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| he
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY.
(MA INE OSES SE TR ME MC OURES:.
Agena Instip Px
fcs Y NN
AUG) 191
WAH POSS /
: VTOn: q | MA ge A
VonuUmME LEXI GO17-18) 7 aoe
MANCHESTER:
36 GEORGE STREET.
1918.
NOW E,
THE authors of the several papers contained in this volume are
themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings which
they
have offered. In these particulars the Society must not be
considered as in any way responsible.
II.
IIT.
We
CONTENTS.
Presidential Address. By WILLIAM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C.,
ER GAS ives cipal els ahs Ms is a Ba pp.
(Issued separately, January 4th, 1918.)
MEMOIRS.
. The Specification of Stress. Part V. By R. F. GwytuHer, M.A.
PP.
(Issued separately, January 30th, 1918.)
Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals. By D. WaRD
CuTLER, M.A. .. Be By ae bf Bs pp.
(Issued separately, April 2nd, 1918.)
The Organisation of Museums and Art Galleries in Manchester.
By W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. a pp.
Ussued separately, April 15th, 1918.)
The Dorsal Mesenteric Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pen-
natulacea. By Constance M. LicHtBown, M.Sc. With
it JPUGHOS me ae a A ele a aN pp.
(Ussued separately, July 23rd, 1918.)
. Somatose. By Witt1am TuHomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S.
With 3 Graphs. .. 3 a He me at pp.
(Issued separately, July 20th, 1918.)
I—I4
I—IlI
I—42
I—IlI
I—20
I—I4
lV CONTENTS.
VI. The Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl, Céte des Basques,
Biarritz. By the late Epwarp HaLkyarp. Edited and re-
vised by E. Herron ALLEN and A. Eartanp. With
8 Platesand 1 Map. .. StU EP devs .. pp. i—xxiv.+145
(Issued separately, 1918.)
VII. The Occurrence of Cavernularia Liitkenii, Koll, in the Seas of
Natal. By J. Stuart Tuomson, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E.
With 2 Plates and 1 Text-fig. .. Mi, ale ite pp. I-—-5
(/ssued separately, July 20th, 1918.)
VIII. Regional Distribution of the Native Flora of Teneriffe. By J. H.
SALTER, D.Sc. With 2 Plates. a oe 0 pp. 1I—16
([ssued separately, August 9th, 1918.)
IX. The Association of Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. By
J. WILFRID Jackson, F.G.S. Wath 2 Plates. bie pp. I—1I5
(Ussued separately, August 9th, 1918.)
X. Radio-activity and the Coloration of Minerals. By E. NEWBERY,
D.Sc., and*°HarTLEY Lupton, B.Sc... ae Na pp. 1—16
(lssued separately, August oth, 1918.)
XI. The Superficial Geology of Manchester. By MaArGAReT C.
Marcu, M.Sc. With 3 Plates. is bo ds pp. I—I7
([ssued separately, August 9th, 1918.)
PROCEEDINGS (ui. Be ACO 2G eS
INDEX. Vv
INDEX.
M= Memoirs, P= Proceedings.
Accessions to Library. P. iv., vii., xiv.
Allen, E. Heron. See Halkyard, E.
Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad. By Captain Leonard Munn.
IP), ie
Annual Report. P. xiii.
Art Galleries, Organisation of Museums and. By W. Boyd Dawkins. M. 3.
P. iti.
Association of Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. By J. Wilfrid Jackson.
M. 9. P. viii. °
Auditors, Nomination of. P. ix.
Bleaching Powder, Effect of Light on Solutions of. By R.L. Taylor. P. v.
Blue Marl, Foraminifera from the. See Halkyard, E.
Boddington, J., Gift of Picture by. P. ii.
Boyd Dawkins. See Dawkins, W. Boyd.
British Museum. PP. viii.
Cast Iron, Corrodibility of. By E. L. Rhead. P. x.
Cavernulavia Liitkentt, KOll., Occurrence of, in the Seas of Natal. By J. Stuart
Thomson. M. 7. P. ix.
Corrodibility of Cast Iron. By E. L. Rhead. P. x.
Cutler, D. Ward. Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals. M. 2.
1D, th,
‘«Dalton collecting Marsh-Fire Gas,” Gift of Painting of. P. ii.
—— John, Exhibition of Diagrams and Manuscripts relating to. P. vi.
Dawkins, W. Boyd. Examples of Pre-Roman Bronze-plated Iron from the
Pilgrims’ Way. P. iv.
—— The Organisation of Museums and Art Galleries in Manchester. M. 3.
P. iii.
Dorsal Mesenteric Filaments in Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea. By Constance
M. Lightbown. M. 4. P. iv.
Dyes from British Plants. P. xv.
Earland, A. See Halkyard, E.
Effect of Light on Solutions of Bleaching Powder. By R. L. Taylor. P. v.
al INDEX.
Election of Officers. P. xiv.
—_— Ordinary Members. P.i., ii., vi., vili., xiv.
Elliot Smith. See Smith, G. Elliot.
Examples of Pre-Roman Bronze-plated Iron. P. iv.
Exhibition of Manuscripts, Diagrams, etc. P. vi., vil.
Facetted Pebbles. See Jackson, J. W.
Fossil Foraminifera. See Halkyard, E.
Galena, Exhibition of a piece of Coal containing. P. viii.
Geology of Manchester. See March, M. C.
Glacial Deposits of Manchester. P. xv.
Gwyther, R. F. Specification of Stress. Part V. M. 1.
Halkyard (the late), Edward. The Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl, Cote
des Basques, Biarritz. Edited and revised by E. Heron Allen and A.
Earland. M. 6. P. viii.
Identification of Zophyrus. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xiii.
Tron Pyrites. P. xi.
Jackson, J. W. Association of Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. M. 9.
P. viii.
——. Exhibition of Specimen of Planorbis dilatatus. P. ix.
Jast, L. Stanley. Technical Library for Manchester. P. ix.
Library Accessions. P. iv., vii., xiv.
Lightbown, C. M. Dorsal Mesenteric Filaments in the Siphonozooids of
Pennatulacea. M. 4. P. iv.
Long-range Guns. P. xiii.
Lupton, H. See Newbery, E.
March, M. C. Superficial Geology of Manchester. M.11. P. xv.
Munn, Captain Leonard. Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad. P. ix.
Museums, Organisation of. See Dawkins, W. Boyd.
Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals. By D. Ward Cutler. M. 2.
P. in.
Newbery, E., and Lupton, H. MRadio-activity and the Coloration of Minerals.
IML, Ty 1B any
Occurrence of Cavernularia Liithenii, KOll., in the Seas of Natal. By J. Stuart
Thomson. , M. 7. P. ix.
Organisation of Museums and Art Galleries. See Dawkins, W. Boyd.
INDEX. vil
Parthenogenesis. See Cutler, D. Ward.
Planorbis dilatatus. P. ix.
Pre-Roman Bronze-plated Iron. P. iv.
Presidential Address. P. 1.
Race, Character and Nationality. By G. Elliot Smith. P. xii.
Radio-activity and the Coloration of Minerals. By E. Newbery and H
Lupton. M. ro. P. xiv. :
Regional Distribution of the Flora of Teneriffe. By J. H. Salter. M. 8.
12 Ife
Rhead, E. L. Corrodibility of Cast Iron. P. x.
Salter, J. H. Regional Distribution of the Native Flora of Teneriffe. M. 8.
12), ihe
Siberian Civilisation. See Smith, G. Elliot.
Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea. See Lightbown, C. M.
Smith, G. Elliot. Origin of Early Siberian Civilisation. P. ix.
—— Race, Character, Nationality. P. xii.
Somatose. By William Thomson. M. 5. P. viii.
Specification of Stress. Part V. By R. F. Gwyther. M. 1.
Stonehenge Cottages. P. xil.
Stress, Specification of. See Gwyther, R. F.
Stromeyer, C. E. Identification of Zophyrus. P. xiii.
—— Long-range Guns. P. xiii.
Sturgeon, William, Exhibition of Manuscripts relating to. P. vi., vii.
Superficial Geology of Manchester. By M.C. March. M.1rr. P. xv.
Taylor, R.L. The Effect of Light on Solutions of Bleaching Powder. P. v.
Technical Library. P. ix., x.
Thomson, J. S. Occurrence of Cavernularia Liithentt, KOll. M. 7. P. ix.
Thomson, W. Minerals from Angola. P. xi.
Presidential Address. P. 1.
——— Somatose. M. 5. P. viii.
Weiss, F. E. Exhibition of Wools dyed with Dyes obtained from British
Plants. P. xv.
Woolley, G. S., Reference to Death of. P. xi.
Zophyrus, Identification of. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xiii.
a oii, No ee
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY, 1917-1918.
CONTENTS.
Presidential Address. By William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.1.C.,F.C.S. pp. 1—14
(Issued separately January ath, 1918.)
Memoirs :
I.—The Specification of Stress, Part V. By R. F. Gwyther, M.A. pp. 1—11
(Issued separately January z0th, 1918.)
II.—Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals.
By D. Ward Cutler, M.A. ‘ é At ... pp. I—42
({ssued separately April ee 1918. es
I1I].—The Organisation of Museums and Art Galleries in Manchester.
By W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Nai ... pp. I—II
(Ussued separately April 15th, 1G18.)
IV.—The Dorsal Mesenteric Filaments in the Siphonozocids of
Pennatulacea. By Constance M. cea ih M.Sc.
With « Plate a , é ... pp. I—2o
(Issued By at jy ep Fa )
V.—Somatose. By William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S.
With 3 Graphs ae ‘ ... pp. I—14
(Issued (aay vee ae ae
* VI.—The Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl, Cote des
Basques, Biarritz, by the late Edward Halkyard. Edited
and revised by E. Heron Allen and A. Farland.
VII.—The Occurrence of Cavernularia Liitkenii, KGll, in the Seas of
Natal. By J. Stuart Thomson, M.Sc., Ph. EBs F.R.S.E.
With 2 Plates and rt Text-jig. eee 4 ss se Bee oy oN Go
ERD), Ussued separately July 20th, ea
POCO i... ee ee i Ope Sala
* This monograph will appear as Vol. 62, Part IT.
"MANCHESTER:
36, GEORGE STREET.
Price Seven Shillinos and Sixnence
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. txiz. (1917)
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
By THE PRESIDENT,
WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S.
October and, 1977.
I thank you for the great honour you have conferred upon
me by electing me as President of this important and _ historic
society, and I propose in my address to try to briefly recapitu-
late its history, and to dwell on the extraordinary importance of
the work which has been done in it: work which has created
“two of the most important of the Sciences, viz., Chemistry and
Engineering, and which to-day form the foundations of the work
in these Sciences in every country in the world. The labours of
Dalton and Joule have rendered their names immortal and
have added lustre to the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester, with which they were both so closely associated.
iT‘hese, however, form only a part of the classical work which
has emanated from the Society.
Thhe date of the foundation of the Society is given as 1781
(136 years ago), but according to Dr. Angus Smith’it was closely
associated with those who were educated in’ or connected with
the Warrington Academy, which was founded 24 years earlier
(about the year 1757). The Warrington Academy was founded
by a small body of religionists, and was one! of the’ first teaching
institutions of the day. _/When the Warrington Academy was (dis-
solved, it was virtually continued in Manchester as “ The Man-
chester Academy.” It had many eminent men as teachers.
among whom may be mentioned Jaen Paul Marat, who was
believed by some to be the great French revolutionist who was
put to death by Charlotte Corday. Marat spent eleven years of
his life in England about the fime of the Warrington Academy,
and it is belteved that he taught languages there. He published
“Essay on Man” in London in 1773, and received his Court
appointment in France, 1777. He is ‘beeveld to have been in
practice as a well-known doctor in London in 1776.
Joseph Priestley came to the Warrington Academy in 1761
as a teacher of languages and Belles Lettres, and was subse-
quently a member of this Society (elected 21st October, 1791!)..
‘At the Warrington Academy he was induced to take an interest
in Science, and soon afterwards published a paper on “A History
of Electricity.” At that time it seemed questionable whether
Warrington or Manchester would prove to be the more important
2 THOMSON, Preszdential Address.
of the two towns. The word Oxygen was unknown ; the name
which was used ‘for| it and other elements was “ dephlogistigated
air.” At this time Priestley was resident in Warrington, and he
it was who discovered Oxygen on the 1st of August, 1774, a
discovery which enabled Lavoisier to put forward! the true he
of Combustion. Lavoisier was elected an Honorary Member! of
this Society on the 2nd April, 1783.
One of the first Presidents of this Society and the founder of
it was Dr. Thomas Percival, who was a pupil and friend of
Priestley, and who became an eminent physician in practice in
Manchester. The first meetings of the Society were held at his
house, where meteorology, the sun, moon, and the weather were
frequently discussed. I can remember a hundred years later.
when Mir. Binney and Mr. Baxendall were factive members, that
ffhese topics formed frequent subjects of discussion.
Some idea of the aims of the Society may be gathered from
a resolution which was passed in' its early days: “ That a Gold
Medal value seven guineas be given to the author of the best
experimental paper ‘on any subject relative to Arts and Manu-
factures read at the ordinary meeting's before the last Wednesday
in March, 1786.
Under the heading of “ Regulations ” iof that time, the follow-
ing occurs, which may be ttaken as a useful suggestion to the
members of to-day :—
Regulation V//.—TYhe regular attendance of members
being essential to the prosperity and usefulness of the Institu-
tion, that if any member shall absent himself during the space
of three months from the meetings of the Society, notice shall
be sent to him at a quarterly meeting that the Society con-
siders his absence as a, mark of disrespect, and that a more
punctual observance of the laws is expected from him.
and also the following :—
Regulation VI//.—TYo encourage the exertions of young
men who attend the meetings jf thle Society as visttors, that
a Silver Medal, not exceeding! thle value of two guineas, be
given annually to any one or them under the age of twenty-
one years, who shall, within the year, have furnished the
Society with the best paper on any ‘subject of literature or
philosophy, and that such adjudication shall be made by the
Committee of Papers.
The Society was to consist of fifty members, all of whom
had to be distinguished by literary or philosophical publications.
Manchester at this time, and mainly through the influence
of this Society, drew public attention to Sanitary matters and
influenced the formation of a Board of Health in 1796. A letter
addressed by Dr. Haygarth, of Chester, to Dr. Percival, of
bt.
_ Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxit. (1917) y
‘Manchester, published in the| Transactions of the Society is of
interest at the present time, in which it says :-—
During this war (1796) many new-raised regiments coming
from Ireland with numerous recruits taken out of jails re-
mained in Chester for a few weeks after ‘their voyage, were
ill of putrid fever.
It was decided to put them together in special hospitals.
Some authorities doubted the wisdom of this, thinking it would
have the effect of spreading the disease (throughout the town,
but the wisdom propounded at the time in [Manchester pre-
vailed, and the value of Isolation ‘Hospitals has been established.
Tobacco smoking is also advocated as a disinfectant and pre-
ventive against fever. The purity of the atmosphere was then
(1796) much discussed. Dr. Percival regarded with great un-
easiness the fact that no less tham 300 ‘tons fof coal were burned
in Manchester per day—go0,oo0 tons) per annum. One can
imagine his astonishment if he had lived to-day to know that
somewhere in the region of 5,000,000 tons of coal are burned
in Manchester per annum.
Dir. Percival commenced his sanitary work in 1773, and’ pub-
lished proposals for the establishment of a judicious and
accurate register of the births and deaths in every town and
parish. He says in| Stoke Damerel, in Devonshire, 1 person in
54 died annually; in Vienna and Edinburgh, 1 in 20; in London,
ia 20
The first President of the Society was (Mr. James Massey, a
man of wealth ‘and ‘a philanthropist, along with Peter Main-
waring, M.D., and the first Secretaries were ‘Thomas Henry and
George Bew.
During the second year of the Society James Massey and
Thomas Percival, M.D., were Presidents, and they continued
together in that capacity from 1782 till 1787. Then James
Massey alone was President from 1787 ‘till 1789, followed by
Dr. Percival from 1790 till 1804. A: marble tablet’ is inserted in
the wall of the Society’s room) behind ‘the President’s chair in
his memory, and his portrait, presented by Mr. F. Nicholson,
hangs on the same wall) The name Percival survived in the
_ grandson of Dr. Percival as Sir Percival Heywood (1881), whose
grandfather married a daughter of Dr. Percival.
The ‘first volume of the Society's Memoirs was published in
1785 and was dedicated “ by permission to the King.” A short
summary of some of the papers appearing %n these memoirs
may be of interest. Dr. Bell read a paper 16th May, 1781,
entitled: “ Some remarks on the opinion that the animal body
possesses the power of generating cold.” This referred to the
4 THOMSON, Prescdentzal Address.
fact that some men had remained in a room, the temperature
of the air of which wa's far above that of the human blood
for half an hour, the heat of their bodies did not increase more
than three lor four degrees.
Another paper appears by the Rev. Samuel Hall, M.A., on
“An jattempt to show that the beauties of nature and the fine
arts lhas no influence favourable to morals.” This was a reply
to ia paper read before the Society by ‘Dr. Percival.
Dr. Peter Mainwaring, one of the first Presidents, was an
eminent physician in Manchester, who presented to the Royal
Infirmary a collection of books, and book cases, which formed
the mucleus (of the present library. He was elected) a member
of the ‘Society in 1781, and died at the age of 91 in the year
1785.
In 1773, it may be noted, that the inhabitants of Manchester
and Salford numbered 19,839; to-day they are about fifty times
that number.
Dr. William Henry, F.R.S., was elected a member of this
Society on the 29th April, 1796. He was assistant to Dr. Per-
cival. He was engaged at the Manchester Infirmary under Dr.
Farrier, another famous physician, and is perhaps best known
as having introduced calcined magnesia as a medicine, which
is still known as “ Henry’s magnesia.”’
Dr. Alexander Eason was born in 1735, and became a
member of the Society about 1781. He was a member of the
medical staff of the Infirmary. He lved in Lever (Street,
Piccadilly. It 1s recorded that jhe bought the house and grounds
for £800, which 80 years later produced an income of £1,600
per annum. A tablet was erected to his memory in the Man-
chester Cathedral, contributed by penny subscriptions from the
poor. He met with an accident through the stumbling of his
horse whilst on his way to visit a patient, Miss Yates, aunt to
Sir Robert Peel, which caused his death at the age of 61.
John Massey was elected a member in 1781 (and was one
of the first presidents, already mentioned). He read a quaint
paper before the Society on the “ Manufacture of Salt-Petre
from the decomposition of dung heaps when mixed with wood
ashes.”
Charles White, F.R.S., author of “ Gradation in Man,”
a famous surgeon, was one of ‘the first Vice-Presidents. He
followed his father, Dr. Thomas ‘White, and was a fellow
student and friend of John Hunter. There us a letter published
from his son, Mir. Thomas White—also a Medical man—dated
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) 5
Paris, 29th July, 1784, in which he describes a, visit he paid
to the subterraneous caverns at Paris, commonly called ‘“ The
Quarries,” which, according to his description, appeared like an
underground city, the streets being formed by the removal of
rock in long lines. The stone for building overhead was re-
moved to a depth of 360 feet anid) for abiout two miles. ‘These
quarries were kept secret in Paris. They were commenced by
Louis XIV. in 1667. Mr. Thomas White says all the Faubourg
St. Jacques, Rue de la) Harpe, and Rue de Tournon stand over
these ancient quarries, supported by pillars and arches, and on
escasions some parts of the surface have collapsed.
I may allude in passing to other members of this Society.
The Rev. Dr. Thomas Barnes, F.R.S., elected 1781, Minister of
the Unitarian iChapel in Cross Street for 31 years, succeeded .by
the Rev. John Robberds, elected a member in 1811, who was
succeeded .by the Rev. William Gaskell, elected 1840, better
known perhaps as the husband of Mrs. Gaskell. ,
The Rev. George Walker, F.R.S., elected 1782, followed
Dr. Percival as President in 1805. He was Mathematical
Teacher at the Warrington Academy in 1772, and subsequently
teacher of mathematics at Durham, at a salary of little more
than £40 a year, which owing to the poverty of the institution .
was not paid in full.
Thomas Walker, elected 1790, was President of the )Man-
chester Constitutional Society. He, in that capacity, communi-
cated with the Patriotic Societies in France for estiablishing
correspondence with ‘the Manchester Society for the good bof
humanity. These ‘proceedings attracted the attention of Mr.
Burke. who, in his speech in the Hiouse of Commons, April 30th,
1792, denounced Thomas Cooper and Thomas Walker as con-
sorting with [traitors and regicides in the Club’ of the Jacobins
in Paris. Walker’s house in South Parade, \St. Mary’s Parsonage,
was attacked Iby the mob and he fired ion them. He was tried
with others at Lancaster qn a change of having conspired/ ‘to
overthrow the Constitution and assist the French in their
threatened attack on this island. He was acquitted, and trium-
phantly returned to Manchester on the 3rd-March, 1794.
Mr. Hutchinson, elected 1801, was Dock-master at Liverpool,
and wrote chiefly on meteorological subjects.
One of his papers is entitled ‘‘ Meteorological Observations
from 1768 to 1793.”
John Dalton, elected 1794, was President of the Society from
1817 till 1844, during 27 years. Im 1795 comes his first paper,
“An Essay ion thle \Vision of Colours.” Then follow papers on
6 THOMSON, Preszdential Address.
“ Evaporation and Springs,” “The Power of Fluids to Conduct
Heat,” “ Experiments and Observations on Heat and Cold Pro-
duced by ‘Mechanical Condensation and Rarefaction of Air,”
“ Experimental Essays on the Constitution of Mixed (Gases,”
and “ Meteorological Observations made at Manchester.” John
Dalton was born at Eaglesfield, in Cumberland, 5th September,
1766. His father was a weaver of woollens in his own cottage.
He was taught at a school \of the Society of Friends, to which
the family belonged. So quickly did he acquire knowledge that
he was appointed at the age of 12 to conduct the school gt
which he had been as a scholar. At 14 he went to Kendal as
assistant in the school of his cousin. His first attempts at writing
were sent to Zhe Gentlemen's Magazine, and he received prizes
for the best answers to the mathematical and othier questions
propounded in that periodical. When in Kendal he made the
acquaintance of Mr. Gouch, an eminent scientist, although blind
from birth. Through his influence he ‘obtained in 1793 the posi-
tion of Teacher of Mathematics and Physics in the New College,
Manchester (which was a continuation of the Warrington
Academy), and afterwards he spent the greater portion of his
life in the service of this Society. As soon as his great abilities
were recognised he was appointed Secretary of the Society
with his laboratory in ‘the present building. He afterwards was
appointed President, and for ‘about forty years, till his death, he
was the sole manager of the Society’s affairs.
In his examination of the mode of analysing air he dis-
covered that in using nitric-oxide to absorb oxygen it required
72 measures to absorb the oxygen from 100 measures of air;
and if he used more than that of nitric-oxide, or more of air,
he got an excess of one or the other. This led him to the
consideration of definite quantities of elements or compounds
uniting with each other, and fhlé argued that if a pound weight
of one material, combined with a pound weight of another,
that half a pound would combine with half a pound, and so
that this relative proportion would continue to the smallest
conceivable weights. This gave him ithe idea of the Atomic
Theory; .He then represented tthese by ‘balls, assuming a
hydrogen ball to be black and an oxygen ball white; then
water would be represented by one black ball joined to one
white ball, and no half ball can be used and tno confusion of
fractions. This was found to suit all the known facts in
chemistry. If (the quantity of water weighs 9, the hydrogen
would weigh 1 and the oxygen 8. The Atomic Weight of
hydrogen was therefore taken as unity, and the oxygen as 8,
and the balls always represented these relative weights, and
the chemical combinations always took place in these definite
weights for each element. Thus Iron was found to be 28, and
in combining with oxygen! it took up 8 parts or multiples of 8,
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. txt. (1917) 7
and thus the atomic theory took root, and on it now hangs all
the fruit of chemical science.
In 1833 a pension of £150 was conferred on Dalton by
the Government, afterwards increased to £300. He lived in
comparative poverty most of ‘his life. Dalton was colour-blind.
He was a rather tall and powerful man. He remained a
bachelor all his life. He died 27th July, 1844, aged 78 years.
In passing, I might incidentally mention other papers which
appear in the Memoirs of the Society.
Dr. Anderson (the founder of the Andersonian University
of Glasgow) contributes a paper on “A Universal Written
Character,” which calls to mind the work of Alexander Mel-
ville Bell, of Edinburgh, on ‘“ Visible Speech,” and of his illus-
trious son Graham Bell, who gave us the telephone and the
photophone.
In 1801 Thomas Hoyle, Junior (originator of the famous
print works of that name), gives a papler on “ The Oxygenated
Muriate of Potash” (the potassium chlorate of to-day).
In 1790 James Watt, Junior; son of the great James Watt
of steam engine fame, was ‘Secretary of this Society along
with Dr. Ferriar. He was elected. 17809.
Reference may here be made to John Kennedy, who came
to Manchester from Scotland, was elected in 1803, and re-
mained a member until his (death in 1855. From 1822 his
house was a prominent one, standing on the south side Jjof
Ardwick Green. He was a maker of cotton spinning
machinery, and the first cotton spinner whose works ‘were
driven by steam power. He invented the differential motion
in the Jack frame. His daughter married Edwin Chadwick,
C.B., the father of sanitary reform, who was born in this dis-
trict.
Peter Ewart, lelected 1798, bridged over the time from
Percival and the early founders till 1835. He was born at
Troquair Manse, Dumfriesshire, on March 14th, 1767. One
of his brothers was British’ Minister at the Court of ‘Berlin.
Peter Ewart became a partner with Mr Oldknow, of Stock-
port, the original fabricator of muslins in this country. He
read a paper before the Society on “ The Measure of Moving
Force,” in which he discusses whether, according to some
authorities, the measure of moviny torce was the mass multi-
plied simply by the velocity or, according to others, by the
square of the velocity.
Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., F.R.S., is the best known of
the engineers who have adorned tthis Society. He was born at
8 THOMSON, Preszdentzal Address.
Kelso, in Roxburghshire, 1789. Elected to this Society 1824.
He was imperfectly educated in his youth. His father was a
farm bailiff. Fairbairn worked at various mechanical places
in England, and finally settled in Manchester, without either
capital or connections, im 1817. He published papers on the
strengths of materials, which were of great value, and con-
structed along with Robert Stephenson, assisted by the calcu-
lating genius of Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., the celebrated
Britannia and Conway tubular, bridges. Fairbairn was Presi-
dent of this Society from 1855 till 1860. He died at Moor
Park, Surrey, 18th August, 1874, aged 85 years.
Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., was born at Anderton, near
Northwich, Cheshire, 26th February, 1789, and died 18th June,
t861, aged 72. ‘He was elected a member of this Society
1820, and acted as President from 1848 till 1851. He was
Professor of the Mechanical Principles of Engineering in
University College, London. His scientific labours consisted
chiefly in making several long and elaborate series of experi-
ments on the strength of materials used in construction, chiefly
timber and iron.
John Frederick Bateman, F.R.S., son-in-law of Sir William
Fairbairn, was elected 1840. He was engineer to some of the
greatest waterworks in ‘the world, that of Manchester, to which
the water is brought from Woodhead, and that of Glasgow,
to which the supply comes from Loch Katrine. in 1881 he was
engaged on the Thirlmere scheme.
Sir John Hawkshaw, another eminent water engineer,
elected 1839, was still a member of the Society in 1881, when
he left Manchester.
William Sturgeon, the celebrated electrician, born at Whit-
tington, Lancaster, in 1783, spent his time from 1838 till his
death (8th December, 1850) in close relations with this Society.
He was elected a member in 1844. To keep his father—a
clever man, but an tdle shoemaker—poaching fish and rearing
gamecocks, when starving the family, was the painful work
of young Sturgeon. He quitted shoemaking to enlist in the
Westmoreland Militia, afterwards served twenty years in tthe
Royal Artillery, and subsequently obtained the appointment
cof Teacher of Natural Philosophy in the East India Com-
pany’s Military College in Addiscombe. Whilst serving in the
Artillery his attention was awakened and his curiosity quickened
by the phenomena of a terriffic thunderstorm, and this set him
to the study of electricity. He /began the study of Mathematics,
Latin and Greek, and French, German, and I'talian, which fhe
read with considerable facility. No man contributed a greater
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) 9
number of isolated discoveries of equal value and importance,
or left behind him a greater number of instruments for others
to work with. He contributed fifty papers to this Society.
He was Superintendent of the Victoria Gallery of Practical
Science. This was discontinued owing to the pressure of the
tumes, and he was deprived of any means of subsistence. After
struggling with difficulties which would have weighled most men
down, he was at length, through the intercession of Mr. Binney,
another member of thle Society, and other friends, placed by
Lord John Russell on the Ciwi List for a pension of £50 per
annum. He died within. two years afterwards, leaving a wife
-and daughter unprovided for. Thus wretchedly did the Govern-
ment at that time value the scientific achievements of such men
of genius who did so much. for the material welfare of the
country.
Mr. Sturgeon, it fis said, was above the average height;
“his open brow and upright carriage conveyed the impression
of integrity of character, an impression which wis deepened
by personal acquaintance.”
In 1845 the Society appointed a (Committee of its Members:
John Thom (of Chorley), James Young, F.R.S. (of Paraffin Oil
fame), and John Moore, the then President, to report on the
potato disease which was at that time prevalent. They found
that treatment of the potatoes in bulk with the fumes of burn-
ing sulphur was the most effective preventive.
Joseph Chesborough Dyer, V.-P. jof ithis Society, elected 1818,
was born in Connecticut, ‘U.S.A., 17th November, 1780, and died
at Manchester, 3rd May, 1871, aged 92. He claimed to be ain
English subject, as the date of his birth preceded the War of
Independence. He was in New London during its bombard-
ment and burning by the English Fleet under the command
of Benedict Arnold. He and his men protested against the
bombardment of an open town, but they had to obey the
higher command. Boarded, when at school, with Mr. Sands,
a watchmaker, he became enamoured lof mechanics. As a bioy,
his father toiok him to Wickford, U.S.A., to enjoy boating and
fishing. Here he constructed an unsinkable lifeboat. He in-
vented fur-shearing and nail-making) machinery. In 1825 he,
with Darnforth, invented the yoving frame; in 1811 ‘the carding.
engine. At this time he was in communication with Robert
Fulton, the inventor of the successful steamboat in America.
The miserable event known as the “ Peterloo Massacre ”
roused him to the abuses of the time.
In 1830 he, with others, took the contributions of Man-
i0 THOMSON, Presidential Address.
chester to Paris for the relief of the wounded in the Revolution
of July of that year, and to congratulate Louis Philippe on
his election to the throne, and as Chairman of the Reform
League, he arranged public meetings in large towns in favour
of the British Government recognising Louis Philippe, which
influenced it in rejecting the overtures of Russia and Prussia
to make a joint war to restore Charles X. In 1832 he estab-
lished machine-making works at Gamaches, Somme, France:
These were destroyed in the revolution, by which he lost
£126,000. :
He established the Bank of Manchester, which ended in
disaster, and thereby he lost £96,000. He aided in the estab-
lishment of the Manchester Royal Institution and the Man-
chester Mechanics’ Institute.
In conjunction with Edwin \Baxter, John Shuttleworth, J. B.
Smith, M.P., and others, Mr. Dyer took the first step for
founding a newspaper in Manchester to support the cause of
enlightened Liberalism. The Manchester Guardian was the
result, the management, literary and commercial, being in-
trusted tio John Edward Taylor and Jeremiah Garnett. He
was also active in founding the Manchester, Liverpool, and
District Bank, which, falling into better’ hands, was more for-
tunate than the Bank of Manchester In 1839 Mr. Dyer built
Moldeth Hall (now used as a (home for incurables).
Richard Roberts, elected 1823, was a constant attendant at
the Council Meetings of the Society for’ many years. He was
born at Carreghova, in North Wales, 1789, died in London,
1864, aged 75 years. He had exhausted his funds in constant
experiments, and died a poor man. As a youth he worked
in mines and stone quarries and dragged canal boats. Acci-
dent gave him an opportunity, of working with a pole lathe,
and he made for his mother a spinning wheel, a feat so re-
markable for a boy who never was at school, that a sub-
scription was got up for him to give him a tool chest.
He became a member of the great firm of Sharp, Roberts,
and Co., and during his life produced 300 inventions, the best
known being the self-acting mule. He invented the slide lathe,
the slotting machine with automatic motion, and the planing
machine. He constructed the blockade runner “ Flora,” and
other vessels, and at one time| made turret clocks.
He was consulted by Napoleon III. about turret ships, and
the Emperor Nicholas invited him to take up his residence in
St. Petersburg.
Dr. James Prescott Joule, F.R.S., elected a member of the
. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. txtz. (1917) iit
Society 1842, followed Fairbairn as President during 1860 and
1861. He was again elected during 1868-9, 1872-3, and 1878-9.
He was born at Salford, 24th December, 1818; educated by
private tuition. At the age of sixteen he became the pupil of
Dalton in Chemistry and Natural Philosophy. Between 1837
and 1854 he attended closely to the business of his father’s
‘brewery, his leisure being spent in scientific research.
In 1843 he was engaged in the study of the effect of heat on
gases, which proved that the relation between work and heat
is definite and invariable, which he termed “The Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat.” From 1843 to #849 he continued to work
to determine the equivalent with precision, and finally ascer-
tained that one unit of heat, 7.¢., the heat required to raise jone
pound of water through 1° Fahr,, was capable, when converted
into work, of raising 772 lbs. through a ‘distance of one foot.
It has been named “ Joule’s Equivalent,’ and is unquestionably
the most important constant quantity in Molecular Physics, and
has furnished the basis of calculation fior all mechanical energy.
Dr. Edward Schunck, F.R.S., was born in Manchester 1820;
elected 1842; President,1878-9. Acted as Secretary from 1855
till 1860. He did much work in connection with colours, and
gave valuable contributions as regards the green ‘colouring
matter of plants. He demonstrated that the coal tar base,
Anthracene, was chemically closely allied to the Alizarine of
the Madder root, and pointed out that ‘it should be possible
to convert the oneinto thle other. Twenty years later, Graebe
and Liebermann in Germany, and W. H. Perkin in England,
achieved the result by different processes, the patent by the
former being taken out twenty-four hours before the latter in
England. He died at Kersal on 13th January, 1903, aged 83.
Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., elected 1842, became
President 1862-3, again during 1876-7, and, lastly, 1880, till his
death in the following year. He was born at Morton, in
Nottinghamshire, in 1812, and died 19th December, 1881, aged
69. He did much valuable geological work, and was asso-
ciated with Dr. James Young, F.R.S., in the development of the
Paraffin Oil Industry in |Scotland. He contributed 146 papers tto
the Society. He conceived the idea fof enlarging the Society’s
House in George Street, but died before it was carried out.
Nothing: was done until the year 1883, and during this and the
following two years about £2,000 was raised by subscription,
handsome donations having been given by Dr. Henry Wilde,
Sir Henry E. Roscoe, Dr. James Yiooung, F.R.S. (of Glasgow),
Dr Ludwig Mond, F.R.S,, Mr Hi. D. Pochin, Dr. William
Charles Henry, Dr. Angus Smith, Mr. Charles J. Heywood,
12 THOMSON, Prestdentzal Address.
Mr. Andrew Knowles, Dr. Schunck, and others. The improve-
ments consisted in the buildings of Tbraries and other rooms
over the first-floor rooms and! making ‘extensions and improve-
ments at the back and front of the building. Finally, wei are
indebted to the generosity, of ome of our most illustrious
members—Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S., for an ‘endowment of
£8,265, the interest of which is at present employed for the
purposes of the Society.
Dr. Roblert Angus Smith, F.R.S., elected 1845, was Presi-
dent of the Society 1864-5. He was born at Glasgow, 15th
February, 1817, and died at Manchester, 1884, at the age of
67. He was the first chief tnspector under the Alkah Act,
which became, under his judicious administration, a great
success. He was much interested in. tthe impurities of the Man-
chester atmosphere. He wrote in 1881 “A Centenary of
Science in Manchester,” in the prieface of which he says: “
The Literary and Philosophical Society has made Manchester
a scientific centre for a whole century, and has done much tto
dispose it to seek a University and given it a right to demand
one—a right which has been conceded.”
He further remarks a propos of his appeal to the public for
a fund for extending the building; jof the Society’s rooms :—
‘Manchester is rich, but without science’ it will not remain
so.” There are about eighty copies of this work left in the
Society’s possession. It is an exceedingly interesting volume,
some of the members, or lothers, may desire to possess a
copy: such can be obtained through the Secretary.
William Crawford Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., elected 1851,
was President 1884-5. Hea-was born at Scarborough, 24th
November, 1816, and died at 43, Elms Road, Clapham, 23rd
June, 1895, aged 79 years. Professor of Botany at the Owens
College. .
His first paper to the Society was given in 1836, on “ The
Distribution of Organic Remains in the Oolitic Formations on
the Coast of Yorkshire.” , '
Between that date and 1895 he contributed seventy-one
papers to the Society, chiefly on Palzeontology, the most im-
portant being in connection with the fossil-fauna and flora of
the coal measures.
Joseph Baxendell, F.R.S., F.R:A.S., elected’ 1858) the As=
tronomer, of Southport, was Joint Secretary for many years,
from 1861 ito 1873 with Professor Dr. Henry E. Roscoe, and
from 1874 till 1880 with Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxzz. (1917) 13
F.R.S. He was ‘born at Bank 'Top, Manchester woth ;April, 1815;
died at Southport, 7th October, 1887, aged 72.
Miemiche ton Sir Eenry” Et) Roscoe) PC. BA. LED.
F.R.S,, etc., Professor of Chemistry at the Owens College, elected
1858, became President 1882-3. He was born in 1833 at Lon-
don; died 18th December, 1915, aged 82. ' He did much
valuable chemical work, amongst whiich may be mentioned
Spectroscopic Analysis, which he studied junder Bunsen. He
discovered the true atomic weight of Vanadium.
Osborne Reynolds, ‘LL.D., M.A., F.R.S,,; M.Inst.C.E., Pro-
fessor of Engineering at the Owens College, Manchester,
elected 1869, President 1888-9, was one of the Hon. Secre-
taries for many years. Born at Belfast, 23rd ‘August, 1842; died
at Wattchet, Somerset, 21st February, 1912, aged 7o.
He contributed sixty-three Memoirs to the Society, chiefly
on physical phenomena, such as “Various forms of Vortex
Motion,” “The Shattering of a post struck by lightning,” etc.
He showed an interesting experiment suggested by the sand
on the sea shore becoming) excessively wet when standing on
it. He filled an indiarubber bag ‘with wet sand, to which was
attached a tube, and showed that when thle bag was squeezed
the water rushed into! it through the tuble from a glass vessel,
and when the pressure was fremoved the water rushed out.
Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S\,, was elected 1859. He has made
important discoveries and inventions) in the region of elec-
tricity, and has propounded a theory in which he compares the
infinitely minute ions, of which thie atoms of elements are com-
posed, to the sun and planets. The relative figures which he
has calculated between the motions and weights of the infinitely
large, as compared with those which constitute the infinitely
small, are very remarkable, and have certainly opened, a great
field for future thought and speculation, which may in the future
result in the discovery of another great law, like those with
which we associate the names iof Dalton and Joule.
Dr. Angus Smith has published a very important paper,
which, taken .with' that of Dr. Wilde’s, may lead to im-
portant results in connection witth thle atomic theory. It refers
to the relative absorbing power of charcoal for various elemen-
tary and compound gases. Thus he found that charcoal
absorbs eight times the volume of oxygen which it does of
hydrogen, and as the specific gravity of oxygen is sixteen times
greater than hydrogen, it absorbs 16x 8, or 128 times the weight
of hydrogen. With carbon-dioxide it absorbs 22-05 volumes, or
half the molecular weight number in volumes. Here we have
14 THOMSON, Preszdential Address.
fields for new and epochimaking discoveries, and I trust that
in the years to come the Society will be as frujtful in such, as
it has been in the past.
At present there are about 150 members, and it would be
very satisfactory at the present tyme, when Science and scien-
tific investigations have become recognised to’ a ‘much greater
degree than heretofore, that we should induce some of our
leading manufacturers and merchants to support this Society
by becoming members, and so aid in ‘sustajning the vigour of
the lon'g and illustrious career of this historic imstitution.
In this brief sketch of thle progress of the Society, which I
have contrived to give within an hour, 1 have reluctantly found
it necessary to leave out! the names of many eminent men who
were members, who have passed away, as {well as of those who
are still members with us, and who have so greatly helped to
uphold the prestige of the Manchester Literary and gue
Society.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti, (1917) Wo. 1
I. The Specification of Stress. Part V.
By R. F. GwyTHER, M.A.
(Received and read May Sth, 1917.)
ON THE FORMAL SOLUTION OF THE ELASTIC STRESS
EQUATIONS.
There is little gained by introducing the bodily forces, which
will be supposed to be conservative. It is also intended that .“ re-
sistances to acceleration ” should be included among “ forces”’ in
cases of motion and these will be different in different problems.
I shall therefore leave the forces to be supplied as required; in
other words, I omit “ particular integrals,’ and deal with “ com-
plimentary functions” only. Solutions will only be of real
imterest when they are shown to satisfy the surface traction
conditions of a special problem, but the knowledge of a general
formal solution may lead to the solution of particular cases, and
in any case the possibility of such a proceeding is necessary to
my argument.
The set of equations with which I propose to deal are:
2m
3m — 1 a
Vit eae
with two similar equations,
ey pa) wena P+Q+R)=0,
Sy a Ona
with two similar equations . . »~ . . (1),
and Ae Cee aye Oy si Ms OO Ae (oye
We therefore Have, in the first instance,
SPS i x (P+ Q+ #)=6,
Ox
Ope Ye (P+ Q+R)=6,
be ne Bl Ot Ran
HW) (NB
m Ne Ol) a
ae es J (P+ Q+ Rk)=6;,
Peet ax ee @,
2 GwyTHER, Sfecification of Stress.
(Gf PHINEAS 68 en JP de — i
vee = a ” gy eget Ct eee
where Vv ?@=0, &c., (779 — 0, Se" 0 Se
From these we ‘deduce
Pi Oe 4) CELIA ek Sa ONC pe R
Q 371 — 2H ae pe sz J ec)
=O+ 040 ca
I shall suppose tthat all the functions are arranged in homo
geneous groups, and shall proceed with the homogeneous groups
of order 7.
We shall then have
( (7+ 3)m—n)(P+Q+R),=(3m—n)(O+6+W), . (5),
and
V1
6
(r+ 3)m —n . we eee
Osos mM
(7+ 3)m— 2
£,=6,=
r
oe (O+@+W)),,
Te np ENE TDG) Ness Sty
(7+ 3)m—n 82
eye Mt m ( 8 ,» | + oan
oe 2( (7+ 37) — 2) ae me oy Ot ea
gas m eee) +6+W),,
ha 2((r+3)m—m)\ §x * 32 Ot ane
OC, = yw, ies
MM ) )
(7+ 3) — aN + 1S NOtb+W),. (6).
%
oy
The components of the force per unit volume in the direc-
tions of the. axes are found on simplification to become
80/1, SEs 8) 1
(age °(94+6+W),,
6x oy 4
Sb, | OW, 30%,
2((r+3)m—n) 3x
(7+ 3)m 5 (644),
Sy 8x 8s 2((r+3)m—x2) Sy
00, Pt Dig yey ay,,
82 hy BKC (7 +3)m—2) 82
and equated to the proper expression for the particular term in
the expression for the force these give the relations between the
arbitrary functions. We may take
Pn bX Gi = aU rua 67”
av8z 86x Sxdy |
where A, ps, », are arbitrary spherical harmonic functions, and then
express 0, &, ¥ in terms of A, « and »y on the lines of Airy’s solution,
\
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit, (1917) Wo. 1 3
A THEORY OF THE DISPLACEMENTS OF THE MATERIAL BODIES
AS A CONSEQUENCE OF STRESS.
In this final portion of the paper I hope to be able to
explain the proposal I wish to put forward of a method of
treating questions of the stress and displacement in an elastic
body. It has been with the object of justifying a method of
this kind that I have written the several parts of the paper,
but the details of the scheme and its practical application have
developed themselves in the course of the work, and it would
have been better if this latter portion had been ready first.
To ‘explain my proposals, I shall commence with the remark
which is, I think, obvious: That a material body can only be
free from stress between its component particles when each such
particle is moving freely under such system of forces as the
particles are subject to; and that this is the case whether the
body be rigid or yielding.
If a beam is at rest, supported in any mode under gravity,
the material of the beam is in a state of stress, and if the beam
is swinging about an axis under gravity, the material is in a
state of jstress, which in this case varies not only with the position
of the particle considered, but also with the time.
‘My proposal is intended to be applicable to cases of motion
as jwell as to cases of rest. Wie are to deal first’ with the hypo-
thesis of rigidity, and accordingly I shall assume that questions
of the Statics and Dynamics of the rigid biody do not enter into
the present enquiry. In fact, I shall proceed not only as if ‘such
questions were solvable, but as if they had been actually solved.
We will treat the number of elements of a stress as six,
and not nine, and this is undoubtedly the case in the material
stresses of a rigid body. But if the stress is definite, and as
the number of conditions from which it can be deduced are only
three in number, we are entitled to assume that there is some
condition generally affecting the elements of a material stress.
Any such hypothesis must be reasonable, and must find justifi-
cation both on mathematical and physical grounds. The condi-
tion which I shall assume is: That the elements of a material
stress are functions of the first differential co-efficients of some
vector. The physical justification of this hypothesis les in the
superstructure of analysis of stress and strain which has been
developed out of Hooke’s Law, and the general acceptance of
the doctrine by engineers and physicists. The mathematical
justification is put forward below. (Appendix A.)
On this hypothesis it has been shown in Part IV. that six
equations are to be found, giving at any rate to a first approxti-
mation the six elements of Stress, and in the earlier parts jof this
paper it is shown in general terms how they are to be solved.
4 GwyTHER, Specification of Stress.
No complete solution of any special case is given, and the surface
traction conditions have not been considered at all. I may,
however, say that we are in possession of the equations from
which the stresses in a rigid body, whether in a definite state of
motion, or in a definite position of equilibrium, are to be found.
The next step is to introduce Hooke’s Law, which I shall
for the purpose of this paper state as follows :—
In an elastic body the vector, of the first differential
coefficients of which the elements of the stress at a point are
functions, is the displacement of that point.
Accordingly the elements of stress having been found, we
are to determine the displacement from a—S/n; 0—Zijz;
C— Onze
If the body is in motion, the displacement will be a func-
tion of the time as well as of the point, and we may deduce
the velocity and acceleration of the displacement. Whether
the body is at rest or in motion, we may proceed to consider
the displaced or strained condition of the body, and to deduce
corrections for the stresses, and thence again for the displace-
ment, if such procedure were desirable.
The method of procedure here indicated appears to conform
with methods which have proved useful in other fields, and by
deferring the notion of a. displaced position until the first measure
of the stress has been made, and by doing away with the idea
of a “‘natural”’ state of the body in which it is free from stress,
the tendency is in the direction of simplification. The whole
change may be described as consisting (1) of introducing a
general condition as affecting all stresses as preliminary to intro-
ducing’ Hooke’s Law, instead of making it appear to be a
consequence of Hooke’s Law, and (2) of making the stress
equations fundamental instead of putting the displacement equa-
tions in that position.
APPENDIX A.
ON GENERAL STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS.
In the latter part of this series I have pointed out that, in as
much as the displacement is eliminated in forming the stress
‘equations, these equations apply to stresses which have the
weneral character of elastic stresses, although they may not
satisfy the specific requirements. In this section I propose to
examine the results of a hypothesis that the nine elements of
a stress may be functions of the nine first differential coeff-
cients of the components of some vector.
The method I shall employ is one that I have already
made use of in a paper read before the Society,! to which J
venture to refer the reader.
“1 Manchester Memoirs, Vol. ix. (1895), No. 3.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) Wo. 1 5
Briefly, I shall find the results consequent on an infini-
tesimal rotation, components ,, w., w,, of the axes about their
Own positions upon the elements of stress, and upon the first
differential coefficients of an ‘arbitrary vector of components
is ORR
In each case I shall indicate by Q,,0.,Q,, the coefficients of
W,, 5, ,, in the resulting expression of change in any of the
elements, so that Q,,0,,9, will be differential operators acting
on an element.
In the case of the elements off stress, the form of these
operators depends on the laws of resolution of these elements.
In the case of the first differential coefficients of the components
of the ;vector, tthe form depends on the laws of differentiattion.
In one case the argument may be described as mechanical, in
the other case as geometrical.
I shall replace the nine actual differential coefficients by
the letters e, 7, g; a, 6, c; §n, 6 by which we are accustomed
to indicate the elements of strain and the components of rotation.
They may be regarded as virtual elements of strain, etc.
For the present purpose, the interest lies in the operators
and their employment, rather than in the mode of obtaining them.
In the case of the element of stress.
Seas 8 8 8 8 8
Q =25( 8 —*)4 [ps (Gy S| GEL NE IT, Ea sony
i SO 8R ( Os aT SOM nay Skin Ml Rta
In the case of the first differential coefficients.
Ses 3 3 BiG) 8
Q =a(2-2)42 F 1 Shale ene —
; A (s ire BAe Le oa) Uae
and the values of Q., and Q,, can be written down by symmetry.
The similarity of these expressions is well marked, and
would become more so if we write e’ for 2e, 7’ for 27, g’ for 2g.
According to our hypothesis, the elements of stress are to be
functions of the first differential coefficients, and thence, for
example, both P and Ww, are to be solutions of Q,X=0, and
their general values are to be obtained from the eight independent
solutions of
de CUE dg ada CONN AG A CEM ann G
0 a ae ~ 2(g nA aT Ween oe ae
These general values thaving been found, values of other
elements may ble deduced by cyclic interchange. The discrimina-
tion between terms in P and in ae may be made to depend on
such relations as.
0,P= = B50! 2.) = aor 5
by which also the elements #, S, 7, may be found.
6 GwyTHER, Specification of Stress.
If we limit ourselves to the case when the elements of stress
are linear functions of the first differential coefficients, we shall
obtain the elastic stress-strain relations, with the addition of
Ww, =z, WV, =hn, WV, =k.
I do not propose to complete the general solution nor to deal
with invariant and covariant functions generally, nor with the
application to fibrous or crystalline bodies by the employment of
constants related to determinate directions in the body, and on
that account affected by the operators Q,, Q,, Qs.
Instead of dealing with the general solution of the differ-
ential equations containing higher powers of the differential
coefficients, I shall take only one case, that put forward by
Lord Kelvin, dealing with the quadric in the natural state of a
material which becomes a sphere in the strained state.
According to the method of this section the left-hand side of
the equation to this quadric should be a covariant expression.
Writing the expression jas
Ex? + Py? + Ge? 4+ 2Ay2+2Bsx4+ 2Cxy,
the conditions of covariancy as affecting the coefficients are seen
to be that
8 6 8
Oye )+(G-#)S 6 2+ BS
i sF 3G) *' 54 sat 8C
with two similar ‘expressions.
From the formation of the equation of the quadric from
expressions such as
H=(1 a ay,
OY oz
we find
E* = 2¢ +e? +4(b? +07) —(6n -— cf) +? +2,
etc:
A* =a+ }bc+ ha(f+g)+(g—-fyit+ Hen — 02) — 06,
etc.
and we can verify that the condition of covariancy is satisfied,
Now we can form expressions for the elements of stress to
the second degree in the first differential coefficients, which
will also conform jwith the geometrical conditions in the Theory
of Elasticity, by writing
P=3(m—-nj(£+ F+ G)+n£,
ies,
S=nA,
etc.
€
*These expressions are, algebraically, partly of the first order and partly of the
second order, but in estimating them arithmetically it is to be noted that &, », é,
are not necessarily small and may be large.
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) No. 1 7
It is usual to require that the stresses Y,,W,,, are non-
existent; it should, however, be pointed out that if all nine (of :the
elements of stress are existent, we may either express the ‘elements
of stress in terms of first differential coefficients, or vice-versa.
but if the ~wW-stresses are nonexistent, the methods are not
reversible. We can express the remaining six elements of stress
in terms of the nine differential coefficients, but cannot express
the nine different coefficients in terms of the six elements
of stress.
