZargaritana margari-
tifera, seem to have been regarded by ancient writers as
dull in colour and lustre and inferior to the pearls of the
Orient.

The imperial diadem of the sovereigns of the ancient
Britons, Whitaker remarks, was sometimes encircled with
an ornament of the mussel-pearls, as appears from the
coins which have come down to us.*!

That the pearl or pearl-shell was appreciated by the
inhabitants of Britain as early as the Neolithic age seems

88 Pliny, “N.H.,” bk. ix, ch. 56.

S32) Eeans ane frequently obtained from the /277za-shell at the present
day.

40 Pliny, ‘N.H.,” bk. ix., ch. 57.

41 Whitaker, ‘‘,History of Manchester,” 2nd ed., London, 1773, vol.i.,
pp. 22 and 342.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. 5

very probable from the discovery of the shell of the
fresh-water pearl-mussel (Wargarttana margartttfera)
- associated with human remains in the sepulchral cave at
Perthi Chwareu, near Llandegla, Denbighshire.”

The presence of fragments of pearl-shell in the paste
of early hand-made pottery may also be an indication
that the Early Britons considered the shell as auspicious
and consequently adding further value to their product,
analogous to the use in India of lime obtained by burn-
ing both chank and pearl oyster shells. It is significant
how widely spread are both these customs. The shells
of Unzo are recorded from North American Indian graves
where they had been placed to serve as food for the dead
during the journey to the land of spirits ; and fragments
of Unio shells were used by the Indians to temper the
clay for pottery. Beads of Umzzo shell have also been
found in graves in the neighbourhood of Bulawayo,
Rhodesia, as already stated. |

An interesting survival of the Greek word tpiyAnva
(triple drops or beads, z.e., pearls) seems to exist in the
Welsh g/azx (bead), the name having been carried to
Britain by Phcenician traders.* It is well known that the
Phoenicians, after founding many colonies in the
Mediterraiiean, passed on through the Straits of Gibraltar,
and in course of time probably reached the British Isles.
Here no doubt they became acquainted with the pearls of
the British rivers.

The principal fresh-water pearl fisheries in the British
Isles are those of the Conway River, in North Wales,
where it is supposed Czsar obtained his pearls; the Irt,
in Cumberland ; the Tay, Earn, and Teith, in Perthshire ;
the Dee, Don, and Ythan, in Aberdeenshire; the Spey

*? J. W. Jackson, Lancashire Naturalist, Dec., 1913, pp. 321-2.

*° Kunz and Stevenson, of. cé¢., p. 8.

16 JACKSON, Distrebution of Pearls and Pearl-shelt.

and Findhorn, in Inverness-shire ; and the rivers of the
counties of Kerry, Donegal, Tyrone, Wexford, etc., in
Ireland. These fisheries have been described by many
writers from the time of the Venerable Bede (673—735 .
A.D.) to the present day, and allusion has been made to
the prevalent belief in the dew-drop origin of the gems.

On the continent of Europe the abundance of pearls
in the mussels of the lakes and rivers has also given rise
to many important fisheries. Little is known, however, of
their early history, except that some of these localities
appear to have been exploited by the Romans. It is
probable that some are of an even earlier date, possibly
owing their inauguration to Phoenician influence, as in the
British Isles.

The principal areas where pearl fishing has been
carried on in modern times are France, Germany, Austria,
Scandinavia, Denmark and Russia,

In the east of France the pearl fisheries of the
Vologne, in the department of the Vosges, are of special
interest and have been celebrated for centuries, while in
the western part of the country the pearl mussels have
been exploited in the Adour, the Charente, the Gironde
and tributaries, the Garonne and the Dordogne and their
affluents, and many other streams. In Germany the pearl
fisheries are most important in the streams of the southern
districts, in Bavaria, Saxony and Silesia. In Austria the
fisheries have been prosecuted in the province of Bohemia
from very early times, The fisheries of the Wottawa River
were noted in 1560 and this river has long been known as
the “the gold- and pearl-bearing brook.” Formerly
along its shores, gold washing was more or less carried on,
as well as the fresh-water pearl-mussel industry. In
Hungary the native pearls have been popular with the
Magyar women from early times, and very many yet

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. EZ

exist in old Hungarian jewelry. In Denmark no pearl
fisheries now exist; but three centuries ago the gems
were obtained in the Kolding Fjord, in Jutland. In
Norway most of the rivers and streams, especially on the
west and south-west coast, have been noted for pearls
from the 17th century ; while in Sweden, pearl fisheries
were noted, in 1562, by Olaus Magnus, Archbishop of
Upsala. In Russia the pearl mussel is found in many
streams ; it occurs throughout Archangel, in most of the
rivers flowing into the White Sea, Lake Onega, and the
Baltic Sea; it likewise occurs in the Volga Watershed.
In the government of Archangel pearls have been col-
lected for centuries from the streams flowing into the
White Sea and Arctic Ocean. Middendorff gives us a
detailed account of the Lapland pearl fisheries and relates
that they have been carried on exclusively by the shore
Laplanders ; but owing to the small returns, they have
been neglected in recent times. The pearls obtained are
somewhat dull in colour, which in the opinion of the
fishermen is caused by the mysterious influence of the
copper money which they carry with them. The Tuloma
was formerly a productive river; its pearls were sold in
Kola, and were sent from there to Archangel to be pierced.
The Tjura also yielded many pearls; but since a Lap-
lander was drowned while fishing for them, the idea has
spread that the spirit of the river guards the pearls, and
the natives hesitate about seeking them. In the grand
duchy of Finland, in the province of Olonetz, and in the
Baltic Provinces, pearls have been sought after for three
centuries or more. The areas where pearl fishing is
conducted in other parts of Russia—the Volga Watershed.
the Don, the Dnieper, etc.—are indicated on the accom-
panying map.”

*4 The above information is mostly extracted from Von Hessling ‘‘ Die

Perlmuscheln und ihre Perlen,” Leipzig, 1859; also Kunz and Stevenson,
op. ctt.

18 JACKSON, Destrzbution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

In India pearls were known and appreciated many
centuries before Christ. They are frequently mentioned
in Indian mythology, their discovery being attributed to
Krishna, the eighth avatar or incarnation of Vishnu, who
is said to have searched the ocean for these gems and
then carried them to India as a wedding gift to his
daughter Pandaia. The Atharvaveda (at least 500 years
B.C.), alludes to an amulet made of pearls and pearl-shell
used for bestowing long life and prosperity upon young
Brahmanical disciples.” The two great epics of ancient
India, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, also refer to
pearls, and the former speaks of a necklace of twenty-
seven of these gems, and refers to pearl drillers to accom-
panying a great military expedition. Ancient Indian
deities are represented as being adorned with these gems,
and, according to Varahamihira, the Indian astronomer,
the statue of the Sun-god, Mithra, wore a crown upon his
head, and was decked with chain-work of pearls, and
earrings also of pearl. Pearls and diamonds served as
eyes for images of the gods; they were also employed to
decorate the interior of Buddha’s tomb, and shone
upon the beautiful box containing his sacred tooth.
Distinguished Indian women wore purple draperies orna-
mented with pearls, and on great public occasions their
arms were covered with them ; and they even wove them
into their hair.“ Special esteem seems to have been ac-
corded to rose coloured pearls, for red pearls (Lohitamukiz)
form one of the seven precious objects which it was incum-
bent to use in the adornment of Buddhistic reliquaries,
and to distribute at the building of a Dagopa.”

#5 See translation by Maurice Bloomfleld in “‘ Hymns of the Atharva-
veda,” Oxford, 1897, p. 62.

*° Von Hessling, of. cz¢., pp. 1-2; Streeter, of. cz¢., pp. 24-25; Kunz
and Stevenson, of. czt., pp. 3-4.

#7 T.ovell, of. czz., p. 97 ; see also Yule’s “‘ Marco Polo,” i1., p. 203.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. 19

Notwithstanding their great fame, the pearl fisheries
of India are of small extent. The only resources are the
pearl reefs situated on the Madras coast in the vicinity of
Tuticorin, on the northern shore of the Gulf of Manaar;
reefs of local importance at Kananur on the Malabar
coast and on the Ratnagiri coast below Bombay ; and the
more important reefs off the coast of Nawanagar, on the
south side of the Gulf of Cutch. The fisheries of the
Madras coast were well known in the time of Ptolemy,
and pearls from this source are alluded to by several
early writers.

According to Hornell,” the ancient Tamil classics fur-
nish evidence of the existence of important pearl fisheries,
together with those of chank shells, on the [Indian shore
of the Gulf of Manaar. One reference contained in the
“ Maduraikkanchi,” a Tamil poem, “ incidently describes
the ancient city of Korkai, once the,sub-capital of the
Pandyan Kingdom and the great emporium familiar to
Greek and Egyptian sailors and traders and described by
the geographers of the Ist and 2nd centuries A.D. under
the name of Kolkhoi.”

“In one passage,” Hornell informs us, “the Parawas
are described as men who dived for pearl oysters and for
chank shells and knew charms to keep sharks away from
that part of the sea where diving was being carried on.
Another passage depicts the city of Korkai, then a seaport
at the mouth of the Tambraparni, as the chief town of
the Parawas and the seat of the pearl fishery, with a popu-
lation consisting chiefly of pearl-divers and chank-cutters.”

It is of some interest to note that the Parawas to-day
continue as from time immemorial to provide the con-

4S Kunz and Stevenson, of, cz¢., pp. 128-9.

49 James Hornell, ‘‘ The Sacred Chank of India,” Madras, 1914, pp.
42-3 (Madras Fisheries Bulletin, No. 7).

20 JACKSON, Dzstrzbution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

tingent of divers employed for the pearl and chank
fisheries of the gulf of Manaar. |

In the first century A.D. Argalus, in the neighbour-
hood of Korkai, appears to have been a station where
the Gulf of Manaar pearls were perforated. Here also
were to be purchased fine muslins sprinkled with pearls.”

According to Kunz and Stevenson (of. cz¢., p. 131),
two other species of pearl-producing mollusks are collected
in the Madras Presidency. One of these is a species of
mussel, bright green in colour, known as J/ytzlus smarag-
dznus, collected from the estuary of the Sonnapore River,
near Berhampore. Small pearls of inferior quality are
found therein, and are sold chiefly for chunam” and for
placing in the mouths of deceased Hindus. The other
species is the Placuna placenta—the so-called “ window-
glass” shell—which is abundant from Karachi, near the
Baluchistan border, to the Kanara district south of Bom-
bay. It is found also in Pulicat Lake, and in the vicinity
of Tuticorin. Where it occurs in any abundance it is
collected for the sake of the small pearls found therein.
These pearls are highly valued by the Hindus, in calcined
or powdered form, for medicinal purposes, and especially
for mixing with the betelnut ; they are also in consider-
able demand for placing in the mouths of deceased Hindus
of the middle class, instead of the sea pearls which are
used by the wealthy, or the rice employed in a similar
manner by persons of poorer rank. The practice of
placing pearls in the mouth of the dead is an old one
in India and was noted by Marco Polo more than 600
years ago.” As we shall see later on in this paper,

5° Vincent, ‘‘ The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the
Indian Ocean,” London, 1807, vol. ii., p. 519.

51 Chunam: lime prepared from burnt shells, etc., used for building
purposes, and by natives for mixing with betel for chewing.

52

Kunz and Stevenson, of. cz¢., p. 310.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. 21

it is also a very ancient custom in China, and, more
interesting still, in the New World, where it appears to
have been carried by the great wave of megalithic culture
embodying so many curious and remarkable elements. In
no other way can it be accounted for here, as it is in-
conceivable that such an arbitrary practice could have
developed independently in Asia and in America.

India is the home of many strange ideas concerning the
origin of pearls. From very early times they have been
considered as consolidated dew-drops, which Buddha in
certain months showered upon the earth, when they were
caught up by the gaping oysters whilst floating on the
waters to breathe.” Streeter™* quotes many other equally
curious superstitions regarding their origin, from a work
by a native Indian Prince, the Rajah Sourindro Mohun
Wasore, ~ In his ‘Mani-MA4lA or a treatise on Gems, ”
this writer, in addition to the dew-drop theory, refers to
the general belief that pearls originate in clouds, ele-
phants, boars, conch-shells, fish, serpents, and bamboos.
The cloud-begotten idea seems to be a variant of the
dew-drop origin. “ Pearls that originate in the head of
the Elephants of Khambogia are large as the fruit of the
emblic Myrobalan, heavy, and more yellow, but not more
lustrous than the other kinds.” “ Pearls which originate
in the head of the Boar are generally white, like the tusks
of that animal.” “A pearl derived from the conch-shell
is of large dimensions, has the same colour as the inner
surface of that shell-fish, and is productive of good fortune
to its possessor.”” “ Pearls attained from the mouth of sea-
fish are singularly round, small and light. Those which

e= Covell, 0f..c2.4-p 47.
be DUneeLer, Of. C27., pp. 57-62.
Soo vols., Calcutta, 1881.

56 Pearls are well-known from Strombus, Zurbinel/a, and other conch-
shells.

22 JACKSON, Duestributton of Pearls and Peart-sheld.

originate in whales are agreeably round, but not highly
lustrous.” “ Pearls which originate in the crest of Serpents,
are beautifully round .... the serpents who bear them
are the descendants,o Vasuki, sovereign of the snakes,
are not born everywhere, and are rarely seen by men in
some sacred ground.® “Pearls which originate in the
Bamboo are clear as the moon, and are like the Kakkol
fruit in shape.”

The same Indian authority referred to above says,
“In certain places pearls are found on the head of frogs ;
learned men class them with serpent-pearls.” This prom-
inent Indian belief which makes the head of the frog or
toad Nature’s laboratory for the manufacture of pearls,
was at one time widely prevalent in the British Isles.

This idea is immortalized in the familiar lines of
Shakespeare—

‘“‘ Sweet are the uses of adversity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venemous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.”

On the Indian idea of the supposed medicinal proper-
ties of pearls the Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore has
much to say in the work already quoted. The burnt
powder of these gems, if taken with water, cures hemor-
rhages, prevents evil spirits working mischief in men’s
minds, cures lunacy and all mental diseases, jaundice, etc.,
etc. Used as a dentifrice it strengthens the gums and
cleans the teeth. Rubbed over the body with other medi-
cines it cures leprosy and all skin diseases. And so on.

In addition to the pearls themselves, the burnt pearl-
shells are also looked upon as efficacious in the cure of
many ailments ; but chank-shell powder appears to sur-

57 Pliny, ‘‘N. H.,” bk. ix.. ch. 24, mentions fish which have a ‘‘ stone”
in the head. He refers doubtless to the ear-bones or otoliths.

58% Ts this a confusion of the pearly-like granules and shields found in
slugs, the ‘snail-stones’ credited with the property of strengthening eyes, etc. ?

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. ¥2. 23

pass either of these substances, the special significance
and auspicious nature of the chank inspiring the confi-
dence of patients in the value of this medicine.”

The superstitious reverence paid to these white shells
by the Hindus and other oriental people, recalls the
reverence paid by the Greeks and Romans to snails and
other shells. The internal pearly-like shell of some of
the slugs was believed by them to be highly efficacious in
the cure of fevers, diseases of the head or. headaches.
The granular substance representing the shell in some
species was also believed to facilitate teething if suspended
from the necks of infants.” In the same category are to be
included the worn fragments of shells, or “ snail-stones,”
which were formerly much commended in Guernsey and
the Highlands of Scotland as a remedy for diseases of the
eyes." According to Humboldt,” similar worn fragments
of shell, known as “eye-stones” (fzedras de los ojos), were
regarded by the inhabitants of Araya, Venezuela, S.
America, as possessing extraordinary powers in the ex-
pulsion of foreign particles accidentally introduced into
the eye. Kunz” also records that “eye-stones or opthalme
are taken from the crawfish in the Sandwich Islands.
They have been used from time immemorial for removing
dust or other particles from the eye.” These “eye-stones ”
are probably the so-called “ crab-stones ” or “crab’s-eyes,”
the concretions of carbonate of lime, developed on either
side of the stomach in the lobsters, crayfish, etc., before
the time of moulting.

®9 See Hornell’s interesting work on ‘‘ The Sacred Chank of India,”
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, No. 7, 1914, especially Chap, iii.

Poe Elitnivae so Nokon bk. xxix:, ch. 36.

61 Johnston, ‘‘ An Introduction to Conchology,” London, 1850, p. 78.

62 Humboldt, ‘‘ Pers. Narrative,” i., p. 197 (Bohn’s Ed.).

6s G. F. Kunz, ‘‘ Folk-lore of Precious Stones,” Memotrs Internat.
Congr. Anthrop., Chicago, 1894, p. 273.

24 JACKSON, Destrzbution of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

In European countries these concretions were formerly
used in the preparation of certain medicines.”

Like the pearl fisheries of southern India, those
situated off the north-west coast of Ceylon, in the Gulf
of Manaar, directly south of Adams Bridge, are of very
great antiquity. They are said to have been well-known
to the Phoenicians who traded here in purple robes
and other commodities.” Pliny” refers to Taprobane
(Ceylon) as the most productive of pearls of all parts of
the world. Ptolemy, Strabo, and other ancient writers
also speak of their importance. According to the
“Mahavansa,” pearls figure among the native products
sent as presents from King Vigaya of Ceylon to his
Indian father-in-law, in about 550 B.C.; and again when
in 306 B.c., King Devanampiyabissa sent an embassy to
India the presents are said to have included eight kinds of
Ceylon pearls.” According to Tennent™ the eight kinds
of pearls were: “haya (the horse); gaja (the elephant) ;
ratha (the chariot wheel); maalaka (the nelli fruit) ;
valaya (the bracelet) ; anguliwelahka (the ring); kakuda-
phala (the kabook fruit); and pakatika, the ordinary
description.”

The only other locality in Ceylon where pearls are
obtained is Tamblegam Lake, on the north-eastern: coast,
near Trincomali. Here P/lacuna fishing is carried on for
the sake of the diminutive pearls contained in them.
These are exported to the coast of India, to be burned

64 Jelireys, ““ brit: ‘Conch 4) 2602, p: Ixv:

65 Streeter, of. cit., p. 186; Tennent, ‘‘ Ceylon,” London, 1859, 2nd
eds, Volos p. S51.

66 Pliny, ON EA. iakees 1X2, (el, ay

67 W. A. Herdman, ‘‘ Report on the pearl oyster fisheries of Ceylon,”
Royal Society, London, pt. i., 1903 ; also Kunzand Stevenson, of. c?¢., p. 4.

68 Tennent, of."¢24-5 1-5 -p., 440-

it

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lr. (1916), Wo. 12. 25

into lime for mixing with betel for chewing. (Tennent,
op. cit., 11, pp. 491-2.)

We have little definite information regarding the
early use of the fresh-water pearls of India except the
statement in the “ Periplus”® that a considerable traffic,
consisting of pearls, betel, Gangetic spikenard, and Gan-
getic muslins, passed through the market town of Ganges,
Situated on the river of the same name. Schoff, in his
annotations of this work says “these (pearls) were not of
best quality ; as Dr. Taylor remarks, those of the Ganges
streams are inferior, being small, often irregular, and
usually reddish.”

Eastward of India.a most interesting pearl fishery
exists in the Mergui Archipelago (Lower Burma.)
According to Kunz and Stevenson (of. cit., p. 134), this
fishery originated with the Selangs or Salangs, a nomadic
race of maritime gipsies, supposed to be of Malay descent.
Their early history is unknown, and no information exists
as to when these people first found profit in searching for
pearls. It was probably many centuries ago, and for a
long time they made contributions of them to the Buddhist
rulers of Burma.

In the Malay Archipelago pearl-oysters are among
the important resources of the surrounding seas of
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, the Aru Islands, the
Moluccas and New Guinea. For hundreds of years pearl-
shell and pearls have been gathered by the natives from
these waters, and especially on the coast of the Aru
Islands, Halmahera, and adjacent Islands, on the east
coast of Celebes, and about the Sunda group. Pearl-
oysters also occur about many other islands in this

69 “*The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea: Travel and Trade in the
Indian Ocean by a merchant of the First Century.” Translated from the
Greek and annotated by Wilfrid H. Schoff. London, 1912.

26 JACKSON, Destribution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

neighbourhood, including the Sulu Archipelago and the
Philippines.”

Throughout Malaysia, including the Philippines and
Sulu Islands, the pearl is known as mutya, mootara,
mutyara, or some similar name, closely resembling the
Sanskrit suwkta, or the Cingalese 7zoofoo, indicating the
source of the influence originating the fishery and trade
of this region.”

At Pades Bay, island of Borneo, Placuna fishing is
also carried on, and the shells, dried meat, and the seed-
pearls they contain, all form important articles of
commerce. Theseed-pearls are used as a form of currency
between the fishermen and the Chinese traders.”

Throughout the Malay Archipelago, and especially
on the coast of Borneo, the natives allege that “ breeding
pearls” exist, that is to say, there are pearls which possess
the power of reproduction or rather germination. It is
the generally accepted belief that if a few pearls of good
size are sealed up in a box together with some grains of
rice and a little cotton wool, they will increase in number
as well as in size. It is asserted that on opening the box
after several months, one or more small pearls will be
found therein, and the original ones none the worse; but
the grains of rice will have the appearance of having
their ends nibbled as if by rodents.”

In China pearls appear to have been held in great
esteem since before the Christian’ era. They are ste
peatedly mentioned in the ancient literature of that
country, but, owing to the traditional nature of some of

7° Von Hessling, of, cét., pp. 71-4 ; Kunz and Stevenson, of. cz¢., pp.
212 seq.

a. oid,

72 Kunz and Stevenson, of. czt., p. 221.

73 Streeter, of. c’t., p. 69; Kunz and Stevenson, of. c7t., p. 296.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. le. (1916), No. ¥2. 27

these works, it is impossible to fix, with any degree of
accuracy, the period when they were first appreciated.
Some translators of Chinese books give a date as early as
the 23rd century B.C., but other authorities are inclined to
.take a more moderate view.

One of these early Chinese works, the “Shan Hai
King,” presents us with some extraordinary information
regarding the existence and origin of pearls. According
to Streeter,““the 4th book of this work, or ‘The Classic
of Mountains and Rivers, refers to the Li river, one of the
affluents of the Tung-Ting Lake, which drains the north-
west portion of Hunan. ‘In it are many Chu-pick fish’
(or water animals). ‘These look like lungs, but have eyes
and six feet, and they have fearls. They taste sour but
pleasant, and are not unwholesome.’ . . . The same work
also states that wild animals were found which looked like
sucking-pigs, but have pearls.’ The identity of the
curious Chu-pick fish is not clear. Streeter says their
existence is confirmed in Liishi’s edition of the “ Book of
Confucius,” and remarks: “they are probably cuttle-fish
with six tentacles.” Cuttle-fish, however, are essentially
marine animals, and, moreover, possess at least eight arms,
or tentacles. As mentioned previously (p. 23), concretions
of carbonate of lime, resembling pearls, are found in some
forms of freshwater crustaceans, such as the crayfish, but
here again, though eyes are present, these animals have
eight legs. It is not unlikely that the pearl-bearing
animals in question were freshwater mussels, the addition
of the eyes and feet being due to some confusion in the
translation of the passage.

In the oldest Chinese dictionary, the “ Bh’-ya,” pearls
are mentioned as precious products of Shensi in the
Wester part of theyEmpire. As Shensi is an inland

Pe reClen, (Of. Gel... D803.

28 JACKSON, Doestrzbution of Pearls and Pearl-shell,

province in the very heart of China, these again must
have been freshwater pearls.”

In the “ Tribute of Yu” (Shoo Kine, pti ieee
we find it stated that Yii received as tribute, “ oyster-
pearls and fish” and “ baskets full of deep azure silks,”
from the wild tribes about the river Hwae (or Hwai),
between the Ho and Keang rivers [Kiangsu, E. China];
and from the district of King-chow he received “ strings of
pearls that were not quite round,” together with “ baskets
filled with deep azure and purple silken fabrics.” ”

Though seemingly acquainted with the local fresh-
water pearls at a very early period, it would appear that
the marine pearl was unknown to the Chinese until about ©
400 B.C., when commercial intercourse between China and
the west had become fully established.

According to Lacouperie,” to whom we are indebted |
for much valuable information concerning the pearl-trade
in China, traders from the Indian Ocean (Erythrean Sea)
arrived in the Gulf of Kiao-tchou (South Shantung) in
the 7th century B.c. They established two colonies at
this place and entered into trade relations with cities in
Shantung, Shansi, Shensi, Kiangsu, Honan, and other
states. Though pearls are not mentioned among the
objects they introduced at this period, it is not a little
curious to find that their sphere of influence coincides in
a remarkable manner with the area where pearls are said
to have been first known in China. This fact is significant

75 Jbid,, pp. 27 and 253.

76 See translation by Dr. James Legge, in ‘‘ The Chinese Classics,”
1865, vol. iil., pt.i, pp. 107 and 116,

“7 We have no means of ascertaining the source of the purple colour
of the silks used as tribute, but the point is of interest in connection with the
celebrated purple of the ancient Tyrians. Is it possible that this famous dye
had been introduced already into China?

78 Lacouperie, of. cét.,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. 29

and would seem to suggest that it was through the
influence of these traders that the Chinese commenced to
fish for the pearls contained in the mussels of the local
rivers.

About the 5th century B.c., Erythrean merchantmen
began to use Hang-tchou Bay as a calling station, in
addition to their earlier and more northern ports in the
Gulf of Kiao-tchou, bringing with them large pearls from
the Persian Gulf, and mother-of-pearl from the Indian
Ocean. This latter commodity is stated to have been
used to adorn the tomb of Duke Vii of Tsin, who died in
419 BC. That the real pearl was a novelty at this period
is gathered from the expressions used by writers of the
4th century Meh-ti, Lieh-tze, Tsou-hien, and others. In
some cases it is associated with the Ye-Kwang—the stone
which shines at night, otherwise yakut ruby of Bardak-
shan. “And the name of Ming-gwet, a transfer and folk-
etymology of the western word for it, shows moreover its
western origin, most probably from the pearl fisheries of
the Persian Gulf, not of Ceylon.””

From this time onwards pearls were among the staple
articles imported into China by these same traders, though
‘the latter had several times to change their stations
and retreat southward owing to civil wars and the advance
in power of the Chinese. They used Kwei-ki, near the
present Ning-po, as their emporium until the Han Empire
extended its sway there in 201 B.C., when they made Tung-
yeh (present Fuhtchow of Fu-kiang) their station for a
time, importing big pearls from the Persian Gulf. These
were transhipped from there to Kwei-ki, which was a
market for them. In 187—140B.C.,one Tchu-tchung was

79 Lacouperie, of. czf., pp. 180-1 and 365; A/zne-gwet, mod. Ming-

yueh, shining moon.—Cf. Sanskrit, marakata ; Greek, maragdos ; Latin,
margarita ; Persian marvid ; etc. (fide Lacouperie).

30 JACKSON, Destributzon of Pearls and Peart-shell.

trading in pearls at Kwei-ki, some of the gems being of
remarkably large size.

The rising of the Nan-Yueh kingdom attracted the
- foreign trade to the region of the present Canton, and on
the conquest by the Nan-Yueh emperor of the country
westward, in 179 B.c.. the Hormuzian or Hwang-tchi
(yellow-fingered) sea-traders,” as they were called, estab-
lished themselves in the Island of Hainan, where they
-discovered pearls on the west coast and created the pearl
fisheries of Tchu-yai, ze the coast of pearls (present
Yai tchou). They traded with the Nan-Yueh through a
station called Hop-pu, near the present Pakhoi, their
goods reaching the principal market of Héng shan, east of
Nan-ning, in S.W. Kwangsi, on the Yui Kiang leading by
the Pearl river to Canton.

In 110 B.C. these Hormuzian sea-traders once more
removed their chief landing place, establishing it further
south, on the west of Cape Cambodia, on the east side of
the Gulf of Siam, in Tcham, the Zabai of Ptolemy. From
here they traded Persian Gulf pearls to Kattigara and
Hoppu (near the present Pakhoi).

In the early Christian era, Cingalese traders seem to
have taken over most of the trade with China. Among
the articles of commerce mentioned in the Annals of the
Eastern Han dynasty, in 69 AD., are bright pearls and
oyster-pearls from Ceylon.”

It is of some interest to note here that pearls are
obtained at the present day in the Gulf of Siam from a
small oyster with a thin shell. Kunz and Stevenson (of.

83° Names derived from Hormuzia, near the Persian Gulf, and from the
use of henna to dye their fingers.

$1 Lacouperie, of. czt., p. 252, and p. 255 note 1112; Awang-tchu, 1.e8
bright pearls, different in name from the J/ng-gwet pearls of the Persian
Gulf ; pang-tchu, oyster-pearls (? pearl-oyster shells).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo 12. 31

ctt., p. 149) inform us that “the Siamese do not especially
value pearls, attributing superstitious sentiments or ill
fuek to them.” They further remark: “Some fine old
specimens of marquetry in which these [pearl] shells were
used exists in the Buddhist temples at Bangkok. This art
of inlaying is almost lost to-day among the Siamese, and
there is said to be only one man in the king’s palace who
can lay any claims to proficiency in working mother-of-
pearl shell.”

In China during the Han dynasty, De Groot informs
us,” “pearls also occupied a place among the objects
which were introduced into the mouth of the dead. At
least it is stated in the funeral ritual for the Sovereigns of
this house that ‘their mouths were filled with rice, and
pearls and jade stone were put therein, in accordance with
the established ceremonial usages. And the ‘Poh hu
thung i, a well-known work professedly written in the
first century, says: ‘On stuffing the mouth of the Son of
Heaven with rice, they put jade therein ; in the case of a
feudal lord they introduce pearls, in that of a Great officer
and so downwards, as also in that of ordinary officials,
cowries are used to this end.’”

The free use of pearls and other precious objects in
connection with the ritual of the dead, seems to be founded
on a desire to procure light for the soul, that it may be
conducted safely along its paths in the dark beyond. But
the chief object of this practice, it would appear, is to save
the body from a speedy decay.”

The custom of placing articles of value in the mouth
of the dead is analogous to similar practices widely
prevalent in other parts of the world. It is well known to

82 De Groot, ‘‘ The Religious System of China,” Leyden, 1892, vol. 1.,
B27.

o L010, p. 270:

32 JACKSON, Dzstribution of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

have obtained among the Greeks, the Romans, the Hindus
and the ancient Mexican emperors.”

Reference has already been made (supra p. 20) to the
placing of pearls in the mouths of deceased Hindus; a
similar custom was practised by the “ mound builders” of
the Mississippi valley (see p. 45).

Pearls are frequently alluded to in Chinese literature
as the depositories of Yang matter, and as such ranked
among the bearers of vitality. Medical works declare that
they can ensure and facilitate the procreation of children,
and these same books say that pills made of pearls mixed
with the blood from the comb of a cock and inserted in
the eyes of a person who has suddenly expired, or lost
his speech, can be useful in recalling the person to life.

The valves of Uuzo trentsinensis, the Ko-fen of the
Chinese, are used by these people as a powder in medicine,
and occasionally as one of the ingredients of pills, asa
substitute for the pearls from the marine pearl-oyster. On
account of the costliness of pearls from the latter source,
pills and, powders made from them are said to possess
marvellous powers of cure,and are even used in the treat-
ment of small pox.”

It would seem that in China, and in other oriental
countries, a distinction is made in the therapeutic pro-
perties of so-called “virgin” pearls and of those pierced
or bored for stringing, One Chinese natural history states
that bored pearls will not serve for medicine, for which
unpierced ones should be used.”

7?

Legends of “lightning pearls,” “ pearls shining during

84 Jbid., p. 279, footnote.
85 /oid., pp. 217 and 277.

86 Lovell, of. cz¢., pp. 75 and 102, quoting J. O. Desbeaux, ‘‘ Essai sur
la Pharmacie et la Matiere Médicale des Chinois.”

87 Kunz and Stevenson, of. cz¢., pp. 308-9.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. 23

the night,” “pearls lighting like the moon,” zxzter ala,
are current in considerable numbers in the native litera-
ture. Allusions are made to pearls so brilliant that they
were visible at a distance of nearly a thousand yards.
Rice, it is alleged, could be cooked by the light from them.
One found about the beginning of the Christian era, near
Yangchow-fu, province of Kiang-su, was reported so
lustrous as to be visible in the dark for a distance of
three miles.”

ihe Ch ens Yu K’ao,’ compiled by Chiu Chin,
alzas Wén Chuang, a famous scholar of the Ming dynasty
(born A.D. 1419 ‘ died 1495),” contains several interesting
references to pearls, some of the most curious being that
“pearls can ward off the calamity of fire” ; “the mermaid
wept tears that became pearls”; “ Ma Ku threw grains of
rice which became pearls”; and: “ He who cut open his
stomach to hide the pearl loved mammon more than his
life.’ T’ai Tsung of the T’ang dynasty (A.D. 627—650),
when warning his minister against covetousness, and
licentiousness, said that those who were guilty of these
offences were as worthy of ridicule as the merchant from
Syria, who opened his stomach to hide the pearl. One
Chinese work states that when the whale dies, its eyes
are changed into pearls.”

Regarding the origin of pearls many fantastic theories
are to be found in ancient Chinese literature. By some
writers they are credited as originating in the brain of
the fabled dragon, and frequent allusions are made to
pearls under the throats and in the mouths of these
creatures. In China and Japan, as well as in India, pearls
were considered to be in the special possession of dragon-

$$ De Groot, of. cét., p. 277 ; Kunz and Stevenson, of. cit, p. 5.

89 See translation by J. H. Stewart Lockhart in ‘‘ A Manual of Chinese
Quotations,” Hong Kong, 2nd Ed., 1903.

90 Jbid., pp. 395 and 402.

34 JACKSON, Distrtbution of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

shaped sea-gods, or Nagas.” These mythological creatures
—gods of water, thunder, rain, and wind—were believed
to have their abode in certain ponds and rivers, and
especially in splendid palaces at the bottom of the sea.
Hence we find many curious stories in the literature of
these countries. In Oldham’s work “The Sun and the
Serpent” (London, 1905, p. 61), allusion is made to the
Nagas of southern India living under the sea in a place
called the land of gems.” Legge, in the “ Sacred Books
of the East” (vol. xl. p. 211), quotes a legend from
Shuangtze, a writer of the 4th century B.C., who says:
“Near the Ho river there was a poor man, who supported
his family by weaving rushes. His son, when diving ina
deep pool, found a pearl worth a thousand ounces of
silver. The father said: ‘Bring a stone and beat it to
pieces, a pearl of this value must have been in a pool
nine khung deep and under the chin of the black dragon.
That you were able to get it must have been owing to
your having found him asleep. Let him awake, and the
consequences will not be small.” Another old Chinese
account of the Lien-chan district, in the Canton province
(Kwantung), states: “In the sea there is an island with a
lake, into which the barbarous natives dive for shells ;
some years they are abundant, and in others scarce.
There is a myth amongst the fishermen of a walled city
at the bottom, guarded by monsters, containing pearls of
large size and splendour, but which cannot be obtained
for the guards ; small ones, growing outside the city walls
like grass, being the only ones obtainable.”

91 On the subject of the Chinese dragon, see Dr. M. W. de Visser,
‘The Dragon in China and Japan,” Amsterdam, 1913.

92 W. J. Perry, op. cz¢., p. 11, quoting Oldham.

°3 Kunz and Stevenson, of. czt., p. 302, quoting Legge.

°4 F. Hague, ‘‘On the Natural and Artificial production of Pearls in
China,” Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc G. B. & T., vol. xvi., pt. 2, Art. xv, p. 281.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lz. (1916), No. 12. 35

All these myths seem to be but modifications of the
old idea of social relations between pearl-oysters and
sharks, or of the curious story quoted by Pliny (Bk. ix.,
ch. 55) from Megasthenes that pearl-oysters lived in
communities, just like swarms of bees, each of them being
governed by one remarkable for its size and great age
(or splendour), and which at the same time possessed
marvellous skill in keeping its subjects out of danger ;
the divers, it is said, took especial care to find these, so
that the others might easily be taken.

The art of artificial pearl-making seems to have been
practised by the Chinese for several centuries. Mr. F,
Hague, British Consul at Ningpo, informs us that “there
is a note that at the commencement of the seventh
century, pearls were made of a composition or medicine.
The art may have been lost, or it may be the same as that

99 95

now employed at, and which originated at, Canton. In
conjunction with Dr. Mc Gowan, an American physician
resident at Ningpo, the method pursued by the Chinese
with the “ Mussel-pearl” was carefully investigated, and
excellent accounts of this interesting industry have been
published.” The practice of the art is carried on in two
villages near the city of Teht-sing (Titsin) in the northern
part of Chihkiang (Chekiang), in a silk-producing region.
In May or June, quantities of large freshwater mussels
(Dipsas plicatus) are brought from the Taha, a lake in
Kiang-su, some thirty miles distant, and after a few days’
respite in bamboo cages in water, various matrices are
introduced between the animal and the shell by means
of a bifurcated bamboo stick. After a sufficient number
has been treated they are placed in canals, pools, and
streams. In about a year the matrices become incrusted
HEN Lott a5, D.'202

°¢ Jbid., pp. 280-4; and McGowan, /ozri. of Soc. of Arts, ii., pp. 72-5.

36 JACKSON, Destribution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

with the pearly nacre, and the mussels are taken out of
the water, and the “pearls” detached by a sharp knife.
The matrices used vary in form and substance, the most
common being pellets of mud. Another class consists of
small images, especially of Buddha, in the usual sitting
position, or sometimes of a fish; they are made of lead,
cast very thin. The invention of the art is attributed to
a native of the place, named Ye-jin-yang, to whom a
temple has been erected, in which divine honours are paid
to his image. He is said to have lived about A.D. 1200—
1300, The topography of Chihkiang mentions a pearl
sent to Court in 490 A.D., which resembled Buddha, being
three inches in size. The resemblace, however, may have
been fanciful ; the “pearls” now made are but half-an-inch
long.

Other writers have given similar accounts of this
curicus industry, but the most remarkable is that related
by Mary Roberts in her little book on the “ Popular
History of the Mollusca” (i851, pp. 275-6). She tells
us that in the possession of Sir Joseph Banks were
“several Chinese Chame [? Uzzo], in the shells of which
were contained bits of iron wire, covered with a substance
of a pearly nature. These wires had evidently once been
sharp, and it seemed as if the mollusks, anxious to secure
themselves against the intrusion of such unwelcome
visitors, had encrusted, and thus rendered blunt, the
points with which they came in contact.” She concludes
by remarking: “may not, therefore, the process employed
in past ages be still practised? And are we not authorized
in conjecturing that these bits of iron, which probably
had slipped from the hands of the Chinese workmen, and
remained in the animal, resembled the spikes noticed by
Philostratus as being used by the ancient people who

inhabited the banks of the Red Sea, for the purpose of —

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 12. 37

pricking mussels?” In view of the fact that the Chinese
retain, with few alterations, the arts and customs of their
ancestors, these suggestions are not at all improbable.
In this connection it will be of interest to notice the
particular skill possessed by the Chinese in drilling holes
in pearls. This, as pointed out by Lacouperie (of. czt.,
p. 241, note 1037), they may have learned from the pearl-
traders of Hormuz who were celebrated for their ability
in this respect, and to whom Ceylon pearls were sent for
that purpose.

At what period pearls were first appreciated in Japan
is not known. The occurrence of pearls on the coasts of
that country is repeatedly alluded to in ancient works
relating to Japan. According to Kunz and Stevenson,”
they are mentioned in the Nihonki, of the eighth century,
the oldest Japanese history. Dr. T. Nishikawa also states
they were used in Japan for ornamental purposes more
than a thousand years ago> Large pearls derived from
the abalone, or Halotzs, are found in images of Buddha
inade in 300 A.D. Freshwater pearls, from Dzpsas and
Unzo, appear to have been also used.” In Marco Polo’s
time these people still carried on the Chinese custom of
placing pearls in the mouth of the dead. We learn from
this famous traveller that “in the island of Chipan-gu
(the kingdom of Japan), the Chinese Jih-pan-Kwé, rose-
coloured pearls were abundant, and quite as valuable as
the white ones,’ that “some of the dead were buried and
others were burnt,” and “when a body was burnt they put
one of the rose-coloured pearls in the mouth, for such is
their custom.”” These coloured pearls were doubtless

derived from conch-shells.

97 Kunz and Stevenson, of. cz¢., p. 147.

Ott. Po LUA.

9° Colonel Henry Yule, C.B., ‘*‘ The Book of Ser Marco Polo” (Book
Mite ch. it), Vols i. , ps 200;

38 JACKSON, Destribution of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

In 1727, Kaempfer noted that pearls were obtained
by the Japanese from small sorts of oysters, called akaja,
not unlike the Persian pearl-oyster ; also from the yellow
snail shell and from the ¢azva gaz (Placuna), and especially
from the awabi or abalone (//alzo¢zs).""

From narratives of China by the Jesuits, there appears
to be some evidence of a former pearl fishery in the
neighbourhood of Saghalin Island, but the intelligent
navigator, M. de la Perouse, expressed much doubt on
this point. He acknowledged that his people found
oysters that contained pearls, and admitted it possible
that a few families of fishermen may have united together
for the purpose of fishing for pearls, in order to exchange
them for nankeens and other articles of commerce from
China ; but he did not observe that any of the natives of
the places at which he touched on the coast estimated
this kind of pearl more than common beads.” There
seems to be, however, ample evidence of old-established
pearl-fisheries in this region, judging from the various
records summarized by Von Hessling in 1859 (op. céz.,
pp. 201-4). In Manchuria, he tells us, pearls have been
fished, from the oldest time to the present day, in the
streams which flow into the Songari, a tributary of the
Amur. Witsen, writing in 1705, mentions the pearls from
the Gan, a tributary of the Amur, and also from the
islands of the Amur at the junction of the Skilka and
Argun. Pearl-fisheries were established here by the
Russians nearly two centuries ago. Pearls are finer and
more plentiful, says Hessling, in southern Manchuria,
especially in Lake Heikow or Hing-tchou-men, “ Black
Lake” or “ Gate of Precious Gems,” where they have been

fished for ages for the account of the Emperor of China.
100 Kunz and Stevenson, of. cz¢., pp. 147-8.

101 G. A. Cooke, ‘* System of Universal Geography,” vol. i. (1801),
P- 574-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. 39

Cooke, in 1801 (of. czt., vol. 1., p. 425), also speaks of the
Manchurian pearls as an eae of commerce, together
with a plant called ginseng.”

In Kamtchatka, pearl fisheries are recorded fon the
south end of the peninsula (Lopatka), and from Nijni
Kamtchatsk, on the east coast: these are possibly fresh-
water fisheries. Pearls have also been found at the
Kurile Islands, and at Lebashja, on the south coast of the
Sea of Okhotsk, but these were probably from sea shells,
Mytilus edulis or Machaera costata, as no Unios are
recorded from these places.”

An interesting reference to very early intercourse
between north-eastern Asia and China is quoted by
Lacouperie in his work already cited (p. 353, note 195).
It appears that the “Shih y hi” (kiv. 5) mentions a
mission of a Nélé country in 193 B.C, from beyond Fusang
(Saghalin). Dr. G. Schlegel identifies this with the
country of the Tchuktchis, in which Lacouperie concurs.
No information is given as to the object of the mission,
but it seems probable that it was for the purposes of
trade. If so, it is not unlikely that the envoys would
learn of the appreciation of the pearl by the Chinese—
who were wel] acquainted with the gem by this date—
and benefiting by the knowledge, they might have in-
stituted pearl fisheries on their own account. The present

102 Ginseng (Panax schinseng) is a native of Tartary and Northern
China, growing at one time abundantly in Manchuria, but its great use in
China has caused it to become scarce. It isa low herbaceous plant with
forked roots, which the Chinese imagine resembles the human form, and is
supposed to ward off all diseases. It is slightly bitter and aromatic, but is
not of much repute with European doctors. Panax guinguefolia, a native
of North America, is sometimes substituted for it (Smith, ‘* Domestic
Botany,” 1871, p. 362). Ginseng is used by the Indians of Canada, Virginia,
South Carolina, etc., along with Snake root. (Cooke, of. c7¢., ii., pp. 32,
69 and 79).

