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Vbggssers: 1 igaaw” ‘t hae ad bin vv 4 uLuls OL Yt bh bd oe ih ttt 48, Vem DIV ve ne PEPE Y RUE “13 3 ror q | | he MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. (MA INE OSES SE TR ME MC OURES:. Agena Instip Px fcs Y NN AUG) 191 WAH POSS / : VTOn: q | MA ge A VonuUmME LEXI GO17-18) 7 aoe MANCHESTER: 36 GEORGE STREET. 1918. NOW E, THE authors of the several papers contained in this volume are themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings which they have offered. In these particulars the Society must not be considered as in any way responsible. II. IIT. We CONTENTS. Presidential Address. By WILLIAM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., ER GAS ives cipal els ahs Ms is a Ba pp. (Issued separately, January 4th, 1918.) MEMOIRS. . The Specification of Stress. Part V. By R. F. GwytuHer, M.A. PP. (Issued separately, January 30th, 1918.) Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals. By D. WaRD CuTLER, M.A. .. Be By ae bf Bs pp. (Issued separately, April 2nd, 1918.) The Organisation of Museums and Art Galleries in Manchester. By W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. a pp. Ussued separately, April 15th, 1918.) The Dorsal Mesenteric Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pen- natulacea. By Constance M. LicHtBown, M.Sc. With it JPUGHOS me ae a A ele a aN pp. (Ussued separately, July 23rd, 1918.) . Somatose. By Witt1am TuHomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S. With 3 Graphs. .. 3 a He me at pp. (Issued separately, July 20th, 1918.) I—I4 I—IlI I—42 I—IlI I—20 I—I4 lV CONTENTS. VI. The Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl, Céte des Basques, Biarritz. By the late Epwarp HaLkyarp. Edited and re- vised by E. Herron ALLEN and A. Eartanp. With 8 Platesand 1 Map. .. StU EP devs .. pp. i—xxiv.+145 (Issued separately, 1918.) VII. The Occurrence of Cavernularia Liitkenii, Koll, in the Seas of Natal. By J. Stuart Tuomson, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. With 2 Plates and 1 Text-fig. .. Mi, ale ite pp. I-—-5 (/ssued separately, July 20th, 1918.) VIII. Regional Distribution of the Native Flora of Teneriffe. By J. H. SALTER, D.Sc. With 2 Plates. a oe 0 pp. 1I—16 ([ssued separately, August 9th, 1918.) IX. The Association of Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. By J. WILFRID Jackson, F.G.S. Wath 2 Plates. bie pp. I—1I5 (Ussued separately, August 9th, 1918.) X. Radio-activity and the Coloration of Minerals. By E. NEWBERY, D.Sc., and*°HarTLEY Lupton, B.Sc... ae Na pp. 1—16 (lssued separately, August oth, 1918.) XI. The Superficial Geology of Manchester. By MaArGAReT C. Marcu, M.Sc. With 3 Plates. is bo ds pp. I—I7 ([ssued separately, August 9th, 1918.) PROCEEDINGS (ui. Be ACO 2G eS INDEX. Vv INDEX. M= Memoirs, P= Proceedings. Accessions to Library. P. iv., vii., xiv. Allen, E. Heron. See Halkyard, E. Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad. By Captain Leonard Munn. IP), ie Annual Report. P. xiii. Art Galleries, Organisation of Museums and. By W. Boyd Dawkins. M. 3. P. iti. Association of Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. By J. Wilfrid Jackson. M. 9. P. viii. ° Auditors, Nomination of. P. ix. Bleaching Powder, Effect of Light on Solutions of. By R.L. Taylor. P. v. Blue Marl, Foraminifera from the. See Halkyard, E. Boddington, J., Gift of Picture by. P. ii. Boyd Dawkins. See Dawkins, W. Boyd. British Museum. PP. viii. Cast Iron, Corrodibility of. By E. L. Rhead. P. x. Cavernulavia Liitkentt, KOll., Occurrence of, in the Seas of Natal. By J. Stuart Thomson. M. 7. P. ix. Corrodibility of Cast Iron. By E. L. Rhead. P. x. Cutler, D. Ward. Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals. M. 2. 1D, th, ‘«Dalton collecting Marsh-Fire Gas,” Gift of Painting of. P. ii. —— John, Exhibition of Diagrams and Manuscripts relating to. P. vi. Dawkins, W. Boyd. Examples of Pre-Roman Bronze-plated Iron from the Pilgrims’ Way. P. iv. —— The Organisation of Museums and Art Galleries in Manchester. M. 3. P. iii. Dorsal Mesenteric Filaments in Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea. By Constance M. Lightbown. M. 4. P. iv. Dyes from British Plants. P. xv. Earland, A. See Halkyard, E. Effect of Light on Solutions of Bleaching Powder. By R. L. Taylor. P. v. al INDEX. Election of Officers. P. xiv. —_— Ordinary Members. P.i., ii., vi., vili., xiv. Elliot Smith. See Smith, G. Elliot. Examples of Pre-Roman Bronze-plated Iron. P. iv. Exhibition of Manuscripts, Diagrams, etc. P. vi., vil. Facetted Pebbles. See Jackson, J. W. Fossil Foraminifera. See Halkyard, E. Galena, Exhibition of a piece of Coal containing. P. viii. Geology of Manchester. See March, M. C. Glacial Deposits of Manchester. P. xv. Gwyther, R. F. Specification of Stress. Part V. M. 1. Halkyard (the late), Edward. The Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl, Cote des Basques, Biarritz. Edited and revised by E. Heron Allen and A. Earland. M. 6. P. viii. Identification of Zophyrus. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xiii. Tron Pyrites. P. xi. Jackson, J. W. Association of Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. M. 9. P. viii. ——. Exhibition of Specimen of Planorbis dilatatus. P. ix. Jast, L. Stanley. Technical Library for Manchester. P. ix. Library Accessions. P. iv., vii., xiv. Lightbown, C. M. Dorsal Mesenteric Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea. M. 4. P. iv. Long-range Guns. P. xiii. Lupton, H. See Newbery, E. March, M. C. Superficial Geology of Manchester. M.11. P. xv. Munn, Captain Leonard. Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad. P. ix. Museums, Organisation of. See Dawkins, W. Boyd. Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals. By D. Ward Cutler. M. 2. P. in. Newbery, E., and Lupton, H. MRadio-activity and the Coloration of Minerals. IML, Ty 1B any Occurrence of Cavernularia Liithenii, KOll., in the Seas of Natal. By J. Stuart Thomson. , M. 7. P. ix. Organisation of Museums and Art Galleries. See Dawkins, W. Boyd. INDEX. vil Parthenogenesis. See Cutler, D. Ward. Planorbis dilatatus. P. ix. Pre-Roman Bronze-plated Iron. P. iv. Presidential Address. P. 1. Race, Character and Nationality. By G. Elliot Smith. P. xii. Radio-activity and the Coloration of Minerals. By E. Newbery and H Lupton. M. ro. P. xiv. : Regional Distribution of the Flora of Teneriffe. By J. H. Salter. M. 8. 12 Ife Rhead, E. L. Corrodibility of Cast Iron. P. x. Salter, J. H. Regional Distribution of the Native Flora of Teneriffe. M. 8. 12), ihe Siberian Civilisation. See Smith, G. Elliot. Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea. See Lightbown, C. M. Smith, G. Elliot. Origin of Early Siberian Civilisation. P. ix. —— Race, Character, Nationality. P. xii. Somatose. By William Thomson. M. 5. P. viii. Specification of Stress. Part V. By R. F. Gwyther. M. 1. Stonehenge Cottages. P. xil. Stress, Specification of. See Gwyther, R. F. Stromeyer, C. E. Identification of Zophyrus. P. xiii. —— Long-range Guns. P. xiii. Sturgeon, William, Exhibition of Manuscripts relating to. P. vi., vii. Superficial Geology of Manchester. By M.C. March. M.1rr. P. xv. Taylor, R.L. The Effect of Light on Solutions of Bleaching Powder. P. v. Technical Library. P. ix., x. Thomson, J. S. Occurrence of Cavernularia Liithentt, KOll. M. 7. P. ix. Thomson, W. Minerals from Angola. P. xi. Presidential Address. P. 1. ——— Somatose. M. 5. P. viii. Weiss, F. E. Exhibition of Wools dyed with Dyes obtained from British Plants. P. xv. Woolley, G. S., Reference to Death of. P. xi. Zophyrus, Identification of. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xiii. a oii, No ee MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, 1917-1918. CONTENTS. Presidential Address. By William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.1.C.,F.C.S. pp. 1—14 (Issued separately January ath, 1918.) Memoirs : I.—The Specification of Stress, Part V. By R. F. Gwyther, M.A. pp. 1—11 (Issued separately January z0th, 1918.) II.—Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals. By D. Ward Cutler, M.A. ‘ é At ... pp. I—42 ({ssued separately April ee 1918. es I1I].