There appears to be two cases to mention. Firstly, that in
which we omit all reference to the rotations £, y, ¢, as well as
to the stresses W,,W,, W,. This would lead to a simplification,
but would find no justification, either on physical or geometrical
grounds. The second remark is that if we confine ourselves to
terms of the first order of differential coefficients, Lamé’s state-
ment of the elastic force takes the form
(m+n) 2 (+ 4 2) — an(S - 2)
ox 6x By 0% OY 83
etc. ;
and that the inclusion of a force due to the elastic w-stress,
would not alter the form of the expressions, although it would
affect the determination of the values of the constants.
It is also worth while to note that no reasons are given for
excludin'g the y-portions of the stresses from the tractions which
can ‘be applied to the surface of the body under consideration.
The grounds for omitting these portions of the stresses are that
the body would be unable to sustain the elemental couple which
would act throughout the body as a mathematical consequence
of such stress components. In other words, that fracture would
result or in some way the ordinary mathematical methods would
become inapplicable.
APPENDIX B.
ON THE FORMATION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS.
If we follow Newton’s statement of the Laws of Motion, the
formation of the equations fall into two parts—the estimate of the
forces causing a rate of change of momentum, and the expression
in proper terms of the corresponding rate of change of
- momentum.
In the case of changes of internal momentum, due to
tractions exerted on the surface of a portion of a material
body, we need to make preliminary assumptions:—that the
ordinary mathematical processes, such as those of differ-
entiation and integration apply to the problems, and also
that the conditions applicable to special theorems, such as
Green’s Transformation, may be freely made use of. The
——
8 GwyTHER, Specification of Stress.
Transformation from surface integrals to volume integrals, which
is the basis of the theorem connected with Green’s name, may be
looked upon as the mathematical correlative to Faraday’s con-
ception of a Field of Force, and I propose to make use of the
Transformation in that sense in the paragraphs which follow.
I shall regard the “body” as made up of particles which are
possessed of a molecular structure, in consequence of which the
particle may be supposed to possess an internal angular
momentum, which we may figure to be lof a gyrositatic type, and
that this angular momentum is capable of variation by a suitable -
couple. I shall also suppose that a closed surface can be drawn
in the body, which can move so that no mass is carried across this
surface, either from within outward, or from the outside inwards.
I shall assume that the ordinary processes of mathematics, and
the conditions for the employment of Green’s Transformation
apply to the case.
Taking /, m, as the direction-cosines of a normal to
the surface measured outwards, and using | aS and a Veto
denote integration over the closed surface, and over the in-
cluded volume respectively, we shall have relations such as:
I. The rate of change of momentum in the direction of the axis
of « of the matter ,within the surface
= [(t+ Um+ In-V,m+Vn)d S$
II. The rate of change of angular momentum about the axis
of x
=the moment of the rate of change of linear momentum
about the axis of x
+fav
The usual method of supposing the surface to be indefi-
nitely contracted only serves to hide the fact that an assumption —
has to be made at this stage. I propose to formulate an
assumption that the body is made up if particles as already
described, and that the particles are in a field of stress, the
elements of stress at any particle being a function of {the co-
ordinates of that particle, and that the force acting on that.
particle! is ‘the force resulting from such a distribution or field
of stress.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxiz, (1917) Vo. 1 9
On this assumption we replace I. and II. by
I. The rate of change of the momentum of the particle of co-
ordinates x, y, z, in the direction of the axis of «
BP, 8U oT oy Vy
OAM OY ts 2 ek Oy) 83 7
and
II. The particle possesses an finternal angular momentum, of
which the rate of change about the axis of x=W,.
The w-elements of stress will no doubt generally be null,
but I have retained them, as it is possible that they may play
a part in a theory of fracture or of permanent set.
The question of the mathematical expressions for the
momentum and rate of change of momentum of the particle
depends upon the amount and character of the degree of free-
dom which the particle is to enjoy.
If the particle is to be unrestrained in its freedom to move,
and is only influenced by the forces arising from the field of
stress 1n which it finds itself, we may suppose that the position
of the particle at any time is a function of the three quantities
which determined its position at some epoch, and of the time
elapsed since that epoch. If we take the mass of the particle
ito ‘ble invariable, the expression for the rate of change of
momentum is known. Under this head comes the case of fluid
motion, and the propagation of a small disturbance, but not any
case of molar motion !n which any finite portyon of the material
suffers a change of position approximately comparable with a
rigid motion of that portion.
Passing to the other extreme, we may take axes in motion
such that the origin has the velocity w,, v, w, and the axes
have angular velocities w,, w,, w, about their own positions
in space. If then the velocity of ieach particle in the directions
of the lines in space occupied by the axes 1s given by
uU,— WV + WyS
D5 — WS + WX
W, — WX + WV
where w,...w,... are functions of ¢ only, we can. deduce
the rate of change of the particle’s momentum. On integration
over the. whole of a body we might deduce the whole of Rigid
Dynamics. In the motion of a rigid body {the parts of the body
are subject to stresses, which are not elastic stresses; these
stresses have no wW-element, and they are no doubt quite
(definite, but they are not defined by the rates of change of
momentum of the constituent particles. Between the two ex-
treme cases we ‘have mentioned, there exists a wide range of
10 GwyTHER, Specification of Stress.
possible cases, but the conditions with which I propose to deal
approximate in general character, though not in detail, to the
case of rest and motion of a ngid body, and mly object is to
consider the points of difference.
I shall therefore assume that the components of the velo-
city of a particle may be written
U=u,-w0,V+o,2+4u,
V=9,-0,3 +0.x +0,
W=w,- WX + W,V + WwW ,
where x, y, z are the coordinates of a particle, that uw, v, w,;
W,. Wy, w, are functions of ¢ only, and that uw, v, w are func
tions of x, y, Zz, and):7.
We shall have
OY ae Gwe, 2
ox Ox
QUO Oe GUC, §
and
PRT ANGE = AO), sre NS
oy 02 bv 8S
‘and it will be assumed that the spacedifferential coefficients
of uw, v, ware small.
Then on differentiation we shall find that the rate of ‘change
ae |
Gy 7 SO
ot ox 6%
in and similarly for the rates change of V and W.« Each of
these expressions consist of three parts;
1. A part independent of uw, v, w.
2. A part containing elements from uw, v, w, and w,, w,, w,
3. A part containing elements from zw, v, w only.
If the particles of a body are either constrained to move
or restrained from free motion, they are subject to some force,
and are in a state of stress. This is the case when a beam is
supported so as to prevent freedom of ‘each particle of the beam
to fall under gravity, as well as fin cases of motion, even. when
the material is supposed to be rigid) We may suppose the
number of felements of the stress to be six, and that we have
not enough conditions drawn from the laws of motion ta deter-
mine these elements.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) No. 1. | II
If we suppose that the elements of stress are such functions
of an arbitrary vector as I have proposed, we reduce the number
of arbitrary elements to three. I am now able to sketch an
outline of my proposal of dealing with questions of materia]
Stresses.
Consider the case of a body in motion. I shall first regard
the body as rigid, and suppose that the problem is solved -on
that basis, and that w,,v,, w,, w,. w,, w, are determined.
Then consider such equations as
m(uU, — UW. + Ww, — W.-Y + w,Z)
—(w,? +, )x + 0,0, V + W,0.3)
= ous oO a. _
Se ray itl lee
These equations are to be treated as the statical stress
equations have been treated, the reversed effective forces being
included as “ forces,’ and thle corresponding values of the
elements of stress determined as above.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xt. (1917), No. 2
II. Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals.
By D. WARD CUTLER, M.A. (Cantab)
Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator en Zoology in the Victoria University
of Manchester.
7
Parthenogenesis, the production of an organism from an egg
which has not been previously fertilised by the male element or
caused to develop by artificial means, is of common occurrence
in the animal kingdom, though, as will be seen, confined to but
few of its great divisions.
This phenomenon has been long known, but until recently Avas
not regarded as of much importance in relation to general
biological problems. The cytological discoveries and the work
that has been done on the problem of the cause’ of sex has, how-
ever, brought into prominence the importance of parthenogenesis.
In 1906, a paper on the cytological aspect of parthenogenesis
in Insects was published by Hewitt in the Memoirs, of this Society, in
which he reviewed the principal work that had been done up to that time.
Since then the number of publications have increased enormously,
and some of the conclusions recorded in Hewitt’s paper have
proved to be erroneous. I feel, therefore, that it may be of use
to bring together some of the most important results which have
been obtained by recent workers, and to indicate their bearing
upon a few general biological problems. Passing in review the
principal divisions of the animal kingdom in which partheno-.
genesis is known to occur, it is found that the Arthropoda afford
by far the most numerous examples. Among the Crustacea, most
of the Cladocera and very many of the Ostracoda are capable of
producing parthenogenetic eggs, and in almost all the groups of
Insects some examples can be found. Outside the Arthropoda
many of the Nematoda habitually reproduce by this method and
in other invertebrate groups a few cases can be cited.
In order, however, to obtain a clear understanding of much
that follows in the paper it is necessary to realise that the sex of
the animal produced by parthenogenesis is not always the same,
and that the interpolation of this method of reproduction causes
complicated hfe cycles to occur.
2 CuTLER, Parthenogenests in Animals
LIFE HISTORIES AND PARTHENOGENEBSIS.
Cladocera.—In the Spring females are produced from eggs
that have remained dormant during the Winter. These lay par-
thenogenetic eggs through the Summer from which other females
hatch, so that a large number of generations are produced. As
Autumn approaches, however, males appear parthenogenetically,
which fertilise the females. The fertilised eggs are larger and
have a thicker coat than the Summer eggs. These so-called
Winter eggs remain dormant during the cold months and give
rise to females the following Spring.
The life history of the Ostracoda is similar to the above except
that in some species parthenogenesis may continue ahens in-
definitely.
Rotifera.—A cycle, analogous to that already described,
occurs here. In Hydatina senta the Winter egg gives rise to a
female which lays eggs parthenogenetically. From these females
hatch which reproduce in the same way; at certain times, how-
ever, a second typie of female occurs capable of producing two
kinds of eggs. If males are present fertilisation takes place and
a Winter egg is produced. If males are not present, eggs are
laid from which males appear parthenogenetically.
Aphid@.— Here again the majority of the species pass through
the Winter as resting eggs, produced tin the Autumn by a female
which has been fertilised. From these resting eggs females are
hatched, the stem mothers, which lay large numbers of eggs
developing parthenogenetically into other females Dhe Ystem
mothers are wingless, as are also, in many species, the first few
_ generations of females which hatch from the eggs she has laid.
At certain seasons, however, winged migrants are produced which
pass to other plants. Toward the end of the year these migrant
females lay parthenogenetic eggs from which wingless males and
sexual females appear. Fertilisation takes place and the resting
Winter egg produced. Slight modifications of this generalised
account occur, as for example among the Chermes, the aphids
living on conifers, but the main outlines are preserved in all the
species.
Cynipide.
acter is the production of many parthenogenetic generations be-
fore the sexual forms are produced. '
A more simple life history is to be found among some of the
Hymenoptera, as in the Cynipidz or gall-fly family. Here, in many
species, there is a regular alternation of generations. Some-
times the galls produced by one generation are entirely different
from one another in appearance, as are also the insects pro-
ducing them; this occurs in Neuroterus lenticularis, whose life
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt. (1917), No. 2 3
history I will briefly describe, and which thas been extensively
worked upon by Doncaster.
In the Spring, from a fertilised Winter egg parthenogenetic
females arise and lay their eggs in oak buds. From these eggs
males and females, the sexual generation, appear in the Summer.
Copulation takes place and the fertilised female: lays her eggs fin
the tissue of young oak leaves. From fhese eggs the asexual
generation will appear in the following Spring.
The life cycle summarised above does not, however, appear in
all the species of Cynipide. In Rhodites rose, for instance,
parthenogenesis appears to continue almost indefinitely as the
number of males produced is remarkably few. This condition of
things is also found in some of the Phasmidz, and many of the
Nematoda.
_ Bees and Wasps.—As is ‘well known, the eggs which are
fertilised give rise to the queens and workers, that is to females,
for the workers are but females imperfectly developed, while the
unfertilised or parthenogenetic eggs usually give rise to males;
a few authentic cases are known, however, where workers have
laid eggs not fertilised, from which females have hatched.
Tenthredinide (Sawflies)—Here we get the same female
producing parthenogenetic eggs and those which require fertilisa-
tion. In some species from the former kind males are produced,
in others females; while some sawflies are entirely bisexual.
Lepidoptera.—These insects offer many examples of par-
thenogenesis. which may be called accidental. In the silkworm
(Bombyx mori) and in.Lymantria dispar two or three con-
secutive generations have been obtained without fertilisation
occurring, males and females being produced from the virgin
eggs. Moreover, in the Psychidze parthenogenesis is a normal
phenomenon resulting in temale offspring.
Summarising what has been given above, we can divide par-
thenogenesis into three groups.
1. Accidental, where the normal mode of reproduction is the
sexual one: parthenogenesis only occasionally taking place, é'.g.,
Bombyx mori.
2. Facultative, where the same egg may or may not be fertt-
hsed, e.g., ants, bees and wasps.
3. Obligative, where the eggs ‘are not capable of being ferti-
lised because of the absence of males, é.g., Aphids, Cladocera, etc.
It is of great interest to note at this stage that in all the cases
mentioned fertilisation produces a female, but the partheno-
genetic eggs may produce males or females.
A) x CuTLER Parthenogenests in Animais
EXTERNAL FACTORS AS THE CAUSE OF PARTHENOGENESIS
A great deal of work has been done in trying to ascertain
whether or not the jexternal conditions play the largest part in
causing the change from the parthenogenetic mode of reproduc-
tion to that of the sexual one. Kurz in 1874 showed that if the
water in which Daphnia were living was slowly evaporated
sexual forms appeared, and it was suggested that the increased
concentration of the salts {was responsible for the change. In
1905 a paper appeared by Issakowitsch, showing that starvation ©
and low temperature were ‘wholly responsible for the changed
mode of reproduction. The view that external conditions were
not the sole agents in the production of this change was advo-
cated by Weissman in 1875. His conclusion was that the animals
were so constituted by natural selection that they tend spon-
taneously to reproduce sexually in the appropriate season; and
that they so do to a large degree irrespective of the external
conditions. Thus, according to this observer, the change from
parthenogenesis to sexual reproduction is an inherited character.
A more recent worker takes an intermediate view; thus, accord-
ing to Papanicolau, the ‘external and internal conditions act
together in the production ‘of males and sexual females. He.
recognises three periods:
1. Purely parthenogenetic period comprising the first few
generations.
2. Transition period, when warmth fnduces parthenogenesis
and cold sexual reproduction.
3. Late period, when the females are sexual and no external
_ conditions can cause them to become parthenogenetic.
Agar, however, does not entirely agree with the above con-
clusions. From work done on Simocephalus vetulus, he says
that there is no justification for stating that sexual forms appear
after a certain number of generations have elapsed since the
last fertilised egg; and that the onset of sexuality is influenced
by environmental factors. It thas long been known that among
the Aphids during the Summer months reproduction is entirely
parthenogenetic, and it was Generally assumed that the cold of
the later months caused the appearance of sexual forms. Kyber
in 1851 experimented on the rose aphid (Aphis rose). By keeping
the animals in a warm chamber he was able to extend the par-
thenogenetic cycle for four years. [Identical results were also
obtained by Slingerland in 1893. | Comparatively little exper-
mental work has been done in this group, but ‘t is clear that
external agents do have some influence on the life cycle of some
species of Aphids.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xii. (1917), Vo. 2 5
In Hydatina senta there are two kinds of females, those which
parthenogenetically produce other females with a similar method
of reproduction, and females ‘which produce males in the same
way. These females are also capable of being fertilised. The prob-
lem is to discover what are fhe factors concerned with the
appearance of these various forms. i
Maupas connected the variation with differences in tempera-
ture, and Nussbaum with variations in nutrition, but the results
they obtained were not very conclusive. Punnett worked on a
strain which had proved to be entirely female producing and
subjected it to temperature variations. The rate of reproduc-
tion was reduced, but no male-producing females developed. The
same result was obtained by feeding experiments. He therefore
concluded that temperature and nutrition have no effect on male
production and that it is the property of certain females to
produce male-producing females in a definite ratio; and also
that the differences between tthe females were due to variations
in the character of the gametes which united to form the resting
egg from which each strain sprang.
Recently extensive experiments have been made by two
American zoologists, Whitney and ‘Shull. Shull in 1910 came to
the conclusion that neither temperature nor starvation had any
effect, but that the chemical content of the water in which the
animals lived was the decisive agent in the production of males.
A solution of horse manure was sufficient entirely to prevent
the appearance of males, and identical results were obtained
after the solution had been boiled or dried and redissolved. The
substance in the solution which effected the result was found also
to be insoluble in ether or absolute alcohol.
The alkalinity of the water was also tested. A solution of
— NaOH was diluted with ten times its own volume of spring
10
water, which was slightly alkaline: a second solution of the same
substance was also diluted with forty times its own volume. The
result of the experiment, controls being used the whole time, was
that the greater the alkalinity the fewer males were produced.
This lowering in the number of males was also observed with a
weak solution of urea.
Solutions of ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate, and
ammonium hydroxide in the strength of a all caused the pro-
500
portion of males to be reduced] to one half the normal number.
A further paper was published by Shull and Ladoff in 1916,
in which it was shown that ee in the water increased male
production.
6 CutLer, Parthenogenesis in Animals
At about the same time Whitney was working at this problem
with five species of Rotifers: Hydatina senta, Brachionus pala,
Diaschiza iterea, Diglena catellena, and Pedalion mirium. If the
parthenogenetic females of Hydatina senta, Diaschiza iterea, and
Diglena catellena are fed on a Polytoma diet female-producing
daughters are exclusively developed; if these females are, how-
ever, transferred to a diet of Chlamydomonas they produced 80 per
cent. or more male-producing ‘daughters. A scanty diet of green
flagellates favoured the production of female-producing females
in the other two species of Rotifers, while a superabundance of
the same diet caused high male production.
From these experiments the conclusion was drawn that the
change of diet was the external agent for the production jof males
and females. However, as Shull has remarked, the increase in
the production of males when the diet was a Chlamydomonas one
may be explained by the increased oxygen which is produced by
photosynthesis; this assumption is ‘also borne out by the experi-
ments of feeding scantily or abundantly with cultures of green
flagellates. This explanation is, however, not entirely satisfactory,
for when green alge, which were too large to be eaten, but
which would produce oxygen, ‘were put into the water in which
the animals were living, the result was negative. Thus it 1s prob-
able that nutrition has some effect, but to what extent is not defi-
nitely ascertained.
INTERNAL FACTORS AS OPERATIVE AGENTS.
As already mentioned, Punnett came to the conclusion that the
whole problem could be solved on the basis of heredity, and that
internal agents and not external ones were the operative factors.
This conclusion was tested by Shull. Two pure lines were
obtained, one from Baltimore, the other from New York; the
external conditions were as far as possible rigorously kept
constant. From the former the .proportion of males hatched was
II-I per cent., from the latter 18-5 per cent., and these propor-
tlons were found to be constant. Males and females from_ the
two pure lines were crossed, and the resulting lines had in every
case a higher proportion of male-producing females. On cross-
ing one of these hybrids back with either of the original parents,
the offspring gave rise ito pure! lines with a proportion of males
intermediate between those of the two parent lines. Further, it
was shown that with long-continued parthenogenesis the per-
centage of male production was reduced. Punnett’s conclusion
was not, however, entirely justified, for it was possible to alter
the constant ratio of male-producing females by changing the
external conditions. Thus the F, generation, which yielded more
male-producing females than its parents, was caused to produce
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. (xit. (1917), (Vo. 2 7
less by placing the animals in beef extract, which had previously
been shown to act as a deterrent to male production.
A very interesting result of the experiments was the demon-
stration that there are definite male and female-producing females,
and that the same female does not give rise to both male and
female-producing daughters. Whether a female is to be a male-
producer or a female-producer is decided during the growth
period of the parthenogenetic egg from which) it is hatched.
Thus “sex is determined a generation in advance.” It appears
evident that both external and internal agents are at work in the
change from parthenogenesis to sexual reproduction. These
internal agents are probably capable of causing the appearance
of males without any outside aid; indeed the evidence goes to
prove that when external agents, with few exceptions, operate
male production is prevented or diminished.
It is possible that some external stimulus may modify the
normal course of events in the internal economy of the egg. The
discovery that oxygen increases male-production indicates that
the cause may be attributed to an increased speed of reaction in
the protoplasm. There is evidence also that the chromosome
number is different in the two types of egg, and that the method
of maturation is also ‘different. It is possible therefore that the
external agents may so act on the egg as to cause the‘appearance
of one or other mode of maturation, also, as we shall see later,
there is evidence that in the Aphids the external and internal
factors act together im the production of males and sexual
females.
CYTOLOGICAL ASPECT.
As is well known, during the maturation divisions of the germ
calls of sexual female and male animals, the somatic number of
_chromosomes is reduced to one half; and thus when fertilisation
occurs the somatic number is again obtained.
From the researches of numerous cytologists during recent
years it has been demonstrated, that in some species the males
produce two kinds of spermatozoa, which differ one from the other
in the number of chromosomes, one type possessing one or more
than the other. The eggs are all alike in having an equal
number. These chromosomes are also in many cases charac-
terised by differing in shape and size from the others, and are
known as X-chromosomes or sex ‘chromosomes. Thus if 2n
represents the somatic chromosome humber, omitting the sex
ones, the female will possess 2n-+ 2X), and the male 2n-+ X.
After maturation divisions all the ova will have n-+ X chromo-
somes, while the sperms will be of two types:
(1) n-- X chromosomes ;
(2) n chromosomes.
8 | CuTLER, Parthenogenesis 1n Animals
Sperms of the second type fertilising an ovum will produce
‘males, while those of the first type will form females.
In passing, it is worth mentioning that from the inheritance of
sex limited characters there is reason to think that in a few
animals, Lepidoptera and Birds, the reverse is the case and the
female has two kinds of eggs. Cytological investigation has
largely confirmed this view.
In light of these facts it is of considerable importance to dis-
cover what occurs in the maturation of parthenogenetic eggs.
The question as to whether the chromosomes are reduced in
number at the maturation divisions of the parthenogenetic egg
is full of interest, and, as will be seen, in those eggs in which
reduction does occur, modifications have developed to ensure that
the normal number is reformed in subsequent generations.
Ostracoda and Cladocera.—The parthenogenetic eggs of the
Ostracoda have only one maturation division, which is equational,
so that the number of chromosomes is not reduced.
Weissmann, in 1886, showed that the parthenogenetic eggs
of Polyphemus produced only a single polar body and that:
the chromosome number was not altered.. Kuhn investigated
the parthenogenetic eggs of Daphnia pulex and Polyphemus
pediculus and arrived at the same conclusions. The cytological
aspect of male production in these forms has not been in-
vestigated.
Branchiopoda:—Von. Brauer (1893) as a result of research
on Artemia salina announced that there were two types of par-
thenogenesis occurring in the same animal. In the first and
most common the chromosome number was not reduced and
only one polar body was formed. In the second type, however,
both polar bodies were developed, and during the formation of
the second the chromosome number was halved. This second
polar body, however, instead of passing to the exterior of the
egg and degenerating remained in the egg and gave rise to a
reticular nucleus, which fused with the female pronucleus. Thus
there was fertilisation by the second polar body.
Petrunkewitsch (1902) reinvestigated the subject, but was
unable to find any trace jof the second type of parthenogenesis.
He therefore concluded that it was due to a pathological con-
dition and was not a natural one. , This was in the main the
conclusion of Fries (1909).
Finally, in 1911 and 1912, two papers appeared by Artom in
which it was stated that there were two races of Artemia, a
parthenogenetic one and a sexual. The former differs from the
latter in possessing a double number of chromosomes. The par-
thenogenetic race (Artemia bivalens) develops with the diploid
Se 5
: =
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xit. (1917), Wo. 2 9
number of chromosomes, while the ‘eggs of the sexual race
(Artemia univalens) maturate in the usual manner.
It thus appears highly improbable that Brauer’s account is
correct.
Ants, Bees, VWWasps.—Petrunkewitsch (1901) studied the matu-
ration divisions of the unfertilised eggs which give rise to the
male Honey bee, and showed that two polar bodies are pro-
duced, the first division being the reductive one. He further
asserted that after the production of the polar bodies the inner
half of the first polar nucleus fused with the second polar nucleus
to form a single one. The female pronucleus migrated inwards
and the outer half of the first polar body degenerated. The
nucleus formed by the fusion of portions of the polar bodies gave
rise to the male germ cells by subsequent divisions.
The number of chromosomes in the original nucleus before
maturation was sixteen, after the formation of the polar bodies each
nucleus had eight chromosomes, and the original number was
reformed in the male germ cells by the fusion of the products of
maturation. As the somatic cells are developed from the female
pronucleus, which contained only eight chromosomes, the normal
number, sixteen, was produced by a further division of the
chromosomes, which on this occasion did not separate from one
another. }
This somewhat fantastic hypothesis was not disputed until
1904, when Meves published a short note, followed by more
detailed work in 1907.
Meves attacked the problem by studying the maturation of
the germ cells of the male bee. He first showed that the number
of chromosomes in the queen bee is thirty-two, and not sixteen,
as Petrunkewitsch supposed. The spermatogonial cells of the
male contain sixteen chromosomes, that is, half the normal
number. At the first maturation division the chromosomes appear
as eight long double rods, which shorten and thicken; the result
of division is not two cells, each with eight chromosomes, but
one large cell containing eight double chromosomes and a small
enucleate bud at the top of thle spermatocyte.
At the second division the chromosomes divide equationally,
but instead of forming two functional cells, which will develop
into spermatids, only one functional cell with eight double
chromosomes is produced and the other cedi degenerates. Thus,
as a result of maturation, only one spermatozoa instead of four
is developed from each spermatogonium.
In 1908 Meves published the result of investigations on the
Hornet. Here the first spermatocyte division is similar to that
of the bee, but the second division, on the other hand, results
Io CuTLerR, Farthenogenesis in Animats
in the production of two daughter cells, each of which develops
into a spermatozoa, and each containing the reduced number of
chromosomes.
In these insects therefore we have the peculiar feature that
the male passes the whole of its existence with half the normal
number of chromosomes in the germ cells. The difficulty of how
such an animal can at fertilisation restore the normal number to
the egg is overcome by the suppression of the reductive division
in the maturation of the male germ cells. In the somatic cells
the chromosomes may divide to form 32 or 64.
Nachtsheim (1913) reinvestigated the whole subject with great
care, and has in the main confirmed the conclusions arrived
at by Meves. In both fertilised and parthenogenetic eggs the
maturation divisions are the same. The innermost group of the
first polar body fuses with the second polar body to form the
‘“ richtungskopulationkern ;” while the outermost part of the)
first polar body degenerates. This “ richtungskopulationkern ”
is formed in all eggs, but it soon degenerates and gives rise to no
part of the insect, as Petrunkewitsch asserted.
The whole process is rendered clear by reference to the table,
which is modified from the one given by Nachtsheim. (Diagram A.)
Exactly comparable results have been obtained by other.
observers in Osmia cornuta, .Xylocopa violarea, and in a few
species of ants.
The question as to the way in which the sexes are produced
on the basis of sex chromosomes is also discussed by this author.
He assumes that of the female chromosomes thirty are somatic
and two sex chromosomes (30+ 2X). At maturation reduction
occurs, giving a nuclead complex 15-+ xX, thus the unfertilised
egg will develop into a male. During spermatogenesis no reduc-
tion takes place and all the chromosomes divide, so that all the
spermatozoa possess 15 + X chromosomes; thus fertilisation will
always result in the production of females.
Rotijera.—The maturation of the parthenogenetic eggs of
Hydatina senta is similar, as regards male formation, to that
described above. According to Whitney, the parthenogenetic
eggs which will give rise tto females have only one maturation
division, and thus only one polar body is produced and the
chromosome number is not halved. In.the eggs which will give
rise to males, however, the two polar bodies are formed and the
chromosomes reduced; this also occurs in the maturation of the
winter egg.
We are, unfortunately, ignorant of the spermatogenesis of
Hydatina, and therefore do not know whether the sperms are
all ake or whether there are two classes produced, one forming
a
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12 Cutler, Parthenogenesis in Animals
on fertilisation, eggs from which female-producing females hatch,
the other male-producing females.
Aphide.—This group of insects has been worked upon a
great deal by American cytologists. Morgan has investigated
with much care the Phylloxera and a fairly complete account
of the life history from a cytological standpoint is known.
In P. fallax there is a single stem mother which lays par-
thenogenetic eggs, and from these develop wingless female in-
sects. These females produce large eggs from which sexual
females appear, and small eggs producing males. Fertilisation
occurs, and from the eggs laid the stem mother of the follow-
ing Spring hatches.
The stem mother has twelve chromosomes, four of which
are sex ones. The parthenogenetic eggs which this female lays
_ also differ in their mode of maturation. From the sexual female-
producing eggs one polar body is extruded and there is no
reduction in chromosomes; the male-producing eggs also form
one polar body, but the four sex chromosomes pair and two
pass into the polar body to (be thrust out of the egg, leaving
ten chromosomes (8 + 2X) in the female pronucleus. The males
thus possess ten chromosomes and the sexual females twelve
(8-+-4X). At spermatogenesis the eight somatic chromosomes
pair and four pass to each pole of the spindle, the 2X chromo-
somes also pair but do mot separate, and both pass to one pole.
In this way two classes of spermatids are produced, one with &ix
chromosomes (4-+ 2X), the other with four; this latter degen-
erates, so that all spermatozoa contain six chromosomes.
.The maturation of the eggs of the sexual females is of the
normal type, so that when fertilisation takes place the original
chromosome number is restored to the egg, which gives rise to
the next stem mother. (Diagram B.)
A second species, P. caryzcaulis, is of interest because it has
been demonstrated that there are two types of stem mothers;
one kind which produces nothing but sexual females, and the
other from whose eggs only males develop.
In this species there are eight chromosomes, including four
sex ones. The general scheme of the chromosome cycle in the
several generations is like that for P. fallax; there are, how-
ever, slight differences in the sex chromosomes, two of them
being large and two small. In the males also the two
small chromosomes slightly differ one from the other. Adopt-
ing Morgan’s notation, we may designate the large chromosomes
by X and the small ones by x; the ‘differences in the male being
denoted by priming one of the xs.
13
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917), No. 2
"Iy. K JO UOTONpsy | |
‘XE][V} eroxoT[Ayd Jo afoAo of] JO suIaYyOS
Jay}JOUI wWa}S
"1yo V ayo xz7~+P ayo xz-+7
ullods o}e1aueseq uwiteds 337
| uonoNpey
wosonpeut| Sas | |
‘IYO X2-+ 8 ‘Ayo XV + 8
uolonpal ON
‘1yo xb-t g ‘Iyo XV +8
Jgonpoid oyeut “‘yieg Jaonpoid sfeuley “YlIEg
ey ee
ays KV =- 8
IIYIOU UII1S
uononpel oN
ae o[eulsf [enxaS
‘qd Wvaovid
r4 Cuter, Parthenogenesis in Animals
At the maturation of the eggs, which will give rise to the male,
the two large chromosomes pair, as do also the small ones. It
will be seen from the accompanying Diagram C, that two types of
males will be produced giving ries to two kinds of spermatozoa,
one containing Xx, the other Xv’. If the former fertilises the
eggs the resulting stem mother will be a _ female-producer
(XXxx), if the latter, there will be formed a male-producing
stem mother (XXxx’).
At about the same date Morgan investigated the Aphid of
the Bearberry. This insect, Phyllaphis corveni Cockerelli forms
galls ion the leaves of the plant, and in each’ gall there is a
single stem mother and her progeny. There are males and
sexual females together with females which are parthenogenetic.
The eggs of these latter all contain six chromosomes. The
spermatogenesis of the male is very similar to that of the
Phylloxera, but the spermatogonial cells only contain five
chromosomes. Of these five chromosomes four pair together at
synapsis, so that three chromatin clumps are formed, two of which are
composed of paired somatic chromosomes, the third being the
unpaired sex chromosome. At spermatogenesis the somatic
chromosomes separate, but the sex chromosome passes undivided
to one pole of the spindle. Thus two cells are formed, one with
three chromosomes, the other with two: this latter degenerates.
Von Baehr and Stevens as the result of work done on Aphis
soliceti and seven other species confirmed the above result.
It seems to be clear that in the Phylloxerae and Aphide the
loss of one or more chromosomes from the egg is intimately
connected with male production. That the absence of the sex
chromosome is not the ultimate cause of male production is
obvious, since it is determined in some way that certain oses
shall extrude the chromosomes and others not do so.
This has been noticed by Doncaster in his paper, “ Cheon.
somes, Heredity and Sex,” in which is ithe following sentence:
“But this cannot logically be regarded as ‘a proof that the
presence or absence of X 1s not the cause of femaleness or
maleness; it only means that some factor is present which
decides whether X shall be extruded or not.”
This factor may very well be environmental change, which
acts on the protoplasm of the egg in a way somewhat similar to
that suggested for the eggs of Hydatina senta.
Cynipide.—The cytology of the eggs of Neuroterus lenti-
cularis has been worked out fully by Doncaster. As I have
already mentioned, the life cycle of this insect exhibits a con-
stant alternation of bisexual and parthenogenetic generations.
In the Spring parthenogenetic females hatch from the Winter
Sons ~—
LS
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxiz. (1917), No. 2
‘synvoewdivo vioxo[[Ayq Jo Atoysty ofiT Fo swWaYyIS
xX + 2 XX + 2
‘Ty adky waeds +7 adAy, waads,
uoljonpoy
Poe OC ae
Tal (= ae "Th a ew
4yo X ae
jo sete | ve
P9°@:9 Cams
asonpoid oyew ‘yyIeg
3 XXEX + V
‘TIT addy, sayO; WAS
XX + 2
337
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ayewiey Tenxas |
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XXXK +P
uolonpel ON
toonpoid s[vuley ‘yeg
Luolonpert ON
|
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‘) WVYOVIC
16 CuTLer, Parthenogenesis in Antmals
eggs and give rise to sexual females and males, which constitute
the Summer brood. The Spring generation is also peculiar mm
that two kinds of females are produced, from the one kind, eggs
are laid from which only males develop, from the other type
only sexual females.
The somatic number of chromosomes is twenty m both the
Spring and Summer generations. One of the points of interest
is that the two types of females of the Spring brood differ in
regard to the method of maturation of the eggs.
In the female-producing eggs no maturation divisions occur,
and the chromosome number is not reduced. thus there are
twenty chromosomes in the female pronucleus.
In the male-producing eggs. however, two maturation divisions
take place and the chromosomes are reduced io ten.
Here then we have a condition which parallels what occurs
in the formation of the drone Dee.
Spermatogenesis is also sumilar to that of the bee. The sper
Matogonia contain ten chromosomes, Dut there is no reduction of
chromosomes. The first division gives Mise, as in the Dee, to an
enucleate bud of protoplasm and a functional spermatocyte with
ten chromosomes. At the second maturation the chromosomes
divide and there are formed two spermatids, each- with ten
chromosomes.
During oogenesis two maturation divisions take place, one
of them reductive; in this way four groups of chromosomes are
formed, of which the three outer form polar nuclei and the
innermost, with ten chromosomes, the female pronucleus. The
accompanying scheme illusiraies the essential phases of the hfe
history. (Diagram D.)
A pomit which sill remains doubdiful is what determines
whether the Spring females shall be male-producing or female
producing. This was the subject of an imvestgation ae
Doncaster and I undertook Ii was hoped that t% might
possible io show that there were two Classes of eae
formed, but this expectation was not realised. At present if is
impossible to indicate with ceriainty what constitutes the differ
ence between these two classes of parthenogenetic females.
Rhodites rose—Males are very rare in this speces. In
fact, Schlep, a recent worker, found none during the course
of his experiments; on rare occasions, however, they are said to
occur.
Henking (1892) stated that the somatic number of chromo
somes was eighteen, which were reduced to nine m the eggs
before maturation. The maturation division of the eggs was
17
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt. (1917), No. 2
‘SUETMOYUS] SNAOJOINEN JO ALOSTY aI] JO 9uTITOS
‘Iyo O1 “IYO O1
vozoyeutisds 337
“Iyo Oo ‘Iyo O1
uoHONpIy
pnq santoqy 93A400;euI10dg
| |
uononpel ON |
“Iyo O1 “IYO Of
OPIN “oTeuUldy TeENXIS
uoyonpsy ‘uMoTyeIOUAS AUIS uoyjonpar ON
‘IYO 0% “‘IYD 0%
raonpoid afew ‘ye g Joonporad oyeuloy “Ye
‘uoneroues Suids
‘qd WVUSVIG
18 Cuter, Parthenogenesis in Animals
equational, so that though four nuclei were formed, there was
no reduction of the chromosome number. He also described a
fusion of the second polar nucleus with the inner half of the
first polar nucleus. The outer half passed to the periphery and
was extruded and fusion with the second and inner-part of the
first polar nucleus occurred.
The result of greatest interest in his investigations was that
the chromosomes of the female pronucleus were ‘doubled in
number before the first cleavage took place. The same pheno-
menon was said to occur by Petrunkewitsch in the honey bee,
and by Delage in the artificial parthenogenesis of sea-urchin
eggs.
Schliep reinyestigated the cytology of the egg of Rhodites
rose. He gives the somatic number of chromosomes as ten or
twelve. This number is also found in the oogonia and the
oocytes, thus confirming the statement that there is no reduc-
tive division. Further, according ito this observer, there is no
doubling of the chromosome number after maturation has taken
place, the cleavage nucleus possessing ten to twelve chromosomes.
Tenthredinide.—The sawflies are very varied as to the ©
manner of reproduction; some there are which lay partheno-
genetic eggs from which only males appear (Nematus ribesii);
in other species parthenogenetic eggs are laid from which only
females are hatched (Pcecilosoma Juteolum); and a third group
from which both males and females are produced from partheno-
genetic eggs, as in the gallflies. Investigation into the, cyto-
logical aspects were undertaken by Doncaster. As the results
published for Nematus ribesti are probably incorrect, it is use-
less to detail them here. It is hoped that the cytology of the
eggs of this insect will be re-examined at somle future date, so
that the present discrepancies in the account may ‘be rectified.
In Pcecilosoma luteolum and Croesus varus two maturation
divisions occur, and the ‘chromosomes do not appear to be re-
duced in number. This conclusion is probably correct, but until
the spermatogenesis and oogenesis have been studied the point
cannot be said to be definitely settled.
Lepidoptera.—The cases in which parthenogenesis occurs
among the Lepidoptera are few. Platner and Henking studied
the maturation of the unfertilised eggs of Bombyx mori. Two
polar bodies were said to be formed and the chromosomes were
thought to be reduced in number. Recently, however, Gold-
schmidt found in the Gipsy moth that the oogonia and sperma-
togonia of the insects, which had arisen parthenogenetically,
contained the normal diploid number of chromosomes. . At
present our knowledge of the cytology of the unfertilised eggs
of the Lepidoptera is very scanty. Goldschmidt mentions in his
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xit. (1917), Wo. 2 1g
paper, however, that the parthenogenetic eggs of the Psychidz
have been studied by Dr. Seiler, whose paper is in the press.
Chalcidide.—In this group of insects we find examples of
polyembryony. ‘Silvestri studied Litomastix truncatellus; the egg
gives rise to a number of cell clusters, each of which develops
into a larve. A point of interest is that each individual which
arises from the egg is of the 'same sex. If the original egg
was fertilised females are produced, if unfertilised only males
appear. (Silvestri was also able to examine the maturation
divisions of the ovum, and found that in both the partheno-
genetic eggs and the fertilised ones they were the same. Here
then we have an excellent example of sex determination by fer-
tiisation. Further, as the maturation divisions of both kinds of
eggs are of the normal order, the males will arise from eggs
having the reduced number of chromosomes, and will therefore
be like those of the bee and Hydatina senta.
PARTHENOGENESIS AND SEX.
If a summary is made of the preceding cytological facts it
will be found that the types of maturation in parthenogenesis
are two :—
(A.) (One maturation division, which is not reductive, as in the
Ostracoda,
(B.) Two maturation divisions :—
(1) Chromosome reduction as in the Ants, Bees, Wasps, etc.
(2) No chromosome reduction, both divisions being cauarioual,
as in Rhodites rose, etc.
A third type described by Brauer in Artemia we have seen
to be probably incorrect.
Before proceeding to a discussion as to how the cytological
study of parthenogenesis affects the problem of sex determina-
tion, it will be of advantage to enumerate the more important
theories regarding sex. Castle (1903) propounded the theory
that the male and female were heterozygous for sex, and that at
maturation the male or female elements were eliminated with
the polar bodies in the case of the female, and were segregated
from one another at spermatogenesis in the male. Selective fertilisation
was also assumed to occur, so that only male-producing spermatozoa
could fertilise female ova, and only female-producing spermatozoa
could conjugate with male ova. The zygote thus produced must
of necessity be heterozogous and the resulting sex was male or
female according as to which was the dominating element.
There are many objections to this view, but taking one case,
that of the bee, we at once encounter difficulties. As the males
are produced from the unfertilised eggs which have undergone
20 CuTLER, Parthenogenesis in Animals
maturation and reduction, we must assume that the female
element has been eliminated, but by hypothesis the spermatozoa
at fertilisation must bring into the egg the female tendency. It
is difficult to see how this is ‘possible. Castle offered: a solution
by pointing out that the testes were developed from the fused
polar bodies, and that therefore they would contain the female
element. We have seen, ‘however, that this observation of
Petrunkewitsch is incorrect. A second theory due to Correns is
based on experiemnts performed with Bryonia. The assumption
here is that the male is heterozygous for sex, but the female
homozygous. The difficulty of selective fertilisation is by this
means overcome, for it is obvious that either a male or a
female sperm can fertilise the ova, which in this case are all
alike in character. The bee again offers difficulties, for the par-
thenogenetic females must bear male tendencies, but according
to the theory they lack them. Beard has suggested that this
can be explained by ‘assuming two types iof eggs, sexual female-
producing type, which must be fertilised, and male-producing
type, where the female tendency is replaced by a latent male
tendency. The assumption of a Jatent male tendency seems to
me, however, to be too speculative in nature to warrant accept-
ance. A reversal of Correns’ formula soi that the females are
heterozygous and the male homozygous offers the same kind of
difficulties, for, as in the Castle theory, the female tendency is
eliminated at maturation of the parthenogenetic egg, and yet the
sperm brings into the egg that tendency.
In the foregoing brief account ‘of these theories of sex I have
given very few objections to them, but reference to the literature
of the subject will at once demonstrate that the difficulties are
very numerous and are sufficiently great to warrant scepticism
before they are accepted. Doncaster has formulated another
view, in which it is supposed that the female is heterozygous for
sex but that the male produces two kinds of spermatozoa, one of
which contains a male determinant, but the other lacks any deter-
minant for sex. The difficulty of accounting for the facts.
observed in the bees, ‘etc., again arises. ;
Doncaster suggested that the presence of a sperm in the egg
influences the maturation in such a way as to cause normal
maturation to occur. Then the chromosomes are halved both
quantitatively and qualitatively and ‘the male determinant is
eliminated. If the egg maturates without fertilisation the female
determinant is removed. In this way the spermatocytes contain
a single male determinant ‘which passes into one spermatid,
leaving the other without any determinant. This latter is the
abortive bud which degenerates. All spermatozoa then contain.
the male determinant and 4fter fertilisation the sperm by its
presence causes the male determinant of the egg to be eliminated.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917), Vo. 2 21
This hypothesis of sex was developed! to account for the
phenomena observed in the sex determination of Abraxus grossu-
lariata and in Neuroterus lenticulans.
In Neuroterus lenticularis after spermatogenesis there would
be two kinds of sperms formed, one kind possessing the male
determinant ¢ the second lacking it@. Thus after fertilisation
there will be two types of zygote, one male-producing, g Q
the other female-producing, 9? ©. At maturation the ¢ 9? type will
expel the female determinant and develop into a male, while {the
other, which undergoes no maturation, will produce a female.
Male prod. female. Female prod. female.
$2 “©
Reductive Division No reduction.
Hi 3 Egg 2? ©
6 Males. Sexual females.
Spermotozoa Spermatozoa Egg.
3 © ¢
The female determinant is transmitted to all the eggs of the
sexual females of the Summer generation, because the element
remains in the pronucleus of the egg fat maturation.
This suggestion of Doncaster, though explaining many phe-
nomena, is highly speculative, as he admits, and must, I think,
be treated with due reserve.
The foregoing theories have all had their origin in the
assumption that sex determination is a qualitative phenomenon,
and that the eggs and spermatozoa carry a factor or ‘determinant,
which causes the production of either male or female.
Another theory propounded by Wilson and lately assumed
by Castle presumes that sex production is brought about by a
quantitative action of the germ cells. In an earlier part of the
paper it was stated that in many animals the chromosome
number in the male was found to be less than in the female,
thus in Protenor the X element is ‘single in the male, double in
the female.
According to Wilson and Castle the determinants are not
male or female respectively, but the female is quantitatively
greater in some substance, probably a form of nuclear matter,
than the male; thus “ femaleness is due to maleness plus some-
2k CuTLer, Parthenogenesis in Animals
thing else.” The first objection to the hypothesis is the inherit-
ance of certain characters in the Lepidoptera and Birds where it
is necessary to assume that the order of things 1s reversed. As
I have already mentioned ,however, there is evidence to show
that in these two groups there is an odd element in the female.
This is a very remarkable confirmation of the theory of the
connection between chromosomes and sex, and as Doncaster
remarks, “It can hardly be coincidence that the spermatozoa
should be dimorphic in respect of a chromosome in the forms in
which sex limited inheritance by the male takes place, and the
eggs dimorphic in the same waly in those in which sex limited
transmission is by the female.
How then does this theory accord with the facts of partheno-
genesis? In the Ants, Bees and Wasps a male is produced from
eggs which have undergone reduction in the chromosome number.
This is also the case with Hydatina senta, and probably so in
Litomastix. Thus the female has the diploid, the male the hap-
loid chromosome number. If, as Nachsteim suggests, in the bee, two
of the chromosomes are sex chromosomes, in the female one of
them is extruded at maturation and the egg will develop into a
male. As all the spermatozoa of the male contains the sex
chromosomes females must result from fertilisation. Whether
the sex chromosomes are present or not in the female does not
affect the theory, for the important point is that the male con-
tains half the number of chromosomes found in the female.
The observations of Jack and Wheeler, showing that in rare
cases workers may produce females from the unfertilised eggs,
cannot be discussed until the cytology of these eggs is investi-
gated. Three possibilities are open to account for this variation.
(A.) There may be two maturations, but both equational, as in
the Saw-fly, Pcecilosoma luteolum.
(B.) There may be but one maturation division which is not
reductive.
(C.) There may be non-disjunction of sex chromosomes, if these
exist.
This phenomenon of non-disjunction was suggested by Bridges
as the result of work on Drosophila. . He found that on rare
occasions the sex chromosomes of the egg stick together at the
maturation divisions, and are both extruded with the polar body
or both remain in the female pronucleus. If, in the case of the
bee, both chromosomes remained in the female pronucleus the
resulting insect would be a female.
Rhoditis and Peecilosoma.—In both these insects females are
almost invariably produced from the unfertilised eggs, and the
maturation divisions are in {both cases equational, which is in
a
\ Ne
ra
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. ixit. (1917), No. 2 23
accordance with the theory. The rare occurrence of males is of
interest, but at present we are entirely ignorant as to whether there is
any difference in the maturation of those eggs from which males
are produced. It may be that the males develop as in the bee,
or there may be non-disjunction where the sex chromosomes
are extruded with the polar nucleus.
Lastly, the case of the Aphids must be considered. No re-
ductive division occurs in the parthenogenetic eggs, but the
males and females are hatched from them. In all cases investi-
gated, however, the eggs from which males develop eliminate one
or more chromosomes, which are retained in female-producing
eggs. .
Wilson has himself pointed out that in plants both males and
females are formed from asexual spores, and that these spores
usually contain the haploid chromosome number. This of course
seems to be contrary to the theory, but it is possible that the
male-producing ones may be characterised by the absence of one
or more elements found in the female ‘spores.
Goldschmidt (1917) put forward a view almost identical with
the theory given above. He believes that the production of sex
is a quantitative phenomenon due to two: factors, one of which
is carried in the sex chromosome, the other by the cytoplasm
of the egg. His reasoning is practically the same as that of
Wilson. The chief importance of the suggestion is the possi-
bility that the cytoplasm may be a carrier of inherited qualities.
There is much evidence for this belief, but there is also a ten-
dency to regard the nucleus as the only factor of importance in
the study of problems of heredity. This is a mistaken idea, and
if the cytoplasm be excluded from all study, advance in our know-
ledge of the laws of heredity will be diminished.
The evidence given in a previous part of the paper is suffi-
cient to show that the sex of ‘an individual is affected by external
conditions, but there is also reason to believe that internal factors
exert a very definite influence on sex production. The proba-
bility is that these 'two sets of factors act together. The experi-
ments of Geoffrey Smith are of importance in this connection.
He found that as a result of parasitism by Sacculina male crabs
assume the female characters and may, even produce ova in the
testes. Further, he demonstrated that metabolic changes
occurred during the parasitism, with the result that the meta-
bDolism of the affected male became almost identical with that jof
the normal female. Great differences are also known to’ exist
between the blood of male and female of the same species of
many Lepidoptera. Observations such as these give rise to the
suggestion that the differences between the two sexes are those pf
metabolism. As Doncaster says in his paper, “ Chromosomes,
Heredity and Sex,” the general conclusion must be that although
24 CuTLER, Parthenogenesis in Animals
the observations connecting a particular chromosome with the
determination of one sex are in many, cases indisputable; there
is no evidence to show how this chromosome acts; and that
since the sex of the offspring is in some cases modified by the
environment, it is probable that the presence of the chromosome
is associated with a particular kind of cell metabolism, of which
sex 1s to be regarded rather as a visible expression than a cause.
Dinophilus.—I have left to the end a brief account of the
mode of development of these animals, because it is so curious
and unparalleled by any other organism that it 1s impossible
at present to connect it with any scheme of sex determination.
Two kinds of eggs are laid, differing in size; from the larger
one females develop and from the smaller one males. These two
types of eggs are laid in the same capsule. It was formerly
thought that both these eggs required to be fertilised in order to
develop, but the recent work of Shearer shows that this is not
the case, for the larger female-producing eggs conjugate with the
sperm nucleus, while in the male- progneas eggs no conjugation
occurs.
In Dinophilus gyrociliatus, the species on which Shearer
worked, the rudimentary males hatch from the egg in a very
short time, and are sexually mature. The females, on the other
hand, when they hatch are in a larval condition, and definite ova
are at this stage not yet developed. In spite of this, copulation
at once occurs, and the spermatozoa find their way to the place
where ova will be formed. As soon as the primitive oogonial
cells appear they are at once joined by the sperm which
penetrates into the cells. The sperm nucleus becomes situ-
ated close to the oogonial nucleus, and. when the cells
divide both nuclear elements divide simultaneously. ‘This
continues for from torty to fifty divisions. Occasionally,
however, the female nucleus divides first and the male nucleus
is excluded from one of the daughter cells which are produced.
Thus a condition is brought about in which some of the cells
contain the whole of the male nucleus together with half the
female nucleus, while others contain only half the female nucleus.
This is the stage at which sex is determined: for those cells
containing male and female elements will become female-pro-
ducing eggs, while the male-producing eggs are developed
from the oogonial cells containing only the female element. It
will be noted that in the cells containing both male and female
nuclear elements no fusion has at present taken place, and it is
not until a late development of the egg that fusion of the male
and female nucleus occurs.
Further, in neither the male or female eggs has there been
any trace of maturation divisions. These divisions do occur,
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xit. (1917), Wo. 2 25,
but not until after the fusion of the male and female nucleus.
Thus we have the extraordinary phenomenon of fertilisation pre-
ceding maturation. Shearer was unable to obtain a detailed
account of maturation of the eggs, but there appears to be twenty
somatic chromosomes in both male and female. Two polar
bodies are given off by both types of eggs, and in each case
twenty chromosomes are extruded and twenty remain in the egg.