193 Von Hessling, of. czt., p. 204.

40 JACKSON, Destrzbutzon of Pearls and Peart-shell.

pearl fisheries in this region, detailed above, may be
survivals of an ancient industry.

In northern Siberia, according to Witsen, pearls were
found in the waters around Mangasea on the Turuchan,
and a manuscript in the Moscow College notes that they
were found in the river Tunguska which flows into the
Yenisei. Witsen also refers to their occurrence in the
rivers and streams of Irkutsk and Onon; Pallas speaks
of the Ilim, a tributary of the Angara, as another river
where they occur.™

Kunz and Stevenson (of. cez., p. 410) mention an in-
teresting discovery (made in southern Siberia in the time
of Peter the Great) of a broken gold ring with a roughly-
cut turquoise and two pendants, each set with two pearls
separated by a garnet. This object is thought to belong
to the second century before Christ.”

In the Pacific Islands pearls and pearl-shell seem to
have been appreciated for centuries. Among the native
ornaments noted by Captain Cook at Tahiti were feathers,
shells and pearls ; but the latter were worn chiefly by the
women. In the Marquesas Islands, plates of mother-of-
pearl decorated the principal head-dress of the natives,
while ornaments consisting chiefly of pearl-shell were seen
in Toobouai; Friendly Islands; Mangeea Island; New
Caledonia; New Zealand; etc. The pearl-shell was also
found to be employed in the construction of fish-hooks in
many of the islands visited by early navigators,"

Since Cook’s time a considerable literature has accu-
mulated on the subject of these pearl-shell fish-hooks.
Hedley, in his “Ethnology of Funafuti”*” gives a most

tN 1btd., Ds. 201.

7°5 Given as second century A.D. on plate figuring the specimen.

106°G. A. Cooke, of. cét., 1.°(1801), pp., 22, 36; 62, 65, 64, o5,0e
105, 113, 131, 178, 273 and 318.

107 Mem. Aust. Mus., iii., pp. 266 et seq.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Wo. 12. 4I

interesting account of their manufacture and distribution
in the various islands of the Pacific. The pearl-shell
hooks he remarks, “represented to the Ellice Islanders
of past generations their most valued treasures. Apart
from their intrinsic worth they acquired, as conveying a
maximum of wealth in a minimum of space, an artificial
value approximating to the coins of more advanced
civilisations.” They were appreciated to such an extent
that they were frequently offered to the gods, and on
Vaitupu, or Tracey Island, where the dead were buried
inside the houses, they were deposited in the grave with
the body, accompanied by necklaces and other ornaments.
In former times messages were transmitted from atoll to
atoll by means of pearl fish-hooks attached to the wings
of Frigate-birds.“”

According to Hedley the value of these hooks in the
Ellice Archipelago was heightened by the rarity and
inaccessibility of the shell (Avzcula cumzngiz) from which
they are made, the supply being principally from a bed
in the Lagoon of Nukulailai. This type of hook, he
informs us, is universal throughout the Pacific, being used
alike by Melanesians, Polynesians, and Micronesians.
Examples are recorded from Manihiki and Mortlock
Islands, the Gilbert and Hawaiian Groups, Danger Island,
Strong’s Island, Tahiti, Tonga, Samoa, and the Solomons;
also from the Carolines, the Marshalls, and the Marquesas.
in New Zealand, owing to the absence of the true pearl-
shell, the Maories made use of “ pawa” (/aliotzs zrzs) as
a substitute for the flashing nacre of the Avzczla.

Turner™ informs us that at Nukulailai offerings con-
sisting of pearl-shell were taken to the temple, and at

108 Hedley, of. cit., ps 266 ; see also pp. 47, 53and 59; andG. Turner,
‘* Samoa, etc.,” London, 1884, pp. 282 and 284.

109 G, Turner, of. c2¢., pp. 280 and 288.

42 JACKSON, Destribution of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

Nanomana similar offerings were suspended under the
altars of the principal gods Foelangi and Maumau.

Among the Torres Straits Islanders pearl-shells are
trimmed and worn as breast-ornaments, or carved into
beautiful crescentic and other shapes to be worn as
pendants either on the chest or in the ears."°

They also appear to have been used in mummifica-
tion, as Dr. Elliot Smith has recently referred to the case
of a Torres Straits mummy having the eye-sockets filled
with a gum or resinous substance in which narrow oval
pieces of mother-of-pearl were embedded.™

Crescent-shaped plates of pearl-shell are also in
common use as breast ornaments in British New Guinea
and the Solomon Islands, and the same shell is used as
an inlay to decorate the native canoes.”

In the Sandwich Islands the eyes of idols were
noticed by Captain Cook to be made from large pearl
oysters, with a black nut fixed in the centre.

Ellis, in his “ Polynesian Researches,’*” gives us a
lucid description of the curious dress worn in Tahiti at
death ceremonies of chiefs. This consisted of a cap of
thick native cloth fitted close to the head ; in front were
two large broad mother-of-pearl shells, covering the face
like a mask, with one small aperture through which the
wearer could look. Attached to this head-dress was a
beautiful kind of network composed of small pieces of
brilliant mother-of-pearl shell, each being about an inch
or an inch and a half long, and less than a quarter of an

110 A. C. Haddon, ‘‘ Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological
Expedition to Torres Straits,” vol. iv., 1912, pp. 40-45.

111 Manch. Mem. (Lit. & Phil, Soc.), vol. lix. (1915), No. 10, p. 93.

112 Haddon, of. cét., iv., p. 43; and H. B. Guppy, ‘‘ The Solomon
Islands and their Natives,” London, 1887, pp. 131 and 146-7.

143 Vol. 4... pp. 412-3:

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lz. (1916), No.12. 43

inch wide. Every piece was finely polished, and reduced
to the thinness of a card. Small perforations were made
decach corner. to enable the pieces, to be threaded
together. The labour in making this, Ellis says, must
have been excessive, as so many hundred pieces of pearl-
shell had to be cut, ground down, polished, and perforated,
without iron tools. Its manufacture was regarded as a
sacred work.

Pearl-oyster shells set in whales’ teeth are considered
to be the most valuable ornament that a Fijian possesses ;
he wears it at dances hanging on his breast, and he is
forbidden by the chiefs to sell it.™

It has been asserted by some historians that pearls
were unknown in the New World in pre-Columbian times,
but we have evidence that ages prior to the discovery
of America by Columbus the ancient inhabitants fully
appreciated these gems. Quantities of pearls, in many
cases perforated for stringing as necklaces, etc., have been
discovered in the mounds erected by the ancient popu-
lation of the Mississippi Valley. Professor Putnam”
records that in excavating the mounds near Madisonville,
Indiana, not less than fifty thousand pearls were found,
most of them pierced and injured by heat. Squier and
Davis “** found them on the hearths of five distinct groups
of mounds in Ohio, and sometimes in such numbers that
they could be gathered by the hundred. In addition to
the pearls, quantities of other interesting objects were met
with which indicate the existence of inter-tribal com-
merce On an extensive scale at a remote period. The

*74 TI. N. Moseley, ‘‘ Notes by a Naturalist on H.M.S. Challenger,”
1892, p. 286.

425 Proc. Amer. Assoc, Adv. Sci., 1884.

*16 Squier and Davis, ‘‘ Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,”
Washington, 1848.

44 JACKSON, Destribution of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

pearls were originally thought to have been brought from
fisheries in southern waters, but are now considered as
having been derived, partly, if not entirely, from the fresh-
water mussels (UVzz0) so abundant in the rivers of the
region of the mounds. W. C. Mills, in his “Explorations
of the Edwin Harness Mound,” also speaks of the large
quantities of freshwater pearls made into beads which |
were found in every section of the Harness Mound. In
one instance more than two thousand of these beads were
found with one burial. They are all small, some being
perfectly round. Several hundred were obtained ranging
in diameter from a quarter to half aninch. In some cases
the large pearls had been flattened on one side and set in
copper; in others, the pearls were often flattened and
pierced with two holes, as if for attachment to fabrics,
etc. The most curious discovery, however, in this mound
was that of imitation pearls made of clay, and apparently
modelled from real ones. These clay imitations appear
to have been coated with mica and then burned so as to
preserve a pearly appearance. This remarkable discovery
is of great interest as recalling the clay pellets used by
the Chinese in their artificial pearl-making industry,

At the Gartner Mound, in the same region, a shell
gorget was found with a hole cut in the centre and a
pearl cut and mounted to fill it“ And gorgets and
crescents made from fresh-water pearl-shells were by no
means uncommon in this and other Ohio mounds.

In his description of “The Seip Mound,’™® situated
within the largest prehistoric earthworks of the Paint

117 Ohio Archeol, and Hist. Quart., vol. Xvi, no. 2, 1907.
118 Mills, ‘‘ Explorations of the Gartner Mound and Village Site,”
Ohio Arch. and Hist. Quart., vol. xiii., no. 2, 1904.

119 Mills, ‘‘ The Seip Mound,” Putnam Anniversary Volume. N.Y.,
1909, pp. 110, 114 and 122.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. AS

Creek valley of Ohio, this same authority refers to other
occurrences of pearls including a beautiful string of these
gems in a good state of preservation from one burial ;
also to the discovery of bears’ teeth set with pearls in
what appeared to be sacred shrines for the dead.

In addition to the archzologists cited above, other
noted authorities, including W. K. Moorehead, have
examined the mounds of the Ohio region, and have met
with abundant evidence, both in the burial and in the
altar mounds, of the ancient appreciation of pearls.”

When found in burial mounds with skeletons, the
pearls are usually at the wrists or ankles, or about the
neck, or in the mouth, the latter recalling forcibly the
Hindu and Chinese custom of placing pearls in the mouth
of the dead (supra pp. 20 and 31).

In the case of the altar mounds, there is evidence of
a different procedure. Instead of a burial, there was a
great funeral sacrifice in honour of some distinguished
person, in which numerous treasures, including quantities
of pearls, were consumed, or meant to be.

It would seem that though the number of pearls
encountered in the mounds of the Ohio region is very
great, the graves which contain them are relatively very
few. They seem to have been buried only with persons
of special distinction, probably either chiefs or eminent
medicine men: this preferential use of pearls, it may be
observed, was also found in Asiatic countries,

In the mounds of Illinois pearls have also been met
with associated with skeletons of Indians. Dr. J. F.
Snyder records the discovery of large canine teeth of the
bear, set with pearls, at the base of a large mound which
he opened in 1895, in Brown Country, on the west side

12° An excellent summary of the work of these authorities is given by
Kunz and Stevenson (0. c/¢., especially in Chap. xvii.)

46 JACKSON, Destrzbution of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

of the Illinois River. Near by were also the remains of
necklace composed of alternate pearls and bone beads.
he McEvers Mound in Montezuma, Pike Co., Illinois,
also yielded, according to D. I. Bushnell, the excavator, a
group of forty-five pearls, including one of beautiful lustre
weighing fifty-two grains.™

a
= Bs
oo

The use of pearls as ornaments, and for depositing with
the remains of persons of distinction, was also customary
among the Indian tribes of Virginia. The accounts of early
explorers and colonists furnish us with many details as
regards the burial of pearls with the dead and their
use in religious rites. The first English colonists found
the Indians of Virginia esteeming pearls among their
favourite treasures and ornaments. An excellent account
of these Indians is given by Charles C. Willoughby in the
“American Anthropologist” (vol. ix., 1907). This article
is of great interest as dealing with the habits and customs
of the tribes occupying tidewater Virginia at the time
of the first colonization. The Indians, a branch of the
Algonquian stock, formed a powerful confederacy under
Powhatan comprising some thirty tribes. To the greater
chiefs tribute was paid in pearls, copper, beads, skins, etc.
Pearls were also used to adorn the native clothing, as
well as for necklaces and ear-pendants. Strachey, an
early explorer, reports having seen “manie chaynes and
braceletts (of pearls) worne by the people, and wee have
found plentie of them in the sepulchers of their kings,
though discoloured by burning the oysters in the fier, and
deformed by grosse boring.” The writings of this and
other explorers give curious accounts and descriptions of
the “temples” within which, in a sort of sanctuary or
“chancel,” were kept the dried bodies of deceased chiefs,
and an image of the god, called Okee, made in the shape

121 Kunz and Stevenson, of. cz/., p. 509.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx.(1916), No. 12. 47

of a man, “all black, dressed with chaynes of perle.” The
process of preserving the remains of the chiefs is described
as follows: “After the body had been disemboweled, the
skin was laid back and the flesh was cut away from the
bones. When this operation was completed, the skeleton,
held together by its ligaments, was again inclosed in the
skin, and stuffed with white sand, or with ‘ pearle, copper,
beads, and such trash sowed in a skynne.’ It was then
dressed in fine skins and adorned with all sorts of
valuables, including strings of pearls and beads. The
same kinds of treasures were also deposited in a basket
at the feet of the mummy.” ”

The chroniclers of De Soto’s expedition to Florida in
1539, speak of almost fabulous quantities of pearls in the
possession of the Indians of the parts traversed by them.
One Portuguese narrator says, “they obtained fourteen
bushels of pearls” from a certain sepulchre, and it is
stated that a common foot soldier had “a linen bag, in
which were six pounds of pearls,’ and pearls are elsewhere
spoken of that are “as large as filberts.” Garcillasso de la
Vega says “while de Soto sojourned in the province of
Ichiaha the cacique visited him one day and gave him a
string of pearls about two fathoms long. This present
might have been a valuable one if the pearls had not
been pierced, for they were all of equal size and as large
as hazelnuts.” ™ )

“As in Cleopatra’s time in Egypt,” says Streeter,
“so in Florida, the graves of the kings were decorated
with pearls. Soto’s soldiers found in one of their temples

122 Tbid., pp. 486-8.

123 Stearns, Rept. U.S. Mat. Mus., 1887 (1889), pt. ii.. p. 279, quoting
Irving’s “‘ Conquest of Florida”; see also Grace King, ‘‘ De Soto and his
men in the Land of Florida,” New York, 1914, pp. 136-143, etc.

124 Streeter, of. cz¢., pp. 45-6.

48 JACKSON, Destribution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

great wooden coffins, in which the dead lay embalmed,
and beside them were small baskets full of pearls. The
temple of Tolomecco, however, was the richest in pearls ;
its high walls and roof were of mother-of-pearl, while
strings of pearls and plumes of feathers hung round the
walls; over the coffins of their kings hung their shields,
crowned with pearls, and in the centre of the temple
stood vases full of costly pearls.”

Though the various accounts relating to the abundance
of pearls in Florida are probably somewhat exaggerated,
there seems sufficient evidence to prove that pearls of some
value were in the possession of the wealthier tribes. That
they were met with in some numbers in graves seems also
to be a reliable statement.”

As to the source of these pearls, most of the narratives
refer to them as coming from the coast of the South Sea
or Gulf of Mexico. While possibly this was the case with
some of the pearls, it is more probable that the majority
came from the freshwater shells (Unios) of the inland
lakes and rivers.

In Alabama, pearls pierced for stringing have been
found in several of the mounds at Moundville by Clarence
B. Moore, along with a sheet-copper pendant bearing a
perforated pearl nearly 7 mm. in diameter, and an elliptical
gorget of sheet-copper decorated with a pearl.” Per-
forated pearl beads have been also found in the Etowah
Mound, located in Barton County, Georgia.”

At the pre-Columbian capital of Copan, in Western
Honduras, evidences have been met with pointing to a
very early use of pearls. G. B. Gordon’ tells us that in

125 This question is fully discussed by Kunz and Stevenson (of. ciz.,
pp. 252-259).

126 Kunz and Stevenson, of. czt., p. 493.

127 W. K. Moorehead, ‘‘ Prehistoric Implements,” N. Y., 1900, p. 376.

128 G. B. Gordon, ‘‘ The Mysterious City of Honduras,” Zhe Century
Magazine, vol. lv., p. 417.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 42. 49

exploring a number of isolated tombs beneath the pave-
ment of courtyards and under the foundations of houses
at this city, human remains were found associated with
various articles of use and adornment. ‘“ The beads, ear-
ornaments, medallions, and a variety of other ornaments,
usually of jadeite,’ Gordon remarks, “exhibit an extra-
ordinary degree of skill in the art of cutting and polishing
stones, while the pearls and trinkets carved from shell
must have been obtained by trade or by journeys to
tne) coast.” Thomas Gann, of Yucatan, also states that
“ornaments such as beads, gorgets, and ear-pendants,
madé from the pearly shell of both the oyster and the
conch, are of common occurrence in many sepulchral
mounds in British Honduras and Yucatan.” ”

In Guatemala no pearls appear to have been observed
in the pre-Columbian graves, but marine shells, whole,
and elaborated in connection with jadeite beads have
been found.”

On the Pacific coast of Mexico, and especially along
the coast of Lower California, quite extensive pearl-
fisheries are prosecuted. The fisheries on the Mexican
coast appear to have been in existence for centuries.
European knowledge of these resources dates from the
conquest of Mexico by Cortés about 1522. Native chiefs
were found living in primitive huts along the sea-shore,
with quantities of beautiful pearls lying around, and from
a tribe near the present site of Hermosillo, in the State of
Sonora, Cortés secured quantities of the gems.™

Pearls were highly appreciated by the Aztec kings,
and the gems were employed to decorate statues of the
gods and their temples, asin India, The temple in which

fa esumz and Stevenson,. of. cz7., p. 511.

eed... pe SET.

131 Kunz and Stevenson, of. cét., p. 241.

50 JACKSON, Destrzbution of Pearls and Peart-shell.

Montezuma used to pray at night, is said to have had walls
of beaten silver and gold, decorated with pearls and precious
stones.” Humboldt refers to a statue of a Mexican
priestess in basalt, whose head-dress is ornamented with
pearls.’ Bateman” likewise mentions an ancient Mexi-
can horned head-dress, inlaid in mosaic with turquoise,
malachite, coral (?), and mother-of-pearl. Pearl-shell also
appears to have been used as an inlay in the Mexican
mosaic masks in the British Museum, which are pre-
Columbian in origin. One of these, a plain mask, is of
special interest as the eyes are of mother-of-pearl.”

Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, in a letter to Kunz and Steven-
son,” writes “that pearls are not mentioned either as
articles of tribute or of decoration in ancient. Mexican
codices ; possibly a lack of fine, hard instruments with
which to drill holes in pearls may have caused them to be
comparatively little used in personal adornment. Neither
do they appear to have been found incrusted in prehis-
toric objects, and we have no written evidence of their
having been used in this way. We do not know of any
instances of the wearing of pearls by the Indian women,
but the women of the higher classes used to wear them
profusely, more especially drop-earrings and pendants.”

W. H. Holmes,” quoting from Davis’ “ Spanish Con-
quest of New Mexico,” says: “In travelling north along
the west coast of Mexico, the Friar Niza encountered
Indians who wore many large shells of mother-of-pearl
about their necks, and farther up towards Cibola, the

132 Streeter, of. c7t., p. 45 ; Kunz and Stevenson, of. ¢7¢., p. 23.

188 FJumboldt, op. cz¢., i., p- 191.

134 Bateman, ‘‘ Catalogue of Antiquities.” Bakewell, 1855, p. 236.

185 Kunz and Stevenson, of. cz¢., p. 510.

286 700d AS

137 W.H. Holmes, ‘‘ Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans.” Second
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1883, p. 256.

— ee a

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx.(1916), Vo. 42. 51

inhabitants wore pearl shells upon their foreheads.”
These facts are of interest as recalling the identical use of
pearl shell in some of the Pacific Islands-—-Torres Straits
Islands, Solomon Islands, etc..—and in Ancient Egypt
(supra p. 5)

According to the reports of travellers, the natives of
Mexico, in the 18th century, still appreciated pearls, using
them along with other jewels to adorn their noses, lips,
eagseiecks and arms.”

On the coast of Venezuela extensive pearl fisheries
have been carried on since before the time of Columbus. On
entering the Gulf of Paria, in 1498, this voyager found the
natives in possession of numerous pearls which they were
wearing on their necks and wrists. They were also seen
engaged in pearl fishing by the Spaniards, and it is curious
to note that the views of the Indians regarding the origin
of the gems were identical with those which obtained for
ages in the Old World. They regarded them as congealed
dewdrops, which had been caught by the gaping oysters.”

Another famous American pear! fishery is that of the
Guleet Panama, referred to by many early Spanish
writers. The pearl resources of this region were first
made known by Balboa’s immortal journey in 1513
across the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific. Having
reached the Pacific, Balboa proceeded along the coast
and found the Indians in possession of gold and pearls,
the latter being used to decorate their paddles. The
pearl fishery appeared to be the principal source of income
and wealth of the Indian chiefs.’”

Among the pre-Columbian antiquities found in Ecua-
dor associated with burials was a little box or receptacle

An COOKE. Onl C27... Ile). Di 04.1,

mo NORMECLEL, OD. C2205. Dw 223.

140 Kunz and Stevenson, of. czt., p. 235.

52 JACKSON, Distribution of Pearls and Pearl-shell.

cut from a Cassis shell, the cover of which was a fragment
of the valve of the pearl-oyster.* This and other dis-
coveries of pearls in that country by the same investigator
point to the existence of pearl fisheries on this coast many
centuries ago. It is reported that Manta, in the Province
of Manabi, is the place where the Incas obtained the
splendid gems found in the temples and palaces of Peru
by the Spaniards.”

-The Incas of Peru held a curious belief concerning
pearls ; they regarded them as the “eggs”
producing shell-fish.”

of the pearl-

The artificial eyes of their mummies have been spoken
of as pearls, but, according to Tschudi, they are the dried
eyes of the cuttle-fish (Lolzgo gégas).™

Rivero and Tschudi” inform-us that the Peruvians
were accustomed to ornament their textiles by sewing
upon them leaves of gold and silver, or small pieces of
mother-of-pearl, etc.; and in speaking of the Huaca of
Misa, they say that a stone idol, with mother-of-pearl, was
formerly met with here, along with mummies, cloths,
pieces of gold and silver, etc.

Much further information could be given concerning
the use of pearls and pearl-shell, but want of space makes
it necessary to bring this already somewhat lengthy paper
to a conclusion. Before doing so, however, mention might

141 M. H. Saville, ‘* Antiquities of Manabi, Ecuador,” Contributions
to South American Archeology, N. Y., 1910, vol. ii., p. 177.

142 Kunz and Stevenson, of. cz¢., p. 282.

148 W. J. Dakin, “* Pearls,” Cambridge, 1013; p.'8:

144 Tryon, ‘‘ Structural and Systematic Conchology,” vol. ii., 1883,
p. 24. Cuttle-fish eyes are strung, as pearls for necklaces, on the shores of
Sicily and Naples; and the natives of the Sandwich Islands have imposed
them on the Russians as pearls. Johnston, of. cz/., p. 62 footnote.

145 M. E. Rivero and J. J. von Tschudi, ‘‘ Peruvian Antiquities,” New
York and London, 1857, pp. 224 and 266 (Translation by F. L. Hawks).

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 12. 53

be made of an interesting reference to the use of pearl-
shell among the Indians of southern Alaska.

In his description of Port des Francais, the celebrated
navigator, M.de la Perouse, remarks on the ability of the
Indians of this neighbourhood to inlay boxes of elegant
form with mother-of-pearl. Unfortunately, he does not
state whether the true pearl-shell was employed, or that
of the abalone (/faézotzs). ‘This, however, is not of very
great importance, as the point of chief interest is the fact
that the use of the pearl-shell for inlay purposes is
strongly suggestive of Asiatic influence. Other details,
given by Perouse, concerning the many curious customs
of these same people, such as ‘platform burials, the
“special preservation of the head of the deceased and
cremation of the body,’ etc., provide equally suggestive
evidence of this.’ |

The Hatotzs, which also yields good pearls, was
applied to many varied uses by other savage peoples on
the Pacific coast of America, especially in California,
where these pearly shells have been found in great
numbers in the burial places of the ancient tribes. Putnam
records the discovery of several objects inlaid with Halzotis
shell in graves on the islands of Santa Catalina and of
Santa Cruz, the pieces of shell being held in place by a
thin cement of asphaltum.™” |

The remarkable resemblance between the shell-art
of ancient California and that of the Pacific Islands is
very significant.

= Gar. Cooke, of. cz, u., p. 1063 see also Niblack, ‘© The Coast

Indians of Southern Alaska and Northern British Columbia.”’ Rept. U.S.
Nat. Mus., 1887-8 (1890), pp. 225-386

147 FW, W. Putnam, ‘‘U.S. Geographical Survey west of the rooth
Meridian : vol vii., Archeology.” Washington, 1879, pp. 232-3.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 18.

XIII. The Use of Cowry-shells for the Purposes or
Currency, Amulets, and Charms.

By J. WILFRID JACKSON, F.G5.,
Manchester Museum.

Hon. Librarian of the Conchological Soctety of Great Britain and
Lreland.

( Communicated by Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F-R.S.)
(Read April ath, 1916. Received for publication October 4th, 1916. )

Of the many varieties of shells used for currency and
as amulets, by far the most familiar and extensively em-
played are the. cowries, especially. the money-cowry
(Cyprea moneta) and the ring-cowry (Cypr@a annulus ).
(Fig. 1, A & B) The small size, shape, and substance of the
latter renders them peculiarly adapted for use as money,
and no other species of shell or form of shell-money has had
so wide-spread and general use. They are distinguished by
the fact that they can be and are used in a natural state,
most other forms of shell-money being made from portions
of larger species. Though known to science under two dis-
tinct names, the difference between the two forms is so
slight that by some authorities they are considered as
merely the extremes of one variable mollusc.’ Both forms
are inhabitants of Indo-Pacific seas, and the specimens
used as currency are derived mainly from the Persian
Gulf, Maldive Islands, Ceylon, the Malabar Coast, the
Sooloo Islands (between the Philippines and Borneo), and
other East Indian Islands ; also from various parts of the

1 Melvill and Standen, Jowrn. of Conchology, ix., 1899, p. 236; S.R,

Roberts, ‘* Monograph of the Family Cypreeide,” in Tryon’s ‘* Manual of
Conchology,” vol. vii., 1885, p. 179.

LVovember 30th, 1016.

‘s][OYs asoyy Sutures sdiys jo Sursapunoy 94} 0} anp aq Aevum saovid asay} ye soUasa1d
* S9UILINI9O [NJ|Qnop ajousp syivwi uoysonbayy -szpuwy pure vzauou “Dd JO aduv1r pap1o0dai oy} Surmoys ‘y deypy

2 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, etc.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13.

t
H
12 Ay:

Sean
Atay
adn

Map b, showing distribution of the Use of Cowries.

Other Cowries.

oO

= Cypriea monela-annulus.

4 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc.

East African coast, ranging from Ras Hafun (near the
Gulf of Aden) to Mozambique. As currency these shells
circulate not only through Southern Asia and certain of
the Pacific Islands, but far into the African continent.

The term cowry, cowrie, or gowrie, is said by Dr. J.
Cosmo Melvill® to be derived from a Greek word meaning
“a little pig,” and according to Liddell and Scott this was
probably the shell used by the Athenian dicasts in voting.
“Following the example of the Greeks, the Romans
termed these little shells pore? or porculz, whilst the French
nowadays term them fou de mer ; and in the word porcelatn
we can also trace the same derivation” (Melvill, p. 186).
Deniker,? however, says the term cowry, cowrie, or cauri,
appears to be a corruption of the Sanskrit word Kaparda,
whence Kavarvi in the Mahrattan. Murray’s dictionary*
gives the Hindi and Urdi equivalents as Kau7z (or Kaud?).
In Monier Williams’ “Sanskrit-English Dictionary ”’ the
following interpretations are given : “ Kaparda, as: a small
shell or cowrie used as a coin and as a die in gambling,
Cyprea moneta; braided and knotted hair, especially that
of S‘iva (knotted so as to resemble the cowrte shell).
Kapardin, 7, tnt,7: shaggy ; wearing braided and knotted
hair like a cowrie shell; epithet of Rudra, of Pishan, of
the descendants of Vasishtha and of Durga; (i) name of
Siva; name of one of the eleven Rudras.”

The Portuguese called the cowry Boudjz or Bought ;
the inhabitants of the Maldives, Bo/z; the Siamese, 5vos
(which means shell in general in Thai). By the Arabs it
is known under the name ouoadda or vadaat (Deniker,
op. cit.).

2 J.C. Melvill, ‘* A Survey of the genus Cyprzea,” Jemoazrs and Proc.

Manch. Lit. & Phil. Soc., 4th Ser., vol. 1. (1887-8), pp. 184-252.

> Deniker, ‘‘ Races et peuples de la Terre,” Paris, 1900, p. 324 foot-
note.
* Murray, ‘*‘ New English Dictionary.”

® Oxford, 1872, p. 201.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. 5

The use of cowries as currency and as amulets or
charms has been frequently discussed in ethnological
memoirs. From this literature it is clear, though the fact
has not always been realised or sufficiently emphasised by
the authors, that cowries have been for ages regarded and
even reverenced as charms in hunting and fishing, and as
amulets against the evil eye. In fishing, especially in the
Pacific Islands, they are attached to the nets to ensure
luck, being misnamed “ net-sinkers” by many writers on
ethnology. They have been, and in many places are
still, associated with marriage, with the object of securing
communion with the spirit of fertility, supposed to be
indwelling in the cowry, In like manner they are used
in some places as offerings to rivers and springs in order
to ensure that the rivers will run and springs flow.

In the following pages an attempt is made to show some
of the many uses of cowries in different parts of the world.
The remarkable manner in which some of the customs, in
which cowries play an important part, crop up in widely-
scattered localities is very significant, and goes far to
prove acommon centre of origin for these practices. It
is altogether unreasonable to assume that exactly similar
customs of so peculiar and wholly arbitrary a nature and
identical beliefs concerning the cowry could have arisen
independently among isolated groups of people.

The best and most comprehensive work on the subject of
shell-money is that by Dr. O. Schneider, on “ Muschelgeld-
Studien.”® This work contains some 180 pages dealing
with the subject, of which about 72 pages are devoted to
an excellent summary of the extensive literature relating
to cowry-currency. Some use has been made of this work

in the compilation of the present communication, as will

® Dr. Oskar Schneider, ** Muschelgeld-Studien” (Nach dem hinter-
Jassenen Manuskript bearbeitet von Carl Ribbe). Herausgegeben vom
Verein fiir Erdkunde zu Dresden. Dresden, 1905.

6 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutets, etc.

be seen by the footnotes. Much further information, how-
ever, not noted by Schneider, is embodied here, more
especially with regard to the use of cowries in Ancient
Egypt, Eastern Asia, North America, and many other
places.

_ Cowries appear to have been appreciated and used as
amulets at a very early period in Egypt. Both Cyprea
moneta and Cyprea annulus—the forms so universally
used for currency—have been discovered, along with other
cowries, in Pre-dynastic burials,and both forms have been
found repeatedly in later graves in Egypt-and Nubia.
According to Lortet and Gaillard,’ the following species
of cowries have been found at Karnak: Cyprea vitellus,
C. tagris, C. pantherina, C. camelopardalis (= melanostoma ),
C. arabica, and var. histrio, C.erythreensis, C. caput-serpentis,
C. moneta and C. annulus—all species which occur to-day
in the Red Sea. The larger forms are perforated ies
one end as if for use as pendants. The examples of
C. moneta and C. annulus are of peculiar interest from the
fact that they have been rubbed down on the back or
convex side—a custom which is still in vogue among the
East African people to-day. Of further interest is the
figure given by the same authors of a reproduction in
diorite of a Cypre@a moneta. This object, which is per-
forated for suspension, was found in the necropolis of
Rizakat, near Gébélén, Upper Egypt. In a tomb (D 114)
at Abydos, of xviiith dynasty date, large numbers of
Cyprea annulus were discovered, all of them having been
rubbed down on the back, as at Karnak.® The same

” Lortet & Gaillard, ‘‘La Faune Momifiée de lancienne Egypte:
Mollusques,” Arch. Alus. d@ Hist. Nat. de Lyon, vol. 10, Lyon, 1909, pp.
108-111; see also List of Species, pp. 310-31T.

5 T. E. Peet & W. L. S. Loat, ‘“‘ The Cemeteries of Abydos,” pt. III.
1912-1913, 35th Alem. Loypt. Explor. Fund, 1913, p. 39, pl. xil., figs. 6 & 9.
(The Series is now in the Manchester Museum).

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lr. (1916), Vo. 18. 7

species, C. annulus is also recorded from Koptos’ and

Nagadeh, probably of pre- or proto-dynastic date ;” it is
also associated with other objects, such as papyrus charm
pendants, uzat eyes, etc, strung on knotted cords found
at Kafr Ammar (xxiii—xxvth dynasty)." Reisner in
“The Archaeological Survey of Nubia (1907-8) gives a
figure of a small cowry, rubbed down on the back, which
is probably C. annulus ; it is recorded as occurring in the
C-group, New Empire, and later graves. Cyprea moneta
occurs in the list of shells found in graves at El Amrah
(Pre-dynastic).” Other species of cowries discovered in
Egyptian graves are as follows: Cypre@a caurica? “ Pan-
Graves” at Balabish;* C. arabica, Koptos; C. carneola,
Ballas ; C. erosa, Ballas ; C. caurica, Ballas? ; C. pantherina,
N sh » C. arabica var reticulata Toukh, Up pper Egypt.”

These discoveries of cowries in Ancient Egyptian
graves are of great interest as being the earliest evidence

‘ of a special appreciation of these shells. That they were
worn as amulets by the Egyptians cannot be doubted
from the fact that so many are perforated for suspension.

The discovery of so many specimens of the smaller

® Flinders Petrie, ‘*Six. Temples at Thebes, 1896,” London, 1897,
chap. x., p. 30.

10 Jdem. ‘** Amulets,” 1914, p. 27; pl. xiv., f. 107b.

tt Jbid., p. 29, pl. xvi, f. 134h, 131c. ; pl. xviil., f. t30e, 131f. ; pl. xix.
f. 131g.

42 Vol. i., Archzol. Repts, Cairo, 1910, pl. 66, f. 7 and pl. 7o, f. 1.
The C-group belongs to a period corresponding to the Middle Kingdom in
Egypt.

13 D. Randall-Maciver & A. C. Mace, ‘* El Amrah and Abydos 1899-
1901,” London, 1902, p. 49.

14 G. A. Wainwright, “‘ The Excavations at Balabish,” Jozrz. of Egypt.
Archeol., u., Oct., 1915, pl. xxv., f.2 (named from photograph). ‘‘ Pan-
Graves” are Nubian interments tn Egypt and may Lelung to the period from
2000 B.C. onwards.

13 These five recorded by Fuiinders Petrie (de Lortet & Gaillard, of.

¢tt., pp. 310-311). *
. 16 De Morgan ( fade Lortet & Gaillard, of. czt., p. 310).

8 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, ete.

form, C. annilus, together in one grave (D114) at Abydos,
would seem to suggest the possibility that cowries may
have been adopted as a form of currency at that early
date. According to Del Mar,” Egypt “appears to have
conducted its exchanges with cowries and scarabs, supple-
mented possibly at later dates by Lydian or Greek coins
for foreign commerce, until the Persian conquest, when it
was supplied with a national coinage, probably of very
limited extent, by Cambyses and Darius.” He further
remarks: “The Indians who traded with Egypt used
cowries for money; the Chinese, who also traded with
Egypt at a very remote period, used ‘tortoise’ (probably
cowrie) shells for money.” (Del Mar, p. 147.)

The money-cowry (Cypr@a moneta) has been found at
the famous cemetery of Koban, upon the northern slope
of the Caucasus, almost midway between the Black and
Caspian Seas, along with bronze and other antiquities."
It has also been recorded from a sandy layer above the
Tertiaries at Frankfurt-on-Main by Dr. W. Wenz, who
reports the existence of extensive prehistoric settlements
of different periods in the immediate neighbourhood.”
Another interesting record is that of Dr. H. Stolpe, who
states that, among the foreign objects (Cufic money, etc.)
found in the Island of Bjork6, were many Upper Silurian
fossils from Gothland, and Cretaceous fossils from Skane,
also some shells of molluscs from the west coast of
Sweden. But the most important shells were five
examples of the money-cowry, Cypr@a moneta.” Speci-

17 Del Mar, ‘‘ A History of Money,’’ London, 1885, p. 149.

18 «* A Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age ” (British Museum),
1904, p. 129; see aiso ‘* Materiaux pour|’hist. prim, et nat. de homme,” 2nd
ser., xill., June, 1882, p. 260.

19 Nachr. Deutsch. Alal. Ges. 1911, p. 104. ;

2° Congr és internat. @ Anthropo’. et a’ dichéol. Préhist., 1874, vol. iiss
Stockholm, 1876, pp. 619-29.

ee

\

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. 9

mens of the ring-cowry (C. annulus) were found by Dr.
Layard in the ruins of Nimroud,” and others of this form,
rubbed down on the back, were met with in graves at
Shusha, in Transcaucasia, associated with numerous car-
nelian beads, perforated animals’ teeth, stone implements,
and bronze and iron objects.”

Another find of special interest was made by Dr.
Truheika at the pile-dwelling of Donja Dolina, on the
bank of the Save (Bosnia). Here urn-burials were met
with in under-ground vaults which contained the in-
cinerated remains of bodies and a wealth of grave-goods.
From the valuable nature of the latter it would appear
that the cremated persons were of great social distinction.
The objects comprised fibule, beads of glass, amber, and
enamel, and other articles characteristic of the late
Hallstatt period. One of the chief objects of interest
was “one urn, which contained a necklet composed of
several hundreds of beads of amber, enamel, coloured
glass, seven cowrie shells, two perforated teeth, and a
large bead of clay without any ornamentation.” ”

Dr. Schneider (of. cz¢., p. 115), quotes many interesting
discoveries of cowries in ancient graves, chiefly in the
neighbourhood of Danzig—the great amber-producing
region. According to this authority they were found at
Marienhausen, in the government of Witebsk, where in
1879, some 50 specimens occurred in a grave, doubtless
belonging to Slavonic times; also in old pagan Lithuanian
graves, at Riigenwalde in Pomerania, in the urn of a
“ siant’s-grave” at Stolpe, on the well-known Pomerellen

21 S. P. Weodward, ‘‘ Manual. of the Mollusca,” Reprint of qth Ed.,
London, 1890, p. 233.

22 Verhandl. der Berliner Gess. * Anthrop., 1892. pp. 566-8; 1894,
bp. 216.

23 R. Munro, ‘Paleolithic Man and Terramara Settlements in
Europe,” Edint.urgh, 1912, p. 473-

10 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, etc.

face-urns as earrings ; further, several burnt and fractured
specimens of Cypr@a annulus were found in an urn from
a stone-cist at Jakobsmiihle near Mewe, and in a face-urn
at Rheinfeld near Carthaus ; Cypr@a moneta in a grave
near Praust, a Cyprea annulus, prepared as an amulet, at
Seehof near Kulmsee, C. moneta as earrings on face-urns
at Stangenwalde and at Wilschen in Berent district, as well
asin burnt condition in a face-urn at Czapeln; finally,
several specimens of a Cypre@a, too badly damaged by fire
for exact specific determination, occurred in a face-urn at
Bockau on the river Radaune, West Prussia.

In an essay by Dr. H. Conventz, of Danzig, on the
introduction of cowries and related sea-shells as ornament
in West Prussia in prehistoric times,” further mention is
made of discoveries, which he refers to the first century
B.C, of Cyprea annulus in face-urns at Rheinfeld, in
Carthaus district, Suckschin, in Higher Danzig district,
and Jakobsmiihle, in Marienwerder district, as well as in
an ordinary urn at Fronza, in Marienwerder district ; and
of Cypr@a moneta in the ears of urns from Wilschen, Berent
district, and Stangenwalde, Carthaus district, and in a face-
urn from Praust, near Danzig ; further, of “ Roman times,’
which corresponds to the Ist century A.D., Cypre@a annulus
attached to bronze-strip as a charm, found near Elbing
and Seehof, in Briesen district ; finally, of the “ Arabic-
norse epoch,’ a perforated C. monefa on the neck of a
skeleton in the grave-field near the Grutschno Burgwalle,
in the Schwetzer district.

Cowries of larger dimensions than Cyf7@a moneta
and C. annulus have been met with in pre-historic pit-
dwellings and Saxon graves in our own country; in
Franco-Merovingian graves in France; in the Gallo-

** Correspondensblatt da. deutsch. Gesell. f. A. E. u. U., xxxiii. no. 2,
1902, (fide Schneider, of. czt., p. 115)

Manchester Memortrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 15. 11

Roman necropolis of Trion, at Lyons ; and in Pompeii, as
well as in other places.

The complete outer lip of hires tigris, a species
occurring in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea, has been
recorded by J. R. le B. Tomlin, from a pre-historic pit-
dwelling at St. Mary Bourne, Hants.” The same hand-
some species is recorded by M. Locard from the Gallo-
Roman necropolis-of Trion, and by Monterosato from
Pompeii.” Cyprea pantherina, a Red Sea shell, has been
found in Saxon women’s graves, excavated on Kingston
Down, and Sibertswold Down, in Kent,* and ina grave
near Wingham, Kent.* It has also been recorded (under
the name Cy7@a vinosa) by Dr. Ph. Dautzenburg from the
Franco-Merovingian necropolis of Nesles-lez-Verlincthun
(Canton de Samer).” Dr. Dautzenburg also refers in the
same paper to arecord by M.|’Abbé Henri Debout of the
presence of this shell (erroneously referred to C. aradzca)
itteaesepulchre at Tardinghen; and from Dr. Tiberis
Memoir on the shells met with in the excavations at
Pompeii,” we learn that many examples of this species
were found, and that the shell in question was an amulet
which the women carried in order to prevent sterility.

In a footnote in Dr. Schneider’s paper (of. czz. p. 116),
fererence is made to a description, by Dr. Koehl, of
Merovingian graves at Weisoppenheim, near Worms,
where cowries were found alongside the bodies of several
women, either hanging from a girdle, or sewn to their

dresses, Unfortunately, the specific name of the shell is

2% Journal of Conchology, vol. 13, 1912, p. 251.
26 Fide Tomlin, of. cit.
°7 Faussett’s ‘‘ Inventorium Sepulchrale,’

?

1856, pp. 68, 92 & 133. (See
also J. W. Jackson, Journ. of Conch., vol. 13, 1912. p. 307, for discussion
of species).

==, a rcheeologia,,

d

Vol. 30,-p. 552
29 Journ. de Conchyliologie, vol. liv., 1906, p. 260, figs. I & 2.
3° ** Le Conchiglie Pompeiane,” Napoli, 1879.

12 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, etc.

not given. In the same footnote mention is made of the
discovery of a large Cyprea in an old German grave at
Entibiihl, and of an Indian Ocean 772¢onzum, filled with
worked flints at Brunswick.

A further discovery of a shell from the Indian Ocean,
Ovuluim ovum, closely akin to the cowries, was made ina
Gothlandic tomb. This specimen had a hole at one end
in which was still fixed a little ring of bronze wire.” |

In Crete, black cowries, probably dark forms of
Cyprea pantherina, were found in excavating the rooms
of Mycenzan houses.*

In a paper on “Cave Explorations at Gibraltar in
September, 1910,’ * Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth records the
discovery of a Mediterranean cowry, Cypr@a pyrum, in
excavating Cave S. The specimen is remarkable on
account of an artificial perforation at one end, as if for
suspension as an amulet. On the evidence of the human
remains and the pottery found, the cave is assigned to
the Neolithic period. In the same cave were found
specimens of Purpura hemastoma with the apical parts
fractured in a curious manner, suggesting that the mollusc
had been used for the preparation of its distinctive
product, the Tyrian Purple.”