—The Organisation of Museums and Art Galleries in Manchester. By W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Nai ... pp. I—II (Ussued separately April 15th, 1G18.) IV.—The Dorsal Mesenteric Filaments in the Siphonozocids of Pennatulacea. By Constance M. cea ih M.Sc. With « Plate a , é ... pp. I—2o (Issued By at jy ep Fa ) V.—Somatose. By William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S. With 3 Graphs ae ‘ ... pp. I—14 (Issued (aay vee ae ae * VI.—The Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl, Cote des Basques, Biarritz, by the late Edward Halkyard. Edited and revised by E. Heron Allen and A. Farland. VII.—The Occurrence of Cavernularia Liitkenii, KGll, in the Seas of Natal. By J. Stuart Thomson, M.Sc., Ph. EBs F.R.S.E. With 2 Plates and rt Text-jig. eee 4 ss se Bee oy oN Go ERD), Ussued separately July 20th, ea POCO i... ee ee i Ope Sala * This monograph will appear as Vol. 62, Part IT. "MANCHESTER: 36, GEORGE STREET. Price Seven Shillinos and Sixnence Manchester Memoirs, Vol. txiz. (1917) PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By THE PRESIDENT, WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S. October and, 1977. I thank you for the great honour you have conferred upon me by electing me as President of this important and _ historic society, and I propose in my address to try to briefly recapitu- late its history, and to dwell on the extraordinary importance of the work which has been done in it: work which has created “two of the most important of the Sciences, viz., Chemistry and Engineering, and which to-day form the foundations of the work in these Sciences in every country in the world. The labours of Dalton and Joule have rendered their names immortal and have added lustre to the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, with which they were both so closely associated. iT‘hese, however, form only a part of the classical work which has emanated from the Society. Thhe date of the foundation of the Society is given as 1781 (136 years ago), but according to Dr. Angus Smith’it was closely associated with those who were educated in’ or connected with the Warrington Academy, which was founded 24 years earlier (about the year 1757). The Warrington Academy was founded by a small body of religionists, and was one! of the’ first teaching institutions of the day. _/When the Warrington Academy was (dis- solved, it was virtually continued in Manchester as “ The Man- chester Academy.” It had many eminent men as teachers. among whom may be mentioned Jaen Paul Marat, who was believed by some to be the great French revolutionist who was put to death by Charlotte Corday. Marat spent eleven years of his life in England about the fime of the Warrington Academy, and it is belteved that he taught languages there. He published “Essay on Man” in London in 1773, and received his Court appointment in France, 1777. He is ‘beeveld to have been in practice as a well-known doctor in London in 1776. Joseph Priestley came to the Warrington Academy in 1761 as a teacher of languages and Belles Lettres, and was subse- quently a member of this Society (elected 21st October, 1791!).. ‘At the Warrington Academy he was induced to take an interest in Science, and soon afterwards published a paper on “A History of Electricity.” At that time it seemed questionable whether Warrington or Manchester would prove to be the more important 2 THOMSON, Preszdential Address. of the two towns. The word Oxygen was unknown ; the name which was used ‘for| it and other elements was “ dephlogistigated air.” At this time Priestley was resident in Warrington, and he it was who discovered Oxygen on the 1st of August, 1774, a discovery which enabled Lavoisier to put forward! the true he of Combustion. Lavoisier was elected an Honorary Member! of this Society on the 2nd April, 1783. One of the first Presidents of this Society and the founder of it was Dr. Thomas Percival, who was a pupil and friend of Priestley, and who became an eminent physician in practice in Manchester. The first meetings of the Society were held at his house, where meteorology, the sun, moon, and the weather were frequently discussed. I can remember a hundred years later. when Mir. Binney and Mr. Baxendall were factive members, that ffhese topics formed frequent subjects of discussion. Some idea of the aims of the Society may be gathered from a resolution which was passed in' its early days: “ That a Gold Medal value seven guineas be given to the author of the best experimental paper ‘on any subject relative to Arts and Manu- factures read at the ordinary meeting's before the last Wednesday in March, 1786. Under the heading of “ Regulations ” iof that time, the follow- ing occurs, which may be ttaken as a useful suggestion to the members of to-day :— Regulation V//.—TYhe regular attendance of members being essential to the prosperity and usefulness of the Institu- tion, that if any member shall absent himself during the space of three months from the meetings of the Society, notice shall be sent to him at a quarterly meeting that the Society con- siders his absence as a, mark of disrespect, and that a more punctual observance of the laws is expected from him. and also the following :— Regulation VI//.—TYo encourage the exertions of young men who attend the meetings jf thle Society as visttors, that a Silver Medal, not exceeding! thle value of two guineas, be given annually to any one or them under the age of twenty- one years, who shall, within the year, have furnished the Society with the best paper on any ‘subject of literature or philosophy, and that such adjudication shall be made by the Committee of Papers. The Society was to consist of fifty members, all of whom had to be distinguished by literary or philosophical publications. Manchester at this time, and mainly through the influence of this Society, drew public attention to Sanitary matters and influenced the formation of a Board of Health in 1796. A letter addressed by Dr. Haygarth, of Chester, to Dr. Percival, of bt. _ Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxit. (1917) y ‘Manchester, published in the| Transactions of the Society is of interest at the present time, in which it says :-— During this war (1796) many new-raised regiments coming from Ireland with numerous recruits taken out of jails re- mained in Chester for a few weeks after ‘their voyage, were ill of putrid fever. It was decided to put them together in special hospitals. Some authorities doubted the wisdom of this, thinking it would have the effect of spreading the disease (throughout the town, but the wisdom propounded at the time in [Manchester pre- vailed, and the value of Isolation ‘Hospitals has been established. Tobacco smoking is also advocated as a disinfectant and pre- ventive against fever. The purity of the atmosphere was then (1796) much discussed. Dr. Percival regarded with great un- easiness the fact that no less tham 300 ‘tons fof coal were burned in Manchester per day—go0,oo0 tons) per annum. One can imagine his astonishment if he had lived to-day to know that somewhere in the region of 5,000,000 tons of coal are burned in Manchester per annum. Dir. Percival commenced his sanitary work in 1773, and’ pub- lished proposals for the establishment of a judicious and accurate register of the births and deaths in every town and parish. He says in| Stoke Damerel, in Devonshire, 1 person in 54 died annually; in Vienna and Edinburgh, 1 in 20; in London, ia 20 The first President of the Society was (Mr. James Massey, a man of wealth ‘and ‘a philanthropist, along with Peter Main- waring, M.D., and the first Secretaries were ‘Thomas Henry and George Bew. During the second year of the Society James Massey and Thomas Percival, M.D., were Presidents, and they continued together in that capacity from 1782 till 1787. Then James Massey alone was President from 1787 ‘till 1789, followed by Dr. Percival from 1790 till 1804. A: marble tablet’ is inserted in the wall of the Society’s room) behind ‘the President’s