What occurs in the formation of the second polar body of the
female egg is not known, but in the male egg ten double chromo-
somes are again extruded, leaving ten double ones in the egg.
As Shearer remarks, the two most remarkable results of this
work are the way in which fertilisation occurs, and maturation
occurring after fertilisation. The maturation divisions are also
very puzzling, and cannot be satisfactorily explained. The whole
difficulty is so admirably expressed by Shearer that I cannot
do better than quote his own words: “ With regard to matura-
tion divisions, I am forced to admit that their evidence i 1s very
puzzling, and I am quite unable to’ explain them at present.
In the case of the male egg, ‘we should expect, as this has not
been fertilised, and is therefore in a sense developing partheno-
genetically, it should agree with the development of the male
parthenogenetic ©g8 of Rotifers, and other forms, where they
develop in the “n” condition, where “n” represents the reduced
number of Tees This is certainly not the case in
Dinophilus, where the male egg, after reduction (if any reduction
takes place), possesses apparently the full 2n number. It is,
however, possible that the male egg of Dinophilus is similar
to that of the Phylloxerans, which develops in the 2n—1 or —2
condition, as it is difficult accurately to count the chromosomes
in the segmentation divisions of the male egg on account of their
small size. In the female egg we should expect them, since they
have been fertilised before reduction, to be in the 2n-+n condition
if we consider the sperm ‘to bring in the n number. In the first
maturation division of the egg we should expect to find at least
thirty chromosomes, whereas their number is somewhere about
twenty. On the other hand, if we suppose the female germ cells
to be in the “n” condition when they appear in the’ ovary, then
after fertilisation they should show the 2n number of chromo-
somes, which agrees with the facts, but ‘does not explain how the
male egg, which has not been fertilised, is nevertheless in the
2n—I or —2 condition. Therefore, from whatever point of view
we choose to regard it, there is no way of eee the facts of
maturation divisions into line at present.”*
* The question of sex production and the early differentiation, during develop
ment, of germ cells from somatic cells has been ably discussed by Hegner i in a long
series of papers. The whole matter is summarised in his book ‘‘ The Germ-Cell
Cycle in Animals.” New York, 1914.
26 Cuter, Parthenogenesis in Animads
INHERITANCE IN PARTHENOGENESIS.
The inheritance of characters in parthenogenetic animals has
not, up to the present, been greatly investigated. In 1899
‘Warren inquired into the inheritance of the ratio between the
length of the protopodite of the antenne and the body length in
Daphnia magna. He found that the parental correlation was
0-466 + 0-054 (founded on 23 parents and 96 offspring), and the
-grandparental one 0-27 + 0-12 (founded on 7 grandparents and
26 offspring). This denoted that there might be a diminution
of the correlation as the ancestral distance was increased, but
very few individuals were investigated. Similar results were
obtained by investigations made upon the Aphid, Hyalopterus
trirhodus. Here the characters employed were (1) distance be-
tween the eyes; (2) the length of the mght antenna’; (3) the ratio
of (1) and (2).
About this time Johannsen published the result of work done
with Phaseolus vulgaris. Two characters were chosen for investi-
gation, the weight of the beans:and tthe ratio between the width
and length. All the descendants arising from a single plant by
self-fertilisation were called pure lines, and a number of these
pure lines constituted a population. Experiment showed that
in such a population the variations followed the normal curve
and the correlation between the parent and offspring was 0-336
+oo12. When, however, pure lines were considered the varia-
tions still followed the normal curve, but the correlation between
the parent and offspring was nil. Further, the deviations of the
parents from the mean were not inherited.
Jennings’ extensive work on Paramoecium has in a marked
way confirmed these conclusions.
The recent .experiments of Agar are probably the most
detailed that have appeared on the subject of inheritance and
parthenogenesis. He chose as his animals two species of Simo-
cephalus, one species of Daphnia and an Aphid, Macrosiphum
antherinii. In the two species of Simocephalus the character
used was the body length measured at the first instar and the
first adult instar, and in the species of Daphnia the ratio between
the posterior spine of the carapace and the body length. The
results of the investigations showed that in a monoclonal popula-
tion (one known to have descended from a single ancestor) the
ancestral correlation coeffictents were insignificant, also there
was no trace of Mendelian segregation. In general the conclu-
sions were in complete agreement with those of Johannsen.
In the experiments with the Aphid the characters chosen
were those employed by Warren. The ancestral correlation
Manchester Memoirs, Vol, lxtz. (1917), No. 2 24
co-efficients for the two species given below are reproduced
from Agar’s paper.
| Macrosiphum: Antherinui.
Hyalopterus Trirhodus.
Parental Grandparental Parental Grandparental:
I17 parents | 54 grandparents 60 parents 30 grandparents
and and and and
124 offspring. 60 offspring. 398 offspring. 291 offspring.
Antenna |0'482+0 a) 0'165 +0°085| 0°427 + 0'029 | 0°177 + 0°038
Frontal
Breadth] 0°433 40'049/ 0°231 + 0°082| 0°335 +0°031 | 0°321 +0 035
Ratio ...| 0°235 0°057 |-0°002 + 0°087| 0°439 + 0028 | 0'230 + 0'037
|
It will be seen that the two results show a certain degree of
similarity. and, as Agar says, “ afford) a certain presumption that
the co-efficients are due to the physiological relationship between
the grandparent, parent, and offspring, and not the accidental
results of extrinsic causes.”
Reasons are, however, offered for not accepting this conclu-
sion too readily; thus there 1s the possibility that the viviparous
nature of the animals and their short life history may have an
effect in the result; for the maternal nutrition may have in-
fluenced the size of the offspring, which was not able to attain
the normal one during the short life of the insect. Further,
the characters investigated were dimensional ones which are
easily influenced by environment. In this connection it must
also be noted that in Simocephalus exspinosus there was no
evidence of any diminution of the correlation coefficients as the
scale of ancestry was increased.
The many variations which occur in Aphis averne led Ewing
to study the inheritance of some of the characters of this insect.
The conditions in which the parthenogenetic females lived were
kept as far as possible constant.
Pure lines were raised from these females and the mean for
the characters investigated was determined in each case and found
to be very constant. When extreme variants of a pure line were
selected to act as parents for further lines, the mean obtained
was the same as that of strains which had not been specially
selected. Also the fraternal mean of a generation often exhibited
great fluctuatoins from the mean of the strain, but these fluctua-
tions were not inherited.
Finally in 1915 a paper was published by McBride and Jack-
son on the inheritance of colour in a stick insect, Carausius
morosus. In this animal the colour patterns of the adults are
28 CuTLER, Parthenogenests tn Animals
very numerous, but whatever may be,the colour of the parent all
the parthenogenetically produced offspring were alike in having
a pattern of green and brown. It fis as ‘growth proceeds that
the different colour characteristics of the adults are gradually
produced. Also there was no evidence, as regards green or
brown, that the colour of the mother had any influence on the
proportion of the young which finally assumed these hues.
ARTIFICIAL PARTHENOGENESIS.
The second part of the paper deals with the remarkable ex-
periments which have been performed on the eggs of various
animals, not normally parthenogenetic, causing them to develop
without the action of the spermatozoon. This phenomenon has
been termed artificial or experimental parthenogenesis. I do
not intend to give more than a very, general outline of the work
which has been done, as the subject is fully treated in Loeh’s
book, “Artificial Parthenogenesis,” and also in that of Delarge
and Goldsmith, pala parthénogenése naturelle et experimentale.”
Though artificial parthenogenesis has only assumed a prominent
place in biological literature during the last few years, the pheno-
menon was noted by a few observers much earlier.
Boursier in 1847 stated that a virgin silkworm placed in sun-
hght and then in shade ‘had produced ‘eggs from! which cater-
pillars had developed.
Tichomoroff in 1886 published a short note on the artificial
parthenogenesis in insects, in which he described how he had
obtained caterpillars from a few unfertilised eggs (6 out of 99)
of the silkworm by rubbing them between two pieces of cloth.
This experiment is open to doubt, as later work has demonstrated
that a small proportion of unfertilised eges of the silkworm will
develop without outside aid. In 1902 the same naturalist used ‘as
the stimulating agent concentrated sulphuric acid with marked
SUCCESS
O. Hertwig, in 1890, by shaking the eggs of Astropecten and
Asterias induced the first stages of development, and in 1899
Loeb found that cleavage of unfertilised eggs of the sea urchin
could be induced by the action of hypertonic sea-water. Since
this date the number of workers have been exceedingly numerous
and development has been induced by the most diverse means.
I shall therefore content myself with giving! a brief resumé of
the most important theories that have been deduced from ex-
periments, together with a short account of some of the more
important experiments performed.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt. (1917), Wo. 2 29
‘THEORY OF LOEB.
Loeb’s, early experiments were undertaken to discover the
action of various acids on the unfertilised eggs of sea urchins.
He found that cell cleavage could be induced by the action
of HCl, HNO,, H.SO, etc., but after a few cleavages had
occurred disintegration followed. Further development up’ to
the plutei stage was effected in the original method by the use
of a hypertonic solution of sea-water. The concentration of
normal sea-water was raised 50 per cent. by the addition of
sodium chloride. Unfertilised eggs were placed in this solution
for two hours and then removed to normal sea-water.’ By further
experiment it was found that practically any salt, so long as not
actually poisonous, would effect the same result provided that
the concentration of the water was raised 50 per cent. Thus it
seemed that the stimulus for development was not due to any
specific action of certain salts but to a change in the osmotic
pressure.
When eggs are fertilised by a sperm there is produced
round the egg a membrane, known as the fertilisation
membrane, also the eggs rise to the surface of the liquid. These
two results of fertilisation were not produced by the artificial
method described above. This led Loeb to devise a fresh series
of experiments. Eggs of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus were
placed for one minute in a solution lof 500 cc. of sea-water to
which 3 cc. iof a decinormal fatty acid| had been added. The
fertilisation membrane was produced, but segmentation did not
occur. If, however, after being thus treated they were placed in
a hypertonic solution of sea-water the eggs developed. This
result was obtained with many of the monobasic fatty acids, such
as formic, acetic, propionic, butyric. Summarising the results
of many observations, we may say that substances causing
hemolysis also cause membrane formation, for instance, saponin,
bile salts, hydrocarbons, ether, etc.
The theories that Loeb has formulated are many, but they
are all purely chemical. The membrane formation was first
supposed to be produced by the lhquidation of fatty substances
which are resident on the egg surface. As a corollary of its
formation oxidations are set up in the eggs, which if allowed
to continue cause disintegration, and finally the death, of the
eggs so treated. These oxidations are caused because the fatty
substances round the egg prevent the diffusion of OH tons, but
acids and the substances favouring membrane formation dissolve
the surface fats and render the egg ‘permeable to the action of
ions. The action is further supposed to consist in their com-:
bination with the albuminoid substances in the egg to form new
30 CuTLeR, Parthenogenesis in Animals
substances, which alter the power of the protoplasm to absorb
water. This view has, however, been partially given un by the
author in favour of a later one, in which it is suggested that
the tons act by their electric charges causing modifications of
those of the colloids.
Loeb definitely established that oxidisation is increased by
membrane formation, and this oxidation, if allowed to continue,
prevents development from proceeding further than a few cell
cleavages. The action of the hypertonic solution, which enables
development to continue to late stages, is to inhibit or alter the
internal oxidations of the egg. Further, the solution must be
alkaline, if neutral the egg ‘breaks up into vesicles; also the
action of the solution will only take place in the presence of free
oxygen. In what way then is the development influenced?
Here again Loeb’s explanation is chemical. The solution causes
the formation of a substance or substances which orientate the
development into the right direction, or control the first phase,
that is, the membrane formation phase. This is brought about
by the synthesis from the protoplasm of specific nuclein sub-
stances of the nucleus, and this synthesis is again the result of
an oxidation which is not of the same nature as the first one. It
is mecessary to note that this second oxidation is not the direct
result of the hypertonic solution, but 1s a consequence of dehy-
dratton. Dehydration produces changes in the chemical equili-
brium of the protoplasm, resulting in the dissociation of electro--
lytes. Loeb thus concludes that the sperm in fertilisation brings
into the egg two substances :—
(1) A catalyser which causes membrane formation.
(2) A corrective substance which modifies the action of the
first producing normal development.
The foregoing theories are highly ingenious, but are perhaps
too speculative in character to be taken as explaining the whole
process of fertilisation. Also the author is so incuicated with
the chemical aspects of the problem that he is in danger of
overlooking the probability that many of the phenomena may
have physical explanations.
Further, as will be seen later, there are many eggs of various.
species of animals which do not require to be treated by the
above methods; for instance, there is no need to use hypertonic
sea-water in order to obtain parthenogenesis in the eggs of
Polynoe, Lottia or Acmza. These if acted upon by catalytic
substances and then transferred to alkaline solutions, hyper-
tonic or not, will readily develop.
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. (xtt. (1917), No. 2 31
THEORY OF DELARGE.
Delarge was one of the first to undertake work on artificial
parthenogenesis. In rgo1 he tried the effect of various chloride
salts on the eggs of starfish and! sea urchins, and obtained de-
velopment up to the blastula stage. The theory with which he is
associated, however, was developed as a continuation of his
views in regard to the mechanism of cell division. In 1898
Montgomery showed that it was not necessary for the male and
female pronucleus to fuse in order for development to take
place. Delarge extended this observation by a series of others
in which he was able to get fertilisation of enucleated pieces
of egg.
Cell division-is, according to this observer, a series of coagu-
lations and liquefactions of the colloidal protoplasm. This con-
ception was then extended to account for artificial partheno-
genesis. As acids are usually coagulators and alkalies liquefiers
of protoplasm, Delarge treated unfertilised eggs first with HCl
and then with ammonia; by this means development was induced.
In later experiments tannin was employed as the coagulating
substance, with much better results, for by this method develop-
ment proceeded to its final stage and young sea urchins were
obtained.
Later in the investigations tannate of ammonia was used with
good results. This was explained by saying that the tannin was
a feeble acid and the ammonia, a base; when in solution separa-
tron occurred between the two substances and each worked
separately.
In comparison with the work of Loeb, it 1s of interest that
Delarge demonstrated that the presence of free oxygen was
unnecessary for inducing parthenogenesis, and also that a hyper-
tonic solution was not of vital importance.
The theory is different from Loeb’s in that there is not called
into play any special chemical substances. The substances neces-
sary for development are already resident in the egg and only,
require to be set into motion. According to Loeb, the necessary
stimulus for this is the chemical substances brought in by the
sperm, according to Delarge the substances will arrange them-
selves in the requisite manner under the influence of molecular
forces. The nuclear membrane, centrosomes, achromatic spindle
and the chromosomes are transient features of the cell, appear-
ing and disappearing in the protoplasm as though they were in
a state of a sol or a gel. The agents employed for artificial
parthenogenesis then act as coagulators and liquefiers, thus pro-
ducing a series of coagulations and liquefactions. which culminate
in development. The feeble point in the theory 1s that these
32 CurLer, Parthenogenesis in Animals
cyclic coagulations and liquefactions, which are supposed to occur
in, a dev eloping egg, have never been satisfactorily demonstrated,
and until this has been done the theory must of necessity remain
a speculation.
THEORY OF LILLIE.
This theory has analogies with the preceding one. Lillie
maintains that in the egg there is a latent mechanism, which
can be set into action by various substances. While Loeb con-
siders that this is caused by intra-cellular oxidations set in motion
by catalysers, Lille takes up the position that the action is due
to increased permeability of the egg membrane and not to any
specific chemical substance. Dev elopment is always preceded by
mitotic divisions of the cell, and as there is evidence that during
this division there is a change in the cell permeabilfty, Lillie
concluded that this is the direct agent in artificial parthenioe
genesis. In 1910 he wrote: “ The egg is to be regarded from
a simple physico-chemical point of view as a chemically complex
semi-fluid colloidal system, enclosed by a semi-permeable surface
layer, the plasma membrane, which is the seat of electrical polari-
sation. Increase in permeability will evidently produce both
chemical and physical changes in such a system; the chemical
changes follow from altered conditions of interchange with the
surroundings, as already seen, and involve disturbances of
chemical equilibrium in the egg; these latter, on the present
theory, initiate the chemical transformations which find expres-
sion in the mitotic process. The chief physical changes from
the present point of view would be ja decrease in the electrical
potential difference normally existing between the exterior and
interior of the cell. The seat of this potential difference on the
membrane theory is the plasma membrane which appears to be
electrically polarised in such a way as to have its outer surface
constantly at a considerably higher potential than its inner; ‘this
condition, the physiological polarisation, is a function of the im-
permeability of the plasma membrane to ions other than certain
cations, probably hydrogen ions. Here more or less complete fall
of potential, ¢.e, depolarisation, must follow an increase of sur-
face permeability sufficient to allow ready passage of anions,
such depolarisation will be accompanied by increased surface
tension. Alteration of surface tension thus induced form, in all
probability, an important, if not the chief factor, in the charac-
teristic changes of cell cleavage.”
This conclusion was deduced from experiments, of which the
following are examples :—
gs of Arbacia punctulata were found to lose
Unfertilised eg
hen placed in isotonic solutions of various salts.
their pigment w
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti. (1917), No. 2 pe
These salts, however, were not equal in regard to their power of
action, thus, Cl
"and of ‘the upper /face’ of the
leaves)
LEIOPTILUM
SARCOPHYLLUM
VIRGULARIA
ACANTHOPTILUM
RENILLA (Wilson 1884, page 18)
2 LicutTsown, Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea
This statement however, as recently pointed out by Professor
Hickson, does not cover the whole facts of the case. ‘‘Since that
“‘date Niedermeyer (1911, p. 36) has stated he could not find the
“mesenteric filaments of Pteroeides griseum. On examining a
““series of preparations of Pt. malayense, Pt. caledonicum, Pt.
“‘timorense, and Pt. argenteum, I could find no trace of dorsal
‘“‘mesenteric filaments, but in a similar preparation of Pt.
‘““Steenstrupu they were present and of considerable size. In the
“‘genus Pteroeides therefore they are sometimes present and some-
' “times absent. This is also true for Umbellula and Pennatula. In
“‘the large siphonozooids of the petaloid areas of U. Carpenteri
“‘these filaments are present and well developed but in the small
‘““siphonozooids of the stem and stalk they are absent. In the
‘“‘siphonozooids of Pennatula phosphorea (Marshall 1882, p.46)
“‘they are present and also in those of P. grandis but in the
“‘siphonozooids of P. Murrayi they are absent.’’ (Hickson 1916,
p.10). Mesenteric filaments have been recorded for a few other
isolated species by recent writers as noted in the text of this
paper.
This research therefore was undertaken to investigate the dis-
tribution of these filaments in the siphonozooids of the order
Pennatulacea. For this purpose Professor S. J. Hickson most
kindly placed at my disposal the whole of his preparations of the
Pennatulacea from the Dutch ‘‘Siboga’’ Expedition and many
specimens from his private collection.
METHODS.
In all species the siphonozooids were first examined whole, by
cutting out a piece of the body wall or leaf and dissecting away the
underlying tissue, slowly decalcifying in a weak solution of nitric
acid in 70 per cent alcohol, and staining with Grenacher’s haema-
toxylin. Where further examination was required transverse or
longitudinal serial sections (Su — 6y thickness) of the siphono-
zooids were made, and in these also Grenacher’s haematoxylin was
found to give the best results. In many species, notably in those of
Anthoptilum, sections in which this stain was used showed a dis-
tinct double stain when washed in acid alcohol, the ectoderm off
the stomodaeum and filaments appearing bright red, all other
endodermal and mesodermal tissues bluish purple. This red stain
however faded to a uniform purple on neutralising with alkaline
alcohol, or even on exposure to sunlight; hence, in most of the
permanent preparations the mesenteric filaments are not so strik-
ingly contrasted with other structures as at the first examination.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) Wo. 4 3
Where the above methods failed to reveal filaments by reason of
the contracted condition of the tissues, or of the presence of
foreign matter in the coelenteric cavities, it was found that their
presence could be demonstrated in longitudinal sections of the
siphonozooids about 0.5 m.m. in thickness, cut by hand from a
piece of tissue previously hardened for two or three hours in
absolute alcohol.
STRUCTURE OF SIPHONOZOOIDS.
The siphonozooids of Pennatulacea are distinguishable from the
autozooids by reason of their lack of tentacles (with the exception
of certain zooids in Umbellula and Chunella which possess one
tentacle) : the presence of a wide ciliated groove, the siphonogylph,
down the ventral length of the stomodaeum: the comparatively
slight development of the eight mesenteries: and the absence of
longitudinal retractor muscles and gonads on the mesenteries.
Mesenteric filaments are never found on the six ventral mesen-
teries ; they may or may not occur on the dorsal mesenteries.
The structure of the dorsal filaments and their ectodermic origin
is well described by Wilson (1884, p.12) and little need be added to
his account.
It may be noted throughout the order that there is extraordinarily
little variation in the structure and shape of the filament: the
Y-shape in transverse section is constant, the two lateral lobes
containing nuclei which stain deeply, the medium groove appear-
ing clear. The diagrams given are typical for many species of the
order. (Figs. I. and II.)
There is a slight variation in the width of the filament in different
species, and to a greater extent in the length; also in certain
species the filaments appear straight or slightly curved, and in
others they are considerably convoluted. How far this latter con-
dition is natural, or to what extent produced by killing and fixing
I am unable to state. It is recorded of fully expanded living polyps
of Alcyonium or Paralcyonium (Wilson 1884, p.13) that the ventral
endodermic filaments constantly change their form, being thrown
into convolutions by the contractions of the mesenteries, but “the
straight ectodermic filaments present a very different appearance.’’
If this is correct for the siphonozooids it might be expected that the
part of the mesentery below the stomodaeum would shew signs of
contraction in the tentacular zooids of Umbellula Carpenteri for
example, but there is no appearance of such contraction. Marshall
figures a siphonozooid of U. gracilis (1883 Plate XXV., fig. 33)
with the filaments considerably coiled.
4 LicHTBown, Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea
OCCURENCE OF FILAMENTS IN GENERA EXAMINED.
Where the number of species under consideration is limited and
incompletely representative it is impossible to make any absolute
generalisations: furthermore, subsequent re-classification may
destroy their value to some extent. It will be noted that the sub-
mergence of two of Kélliker’s genera creates anomalies in Wilson’s
list. The following conclusions then can be applied only within the
limits of the investigation.
Mesenteric filaments are present, with the single exception of
Renilla, throughout the siphonozooids of the more primitive genera,
that is in those genera where autozooids and siphonozooids occur
together on the rachis, or where the autozooids are arranged in
very primitive leaves :—
LITUARIA FUNICULINA
VERETILLUM PROTOPTILUM
CAVERNULARIA CHUNELLA
ACTINOPTILUM UMBELLULA
ECHINOPTILUM OSTEOCELLA
KOoPpHOBELEMNON PAVONARIA
SCLEROBELEMNON ANTHOPTILUM
In the Virgularias however the filaments are not developed in any
species except V. Schultzei which is unique in the genus in having
the siphonozooids on the leaves. In the genus Pennatula, the
filaments were present in every species examined except P.
Murrayi. For Leioptilum and Pteroeides no general statement can
be made: the filaments are present in some zooids and not in
others. In the latter genus the majority of species are without
filaments in the siphonozooids, their presence being noted only in
two. In Acanthoptilum, Sarcophyllum and Scytalium the filaments
are entirely absent so far as these genera have been investigated.
A complete list of species examined will be found at the end of
this paper. °
FUNCTION OF THE DoRSAL MESENTERIC FILAMENTS.
It has been shown that the ventral siphonoglyph of the siphono-
zooids produces inhalent currents of water into the canal system of :
the colony (Hickson 1883, Wilson 1884). The dorsal filaments on
the other hand produce a current in the opposite direction, i.e.
exhalent. Wilson suggests that the circulation thus set up is for
the distribution of food (nutritive fluid) amongst the zooids of the
colony (I.c. p.16). It is probable also that the circulation is for the
purpose of keeping up active respiration in the colony. That the
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. ixit, (1917) Wo. & 5
siphonozooids are exhalent as well as inhalent in function is proved
for Pennatula rubra by the observation of Mrs. Musgrave (Q.J.M.
S. 1909, p.455) that ‘‘clouds of methylene blue squirted among
them were immediately dispersed in an outward direction.’’ The
fact that P. rubra has mesenteric filaments appears to confirm the
theory that these are exhalent in function.
It must further be noted that in a few species of Pennatulacea
there occur large zooids recently named Mesozooids by Professor
Hickson (1916, p.11) which are apparently exhalent in function.
These mesozooids are characterised by having no tentacles, and ‘‘a
large open stomodaeum with a weak siphonoglyph supported by
eight mesenteries provided with strong muscle bands,’’ hence the
water is probably ejected by the forcible contraction of the zooids
by means of these muscles. They are found in Pennatula Murray,
P. grandis, and many species of Pteroeides. It is suggested by
Hickson that the exhalent zooid of Renilla (Wilson 1883) may be
of the same nature, also the ‘‘Scheitelzooiden’’ described by
Jungerson (1888) at the distal end of the rachis of young
Pennatula phosphorea colonies. Zooids resembling mesozooids
occur on the ventral side of the rachis in Sarcophyllum.
CONCLUSIONS.
In view of the foregoing facts it appears probable that all the
More primitive species are provided with dorsal mesenteric fila-
ments which subserve the function of causing exhalent currents,
and in the one genus of these families where filaments are lacking,
namely Renilla, an exhalent zooid is present. It is possible that
Renilla should be considered to be a specialised and not a primitive
form, the exhalent zooid marking a certain degree of specialisation.
In the higher genera the mesenteric filaments are supplanted by
zooids specially modified for the function of exhalence. This com-
clusion is tenable for the cases of P. Murrayi, Sarcophyllum and
most of the species of Pteroeides where filaments are absent
and mesozooids present. In other species of Pennatula, P.
phosphorea P. rubra, P. fimbriata, where mesozooids are not
developed, the dorsal filaments do occur.
In Pennat. grandis, Pter. pellucidum, Pter..Steenstrupii, meso-
zooids and mesenteric filaments in the siphonozooids are present
together. As these species closely resemble others of their genera
in all essential characters, it can scarcely be held that the persist-
ence of filaments denotes a lower grade of development, or that
with further evolution the filaments would disappear and the
specialised mesozooids acquire the exclusive function of exhaling
water. As far as Pter. Steenstrupii is concerned the presence of
6 LiGHTBOWN, /ilaments in the Siphonozoords of Pennatulacea
filaments would appear to have some connection with the size of the
colony, for this species is unusually fleshy. The two single rows
of mesozooids may be inadequate to discharge the water from an
exceptionally extensive canal system, and therefore the filaments
may have been retained to promote efficiency in this respect.
As Pter. pellucidum is not more fleshy than most species of
Pteroeides the same hypothesis cannot be advanced with equal
weight. In this species however, according to Kélliker mesenteric
filaments are present only on the zooid-plate of the lower surface of
the leaves. In the fleshier Pter. Steenstrupii mesenteric filaments
are present in the zooids on both sides of the leaf. The two species
are similar (if one may judge from Kolliker’s figure of Péter.
pellucidum (1872, fig. 34, Taf. IV.) in that the siphonozooids of
the leaves are net so densely crowded together as in other
Pteroeides. If mesenteric filaments were common to all species at
some point in the generic phylogeny, those species in which the
siphonozooids were sparsely distributed would possibly tend to
keep their filaments functional while mesozooids were evolving ;
where large numbers of siphonozooids were present many of these
would at once become superfluous and the tendency for the fila-
ments to degenerate would be established earlier. This may to some
extent explain the presence of filaments in Pt. Steenstrupi, and in
some zooids of Pt. pellucidum, the siphonozooids of the latter being
more crowded than those of the former, but not so much as in
other species. In the absence of any phylogenetic evidence on this
matter, any hypothesis can only be put forward very tentatively.
Throughout the order it may be stated that generally the mesen-
teric filaments are present in the more fleshy species and absent in
the slender forms. Thus the filaments are absent in Scytalium
several species of Virgularia and Pennatula Murrayi. In Virgu-
laria mirabilis where Marshall records the fact that it is the rule
to find the top of the colony missing (1882, p.60) it has been
suggested that water is ejected from the open ends of the longi-
tudinal canals by the contraction of their walls, these open canals
being analogous to exhalent zooids.
Filaments are present in Funiculina which is a very slender and
delicate form, but as there still appears to be a certain amount of
doubt whether the undeveloped zooids bearing only dorsal filaments
are true siphonozooids perhaps this exception may be left out of
consideration. In slender species the colony even when fully dis-,
tended can hold but little water, and this could readily be expelled
by contraction of the delicate muscles of the rachis, the specialisa-
tion of mesenteric filaments being unnecessary.
The presence of filaments in the comparatively slender form or
V. Schultzei may be accounted for by the consideration that the
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. [xtt, (1917) iVo. 4& 7
leaves which bear the siphonozooids have little muscular tissue
whose contraction could drive the water out from the colony;
filaments are therefore present to serve this function. In other
species of Virgularia contractions of the rachis doubtless serve to
eject the water which has been inhaled by the siphonozooids.
In some species of Umbellula siphonozooids are recorded in the
basal bulb of the colony. It is not established beyond doubt that
these possess mesenteric filaments, but if their presence be estab-
lished it would be in accordance with the general statement made
above. There is no reason to doubt that respiration goes on in
this part of the colony, even if the normal position is buried in the
sea-bottom mud or sand, and mesenteric filaments would promote
the circulation of water in this fleshy region as in the tassel at the
distal end, while the intermediate zooids of the very slender rachis
would not require filaments.
Finally it may be suggested that in some cases it would be
advantageous to use the presence or absence of dorsal mesenteric
filaments as a character for classification. There is no reason to
suppose that this anatomical character is not constant for a given
species, and in cases where local environmental conditions produced
some modification or variation in external character it might prove
a valuable guide in identification.
Nores oN MESENTERIC FILAMENTS.
Liruaria Hicxsonit. Thomson and Simpson.
Siphonozooids mounted whole and viewed from the surface or
from. below showed no indication of filaments but transverse
sections through the zooids shewed them to be present in every
zooid. The average width was 0.048 m.m; most of the filaments
were very definitely Y-shaped in section, but others which did not
appear well preserved were more rounded and the medium groove
was not well marked. |
VERETILLUM MALAYENSE. Hickson.
Siphonozooids mounted whole showed no indication of mesen-
teric filaments. The specimen viewed externally seemed to be well
preserved but the internal tissues were not in a sufficient state of
preservation to determine whether filaments were present or not.
In longitudinal section there were signs of cells in continuation
from the stomodaeum but the characteristic structure of filaments:
was not evident.
8 LicHtTsown, Silaments in the Siphonozootds of Pennatulacea
V. cynomorium. Pallas.
In describing the character of the genus Veretillum, Kolliker
(1872, p.331) states that mesenteric filaments are present. (It may
be noted here that all K6lliker’s statements on mesenteric filaments
are made as a generic character : it must be assumed therefore that
they apply to all the species whose descriptions follow, even though
in some cases it appears doubtful whether the author has verified
the statement for every species). Kikenthal and Broch describing
the same species (1911, p.515) also mention their presence—‘‘Die
zwei dorsalen Mesenterialfilamente laufen bis zu dem Grunde der
Leibeshéhie hinab.’”’
VER. (POLICELLA) AUSTRALIS, Gray.
VER. (POLICELLA) MANILLENSIS, KO6lliker.
Of these species the following observation is made:
“‘Die Zooide von Policella messen im Mittel in der Lange bis zum
Ende des Magens 0.18 - 0.20 m.m., in der Breite 0.36 - 0.45 m.m.,
wovon 0.09 -0.12 m.m. auf den innen mit Flimmern besetzten
Magen kommen und zeigen ihre Mesenterialfilamente von 0.028
-0.032 m.m. Breite keine bestimmte Stellung im Vergleich zum
Stocke. Die weiten Leibeshéhlen der Zooide ragen mit ihren
Mesenterialfilamenten bis unter die Langsmuskeln der Cutis und
gehen hier in ein spongiéses Gewebe tiber, dessen Abzugskandle in
den Zwischenwanden der Polypenzellen zu verlaufen scheinen.’”
Kélliker, 1872 p.320.
CAVERNULARIA ELEGANS, Herklots.
According to Kiikenthal and Broch, filaments are present on the
dorsal mesenteries (1911, p.513).
C. OBESA, Milne-Edwards and Haime.
This species affords a marked contrast to C. orientalis being
extremely fleshy and the siphonozooids densely crowded, rendering
investigation difficult. The filaments are slightly coiled and rua
down the narrow zooid cavity closely parallel for an average
distance of 0.42 m.m. or about 24 times the length of the
stomodaeum. Kiikenthal and Broch (1911 p.513) record the
presence of filaments in the species.
i @
C. ORIENTALIS, Thomson and Simpson.
The filaments here are exceptionally well developed, and
are very readily perceptible owing to the transparency of the
tissues of the colony. In most of the siphonozooids these filaments
extend for an appreciable distance beyond the bases of the
coelentera into the subjacent canals. In an average sized siphon-
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. ixtt, (1917) No. 4 9
zooid the total length of one of the filaments was 0.672 m.m. and of
this a length of 0.192 m.m. projected beyond the coelenteric cavity.
In all the siphonozooids of this specimen the filaments were fully
extended and showed no convolutions or coils: seen from the
external surface of the colony they curved out from the base of the
stomodaeum, the two filaments forming an angle of from 45
-90 degrees.
C. pusitya, Herklots.
In describing this species under the name Stylobelemnon,
Kolliker states that the siphonozooids have two mesenteric fila-
ments. Recent writers however cast doubt on this observation:
a: auch Mesenterialfilamente vermochte ich meist nicht
soiree ea Nach KGlliker (1872 p.350) sllen zwei Mesen-
terialflamente vorhanden sein, doch reichte der Erhaltungszustand
meines Materials nicht aus, um wUberail mit Sicherheit das
Vorkommen dieser beiden, jedenfalls den dorsalen Septen
zugehérigen Filamente wiederzufinden. Nur an ein paar Stellen
habe ich diese dorsalen Mesenterialfilamente erkennen k6nnen”’
(K. and B. 1911 p.513). As I have had no opportunity of examin-
ing this species | am unable to add anything further to these
statements.
ACTINOPTILUM MOLLE, Kikenthal.
This species is closely allied to the Cavernularias and similarly
possesses well developed dorsal mesenteric filaments.
ECHINOPTILUM ECHINATUM, Kikenthal and Broch.
A specimen dredged by the “‘Valdivia’’ off Somaliland is describ-
ed as having siphonozooids with straight powerfully developed
dorsal septa bearing filaments (K. and B. p.518).
E. ELONGATUM, Hickson.
The filaments in this species are the longest observed in the
genus and reach a length of 0.288 m.m.
E. minimum, Hickson.
Mesenteric filaments short: 0.16 - 0.18 m.m. in length and aver-
age width 0.037 m.m.
E. ROSEUM, Hickson.
The filaments are narrow and only reach down for a distance
equal to the length of the stomodaeum. As in the other species of
the genera they are straight. E. roseuwm, E. elongatum and E.,
minimum are new species taken by the “‘Siboga’’ in the East
Indian Archipelago.
10.©6©. Ligutspown, /ilaments in the Siphonoszootds of Pennatulacea
KOPHOBELEMNON PAUCIFLORUM, Hickson.
The mesenteric filaments are here very much coiled up.
K. Burcert, Herklots.
K. STELLIFERUM, Miller.
L. Leucxartn, K6lliker.
Filaments are recorded in the siphonozooids of these species
(Kolliker 1872, p.303). The observation on L. stelliferum is con-
firmed by Kiikenthal and Broch (1911, p.523).
SCLEROBELEMNON BURGERI, Herklots.
The filaments are very much coiled up, and in a preparation of
the whole siphonozooids, are difficult to identify, being in most of
the zooids hidden by the stomodaeum.
FUNICULINA QUADRANGULARIS, Pallas.
There is some doubt among writers on this genus as to whether
the small zooids without tentacles occuring on the rachis are true
siphonozooids or young autozooids.
Marshall says of them ‘‘They have only two mesenterial fila-
ments, viz. those corresponding to the two long filaments of the
‘ polyps: like these latter they extend to the bottom of the body
cavity. The remaining six mesenteries are present, but their free
edges below the stomach are not thickened to form mesenterial
filaments.’’ (1882 p.19). It is further stated however—‘‘in the
younger specimens there appears to be a gradual passage from
zooids to polypes, though whether zooids are in all cases destined
ultimately to grow up into polyps must be left for the present
undecided.’’ Kikenthal and Broch consider the zooids in question
to be siphonozooids (1911, p.527 and Fig. 100, Taf. XXVIII).
In the specimen I examined there appeared to be no transition from
siphonozooids to autozooids, and the smallest zooids with no ten-
tacles bore well-developed dorsal filaments of typical structure
(0.037 m.m. broad) and no others.
PROTOPTILUM CELEBENSE, Hickson.
In this species the mesenteric filaments are of the coiled type.
DISTICHOPTILUM. y,
No specimen of this genus has been available for investigation,
and having found no reference to the anatomy of the siphonozooids
in the literature of the genus, I am unable to make any statement
with regard to mesenteric filaments. The species are more slender
than Protoptilum but as filaments are so generally found in all these
more primitive forms it is probable they occur here also.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) Wo. 4 II
(CHUNELLA GRACILLIMA, Kiikenthal. -
In his description of this species in the memoir of the ‘‘Siboga’’
Expedition (1916 p.112) Hickson describes the siphonozooids
“found on the dorsal side of the swellings of the rachis that bear
the autozooids,’’ and mentions that in them the mesenteries are
little developed, ‘‘but there appear to be two long mesenteric fila-
ments connected with the stomodaeum of each siphonozooid.’’
Further it is stated that siphonozooids were not found on the rachis
between these swellings. Beyond confirming the observation of
filaments and noting that they were somewhat coiled, I have made
no further examination, but it would be interesting to determine
whether the siphonozooids described by Kiikenthal and Broch in the
slender parts of the rachis between whorls of autozooids possess
filaments or not.
UMBELLULA ANTARCTICA, Kikenthal.
The siphonozooids on the rachis possess considerably coiled
dorsal mesenteric filaments.
i examined a single preparation, made from this ‘‘Siboga’’
specimen, of a piece of the body wall from the basal swelling of the
stalk. This tissue was stained in borax carmine, which is not very
satisfactory for the present purpose, but in it a few scattered
-siphonozooids were discernable. This point is of interest in view of
the fact that their presence destroys the value of the morphological
diagnosis made by Jungersen (1904 p.82) that “‘the zooidless part
of the bulb corresponds to the peduncle (i.e. stalk) of other Penna-
tulacea, and the greater part of the stalk from the beginning is to
be regarded as the rachis.’’ This point is discussed by Hickson in
the “‘Siboga’’ memoir (p.118). For the purpose of the present
investigation I can make no dogmatic assertion on the presence of
mesenteric filaments in these basal siphonozooids: certain rather
yellowish sinuous bodies by the side of the stomodaeum in most of
the zooids bear a strong resemblance to filaments, but the fact that
they have absorbed little or no stain casts a certain amount of
doubt on their identity, and from lack of material I am unable to
make further preparations for confirmation. In my experience,
whatever the state of preservation, mesenteric filaments stain as
readily as the ectoderm of the stomodaeum, and to a greater extent
than the epithelium and mesoderm of the surrounding tissue. Fila-
ments would undoubtedly be of use in promoting circulation of
water in this fleshy part of the colony.
UMBELLULA CARPENTERI, KoOlliker.
The siphonozooids of the ‘“‘petaloid’’ region of this species
possess filaments of unusually large size. ‘The siphonozooids
12 LicutTsown, Filaments tn the Stphonozooids of Pennatulacea
average 0.3 m.m. in diameter, with a stomodaeum measuring 0.2
m.m. in dorsiventral.diameter and every coelenteron appears to be
almost filled with the large convoluted filaments, 0.096 m.m. in
greatest width; so that at any level of a series of transverse sec-
tions a single filament may be cut through transversely two or three
times, or may appear cut longitudinally for a length of .2 to .3 m.m.
In describing a specimen taken by the ‘‘Discovery’’ Hickson
(1907 p.13) refers to the small siphonozooids from the upper part
of the bulb, which he examined in transverse section, and says of
these : ‘“The specimen is not sufficiently well preserved to enable me
to state definitely that the dorsal mesenteric filaments are present,
but certain groups of darkly stained cells situated below the stom-
odaeum probably represent these structures.’’ I have examined the
preparations mentioned and though the material is not sufficiently
well preserved to show any minute structure, the position and
stained condition of these bodies justifies the supposition that they
represent filaments.
U. Graciiis, Marshall. = U. Linpauti, Kolliker.
Mesenteric filaments in the siphonozooids are described by Mar-
shall for a specimen trawled by the ‘‘Triton’’ (1883 p.146) but the
statement and accompanying diagram (Plate XXV. fig. 33) refer
to the large tentacular siphonozooids towards the top of the rachis,
_ and while the author mentions that the zooids decrease in size to-
wards the base of the rachis, he does not state if filaments are
present in all. Jungersen identifies the U. Lindahl of KGlliker
with the above species and confirms the observation of filaments.
(1904 p.77).
U. Jorpani, Nutting.
In this species also the filaments are well developed, being of
considerable length, and coiled, though not to the same extent as
those in U. Carpenteri.
OSTEOCELLA SEPTENTRIONALIS, Gray.
Siphonozooids in this large fleshy sea-pen occur scattered on the
dorsal track of the rachis and between the leaves, and in all
mesenteric filaments are well developed.
PAVONARIA FINMARCHICA, Sars.
PavonariA (Hauipr.) Curistu, Koren and Danielssen.
Of the first of these species K6lliker (loc. cit. p.242) referring
to the siphonozooids, says ‘‘die ich als die zwei langen Mesenterial-
filamente deute, die bei den Zooiden so vieler Pennatuliden sich
finden:’’ of the second species which was described under the
generic name Halipteris a similar observation is made (p.248).
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxtt. (1917), Wo. 4 rE 3)
ANTHOPTILUM GRANDIFLORUM, Verril.
The filaments are slightly sinuous and average 0.045 m.m. in
breadth.
A. KUKENTHALI, Hickson.
In a specimen of this species from the Indian Ocean, Mrs.
Musgrave (1909 p.464) observed siphonozooids in the lower part
of the stalk. Though small in size they had the usual structure of
siphonozooids but differed from others of the colony in possessing
no mesenteric filaments. It is interesting to compare this condition
with that in Umbellula, where there is some evidence of the fila-
ments being present in siphonozooids at the base of the stalk. The
explanation may lie in the fact that in Anthoptilum a far greater
number of large siphonozooids with well developed filaments is
present in the colony, and these extend comparatively much nearer
the basal bulb than in Umbellula. In Anthoptilum, therefore, the
exhalent currents set up by the filaments of the siphonozooids of
the rachis are sufficiently strong to discharge water from the stalk,
whereas in Umbellula this is not the case, and filaments are necess-
ary in the basal stalk zooids.
A. MALAYENSE, Hickson.
The filaments are here more slender than in A. grandiflorunw
but are considerably more coiled, and extend in some zooids to a
depth of 0.5 m.m. from the surface of the colony. In examining
the siphonozooids in situ this coiled mass of filaments is very
striking.
VIRGULARIA GRACILLIMA, KOlliker.
In the genus siphonozooids are comparatively few in number.
In this species they are situated on the rachis between leaves, and
mesenteric filaments are absent.
V. Gustaviana, Herklots.
In this species, which he described as Halisceptrum, K6lliker-
(1872 p.168) observes that the corners of the lower free end of the
stomodaeum appear almost like mesenteric filaments, but expresses-
the doubt “‘doch habe ich mir nicht die Ueberzeugung zu
verschaffen vermocht, dass diese Anhange wirklich diese
Bedeutung haben.’’ It would be of interest if the occurence of
short mesenteric filaments was definitely established in this species
which is rather of a fleshy character and has a large number of
siphonozooids. The same author describes fifteen species of
Virgularia, and makes the general statement that mesenteric
filaments are lacking. For reference, a list of these species is
14 LicutTsown, Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea
appended, exclusive of species which I have personally examined —
and species synonymous with such. 1
VIRGULARIA GLACIALIS, Sars. Fj
eal AFFINIS, (= V. Steenstrupii) Kélliker.
Ma Evuisi1, Gray.
ae ELEGANS, Gray.
ie PUSILLA, Verrill.
ae GRACILIS, Gabb.
Re ELONGATA, Gabb.
Confirmatory evidence of the lack of filaments in siphonozooids of
the species listed would therefore be valuable.
V. JUNCEA, Pallas.
Siphonozooids do not possess filaments.
V. MIRABILIS, Lamarck.
An examination of longitudinal sections through the siphono-
zcoids appeared to confirm the Marshalls’ statement (1882, p.72)
that the stomodaea are blind sacs. There is no indication of
mesenteric filaments and if the above statement is correct the zooids
would appear to be functionless. The specimen I investigated was
however small in size, hence it is possible that with further growth
the stomodaea might acquire an opening into the body cavities.
V. Rumpui, Kolliker.
The siphonozooids occur in vertical rows between the leaves, and
in them mesenteric filaments are entirely absent. It may be noted
here that in the young zooids occuring in a groove near the base
-of the rachis well developed dorsal mesenteric filaments were found.
This observation confirms the opinion expressed by Professor
Hickson (1916, p.149) that these zooids are young or undeveloped
autozooids. | When mature, autozooids possess eight mesenteric
filaments, but where development has been followed the fact has
‘been established that the dorsal ectodermic pair are the first to
-appear. Accordingly, as mesenteric filaments are absent in mature
siphonozooids, their occurence in these undeveloped zooids coupled
with the fact of the presence of young gonads on the mesenteries,
-appears to place Hickson’s interpretation beyond doubt.
‘V. .SCHULTZEI, Kiikenthal.
The species is remarkable in the genus in having the siphono-
zooids on the leaves, and in the fact of these siphonozooids being
provided with short but well developed sinuous filaments.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti. (1917), Wo. 4 15
_ PENNATULA FIMBRIATA, Herklots.
Filaments are present, being in some zooids slightly convoluted
and in others practically straight; in the latter they extend in
some cases as far as 0.064 m.m. beyond the lower edge of the
stomodaeum.
P. GRANDIS, Ehrenberg ( = P. BOREALIS, Sars).
In the normal siphonozooids large thick and much coiled fila-
ments are present ; mesozooids are also present, occuring on the
dorsal rachis at the edge of each leaf.
P. Murray, Kolliker.
Mesenteric filaments are absent in the siphonozooids, but the
species resemble P. gvandis_in having mesozooids, on being
found at the edge of each leaf, in the same position as in the latter
species.
P. PHOSPHOREA, Linnaeus.
Filaments are present, being long, straight and rather slender :
maximum breadth 0.032 m.m., length up to 0.56 m.m.This con-
firms the observation of the Marshalls (1882, p.46).
P. RuBRA, Ellis.
The filaments are similar in size to those in the siphonozooids
oi P. phosphorea. In a few of the zooids, however, I was unable to
find them ; it is possible they may have been accidentally dissected
away with the mesodermal tissue in making preparations, or may
actually have been present but obscured by mesodermal fleshy
tissue. As the number of zooids in which filaments were not observ-
ed was comparatively small, the point is of little importance.
It may be noted here that in a surface examination of pieces of
P. rubra from the Bay of Naples, I saw no evidence of the large
zooid near the dorsal edge of the leaf which was described by
Kiikenthal and Broch for a specimen obtained from the Indian
Ocean (1911, p.383).
LEIOPTILUM QUADRANGULARIS, Moroff.
The siphonozooids crowded on the dorsal side of the rachis and
between the leaves, bear mesenteric filaments. Their presence is
of interest in view of the fact that Kélliker found no filaments in
L. undulatum, Verrill, from California and Mexico. Of Leiop-
tilum and Sarcophylum this author says ‘‘In einem andern Punkte
stimmen jedoch beide Gattungen tiberein, namlich in dem Mangel der
Mesenterialfilamente in den Zooiden. Von den lateralen Zooiden
16 LIGHTBOWN, Filaments in the Stphonozootds of Pennatulacea
hat jedes eine geraumige Leibeshéhle mit 8 Septa, die unterhalb |
-des Magens in einen kurzen Kanal sich fortsetzt, an dem ich eben-
falls keine Filamente finde. ”’
In Ptilosarcus Gurneyi, Gray, now called L. Gurneyi, Gray (vide
Hickson p.188) K6lliker did find two mesenteric filaments ‘‘of
‘tolerable length’’ and subsequently cited the occurence of them as
one of the diagnostic characters of the genus Piilosarcus. (1872,
p. 368).
In the same writer’s account of the British Museum specimen L.
sinuosum (= Ptilosarcus sinuosus, Gray) there is no statement.
regarding the filaments of the siphonozooids, but in L. Grayt
‘(= Sarcoptilis grandis, Gray) their absence is noted. (l.c. p.368).
Scytatium Batssi, Hickson.
S MartTensil, Koélliker.
oF Sarsil, Herklots.
Filaments are absent in the siphonozooids of the three above
-species.
PTEREOEIDES ARGENTEUM, Ellis and Solander.
wi CALEDONICUM, KoOlliker.
a GRISEUM, Bohadsch.
uk MALAYENSE, Hickson.
is sPEciosuM, K6lliker.
ba TIMORENSE, Hickson.
Filaments are absent in the siphonozooids of all the above
Pteroeides species.
-PTEROEIDES PELLUCIDUM, KoOlliker.
Siphonozooids situated on the lower surface of the leaves are
stated to possess mesenteric filaments by Kélliker (1872, p.38)
with the qualification—‘‘Doch sah ich sie bei einzelnen Individuen
auch fehlen und weiss ich nicht, ob denselben ein allgemeines
Vorkommen, bei den verschiedenen Arten zuzuschreiben ist.’’ In
-other zooids of the colony they are absent.
PTER. STEENSTRUPII, KOlliker.
The siphonozooids on the leaves of this species are not densely
crowded in “‘plates’’ but occur scattered apart, some singly, others
in small groups of six or fewer. Filaments are present in them on
both upper and under surfaces of the leaf, and while these filaments
are of approximately uniform breadth (0.023 m.m. — 0.018 m.m.)
there is considerable variation in length (0.032 m.m. — 0.352
‘m.m.).
iaaty
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxit. (1917), Vo. 4 17
LIST OF SPECIES.
In the following list of species discussed in this paper, an asterisk
denotes those which have not been personally examined.
The family names are omitted, but the grouping of genera is in
accordance with the classification used by Professor Hickson
(1916).
1 mes. | Dorsal mes.
Genus and Species. Locality. Saurabh ipamiaed:
fils. present. | fils. absent.
LITUARIA HICKSONII, Molo Strait,
Thomson and Simpson. E. Ind. Arch. +
VERETILLUM MALAYENSE, Bay of Bima, doubtful -
Hickson. E. Ind. Arch.
*V. CYNOMORIUM, Pallas. S. Africa. +
*V. (POLICELLA) AUSTRALIS, Sharks Bay,
Gray. Australia. | t
- * V. (POLICELLA) MANILLENSIS, | Philippine Is.
Kolliker.
*CAVERNULARIA ELEGANS, W. Coast
Herklots. Central Africa. | +
C. oBEsA, Milne-Ed. and Haime. | Andaman Is.
C. ORIENTALIS, Amboyna,
Thomson and Simpson. E. Ind. Arch.
*C. (STYLOBELEMNON) PUSILLA, | Sicily. doubtful
Herklots.
ACTINOPTILUM MOLLE, Cape of Good Hope. if
Kiikenthal.
*ECHINOPTILUM ECHINATUM, Somaliland. +
Kiikenthal and Broch.
E. ELONGATUM, Hickson. Kangeang Is. +
E. Ind. Arch.
E. MINIMUM, Hickson. S. Coast Timor, +
E. Ind. Arch.
E. ROSEUM, Hickson. Off Kei Is., +
E. Ind. Arch.
*RENILLA MULLER], Schultze. Coast of Brazil. ( +
KOPHOBELEMNON PAUCIFLORUM,| Djilolo, +
Hickson. E. Ind. Arch.
*K. BuRGERI, Herklots. Japan. +
*K, LEUCKARTII, KoOlliker. ‘ +
*K. STELLIFERUM, Miiller. Trondhjem fjord. +
SCLEROBELEMNON BURGER], Molo Strait, +
Herklots. E. Ind. Arch.