A perforated specimen of Cjpre@a pyrum is recorded
by Lartet and Christy” from La Madelaine cave, Périgord,
along with other perforated shells and teeth of animals,
but in this case the cowry is said to be a fossil, probably

51? Zriton, the shell employed as a trumpet in many places.

52 Hans Hildebrand. ‘“ The Industrial Arts of Scandinavia,” (South
Kensington Museum Art Handbook), 1882, p. 4o.

3 Ann. Brit. Sch. Athens, ix. (1902-3), pp. 291 and 335.

34 Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Lust., xli., 911, p. 362, pl. xl., fig. 4, 5.

®5 See my paper on this subject in AZanch. Memoirs (Lit. & Phil. Soc.),
Ix. (1916), No. 7.

86 ** Keliquie Aquitanice,” London, 1875, p. 48 (Description of the
Plates), pl. v., fig. 15.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. ne,

from the Faluns of Touraine. Mention is also made of
a collection of objects from the Cave of Bruniquel, com-
prising carnivore teeth and perforated marine shells,
including a Cypr@a an inch in length, not improbably
derived from the Miocene beds of the Garonne.”

Since Christy's diggings in Laugerie-Basse,” this cave
has yielded many other interesting objects, including two
species of Mediterranean cowries, perforated for use as
pendants. Particulars of the discovery of the cowries
are given in a paper by Massenat and others” dealing
with the finding of a human skeleton (the so-called
homme ecrassé) in this cave. The latter seems to have
been a ceremonial interment in the contracted posture.
The situation of the objects which accompanied the
skeleton was studied with scrupulous attention and a
score of shells were found. These were determined by
Mortillet as belonging to two different species of Mediter-
ranean cowries, Cypre@a pyrum, Gmelin (or rufa Lam), and
Cyprea lurida L. YVhe most interesting fact concerning
them is that they were arranged in pairs upon the body ;
two pairs on the forehead, one near each humerus, four in
the region of the knees and thighs, two upon each foot.
The discoverer dismisses the idea of a necklace or bracelets
and suggests they were intended to adorn a garment.
Each cowry was pierced with a notch.

Cowries have also been found in the celebrated Men-
tone Caves alongside human skeletons, which can with

Pe Nora.. p. 179 (Text),

te bn. p- 280 ( Lext).

89 KK. Massenat, Ph. Lalande & Cartailhae, ‘‘ Découverte d’un squelette |
humain de l’aye du renne a Laugerie-Basse (Dordogne).” Comptes Rendtus
de T Acad, des Sciences, vol 74, 1872, pp. 1060-3; also Paul Girod and E.
Massenat, ‘‘ Les Stations de PAge du Renne dans les vallées de la Vézére
et de Ja Corréze—Laugerie- Basse,” Paris, 1900, pp. 24-5. Sollas (Ancient
Hunteis, 2nd Ed.. 1915, p. 509, fig. 288) gives a figure of this interesting
burta], with the associated shells. (After Cartailhac).

14 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc.

considerable confidence be correlated with those found in
the valley of La Vézere, at Laugerie-Basse, Cro-Magnon,
Gourdan, and Chancelade. Villeneuve” records, amongst
other shells, one Cyprea. from an occupation level (Foyer
D), 3m. 15. from the surface, in La Grotte des Enfants,
The specific name, unfortunately, is not given. On the
same level a remarkable find was made of Casszs rufa, an

Indian Ocean shell.”

At Barma Grande, another of the Mentone Caves,

various kinds of ornaments of teeth and bone, and perfor-
ated shells of Vassa nerztea, were feund, in 1892, near the
head of one of the skeletons discovered there ; but the
most interesting and remarkable find was that “on each
thigh bone above the knee was a perforated cowry.”* The
body is said to be that of an old man. It is of interest
to note that all the skulls found here are stated to be of

40 “Tes Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé—Roussé),”’ Tome i., Fase. i.
‘* Historique et Description.” By M. L. de Villeneuve (p. 65). (Impri-
merie de Monaco, 1906).

41 Jbid., Tome i. Fasc. 2. ‘‘ Geologie et Paléontologie.”* By Prof.
Marcellin Boule (p. 123); In a footnote to this page, G. Dollfus remarks :
** Cassis rufa L., an Indian Ocean shel], is represented in the collection at
Monaco by two fragments ; one was found in the lower habitation level D ;
the other is probably of the same origin. The presence of this shell is
extraordinary as it has no analogue in the Mediterranean, neither recent
nor fossil ; there exists no species in the North Atlantic or off Senegal with
which it could be confounded. The fragments have the traces of the reddish
colour preserved and are not fossil; one of them presents a notch which
has determined a hole that seems to have been made intentionally. The
species has not yet been found in the Gulf of Suez nor in the raised-beaches
of the Isthmus. M. Jousseaume has found it in the Gulf of Tadjoura at
Aden, but it has not yet been encountered in the Ked Sea nor in the raised-
beaches of that region. The common habitat of Casszs rufa is Socotra,
besides the Seychelles, Madagascar, Mauritius, New Caledonia and perhaps
Tahiti. The fragments discovered at Mentone have therefore been brought
from a great distance, at a very ancient epoch, by prehistoric man.”

42 Munro, ‘‘ Palzolithic Man and Terramara Settlements in Europe.”
Edinburgh, 1912, p. 163. [At p. 235, perforated teeth and shells, /Vassa,
Cyprea, Pectunculus, etc., are mentioned as being found at the Rock-shelter
of Cap-Blanc (Laussel), Dordogne].

AN

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 1B. 15

the Cro-Magnon type, and that all the bodies had been
definitely interred. The discovery of cowries and the
relation of these to the body, forms an interesting parallel
to the Laugerie-Basse burial referred to above.

The association of perforated cowry shells with men
belonging to the Cro-Magnon group is not without interest
when it is remembered that these people were members
of our own species—Homo sapiens, and quite distinct from
the earlier Neanderthal people. That they were men
capable of formulating ideas and endowed with an artistic
sense is unquestionable. The skeletons of this race all
seem to have been ceremonially interred, which certain
writers regard as implying that they were not without
some idea of religion. The fact that they used perforated
shells, teeth, and pendants, as amulets, also supports this
conclusion. But, of course, the validity of the inference
depends upon what is meant by the term “ religion.”

How this race came into the south of Europe and
where it came from is not easy to determine ; but the
slender evidence at present available disposes us to look to
North Africa as its immediate source. It seems possible
that these people may have been an early sporadic
invasion from, or at least have been in direct or indirect
contact with, the region where civilisation first developed—
the valley of the Nile and Western Asia.

The skull of the Cro-Magnon man has so many points
of similarity to that of Neolithic man in England, that,
in defiance of the archeological evidence, the former race
was judged at one time to belong to the Neolithic period.
Leading authorities now agree in relegating it to an
earlier time, which includes the Magdalenian period.”

43 The culture of the Cro-Magnon race is certainly quite distinct from
that of the Lower Palzolithic people—Neanderthal man, and on this account
Dr. Elliot Smith has suggested the term ‘* Neoanthrophic phase of culture,”
in order to give specific emphasis to the profound break in human history

16 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc. »

As Dr. G. Elliot Smith has pointed out,“ many
similarities exist between Magdalenian and the later
. Azilian implements, and. also of both of these to those
of Pre-dynastic Egypt. This suggests the possibility of
the Magdalenian period in the west being approximately
contemporaneous with the pre-dynastic period in Egypt,
and that the Neolithic period in Western Europe did not
begin long before the third millennium B.C. .

In connection with the above it is of interest to note
that the cowry is frequently associated with pre-dynastic
burials in Egypt. |

The numerous discoveries of cowries detailed above
serve to show the migrations or intercourse of early
peoples. They are not to be regarded as evidence of the
shells, even the smaller kind, having been employed as
currency in the localities where they were found, nor
indeed are they to be looked upon as having been worn °
from purely esthetic motives. Their presence may be
explained by the part cowries played in early times as
symbolic of the generative forces of nature. The shell
itself was not worshipped, but rather regarded as an
attribute of some goddess. It was due probably to this
fact that the cowry was known to the ancients under the
appellation of “Concha Venerea,’—the shell of Venus.®
As pointed out by Dr. J. C. Melvill,® the generic name of

between the Lower and Upper Paleolithic. The Lower Paleolithic, he
suggests, may be known as the Palzanthropic, the Upper as the commence-
ment of the Neointhropic, Age. (See “The American Museum Journal,”
vul. xvi., May, 1916, p. 325.)

44 Abstract of paper on ‘‘ The Commencement of the Neolithic Phase
of Culture,” read before the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,
April 4th, 1916.

+5 As weil as the goddess of love, the word Venus signifies the highest
throw of the dice. (Horace, ‘Carmina,’ 2, 7, 25.) It is not surprising,
therefore, that we fini the cowry—the shell of Venus, used in so many
games of chance.

46 ‘Survey of Genus Cyprzea,” op. czt., p. 184.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 18. 17

this group of shells, ‘“‘ Cyprzea, or more classically Cypria,
is derived from one of the many attributes of Aphrodite,
owing, doubtless, to her worship not only having been
inaugurated, but for long years principally centralized, in
Cyprus, then a luxuriant and smiling island, teeming with
industrial wealth. Horace” addresses her as ‘Diva potens
Cypri, and Tibullus,* when apostrophizing the goddess,
thus : ‘Et faveas concha, Cypria, vecta tua.”

_ As previously remarked, cowries were worn as amulets
by the women of Pompeii in order to prevent sterility. The
presence of these shells in women’s-graves in France and
the South of England seems to point to the prevalence
of the same ideas in the Middle Ages.

In the 18th century the custom of wearing a large
cowry as an amulet or charm was prevalent among Ken-
dure Tartar women and girls.” And inthe neighbourhood
of Naples, cowries, it is stated, are still worn by the poorer
class.” Money-cowries are used by the Bedouin women
of the Hadramaut, South Arabia, to adorn their girdles ;*
also by the women of the races of the Volga region, as
breast and forehead ornaments by the Tshuwash and
Mordvins, and as necklaces by the Tsheremis. They are
also to be seen on the necks of the Kirghis women, and
on the curious head-dresses of the Bashkir women ;” and

peuidorace, Od., I, 3; 1.

=] fibullus, III., 3, 4.

49 G. A. Cooke, ‘‘System of Universal Geography,” vol. i. (1801),
p- 448.

5° Faussett, ‘‘Inventorium Sepulchrale,” 1856, p. 68.

®1 Schneider, of. cz¢., p. 1173; Strabo, bk. xvi., ch. iv., par. 17 (Bohn’s
Ed., vol. iil., p. 202), speaking of the Troglodytz of the Arabian Gulf says:
** The women carefully paint themselves with antimony. They wear about
their necks shells, as a protection against fascination by witchcraft.”

52 Schneider, of. czt., p. 117: Ratzel, ‘* History of Mankind,” iii.,

p- 327, gives a figure of one of these Bashkir head-dresses ornamented with
small cowries.

s

18 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, ete.

in England they are occasionally noticed worn in long
strings by travelling gypsies.

According to Professor Ridgeway,” cowries are still
used, combined with a Christian medal, in Corfu as a
child’s amulet ; and also in Montenegro,

In the following pages frequent references will be
found to the use of cowry-shells as amulets of magical
import in Africa, Asia, Pacific Islands, and elsewhere.

The custom of decorating the trappings of horses with
cowries, doubtless with the object of averting the evil eye,
is found in Persia as well as in India (where elephants
carry such ornament), in Hungary and in Norway.
And according to Ridgeway (of. cz¢., p. 248), Mr. F. W.
Hasluck, when travelling in the Morea in 1907, saw a boar’s
tusk charm on a horse in Triphylia, with a pendant of a
cross formed of four cowries sewn on leather.

+ informs sus thal

Lane, in his “ Modern Egyptians,’
cowries are still used by the people of Egypt, and are
regarded as a protection against the evil eye. With this
object they are often attached to the trappings of camels,
horses, and other animals, as well as to the caps of children.
Pickering” remarks that on ascending the Nile to Kenneh,
the modern capital of the Thebaid, about 30 miles below the
site of ancient Thebes, cowries were seen used as money
by market women of the Ethiopian [? Soudanese] race.
Culin, in his “ Chess and Playing Cards,”” reports that in
the streets of “ Cairo” at the Columbian Exposition was a
family of Bishareen from the Eastern desert, near Assouan,

53 W. Ridgeway, ‘‘ The Origin of the Turkish Crescent,” /ozrn. Roy.
Anthro. Inst., G. B. and I., vol. 38 (1908), p. 248, ple 21, fig. 23.

54 KE. W. Lane, ‘‘ Modern Egyptians,” vol. i., 1849, p. 343.

65 Pickering, ‘‘ Races of Man” (Bohn’s Id.), 1863, as quoted by
Stearns, ‘‘ Ethno-conchology,’ eft. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1887, (1889), p. 303.

56 Stewart Culin, ‘‘ Chess and Playing Cards,” Rept. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
1896, (1898), p. 815 footnote.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 18. 19

whose headman practised soothsaying with cowries. He
threw several cowry-shells, and made his prediction from
the manner in which they fell.

At Sennaar, in the Soudan, cowry-ornament still
obtains to-day among the Hassanieh Arabs. Caillarud,
in the 20th year of last century, saw cowries ornamenting
the fringed girdle of the young girls in Sennaar. Accord-
ing to Carl Ritter, they are still found as trimmings for
women’s girdles in Abyssinia ;” and Haldeman” describés
a curious Abyssinian necklace composed of European
beads, cowry-shells, bits of brass, copper coins, etc.

According to Schneider (o0/. czz., p. 173). a large leather
object from Somaliland, richly ornamented with cowries,
is in the Dresden Museum,” and a similar object, orna-
mented in the same way, was brought from Somaliland
by Riebeck in 1883. That the cowry was in use here in
early times is proved by the discovery of Cyprea annulus,
along with glass, enamel, stone and other objects, in the
ruins of Bender Abbas, near Berbera. The age of these
ruins is still problematic ; they may belong to “ Persian

‘times.’ ©

Presumably this refers to the period of the
Persian conquest of Egypt in the sixth century B.C.

In the Upper Nile region cowries, rubbed down on
their backs, are used by many negro peoples. The Lango,
Latuka, Lur, Shuli and Nuer have very many cowry-
ornaments, more especially on their head-coverings, Ac-
cording to Ratzel (of. céz., ili., p. 30), the head-coverings of
the Shuli and Lango “ consist of strong bass-matting, close
set with concentric rows of cowries, with a woven blunt
appendage, shaped either like a flat conical cup or like a

ua Senneider, of. c2f., Pp. 173.

°S S. S. Haldeman, “‘ United States Geographical Surveys West of the
tooth Meridian,” vol. vii., Archeeology, 1879, p. 263.

°° See also Ratzel, of. ct., II., fig. 14 of plate facing p. 533.

Oc) SEMMCIGEr, Of. C2264. Ds TIS.

20 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, etc.

helmet enclosing the head and hanging down the back of
the neck” (see also Ratzel, of. czz., i., p. 101). Among the
Latukas and their kinsfolk heavy wicker helmets, with
crests recalling Greek forms, are used; these are orna-
mented with a ring of cowries all round (Ratzel, III.,
p. 30, and p. 41, fig. 7). Among the Djibba tribe of the
Sobat country, one of the Nile tributaries, cowrzes appear
to be associated with head-hunting, as among the Nagas of
Assam (infra, p. 50). Like these latter people, the Djtbba
warriors wear the hair taken from the decapitated heads of
slain enemtes, in addition to wearing goat-skin dresses,
zvory armlets and belts of cowries.” By the Jurs, beads and
cowry-shells are considered as essential at betrothals.” |

In East Africa rubbed-down cowries” are used largely
by the Akikuyu, Kavirondo, Akamba and Masai peoples.
Kavirondo men are noted for their peculiar and elaborate
head-dresses made of these shells. Among the Akamba,.
Masai and other tribes, cowries appear to be associated
with unmarried girls (as among the Chettis of Southern
India, zzfra p. 48). The young unmarried girls of the
Akamba tribe wear belts and aprons adorned with beads.
and cowries ; but these ornaments are discarded after the
birth of the first child. The Masai women also wear a
peculiar head-band covered with cowries during the
period of “engagement.” The Lumbwa girls’ aprons, too,
are similarly adorned, doubtless with the same sig-
nificance.” Ridgeway, in his paper on “The Origin of

61 Brown, ‘‘ Races of Mankind,” III., p. 16.

£2 Schneider, of. v7t., p. 175-

68 Qn the East side of Africa, the ring-cowry (C. annuus) appears to:
be the form universally used.

64 «Women of all Nations,” pp. 266 and 268.

65 Specimens in the Manchester Museum ; see also Journ, Anthrop.
Tnst., vol. 33 (1903), pl. xxix., for illustration of a Lumbwa girl wearing one
of these cowry-ornamented aprons.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. 21

the Turkish Crescent” (of. czz., p. 253, pl..25), figures and
describes two curious head-dresses worn by the Ja-luo of
Kavirondo, one consisting of ram’s horns and cowries, the
other of reed-buck’s horns and cowries. These remind
us, Ridgeway remarks, of the combination of boars’ tusks
and cowries in Greece (supra p.18). Captain R. F. Burton
fives us an interesting account of the cowry-trade of the
regions north of the ‘Land of the Moon,’ in his description
of “The Lake Regions of Central Equatorial Africa.”
The cowries, he reports, are collected from various places
between Ras Hafun and Mozambique, the trade being
in the hands of Moslem hucksters. They are purchased
on the mainland by a curious specimen of the ‘ round-
trade’; money is not taken, so the article is sold measure
for measure of holcus grain. From Zanzibar the use of

‘cowries spreads in two directions; one to the regions

north of the ‘Land of the Moon’ where they form the

currency, though they are also occasionally in demand as

an ornament in’ Unyamwesi;” the other to the West
African coast. That the collecting of cowries on the East
African coast dates from ancient times is evident from

the list of articles of export at Rhapta in the first century

168

A.D. Among the articles mentioned in the “ Periplus
as exported from this place—the Quiloa or Kilwa of
modern times—is an item, NavzAvos oAlyos (lz. little sea-

shell), a term which has given rise to some discussion.

Vincent” says: “It seems to be an inferior tortoise-shell
from the context” (which he translates, “tortoise-shell of

‘superior kind, but not equal to the Indian; and a small

56 Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. Lond., vol. 29, 1859, p. 448.

67 See Ratzel, of. cz¢., II., plate facing p. 533, fig. I, for cowry orna-
mented head-dress of Wanyamwesi.

6S Vincent, ‘‘ The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the
Indian Ocean,” London, 1807, vol. ii., p. £72.

Oe) Lbzi., ps 7A.

22 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutets, etc.

quantity of that species called nauplius.”) “It may,
‘however, be a different commodity.” As cowries are an
article of commerce on this coast to-day, the suggestion
naturally presents itself of interpreting the term as a
reference to shells (? cowries) intended for ornament.

In Uganda, cowries have been a recognised form of
currency from an early date. According to the Rev. John

70

Roscoe,” the standard of currency among the Baganda
was set by the value of the cow. During the reign of
Suna, he tells us, a cow was sold for 2,500 cowry-shells ;
a goat for 500; a fowl for 25 ; a large cock for 50; and
an ivory tusk weighing sixty-two pounds was valued at
1,000 cowry-shells”. Cooking-pots were priced according
to size ; a large pot was sold for 200 cowries, small ones
for 20 or 30 cowries. A milk-pot cost 60 or even 100
cowries ; a tobacco pipe from 5 to 10 shells ; and a water-
pot from 40 to 50 shells.” “ Before the introduction of
cowry-shells,” Roscoe informs us, “a blue bead (nsinda)
was used ; this was very rough and badly made, but it
was considered to be of great value ; one bead was of
equal value with one hundred cowry-shells. Still earlier,
before the introduction of the bead, a small ivory disc
was used, known as sazga; one of these discs was valued
at one hundred cowry-shells. When the cowry-shell was.
first introduced, which was probably in the reign of King
Semakokiro, two cowry-shells would purchase a woman.” “
By these same people cowry-shells have also been used
from the first in religious and other ceremonies. One
of the many interesting uses, mentioned by Roscoe,
is their employment in the decoration of an amulet
called Lasalo, which partakes of the nature of a fetish,

7° Roscoe, ‘* The Baganda,” London, IQIt.
“1 Jbzd., p. 456.
72 [bid., p. 455-
53 J6ed., Pp: 457-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. tx. (1916), Vo. 13. 25

and is designed to insure fecundity: This consists of
a piece of wood sewn into a small cat-skin bag
ornamented with cowry-shells, which is worn round the
waist, so that the amulet rests in front of the wearer.”
Divination is also practised by means of pieces of
leather decorated with cowry-shells. They are also
offered to propitiate the spirits of trees ; and sent by the
king as presents to each of the important deities. Another
most important use is to decorate the jawbones of deceased
kings. Some five months after the death and burial of a
king the tomb is entered and the head severed from the.
body and brought away. The jawbone is then removed
and placed in an ant hill until all the flesh is eaten away,
the skull meanwhile being given special burial in a place
near the tomb. The jawbone, after being cleansed and
washed in beer and milk, is wrapped in fine barkcloth
which has been rubbed with butter, and is decorated with
beads and cowry-shells collected during the king’s lifetime '
from people succeeding to chieftainships. A temple is
then built to receive the decorated jawbone and umbilical
cord of the late king, and also the umbilical cord of the
ex-queen.” At the end of the royal mourning cowry-
shells are thrown on the fire as if they were fuel ; this is
also done at ceremonies to prolong the king’s life.”

In the marriage ceremonies of the Baganda these
shells form an important part of the dowry, the bridegroom
having to provide as many as two thousand five hundred.”
On the birth of twins it is the custom for the grandmother
to make each twin a present of cowry-shells, and everyone
coming to see them throws cowry-shells into a basket

ES bed, De. 331-
Gola) Pps LOG. 10:
7S [bid.5 p. 108:

77 Tbid., pp. 88-9.

24 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc.

placed to receive these offerings.* On the death of a twin
the body is embalmed and the ghost is caught by the
medicine man and made up into a “twin” (mulongo). To
do this, the man goes by night into a space in front of the
the house, spreads a barkcloth on the ground, kills a white
fowl, cuts out its tongue, and places it on the barkcloth ;
he then watches for the first insect that alights on the
barkcloth, catches it, and wraps it up with the fowl’s
tongue, saying that the ghost has come back again. The
insect and fowl’s tongue are then made up into a “ twin ”
decorated with cowry-shells and beads, put into a wooden
pot and preserved.”

In addition to the above uses, cowries are employed
by the Baganda to decorate the royal drum. Drum-sticks
made from human arm-bones are also ornamented with
them, as well as the stool of the war-god Kibuka.”’

According to Stuhlmann, cowries were used in
Karagwe, on the west side of Victoria Nyanza, to orna-
ment the leather-cuff which serves as a protection of the
left wrist at archery, and in Unyora, north-west of the
above lake, the most important personage wears, as token
of his rank, a strip of cow-hide adorned with cowries and
coloured glass beads. The Wassongona and Wahuma
have cowries as neck-ornaments, and the young girls of
the latter wear a hip-cord of cowry-shells and beads, which
are sewn on leather strips.”

According to Schweinfurth the Madi and Niam Niam
wear cowry-ornaments, but they do not appear to be of
great importance among the latter people. Cowries were
much sought after in former times by the Bongo, but they
have long since fallen out of the category of objects

CS Tpit. Pp. 7 Li

12 70td., pi 124.

‘° /bid., pp. 26, 214 and 306, fig. 49.
S' Schneider, of. cz¢., p. 172.

:

EE

ee ee ee SS ee

we

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lr. (1916), No. U3. 2

of value.” Schweinfurth also depicts a fashion in hair
among the Monbuttus, by which the head is surrounded
with a regular saint’s halo. The hair, in plaits, is spread
out round the whole head and fastened to a hoop adorned
with cowry-shells.”

The Wavira of the upper Ituri wear in their ears a
wooden plug with cowries at both ends; this object is in
the Lunda Empire an amulet hung by a string from the
neck.” Cowries were also seen by Junker used as orna-
ments by the Bagarambo on the Welle River. And
Thonner reports cowries in common use by the Mog-
wandi north of the upper Dua and by the neighbouring
races; by the Mobali in the hair, and by a Banza man
from Bogola as a neck-chain. On the middle and upper
Ubangi and on the Welle to its source cowries pass current
as money; they are also in use as such by the Basoko
inhabiting the region of the Congo between Stanley Falls
and the Aruwimi confluence. In 1886 Lenz saw them
used for ornament by the Nkaia at Riba Riba above the
Stanley Falls, as well as in other places. According to
Johnston cowries were made use of as small-change
everywhere on the Upper Congo. Large numbers of them
were placed in the graves with the dead. In Nyangwe
they were in use along with other objects of barter in
Livingstone’s (1871), Cameron’s (1874), Stanley’s (1876)
and Pogge’s time, and often served as presents for the
‘chiefs and for purchasing necessary articles of food in the
districts through which these and other travellers passed.
In Uhombo, between the Congo and Lake Tanganyika,
they were the current money in Stanley’s time. At Mpala,

*° Lbid@., p. 173 ; and Schweinfurth, “ The Heart of Africa,” London,
£73, VOl.i.. p. 209 ; il., p. 9.

s“ Ratzel, of. czz., iit., p. 69; Schweinfurth, of. ciz., ii., p. 7, (Text-
figure).

Meplnatzel. Of. c2e.,) 1.4 ps OG.

26 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutets, etc.

on the western shore of Lake Tanganyika, they were seen
by Richard as head-ornaments or sewn on straps ; he also
observed them in use by the Nollo Nollo, living north
thereof, to ornament the forehead, neck and wrist; in
the latter case, two shells were worn attached to the
middle of a thin strap, probably an amulet of some kind.
Among the Warua of the Upper Congo similar ornaments.
were noticed.”

On the middle Congo cowries are a recognised cur-
rency about Lukolela, Ngowe, Matumba Lake, etc., being
used by the Balolo people. On the Mongalla, Thonner,
in 1896, found cowries the necessary legal tender for con-
tinuing’ his journey up the river and for the purchase of
food-stuffs. Wissmann, Wolf, and other travellers found
them highly estimated in the Sassai-Sankuru_ basin.
According to Wolf, in 1885, these shells together with a
black and white striped glass bead were used as barter-
material by the Baluba people of this region.”

In the Lunda Empire, the wooden plug set with
cowries at both ends, which the Wavira wear in their ears,
is hung by a string from the neck as an amulet.”

According to Magyar, cloth in Kimbundaland, about
1850, was reckoned at from 25 to 50 cowries, or busio-
shells, per ell or yard, according to the distance from the
coast; and this same observer tells us that the women of
the Mondumbe, inwards from Benguela, ornament their
hair with small white cowries (C. soneta ? Oliva ?).™

In describing the Ovambo, Ratzel (of. czt., /I., p. 541)
informs us that they barter ivory for beads, iron, copper,
shells, and cowries, with the Portuguese-speaking black
traders on the further side of the Cunene River. Such

“5 Schneider, of. cz/., various pages.
sé Zbed.

S* | Ratzel, op: se7/.g ail... p: OO:

SS Schneider, of. cz¢., pp. 159 and 172.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. 27

articles as they obtain in this way, and do not themselves
need, they trade away to the south and east. On another
page (p. 553) of the same volume, he gives an illustration
(after Serpa Pinto) of Kimbande-Ganguellas with cowry-
ornament. It is of interest to note that the shells (C.7zoneta
or annulus), are employed by the women and girls as a
decoration in connection with their curious method of
hair-dressing ; the man shown in the illustration has no
such ornament. According to the observation of Waitz,
cowries were usual as ornament among Hottentots and
Kaffirs.” Unfortunately no indication is given as to
whether these were the smail white money cowries, or
comic, Orner From Ratzel’s figure (II., p. 268) of a
Bushman amulet, consisting of large cowries attached to
a sort of belt, it would appear that cowries other than
those so universally employed for currency are used also
in the south. It is impossible to define the species from
the illustration, but it appears to be a large spotted one,
probably C. “gr7s, whose nearest habitat is off the East
African coast, in the neighbourhood of Zanzibar.
Returning north, to the French Congo, we find that,
@ecerdine to Foret” the races on the Tem and on the
Ivindo use cowries as ornaments. Lenz, in 1876, found
them so employed in the hinterland of Gaboon. Kund
also reports cowry-ornaments for the neck among the
Bateke, not far from Leopoldville. Dennett” figures a
Bavili “ guardian fetish,’ called Mpembe, consisting of a
wooden image in the shape of a man, the eyes of which
are cowry-shells with the apertures outwards. Ratzel

*° Schneider, of. cit., p. 172: According to Peringuey (Azz. S. Afr.
Mus., viii, 1911, p. 104), Sparrman mentions and figures Hottentot orna-
ments of marine shells (Werzta albicil/a 2) and a leather head-dress adorned
with three spaced rows of ‘‘ cowries.”

°° Le Mouvement Géographique, 1902, No. 9 ( Ade Schneider).

®t R. E. Dennett, ‘‘ At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind,” London,
1906, p. QI, pl. 5.

28 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc.

(op. cit, iii, p. 83, fig. i.), also gives an illustration of a
Beneki fetish with cowry-eyes, which has a strong resem-

blance to the Bavili example.
In the Cameroon district the use of cowries as currency

seems to have ceased, but the shells are applied as orna-
ment. Zintgraff writes that in Adamawa and the frontier-
land such was the case. The Bali warriors were allowed
to carry a bandolier upon which the cowries were sewn in
two rows, the channelled opening of the shell being to the
outside. They were also seen arranged in cross-form on
a small, flat, cloth packet, which was worn on a string
from the neck, resembling the amulet which the Mahom-
medan wears. Another interesting use noted by Zint-
eraff is that by the chief of the Bafut, living on the
Adamawa frontier, who had utilized cowries as a sort of
mosaic on the floor of his spacious palm-wine hall.” The
shells are also worked into the coiffure of the women in
the Cameroons, as many as two hundred being required.”

We now reach the chief zone of circulation of the
cowry—the western Sudan and Guinea coast. For many
centuries the shells have passed as a means of currency
throughout the greater part of this region, and in many
places they have also played an important part in religious
and other ceremonies.

Our earliest knowledge of their employment in this
region as currency dates from the 14th century, when the
Arab traveller Ibn Batita saw them in use for transacting
business at Kawkaw (Gao or Gagho) on the Niger.”
Cadamosto, who visited Cape Verde in 1455, also noted
the white shells, “ porcellete or cowries,” used in exchange

*2 Schneider, of. cié., p. 171-
®3 Joyce and others, ‘‘ Women of all Nations,” p. 351.

“4 «©The Travels of Ibn Batiita,” translated by the Rev. Samuel Lee,
London, 1829, p. 241.

— eee

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 18. 29

between the Arabs and the natives of the interior.” Leo
Africanus,” who wrote at the beginning of the 16th century,
mentions in his description of Timbuctoo that “the
natives of this place use small mussel-shells or snail-shells,
which were brought from Persia, of which 400 equal one
ducat, and six and two-thirds go to a Roman ounce.” In
memiieat the end of the 15th century, according to
Pereira, cowries, under the name Iguru, were in currency.
In the description of Commodore Stewart’s embassy
journey to Mekines (Mequinez) in 1721, itis stated :” “The
goods, which they (the Moroccans) convey to Guinea,
are salt, cowries, etc.—Cowries are small shells, which are
brought from the East Indies, and they are current instead
of ready money, and as such have the highest value.”
From Timbuctoo and the Upper Niger” the territory
of the cowry-currency extends to Lake Chad, with wide
spaces here and there in which the cowries do not, or only
in a minor degree, pass as currency. Barth mentions
three such places within the great bend of the Niger,—
Aribinda, where the shells had no value, and Isaye (Ise)
and Bambara, where they were employed only in the sale
of milk. The places noted by Barth as having the cowry-
currency were Kabara, near Timbuctoo, Saraiyamo, Kubo,
Dore, Bundore, Sinder and Say on the Niger ; Gando,
Sokoto, Wurno, Bamurna, Badarana, Kammane, Bunka,
Katsena, Kano, Lamisso, Kukameirua and Gummel, all in
the northern part of Sokoto State; Tasawa, immediately
north of the Haussa region; as well as Zinder, Wushek,

p= eniker, “Les Races. et les Peuples de la’ Terre,” Paris, 1900, p.
324; Schneider, of. czt., p. 119.

%¢ Leo Africanus, ‘* Description de l’Afrique,” Lyon, 1556, p. 225
(fide Schneider, of. czt., p. 119).

°* Thos. Winterbottom, ‘‘ Nachrichten von der Sierra-Leone-Kiiste,”
p. 221 (fide Schneider, of. cz¢., p. 119).!

9S Segu, Jenné, Kaarla, etc.

30 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, ete.

Muniyo, and Kuka in Bornu. In the Haussa States,
Clapperton, in 1826, found the shells in general use as
money, and his companion, Richard Lander, mentions
cowry-currency in Kano, Womba, Catup, Kazigee and
Ragada in S.W. Haussa district. Rohlfs, on his 1867
journey from Kuka through Gujeba and the southern
Sokoto beyond Yakoba to the Benue, and down this river
to its junction with the Niger, and then up to the Rabba,
finally passing through Ilorin and Yoruba to the coast at
Lagos, moved throughout in the region of the cowry-
currency. In the district of the Marghi, cowries did not
circulate as money in Barth’s time, yet he managed to

obtain two fowls with them, owing to the fact that the

shells were desired as ornament by the “ young ladies.”

In the 17th and 18th centuries cowries were used
very largely by the slave-traders of the Guinea coast from
Senegal southwards; but in later times, English gold
and the American dollar, together with other articles of
exchange, displaced the shells to a very great extent.
Where not actually in use as money, they still continue
to be employed for ornamental and other purposes,

The territory of cowry-ornament in Western Africa is
of much wider extent than that of the cowry-currency.
In Morocco, for example, Lenz saw cowries as ornament
on the daughter of a chieftain. Such ornament is also
said to be used by the Tuarag of the southern Sahara,
and, according to Nachtigal, by the women in Tibesti.
The Joloff women string them on their hip-girdle.
Clapperton saw cowries frequently on the fringes of the
goat- and sheep-skins wound round the hips of the
women of “Kufu,” and at Wazo he saw them on the
collars of greyhounds. According to Staudinger the
Fulbes had their numerous hair-plaits frequently decorated
with cowries, In Loko, Gurich, in 1885, found children

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. 31

hung with cowry-shells. The men-folk of the pagan
Kado negro in southern Haussa-Land, wear, according to
Rohlfs, a skin-apron hung with cowries, and the young
girls of the Kedje negro fasten on their leather-girdles a
bundle of small shells presented to them by their bride-
grooms. Barth mentions shell-ornament as in use by the
young women and girls of the Marghi, and in Bagirmi, by
the pagan population inthe south. The women especially
wear such ornament of cowries, and caps too are made
thereof, with which to decorate the heads of deceased
relations. Nachtigal also states that in this neighbour-
hood, at the funeral of a chief, “a small gourd-shell
full of beads and cowries was placed on the mouth in
order to serve to some extent as travelling expenses.”
According to Rohlfs, the Mahommedan Aulad Rashid
(Arabs in N.W. Darfur) decorate the hair-plaits of their
camels and horses with the porcelain-shells, and the
women of Pebu adorn their arms with them. According
to Nachtigal, the wood- or tin-trombone, about one and
a half metres long, the hollowed antelope-horn, and the
short pipes of wood, brass or horn, which emitted such
terrible tones at festive processions of the Sheikhs in
Bornu, were al] adorned with numerous cowries on the
surface. The Kawembu in Kanem and the Buduma of
the islands of Lake Chad also wear neck-chains of cowries.
The shells are a market-article in Kuka. They are taken
as an article of barter in journeys from Kuka to Bagirmi
and Wadai, where, especially by the native Arab and also
by the pagan negro, they are used as ornament. The
Mahommedan women in Bagirmi wear cowry neck-chains ;
the wives of the pagans in the Mofu district wear the
shells on the girdle and apron strings. In Abeshr
(Wadai), at the wedding of the king’s daughter, thirty
large baskets, adorned with shells or beads, were carried

32 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc.

in front. Being wishful to journey through the pagan-land
of Runga, Nachtigal provided himself with cowries. In
Darfur he saw no more cowry-ornament.” In Haussaland
Robinson informs us: “The most common form of
gambling is a game called by the natives chacha. It
consists in throwing up five cowry-shells, the player
winning or losing according as the shells fall, the right
or the wrong way up.” ™

Regarding the use of cowries in the region of the
northern Guinea coast we have ample material to draw
upon in the accounts of numerous observers. In Sierra
Leone, at the time of Thomas Winterbottom, three or four
necklaces of cowries were worn at the mourning for a wife,
and the husband of the deceased woman was also required
to wear a necklet of shells. According to Major R. G.
Berry™ the shells are used to play a game called jagay,
or knuckle-bones. They also form part of the sacred
contents of the medicine bag, or Borfimor, used at the
initiation ceremonies in connection with the Human
Leopard Society of the Sierra Leone cannibalsy
Borfimor bag obtained by Major Berry was found to
contain four smaller bags, one of which held two tau-
shaped iron crosses, the stems of which were lapped with
cotton, and to the top of each was tied a cowry-shell, or
sign of life. “The tau cross, or crux ansata,’ Berry remarks
—and in quoting this passage I do not accept all of the
statements—“ was the emblem of Osiris, and is called the
Sign of Life, the symbol of resuscitation and new birth,
expressive of the idea entertained by the Egyptians and

°° Schneider, of. czt,, various pages (quoting Nachtigal, Barth, and
others).

160 C, H. Robinson, ‘‘ Haussaland,” London, 1896, p. 206.

101 R. G. Berry, ‘The Sierra Leone Cannibals, with Notes on their
History, Religion, and Customs.” Proc. Roy. Lrish Academy, vol. xxx.,
Sect. C., No. 2, May, 1912, pp. 45, 53, and 67.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 18. 33

other philosophers, that nothing created was annihilated,
and that to cease to be was only to assume another form,
dissolution being merely the passage to reproduction.
In its association with the Borfimor [and zx this connection
the presence of the cowry must not be overlooked], we
seem to have the reflection of some such ideas, the fetish
being animated by the indwelling life of the victim and
the spirit attracted to it.” (p. 67).

The Borfimor bag also contained a pebble made of
some earthy matter and lime, in one side of which was
incorporated a cowry-shell.

The remarkable resemblance in the use of the money-
cowry here to that of the Ojibwa and Menomini tribes
of North America, who also employ the same shell, has
been pointed out already in an earlier paper.”

bueleiberia, according to Stewart Culin,”

pierced
cowry-shells (z.e., rubbed down on the back) are used in
foriume-telline, (See Pzg.1, E). Ratzel (of. czz., II1., page
105) also gives a figure (f. 6) of a sword-sheath from
Liberia which is ornamented with cowries arranged in
stars.

Bowdich, who in 1817 was sent on a mission of peace
from Cape Coast Castle to Kumassi, mentions that in
Accra, as in Gaman, Kong and other neighbouring places,
cowries had currency. |

North of Ashanti proper, in Koranza and Atabuobo,
Perregaux found them in full use and of higher value than
on the coast. According to this observer, in Koranza,
they were counted per thousand, and 100 cowries were

102 The italicized sentence ismy own. J. W.J,

108 J. W. Jackson, ‘‘The Money Cowry (Cyprea moneta, L.) as a
Sacred Object among North American Indians,” AZanch. Memoirs (Lit. and
Phil. Soc.), vol. 1x. (1916), No. 4.

104 Culin, ‘‘ Chess and Playing Cards,” of. czt., p. 815, footnote,-and
’ fig. 134 on p. 817.

34 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, etc.

Nt

ilk

Hf
(

"HI
Wy)

Ki Ht
\ \\ Wa

A.—Cyprea annuilis (after Stearns).

B.—Cyprea moneta ( ,, Pe

C.—C. moneta var. atava Rochbr. (after Roberts in Tryon).

D.—C. moneta var. atava Rochbr., used by Ojibwa Indians (after Hoffman).

£.—Cowries (C. moneta v. atava and v. ethnographica) used in fortune-
telling, Liberia, Africa (after Culin).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 1B. 35

worth 3d. In Okwaon, on the contrary, they were
reckoned thus :—

35 cowries=1 string (Obang).
fe 45- ,,- therefore 12 strings= 3d.

bore 36-- . 50, sv rego Cowes) = ivElead
(Atramatiri).

In the plural, Atiri, was used for 2-9, and Atramatiri,
for 10 or more heads. A game with cowries (obviously
the same game as elsewhere in this region) was named
Atramaton, z.¢. to throw cowries. These words are com-
binations with the word Atrama, which denotes cowries.
“They were so named,” says Perregaux, “in the Tshi
language in Aquapim and Ashanti, while in Okwaon and
the northern lands the designation Serewa was used. A
single cowry was called Niwa, because of its likeness to an
eye’” (Oniwa), and ten cowries were called Niwandu.”™

Among the Mamprusi of the Gambaga country, north
of Ashanti, cowries, together with kola nut, figure among
the objects distributed to guests and musicians at wedding
ceremonies.”

Apart from their use as currency, cowries play a very
important role as amulets and in fetish-worship among
the Ewe negroes of Togo district. They are worn on
the neck, arm, wrist and ankle, and regarded as amulets
against wounds and sickness, and for luck in hunting.
Mischlich records that the hunt-fetishes, Gbofu of Dad-
ease and Nakuku of Mjooti, both in Adeli,a district in the
hill-country of Togo, were ornamented with cowries. Spiess
mentions that they were worn in quantity by expectant
women, to ward off danger. It was the custom among the

705 The likeness of the aperture of the cowry to the closed eye may
explain why these shells have been applied as eyes for fetishes, etc., in the
Congo region, Borneo, New Zealand, etc.

106 fide Schneider, of. czt., pp. 144-5.

107 ¢*\Vomen of all Nations,” p. 344.

36 JACKSON, Use of C owry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, ete.

Ewe that if a woman died in childbirth she was not given
the usual burial treatment, and was not buried in her hut.
The same shells are also employed as eyes in the Begbowo
idol, as an ornament of the fetish-priests and priestesses
at their dance, as offerings to the protective deity and at
ordeals, at which it depends upon whether the priest, who
has taken two or three cowries in the mouth, retains them
there or casts them out." The szmzlarity of these customs
to those current wn other parts. of the world is remarkable.
As well be seen in the subsequent account, the association of
the cowry-shell with pregnancy 7s to be found in places so
Jar away as. India and Japan; while the spitting out of
cowrzes appears to be rdentical with the medicine ceremonzal
of the Ojtbwa and Menomini Indians of North Ameztea.
According to Klose, Togo warriors wear caps orna-
mented with cowries. As a protection from evil small
children have a pair of consecrated cowries interwoven in
the hair, while the women of the bush-people of the hinter-
land fasten cowries as a fetish on the side of the head.
Hunters, too, ornament therewith the butt-end of their
flint-lock guns, in order to ensure success, and on a much
honoured hunt-fetish in the neighbourhood of Soluga lay
buffalo- and antelope-horns adorned with cowries. At
the entrance to villages frequently stand clay-idols with
cowry-eyes and shell-ornament, and in front of them lay
abundant offerings of old spirit-flasks and calabashes
filled with cowries. At ordeals for the detection of a mur-
derer, the priests blow poison towards the sun out of a
cowry-decorated pipe, which, when the suspicion is correct,
falls down as blood, while at the trial of a thief two pieces of
wood, adorned with a cowry at each end and wrapped

09

round with a long cord, are made use of.’

10S Schneider, of. cz¢., pp. 169-170 (quoting Mischlich and Spiess).
109 Schneider, of. cz/., p. 170 (quoting Klose, ‘* Togo.”’)