chair in his memory, and his portrait, presented by Mr. F. Nicholson, hangs on the same wall) The name Percival survived in the _ grandson of Dr. Percival as Sir Percival Heywood (1881), whose grandfather married a daughter of Dr. Percival. The ‘first volume of the Society's Memoirs was published in 1785 and was dedicated “ by permission to the King.” A short summary of some of the papers appearing %n these memoirs may be of interest. Dr. Bell read a paper 16th May, 1781, entitled: “ Some remarks on the opinion that the animal body possesses the power of generating cold.” This referred to the 4 THOMSON, Prescdentzal Address. fact that some men had remained in a room, the temperature of the air of which wa's far above that of the human blood for half an hour, the heat of their bodies did not increase more than three lor four degrees. Another paper appears by the Rev. Samuel Hall, M.A., on “An jattempt to show that the beauties of nature and the fine arts lhas no influence favourable to morals.” This was a reply to ia paper read before the Society by ‘Dr. Percival. Dr. Peter Mainwaring, one of the first Presidents, was an eminent physician in Manchester, who presented to the Royal Infirmary a collection of books, and book cases, which formed the mucleus (of the present library. He was elected) a member of the ‘Society in 1781, and died at the age of 91 in the year 1785. In 1773, it may be noted, that the inhabitants of Manchester and Salford numbered 19,839; to-day they are about fifty times that number. Dr. William Henry, F.R.S., was elected a member of this Society on the 29th April, 1796. He was assistant to Dr. Per- cival. He was engaged at the Manchester Infirmary under Dr. Farrier, another famous physician, and is perhaps best known as having introduced calcined magnesia as a medicine, which is still known as “ Henry’s magnesia.”’ Dr. Alexander Eason was born in 1735, and became a member of the Society about 1781. He was a member of the medical staff of the Infirmary. He lved in Lever (Street, Piccadilly. It 1s recorded that jhe bought the house and grounds for £800, which 80 years later produced an income of £1,600 per annum. A tablet was erected to his memory in the Man- chester Cathedral, contributed by penny subscriptions from the poor. He met with an accident through the stumbling of his horse whilst on his way to visit a patient, Miss Yates, aunt to Sir Robert Peel, which caused his death at the age of 61. John Massey was elected a member in 1781 (and was one of the first presidents, already mentioned). He read a quaint paper before the Society on the “ Manufacture of Salt-Petre from the decomposition of dung heaps when mixed with wood ashes.” Charles White, F.R.S., author of “ Gradation in Man,” a famous surgeon, was one of ‘the first Vice-Presidents. He followed his father, Dr. Thomas ‘White, and was a fellow student and friend of John Hunter. There us a letter published from his son, Mir. Thomas White—also a Medical man—dated Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) 5 Paris, 29th July, 1784, in which he describes a, visit he paid to the subterraneous caverns at Paris, commonly called ‘“ The Quarries,” which, according to his description, appeared like an underground city, the streets being formed by the removal of rock in long lines. The stone for building overhead was re- moved to a depth of 360 feet anid) for abiout two miles. ‘These quarries were kept secret in Paris. They were commenced by Louis XIV. in 1667. Mr. Thomas White says all the Faubourg St. Jacques, Rue de la) Harpe, and Rue de Tournon stand over these ancient quarries, supported by pillars and arches, and on escasions some parts of the surface have collapsed. I may allude in passing to other members of this Society. The Rev. Dr. Thomas Barnes, F.R.S., elected 1781, Minister of the Unitarian iChapel in Cross Street for 31 years, succeeded .by the Rev. John Robberds, elected a member in 1811, who was succeeded .by the Rev. William Gaskell, elected 1840, better known perhaps as the husband of Mrs. Gaskell. , The Rev. George Walker, F.R.S., elected 1782, followed Dr. Percival as President in 1805. He was Mathematical Teacher at the Warrington Academy in 1772, and subsequently teacher of mathematics at Durham, at a salary of little more than £40 a year, which owing to the poverty of the institution . was not paid in full. Thomas Walker, elected 1790, was President of the )Man- chester Constitutional Society. He, in that capacity, communi- cated with the Patriotic Societies in France for estiablishing correspondence with ‘the Manchester Society for the good bof humanity. These ‘proceedings attracted the attention of Mr. Burke. who, in his speech in the Hiouse of Commons, April 30th, 1792, denounced Thomas Cooper and Thomas Walker as con- sorting with [traitors and regicides in the Club’ of the Jacobins in Paris. Walker’s house in South Parade, \St. Mary’s Parsonage, was attacked Iby the mob and he fired ion them. He was tried with others at Lancaster qn a change of having conspired/ ‘to overthrow the Constitution and assist the French in their threatened attack on this island. He was acquitted, and trium- phantly returned to Manchester on the 3rd-March, 1794. Mr. Hutchinson, elected 1801, was Dock-master at Liverpool, and wrote chiefly on meteorological subjects. One of his papers is entitled ‘‘ Meteorological Observations from 1768 to 1793.” John Dalton, elected 1794, was President of the Society from 1817 till 1844, during 27 years. Im 1795 comes his first paper, “An Essay ion thle \Vision of Colours.” Then follow papers on 6 THOMSON, Preszdential Address. “ Evaporation and Springs,” “The Power of Fluids to Conduct Heat,” “ Experiments and Observations on Heat and Cold Pro- duced by ‘Mechanical Condensation and Rarefaction of Air,” “ Experimental Essays on the Constitution of Mixed (Gases,” and “ Meteorological Observations made at Manchester.” John Dalton was born at Eaglesfield, in Cumberland, 5th September, 1766. His father was a weaver of woollens in his own cottage. He was taught at a school \of the Society of Friends, to which the family belonged. So quickly did he acquire knowledge that he was appointed at the age of 12 to conduct the school gt which he had been as a scholar. At 14 he went to Kendal as assistant in the school of his cousin. His first attempts at writing were sent to Zhe Gentlemen's Magazine, and he received prizes for the best answers to the mathematical and othier questions propounded in that periodical. When in Kendal he made the acquaintance of Mr. Gouch, an eminent scientist, although blind from birth. Through his influence he ‘obtained in 1793 the posi- tion of Teacher of Mathematics and Physics in the New College, Manchester (which was a continuation of the Warrington Academy), and afterwards he spent the greater portion of his life in the service of this Society. As soon as his great abilities were recognised he was appointed Secretary of the Society with his laboratory in ‘the present building. He afterwards was appointed President, and for ‘about forty years, till his death, he was the sole manager of the Society’s affairs. In his examination of the mode of analysing air he dis- covered that in using nitric-oxide to absorb oxygen it required 72 measures to absorb the oxygen from 100 measures of air; and if he used more than that of nitric-oxide, or more of air, he got an excess of one or the other. This led him to the consideration of definite quantities of elements or compounds uniting with each other, and fhlé argued that if a pound weight of one material, combined with a pound weight of another, that half a pound would combine with half a pound, and so that this relative proportion would continue to the smallest conceivable weights. This gave him ithe idea of the Atomic Theory; .He then represented tthese by ‘balls, assuming a hydrogen ball to be black and an oxygen ball white; then water would be represented by one black ball joined to one white ball, and no half ball can be used and tno confusion of fractions. This was found to suit all the known facts in chemistry. If (the quantity of water weighs 9, the hydrogen would weigh 1 and the oxygen 8. The Atomic Weight of hydrogen was therefore taken as unity, and the oxygen as 8, and the balls always represented these relative weights, and the chemical combinations always took place in these definite weights for each element. Thus Iron was found to be 28, and in combining with oxygen! it took up 8 parts or multiples of 8, Manchester Memozrs, Vol. txt. (1917) 7 and thus the atomic theory took root, and on it now hangs all the fruit of chemical science. In 1833 a pension of £150 was conferred on Dalton by the Government, afterwards increased to £300. He lived in comparative poverty most of ‘his life. Dalton was colour-blind. He was a rather tall and powerful man. He remained a bachelor all his life. He died 27th July, 1844, aged 78 years. In passing, I might incidentally mention other papers which appear in the Memoirs of the Society. Dr. Anderson (the founder of the Andersonian University of Glasgow) contributes a paper on “A Universal Written Character,” which calls to mind the work of Alexander Mel- ville Bell, of Edinburgh, on ‘“ Visible Speech,” and of his illus- trious son Graham Bell, who gave us the telephone and the photophone. In 1801 Thomas Hoyle, Junior (originator of the famous print works of that name), gives a papler on “ The Oxygenated Muriate of Potash” (the potassium chlorate of to-day). In 1790 James Watt, Junior; son of the great James Watt of steam engine fame, was ‘Secretary of this Society along with Dr. Ferriar. He was elected. 17809. Reference may here be made to John Kennedy, who came to Manchester from Scotland, was elected in 1803, and re- mained a member until his (death in 1855. From 1822 his house was a prominent one, standing on the south side Jjof Ardwick Green. He was a maker of cotton spinning machinery, and the first cotton spinner whose works ‘were driven by steam power. He invented the differential motion in the Jack frame. His daughter married Edwin Chadwick, C.B., the father of sanitary reform, who was born in this dis- trict. Peter Ewart, lelected 1798, bridged over the time from Percival and the early founders till 1835. He was born at Troquair Manse, Dumfriesshire, on March 14th, 1767. One of his brothers was British’ Minister at the Court of ‘Berlin. Peter Ewart became a partner with Mr Oldknow, of Stock- port, the original fabricator of muslins in this country. He read a paper before the Society on “ The Measure of Moving Force,” in which he discusses whether, according to some authorities, the measure of moviny torce was the mass multi- plied simply by the velocity or, according to others, by the square of the velocity. Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., F.R.S., is the best known of the engineers who have adorned tthis Society. He was born at 8 THOMSON, Preszdentzal Address. Kelso, in Roxburghshire, 1789. Elected to this Society 1824. He was imperfectly educated in his youth. His father was a farm bailiff. Fairbairn worked at various mechanical places in England, and finally settled in Manchester, without either capital or connections, im 1817. He published papers on the strengths of materials, which were of great value, and con- structed along with Robert Stephenson, assisted by the calcu- lating genius of Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., the celebrated Britannia and Conway tubular, bridges. Fairbairn was Presi- dent of this Society from 1855 till 1860. He died at Moor Park, Surrey, 18th August, 1874, aged 85 years. Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., was born at Anderton, near Northwich, Cheshire, 26th February, 1789, and died 18th June, t861, aged 72. ‘He was elected a member of this Society 1820, and acted as President from 1848 till 1851. He was Professor of the Mechanical Principles of Engineering in University College, London. His scientific labours consisted chiefly in making several long and elaborate series of experi- ments on the strength of materials used in construction, chiefly timber and iron. John Frederick Bateman, F.R.S., son-in-law of Sir William Fairbairn, was elected 1840. He was engineer to some of the greatest waterworks in ‘the world, that of Manchester, to which the water is brought from Woodhead, and that of Glasgow, to which the supply comes from Loch Katrine. in 1881 he was engaged on the Thirlmere scheme. Sir John Hawkshaw, another eminent water engineer, elected 1839, was still a member of the Society in 1881, when he left Manchester. William Sturgeon, the celebrated electrician, born at Whit- tington, Lancaster, in 1783, spent his time from 1838 till his death (8th December, 1850) in close relations with this Society. He was elected a member in 1844. To keep his father—a clever man, but an tdle shoemaker—poaching fish and rearing gamecocks, when starving the family, was the painful work of young Sturgeon. He quitted shoemaking to enlist in the Westmoreland Militia, afterwards served twenty years in tthe Royal Artillery, and subsequently obtained the appointment cof Teacher of Natural Philosophy in the East India Com- pany’s Military College in Addiscombe. Whilst serving in the Artillery his attention was awakened and his curiosity quickened by the phenomena of a terriffic thunderstorm, and this set him to the study of electricity. He /began the study of Mathematics, Latin and Greek, and French, German, and I'talian, which fhe read with considerable facility. No man contributed a greater Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) 9 number of isolated discoveries of equal value and importance, or left behind him a greater number of instruments for others to work with. He contributed fifty papers to this Society. He was Superintendent of the Victoria Gallery of Practical Science. This was discontinued owing to the pressure of the tumes, and he was deprived of any means of subsistence. After struggling with difficulties which would have weighled most men down, he was at length, through the intercession of Mr. Binney, another member of thle Society, and other friends, placed by Lord John Russell on the Ciwi List for a pension of £50 per annum. He died within. two years afterwards, leaving a wife -and daughter unprovided for. Thus wretchedly did the Govern- ment at that time value the scientific achievements of such men of genius who did so much. for the material welfare of the country. Mr. Sturgeon, it fis said, was above the average height; “his open brow and upright carriage conveyed the impression of integrity of character, an impression which wis deepened by personal acquaintance.” In 1845 the Society appointed a (Committee of its Members: John Thom (of Chorley), James Young, F.R.S. (of Paraffin Oil fame), and John Moore, the then President, to report on the potato disease which was at that time prevalent. They found that treatment of the potatoes in bulk with the fumes of burn- ing sulphur was the most effective preventive. Joseph Chesborough Dyer, V.