18 Licutsown, Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea
‘ A Dorsal mes. | Dorsal mes.
Genus and Species. Locality. fils. present. ;
FUNICULINA QUADRANGULARIS, | W. coast Scotland. iT
Pallas.
PROTOPTILUM CELEBENSE, Celebes. if
Hickson.
*P. CARPENTERI, Kolliker. Atlantic. t
*P, Smitri, Kélliker. Atlantic. ii
*P. THOMSONI, KOlliker. Atlantic. ii
CHUNELLA GRACILLIMA, E. Java Sea. +
Kiikenthal.
UMBELLULA ANTARCTICA, near Saleyer, ih
Kiikenthal. E. Ind. Arch.
U. CaRPENTERI, Kolliker. Antarctic Ice Barrier i
U. GRACILIS, Marshall. N.W. coast'Scotland ii
U. LInDAHLII, Kolliker. Greenland. il
U. JorpDaANI, Nutting. S. Celebes. i
OSTEOCELLA SEPTENTRIONALIS, }
Gray.
*PAVONARIAFINMARCHICA, Sars. +
*P. (HALIPTERIS) CHRISTI, off E. coast it
Koren and Danielssen. England.
ANTHOPTILUM GRANDIFLORUM, Cape of Good Hope. +
Verrill.
A. KOKENTHALI, Hickson. Indian Ocean. +
A. MALAYVENSE, Hickson. off Flores Is., if
E. Ind. Arch.
VIRGULARIA GRACILLIMA, E. Buton Strait,
Kolliker. E. Ind. Arch.
*V. (Halisceptrum) GUSTAVIANA, | China.
Herklots.
V. JUNCEA, Pallas. Saleyer,
E. Ind. Arch.
V. MIRABILIS, Lamarck. W. coast Scotland.
V. RUMPHII, Kolliker. Menado, {
E: Ind. Arch.
V. SCHULTZEI, Kiikenthal. Cape of Good Hope. +
PENNATULA FIMBRIATA, S. coast Timor, 1
Herklots. E. Ind. Arch.
P. GRANDIS, Ehrenberg. Faero Is. +
P. MurRRAYI, Kolliker.
coast Timor
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1917), Mo. 4 19
; E Dorsal mes. | Dorsal mes.
Genus and Species. Locality. fils. present. | fils. absent.
P. PHOSPHOREA, Linnzus. Naples. t
P. RUBRA, Ellis. Naples. it
*ACANTHOPTILUM AGASSIZII, off French Reef, t
Kolliker. Gulf Stream.
*A, POURTALESII, Kolliker. off Carysfort Reef, if
Gulf Stream.
*LEIOPTILUM GRaYI, Kolliker. | probably Australia. i
(=SARCOPTILIS GRANDIS,
Gray).
*L. (PTILOSARCUS) GURNEYI, California. Hh
Gray.
L. QUADRANGULARIS, Moroff. Hecate Strait, t
Brit. Columbia. |
: ie : ‘ undeter-
*L. stNuosUM, Kolliker. California. ened
*L. UNDULATUM, Verril. California. +
SCYTALIUM Batssil, Hickson. Timor, +
E. Ind. Arch.
Sc. MARTENSII, Kolliker. Timor. t
Se. Sars, Herklots. Java Sea. t
*SARCOPHYLLUM AUSTRALE, Australia. +
Kolliker.
PTEROEIDES ARGENTEUM, New Guinea. t
Ellis and Solander.
PT. CALEDONICUM, Kolliker. Amboyna, it
E. Ind. Arch.
PY. GRISEUM, Bohadsch. Naples
PT. MALAYENSE, Hickson. E. Borneo Bank. ii
*PT. PELLUCIDUM, Kolliker. Philippine Is. t
PT. SPECIOSUM, Kolliker. Molo Strait. t
Pr. STEENSTRUPII, Kolliker. Tandjong Priok, it
Java.
PT. TIMORENSE, Hickson. S. coast Timor. i
EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Figure I. Siphonozooid of Pennatula phosphorea in longitudinal
section A, with stomodaeum whole; B, with stomo-
daeum bisected in dorso-ventral plane.
Figure 11. Siphonozooids of Echinoptilum minimum in trans-
verse section, cut at three levels. A, section throug’:
stomodaeum; B, section below stodaeum; C, section
near base of coelenteron.
20 LicutTpown, filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea
LITERATURE.
1872 Korziker, A. Die Pennatuliden. Anatomisch-Systematische
Beschreibung der Alcyonarien.
1882 MarsuHatt, A. M. and Marsuati, W. P. Report on the
Oban Pennatulida.
1883 Marsuatt, A.M. Report on the Pennatulida dredged by
H.M.S. ‘“‘Triton,’’? Trans. Royal Society Edinburgh.
XXXII.
a Witson, E. B. Development of Renilla. Trans. Royal
Society. Part lil.
13884 Whuxson, E. B. The mesenterial filaments of the Alcyonaria.
Mittheilungen Zool. stat. zu Neapel, V.
1888 JuNGERSEN, H. F. E. ‘Ueber Bau und Entwickelung der
Kolonie von Pennatula. Zeits. Wiss. Zool. XLVII.
1904 JuNcERSEN, H. F. E. Pennatulida. Danish “‘Ingolf”’ Ex-
pedition, Vol. V.
1907 HicKxson, S. J. Coelenterata, Alcyonaria. Nat. Antaractic
Expedition, Nat. Hist. Vol. IHI., Brit. Mus.
1909 Muscrave, E. M. Experimental observations on the
organs of circulation and the powers of locomotion in
Pennatulids. Q.J.M.S. Vol. 54.
1911 KUKENTHAL, W. and Brocu, Hy. Pennatulacea Wiss.
Ergeb der Deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem
. Dampfer Valdivia, 1898-1899, Bd. XII.
1916 Hickson, S. J. Pennatulacea of the Siboga Expedition,
Monograph XIV.
REFERENCE LETTERS.
AULGZ ee ee aULLOZOOIG:
@ OVO Gi encoclenteniercavaty
Guin oeg, oa) Wool) seo Glonselll nnesenlisay
@imiefy 62 2 4. 28 dorsal, mesentenic ailament
& Aaa aoa. Mada May al Comenelireran
m. MEGAN OW AAma ny elect OE
Sl. BPA a/ hens 1 esa. Sil}0) OVO LATOYe by7/0)0
st. ROM COO Ee stomodae una
WAI. Vaca (aR alee eee eenViel tkallipiie se mbe ny,
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. txit., No. a. Plate t.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti. (1917), Wo. 5
V. Somatose.
By WILLIAM THomson, F.R.S.E.,; F.I.C., F.C.S.
( Received and read January 8th 1918.)
The substance sold under the name of Somatose was invented by
a German and prepared by a well-known German firm (The Bayer
Co., Ltd.) some years ago. It was put up in small square tins
containing 2 ozs. and sold at 3/2 per tin, i.e. 25/4 per Ib. It was
claimed for it, that although taken in small doses of two or four
level teaspoonfuls per day for adults, equal to 6 to 12 grammes, i.e.
from one-fifth to two-fifths of an ounce, it rapidly increased the
weight of the person taking it, and was specially recommended for
invalids, and for all sorts of disease.
At one time, probably on the reputation of the name of the manu-
facturer, it was largely used and frequently recommended by
medical men.
Somatose was manufactured from the refuse left after extract-
ing meat with warm water. The solution thus obtained, after
concentration, constituted the meat extract which is a good tonic,
but cannot be regarded as a food.
The insoluble refuse or fibrine was no doubt suitable for food,
if used at once, or if preserved in tins, although it would be some-
what tough, but it was not always so used in the Argentine. It
was often disposed of by being thrown into the sea.
The process devised by an ingenious German was, to heat the
fibrine with water under a pressure of 90 lbs to the square inch i.e.
at a temperature of 320 degrees Fahrenheit for some time, when
a large part of it went into solution. The solution was filtered from
the insoluble tissue and fat and evaporated to dryness. This left
a brittle brownish residue which on being powdered constituted
Somatose.
2 THOMSON, Somatose
The following gives the results I found by treating 100 parts of
Raw Lean Beef calculated on the dry materials :—
Per cent.
Soluble Matter removed by digesting the meat in
warm water, then boiling the meat extract to
coagulate the albumen and filtering wu L9r2 it
Soluble Matter obtained by heating the Sasclties
part from the above, with water to 320 degrees
Fahrenheit (under a pressure of 90 Ibs. to the
square inch) (‘‘ Somatose ’’) : oe vues OMe
Insoluble matter from j Non-fatty material) awoke OM
‘above treatment Viateeee ne if) .. 19.88
100.00
According to some of the most recent researches, any food
material to be of full value must contain ‘‘ Vitamines ’’—principles
which are destroyed by excessive heat in cooking, or which may be
rubbed off the outside of the grains of rice (where it exists) in
improving its appearance by means of ‘‘polishing ;’’ this ‘‘polish-
ed’’ rice when eaten being regarded as the cause of the disease
““‘beri-beri’’ through the rice having been thus deprived of its
vitamines.
The process of digestion in the stomach and _ intestines
are exceedingly complicated. They depend largely on certaia
enzymes secreted in the salivary glands, the stomach, the pancreas,
and the intestine, which break down the albuminous and other
constituents of the food to elementary molecules, and on the pro-
perties of other enzymes which re-build these unfolded constituents
or elementary molecules into the complicated structures which
constitute the various organs of the body.
The structure of food of any kind is such that the various
enzymes are liable to act on these delicately constructed
molecules of which the food is composed.
Leaving the question of vitamines out, does it seem probable that
on heating an albuminoid substance of the nature of fibrin to
a temperature of 320 degrees Fahrenheit for an hour, that the
delicate molecules would remain in the same condition as they
existed in the original fibrin? To get some information on this
point I heated a solution of cane sugar to the same temperature
with the result that the sugar was entirely destroyed and blackened,
and there resulted what appeared to be a mixture of charcoal and
water. It is obvious therefore—disregarding the presence of cer-
tain delicate organic bodies called Vitamines—that in the case of
cane sugar, the actual molecule is destroyed by heating to 320
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxit. (1917), Vo. 5 3
degrees Fahrenheit, and it would certainly then cease to have any
nourishing properties.
The reason I came to study this problem was that a certain Port
Wine was alleged to contain what was an equivalent in nourishing
properties to 7 per cent. of its weight of lean meat. This so-called
nourishing material put into the wine was Somatose which
dissolved almost completely in it, and after settling or filtering, the
wine, was obtained clear with the Somatose in solution.
To arrive at the equivalent in Somatose of lean meat, the per-
centage of Nitrogen in both were determined, and it was assumed
that the equivalent of Somatose in Nitrogen was equal to the
equivalent of lean beef in Nitrogen for feeding purposes. It need
hardly be mentioned that this supposition is utterly fallacious, be-
cause it might be similarly argued that a small quantity of Urea,
which is rich in Nitrogen and has no food value would be equal as
a food to a large quantity of lean meat.
Somatose was obviously a complicated organic body. The
following analysis of it is given by A. R. Tankard :—
Per Cent.
Water ee has zs Ne aes fi toi 4 2e
Alkali Albumin (precipitated from the cold aqueous
solution by Acetic Acid in slight excess) . SS
Coagulable Albumin oes from the filtrate by
Beboiline).... ses gh OSkO)
Albumoses (precipitated om ‘the filtrate i Zinc
Sulphate) . ae ake Ve S390
Peptones (precipitated ftom filtrate by Beene) he toe OG
Meat bases (Calculated from excess Nitrogen oy factor
3.12) aie : Jae OL
Ash (having an allcalinity ‘equivalent to 1.91 ner cent.
Sodium Carbonate, Na,CO,) 208 ae BRE Roe 0)
Difference (not accounted for) iA pe: Hiss Pe OROS
100.00
This analysis of such a complicated organic substance cannot
be regarded as satisfactory, so I give as follows the analysis by
Luff and Sir Thomas Stevenson :—
Per cent.
Deutero-Albumose hi Aa ee mJ ve SOO
Hetero-Albumose i ue a Bs fe to 40
Peptone eh nee Ea 5 a tu i Baal Poet] a)
Water ie fe Oh ats abe a .. 11.04
Mineral Matter... ae aA is sth ah Mus 3 024
Difference (not accounted! for) wes aie a . 13.94
100.00
4 THomson, Somatose
These figures do not add anything to our knowledge as to its
food value.
The question then arose as to how it was possible to determine
whether it possessed any, and if so, what food value, and I con-
cluded that the only way was to feed animals with it as part of their
food, and weigh them from time to time, to find whether they
gained weight as compared with other animals eating the same
kind of food to which an amount of lean beef had been added,
equivalent in Nitrogen content to the Somatose. As I had only
a small quantity of Somatose at my disposal I could only afford to
feed small animals with it, and I decided to use tame mice.
It required a series of trials to find the best method of feeding
them. If the food were left in an open dish the mice scattered it and
some was wasted. I finally put the food at the bottom of a small
wide mouthed bottle which was laid on its side, so that the mice had
to put their heads inside the bottle to get it; this prevented
the scattering, and the food was then reduced in quantity to that
which an average mouse would eat in 24 hours.
The food supplied to each consisted of 2 grammes of Oats per 24
hours, the other constituents of the food being altered in accord-
ance with their nature. It was desired in the first instance to find,
as was stated, whether Somatose as measured by its Nitrogen
content, was equal as a food to lean beef as measured by
its Nitrogen content.
The following are the proportions of Nitrogen contained in
materials | employed for feeding purposes :—
Per cent. of
Nitrogen
Oats Nu pate Be oly UN aie Pa 2)
Lean Beef.. a: i is ae Bo Reon aratro
Plasmon ... NG ne a NN Wak Pas lb) la US)
Somatose... Ae se as Be aon oe Pals
Lean beef contains about 68 per cent. of water, whilst Somatose
contains 13.26 per cent.
By my analysis I found that 2 grammes of lean beef contained
0.063 gramme of Nitrogen, whilst the same amount of Nitrogen
was contained in 0.416 gramme of dry Somatose. The 2 grammes
of raw meat contained 1.36 grammes of water, which left a total of
solid matter in the 2 grammes of raw beef of 0.64 gramme: the
dry Somatose containing 0.063 gramme of Nitrogen amounted to
0.416 gramme, I therefore made up the deficiency in total solid
matter between the lean beef and the Somatose by adding 0.224
grammes of Dry Glucose to the Somatose ration.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti. (1917), Wo. 5 5
A third experiment was made by comparing both of these foods
with ‘‘Plasmon’’ which is dried casein, as one of the constituents of
the ration, in place of lean beef or Somatose. I found that 0.487
gramme of Plasmon contained the same amount of Nitrogen as
2 grammes of lean beef or 0.416 gramme of Somatose, and I there-
fore weighed out this quantity, but as this left less dry total solid
matter than that contained in lean beef, I made up the difference
by adding 0.15 gramme of Glucose.
2 grammes of water were mixed with the oats and lean meat,
this together with the water contained in the lean beef itself was
equivalent to 3.36 grammes of water in the lean beef ration, and
this quantity of water was added to the dry ration which contained
Somatose, and which contained Plasmon.
Two mice were fed on each of these rations, accurately
weighed out, to each mouse every 24 hours, and each mouse
was carefully weighed after that time. Some difficulty was found
in weighing the mice, as they would not remain still on the pan of
the balance ; this was overcome by putting each mouse into a small
wide mouthed bottle, with a cover of wire gauze to keep it in
and weighing the mouse plus the tared bottle and cover.
The weight of each of the six mice was calculated in terms of its
original weight, which was taken as 100 parts, and the following
graph Fig. 1 shews the changes in weight during each day of 24
hours.
The following were the daily rations for each mouse, numbered
1 to 6. :
MICE.
Nos. 1 and 2 Nos. 3 and 4 Nos. 5 and 6
Oats ae oie og 2.000 2.000 2.000
*Lean meat chopped fine
and mixed with the
Oats: ... a eae) 22000
*Dry Somatose ... ties 416
*Dry Plasmon _.... ue .487
Dry Glucose a Wis 224 .150
Water... be ... 2,000 3.360 3.363
6.000 6.000 6.000
*The weights of each of these rations contained 0.063 gramme of
Nitrogen in addition to the Nitrogen present in the oats. The
same amount of dry solid matter and the same amount of water
was also contained in each.
THOMSON, Somatose
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Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xtt. (1917), No. 5 7
After the first 24 hours all the mice gained in weight except No.
4 which ate the Somatose ration, and its weight did not change.
100 parts of the other mice became 103 to 106 parts.
After the second day all the mice shewed increase in weight
except No. 3 and 4 which ate the Somatose rations and No. 6.
No. 3 was three and No. 4 eight parts below their original weight,
whilst No. 6, Plasmon fed mouse, also fell to 14 parts below its
original weight.
After the third day the two Somatose fed mice still remained
under their original weights, whilst the Plasmon mouse, from being
i4 parts below its original weight became 9} parts above it, and it
and all the others continued with little variations to gain weight
during the following 12 days during which the experiment was
continued.
The Somatose fed mice remained with great variations below
their original weights during the whole of the 12 days, or during
the life time of one of them which died on the seventh day at 124
parts below its original weight. On the 12th day the othe~
Somatose fed mouse was six parts below its original weight and did
not appear in good form. It suffered from diarrhoea like the one
which died.
The other mice were all above their original weights as follows
and were well and happy.
Gain in parts per 100 of
Mice. Ration. original weight.
After 12 days.
No. 1. Lean beef and Oats ... Le 20
», 6. Plasmon and Oats _... AY 23
» 2 Lean beef and Oats ... ie 32
», 0 Plasmon and Oats ais ae. 344
After 12 days the feeding with Somatose, lean beef, and Plasmon
was stopped and each mouse was given the same ration, viz :—
Oats... ... soe Rae ee foe ... 2.71 grammes.
Water ave eh oi: Re OTRO Be, 3
: 6.00 i
The 2.71 grammes of Oats contained the same amount of
solid matter as the 2 grammes of Oats plus the raw beef. The
day after this ration was given (the 13th day) the most remarkable
result was that No. 4 previously Somatose fed mouse, from being
6 parts below, became 7 parts above its original weight. .On the
following or 14th day, its weight had fallen to 1 part above its
8 THOMSON, Somatose
original weight, on the 15th day it was 114 parts above, on the —
23rd day (after 8 days more, having been fed from the 12th to —
the 23rd day on oats and water alone) its weight had reached 323 —
parts above its original weight.
The. following shows the increase in each of the mice after 23
days :—i.e. After feeding with special foods including Lean beef,
Plasmon, and Somatose for 12 days changed to oats and water for
the succeeding 11 days.
Increase above the
original weight taken
as 100.
No. 5 Mouse previously fed with
Plasmon, Oats, and Glucose.. 64
No. 2 Mouse previously fed with Beef
and Oats uN 504
No. 6 Mouse previously fed oath
Plasmon, Oats, and Glucose.. 404
No. 1 Mouse aarnne fed ith ‘Lean
beef and Oats ... Os 35
No. 4 Mouse previously fed with
Somatose, Oats, and Glucose. i 324
On the 23rd day a fresh series of experiments was started with
the same mice, which were all much above their original weights.
0.71 gramme of the Oats was removed, and for it substituted
1 gramme (a) of the residue obtained by evaporating Port Wine
to dryness, which contained Somatose equivalent in Nitrogen con-
tent to 7 per cent. of Lean beef, and (b) of the residue obtained by
evaporating ordinary Port Wine to dryness.
Percentages.
The Wines consisted of : Somatose Ordinary
Port Wine. Port Wine.
Alcohol and water... ed we OF, 64) 1 ih ygeaosee
*Total dry solid residue... Aah wee) 12,30) eee nee
100.00 100.00
* Containing Nitrogen ... sis Vee Ont Seee .02
0.221 Nitrogen is equal to 1.69 Somatose and 7:0 of lean beef.
These wines contained about 9 per cent. of sugar.
The three mice, No. 1, No. 5, and No. 6, had the Somatose wine
residue, and No. 2 and No. 4 the ordinary Port Wine residue
ration, and this series was continued for 19 days more, that is, till
the 42nd day of the experiment.
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. xtt. (1917), Wo. 5 9
During this regime they all lost weight and on the 42nd day the
following were the weights below the original weights taken the
first time the mice were weighed :
Parts decrease (original
weight taken as 100)
between the 23rd and
the 42nd days.
Somatose Wine Residue and
Oats fed mice .. a eet TNOS Le 26.13
BA ilo 28.52
Bai al 17.49
Ordinary Wine Residue and
Oats fed Mice fs 6 ING 2 15.84
Rae 4 11.31
These figures shew that the average loss of weight in the three
‘mice fed with Somatose Port Wine Residue and Oats, between
the 24th and 42nd days was 24.71 parts per 100 of the original
weights of the mice, whilst the average loss of weight in the two
mice fed with Ordinary Port Wine Residue and Oats, during the
‘same time was 13.57 parts per 100 of the original weights.
The Port Wine Residue was therefore not equal to the Oats as
a feeding material, whilst the Port Wine Residue containing the
Somatose, which was advertised as a wonderful feeding material,
‘proved much less valuable as a food than the residue obtained from
-ordinary port wine.
Another series of experiments was made by feeding two mice
‘each with rations per 24 hours of :—
“A” Oats — 3 grammes, with 1 gramme of Glucose.
“B” Oats — 3 grammes, with 1 gramme of Port Wine Residue
“C” Oats — 3 grammes, with 1 gramme of Somatose Port
Wine Residue — Water in each 2.5 grammes.
The average weights for the two mice in each experiment shewed
that, with ‘‘A’’ and ‘‘B’’ rations which were Oats, mixed respec-
tively with Glucose and with Ordinary Port Wine Residue, the
weights increased during the first 24 hours, with Port Wine
Residue and Oats to 44 parts above the original weights taken at
100, with Glucose and Oats, to 2 parts per 100 above the original
weight of mice, whilst in ‘‘C’’ with the Somatose Port Wine Resi-
‘due, mixed with Oats, both mice lost weight on the average to 4
parts per 100 of original weight of mice.
On the second day the weights gained by ‘‘A’’ was 81 and by
“B” 8% parts, whilst with “‘C,”’ although they had gained weight
from the previous day, they were still 14 parts below their original
‘weights. These experiments were commenced on a Thursday at
10 THOMSON, Somatose
95)
as| '
Fig 2.
This graph shows the average daily weights of two mice in terms of their
original weights taken as 100, each two fed on the following daily rations :
grammes grammes grammes
Mice A
(OE Spin ecE cn Ra aha CRUDE A nes artureasan 3°0 na 30 uh 3-0
Glacose witch Bit dani caer ee ei snioaia raze) Wa — aes —
Ordinary Port Wine Residue ...... — fs 1° a —
Somatose Port Wine Residue ...... — ae — ae i ixo)
WWia tent sch Leek Woe AORN Tay URED Ries 2°5 cae 2°5 an 2°5
65) We aie 6:5
The six mice each received at the beginning of the second day double rations
(to last from Saturday till Monday). They evidently ate both during the first day
or so and starved and lost weight during the second day. The same daily rations
on the fourth day considerably increased their weights on the fifth day. It will be
seen that those which ate the rations containing somatose lost weight from the first.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917), No. 5 II
noon, and as the end of the second day was Saturday at noon, we
decided to leave them with double rations, till Monday at noon, for
two consecutive days, thus, on the fourth day the mice ‘‘A’”’ and
“‘B’’ from being about 84 parts per 100 above, had fallen to 4 parts.
below their original weights, whilst the ‘‘C’’ mice with Somatose
Wine residue rations fell by 13 parts per 100 of their original
weights. he mice had evidently eaten all the two days’ rations
cn the first day, and starved during the second. It is remarkable
that mice are capable of eating from half to a whole of their own
weight of food per day.
On the fifth day the ‘‘B’’ mice, fed with ordinary Port Wine
residue rations were 9 parts above their original weight. The
“A”? which had Glucose in their rations were 5 parts above their
original weight, and the ‘‘C’’ series, which had Somatose Wine
Residue were 44 parts below their original weights,
I made another set of experiments, to find how the mice would
fare if fed on the rations given in my first series of experiments,
but in one series simply leaving out the Somatose without adding
anything in its place. Two mice were fed therefore with Oats 2
grammes. Plasmon 0.487 gramme. Glucose 0.15 gramme. Water
3.36 grammes—Total 6 grammes, against other two mice fed with
Oats 2 grammes. Glucose 0.224 gramme. Water 3.36 grammes.
—Total 5.584 grammes, this being the same as the ration mixture
of my first experiments, but with the Somatose left out.
The mice fed on the first named or Plasmon ration, each gained
weight during the first day, one mouse 7%, and the other, 9 parts.
above their original weights taken as 100. The other two mice fed
with a decreased weight of food corresponding to the weight of
Somatose in the ration of my first experiments, each lost weight,
the first to 14 and the other to 34 parts per 100 of mouse.
At the end of the second day the two mice fed with Plasmon in
their rations were respectively 114 and 154 parts above their
original weights, whilst the other two with decreased rations were,
the one 4 part below, and the other two parts above their original
weights.
At the end of the third day the first two mice fed with Plasmon
in their rations were respectively 18 and 184 parts above, and the
other two mice fed with decreased rations, were 1, and 23 parts
respectively per 100 above the original weight.
At the end of the fourth day the first two with Plasmon in their
rations were respectively 23 and 24 parts above, and the other two
without Plasmon were respectively 3 above, and 14 parts below
their original weights. This series proved that whilst the Somatose
fed mice in my first 12 days’ experiment remained practically below
$20
12 THOMSON, Somatose
This graph shows the weight results obtained by feeding two mice A 1 & 2 and
B 1 & 2 with daily rations as follows :
Grammes.
AI&2 Bi&2
IDatsiei ee eae Ise 2°00 es Bees 2°00
Plasmon! (.0.-)..05-.000 49 tin none (*42 somatose omitted)
Glucose se a) 15 ‘aS Pe "22
Water ye tere uae 3°36 be ihe 3°36
6:00 Bue 5°58
These experiments were made to find whether mice B 1 & 2 would thrive better
without somatose, the other constituents of the ration shown in graph Fig. 1 being
left in; for comparison the ration given to mice A I & 2 were as shown in graph
Fig. t (mice 5 & 6). The nitrogen content of -49 gram. of Plasmon being the same
as “416 gram. of somatose which was left out or of 2 grams. of lean raw beef.
These results show that the food value of somatose was less than nothing as the
mice thrived better without it.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol, ixit. (1917), Wo. 5 13
their original weights during 12 days with very great variations
below, the mice in this series simply with the Somatose omitted
remained at or above their original weights with very little' varia-
tion, the rations being sufficient to keep them in good health.
These figures shew therefore, first, that Somatose is certainly
not a food, and second, that it is not even a neutral body, so far as
its food value is concerned, but is really an irritant, causing gastric
disturbance and diarrhoea and yet this is the German super-food
intended to increase the weight and body capacity of English people
and especially invalids, at 25/4 per lb.
I should have liked to try the effect of mixing Liebig’s Extract
in Nitrogen equivalent in place of Somatose as a food, I
believe it would have proved beneficial instead of acting as a poisoa
like Somatose, but I learned that, to feed mice with any kind of
food and weigh them, was in contravention of the Vivisection Act,
and I therefore went no further.
Before I became possessed of this knowledge I had made some
experiments which it might be interesting to record as others, who
can obtain the necessary permission from the Home Secretary,
might follow them up.
In this series of experiments I wished to find what effect on the
feeding of mice different starches would have when mixed with
Oats. I consequently took one heavy and one lighter mouse,
and fed each with 1 gramme of different raw starches mixed
with 3 grammes of Oats and 34 grammes of water. The starches
used were :—
Maize.
Potato.
Rice.
Sago.
Tapioca.
Wheat.
The feeding with the above daily rations was continued for 17
days and the results are given briefly as follows :—
1. Maize. The original weights of the two mice were 87.2
and 20.1 gramme respectively. They both remained about the
same weight throughout the 15 days, but were a little above the
original weights.
2. Potato Starch. The original weights were 79 and 12
grammes respectively. Both gained weight slightly during the first
nine days, on the 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th days they both
gradually lost weight, and both died on the 13th day. They then
weighed 76 and 9 grammes respectively.
14 THOMSON, Somatose
3. Rice. Original weights of mice 87 and 20 grammes
respectively. Each had gained after 15 days about half a gramme
in weight.
4. Sago. The original weights of the mice were 88 and 21
grammes respectively and they both gained weight after 15 days.
They weighed 91 and 24 grammes respectively.
5. Tapioca. The original weights of the mice were 91 and 24
respectively. They remained about the same weight throughout,
weighing after 15 days 904 and 234 grammes respectively.
6. Wheat. The original weights were 89 and 22 grammes
respectively. They remained about the same weight throughout.
It was remarkable that the excrements of the mice fed with
rations containing Potato and Sago, contained large quantities of
starch granules intact with some slightly affected, and they
were large and white as compared with the normal excrement.
Those from the Maize and Tapioca fed mice, shewed a small
quantity of the granules of the starches intact, whilst the mice
seemed to have digested completely the rice and wheat starches.
_ [From Volume 62, Part 1], of ‘‘ MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE MANCHESTER
: LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,” Sesszon, 1977-1918. |
Bethe Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue
Marl of the Cote des Basques, Biarritz
BY
EDWARD HALKYARD, F.R.M.S.
EDITED WITH ADDITIONS BY
EDWARD HERON-ALLEN, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.
AND
ARGU DARL AND, ELR.M-Ss.
Published by the Manchester Literary and oe LT las Soctety, with the co-operation
of the late Mr. ard’s Trustees
—\\sonian | stip
At “ans Ms py,
Es
UCT14 4939 ¥#]
\ onal Musee a"
MANCHESTER:
36, GEORGE STREET.
Price Eight Shillings and Sixpence.
| Kebruary, 1979.
The Fossil
FORAMINIFERA
of the Blue Marl
of the
COTE DES BASQUES
BIARRITZ
BY
EDWARD HALKYARD, F.R.M.S.
EDITED WITH ADDITIONS BY
OVD Ee RON AE LEN, ELS., F:Gs., B-R:M-S:
AND
ARE O Re ARICA, Rees:
MANCHESTER:
36, GEORGE STREET
1919
pag
y
.s
59
trochus 60
cn
(>)
Airs ifaxia dehiscens 77
elongata 78&
lepida ORM.
Trochammina milioloides 49
Truncatulina akneriana 287A
culter 296 :
haidingerii 286
humilis AIO 43 ee
lobatula 288, 204, 207
pygmaea 203 Me!
refulgens 288, 207 ...
reticulata 291 Oy,
robertsoniana 290, 295
tenera 292
tenuimargo 204
ungeriana 287, 200 ...
variabilis 288
wuellerstorfi 289
3
XXill.
Bake}
TOM MIT.
“117
“117
116,
PAGE
gs
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4
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116
I19
116
118
IIQ
118
TSO)
Toy,
, 118
118
118
ri
117
117
XXIV. Index.
Uvigerina angulosa 246
50 asperula 248A
Bs canariensis 247
porrecta 248
' Py gmacayZ4ewnuee
, selseyensis 77, 78
5 tenuistriata 244 .
a A var. debits. 245
Vaginulina legumen 179, 210 i
i recta var. parallela 180
Verneuilina recurvata 75
A spinulosa 74
Py tricarinata 73
be triquetra 76
Virgulina lineata 85 ...
a schreibersiana 84
sf subsquamosa 84A
THE FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA OF THE
BLUE MARL, COTE DES BASQUES,
BIARRITZ.
The Blue Marl of Biarritz forms a cliff stretching for nearly
three-quarters of a mile in a direction from N.N.E. to S.S.W.,
and above the Bathing Establishment at its northern extremity
where it abuts on the promontory of La Talaye it attains a
height of about 135 feet. This height is maintained for about
two thirds of its length, when it commences to decrease in
altitude finally dying away at the valley of Chabiague to the
south. At the northern section where the cliff is most precipi-
tous, and until a short distance past the Villa Notre Dame, the
beds are inclined at an angle of about 40°, dipping towards the
north. This angle afterwards gradually decreases and at the
villa called 1’Ermitage is from 10° to 15° only. At l’Ermitage a
hollow in the upper part of the cliff is filled with red and yellow
sands and gravels. In the upper part of the Marl hard layers
are few and thin, these beds are wanting in the middle portion
of the marl and are replaced by sparsely distributed large
concretionary nodules of hardened marl of a light grey colour,
tinged brown where weathered, a colouration no doubt due to
iron oxide. In the southern section, commencing south of
lV Ermitage, hard beds of limestone are numerous, and the mar!
itself, except at the extreme base of the cliff is more sandy. In
some portions these hard beds are aimost horizontal.
The strata above described have been placed by geologists
in the Middle Eocene series, and are believed to be contem-
porary with the Bartonian beds of England. They are referred
to as the Orbitoidal or Serpula spirulea Marls.
Having written thus briefly of the physical features of the
region of the Blue Marls I will now deal with their micro-
zoological contents. The collection of Foraminifera which is
about to be described was obtained at three different times. In
the spring of 1893 a sample of marl having been taken with
a view to a search for Foraminifera, the results were so encour-
aging that a further examination was decided upon. A second
visit was made to Biarritz in the autumn of the same year, and
a systematic series of gatherings taken. It was at first thought
2 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
that it would be possible to learn from these gatherings some-
thing of the relative predominance or scarcity of the different
species at the different parts of the beds, but a third series of
samples taken in an irregular manner in 1897 and 1902 showed
that any deductions arrived at from the 1893 collections as to the
distribution of species throughout the whole extent of the strata
would be unreliable. These reasons, as well as the great thick-
ness of these beds of Blue Marl and the lack of marked horizons
in them, have led me simply to describe the Foraminifera col-
lected as coming from the Blue Marl as a whole, though
occasionally I may find it convenient to make a reference to
the upper or lower beds as the undoubted provenance of a
species.
In order to show in a fuller manner the microzoic contents
of the marl it will be well to give notes of washings obtained
from nine samples of marl taken in November, 1893. These
notes will give a good idea of the nature of the material dealt
with. Before proceeding further, | may say that not only were
samples taken of the soft beds, but also hand-specimens of the
hard limestones containing numerous specimens of Nummulites
and Orbitoides. Any species found in these hard samples will
be referred to as having been so found.
GATHERINGS, AUTUMN, 1893.
Sample No. 1.—1 lb. of marl taken from near top of Cliff
on ascending zig-zag footpath behind the Bathing Establish-
ment. Marl light-coloured even when wet. Residue left after
washing weighed 60 grains and consisted of Quartz-sand,
fragments of Molluscan shells, Polyzoa, Echinoderm spines,
Ostracoda, and Foraminifera, as well as casts in pyrites of
small Molluscan shells and Foraminifera. Mulolina, plentiful
and well preserved. Cristellaria, plentiful but rather broken.
Operculina, frequent and much broken. Specimens often
stained with iron oxide.
Sample No. 2.—1 |b. of marl from half-way up the Cliff
near the end of the sea-wall. This sample was taken from a
block which had fallen on to the road under the cliff, otherwise a
sample from this place could not have been obtained, the cliff
being much too precipitous to be climbed. The residue left
after washing this sample weighed 300 grains and consisted
of coarse and fine sand, Foraminifera, Polyzoa, fragments of
Molluscan shells, Echinoderm spines, Ostracoda, and Sponge-
spicules. The most conspicuous Foraminifera were much worn
and decomposed specimens of Operculina complanata, Crist-
ellarie, Textularia trochus, and Tritaxia ulmensis.
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lit. (1917) 4,
Sample No. 3.—1 |b. of marl from top of Cliff to south of
large new villa (Villa Heeren) above end of sea-wall. Residue
left after washing weighed 342 grains and consisted of sand,
Foraminifera, small Molluscan shells and fragments of Jarger
ones, Polyzoa, Echinoderm spines, Ostracoda, and a few small
Fish-teeth. Pyrites frequent in this sample, many of the
Foraminifera being filled with the same.
Sample No. 4.—1 lb. of marl from base of Cliff 120 yards.
south of last gathering. The residue left after washing weighed
43 grains and consisted of sand, Foraminifera, Polyzoa (plenti-
ful), fragments of Molluscan shells, also casts of same in clay,
Ostracoda, small Fish-teeth (very rare). The siftings (fine
enough to pass through a sieve of 80 meshes to the inch) con-
sisted almost entirely of Foraminifera. Altogether the wash-
ings from this sample were coarser than those from No. 3, and
were much richer in Foraminifera though the total weight was
so small.
Sample No. 5.—1 |b. of marl from base of Cliff about
1oo yards north of small rivulet descending from Villa Notre
Dame. Total weight of residue 188 grains, composed of sand.
fragments of Molluscan shells, Foraminifera, Polyzoa, Ostra-
coda, Echinus-spines, tubes of Serpula, fragments of small
Crinoids, and Sponge-spicules. Arenaceous forms of Foramini-
fera were more common than in any previous sample, and many
of the specimens are filled with calcite, whilst some genera,
notably Miliolina, Biloculina, and other porcellanous forms
are almost entirely represented by casts in this mineral, the
small portions of shell-wall remaining being of a chalky
consistency.
Sample No. 6.—1 lb. of marl gathered 10 feet above base
of Cliff on north side of rivulet descending from Villa Notre
Dame. Residue after washing weighed 35 grains and contained
much mica in finely comminuted state. The organic contents
were Foraminifera, spines and fragments of tests of Echino-
derms, Polyzoa, Ostracoda, and large Sponge-spicules.
‘Sample No. 7.—1 |b. of marl from base of Cliff 30 yards
north of last ravine before coming to l’Ermitage. Weight
of residue after washing was 160 grains and consisted of sand,
Foraminifera, Polyzoa, joints of Crinoid-stems, fragments of
Echinus-tests and spines, fragments of Molluscan shells.
Ostracoda, and a few small Fish-vertebre. Calcite casts of
Foraminifera were frequent
Sample No. §.—1 |b. of very sandy marl from 15 feet above
the base of the Cliff below l’Ermitage, hut slightly to the
north of the same. Residue after washing weighed 713 grains:
4 HALKYARD, Fosszl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
and consisted of much quartz sand, grains of glauconite,
Foraminifera, Polyzoa, Ostracoda (very rare), Echinoderm
remains, Sponge-spicules, fragments of Molluscan shells and
sand-casts of the same. Casts of Foraminifera occur in pyrites,
‘calcite, and glauconite.
Sample No. 9..—I |b. of sandy marl from base of Cliff about
150 yards south of l’Ermitage. Residue (which was fine)
after washing weighed 420 grains, and consisted of sand,
Foraminifera, Ostracoda, spines and fragments of tests of
Echinus, fragments of Molluscan shells, with very rarely
Crustacean remains, plates of Synapta, and a few spicules of
Alcyonidz or Gorgonide.
The residues spoken of above were such as would pass
through a sieve of twenty meshes to the inch.
From the above analysis it will be seen that generally
speaking the Blue Marl is of similar character throughout a
large portion of its great thickness, though it does vary slightly
in different parts; thus Sample No. 1 was very light-coloured
and was easily seen to contain iron oxide in appreciable quan-
tity. Sample No. 6 was notable for its micaceous constituent,
while in Sample No. 8 glauconite was conspicuous.
The gatherings taken in April, 1897, were chiefly from
the marl beds in the neighbourhood of the end of the sea-wall.
between tide-marks, and particular attention was paid to the
search for sandy “‘pockets,’’ which were found to be very rich
in the larger forms. One “‘pocket’’ of a few inches square and
an inch or so in depth was found to contain over fifty specimens
of Orbitoides tenuicostata, Gtimbel, besides numerous other
species. At the same time search was made for large conspicu-
ous isolated specimens, and many fine Nodosarie were
obtained. Those of 1902 were partly from the end of the sea-
wall and partly from top of Cliff 100 yards S. of l’Ermitage.
As regards the fact noted that in Sample No. 5, 1893, the
porcellanous species were mostly represented by casts, it will
be as well to refer here to the experiments imade by,
Cornish & Kendall* as to the relative stability, or resistance
to solubility in presence of carbonated water, of porcellanous
and vitreous Foraminifera, the former presumably being com-
posed of carbonate of lime in the form of aragonite and the
latter of the same substance in the form of calcite. The authors
show that the stability of aragonite is much inferior to that of
*On the Mineralogical Constitution of Calcareous Organisms, Geol. Mag.,
Dec. III., Vol. V., No. 2., 1888, pp. 66—73.
Manchester M. emotrs, Vol. leet. (1917) 5.
calcite, and is probably due to structural differences. For
fuller information I must refer my readers to the original
paper.
To the best of my information very little has been written
of the Foraminifera of the Blue Marl, and only the larger forms
are recorded. Philippe de la Harpe has written five papers on
the Nummulites of Biarritz which were published in the
“Bulletin de la Société de Borda 4 Dax’’ during the years 1879
to 1881. Eighteen species are noted in those works, of which
number six were found in the Blue Marl of the Cote des
Basques. My search has been rewarded by nine (?) species,
five of which do not appear in M. de la Harpe’s list. In 1873
M. le Comte R. de Bouillé published at Pau a work entitled
““Paléontologie de Biarritz et de quelques autres localités des.
Basses-Pyrénées.’’ In the list of fossils in this work are men-
tioned as being found in the Blue Marl two species of
Operculina, five of Orbitoides, and three of Nummulites. (We
have reproduced Halkyard’s notes on this work in Appendix A.
H-A. & E.) In Prof. T. Rupert Jones’ “Catalogue of the Fossil
Foraminifera in the Collection of the British Museum’’ there
is mention made of many specimens of Nummulites, Orbitoides,
and Operculina from Biarritz, some of which are marked
“Middle Beds’’, and others though not so marked are evidently
from the lower hard beds of the same series. These ‘‘Middle
Beds” are the ones now under consideration.
The works by the above-mentioned authors are the only
ones of any importance which I have come across dealing in
any way with the Foraminifera of Biarritz. (See, however, our
Introductory Observations, H-A. & E.)
Before proceeding to describe the species of /oraminifera
in my collections, I desire to take this opportunity of recording
my idebtedness to Mr. F. Chapman, A.L.S:, F.R.M.S., to
whom my best thanks are due for his kind assistance in the
determination of critical species. I also have to thank Mr.
F. W. Millett for his ready response to my appeals for his help.
In order to avoid an unnecessary addition to tne length of
this paper, I have only given two references to figures of each
species described, viz., one to the original figure and descrip-
tion, and the other (where possible) to that given by the late
Dr. H. B. Brady in his magnificent work on the Horaminifera
collected during the Challenger Expedition, which work I
believe the most generally accessible to all students of the
Foraminifera.
6 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
DESCRIPTION OF GENERA AND SPECIES.
SUB-KINGDOM: PROTOZOA.
CIA 'S 2) IRJBUCZOIPOUD A.
ORDER: FORAMINIFERA.
FAMILY: MILIOLID/AE.
SUBS AMMEY: NU BE CUE AiRiiNZss
Genus Nuspecuxtaria Defrance.
1. NUBECULARIA DIVARICATA, Brady.
Sagrina divaricata, Brady, 1879, Quart. Jour. Micro. Sci., vel.
XEON: Sipe 27Opl. WALI tieishi22=276
Nubecularia divaricata, Brady, Chall. Rep. 1884, p. 136, pl.
LXXVI, figs. 11-15.
A few single chambers of this species were found in the
upper portion of the Marl, the great majority being collected
almost at the summit of the northern part of the Cliff behind
the Bathing Establishment.
(The specimens are all fragmentary, the characteristic
aperture, however, renders their identification certain).
SUB-FAMILY: MILIOLININZ.
Genus BiLocutina, d’Orbigny.
2. BILOCULINA RINGENS, (Lamarck).
Miholites ringens, Lamarck, Ann. Mus. 1804, 351, No. 1.
Biloculina ringens, d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci.. Nat. VII, 1826, p.
AOI. INO), 2
B. vingens, Brady, 1884; Chall. Rep: psi142, pla liiissa ace
The specimens are small and sometimes only represented
by casts and are by no means numerous. Generally speaking
the species seems to be confined to the upper half of the marl-
beds.
(The few specimens in the collection in perfect condition
are from Gathering 3 and of the type figured by Brady in the
‘Challenger Report, ut supra.)
3. BILOCULINA ANTIQUA, Karrer.
Biloculina antiqua, Karrer, 1867, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
LV (@) ap. 365, pla tit hence
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) a
This variety of B. ringens differs from the type in having
the breadth of the chambers greater than the length. In
extreme cases the chambers are twice as broad as long. Only
five specimens were collected at Biarritz, and these are in the
form of casts in calcite or pyrites.
(All the specimens being casts, it is not easy to state abso-
lutely what the external appearance of the original shell was.
Karrer’s species is hardly separable from B. ringens. The
Biarritz specimens which are more suggestive of B. depressa
were probably even broader than Karrer’s figure, but even so
seem hardly worth recording as a separate species).
4. BILOCULINA DEPRESSA, d’Orbigny.
' Biloculina depressa, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. VII, p.
298, No. 7.
B. depressa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 145, pl. II, figs. 12,
nel ewand: ple lL fois, vD,)2:
Rare, and generally badly preserved, usually occurring in
the form of calcite casts with a small portion of the original
shell-wall adhering thereto.
(The majority of the specimens though merely casts are
identifiable with certainty owing to their shape.)
GENUS SPIROLOCULINA, d’Orbigny.
5. SPIROLOCULINA EXCAVATA, d’Orbigny.
Spiroloculina excavata, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram, Foss. Vienne,
p. 271, pl. XVI, figs. 19-21.
S. excavata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 151, pl. IX, figs. 5, 6.
Frequent, most of the perfect specimens resembling
Brady’s fig.6. The examples found in the 1893 gatherings are
much worn and at times difficult to recognise.
(With one or two exceptions the specimens are calcite
casts and specific determination can only be presumed. One
‘good and distinctive specimen from Gathering 4.)
6. SPIROLOCULINA IMPRESSA, Terquem.
Spiroloculina impressa, Terquem, 1878, Mem. Soc. Géol.
cameo (G) vol.) EDs 153, Ole) \OX) tien oa uay
S. impressa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 151, pl. X, figs. 3, 4.
8 HALKYARD, FHossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
Well-preserved typical specimens were collected both in
1893 and 1897, and were not infrequent though seemingly con-
fined to the pure marl beds forming the upper portion of the
formation.
7. SPIROLOCULINA CANALICULATA, d’Orbigny.
Spiroloculina canaliculata, d’Orbigny, 1846, For. Foss. Vienne,
p. 269, pl. XVI, figs. 10-12.
S. lunbata, var., Brady, 1884, (Chall. Rep.) ipaytso.splame =
SS. ly Be
The species is rather rare in these marls and not typical,
the chambers being few and broad and not so elongated as in
the type, approaching more the form figured by Brady under
the name “S. limbata, var,’’ though not so circular in contour.
The oval extremity of the final chamber is slightly prolonged
and connected with the periphery of the penultimate chamber
by a web such as is seen in Brady’s figures of Spiroloculina
acutimargo.*
74, [SPIROLOCULINA PLANULATA (Lamarck). |
| Mihohtes planulata, Lamarck, 1804, AM. p. 352, No. 4, 1816,
etc., Animaux sans vertebres, Paris, 1822, vol. VII. p. 613,
No. 4.
Spiroloculina planulata, Brady, 1884, FC. p. 148, pl. IX, fig. 11
a, b.j
8. SPIROLOCULINA ARENARIA, Brady.
Spiroloculina arenaria, Brady, 1884,’ Chall, Rep yipaisssape
Vil te 25 rarnbe
One specimen has been found which must be assigned to
this species. Owing to the somewhat imperfect condition of
the example, the produced shelly aperture as figured by Brady
is wanting and on one side of the test the sutures of the cham-
bers could not be made out. The other side and the contour
of the transverse section as seen in a view taken from the oval
end of the test agree well with Brady’s drawings. After making
drawings, which, however, do not appear in illustration of
this paper, the specimen was broken up to obtain further evi-
dence of identification, which corroborated the opinion formed
upon the external features of the shell.
* 1884, Chall. Rep., pl. x. figs. 12-15.
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) 9
9. SPIROLOCULINA CRENATA, Karrer.
Spiroloculina crenata, Karrer, 1868, Sitz, k. Ak. Wiss. Wien.,
VeOueeAbthy Tp. 125-nple tT, fo) 9:
S. crenata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. p. 156, pl. X, figs. 24-26.
Very rare, only one small specimen being found.
(The specimen is very small and not very typical. It shows
a broad milioline aperture and is perhaps nearer to Quinque-
loculina plicatula, Reuss, which Karrer referred to as being
“very like’’ his species.)
10. [SPIROLOCULINA DORSATA, Reuss. |
[Spiroloculina dorsata, Reuss, 1870, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. LXII, Abth. I, p. 97, pl. XX XVII, figs. 24-32. |
IOA. SPIROLOCULINA LIMBATA, Bornemann.
Spiroloculina limbaia, Bornemann, 1855, Zeitschr. deutsch.
ecolkuGes. vol) Ville p.348; pl. IOS) fig. 1.
S. limbata, Reuss, 1863, Sitz.k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. XLVIII
ithe pos, pl. VAT fies. Soa, Cc.
The specimens which I have thought necessary to assign
to Bornemann’s species are rare in my collections and closely
resemble the figures given by Reuss; there are also some
others (two or three) which are broader, and have not the same
excessive sutural limbation, and conform more to the ‘‘canali-
culata’’ type. These might be named S. dorsata, Reuss, but
as the few specimens found are a good deal decomposed and
worn it is not desirable to record that species definitely, though
they very probably do belong to it. In making use of Borne-
mann’s name as the authority for the specific appellation
“lumbata,’’ I do not forget that d’Orbigny in 1826 made use
of the same name, but it was not applied to the same form and
is more applicable to the variety of S. canaliculata assigned by
Reuss to S. dorsata, viz:—that with chambers having slightly
limbate sutures or excavate lateral surfaces, and a square or
very slightly rounded periphery. This mode of regarding these
nearly allied forms will, I think, be found a convenient one,
as the strongly limbate form above described may be regarded
as an elongated S$. dorsata which has put on an extra amount
of sutural limbation, or as a S. impressa which has added a
limbation to the already salient peripheral edges of its cham-
bers. Moreover the reference of any specimens to the exact
form figured by Reuss leaves no doubt as to the variety which
is now recorded as occurring in the Biarritz marls.
10 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
(Halkyard apparently altered his opinion as regards the
identification of these specimens, for the slide labelled S. limbata
is empty and another, labelled ‘‘?S. dorsata, Reuss’’ appears in
the collection, though not referred to in the MS. The few
specimens on the slide are more or less fragmentary casts, but
we have little hesitation in assigning them to S. dorsata ‘The
synonymies of the two forms have been referred to by us at some
length in our Kerimba monograph. (H-A & E. 1914, etc.,
KA eps 5i54e)))
GENUS MiLioLina, Williamson.
11. MILIOLINA SEMINULUM (Linné.)
Serpula seminulum, Linné, 1767, ed. 12, p. 1264, No. 791.
Quinqueloculina triangularis, d’Orb., 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
Wolk, MILL, (Oo BO2, IN@s evel
Miholina seminulum, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 157, pl. V,
IBS... (OV Fl, Dy Ce
Not uncommon at Biarritz, the general type being short
and broad. The most robust specimens viewed from the side
have the contour of MV. auberiana, d’Orb., but are less angular
in transverse section than that species, which is intermediate
between M. seminulum and M. cuvieriana, d’Orb. This
broad form however is not constant, but in some instances
becomes more like the type, viz.: —longer in proportion to the
breadth; such specimens are usually small. In another direction
it approaches M. circularis, Bornemann; and in yet another
it merges almost imperceptibly into M. venusta, Karrer.
(There is considerable variety among the specimens assign-
ed to M. seminulum, many of which are calcite casts difficult
to identify with certainty, but the general type is of the variety
Quinqueloculina triangularis, d’Orb. (d’O. 1846. F.F.V. p. 288
pl. XVIII, figs. 7-9.))
12. MILIOLINA CIRCULARIS (Bornemann).
Triloculina circularis, Bornemann, 1855, Zeitschr. deutsch.