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. a7

In Togo-land cowries are also paid by the relations of
a girl seeking admission among the Ewe-priestesses, and
when the betrothed Ewe-youth brings his wife home
he pays to her parents 4 marks in cowries."” At death
ceremonies, relations, friends and acquaintances, place
quantities of cowries in the grave with the dead, in order
that the deceased may purchase food and palm-wine,
and reward the old ferry-man Akotia who carries him in
his canoe over the wide river Assisa to the region of the
dead. According to Monrad,™” the negroes fully believe
that everything expended in the funeral obsequies, such as
the goods, coral, cowry-money, etc., placed in the grave,
the tobacco used and the wine drunk on such occasions,
will be of use to the defunct when he rises up in the future
world. :

Among the Bassari-people Klose found the previously-
mentioned game of chance (cowry-throwing), at which he
saw soldiers wager cowries to the value of from I to 3
marks at a cast. Cowry-casting for divination was also
employed by the priests in the fetish-village Dadease.

‘According to R. Fr. Miiller, at the circumcision of
boys the circumciser receives a cowry, conveys it to the
forehead of the person about to be circumcised, and finally
buries it with the prepuce in a small pit; as a reward he
receives 81 cowries. According to the same informer,
cowries were offered to the small-pox fetish.“

That cowry-money has circulated in Togo for ages is
proved by an old saying, handed down from generation to
generation among the Ewe-negroes, according to which
cowries were found in a basket despatched from heaven

119 Flerold, ‘* Mitteil. aus den deutsch. Schutzgebeiten,” Pd V. (1892),
p- 151 (fade Schneider).

111 Monrad, ‘‘ Gemalde der Kiiste von Guinea,’ p. 11 (fide Schneider).

112 Miiller, ‘‘ Fetischistisches aus Atakpama (Deutsch-Togo),”” G/odus,
1902, No. 18, pp. 280-1 ( fide Schneider).

38 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, ele.

by Mawu (God), which the black eagerly appropriated
for purposes of trade.”*

In Dahomey similar customs to those of the Ewe-
negroes prevail. The famous Amazons of the king, who
dwell in a house richly ornamented with skulls and cowry-
earlands, have a custom of glueing a cowry-shell for each
slain enemy to the stocks of their muskets, the shells being
glued by means of the blood of the slain man. Another
custom of the Dahomeyans takes the form of a “fight for
cowries ’ thrown by the king and his Amazons, this being
followed by the sacrifice of a human victim upon which
cowries and other objects have been dashed. At the con-
clusion of these ceremonies a number of cowries are
thrown upon the blood-stained earth.”

In Yoruba, as in Dahomey, cowries have been a
recognised form of currency for centuries, and in recent
years thousands of tons have been imported into Lagos.
According to Hoffmann, in 1850, about 40 white cowries
(C. moneta) were equal to an English penny. In Yoemba,
in Lander’s time, it was the custom on the death of a
chief for one of his wives to destroy all his possessions
and shell-money and then destroy herself. On his travels
through Yoruba Lander also saw a sorcerer whose cowry-
hangings he estimated at 20,000 specimens. Not far off
the river Mussa, Forscher saw a hut with a veiled entrance
in which it was customary for passing negroes to place
cowries, because the god housed therein gave them water,
corn, and yams in abundance.”

Among the Egbas, according to Brown,” it is the
custom when a great man dies for slaves to be slain to
act as his attendants in the land of spirits. Messengers

113 C, Spiess, Deutsch. Geogr. Blitter, 1899, p. 33 (fide Schneider).
114 Brown, ‘* Races of Mankind,” vol. iii., N.D., pp. 92 and 100-2.
116 Schneider, of. cz¢., pp. 154-6, and 170.

108 Brown, 0p. .cr., LLL pp rid-0G:

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lv. (1916), No. 13. 39

are also despatched to the dead in the same way. Slaves
or prisoners taken in war are richly dressed and laden
with cowries, and when they become intoxicated by rum
they are slain. In this manner it is believed that not
only messages, but the circulating medium with which
the victims are laden, can be conveyed to the departed
relatives of the people who have performed this pious
sacrifice. With these people sixteen appears to be a
sacred and mystical number. Thus, for instance, when
meditating war the war priest throws into the air sixteen
cowries. Much depends upon the way these fall. Those
which fall with the aperture upwards portend peace; but
if a greater number fall with their apertures downwards,
then the divination is considered to be favourable to war.

Some interesting details of the use of the cowry asa
medium for the transmission of messages are given by
the Rev. C. A. Gollmer in his paper on “ African Symbolic

99117

Messages. In the Yoruba country, he informs us, the
natives send messages to each other by means of shells,
feathers, corn, stone, coal, etc., through which they convey
their ideas, feelings, and wishes, good or bad. Cowry-
shells in the symbolic language are used to convey, by their
number and the way in which they are strung, a variety of
ideas. Thus one cowry, strung on a short bit of grass
fibre, or cord, may indicate “defiance and failure” ; two
cowries, if strung face to face, “relationship and meeting,”
but if strung back to back, “separation and enmity” ;
two cowrics and a feather, “speedy meeting”; three
cowries, with their faces all looking one way, strung with
an alligator pepper, “deceit”; six cowries may indicate
“attachment and affection.” |

According to Bloxam,”* cowries are similarly em-

127 Journ, Anthrop. Inst, Gt. Bn. and 2., vol. xiv., p. 169.
eae Lodds,.Vol, xvi, Pp. 205.

Va Ca
A.—West African symbolic message (after Bluxam).
&.—“ Amulet for protection,” from Kafr Ammar, Egypt (after Petrie).

C.—String of C. annulus from rubbish dating to xxi. dynasty. Medum
(in Manchester Museum),

pe

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lr. (1916), No. 13. 41

ployed by the Jebu tribe of the west coast. TM shells
are strung together in varying numbers, odd numbers, as
a rule, being of evil import, while even numbers express
good will. A single cowry may be sent as an unfavour-
able answer to a request or message. In some cases other
substances besides cowries are included in the aroko or
symbolic letters. Thus we find pieces of spice, a piece of
mat, and a feather, introduced for the purpose of convey-
ing some significant idea. (See /zg. 2 A).

This method of employing cowries for the purpose of
conveying certain ideas is of interest in connection with
discoveries made in Egypt of knotted cords with the same ©
cowries, papyrus charm pendants, uzat eyes, etc., attached.
Several of these cords are figured by Petrie! in his book
on “ Amulets,” all from Kafr Ammar, xxili-xxvth dynasty.
He places the objects among amulets for protection and
says no explanation of their meaning is known in Egypt.
(See Fig. 2 B.)

The history of the cowry in Africa. may be concluded
with a few remarks on its use in Benin and about the

lower Niger. Dennett, speaking of the customs of the

Bini,” informs us that “the people swear by licking and
touching stones, iron, cowries, bits of twisted rope, and the
crushed leaves of a plant, asking these things to kill them
if they are not telling the truth.” According to the same,
authcrity, every great house has an altar to Olukun—the
river spirit of Olukun or Great Benin river—in or near to
which is a pot of water, cowries (Igo) and a heap of other
objects. At Ewesi, not far from the Sobo plains, is a
temple to Olukun, in which are very old wooden figures
(like those into which nails are driven in the Congo)

covered with cowries and other objects. In front of the
£12 W. M. Flinders Petrie, ** Amulets,” London, 1914, p. 29, No. 131,
pl. xvii. —xix.
fooae,. Dennett, ap: c27.5-p. 193:

{
42 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutets, etc.-

great figure of Olukun himself sits a priest, half hidden
by long strings of cowries hung from the roof. At Igo, a
town on the Gilly Gilly road, there is a mound on which
is an altar to Olukun with chalk cones and cowries on it,
all covered by a shed. The presence of an Odigi, or
sacred well, is generally made known along the roads
by a tree and a mound of earth and’ cowries.7) Whe
shells are also scattered at certain death ceremonies. ™
Their association with marriage is seen by the fact that
among the upper class cowries, together with kola-nuts
and palm-wine, are given as presents on_ betrothal.
“Often on the roads one passes a small tree planted by
the side of the road, near which are chalk marks and a
mound of earth, cowries, yams and plantains. This tree
has been planted in memory of the fact that some woman
or other has brought forth a child on that spot.”

On the Bonny river, at Ibo on the Niger, and in other
places of the Niger-delta, cowries have, or had until quite
recently, general currency. In this neighbourhood also it
is the custom, at the interment of a chief, to bury all his
treasure with him in the grave. The brothers Lander
narrate that when they visited Idda, on the left bank of
the Niger, much consternation and indignation prevailed,
owing to the fact that the new chief had again exhumed
and misappropriated for his own use the treasure of —
cowries which had been buried with his father.™

In India the money-cowry seems to have been
regarded with special favour for amuletic and currency
purposes from very early times. It has been met with
on several pre-historic sites accompanied with bangles
made from the sacred chank shell, 7rdcnella pyrum, and

122 Lbat.,, Pp 222-4, and 227.

BI? 100d.) De OO];

129) Dbid., pp. 198-9:
124-Schneider, of.ice/7, pp. USO: 7-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13 43

other shell ornaments. Its association with chank bangles
is specially interesting and seems to imply a similar
cultural source for the use of these white shells. Hornell
in his work on “The Sacred Chank of India” informs
us (p. 50) that fragments of Cypre@a moneta and of a
Nertta, also beads of entire Paludina shells, were found
near Hampasagra, on the Tungabhadra, 53 miles west of
Bellary, along with 18 fragments of chank bangles,
Mr. Bruce Foote placing the age of this find as late
-seolithic or early iron age. Also (p. 51), “from made
ground in the north bank of a nullah, at Huvina, near
Hadagalli, 65 miles west of Bellary, came a single bangle
fragment with two money cowries (Cypre@a moneta),”
and “from an old site north of Bellaguppa, came a
fragment of a working section of chank shell, an entire
Cyprea moneza, four fragments of scraper made of Uzzo
shell, and three fragments of chank bangles ; associated
with these were a neolithic celt,a fragment of a corn-
crusher, some pottery, and two metal fragments, one

I

being possibly part of a bronze ring.” A further discovery
of the money-cowry is recorded from Damnagar, Amreli
Prant, Kathiawar, where two examples were found
associated with a great number of fragmentary chank
bangles, a basalt corncrusher, a bloodstone hammer, and
chert and agate cores (Hornell, p. 57). The example of
C. moneta figured by Hornell on plate V. (3456-13) is of
great interest from the fact that the back of the specimen
has been rubbed down in the characteristic Ancient
Egyptian and East African fashion.

In dealing with the money of India prior to Alex-
ander the Great, Del Mar (of. cz7.) states that : “In Bengal
the principal money finds have been of cowries, the
metallic monies being comparatively few” (p. 66). And

126 Niadras Fisheries Bulletin, No. 7, 1914.

44 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, ete.

again (p. 90) in speaking of the standard of money
in India from Alexander the Great to the Mahommedan
Conquest, he says: “In Northern India the copper pieces
were supplemented by gold and _ silver multipliers, in
Southern India by dividers of cowrie-shells.” In the
Manikyala tope in the Punjab, opened in 1830, “ were
found mingled together cowrie shells, gold coins of the
Kadphises and Kanerkes, Roman consular coins shortly
befure the Christian era, and copper coins of the Sassanian
line.’*®> Cowries formed the bulk of the currency between
the beginning of the Christian era and the Mahommedan
dynasty of a.b. 1203.” In Bengal the system of a copper
standard with cowry dividers and gold and silver multi-
pliers remained unchanged after the Mahommedan Con-
quest. Ibn Batuta,the Arabian traveller of the 14th century,
gives an account of the collection of the cowry-shells in
the Maldive islands, from whence they were exported to
Bengal in exchange for rice. He states that a dustus
equalled a dak of cowries, and four /aks, or four bustus, were
estimated as worth one gold azxzar, but the rate of exchange
was so variable that occasionally a azar would purchase
as many as twelve /aks of cowries.’*

In Orissa, the next kingdom south of Bengal, accounts
were kept in cowries, and the following scale of values
prevailed during the early part of the Mahommedan rule:
4 cowries=1 gunda; 5 gundas=1 boory; 4: boories=1
pun ; 16—20 puns=1 khawun; 10 khawuns=1 rupee, In
1740, a rupee exchanged for 2,400 cowries; in 1756, for

126 Marsden, ‘‘ Numismata Orientalia,” edited by Edward Thomas,
London, 1874, quoted by Del Mar, of. czt., p. 86 footnote.

127 Marsden, of. czt., p. 37; Del Mar, of. cz¢., p. so footnote. .
128 Del Mar, of. czt , p. 99; Edward Thomas, ‘‘ The Chronicles of
the Pathan Kings of Delhi,” London, 1871, p. 110 footnote. In Lee’s

translation of ‘Ibn Battita” (London, 1829, pp. 179 & 181) the cowry
(Wada) is referred to as alms-gifts and as currency in the Maldives.

:

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. 45

2,560 cowries ; in 1833, 6,400 cowries ; and in 1845, 6,500
cowries. Major Rennell, who was in Silhet in 1767-8,
speaking of the cowry-money, remarks: “I found no other
currency of any kind in the country ; and upon an occasion,
when an increase in the revenue of the province was
enforced, several boat loads (not less than 50 tons each)
were collected and sent down the Burrampooter to Dacca.”
As late. as 1801 the revenues of the British district of
Silhet. “were collected in cowries, which was also the
general medium of all pecuniary transactions, and a con-
siderable expense was then incurred by Government in
effecting their conversion into bullion.” (Thomas, of. ccf,
pp. 110—111 footnotes.)

imevell weeve, in his “Conchologia Systematica,’™
mentions that “a gentleman residing some time since at
Cuttack is said to have paid for the erection of his
bungalow entirely in these “cowries LC. moneta). The
building cost him about 4,000 rupees sicca (4400 sterling) ;
and as sixty-four of these shells are equivalent in value
to one ‘pice,’ and sixty-four pice to a rupee sicca, he paid
for it with above sixteen millions of these shells.”

In the Deccan, up to the thirteenth century, but few
coins of any kind seem to have been minted, the currency
appearing to consist almost entirely of cowries (Del Mar,
op. cit., p. 108).

In early times, cowries, it is thought, were brought to
India from the Philippines and Borneo, as well as from
the island of Bima near Macassar (Celebes); in later
times they were obtained from the Laccadive and
Maldive Islands. Of the latter, the Arab Masudi, in the
first half of the roth century, remarked that the queen
had no other kind of money than the cowries, which were

129 Reeve, ‘* Conchologia Systematica,” London, 1842, vol. ii., p. 262
footnote.

46 JACKSON, Use of C owry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc.

obtained by means of rafts made of the branches and
leaves of the cocoa-nut lashed together and floated on
the surface of the sea. The work was carried out by
women. When sufficient animals had become attached
to the rafts by climbing aloft among the branches, these
were dragged ashore and the shells spread out on the
sands to enable the sun to dry up the contained animals.
The Arab author, Ebn Beithar, who died in 1248, also
mentions the Maldives as a locality from which cowries
were obtained.”’ These islands are also referred to by
Ibn Batiita, the Arabian traveller of the 14th century,
who speaks of the use of cowries (Wada) there as currency
and alms-gifts.” At the beginning of the 17th century,
Francois Pyrard de Laval, observed the fishing of the
cowries by the women of the Maldives. According to
him they were collected twice a month, three days after
the new moon and three days after the full moon. The
shells were in such demand in India that sometimes 30 to
40 ships were seen loaded with them. In Cambay and
other Indian places, the prettiest were used as ornaments
along with silver and gold, and held as great rarities, as
if they were precious stones. They also passed current
there as money under the name Boly, and at burials they
were scattered on the way from the house of the defunct
to the cemetery as alms for the poor.’ Captain Owen, in
1832,” gives an account of the collecting of cowries in the
Maldives somewhat similar to that of Masudi. He further
remarks on the similarity of the rafts,or balsas, to those
used on the coasts of Chili and Peru.

Bengal seems to have been the great market for the
cowries from the Maldives. From there they were widely

180° Fide Schneider, of. ctl... p. tie:

131 See Translation by Lee, of. cc¢., pp. 778 & 181.

182 Schneider, of. cz/., p.111.

133 Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. Lond., vol. 2, 1832, pp. 82-3.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lr. (1916), No. 13. = 47

distributed over India, not only over the plains of the
north and north-west, but also along the east coast and.
even to the slopes of the Himalayas and to the Deccan
plateau.”

Besides their use as money in India the same shells
are employed to ornament the trappings of horses and
elephants, as previously remarked. They are also strung
like beads or sewed like buttons on the dresses of the
Brinjari women of Nagpur province.’ According to Dr.
Curt Boeck, they are traded in Indian bazaars, especially
for bordering the cloth-masks of shamans.’ In many
Indian places, e.¢., Gahsi, Punjab, one still finds C. annulus
worn by the native women. The Todas of the Nilgiri
Hills, S. India, wear a C. moneta on a heavy silver collar
(Schneider, of. czz., p. 117). According to Thurston, this
same species is also worn by Toda women on their thread
and silver armlets and necklets. As in Africa, cowries
are associated with Toda death ceremonies. When a
person dies, various objects such as rice, honey, and other
food-stuffs, together with cowries, “ with which to purchase
food in the celestial bazar,’ are burned with him. Like
the Todas, the Kotas of the Nilgiris occasionally make use
of cowries ; they are sometimes seen on the necklets of
the women ; and at funeral ceremonies when the skulls of
the deceased are brought to the funeral ground to be burnt,
a pole, twenty feet long, decorated with cowries, is also
burned in the case of a male. The Nilgiri Irula women, too,
sometimes have bead necklets with cowry-shells pendent.”

134° Schueider, of. cz¢., p. III.

+89 Stearns, ‘‘ Ethno-conchology— A Study of Primitive Money,”
keport U. S, Nat. Afus., 1887, p. 302.

136 Schneider, of. cz/., pp. 116-7.

137 E. Thurston, Madras Government Museum, Bulletin No. 4, 1896,

pp. 154, 174 (Todas), 192, 198 (Kotas) ; Vol. ii., No. 1., 1897, pp. 14 and 16,
pl. v. (Irulas).

48 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets. ete.

Thurston” also cites a curious custom among the Chettis
(traders) of Southern India of unmarried girls wearing a
necklace of the money-cowry and beads, it being “ unusual
for unmarried girls to wear any badge of their condition.”
This association of cowries with the unmarried is of great
interest in view of a somewhat similar custom in East
Africa, to which reference is made on another page.
Thurston further states that “when a Hasalara or Hasala
(forest tribe) of Mysore dies, somebody’s evil spirit is
credited with the mishap, and an astrologer is consulted
to ascertain its identity. He throws cowry (Cyprea
moneta) shells or rice for divination, and mentions the
name of some neighbour as the owner of the devil. There-
upon the spirit of the dead is redeemed by the heir or
relative by means of a pig, fowl, or other guerdon.”
(Thurston, of. czz, pp. 164-5.)

Turning to Ceylon we find that Hildburgh, in his
“Notes on Sinhalese Magic,” states that cowries are
worn as amulets by infants. This same writer also gives
illustrations (pl. XI.) of masks worn by devil-dancers in
which sometimes the upper, or both upper and lower,
teeth are formed of cowry-shells. Culin, in his “Chess
and Playing-Cards,”” describes a cowry game, Kawadi
Kelia, in which cowries of different kinds are used as men,
each player also having three cowries as dice. This game
is clearly related to the Hindu game of Pachisi, also
played with cowries. The shells are thrown as dice and
the counts are according as the apertures fall uppermost
or not. “The game of Pachisi,” says Culit, “mages

‘3S k. Thurston, ‘‘ Ethnographic Notes in Southern India,” Madras,
1906, p. 68; In his article on ‘‘ Some Marriage Customs in Southern India”
(Madras Govt. Mus. Bulletin, vol. iv., No. 3, 1903, p. 155) Thurston gives
the species as Cyprea arabica.

18° Journ. BR. Anthrop. Lust., vol 38 (1908), p. 193.

14° Report U.S. Nat. Mus., for 1896 (1898), pp. 851-4.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. 49

regarded as an expansion and elaboration of the type of
game represented by the Korean Vyout, and sacred and
divinatory in its origin.” Myout is played with staves.
“The two faces of the staves, black and white, may be
regarded as signifying the dual principles of nature,
masculine and feminine. A feminine significance is widely
attributed to the aperture of the cowrie shell. Its convex
side would naturally be regarded as masculine; hence its
substitution for the staves would seem to have been an
easy transition.”

Games like Pachisi, in which cowries are used as dice,
are known in the Maldive Islands under the name Dho/a,
and in Syria under the name of Eadvis a /in; also in
Burma as Pasit.™

In parts of Further India the cowry is still in circula-
tion as money. In Siam and Laos it serves as a form
of currency, and in the former country 6,400 cowries are
said to equal about Is. 6d.” At the end of the 17th century
La Loubere found it in use in all Siam ; it was obtained
from the Laccadives, from Borneo and the Philippines,
where it was taken in as ballast by the ships. About the
middle of the 18th century, according to Gervaise, the
Siamese small-change consisted of small shells, which the
Europeans called cowries and the Siamese Bia. Accord-
ing to Hertz they were no longer in use as small-change
at Bangkok in 1881.”

_In Burma the women of the Taungthas wear a loose
skirt adorned with a wide belt of cowries or silver filigree
work.’*

141 Culin, of, czt., pp. 856-7.

+42 Deniker, of. cét., p. 324: See also ‘‘ Century Dictionary,” ii., p.
1321.

@-* .ochneider, of.cz7., pp. 107-8.

144 *¢ Women of all Nations,” p. 574.

50 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutets, ete.

In Thibet, according to Carl Ritter, cowries serve as
ornaments for women’s girdles.”

Among the Khasias, a stone-using tribe inhabiting the
Khasia Hills of Eastern Bengal, cowries are associated with
marriage, According to Brown,” “the marriage ceremony
is of the most primitive type. All that is necessary is for
the couple to sit together on one seat and receive their
friends, to whom they give a marriage feast. A union so
easily contracted is just as easily dissolved. The woman
receives five cowries which she throws away; they are
then free to be married again, the children remaining with
the mother.” es

Among the Nagas of Assam, head-hunting was
formerly a qualification for matrimony, and a warrior,
having slain an enemy, had the privilege of wearing a kilt
decorated with cowry-shells, collars ornamented with
similar shells, tufts of goat hair dyed red, and locks of
hair from the heads of the persons killed.

A similar custom is prevalent among the head-hunt-
ing Patasiwa of Seran, where a warrior is not allowed to
take a wife until he can show the head of an enemy he has
slain. In proof of his prowess the warrior wears as many
little white shells (? cowries) round his neck and arms as
he has murdered men,**® An even more striking identity
in the association of cowries with head-hunting is to be
found in East Central Africa, where the Djibba tribe wear
not only the cowries but also the hair from the heads of
the slain enemies (see p. 20).

145 Schneider, of. cz¢., p. 117.

'46 Brown, of. czt,, III., p. 302; quoting Lieut. Steel, R.A., /oze7.
Ethnol. Soc., VU1., p. 305. By some philolegists the Khasias are considered
to be Thibetans.

147 « Women of all Nations,” edited by Joyce and Thomas, 1909. p.
581.

148 G, A. Cooke, ‘‘ System of Universal Geography,” vol. i. (1801), p.
609.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lv, (1916), No. 13. 51

Among the Dyaks of Borneo it is the custom to place
the small white money-cowries in the eye-sockets of the
skulls of enemies, which they keep.’ The baskets of the
Dyak head-hunter are also decorated with the same
cowries.”’ Specimens in the Leiden Museum show -C.
annulus as decoration for sword-hangings from. West
Borneo, and C. moneta as decoration for a betel-pouch
from South-east Borneo.”

In certain parts of Malaysia, cowries are attached to
the fishing-nets, not as “net-sinkers” as recorded by
several ethnologists,” but in order to ensure success in
fishing or to ward off evil influences. In Nias, an island
off the west coast of Sumatra, Cypre@a vitellus is so used ;
in Engano, an island in the same neighbourhood, the
species is C. ventreculus ; in Timor, C. arabica ; while off
N.W. New Guinea the shells employed are C. moneta,
C. caput-serpentis, C. erosa, C. lynx, C. tigris and C. vitellus.”

According to Von Martens, the Berlin Museum con-
tains specimens of clothing ornamented with cowries, from
Bali, near Java.’ In Timorlaut the natives adorn cloth-
eirdles with cowries, and in the same island, four species
of cowries, C. annulus, C. tsabella, C. erosa, and C. helvola,
are employed as neck-ornaments.””

Van der Sande,” describes and figures several neck-
ornaments from Dutch New Guinea, on which specimens

Be SteAgnS; OP. C27... Pp. 302; Ratzel,of..czz.,-1., po.1 35 (fie.).

ape Ixaizel, of. cit., vol. 1., p. 448 (fig.)

151 Schmeltz, ‘‘ Schnecken und Muscheln in leben der volker Indo-
nesians und Oceaniens,” Leiden, 1894.

152 The slight weight of these shells would render them valueless as
sinkers.

LIME ltZy. OP.) GEL. 5

to4 Schneider, of. czf., p. 118.

oe ira. ,.a0G SeMMNeltz, Os, C27.
; 156 Wan der Sande, ‘‘ Nova Guinea,” ili , 1907, pp. 83, 117-8, pl. xiii.,
bP As

52 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc.

of C. annulus are strung on strips of Pandanus leaf, the
whole hanging down from a neck string in front of the
chest. Schmeltz (op: czz., pp. 23 et seq.), also cites me
use of C. argus and C. lynx as breast-ornaments, and
C. moneta on hip-strings in N.E. New Guinea; C. moneta
on arm band, C. azxulus as leg- and shield-ornaments in
S.E. New Guinea; and C. moneta as ankle-ornament in
N.W. New Guinea.

In the Philippines, according to Schmeltz (op. czz.),
C. annulus is used as a neck-ornament, as decoration for
the coat-of-mail of the Moro, and as the eyes of ancestor-
images.

According to Pickering the cowry was formerly in use

aS money in the Hawatian Islands. He says™" jm
estimable and intelligent Hawaiian lady gave me the
following particulars respecting former customs:
Money was certainly known, for with a string of cowries
(Cyprea moneta) it was possible to buy any article wanted.
Specimens of the same shell that were finer than usual,
having a high polish and deep yellow colour, were
extravagantly valued, and could only be worn by the
highest chiefs, who also exclusively possessed wooden
calabashes.” In the Vancouver collection, British Museum,
are Leis of Cypr@a moneta from these islands.’*

In Oahu, Hawaii Islands, a large cowry, Cyprea
mauritiana, is attached to fishing-nets in order to ensure
success. Specimens -of this are‘ in the R. D. Darhie
shire collection, Manchester Museum. The stone (lava)
“net-sinkers”” of Oahu are curiously enough all modelled
after this shell, being roughly carved with a high round
back and flat base, with a groove for the attachment of a

cord.

157 Pickering, ‘‘ Races of Man” (Bohn’s Ed.), 1863, quoted by Stearns,
op. ctt., p. 303.
15S “Bernice Panahi Bishop Museum,” Honolulu (1898-1902), Report
1., p. 43.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 138. 53

Cypre@a moneta appears to have been current also in
other islands of the Pacific, as Brenchley states: “ At
Eramango [New Hebrides] a shell called ‘ Nunpuri,’ the
Cypre@a moneta, passes as money, as also in New Caledonia.”

In the Bismark Archipelago, says Schneider (of. czt,
p. 118), C. anxnulus was found as money in special cases.

In Gilbert Archipelago, the Ellice and Kingsmill
Islands, Cypr@a moneta and C. annulus are used as body-
ornament and for decorating implements and tools.

EW. Christian, in his article “On ~ Micronesian
Weapons, Dress, Implements, etc,” figures a cowry-shell
used in the Carolines for stripping off the outer skin of
the bread-fruit. The figured shell looks like a Cyprea
mauritzana. He also figures an Ovulum ovuin shell
(often alluded to as the white cowry) pierced for
ornamenting prows of canoes. The use of this shell
aS a canoe-ornament is general throughout the Pacific.
Amongst other places it is recorded from the Pelew Islands,
Yap, Gilbert Archipelago, Samoa, Niné, Viti Islands,
Solomon Archipelago and Torres Straits Islands. In
some of these and in other islands it is also worn as an
ornament for the neck, breast, or leg, and placed on the
outsides of native houses. In Tonga it is used asa grave-
ornament, and in the Solomons as decoration of an idol.’”

In Tahiti, Cvpr@a moneta and C. talpa are worn on
the neck, and C. ¢zgrzs occurs on the base of an idol from
Tahiti, now in the British Museum.” Sir C. H.. Read, in
his descripticn of specimens obtained on Vancouver's
EE Brenchley, ‘‘ Cruise of the ‘ Curacoa,’” 1873, p. 299, quoted by C.
Hedley, A/em. Aus. A/us., ii., pt. 7, 1899, p. 452.

£60 Schneider, of. cz¢., p. 118.

sone win op. 11st, 28 (1898-9), pp. 288 et-seq., pl. :xxiv., £5.

162 Schmeltz, ‘‘Schnecken und Muscheln in leben der vélker Indo-

nesiens und Oceaniens,” Leiden, 1894.
163 Th7q,

54 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutets. ete.

voyage, figures an instrument of palm-wood, used for
splitting bread-fruit in this island, to which are attached
two tiger cowries with their inner whorls broken out, and
one end cut off.

In the Loyalty Islands, the orange cowry (Cyprea
aurora) is greatly appreciated. Vhe Rev. Mr. Hadfield,
in the course of his missionary work, came across a fine
specimen in a native hut in Lifu, where it was held in
much veneration by the occupant, who considered it a
kind of fetish.” Mr. Hadfield also gives us some further
interesting information regarding this species. He tells
us that his wife came upon a specimen which, according
to the native report, had been found by an old woman
who was struck on the forehead by a demon, who asked
her why she took the shell. The woman, it is said, died

166 6 This fine shell is used asa

from the effects of the blow.
badge of high rank in Tonga, or Friendly Islands, as well
asin Fiji. One of the most remarkable Fijian industries
is the working of whales’ teeth to represent this cowry, as
well as the commoner C. ¢a/pa, which is more easily
imitated.”

The New Zealanders, it is stated, use Cyfriea asellus
and other shells to form the eyes of their idols.

Codrington, in his “ Melanesians” (Oxford, 1891, p. 26),
tells us that in Aurora, the nearest of the New Hebrides
to the Bank’s Islands, the natives have a story that the
first woman came from a cowry-shell. Somewhat analogous
ideas are expressed in the traditions of the Samoans as
to the origin of man. By these people it is believed

164. J. Anthrop. 18's. 20 (1891-2), pp-105-6, ple x2, 1G,

165 Melvill & Standen, ‘‘ Lifu Mollusca,” /ozzn. of Conchology, viii,
1895, p. 112.

A6 S bid Gp. a ave

167 A. TH. Cooke, ‘‘ Mollusks,” Camb, Nat. Hist., 1895, p. 08.

168 Jhid, p. 99. |

4

7
4
;

‘

,

{
‘4

Fi

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. V3. - 55

that man is formed from a species of mussel and that
gods are present in some of the shell-fish.“% A similar idea
concerning the possibility of human beings living in shells
is current among the Indians of the N.W. coast of
America. According to the Haida and Kaigani the first
people sprang from a cockle-shell.””

In the Far East, cowries, both large and small, were
used as a medium of currency long before the Christian
era. Frequent allusions are made to them in ancient
Chinese literature, but the authenticity of some of these
records and of the dates assigned to the period when
cowries were in use is open to some criticism. M.
Terrien de Lacouperie™” has presented us with some re-
markable views on the origin of Chinese civilization, based
upon the study of numerous Chinese works, and from his
statements it would appear that cowries were used as
money in China as early as 2,000 years B.C. But the
fact that many of the works which he studied are, toa
large extent, based upon tradition renders them unreliable
as evidence as to date. It seems certain, however, that
cowries were in circulation among the people of Eastern
China in the seventh century B.Cc., and the southern country
of Ts’u figures largely in connection with supplies of these
shells for currency. Contact with the west through sea-
traders of the Indian Ocean (Erythraan Sea), who are
claimed to have established a colony in the Gulf of Kiao-
chou (South Shantung) in 675-670 B.c., had made them
familiar with many western practices, and it is not im-
probable that the use of the cowry was one of them.
Some time about 600 B.c., the king of Ts’u issued two

169° Turner, ‘‘ Samoa, etc.” London, 1884, pp. 8, 12 and 17.

170 Niblack, ‘* The Coast Indians of Southern Alaska and Northern
British Columbia,” Weft. U.S. Nat. Afus., 1887-8 (1890), p. 378.

171 Terrien de Lacouperie, ‘‘ Western Origin of the Early Chinese
Civilisation from 2,300 B.C. to 200 A.D.” London, 1894.

56 JACKSON, Use.of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc.

sizes of small coins, bean-shaped (in the fashion of the
/Eginetan and Lydian coins of 750-700 B.C.) and inscribed
with their respective weights. These coins are known in
native numismatics as metallic cowries, Ho-pez {¢szen,
because their shape suggested that of the once useful
little shells they superseded. They have also received
other quaint appellatives, as ‘Ghost-heads, Awez-/ou ;
‘Ghost-faces, AK wez-liex ; and ‘ Ants’-noses money, Y-pz
tszen.” The introduction of this and other metallic
currencies caused the circulation of cowries to disappear
eradually in eastern China, and in B.C. 221, the king of
Tsin, having assumed the title of She Hwang-ti, “the
first universal Emperor,” issued an order forbidding hence-
forth the use of gems, pearis, tortoise-shells, cowries and
tin for currency purposes. Cowries, however, still con-
tinued to be regarded as objects of appreciation ; and in
B.C. 179 we find the king of Nan-yueh sending as presents
to the Chinese emperors 500 purple cowries’™ along with
other gifts. At the end of the First Han dynasty an
attempt was made by Sin Wang Mang, the usurper (A.D.
g-22), to revive the circulation of cowries and _ tortoise-
shells, but little success rewarded his efforts. According
to Lacouperie,' the cowry currency consisted of five sorts,

regulated as follows :—
“(1) The great shells; 4 ¢suz or inches, 8 fez or 1oths
in length ; two of which formed a pang or pair ;

value 216 cowries.

(2) The bull shells ; 3 ¢svz, 6 fez in length; a pair of
which was worth 150 cowries.

172 Lacouperie, of. cz¢., p. 118; also ‘‘ Catalogue of Chinese Coins in
British Museum.” London, 1892; and ‘‘ The Metallic Cowries of Ancient
China, 600 B.c.,” Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc., xx., 1888, pp. 428-439.

178 The money cowry, C. moneta, before becoming fully adult, has
a deep purple back, and probably these were the objects sent.

174 -Lacouperie, of. cz7., 1892, p. 382.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 13. = 57

(3) The small shells; 2 tsun, 4 fen in length; a pair
of which was worth 30 cowries.

fo ihe lesser shells ; 1 tsuxz, 2 fex in length ;. a pair
of which was worth Io cowries.

(5) The smallest shells (cypre@ monete, or cowries),
being smaller than 1 /swz 2 fen, were not fastened
in pairs; each was worth three cash. Those
which were smaller than six fez were not used
for currency.”

The shells of groups 1 to 4 seem to have been un-
doubted cowries, as in group 5, only larger, as the same
characteristic Chinese hieroglyph denoting cowry (see
Fig. 3 C.) appears against each of the groups.

Unfortunately, except for dimensions, the particulars
are lacking as to the species of cowries forming these
four groups.

If we may take the measurements as more or less
approximating to English inches, it is possible to find a
series of cowries inhabiting Eastern seas which would
come within these dimensions. For example, Cypreéa

)

testudinarza (the “tortoise-cowry,’ named by Linnzus
from its resemblance to the tortoise) might very well have
served for group 1. Of the others, group 2 may have
been smaller examples of the same, or even Cy prea tigrts ;
group 3 may have been Cyprea lynx; while group 4 were
probably exceptionally large examples of Cypr@a moneta.
The average length of the latter species is about one inch.

Regarding the tortoise-shells re-issued by Wang Mang,
Lacouperie informs us that “there were four different
sorts, of various sizes and denominations, with different
values, but the details have not yet been handed down to
our time.” It is not a little curious that the larger cowry-
shells were also of four different sorts, sizes, and values.

58 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, e/c.

‘(joo1X) OT Taye (7 01 7) ANQOoL—'7 ‘9NqUL—'F ‘Aouariny jo ssuujS—"H *UVWeaM—"yY = “SNOII9I@ — “77
‘(UOSIIIOFY 19) ., [[PYS-9stoywwoy, ,,— "GJ *(}001N) 9 raye), ,, AIM0D ,,—'‘D
“(2S Sr Cur Sdury OOYS ,,) adda7T 0} Surps099~ ,,‘9S1OJA0} WWaIt) ,,—"F
~ (guadnoovy] toye) Aouatins Suveyy SUP AK
jo (SAUMOD=) ,,STJOYS Wwoesn),, £ (61 CUXx “A {BUDS OOYS ,,) edda7T 0} Burps099e , “[[@YS-9S1O}AO] VIAL) ,, —"
aSIOWIOT, puv AIMOD AJ SYA] Soraty asauty’)
© ODT

% “A "2 ey =

o A > ert o a
[ry —— Ae A

=

Pema).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lv. (1916), No. 43. = 59

This suggests the possibility of the so-called “ tortoise-
shells” being really cowries.

From the following facts it is obvious that some con-
fusion has taken place with regard to the interpretation of
certain symbols in ancient Chinese works.

In Dr. Morrison’s * Dictionary of the Chinese Lan-
guage’ a symbol known as fed (see Fig. 3C), is translated
feie22,’ No. $471) as “the tortoise shell or pearl-oyster
smell = on an earlier page (p. 510, No. 6811) quite a
distinct symbol, £zwez, is translated “ tortoise,’ and the fez
symbol is attached to denote “tortoise shell” —Awez pez
(see #727 3.))).

lie Cinimese work, the £/7 Kz. or.“ Treatises. on
seremomal Uses” (referred: to on a later page) the pez
symbol (/zg. 3C) is used to denote a particular object
placed in the mouth of the dead. The symbol in this
case has been correctly interpreted by the translator of

“

the work as meaning “ cowry.”

Imethe © Shoo: Kine” (v., xxii., 19), the same symbols
(f2g. 3A) as quoted by Lacouperie for the “great shells”
(zé., cowries) of the Wang Mang currency, are used ina
paragraph describing a display of various precious relics.
But these characters have been translated by Dr. Legge,
in his “ Chinese Classics,” '® as the “ great tortoise-shell.”

hes Lribute of Yu 2 (“ Shoo Kine;? ji1. 71,;-52):relers
to a particular object presented to Yui from the country
of the nine Kéang, the symbol denoting this object being
the Kwez (No. 6811, p. 510) of Morrison’s Dictionary
(fig. 34). It is here translated by Legge as “ the great
tortoise.’’'” In his footnotes to this passage the translator
states that “according to the ‘ Historical Records’ the

175 Dr. R. Morrison, ‘‘ Dictionary of the Chinese Language,” 1819,
Bolo I pt. it.

tv6 Dr, J. Legge, *‘ Chinese Classics,” 1865, vol. lii., pt. ii., p. 554.

Se Wom Wolo iik, pt. ik, ps: EG.

60 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, ete.

great tortoise attained the size of two cubits and a half.
Such a creature would be esteemed very valuable, where
divination was much relied on”; and further, according
to Gan-Kwo6, that “the tortoise was not a regular article
of tribute, but was presented when required by express
command.”

In the “ Pwan-Kang” (“Shoo King,” iv., vii., 14), the
characteristic symbol, pez (77g. 3C) occurs in a passage
dealing with the hoarding propensities of government
officials, and is here translated by Legge as “ cowries.””™

From the above remarks it will be seen that the pez
symbol has been incorrectly interpreted in certain cases.

Some interesting particulars concerning the use of
cowries in connection with the dead are given by Dr. J. J.
M. de Groot, in his work on “The Religious System in
China.”*” The ancient Chinese, he tells us, used several
precious articles for preserving their dead. To this end
they availed themselves of cowry-shells, which were so
valuable in ancient times for currency. This fact, well
known to Sinologists, is especially manifest in the ancient
hieroglyph denoting the cowry (see /zg. 3C), which enters
into the composition of most characters signifying things
of value and acts connected with trade and barter (see
DF i PL Ae.

These shells were used in association with rice for
stuffing the mouth of the dead. They were made to
support the last molar tooth on the left and the right side,
and the mouth was finally filled up with rice.

According to the “Zz Xz,” or “Treatises on Cere-
monial Usages” (an important source of our knowledge
of China during pre-Christian times), the mouth of the
Son of Heaven was stuffed with nine cowries, that of a

88. (bid. Ms, Pits ke, P 240.

179 Vol. i., bk. i., ‘* Disposal of the Dead.” Leyden, 1892, pp, 275-6.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 43. 61

feudal lord with seven, that of a great officer with five,
and that of an ordinary official with three.

In some of the out-of-the-way corners of China ¢ cowries
remained in circulation for many centuries. In Marco
Polo’s time (A.D. 1275—91) cowries, called “ porcellani”
by this traveller, were still in use in the country of Yunnan,
the shells being gathered at the group of islands now
known as Pulo Condore, off Cochin China."!

In the 16th century the cowry-currency seems to have
been officially suspended in Yunnan province. At the
present time cowries appear to have completely lost their
money value in Yunnan, since Lieutenant Garmer found
them nowhere in use north of Luang Prabang, Laos; and
in western Yunnan they were worn only as ornament by
the Kakhyens. Carl Bock likewise saw cowries on the
head-masks of the leaders of the mule-caravans which
come from Yunnan into northern Further India.

It is doubtful whether the cowry was used as currency
in Japan, though it is possible that in olden times shells
from the neighbouring Liu Kiu Islands were so used.
The Japanese name, Zakara (=prosperity, riches), fad or
Pemieenell), inay indicate their use as money. In.
Kamprers “ Description of Japan” (London, 1727, Bk. 1,
Ehpet appears: “Takara. gai, called Kauri in India,
brought from the Maldives and other islands and im-
ported into Bengal, Pegu and Siam, where it serves as
Gimment money. K. Florenz reports that the Japanese
women at their confinement hold in the hand a “ Koyasu-
gai (Easy-delivery-shell), a species of cowry,” in order to
ensure certain and easy delivery, a practise analagous to

18° Fide De Groot, of. ctt., p. 275.

181 Colonel Henry Yule, ‘* The Book of Ser Marco Polo,” London,
1871, vol. ii., pp. 39 e¢ seg.

182 Schneider, of. ciZ., p. 107.

62 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutets, ete.

that of other peoples, ¢.g., the Indian!” Attention has
already been called to the similarity of this custom to
that of the Togo people of West Africa.

The money-cowry (Cyér@a moneta) is, and has been
for centuries, a sacred object among the Ojibwa and
Menomini Indians of North America, and is employed in
initiation ceremonies of the Grand Medicine Society.™

The use of this particular cowry by these Indians is of
peculiar interest; in the first place; owing to it being
alien to the American continent, and in the second place,
in view of its intimate association with so many remark-
able and fantastic beliefs and practices in different parts
of the Old World.

The tradition among the Indians is that the original
sacred shell—zn7’gvs," of the Ojibwa; konud’pamik, of the
Menomini—was introduced by a particular hero-god, who
acted as an intermediary between the Great Unknown
and the Indians, and founded their Medicine Society.
Among the Menomini the sacred shell-appears always to
be the small white money-cowry, Cyprea moneta,;® but
among the Ojibwa, according to Hoffman, it consists of a
small white shell, of almost any species: but the one
believed to resemble the mythical 7zz’gvs is similar to the
money-cowry. This fact would seem to imply that the
money-cowry is scarce among them, and those they
possess, doubtless handed down from generation to genera-
tion, are regarded with special veneration as being like

183 Schneider, of. cz/., p. 108. |

ist W. J. Hoffman, Bureau of Ethnology (United States), 7th Annual
Report, 1885-6 (1891), and 14th Aunual Report, 1892-3 (1896), pt. i. ; also
J. W. Jackson, Alusch. Memortrs (Lit. and Phil, Soc.), vol. 1x. (1916), No.
4. Abstract in Mature, January 27th, 1916.