-P. jof ithis Society, elected 1818, was born in Connecticut, ‘U.S.A., 17th November, 1780, and died at Manchester, 3rd May, 1871, aged 92. He claimed to be ain English subject, as the date of his birth preceded the War of Independence. He was in New London during its bombard- ment and burning by the English Fleet under the command of Benedict Arnold. He and his men protested against the bombardment of an open town, but they had to obey the higher command. Boarded, when at school, with Mr. Sands, a watchmaker, he became enamoured lof mechanics. As a bioy, his father toiok him to Wickford, U.S.A., to enjoy boating and fishing. Here he constructed an unsinkable lifeboat. He in- vented fur-shearing and nail-making) machinery. In 1825 he, with Darnforth, invented the yoving frame; in 1811 ‘the carding. engine. At this time he was in communication with Robert Fulton, the inventor of the successful steamboat in America. The miserable event known as the “ Peterloo Massacre ” roused him to the abuses of the time. In 1830 he, with others, took the contributions of Man- i0 THOMSON, Presidential Address. chester to Paris for the relief of the wounded in the Revolution of July of that year, and to congratulate Louis Philippe on his election to the throne, and as Chairman of the Reform League, he arranged public meetings in large towns in favour of the British Government recognising Louis Philippe, which influenced it in rejecting the overtures of Russia and Prussia to make a joint war to restore Charles X. In 1832 he estab- lished machine-making works at Gamaches, Somme, France: These were destroyed in the revolution, by which he lost £126,000. : He established the Bank of Manchester, which ended in disaster, and thereby he lost £96,000. He aided in the estab- lishment of the Manchester Royal Institution and the Man- chester Mechanics’ Institute. In conjunction with Edwin \Baxter, John Shuttleworth, J. B. Smith, M.P., and others, Mr. Dyer took the first step for founding a newspaper in Manchester to support the cause of enlightened Liberalism. The Manchester Guardian was the result, the management, literary and commercial, being in- trusted tio John Edward Taylor and Jeremiah Garnett. He was also active in founding the Manchester, Liverpool, and District Bank, which, falling into better’ hands, was more for- tunate than the Bank of Manchester In 1839 Mr. Dyer built Moldeth Hall (now used as a (home for incurables). Richard Roberts, elected 1823, was a constant attendant at the Council Meetings of the Society for’ many years. He was born at Carreghova, in North Wales, 1789, died in London, 1864, aged 75 years. He had exhausted his funds in constant experiments, and died a poor man. As a youth he worked in mines and stone quarries and dragged canal boats. Acci- dent gave him an opportunity, of working with a pole lathe, and he made for his mother a spinning wheel, a feat so re- markable for a boy who never was at school, that a sub- scription was got up for him to give him a tool chest. He became a member of the great firm of Sharp, Roberts, and Co., and during his life produced 300 inventions, the best known being the self-acting mule. He invented the slide lathe, the slotting machine with automatic motion, and the planing machine. He constructed the blockade runner “ Flora,” and other vessels, and at one time| made turret clocks. He was consulted by Napoleon III. about turret ships, and the Emperor Nicholas invited him to take up his residence in St. Petersburg. Dr. James Prescott Joule, F.R.S., elected a member of the . Manchester Memoirs, Vol. txtz. (1917) iit Society 1842, followed Fairbairn as President during 1860 and 1861. He was again elected during 1868-9, 1872-3, and 1878-9. He was born at Salford, 24th December, 1818; educated by private tuition. At the age of sixteen he became the pupil of Dalton in Chemistry and Natural Philosophy. Between 1837 and 1854 he attended closely to the business of his father’s ‘brewery, his leisure being spent in scientific research. In 1843 he was engaged in the study of the effect of heat on gases, which proved that the relation between work and heat is definite and invariable, which he termed “The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.” From 1843 to #849 he continued to work to determine the equivalent with precision, and finally ascer- tained that one unit of heat, 7.¢., the heat required to raise jone pound of water through 1° Fahr,, was capable, when converted into work, of raising 772 lbs. through a ‘distance of one foot. It has been named “ Joule’s Equivalent,’ and is unquestionably the most important constant quantity in Molecular Physics, and has furnished the basis of calculation fior all mechanical energy. Dr. Edward Schunck, F.R.S., was born in Manchester 1820; elected 1842; President,1878-9. Acted as Secretary from 1855 till 1860. He did much work in connection with colours, and gave valuable contributions as regards the green ‘colouring matter of plants. He demonstrated that the coal tar base, Anthracene, was chemically closely allied to the Alizarine of the Madder root, and pointed out that ‘it should be possible to convert the oneinto thle other. Twenty years later, Graebe and Liebermann in Germany, and W. H. Perkin in England, achieved the result by different processes, the patent by the former being taken out twenty-four hours before the latter in England. He died at Kersal on 13th January, 1903, aged 83. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., elected 1842, became President 1862-3, again during 1876-7, and, lastly, 1880, till his death in the following year. He was born at Morton, in Nottinghamshire, in 1812, and died 19th December, 1881, aged 69. He did much valuable geological work, and was asso- ciated with Dr. James Young, F.R.S., in the development of the Paraffin Oil Industry in |Scotland. He contributed 146 papers tto the Society. He conceived the idea fof enlarging the Society’s House in George Street, but died before it was carried out. Nothing: was done until the year 1883, and during this and the following two years about £2,000 was raised by subscription, handsome donations having been given by Dr. Henry Wilde, Sir Henry E. Roscoe, Dr. James Yiooung, F.R.S. (of Glasgow), Dr Ludwig Mond, F.R.S,, Mr Hi. D. Pochin, Dr. William Charles Henry, Dr. Angus Smith, Mr. Charles J. Heywood, 12 THOMSON, Prestdentzal Address. Mr. Andrew Knowles, Dr. Schunck, and others. The improve- ments consisted in the buildings of Tbraries and other rooms over the first-floor rooms and! making ‘extensions and improve- ments at the back and front of the building. Finally, wei are indebted to the generosity, of ome of our most illustrious members—Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S., for an ‘endowment of £8,265, the interest of which is at present employed for the purposes of the Society. Dr. Roblert Angus Smith, F.R.S., elected 1845, was Presi- dent of the Society 1864-5. He was born at Glasgow, 15th February, 1817, and died at Manchester, 1884, at the age of 67. He was the first chief tnspector under the Alkah Act, which became, under his judicious administration, a great success. He was much interested in. tthe impurities of the Man- chester atmosphere. He wrote in 1881 “A Centenary of Science in Manchester,” in the prieface of which he says: “ The Literary and Philosophical Society has made Manchester a scientific centre for a whole century, and has done much tto dispose it to seek a University and given it a right to demand one—a right which has been conceded.” He further remarks a propos of his appeal to the public for a fund for extending the building; jof the Society’s rooms :— ‘Manchester is rich, but without science’ it will not remain so.” There are about eighty copies of this work left in the Society’s possession. It is an exceedingly interesting volume, some of the members, or lothers, may desire to possess a copy: such can be obtained through the Secretary. William Crawford Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., elected 1851, was President 1884-5. Hea-was born at Scarborough, 24th November, 1816, and died at 43, Elms Road, Clapham, 23rd June, 1895, aged 79 years. Professor of Botany at the Owens College. . His first paper to the Society was given in 1836, on “ The Distribution of Organic Remains in the Oolitic Formations on the Coast of Yorkshire.” , ' Between that date and 1895 he contributed seventy-one papers to the Society, chiefly on Palzeontology, the most im- portant being in connection with the fossil-fauna and flora of the coal measures. Joseph Baxendell, F.R.S., F.R:A.S., elected’ 1858) the As= tronomer, of Southport, was Joint Secretary for many years, from 1861 ito 1873 with Professor Dr. Henry E. Roscoe, and from 1874 till 1880 with Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A., Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxzz. (1917) 13 F.R.S. He was ‘born at Bank 'Top, Manchester woth ;April, 1815; died at Southport, 7th October, 1887, aged 72. Miemiche ton Sir Eenry” Et) Roscoe) PC. BA. LED. F.R.S,, etc., Professor of Chemistry at the Owens College, elected 1858, became President 1882-3. He was born in 1833 at Lon- don; died 18th December, 1915, aged 82. ' He did much valuable chemical work, amongst whiich may be mentioned Spectroscopic Analysis, which he studied junder Bunsen. He discovered the true atomic weight of Vanadium. Osborne Reynolds, ‘LL.D., M.A., F.R.S,,; M.Inst.C.E., Pro- fessor of Engineering at the Owens College, Manchester, elected 1869, President 1888-9, was one of the Hon. Secre- taries for many years. Born at Belfast, 23rd ‘August, 1842; died at Wattchet, Somerset, 21st February, 1912, aged 7o. He contributed sixty-three Memoirs to the Society, chiefly on physical phenomena, such as “Various forms of Vortex Motion,” “The Shattering of a post struck by lightning,” etc. He showed an interesting experiment suggested by the sand on the sea shore becoming) excessively wet when standing on it. He filled an indiarubber bag ‘with wet sand, to which was attached a tube, and showed that when thle bag was squeezed the water rushed into! it through the tuble from a glass vessel, and when the pressure was fremoved the water rushed out. Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S\,, was elected 1859. He has made important discoveries and inventions) in the region of elec- tricity, and has propounded a theory in which he compares the infinitely minute ions, of which thie atoms of elements are com- posed, to the sun and planets. The relative figures which he has calculated between the motions and weights of the infinitely large, as compared with those which constitute the infinitely small, are very remarkable, and have certainly opened, a great field for future thought and speculation, which may in the future result in the discovery of another great law, like those with which we associate the names iof Dalton and Joule. Dr. Angus Smith has published a very important paper, which, taken .with' that of Dr. Wilde’s, may lead to im- portant results in connection witth thle atomic theory. It refers to the relative absorbing power of charcoal for various elemen- tary and compound gases. Thus he found that charcoal absorbs eight times the volume of oxygen which it does of hydrogen, and as the specific gravity of oxygen is sixteen times greater than hydrogen, it absorbs 16x 8, or 128 times the weight of hydrogen. With carbon-dioxide it absorbs 22-05 volumes, or half the molecular weight number in volumes. Here we have 14 THOMSON, Preszdential Address. fields for new and epochimaking discoveries, and I trust that in the years to come the Society will be as frujtful in such, as it has been in the past. At present there are about 150 members, and it would be very satisfactory at the present tyme, when Science and scien- tific investigations have become recognised to’ a ‘much greater degree than heretofore, that we should induce some of our leading manufacturers and merchants to support this Society by becoming members, and so aid in ‘sustajning the vigour of the lon'g and illustrious career of this historic imstitution. In this brief sketch of thle progress of the Society, which I have contrived to give within an hour, 1 have reluctantly found it necessary to leave out! the names of many eminent men who were members, who have passed away, as {well as of those who are still members with us, and who have so greatly helped to uphold the prestige of the Manchester Literary and gue Society. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti, (1917) Wo. 1 I. The Specification of Stress. Part V. By R. F. GwyTHER, M.A. (Received and read May Sth, 1917.) ON THE FORMAL SOLUTION OF THE ELASTIC STRESS EQUATIONS. There is little gained by introducing the bodily forces, which will be supposed to be conservative. It is also intended that .“ re- sistances to acceleration ” should be included among “ forces”’ in cases of motion and these will be different in different problems. I shall therefore leave the forces to be supplied as required; in other words, I omit “ particular integrals,’ and deal with “ com- plimentary functions” only. Solutions will only be of real imterest when they are shown to satisfy the surface traction conditions of a special problem, but the knowledge of a general formal solution may lead to the solution of particular cases, and in any case the possibility of such a proceeding is necessary to my argument. The set of equations with which I propose to deal are: 2m 3m — 1 a Vit eae with two similar equations, ey pa) wena P+Q+R)=0, Sy a Ona with two similar equations . . »~ . . (1), and Ae Cee aye Oy si Ms OO Ae (oye We therefore Have, in the first instance, SPS i x (P+ Q+ #)=6, Ox Ope Ye (P+ Q+R)=6, be ne Bl Ot Ran HW) (NB m Ne Ol) a ae es J (P+ Q+ Rk)=6;, Peet ax ee @, 2 GwyTHER, Sfecification of Stress. (Gf PHINEAS 68 en JP de — i vee = a ” gy eget Ct eee where Vv ?@=0, &c., (779 — 0, Se" 0 Se From these we ‘deduce Pi Oe 4) CELIA ek Sa ONC pe R Q 371 — 2H ae pe sz J ec) =O+ 040 ca I shall suppose tthat all the functions are arranged in homo geneous groups, and shall proceed with the homogeneous groups of order 7. We shall then have ( (7+ 3)m—n)(P+Q+R),=(3m—n)(O+6+W), . (5), and V1 6 (r+ 3)m —n . we eee Osos mM (7+ 3)m— 2 £,=6,= r oe (O+@+W)),, Te np ENE TDG) Ness Sty (7+ 3)m—n 82 eye Mt m ( 8 ,» | + oan oe 2( (7+ 37) — 2) ae me oy Ot ea gas m eee) +6+W),, ha 2((r+3)m—m)\ §x * 32 Ot ane OC, = yw, ies MM ) ) (7+ 3) — aN + 1S NOtb+W),. (6). % oy The components of the force per unit volume in the direc- tions of the. axes are found on simplification to become 80/1, SEs 8) 1 (age °(94+6+W),, 6x oy 4 Sb, | OW, 30%, 2((r+3)m—n) 3x (7+ 3)m 5 (644), Sy 8x 8s 2((r+3)m—x2) Sy 00, Pt Dig yey ay,, 82 hy BKC (7 +3)m—2) 82 and equated to the proper expression for the particular term in the expression for the force these give the relations between the arbitrary functions. We may take Pn bX Gi = aU rua 67” av8z 86x Sxdy | where A, ps, », are arbitrary spherical harmonic functions, and then express 0, &, ¥ in terms of A, « and »y on the lines of Airy’s solution, \ Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit, (1917) Wo. 1 3 A THEORY OF THE DISPLACEMENTS OF THE MATERIAL BODIES AS A CONSEQUENCE OF STRESS. In this final portion of the paper I hope to be able to explain the proposal I wish to put forward of a method of treating questions of the stress and displacement in an elastic body. It has been with the object of justifying a method of this kind that I have written the several parts of the paper, but the details of the scheme and its practical application have developed themselves in the course of the work, and it would have been better if this latter portion had been ready first. To ‘explain my proposals, I shall commence with the remark which is, I think, obvious: That a material body can only be free from stress between its component particles when each such particle is moving freely under such system of forces as the particles are subject to; and that this is the case whether the body be rigid or yielding. If a beam is at rest, supported in any mode under gravity, the material of the beam is in a state of stress, and if the beam is swinging about an axis under gravity, the material is in a state of jstress, which in this case varies not only with the position of the particle considered, but also with the time. ‘My proposal is intended to be applicable to cases of motion as jwell as to cases of rest. Wie are to deal first’ with the hypo- thesis of rigidity, and accordingly I shall assume that questions of the Statics and Dynamics of the rigid biody do not enter into the present enquiry. In fact, I shall proceed not only as if ‘such questions were solvable, but as if they had been actually solved. We will treat the number of elements of a stress as six, and not nine, and this is undoubtedly the case in the material stresses of a rigid body. But if the stress is definite, and as the number of conditions from which it can be deduced are only three in number, we are entitled to assume that there is some condition generally affecting the elements of a material stress. Any such hypothesis must be reasonable, and must find justifi- cation both on mathematical and physical grounds. The condi- tion which I shall assume is: That the elements of a material stress are functions of the first differential co-efficients of some vector. The physical justification of this hypothesis les in the superstructure of analysis of stress and strain which has been developed out of Hooke’s Law, and the general acceptance of the doctrine by engineers and physicists. The mathematical justification is put forward below. (Appendix A.) On this hypothesis it has been shown in Part IV. that six equations are to be found, giving at any rate to a first approxti- mation the six elements of Stress, and in the earlier parts jof this paper it is shown in general terms how they are to be solved. 