Sco. Ges. volun Miipescdon pl CDG rhienyn
Miliolina circularis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 169, pl. IV,
ISA EM Dy (yebaval ly Wy ihe we) Ae
This species seems to replace M. seminulum in the low-
est beds of the pure marl, at any rate it only appears in gather-
ings 7, 8, and 9 taken in 1893, whilst the above-mentioned form
is at its highest development in Nos. 1, 2, and 3 Gatherings
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxit. (1917) II
and in those taken in April, 1897, which are also fairly high up
in the series. It must not be understood from this that M.
seminulum is absent from the lower beds, on the contrary it
has even been found in the hardest and lowest beds of sandy
and pure limestone.
(The majority of the specimens are casts, but are referable
with tolerable certainty to M@. circularis.)
13. MILIoLina oBLoNGA (Montagu).
Vermiculum oblongum, Montagu, 1803, Test. Brit., p. 522, pl.
XING fio. G:
Miliolina oblonga, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 160, pl. V, fig.
4a, b
This variety is rare at Biarritz and nearly all the specimens
are small.
14. MILIOLINA TRIGONULA (Lamarck).
Miholites trigonula, Lamarck, 1804, Ann. Mus., V, 351, No. 3.
Miholina trigonula, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 164, pl. ITI,
figs. 14-16.
Rare and small.
| There are a good many typical specimens of fair size on
the type-slides. |
15. MILIOLINA TRICARINATA (d’Orbigny).
Triloculina tricarinata, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. VII,
__b- 209) Noe 7
Miholina tricarinata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 165, pl. III,
masa L7a, bb.
This form is rare and has only been found in the upper
portions of the marl.
(The specimens are in good preservation and very large
compared with those of M. trigonula. Both the long and short
types are present.)
16. MILIOLINA vENUSTA (Karrer).
Quinqueloculina venusta, Karrer, 1868, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss.
WNieitle, TE NANUE Na. i, OD. uno Serer, (6.
Miliolina venusta, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 162, pl. V, figs.
5 and 7.
12 HALKYVARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
- Frequent through the whole series of gatherings but in
the lower half of the beds is represented principally by calcite
casts.
(Very fine and typical specimens from Gathering 3. Less
marked and smaller from elsewhere. From several localities
the specimens are represented only by casts and identification
is often only a matter of opinion, as the casts might refer to
any Miliolid of similar structure.)
17. MILIoLIna FERUSSACII (d’Orbigny).
Quinqueloculina ferussacu, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.
VE paigom Noni:
Not rare and approaching M. contorta (d’Orb.) in form.
(Except from Gathering 1, the specimens are nearly all
casts, and the specific features are therefore unidentifiable.
From Gathering 1 the individuals are in our opinion nearer to
M. contorta than M. ferussacu.)
18. MILIOLINA AGGLUTINANS (d’Orbigriy).
Quinqueloculina agglutinans, d’Orbigny, 1839, De la Sagra,
Hist. Phisiq! ete) Cuba, Foranmniferes,’7 p. 295) lean
figs. 11-13.
Miliolina agglutinans, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 180, pl.
Vili iss: Oland7.
Rare and typical.
19. MiLioLtna Brcornts (Walker & Jacob). —
Serpula bicornis, Walker & Jacob, 1798, Adam’s Essays Micr.,
IDs Olgas DIL DIE WAS amet, 2).
Milolina bicornis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 171, pl. VI,
HLA Oly 01s, 12
Very small and very rare.
(The few specimens from G. 3, represent several distinct
types, the true M. bicornis being absent. They are very small
and worn but so far as can be identified with certainty include
M. brongmariu (d’Orb.), M. boweana (d’Orb.), and M. striata
(Orb)
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lett. (1917) 1
20. [Muitrorina srrtata (d’Orbigny). ]
20a. MILTOLINA POEYANA (d’Orbigny).
Quingueloculina poeyana, d’Orbigny, 1839, De la Sagra, Hist.
nisig etc.,.de Cubas)))Foraminiferes,’ 7 pron, pl. XY,
figs. 25-27.
An elongated variety of M. bicornis, the chambers how-
ever being more circular in transverse section, and the costez
more strongly marked. Rare at Biarritz, only about half-a-
dozen specimens being found in the 1897 Gatherings.
(The specimens are not referable to the Cuban species M.
poeyana, but to the much more robust form M. striata (d’Orb.)
with which we dealt at some length in our Kerimba Monograph
Geo Awcers noT4 etcs 1H. KO AU peso) pl LIV; figs, 13-17)
21. MILIOLINA PARISIENSIS (d’Orbigny) var.
Ouimqueloculina parisiensis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
MO lMVCuleD. 20054 Now 5.
Miholina parisiensis, Millett, 1898, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc.,
ISOS. Wz SO folly MUU rater 2) 1b),
Only two specimens were found, one of which was so worn
as to leave very little of the external characters visible. The
other one on being placed in fluid displayed clearly the rectangu-
lar ornamentation shown in Millett’s figure. My specimens
are broader in proportion to length than those from the Malay
Archipelago and also lack the produced ultimate chamber, but
there is no doubt in my mind that they ought to be assigned
to the above species.
(Ihe specimens can only be regarded as_ unsatisfactory
examples of an unsatisfactory species. One of the specimens
iS SO worn as to be unidentifiable, except by its resemblance in
contour with the other specimen which is covered with minute
pits. No signs of striz or coste remain on the test, which in
form is nearer Quinqueloculina prisca,Terquem than parisiensis.
The specific name M. parisiensis has now become identified
Will Weapons. Inve (Abe oe) TOMO eM Mo ate) soll, | DG
(XXVIT) fig. 21) of a common Paris Eocene fossil, which’ we
identified and figured from similar material from Selsey Bill
GEIS A calls 4) TOS, (eter, Sse shOOOs Pay aUGyaplayon Nintierse) (2-51)
The Terquem form is covered with minute pits set in regular
lines between the coste; d’Orbigny’s original name has only
the descriptive definition added to it in the Pro-
ainome (On 1849) "PY! 1850.) Vieln Min i pazoon) Nie. /'13264))
14 HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
““espece renflée et stri¢e’’ and his drawing from the Planche
inédite as reproduced by Fornasini (F. 1905, S.O.M. p. 63.
pl. II. fig. 9) shows no pitting, nor is any visible on d’Orbig-
ny’s type specimens which we have examined both in Paris and
at La Rochelle. Terquem’s figure has now become however
so generally accepted for a determinate type that it seems im-
possible to depart from it. It must be borne in mind that he
also had examined the d’Orbigny types and plates in Paris *
Yet another type with fairly distinctive features has been
ascribed to this species by Millett (Millett, 1898, etc., F.M.
1898; ‘p: 9504, (pl) KML) fe! 1) a))b} ce): Phis) represents amtonran
with regular cross bars between longitudinal costz, the ‘de-
pressions thus formed being apparently regarded as analagous
to the pits in the Parisian Eocene type of Terquem.)
GENUS SIGMOILINA, Schlumberger.
22. SIGMOILINA TENUIS (Czjzek).
Ouinqueloculina tenuis, Czjzek, 1848, Haidinger’s Nat. Abh.,
vol. TI ps 140) ple XI. tesh 29-24)
Spiroloculina tenuis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 152, pl. X,
figs. 7-11.
Found frequently and well-preserved through the whcle
thickness of the marl beds.
(The species is represented by an exceptionally fine series
of specimens. The propriety of transferring the species from
Spiroloculina to Sigmoilina is we think open to question,
especially when such a large and varying collection as the
present one is considered. The Sigmoilina curve is of the most
rudimentary nature, although it is apparent in some of the many
broken sections which have been mounted for the purpose of
displaying it. In the majority of specimens especially in some
Gatherings (notably G. 8) where the specimens are exception-
ally large there is hardly the faintest deviation from a typical
spiroloculine growth. It is very curious how this delicate little
Miliolid has, generally speaking, escaped the erosion from
which the other Biarritz Miliolids suffer. If Halkyard’s theory
of the disappearance of the Miliolid shell owing to a difference
in its molecular composition, as compared with the shells of
the perforate Foraminifera, is correct (see his Introduction) it
points to a further difference in the constitution of the test of
*See O. Terquem, ‘‘ Foraminiféres de l’Eocene de Paris,” Mem Soc. Geol.
France, S.3, 1i, Mem. 3 p.11 and E. Heron-Allen, ‘‘Alcide d’Orbigny,” J. R. Mier,
Soc. Presidential Address, 1617, p. 33.
pian
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. leet. (1917) 15
S. tenuis as compared with other Miliolids. We have observed
this in other fossil deposits, as in the Miocene clays of Malta
in which S$. tenuis is common and well preserved, while other
Miliolids are represented by pyritic casts only.)
GENUS PENTELLINA, Munier-Chalmas.
23. PENTELLINA LAVIS, sp. nov.
Jal dls sales Ihe
Test elongated, five to seven chambers visible externally,
periphery angular, the chambers being oval in transverse
section and each having its own entire enclosing wall. Texture
smooth and glistening, unornamented. Length, .75 to .g5 mm.
Breadth, .43 to .47 mm.
This rare form has been assigned onaccount of the arrange-
ment of its segments to the genus Pentellina although it has
the ordinary Miliolina aperture and does not exhibit the Trema-
tophore which is characteristic of P: saxorum.and P. tour-
nouert. There may be a question whether it is worth while
making a special genus for those Miliolids which, though
possessing the arrangement of chambers as provided for in the
genus Miliolina possess a more complicated or more fully
developed form of oral aperture.
24. | MILIOLINA ANGULARIS, Howchin. |
244. PENTELLINA ATTENUATA, Sp. NOV.
IP. WIN ies.) Ty eal” 2.
Test very much elongated, five chambers visible externally,
periphery angular, chambers flatter and longer in proportion
to their width than in P. levis. Texture smooth. Length,
1 t® 1.25, maid, Iexe@eeliln, 27/ wo 53} sadinal,
This species is rather more rare than P. levis, and is easily
distinguished from it by its much greater length and more
slender proportions. The shell-wall is so fragile through de-
composition that I have been unable to find a perfect specimen,
and though the drawing here given is to a certain extent a
restoration it may be taken as representing a typical specimen.
The species has only been found in the beds of mar! at the end
of the sea-wall and is not plentiful there, only about a dozen
specimens being found.
(Halkyard subsequently found many more specimens, most
of which are perfect and are well represented by his figure.
*
16 HALKYARD, Fosszl Foraminzfera of the Blue Marl
These are on his type-slides. The Biarritz specimens are iden-
tical with Miliolina angularis Howchin (H. 1889 M.C.V. p.
(reprint) 2, pl. I, figs. 1-3) from the Older Tertiary of Australia.
The specific name angularis has been used by dOrbigny for
two Miliolids and Howchin’s name is therefore somewhat un-
happy. As, however, Triloc. angularis d’?Orb=M. tricarinata
and Q. angularis d’Orb. = M. contorta, and only one subsequent
author, viz. Terquem, has employed either name, we think
that Howchin’s name might be allowed to stand.)
SUB-FAMILY HAUERININ/A.
Genus ARTICULINA, d’Orbigny.
25. ARTICULINA LHVIGATA, Terquem.
Articulina levigata, Terquem, 1882, Mém. Soc. Géol. France
[alb rol U o. ris, polls OW (OXTUUD), Stes, Zeon,
Very rare, two imperfect specimens found in 1897 Gather-
ings.
(Terquem’s species judging from his figures (wt supra) is
unsatisfactory, there being no apparent connection between the
figure showing a broken series of rectilinear chambers, and the
series of abnormal miliolids which are associated with it in the
plate. Halkyard’s specimens are fragments, each consisting of
parts of two chambers of the rectilinear series. In their smooth
test they agree with Terquem’s definition, but apart from this
we should have been inclined to associate them with A. contco-
articulata (Batsch.))
26. | ARTICULINA SuLcarA, Reuss. |
[Articulina sulcata, Reuss, 1849-50, Foram. osterr. Tertiar-
beckens. Denkschr, k. Ak. Wiss, Wien, vol- i, (1850), p-
Bos oll: MENA i OXULID-©) savers nae nea
206A. ARTICULINA CONICO-ARTICULATA (Batsch).
Nautilus (Orthoceras) conico- ee Batsch, 1791, Conehyl.
desi Seesandess ps ia. (pila dallliiiion
Articulina conico-articulata, Brady, "1884, Chall. Rep pestes,
(Oly DIU ysavers, ara, as), Ehorel yous QCM Mewes 1-2
Rare, small, and only found in the immature stage without
the linear series of chambers.
__ (The two small specimens on which the record rests should
in Our opinion to be referred to A. sulcata, Reuss.)
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxit. (1917) 17
Genus Havertina, d’Orbigny.
27. HAUERINA FRAGILISSIMA (Brady).
eet) 2)
Spireloculina fragilissima, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 149,
pl. IX, figs. 12-14.
Hauerina fragilissima, Millett, 1898, Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc ,
p. 610, pl. XIII, fig. 8, also 9 and Io.
This species is not rare in my collections, though on
account of its fragility it is rarely found perfect. Both the micro-
spheric and the megalospheric forms are present. Of the former
I show a transverse section. It will be seen that in the earlier
portion of this form there is an apparent arrangement of the
chambers in seven radial series before the shell takes on the
spiroloculine manner of growth. If, however, the section is
examined more closely it will be found that the chambers are
really arranged in two involved opposed curves as in
Sigmoilina but in a more complicated manner as each series
consists of about 24 turns, after which it adopts the planospiral
growth of Spiroloculina. The Sigmoilina growth is much
more easily seen in the megalospheric form, the chambers being
fewer and larger. As for the Hawerina plan of growth it is at
best only slightly. indicated in my specimens, as in those figured
by Millett and Brady, by a slight obliquity of the line of junc-
tion of the spiroloculine chambers to the longitudinal
axis of the earlier thicker portion of the test. The imperfect
state of the Biarritz specimens also does not permit of any
definite verification of the form of the oral aperture.
This anomalous form may be perhaps with reason trans-
ferred to the genus Sigmoilina but I am loth to recommend
such a course at present, or until we have a fuller knowledge
of the many variations of the milioline plan of growth, and
besides, the earlier growth of a shell only shows us the line
of departure from type, and the latter points towards the higher
or lower type to which the particular form under observation
is tending either progressively or retrogressively. In these
circumstances I prefer to retain the generic name Hauerina
for this species.
(The specimens are small and poorly developed but appear
to be referable to Spiroloculina tateana, Howchin, from the
Tertiary of Muddy Creek, Victoria.* | Howchin’s species is
clearly referable to the sub-genus Massilina owing to the pro-
nounced milioline arrangement of the early chambers before
* Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr. vol. xii. 1889, p. 3, pl. I., figs. 4, 5.
18 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
they take on the angular spiroloculine plan of growth. On
the other hand Halkyard’ s suggestion that Hauerina fragil-
issima would be better transferred to Sigmoilina does not com-
mend itself to us, as a slight sigmoiline arrangement of the
earliest chambers is of more or less frequent occurrence in many
Miliolids, and should not in our opinion be regarded as of final
importance in the determination of the genus.)
SUB-FAMILY PENEROPLIDIN/S.
GENUS CoRNUSPIRA, Schultze.
28. CORNUSPIRA INVOLVENS, Reuss.
Cornuspira involvens, Reuss, 1863 (1864), Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss.
Niitera Vol, MUL WIDE GH so. oy jolly 7, soKe, 2,
C. involvens, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 200, pl. XI, figs. 1-3.
Specimens very small and rare.
(As all the specimens are represented by casts, specific
identification appears to be a matter of opinion. ‘The casts.
represent at least two different forms.)
29. CORNUSPIRA FOLTACEA (Philippi).
Orbis foliaceus, Philippi, 1844, Enum. Mollusc. Sicilize, vol. II,
Pay l47,) Diy DOING tie, 26)
Cornus pira foliacea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 199, pl. XI,
figs. 5-9.
Specimens are small and rare, and do not show the rapidly
widening whorls which are characteristic of the species, being
of the form represented by Brady’s figure 6 (ut supra). One at
least of the examples might possibly be referred to Bornemann’s
C. reussi.
(The specimens are of the original Philippi type, not of the
rapidly expanding type subsequently figured by Williamson.
Some of the specimens are near C. carinata (Costa).)
30. CORNUSPIRA CRASSISEPTA, Brady.
Cornuspiwa crassisepta, Brady. 1882, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin-
burch, vole Dela payarar
Cc. crassise pta, Brady, 1884, Chall.) Rep.) p-,202)) pla Grails
fig. 20.
Very rare, one specimen only found in Gathering No. 1,
1893. This single example corresponds closely with Pray S.
description and figure.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtz. (1917) 19:
(The specimen agrees very closely with the original descrip-
tion of the species. Brady’ s subsequent figure is not altogether
satisfactory, the limbation being somewhat irregularly shown. )
SUB-FAMILY ALVEOLININZE.
Genus ALVEoLiINnA, d’Orbigny.
31. ALVEOLINA Bosc (Defrance).
Oryzaria boscti, Defrance, 1820, Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. XVI. p..
104 sub Fabularia; Atlas Zooph., pl. XLVIII, fig. 4.
Alveolina boscii, (d’ Orbigny), 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. vol. VII,
p. 306, No. 5.
el. ioe Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 222, pl. XVII, figs. 7-12.
Very rare. In the uppermost Sas taken behind and
above the Bathing Establishment was found one small broken
cast in pyrites which bore some traces of the porcellanous
shell wall.
(This cast seems to us probably to be a derived fossil. If
Alveolina were present at all in a gathering it would almost
certainly be of frequent occurrence.)
FAMILY ASTRORHIZID.
SUBST AIMLESS UNS IN SOURUSULZ IONE AS;
GENUS ASTRORHIZA, Sandahl.
32. ASTRORHIZA GRANULOSA, Brady.
Astrorluza granulosa, Brady, 1881, Quar. Journ. Micr. Soc.,
VOM OOD. As.
eTonulosa, Brady, TSe4, Chall) Rep, p. 234, pl. 20, figs:
14-23. ;
I have assigned to this species a single example found in
1893. On comparing this specimen with Brady’s figures I
find that it is broader in proportion to the length and does not
possess the same produced orifices, being in form almost simi-
lar to Technitella melo, Norman, though having an aperture
at each end of the test. My specimen is also much smaller than
those described by Brady, the length of which is noted as at
least $ in., whilst mine is but 7/1ooths of an inch long. The
test of the Biarritz example is more consolidated than that of
recent specimens, but that is easily accounted for by the sup-
position that lime chemically concreted from the enclosing
marl has supplemented the ordinarily-deficient cement of the
test in this species and so tended to make the shell-wall more
20 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminzifera of the Blue Marl
solid. This view is supported by the fact that my single speci-
men is greyish white in colour and certainly shows a larger
proportion of cement to sand than is usual.
(The specimen is most unconvincing. We are not even
satished that it is a Rhizopod. The specimen differs in every-
thing—shape—texture—aperture—from the type, which would
be very unlikely. to survive fossilization owing to its construc-
tion.)
GENUS PSAMMOSPHAERA, Schulze.
32A. [PSAMMOSPHAERA FUSCA, Schulze. |
[Psammosphera fusca, Schulze, 1874, R. p. 113, pl. II, fig. 8.
Psammosphera fusca, Brady, ey p. 249, pl. XVIII, figs.
MUO),
SUB-FAMILY RHABDAMMININ.
GENUS ASCHEMONELLA, Brady.
33, ASCHEMONELLA CATENATA (Norman).
JPA LS caters 2).
Astroruga catenata, Norman, 1876, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol.
XOX Pape 23h
Aschemonella catenata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 271,
pl OXWV TL nes hyiin sand) pls XOX Vali yACihicicupiees
Two fragments consisting of three chambers were found
in 1893. As will be seen from the drawing here given this
closely resembles in the form of the chambers one of the figures
given by Brady (fig. 4, pl. XX VII). My specimens have per-
haps a slightly rougher test and have the chamber cavities
filled with calcite.
PAMIRYO LIT WOT D As
SUB-FAMILY LITUOLIN~A.
GENUS REopHAXx, Montfort.
34. REOPHAX FUSIFORMIS (Williamson),
Proteonina fusiformis, Williamson, 1858, Recent British
Foram pry atey planlannce at
Reophax fusiformis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 290, pl. XXX,
figs. 7-11.
Very rare, one specimen only found.
(This specimen is not in our opinion identifiable with
certainty.)
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. txiz. (1917) 2m
35. REOPHAX scoRPIURUS, Montfort.
Reophax scorpiurus, Montfort, 1808, Conch. Syst. I, p. 331,
83rd genre.
R. scorpiurus, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 291, pl. XXX, figs.
12-17.
Rare and small, the specimens being sometimes com-
pressed and not circular in transverse section. May be R&.
arctica, Brady.
(Certainly not R. arctica, as suggested by Halkyard, which
is a delicate thin-walled linguline form, whereas these are built
up of coarse sand grains. Their compressed form is due to.
their fossil condition.)
36. REOPHAX PLANA, Sp. nov.
TEA Is asyeSe. 7, Ee
Test compressed, consisting of two or three sub-dis-
coidal chambers arranged in a linear series, each chamber being
larger than the preceding one. Texture coarsely arenaceous.
Length, 1.15 to 1.55 mm. Breadth, .85 to 1.5 mm.
Out of the four specimens found only one has three cham-
bers and, as will be seen from my drawing is smaller and not
so robust as the other three specimens, which had only two
chambers each.
The nearest ally of this new species is Brady’s Reophax
arctica* which is formed of about eight chambers forming a
gradually-taperine test rather pointed at the aboral extremity,
and compressed so that the width at any one point is about
double the thickness at the same point.
Goés also figures + a compressed Reopivar under the name
of R. compressius, which he remarks is nearly related to Haplo-
phragmium tenuimargo, Brady. His examples have five or six
chambers and an approximately parallel contour.
(The type specimens have not been found, but the descrip-
tion suggests Haplophragmium calcareum Brady or H. pseudo-
spirale (Will), certainly not Reopha.x arctica.)
* Denkschr. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. XLIII, 1881, p. 99, pl. 2, fig. 2 and
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. V. vol. VIII, 1881, p. 405, pl. XXI, fig. 2.
+ A Synopsis of the Arctic and Scandinavian Recent Marine Foraminifera, 1894,.
Stockholm, p. 27, pl. VI, figs. 203-210.
22 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
37. | NoURIA POLYMORPHINOIDES, Heron-Allen & Earland. ]
[Nouria polymorphinoides, Heron-Allen & Earland, 1914, etc.,
1a KVAORIey AO) 0), 2K 2OCW ILL TSS, T=15,, |
37A. REOPHAX POLYMORPHINOIDES, Sp. Nov.
TEMS ls eS. Os Fe
Test elongate, compressed, consisting of an aggregation
of compressed sub-discoidal chambers arranged in such a man-
ner as to bear a strong external resemblance to Polymorphina.
Texture roughly arenaceous. Length, 1.4 to 2.7 mm. Breadth,
.82 to 1.15 mm.
This species is not very rare in the Blue Marl. Its form
is rather variable, sometimes it occurs with characteristics as
well marked as those here figured but quite as many examples
are found which are by no means easy to identify, as they
appear externally to be only fortuitous agglomerations of
particles of quartz, and can only be recognised by the company
in which they are found. It will be seen from fig. 7 that in
the immature stage ‘the test is an arenaceous isomorph of
Polymorphina problema, d’Orb., whilst later it assumes more
of the character of P. compressa d’Orb. Unfortunlately, I
have not been able to make out the position and form of the
oral aperture.
(Halkyard’s specimens are clearly referable to our genus
Nouria (ut supra), and probably to our species N. polymor-
phinoides of the large type found at Kerimba. ‘They differ in
their rougher and less finished construction and in the greater
compression of the test, but this compression is variable in the
Biarritz specimens and is probably due to pressure in the fossil-
ization. For taxonomic purposes it may perhaps be advisable
to separate the Biarritz specimens as a variety N. polymor-
phinoides var halkyardi.)
il GENUS HAPLOPHRAGMIUM, Reuss.
38. HaAPLOPHRAGMIUM AGGLUTINANS (d’Orbigny.)
Spirolina agglutinans, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Fossiles
Vienne, p. 137, pl. VII, figs. 10-12.
Haplophragmium ag glutinans, “Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 301,
pl. XXXII, figs. 19-26.
Rather rare, stout in form and coarsely arenaceous in
iFEXtUne:
(The specimens are all of a large and roughly agglutinate
iy
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxtz. (1917) 23
type, built up of angular sand grains and particles of calcareous
matter. There is no selective tendency as recorded by us from
several widely separated gatherings.)
39. HAPLOPHRAGMIUM PSEUDOSPIRALE (Williamson.)
Proteonina pseudospiralis, Williamson, 1858, Recent British
HoOrame pa 2 ple Ly tesi2-3.
Haplophragmium pseudospirale, Brady, Chall. Rep., p. 302,
pl. XXXIII, figs. 1-4.
Not rare, distributed through the whole thickness of the
marl. The majority of the specimens however were found
in Gathering No. 5, 1893.)
(Some of the specimens can only be accepted with reser-
vation owing to their condition, but large and typical examples
are represented from Gathering 5.)
39a. [HAPLOPHRAGMIUM TENUIMARGO, ane
[Haplophragmium tenuimargo, Brady 1882, KE. p. 71
Hf. tenuimargo, Brady, 1884, FC. Da Soe joke
224. CRISTELLARIA BUDENSIS (Hantken.)
IP WAL, imyer, As
Robulina budensis, Hantken, 1875, Mitth. Jahib. K. ungar.
SEOl, AWE. (Ds FS, ply WIDE, infer, i.
Robulina budensis, Jones, 1876, Mon. Micr. Journ. vol. XV,
pl CXEGV IS hie mice
This variation of the cultrata type has not generaily been
found in all the material collected. It is frequent in Gathering
No. 4 (1893) but very rare in, or absent from, the others. The
test is compressed, partially evolute, provided with an umbili-
cal boss, and is of delicate growth, with a thin shell-wall.
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lait. (1917) 95
(This appears to be nothing more than a compressed and
depauperate form of C. cultrata. Halkyard’s specimens are
less pauperate than Hantken’s figure suggests.)
225. CRISTELLARIA ORBICULARIS (d’Orbigny.)
Robulina orbicularis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol.
VII, p. 288, pl. VI, figs. 8-9.
Cristellaria orbicularis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
PeS4O, ple XIX nes 17.
Very rare. Found only in the sample of clay brought home
in April, 1893, and strangely absent from the larger quantities
of Marl collected at later times.
226. CRISTELLARIA WETHERELLII (Rupert Jones.)
Marginulina wetherellii, Jones, 1854, Morris Catal. Brit. Fossils,
ede. 37.
Cristellaria wetherellu, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
P5375 ply CAV, fis. 14.
The species is frequent in nearly all the Gatherings, but is
best developed and most typical at the base of the Marl. In
the upper beds the examples are short and delicate in growth,
the surface ornamentation is not strong and almost every in-
dividual is provided with a thin dorsal keel. Traces of this last
feature are also to be found in the more typical specimens.
(This is a fine series of specimens but none of them can be
considered as typical as compared with the familiar Jondon
Claygtypesn | (oe Gy 188s)ete, MC. p..652, pl. XV, fe:
18.) The Biarritz specimens are all short, broad, and except
for the somewhat turgid cross-section are much more nearly
allied to Brady’s C. gemmata (Chall. Rep. p. 554, pl. LX XI,
figs. 6, 7.) than to C. wetherellu. Ina few of the Biarritz speci-
mens there is a distinct tendency to dimorphic growth, the final
chamber being globular, and in one case separated by a short
neck from the penultimate chamber.)
227. CRISTELLARIA ASPERULA, Gitmbel.
PERVERT ES) slOnplene
Cristellaria asperula, Gitmbel, 1868, (70). Abh. m.-ph. Cl. k.
bayer. Ak. Wiss., vol. X., no description, pl. I, fig. 65a, b.
C. asperula is an elongate, rectilinear, and compressed form
allied to C. wetherellii from which it is easily separated in the
Biarritz Gatherings, there being found no intermediate links.
It is not rare.
‘96 HALKYARD, Fossil Foramindfera of the Blue Marl
(Halkyard’s specimens do not resemble Gumbel’s figure
exactly, being more compressed and less strongly decorated.
C. asperula, Gumbel, like its allies Marginulina fragraria
Gumbel and C. cumulicostata, Gumbel, (all figured on the same
plate) are usually regarded as mere synonyms of C. wethereilm,
and it is almost impossible to separate them. But at Biarritz
(fide Halixyard) there are no intermediates between the short
and broad form which he assigns to C. wetherellu and the
elongate form for which fragraria would be a better type than
asperula.) |
228. CRISTELLARIA CUMULICOSTATA, Gumbel.
‘Cristeilaria cumulicostata, Gumbel, 1868 (70), Abh. m.-ph. Cl. k.
bayer, Ak. Wiss., vol. X, p. 638, pl. 1, fig..67a, b
Very rare. Only found in Gathering No. 8 (1893). It is
allied to C. wetherellu, but differs in having the sutures marked
by a continuous limbation instead of the tubercles and spines
which in the latter species have a tendency to form longitudinal
ribs on the surface of the test.
(To attempt to separate species on such trifling grounds,
especially in such an extremely variable group, is in our opinion
most undesirable.)
SUB-FAMILY POLYMORPHININE.
Genus PotymMorpuHINA, d’Orbigny.
229. POLYMORPHINA GIBBA, d’Orbigny.
Polymorphina (Globulina) gibba, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci.
Nat., vol. VII. p- 266, No. 20; Modele. No. 63.
Polymorghina gibba, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. TX, p. 561,
pl EO i hieaarzat ib
Frequent; found in most Gatherings. A few small fistu-
lose examples occur in Gathering No. 5, (1893.)
230. POLYMORPHINA LACTEA (Walker & Jacob.)
Serpula lactea, Waiker & Jacob, 1898, Adams’ Essays Micro.,
(Kannmacher’s edition), p. 634, pl. XIV, fig. 4.
Polymorphina lactea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep.. vol. IX, p. 559,
DI ODE aves vats \yahes alee, at,
This species is more rare than the last named, but is also
widely distributed throughout the Marl beds.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917) 97
231. POLYMORPHINA LACTEA, var. OBLONGA, Williamson.
Polymorphina lactea, var. oblonga, Williamson, 1858, Recent
Brit. Foram, p. 71, pl. VI, figs. 149-149.
An exceedingly scarce variety in the Biarritz Marls. [am
enly able to record one solitary specimen from Gathering No. 8.
232. POLYMORPHINA COMMUNIS, d’Orbigny.
Polymorphina (Guttulina) communis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann.
Sci. Nat., vol. VII, p. 266, No. 15. pl. XII, figs. 1-4.
Polymorplina commums, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
pesos pl: IX XI], fe: 10.
This connecting link between P. lactea (W. & J.) and
P. problema, d’Orb. is rare at the Cote des Basques, specimens
were not obtained until the examination of the material col-
lected in 1897.
233. POLYMORPHINA AMYGDALOIDES, Reuss.
Globulina amy gdaloides, Reuss, 1851, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol.
Gesenolvlils ip: 82) ple Vilkihios 47.
Polymorphina amygdaloides, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol.
ee SOO. ple ee xa ie: 12"
This is only a flattened variety of P. lactea, or perhaps
rather of P. gibba, as the sutures are generally marked bv fine
lines and are not depressed. The test is, as a rule, neatly formed
and of symmetrical outline, having an oval transverse section.
The species is very rare at Biarritz.
234. POLYMORPHINA COMPRESSA, d‘Orbigny.
Polymorphina compressa, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss.
Wrenner pa 232) pln alin hes) 22-2748
Polymorphina compressa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
p. 565, pl. LXXII, figs. 9-11.
Very rare, and apparently occurring only in the upper half
of the Marl.
235. POLYMORPHINA SORORIA, Reuss.
Polymorphina (Guttulina) sororia, Reuss, 1863, Bull. Ac. Roy.
Bele., 2], vol. XV, p. 151, pl. Il, figs: 25-20:
Polymorphina sororia, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 562,
pl. LX XI, figs. 15-16.
Very rare. The only specimens found are small.
98 | HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
236. POLYMORPHINA LANCEOLATA, Reuss.
Polymorphina lanceolata, Reuss, 1851, Zeitschr, deutsch, geol.
Ges; vol) TMI i prsahyple Valerie So)
Polymorphina lanceolata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,.
p. 564, pl. LXXII, figs. 5-6.
Rare but small and approaching P. sororia Reuss in
character.
237. PoLYMORPHINA ROTUNDATLA (Bornemann.)
Guttulina rotundata, Bornemann, 1855, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol.
Ges. vol. VII, p. 346; pl. XVIII, mer, 3
Polymorphina rotundata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. De
D5 SO) Ole ILOIUOLY eso 53,
Extremely rare. Only one specimen found in Gathering
INO, 3k
238. POLYMORPHINA ELEGANTISSIMA, Parker & Jones.
Polymorphina elegantissima, Parker & Jones, 1865, Phil.
iransenvoll Gl \VemMable > eip.4es:
Polymorplina elegantissima, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol.
IX, p. 566, pl. LX XII, figs. 12-15.
This species is rare in the material collected from the Biar-
ritz Marl and does not attain a large size.
239. PoLYMORPHINA COMPLANATA, d’Orbigny.
Polymorphina complanata, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss.
Vienne, p. 234, pl. XIII, figs. 25-30.
Polymorphina complanata, Brady, Parker & Jones, 1870, Trans.
Linn. Sec:, vol. XOOVil, py220), pl) Xo) en aanbe
Very rare. The two specimens found in Gathering No. 7,
are rather narrower than d’Orbigny’s figures and have
the first chamber long and narrow, forming a sort of cauda at
the base of the test.
(The two specimens are very distinctive. In their general
outline and acuminate base they are much nearer the specimens
which we figured from Selsey, (H-A. & E. 1908, etc., S.B. 1909.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1917) 99)
p. 432, pl. XVII. figs. 3-5.) than to d’Orbigny’s original figure,,
but they differ from both in the extreme flatness of their faces
and their sharply cut angular periphery.)
240. POLYMORPHINA HIRSUTA, Brady, Parker & Jones.
Polymorphina hirsuta, Brady, Parker & Jones, 1870, Trans.
inne SOC Vola wav il pe 242 ple Wnts ay.
Very rare. Found only in Gathering No. 3.
(This adds to the somewhat rare records of this pretty
species; the Biarritz specimens are quite typical and well-pre-
served.)
241. POLYMORPHINA LONGICOLLIS, Brady.
Polymorphina longicollis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
p. 572, pl. LX XITI, figs. 18-19.
Extremely rare. Only one specimen (a typical one) being
found in Gatherings of No. 8 series.
(The specimens are unquestionable, though in a very bad
state of preservation. It is essentially a deep water form but
has previously been recorded from Tertiary strata.)
242. POLYMORPHINA RUGOSA, d’Orbigny.
Polymorphina rugosa, d’Orb., 1839, In de la Sagra’s Hist.
Piviisigeyete Ge Cuba. Moraminiferes;: op. 138, pls, Il;
figs. 14-15.
Polymorphina rugosa, Brady, Parker, & Jones, 1870, Trans.
ines Ocy Vole DOCVMIE Tp. 2277 ple XULy ties. 22a=—d)
Rare, occurring only in the beds at the end of the Sea-wall.
The specimens vary much in size and also in surface ornament-
ation.
(Halkyard’s reference is not strictly correct. D’Orbigny
figured two distinct forms under the specific name rugosa—one
from Cuba as given in Halkyard’s reference, the other (Globu-
lina rugosa d’Orb.) from Vienna Tertiaries (1846, Foram. Foss.
Vienne, p. 229, pl. XIII, figs. 19-20) The Cuba form is, as the
author admits, abnormal, a mere sport of P. compressa prob-
ably. The Vienna form, on the other hand, is a true decorated
variety of P. gibba, d’Orb. The Biarritz specimens are identical
with the Vienna types, and should be referred to them.)
100 HALKYARD, fosszl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
Genus Uvicertna, d Orbigny.
243. UVIGERINA PYGM@A, d’Orbigny..
Uvigerina pygmea, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. VII,
p. 269, pl. XII, figs. 8-9.
Uvigerina pygmea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 575, pl.
LXXIV, figs! ii-12) elongate vaniety, Wess uae
A common species and fairly distributed throughout the
Marl, but the specimens are only of moderate size.
244. ‘UVIGERINA TENUISTRIATA, Reuss.
Uvigerina tenuistriata, Reuss, 1870. Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss.Wien.
vol. EXT Abth. 1, p. 485; vy. Schlicht.) Horameysecran
Pietzpuhl, pl. XXII, figs. 34-37.
Uvigerina tenuistriata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 574
DIES eiies (4-7.
Rather rare, and only found in about half of the samples
of washings exainined.
(There are a few slender and typical examples but the
majority are only depauperate specimens of U. pygmea.)
245. UVIGERINA TENUISTRIATA, var. DEBILIS, nov.
Earlier portion of test similar to that of U. tenuistriata.
Last chamber, and sometimes the penultimate one, triangular
in transverse section. Length, .45 mm.
This variety, of which a fair number of specimens have
been found, is a small and evidently weak form of its type,
diverging in the direction of U. angulosa, Will. It has gener-
ally been found in Gatherings in which U. tenuistriata does not
occur, or is, at any rate, very rare.
(There does not appear to be much reason for the creation
of this new variety. Uvigerina, when present in material in any
abundance, is abnormally subject to variation, and to passage
forms between the species. Brady figures many such inter-
mediate specimens. (Chall. Rep. Pls. LXXTV—LXXV.) )
246. UVIGERINA ANGULOSA, Williamson.
Uvigerina angulosa, Williamson, 1858, Rec. Brit. Foram., p.
67, pl VN ean TAO
Uvigerina angulosa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 576,
pl. LXXIV, figs. 15-18.
Well characterised examples are frequent in nearly all the
washings examined.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917) IOL
247. UVIGERINA CANARIENSIS, d’Orbieny.
Uvigerina canariensis, d’Orbigny, 1839, Hist. Nat. Iles
Canaries, vol. II, pt..2, “‘Foraminiféres,’’ p. 138, pl. I, figs..
25-27.
Uvigerina canariensis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
Pp. 573, pl. LX XIV, figs. 1-3.
Occurs frequently in all Gatherings except No. I, 1893,
where only one minute specimen was found.
248. UVIGERINA PORRECTA, Brady.
Uvigerina porrecta, Brady, 1879, Quar. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol.
POS. 274, pl VINID, figs. 15-10.
Uvigerina porrecta, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX. p. 577,.
PeplepiscOCIW figs: 21-23.
I have found but few specimens of this small species. The:
majority of them occurring in the lowest beds of the Marl.
(The specimens are all devoid of any produced neck, and are
characterised by an extreme and regular biserial arrangement
of the chambers, extending over the greater portion of the test.)
[248a. UVIGERINA ASPERULA, Czjzek. |
, [Uvigerina asperula, Czjzek, 1848, F.W.B., p. 146, pl. XIII,.
figs. 14-15.
Uvigerina asperula, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 578,.
pl. LXX\V, figs. 6-8. ]
(A few fairly typical specimens were found on one of the
unnamed type slides in the collection.)
SUB-FAMILY RAMULININA.
GENuS Ramutina, Rupert Jones.
249. RAMULINA La&VIS, Rupert Jones.
Ramulina levis, Rupert Jones, MS., Wright. Rep. Procz
Belfast, Nat. Field Club, 1873-4, App. ITI, 1875, p. 88 [9o],.
jDlly TDL asaters "aKoy
R. levis, Chapman, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., 1896, p. 582 pl.
OE nic 2 aridlibid 1898.4 p 2. pley EE ioee nee
Rare, occurs chiefly in the upper portion of the Marl, only
small isolated chambers found.
102. HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
250. RAMULINA GLOBULIFERA, Brady.
Ramulina globulifera, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
vol. XTX, ps 272) ple Vil itess 22-23%
R. globulifera, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 587,
pl. LX XVI, figs. 22-28.
Rather more rare than the last species, and found in similar
condition, but in lower horizons. Small.
FAMILY GLOBIGERINID/A.
GENUS GLOBIGERINA, d’Orbigny.
251. (GLOBIGERINA CONGLOBATA, Brady.
Globigerina conglobata, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.
WO, XID, Dy ASO:
G. conglobata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 603,
DID OOX es r-5 | and ple IexXOxe anes temase
The specimens collected are rather small, and more globu-
lar than recent examples, the chambers not being flattened as
usual. The supplemental sutural apertures are generally to be
seen in the Biarritz specimens. ‘The species is not rare and
seems to be most frequent in the middle and lower portions
of the Marl, and has not been found at ail in the higher Gather-
ings. |
252. GLOBIGERINA BULLOIDES, d’Orbigny.
Globigerina bulloides, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol.
WIS Do Zaza) INO. ite
G. bulloides, Brady, 1884; Chall’ Rep? vol) Xe) pessoa maple
TO XOXGV A ele MIE XOXUIDXe aieises 3-7.
Frequent, and found in all material examined.
253. GLOBIGERINA DUTERTREI, d’Orbigny.
Globigerina dutertrei, d’Orbigny, 1839. De la Sagra’s Hist.
Phisiq., etc., de Cuba, “Foraminiféres,” p. 845 plo TV,
figs. 19-21.
G. dutertrei, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 601, pl.
LXXXI, figs) 1, a-c
Typical specimens were noted in almost all Gatherings;
but the number of examples is but few altogether.
- Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt. (1917) 103
254. GLOBIGERINA INFLATA, d’Orbigny.
Globigerina inflata, d’Orbigny, 1839, Hist. lles Canaries, vol.
tae) Horaminiteres, 7) p. 1134, pl. il) fesi7-o:
G inflata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 601, pl.
LXXIX, figs. 8-10.
Frequent and widely distributed.
255. GLOBIGERINA ZEQUILATERALIS, Brady.
Globigerina equilateralis, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr.
Seteivol. xox yip., 285.
G. equilateralis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 605,
pl. LXXX, figs. 18-21.
Very rare. Three small specimens found in Gathering 3,
(1893.)
(The specimens are very small indeed and evidently existed
under extremely unfavourable conditions.)
256. GLOBIGERINA DUBIA, Egger.
Globigerina dubia, Egger, 1857, Neues Jahrbuch fur Min. p.
281, pl. IX, figs. 7-9.
G. dubia, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. [X, p. 595, pl. LX XIX,
“SHIGE: “TIGA oon
Very rare and small. Occurs only in Gathering 7, 1893.
(The same remark applies to this species.)
256a..[GLOBIGERINA CRETACEA, d’Orbigny. |
[Globigerina cretacea, d’Orbigny, 1840, CBP, p. 34, pl. III,
figs. 12-14.
G. cretacea, Heron-Allen & Earland, 1914, etc., FKA, 1915,
p. 678, pl. LI. figs. 10-13. |
257. GLOBIGERINA MARGINATA, (Reuss.)
Rosalina marginata, Reuss, 1845 (6), Verstein. bohm. Kreide,
pi le: p30; cpl OCLs. 08:
Globigerina marginata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX,
Pp- 597, woodcut 17, p. 598.
Very rare and small. Found two examples in Gathering
No. 3, (1893.)
(The same remark.)
104. HALKYARD, Fosszl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl 4
258. GLOBIGERINA LINN/EANA, (d’Orbigny.)
=<
Rosalina linneana, d’Orbigny, 1839, De la Sagra’s Hist.
Phisiq. etc., Cuba, ‘“Foraminiféres, p. 101, pl. V, figs. 10-12.
Globigerina. linneana, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
p. 508, pl. CX1V, he. 21, a,c. Cretaceous specimens pie
LXOC UU hoa nie amb
Small and rare, the only specimens collected were a few
from Gathering 9, (1893.)
(The same remark.)
GENUS OrRBULINA, d’Orbigny.
258A. [ORBULINA UNIVERSA, d’Orbigny. |
[Orbulina unwversa, d’Orbigny, 1839, FIC. p. 3, pl. I, fig. 1
O. universa, Brady, 1884, FC. p. 608, pl. LXXVII, pl.
LXXXI, figs. 8-26. et seq. |
Genus Puutenta, Parker and Jones.
259. PULLENIA QUINQUELOBA, (Reuss.)
Nonionina quinqueloba, Reuss, 1851, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol..
Ges yjole millet or aol Vienne. yam
Pullenia quinqueloba, Brady, 1884,Chall. Rep:, vols 12@ pao
PL OOXGI NV ies Paar Se
Specimens are small and rare, and occur principally in the
middle part of the Beds.
GENUS SPHAEROIDINA, d’Orbigny.
259A. [SPHAEROIDINA BULLOIDES, d’Orbigny. |
[Sphaeroidina bulloides, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.; vol..
VII, p. 267, No. 1; Modéle, No. 65.
Sy bulloides, Brady, 1884, FE. p. 620, pl. LX X Xe tesa at
TVA SG TROD VAVIIEID)A53,.
SUB-FAMILY SPIRILLININAE.
GENUS SPIRILLINA, Ehrenberg.
260. SPIRILLINA VIVIPARA, Ehrenberg.
Spirillina vivipara, Ehrenberg, 1841, Abhandl. k. Ak. Wiss.
Berlin, p. 442, pl. III, fig. 4r1.
Spirillina vivipara, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 630,
DIE MERON) snes, es
Not rare and evenly distributed but small and weak.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lett. (1917) 105
260A. [SPIRILLINA MARGARITIFERA, Williamson. |
[| Spirillina margaritifera, Williamson, 1858, RFGB, p. 93, pl.
VII, fig. 204.
S. margaritifera, Heron-Allen & Earland, 1914, etc. FKA, 1915,
p. 685. |
261. [SPIRILLINA SELSEYENSIS, Heron-Allen & Earland. |
[Spirillina selseyensis, Heron-Allen & Earland, 1908, etc.,
Sererooo, p4 440, pl XVILL, fies. 6,.7.]
- 261A. SPIRILLINA RESTIS, sp. nov.
Pi, Wi Liamves, (Gy Byavcl 1eliy WIUK siren, te.
Test consisting of a plano-spiral tube of about five con-
volutions, increasing slowly in width, tube not symmetrical in
section, consequently one lateral surface of the test is larger
than the other, the larger surface ornamented with oblique
elongate tubercles, the opposite surface without ornamenta-
tion except a septal limbation. Diam. .35 mm.
‘This new species is very rare, and is perhaps only an
extreme development of Williamson’s $. margaritifera. I have
found one or two specimens which tended in the direction of
Brady’s S- inequalis, but, as the latter seems not to be a Spiril-
lina (see the apertures in Brady’s figures), it has been thought
best to include them with the better-marked specimens in the
present species. The specimen figured on Plate VII only shows
slight traces of the oblique corrugations of the whorls.
(This appears to be identical with our previously recorded
species S$. selseyensis from similar material from Selsey. Our
name having priority must stand.)
262. SPIRILLINA LIMBATA, /Brady.
Spirillina limbata, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol.
Peer ple Nill anice 262A be
Spirillina limbata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX. p. 632, pl.
LXXXV, figs. 18-21.
Very rare. Three damaged specimens found in the beds
exposed between tide-marks near the end of the Quai des
Basques.
106 HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
SUB-FAMILY ROTALINA.
GENUS PaATELLINA, Williamson.
203. PATELLINA CORRUGATA, Williamson.
Patellina corrugata, Williamson, 1858, Rec. Brit. Foram., p.
46, pl. III, figs. 86-89.
P. corrugata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 634, pl.
LXXXVI) figs: 1-7.
Very rare, small, and delicate.
(The specimens although few in number are very remark-
able, for they include not merely the original type of William-
son, which is the sole representative of this species at G.3. but
also the peculiar flat discoid type now typical of Australian
shore-gatherings, which occurs in G. 8 and 9. This has been
figured by Chapman. ((C. 1907..R.E.V. p. 1324) pla xe hice me)
264. [CHAPMANIA GASSINENSIS, Silvestri. |
[Chapmania gassinensis, Silvestri, Atti. Pont. Ac. N. Lincei,
Ann. 4. vili. (1904-5), Pp. 130. |
264A. PATELLINA CONICA, Sp. nov.
Pl. VI, fig. 7, and Pl. VIII, figs. 6-7.
Test conical with rounded apex, inferior face flat, peri-
pheral edge obtuse. External or cortical layer consisting of
numerous small chambers arranged at first in spiral whorls,
latterly in concentric rings. Hollow central portion of test
filled with perforated horizontal lamellze which are connected
with one another by short vertical columns. Diam. 1.1 mm.
Height, .g mm.
This new species is rare, and hitherto has only been found
in material collected from sandy and shelly veins in the beds
exposed between tide-marks at the end of the Quai des Basques.
The form is a well developed one and displays all the character-
istics of the genus, but instead of large chambers sub-divided
into chamberlets by transverse partitions, the cortical layer
consists of numerous small chambers of square or rectangular
section, and with a rounded apex which is pointed towards the
vertical axis of the test, and at right angles to it. In a fortui-
tously broken specimen I have observed the globular primor-
dial chamber which is followed by two arc-shaped ones, this
form gradually gives place to the ‘‘obelisk’’ form. The first
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lett. (1917) 107
horizontal whorl surrounding the primordial cell consists of
six chambers. The arrangement of the chambers cannot be
seen in unabraded specimens owing to the opacity and smooth-
ness of the exterior surface of the test. The perforations of
the central horizontal laminze are irregularly disposed and so
aresthe vertical connecting columns.
Fig. 6, Plate VI, shows well the transverse section of the
cortical chambers. Fig. 7, Plate VIII, the longitudinal section
of the same, as well as the construction of the shell-matter
occupying the interior of the hollow cone formed by those
chambers.
I would wish to remark that the drawings given here are
made from actual specimens and are in no-sense reconstruc-
tions.
(Halkyard’s species is represented in the collection by
specimens on the type slides and by a balsam mount containing
three vertical sections taken in different planes. The available
specimens therefore are sufficient, in connection with his draw-
ings, to connect the species with Chapmania gassinensis,
Silvestri. The méasurements, size and shape of the chamberlets
all agree fairly closely with that form. The species has been
thoroughly analysed and discussed (together with its isomorph
Dictyoconus egyptiensis) by Silvestri in the Rivista Italiana di
Paleontologica (Ann. XI, 1905, Pt. III, pp. 113-120, pl. II.)
Halkyard’s forms appear to be more bluntly conical than
Silvestri’s, and the basal edge in consequence less acutely angu-
lar. It will be observed that Halkyard gives as locality for his
specimens “‘material collected from sandy and shelly veins in
the beds exposed between tide-marks.’’ This does not alto-
gether exclude the possibility of their being derived fossils
washed from some earlier or later horizons than the other
Biarritz specimens, and a note among the Halkyard MSS.
shows that he inclined to this opinion himself.)
[HALKYARDIA, GEN. NOV.]
GENUS LINDERINA, Schlumberger.
““Test discoidal, thickened at the centre, composed of a
single rank of numerous little chambers disposed circularly
round a central chamber and in the same plane. The walls
of each chamber are prolonged towards the middle above the
chambers already formed. This calcareous envelope is traversed
by large perforations which penetrate directly to the internal
chambers.”’
108 HALKYARD, Fosstl Foramznifera of the Blue Marl
The above is the generic description given by Schlum-
berger in ‘‘Note sur les genres Tvillina et Linderina’”’ (Bull.
Soc. Géol. de France, 3e serie, tome X XI (1893), p. 120),
and requires some modification to include such members of the
genus as the two new ones described below which undoubt-
edly must be classed in the same genus. The only species
described by Schlumberger (L. brugesi) differs slightly
from his generic description inasmuch as the chambers are not
all in the same horizontal plane, the disc of chambers being
slightly hollowed on the inferior surface, if one disregards the
prolongations of the chamber-wall which cover the previously
formed rows of cells and cause the thickening ot the central
portion of the disc. This hollowing of the inferior surface,
which is noted by Schlumberger in his description of
LE brugesu, \is ) carried to) such an extent aang,
Lo. \chapmant as) | to) produce), a) (test Qasimallaiaaemnie
appearance to Ffatellina, or some forms of Cymbalo-
pora with which latter genus Linderina is closely allied, the
shell-wall in both genera being of the same character, and both
forms having a small spiral commencement to the test followed
by concentric rows of chambers, the cells of each row alter-
nating with those of the previous row, so that the centre of each
chamber is opposite the point of junction of two chambers of
the preceding ring, after the manner of Planorbulina and
Cymbalopora.