485 In the Ojibwa language, mi’gis = symbolical of life.

186 The example figured by Hoffman (of. czt., 1891, pl. xi., fig. 1) Is

interesting, as it is perforated at one end as if for suspension; it is of the
dwarf var. atava of C. moneta (see Fig. 1D).

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. (x. (1916), No. 13. 63

that which came into their possession through the hero-
god Minabd zho. .

The initiation ceremonies of these Indians are very
elaborate: the most important incidents are dancing and
the shooting forward by the medicine men of their skin
medicine-bags containing the sacred cowries. Mystic
powers are attributed to the shells, and it is firmly believed
that if they be swallowed by the medicine man, he can
transfer his power to the medicine-bag by breathing on
it, the mysterious influence being then conveyed to the
desired object or person merely by thrusting the bag for-
ward in the appropriate direction. At the initiation
ceremonies the magic influence is shot at the candidate’s
breast, and the cowry—the symbol of life—is supposed to
enter his heart ; he becomes unconcious and falls forward
on his face. The chief medicine man then raises the
candidate’s head slightly from the ground, and a sacred
cowry drops from the candidate’s mouth.

The same cowries apparently play an important part
at baptismal ceremonies of the Ojibwa. There is much
dancing and the same shooting forward of the medicine
bags, and after a good deal of facial contortion each
medicine man spits out two shells on to a cloth spread in
the middle of the medicine tent.

_ The essential part of these ceremonies is the supposed
death and survival of the candidate, the whole ceremonial
being strongly reminiscent of the St. George, or Mummers’,
Plays of the Old World."* It is remarkable how closely
the prevailing idea of the cowries being connected in some
strange manner with resurrection and resuscitation agrees

*s* James Greenwood, ‘‘ Curiosities of Savage Life,” London, 1863,
Bad:
488 For a full discussion of this subject see A. Beatty, ‘‘ The St.
George, or Mummers’ Plays; A Study in the Protology of the Drama,”
Trans. Wisc. Acad, Sct, Arts and Letters, xv., pt. ii., Oct., 1906.

64 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, ete.

with the ancient Chinese belief as evidenced in the cere-
monial use of money-cowries in obsequies of the dead.
As mentioned previously, in pre-Christian and later times,
cowries were used in China, in association with rice, for
stuffing the mouth of the dead. Wild rice, it might be
added, also enters into the ritual of Ojibwa and Menomini
ceremonies. The fact that the so-called “wild rice” of
America is not identical with true rice cannot be raised
as an objection to the identity of these practices: for
the similarity which suggested the name “wild rice” to
Evropean immigrants in America no doubt appealed with
equal force to the earlier Asiatic rice-using immigrants.
The apparent identity in the spitting out of cowries
by the Togo priests of West Africa and by the medicine
men of the Ojibwa and Menomini Indians has been noted
already. The association of the money-cowry with the
medicine bags used by the Sierra Leone cannibals at
initiation ceremonies is a further remarkable parallel.
Some interesting evidence of the- early use of the
money-cowry in North America is contained in an ex-
haustive account on “Aboriginal Sites on Tennessee
River,” by Mr. Clarence B. Moore.* In his description
of the Roden Mounds, Marshall County, Alabama, this
author informs us that in Burial No. 44, well in the body
of mound A, were the remains of a skull, near which were
fragments of a large marine univalve, and five shells, some
much decayed, which had been pierced for stringing, like
beads. These are pronounced by Dr. H. A. Pilsbry, the
well-known American conchologist, to be examples of the
money-cowry, Cyprea mcneta, of Eastern Seas. Such
shells have never been recorded before from an aboriginal
mound in the United States. The careful investigation”
of the Roden mounds indicated that they had been built
189 Tourn. Acad. Nat. Sct. Philad., 2nd Ser., xvi., pt. i1., 1915.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lr. (1916), No. 18. 65

before their makers had any intercourse with white per-
sons. The presence of the cowries, therefore, is of special
interest.

The shells were sent by the discoverer to Dr. W. H.
Dall, another of America’s leading conchologists, and the
following extraordinary statement was received in reply :-—

‘‘] should incline to the belief that the cowries were
imported in or about the time of Columbus’ voyages.
Bound, as they supposed, for the Indies, where the
cowry was formerly (like our wampum) a staple
article of barter, the exploring vessels would undoubt-
edly have carried cowries as well as the other articles
of trade we know they carried. It would not have
taken them long to find out that cowries did not pass
as currency with American natives, and reporting this
on their return to Spain later traders would not have
carried them for barter, The necklace or bracelet
you obtained may have passed from hand to hand as
a curiosity (as [ have known such things to do) until
it reached a people who knew nothing of the whites
till much later. In fact your cowries may have come
off one of Columbus’ own vessels ! ”

But an even more remarkable story is that given in
“Harper's Monthly Magazine” for September (1916,
p. 599), by Mr. H. Newell Wardle, of the Philadelphia
Academy of Natural Science, as follows :—

“The great Genoese, starting in 1492 on his first
voyage to discover a new route to the kingdom of the
Great Khan, doubtless stocked his ships with a goodly
store of these ivory-white porcelain shells. He had
been in Guinea. He knew the requirements of the
Gold Coast trade .... Probably, though he fails to
mention it, cowries, strung as for the Guinea trade,
were part of his stock—an ill-venture, in competition

66 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, ete.

with the shell ornaments of the Gulf Coast.... So
mayhap the five little shells were bestowed, by Colum-
bus’s own hands, upon a native of the isles, were
carried across to the mainland on some trip of trade
or of pleasure, and thence, from hand to hand, as
curios, journeyed northward with an ever-growing
wonder-tale of the great white chiefs from the East. . .”

“If not thus, then they had journeyed in dangling
from the trappings of one of those noble steeds that
shared the perils of the early explorers of the main-
lands es. 3”

“Certain it is that they date from the close of the
fifteenth or the early days of the sixteenth century.”
But Mr. Wardle omits the most wonderful episode of

his wonder-tale—I refer to the fact that after all these
imaginary wanderings and episodes on sea and land, the
cowries should eventually have come to rest in the heart
of the American continent, and, “of course purely by
accident,” have become linked up with the identical beliefs
and fantastic practices with which they are associated in
Africa, India and Eastern Asia !

To such lengths does the American ethnologist go
rather than admit the patent fact that these shells
and the associated beliefs and practices were taken
from Eastern Asia to America long before the time of
Columbus!

According to Mr. Charles C. Willoughby, the Peabody
Museum, Cambridge, Mass., contains a dress of a Cree
woman, collected by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in
1804-5, on which are four dozen cowries (see American
Anthropologist, 1905, for picture of the dress). :

The shells from the Roden mound, Moore informs us,
“differ from those on the Cree dress, which are of a larger
variety and much more distinctly humped than are our

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lz. (1916), No. 13. 67

shells, ours being of the variety afava, as described by
Rochebrune,” who says they come from the Cape Verde
Islands” (see Fzg. IC).

Notwithstanding Rochebrune’s assertion, few students
of Cyprea admit the possibility of the occurrence of living
C. moneta at the Cape Verde Islands, or indeed on any
portion of the West African coast. The cited occurrences
there of this and the allied form, C. annulus, may be due
to accident. As already stated, enormous numbers of
these shells have been carried to this coast during the
last few centuries, and it is a well-known fact that ships
conveying this commodity have occasionally come to
crief, the cargo of shells being lost. Such an occurrence
is recorded to have taken place in the year 1873, when
the “ Glendowra,” a four-masted barque, homeward bound
from Manilla, was wrecked off the coast of Cumberland.
The “Glendowra” had on board some 600 bags of cowries
(C. moneta and C. annulus) and missed the port of Liver-
pool through an error in her course, and, in the fog which
prevailed, ran ashore near Seascale. For years these
shells have been picked up, in good condition, on the
sandy shore between Seascale and the river Calder, and
collectors, unaware of.their history, have regarded them
as indigenous to the British Isles.”

Unfortunately, the precise distribution of the numerous
varieties of C. sonefa is not very well known. Hence it
is not possible to be sure of the exact provenance of the
Roden mound cowries, nor of those on the Cree dress.
It may be of interest, however, to note that Dr. J. Cosmo
Melvill, in his “Survey of the Genus Cyprea” (of. cit,
p. 240), gives India as a locality for the var, a/ava.

19° Bull. Soc. Malac. de France, i., 1884, p. 83, pl. i., fig. 4 (copied
in “ig. 1C of the present paper).

tet See The Naturalis’, London, Nov., 1890, p. 324.

68 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, etc.

Mr. Willoughby believes that cowry shells were sold |
to the Indians by the Hudson’s Bay Company late in the
eighteenth or early in the nineteenth century. |

Prof. Henry Montgomery™ records and figures a cowry
found near the so-called Onatonabee Serpent Mound,
Peterboro County, Ontario. Mr. C. B. Moore, (of. céz.,
p. 295) says: “The shell described by Professor Mont-
comery is a regular Cyfre@a moneta, or money cowry of.
Africa and the East, and not a California sheli. This
shell, which, by the way, is not pierced for stringing, is
probably one from the Hudson’s Bay Company stock. .
We do not think the sale of cowries to Indians in the
North at a comparatively late date by the Hudson’s Bay
Company indicates a relatively recent origin for the
Roden mounds, for, at a period when the supplies of the
Hudson’s Bay Company could have reached the makers
of the Roden mounds, articles of European make could
have got among them from al] directions and the mounds
presumably would have been well supplied with glass
beads, brass, iron, and other things obtained from Euro-
pean sources which, as we see, was very far from being
the case.”

In an old account by G. A. Cooke,” dealing with the
habits and customs of the Indians of the most northern
parts of America, some interesting particulars are given
concerning the ceremonies observed by certain tribes
previous to waging war. One of the most hideous of
these, Cooke informs us, was the setting of the war-kettle
on the fire, as an emblem that they were going out to
devour their enemies. A forcelane, or large shell, was
then dispatched to their allies, inviting them to come

along and drink the blood of their enemies. Unfortu-

192 Trans. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 1910, ix. (i.) No. 20, p. 7, pl. -ivsy
fig. 6 (fide Moore).

*®° Cooke, of. ce¢., IL., p. 21.

Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 18. 69

nately, neither the name of the tribes concerned, nor the
name of the shell employed, are given; but the fact of
the latter being called a “porcelane” is not without
interest, as “porcelane” is the common French term for
cowry. There is no certain evidence, however, to support
the conclusion that a cowry was the shell employed as a
war signal. Earlier in this paper we have seen that when
the Egbas of West Africa meditated war, cowries were
thrown into the air by the war-priest ; and in the Yoruba
country, where cowries are used for symbolic messages,
a solitary cowry indicates defiance.

Pe: “As
Oviula (Calpurnus) verrucosa L.

A.—Philippines (after Keeve).
&.—Ancient American graves (after Holmes).

Mr. W. H. Holmes, in his “ Art in Shell of the Ancient
Americans,’™ illustrates in Plate xxxii. a number of
perforated marine shells exhumed from ancient graves of
North America, Two of these (Figs. 11 and 12) are of
' special interest as coming within the scope of the present
communication. Unfortunately the precise data regarding
the site of their discovery are not given; all we are told is

*®* Second Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1883,
PP» 179-305.

70 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amulets, ete.

that they are from the Pacific coast. Fig. 11 shows a
cowry with a small hole near each extremity, illustrating,
it is stated (p. 220), “an ancient as well as a modern
method of perforation.” The name of the species is not
given, but it does not appear to me to be an American
shell. Though the illustration is not sufficiently clear to
define the species, in general appearance and contour the
shell has a look of Cyprea caput-serpentis—an Indo-Pacific
species,

Holmes’ Fig. 12 (see Fig. 42) shows a shell rubbed
down on the back, and is referred, like the last, to Cyprea ;
but this is incorrect, the shell being undoubtedly Ovudla
(Calpurnus) verrucosa, L.” (fig. 4A). This fact is of
great importance and has hitherto passed unnoticed.
Like the money-cowry, C. moneta, which it somewhat
- resembles, this species is alien to the American continent ;
it is known to occur only in East Africa; the Indian
Ocean, Philippines, New Caledonia and neighbouring
Islands.

According to Schmeltz (of. czt., 1894, p. 34), this shell
is worn as a neck-ornament in the Viti, or Fiji, Islands ;
as a hip-ornament in Santa Cruz (Queen Charlotte
Islands); and as a leg-ornament in East New Guinea.
The Rev. A. H. Cooke” also informs us that in Papua,
“village elders are distinguished by a single Ovalum
verrucosum, worn in the centre of the forehead.”

The fact that the shell figured by Holmes is ground
down on the back, as is done in the case of money-
cowries in India, Africa, and other places, is of no little
interest. Such an arbitrary method of perforation does

195 The well-defined tubercles at the extremities confirm this identifi-
cation. Compare, Tryon’s ‘‘ Manual of Conchology,” vii., 1885, pl. 5, fig.
56-58 (Ovulidze) ; Reeve, ‘‘ Conchologia Iconica : Monograph of the Genus

Ovulum,” 1865, pl. 1., fig. 2.
196 * Molluscs,” Camb, Nat. Hist., vol. i1i1., London, 1895, p. 99.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), Vo. 13.. FA

not seem to have been usual in shells other than cowries,
either in America or anywhere else.

It is remarkable that after so many years, and with
the yearly increase of knowledge, the two shells figured
by Holmes should have remained undetermined. They
are reproduced along with the other shells of Holmes’
plate by H. Beuchat, on page 145 of his “Manuel
d’Archéologie Américaine” (Paris, 1912), but no further
details are added.

Regarding the use of cowries in Southern California,
Frederick W. Putnam" gives some interesting particulars,
though these are somewhat lacking in detail. He writes
mouse ys * The fact that the Indians of California, in
common with savages generally, often decorated their
implements and utensils-with the same materials which
they employed for personal ornament, is proved by articles
collected from the graves ; as, for instance, the decoration
of the rims of the large stone mortars, on which, held in
place by asphaltum, are pieces of the pearly shell of
Haliotis, or sometimes, the perfect shells of two or three
beautiful species of Cyprea; C. spadicea particularly being
employed on the mainland. Another method of ornament-
ing the rims of these.mortars consisted in cutting away the
dorsal portion of the shells of Cyfv@a and fastening them
to the mortar, by their cut surface, with asphaltum, so as
to exhibit the lips of the shell, with their serrated edges.”
Such a cut shell is represented by Putnam in Plate xiii.,
Fig. 52, of his work, but no specific name is given. Its
contour is totally unlike that of C. spadzcea, or any other
American cowry. My colleague, Mr. R. Standen, and I
have carefully compared the illustration with various
cowries, and the only shell the features of which appear

197 In ‘* Report U.S. Geog. Surv. west of 1ooth meridian, vol. vii.—
Archzeology,” Washington, 1879.

72 JACKSON, Use of Cowry-shells for Currency, Amutlets, ete.

to conform to the illustration is C. vztellus, an Indo-
Pacific species. This suggestion. however, can only bea
tentative one, as comparison with the original specimen
may reveal other distinguishing characters not visible in
the illustration.

A further interesting feature is seen in Putnam’s Plate
(Plate xiii, Fig. 47-51) in the use that was made by the
Californians of cowry-shells for personal adornment. The
serrated lips of these shells were cut out and perforated
at one end for suspension as pendants. FE arlier in this
paper reference is made to the discovery of the:complete
outer lip of a large cowry (C. égrzs) in prehistoric pit-
dwellings in the South of England (a@ztea, p. 11)

The discovery of cowries in pre-Columbian graves in
Ecuador is recorded by M. H. Saville. In his “ Antiqui-
ties of Manabi, Ecuador,’ this writer reports the finding
of a shell of the cowry-type, which had a hole drilled in
the top, and a piece of pottery was fitted to the under
part by means of some kind of gum. This shell, which is
figured by Saville (Plate Ixvii., Fig. 5) as Cyprea cervinetta
(a Panamic species), was found with a human skeleton in
mound 3 at Cerro Jaboncillo.

+98 Contributions to South American Archeology, N.Y., 1910, vol. ii.,
pp. 48 and 177.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 14.

XIV.—The Specification of Stress. Part IV.
(continued),

By R. F. GwWYTHER, M.A.
(Recezved and read May oth, 1916.)

In Part IV. of this series of papers already published,*
I withdrew from publication the Elastic Stress relations,
except for Cartesian coordinates, and indicated only a

method by which these relations might be obtained by

the elimination of the elements of Strain in each case. I
had it in my mind to replace this method by a simpler,
and, as I then fancied, a more fundamental and instructive
method.

I now consider that, except for mathematical sim-
plicity or elegance, this method of elimination, though
cumbrous, is instructive,

Before stating the several Stress relations, I will
briefly indicate my view of their importance.

We commence the subject of Elasticity, confining the
description to the statical case, with three mechanical equa-
tions regarding Stresses, and six expressions of Stress in
terms of Strain, and usually eliminate the Stresses and
obtain three differential equations conditioning the dis-
placements.

In order to obtain the novel Stress relations we
eliminate the Strains, and thus obtain equations con-
taining no reference to displacements.

If we now return to the original sets of equations and
* Manchester Mlemozrs, Vol. lviil. (1914), No. 12.

December 31st, 1910.

2 (GWYTHER, 7. he Specificaiton of Stress. Pt. IV.

consider the six expressions of Stress in terms of Strain
we shall note that if «, v, w had been the components of
any vector the steps in the further processes would be
identical with those which we use when 7, v, w are defined
physically to be the displacement of the point in the body
to which the elements of Stress refer. |

The Stress relations will therefore be the same in
form, whether zw, v, w are definite physical vector functions
of a point, or are arbitrary vector functions of that point,
provided only the set of six expressions for Stress retain
the same mathematical form, In other words, the Stress
relations will hold not only for Elastic Stresses, but for
stresses which have the general character of Elastic
Stresses,

To present the question in another aspect. The
equations which I have dealt with in this series of papers
are general equations holding good at all points of a body,
but no question will become definite until the ‘surface-
conditions are stated. These surface-conditions, in the
simplest cases, will be either surface-traction conditions
or surface-displacement conditions.

If the surface-conditions are surface-traction conditions
only, the question of the physical interpretation of w, v, w
will never arise. We should have the equations za=S,
nb=T1, wc=U as the basis for a mathematical salaten
only.

If surface-displacement conditions are present, we
should then meet the question of the interpretation of wz,
v, w. It appears a very extreme measure to decide that
this is to be settled by a reference to Hooke’s Law, when
the issue depends on a surface-condition and not on a
condition applying throughout the body.

The alternative is to regard w, v, w in the first instance
as arbitrary, and thus obtain the Stress relations, and

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lv. (1916), No. tA. | 3

finally, to determine w, v, w from the ‘three equations
given above, and to leave the definition of the, as yet,
~ arbitrary vector for experiment and observation.

I have limited these remarks to the statical case, in
which there is supposed to be an instantaneous change
from one distribution of load to another, or in which, if
there is a varying distribution of load, we have a statical
question at each moment, and not a dynamical question
from moment to moment.

' There is, I imagine, no truly dynamical theory of
Elasticity.

There remains the very interesting question of small
oscillations about a position of statical equilibrium. Here
we have, as Stokes pointed out, the evidence of isochronism
of forced vibrations, and I give the Stress relations as
applicable either to the statical case or to that of small
oscillations.

. STRESS RELATIONS.
(1) For Cartesian coordinate systems.

u(mn — 22)

oe oY 3m — eo eee)
: aun Oo p
371 — 7 OX* (2+ Q+ &),
QO m(m—n), .
eve celle Zul — 1 aCe ae)
201n
3m — n Oy” )
OR ; mime — ;
ae Po ie — ae V(P+Q+k)
2mn oO
3m —n Oz Bg
+ to Fg 2m eh 2
fen Se 3m —n byoa? ea

4. GWYTHER, The Specefication of Stress. Pt. IV.

“pe & 2mn
meee I 277 __

Beers ee aa (P+ +R)
Uo ; 2min 6

; DE oR iS 2m — nt a LESS

(2) For cylindrical polar coordinate systems.

oP Rene 1 Mee 3 pa 2mn CO
hoe Oe eo: 3m —n LTE SPE) nop
ed: 0U
P-Q+t =)"
a(P- Or a0

: Ce oe ye O+R)
of? 3m — 2

ee © A (P+ +k) +4 (P- Q+ 20 =

3m —-2n \r Or
Z 2
oa ee ") 5% P+ O+R)
of 3m — 1
2mn OC
—;(P+Q+k
3m — 7 = Cr
os : 2mm 1 oT
UA aS P+Q+R)+ & (2 BEES | s)
ca SaaS 3m — nr he ve 00
of , 2mn- CO 0S
Hest — P+Q+k)- Alege r)
EPs 3m — 2 Orez Sano cb
ie Of 5 2mn {1 ieee
-~29°U= Seo ee P+QO+R
° x 3m — 7 - ov00 = x” 00 ( ¢

—_—= =.

(3) For spherical polar coordinate systems.

cr (m2 — 2)
bat i’ Nagy 2 ay Mie lee Se
p of ‘2 2m — 2 Vi(P+Q +R)
2mn oO
3m — 2 OF allt C+ &)
oY de ,, Ou
2 2P-QO-R+ ae 2(1 ~ a) 4 4xUp

Manchester Memoztrs, Vol. lx. (1916), No. 14 5

e’O ; m(m — g?
Pap —*V Q= eon (P+ Q+8)
71 eG gece aaa: es aaa” a»
es Poe 7 ar s agli + Ot R)
oS
+o P- pee Fe a5 }
?
ve he ? m(m—n)_,
ee gan YF)
2min I Gee iy Us |
+ ee Faas (P+ Q +R)
or CR)
a ax 0};

Diss

anf, Ok
“| P- 4 a ar ai

oS 20 ft OF x }
Bigg a ee ied ee (P+Q+2)
2n oe: aU
elo? 3 ag\P — 8) +35 ae ea
agit & 2mm I Oo I a
P aR oo —a)r drag ~ (1 — wr" 06 (P+Q+8)
“Fae 37+ ims pp

22 0
ape ee Bor ee

2min {3 0 I <|P+ Q+ R)

ou BY Er a ES
ae — 3m—nlrdrox r*
0 R pe

+e (e- Ore ae Ses ee a= 30t.

where + = cos @, and where the actual stresses are ?. O. R

sy sind, U sin 0.

replay
STE aay

+

”

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
36, GEORGE STREET, MANCHESTER.

a

PROCEEDINGS

OF

ieee vMANCHESTER LITERARY AND

PEeeL@SOPHICAL SOCIETY.

British Association, September 8th—troth, 1g15.

Members of the BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE-
MENT OF SCIENCE were invited to an EXHIBITION OF APPARATUS,
PoRTRAITS, Books, ETC., OF HISTORICAL INTEREST in the
Society’s House on the afternoons of Wednesday, Thursday, and
Friday, the 8th, 9th, and roth of September, at 4-30 p.m.

On Wednesday, the 8th, Professor Sir ERNEST RUTHERFORD,
M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., received members of Sections A and G
(Mathematical and Physical Sciences, and Engineering); on
Thursday, the oth, Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.,
received the members of Section B (Chemistry) ; and on Friday,
The President (Professor SypNEy J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc.,
fee euecerved members of Sections €, D, H, I and K
(Geology, Zoology, Anthropology, Physiology and Botany).

A short account of the Society’s history, by Mr. C. L. Barnes,
M.A., together with a list of the various exhibits, was distributed
to visitors during the meeting. These, and the frontispiece, a
photograph of the Society’s House, are reproduced here.

ii PROCEEDINGS. [ Sept. 8th-roth, 1915.

The Society’s House.
BY

C. L. Barnes, M.A.,

Hon. Librarian.

A short account of the history of the Society, by the
President, Professor S. J. Hickson, will be found on pp. go-92
of the British Association Handbook. The following remarks
relate to the house and its contents.

Founded in 1781 (incorporated in 1875), the Society is one
of the oldest scientific institutions in the world, yielding only
in point of age to the Royal Society and several State-aided
Academies on the Continent. This circumstance has enabled
it to acquire, by exchange or purchase, the publications of well-
nigh all the important scientific societies at home or abroad,
from their foundation. A catalogue of this, the most valued
possession ‘of the Society, was issued in 1911, and copies are
still available. It contains over 800 separate entries, and the
proportion of missing numbers is insignificant.

A view of the house, 36, George Street, is shewn in the
frontispiece. It has been the Society’s meeting-place for nearly
120 years, but was originally much smaller than at present, the
premises having been considerably enlarged in 1885, through
the liberality of Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S.

On the left of the entrance is the Secretary’s room, where
Dalton, who lived not far away, carried on his experiments for
many years. ‘This fact is commemorated on a marble tablet
over the fireplace. Here are also a small bust of Dalton, one
of his barometers, an address presented to him by the Society
in 1844, only a few months before his death, and several very
delicate thermometers used by Joule in determining the
mechanical equivalent of heat. The shelves contain a number
of non-serial publications on Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics,
Chemistry, Geology, and other sciences.

ee a

Sept. &8th-toth, 1915.| PROCEEDINGS. ili

On the opposite side is the Council room, lined from floor
to ceiling with French publications ; these include the A/émozres
de [ Académie des Sciences from 1666 onwards, the Annales de
Chimte e¢ de Physique from 1789, and the Comptes Rendus from
1835. On the mantelpiece is a chronometer watch used by
Joule, and among the portraits on the walls is one of Bunsen
and Kirchhoff, the former seated, the latter standing.

Passing by a small ante-room and a bronze bust of Dr.
Angus Smith, we come to the largest room in the building,
used for special lectures, and known as the Library, in which
British serials are stored. Most of these emanate from London,
though the chief provincial towns and cities are represented,
from Aberdeen to York. As regards the Philosophical Trans-
actions, the Society possesses what is virtually a complete set.
The first 90 volumes were condensed by the Royal Society
into 18, containing all the important papers up to that
time ; these, with the subsequent issues, are complete. Over
the fireplaces are cases containing part of Dalton’s chemical
apparatus, the crudity of which need not be pointed out. ‘The
balance and weights, the thermometers, phials, measuring in-
struments, etc., are of a most primitive description, yet they
were so used by him as to create an epoch in the history of
chemistry.

In the basement are publications from Russia, Holland,
Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Switzerland, and Scandinavia.

On the staircase leading to the first floor are a number of
portraits of the Wilde lecturers, among them being Lord Rayleigh,
sir G. G. Stokes, Sir Michael Foster, Sir William Ramsay,
Professor Frederick Soddy, Professor (now Sir) -J. J: Larmor,
Dr. (now Sir) J. A. Ewing, Dr. F. W. Clarke, Professor H. H.
Turner, Dr. D. H. Scott, and Professor H. B. Baker.

The Dalton MSS. are kept in a case (presented to the
Society by Sir Henry Roscoe, F.R.S.) on the landing, and
above it is a photograph of the vestibule of the Manchester
Town Hall, shewing the statues of Dalton and Joule. Dalton’s
physical apparatus is kept in a case at'the end of the passage.

iv PROCEEDINGS. [Sepé. Sth-roth, 1915.

The Meeting-room is on the left, and contains some valuable
furniture of Sheraton design. On the walls are portraits in oils
of Newton, Davy, Dalton, Joule, Eaton Hodgkinson, Edward
Holme, Thomas Henry, Edward W. Binney, Joseph Baxendell,
Thomas Percival, and Peter Clare. There are also busts of
Eaton Hodgkinson and William Henry. Over the President’s
chair is a marble tablet erected to the memory of Thomas
Percival (joint-president 1782-1786, president 1789-1804). The
clock—an excellent time-keeper—was made by Peter Clare, and
has the peculiar property of striking once only every twelve
hours. In the early days the Society was supposed to close its
meetings at 9 p.m., whatever subject might be under discussion,
and a single stroke from the clock warned them of the hour of
departure. The time of striking can be altered at will.

A conjectural portrait of Newton investigating the solar
spectrum is seen at the foot of a short flight of stairs leading to
the Natural History room, so called because it was once occu-
pied by a section, now defunct, whose microscopes and slides
were handed over to the Society in 1902, and are on view. This
room contains German and Austro-Hungarian publications.

On the second floor are publications from Canada, the
U.S.A., Central and South America, Africa, Australasia, India,
the Dutch East Indies, China and Japan.

Other exhibits are arranged as follows :—

A. Library.

Two Cabinets containing apparatus used by Dalton in his
original investigations on the Atomic Theory, Vapour-
Tensions, Radiant Heat, Meteorology, etc. (For Descrip-
tion see Memoir by Mr. Francis Jones.)

B. Council Room.

1. A Selection of early Works from the Society’s Library.
2. Joule’s Chronometer.

3. Portraits (See list in room).

Sept. 8th-1oth, 1915.| PROCEEDINGS. Vv

C. Basement.

1.*Dalton’s Diagrams relating to his Atomic Theory, Mechanics,
Sound, Heat, Meteorology, Astronomy, etc. (For De-
scription see AZemoir by Professor W. W. Haldane Gee,
Dr. H. F. Coward and Dr. Arthur Harden.)

2.*Atwood’s Machine.

3. Three Kites, once the property of William Sturgeon, who
made them after Franklin’s models, with adjustments to
enable them to take any angle with the vertical.

4.*Set of Pulleys.

5.*Inclined Plane.

6.*Wheel and Axle, and Worm and Cogwheel.

7.*Two Model Pumps.

8.*Simple and Compound Levers.

g.* Apparatus to illustrate the path of a projectile.

10.*Air Pump.

11.*Orrery.

12.* Planetarium.

13. Model of Semi-rotary Steam Engine. Lent by Dr. William
Cramp.

r4.*Model Beam Engine. By Clegg, David Street, Manchester.

15.*Model of Bunce’s Pile Driver. By Clegg, David Street,
Manchester.

16.*Whirling Table and accessories. By W. and S. Jones,

Folbornm, London. Nos. 2, 4, 5, 6; 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12
are also by this maker.

D. Landing.

1. Cabinet containing Manuscripts of John Dalton.
2. Bronze Bust of Dalton. Presented by Sir Henry Roscoe,
HRS,

3. Portraits, etc. (See list on landing).

vi PROCEEDINGS. [Sep¢. Sth-roth, 1915.

FE. Ante-Room.
1.*Battery of 15 Leyden Jars.

2.* Metallic Thermometer.
3.*Two Earthenware Pots containing metal letter stamps, used
by Dalton to mark his Barometers.
4.*Dalton’s Hat. Maker, John King, Manchester.
5.*Dalton’s Slippers.
6.*Dalton’s “* Hortus Siccus.”
7.*Collection of Dalton’s letters.
8.*Collection of Books written by Dalton.
g.*Letters of Jonathan Dalton to John Dalton.
to. Air Pump and accessories. An early possession of the
Society. The pump was repaired by Peter Clare.
11.*Single-finger Clock.
12.*Pitch-Pipe.
13.*Tantalus Cup.
14.”Bennet’s Electroscope.
15.*Electrophorus.
16.* Two Fulminating Panes.
17. Early form of Plate Electric Machine.
18. Barometers made by Dalton.

19.*Casting of Bismuth.

F. Meeting Room.
Biographies of Dalton, etc.
Case 1. (a) Medals awarded to John Dalton.
(4) Inkstand presented to John Dalton by the Mechanics’
Institute, 1835.
(c) Japanese ‘‘ Mirror.” Made and presented by the
late Mr. Thomas Thorp, F.R.A.S.
(zd) Diffraction Gratings. Made and presented by the
late Mr. Thomas Thorp, F.R.A.S.

Sept. 8th-roth, 1915.| PROCEEDINGS. vii

Case 2. Selection of Papers, etc., relating to Dalton.

Case 3. Syllabuses of Dalton’s Lectures.

Case 4. Dalton’s Note Books and Meteorclogical Journals.

Case 5. Dalton’s Account Books, Bank Book, and Kendal

School Records.

Case 6. Selection of Dalton’s manuscript Lecture Notes.

Diploma presented to Dalton by the Royal Medical Society of
Edinburgh.

Portraits, etc. (See list in room).

G. Natural History Room.

1.*Dalton’s Diagrams relating to Optics. (For Description see
Memoir by Professor W. W. Haldane Gee, Dr. H. F.
Coward and Dr. Arthur Harden.) ;

2.*A Two-foot Reflecting Telescope (Gregorian), with two
eyepleces.

3." Hadley’s Sextant. By D. Adams, London.

4.*Terrestrial refracting Telescope.

5."** Magic Lanthorn ” and five coloured Jantern slides.

6.*Drawing Camera. |

7. Reflecting Stereoscope. By Watkins and Hill, London.

8.*One large concave Mirror (circular) and two small concave
Mirrors (rectangular and circular).

9.” Model of human eye. By B. Martin, London.

1o."Microscope, Culpeper and Scarlet. A very primitive instru-

ment made of wood with cardboard tubes. (1750.) (See
Quekett’s “ Microscope,” p. 22, fig. 20.)

11. Microscope, with cog-wheel to incline the instrument at a
convenient angle. Made by Adams in 1776. Mahogany
stand, with accessories, including boxes of slides.

12. Microscope, with case, lenses, etc. By B. Martin, London.

13. Microscope, Dr. Goring’s improved reflecting, with case.
By J. Cuthbert, London. (See Goring and Pritchard’s

” 1837.)

14. Microscope, binocular. By Powell and Lealand, London.

‘* Micrographia,’

Vill PROCEEDINGS. [October 5th, 1915.

5,

16.

19.
20.

Microscope, binocular. By J. B. Dancer, Manchester.
Bears the inscription :—‘“‘ Purchased by Members of the
Microscopical Section of the Literary and Philo-
sophical Society, Manchester, in remembrance of the
late Professor Quekett, April, 1863.”
Microscope, binocular. By J. B. Dancer, Manchester.
Bears the inscription : —“ Microscopical and Natural History
Section, Literary and Philosophical Society.”
“Purchased by a few Members as a mark of
respect and esteem for the memory of their friend
John Parry, who died 27th, January, 1866.”

. Microscope, binocular. By Swift and Sons, London.

Bears the inscription :—‘‘ Presented to Mr. John Mullin.
By the Principals and Employes as a token of respect,
upon his leaving the service of William Holland
and Sons, Victoria Mills, Miles Platting, Manchester.
May, 1884.”

Microscope, with case. With lenses, eye-pieces, and a collec-
tion of slides.

Cabinet containing Microscope accessories.

Lantern optical apparatus and case. By Newton and Co.,

London. Lenses :—Newton 3”, 2”, 14", 35, qooav>

total 6. Presented by Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S.

Those marked * are known to have belonged to Dalton, and were used by him in

his lectures.

The President, Professor SypNEy J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,

Ordinary Meeting, October 5th, 1915.

in the Chair.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., drew attention to the recent addi-

tions to the Society’s Library, and a vote of thanks was accorded
the donors of the books upon the table. The following works
were included in the recent-accessions to the Society’s Library :

, \
a

October 5th, 1975.| PROCEEDINGS. ix

** Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers,” Fourth Series
(1884-1900), Vol. XIII., A-B, and Vol. XIV., C-Fittig. (4to.,
Cambridge, 1914 and 1915), purchased ; ‘‘ Geologic Atlas of the
United States,” Folios Nos. 190-194 (fol., Washington, D.C.,
1913-1914), presented by the United States Geological Survey ;
““ Report of the Sanitary Committee on the Subject of Air
Pollution,’ published by the Manchester Sanitary Committee
(8vo., Manchester, 1915), presented by the Manchester Sanitary
Committee ; ‘“ Essays on Milton,” by E. N.S. Thompson (8vo.,
New Haven, etc., 1914), and “ The Earliest Lives of Dante,”
trans. from the Italian by J. R. Smith (Yale Studies in English)
(8vo., New York, 1901), presented by Yale University Library :
“The Solar Rotation in June, 1911, from Spectrographic Obser-
vations,” by J. B. Hubrecht (4to., Cambridge, 1915), presented
by the Author; “ Les Prix Nobel en ror?” (8vo., Stockholm,
1914), presented by the Académie Royaie Suédoise des Sciences ;
“A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language,” by Cyrus Byington,
ed. by J. R. Swanton and H. S. Halbert (Bulletin No. 46) (8vo.,
Washington, 1915), presented by the Bureau of American Eth-
nology, Washington, D.C. ; ‘' Ze Fauna and Stratigraphy of
the Kent Coal Field,’ by Herbert Bolton (8vo., London, 1915),
presented by the Author ; “ Zzs¢ of Publications in the Bureau
of American Lthnology with Index to Authors and Titles”
(Bulletin No. 58) (8vo., Washington, D.C., 1915), presented
by the American Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D.C. ;
“ Drachen Freiballon- und Fesselballon- beobachtungen,”’ by C.
Braak (Verhandelingen No. 3) (8vo., Batavia, 1915), presented by
the Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te
Batavia; “Musée Teyler: Catalogue dela Bibliotheque,” dressé
par J. J. Verwijnen, T. 1V., 1904-1912 (4to., Harlem, 1915);
presented by the Musée Teyler, Harlem ; ‘‘ Ze Older Noncon-
Jormity in Kendal,’ by Francis Nicholson and Ernest Axon
(8vo., Kendal, 1915), presented by Mr. Francis Nicholson ; and
“ Photographic Magnitudes of Stars brighter than 9”-o0 between
Declination + 65° and Declination + 75°” (4to., Edinburgh,
I914), presented by the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.

x PROCEEDINGS. [ October sth, 1915.

An exchange of publications has been arranged with the
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, for their Proceedings.

The PRESIDENT referred to the exhibition arranged by the
Society during the recent visit of the British Association, and
drew attention to the pamphlet distributed to Members and
Visitors on that occasion. :

Mr. Francis NicHorson, F.Z.S., made a short communt-
cation relating to the recent presence of Wheatears and other
migratory birds on the Old Infirmary site.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., read the following note, relating
to a visit to Dalton at his laboratory in the Society’s house,
taken from Granville’s “Spas of England” (1841) :—

‘“‘T found the great philosopher in the little laboratory of the
institution, staring at me as if struggling to recognise an old
acquaintance, whom length of time and his recent severe illness
had probably obliterated from his intellect. Yet there still was
upon his countenance that peculiar smile of benignity which
ever distinguished his otherwise striking physiognomy. Dalton
was in the act of endeavouring to loosen with patient placidity
the stubborn glass stopper of an empty bottle, and welcomed me
with a single smile, after a moment’s hesitation, and a shake of
the hand. Finding the effort difficult for him, “t Friend” Clare,
by whom I was escorted, and who will to the last day of his own
useful life cherish the gratifying thought of having been the
affectionate friend and helpmate of the great philosopher, offered
to assist him. But Dalton, gently withdrawing his hand, which
held the bottle, from Peter Clare’s friendly offer, proceeded to a
little lighted furnace, heated the bottle, and presently loosened
the stopper, after which, as if he had been exhausted by the
effort, he sat himself down and whispered with hesitation and
difficulty some words, the meaning of which we did not catch.
Peter, to rouse him, mentioned the last important papers on the
phosphates, which Dalton had forwarded to the Royal Society
in the April preceding ; hearing which the philosopher instantly
raised his eyes, and enquired if they had been read and published

Sh lL lO Oe Oe Oe eee eee eee

———

October 19th, 1915.| PROCEEDINGS. xi

in the Royal Transactions. Having given him a satisfactory
answer, and alluded at the same time to our former and frequent
meetings in that very hall more than a quarter of a century
before, I took my leave of this venerable man, who, besides the
admiration he was wont to excite before his dreadful attack of
illness, was one of the greatest, yet one of the most simple-
hearted men of his time, and even commands a higher degree
of respect, not unmingled with a feeling of commiseration at his
present enfeebled condition.”

A paper by Mr. W. J. Perry, B.A., entitled ‘The Rela-
tionship between the Geographical Distributions of
Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines,” was
explained by Mr. D. M.S. Watson, M.Sc.

This .paper is printed in full in the JdZemoirs with some

Supplementary Remarks by Professor G. ELLIoT SMITH, M.A.,
Mb. E.R.S.

General Meeting, October 19th 1915.

The President, Professor SypNry J. Hickson, M.A.,D.Sc.,F.R.S.,

in the Chair.

Mr. F. E. BrapLey, M.A., M.Com., LL.D., Barrister-at-Law,
Stormarn, Wilbraham Road, Choriton-cum-Hardy, Manchester ;
Mr. J. C. Munro, Clough House, Whaley Bridge; and Mr.
WiLti4mM GRANVILLE PEMBERTON, Technical Chemist, 9,
Acresfield Road, Pendleton, were elected ordinary members ‘of
the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, October 19th, rg15.

The President, Professor SYDNEY J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,

in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table.

xil PROCEEDINGS. [October roth, 1915.

i

The Society’s AZemozrs and Proceedings are now forwarded to
the editor of the “‘ Subject Index to Periodicals,’ published by
“ The Atheneum.”

Mr. C. L. BARNEs, M.A., read a communication entitled,
“A Lancashire Worthy.”

In the quiet churchyard of St. Margaret’s, Hollinwcod, near
the south-east corner of the Church, may be seen a tombstone
with an inscription bearing testimony to the mathematical abilities
of one James Wolfenden, who “ born in a humble station of
life, and compelled to toil as a weaver for his daily bread, self-
instructed, became a distinguished mathematician, familiar with
the writings of Simpson, Emerson, and the ancient geometry ...”
A tablet in the Church itself, erected by ‘“‘a grateful pupil,”
gives further evidence of his powers, and this is by no means
empty flattery, as we shall proceed to shew.

One looks in vain for any mention of him in the “ Dictionary

of National Biography,” nor does his name appear in the
catalogue of the Reference Library, but a memoir by Thomas
Wilkinson, of Blackburn, may be found in the ‘ Mechanic’s
Magazine” for 1849, and he is given prominence in an article on
“Lancashire Mathematicians,’ by Morgan Brierley, in the
‘Papers of the Manchester Literary Club,” Vol. IV.

James Wolfenden was born in 1754, at Hollinwood, where
his father, a native of Higginshaw, near Royton, had removed
to follow his trade of hand-loom weaving. His mother was also
of humble origin, so that on neither side was there any intellectual
heritage or pre-disposition to mental endowment. By what
process of telegony or fusion of qualities their only son was
endowed with such unusual abilities can only be surmised. The
boy was left motherless at an early age, and the father betock
himself to Oldham, where young James received a rudimentary
training in “the three R’s” from a journeyman hatter. He was
sent to school—for one week, and the whole cost of his education
was 13d. He was afterwards assisted by Jeremiah Ainsworth,
a Hollinwood mathematician of some repute, but in the main he

October 19th, 7915.| PROCEEDINGS. xili

was self-taught. All the leisure that could be spared from
weaving was devoted to his beloved geometry, and with infinite
toil he studied Euclid, Simpson’s, and Emerson’s ‘‘ Exercises ” and
finally Newton, whose ‘‘ Method of Prime and Ultimate Ratios”
formed the basis of most of his work. He also studied Mechanics
and Astronomy to good purpose, and was in fact, among the
mathematicians of the second rank in the early roth century.
In place of the “ bridge problems,” and other unproductive
puzzle-competitions of the modern press, there were at that time
a sufficient number of amateurs to fill pages of the ‘‘ Ladies’
Diary,” the ‘“‘Gentleman’s Diary,” ‘‘ Burrow’s Diary,” “‘ Whitley’s
Mathematical Delights,” and other periodicals with problems
often requiring much ingenuity, and Wolfenden contributed to
these for upwards of sixty years. He proposed and solved
such problems as the following :—‘‘ Given the base and vertical
angle of a triangle, to construct it when the rectangle under
the line bisecting the vertical angle and the difference of
the sides is the greatest possible.” ‘Suppose the sun and
moon in the equinoctial, and the ratio of their forces to raise
the tides given, to find by geometry the elongation when the
interval or intercepted arc between the place of high water
and the moon is the greatest possible.” ‘l"his last had been
investigated by Bernoulli, by the aid of fluxions, but Wolfenden
founded his solution on a Lemma to a proposition in Simpson’s
“Select Exercises.” This was a kind of “tour de force” and
shewed the power of geometry in capable hands. Newton,
of course, was pre-eminent in this branch, but it was largely
abandoned by his successors in favour of less severe methods.
He had many friends and admirers, and corresponded with
a number of mathematicians, who were deeply impressed by his
personality and attainments. If a large number of his letters
had not been used by his grand-daughter to cover jampots,
many interesting details might have been revealed, though
several letters are quoted zz exfenso in Wilkinson’s memoir

already referred to,
Wolfenden pursued. his humble occupation till he was 62

XIV PROCEEDINGS. [October roth, 1915.

years of age, and for the next twenty-five years earned an
exiguous Income by teaching. He took pupils in Manchester |
and the neighbourhood, and was often urged to apply for an
appointment, but when offered a post as schoolmaster at
Liverpool he transferred it to William Hilton, a working man
who had been fired by his own example, and is in all pro-
bability the anonymous “grateful pupil,” who erected the tablet
in the Church. He was Editor of the “Student” for some
time.