In my opinion, after careful study of specimens of L. ovata
mounted in Canada Balsam, Schlumberger is mistaken in
affirming that “‘the wall of all the chambers is continuous on
all the circumference, without any trace of suture, and is cor-
rugated in order to form each of the little chambers.’’ I have
observed this apparent duplication and corrugation of the cell
wall which can only be seen in very few cells of the many com-
posing a single test, and am satisfied that it can be accounted
for in other ways such as cutting through the apertural pores
of adjoining chambers. In the vast majority of cases the cells
are arranged on the planorbuline plan, and consequently there
is a well-defined suture.
I must also remark that “Schlumberger’s photogravure
(Fig. 7, Plate 3, representing a transverse section of a test),
does not show the double shell-wall, neither does his wood cut
on page 121, which I reproduce here (Plate VII, fig. 1.)
Schlumberger’s specimens were collected from the
Upper Eocene deposits at Bruges (Gironde).
(Halkyard does not appear to have had personal acquain-
tance with any specimens of Schlumberger’s Genus Linderina,
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtz. (1917) 109
otherwise he could hardly have confused his very distinctive
types with Schlumberger’s. We have not attempted to modify
the generic definition of Linderina in order to bring them in.
The differences are too wide and deep for reconcilément, and
we have found it necessary to institute a new genus for Halk-
yard’s forms, which we have pleasure in associating with his
memory under the name Halkyardia.
We have had a great advantage in having previously be-
come fully acquainted with the structure of Schlumberger’s
Linderina brugesu in the numerous examples of the species
which we identified, described and figured exhaustively in our
Selsey Monograph (H-A. & E. 1908, etc. S.B. 1911. p. 332.
pl. XII, figs. 1-7.) We fully confirm the diagnosis of Schlum-
berger, which Halkyard disputes.
The essential differences between Halkyardia and Lin-
derina can be briefly explained. In Linderina we have
a shell with a horizontal series of planorbuline cham-
bers. These chambers by _ successive thickenings of
picwmextesnal wall!) eventually 9 result) in a!) bicon-
vex disc which, if cut in median section, shows a thick wall in
the centre of the disc decreasing in thickness to each edge. The
disc is usually somewhat ‘‘dished’’ instead of being symmetri-
cally biconvex. In Halkyardia on the other hand the planorbu-
line disc of chambers, concave in cross section, tends to fill up
the concavity with a mass of shell substance perforated with
numerous canals. Seen in section the thickening is confined to
the concave side only. Both in shell structure and arrange-
ment of chambers, Halkyardia is clearly very closely related to
Planorbulina and Cymbalopora.)
2
265. [ HaLKYARDIA OVATA, sp. nov. |
265A. LINDERINA OVATA, sp. nov.
Ble Wale ss: rook 2)
Test depressed, ovate; superior surface slightly convex,
inferior surface flat; composed of numerous small chambers,
the first four or five of which are arranged in a spiral manner;
the later ones disposed on either side of a series occupying the
longitudinal axis of the shell. Only the outside row of chambers
visible externally. Aperture porous, as in Cymbalopora, or
sometimes consisting of one or two larger openings. Length
-66 mm., breadth .35 mm.
110 ~=HALKYARD, fosstl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
Apart from the external form, being ovate and not circular,
this species shows all the characteristics of L. brugesu, Schlum-
berger. The form of the chambers,the shell-wall, and the ex-
ternal appearance and structure of the thickened central portion
are absolutely identical. The young shell is spicular or fusi-
form, the long axis being sometimes five times as long as the
shorter one, whilst in the most highly developed test I have
. met with (fig. 10) the proportion is less than two to one. This
seems to show that the cells on the long axis are at first
developed more rapidly than the lateral ones, but, after a certain
stage is reached, their increase is arrested and the lateral cham-
bers gain the ascendency, so that it is quite possible that in
time a discoidal shell like Schlumberger’s species might be pro-
duced.
This species is not common, but I have collected from
eight samples of the Blue Marl, 30 or 35 specimens.
(Apart from Halkyard’s efforts to bring the description of
this species within the definitions of Linderina the foregoing
remarks present nearly all that can be said for this very curious
form. Viewed from the superior surface, both species of Halk-
yardia might readily be mistaken for Cymbalopora poeyi
(d’Orb.) of the depressed type; only when the under surface
is viewed does the secondary deposit in the umbilical recess
give the clue to its distinctive structure.)
266. [HaLKyARDIA MINIMA, (Liebus.) |
[Cymbalopora radiata, Hagenow, var. minima, Liebus, 1911,
Sitzb. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math. nat. Kl. vol. CXX,
JNdyelaly Wy, MONT, (De Czy oll JUL, inves, 77] :
2664. LINDERINA CHAPMANI, Sp. Nov.
JENA WILE mers Ss Oy
Test conical, with rounded apex, formed of concentric
rows of wedge-shaped chambers. Centre of hollow cone filled
up by prolongations of the inferior walls of the cells. The
superior surface of the test thickened by the prolongation of
the superior chambers-walis. Diam..6 mm. Height .3 mm.
This very beautiful species shows clearly by tne form and
arrangement of its chambers its relationship to Cymbalopora; it
is however more regular in structure and of a higher type. A
vertical section (fig. 9, pl. VI) shows plainly by the varying
Manchester Memozirs, Vol. lett. (1917) III
angle of the chambers in respect to the vertical axis of the shell,
the evolution of the conical form of the mature test from the
lenticular shape of the young shell.
This species is rarer than the preceding one, only half the
number of specimens being noted from six Gatherings of Marl.
I have much pleasure in associating Mr. F. Chapman’s
name with this interesting form, in grateful remembrance of the
valuable assistance he has so willingly afforded me in overcom-
ing the difficulties which I have encountered in my work on the
collections now under consideration.
(Halkyard’s intention of naming this new species after
Frederick Chapman cannot unfortunately be carried out, inas-
much as the form has already been described and figured as
above, though Liebus misunderstood the structure of the test
and referred his specimens to the genus Cymbalopora of Hage-
now. In this species there is a limited amount of thickening
of the shell wall on the superior side, thus perhaps affording
evidence of some relationship between Linderina and the new
genus Halkyardia, but the superior thickening is very limited
in extent and is as coarsely perforate as on the inferior side.
The species is absolutely indistinguishable from depressed
specimens of Cymbalopora poeyi, (d’Orb.) when viewed from
the superior surface.)
Genus Discorpina, Parker & Jones.
267. DiscorBina optusaA, (d’Orbigny.)
Rosalina obtusa, d Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 179,
plex, mes. 4-6.
Discorbina obtusa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., Vol. IX, p. 644,
pile Cliie: oa. bcs
The specimens found in my collections are both small and
rare.
268. DIScORBINA ALLOMORPHINOIDES, (Reuss.)
Valvulina allomorphinoides, Reuss, 1860, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss.
Wien. vol. XL, p. 223, pl. XI, fig. 6, a-c.
Discorbina allomorphinoides, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol.
Deion OF4 (ple, teseis..3
This species is more frequent than D. obtusa and attains
somewhat larger dimensions, though it can hardly be said to be
very well developed in the Blue Marl.
112 HALKYARD, Fossil Foramintfera of the Blue Marl
2609. DiscorBINA SAULCYI, (d’Orbigny.)
Rosalina saulcyi, d’Orbigny, 1839, Voyage Amér. Mérid., vol.
V. pt. 5, Poraminiferes,’ p. 42) (ple 1h) fasMo-me
Discorbina saulcyi, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 653,
Dl NCI Mesmoatib ac.
Small and rare but fairly well distributed.
270. DISCORBINA VILARDEBOANA, (d’Orbigny.)
Rosalina vilardeboanu, d’Orbigny, 1839, Voyage Amér. Meérid.,
vol. Vi, pt. 5, Foraminferes, ~ p) 445 pls Ville semnconse
Discorbina vilardeboana, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p.
645, pl) LXXXVID ties. 9) 125 and pl LXOOay estes
Very rare, only two small specimens found in the whole of
the samples of Marl examined.
271. DISCORBINA RUGOSA, (d’Orbigny.)
Rosalina rugosa, d’Orbigny, 1839, Voyage Amér. Meérid., vol.
Viv pts) | Poraminiferes, /(p) 42, pli i siecemr 2 sie
Discorbina rugosa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 652,
pl LXX XVI, figs. 3a;\b, c, and pli XC insaanaoees
Rare and small, it seems to be limited to the upper portion
of the Marl.
(The specimens can hardly be described as typical.)
272. DISCORBINA GLOBULARIS, (d’Orbigny.)
Rosalina globularis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. VII,
PaeZ 7 Non le CMI tiiersei ta
Discorbina globularis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX., p.
QAR soll IOS OR WAL ISS. (Sy 12
Rare, but fairly distributed, specimens typical and well
developed.
(The specimens are all of the thick-walled highly perforate
type.)
273. DISCORBINA OPERCULARIS, (d’Orbigny.)
Rosalina opercularis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol.
Vil paZzzieNion ze
Discorbina opercularis, Brady, 1884, Chail. Rep. vol. 1X, p.
650, pl. LX X XIX, figs. 8, 9.
This form requires no special remark except that it is rare
and occurs chiefly in the lower beds.
Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxitz. (1917) 113
274. DISCORBINA OPERCULARIS, Vat. ELEGANS, nov.
Pl. VI, fig. 2
This variety differs from the type in its invariably smaller
‘dimensions, neater build, broader and less arched chambers,
and the lesser and more gradually increasing width of its spiral
whorls. The drawing given here represents well the character-
istics described above. Diam. .3 mm.
The variety is rare and not always accompanied by its type
‘species.
(The variety would not appear to be worth separating. It
probably only represents a depauperate form of the type exist-
ing under unfavourable conditions.)
275. DISCORBINA PILEOLUS, (d’Orbigny.)
Valvulina pileolus, d’Orbigny, 1839, Voyage Amér. Merid.,
vol. V, pt. 5, ‘““Foraminiféres,’’ p. 47, pl. I, figs. 15-17.
Discorbina pileolus, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 649,
pl. LXXXIX, figs. 2-4.
Very rare; two small specimens found in the lowest soft
beds of the Marl.
276. DISCORBINA CONCINNA, Brady.
Discorbina concinna, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 646,
pl. XC, figs. 7-8.
Very rare, only two small specimens noted.
277. DISCORBINA ROSACEA, (d’Orbigny.)
Rotalia rosacea, dOrbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. VII, p.
B72 IN@s 5s
Discorbina rosacea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 644,
Dll, WOOO WANES sasise ies eZly
Rare and small.
278. DISCORBINA ORBICULARIS, (Terquem.)
Rosalina orbicularis, Terquem, 1876, Ess. Anim. Plage Dun-
engulen pis 2 pH 7s ple lene di Sa sb
Discorbina orbicularis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol, IX, p.
647, pl. LX XXVIII, figs. 4-8,
Less rare than the last species but still not frequent.
114. HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
279. DISCORBINA COMPRESSA, Sp. nov.
Jel, WIL, ne, @.
Shell compressed, thin, flattened on both surfaces, peri-
pheral edge sharp, generally keeled. Test composed of. about
sixteen arched chambers. The sutures and spiral line of earlier
chambers limbate on superior surface, which is also decorated
with scattered tubercles. Inferior surface smooth except for
a few tubercles occupying the centre of the disc. Diam. 1.0. ~
mm.
The species is rather rare but is easily distinguished from
the other members of the genus. When unaltered by erosion,
etc., the shell is seen to be thin and semi-transparent with com-
paratively large pores. In the specimen figured the last cham-
ber is fractured. I draw attention to this fact to avoid all
possibility of misinterpretation of my drawing.
(Halkyard’s drawing shows a feature which is not referred
to in the description but which is certainly one of the most
striking points in the species, viz., the prominence of the
secondary, or asterigerine, series of chambers which are
exposed on the superior surface of the test, but invisible on the
inferior, contrary to the usual order of things. It is assumed
that the carinate edge marks the inferior face, as in other
species.)
280. DISCGRBINA GLOBIGERINOIDES, Parker & Jones.
Discorbina globigerinoides, Parker & Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans..
De B35 Ce ABI oll, 2CIDK. ines, 7a), 1, Cz
Extremely rare. A single well-grown specimen only having
been found.
(The specimen is an infiltrated fossil, and we cannot satisfy
ourselves as to its identity.)
GENus PLANORBULINA, d’Orbigny.
281. PLANORBULINA MEDITERRANENSIS, d’Orbigny.
Planorbulina mediterranensis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat...
vol. Villon 280, pl OCIVE ties 4-6)
Planorbulina mediterranensis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol.
XS (p.) O56, pl AGM ainciseat=3e ,
Very rare. Two small broken specimens from the upper
part of the Marl.
/
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lrit. (1917) 115
SUB-FAMILY TINOPORINZA.
GENUS GyPsina, Carter.
282. GYPSINA INHRENS, (Schultze.)
Acervulina inherens, Schultze, 1854, Organismus Polythal,
Beeson ple Vil fie. 12:
Gypsina inherens, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 718,
pl. CII, figs. 1-6.
Very rare. Four specimens noted.
(Both of the specimens on the principal slide, should be
referred to G. vesicularis (P. & J.). Two other similar specimens
occur on another slide. The genus occurs in this place in
Halkyard’s MS., but should come in after Pulvinulina.)
283. GYPSINA GLOBULUS, (Reuss.)
Ceriopora globulus, Reuss, 1847. Haidinger’s Nat. Abh. II, p.
Sep Ile Way atten We
Gypsina globulus, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 717,
ON (GIL, talkers Koy
Extremely rare. A single typical specimen was found in
material collected at the top of the cliff about 200 yards south
of the villa known as |’Ermitage.
284. GYPSINA VESICULARIS, (Parker & Jones.)
Orbitolina vesicularis, aa & Jones, 1860, Ann. Mag. Nat.
JB0iSi3.5 [35 Awol VI,
Gypsina vesicularis, Eyed, +884, CHW INEV., WOls IDX, Ws FAs,
pl. Cl, figs. 9-12.
Extremely rare. The solitary specimen found is almost
globular in form, there being slight flattening and depression
on one portion which seems to have been the point of attach-
ment to some foreign body. This feature is the only difference
between this specimen and the one assigned to G. globulus,
and it is doubtful whether it would not be better to assign both
specimens to the latter species. It may be remarked that the
two examples were found in widely separated horizons of the
Marl.
(See No. 282.)
Y16. HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
GENUS CARPENTERIA, Gray.
285. CARPENTERIA PROTEIFORMIS, GO6es.
Carpenteria balaniformis, var. proteiformis, Goes, 1882, K.
Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. XIX, No. 4, p. 94, pl. VI,
figs. 208-214; pl. VII, figs. 215-219.
Carpenteria proteiformis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
p. 679, pl. XCVII, figs. 8-14,
Very rare. Only three fragments found.
(See our note upon this species sub Columella, No. 50,
note.)
Genus TRUNCATULINA, d’Orbigny.
286. TRUNCATULINA HAIDINGERIT, (d’Orbigny.)
Rotalina haidingeru, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne,
p. 154, pl. VII, figs. 7-9.
Truncatulina haidin. geru, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep.. a vol. IX,
p. 663, pl. XCV, fig. Faw suCe
This species is common in most of my Gatherings, and the
specimens as a rule are robust and typical.
(There is a considerable range of variation in the large
series of specimens selected, many of them being almost flat
on the inferior side.)
287. TRUNCATULINA UNGERIANA, (d’Orbigny.)
Rotalina ungeriana, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne, p.
LOZ ple VLE es. TOTS:
Truncatulina-ungeriana, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
p-664, pl, XCIV: fiszga, b,c:
Occurs chiefly in the middle and lower portions of the
Marl. The examples found are generally well-developed, but
are not numerous.
2874. [TRUNCATULINA AKNERIANA (d’Orbigny). ]
[ Rotalina akneriana, d’Orbigny, 1846, FFV, p. 156, pl. VIII,
figs. 13-15.
Truncatulina akneriana, Brady, 1884, FC. p. 663, pl. XCIV.
eR iy 2H 1D Call
288. TRUNCATULINA LOBATULA, (Walker & Jacob.)
Nautilus lobatulus, Walker & Jacob, 1798. In Kannmacher’s
ed. of Adam’s Essays Micros., p. 642, pl. XIV, fig. 36. -
Truncatulina lobatula, Brady, 1884, Chall Rep., vol. TX, p. 660,
pl: XC, fis. 10, pl: XCIMS heswr 45. pleas figs. 4-5
Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) 13 7p
Specimens frequent and well distributed. ‘Tending in form
towards 7. ungeriana rather than towards the irregular, wild-
growing form 7. variabilis, d’Orb.
[288a. TRUNCATULINA REFULGENS, (Montfort.) ]
[Cibicides refulgens, Montfort, 1808-10, CS. vol. 1, p- 122, 123,
erie. ‘Petre.
Truncatulina refulgens, Brady, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 659,
Piece il, nes. 7-9.
[Several specimens were found on one of the unnamed type
slides. See also note to No. 207. |
289. TRUNCATULINA WUELLERSTORFI, (Schwager, )
Anomaiina wullerstorfi, Schwager, 1866. Novara Exped., Geol.
II, p. 258, pl. VII, figs. 105-107.
Truncatulina wuellerstorfi, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,
p. 662; pl. XCIII, figs, 8-9.
Rather rare and found only in the upper beds of the Cote
des Basques.
j
290. TRUNCATULINA ROBERTSONIANA, EPrady.
Truncatulina robertsoniana, Brady, 1881, Quart. Journ. Micr.
VOU X I, Pp: 65.
T. robertsomana, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 664,
Pip MeNe fs. 4a. b, c.
Examples are not very rare but are small and weak, show-
ing that the conditions under which they lived were not suitable
to the development of the species. Of the three localities from
which Brady’s specimens came, two are in the West Indies, and
the third off Pernambuco, S. America. The depths recorded
are from 390 to 675 fathoms.
(Very few of the specimens can be regarded as typical.
The bulk of them are much more angular in periphery and tend
in the direction of 7. ungeriana.)
291. TRUNCATULINA RETICULATA, (Czjzek.)
Rotalina reticulata, Czjzek, 1848, Haidinger’s Nat. Abh. II,
peas. pl DellL, fess 7-0:
Truncatulina reticulata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX
p. 669, pl. XCVI, figs. 5-8.
Frequent and fairly distributed, the species however be-
comes rare in the lower Marl beds. The examples found are
small but typical.
118 HALKYARD, Fosszl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
292. ‘TRUNCATULINA TENERA, Brady.
Truncatulina tenera, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 665,
ple XC Viieeeitannbences
Specimens few but well grown. The species can easily be
distinguished from its isomorph Pulvinulina umbonata, Reuss,
by the . different character of its oral aperture, which, in the latter,
is without the raised margin so general in the genus Truncatu-
lina. The shell-wall is also another point of difference between
the two genera, being much smoother and with finer pores
in Pulvinulina than in Truncatulina.
(The shell wall is rougher and much more coarsely perfor-
ated than in recent types.)
293. TRUNCATULINA PyGMma, Hantken.
Pulvinulina pygmea, Hantken, 1875, Mittheil Jahrb., d. k- ung.
geol. Anstalt, vol. 1V, p. 78, p. X, fig. 8. (Truncatulina
pygmea on plate.)
T. pygmea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 666, pl. XCV,
figs. 9-10.
Very rare. Only two specimens found, both in the same
sample of Marl (No. 4.)
294. “‘TRUNCATULINA TENUIMARGO, Brady.
Truncatulina tenuimargo, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep.. vol. IX, p.
662, pl. XCITI, figs. 2-3.
Rare. The examples found are somewhat irregular in
growth, the superior face being generally concave in full-
‘grown specimens and the last two chambers often very
deformed. The texture of the shell is smooth, and the sutures
and peripheral edge thickened and glassy.
(The specimens can only be referred to this variety by con-
siderable latitude of identification. They are merely T. lobatula
with a somewhat prominent marginal edge; there is no definite
keel.)
295. TRUNCATULINA HUMILIS, Brady.
Truncatulina humilis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 665,
Ds MCI, shies 72k, 1,
Very rare. cine specimens found in a single sample of
Marl (No. 3.)
(Brady’s species in itself, is on the author’s admission, very
obscure, and we should prefer to regard Halkyard’s few speci-
mens merely as immature stages of some other truncatuline
Species, possibly T. robertsoniana, Brady.)
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917) I19
296. TTRUNCATULINA CULTER, (Parker & Jones.)
Planorbulina culter, Parker & Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans., p. 421,
Plex fio. 1.
Truncatulina culter, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p.
Soap Ty .
338. NuMMULIres (ASSILINA) MAMMILATA, (d’Archiac.)
338a. NumMutites (ASSILINA) EXPONENS, Sowerby.
Numm. (Assil.) mammilata, d’Archiac, 1853, Deser., Anim.,
groupe Nummulitique Inde, vol. I, p. 154, pl. XI, figs. 6-8
Nummiulina mammilata, d’Archiac, 1¢47, Bull. Soc. Géol.,
France [2], vol. IV, p. roro. !
Nummularia exponens, Sowerby, 1834, (1840,) ‘Trans. Geol.
Soc. London, [2], vol. V, p. 719, pl. LXI, fig. 14.
Numm. exponens, I’Archiac & Haime, 1853, Deser. Anim.
groupe Nummulitique Inde, vol. I, p. 148, pl. X, figs. 1-10.
N. mammilata which is the megalospheric form is very
much more common than N. exponens the microspheric form.
Of about twenty-five specimens examined only one was found
with a microsphere. This specimen differs somewhat from the
type in that the spire is rather more open than usual and the
chambers are broader.
SUB-FAMILY CYCLOCLYPEINA:.
Genus Orprrorpes, d'Orbigny
339. ORBITOIDES PAPYRACEA, (Boubée.)
Nummulites papyracea, Boubée, 1832, Bull. Soc. Géol. France,
vol. II, p. 445, no figure.
Orbitoides (Discocyclina) papyracea, Gtimbel, 1868 (1870),
Abh. m.-ph. Cl. k.-bayer, Ak. Wiss. vol. X, p. 690, pl. III,
figs. 3-12, figs. 19-29.
Very common, particularly in the hard layers of the lower
part of the Marls where seams several inches thick occur,
formed almost entirely of this species with an admixture of
different species of Nummulites. In the softer beds of the Marl
it is rarer, but still the commoner form of the genus.
340. Orxsirorpes (DrscocycLIna) ASPERA, Giimbel.
Orbitoides (Discocyclina) aspera, Giimbel, 1868 (1870), Abh, 1.
ph. Cl. K. bayer, Ak. Wiss, vol. X, p. 698, pl. III, figs.
13-14; and figs. 32-34.
Rare in upper soft Marls, more frequent in lower and
harder beds.
140 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl
341. ORBITOIDES (DISCOCYCLINA) DISPANSA, (Sowerby. )
phris dispansus, Sowerby, 1837, (1840), Trans. Geol. 5
ae si vol. V, p. 327, P- 718, pl. XAIV, hg. 16, Oe:
Orbitoides (Discocy china) dispansa, Gumbel, 1868, (1870), Abh.
m.-ph. Cl. k-bayer, Ak. Wiss. A, p. 70I, pl. III, figs. Hosihy
Rare on the Cote des Basques. In the bed of the Chabiague
Brook, which is outside the limits from which the collections
now under description were taken, there are horizontal layers
of indurated Marls containing large quantities of Orbitoides
dispansa. ‘These layers appear to be the lowest of the Blue
Marls. At any rate they are the lowest in sight.
342. ORBITOIDES (ASTEROCYCLINA) STELLATA, (d’Archiac,)
Calcarina stellata, d?Archiac, 1846, Mem. Soc. Géol. France,
[2], vol. IT, p. 199, joul., WHI, Sales te
Orbitoides (Asterocyclina) stellata, Gtimbel, 1868 (1870), Abh.
m.-ph. Cl. k.-bayer, Ak. Wiss., vol. X, p. 713, pl. I, fig.
115; and pl. IV, figs. 4-7.
Generally distributed but rather rare.
343. OrBITOIDES (ASTEROCYCLINA) STELLA, Gumbel.
Orbitoides (Asterocyclina.) stella, Giimbel, 1868 (1870), Abh.,
m.-ph. Cl. k.-bayer. Ak. Wiss vol. X, p. 716, pl. II, fig.
117; and pl. IV, figs. 8-10, 19.
Rare, and only found in two Gatherings.
344. OrpirorDEs (AKTINOCYCLINA) RADIANS (d’Archiac).
Orbitolites radians, d’Archiac, 1848, Mém. Soc. Géol., France.
2], vol. Ill, p. 405, pl. VIII, fig. 15.
Orbitoides (AkRtinocyclina) radians, Giimbel, 1868 (1870),
Abh, m. ph., Cl. k.-bayer, Ak. Wiss. vol. X, p. 707, pl. Il,
fig. 116; and pl. IV, figs. 11-15.
Very rare. In the whole of my collections only one spec
men was found, that occurring in No. 3a Gathering of No. 2
series.
345. ORBITOIDES (AKTINOCYCLINA) TENUICOSTATA, Gimbel.
Orbitoides (Aktinocyclina) tenuicostata, Gtimbel, 1868, (1870),
Abh. m.ph. Cl. k.-bayer. Ak. Wiss., vol. X, pl. Il fig.
114; and pl. IV, fig. 35.
Rare in sandy pockets in the softer Marls.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. leit. (1917)
APPENDIX A.
Foraminifera mentioned by the Count
“Paléontologie de Biarritz’
de Bouillé in his
and localities where found.
Chambre d’ Amour.
Nummulites vasca, Joly and Ley-
merie.
Operculina ammonea, Leymerie,
Nummulites intermedia, d’Archiac.
REMARKS,
Espéce répandue, d’
apres d’Archiac, de-
puis la Chambre d’
Amour jusqu’ 4 l’Est
du Phare.
var. in d’Archiac.
Espéce répandue de-
puis Ja Chambre d’
Amour jusqu’ au
Campost d’ Etienne
ou Tres pots.
Phare de Biarritz.
Operculina ammonea, Leymerie.
var, in d’Archiac.
Lou Cachaou.
Operculina ammonea, Leymerie.
Orbitolites papyracea, d’Archiac.
is Fortsii d’Archiac.
ah sella, d’Archiac,
ie, stellata, d’Archiac.
Mistake of genus.
Ought to be ‘‘Orbi-
toides,’’ not ‘‘Orbi-
tolites.”’
Villa Bruce (Bed at 400 metres N. of
villa).
Operculina ammonea, Leymerie.
oe Boissyi d’Archiac.
Orbitolites radians, d’Archiac.
a stellata, d’Archiac.
x Fortsii and var.
d’ Archiac.
3s papyracea, d’Archiac.
5 sella, d’Archiac.
Nummulites planulata, Lamarck.
5 Brongniarti, d’Archiac
“ spira, de Roissy.
Ought to be “ Orbi-
toides,” not .“ Orbi-
tolites,”
La Gourépe.
Nummulites Dufrenoyi, d’Archiac.
Ps variolaria, Sowerby.
55 Biaritzensis.
d’Archiac.
142 Appendix.
Num, Orbignyi, Galeoti sp.
Wemmelensis, de la Harpe &
var. plicata
Van den Broeck.
7 ”) ) o)
A + var. granulata_ ,, 3
var. Prestwichi ,, es
93 +)
planulata, Lamk.
5 Ss ,, var. incrassa
elegans, Sowerby.
ta, de la Harpe.
var. depressa, de la Harpe.
” +) +)
,, vasca, Joly & Leymerie.
4 Pe i pe yar. incrassata, de la H.
a i a ,, tenuispira os
Ppouchert, de la Harpe.
7 Na i var. tenuispira a
var. incrassata oe
subpulchella, de la Harpe.
3)
Couples. a, with microsphere. b, with megalosphere.
N. complanata, Lam. .....--..... WW. Tchihatchefi, d’Arch. .......
, perforata, di Orbe foc 5, Luicasana, Defr. ......---.....-
,, intermedia, d’Arch. ........-- ,, Pichteli, Michel. ...............
,, contorta, Desh. .......-.+++++ istiiat ay pCa @UDerecrencen---- Proc. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. LXI., Pt.1., 17th July 1917.
° Known as Height Lane on the old Survey maps.
ae i
i ae
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixii. (1918), No. 9. 3
The materials of which these hills are chiefly composed belong to
_ the Drift deposit No. 2 of Binney’s 1847 classification,! and are the
so-called “ middle sand and gravel ”’ of various authors.”
On first being exposed, the Pendleton section showed a depth
_ varying from 6 to 20 feet, according to the slope of the hill and the
inclination of the new road (Light Oaks Road) cutting through the
Drift mound in a westerly direction. On the northern side of this
road, and in another running from it northwards, the beds consisted,
im descending order, of a small thickness (about 2 feet) of grass-
covered sandy soil, dark in colour, and containing, at the base,
scattered flint cores and flakes, including a few “ pigmies.’’ These
scanty remains are insufficient to furnish conclusive evidence as to
date ; but they possibly indicate a Neolithic floor. This is rendered
probable from similar occurrences elsewhere (see p. 6).
Below the soil-bed came a bed of lighter coloured sand, which,
like the overlying soil, was noticeably devoid of stratification. This
zone was about 2 feet in thickness and rested immediately upon a
thick series of current-bedded Glacial sands with lenticular beds of
small gravel and rolled coal-pebbles, and, in places, lenticular patches
and layers of loam, the whole being much faulted. The Glacial
sands themselves were remarkably free from stones.
On the southern side of Light Oaks Road the section, except
' for some weathering, is at present much the same as when first ex-
posed. It differs considerably from that of the opposite side. At
the Claremont Road end the beds consist of sand and gravel, but
farther west, about the position of the 200-foot contour-line on the 6-
inch Ordnance Survey map, reddish clay with rounded stones replaces
the sand and gravel asa surface deposit. Theclay occurs in bands of
varying thickness, separated by thin layers of fine sand: it shows
some contortion in places, and book-leaf layers are frequent. These
beds rest immediately on current-bedded sands similar to those of
the northern section. According to borings, made by the foreman
in charge of the excavations, the greatest thickness of clay here is
5 feet 6 inches. This rests on some 30 feet of sharp sand entirely
free from clay bands. This section is bisected by a short road
running southward, and at one corner of this road a deposit of fine
sand is seen filling what appears to be a slight depression or gully
in the clay surface. Sand is also present overlying the clay in
another portion of this road: this sand is apparently devoid of
stratification.
The absence of the intervening deposits between the northern
and southern sections (removed in making the road) renders it difficult
to correlate the two sections with accuracy, but from the presence
of a thin band of clay near the top of the sands at the lower or
western end of the northern section one is led to the conclusion
that the reddish clay rapidly thins out here. There was no trace
of its extension over the sands at the eastern end before these beds
were cleared away.
1 Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. VIII., 1847, p. 204. ;
2 Geol. Surv. Memoirs, ‘‘ Bolton,”’ 1862 ; ‘“‘ Oldham,”’ 1864, etc.
SS re eS ee
The most noteworthy feature of these deposits is the occurrence 3
of large numbers of beautifully facetted and wind-worn pebbles m
the sand-bed immediately below the soil-cap. These occurred in
situ in a somewhat discontinuous layer, sometimes im nests or ©
pockets, at a depth of some 3 or 4 feet from the original land surface.
They were first noticed in the weathered talus of the section, but ~
were ultimately located in the sand-bed below the soil-cap, and
found to be strictly confined to that horizon. During the last two ~
years I have collected several hundreds of these wind-worn pebbles
from this zone as the exposure was cut back and the sand carted
away for building and other purposes. They can still be obtained
in numbers from the portions of the section still standmg. They
are not entirely restricted to the northern section, as I have obtamed
several characteristic examples from the sand occupying the gully
in the surface of the clay of the southern section mentioned
previously (p. 3).
The general field relations strongly suggest that the sand of the
facetted: pebble zone is definitely a post-Glacial deposit, probably
the result of redistribution by wind before a soil-cap with vegetation
began to form, and that the contained pebbles were worn by sand-
blast in post-Glacial times. The close association of this bed with
the underlying Glacial Drift would seem to imply that no great
interval of time can have intervened between the deposition of the -
two series.
The sand in the facetted pebble zone, in its natural condition,
is somewhat dark in colour, but noticeably lighter than the over-
lying soil : it adheres strongly to the pebbles when damp. On dry-
ing it becomes very much lighter. On microscopic examination it
is seen to consist largely of yellowish-colcured quartz in rounded
and sub-angular grains, mixed with smaller grains of quartz and of
various drift rocks.
The pebbles showing wind action are typical of the North-
Western Drift, consisting of slate, granite (Eskdale and others),
Ennerdale granophyre, Borrowdale volcanic tuffis and ashes,
_porphyries, quartzites, millstone grit, sandstones, chalk fiimts,
carboniferous chert and other rocks.
The largest facetted pebble so far found measures 113 =x 8}
inches, and is 7 inches high. Others are of varying dimensions
down to half-an-inch in diameter. Without exception, all the pebbles
collected from this zone, whether facetted or not, show evidence of
wind action on their surfaces.
A close examination of these pebbles reveals several interesting
features. They show all stages towards the formation of typical q
dreikanter, or three-edged stones. The most remarkable feature,
however, is the large percentage of stones which have been fractured
or split. In some cases large stones, both igneous and sedimentary,
have been split in half ; in others quite a third of the original pebble
has been broken off: and in each case the fractured face exhibits
most definite evidences of modification by blowing sand. Ina few
cases the rounded unsplit pebbles show traces of facetting ; but the —
|
i
:
action of the wind has not been sufficient to produce anything like
_ the beautifully sharp edges and faces seen in the fractured examples.
Though most of the stones have been split on one face only,
usually along a joint or bedding plane in the case of the sedi-
mentary rocks, there are others which have been split in various
directions, and modification of these faces by sand-blast has resulted
in the production of three- or even four-edged facetted pebbles.
The occurrence of these numerous modified split pebbles at
Pendleton is interesting in point of view of the fact that similar
-examples have been recorded from various other localities both in
Europe and in America.
The majority of the Pendleton facetted stones show a rounded
water-worn base ; but others, including the large example mentioned
previously, still retain very definite traces of Glacial strie on their
bases.
Several pebbles occurred in the sand completely inverted, and
some show distinct traces of erosion on both sides—that is, they in-
dicate wind action for a time with one side up, followed by similar
action after the pebble had rolled over.
A number of the stones were orientated i” situ, and in some
of these the eroded fractured surface faced north-westwards, in
others westwards, and in others again south-westwards—the direc-
tions of the present prevailing winds. But as these also show wind
erosion on other parts, it does not definitely indicate that these were
the particular winds which eroded them.
Differentiation, according to varying hardness and composi-
tion, is well displayed on the granites, porphyries, grits, etc., where
the weaker constituents have been strongly eroded, leaving the stones
with an irregularly pitted surface, in some cases over the whole upper
surface of the pebble. On the volcanic ashes, inequalities in texture,
imperceptible to the naked eye, have been searched out, with the
result that the pebbles have a roughened surface consisting of minute
pimples of harder material standing out in relief.
The facets are not absolutely plane surfaces ; they are usually
somewhat concave, grooved, or fluted. The concavity may be in
part original and owing to conchoidal fracture. The facets are
variable in number: the majority of the stones present one face
only—a modified split face ; others two or more. Some examples
with flat tops show three, four, or even five incipient facets. On
some stones, chiefly igneous, the grooving is of the nature of parallel
series of elongated pits running transversely across the face and not
at right angles to the edge (see Fig. 14). On such stones as these
the facet angles are very irregular ; but on the quartzites and fine
volcanic ashes the edges are much straighter and sharper. A fair
proportion of the stones are elongate-oval and these usually possess
a long median ridge, with occasionally two small ridges diverging
from it at one end. Several small flat oblong pebbles, especially of
quartzite, are interesting from the fact that they must originally
have had fairly vertical sides ; these have been worn by blown sand,
leaving the stones with two almost vertical sides and two somewhat
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 9. =
eer Fe as
6 JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits.
sloping ones. The bases, too, in some cases, have been undercut,
and around the basal edges of some of the fine grits a series of
vermiculate grooves is present.
With regard to the chert, this invariably occurs in rectangular
blocks, the whole surface usually exhibiting a dull polish. Where
fossils are present (Crinoid stems usually), these have been etched
out, leaving the surface full of small holes.
A few of the stones, the andesites especially, are remarkable
from the fact that the sand-blast appears to have encountered a
joint or crack in the stone and this has been enlarged and cut down
considerably, giving the stone the appearance of having been cut by
a blunt saw. :
It would be quite impossible to describe the various modifica-
tions seen in the different pebbles from the Pendleton section. A
selection, therefore, has been made of the more striking examples in
this prolific series, and these are figured on the accompanying plates
(Figs. I-14).
Since.my Pendleton discovery I have found two other localities
near Manchester which have yielded facetted and wind-worn pebbles.
One is on Kersal Moor, about 14 miles N.E. of the Pendleton site,
and on the other side of the Irwell valley. The surface of the ground
is here dotted over with similar moraine-like hills of Glacial sand and
gravel, and on the S.W. slope of one of these—Sand Hill, altitude
250 feet above O.D.—I succeeded in finding about half a-dozen
distinctly facetted Drift pebbles. Their occurrence here is an exact
parallel to Pendleton, both as to position and from the fact that the
pebbles which exhibit wind action have also been split or fractured.
One specimen of fine grit was found im stu about 18 inches below
the present disturbed surface—-7.e. about 9 inches deep in the sands.
The top-soil consists of about 9 inches of densely matted rootlets of
grass mixed with dark sand, which contains, amongst other things,
numerous chippings of flint and chert. Other facetted pebbles were
found in the sand where the top-soil had been removed.
The presence of a Neolithic floor at this site was first brought to
public notice in 1908 by the late Mr. C. Roeder, of Manchester, who
found large quantities of flint cores, flakes, and scrapers, hematite,
etc., also a Stone spindle whorl, all obtained from the top-soil.’
A similar Neolithic floor is present on an adjacent hill known
-as Rainsough on which a “ camp ”’ is marked on the Ordnance maps.
I have here met with identical flint and chert cores and flakes in
the top-soil, but was unable to find any facetted pebbles owing
to the dearth of suitable sections.
Compared with coastal sites, the shallowness of the soil above
these Neolithic floors in these inland localities is a noteworthy feature.
The other site near Manchester lies about a mile south of the
Pendleton locality, at Bolton Lodge sand quarry, off Eccles New
Road, Weaste. Several wind-worn Drift pebbles were picked up
here from the turned-up soil of an allotment overlying a small thick-
ness of Boulder-clay, resting on Upper Mottled Sandstone. The site
1 Trans, Lancs, and Ches, Antiq. Soc., XXV., 1608.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 9. yi
faces south and overlooks the canalised portion of the River Irwell :
the altitude is about 75 feet O.D.
Whilst on vacation last year in the Wirral district of Cheshire,
I discovered three interesting occurrences of facetted pebbles in
association with Glacial deposits. All are situated in the Hoylake
neighbourhood. One of the sites lies between Caldy and West
Kirby, on the Dee estuary. Here a few facetted Drift pebbles were
obtained from the wind-blown sand overlying the cliffs of Boulder-
clay. Another and more interesting site is at Hilbre Point, not
many feet above sea-level. Wind-eroded pebbles, of Borrowdale
and other rocks, were here encountered on, and embedded in, the
surface of the Boulder-clay, overlying the Bunter Pebble-beds.
Immediately above the zone of the eroded pebbles is a well-defined
Neolithic floor underlying blown-sand. The most important and
interesting discovery, however, was made at Dove Point, Meols.
Pebbles of various North-Western Drift rocks, showing distinct
evidence of wind erosion, were met with in profusion in the upper
portion of the reddish Boulder-clay and in the lower part of an
overlying layer of bluish clay, some distance out from the shore, and
much below the level of an ordinary spring tide. The blue clay of
the section is probably altered Boulder-clay. The sand content is
chiefly in the form of well-rounded and fairly large grains of quartz.
It underlies the Lower Peat and Forest-bed of the Cheshire coast.
The peculiar character of the pebbles occurring in the blue clay
below the Lower Peat and Forest-bed at this locality seems to have
been incidentally noticed by T. Mellard Reade, some seventeen
years ago, but he attributed their shape to being “ glactally facetted.”’ +
Stones, it is true, are occasionally polished and facetted by glaciers,
but these differ from those worn by sand-blast. The ground surface
is flatter and generally exhibits characteristic glacial strie; the
harder and softer constituents, too, of the rock have not been differ-
entiated. The Dove Point examples, however, exhibit all the
characters of wind-eroded pebbles.
The only other indication I can find of the probable occurrence
of wind -worn pebbles in the Wirral district is contained in a paper
by W. T. Walker on “ The Boulder-Clay of North Wirral.” ? In
his description of the clay pit owned by the Moreton Brick Company,
this author states that amongst the objects of interest in this pit are:
“ Tetrahedral pyramids and triangular prisms, and striated stones.
These seem to be fairly abundant, and although many of the striations
are undoubtedly caused by ice action, I would submit that some
show evidence of wind-etching, and would on this account be classed
as Dreikanters’”’ (Walker, op. cit., p. 322). Doubtless Mr. Walker’s
conjecture is the right one, but unfortunately he does not specify the
position of the pebbles, whether at the surface of the Boulder-clay
or otherwise. The clay pit lies about half-a-mile from the coast,
and the land surface is not more than 12 or 15 feet above sea-level.
It is situated about a mile and a half east of the Dove Point section.
1Geol. Mag., March, 1900, p. 98.
2 Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., X1., Pt. IV., 1913, pp. 317-324.
|
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8 JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits.
Apart from the association of the Wirral facetted pebbles with
Glacial deposits (in these cases the beds are said to be Upper Boulder-
clay) is the further interesting fact. that, as at Pendleton and Kersal
Moor, the pebbles are mainly split or fractured stones, which have
been modified by wind action.
2. THE GEOLOGICAL HORIZON AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
FACETTED PEBBLES
As already pointed out, in the Pendleton and Kersal Moor
localities the facetted and wind-worn pebbles occur in a well-defined
zone overlying the Glacial deposits and immediately below a Neo-
lithic floor. At Hilbre Point, in the Wirral, they are similarly situ-
ated as regards the Drift and Neolithic deposits, while at Dove Point,
in the same neighbourhood, they overlie what is regarded as Upper
Boulder-clay. Here, however, a whole series of beds occur super-
imposed above the facetted pebble zone, indicating important changes
in the relation of land and sea in post-Glacial times. Some of these
changes have undoubtedly taken place during Neolithic times. The
general succession of these beds has been studied by C. E. de Rance, !
T. Mellard Reade,’ G. H. Morton,*® and others. From these observers
we learn that the area occupied by these interesting deposits extends
over the coastal portions of Lancashire and Cheshire, forming a low-
lying plain stretching inland for several miles. Its inner margin is
fairly well defined by the 25-foot contour-line, but a large part of its
surface is low ground below sea-level, the sea being kept out in some
places by a long range of sand-dunes that fringe the coast-line, in
others by artificial embankments.
The succession of the beds at Dove Point is given by Morton *
as follows :—
(x) Blown Sand, 15 feet.
2) Soil-bed, 2 feet.
3) Peat-bed, 1 foot.
4) Blue Clay, 1 foot.
) Upper Forest-bed, 3 feet.
) Blue Clay, 2 feet .6 inches.
) Lower Forest-bed, 1 foot.
The Leasowe Embankment has since been extended towards
Hoylake and some of the upper beds have been covered up by it.
The lower beds of the section have also suffered denudation by the
1De Rance, ‘‘On the Post-Glacial Deposits of Western Lancashire and
Cheshire,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., XXVI., 1870, pp. 655-668.
2T. M. Reade, ‘‘ The Geology and Physics of the Post-Glacial Period, as
shown in the Deposits and Organic Remains in Lancashire and Cheshire,”’ Proc.
L’pool. Geol. Soc., 1871-1872, pp. 36-88. (Reprint, pp. 1-53.)
3G. H. Morton, Geology of the Country around Liverpool, second edition,
London, 1897, pp. 228-272.
4 Morton, op. cit., p. 235, and Plate XVI., Fig. C.
¢
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 9. 9
encroachment of the sea, and very much of the Lower Forest-bed has
_ been washed away.
According to Morton (op. czt., p. 236), the spring tides cover the
Upper Forest-bed 3 feet, while the Lower Forest-bed is about 8 feet
below the level of an ordinary spring tide.
Much difficulty is experienced in tracing the Lower Forest-bed
in other parts of the Mersey district owing to the large amount of
_ denudation it appears to have undergone previous to the deposition
_ of the overlying beds. Where visible, or where proved by borings,
_ it generally rests on Boulder-clay, the upper part of which is of a
bluish colour for a depth of 6 inches to 1 foot, caused by the abstrac-
tion of the peroxide of iron through the action of decomposed organic
matter. Possibly this upper portion is to some extent redistributed
Boulder-clay, as it is very full of pebbles. It is exposed at Dove
Point, and is the bed from which I obtained the wind-eroded pebbles
described in previous pages.
Regarding the contemporaneous human history connected with
these deposits, the evidence is far from being as complete as could
be desired. De Rance (0p. cit., p. 659) observes that no historical or
natural remains have ever been found in the Lower Forest-bed, but
that the oldest relics of man, consisting of implements of Neolithic
age, have been met with in the lower clay and silt below the Upper
Forest-bed.
There seems to be a general consensus of opinion that the Lower
Forest-bed has yielded no evidence of man, and that the Roman
and later antiquities found on the surface of the Upper Forest-bed
have all been washed out of an overlying soil at the base of the sand-
hills by the encroachment of the sea.
The position of the Lower Forest-bed with regard to the Glacial
deposits is interesting in view of the fact that similar relations exist
elsewhere in the British Isles. These relations have been dealt with
in detail by Coffey and Praeger in their paper on “‘ The Larne Raised
Beach.” They regard the sequence displayed by the Belfast and
Larne post-Glacial deposits as being in close agreement with similar
series in Central Scotland, Northern England, and more especially
in the Mersey area. In each of the areas dealt with by these
authorities an identical series of beds appears to have been deposited
‘on a former land surface of Boulder-clay. So close is the corre-
spondence that the whole can be arranged in parallel columns.
The chief point of interest in connection with the Larne and
Belfast deposits is the fact that some portions at least can be dated
with a certain degree of accuracy, owing to the presence of Neolithic
flint implements. These occur in nearly the whole thickness of the
Larne beach deposits, and from this it is concluded that Neolithic
man was on the ground during the submergence that allowed of the
‘continued laying down of the Larne gravels. In the Belfast area
the Neolithic period has been correlated with the upper portion of
the estuarine clays, etc., overlying the oldest post-Glacial land surface
1 Proc. Roy. Ivish Acad., Vol. XXV., Sect. C., No. 6, December, 1904,
pp. 143-200, Pl. IV.-IX.
s
Io JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits.
in the district, represented by a bed of peat, lying at a depth of some
28 feet below high-tide level.
Though the human evidence is so scanty in the case of the post-
Glacial series of the Cheshire coast, there seems just reason to assume,
from the analogous position of the estuarine series between the
Lower and Upper Forest-beds to that of the Belfast section, that
some portion at least is of Neolithic age. Unfortunately the well-
defined Neolithic floors in this neighbourhood, at Red Noses, near
New Brighton, and Hilbre Point, near Hoylake, do not lend any
assistance in this correlation, as they are not definitely associated
with the estuarine clay and forest-beds, both being situated on rocky
eminences above the shore. They only tell us that Neolithic man —
was certainly present in the neighbourhood.
The geological horizon, therefore, of the facetted pebbles at
Dove Point can safely be regarded as pre-Neolithic, as in the other
cases dealt with.
The mode of occurrence shows that, both at Dove Point and
other Wirral localities, and in the Manchester area, the pebbles were
acted on by sand-blast after the deposition of the Glacial beds on
which they lay, and in this respect they agree with similar pebbles
found in North Germany and in North America, these being gener-
ally regarded as post-Glacial in age.
Resting on the Boulder-clay in certain places in the Liverpool
district is a deposit of sand variously known as the Upper Drift Sand
(Morton), Washed Drift Sand (Reade),? and Shirdley Hill Sand (De
Rance).? It is generally regarded by local geologists as a post-
Glacia! deposit and is considered to be a blown sand of earlier age
than the marine silts and forest remains exposed on the coast. It
is irregularlv developed in the area between Southport and Garston,
and is recorded inland as far as Bickerstaffe, Skelmersdale, Rainford.
and Kirkby. Its thickness is very variable, and, as might be ex-
pected from the nature of such a deposit, it occurs at times on high
ground and not on low, and vice versa.*_ In some localities it is re-
ported to rest on a basal gravel-bed.® Beds of peat are occasionally
_met with in this sand and an examination of this peat exposed at
Aintree has yielded an interesting assemblage of plant remains
which have been described in detail by W. G. Travis.®
The exact position of the Shirdley Hill Sand with regard to the
Lower Forest-bed is not clear, but both Reade and Morton definitely
place it below that horizon. It appears to be quite clear, however,
that the sand is anterior in age to the period of submergence which
1 Morton, op. cit., p. 212.
2 Reade, op. cit., pp. 47-51.
3 De Rance, op. cit., pp. 662-663 ; ibid. ‘‘ The Superficial Geology of the
Country adjoining the Coasts of South-West Lancashire, 1877”’ (Mem.
Geol. Survey).
4W. G. Travis, Trans. Liverpool Botanical Society, Vol. 1., June, 1909,
PP- 47-52; see also Geological Sketch Map by Harold Brodrick, in British
Assoc. Handbook to Southport, 1903.
> Reade, op. cit., p. 48.
°W.G. Travis, op. ctt., pp. 47-52.
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Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xii. (1918), No. 9. II
allowed the accumulation of the deposits of mud and silt which
underlie the Upper Forest-bed. Whether the pebble-bed at the
base of this sand in various places can be correlated with the bed
with facetted and wind-worn pebbles at Dove Point on the Wirral
coast is uncertain, owing to the entire absence of the Shirdley Hill
Sand at this locality. Its relative position, however, with regard to
the Drift deposits is suggestive of such a correlation.
It is of some interest to note that the basal gravel-bed of the
Shirdley Hill Sand and the bed with facetted pebbles at Dove Point
appear to occupy a somewhat analogous position with regard to the
Drift to that of the basement bed, or ‘‘ Steinsohle,”’ of the Loess of
the North German plain, where facetted pebbles are of frequent
occurrence. Whether such pebbles occur in association with the
Shirdley Hill Sand has not been recorded.
From the foregoing remarks it seems legitimate to conclude
that an intimate connection may exist between the period when the
pebbles were eroded and the laying down of the Shirdley Hill Sand
in early post-Glacial times, as the blown sand would provide the
necessary medium for modifying the pebbles.
Having discussed the geological horizon of the facetted pebbles
dealt with in this paper, we can pass on to the question of the signi-
ficance of such pebbles.
That the various pebbles had been first fractured before being
acted on by sand-blast is conclusively proved by the evidence
of the pebbles themselves. The probable cause of this splitting
might, therefore, be considered first.
Judging from the generally rounded and perfect condition of the
stones embedded in the underlying Glacial Drift, it seems a reason-
able assumption that the pebbles concerned must have been in a
similar perfect condition when they were left at, or near, the bare
surface of the Drift on the retreat of the ice. Such being the case,
they would be subject to the varied atmospheric agencies which
bring about the disintegration of rocks. Of these perhaps the most
important are variations of temperature and alternations of frost
and thaw.
The combined action of frost and thaw seems to provide a suffi-
cient explanation for the splitting of pebbles left exposed on the bare
surface of the Drift. It is possible that many of these Drift pebbles
possessed incipient joints at the time they were carried along by
the ice, and in this case continued exposure to alternations of frost
and thaw would cause these joints to increase and result in the
splitting or complete fracturing of the pebbles.
It is of some interest to note that at the Pendleton section I found
several wind-worn pebbles lying about on the talus which had been
split into two or three pieces during the frost of last winter. The
pieces were lying together and the splitting was along joint- or
bedding-planes (see Fig. 8). They were all sedimentary rocks ;
I saw no granites or igneous rocks so split, though such occur in
abundance among the wind-worn pebbles obtained 7m situ, all of
which show modification by sand-blast on their fractured faces.
12 JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits.
Possibly there were more frequent variations in temperature during
the period when these lav exposed at the surface of the Drift.
Dr. Bather, in his exhaustive paper on the subject of wind-worn
pebbles (of. cit., p. 401), refers to several writers who have attempted
to explain at all events the main contours of facetted pebbles as due
to the breaking up of rocks into angular fragments, but, he goes on
to say, ‘“‘ we have yet to learn of a rock in which the joint-planes lie
at the angles usual in pebbles facetted by blown-sand.”” The series
dealt with in this paper show that such cases are definitely present
(see Figs. 4 and g). They also show that a typical Dreikanter form
can be produced in this way. Though all the pebbles from the zone
exhibit evidence of sand-blast, either in the form of polish or erosion, —
there is little evidence that any large face has actually been produced
by wind and sand action. . :
We can now turn our attention to the interesting feature of
wind-erosion and to a consideration of its significance. It has been
argued by several writers on-the subject that wind-worn pebbles
‘imply desert, or, at least, steppe conditions. They have also been
regarded as indicating uniform climatic, as well as geological rela-
tions, and that the conditions leading to their production must
therefore have a similarly general significance. These statements
are not altogether borne out by the evidence provided by the numer-
ous occurrences, for, as Bather remarks (oP. cit., p. 411) : ““ Facetted
and wind-polished pebbles have been found over almost all parts
of the present surface of the earth, under tropical, temperate, and
Arctic climates, on plains, on hills, or in valleys, scattered over
steppes and deserts, or confined to small clearings in the midst of
tertile fields and evergreen forests.’’ He givesa list of a few recorded
localities, as follows :—deserts of Libyaand Arabia ; desert of Sinai ;
Kalahari desert of S.W. Africa ; 16 kilometres from Walfisch Bay,
S. Africa; deserts of Central Asia; Reval; Schleswig-Holstein ;
Jutland; Anholt in Kattegat; Silfakra, near Lund, East Scania
and N. of Fjelkinge, near Kristianstad ; Halland; Iceland; sandy
plateau of Brenne, in France ; surface of old moraines near Lyon ;
New Zealand, various localities !; California ; Colorado ; Nebraska,
Bad Lands; New Jersey and Northern New York. To these are
to be added the numerous localities in Germany, recorded in
the papers by Berendt, Chelius, Geinitz, Gutbier, Wittich, and
others.?
In Germany, it is true, facetted pebbles are scattered over a
wide area, and their intimate association with the Loess, with its
peculiar fauna, seems to imply a dry climate or steppe conditions,
following on the retreat of the glaciers, when the North German
Plain was covered with loose deposits as yet uncovered with vegeta-
tion. But the evidence in favour of steppe conditions obtaining in
‘It is interesting to note that among the wind-worn pebbles from the
Waitotara Grand Flats, near Wanganui, New Zealand, in the Manchester
Museum, are one or two showing the beginning of wind-erosion on fractured
surfaces. ‘i
* See Bather’s paper, op. cit., for references to literature.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixii. (1918), No. 9. 13
_ this country in post-Glacial times-is far from being of a satisfactory
; selves cannot be regarded as evidence of steppes, or of a dry climate.
_ The conditions at the close of glaciation in any country must have
_ been favourable to the production of such pebbles. The land was
nature.
As already pointed out by Bather, facetted pebbles in them-
bare and exposed to winds ; its surface was strewn with boulders
and pebbles, and associated with them was an abundance of sand.
Coupled with the fact that the pebbles had been previously fractured.
by frost and thaw, as has been shown to be the case in the examples.
dealt with in this paper, the above conclusion seems to provide the
necessary explanation for the presence of facetted and wind-worn.
pebbles in association with Drift deposits.
SUMMARY
In this paper facetted and wind-worn pebbles are described from
three localities near Manchester, and from three others in the Wirra!
peninsula ; in one case below the Lower Forest-bed of Cheshire.
The mode of occurrence shows the pebbles to be post-Glacial
and pre-Neolithic in age. They have been acted on by sand-blast
at some time after the deposition of the Glacial beds on which they
lay, and in this respect they agree with similar pebbles found in
North Germany and in North America.
A large number of the pebbles have been split or fractured.
before being acted upon by blowing sand, and it is suggested that
the splitting is due to trost-action.
It is suggested that an intimate connection exists between the
period of wind-erosion and the laying down of the Shirdley Hill
Sand by aeolian action in early post-Glacial times. This sand usually
rests.on the Boulder-clay and is sometimes separated from it by a
gravel-bed. The latter and the several deposits of facetted pebbles«
appear to occupy a somewhat analogous position with regard to the
Drift to that of the basement bed, or “ Steinsohle,’’ of the Loess
of the North German Plain, where facetted pebbles are of frequent
occurrence.
The presence of the pebbles below the Lower Forest-bed of
Cheshire is of importance as it pushes the period of wind-erosion well
back in post-Glacial times, as the forest is prior to the estuarine
deposits of the 25-foot submergence, and the latter are nepatedi as.
very early Neolithic.
It is concluded that the facetted pebbles do not furnish con-
clusive evidence of a dry climate or steppe conditions obtaining in.
this country in post-Glacial times.
Sa
Se
14
JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES! ly AnD aie
Figs. 1 to 14. Facetted and Wind-worn Pebbles. Pendleton, Lanes.
Fig.
ge.
Fig.
Hag
2ths Nat. Size.
PLATE I.
1.—Coarse indurated ash with large quartz grains: upper
surface showing two main facets, both of which show
evidence of wind-erosion. The angle is probably due
to erosion.
2.—Very fine compact sandstone: the facet is a wind-worn
split face; the splitting almost coincides with the
lamination planes. The whole stone, including the under
surface, shows signs of sand-blast. The angles are clearly
due to fracture.
3.—Very fine compact sandstone : upper surface showing two
facets; one (the upper) is probably a split face smoothed
by blowing sand, the other (lower) is the original surface
of the pebble with the lamination planes slightly accentu-
ated by wind-erosion. This pebble is also facetted on
its under surface.
4.—Very fine compact sandstone: upper surface showing
three main facets ; the lower facet faced N.W. when
im situ. The left-hand facet coincides with the lamina-
tion planes. The under surface is water-worn. The
_ typical “ dreikanter ”’ form is clearly due to fracture.
5.—Very fine compact sandstone (bedding not perceptible) :
an irregularly facetted form. The under surface shows
numerous glacial striz in a longitudinal direction.
6.—Very fine compact sandstone (bedding not perceptible) :
upper surface showing modified split face ; remainder
of stone is worn smooth by sand-blast. The angle is
clearly due to fracture.
7.—Fine gritty ash: upper surface showing five incipient
facets and flat top, all differentiated. The under surface
is quite flat and shows glacial strie in various directions.
There is no clear indication that this form has here been
determined by splitting.
8.—Very fine compact sandstone (Kirkby Moor Flag?): a
typical “ dreikanter,’’ showing the relation of one of
the three facets to natural planes of fracture due to
recent frost-action by which the pebble has been broken.
The fractured face (to left) would seem to have suffered
considerable wind-erosion.
g.—Fine compact sandstone: upper surface showing four
facets and the picking out of bedding planes by wind-
erosion. The facet to left coincides with the bedding
planes. This pebble was found zm situ in an inverted
position.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 9. 15
ACRE lulls
Fig. 10.—“‘ Rhyolite”’ : showing well-defined flow structure which
has strongly influenced the form of the deep pitting
due to wind-erosion. The under surface is not differ-
entiated.
Fig. 11.—*‘ Syenite’’: typical “ dreikanter,”’ possibly wholly due
to wind-erosion ; showing strong pitting. The under
surface also shows erosion.
Fig. 12.—‘ Felsite’’: the two facets of this pebble are extremely
similar and deeply pitted, and both are probably due
to wind-erosion. The under surface is flat and water-
worn.
Fig. 13.—Exceedingly fine brecciated and veined sandstone, with
the structure brought out in high relief by wind-erosion.
Fig. 14.—Porphyritic volcanic rock with abundant felspar pheno-
- crysts: upper surface showing three facets, all deeply
pitted and eroded. The pits on the two upper facets
(at top in photo) are all elongated in a direction parallel
with the ridge between these faces (vertical in photo) ;
the pittings on the remaining face show no conspicu-
ous elongation. The form of this pebble may, in some
part, be due to fracture.
=
(All the above figured specimens, and a selection of others from
the Wirral locality, have been deposited in the Manchester Museum.)
a
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4., No. 9.
Key
Vol. 1.
Manchester Memoirs,
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.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti., No. 9.
Plate I.
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Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 10.
X. Radio-activity and the Coloration of Minerals.
By EpGAR NEWBERY, D.Sc., and HARTLEY Lupton, B.Sc.
(Communicated by J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S.)
(Read April 237d, 1918. Received for publication June 3rd, 1918.)
The occurrence of the most varied and beautiful exotic colours
in certain minerals is a feature whith attracts the attention of the
most casual observer in a mineral museum.
Many attempts have been made to explain the source of these
colours, but it is remarkable that no explanation so far offered has
met with general acceptance. It is well known that certain in-
organic or mineral substances acquire strong colours under the
influence of the radiations from radium or in a cathode-ray tube,
and the occurrence of radium or other radio-active bodies in the
earth has been shown to be so widespread that it is difficult to
obtain a sample of rock which does not show some traces of this
activity.
The present work was undertaken, therefore, in order to deter-
mine, 1f possible, how far the presence of radio-active substances must
be taken into account when trying to solve the question of the source
of these exotic colours.
Previous Work.—So much work has been already done on this
subject that it is impossible in a paper of this type to give more than
the briefest outline of those papers which deal most directly with
the same minerals as those used in the present work. Many state-
ments have been made which apparently contradict each other, but
which may both be true for the particular specimens used by each
worker. It should therefore be emphasised that whilst the observa-
tions described here could be repeated with certainty as often as
desired with the specimens used, other specimens apparently iden-
tical, and even from the same locality, may fail entirely to exhibit
similar phenomena. An alphabetical list of references is given at
' the end of this paper.
Wyrouboff studied the colours of natural fluor-spar and came
to the conclusion that they are due to the presence of two hydro-
carbons, one producing blue and the other red colours. Assuming
the former to be the more volatile, he explains the change from blue
or violet to purple which is observed on moderately heating certain
fluor-spars.
This explanation is untenable in the light of Berthelot’s experi-
ments, since certain decolourised fluors had their original colour
completely restored by prolonged exposure to radium. If the
A I
|
|
2 NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals.
colouring matter had been driven off by heat, it is inconceivable
that it should be brought back by radium treatment.
Barnes and Holroyd claim to have synthesised pure fluor-spar
in crystals which showed all the known natural colours—green, yellow,
rose, purple, etc. They therefore conclude that the colour is an
optical phenomenon dependent upon the crystallisation and physical
state of the substance.
The essentially weak point in Barnes’ and Holroyd’s theory is
their statement that their “synthesised ”’ fluor-spar was pure. It
was made from calcium carbonate (presumably precipitated chalk,
which usually contains traces of chloride, sulphate, sodium, water,
etc.), and hydrofluoric acid. The latter, being always prepared
from native fluor-spar, would contain most of the volatile impurities
in the original fluor, together with other impurities picked up from
the sulphuric acid used, the rubber bottle in which it was kept, etc.
Finally the whole was heated in a steel tube to bright redness. Since
the steel may contain carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus,
manganese, silicon, etc., in addition to iron, all of which may easily
contaminate the fluor-spar, it is evident that the supposition that
this fluor-spar was chemically pure is unjustifiable.
Strutt found that phosphatic nodules (coprolites) and phos-
phatised bones of all geological ages possess marked radio-activity,
sometimes fifty times as great as that of the surrounding rock. He
detected helium in these minerals even when they were not of more
than Pleiocene age. He also detected and measured the quantity
of helium in zircons, and from his results was able to calculate the
minimum age of the rocks in which these were found.
Glew exposed kunzite, a pink transparent variety of spodumene,
to the y rays from radium for some days and found that the colour
changed to green. On warming the crystal thus treated, a brilliant
orange-coloured light was evolved for some minutes and the green
colour was removed. He suggests that dissociation occurred under
the action of the y rays and that the subsequent heating gave the
dissociated ions room to turn round and recombine with evolution
of energy in the form of light.
Goldstein carried out a very interesting and extended investiga-
tion of the effects of cathode rays on certain colourless salts. Since
cathode rays in a vacuum tube are of the same nature as the / rays
from radium, it is quite possible that the effects obtained by Goldstein
in a few seconds may be similar to those produced naturally in radio-
active rocks in the course of centuries. Sodium chloride was coloured
deep yellow ; potassium chloride, violet ; potassuim bromide, deep
blue and sodium fluoride a fine red by a few seconds’ exposure to
cathode rays.
These colours are only produced on the surfaces exposed to the
direct rays and are sensitive to light and heat in very different
degrees. Some of the bodies thus treated emit a phosphorescent
light when warmed. If salts such as sodium chloride are exposed
to the cathode rays for considerable periods until they become quite
hot, the colours produced are not discharged by light or gentle
.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 10. 3
heating, and if the salt is dissolved in water a strong alkaline
reaction is obtained. Giesel produced similar salts by exposing the
neutral salt to the vapours of sodium or potassium. It is evident
therefore that, in this case, chlorine is actually liberated and the
free sodium left dissolves in a deeper layer of sodium chloride .
unreached by the cathode rays.
Debierne found that certain dark violet fluor-spars smell of ozone.
When heated they lose their colour and thermo-luminescence and
also yield:helium in variable but small quantity. On exposure to
radium rays the violet colour was restored. Doelter has worked
extensively on the question of the colour of minerals, and has in-
vestigated the effect of temperature changes, radium, and ultra-
violet light. He states that increasing the quantity of radium used
in colouring a crystal does not diminish the time in strict proportion,
but he gives no reliable data in support of this statement. He also
states that the quantity of radium used has no influence on the final
colour produged. “From slight differences in colour observed on
treating certain minerals with radium in nitrogen and oxygen, he
draws the doubtful conclusion that the radium rays exert a re-
ducing action.
Ultra-violet rays were found in general to exert the opposite
effect to radium rays, substances coloured by the latter being de-
colourised or the original colour restored by exposure to the light
from an arc lamp. Glass and yellow diamond were found to be
exceptions to this rule.
Doelter finally concludes that the colour of fluor-spar, topaz,
rose quartz, etc., is due to the formation of colloidal metals or other
colloidal substances, and that these metals oxidise when heated.
He also states that the velocity of coloration is dependent upon
the diffusion of the radium into the material. Since certain colours
may be induced by the action of radium through two glass tubes
and o°5 cm. of lead, it is impossible to accept this last statement.
Again, since strong colours may be induced 2 cms. deep in a clear
solid fluor-spar crystal in a few hours by radium, and destroyed
again in a few seconds by gentle heat, it is inconceivable that
atmospheric oxygen can have any appreciable influence on the
colour.
Experimental.—The minerals chosen for experiment were, as
far as possible, clear crystals of bodies which either were colour-
less or were known to occur in a colourless state in nature.
The following properties were studied :—
i. Colour changes (a) on heating
(6) on treatment with radium or cathode rays
(c) on heating after treatment (0)
ii. Luminescence (a) under influence of rays
(b) on heating before treatment
(c) on heating after treatment.
Other minor effects, such as disruptive action, formation or
enlargement of cleavage planes, etc., were also observed from time
to time.
4 NewspEeRyY—Lupton, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals.
The following substances were experimented with :—
Elements.—Diamond, native sulphur.
Halides.—Fluor-spar, cryolite, rock salt, sylvine and artificial
potassium bromide and iodide.
Oxides.—Quartz (including rose quartz, amethyst and cairn-
gorm), ruby.
Sulphates.—Selenite, anhydrite, celestine, barytes, anglesite.
Phosphates.—Apatite, phosphorite.
Silicates—Tourmaline, topaz, zircon, beryl, kunzite.
Carbonates.—Calcite, strontianite.
Other Substances. —Glass, bakelite.
Exposure to radium was made in most cases by placing a glass
tube containing the radium salt directly on or very near to the
specimen under observation. In this way only 6 and y rays
actually reached the crystal and of these only the y rays would
penetrate to any appreciable depth. This method of treatment
is implied throughout the present work unless the contrary is
directly stated. In many cases it was easy to distinguish the
separate effects of the two types of rays, but in case of doubt, y rays
alone could be obtained by interposing a thin sheet of lead, or 6
rays alone by the use of a cathode-ray tube.
In a few cases the specimen was exposed to the direct influence
of the emanation by putting it into a tube containing the active gas
over mercury. In this case a, 8 and y rays would act simultaneously.
Diamond.—This was a small pale yellow crystal from New
South Wales kindly lent to us by Prof. Boyd Dawkins. No change
of colour and no luminescence was observed on heating to redness
in a soft glass tube.
When exposed to radium the specimen glowed with a bright
blue light, while an imitation diamond placed alongside it was quite
inactive.
Exposure to 4 mg. of radium for twenty days had very little
visible effect upon this crystal. The colour appeared very slightly
deeper, but was restored to its original condition without lumines-
cence on gentle heating.
Exposure to 20 millicuries of emanation decaying over a period
of seven days in contact with the crystal produced a more marked
darkening of the yellow colour.
Crookes, by embedding a Bingara yellow diamond in radium
bromide for seventy-eight days obtained a bluish-green colour.
Sulphur.—A clear crystal of native sulphur from Vesuvius
was exposed for twenty days to 50 mg. of radium. No change of
any kind could be detected and no luminescence was produced.
Doelter states that sulphur is slightly changed in colour.
Fluor-spar.—Owing to their wonderful range of colour and the
remarkable thermo-luminescence of many specimens, the fluor-spars
are undoubtedly the most interesting minerals dealt with in this
work. In fact, a comparison of the very similar behaviour on heating
of purple fluor and of glass which had been turned purple by radium
was the initial observation which led to this research,
aly
if
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixit. (r918), No. 10. 5
A number of different specimens were used, including violet,
purple,’ green and yellow crystals from Alston Moor, Cumberland ;
a colourless specimen from the same locality ; a pale green chloro-
phane from Cornwall; a colourless specimen from the Pyrenees,
and another from Matlock.
All the coloured specimens without exception lost their colour
on heating, but the time and temperature necessary to completely
discharge the colour varied considerably. The green specimens
were the most difficult to decolourise completely, a dull red heat
being necessary for fully five minutes. The colours artificially
induced by the action of radium were much more readily dis-
charged, warming to a temperature not much above 100° C. being
sufficient in many cases.
Thermo-luminescence was very marked in all the naturally
coloured crystals, a violet light being emitted in most cases,
frequently strong enough to read by at a distance of six inches.
Decrepitation was generally violent, except with the pale purple
crystals, but no naturally coloured crystal was found which could
be heated without some decrepitation. The yellow and dark
violet varieties were most violent.
Of the colourless varieties, that from the Pyrenees gave an
almost invisible glow when very strongly heated, while that from
Matlock gave no light at all. Neither of these showed any tendency
to decrepitate. The Alston Moor colourless specimen on the con-
trary gave a very lively display of decrepitation and also of beautiful
violet light. The Cornish chlorophane also decrepitated violently,
but gave a beautiful green light instead of the violet light given by
the other coloured specimens.
All the fluor-spars showed a green glow when under the action
of radium, and a violet glow in the cathode rays. The glow con-
tinues in each case for a short time after removal of the exciting
source.
The colour changes produced by radium on fluor-spars are so
varied as to be somewhat bewildering.
A green crystal heated until all the colour was discharged and
then given an exposure of two days to 25 mg. of radium showed a
marked green colour. On further exposing for four days, this green
colour was strengthened up to its original depth, and still longer
exposure did not alter this. This result seems to indicate that the
colour-producing substance in the green crystals, whatever that
may be, is limited in quantity.
A yellow crystal treated in the same way did not recover its
original colour but acquired a peculiar shade of blue, which slowly
changed to purple after two months without further treatment.
1 The distinction between violetand purple appears to be only one of degree
and not of actual colour. A small violet crystal appears of the same colour
as a large purple one when viewed by transmitted light. Many of the violet
or purple crystals are only coloured on the surface or on thin plates or zones
within the crystal, the main bulk of the crystal being nearly colourless. This
zoning of the colour needs careful inspection to detect and is easily overlooked.
6 NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals.
A purple crystal also failed at first to regain its original colour
under the action of radium but acquired the same peculiar blue,
which again changed to purple in a similar manner.
The colourless Alston Moor specimen showed traces of a lighter
blue colour after twenty days’ treatment with 25 mg. of radium,
but immediately under the radium tube the crystal was broken up
and a yellow stain produced. This yellow colour slowly penetrated
the whole crystal on further treatment.
The colourless Pyrenean specimen was uncoloured by the
radium treatment given to it, but it rapidly acquired a deep purple
colour with a brilliant bronze surface tarnish under the-action of
the cathode rays.
The most striking colour effect in this work was obtained with
the colourless Matlock fluor. After only twenty-four hours under
50 mg. of radium, the whole crystal attained a wonderful deep
blue colour, resembling, but deeper than, that of a copper sulphate
crystal. This particular type of colour is very rare, if it occurs at
all, in any natural fluor. It is quite permanent if the crystal is kept
in the dark, but is rapidly destroyed (in about three hours) in direct
sunlight, more slowly by diffused daylight. It is also destroyed by
gentle heating, but may be restored as often as desired by renewed
radium treatment. Strange to say, this species of fluor is difficult
to colour by cathode rays, which only produce a faint purple on the
surface. It appears therefore that the purple colour of fluor-spar
may be produced by f radiation, while this blue colour, which is
similar to though stronger than that produced in the decolourised
yellow and purple crystals, is due to the action of y rays. The
green, yellow and blue colours were produced right through the
crystals, while the purple was never more than I mm. deep. No
colour other than purple was given to any of these fluors by cathode
rays.
The thermo-luminescent effect after treatment with :adium
was very striking.
The coloured varieties, on strongly heating, completely lost
their power of emitting light. After treatment with radium this
power was restored, but in addition a new capacity for emitting a
bright green light at a comparatively low temperature was imparted
to all the specimens whether previously heated or not. The quantity
of light emitted varied with the time of exposure to radium and
also in different specimens. The Matlock fluor, after colouring
blue with radium, gave a comparatively feeble green light on heating
and this light soon faded without changing colour. The Pyrenean
specimen, which was quite uncoloured by long exposure to radium,
gave a wonderfully brilliant and lasting green light. Some pieces
left on the table 6 in. away from the radium were nearly as brilliant
as the fully treated specimens, although none showed more than an
extremely faint glow before thus treating. This shows conclusively
that the y rays are responsible for generating this eueeu thermo-
luminescence.
All the other specimens after treatment with radium gave at
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (r918), No. 10. i}
first a green light on slightly heating. This reached a maximum,
and then died down, but before it disappeared a new violet glow
started which also reached a maximum and died down on further
heating, after which no light was emitted as the crystal was heated
to dull redness. a
The Cornish chlorophane, which gave a brilliant green phos-
phorescence, had evidently been in close proximity to radio-active
matter giving y rays. This is quite in keeping with the known
occurrence of pitchblende and other uranium minerals in’ Cornwall.
Cryolite.—A white semi-transparent specimen from Canada
was quite unchanged after prolonged exposure to radium, but
acquired a slight thermo-luminescence.
Rock Salt, Sylvine,; Potassium Bromide and Iodide.—All these
alkali halides glowed with a bluish violet light under the action of
radium.
Rock salt is coloured brown throughout its mass, but more
strongly nearest the surface exposed to the radium and on cleavage
planes further in the crystal. Ina cathode-ray tube a similar brown
colour is produced on the surface only.
Sylvine is coloured blue by radium, but the colour is very
evanescent and disappears after a few hours even when kept in the
dark. Ina cathode-ray tube it is coloured deep violet, and chemic-
ally pure potassium chloride acquires the same colour, which is
much more stable than that produced by radium.
Potassium bromide is coloured sea-green by radium, or cathode
rays, the colour being nearly as evanescent as that of sylvine when
produced by radium, but more stable when produced by cathode
rays. The time necessary to colour this specimen was much longer
than that for potassium chloride.
Potassium iodide is coloured brown like sodium chloride, but
the colour is much more stable than that produced in any of the
other alkali halides. It was thought that the colour in this case
might be due to the liberation of iodine, but when a small crystal
which had been coloured deep brown was dissolved in water no
trace of iodine could be detected by the starch reaction.
None of the above group showed more than an extremely faint
thermo-luminescence after radium treatment.
Quartz—This mineral shows a still greater variety of colour
than fluor-spar, but only a few of these varieties occur clear and
transparent. The best-known are rock crystal, rose quartz,
amethyst, cairngorm and citrine, all of which become colourless on
heating. The temperature necessary to destroy the colour varies
ereatly—rose quartz requires a red heat, amethyst requires strong
direct heating in a blow-pipe flame, while nearly black cairngorm
may sometimes be made quite colourless and limpid by heating in
a soft glass tube.
Prof. Rutherford found that radium exerts a powerful dis-
integrating action on transparent fused quartz, a tube of this material
becoming so rotten that it fell to pieces on being touched after being
left in contact with radium for a few weeks. No sign of this
8 NEwsERY—LuPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals.
‘“‘ rotting’ action was observed with the crystalline specimens used
in the present work, so that this appears to be a property of fused
quartz only.
With all the specimens the action was very slow. A clear
limpid crystal on treatment with 25 mg. of radium for seven days
became smoky, the colour being strongest at the spot where the
radium tube was in contact with the crystal, but penetrating to a
depth of 1 cm. into the crystal.
Rose quartz after decolourising by heat also became smoky,
but rather more readily than the rock crystal. The pink colour
was also restored to a slight degree. Amethyst decolourised by
heat showed little or no smokiness on treatment with radium, but
the clear purple colour was slowly restored.
A nearly black cairngorm, which was easily rendered clear and
colourless by heat, slowly regained its colour under the action of
radium, the change being rather more rapid than with any of the
other quartz specimens.
All the crystals thus recoloured were readily decolourised by
moderate heat, and in all cases a very faint thermo-luminescence
was observed.
Ruby.—A small light-coloured fragment from Carolina on
heating strongly appeared green, but regained its original colour
on cooling. Treatment with 25 mg. of radium for ten days had
no appreciable effect on the colour, but a slight thermo-luminescence
was produced which rapidly disappeared on further heating. Other-
wise, no change was observed. In view of the fact that artificial
rubies, indistinguishable from natural ones, can be made by fusing
pure alumina with a trace of chromium, the unchangeability of the
colour by radium is not surprising, the colour being intrinsic and
not exotic.
Selenite—A number of clear and perfect crystals from the
Kimmeridge clay were used. These decompose with loss of water
of crystallisation at a comparatively low temperature, so that no
thermo-luminescence could be observed.
After the application of 50 mg. of radium for two days, a
peculiar effect was observed in the crystal. On looking through
the two large faces of the crystal at a white object, these faces
appeared to be divided into four triangles by diagonals of the
parallelograms. The two triangles having as bases the longer sides
of the parallelogram were coloured a faint smoky brown, while the
other two were unaltered. Further exposure to 25 mg. of radium
for fourteen days darkened the coloured parts slightly, but left the
remainder of the crystal still unchanged. Several crystals were
tried and fresh clear faces prepared by cleaving off thin sections ;
also the direction of the radium tube relative to the crystals was
changed, but the same result was obtained in every case. The
explanation of this peculiarity is due to Sir Henry Miers.
When the crystal was in its initial stages of growth, its faces
were similar, and similarly situated, to those of the fully developed
crystal. Certain of these faces have different properties from other
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 1¢. 9
faces, and by reason of these properties (probably electrical) were
able to attract certain impurities which had no effect upon the
colour of the crystal before the radium treatment was applied.
As the crystal grew, therefore, the path of growth of these faces was
traced out by the presence of the impurities, and the impurities
were then made visible by the action of the y rays from the radium.
Anhydrite, Celestine and Barytes.—These anhydrous sulphates
of the alkaline earths all occur in the state of clear glassy crystals,
which are sometimes colourless and sometimes blue. Celestine in
fact owes its name to the sky-blue colour of many specimens.
Since this blue colour can usually be discharged by heat, it
was expected that colourless specimens would, in some cases at least,
be coloured blue by radium. This expectation was fulfilled with
all three minerals, but to different degrees. Anhydrite in clear
crystals is rare, and the only specimen the authors were able to get
required six days under the action of 30 mg. of radium before any
decided blue colour was obtained. The crystal emitted a green
glow during exposure to the radium, and was slightly phosphorescent
afterwards when heated gently.
Celestine treated in the same way was coloured pale blue more
readily than the anhydrite, but further treatment did not increase
the colour appreciably.
One specimen of barytes showed no colour after similar treat-
ment, but a large clear crystal from Cumberland was coloured a
fine deep indigo blue after nine days under the action of 25 mg.
of radium. The blue colour was fairly uniform throughout the
whole crystal and it is therefore probably due to the action of the
y rays alone.
This conclusion is:rendered more probable by the fact that a
similar crystal of barytes was unchanged under the action of cathode
rays. The fact that certain specimens of barytes and celestine are
uncoloured, or hard to colour, by radium indicates that the blue
colour is due to changes in some impurity and not to-dissociated
particles of the pure substance.
Anglesite was chosen for experiment as being the only available
colourless crystalline anhydrous sulphate which could be compared
with those of the alkaline earths.
The action of radium was very slight. After twelve days under
30 mg. of radium a barely visible blue colour was produced.
The action of cathode rays on this mineral is peculiar. When
the tube is exhausted until cathode rays just begin to appear the
crystal emits a bright blue glow, while a fluor-spar crystal by the
side of it is hardly affected. As exhaustion proceeds and the rays
become harder, the fluor rapidly increases in brightness, but the
anglesite glow diminishes until it is barely visible under very hard
rays. No other crystal used in this work showed this peculiarity.
Apatite and Phosphorite.—These two minerals, though having
identical chemical composition, show considerable differences under
the action of radium.
Several specimens were used, including brown and green crystals
to NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals.
from Canada, a very hard phosphorite from France, and a mixed
apatite and phosphorite from Aqua del Todo Ano, Spain. This
last specimen contained zones of a beautiful mauve apatite separated
and surrounded by a white flaky phosphorite, and provided the
most brilliant example of thermo-luminescence observed throughout
this work.
All the specimens used approached the colourless state on
heating. The Canadian specimens became pale brown and very
pale blue respectively on heating small pieces on a platinum wire
before a good blow-pipe, while the mauve Spanish variety became
pure white on warming in a soft glass tube. The green Canadian
variety was also rendered white by long heating, but the brown
specimen still retained much of its colour. All the apatite specimens
gave a feeble phosphorescence on heating strongly in a hard glass
tube. The French phosphorite decrepitated but gave no visible
light. The Spanish phosphorite on gentle warming appears to take
fire and a beautiful golden yellow glow is emitted, so brilliant that
a fragment the size of a small pea allowed the time to be easily seen
on a small watch held a foot away. This glow only lasts for about
thirty seconds to one minute and then disappears, after which,
further heating has no effect.
No colour change was produced by the action of radium on any
of the original untreated specimens, but the thermo-luminescence
was increased in all cases.
The green Canadian apatite, which had been turned white and
semi-transparent by strong heating, was coloured a fairly strong
brown by two days’ exposure to 50 mg. of radium. When this
brown substance was gently heated in a soft glass tube a brilliant
violet light was emitted many times stronger than that obtained
with the unheated specimen... The brown colour faded rapidly in
daylight.
The brown Canadian apatite behaved similarly to the green
variety, although the colour change on treatment with radium was
hardly visible.
fhe French phosphorite after treatment with radium was
unaltered in appearance, but the thermo-luminescence was strong,
and violet in colour.
The Spanish phosphorite, after heating until all the glow had
disappeared, was treated with 25 mg. of radium for six days. No
change in external appearance was produced, but on heating it was
found that the power of emitting the beautiful yellow light had
been restored, and was greater and more lasting than that of the
original specimen.
The finest display of this yellow light was however obtained
when a large fragment of the original material was brought under
the action of the cathode rays. In this case there is no disappear-
ance of the glow with time ; it continues with undiminished brilliancy
as long as the rays fall on the substance. Also, a specimen which
had been deprived of its thermo-luminescence by strong heating
regained this property with increased brilliancy in the cathode rays.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 10. TE
Tourmaline.—Though this is quite a common mineral, yet clear
crystals are rare, and generally valuable, especially the lighter coloured
ones. Three specimens were used, a dark green semi-transparent
crystal from Cornwall, a pink crystal (rubellite) from Canada, and
a small colourless specimen from Elba.
The green specimen became darker and more opaque on heating,
and no visible effect was produced by radium on the heated or
_ unheated specimens.
The pink crystal turned quite white and opaque on heating
before the blow-pipe. Radium produced little visible effect on the
original specimen (slight darkening of the pink colour), and none
at all on the heated specimen. Cathode rays produced no colour
effect on either, but the heated specimen showed a very fine orange
glow, whilst the unheated crystal was unaffected.
The colourless specimen showed a faint pink colour after one
day under 50 mg. of radium, and this was considerably strengthened
after four days’ further treatment. Its colour then showed con-
siderable resemblance to that of the Canadian rubellite, and five
days further treatment with radium did not change this. The limit
of colour for this specimen had thus apparently been reached.
Topaz.—Transparent crystals of topaz are common, and are
found colourless, yellow, pink and blue, but are usually intersected
with large numbers of flaws.
Yellow topaz from Brazil changes to a purplish pink on strongly
heating, while similarly coloured specimens from Aberystwith become
almost colourless.
None of these exhibit any thermo-luminescence before, and
very little after, radium treatment. A clear colourless crystal from -
the Mourne Mountains acquired a fine deep yellow colour after four
days under the action of 10 mg. of radium.
A yellow crystal from Brazil became slightly deeper coloured
after similar treatment.
A similar crystal, heated until it turned pink, and then treated
with radium, regained its original colour and then became slightly
deeper coloured than the unheated specimen. On reheating, the
crystal again became pink, with slight thermo-luminescence.
Zircon.—Clear crystals occur as hyacinth (pink to deep red)
and jargoon (colourless).
Specimens of hyacinth from Tasmania and from the centre
of France were used. These varied greatly in their behaviour on
heating. Some of the Tasmanian specimens became nearly colour-
less when heated in a hard glass tube and quite colourless and
transparent when heated on platinum wire in a bunsen flame. On
the other hand, some of the French specimens still retained a pale
yellow colour after five minutes’ heating in a good blow-pipe flame.
All the specimens, heated or unheated, showed a greenish glow
when exposed to radium. The unheated ones were unchanged in
colour, but the heated ones all regained their colour to a greater
or less extent.
The colour of those Tasmanian specimens which had been
12 NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals.
most easily decolourised was completely restored after only two
days under 25 mg. of radium, while some of the French specimens
which had been most difficult to decolourise were not visibly affected
by this treatment, and only regained about half their colour after
treatment with 50 mg. for ten days.
One of the most refractory of these decolourised crystals was
placed in a tube containing about 20 millicuries of radium emanation
and left for twelve days. It had then acquired a reddish grey colour
with a peculiar blue fluorescence somewhat similar to that of purple
fluor-spar. On warming gently in a test-tube, a bright violet
phosphorescent light was emitted and the crystal at once lost its
blue fluorescent colour and turned red, the colour being now similar
to that originally present. This colour was easily destroyed on
further heating. Similarly all the crystals which had been re-
coloured by radium, lost their colour at a much lower temperature
than had been needed to discharge it before treatment.
A decolourised crystal placed in a cathode-ray tube glowed
with a blue light and regained part of its red colour.
Beryl—The natural crystals show considerable variation in
colour, from white or colourless, through pale blue (aquamarine)
and pale green to the bright green of the precious emerald.
Specimens of colourless, pale blue, and pale green beryl were used.
The green specimens, from the Mourne Mountains, changed to pale
blue on heating in the bunsen flame, while the other specimens were
unaltered.
No change in colour was produced in any of the crystals by
radium treatment, but a pale blue crystal, 1 cm. long and about
3 mm. diameter, after treatment for ten days with 25 mg. radium,
showed a feeble thermo-luminescence. This luminescence was
bluish white and appeared on the hexagonal basal planes only, the
remainder of the crystal being quite dark.
Kunzite-—The behaviour was identical with that described by
Glew.
Calcite.—Several colourless specimens from Barrow and Iceland
were used, some showing minute cleavage planes and others quite
flawless. The latter were unchanged by the action of radium but
the former showed considerable multiplication and enlargement
of the cleavage planes.
A very clear flawless crystal glowed with a fre red light under
the action of cathode rays, and the glow continued for some time
after removal of the crystal from the tube.
Another specimen from Iceland also glowed both in cathode
rays and under radium, but with a much whiter light. In the latter
case the warmth of the hand was sufficient to restart the clow
after removal from the radium. A third specimen showed a bright
yellow thermo-luminescence after radium treatment.
The variation in colour of the glow appears to indicate that it
is due to the presence of impurity and is not an essential property
of the pure substance. A piece of native strontianite showed a
fine orange-red glow on one part of the mass under the action of
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixii. (1918), No. 10. 13
My
i
j cathode rays, while the other part remained unaltered. This again
_ indicates that the glow is due to impurity present in the crude
_ mineral. On heating the specimen thus treated, a bluish white
_ glow was observed on the previously inactive part of the mass,
while the remainder was quite dark.
Glass.—The action of radium on glass is well known. Soda-
glass is coloured violet by the prolonged action of radium, and when
this glass is heated a pale violet light is emitted and the colour is
discharged. In this respect its behaviour is very similar to that of
purple fluor-spar, but the thermo-luminescence is not so bright.
Some samples of treated soda-glass require heating to the softening
point before all the colour is discharged.
Jackson considers that the green phosphorescence of X-ray
tubes depends upon the presence of traces of manganese. Without
this the glow is faint blue.
Lead glass acquires a fine brown colour under the action of
radium, and this colour is also discharged by heat. Boro-silicate
glass acquires a purplish brown colour. Other coloured glasses are
described by Doelter.
Bakelite, a hard resinous condensation product of certain
aldehydes and amines, is amber-yellow when freshly made, but
gradually acquires a wine-red colour under the action of daylight.
If the red’ colour is not too strong it may be discharged by heating
to 100-150° C. for several hours. One sample tested by the authors
was restored to its original yellow colour by twelve hours’ heating
to 130° C. in an air oven, whilst another more deeply coloured
specimen was only slightly affected by three days’ heating to 150° C. +
Radium or cathode rays produce an effect similar to that of day-
light, but the colour thus produced is much more easily discharged
on heating.
This colour change of bakelite has proved objectionable when
the substance has been used for ornamental purposes (imitation
amber) and has led to its abandonment in certain trades.
Summary and Conclusions.—There appears to be little doubt
that the colours and thermo-luminescent properties of many minerals
have been largely determined by the presence of radio-active matter
either in the water from which they have been deposited or by the
subsequent action of radio-active minerals in their immediate
neighbourhood. It appears possible, though not proved, that
fluorescence is produced by « radiation as in the case of zircons.
Different colours may be produced by f and y radiation and all
three effects may be observed in one and the same crystal (e.g. the
fluorescent purplish green fluor where the green colour is restored
by y rays, the purple by @ rays, and the complete colour by placing
in a tube of emanation where a, 8, and y rays act together).
Both @ and y radiation appear to be active in producing
thermo-luminescence.
In nearly all cases the colours produced are due to the dis-
sociation of minute traces of certain impurities. The products of
dissociation are removed to a very short distance from each other,
"
een
14 NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals.
and the size or density of these particles will determine the particular
colours of light absorbed and transmitted.
Disturbance of the molecular structure of the crystal by heat,
daylight, etc., enables the dissociated particles to approach each
other and recombine, with consequent loss of colour. |
The quantity of impurity may be exceedingly small, since the
dissociated body appears to act as a powerful dye, and in many
cases it may be impossible to determine its chemical nature largely
owing to the difficulty of obtaining a perfectly pure sample of the
original substance.
The question as to whether a perfectly pure substance is capable
of showing these colours is still open to doubt, although Goldstein’s
work seems to point to the conclusion that such is possible. With
potassium chloride Goldstein obtained a deep violet coloration in
cathode rays, and the authors of this work had no difficulty in repeat-
ing the experiment. With potassium bromide, Goldstein obtained a
deep blue coloration, while the authors obtained a green colour ; also
this sample required twenty minutes’ treatment before any appreci-
able colour was obtained, while Goldstein’s colour was obtained in a
few seconds. It seems still possible therefore that the colours may
be due to traces of impurity, which are always present in the purest
obtainable samples. Goldstein estimates that certain impurities,
amounting to not more than one part in a million, may produce quite ~
perceptible colour effects under the influence of cathode rays. He
has also shown that the same impurity may give rise to different
colours when present in different solids, a fact which well illustrates
the danger of attempting to utilise the colour as a guide to the
nature of the impurity in minerals.
At first sight, the production of the Giesel salts by heating
pure salts in sodium or potassium vapour, having the same colour
as those produced by cathode rays, would seem to be indisputable
evidence that the colour is due to metallic potassium or sodium.
When the intensity of the colour is considered, however, the evidence
appears much, less satisfactory. If a trace of metallic potassium,
so minute that its presence is beyond detection by chemical means,
is sufficient to colour a large mass of potassium chloride dark violet,
then the quantity present in Giesel salts should render them so
black that the colour is indistinguishable. This is not the case.
It is quite possible therefore that metallic potassium, introduced
either from outside or from within by the action of cathode rays,
is only a reagent which causes the dissociation of the colouring
material whatever that may be, and is not really the colouring agent
itself. This theory would explain why long-continued action of the
cathode rays never carries the depth of colour beyond a certain
limit, although the quantity of free metal is steadily increasing all
the time. It also explains why those colours which Goldstein terms
“after colours of the first class ’’ should be identical in appearance
with “ after colours of the second class.”
The emission of light on heating the radiated crystals is
probably due to intense vibrations set up by the dissociated atoms
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixit. (1918), No. 10. 15
coming together again. The impurities which give rise to this
luminescence are frequently quite independent of those which
produce the colour effects, since quite colourless crystals sometimes
give brilliant thermo-luminescent effects, and deeply coloured
crystals may give little or no visible luminescence during discharge
of their colour. It is also possible that the approach of the separated
particles due to electrical attracting forces may set up light-producing
vibrations as successive obstacles in their paths are encountered
or passed, while the colour disappears with the final coalescence of
these particles.
It appears to be fairly well established that phosphorescence
cannot be produced in a perfectly pure substance. The most
brilliant phosphorescent effects are produced in substances such as
calcium sulphide by minute quantities of compounds of bismuth,
mercury, etc., and this effect is quite destroyed either by largely
increasing the impurity or by removing it altogether.
The authors are of opinion therefore that thermo-luminescence,
cathode-ray colours, exotic colours in minerals, etc., are due to the
dissociation of traces of impurity in the bodies concerned and not to
decomposition of the body itself.
The marked differences in the action of 6 and y raysin producing
different colours, thermo-luminescence, etc., in certain minerals seems
to indicate some essential difference in the nature of these rays
other than mere wave-length.
The radium used in these experiments was the property of
the Manchester and District Radium Committee, and to them the
authors are indebted for permission to use it. In conclusion, the
authors wish to express their thanks to Sir E. Rutherford, Mr.
C. J. Woodward, of Birmingham, and Mr. T. H. Hill, of Manchester,
for several of the specimens used, and specially to Mr. J. W. Jackson,
of the Manchester Museum, for many specimens and for his con-
tinued interest and encouragement in this work.
Most of the specimens referred to have been deposited in
the Manchester Museum, and may be seen on application to
Mr. J. W. Jackson.
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL LABORATORIES,
Manchester University.
ST
|
16 NEWBERY—LUuPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals.
REFERENCES
BARNES AND HOLROYD.—Tvans. Man. Geol. Soc. (1895), 24, 215.
BAUERMANN.—Text-Book of Mineralogy (1884).
BERTHELOT, M.—Comptes Rendus (1907), 145, 710.
BERTHELOT, D.—Comptes Rendus (1907), 145, 818.
CROOKES.—Proc. Roy. Soc. (1904), 74, 47.
DEBIERNE.—Amn. Phys. (1914) [[X.], 2, 478.
DOoELTER.—Ion (1909), 7, 30T.
DOELTER.—Le Radium (1910), 7, 58.
EGGLESTONE.—Tvans. Inst. Min. Eng. (1908).
GIESEL.—Verh. d. D. Phys. Geo. (1900), 2, 9.
GLEwW.— Journ. Ront. Soc. (1914), 106.
GOLDSTEIN.—Nature (1914), 494.
JaAcKson, H.—Nature (1915), 95, 479..
RUTHERFORD.—Radio-active Substances and their Radiations,
308
STRUTT.—Proc. Roy. Soc. (1908), A 81, 272.
StruTT.—Pyroc. Roy. Soc. (1910), A 83, 298.
Watson and BEarD.—Pvoc. U.S.A. Nat. Museum (1917), 53,
553:
WvyrousporFr.—Bull. Mens. Soc. Chim. de Paris (1866), 5, 334.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 11.
XI. The Superficial Geology of Manchester.
By Marcaret CoLtLtEy Marcu, M.Sc.
(Geological Department, The University, Manchester.)
(Read May 7th, 1918. Received for publication July oth, 1918.)
While much has been written concerning isolated exposures of
the Glacial and alluvial deposits in and around Manchester, no general
account of them has been attempted since the early descriptions by
the late Mr. E. W. Binney and Mr. Hull. A precise knowledge of
these surface deposits is of exceptional importance in a great city,
in connection with building, municipal and general engineering
operations, and questions of water supply and drainage. The
opportunity has therefore been taken, in connection with a general
investigation of the geology of the district for coal-mining purposes,
to collect all the data available concerning the superficial deposits
and to give a general account of them.
The present account is based on an examination of all the pub-
lished evidence (see Bibliography) supplemented by many sections
of cuttings and bore-holes kindly supplied by the Manchester City
Surveyor, together with large numbers of well sections supplied by
Messrs. Mather & Platt, Mr. Charles Chapman and Mr. A. Timmins ;
by information supplied by the Chief Engineer of the Manchester
Ship Canal, and by field observation. Mr. J. W. Jackson, of the
Manchester Museum, has also contributed his personal records and
allowed the use of observations left in manuscript by the late Mr.
Charles Roeder.
In the latter portion of the paper some discussion will be given of
the relation of the Drift deposits to the present surface configuration
of Manchester, and of the form of the pre-Glacial surface.
The distribution of the Drift in the Manchester area was first
worked out by Mr. E. W. Binney, who published a description, illus-
trated by a map of the district, in the Memoirs of this Society in 1848.
Since his time a great deal of the Drift formerly exposed has been
covered up, but, on the other hand, numerous fresh borings and
sewer sections have been made in it, disclosing its vertical and hori-
zontal distribution. The new evidence does not appear to require
any great modification of Binney’s map other than a rather wider
extension of the river gravels than he allowed.
The superficial deposits are of three kinds, each of which occupies
a distinct area :
1. River Gravels.—These deposits vary considerably. They in-
clude true river gravels and sands, consisting mainly of re-sorted Drift
materials, which are often difficult to distinguish from true Glacial
A i
2 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester.
deposits when they occur at high levels; loam and peat also come
under this category. These deposits are, of course, post-Glacial.
The low-lying area of the south-west of Manchester is almost
entirely underlain by these deposits, which are spread on either side
of the River Irwell and its tributaries, the Cornbrook, Medlock and
Irk.
From this area the gravels extend up the valleys as follows :—
On the south side of the River Irwell itself, below the confluence
of the Cornbrook, the gravels extend as far as the Stretford Gas
Works, while to the south of the Cornbrook they reach a little way
beyond Alexandra Road. In the Chorlton district the gravels
stretch a little to the east of the point where Platt Brook joins the
Cornbrook.
Hulme, lying between the Cornbrook, the Medlock and the
Irwell, is entirely on river gravels and sands. Farther north, the
gravels cover the angle between the Medlock and the Irwell, and
reach as far as the south-west corner of Central Station, and the
junction of Minshull Street and Whitworth Street. Above this the
gravels lie only very close to the Medlock itself.
On the north side of the Irwell, below the confluence of the
Medlock, the gravels underlie the area now occupied by the Ship ~
Canal docks, while on the same side of the river, below the junction
of the Irk, they occupy a comparatively narrow belt.
Between the points where the Irk and Medlock join the Irwell
the gravels continue to Deansgate, where they gradually thin out,
being replaced by Boulder-clay at Central Station, at the corner of
South Street and Peter Street and in Albert Square.
In the Irk valley itself river deposits occupy a narrow belt on
either side the stream.
Above the junction of the Irk and Irwell, on the right side of the
Irwell, river gravels occur in Cheltenham Street, Pendleton and in
Cobden Street.
On the left side of the river there are alluvial deposits in Sussex
Street, Broughton, and in Greecian Street, Broughton, while, accord-
ing to Binney, they occupy the whole tract encircled by the loop of
the Irwell.
2. Boulder-clay.—The Boulder-clay of the Manchester district is
entirely of the North-Western Drift type—that is to say, the boulders
contained in it are mainly from the Lake district, and apparently it
contains none of the limestone blocks which characterise the Ribbles-
dale Drift. The boulders themselves are often of enormous size, as,
for example, the one which was obtained from Oxford Road, and is
now placed in the quadrangle of the University.
The Boulder-clay covers South Manchester in areas where it is
not replaced or overlain by river deposits. In Salford and the south
of Pendleton it covers the ground except in the river valleys. In
Clayton and Newton Heath, Beswick and Bradford it forms the
only covering, and in North Manchester it occurs to the east of
Rochdale Road.
3. The Glacial Sands.—The sands often attain great thickness.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 11. 3
They show marked current bedding, and contain thick pockets of
clay, and thin streaks of coal fragments. In places they are slightly
faulted. They vary in texture from fine running sands to gravelly
deposits.
These sands cover the north of Manchester from Boggart Hole
Clough in the east to Prestwich in the west, and are continued across
the Irwell over North Pendleton and Irlams towards Eccles.
The horizontal distribution of the post-Glacial and Glacial de-
posits as Shown by recent information, therefore, agrees with Binney’s
_map, except that the extension of the river deposits in the Stretford
area has now been shown to be greater than was there indicated.
The Vertical Sequence of the Drift Deposits
There is considerably more information concerning the vertical
sequence of the Drift than was available when Binney and Hull
discussed the subject.
In the Manchester area all the bore-holes and cuttings south of
a line from Newton Heath to Pendleton showthat the Glacial deposits,
where they have not been eroded by the rivers, consist almost
entirely of Boulder-clay. In the south and north of this area sandy
bands of considerable thickness are found to occur within the clays.
These bands, however, are all lenticular and inconstant, as shown by
the following examples.
In the Fallowfield district the sewer laid along the Wilmslow
Road shows great variability of superficial deposits. This is clearly
seen in the section (Fig. 1, Pl. III.). Between Ladybarn Road and Mon-
mouth Street there is a sand-bed which at Ladybarn Road is 11 feet
thick, at Old Hall Lane more than 27 feet thick, and at Monmouth
Street 9 feet in thickness.
In the northern part of the Boulder-clay district a bore-hole put
down by the Clayton Aniline Company shows clay with sandy bands.
Roeder gives a section of a sand-pit in this vicinity, behind Clayton
Hall. The record is incomplete, as the only mention is of a 7-foot
sand-bed. In the 6-inch Ordnance Survey map published in 1847
two sand-pits are marked in this district ; one near the Ashton New
Road end of Schofield Street, about 200 yards from the site of the
present brick works, and the other about roo yards north of Alder-
dale House, and the same distance east of Edge Lane.
In a bore-hole at the Pott Street Hydraulic Power Station 80
feet of Boulder-clay with “sandy bands ” was proved.
In the Newton Heath area the deposits are very variable, some
showing clay only, others clay with sandy bands, while the bore-hole
at Newton Heath Brewery has a 30-foot sand-bed, 19 feet from the
bottom of the Drift, and that of the Heath Brewery proved 25 feet of
quicksand, 50 feet from the base of the Drift.
Farther to the east, in Jericho Clough, Clayton Bridge, a bore-
hole recorded by Binney shows two sand-beds, the thicker being
TZ mCee.
4 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester.
North of Newton Heath, along the Rochdale Road, a-set of
sewer sections show that there is Boulder-clay overlying a sand-bed.