As early as 1807 Wolfenden calculated the first tide-table for
the port of Liverpool, published in the ‘“ Liverpool Almanac ”
for 1808. He continued to do this work for many years,
receiving a small honorarium, which was withheld towards the
close of his life, when he wasin dire poverty. His circumstances
becoming known, a number of members of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society—then under the presidency
of Dr. Eaton Hodgkinson—together with other charitable
persons, subscribed a sum sufficient to provide him a modest
annuity, but—we quote further from the tombstone—‘ his death
occurring shortly after, they determined, besides bearing the
expense of his funeral, to place this stone over his remains
to perpetuate the memory of his name and merits.” The stone
is in good condition, and the inscription sets forth that in the
same grave lie Matty, his wife, who died in 1784, a few years
after the marriage ; their son John, and his wife Charlotte.

The action of the Society did not escape the censure of a
critic who concluded a poem of 47 lines with the words “ He
asked for bread, and he received a stone,” but it was kindly
meant, and Wolfenden, who was a sturdy, independent character,
no doubt tried to conceal his poverty as much as possible. His
wants were few at any time, though, in extreme old age, he had
little, if anything, beyond the bare necessaries of life. After
three-quarters of a century there is not likely to be anyone living
who can recall his appearance, but the Society possesses an un-
named bust which, by what is known in mathematics as the
“method of exhaustions,”’ is almost certainly his. No portrait is

October 19th, 1915.| PROCEEDINGS. XV

available for comparison, but the features are decidedly intel-
lectual, though one would hesitate to call them aristocratic.

Mr. W. C. Jenkins, F.R.A.S., read a note on ‘‘ Rainfall
in Manchester, Ig15.”

Having noticed frequent references in the press as to a
shortage of water in this neighbourhood, a review of the records
of rainfall may be of interest. ;

In general there is no abnormal shortage in amount. ‘The
period, March to June, was 2} inches below the average, but
this was recovered during July. As to the effect of these dry
months, they barely compensated for the very wet period from
November to February when the fall was 5 inches above the
average.

During the past six weeks the measured amount has only
totalled ? inch.

I give in the following table the monthly amounts of
Rainfall measured at the Godlee Observatory, compared with
average values for the district based on records of the past
60 years, for the twelve months commencing November last,
this gives the current month a full amount for average and only
the measured quantity to date. Otherwise to the end of Sep-
tember the last period is only half an inch short.

RAINFALL IN MANCHESTER.

IQ14-15. Average, 60 yrs.
Newember......2.. Br EO 7 ESTA WARNE 3
Meeember i....5.:- 4°770 3°103
WMMALY s2.. 256.5... ASTRO NOVA TON PED. * 127553
Pebraary ......... 2°480 15°600 2°040 10°43}
PPIAGCIN 441)... e 6 1°320 2°328
PME LS oe oss ISTO 1°799
Ba Eo oe otis. 2. °372 March to June 2'131
inverse e274 0752 2°745 9°00}
LU es 9 ea 5°029 37108

PAUSE Keil ts 1.2: 3036

Oo
Or
~I
Oo

xvi PROCEEDINGS. [October roth, 19175.

IQI4-15. Average, 60 yrs.
Septem peice qa O75 37- July to.Ock aacrms
October (to 18th) 0°293 9°495 3°589 137384
Total to Oct. 18th... 31°856 32°820 Average
for year.

Professor G. ELLior SmMirH M.A., M.D., FE: RUS. Smee
short communication on ‘‘ The Evidence afforded by the
Winged-Disc in Mexico and Central America for the
Egyptian Origin of Certain Elements of the Pre-
columbian Civilization.

In a previous communication to the Society the author cited
a very large series of curious customs and beliefs, built up into
an artificial culture-complex, as a demonstration of the fact that
the ancient civilisation of America was derived from the Old
World. ‘The proof is further corroborated and put beyond all
reasonable doubt when each of its numerous component elements
is studied ; for it is found that not only are the wider cultural
associations of each factor reproduced in the New World, but
also in many cases trivial details of designs and customs

The distinctively Egyptian, and wholly arbitrary, association
of the sun’s disc with two serpents and hawk’s wings, is found
represented on the lintel of the sanctuary in many ancient sun-
temples in Mexico and Central America. In the course of its
transference from the Old World to the New this curious design
became reversed—upside down—and the lattice-pattern of the
serpents’ bodies, often seen in the Egyptian examples, became
still further conventionalised to form a purely geometrical pattern,
in which the serpent is no longer recognisable as such, although
the symbol is known to be that of a serpent-deity. Comparison
with the Egyptian examples explains the meaning of these
hitherto-inexplicable features in the American symbolism. The
modifications which the Egyptian design underwent in Syria
and Babylonia, where the disc is sometimes replaced by a
representation of some deity, also explain some of the American
variants of the pattern. Incidentaily the American symbols

November 2nd, 1915.| PROCEEDINGS. - XVil

afford an admirable illustration of Rivers’ view that the
transformation of a naturalistic into a geometrical conventional
design is often due to the blending of different cultural ideals
(Report Brit. Assoc., 1912, pP. 599).

A paper, entitled ‘“‘ Notes on some Palzozoic Fishes,”
was given by Mr. ID. M. S. Watson, M.Sc., and Mr. HENRY
Day, M.Sc.

This paper is printed in full in the AZemozrs.

General Meeting, November 2nd, 1915.

Mr. Francis Jonrs, M.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., in the Chair.

Mr. G. A. Hamtyn, B.A. (Oxon.), Assistant Lecturer and
Demonstrator in the Fermentation Industries, The Municipal
School of Technology, Manchester, was elected an ordinary
member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, November 2nd, 1915.

The President, Professor SypNEv J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc.,F.R.S.,
in the Chair.

Pirok. LL. Lavior, F.C.S., F.1.C., read a paper entitled
“Notes on Hypochlorous Acid and Chlorine.”

Mr. Taylor described and discussed some further recent
experiments with hypochlorous acid, which was prepared, as
described in former papers, by distilling a solution of bleaching
powder with boric acid. He showed how a solution of an
alkaline hypochlorite rapidly changes ordinary precipitated oxide
of silver into black peroxide, closely approximating in compo-
sition to that represented by the formula Ag.O,.

XViil PROCEEDINGS, [Movember 16th, 1915.

Experiments were described in which comparison was made
between the bleaching activities of hypochlorous acid and
chlorine, the conclusion arrived at being that, contrary to the
general opinion, the latter is considerably the more active of the
two.

The remarkable effect of a very dilute solution of chlorine
on litmus was shown. The litmus is at once turned a bright
red colour, which rapidly changes back to purple, and this slowly
bleaches. From this result Mr. Taylor concludes that the usual
explanation of the bleaching action of chlorine (in the case of
litmus, at any rate) is not correct, but that the chlorine acts by
directly chlorinating the colouring matter.

Reference was also made to the recent use of hypochlorous
acid as the “ideal antiseptic.” Professor Lorrain Smith uses
either a powder, which he calls ‘‘ Eupad,” made by intimately
mixing powdered bleaching powder and boric acid, or a solution
obtained by treating the powder with water, and which he calls
“Eusol.” In both the moistened powder and the solution as
used by Professor Lorrain Smith there will be a considerable
amount of hypochlorous acid, but there will also inevitably be a
certain amount of free chlorine. Dr. A. Carroll and Mr. H.
Dakin, who have apparently arrived independently at the same
conclusion as to the great value of hypochlorous acid as an
antiseptic, recommend the use of bleaching powder mixed with
boric acid and carbonate of lime. The use of the last-named
substance would have the effect of getting rid of most, if not
all, of the free chlorine referred to above.

General Meeting, November 16th, 1915.

The President, Professor SypNEy J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc.,
ERS; anithe Gham.

Mr. DonaLD Warp CuTLER, B.A. (Cantab.), Scholar of
Queens’ College, Cambridge, Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator

November 16th, 1915.) PROCEEDINGS. D6 b.<

in Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester, and of
69, Mauldeth Road, Withington, Manchester, was elected an
ordinary member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, November 16th, rors.

The President, Professor SypNry J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

Dr. G. A. Hemsatecu, F.R.A.S., read a paper entitled,
“On the Spectra emitted by metal vapours in the
explosion region of the air -coal-gas flame.”

After a review of the work done on Bunsen flame spectra by
M. de Watteville and on the different flame spectra of calcium
and iron by Hemsalech and de Watteville, the author described
a simple and convenient burner by means of which the various
flame phenomena can be readily subjected to spectroscopic
observation and experiment. Photographs were shown to illus-
trate the changes in the Swan spectrum emitted by the explosion
region of flames on passing from rich to very weak gas mixtures.
For very weak mixtures the ordinary Swan spectrum disappears
and another band spectrum develops.

Some experiments were then shown to demonstrate the action
of electric fields on the flames of weak gas mixtures charged
with sodium vapour. ‘The great sensitiveness of such flames
in a longitudinal field was illustrated in several ways, and, in
particular, it was shown that when the gas mixture bad become
so weak that in the absence of the electric field it would no
longer ignite, it would do so immediately on the field being
restored.

EK PROCEEDINGS. [| Vovember 30th, 19r5.
General Meeting, November 30th, rgr5.

The President, Professor SYDNEY J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
in the Chair.

Councillor ErNEst DARWIN SIMON, ALoorlands, Fog Lane,
Didsbury; and Sir HENRY ALEXANDER Miers, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., Vice-Chancellor of the Victoria University of Man-
chester, Zhe University, Manchester, were elected Ordinary
Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, November 30th, 1915.

The President, Professor SypNEy J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. The recent additions to the Society’s
Library included: “ Alora Capensis,” Vol. V., Sect. Leena
by Sir W. Thiselton-Dyer (8vo., London, 1915), purchased ;
“* Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indié, Oudheidkundig
Verslag,” 1915, 1°K. (8vo., Batavia, etc., 1915) and Rapporien,
van den Oudhetdkundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indié,” 1914,
1°K. (4to., Batavia, etc., 1915), presented by the Bataviaasch
Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen; ‘“ Zze Library
of Harvard College,” by A. C. Potter, 3rd. ed. (8vo., Cambridge,
Mass., U.S.A., 1915), presented by Harvard College Library ;
and “ Archaeologia,” Vol. 18, Pt. I. and Vol. 26 (4to., London,
1815 and 1836), purchased.

Professor G. ELLI0oT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., gave some
“Further Notes on Pre-Columbian Representations
of the Elephant in America.”

These notes were an amplification of the letter published
in LVature, November 25, 1915, p. 340. Further examples of
representations of the elephant were shown; and attention was

——

December r4th, 1915.| PROCEEDINGS. xe

called to the fact that the Hindu god Indra, who was associated
with the elephant, killed Vritra, who kept the rain in the clouds,
just as the Central American elephant-headed god stood upon
the head of the serpent who prevented the rain from reaching
the earth.

Mr. T. A. Cowarp, F.Z.S., F.E.S. read a paper entitled “A
Change in the Habits of the Black-headed Gull.”
This paper is printed in full in the Aemozrs.

Ordinary Meeting, December 14th, r915.

The President, Professor SypNEyY J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
in the Chair.

Mr. F. G. Percivat, B.Sc., read a paper entitled “ The
Punctation of the Brachiopoda.”

The shells of the Terebratulaceze are perforated by thousands
of little pores, through which pass tube-like processes of the
mantle. The number of these puncta per sq. mm. varies in
different species, and this variation has been used as a means of
distinguishing between different species.

Unfortunately, an examination of large numbers of individuals
belonging to one species shows that the variation within a single
species 1s so great as to render the character useless as a means
of distinction; e.g. 166 individuals of TZerebratula biplicata,

-(Brocchi), were examined and the puncta were found to range
from 39 to 129 per sq. mm. Similarly 367 specimens of 7:
punciata, Sow. showed a total range from 66 to 240 per sq. mm.
All the readings were taken at approximately the same distance
from the umbo, because the number per sq. mm. increases with
the distance from this point.

These two species alone cover the greater part of the total
variation possible for the group, and the variation is therefore
almost useless as a means of specific distinction.

XxXxii PROCEEDINGS. [December r4th, 1915.

Mr. J. Witrrrp Jackson, F.G.S., read a paper entitled
‘““The Money Cowry as a Sacred Object among North
American Indians.”

The same Author read a further paper entitled “‘The
Aztec Moon-cult and its relation to the Chank-cult

of India.”
These papers will be printed in full in the AZemozrs.

Professor G. ELLiot SmitH, M.A., M.D:, FEF. R.Se teaeea
paper entitled “Further Evidence for the Derivation of
Elements of Early American Civilization from the Old
World.”

Discussing the significance of pre-Columbian representations
of the elephant in American sculptures and codices (already
summarised in /Vatwre, November 25,1915, p.340, and December
16,-p. 425), and making use of the evidence supplied by trun-
cated pyramids and the winged-disc symbolism in substantiation
of the influence of Egypt and Asia, attention was called to the
fact that a great part of the ancient Indian pantheon, centred
around the god Indra, had been bodily adopted by the Maya
people of Central America. Evidence was adduced to explain
the details of the process of transmission (which probably began
somewhere about 200 B.c. and continued for many centuries)
and the confusion which was introduced during the migration.
Particular attention was called to the great influence exerted by
the late conventionalised form of the Indian Makara, as a sea-
elephant, in determining the design not only of the Copan
elephants in the far east, but also of the early Christian and pre-
Christian- representations of the elephant upon the sculptured
stones of Scotland and Scandinavia in the far west.

The fact was again emphasised that practically every
element of the early civilisations of America was borrowed from
the Old World. Small groups of immigrants from time to time
brought to America certain of the customs, beliefs and in-
ventions of the Mediterranean area, Egypt, Ethiopia, Arabia,
Babylonia, India, Indonesia, Eastern Asia, and Oceania; and

January 11th, 1916.| PROCEEDINGS. XXlil

this confused jumble of practices became assimilated and
‘‘Americanised ” in their new home across the Pacific, as the
result of the domination of the great uncultured aboriginal
populations by small bands of more cultured foreigners.

Ordinary Meeting, January 11th, 1916.

The President, Professor Sypnry J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. These included: Svensk Naturskyddsbibliograf,,
roor-1912” (8vo. Uppsala, etc., 1913), presented by the K.
Svenska Vetenskapskademie, Uppsala; ‘‘ Z7zangulation in
Alabama and Mississipp~t,’ by W. F. Reynolds (Special
Publication, No. 24) (4to., Washington, D.C., 1915), presented
by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington ;
and “‘ Coptic Cloths,’ by Laura E. Start (4to., [Halifax], 1914)
(Bankfield Museum Notes, 2nd Series, No. 4), presented by the
Authoress.

The PRESIDENT referred to the death of Sir Henry
ENFIELD Roscor, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir Henry Roscoe
was elected an Ordinary Member of the Society in 1858; was
President in 1882-4; and was elected an Honorary Member in
1897.

The PReEsIDENT exhibited a large Conch-shell and made a
few remarks on the use of such shells as musical instruments.

- He afterwards delivered an address entitled ‘“ Animal
symmetry and the differentiation of species.”

This Address is printed in full in the Alemozrs.

XXiVv PROCEEDINGS. [ January 25th, 19706.

Ordinary Meeting, January 25th, 1916.

The President, Professor SypNEy J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
in the Chair,

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. These included: “A Revision of the Ichneu-
monidae...Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.),” Pt. 1V., by Claude Morley
(8vo., London, 1915), ‘A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man...
Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.)” (8vo., London, 1915), and “ Zustructions
for Collectors, No. 12, Worms,” by H. A. Baylis (8vo, London,
Tg15), presented by the Trustees of the British Museum (Nat.
Hist.).

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc., F.L.S., drew attention to
the death in November last year of Count Soi_ms-LauBaAcuH,
who was elected an honorary member of the Society in 1892.
Count Solms was born in 1842, and came of one of the most
ancient of German families. He was Professor of Botany at
the University of G6ttingen, and subsequently at that of Stras-
burg, from which post he resigned a few years ago. He was a —
man of wide interests, and had contributed to the advance of
many sides of botanical science by his investigations. Latterly
his interests centred largely in Palaeobotany, and probably his
introduction to Palaeophytology, of which the Clarendon Press
has issued an English translation, is the most important of his
more recent publications. Count Solms was a man of un-
assuming character who had many staunch friends in this
country.

Professor WILLIAM H. Lanc, M.B., D.Sc., F.R.S.,) ex
hibited a dirty paper-like substance which he said was composed
of unbranched filaments of Algae—probably two species—and
which had been found by Professor Sydney J. Hickson, on
the margin of a small pond in North Wales. The material,
however, had dried up, leaving only the cell walls.

Dr. H. F. Cowarp and Mr. F. BarLey showed “A simple
experiment illustrating the causes of luminosity of
coal-gas flames.”

January 25th, 7910.| PROCEEDINGS. XXV

A stream of coal-gas was passed through a tube immersed
in solid carbonic acid and ether, at —79°C. ‘This condensed
completely all the benzene, toluene and similar substances, but
allowed the whole of the ethylene to pass forward with the gas.
The luminosity of the flame of the issuing gas was very feeble
in comparison with that of the original gas. Measurements
carried out by Mr. W. Buckley at the Corporation Gas Works in
Rochdale Road, showed that a particular coal-gas lost 78 per
cent. of its illuminating power by this treatment. The benzene
hydrocarbons therefore contribute far more to the luminosity of
coal-gas flames than does ethylene, in spite of the fact that the
volume of ethylene present is usually three ‘to five times the

volume of benzene vapour.

A discussion on the PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—*' On animal
symmetry and the differentiation of species ”—was
opened by Dr. W. M. TatTTERSALL.

Dr. Tattersall urged :—

1. That radial symmetry is the direct outcome of a
sedentary habit and is more primitive than bilateral symmetry.
It appears in its most complete and primitive form in Coelen-
terates and Echinoderms, where it affects both external and in-
ternal structures. ‘These groups of animals probably arose as
fixed forms before the appearance in the animal world of move-
ment by muscular effort. With the development of the latter
type of locomotion, radial symmetry was gradually eliminated
in favour of bilateral symmetry. All the higher groups of
animals are bilaterally symmetrical, and radial symmetry only
appears in those forms, such as sedentary Worms, Polyzoa,
Tunicata, which have secondarily acquired a sedentary habit.
In such cases the radial symmetry is secondary and superficial,
only affecting the external organs.

2. In those groups of fixed animals exhibiting primitive
radial symmetry, the Coelenterates, two types of variation are
found, (1) congenital variation, z.¢., the variation of hereditary
characters, unaffected by the environment, and (2) vegetative

XXVi PROCEEDINGS. [ January 25th, 1916.

variation, due to the direct action of the environment. Con-
genital variation has not been proved to be more intensive
among radially symmetrical animals than among bilaterally
symmetrical forms. This type of variation alone is of im-
portance in the evolution of discontinuous specific groups.
Vegetative variation is characteristic of fixed forms and is the
direct result of a sedentary life. It is a measure of the adapta-
bility of the animal to its environment, and is practically
unknown in free-living bilaterally symmetrical animals. It is
of no value in the evolution of discontinuous specific groups.
There is no correlation between radial symmetry and vegetative
variation, except in so far as both are the result of a fixed habit
of life.

3. Systematic Zoologists have hitherto attempted to dis-
tinguish discontinuous specific groups among radially sym-
metrical animals on characters which are the result of vegetative
variation, and have found difficulty in doing so satisfactorily.
This is, however, no evidence that such groups do not exist.
A study of those parts of radially symmetrical animals which
are less liable to the effects of the environment and therefore
more constant in character will probably yield results of im-
portance for the discrimination of species. Such. work has
already yielded encouraging results among Corals, one of the
most variable groups of radially symmetrical animals. Until
more such work has been done and the results examined it is
premature to deny the existence of discontinuous specific
groups in radially symmetrical animals.

Sir Henry Mgrs, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., called attention to
the radical difference between the symmetry of an organism
and that of a crystal. Individual crystals display bilateral or
multilateral symmetry, and a group of crystals may display
radial symmetry but always of a two-, three-, four-, or six-fold
character ; and this is now known to be a consequence of the
homogeneity of a crystal. He asked whether anything is known
of the cause which determines the number of repetitions in
a normal specimen of a radially symmetrical organism.

January 25th, 1916.) PROCEEDINGS. XXVII

Professor WILLIAM H. Lane, M.B., D.Sc., F.R.S., considered,
in the light of the principles contained in the President’s
Address, some cases of dorsiventral symmetry of cryptogamic
plants. It seemed difficult to apply these principles to the
plants, where symmetry often appeared to rest on deeper and
still unexplained differences of the germ cells, There was no
reason to believe that specific differences were less readily
drawn in radial than in dorsiventral plants.

Mr. D. THopay, M.A., suggested that some degree of
plasticity, expressed in a certain range of variability, might be
explicable on the analogy of allotropic forms of crystals, without
assuming any more fundamental change of “specific substance.”
The known properties of fibres and other plant structures
demanded a definite arrangement of the particles composing
them, so that they could hardly be termed amorphous ; at the
same time their chemical complexity suggested the possibility
of a greater variety of modes of arrangement, and perhaps also
less definiteness and stability, than were exhibited by the
crystalline forms of relatively simple substance. Such a mode
of arrangement in substances formed by the protoplasm might
be a reflection of a corresponding structural arrangement in the
protoplasm ; and this might be in some degree hereditary,
though more susceptible to environmental influences than the
chemical composition of the “‘ specific substance.”

The PRESIDENT in reply said that he was prepared to
admit that in the evolution of the animal kingdom as a whole
the sedentary habit came first and the radial symmetry followed,
but he joined issue with Dr. Tattersall as regards the relative
variability of radially symmetrical and of bilaterally symmetrical
animals.

It is quite true that in some Coelenterata the radial sym-
metry is remarkably constant, as for example the octoradial
symmetry of the Alcyonaria, but when variation does occur, as
for example in Medusae and Sea-anemones, it affects important
vital organs such as the stomach, gonads and sense organs to a

XXVIII PROCEEDINGS. [February 8th, 1916.

degree quite unknown among bilaterally symmetrical animals.
The method of branching in Corals and other zoophytes can-
not be regarded as a purely vegetative variation, otherwise all
zoophytes living under like conditions would be alike, and they
are not. The President regarded the discussion as interesting
and suggestive. It might lead to some modification of the
views expressed in his Address, and some further illustration
and explanation of other points.

Ordinary Meeting, February 8th, 1916.

The President, Professor SypNEy J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. The recent accessions tothe Society’s Library
included: “ Canadian /nstitute.—General Index to Publications,
1852-1912, by John Patterson (4to., Toronto, 1914), presented
by the Canadian Institute, Toronto ; ‘ Ox the Leneous and Pyro-
clastic Rocks of the Berwyn Fiills...,” by T. H. Cope (8vo.,
Liverpool, 1915), presented by the Liverpool Geological Society ;
and ‘‘ The British Marine Annelids,” by W. C. McIntosh, Vol.
IIl., Pt. II., Plates, published by the Ray Society (fol., London,
1915), purchased.

Mr. E. L. RuEap, M.Sc.Tech., F.LC.,; and” Mri eo
JeENKinS, F.R.A.S., were nominated Auditors of the Society’s
accounts for the session 1915-16.

In a communication on ‘‘ New Phases of the Con-
troversies concerning the Piltdown Skull,” Professor
G. Ettior Smitru, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., considered the different
views that had been recently expressed; (1) that the canine
belonged to the upper and not the lower jaw; (2) that the man-
dible was not human, but that of a hitherto unknown species of
chimpanzee, which by some unexplained means made its way
into England in the Pleistocene period; (3) that the features

February Sth, 1916.| PROCEEDINGS. XEON

differentiating this mandible from that of modern man had been
unduly exaggerated ; (4) that the canine tooth could not have
belonged to the same individual as the skull and the jaw because
it differed from them in age, according to one authority being
definitelf o/der, and to another distinctly younger, than the other
fragments. These widely divergent views tend to neutralise one
another. )

In considering the possibility that more than one hitherto
unknown ape-like man or man-like ape expired in Britain side
by side in the Pleistocene period, and left complementary parts
the one of the other, the element of improbability 1s so enormous
as not to be set aside except for the most definite and positive
anatomical reasons. ‘The evidence submitted in support of each
item of the arguments for the dissociation of the fragments was
examined ; and it was maintained that none of it was sufficiently
strong to bear the enormous weight of improbability which these
hypotheses imposed upon it.

The author called special attention to the implied inference
that the cranium itself was not sufficiently simian to be associated
with the jaw; and emphasised the fact that the skull itself
revealed certain features of a more primitive nature than any
other known representative of the human family.

A paper by Mr. W. J. Perry, B.A., entitled “The Geo-
graphical Distribution of Terraced Cultivation and
Irrigation,” was read by Professor G. Exviior SMITH.

This paper is printed in full in the AZemozrs.

Mr. J. WiLtFrip JAcKson, F.G.S., read a paper entitled
“The Geographical Distribution of the Shell-Purple
Industry.” 7

The same Author read a further paper entitled ‘‘ Shell-
Trumpets and their Distribution in the Old and New
World.” |

These papers are printed in full in the AZemozrs.

KK PROCEEDINGS. [February 22nd, 1916.

General Meeting, February 22nd, 1916.

Professor G. ELuLiot SmitH, M.A., M.D., F.RS.,
Vice-President, in the Chair.
.

Mr. LawrENcE W. Batts, M.A., Research Botanist to the
Fine Cotton Spinners Association, St. James’s Square, Man-
chester, and of Bramhall, Cheshire, was elected an ordinary
member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, February 22nd, 1916.

Professor G. ELuior SmitH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.,
Vice-President, in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. These included :—‘‘ The Atheneum Subject
Index to Periodicals 1915. Science and Technology,” (4to,
London, 1916,) presented by the Publishers ; ‘‘ AZnxewosynon.
Carmen Francisci Xaverit Reuss...,” (8vo., Amstelodami, 1915),
presented by the Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen,
Amsterdam) ; and “‘ Catalogue of Ta-jth-pin-hsii-ts ang-ching,”
transliterated by Daitar6 Saeki (8vo., Kyoto, 1915), presented by
the Zokyo Shoin Company, Tokyo. .

Mr. C. E. Stromeyver, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E., shewed
that the water hammers which result if a straight tube containing
water and its vapour be subjected to vertical jerks occur near
the surface if the tube has been standing for some time, and
near the bottom if the water has been agitated. He also pointed
out that it is rather difficult to explain why a water column
ruptures under weak forces, for the surface tension of an
infinitely small vacuum bubble is very great.

Professor W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc., M.Sc.Tech., showed
some experiments with Bunsen and Luminous Flames.

March 7th, 1916.| PROCEEDINGS. Xxxi

When a flame is produced by coal gas issuing from a small
circular nozzle a small obstacle placed at the centre of the flame,
at a critical distance a few inches above the aperture, gives rise
to a musical note of high frequency. If two such flames are
made to impinge, roaring or musical flames result. Burners of
the Bray and Méker type were shown to have special properties.
An experiment of great interest enabled the eddy currents pro-
duced by a flame from a triple nozzle to be studied. When the
flame is adjusted—so as to be central within a wide glass
tube—carbonaceous particles are precipitated from the flame
and these are whiiled in an infinite variety of curves round the
flame mantle. The effect is more marked when benzine is
introduced into the coal-gas.

Dr. J. H. Smiru, F.1.C., read a paper entitled “A resume
of work on the bleach-out process of colour photo-
graphy.”

This paper will be printed in full in the Memozrs.

Ordinary Meeting, March 7th, rgr6.

The President, Professor SypNEy J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R-S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. The accessions to the Society’s library included :
““ Vumbers, Variables and Mr. Russel?s Philosophy,” by RB. P.
Richardson and E. H. Landis (8vo., Chicago and London, 1915)
and ‘Fundamental Conceptions of Modern Mathematics, Variables
and Quantities” by R. P. Richardson and E. H. Landis (8vo.,
Chicago and London, 1rg16), presented by the Authors ; “ Zhe
Principles of Plant-Teratology,” by W. C. Worsdell, vol. I. (8vo.,
London, 1915) and ‘‘ Zhe Lritish Freshwater Rhizopoda and
paeocag, Vol. II\. ‘ Rhzzopoda, Part in.” by G. H. Wailes

XXXil PROCEEDINGS. [March 7th, 1916.

(8vo., London, 1915), published by the Ray Society, purchased ;
“Results of Magnetic Observations made by the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey in 1974,” by D. L. Hazard (Special Publication
No. 25) (4to., Washington, 1915), ‘“‘ Distribution of the Magnetic
Declination in the United States for January 1, 1975,” by D. L.
Hazard (Special Publication No. 33) (8vo., Washington, 1915),
and ‘“* Application of the Theory of Least Squares to the Adjust-
ment of Triangulation,” by O. S. Adams (Special Publication
No. 28) (8vo., Washington, 1tg15), presented by the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey ; and “ An Lntroduction to the
Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs,” by S. G. Morley (Bulletin No.
57) (8vo., Washington, 1915), presented by the Bureau of
American Ethnology, Washington.

Mr. D. THopay, M.A., gave a demonstration of Optical
Properties of Chlorophyll. |

He began by referring to the importance of chlorophyll
which enables green plants to utilise radiant energy from the
sun in the synthesis of organic food substances from the carbon
dioxide of the atmosphere. On this process the whole organic
world, with few exceptions, directly er indirectly depends. A
few classes of bacteria, ¢.g., the iron and the sulphur bacteria,
are independent of organic substances, making use of carbon
dioxide in chemosynthests by means of chemical energy, liberated
_ 1n the oxidation of ferrous carbonate and sulphuretted hydrogen
respectively. In the green plant the direct utilisation of sun-
light in photosynthesis depends on chlorophyll, and this fact
makes the optical properties of chlorophyll of especial interest.

Mr. ‘Thoday then proceeded to demonstrate the red fluo-
rescence Of a chlorophyll solution, remarking that the sensitising
action of this and other fluorescent pigments on photographic
plates, and their toxicity to protozoa in extremely dilute solution
only in the light, suggest that such pigments when exposed to
light are especially active chemically. He then projected a
spectrum and showed the absorption bands produced on inter-
posing various thicknesses of chlorophyll solution, free from

March 21st,1916.| PROCEEDINGS. RIT

xanthophylls and carotin. When the continuous spectrum was
finally projected on to the chlorophyll solution the fluorescence
was seen to be mcst marked in the neighbourhood of the chief
absorption band in the red, but again very distinct towards

the violet end, thus corresponding with the distribution of
photosynthetic activity so far as this has yet been determined.

Mind. GA. EICKLING, F.G.S., exhibited a series of plates
and specimens illustrating the variation in the colour of
coal streaks in accordance with the varying proportions of
carbon in the coals, and also a number of samples of the
fluorescent solutions obtained by washing finely ground coal-
powder with benzine. He pointed out that the constituent of
the coal dissolved by the benzine appears to be more especially
characteristic of the bituminous or humic types of coal, little or
no colour being obtained when the Cannel coals or anthracites
are treated in the same way.

_ Ordinary Meeting, March a2ist, 1916.

The President, Professor Sypnry J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,

in the Chair,

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. These included :—“ Zriangulation in West
Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Ilinots, and Missouri,’ by
A. L. Baldwin (Special Publication No. 30) (4to., Washington,
1915), and “ Triangulation along the Columbia River and the
Coasts of Oregon and Northern California,” by C. A. Mourhess
(Special Publication No. 31) (4to., Washington, 1915), presented
by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey; and “ The
Atheneum Subject Index to Periodicals, rors. Theology and
Philosophy,” (4to., London, 1916), presented by the Publishers.

XXXIV PROCEEDINGS. [March 21st, 1916. .

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., shewed an arithmetical problem,
to find the missing figures in !

Ge ee ee av a, We Mir iy Sa Sa a ie Gt > Gis 7 See
KK UK CK: x
XK OK GE OCI
Bk ES Sea

The curious feature is that no figures are supplied except
seven 7's. There are two methods of solving the problem,
and two solutions are possible, viz., divisor 125473, dividend
7375428413, quotient 58781: or, divisor 125474, and the same
quotient, with a corresponding change in the dividend.

The PRESIDENT recorded the re-occurrence of Profohydra,
first discovered by Greeff, in 1868, at Ostend. Professor Hickson
had recently received some material from the South of England
which, on examination, revealed the presence of many living
specimens of the animal. This marine form resembles the fresh-
water Hydra, except that it has no tentacles, and is considerably
smaller. The maximum length, extended, being 1°8 mm., and
the diameter, contracted, about ‘12 mm.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc., F.L.S. read a paper entitled
“Recent views concerning the nature of so-called
‘Graft Hybrids’.”

Professor Weiss commenced by giving an account of the
earliest authentic instances of what were considered by some
botanists to be graft hybrids, beginning with the remarkable
Bizzaria orange, which was discovered in Florence in 1644, and
which had resulted from grafting a lemon on an orange stock. In
this instance the resulting graft, instead of producing lemons,
gave rise to branches bearing both oranges and lemons, and also
to some fruits which were partly orange, partly lemon. Another

March 21st, 1916.| PROCEEDINGS. XXIV

well-known graft hybrid, Cyzisws Adami originated in 1825 by
budding Cytisus purpurens on Cyttsus laburnum, the yellow
laburnum. In this case the main bud perished, but at its side
an adventitious bud was formed and the shoot which developed
from it bore foliage of a size intermediate between those of its
parents. The inflorescence of this so-called purple laburnum
was also intermediate in size, and the flowers in colour a mixture
of yellow and purple. While in the case of this “graft hybrid”
the majority of the branches bore foliage and flowers of the
intermediate kind, known as Cytisws Adamz, reversions to both
the yellow Laburnum and the purple Cytisus are frequent, and,
in some cases, even portions of a leaf or flower may revert to
one of the parents.

Recently H. Winkler has produced a number of similar
“hybrids” by grafting shoots of the tomato upon the black
nightshade, and vice versa. When a firm union of stock and
graft had taken place the plant was cut down to the region of
the graft, and then numerous adventitious buds made their
appearance from the region at which the two plants were united.
In this way five distinct forms of shoots were obtained, all of
them intermediate between stock and scion, but some leaning
more to the tomato, others to the nightshade. Reversions to
the two parents also commonly occur.

Macfarlane, in his careful description of Cytisus Adam,
had already pointed out (2892) that this plant seemed to be
“wrapped round by an epidermis of Cytssus purpurens” as its
external features partook so closely to the nature of this latter
species, and it is singularly noticeable that in most of Winkler’s
“‘oraft hybrids” the outer layers showed a predominance of the
characters of one of the parents. A closer examination has
revealed in Cytisus Adami that the outermost layer of cells of
all organs of the plant show in their most detailed characters
all the features of the purple Cytisus, while the inner core of
the piant seems to consist exclusively of cells of the yellow
laburnum. Of Winkler’s “hybrids” one seems to be covered
by one layer of cells of the tomato, and another by two layers

XXXVI PROCEEDINGS. [March 21st, 1916.

of this plant, while two other forms are covered by one or by
two layers respectively of the nightshade. As this apparent
covering of one plant by a mantle of another differs essentially
from the intimate intermingling of characters usually met with
in seed hybrids, it has been suggested by Baur that the term
“Chimaera ” 18 more appropriate than “hybrid” for the curious
growths resulting from special conditions in grafting. Baur also
concluded that the so-called hybrid which has been obtained
by grafting the medlar upon the hawthorn is probably also a
“ periclinal chimaera.” |

On the other hand one of Winkler’s productions Solanum
Darwintanum may be a true hybrid resulting from the intimate
union of both plants probably with nuclear fusion, as seems
likely from the number of its chromosomes.

Lucien Daniel has also described some intermediate forms
resulting from the grafting of pear upon quince, and peach
upon almond. In these cases as the intermediate shoot arose
at some distance from the graft, in the former case on the roots
of the quince, in the latter case upon the branches of the peach,
it would seem that they cannot be chimaeras, more particularly
as the intermediate characters are often found in deeply-seated
parts as in the stone of the hybrid between almond and peach
(Amygdalo-persica). In the hybrid between the pear and the
quince (Fivo-cydoniu), one of the characters (hairiness) is also
more strongly marked than in either of the parents.

It seems probable, therefore, that ‘graft hybrids” do not
represent one form of vegetative union only, but that fusion of
two different individuals can take place in more than one way.

Similarly in seed hybrids the characters of the parents may
probably be associated with one another in a variety of ways.

oe

April ath, 1910.| PROCEEDINGS. XXXVii

Ordinary Meeting, April 4th, 1916.

The President, Professor SYDNEY J. HIcKson, M.A., DiSe; F.R.Se
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. Amongst these were:—“ Zhe Subantarctic
Islands of New Zealand,” edited by Chas. Chilton, Vols. 1 and 2
(4to., Wellington, N.Z., 1909), and ‘‘/udex Haune Nove Zea-
landie,” edited by F. W. Hutton, (8vo., London, 1904), presented.
by the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christ Church,
N.Z.; and “ Latttude Observations with Photographic Zenith
Tube at Gaithersburg, Md.,” by F. E. Ross (Special Publication
No. 27) (4to., Washington, 1915), presented by the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Professor G. E.itiort SmirH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.; read a
paper entitled “‘ The Origin of the Cerebral Cortex.”

The cerebral cortex was called into existence during the
process of evolution of the vertebrates ; and, even though it is
difficult to detect it in certain fishes, it is to be regarded as a
distinctive and inherent feature of vertebrate structure. The
microscopic formatio pallials of the Cyclostomes represents
the undifferentiated rudiment of the whole of the pallium
(hippocampal formation, piriform area and neopallium of the
highest vertebrates), and not merely the hippocampus, as most
modern anatomists believe. In this respect Professor’ Elliot
Smith reaffirmed the views set forth by Studnicka more than
twenty years ago, and adversely criticised the divergent in-
terpretations maintained respectively by Edinger and Ariens-
Kappers and by Herrick, Johnstone and Sheldon on the other.

He discussed the nature of the factors which were responsible
for calling into existence a cortical formation, citing the cere-
bellum as the simplest case, uncomplicated by the phenomena
of consciousness, such as associative memory, feeling and dis-
crimination. The cerebellum grew up around the central

xx xviii PROCEEDINGS. [April ath, 1916.

terminations of the nerves which bring into the nervous system
special information concerning the animal’s position in space ;
and its cortical mechanism developed in response to the need
for bringing this information under the control of other influences,
such as the nerves of vision, touch and the muscular sense, &c.,
before it is transmitted to the muscles of the body as a whole,
the activities of which it co-ordinates so as to make quick and
nicely balanced responses possible.

The cerebral cortex grew up in a similar way around the
central terminations of the olfactory nerve, which brings in to
the central nervous system information of a more highly affective
quality. It is a biological advantage for records of such ex-
periences to be brought under the influence of other sensory
impressions and be stored up so that they can be recalled in
memory on future occasions. ‘The cerebral cortex is the
organ which develops to meet these requirements and so
becomes the chief instrument of discrimination, not merely for
impressions of smell but eventually for all the senses.

The same Author read a second paper entitled “‘ The
Commencement of the Neolithic Phase of Culture.”

Although there is fairly complete agreement as to the facts
relating to the phase of culture now commonly called “ Azilian,”
there are still wide discrepancies as to the significance of the
data. Because there is no evidence that the introducers of
this culture into Europe brought every one of the practices
which have somewhat arbitrarily been used to define the term
‘* Neolithic,” most archeologists have inclined to the opinion
that the Azilian culture ought to be definitely excluded from
the Neolithic, and regarded as a distinct Pre-Neolithic epoch ;
some writers (Professor H. F. Osborn, for example) even go so
far as to include it in the Paleolithic.

Professor Elliot Smith maintained that the evidence pointed
to the introducers of the Azilian culture as representing an early
wave of the Neolithic people themselves, coming probably from
Africa into Europe. He made the further suggestion that sporadic
bearers of the same culture probably made their way into Europe

April 18th, 1916.) | PROCEEDINGS. Xxxix

for many centuries before the close of the Paleolithic epoch
there: this would explain many similarities not only of Magda-
lenian to Azilian implements, but also of both to those of
Predynastic Egypt.

The question was raised whether the length of the Neolithic
Period in western Europe had not been grossly exaggerated by
many writers; and the possibility was suggested of the Magda-
Jenian Period in the west being approximately contemporaneous
with the Predynastic Period in Egypt, which would imply that
the Neolithic Period in Europe did not begin before the third
millenium B.C.

Mr. J. WitFrrip Jackson, F.G.S., read a paper entitled
“‘The Geographical Distribution of the use of Pearls
and Pearl-shell.”

The same Author read a further paper entitled ‘‘The Use
of Shells for the Purposes of Currency.”

These two papers will be printed in full in the Wemoirs.

Annual General Meeting, April 18th, 1916.

Mr. Francis NIcHOoLson, F.Z.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was resolved:—That the
Annual Report, together with the Statement of Accounts, be
adopted, and that they be printed in the Society’s Proceedings.

Mr. ARTHUR ADAMSON and Mr. G. P. VaARLEy were
appointed Scrutineers of the balloting papers.

The following members were elected Officers of the Society
and Members of the Council for the ensuing year :—

xl PROCEEDINGS. [April 18th, 1916.

President: SyDNrY J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents : FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.; G. ELtior
SmitH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. ; T. A: Cowarn, F:zZ-8)) foiesve
W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc., M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.

Secretaries : R. L. Tayvtor, F-C.S., F.1.C.; Grorée Bier
TANG, DSe4 FAG.

Treasurer: W. Henry Topo.

Librarian: C. L. Barnss, M.A.

Other Members of the Council: R. F. GwyrHer, M.A. ;
W. M. TatTerRsALL, D.Sc.; FRANciIS Jongs, M.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
E.C.S.; Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.1.C,, F-C,S5 vies
McNico., M.Sc. ; D. Tuopay, M.A.

Ordinary Meeting, April 18th, 1916.

Mr. Francis Nicuotson, F.Z.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., gave an
address on “‘ The Lake Villagers of Glastonbury.”

The Lake Village of Glastonbury consisted of between 80
and 9o round huts surrounded by a stockade, and planted for
security at the edge of the sheet of water, that is now repre-
sented by the peat in the marshes, extending from Glastonbury
westward to the sea. The inhabitants smelted iron, and made

various edged tools and weapons—axes, adzes, gouges, saws,

sickles, bill-hooks, daggers, swords, spears, etc. They also
smelted lead ore from the Mendip Hills, and made net-sinkers
and spindle whorls. ‘They probably carried on the manufacture
of glass beads and rings, and other personal ornaments. They
were also workers in tin and bronze. It is likely that the
beautiful Glastonbury bowl was made in the settlement, since
unused rivets of the same type as those of the bowl have been
commonly met with. They were expert spinners and weavers,
carpenters and potters, using the lathe at least in the former

April 18th, 1916.| PROCEEDINGS. xli

industries. The discovery of a wooden wheel, with beautifully
turned spokes, proves that they possessed wheeled vehicles
while the snaffle-bits of iron imply the use of the horse. Their
commerce was carried on partly by land, and the possession of
canoes gave them the use of the water-ways. ‘They were linked
with other settlements by the road running due east from Glas-
tonbury, that formed a part of the network of roads traversing
the country in the Prehistoric Iron Age, and more especially
with the lead-mines and the fortified oppida, or camps, of
- Mendip, and of the rest of the county.