The rock below this sand-bed is not reached until the sewer is opposite
the Manchester General Cemetery. Here the sand-bed is reduced to
7 feet in thickness and lies between Boulder-clay and the solid rock
(Section, Fig. 2, Pl. II1.). To the east of the man-hole by the corner of
Westbourne Grove, in Rochdale Road, five sections are known, the
last being in the Moston Collieries. The first two are sewer sections
and show clay on sand ; the first proves 73 feet of sand under 82 feet
6 inches of clay, the second 30 feet of sand under 44 feet of clay. In
neither case was the base of the Drift reached. The next section is
the well sinking in the old Crumpsall Workhouse, 150 yards from the
second man-hole ; this section reaches rock, and shows, in descending
order: clay, 5 feet; sand, 42 feet; clay, 583 feet ; gravel, o4 feet ;
rock. The next sinking is a man-hole about 450 yards east of the
workhouse, which proves a sand-bed 24 feet thick, with 714 feet of
clay above and another clay below. The solid rock is not reached.
From the Moston Collieries, about three-quarters of a mile
farther east, there are two shaft sections which give details of the Drift.
One of these is the No. 3 Shaft of the present colliery, the other is
Moston Old Shaft, recorded by Binney in 1870 as Moston “ New ”
Pit Section. Both these shafts agree in having a gravel bed at the
base, but above this they show considerable variation. Moston Old
Pit has three sand-beds, the top one being 5 feet 9 inches thick, the
middle one 14 feet thick and the bottom one being 15 feet in thick-
ness. Moston No. 3 Pit has one sand-bed only and that is 30 feet
7 inches in thickness and underlies 36 feet of clay.
Between the Moston Collieries and Rochdale Road lies Boggart
Hole Clough, which is about 600 yards north of the old Crumpsall
Workhouse. In this clough the solid rock cannot be seen, the sides
of the ravine showing nothing but glacial sands. Near the top there
is a band of sandy clay about 5 feet in thickness. This sandy clay
is unfit for brick-making.
East of Rochdale Road deposits similar to those of Boggart Hole
Clough are to be seen stretching from above Blackley, westward
across Kersall Moor and southward to Alms Hill. Here, as in
Boggart Hole Clough, the superficial deposits are Glacial sands with-
out any covering of Boulder-clay. Near the top of these sands there
are occasional lenticular bands of sandy clay which hold up the
water. In places they have been cut through, and in these cuttings
they can be seen dying away in all directions. In none do they
attain a thickness of more than Io to 15 feet.
Although the base of the sands cannot be seen on Kersall Moor
or in Boggart Hole Clough, it is visible in the Irwell valley opposite
to Agecroft Bridge, and has been proved in the bore-holes at Messrs.
Levinstein’s Crumpsall Vale Dye Works, and on the eastern edge
of the lake in Heaton Park. In the Irwell valley and the bore-hole
at Messrs. Levinstein’s the sand comes down on to the solid rock
without any intervening clay, but at Heaton Park there are 33 feet of
clay between the sands and the rock.
;
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 11. 5
The evidence from the sections quoted above, and from numer-
ous others, proves that there is great variability in the Glacial deposits
of the Manchester district. In places these deposits consist mainly
of thick clays or equally thick sands, but the clays may contain
lenticular sandy bands, and the sands lenticular clay bands.
It is very desirable to consider the vertical sequence of the Drift
deposit in the Manchester area with reference to the classifications
proposed for them, in view of the important theoretical and practical
deductions which have been drawn from their supposed arrange-
ment.
Classification of the Glacial Deposits
The first of these classifications was proposed by Binney in a
paper which he read to this Society in 1848. In this paper he gave
the vertical succession as being—
*(4) River gravels.
(3) Glacial sands.
(2) Boulder-clay.
(x) Gravel-bed.
He himself, in referring to his classfication, says: ‘‘ Probably
the deposits mentioned above will not always be found in the perfect
order there laid down ; no doubt some of them may be found wanting
at places ; especially the Glacial sands and the gravel-bed, which have
often been removed.’”’ In the many sections now available the
gravel-bed is absent nearly as often as it is present, so that it does
not seem desirable to regard it as a definite stratum.
The second classification was proposed by Hull in 1863 and was
by no means tentative, as Binney’s was. It is as follows :—
(3) Upper Boulder-clay.
(2) Middle sands and gravels.
(x) Lower Boulder-clay.
This tri-partite division of the Drift was extended by Hull and
De Rance to the Glacial deposits of Southern Lancashire generally,
from the sea to the Pennines, and was adopted for the purposes of
the Geological Survey.
In his paper Hull says that the sands are very variable in thick-
ness, and that sometimes the Upper Boulder-clay may be seen coming
down on to the Lower Boulder-clay. This he attributes partly to
variation in deposition but mainly to erosion. As an example of
variation in thickness, he describes the Drift as being over 200 feet at
Kersall Moor, while four miles away, at Newton Heath and Openshaw,
it is only 20 feet.
The Upper Boulder-clay, he says, occupies the districts, near
Manchester, of Hyde, Denton, Newton, Failsworth, Oldham, and the
1 These beds are numbered by Binney in the reverse order, the uppermost
being numbered (tr).
6 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester.
higher parts of Harpurhey and Blackley, Clifton, Kearsley and
ittley ever:
/
In considering the evidence bearing on these classifications it is
important to remember that the sands often contain lenticular beds
of clay of fair thickness (10-15 feet) which are merely local features,
dying out in all directions. The same applies to sand “ pockets ”
in the clay. This fact was noted by Binney.*
Distribution of the Glacial Sands
The thick Glacial sands, called the “ Middle Sands ” by Hull,
occupy the country in the north of Manchester from Boggart Hole
Clough to Pendleton. In the centre of this area, in Kersall Moor
and Higher Blackley, they have been reckoned to be over 200 feet
thick. The boring on the east side of the lake in Heaton Park shows
106 feet of sands. One sunk near the Prestwich Asylum passed
through 99 feet of sands containing a 31-foot clay-bed without
reaching rock, and the shaft of Hugh o’ th’ Wood Colliery in
Prestwich Clough gives 154 feet of alternating sands and clays.
If the sands are followed south from Boggart Hole Clough they
are seen to be 42 feet thick at Crumpsall Old Workhouse. To the
south of the workhouse a line of sewer sections along the Rochdale
Road (Fig. 2, Pl. III.) shows these sands thinning out entirely in less
than a mile.
Farther to the west the Glacial sands are well exposed in Alms
Hill, where extensive excavations are being made. Just to the south
of Alms Hill come the Queen’s Road Clay Pits: here there is clay
only. This complete change takes place in under a half-a-mile.
On the south side, therefore, the Glacial sands die out, and are
replaced by clays.
To the east of Crumpsall Old Workhouse, and the south-east of
Boggart Hole Clough, a similar replacement occurs, for in the Moston
Collieries the sections show that the Drift is largely clay, with sand
bands in it, the thickest of which is only 22 feet, while in the Fails-
worth area the section at Failsworth Pole proves clay with a 19-foot
sand-bed, and one at Lymeditch shows nothing but clay. The two
sections in the Prestwich area have alternating beds of clays and
sands of almost equal thickness.
To the north of the Glacial sands, at Alkrington Colliery,
which is about 2+ miles from Heaton Park, the section is very —
similar to those at Moston, being clay with two sand bands, the
thickest of which is 23 feet.
To the west of the typical sand area the section of the Whitefield
Incline Pit has an 11-foot sand-bed.
In the North Pendleton district the sands are well shown in the
Light Oaks Road—here a bore-hole was put down which proved 20
feet of sands without reaching rock. In Weaste, however, in the
sandstone quarries overlooking the Irwell valley, the rock is covered
1 Mem. Lit. and Phil., V1., Series 3, p. 464.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 11. 7
by about 3 feet of clay only. Between Light Oaks Road and Weaste
various exposures show sandy Drift with lenticular beds of sandy
marl.
These sections prove that the Glacial sands are absent in the
areas surrounding the main outcrop; it may therefore be assumed
that the sands form a huge lenticular patch, thinning out on all
sides. It is true that the actual thinning is seen in one place only—
that is in the Rochdale Road set of sewer sections, of which there are
eight in a distance of a little over a mile. The first of these gives 60
feet of sand overlying clay, the second 59 feet of clay over more than
30 feet of sand, the third 56 feet of clay over more than 31 feet of
sand, the fourth 66 feet of clay over 73 feet of sand, the sixth 87 feet
of clay over more than 59 feet of sand, the seventh 81 feet of clay
over 7 feet of sand, the eighth clay only. The first of these sections
shows sand over clay, but, as the base of the clay is not reached, this
may be only a lenticular band.
In spite of the fact that this is the only set of sections in which
the actual disappearance of the sand can be followed in detail, the
rapidity with which the sands disappear by Alms Hill, Light Oaks
Road, Boggart Hole Clough, Heaton Park and the sections beyond
these areas shows that there is replacement of sand by clay. This
seems to show that the sands of Kersall Moor occur as a lenticular
patch, and not as a definite layer under or overlying the neighbouring
- clays.
There are, of course, sand-beds in some of the sections in the
districts surrounding the typical sand area; these may reach a
thickness of twenty odd feet. The sections described are fairly far
apart, but in places where sections are sufficiently close to one another
to allow of detailed correlation it may be shown that sand-beds of
more than 20 feet in thickness are purely local lenticles inter-
calated in the clays. Hence, in the absence of intervening sections,
it is impossible to state definitely that the sands of Moston, Alkring-
ton and Whitefield are continuations of the thick sands of Prestwich
and Kersall, and in the absence of such evidence there is no ground
for the belief that those sands constitute a definite stratum separat-
ing an Upper from a Lower Boulder-clay.
Evidence of the rapid incoming and dying out of sand-beds is
given in several places. In the Fallowfield sewer cutting a lenticular
bed of sand makes its appearance below the clay, attains a thickness
of over 27 feet, and dies out again, all within a mile. A bore-hole in
Newton Heath shows a sand-bed of 29 feet which is not seen in a
second boring 150 yards to the east, nor in another 350 yards to the
south. There are many other sections which show the irregularity
of the deposits, but those mentioned are sufficient to demonstrate
that sands more than 20 feet thick may be purely local in character.
Hull himself recognised the great variability of the Glacial
deposits, and accounted for the absence of the ‘“‘ middle sands ”’ in
areas where he expected to find them by assuming that they had
been eroded. Evidence of the lenticular character of the deposits as
shown by the numerous sewer sections and the closely adjacent series
8 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester.
of bore-holes and shafts which have been made since Hull’s day,
together with the absence of sands in sections in the districts
immediately surrounding the main sand area, points to the con-
clusion that the sands and clays of the Manchester district replace
one another irregularly and do not present any definite sequence.
Unfortunately for the tri-partite classification of the Drift, those
areas which have a thick top clay are without thick sands, while
those which have true “ middle sands”’ have no top clay. These
sands, when they do occur, may overlie a clay-bed, as at the Heaton
Park bore-hole, or they may come straight down on to the solid, as
at Agecroft Bridge, Levinstein’s Dye Works and Middleton Junction,
The Glacial sands of this district cannot be said, therefore, to form a
central layer between two clays.
Distribution of the ““ Upper”? and “ Lower” Boulder-clavs
If it be accepted that the sands of Kersall Moor and Prestwich
are nothing more than a huge lenticular patch, it follows of necessity
that the clay-beds above and below these sands must be also local
in character. Evidence of this can be obtained from sections and in
the field.
Clay underlying the sands, which would be ‘“‘ Lower Boulder-
clay,’ according to Hull’s classification, is seen at the Heaton Park
bore-hole, where it is 34 feet thick, and in the well section of the
Crumpsall Old Workhouse, where it is 68 feet thick. These clays do
not form a continuous basal layer, for they are absent at Middleton
Junction in the north, at Messrs. Levinstein’s works between the
Crumpsall Old Workhouse and Heaton Park, and in the Rochdale
Road sewer to the south, and on the west in the Irwell valley opposite
to Agecroft Bridge, where the sands can be seen coming down on to
solid rock.
The “ Upper Boulder-clay’’ should, according to Hull, be
present at Hyde, Denton, Failsworth, Oldham, the higher parts of
Harpurhey and Blackley, Clifton, Kearsley and Little Lever.
From the sections given in the Hyde and Ashton-under-Lyne
districts it will be seen that thick sands are absent at Hyde, Hyde
Lane and Lordsfield, and that at Ashton Moss, where the sands are
thick, the top covering of clay is only 123 feet thick. In the sections
given round Failsworth the sands are absent, as they are in Hollin-
wood, on the outskirts of Oldham. There are no sections giving
details of the Drift in Clifton, but at Middleton there is no top clay.
In the west, sections showing thick sands as at Stand Lane and Out-
wood have no overlying clay, and the Whitefield and Leigh pits
have no sand. In the typical sand area, sections at Heaton Park,
Crumpsall Old Workhouse and Messrs. Levinstein’s works give no
top clay, and it is also absent both in one at Prestwich Asylum, which
passed through gg feet of sand and clay without reaching rock, and
in the shaft at Hugh o’ th’ Wood Colliery in Prestwich Clough.
In addition to these sections the top of the sands can be seen in
Boggart Hole Clough, above Blackley, across Kersall Moor, at Alms
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 11. 9
Hill and in Pendleton. In none of these places is there any definite
covering of Boulder-clay. Near the 275-foot contour-line sandy clays
occur locally ; sometimes they have been dug out, showing a thick-
ness of 5 to 10 feet. They are not brick clays, and can be seen
thinning out on all sides.
It is therefore evident that round Manchester the thick sands
have no covering of Boulder-clay and that they may or may not over-
lie clay, so that the clay deposits as well as the sands are lenticles.
The appended sections (pp. 10-13), to which reference has
been made, are only a few of those which give a detailed account
of the Drift, down to the rock. They include the only complete
available records of borings in and around the neighbourhood of
the Glacial sands, together with a few from the Hyde and Ashton-
under-Lyne area, which were selected because, according to Hull,
Upper Boulder-clay should have been visible in that district.
The other sections from the Manchester district, which cover an
area about four times as large as that from which these were taken,
show no sand-beds of any appreciable thickness.
Thickness of the Drift
As might be expected, the Drift is thinnest in the present river
valleys. In Salford, Old Trafford and Hulme the general depth of
the solid below the surface has not been yet shown to reach as much
as 50 feet. An exception to this is seen in Trafford Park, where the
bore-hole of the British Steel and Wire Company proved the depth of
the pre-Glacial surface to be 94 feet below present sea-level, giving a
thickness of 175 feet of Drift. It is impossible in this area to distin-
guish definitely between Glacial and post-Glacial deposits, though,
judging from the recorded sections, it is highly probable that they
are mainly alluvium.
East and north of this the Drift thickens considerably, though
on the low ridge to the north of Fallowfield Station it is practically
absent. In Levenshulme, by Albert Road and Stockport Road, it
is over 50 feet thick, and at Levenshulme Print Works 82 feet. In
the Openshaw, Ardwick and Bradford areas the thickness runs well
above 50 feet. One boring in Openshaw shows 135 feet of Drift.
Round Hyde and Ashton the Drift thickens out ; at Hyde, and
in the Lordsfield and Ashton Moss Colliery sections it 1s over 100
feet thick, though at Hyde Lane it diminishes to 663 feet. The
Newton Heath sections give a thickness of about 100 feet. North
of this the Glacial deposits again thicken. At the Moston Pits they
- ‘are 170 and 174 feet, on Kersall Moor and Higher Blackley they have
been estimated to be over 200 feet in thickness, and at Boggart Hole «
Clough they cannot be much less. At Failsworth and Hollinwood
these deposits thin somewhat, being only about 100 feet thick, but
at Heaton Park and Alkrington the thickness is 143 and 162 feet
respectively, and at Middleton Junction 127 feet.
Farther west, at Prestwich, the asylum boring passed through
Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester.
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SEcTIONS OF DRIFT IN AND AROUND THE AREA OF GLACIAL SANDS
Alkrington New
tley Nook Sovereign Pit, Limeside Bore-hole Stockfield Colliery, 2 ; :
Gaiten. No. 3 Pit Leigh Failsworth : Chadderton sae a Neue S
‘Clay a ees. Loam and sand 7 ae
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Total thickness, 12% 314 140 633) 127 53
All thicknesses given in /ee¢
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Prestwic! 1A
Co ~ Park Colliery,
es | Workhouse Well = Annex ee ec he h Oldham =<
eClayiis are nee 5. : Soil 9
Clay . er 25 |
: Clay 24
Clay 5 30) Sand 2387 |
Sand - 33 | Sand ee
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14 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester.
99 feet of sands'and clays, while at Hugh o’ th’ Wood Colliery in
Prestwich Clough the shaft section shows a thickness of 156 feet.
Viewed broadly, therefore, the Drift around Manchester is
thickest on the north and east, and thins to the south and west.
Present Topography and tts Relation to the Drift
The physical map of Manchester, Pl. I., contoured to every ten feet
shows remarkable diversity in the character of the surface in differ-
ent areas. In the north-west the surface is very irregularly broken.
In the south and east the contours run very smoothly north-west
to south-east. Up to-the 200-foot line the surface slopes gently to
the River Irwell. From the 200- to the 250-foot contours the gradient
increases. Between the 250- and 350-foot lines occurs another belt
of more level land. The most striking feature of the map is the
deeply trenched character of the valleys, which in the north-west
about Kersall and Prestwich entirely change the nature of the surface.
Instead of the regular contours of the south and east, the ground
shows a relatively high sand plateau, deeply dissected on the margins
by a series of ravines. On the right bank of the Irwell the ground
rises from the river steeply, and relatively unbroken.
Outside this area of irregular surface the levels stretching from
south-west to north-east are only cut by the valleys of the Irk -
and Medlock. In the north-east, by Oldham, the latter river has
trenched deeply into the solid rock.
Comparison of the physical map with one showing Drift thick-
ness makes it clear that the area of broken country does not coincide
with that of maximum Drift thickness; but if the comparison be
made with a map showing the distribution of the sands and clays it
becomes evident that the irregular surface occupies the same position
.as the Glacial sands, which stretch from Boggart Hole Clough across
Prestwich to Pendleton.
It is quite natural that the rivers should cut deep gorges here,
-as the loose nature of the sands makes erosion easy ; while on the east,
where the almost equally thick deposits of Moston, Newton Heath
the Ashton occur, the heaviness of the clay would prevent such rapid
wearing.
The Pre-Glacial Surface
Unfortunately the records of the depth of the solid rock below
the surface are too few and scattered to make it possible to draw
-a map of the pre-Glacial surface, except in the area of central Man-
chester and as far to the south as Alexandra Park.
This map, reproduced in Pl. II., shows that there is no corre-
spondence between the present and pre- -Glacial river valleys. One
pre-Glacial valley is clearly seen near the centre of the map, where
the pre-Glacial contours, which are marked in thick lines, trend from
S.S.W. to N.N.E. This valley can be traced upwards from Brook’s
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 11. 15
Bar, past the junction of Cornbrook Street with Chorlton Road to
the east of Oxford Road Station and Manchester Town Hall,
across Piccadilly and between Rochdale Road and Oldham Street.
Reference to the map will show that there is a hill of some 120 feet in
height, forming the western side of this valley. The highest part of
this hill runs from just south of Albert Square to the north angle of
Central Station, the pre-Glacial surface in general rising from the old
valley-bed towards the present channel of the Irwell. On the
eastern side of the same ancient valley is a hill of similar height
-under London Road Station and its neighbourhood, and across this
hill the Medlock is now cutting its way, as mentioned by Mr. Charles
Roeder in his description of the Oxford Road sewer.'
This pre-Glacial valley is joined, just to the north of Brook’s
Bar, by another coming in from the east. This second valley
can be traced upwards from the neighbourhood of Brook’s Bar
to the south of the Royal Eye Hospital and across Plymouth
Grove Recreation Ground. It may possibly be connected with one
which lies near the Levenshulme Print Works.
These two pre-Glacial valleys which unite near Brook’s Bar
presumably open into a deep valley across Trafford Park, the presence
of which is certainly indicated by the boring of the British Steel and
Wire Company, to which reference has already been made, as well
as by the channel exposed at Salford Racecourse in the cutting of the
Ship Canal.* The information concerning this latter valley is insuffi-
cient for mapping it ; it probably ran from north-east to south-west,
as on such a line bore-holes give greater depths in the rock surface
than those on either side. The present bed of the Irwell is un-
related to this deep valley—this is clearly seen in the section, Pl. III.,
Fig. 3, which shows the Irwell cutting its valley in the rock which rises
steadily to the west of the Brook’s Bar and Piccadilly valley as far
as the Irwell. The most remarkable feature of this valley is its
great depth. At Trafford Park it is 94 feet below O.D. As the fall
of the river in pre-Glacial times from this point to its mouth cannot
have been much less than it is now, this depth means that there has
been an alteration in the height of the surface of about 178 feet
since pre-Glacial times.
A similarly deep valley has been described by Mr. Mellard Reade *
in the neighbourhood of Widnes. Here the valley is 141 feet below
O.D. and 163 feet below the surface. Allowing for the fall of the
river to be the same from Widnes to the sea in pre-Glacial and present
times, these figures give an alteration of 185 feet in level since pre-
Glacial days. Another part of this buried valley is described by Mr.
Hunter 4 as being 120 feet deep. Thisis at Latchford, near Warring-
ton. Each of these deep channels, at Old Trafford, Latchford and
Widnes, lies in the present river valley, but is not coincident with
the existing river-bed.
1Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XX.
2? Hunter, C. E. Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XVII.
3 Proc. Liv. Geol. Soc., II.
*Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XVII.
—— ==
16 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester.
It has usually been assumed that the surface features of the pre-
Glacial land have been obscured by the Glacial deposits, which have
filled up the valleys, levelling-up the surface generally, and that it is
through these deposits that the rivers are now cutting their valleys.
The absence of relationship between the pre-Glacial and present con-
tours bears out this assumption. But it may be seen that on the
whole the pre-Glacial surface was smoother than the present one.
This 1s only to be expected, as the elevation of the land and the
addition of the Drift to the old surface would naturally give the
streams renewed powers of vertical erosion, so causing them to have
more deeply entrenched valleys.
LITERATURE
E. W. Binney. 1. “Sketch of the Geology of Manchester and
its Neighbourhood.”” Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. I., 1841,
25.
a “Sketch of the Drift Deposits of Manchester and its
Neighbourhood.” Mem. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. VIIL.,
Series 2, 1848, p. 195.
3. “On the Permian Beds of North-West England.” Mem.
Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. XII., Series 2, 1855, p. 200.
—_— 4. “‘ Additional Observations on the Permian Beds of North-
West England.” Mem. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. XIV.,
Series 2, 1857, p. 103.
—— 5. “ Additional Observations on the Permian Beds of South
Lancashire.’ Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. II., 1860-
TOO2) Paks 7e
—— 6. - Remarks on Lancashire and Cheshire Dmit a ye7oe
Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. I11., 1862-1864, p. 214.
—— 7. ““A Few Remarks on Mr. Hull’s Additional Observations on
the Drift Deposits and Recent Gravels in the Neighbourhood
of Manchester.”” Mem. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. Ii1.,
Series 3, 1865, p. 462.
—— 8. “On a Section of Drift and Underlying Triassic and Coal
Measures at Ardwick.’’ Proc. Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol.
VI., 1866-1867, p. 119.
—— g. “ Notes on the Lancashire and Cheshire Drift ”’ (read 1842).
Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. VIII., 1868-1869, p. 30. '
to. “ Notes.on the Drift of the Eastern Parts of the Counties
of Lancaster and Chester.”’ Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc.,
Vol er 8 70-18 7ia i kO:
—— 11. “ Additional Notes on the Lancashire Drift Deposits.”
Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. X1., 1871-1872, p. 139.
—— 12. “ Additional Notes on the Drift Deposits near Manchester.”
Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. XII., 1872-1873, p. 12.
Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixii. (1918), No. 11. 17
E. W. BINNEY. 13. “On Boulders from the Drift.” Proc. Mane.
Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. XVIII., 1878-1879, p. 40.
—— 14. “ Notes on a Bore through Triassic and Permian Strata
lately made at Openshaw.” Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc.,
Vol. XIX., 1879-1880, p. 99.
W. Boyp Dawkins. 1. “A Section of the Glacial Deposits met
with in the Construction of the New Docks at Salford.”” Tvans.
Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XX1X., 1904, p. 34.
—— 2. “Permian Rocks South of Manchester.” Tvans. Mane.
Geol. Soc., Vol. XVIII., 1882, p. 42.
J. Dickinson. “ Notes on Castle Irwell, Pendleton, Manchester.”
Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXVIL., 1901, p. 103.
E. Hurt. 1. “ Additional Observations on the Drift Deposits and
Recent Gravels in the Neighbourhood of Manchester.” Mem.
Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. I1., Series 3, 1865, p. 440.
— 2. “ Geological Survey Memoir on the Geology of the Country
Round Oldham,” etc., 1864, pp. 46-51.
Hunter, C. E. “A Geological Section of the Mersey and Irwell
Valleys.” Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XVII., 1882-1884,
p. 212"
LampLucH. “On British Drifts and the Interglacial Question.”
Brit. Ass. Report, 1906, p. 532.
J. B. Prant. “Glacial Markings in Salford.” Tvans. Mane.
Geolsoc. Vols VIL.; 1867, p. 120.
C. RoEpDER. 1. “ Further Remarks on the Oxford Road Section.”
Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XX., 1888-1890, p. 163.
——— 2. “Notes on the Upper Permians, etc., at Fallowfield.”
Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XX., 1888-1890, p. 615.
—— 3. “ Notes on the Permians and Superficial Beds at Fallow-
field.” Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXI1., 1892, p. 104.
—— 4. “ Notes on the Upper Coal Measures at Slade Lane Burnage.”
Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XXI1., 1892, p. 114.
—— 5. “ Further Notes on the Upper Coal Measures at Slade Lane
Burnage.”’ Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XXI., 1892, p. 199.
SINGTON. “On the Recently Disclosed Sections of the Superficial
Strata along Oxford Street, Manchester.” Tvans. Mane.
Geol. Soc., Vol. XIX., 1886-1888, p. 603.
WHYNFIELD RuopeEs. “Drift Deposits of Prestwich.” Tvans.
Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXXIV., 1915-1916, p. 126.
October 2nd, 1917] PROCEEDINGS. i.
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
} PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Ordinary Meeting, October 2nd, 1917.
The President,
Mr. WiLu1aM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair.
_ A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the
table.
The President then delivered his Inaugural Address, in which he
_ gave a sketch of the very important work which had been done in the
Society since its inauguration in 1781.
The Address is printed in full in the AZemozrs.
General Meeting, October 16th, 1917.
The President,
Mr. WiLu1am THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C., in the Chair.
Miss Grace WIGGLESWoRTH, M.Sc., Botanical Department of
the Manchester Museum, The University, Manchester; Mr. FRED
WiLkinson Barwick, Manager of the Manchester Chamber of
Commerce Testing House, Royal Exchange, Manchester; Mr.
Kenneth Lee, of Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst, Lee & Co. Ltd., Oxford
Road, Manchester; and Mr. ALFRED J. Kine, Elleray, Windermere ;
were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.
ii. PROCEEDINGS, [October 16th, 1917
Ordinary Meeting, October 16th, 1917. Ae
The President,
Mr. WiLt1AM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the ' :
table.
Mr. D. Warp: CuTiER, M.A., read a paper entitled :—
‘* Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals.”
This paper is printed in full in the AZemozrs.
General Meeting, October 20th, 19176
The President,
Mr. Witu1Am THomson, F.R.S:E., F.C.S., F.LC., in the Chair.
Rev. J. J. Incram, M.A. (Cantab), Science Master, St. Bede’s
College, Manchester, was elected an Ordinary Member of the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, October 30th, 1917.
The President,
Mr.. WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C., in the Chair.
During the meeting a valuable gift to the Society was made by
Mr. Henry Boddington, of Pownall Hall, who presented the original
painting by Ford Madox Brown for the fresco in the Manchester
Town Hall, depicting Dalton engaged in collecting marsh gas from a
pool.
It was unanimously resolved that the best thanks of the Society
be accorded to Mr. Boddington, for his very valuable and appropriate
gift.
The following account of the picture is taken from the official
descriptions of the Mural Paintings in the Town Hall :—
“Panel No. 12.—Dalton Collecting Marsh-Fire Gas.
John Dalton, inventor of the Atomic Theory, was born at
Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, in Cumberland, September
5th, 1766. As early as when only twelve he started a school
in partnership with a brother only a few years older. The
stronger pupils, it is stated, would challenge Dalton to fight
November 13th, 1917] PROCEEDINGS. | iii.
on his offering to correct them. For many years of his life
he maintained himself, in Manchester, by school teaching, but
this laborious, if honourable, occupation did not hinder him
from-indulging in the most abstruse and far reaching specu-
lations and researches ; the result being that the Manchester
schoolmaster, alone and unassisted, made himself the father
of modern chemistry—that is if chemistry is one of the exact
sciences and not a succession of independent experiments.
How the idea of the Atomic Theory first presented itself to
: his mind it would be interesting to know, but we know very
| little of it. All we hear is, that it occurred to him as required,
| in order to explain certain remarkable phases of matter,
which combines in some proportions and not in others.
‘Once that idea had taken hold of his mind, he never aban-
doned it till he had worked it out. The natural gases
* presented the readiest mode of investigation; so he is
represented as collecting marsh-fire gas, one of the natural and
primitive forms of gas. The mode of getting it is the usual
one of stirring up the mud of a stagnant pond, while an assis-
tant (in this case a farmer’s boy) catches the bubbles, as they
rise, in a wide-mouthed bottle, having a saucer ready to close
up the mouth under the water when the bottle is full. A
group of children are watching him, and the eldest, who has
charge of them, is telling the little boy who is bent on
catching sticklebacks that ‘Mr. Dalton is catching Jack o’
Lanterns ’—marsh-fire gas being, when on fire, the substance
the Will o’the Wisp is composed of .... ”
Hon. Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., read a
paper entitled :—‘‘ The Organisation of Museums and Galleries
of Art and Technology in Manchester.”
This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
General Meeting, November 13th, 1917.
The President,
Mr. Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C., in the Chair.
Dr. GEOFFREY Martin, Ph.D., F.1.C., F.C.S., Head of ‘the
Research Department of the Co-operative Wholesale Society, Ltd. ;
Mr, Witt1am Heap HOoL.anp, Spinner, The Cottage, Mottram Road,
Alderley Edge, ; and Miss WiniIFRED Crompton, Assistant Keeper in
Egyptology, The Manchester Museum, The University, Manchester ;
were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.
iv. PROCEEDINGS. [November 13th, 1917
‘
Ordinary Meeting, November 13th, 1917.
The President,
Mr. WILLIAM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the
table. These included a number of Natural History publications of
the British Museum.
Professor S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., communicated a
paper by Miss Constance LicHtTsown, M.Sc. on ‘The Siphono-
zooids of the Sea-pens.”
This paper appears in full in the MZemozrs.
Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.S. then read a paper
on the ‘“ Regional Distribution of the Native Flora of
Teneriffe,” by Dr. J. H. Satter.
This paper will also be printed in the Memoirs.
Ordinary Meeting, November 27th, 1917.
The President,
Mr. Wrenn TuHomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C., in the Chair.
Hon. Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., exhibited
and described ‘‘ Examples of Pre-Roman bronze-plated iron
from the Pilgrim’s Way.”
Professor Boyp Dawkins, exhibited an iron snaffle-bit, an iron
harness-ring, and an iron hub of a wheel, covered with a thin layer of
bronze, discovered in 1895, on the site of a village in Bigbury Wood,
about two miles due West of Canterbury. The village is of Prehistoric
Iron Age, and is traversed by the Pilgrim’s Way, and has yielded a
considerable number of implements to be seen in the Manchester
Museum. Of these the three above mentioned are of peculiar interest,
because they show that the art of plating iron with bronze was known
at that remote period, ranging indefinitely backward from the Roman
conquest. The plating is very thin and beautifully executed, and more
particularly that of the iron ring, in which the bronze surface repro-
duces exactly the effect of a covering of leather stitched on an iron ring.
With regard to the question as to how the plating was done, Dr. E.
Newbery has suggested that it might have been effected either by
plunging the carefully cleaned iron into molten bronze, or by heating
the iron in a furnace in which bronze was being made.
j
November 27th, 1917| PROCEEDINGS. v.
The implements found along with the plated articles consist of
iron spears, axes, adzes, hammers, ploughshares, billhooks. and sickles,
of the types found in settlements elsewhere of the same age, such as
Hunsbury near Northampton, and the Lake Village of Glastonbury.
In addition to these there were also fetters and a chain for a chain-
gang of six, with six rings to put round the neck.
Similar bronze-plated iron articles have been met with elsewhere.
In a cemetery of the Prehistoric Iron Age at Aylesford, in the neigh-
bourhood of the Pilgrim’s Way, north of Maidstone in the valley of the
Medway, similar plating is to be seen on the hoops of a wooden bucket.
The metal work is of beautiful design with the “late Celtic flam-
boyants,” and similar to those on scabbards at La Tene in Switzerland.
The date of Aylesford is fixed by Sir Arthur Evans to be from about
too B.C., down to the Christian Era. Iron-plated articles also occur
in settlements and burial places of the same age, in various parts of
Britain. A snaffle-bit, for example, found in Hunsbury Camp, near
Northampton, closely resembles that on the table. The trappings of
the horses, and the metal work of the wheels, found in the “ chariot
burials” in Yorkshire, is of the same elaborate type.
From the wide range of this art in Britain and on the continent,
it may be inferred that it was introduced from the latter, and was
afterwards practised in our islands. It was probably brought into
Kent by the invading Belgae, and into Yorkshire by the Parisii, whose
name still survives in Paris, their ancient land.
We may further note that the Pilgrim’s Way, proved by its passage
through Bigbury Camp to be Prehistoric, forms a part of the network
of roads in the Prehistoric Iron Age, affording free communication
between the various settlements,—Manchester, York, Durham, Huns-
bury (Old Northampton), Bath, the Lake Village of Glastonbury, Old
Sarum, and the camps of the downs of Berks, Wilts, and Dorset.
Mr. R. L. Taytor, F.I.C., F.C.S., then read a paper on “The
Effect of Light on Solutions of Bleaching Powder.”
Experiments were described in which solutions of bleaching
powder, differing in concentration and prepared in different ways, were
exposed to diffused daylight and to intermittent bright sunlight, while
other similar solutions were kept in the dark. Some of the experiments
extended over fifteen months.
It was found that solutions exposed to sunlight decomposed quite
rapidly, those exposed to diffused daylight much more slowly, while
dilute solutions (one per cent.) kept in the dark remained quite
unaltered for the whole period of fifteen months. A solution five
times the strength of the latter, however, did undergo some decompo-
sition, losing about 20 per cent. of its available chlorine even when
kept in the dark. Solutions exposed to diffused daylight lost from
wi PROCEEDINGS. [December 11th, 1917
70 to 80 per cent. of their available chlorine in fifteen months, while
those exposed to intermittent sunshine lost from 80 to gg per cent, —
in twelve weeks. It was found, as was anticipated, that the amount of —
free lime present in the solutions had considerable influence on the
rate of decomposition,—the smaller the Brppoi on of free limes the
greater the decomposition.
It was also found that the solutions which decomposed did not,
as might be expected, decompose entirely in the normal way (the —
hypochlorite, changing into chlorate and chloride), but in all cases
there was a considerable loss in the total oxidising power of the
solutions, due to the evolution of free oxygen.
General Meeting, December 11th, 1917.
The President,
Mr. Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair.
evaanc: Cooke, St. Bede’s College, Manchester; and Mr. J.
WitFRID Jackson, F.G.S., The Manchester Museum, The University,
Manchester; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, December 1ith, 1917.
The President,
Mr. WiLLiAM THomsovn, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the
table.
Professor W. W. HALDANE GEE gave a short description of the
Exhibits of Diagrams, Manuscripts, Apparatus, and Books,
which chiefly related to John Dalton and William Sturgeon.
The Society possesses three of the portable electric kites designed
by Sturgeon for use in investigations relating to atmospheric electricity.
Two of aie are made of calico and one measures 2 feet 8 inches by
2 feet 10 inches; and the other 3 feet 9 inches by 2 feet ro inches ;
each possesses an arrangement oe braces so as to'relieve the wooten
stretchers as much as possible from the strain produced by the wind.
January 8th, 1918 | PROCEEDINGS: vii:
The third kite, which is not complete, is made of “‘sarsenet.” These
were used in conjunction with a Leyden jar which could be charged
by the atmospheric electricity. Descriptions of some of the experi-’
ments are given in a manuscript in the Society’s possession.
The following is an example of one of the records :—
“Friday, May 22nd, 1829. Barrack Field, 2 p.m. Gentle North-
East Wind—some clouds to windward—Thermometer—in the
sun, 78°, in the shade, 69°.—Barometer, 29°3.—Light Kite—
300 yards string—floated high—Electricity positive. Steel
needle feebly magnetised by the discharge of the Leyden
Jar.”
At the time these experiments were made Sturgeon was in the
Royal Artillery at Woolwich ; he subsequently lectured at the Royal
Victoria Gallery of Practical Science in Manchester, and lectures given
there on Galvanism and Electricity were published in 1842 and 1843.
He also gave popular lectures in the district and some of his lecture
syllabuses are exhibited in the Society’s house. He edited the
* Annals of Electricity,” and issued in.a large volume an account of
his researches ; these publications, which are in the Society’s Library,
were exhibited.
The Memorials of Dalton included his lecture diagrams, optical
apparatus used at his popular lectures, his herbarium, laboratory note
books, a complete set of account books, letters, and published works.
There was also an exhibition of early types of microscopes, which
included the microscope designed by Culpeper and Scarlet in 1750—
a very primitive instrument—made of wood with cardboard tubes ;
a microscope made by Adams in 1776 with a cog wheel to incline the
instrument at a convenient angle ; a reflecting microscope of Goring —
described by Goring and Pritchard in 1837 in ‘‘ Micrographia” ; and
a microscope used by John Dalton, recently presented to the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, January 8th, 1918.
The President,
Mr. Witti1aAm THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books pon the
table. These included “Britain’s Heritage of Science,” by A. Schuster
and A. E. Shipley, and “ Overvoltage Tables,” Parts i, ii, iii, and iv, by
E, Newbery.
viii. PROCEEDINGS. [Jannary 22nd, 1918
The following resolution was passed unanimously :—
“This meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society Of
Manchester desires to give the most public expression of its” °
profound sense of the ‘humiliation wantonly imposed on the
Nation by the reported action of the Government in wilfully
submitting the priceless treasures of the British Museum to ~
the certainty of irreparable damage.” 4
Mr. T. A. Cowarp, F.E.S., F.Z.S. (Vice-President) then took the _ i
chair, and the President, Mr. Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.,
F.I.C. read a paper entitled—‘‘ Somatose.”
This paper is printed in full in the AZemozrs.
General Meeting, January 22nd, 1918.
The Vice-President,
Professor S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., in the Chair.
Mr. JoHN Maver Legs, F.C.A., Lymefield, Offerton, Stockport,
was elected an Ordinary Memi per of the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, January 22nd, ror8. ;
The Vice-President,
Professor S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., in the Chair.
Mrs. CRAVEN exhibited a portion of a piece of coal containing a
quantity of galena.
Mr. J. WILFRID Jackson, F.G.S., read a paper entitled :—‘‘ The
Association of Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits.”
This paper will appear in full in the Aemozrs.
Professor S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., then gave a short
account of a paper written by the late Mr. Epwarp HaLkyarbD, and
edited and revised by Mr. Epwarp Heron-ALLen and Mr. A.
Eartanp on “The Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl,
Céte des Basques, Biarritz.”
This paper will appear in full as Part II. of this volume.
Vol. leii., No. 11.
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February 5th, 1918. ] PROCEEDINGS, — 1x
Ordinary Meeting, February 5th, 1918.
The President, Mr Wit~tt1Am THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C.,
in the Chair.
Mr. G. P. VARLEY, M.Sc., and Mr. J. WILFRID JACKSON, F.G.3.,
were nominated Auditors of the Society’s accounts for the Session
1917-1918.
Professor G. E1iior SmitH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., read a paper
by Captain Leonard Munn, R.E., entitled ‘Ancient Mines and
Megaliths in Hyderabad.” A paper entitled ‘“‘The Origin
of Early Siberian Civilisation” was also read by Professor
G. Elliot Smith.
These papers will be printed in the Memoirs.
Ordinary Meeting, February tgth, 1918.
The President, Mr. Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F-.L.C.,
in the Chair.
Mr. J. Witrrip JAcKson, F.G.S., exhibited specimens of
Planorbis dilatatus (an American freshwater mollusc) recently
obtained from the Bolton Canal, near Agecroft. This was first
discovered in this canal in 1869, but apparently disappeared for
many years.
Dr. J. SruART THomMson, M.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., read a paper
entitled “‘The Occurrence of Cavernularia Lutkenii, Ko//, in
the Seas of Natal.”
This paper is printed in full in the Memozrs.
Mr. L. Srantey JAstT read a paper “On the Necessity of
a Technical Library for Manchester and District.”
Mr. Jast stated that a true library is a collection of books made
productive, and implies properly constructed catalogues, careful
selection of books, and skilled custodians.
A special library is such by virtue of the act that it covers a
limited field. This, in the case of technical books, means the useful
arts, which in these days are usually applied science.
A special collection, isolated from a general collection, loses a
good deal of its value. Technology overlaps with pure science,
with the fine arts, and with both sociology and history.
The need for a great technical collection for Manchester, with
adequate equipment and staff, is urgent.
As a nation we have persistently ignored the fact that ideas,
whether in the direction of discovery or in that of invention, are
x PROCEEDINGS. [March 5th, 1918.
not as a rule the result of practical work in the shop or laboratory.
It has been well said that “ideas come to a man, not when his
hands are full of things, but when his mind is full of thoughts,”
and in the main we get our ideas from books. The suggestion
obtained in the library may be worked out in the shop or laboratory.
Manchester should lead in that provision of technical libraries
which must form a not inconsiderable part of our equipment for.
shouldering our due share of the commerce of the world after the
war. |
Dr. F. E. Bradley, Dr. G. Hickling, Professor Hickson, Professor
W. W. Haldane Gee, and Mr. Thomson took part in the discussion
of this paper, and the following resolution was passed unanimously :—_
“That the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,
being a Society founded in 1781 for the Advancement
of Science, appeals to the Manchester City Council to
establish a Technical Library for Manchester and District,
which should contain, for easy reference, all the Technical
Works and Periodicals published throughout the world.
“An eminent member of this Society, the late Dr. Angus Smith,
said, in 1881, ‘ Manchester is rich, but without Science it
will not remain so,’ and an up-to-date Technical Library
in Manchester is urgently necessary for the full develop-
ment of Technical Science in this district.”
Ordinary Meeting, March 5th, 1918.
The President, Mr. WiILL1AM THOMSON,’ F.R.S.E., F.C.S., EF.1-C.,
in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books on the
table.
Mr EE ReEAD, MSc Mech, IIe, read a paper entitled:
““The Corrodibility of Cast Iron.”
The author pointed out that there was no intention to deal
with the electrical conditions, state of passivity, or the formation
of protective coatings of insoluble salts on the iron by the liquids
in contact with the metal. The paper dealt with the effects of the
impurities in producing during the solidification of the metal various
solutions in which the impurities were concentrated. This was
especially the case with the phosphide. The concentration depended
on the lower melting point of the solution thus formed. Attention
was also drawn to the production of graphite.
These last portions of liquid to solidify lead, by contraction
and subsidence by gravity, to the formation of cavities, crevices,
and cracks of capillary size, which in many cases communicate
March oth, 1918. | PROCEEDINGS. XI
and form channels by which the corroding liquid or gas penetrates
to the interior, and this is intensified by alternate expansion and
contraction due to heating and cooling, and by vibration. This
increase is most pronounced where the continuity of structure and
cohesion is least—z.e. at the graphite flakes. It was shown by
photo-micrographs and actual specimens of corroded material, that
the concentration occurs, and that corrosion follows these segrega-
tions and the graphite. Examples in which the graphite plate
occupied the middle of the corrosion were pointed out.
Specific instances in which the failure of cast-iron vessels was
due to the increase in volume resulting from the corrosion, and the
influence of the structure due to the segregation and coarse graphite,
were dealt with and specimens shown. Analyses and examinations
showed that the collapse of the vessels was due to these causes.
Attention was also directed to the high silicon iron now used
for chemical plant, and segregation was shown to take place to a
marked extent. The author showed that the failure in many cases
investigated was due to the presence of graphite and phosphide.
Separated pellets of phosphide taken from cavities in metal con-
taining 13.6 silicon and 0.41 phosphorus contained over 4.1 per
cent. of phosphorus and only 10.45 of silicon. These were attacked
while the silicon iron itself is but little affected. In a series of tests
it was shown that, in the same metal, the amount of phosphorus
removed by the corroding liquids employed was many times greater
than the proportion in the mass of the metal, thus showing that the
cavities and concentrations formed the line of attack, which led to
the ultimate failure of the metal.
Ordinary Meeting, March roth, 1918.
The President, Mr. WittiAm THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C.,
in the Chair.
The President referred to the death, on March rath, of Mr.
George Stephen Woolley, who was elected a member of the Society
in 1860.
Mr. Thomson exhibited two specimens of .what were repre-
sented as minerals which had been washed down from a mountain
in Angola (a province in West Africa, south of the Congo). The one
was a cube of Iron Pyrites about a cubic inch covered with a hard
layer of the proto and per oxides of iron about a quarter of an inch
in thickness. The pyrites was free from arsenic.
The other was a specimen of what I found to be metallic iron
associated with silicitum and graphite, but containing no nickel,
and which, it was suggested, might have been manufactured by
the natives, and not native iron, This might possibly be so, but
xil PROCEEDINGS. [April oth, 1918.
against this is the fact that the specimen was comparatively brittle
and could be pounded to a rough powder in an iron mortar. In
the iron manufactured by natives the temperature obtainable by
them would not be sufficiently high to reduce silica to the form of
silicium, and the iron produced by them would be presumably any-
thing but brittle. On dissolving the metallic iron in hydrochloric
acid and treating the residue with caustic soda solution, hydrogen
was liberated showing that the silicium was there in the elementary
condition, which strengthens the assumption that this iron existed
as native metallic iron.
Professor G. Eriior SmiTH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., read a paper
on ‘‘Race, Character, and Nationality.”
Professor G. Elliot Smith stated that the influences of race
and heredity, geographical circumstances and language, though
potent in various directions to affect the character and achievements
of individuals and to play a part in the development of the true
spirit of nationality in a community, are not the chief factors. The
personal experience of each individual, his social environment and
especially the traditions of his community, shape his outlook on
life, determine his character and give specific directions to his in-
herited aptitudes. The most powerful forces that mould nation-
ality and weld together a heterogeneous collection of people of
varied origin, abilities and traditions, consist of historical circum-
stances, which provide the community with common aims and
aspirations, common traditions and social fashions, common trends
of thought and modes of behaviour. Such circumstances play a
more vital part than mere race or hereditary aptitudes in the de-
velopment of the spirit of nationality.
Ordinary Meeting, April 9th, 1918.
The President, Mr. WirtLt1AM THomsoNn, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.IC.,
in the Chair.
The following resolution was passed unanimously :—* This
meeting of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society has
heard with concern that the War Office proposes to demolish the
two cottages by Stonehenge, which serve as the domiciles of the
custodian and the police constable charged with the safe-keeping
of the monument. As these are the only available cottages in the
neighbourhood, the Society feels that such action may be fraught
with perilous consequences and therefore begs leave to direct the
attention of the Secretary of State for War, to the urgent-necessity
of taking adequate steps to protect this national monument from
injury or defacement.”
Apmnil 23rd, 1918. ] ‘PROCEEDINGS. xiil
Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.M.E., M.Inst.C.E., made a short
communication on “ Long-Range Guns.”
Mr. KE. Stromeyer afterwards read a paper on “ Ancient
History : “iethe Identification of Zophyrus.”
The paper deals with the betrayal of Egypt and of Babylon
between the years of B.c. 525 to 517. Herodotus mentions both
events, but no direct reference is made to them in the Bible, although
Isaiah gives a most accurate description of the traitor. By com-
bining his hints and the accounts by Herodotus and by the prophet
Zachariah, the catastrophes of these few years are clearly revealed.
It appears that a man whom the Egyptians called Phanespand who
was a highly placed official in the auxiliary forces of Amasis, King
of Egypt, deserted to Cyrus, King of the Persians, and instructed
them how to subdue Egypt. After the death of Cyrus, Cambyses
his son, acting on his advice, with one blow at the Battle of Pelusium,
crushed Egypt out of existence. Apparently the same man, known
to Herodotus as Zophyrus, betrayed Babylon. He achieved this
object by cutting off his nose and ears, and otherwise making himself
the despised and rejected of men, deserting from the Persians to the
Babylonians, and making them believe that he was a Persian noble-
man, and that his indignities had been inflicted on him by Darius.
He thus obtained control of the Army and of the Gates, and ad-
mitted the Persians. He was rewarded by the temporary owner-
ship of Babylon, and the prophet Zachariah tells us that one year
after the fall of Babylon, Zephaniah sent gold and silver to Jerusalem.
But Zephaniah is a name which links together the other two, a
probability calculation based on the Greek alphabet, showing that
the chances are about 1000 to one that the three names are those
of the same man.
This Zephaniah, alias Phanes, alias Zophyrus, seems to have
perished in the Babylonian revolt, which occurred very soon after
the above events. Isaiah refers to the despised of men as being
*- dead.
Annual General Meeting, April 23rd, 1918.
The President, Mr. WiLL1AM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C.,
in the Chair.
The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was resolved :—
“That the Ainual Report, together with the Statement of
Accounts, be adopted, and that they be printed in the Society’s
Proceedings.”
Mr. D. Warp CUTLER and Mr. J. WILFRID JACKSON were
appointed Scrutineers of the balloting papers,
xiv PROCEEDINGS. [April 23rd, 1918.
The following members were elected Officers of the Society
and Members of the Council for the ensuing year :—
President: WiLLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S.
Vice-Presidenis: T. A. Cowarp, F.Z.S., F.E.S.; We Wwe
HALDANE »GEE, B.Sc... M.Sc.Tech, A.M.1.E/E. > Syonpwie
Hicxson, M.A., D.Sc., F-R.S.; Francis JONES, M.Sc) PVR@Suae
ECS:
Secretaries: R. L. Taytor, F.C.S., F.1.C.; GeorGr HicKrine,;
DScvG:s:
Treasurer: W. HENRY Topp.
Librarian: C. L. BARNES, M.A.
Other Members of the Council: Mary McNicoL, M.Sc. ;
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.; E. °L. RHEAD, MSc. Recheiwiees
G ELLiot SmMirn, M.A’, M.D., FRS.; PF. B. Weiss; DiSceiaese
F.L.S.; R. S. ADAMSON, B.Sc., M.A.
Ordinary Meeting, April 23rd, 1918.
The President, Mr. Witt1am THoMson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.LC.,
in the Chair. . 2
A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon
the table. These included “ The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia,”’
by W. J. Perry and “ Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early
Culture,” by J. Wilfrid Jackson.
A paper entitled *‘ Radioactivity and the Coloration of ,
Minerals,” by Dr. E. NEwsBERY and Mr. H. Lupton, B.Sc., was ~
then read.
This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
General Meeting, May 7th, 1918.
The President, Mr. WILLIAM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S.,
in the Chair.
Miss MABEL Brook, B.Sc., c/o Messrs Tootal, Broadhurst Lee
Company Ltd., 56 Oxford Street, Manchester, was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society.
May 7th, 1918.| PROCEEDINGS. - XV
Ordinary Meeting, May 7th, 1918.
The President, Mr. WILLIAM THomson, I.R.S.E., F.LC., F.C.S.,
in the Chair.
Mr. TAYLOR exhibited a notice of the meeting of the Society
held on April 2nd, 1839, which was sent to Mr Just of Bury.
Professor WeEIss exhibited a series of wools dyed with dyes
obtained from British plants. This collection, which was prepared
by Dr Plowright, is now in the possession of the Manchester Museum.
Miss M. C. Marcu, M.Sc., read a paper entitled ‘‘ The Glacial
Deposits of Manchester.”
This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.
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