They were also linked with the Bristol Channel by a water-
way along the line of the river Brue, and along this was free
communication with the oppidum of Worlebury, then inhabited
by men of their race.

The Lake-villagers were undoubtedly in touch with their
neighbours by sea and by land. Their jet probably came from
Yorkshire; their Kimmeridge shale from Dorset; the amber
from the eastern counties or from the amber coast south of the
Baltic. The cocks for fighting were probably obtained from
Gaul, and the oblong dice are identical with those used in Italy
in Roman times. Some of the designs on their pottery are
from the south, and the bronze mirrors are probably of Italo-
Greek origin. ‘The technique of the Glastonbury bowl is that
of the goldsmiths of Mykenz. ‘The whole evidence points to
a wide intercourse with the other British tribes, as well as to a
commerce with those of the Continent, extending as far south
as the highly-civilized peoples of the Mediterranean. It falls in
line with that offered by other discoveries recorded in other
parts of Britain, in settlements and tombs, by General Pitt-
Rivers, Sir Arthur J. Evans, and others, proving that the inhabi-
tants of Britain were highly civilized, and were not isolated from
the higher Mediterranean culture, for some 200 years before the
Roman Conquest.

We may infer from the absence of Roman remains that the
Lake-village was abandoned before the influence of Rome was
felt in Somerset.

xiii PROCEEDINGS, [April 18th, 1916.

All doubt, however, as to this point is removed by the
recent explorations of Wookey Hole Cavern, where the group
of objects in the Lake-villages was found in five well-defined
layers underneath two superficial strata of Roman age, the latter
being dated by the coins ranging from the time of Vespasian
(A.D. 69-79) to Valentinian II. (a.D. 375-392). Here we have
proof that the civilization of the Prehistoric Iron Age was pre-
Roman, and that it ended in Somerset with the Roman Con-
quest. It has been traced in other parts of Britain as far back
as 156 to 200 B.C.

The Lake-villagers were of pure Iberic stock, without admix-
ture with other races. They belong to the small aborigines in
Britain in the Neolithic Age, characterised by long or oval
heads, who were conquered in the Bronze Age by the invading
Goidels, and in the Prehistoric Iron Age by the invading
Brythons, both of whom have left their mark in the topography
of the district, by river names such as the Axe (Goidelic) and
the Avon (Brythonic) = water ; and hill names such as Dundry,
Dun (Goid.) = fort; Mendips, Maen (Bryth.) = stones ees
(Bryth.) = hill. From these it may be concluded that the
language spoken by the Lake-villagers was closely allied to the
Welsh. ‘They were closely related to the Silures, the ruling
tribe in South Wales at the time of the Roman Conquest.

The village was sacked, and, as the skulls on the table show,
the inhabitants had been massacred, probably during the con-
quest of that region by the Belgic tribes, whose further progress
was arrested by the Romans. This remarkable discovery is
being followed up by the examination of another Lake-village at
Meare, on the same water-way, belonging to the same pre-
Roman age. ‘The excavations are being described by Messrs.
Arthur Bulleid, H. St. George Gray, and other workers (“ The
Glastonbury Lake Village,” by Arthur Bulleid and H. St.
George Gray.). The first volume was published in 1911, and the
second is now nearly completed. When the whole story is told,
by these and other contributors, it will fill a blank in the pre-
history of Britain, and form a sound basis for history.

May goth, 1916.] PROCEEDINGS. Aelia
Ordinary Meeting, May oth, 1916.

Professor W. W. HaLpANE GEE, B.Sc., M.Sc.Tech., Vice-
President, in the Chair.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., mentioned that sea-weed, now
again in request as a source of iodine, was looked upon by the
ancients as a type of worthlessness.

Thus Horace (Odes, III., 17) has

Cras foliis nemus
multis et alga litus inutili
demissa tempestas ab Euro sternet.
(To-morrow a storm, swooping down from the East, shall strew
the grove with leaves and the shore with useless sea-weed.)

Pane ithe Seizes, Il /v. 3, ‘Ht genus et virtus nisi cum
re vilior alga.” (Birth and character without money are more
worthless than sea-weed. )

Virgil (Eclogues, VII., 42) has ‘“ Horridior rusco proiecta
vilior alga.” (Rougher than broom, more worthless than uncon-
sidered sea-weed.)

Rutilius, a minor poet of the 5th century, A.D., in describing
a landlord’s bill, says: ‘‘ Vexatos frutices pulsatas imputat
algas.” (He charges for damaged shrubs and tumbled sea-
weed.)

Lastly, in the Zempes/, we read :

And, like the unsubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a wrack behind. |

Whe word ‘‘wrack” here, is akin to the French ‘ varec,”
yeferring to the ashes of sea-weed, but also meaning “ refuse”
of any kind. ‘ Wreck” is derived from the same root.

Mr. Epcar NEwseEry, M.Sc.. read a paper entitled: ‘‘ The
‘Theory of Overvoltage.”

Mr. R. F. Gwyruer, M.A., read a paper entitled, ‘‘ The
Specification of Stress, Part IV. (continued).”

These papers are printed in full in the AZemoairs.

xliv PROCEEDINGS. [Jay 3oth, 1916.
Ordinary Meeting, May 30th, 1916.

Professor. W. W. HaLpAnr Grr, B.Sc., M.Se-Vechi Vice
President, in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books on
the table. These included “ Z7ansactions and Proceedings of
the New Zealand [nstttute,” vols. 1—47 (8vo., Wellington, N.Z.,
1869--1915), presented by Mr. Edward Melland.

Dr. W. H. R. Rivirs, M.D., F.R-S., read a papermemtiier
“Irrigation and the Cultivation of Taro.”

In the New Hebrides and New Caledonia irrigation is only
used for the cultivation of Colocasia antiguorum, the taro of the
Polynesians. This intimate connection between irrigation and
taro, which is found in other parts of Oceania, suggests that if
irrigation belongs to the megalithic culture (W. J. Perry, AZan-
chester Memoirs, Vol. 60, Part I.), taro must have had a similar
history. The distribution of the plant supports this suggestion,
showing a close correspondence with that of the megalithic culture
when its tropical and semi-tropical habits are taken into account.
It occurs in Oceania, the Malay Archipelago, India and Eastern
Asia, Arabia, Egypt, East and West Africa, the Canary Islands,
Algeria, Southern Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as tropical
America. Since the original habitat of the plant is Southern
Asia, its use as a food was probably acquired by the megalithic
people in India and taken by them both to the east and west.

Although the general distribution of taro in Southern Mela-
nesia corresponds with that of the megalithic influence, a
difficulty is raised by the island of Malekula, in the new
Hebrides. So far as we know, irrigation does not occur in this
island, although megalithic influence is present in a very definite
form. ‘lo account for the absence of irrigation in this island, it
is shown that modes of disposal of the dead point to two mega-
lithic intrusions into Oceania, and the high degree of develop-
ment of irrigation in such outlying islands and districts as New
Caledonia, Anaiteum and North-Western Santo in Melanesia

May 30th, 1916.| PROCEEDINGS. xlv

and the Marquesa and Paumotu Islands in Polynesia suggests
that this practice belonged to the earlier of the two movements.
There is reason to believe that this movement had relatively
little influence in Malekula.

Professor G. ELuior SMH MoAs MiDs. Bu St) reads a
paper entitled ‘‘ The Arrival of //omo sapiens in Europe.”

At a time when little was known of early man amd his works
beyond the stone implements which he fashioned, Sir John
Lubbock (afterwards Lord Avebury) suggested the use of the
terms Paleolithic and Neolithic to distinguish respectively
between the earlier part of the Stone Age, when crudely
worked implements were made, and the later period, when
more carefully finished workmanship was shown. In spite of
the fact that subsequent investigation revealed a high degree of
skill in the craftsmanship of the Upper Paleolithic period,
which in many respects shows a very much closer affinity to the
Neolithic than to the Lower Paleolithic period, Lubbock’s
terminology has become so firmly established that it has con-
tinued to determine the primary subdivision into epochs of the
early history of man.

Recent research has brought to light a vast-amount of new
information relating to the achievements of Upper Palzeolithic
man, and has conclusively shown that human culture and artistic
expression had already attained the distinctive characters which
mark them as the efforts of men like ourselves. This view has
been amply confirmed by the general recognition of the fact
that, after the disappearance of Neanderthal man at the end of
the Monsterian period, the new race of men that supplanted
them in Europe and introduced the Aurignacian culture conform

in all essential respects to our own specific type-—-/Yomo sapiens.

Thus the facts of physical structure, no less than the artistic
abilities and the craftsmanship, of the men of the Upper Palzo-
lithic proclaim their affinity with ourselves. The earlier types
of mankind which invaded Iurope and left their remains near
Piltdown, Heidelberg, and in the various Monsterian stations

xl vi PROCEEDINGS. — [J/ay 30th; 1916.

belong to divergent species, and perhaps genera, which can be
grouped together as belonging to a Paleanthropic Age, which
gave place (at the end of the Monsterian epoch in Europe) to a
Neoanthropic Age, when men of the modern type, with higher
skill and definite powers of artistic expression, made their
appearance and supplanted their predecessors.

So long as primary importance continues to be assigned to
the terms Palzolithic and Neolithic the perspective of anthro-
pology will be distorted.

Though the facts I have enumerated in this communication
are widely recognised, one finds that the writers who frankly
admit them lapse from time to time into the mode of thought
necessarily involved in the use of the terms Paleolithic and
- Neolithic. If modern ideas are to find their just and unbiassed
expression some such new terminology as is suggested here
becomes necessary. |

Annual Report of the Council. xl vii

MANCHESTER

MrERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Annual Report of the Counctl, April, 1916.

The Society had at the beginning of the session an ordinary
membership of 140. Since then eight new members have
joined the Society, nine members have resigned, and one
member, Mr. W. H. Corr, M.Sc., has died. . There are,
therefore, at the end of the session, 138 ordinary members
of the Society. The Society has also lost, by death, four
honorary members, viz.: Dr. H. Desus, F.R.S., The Right
Moos Henry EF. Roscor, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor
Graf zu Sotms Laupacu, For. Mem. R.S., and Professor Sir
WILLIAM TURNER, K.C.B., M.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. Memorial
notices of these gentlemen will appear with this report in the

Memoirs and Proceedings.

Twenty-six papers have been read at the meetings during
the year; fourteen shorter communications have also been

made.

The Society commenced the session with a balance in hand,
from all sources, of £462. 1s. 13d., made up as follows :—

Emactecit-Of General Fund ..:. 0.5 <0..s-064 0+ Popa De oad
‘ Wilde Endowment Fund... 353 4 5
" a Joule Memorial Fund...... $4. P46

Palance 21st March, 1975./..04.0..0... £462 1 14

x] vill Annual Report of the Council.

\

The balance in hand at the close of the session amounted to
4329. 8s. 4d., the amounts standing at credit of the various
accounts on the 31st March, 1916, being :—

At credit-of General Funds. at ee A, 27 ona
= a Wilde Endowment Fund... 224 12 0o
a ” Joule Memorial Fund ...... 76. 17

Balance 31st March, £9 L620 4.0808 4329 8 4

The Wilde Endowment Fund, kept as a separate banking
account, shows a balance due to the Fund of £224 12s. od. in
its favour, as against a balance in hand of £353. 4s. 5d. at the
end of the last financial year. The receipts for the year 1915-16
show a slight decrease as compared with those for the previous
year.

#195. 16s. od. of the balance of the Wilde Endowment
Fund has been invested in the purchase of £200 of the new 44
per cent. War Loan Stock ; and the £200 (£188. 17s. 3d.) of
the 34 per cent. War Loan Stock purchased last year for the
Joule Memorial Fund has been converted into £200 of the
new 44 per cent. War Loan Stock. 3

‘The Society’s house has been insured under the Government

Air Raid insurance scheme.

The Librarian reports that during the session 672 volumes
have been stamped, catalogued and pressmarked ; 611 of these
were serials, and 61 were separate works. 229 catalogue cards
were written, 149 for serials, and 80 for separate works. ‘The
total number of volumes catalogued to date is 37,039 for
which 12,876 cards have been written.

The library continués to be satisfactorily used for reference
purposes. 184 volumes have been borrowed from the library

Annual Report of the Council. xlix

during the past year. The number of books borrowed during
the previous year was 201, and during 1912-13, 285.

During the year 220 volumes have been bound in 163
covers. In the previous session the corresponding numbers were

288 volumes in 194 covers.

The additions to the hbrary for the session amounted to
687 volumes, 622 serials, and 65 separate works. ‘he donations
{exclusive of the usual exchanges) were 60 volumes; 5 volumes
were purchased, in addition to those regularly subscribed for.

:

The Society’s publications are now forwarded to the Editor
of The Atheneum for the new Subject Index to periodicals
published for the Council of the Library Association.

Certain of the medical books in the library have been
offered to the Manchester Medical Society and accepted by
them.

The 4th series of the Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific
Papers (1884-1900) is being subscribed to, and volumes 18,
part I., and 26 of Archeologia have also been purchased.

The donations to the Society’s Library during the session
include gifts of books by the Trustees of the British Museum
(Natural History), the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the
Meteorological Office, London, Mr. ‘T. A. Coward, Mr. Francis
Nicholson, and Miss Laura Start.

The publication of the Society's Alemoirs and Proceedings
has been continued under the supervision of the Editorial

Comnunittee.

An agreement with the Manchester University Press dealing
with the sale of the Society’s Afemoirs and Proceedings is at
present under consideration.

l Annual Report of the Counctl.

The Society is itdebted to Mr. Francis Jones for defraying
the expense of framing Dalton’s pedigree, and to Mr. Francis
Nicholson for the cost of renovating Dalton’s silver inkstand.

A case bas been provided for the Dalton Diagrams, and a’

Jlemoiy dealing with these is now on sale.

During the meeting of the British Association in September,
an Exhibition of Apparatus, Portraits, Books, etc., of historical
interest was arranged in the Society's House and opened to
members of the Association on the afternoons of Wednesday,
Thursday and Friday, the 8th, gth and 1oth of September.
Members of Sections A and G. (Mathematical and Physical
Sciences,and Engineering) were invited on Wednesday ; Members
of Section B (Chemistry) on Thursday ; and Members of Sections
C, D, H, I and K (Geology, Zoology, Anthropology, Physiology
and Botany) on Friday. A short account of the Society’s House,
with a list of the exhibits was prepared and distributed to
the visitors. ‘This is also published in the Proceedings.

Mr. and Mrs. R. Kelly having resigned their posts as Care-
taker and Housekeeper to the Society, the Council have
appointed Mr. and Mrs. J. Bruce to fill these positions.

The Committees appointed by the Council during the year
were as follows :—

House and Finance.

The PRESIDENT. Mr. Francis NICHOLSON.
Mr. C. L. BARNES. Mr. W. H. Topp.
Mr. FRANCIS JONES. Dr. H. G. A. HICKLING.

Mr. RT. TAvnor:

Editorial.
The PRESIDENT. Mr. Francis NICHOLSON.
Mr. R. F. GWYTHER. Mr. Rob. (Bavror:
Dr. H. G. A. HICKLING. ‘The AssISTANT SECRETARY,

Annual Report of the Council. lt
Wi ae Endowment.
Mr W. He. Fon.

The PRESIDENT.
MroRe Ex TAYLOR.

Mr. Francis JONES.
ie, Et. Ge. A. Hick LING:

Spectal Library Committee.
Mr. Francis NICHOLSON.

The PRESIDENT.
Mr. R. F. GwvyTHERr.

Dir. L., BARNES.
Professor W. W. HaLpane GEE. Mr. FRANCIS JONES.
Wier: L.. TAYLOR: Dr oh GAT AICKLING:

The ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

British Association Committee.

Mr. Francis NICHOLSON.
Professor W.W. HALDANE GEE,
Nord, Ec TAVLOR.

‘The PRESIDENY.
Mr. C. L. Barnes.

Mr. FRANCIS JONES.
rere Gs Al AIicKkLinc.

Publications Committee.
Mir. 1 BARNES

The PRESIDENT.
Dr Ty Gi Aw Aickiine

De W.-M. TATTERSALL,

Ai Annual Report of the Council.

Dr. Debus, F.R.S.—By the death of Dr. Heinrich Debus,
chemical science loses an able investigator and the Society one
of its oldest honerary members. He was born in Hessen in
1824 so that he had reached the advanced age of 91 when he
died on December goth, 1915. Dr. Debus studied chemistry
under Bunsen at the Polytechnic School at Cassel and followed
hin to Marburg ‘There he met Kolbe and Frankland, with
whom he became very intimate, and there he investigated the
chemistry of madder which formed the subject of his first
paper, published in 1848. In 1851 he came to England and
taught Chemistry at Queenwood College, Hampshire, and later
at Clifion College. He left Clifton in 1870 on his appointment
as lecturer on Chemistry at Guy’s Hospital, where he remained
_ till elected first professor of Chemistry in the newly established
Naval College at Greenwich. This was his last appointment
and when he resigned it he returned to Germany.

Dr. Debus was a voluminous writer and communicated
many papers on a great variety of subjects to the scientific
journals. Perhaps his most important papers were those on the
chemical theory of gunpowder and on the oxidation products of
ethyl alcohol, glycol, and glycerine. He showed that the action
of nitric acid on alcohol yielded acetic, formic, oxalic and
glycollic acids, and in addition a new acid which he named
glyoxylic acid. After the discovery of glycol by Wurtz in 1859
he showed that this new body also yielded glyoxylic acid on
oxidation.

Dr. Debus joined the Chemical Society in 1859 and later
became a Vice-President. He was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1861.

To a wide knowledge of chemistry Dr. Debus added a deep
interest in other scientific subjects. He was an excellent teacher
and had the faculty for interesting his students by whom he was
greatly esteemed. He never married and outlived nearly all his
scientific contemporaries, but will be remembered in the annals
of chemistry for the important additions he made to the progress
of that science. F. J.

Annual Report of the Counce, litt

Henry Enrietp Roscor, the son of Henry Roscoe, a
barrister, of Liverpool, was born in London in 1833. He was
the grandson of William Roscoe, a banker in Liverpool, well
known as the author of the Zz/e of Lorenzo de’ ALledict. Roscoe’s
mother was the daughter of a Liverpool merchant named
Fletcher and the granddaughter of Dr. William Enfield, Rector
of Warrington Academy, where Joseph Priestley taught chemistry.
He was educated at the Liverpool Institute, and was taught
chemistry by W. H. Balmain, the inventor of ‘‘ luminous paint.”
His education was continued at University College, London,
where he came under the influence of Thomas Graham, and
subsequently of A. W. Williamson, who succeeded Graham in the
_ chair ofchemistry. Leaving London he proceeded to Heidelberg
to study under Bunsen, and there began a life-long friendship
and a close association in scientific investigation with that
eminent chemist. After taking his degree, Roscoe joined
Bunsen in a prolonged research on the chemical intensity of
light and on a method for determining its amount. Their first
method was founded on the well-known fact that chlorine and
hydrogen when mixed together and exposed to light, combined
together, with formation of hydrochloric acid easily soluble in
water. ‘he apparatus used for this investigation served to prove
several points of great interest among others, that the amount .
of chemical action occurring from a constant source, varied
inversely as the square of the distance. By means of it they
also showed the effect of the different parts of the spectrum on
the rate of combination of the two gases. ‘Their second method
depended on the observation of the amount of darkening occurring
in specially prepared photographic paper and cemparing it after
exposure to light with standard tints. ‘The apparatus required
for this purpose was simpler and more portable than that of the
first method and much more generally applicable. More than
seven years were occupied in this research, the results of which
are recorded in the Philosophical Transactions.

Leaving Heidelberg, Roscoe settled in London and estab-
lished a private laboratory, having Wilhelm Dittmar as his

liv Annual Report of the Council.

assistant. Here they worked on the absorption of hydrochloric
acid and ammonia in water and later on the effect of heat on
solutions of the volatile acids. They ascertained that strong
and weak solutions of such acids when boiled, each leave a
residue of definite composition depending on the pressure at
which the boiling took place.

In 1857 Roscoe was elected as Frankland’s successor in the
chair of chemistry in Owens College, Manchester, at the early age
of twenty-four. Here he was soon occupied in a research on
perchloric acid and its hydrates and salts, and with Thorpe’s
assistance he was able to show that thallium perchlorate was
isomorphous with the perchlorates of potassium and ammonium.

But the chief research with which Roscoe’s name will always
be associated was his investigation of the rare metal vanadium
and its compounds. In 1865 copper was being obtained at
Alderley Edge and the waste products were found to yield a
blue solution which did not give the reactions for copper salts,
This was brought to Roscoe’s notice and it was soon recognised
that it contained vanadium. Such an opportunity for studying
the metal was not to be lost, and very soon the whole of the
waste product was transferred to the cellars of the old Owens
College in Quay Street. Many difficulties were encountered in
obtaining pure vanadium compounds from this source, but they
were eventually overcome and the purified products were used
for an elaborate research. ‘lhe chief results obtained need only
be briefly referred to. It was shown that the atomic weight of
vanadium estimated by Berzelius as 68°5 was incorrect and
the true value 51°3. ‘lhe Swedish chemist had prepared the
oxychloride, but considered it the trichloride, and based his
calculations on that erroneous assumption. Roscoe showed
that the volatile liquid was really an oxychloride like phosphorus
oxychloride and that the element belonged to the phosphorus-
arsenic group. ‘The metal itself had not been previously ob-
tained but was prepared by the reduction of the dichloride in a
current of hydrogen.

Annual Report of the Councit. lv

It remains to mention the titles of other communications
made to the Royal and chemical societies after the vanadium
research was completed: ‘‘On a new chloride of Uranium,”
“‘ Note on the Specific Gravity of the vapour of the chlorides of
Thallium and Lead,” “A study of some of the Earth-metals
contained in Samarskite,” and in conjunction with Professor
Schuster papers on the Spectrum of Terbium and on the
Absorption-spectra of Potassium and Sodium.

Soon after Roscoe’s election to the chair of chemistry in
Owens College he became a member of this Society. His
connection with it was long and intimate. He became joint
secretary with Dr. E. Schunck in 1860 and then, with Mr. Baxen-
dell, remained secretary till 1873. Three years later he became
Vice-President and ia 1882 was elected President of the Society.
During his long membership Roscoe contributed many papers
to our AZemoirs, the titles of which will be found below.

Roscoe’s scientific eminence and his great work in connection
with education brought him many honours both in this country
and abroad. He was elected President of the British Association
in 1887 and to the Vice-Chancellorship of the University of
London in 1896. He had received the honour of Knighthood
‘in 1884 and in 1909 was sworn of the Privy Council.

He died, somewhat suddenly, on December 18th, rg15, at
the age of 82.

Papers read before the Society :
“On the alleged practice of Arsenic Eating in Styria.” (1860).
“The existence of a crystallizable carbon compound and free

sulphur in the Alais Meteorite.” (1863).

“Note on the amount of carbonic acid contained in the air of

Manchester.” (1864).

“On the isomorphism of thallium-perchlorate with the potassium

and ammonium-perchlorates.” (1866).

“On the properties of vanadium.” [Title only.] (1868).
“‘On measurements of the chemical intensity of total daylight
made during the recent total eclipse of the sun, by Lieut.

Wedaterenel, R.E.” (1868),

ivi Annual Report of the Council.

‘“‘A study of certain Tungsten compounds.” (1872).

“On the corrosion of leaden hot-water cisterns.” (1874).

‘“Some remarks on Dalton’s first table of atomic weights.”
(1874).

‘““Notes on a collection of apparatus employed by Dr. Dalton
in his researches, which is about to be exhibited (by the
Council of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man-
chester) at the I.oan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus at
South Kensington.” (1876).

“Note on metallic niobium and a new niobium chloride.”
(1877). |

“On a new variety of Halloysite from Maidenpete, Servia.”
(1884).

“On the diamond-bearing rocks of South Africa.” (1884).

There were also several minor communications. -
ee ©

While gladly complying with the request that I should
add to the preceding notice of the scientific work of the late
Sir Henry Roscor, and of the part taken by him in the
proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, a few words concerning his general services to
education, I must confess to an initial difficulty in making
such an attempt. As Roscoe himself, in his Azzfobiography,
says of Pasteur, the great benefactor of suffering humanity,
for whom, next to Bunsen, the ‘guide, philosopher and friend”
of his early manhood, he cherished, perhaps, the most thorough
personal admiration, he began and ended as a chemist. It
was his faithful devotion to the science to which he had at
an early date, with what at the time was no slight proof of
moral courage, elected to give up his life, which lay at the
root of his success as a teacher. And, since he had soon
come to see that chemistry cannot be rightly taught as an
isolated science, his fidelity to his chosen study aroused in him
an interest in scientific teaching in general, and, with it, in
higher and in secondary, including technical education, of

Annual Report of the Council. lvii

which he had come to the conclusion that scientific instruction
should form an integral part. Can this stage in the evolution
of Roscoe’s educational work be profitably discussed by one
whose insight into its initial stages must, for the most obvious of
reasons, be at fault? On the other hand, inasmuch as we stood
side by side during more than two-thirds of the part of his
life which he spent at Manchester as a professor at Owens
College and the Victoria University, I feel able to bear witness
to something more than the success which attended his un-
wearying labours among us. Without him, the college in Quay
Street would not have averted the humiliating collapse which
was threatening it at the time of his arrival; without him, it
would not have developed into what it had become when it
vindicated to itself recognition as the single college of a national
university. The main reason of this growth can be stated in the
briefest of ways: it lay in’ the fact that Roscoe’s chemical
laboratory had become the foremost in this country. Its advance
to this position had been consciously planned by him. Much
of the secret he had learned from Bunsen at Heidelberg—more
was due to his own genius as a teacher, organiser and adminis-
trator. He refers in his Autobiography, rather perfunctorily
perhaps, to the oft-debated question of the tutorial versus the
professorial system of teaching; but it is quite certain that the
chief advantages of both were combined in his own method as a
teacher—pursued as it was from the one point of view of the
advancement of learning by the inculcation and experimental
illustration of scientific principles as well as by the encourage-
ment of steadfast individual labour in the search after wholly or
partially hidden natural truths. Class-room and laboratory thus
supplement each other; and original research—a term with
which, notwithstanding its rather hackneyed use, we cannot
afford to dispense—becomes the cause of scientific education.
Inspired by the examples of Dalton and Joule, and with
Frankland as his predecessor in his professorial chair, Roscoe
became the real founder of the Manchester School of Chemistry.
Into what kind of school it grew, is shown by the distinguished list

lviil Annual Report of the Counezl.

of his demonstrators and assistant-lecturers, beginning (or nearly
so) with Dittmar and Schorlemmer, who afterwards, at Roscoe’s
suggestion, was appointed Professor of Organic Chemistry, and
contributed the volume on that branch of the science to their
joint magnum opus, and including Thorpe, Smithells, and many
younger men. Sir Edward Thorpe, who for a number of years
was, in more ways than one, his chief’s adfer ego, has, quite
recently, enlarged the obituary notice written by him for the
Transactions of the Royal and Chemical Societies, into a most
readable as well as instructive biography of his honoured friend.
Still larger, of course, is the list of students in his classes who
have made a name for themselves as men of science ; but it may
be doubted whether there is one of them who would not regard
Roscoe’s encouragement of research as the most effective element
in his guidance. A far more multitudinous body of learners
were taught to understand something of his gifts as an instructor,
apart from his manipulative ability as an experimenter, by means
of that clearness of exposition and inborn dislike of the super-
fluous which his manuals attest—the Z/ementary Chemtsiry,
with its 2-300,000, and the Chemistry Primer, with its 3-400,000
printed copies, which have taught generations of undergraduates
and schoolboys the rudiments of his science. The same qualities,
added to the sympathetic charm of a genial and absolutely un-
affected manner, account for the unfailing success of his popular
lectures of various sorts and kinds. At the Royal Instituion,
where the audiences at least know something of the art of
lecturing, he made his first appearance at the age of twenty-
three ; but his success was most striking in the Science Lectures
for the People, which sprang from the high-minded and warm-
hearted conception of a series of addresses to unemployed
operatives at the time of the Cotton Famine of 1862, which may
be said to have been, for many years afterwards, a standing feature
of Lancashire life.

Roscoe’s association with Manchester was, it has been said,
so enduring that its character-only changed—and was then far
from entirely—after his election to Parliament as member for

Annual Report of the Council. lix

one of the divisions of the borough. His motives for this
relinquishment of his academical work were of a purely personal,
but wholly unselfish, nature, and implied no diminution of his
attachment to the University of which he had been the principal
founder. Several years earlier, he had been in vain tempted to
transfer his services to Oxford, and again to the foremost of
the great London Medical Schools; as to Oxford, whose
relations with Manchester in connection with the teaching of his
science have consisted in a continuous profitable system of give
and take, he,-after some hesitation, made up his mind with that
simple straightforwardness which, fortunately for the institu ions
and causes with which he was brought into contact, was part of
his nature: ‘I felt that I had a wider scope and more useful life
in building up the Chemical School of the Owens College.’

The ‘Extension Movement’ of 1870, and the foundation
of the Victoria University, accomplished by the grant of the
_ Royal Charter in 1880, were the two occasions on which the
paramount position of Roscoe in Manchester’s academical, as
connected with its industrial and general life, was most notably
displayed. The former movement, of which its successor,
ten years afterwards, may be regarded as the natural outcome,
was what the Germans, in the days when they still used to envy
British enterprise, would have called a ‘ practical’ effort, and
needed for its execution a man practical in the fullest sense of
the word. Him Roscoe found in the late Thomas Ashton, in
his generation a man of leading, if ever there was such in the
public life of a great community. ‘I'he more complex under-
taking which was to crown the result thus achieved, by the
recognition as a national University of a College which had
come to do university work in the centre of the busiest part of
the kingdom, was first suggested to Roscoe by Lord Kelvin,
himself one of the glories of Glasgow and of Cambridge alike.
In the preliminary struggle which ensued—for there was a good
déal of hard hitting on the adverse side, with Mr. Robert Lowe
(Lord Sherbrooke) in the van—many took part: none more
usefully than the Principal of the Owens College, the late Dr,

1) Annual Report of the Councel.

Greenwood. ‘To him it was largely due, that, as in the extension
of the College, so in the design of converting it into a University,
full regard was had to the preservation of a fair balance between
the great divisions of learning, which proved attainable even
without insisting on compulsory Greek and Latin for its degrees.
But it was Roscoe’s knowledge of men and things which facili-
tated every step of the progress towards the desired end. Nor
was the basis of compromise, on which a federal university was
in the first instance called into life, in lieu of the municipal which
had been originally intended, wholly unwelcome to his width
and freedom of judgment—more especially in view of the
certainty that the adoption, for the time at all events, of the
federal system must lead to an advance in other great commercial
and industrial centres besides Manchester itself. The real >
drawback in the victory gained lay elsewhere, though it was not
unconnected with the causes which had brought about the
change of design ; but no one could doubt that the new Uni-
versity would not long be left without the power, denied to it at
first, of granting medical degrees. At the time, however, Roscoe
greatly resented this ‘emasculation,’ as he called it, of the Uni-
versity curriculum ; for, as his later correspondence with Mr.
Balfour showed, he attached the highest importance to a sound
basis of the teaching of science to medical students.

More cannot be said here of these important transactions,
the significance of which forthe progress of higher education,
and through it, in some measure, for that of secondary education,
also, in England, is now universally acknowledged. On the
advance of a particular kind of instruction, which long hovered
half-way between the one and the other, he likewise set his
personal mark after, in 1881, he had become a member of the
Royal Commission on Technical Instruction. (The first occasion
on which he had been called upon to give his services in the
same capacity had, characteristically, been that of a purely
scientific enquiry: Lord Aberdare’s Noxious Vapours Com-
mission of 1876, which led to the passing, not more than fifteen
years later, of the first of the Alkalis Acts.) Few Commissioners’

Annual Report of the Counctl. Ixi

reports have had a more direct influence alike on educational
and on industrial progress than that presented by Roscoe and
his colleagues after their enquiry into technical instruction and
its effect upon industries abroad. Though his own legislative
attempts for the application at home of these experiences were
unsuccessful, while the Technical Schools’ Act of 1889 was not
altogether in conformity with his own views on the subject, the
cause of which he was one of the most eminent advocates in
1890 derived a great moral as well as material advantage from
the spirited appropriation by the late Lord Goschen of the
‘whisky money’ to the purposes of technical and secondary
education ; and the great Education Act of 1902, though it
repealed the Technical Instruction Act of 1889, gave a far
more comprehensive range to the principle of this appropria-
tion; and, in the end, Roscoe had the satisfaction of wit-
nessing the adoption in this country of the principle strenuously
urged by him in contravention of the practice preferred in
Germany, of co-ordinating the highest technological training
with instruction im arts and science. Many of us, it must be

p)

confessed, long ‘fought shy’ of this principle ; but Manchester
University has, not too soon, become a convert to it. May the
remark be added that for effective results from this system much
depends on the right sequence between practical and University
work, consistently advocated by Sir William Mather ?

Roscoe’s labours as a member of the Royal Commission on
Secondary Education and of the Scottish University Commission
must here be passed by; but those who have followed them are
aware of the consistency with which he asserted for original
research its place in higher, and for training to that end in
Secondary, Education—the latter even in the neighbourhood of
the playing-fields of Eton College, of which he was for many
years a Governor. When, at a later date, he became one of the
Carnegie Trustees, it was in the same direction that he success-
fully exerted his influence. During all these years, both while
he held a seat in Parliament and afterwards. his advice asa
practical chemist was eagerly sought by the House of Commons

Ixii Annual Report of the Council.

itself, by the Metropolitan Board of Works and by the authorities
of the Mersey and Irwell Watershed, who were fain that their
rivers should be made pure even as Father Thames had been.
Roscoe’s design of a National Water (Supply) Board remains a
vision of the future. Of his effective interest in the allimportant
subject of Preventive Medicine I have already spoken.

In 1896, he became Vice-Chancellor of the University of
London, and during six years presided with his usual ability and
success over the deliberations of the rulers of that body, which,
notwithstanding the great work already done by it for the nation,
seemed to be as it were perpetually 7m IVerden. He had to
superintend the reconstruction of the University, after the report
of two Royal Commissions, as a teaching body—the develop-
ment which, of all others, he had at heart, but the accomplish-
ment of which affected the interests of a number of other
institutions in and out of London, as well as of the constituent
Colleges ; while its important and time-honoured examining
functions continued. He had to preside over the appointment
of a new and complex Governing Body and of a practically new
administrative staff. And he had to carry through the decision
on the thorny question of the University’s new local habitation.
Fortunately for himself and the University, he had, in most of
these matters, the counsel and assistance of the first occupant
of the newly-created office of Principal, the late Sir Arthur
Rucker, to whom, as to his successor, now our Vice-Chancellor
at Manchester, our elder sister at London owes a very great debt.
Roscoe’s six years of office were thus far from being years of.
dignified leisure, and his name will be gratefully remembered
among those of the re-founders of the great institution which had
developed out of the college that had been the Alma Mater of
his youth. Yet when, in 1904, the crowning hour of his long
life and indefatigable labours was paid to him by his pupils,
colleagues and friends from all over the world, it was character-
istic of him and of the loyalty which ennobled the conduct of
his life that he should have chosen Manchester for the scene of
the homage offered to him, and that it was his Heidelberg

Annual Report of the Council. Ixiil

doctorate of which he thus celebrated the jubilee. If it is
impossible to look without a wondering admiration upon the
labours of his fourscore years, the goodwill towards men which
4nspired them formed an essential part of his conception of the
true man of science. A. W.. W.

Count Soims-LauBacu.——By the death, in November of
last year, of Hermann Graf zu Solms-Laubach, botanical science
has lost one of its most distinguished members. "Though a
descendant of one of the most ancient branches of German
aristocracy, Count Solms was always one of the most unassum-
ing of men, and his unvarying kindliness endeared him to a
large circle of botanists both in his own country and in Britain.

He was born in 1842, and after studying in the Universities
of Berlin, Giessen and Freiburg, he commenced his work as
a teacher in the University of Halle in 1868, and was subse-
quently appointed Professor in the University of Gottingen
(1879). In 1888 he succeeded De Bary as Professor in the
University of Strasburg, where he remained until his retirement
a few years ago.

His knowledge of botany was as extensive as it was thorough.
His early investigations were devoted to the study of the struc-
ture and nutrition of various groups of parasitic plants, to the
knowledge of which he made substantial contributions. He was
also interested in cultivated plants, and published some im-
portant memoirs on the fig, the papaw, wheat and strawberries.
Of his purely systematic works, the monograph of the Acetabu-
lariaceze, published in 1895 in the Transactions of the Linnean
Society of London, is probably the most important, and of
particular interest to us as being written in English. In 1905
he published a book on somewhat new lines, on the “ Principles
of Plant Geography.” Probably, however, Count Solms’ name
will, in this country at any rate, be most closely associated with
his ‘Introduction to Palaeophytology,” which was issued in
German in 1887 and subsequently in English by the Clarendon
Press in 1892. This book not only reveals his encyclopaedic

Ixiv Annual Report of the Council.

knowledge of the literature of the subject upon which he was at
work, but also his profound appreciation of the importance of
the new work which was being done in his branch of science
in this country, particularly by Professor Williamson. Solms
himself published many important papers on palaeobotanical —
subjects, and retained to the end a great interest in fossil plants.

For many years he was editor, first in conjunction with
Wortmann and then with Oltmanns, of the ‘‘ Botanische Zeitung.”
He was elected a foreign member of the Linnean Society in
1887 and was awarded the gold medal of the Linnean Society
in rgtr. He was elected honorary member of our Society in
1892 and in 1906 foreign member of the Royal Society. In
addition, he was a member of a large number of learned societies
both in Germany and in other countries.

Count Solms visited England on repeated occasions, often
attending the meetings of the British Association, as he did in
Manchester in 1887 as a friend of the late Professor Wiiliamson.
He was personally known to many British botanists, all of whom
cordially appreciated the many expressions of his friendship. By
his death the scientific world has lost a singularly impressive
and picturesque figure, and his botanical colleagues a friend of
creat personal charm. F. Bow,

Ixvi Treasurer's Accounts.

MANCHESTER LITERARY
Dr. W. Henry Todd, Treasurer, 7 Account w

To Balance, 1st April, 1915 -.
Yo Members’ Subscriptions :-—

Half Subscriptions, 1909-10, 1 at £1. 1s. od. ra 5)
ae EQLO=11,) eles, 55 Tae
if TOLI-12s) al ps “a I: rae
55 FOLA-1S so ees ae it -t Fo
-s TOUGIAS | Ziaay oe 2... Zee
” 1914-15; 4 » ’ 40 he
47 I1QE5-10, °° 8 55 : 3 | Saas

Subscriptions:— t91I-Iz, 1 5, 42. 25. od 2° 2 iS
» 1912-13, Ty) ’ 2. ei
7 1gi3-14; ye? ” 6 6 0
A TOUEASES, | UE a5 F 23 29
- 1915-16, 96 ,, : 201 1219

To Transfers from the Wilde Endowment Fund :
Yo Sale of Publications :
To Sale of Publications to Manchester Univ ersity Pre. ,
© To Sale of Catalogue .. Be ‘
To Sale of Blocks to Manchester Corporation
To Dividends :—

Natural History Fund .. oe a 3 ae a. ae ae 6 53, te

Joule Memorial Fund .. ne ot 24 a se be ie = LD aye

Wilde Endowment Fund se Ss ie = Be ‘is a me 3010 ie

To Income Tax Refunded :—
Natural History Fund of oe pe es ae 33 02 60 Vite
Joule Memorial Fund .. - oF i” a ~ om ~ we 0 Se
Wilde Endowment Fund a is ie Be sis a nie mae 32 16 4

To National Health Insurance Act deductions

NATURAL HISTC

To Dividends on £1,225 Great Western Railway Company's Stock .. ae Be es ae 5
To Remission of Income Tax, 1915.. =f ae Fe

Ones Thy

JOULE MEMOR

To Balance, 1st April, 1915

To Dividends on £100 East India Railw ay y Company's s oe , , Annuity Stock
To Interest on £200 War Loan

To Remission of Income Tax, 1915

To Balance, rst April, 1915 .. F

To Dividends on £7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company’ S Ordinary 5 Stock ..

To Interest on £200 War Loan ef
To Remission of Income Tax, 1915

To Bank Interest 5 ;

ILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
ety, from rst April, 1915, to 31st March, 1916.

Treasurer's Accounts.

Ixvii

Cr.

Peete te
harges on Property :—
hief Rent (Income ‘lax deducted) Bre AO
ncome Tax. a ‘i 118 8
Insurance against Fire Tie 10) 0
Insurance against Air Raids II 10 0
ouse Expenditure : RE Mee he ee SS) eg WP oe CEP Says 1” Gee ee ae
Coals, Gas, Electric Light, Water, &c. 36 10 OF
ea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings Ig 18 o
Cleaning, Sw eeping Chimneys, SECS sont 4 9 25
Replacements of mantles, crockery, dusters, i ironware, etc. 612 7%
hitewashing, repairs, etc. a : A) LOe On,
leaning Carpets Se 8 12 0
Sasnralive Claes 5S i i re a cc 80 12 1c}
ousekeeper - ae os cf 66 5 o
Postages, and Carriage of Parcels and of ‘‘ Memoirs”’ 460 5-6
Stationery, Cheques, “Receipts, and Engrossing GAt pee 5
Printing Circulars, Reports, Articles of. Association, &c, te O
xtra attendance at Meetings, and during housekeeper’ s holidays s ow 3-40
Nsurance against Liability O-12. 0
ational Health Insurance Stamps ie a Rearend
liscellaneous Expenses as iy fr
a" 2 ESOL ee Ak
Renovation of Dalton Apparatus 3 23 is ue a as aye Tee O
raming Dalton MSS. a I a6" 3
Publishing :--
Printing * Memoirs and Proceedings’ ; 116 12 0
Mlustrations for ‘‘ Memoirs” (except Nat. Hist. papers) . Go) ae
) , —— r26 ar 1s
ibrary : _ 3
Books and Periodicals (except those charged to Natural History Fund) : cy MiGs
Be cdicals formerly subscribed for by the Microscopical and Natural Histor y
Section by se i : 2 Tg 6
ne see a eee ae A
(Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund below) 22 12 Q9
Joule Memorial Fund :—
Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund below) 20 16 4
Wilde Endowment Fund (Income Tax refunded) ... e 32) 10) 4
», (Dividend refunded) o me Bais, 1E
Balance at Williams Deacon’s Bank, 1st April, 1916 G4n168 «4
s, i lreasurer’s hands uA ae 10) “Ono
: —_—__— 104 16 4
4590 I It
ND, t1915—1916. (Included in the General Account, above.)
i= S55 Oe
Balance against this Fund, 1st April, oe a! Te ae Sel
atural History Periodicals : $2 Ais FOE ALG
Mustrations for papers on Nat. Hist. in “ Memoirs ” TiS; 16
Binding Periodicals 3 210), O
Balance, ist April, 1916 , 1G) 5. I
L5O 2a EX
IND, 1915—1916. (Included in the General Account, above.)
ess eal
Onversion of £200 War Loan to 4} % Stock .. : 10 0 0
xpenses of Conversion of Stock 3 3 *) AP 0.0 wA
Bpecial Lecture x ‘ 10 10 oO
Balance, ist April, 1916 os eG Bt ©
BOT U3 2
Sa Se
IND, 1915—1916.
Lote Se 2th
Assistant Secretary's Salary 140 12 6
aintenance of Society's Library :— de
Binding and Repairing Books 24 .7o) is
200 War Loan Stock 195 16 o
Yransfers to Society's Funds ‘ a xe Be a 59, 129" 0
Balance at District Bank, 1st April, 1916 ee me at Le ; 224 12 0
#669 3 9

*,* A cheque for M.541 sent to Germany at the end of July, 1914, has not been paid into the Bank
and is therefore not included in these accounts ; and there are outstanding
accounts not paid amounting to £109. 14s. 3d.

: re

shy

Treasurer's Accounts.

MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
W. Henry Todd, Treasurer, in Account with the

Dr.

i Treasurer's A CCounts.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Ve

| Soczety', from rst April, 19135, to 31st March,

1916.

alance, 1st April, 1915 --

To Menten ST aaa
scriptions, 1909-10,

Half Subserip! Fi a9)
1911-12,
1912-13,
1913-14,
1934-15,
1915-16,
1g1I-12,
1912-13,
1913-145
1914-15,
1915-16,

rat £1. 1s. of.

Ty
1

”
”

pes 50
”
”
”

”

ie :
Subscriptions :— ”
”

” ”

” ”

”

I
2
4
8
1
I
3
11

” ”

”

96

”
”

To Transfers from the Wilde Endowment Fund
‘Yo Sale of Publications
To Sale of Publications to

ToS f Catalogue .. "3 A ..
To Se of Blocks to Manchester Corporation

Yo Dividends :—
Natural History Fund
Joule Memorial Fund
Wilde Endowment Fund

Manchester University Press

To Income Tax Refunded :—
Natural History Fund
Joule Memorial Fund
Wilde Endowment Fund

To National Health Insurance Act deductions ..

srr.

£5 aa By Charges on Property ;—

108 16 Sh. | = Chief Rent (Income ‘Tax deducted)
Income Tax.. oe ne
Insurance against Fire.
Insurance against Air Raids
House Expenditure —

Coals, Gas. Electric Light, W,
Tea, Coffee, &e., at Meetings
Cleaning, Sweeping Chinneys, &e.
Replacements of mantles, crocke
Whitewashing, repairs, etc,
Cleaning Carpets Bye
Administrative Charges :—
Housekeeper An fe = ie 2A on
Postages, and Carriage of Parcels and of Memoirs”
Stationery, Cheques, Receipts, and Engrossing —.. ae
Printing Circulars, Reports, Articles of Association, &c, oe
Extra attendance at Meetings, and during housekeeper's holidays
Insurance against Liability ob Se

National Health Insurance Stamps

Miscellaneous Expenses

ater, Ke.

Not NAHE

ry, dusters, ironware, ete.

2a’

RRANN oF NAHHE
ocs0g0qg0 00000

o
6
5
6
o
°

stp
~~

Renovation of Dalton
Framing Dalton MSS.
Publishing :—

Printing *‘ Memoirs and Proceedings” a8 ee Be
Tilustrations for “‘ Memoirs” (except Nat. Hist. papers) ..

Apparatus

68 10

By Library :—

Books and Periodicals

Periodicals formerly
Section .. =

(except those charged to Natural History F

2e { und)
subscribed for by the Microscopical and N

atural History

y Natural History Fund :—

(Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this F°
y Joule Memorial Fund :—

(Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund below)
By Wilde Endowment Fund (Income Tax refunded) ..
& a 5 1, (Dividend refunded) Be

y Balance at Williams Deacon's Bank, ist April, 1916
in ‘Treaswrer’s hands oF an ee

und below)

ors

” ”

4590 1 I

To Dividends on £1,225 Great Western Railway

Company's Stock ..
To Remission of Income ‘Vax, 1915.. ; So an om

Included in the General Account, above.)

NATURAL HISTORY FUND, 1915—I916, (

s. a

st April, 191 goede Bie ARES wrens -
To Dividends on eae Bast India Railway Company's 4 % Annuity Stock
To Interest on £200 War Loan as fia st af ff 3
To Remission of Income Tax, 1915

To Balance, rst April, 1915 ..
To Dividends on £7,500
To Interest on £200 War Loan
To Remission of Income Tax, 1915
Yo Bank Interest An <

Gas Light and Coke Company's Ordinary Stock ..

Rey Siac,
53 1 a y Balance against this Fund, 1st April, rors .. ‘Vy Esp 4
a 6 2 y Natural History Periodicals ad ce ae tw 18 4 9
____ By Illustrations for papers on Nat, Hist. in “Memoirs ” 118 0
By Binding Periodicals e q Ce 210 0
__ By Balance, ist April, 1916 mish GP oe
—— —_ —— 7 ——
459 2 Se z _ 4592 11
= | = = Sop eres Se =
JOULE MEMORIA FUND, 1915—1916. (Included in the General Account, above.) . ;
baer Sab E S$.) ds
8414 © By Conversion of £200 War Loan to 4% % Stock .. ac on 10 0 0
5 7 % By Expenses of Conversion of Stock ie ae ap ba o 6 4
6 10 7 By Special Lecture % an Bi 10 10 ©
rf 3 By Balance, 1st April, 1916 ns 7017 3
£07 13_ 7 £07137.
——$—=_ —
WILDE ENDOWMENT FyNp, 1o15—r1916. oe
353 4 y Assistant Secretary's Salary z40 12 6
272 13 6 PY Maintenance of Society's Library :—
3 ‘6 4 y. Binding and Repairing Books Lec)
32 a # By £200 War Loan Stock 195 16 o
6 6m By Transfers to Society's Funds a . 83 12 0
____—— PY Balance at District Bank, rst April, 1916 - oS 224 12 0
£669 3 9

*,* A cheque for M.s54r sent to Germany at the end of July, x914, has not been paid into the Bank
and is therefore not included in these accounts ; and there are outstanding
accounts not paid amounting to £109. 14s. 3d.

Ixvili Treasurer's Accounts.

NotTE—The Treasurer’s Accounts of the Session 1915-

1916 have been endorsed as follows :

Apuil 6th, 1916. Audited and found correct.

We have also seen, at this date, the certificates of the following Stocks
held in the name of the Society :—#1,225 Great Western Railway Company
5% Consolidated Preference -Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,204, and 12,323 5
£7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary Stock (No. 8/1960) ; £100
East India Railway Company’s 4% Annuity Stock (No. 4032); and the
deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde Endowment Fund,
those conveying the land on which the Society's premises stand, and the

Declarations of Trust.

Leases and Conveyances dated as follow :—
22nd Sept., 1797.
23rd Sept., 1797.
25th Dec., 1790.
39 99 bP)
22nd Dec., 1820.
23rd Dec., 1820.

Declarations of Trust :—
24th June, 18ot.
231d Dec:,.4820.
Sth Jan., 1878.
Appointment of New Trustees :—
30th April, 1851.

We have also seen Bankers’ acknowledgment of the investment of
£400 in the 44 per cent. War Loan :—1 Bond for £200, No. 1964; and
2 Bonds for £100 each, Nos. 6594/5.

We have also verified the balances of the various accounts with the
bankers’ pass books.
hee L. RHEAD.

( Signed)
lw, C. JENKINS.

Hd
¢

"rev

The Council.

Er EL VGC INC OE Et
AND MEMBERS

OF THE
MANCHESTER
EIPERARY AND

Corrected to December 30th, 1916.

President.
SYDNEY J. HICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Mice-Presidents.
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.
G ELLIOL SMITH, M.A., M.D-, F.R.S.
Pane Gey WO D2 ZS FES.
W. W. IL[ALDANE GEE, B.Sc., M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.

Secretaries.
Re Cav ROR. FCS... RoALC.
GEORGE HICKLING, D.Se., F.G.S.

@reasurer.
W. TENRY TODD.

Mibrarian.
C. L. BARNES, M.A.

Other sMembers of the Council.
RO. GWYTHER, MLA.

W. M. TATTERSALL, D.Sc.
FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S:E., F.C.S., F.LC.
MARY McNICOL, M.Sc.

D. THODAY, M.A.

PRILOSOPEICAL, SOCIETY.

Ixix

Assistant Secretary and Prbravian.
R. F. HINSON.

Dnte of Election.
1911, April 4.

1901,

LOU2,

1914,

1865,

1916,

i895,

1903,

1910,

1895,
1868,

1914,

1914,

1Q14,

Dec.

Oct,

Dec.

Nov.

Feb.

Jan.

Oct

Oct.

Mar.
Dec.

Nov.

Dec.

Feb.

15.

I4.

20.

IO,

Ordinary Members.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Adamson, Arthur, M.Sc.Tech., A.Rk.C.S., Lecturer in
Physics in the Municipal School of Technology, Man:
chester. Zhe Alunzcipal School of Technology, Sackville
Street, Alanchester.

Adamson, Harold. Oaklands Collage, Godley, near Mlan-
chester.

Adamson, k. Stephen, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer in Botany in
the Victoria University of Manchester. Zhe University,
Manchester. ;

Atack, F.-W., M.Sc. Tech. (Manc.), B.Sc. (Gondj yeas
Demonstrator in Chemistry, The Municipal School of
Technology, Manchester. 88, Claude Road, Choriton-
ville, Manchester.

Bailey, Charles, M.Sc., F.L.S. Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hil,
S.O., Gloucestershire:

Balls, W. Lawrence, Sc.D., Research Botanist to the
Fine Cotton Spinners’ Association St. James’s Square,
Manchester. Aramhall, Cheshire.

Barnes, Charles “L.,- M.A. ©1521, 2'lymtouth Sameaee
Manchester.

Barnes, Jonathan, F.G.S. South Cliff House, 301, Great
Clowes Street, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

Beattie, Robert, D.Sc., M.I.E.E., Professor of Electro-
technics in the Victoria University of Manchester. Zhe
University, Manchester.

Behrens, Gustav. Holly Royle, Withington, Manchester.

Bickham, Spencer H., F.L.S. Onderdown, Ledbury.

Bohr, Neils, Ph.D. (Copenhagen), Reader in Mathematical
Physics in the Victoria University of Manchester. 7he
University, Manchester.

Bowman, I’rank, B.A. (Camb.), M.Sc.Tech. (Mane.),
Assistant Lecturer in Mathematics, The Municipal
School of Technology, Manchester. 21, IVhad/ley Road,
Whalley Range, Alanchester.

Boyd, A. W., M.A., F.E.S. Zhe Alton, Altrincham,
Cheshire.

Date of Election.

1875, Nov.

Tons, Oct. 19.

1886, April 6.
1913, Dec.

1889, Oct.

IQII, Jan.

1906, Feb.
1894, Nov.

19t1. Oct.

1904, Oct.

1899, Feb.

1901, Nov.

1907, Nov.

1906, Oct.

1906, Nov.

1908, Nov.

16.

2

U5:

IO.

a7

18,

“I

26.

30.

27,

a

3

1916, Oct. 31.

Ixxt

Ordinary Alembers.

Boyd, John, Sarton House, 11, Didsbury Park, Didsbury.
Manchester.
Bradley, F.. §©.,

Barrister-at-Law,

MOA Me Comp Lak Dy? Pe Sak.,
Stormarn, Wilbraham Road, Chori-
ton-cum-Hardy, Manchester, and Bank of England
Chambers, Alanchesler.

Brown, Alfred, M.A., M.D. SAeech Hill, Hale, Cheshire.

Brown, T. Graham, M.D., D.Sc., Lecturer in Experimental
Physiology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
The University, Manchester.

Budenberz; C2 F:, (MiSc., MI. Meech. E.
Marple, Cheshire. .

Burt, Frank Playfair, B.Sc. (Lond.}, D.Sc. (Bristol),
Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the Victoria University
of Manchester. 15, Oak Road, IWe¢thington, Alanchester.

Burton, Joseph, A.R.C.S. Dublin. 77/e Works, Clifton
Junction, near Manchester. ;

Willams, MoA., -F.C-S.
Park, Alanchester.

Butterworth, Charles F.

Bowdon Lane,

Burton, Cartsbrook, Viclorta

Waterloo, Loynton, Cheshire.

Campion, George Goring, L.D.S. 264, Oxford Street,
Alanchester.

Chapman, D. L., M.A., F.R.S., Fellow and Tutor of

Jesus College, Oxford.

Chevalier, Reginald C., M.A., Mathematical Master at the

Jesus College, Oxford,

Manchester Grammar School. 3, ort Road, Sedgley
Park, Prestwich, Manchester.
B.Sc., Chemist. 1;

Road, Didsbury, Manchester.

Clayton, Robert Henry, Parkfield

Coward, H. F., D.Sc., Chief Lecturer in Chemistry in
the Municipal Manchester.
Muntetpal Sackville Street,
AMlanchester, and 216, Plymouth Grove, Manchester.

Aliiredos Fatt, Habis.

Bowdon, Cheshire.

School. of Technology,

School of Technology,

Coward, Thomas Brentwood,

Cramp, William, D.Sc., M.I.E.E., Consulting Engineer,
33, Brasennose Street, Alanchester.

Craven, Mrs. M. Badger, M.Sc., Demonstrator in Chemistry
in the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester.
10, Birch Grove, Rusholme, Manchester.

Ixxil

Date of Election.
1910, Oct. 4.

1915, Nov. 16.

1895, April 9.

1894, Mar. 6.

1887, Feb. 8.

1906, Oct. 30.

1914, Nov.

rote, Oct-16;

1914, Feb. 24.

1912, Oct. 15.

1914, Oct. 20.

1912, Feb. 6.

(oS)

Ordinary Members.

Crewe, F. H., Assistant Science Master in the Central
HTigh School for Boys, Whitworth Street, Manchester.
Glengarth, Woodford Road, Bramhall.

Cutler, Donald Ward, B.A. (Cantab.), Scholar of Queens
College, Cambridge ; Assistant Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Zoology in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. 69, Mauldeth Road, Withington, Manchester.

Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A.,..D.Se.; -F.R-S.. dione
Professor of Geology in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. Sa/low/ield House, Fallowfield, Alanchestler.

Delépine, A. Sheridan, M.B., B.Sc., Professqanmal
Pathology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
Public Health Laboratory, Vork Place, Manchester.

Dixon, Harold Baily, M.A., Ph.D., M.Sc. FRoS 3 eee
Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria University of

Manchester. Zhe University, AMlanchester.

Edgar, KE. C., D.Sc., Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the
Victoria University of Manchester. Zhe University,
Manchesler.

Edwards, C. A., D.Sc., Professor of Metallurgy and
Metallography in the Victoria University of Manchester.
26, Lyndhurst Road, Withington, Manchester.

Evans, Evan Jenkin, D.Sc. (Lond.), B.Sc. (Wales),
A.R.C.Sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in
Physics in the University of Manchester. Zhe University,
Manchester.

Evans, William David, M.A., Richardson Lecturer in
Mathematics, The Victoria University of Manchester.
17, Harley Avenue, Victoria Lark, ALanchester.

Fairlie, D. M., M.Sc. 232, Burton Road, West Didsbury,
Manchester.

Field, Allan B., M.A., B.Sc., M.LE.E., Professor of
Mechanical. Engineering, ‘he Municipal School of
Technology, Manchester. A7vweslea, Strines Load,
Marple, Cheshire.

Forder, H. G., B.A., Senior Mathematical Master, Cardiff
High School. St. Olave’s Grammar School, Tower

hridge, London.

A"

/

Date of Election.

1908, Jan. 28.

1QI2,

1909,

1907,

1907,

1Q15,

1913,

IQIT,

1914,

1907,

1895,

1905,

1896,

Oct.

Mar.

Oct.

Oct.

Nev,

Dec.

Oct.

Mar.

Oct.

Mar.

Nov.

Nov.

—
Un
rf

oe,

29.

16.

Io.

io)

Ordinary Alembers. Ixxill

Fox, Thomas William, M.Sc.Tech., Professor of Textiles
in the School of Technology, Manchester University.
Gledfieli’, 15, Clarendon Crescent, Eccles.

Garnett, J. C. Maxwell, M.A., Principal of the Municipal
School of Technology, Manchester. Zhe Alunictpal
School of Technology, Sackville Street, Manchester, and
Iestfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

Gee, W. W. Ilaldane, B.Sc., M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.,
Professor of Pure and Applied Physics in the School of
Technology, Manchester University. Oak Lea, Whalley
Avenue, Sale.

Gravely, F.. H., M-.Se. fatural History Dept., [Indian
Museum, Calcutta.

Gwyther, Reginald Felix, M.A., Secretary to the Joint
Matriculation Board. 24, Dover Street, Manchester, and
Ivy Cottage, Lymm, Cheshtre.

Hamlyn, G. A., B.A. (Oxon.), Assistant Lecturer and
Demonstrator in the Fermentation Industries, The Muni-
cipal School of Technology, Manchester. Zhe Jluntz-
cipal Schook of Technology, Sackville Street, Manchester.

Handley, Marion, M.A. (Birm.), Lecturer in the Municipal
Day Training College, Manchester. Azmiiel, Burnage
Garden Village, Manchester.

Hasse, Il. R., M.A., D.Sc., Lecturer in Mathematics in
the University of Manchester. 22, Chatham Grove,
Wethington, Manchester. >

Hibbert, Eva, Assoc.M.S.T., Demonstrator in Chemistry,
The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. 7 %e
Municipal School of Technology, Manchester.

Hickling, HH. -George: A.,7 D-Se:,\ F.G-.S;,.. Lecturer m
Palzontology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
Glenside, Marple Bridge, near Stockport.

Hickson, Sydney j-;M-_A., D:Sc:; F-R-S:, Professor” of
Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. 7/e
University, Alanchester,

Holt, Alfred, M.A., D.Sc., Research Fellow of the Uni-
versity of Manchester. Dovsefield, Allerton, Liverpool,

Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc., M-.Inst.C.E. Zerns,
Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

Lxsey Ordinary Members,

Date of Election.

1909, Feb. 9. -Howles, Frederick, M.Sc., Analytical and. Research
Chemist. Glenluce, Waterpark Road, Broughton Park,
Manchester. |

1889, Oct. 15. Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Dixeetor
of the Welsh National Museum, Cardiff. Czty Hall,
Cardiff.

1907, Oct. 15. Hiibnmer, Julius, M.Se Teeh., F.C: (bectures Sage
Faculty of Technology in the University of Manchester.
Linden, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.

1913, Oct. 21. Imms, A. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S.,; Reader in Agricultural
Entomology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
Department of Agricultural Entomology, The University,
Manchester.

1914, Jan. 13. Jenkins, William Charles, F.R.A.S., Curator of the Godlee
Observatory, The Municipal School of Technology, Man-
chester. Zhe Mfunicerpal School of Technology, Alanchester.

191t, Oct. 3. Johnstone, Mary A., B.Sc.(Lond.), Headmistress of the
Municipal Secondary School for Girls, Whitworth Street,
Manchester. 43, Z/2// Zop Avenwe, Cheadle Hulme,
Cheshire.

1878, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, M/Sc:, FR.S.E., E.CsS.° "Aiea

Grammar School, and 17, Whalley Road, Whalley
Range, Alanchester.

1915, Mar. 9. Kearns, Henry Ward, B.Sc., J.P. oothroyd, Brooklands,
near Manchester.

1903, Keb. Knecht, Edmund, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the

Oo

School of Technology, Manchester University. Leech
Mount, Marple, Cheshtre.

1893,-Nov. 14... Lamb, Horace, M.A. 1D. DSc. Sce.D., F-RiSeiae
fessor of Mathematics in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. 6, WWlbraham load, lallowfiel’, Alanchester.
Lang, William IJ., M.B., C.M., D.Sc. F.R.S., F-E.5.,

Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany in the Unt-

1900, Nov.

N

versity of Manchester. 2, /ealon Road, Withington,
Manchester.

Lange, Ernest F., M.I.Mech.I¢., A.M. Inst.C. E., Mii. &iSe
Inst., F.C.S. lWestholme, The irs, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1902, Jan.

“NS

Date of Election.

IO1r, Jan.

: 1910, Oct.

mt4, April 7.

1907, Oct.
1912, Nov.

1912, May

1O16, Oct.

1905, Oct.

1904, Nov.

1902, Mar.

Igtt, Oct.

igor. Dec.
1864, Nov.

Tor2, Nov.
1873, Mar.

1915, Nov.

1894, Feb.

O15, Oct.

10.

18.

29.

l2

“I

10.

26:
18.

1Q.

Ordinary Jlemlers. Ixxv

Lankshear, Frederick Russell, B.A. (New Zeal.), M.Sc.
(Manc.), Demonstrator in Chemistry in the Victoria Uni-
versity Manchester. Zhe Unzeversity, Manchester.

Lapworth, Arthur, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.1.C., Professor of
Organic Chemistry in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. 26, Broadway, IVethington, Manchester.

Lees, S., M.A., Assoc.M.S.T., Reader in Applied Thermo-
dynamics in the Faculty of Technology, The University
of Manchester. Zhe Aluntcipal School of Technology,
Manchester, and Brie field, Ashley Road, Hale, Cheshire.

Leigh, Harold Shawcross. Avrestwood, I orsley.

Lindsey, Marjorie, B.Sc., Research Student in the
Victoria University of Manchester. 2, Demesne Road,
Whalley Range, Manchester.

Loewenfeld, Kurt, Ph.D. Fern Bank, Ogden Road,
Bramhall, Cheshtve.

McDougall, Robert, B.Sc. City &lour Aftlls, German
Street, Manchester.

McNicol, Mary, M.Sc. 182, Upper Chorlton Road,
Manchester.

Makower, Walter, M.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer in Physics
in the University of Manchester. JAlaylands, Brook
Road, lallowfield, Alunchester.

Mandleberg, Goodman Charles. Aede/yffe, Vrctorza Park,
Manchester.

March, Margaret Colley, M.Sc. Zhe Oniversily, Edin-
burgh.

Massey, Lerbert. loy Lea, Burnage, Didsbury,
Manchester.

Mather, Sir William, P.C., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. 7» 072
Works, Salford.

Melland, Edward. Aza Ora, [lale, Cheshtre.

Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Jleole Brace
Fall, Shrewsbury.

Miers, Sir Henry Alexander, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Vice-
Chancellor of the Victoria University of Manchester.
Birch Heys, Cromwell Range. Fallowfield, Alanchester.

Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., I. RvS.E., F.C.S. Vraatrre-
ton Hail, Northwich, Cheshire.

Munro, John Clegg. Clough House, Whaley Bridge.

Ixxvi
Date of Election,
1912, Nov. 26.

r

1908, Jan. 28.

1573, Mar. 4:

1884, April 15.

101, Wee. 10:

1888, Feb. 21.

1913, Jan.

1910, Oct. +a.

1914, Nov. 3.

“I

Ordinary Members.

Myets, J. E., M.Se., Beyer Fellow and Assistant Lecturer
in Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester.
7, Stalion Road, Cheaale Hulme, Cheshire.

Myers, William, Lecturer in Textiles in the School of
Technology, Manchester University. 7, S/a/zon Road,
Cheadle Hulme, Cheshtre.

Nicholson, Franci8, V'.Z.S. Ravenscroft, Windermere,
Westmorland.

Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Overiey, Langham Noad,
Bowdon, Cheshire.

Pemberton, Wiiliam Granville, Technical Chemist. 49,
Acresfield Road, Pendleton.

Petavel, J. E., B.A., D.Sc., F_R.S., Professor of Engineering
in the Victoria University of Manchester. Zhe Unz-
wersely, Manchester.

Prentice, Bertram, Ph.D., D.Sc., Principal, Royal Technical
Institute, Salford. /sca J/ount, Alanchester Road,

Swinlon.

Ramsden, Herbert, M.D. (Lond.), M.B., Ch.B. (Vict.)
Sunnyside, Dobcross, near Oldham, Lancs.

Rée, Alfred, Ph.D., F.C.S. 15, A/auhieth Road, With-
tngton, Manchesler.

Renold, H{[ans, M.I.Mech.F.
Mersey, near Manchester.

Prtestnall Hey, Heaton

Rhead, E. L., M.Se.Tech., F.1.C., Lecturer in MWetaiiines
and Assaying, The Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester. S/omyerofl, Polygon Avenue, Levenshulme,
Manchester.

Richardson, Larry, M.Sc., Demonstrator in Physics, The
Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. 98,
Dudley Road, Whalley Range, Manchester.

Roberts, A. W. Rymer, M.A. Zhe Common, Winder-
Melb.

Roberts, D; Lloyd, M.D., F.R.8.E., F.R.C.P. (Lome

Ravenswood, Broughton Lark, Manchester. -

Date of Election.

LT, Jan. ro.

1916, Oct. 31.

1897, Oct. I9.

L916, Nov. 28.

rgo7, Oct. 15.

1909, Jan. 26.

1873, Nov. 18.

18908, Jan. 25.

1890, Nov. 4.

1915, Nov. 28.

rote, Oct. 4.

1906, Nov. 27.

1896, Feb. 18.

oon, Dec.

remy Oct, 17.

10.

Ordmary Members. Ixxvit

Robinson, Robert, D.Sc. (Vict.), Professor in the University
of Liverpool. Zhe Universety, Liverpool.

Robinson, Wilfred, M.Sc. (Manc.), B Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer
in Economic Botany in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. 23, Worth Avenue, Garden Village, Levens-

hulme, Manchester.

William aia

Brewery, Newton Heath, near Manchester,

RothwelH, Alderman. Thomas, Heath

Rowe, Frederick Maurice, M.Sc.. Research Chemist in

Dyestuffs, The Municipal School of Technology, Man-

5, Voodbine Zerrace, Latchford.

Rutherford, Sir Ernest, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Langworthy
Professor of Physics in the University of Manchester.

17, Hialmslow Road, Withington, Alanchester.

chester.

Schmitz, Wermann Emil, M.A., B.Sc., Physics Master at
15, Braghton Grove,
Rusholme, Alanchester. ba

SO iS eV SCCHknO..6): Lek. Ais Oly
Honorary Professor of Physics in the Victoria University
Veldall, Twyford, Berks.

Hart Hill, Eccles Old Road, Pendleton,

the Manchester Gramn.ar School,
Schuster, Arthur,

of Manchester.

Schwabe, Louis.
AMManchester.
Ledward M.& ey

Sidebotham, John,

Lirvlesidene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

MAL MB.,

Simon, Councillor Ernest Darwin.
Didsbury, Manchester.

Smith, Grafton Elliot, M.A., M.D., I°.R.S., Professor of

The Unt-

Moorlands, Log Lane,

Anatomy in the University of Manchester.
versily’, Alanchester.
Smith, Nomman, D.Se., Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry im
the Victoria University of Manchester. Zhe Undtverstly,
Manchester.
Spence, David. Lowood, Hindhead, Haslemere, R.S.O,,.
Survey.
Spence, Hloward. C/o Alessi s. Letex Spence & Sons, Lid,
Manchester Alum Works, Manchester.
Start, Laura, Lecturer in Art and Handicraft in the ‘Uni-
versity of Manchester. A/oor Trew, Alarfield Road,

Aersal, Alanchester.

Ixxviil

Date of Elsction.
1897, Nov. 30.

W910, Ocir 7S:

1895, April 9.

1893, Nov. 14.

GOVT MICt.. £7.

IQII, Jan. 10.

1873, April 15.

1896, Jan. 21.

1500, Ost. 77.

1909, Jan, 26.

4912, Oct. Ts.

1873, Nov. 18.

1906, Nov. 13.

1892, Nov. 15.

Ordinary Members.

Stromeyer, C. E., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E., M.1.&S.Inst.
Steam Users’ Assoctation, 9, Alount Street, Albert Square,
Manchester, and Lancefield, West Didsbury.

Tattersall, Walter Medley, D.Sc., Keeper of the Man-
chester Museum. Zhe Manchester Aluseum, The Unt-

wersily, Manchester,

M.Tnst.C..,
Mersey and Irwell Joint Committee.

Taylor; B..L., F.C.S., ELC. Central 2figh jSchaaie
Boys, Manchester, and 37, Mayfield Road, Whalley

Range, Manchester.

Tatton, Reginald A., Engineer to the

Thoday, D., M.A., Lecturer in Plant Physiology in the
University of Manchester. 7he University, Alan-
chesté?.

Thomson, J. Stuart, M.Sc. (Manc.), Ph. D.(Bern), F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S., Senior Demonstrator in Zoology in the Victoria
University of Manchester. Zhe University, Manchester.

Wilham; F.R.S.E., PAG. Paes
Institution, Alanchesler.

Thorburm,, William; MD., “B.Sc.
Manchester.

Todd, William Greenfield, Parsonage - Koad,

Flixton, near Alanchester.

Thomson, Royal

2, St. Leler’s Square,

Ilenry.

Varley, George Percy, M.Sc. (Vic.), Central High School
for Boys, Manchester. 19, Alayfield Road, Whalley

Range, Alanchester.

Walker, Miles, M.A., M.I.E.E., Professor of Electrical
Engineering, the Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester.

Waters, Arthoar “William, © 21S.) Geo.
McKinley Road, Bournemouth.

Watson, D. M.S., M.Sc. 60, Lissenden Alansions, Highgate
Road, London, N.W.

Weiss, I’. Ernest, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the

Easedale, Disley,

Alderley,

Victoria University of Manchester.
Cheshire.

Date of Election.
1909, eb. 9.

1908, May 12.
regrr, Oct. 17.

moor, Oct: 1.

1859, Jan, 25.

1909, Jan. 26.

1905, Oct. 31.
1860, April 17.
1895, Jan. 8.

Ordinary Members. xxix

Weizmann, Charles, Ph.D., D.Sc., Reader in Bio-Chemistry
in the Victoria University of Manchester. Zhe Unz-
versity, Manchester.

Welldon, Rt. Rev. J. E. C., D.D., Dean of Manchester.
The Deanery, Manchester.

West, Tom, B.Sc., Chemist and Metallurgist.. 101, Spr7ng
Bank Street, Stalybridge, near Manchester.

Wild Robert. B:,, .MieD., MoSe. 2 RUC PP’, Professor of!
Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the Victoria
University of Manchester. 96, A/osley Street, Alan-
chester.

Wilde, Henry, D=Se.,D:C.L., PRS.) The Hurst, Aldertey
Edge, Cheshive.

Wolfenden, Jchn Henry, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S. (Lond.),
Assistant Master in the Central High School for Boys,
Whitworth Street, Manchester. 5, Ash/on Road East,
Latlsworth.

Woodall, Herbert J., A.R.C.S. 32, A/arket Place, Stockport.

Woolley, George Stephen. Vcloria Bridge, Manchester.

Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Az7ksdj/es,
Duffield, near Derby.

N.B.—Of the above list the following have compounded for their

subscriptions, and are therefore life members :—

Bailey, Charles, M.Se.,:F.L.S.
Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Se., M.Inst.C. E.

]xxx

Date of Election.
1892, April 26.

1894, April 17.

1892, April 26.

1886, -Feb.- -9.

1886, April 30.

1903, April 28.

1866, Oct. 30.

1892, April 26.

1892, April 26.

1900, April 24.

Hlonerary Members.

HONORARY: MEMBERS.

Abney, Sir William de W., K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Se., F.R-S.
Rathmore Lodge, Bolten Gardens South, South Kensington,
London, S.W.

\

Appell, Paul, Membre de l'Institut, Professor of Theoretical

Mechanics. aca/té des Sciences, Paris.

Baeyer, Adolf von, For. Mem. k.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Munich.

Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S.,

Road, Kew.

1, Arcisstvasse, Aluntch.

F.L-S.. :3, Canteens

Carruthers, William, F.R.S., F.L.S.
Norwood, London, S.L.

44, Central Hill,

Clarke, Frank Wigglesworth, D.Sc. United States
Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Experimental Philosophy in the University of
Oxford. 3, Barawell Road, Banbury Road, Oxford.

Curtius, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry in the University

of Kiel. Unzversttat, A7e/.

Darboux, J. Gaston, Membre de I’Institut, Secrétaire per-
pétuel de Il’Académie des Sciences, Doyen honoraire de

la Faculté des Sciences. 3, Ave Afazarine, Parts.

Dewar, Sir James, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., E.R.S., VF

Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution.
Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, London, VW.

Date of Election.
1892, April 26.

1895, April 30.
1900, April 24.

1889, April 30.

1900, April 24.

1892, April 26.

1895, April 30.

1894, April 17.

1894, April 17.

1900, April 24.

1894, April 17.

1894, April 17.

1892, April 26.
1888, April 17.

1892, April 26.

Honorary Members. Ixxxi

Edison, Thomas Alva. Ovange, V./., U.S.A.
Elster, Julius, Ph.D.

wine, om Jj. Alfreds ic C.i., MA EE Ds) i. S.;
Director of Naval Education to the Admiralty. 74e

6, Lessengstrasse, Wolfenbiiltel.

University, Edinburgh.

Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany at Harvard College.
Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Forsyth, Andrew Russell, M.A., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics at the Imperial College of
Science aud Technology. Zhe Jinperzal College of
Sczence and Technology, S. Kensington, London.

Fiirbringer, Max, Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Heidelberg. Universitat, Hetdelbers.

Geitel, Hans. 6, Lesstnestrasse, Wolfendbiittel.

Gisisher; Je. W.).L., Se.D:,° F.R.S. | Trinily College,
Cambridge.

Gouy, A., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor
of Physics in the University of Lyons. Faculté des

Sczénces, Lyons.

Haeckel, Ernst, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Jena.

Harcourt, ALG. Vernon, MeAt sD -C.E. FRS.. V.PcCIS.
St. Clave, Ryde, Isle of Wight.

Heaviside, Oliver, Ph.D., F.R.S. Homefield, Lower War-
berry, Torquay.

Hill, G. W. West Nyack, N.Y., U.S.A.

Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm, Professor of Physics at Miinster,
Polytechnicum, Minster.

Zoologisches Institut, Jena.

Klein, Felix, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst.
Fr, (Acad _ Sci.), Professor of Mathematics in the
University of Gottingen. 3, Werhelm Weber Strasse,
Gottingen.

Ixxxii
Date of Election.

1894, April 17.

1902, May 13.

1892, April 26.

1887, April 19.

1902, May 13.

1900, April 24.

1892, April 26.

1895, April 30

1910, April 5.

1902, May 13,

1894, April 17.

Honorary Members.

KG6nigsberger, Leo, Professor of Mathematics in the Univer-

sity of Heidelberg. Uvzversttat, Heidelberg.

Larmor, Sir Joseph, M.A.,-DSe, LICDi aoe
F.R.A.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

Liebermann, C., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Berlin. 29, Alatihai-Kirch Strasse, Berlin.

Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B:, LL,D., Sc. Die
Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). 2/7 Observatory,
Salcombe Regis, Sidmouth, Devoit.

Lodge, Sir-Oliver Joseph, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.Si, Prmetpal
of the University of Birmingham. Zhe Unztversaty,

Birmingham.

Lorentz, Henrik Anton, For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb.
Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Physics in the

University of Haarlem. Z27/wes, 76, Haarlem.

Marshall, Alfred, M.A., formerly Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft,
Madingley Road, Cambridge.

Mittag-Leffler, Gosta, D.C.L. (Oxon.), For. Mem. Rhisg
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Stockholm,
Dyursholm, Stockholm.

Nernst, Geh. Prof. Dr. Walter, Director of the Physikal-
Chemisches Institut in the University of Berlin. Am

Karlsbad 26a, Berlin W. 35.

Osborn, Henry Fairfield, Professor of Vertebrate Paleeon-
tology at Columbia College. American Museum of
Natural History, W. 77 Street, New Vork, U.S.A.

Ostwald, W., Professor of Chemistry. Gvroszbothen, Ker.

Sachsen,

Date of Election.
1899, April 25.

1894, April 17.

1892, April 26.

1886, Feb. 9.

1gco, April 24.

1902, May 13.

1892, April 26.

1895, April 30.

1894, April 17.

1886, Feb. 9.

aed
Honorary Members. Ixxxiil

Palgrave, Sir Robert H. Inglis, F.R.S., F.S.S. Henstead
| Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk.

Pfeffer, Wilhelm, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Botany
in the University of Leipsic. Bolanisches Institut,
Letpsic.

Quincke, G. H., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics
in the University of Heidelberg. Unzversziat, Heidelberg.

Rayleigh, Right Hon. John William Strutt, Lord, O.M.,
BES... -C.12 (Oxon), Se. D.. (Cantab:), LL.D. (Univ;
MeGul), PKs5: FR: ALS.; .Corr. “Memb: Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.), Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
Terling Place, Witham, Essex.

Ridgway, Robert, Curator of the Department of Birds, U.S.
National Museum. S7oo0kland, District of Columbia,
OS. 4.

scott, Dukinfield Hlenry, M-A.; LL.D.. Ph.D., E.R.S.,
F.L.S. East Oakley House, Oakley, Hants.

Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William T., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A.,
se. D., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Lately Director Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew. The Ferns, Watcombe,

Gloucester.

Thomson, Sir Joseph John, O.M., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics in the
University of Cambridge. Z7rznzty College, Cambridge.

(Ehorpe;. Sis T. Bdward, C-b.,-Ph. Dy: D. Se, ELD
F.R.S., V.P.C.S. Whinfield, Salcombe, S. Devon.

Tylor, Sir Edward Burnett, D.C.L. (Oxon), LL.D, (St.
And. and McGill Univs.), F.R.S., formerly Professor of
Anthropology in the University of Oxford. Lindeyz,
Wellington, Somerset.

Ixxxiv Honorary Members.

Date of Election.

1894, April 17. Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S:;
Sherardian Professor of Botany in the University of
Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

1894, April 17. Warburg, Emil, Professor of Physics at the Physical
Institute, Berlin. Physikalisches [nstitult, Neue Welhelm-
strasse, Berlin.

CHANGES OF ADDRESS.

Alembers are particularly requested to inform the Secretaries

of any errors in their addresses or descriptions.

Awards of the Dalton Medal.

1898. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.
1900. Sir HENRY E. ROSCOE, F.R.S.
1903. Prof. OSBORNE REYNOLDS, LL.D., F.R.S.

The Wilde Lectures. Ixxxv

FHE WILDE LECFORES.

1897. (July 2) “On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays.”
By sir G) G. STOKES, Bart, F.R:S: (28 pp.)

1898.- (Mar. 29.) “On the Physical Basis of Psychical
Events.” By Sir MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B.,

BRS? C6 7.)
1899. (Mar. 28) “The newly discovered Elements ; |

and their relation to the Kinetic Theory of
Gases.” By Prof. WILLIAM RAMSAY, F.R.S.
(19 OP.)

1900. (Feb. 13.) “The Mechanical Principles of Flight.”
By the Rt, Hon, Lorp RayLeicn, F.R.S.
(26 pp.) :

1901. (April 22.) “Sur la Flore du Corps Humain,”
By Dr. ELIE METSCHNIKOFF, For.Mem.R.S.
(35 pp.)

1902. (Feb. 25.) “On the Evolution of the Mental

Faculties in relation to some Fundamental
Principles of Motion.” By Dr. HENRY WILDE,

F.RS. (34 pp» 3 pls.)

1903. (May 1g.) “The Atomic Theory.” By Professor
BW. CLARKE, D.Se. )\(g2pp))

1904. (Feb. 23.) “The Evolution of Matter as revealed
by the Radio-active Elements.” By FREDERICK
SoDDY, M.A. (42 fp.)

Ixxxvi The Welde Lectures.

1905. (Feb. 28.) “The Early History of Seed-bearing
Plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora.”
By Dr. Do: Scott, #-3°S. 442 95 Se

1906. (March 20.) “Total Solar Eclipses.” By Pro-
fessor H. H. TURNER, D.5Sc., F-R.S: (32 £6)

1907. (February 18.) “The Structure of Metals.” By
Dr. J. A. EWENG, F.R.S.,M-Inst CE. pga
5 pls., and 5 text-figs.)

1908. (March 3.) “On the Physical Aspect of the
Atomic Theory.” By Professor J. LARMOR,
Sec. RS. (54 fp.)

1909. (March g.) “On the Influence of Moisture on
Chemical Change in Gases.” By Dr. H
BRERETON BAKER, F.R.S. (8 ff.)

1910. (March 22.) “Recent Contributions to Theories
regarding the Internal Structure of the Earth.”
By Sir THOMAS H. HOLLAND, K.C.I.E., D.Sc,
F.R.S.

SRettAl LECPUAES

1913. (March 4.) “The Plant and the Soil.” By A. D.
HALL, M.A., F.R.S.

1914. (March 18.) “Crystalline Structure as revealed
by X-rays.” By Professor W. H. BRAGG, M.A.
FE.R.S.

1915. (May 4th.) “The Place of Science in History.”
By Professor JULIUS Mac LEop, D.Sc,

Lust of Presidents of the Soczety. Ixxxvii

memo VaeEeSIDENIS. OF THE: SOCIETY.

Date of Election.

P71.

1782-1786.
1787-1789.
1789-1804.
1805-1806,
1807-1809.

1809.

1809-1816.
1816-1844.
1844-1847.
1848-1850.
1851-1854.
1855-1859.
1860-1861.
1862-13863.
1864-1865.
1866-1867.
1868-1869.
1870-1871.
1872-1873.
1874-1875.
1876-1877.
1878-1879.
1880-1881.
1882-13883.
1884-1885.

1886.
1887.

PETER MAINWARING, M.D., James MASSEY.
James Massey, THomas PercivatL, M.D., F.R.S.
JAMES MASSEY.

THomas PERCIVAL, M.D., F.R.S.

Rev. GEORGE WALKER, F.R.S.

Tuomas HEnry, F.R.S.
rhea Hun M.D, F-L:S.

THomas Henry, F.R.S.

Joun. Dacron, D.C.L., F.R.S.

EpwarbD Hotmg, M.D., F.LS.

Eaton HopGKINson, F.R.S., F.G.S.

JoHN Moore, F.L.S.

Sir WILLIAM FarrpalRn, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD WIL@IAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.GS.
ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.R.S.

EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

JAMES Prescott JouLE, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.
James Prescott Jour, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.
James Prescott Joute, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, fi Rs BGs:

Sir HENRY ENFIELD Roscog, D.C.L., F.R.S.
WILLIAM CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.
RoBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.
BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S.

* Hlected April 28th; resigned office May sth.

Ixxxviil

Date of Election.

1888-1889.
1890-1891.
1892-1893.
1894-1896.
1896.
1897-1899.
1899-IgQoOlI.
IQOI-1903.
1903-1905.
1905-1907.
1907-19090.
I909Q-I1QITI.
IQII-1913.
IQ1I3-1915.
IgI5-

List of Prestdents of the Society:

OSBORNE REyYNoLDs, LL.D., F.R.S.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.
ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Henry WILDE, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.
JaMEs Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.
Horace Lamp, M.A., F.R.S.
CHARLES BatLey, M.Sc., F.L.S.

W. Boyvp Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Sir WiLttiaAmM H. BaiLey, M.I.Mech.E.
HAROLD BaiLy Drxon, M.A., F.R.S.
FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc.; F.R.S.E.

F. E, Weiss, D.Sce.,-F.L.S.

Francis NICHOLson, F.Z.S.

SYDNEY J. Hickson, M.A., D.Se., F.R-.S.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY .— Cond‘nued.

Washington.— United States Geological Survey.

the United States. Folios Nos. 195-198. Washington, D.C.,
1915. (Reed. 28/vit.]76.)

Geologic Atlas of

———.—Washington State Commission, Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Ex-
position. Check-List of Books and Pamphlets relating to the
History of the Pacific Northwest.

By Charles W. Smith.
Washington, 1909.

(Reca. 24]v72./76.)
Wellington.—New Zealand Institute.
of the New

Olympia,

Transactions. and Proceedings
Zealand Institute. Vols.

1-47. Wellington, N.Z
1869-1915. (Rect. Z0/v.]76.)

4*5

And the usual Exchanges and Fertodicals.

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