4 GwyTHER, Specification of Stress. No complete solution of any special case is given, and the surface traction conditions have not been considered at all. I may, however, say that we are in possession of the equations from which the stresses in a rigid body, whether in a definite state of motion, or in a definite position of equilibrium, are to be found. The next step is to introduce Hooke’s Law, which I shall for the purpose of this paper state as follows :— In an elastic body the vector, of the first differential coefficients of which the elements of the stress at a point are functions, is the displacement of that point. Accordingly the elements of stress having been found, we are to determine the displacement from a—S/n; 0—Zijz; C— Onze If the body is in motion, the displacement will be a func- tion of the time as well as of the point, and we may deduce the velocity and acceleration of the displacement. Whether the body is at rest or in motion, we may proceed to consider the displaced or strained condition of the body, and to deduce corrections for the stresses, and thence again for the displace- ment, if such procedure were desirable. The method of procedure here indicated appears to conform with methods which have proved useful in other fields, and by deferring the notion of a. displaced position until the first measure of the stress has been made, and by doing away with the idea of a “‘natural”’ state of the body in which it is free from stress, the tendency is in the direction of simplification. The whole change may be described as consisting (1) of introducing a general condition as affecting all stresses as preliminary to intro- ducing’ Hooke’s Law, instead of making it appear to be a consequence of Hooke’s Law, and (2) of making the stress equations fundamental instead of putting the displacement equa- tions in that position. APPENDIX A. ON GENERAL STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS. In the latter part of this series I have pointed out that, in as much as the displacement is eliminated in forming the stress ‘equations, these equations apply to stresses which have the weneral character of elastic stresses, although they may not satisfy the specific requirements. In this section I propose to examine the results of a hypothesis that the nine elements of a stress may be functions of the nine first differential coeff- cients of the components of some vector. The method I shall employ is one that I have already made use of in a paper read before the Society,! to which J venture to refer the reader. “1 Manchester Memoirs, Vol. ix. (1895), No. 3. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) Wo. 1 5 Briefly, I shall find the results consequent on an infini- tesimal rotation, components ,, w., w,, of the axes about their Own positions upon the elements of stress, and upon the first differential coefficients of an ‘arbitrary vector of components is ORR In each case I shall indicate by Q,,0.,Q,, the coefficients of W,, 5, ,, in the resulting expression of change in any of the elements, so that Q,,0,,9, will be differential operators acting on an element. In the case of the elements off stress, the form of these operators depends on the laws of resolution of these elements. In the case of the first differential coefficients of the components of the ;vector, tthe form depends on the laws of differentiattion. In one case the argument may be described as mechanical, in the other case as geometrical. I shall replace the nine actual differential coefficients by the letters e, 7, g; a, 6, c; §n, 6 by which we are accustomed to indicate the elements of strain and the components of rotation. They may be regarded as virtual elements of strain, etc. For the present purpose, the interest lies in the operators and their employment, rather than in the mode of obtaining them. In the case of the element of stress. Seas 8 8 8 8 8 Q =25( 8 —*)4 [ps (Gy S| GEL NE IT, Ea sony i SO 8R ( Os aT SOM nay Skin Ml Rta In the case of the first differential coefficients. Ses 3 3 BiG) 8 Q =a(2-2)42 F 1 Shale ene — ; A (s ire BAe Le oa) Uae and the values of Q., and Q,, can be written down by symmetry. The similarity of these expressions is well marked, and would become more so if we write e’ for 2e, 7’ for 27, g’ for 2g. According to our hypothesis, the elements of stress are to be functions of the first differential coefficients, and thence, for example, both P and Ww, are to be solutions of Q,X=0, and their general values are to be obtained from the eight independent solutions of de CUE dg ada CONN AG A CEM ann G 0 a ae ~ 2(g nA aT Ween oe ae These general values thaving been found, values of other elements may ble deduced by cyclic interchange. The discrimina- tion between terms in P and in ae may be made to depend on such relations as. 0,P= = B50! 2.) = aor 5 by which also the elements #, S, 7, may be found. 6 GwyTHER, Specification of Stress. If we limit ourselves to the case when the elements of stress are linear functions of the first differential coefficients, we shall obtain the elastic stress-strain relations, with the addition of Ww, =z, WV, =hn, WV, =k. I do not propose to complete the general solution nor to deal with invariant and covariant functions generally, nor with the application to fibrous or crystalline bodies by the employment of constants related to determinate directions in the body, and on that account affected by the operators Q,, Q,, Qs. Instead of dealing with the general solution of the differ- ential equations containing higher powers of the differential coefficients, I shall take only one case, that put forward by Lord Kelvin, dealing with the quadric in the natural state of a material which becomes a sphere in the strained state. According to the method of this section the left-hand side of the equation to this quadric should be a covariant expression. Writing the expression jas Ex? + Py? + Ge? 4+ 2Ay2+2Bsx4+ 2Cxy, the conditions of covariancy as affecting the coefficients are seen to be that 8 6 8 Oye )+(G-#)S 6 2+ BS i sF 3G) *' 54 sat 8C with two similar ‘expressions. From the formation of the equation of the quadric from expressions such as H=(1 a ay, OY oz we find E* = 2¢ +e? +4(b? +07) —(6n -— cf) +? +2, etc: A* =a+ }bc+ ha(f+g)+(g—-fyit+ Hen — 02) — 06, etc. and we can verify that the condition of covariancy is satisfied, Now we can form expressions for the elements of stress to the second degree in the first differential coefficients, which will also conform jwith the geometrical conditions in the Theory of Elasticity, by writing P=3(m—-nj(£+ F+ G)+n£, ies, S=nA, etc. € *These expressions are, algebraically, partly of the first order and partly of the second order, but in estimating them arithmetically it is to be noted that &, », é, are not necessarily small and may be large. Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) No. 1 7 It is usual to require that the stresses Y,,W,,, are non- existent; it should, however, be pointed out that if all nine (of :the elements of stress are existent, we may either express the ‘elements of stress in terms of first differential coefficients, or vice-versa. but if the ~wW-stresses are nonexistent, the methods are not reversible. We can express the remaining six elements of stress in terms of the nine differential coefficients, but cannot express the nine different coefficients in terms of the six elements of stress. There appears to be two cases to mention. Firstly, that in which we omit all reference to the rotations £, y, ¢, as well as to the stresses W,,W,, W,. This would lead to a simplification, but would find no justification, either on physical or geometrical grounds. The second remark is that if we confine ourselves to terms of the first order of differential coefficients, Lamé’s state- ment of the elastic force takes the form (m+n) 2 (+ 4 2) — an(S - 2) ox 6x By 0% OY 83 etc. ; and that the inclusion of a force due to the elastic w-stress, would not alter the form of the expressions, although it would affect the determination of the values of the constants. It is also worth while to note that no reasons are given for excludin'g the y-portions of the stresses from the tractions which can ‘be applied to the surface of the body under consideration. The grounds for omitting these portions of the stresses are that the body would be unable to sustain the elemental couple which would act throughout the body as a mathematical consequence of such stress components. In other words, that fracture would result or in some way the ordinary mathematical methods would become inapplicable. APPENDIX B. ON THE FORMATION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS. If we follow Newton’s statement of the Laws of Motion, the formation of the equations fall into two parts—the estimate of the forces causing a rate of change of momentum, and the expression in proper terms of the corresponding rate of change of - momentum. In the case of changes of internal momentum, due to tractions exerted on the surface of a portion of a material body, we need to make preliminary assumptions:—that the ordinary mathematical processes, such as those of differ- entiation and integration apply to the problems, and also that the conditions applicable to special theorems, such as Green’s Transformation, may be freely made use of. The —— 8 GwyTHER, Specification of Stress. Transformation from surface integrals to volume integrals, which is the basis of the theorem connected with Green’s name, may be looked upon as the mathematical correlative to Faraday’s con- ception of a Field of Force, and I propose to make use of the Transformation in that sense in the paragraphs which follow. I shall regard the “body” as made up of particles which are possessed of a molecular structure, in consequence of which the particle may be supposed to possess an internal angular momentum, which we may figure to be lof a gyrositatic type, and that this angular momentum is capable of variation by a suitable - couple. I shall also suppose that a closed surface can be drawn in the body, which can move so that no mass is carried across this surface, either from within outward, or from the outside inwards. I shall assume that the ordinary processes of mathematics, and the conditions for the employment of Green’s Transformation apply to the case. Taking /, m, as the direction-cosines of a normal to the surface measured outwards, and using | aS and a Veto denote integration over the closed surface, and over the in- cluded volume respectively, we shall have relations such as: I. The rate of change of momentum in the direction of the axis of « of the matter ,within the surface = [(t+ Um+ In-V,m+Vn)d S$ II. The rate of change of angular momentum about the axis of x =the moment of the rate of change of linear momentum about the axis of x +fav The usual method of supposing the surface to be indefi- nitely contracted only serves to hide the fact that an assumption — has to be made at this stage. I propose to formulate an assumption that the body is made up if particles as already described, and that the particles are in a field of stress, the elements of stress at any particle being a function of {the co- ordinates of that particle, and that the force acting on that. particle! is ‘the force resulting from such a distribution or field of stress. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxiz, (1917) Vo. 1 9 On this assumption we replace I. and II. by I. The rate of change of the momentum of the particle of co- ordinates x, y, z, in the direction of the axis of « BP, 8U oT oy Vy OAM OY ts 2 ek Oy) 83 7 and II. The particle possesses an finternal angular momentum, of which the rate of change about the axis of x=W,. The w-elements of stress will no doubt generally be null, but I have retained them, as it is possible that they may play a part in a theory of fracture or of permanent set. The question of the mathematical expressions for the momentum and rate of change of momentum of the particle depends upon the amount and character of the degree of free- dom which the particle is to enjoy. If the particle is to be unrestrained in its freedom to move, and is only influenced by the forces arising from the field of stress 1n which it finds itself, we may suppose that the position of the particle at any time is a function of the three quantities which determined its position at some epoch, and of the time elapsed since that epoch. If we take the mass of the particle ito ‘ble invariable, the expression for the rate of change of momentum is known. Under this head comes the case of fluid motion, and the propagation of a small disturbance, but not any case of molar motion !n which any finite portyon of the material suffers a change of position approximately comparable with a rigid motion of that portion. Passing to the other extreme, we may take axes in motion such that the origin has the velocity w,, v, w, and the axes have angular velocities w,, w,, w, about their own positions in space. If then the velocity of ieach particle in the directions of the lines in space occupied by the axes 1s given by uU,— WV + WyS D5 — WS + WX W, — WX + WV where w,...w,... are functions of ¢ only, we can. deduce the rate of change of the particle’s momentum. On integration over the. whole of a body we might deduce the whole of Rigid Dynamics. In the motion of a rigid body {the parts of the body are subject to stresses, which are not elastic stresses; these stresses have no wW-element, and they are no doubt quite (definite, but they are not defined by the rates of change of momentum of the constituent particles. Between the two ex- treme cases we ‘have mentioned, there exists a wide range of 10 GwyTHER, Specification of Stress. possible cases, but the conditions with which I propose to deal approximate in general character, though not in detail, to the case of rest and motion of a ngid body, and mly object is to consider the points of difference. I shall therefore assume that the components of the velo- city of a particle may be written U=u,-w0,V+o,2+4u, V=9,-0,3 +0.x +0, W=w,- WX + W,V + WwW , where x, y, z are the coordinates of a particle, that uw, v, w,; W,. Wy, w, are functions of ¢ only, and that uw, v, w are func tions of x, y, Zz, and):7. We shall have OY ae Gwe, 2 ox Ox QUO Oe GUC, § and PRT ANGE = AO), sre NS oy 02 bv 8S ‘and it will be assumed that the spacedifferential coefficients of uw, v, ware small. Then on differentiation we shall find that the rate of ‘change ae | Gy 7 SO ot ox 6% in and similarly for the rates change of V and W.« Each of these expressions consist of three parts; 1. A part independent of uw, v, w. 2. A part containing elements from uw, v, w, and w,, w,, w, 3. A part containing elements from zw, v, w only. If the particles of a body are either constrained to move or restrained from free motion, they are subject to some force, and are in a state of stress. This is the case when a beam is supported so as to prevent freedom of ‘each particle of the beam to fall under gravity, as well as fin cases of motion, even. when the material is supposed to be rigid) We may suppose the number of felements of the stress to be six, and that we have not enough conditions drawn from the laws of motion ta deter- mine these elements. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) No. 1. | II If we suppose that the elements of stress are such functions of an arbitrary vector as I have proposed, we reduce the number of arbitrary elements to three. I am now able to sketch an outline of my proposal of dealing with questions of materia] Stresses. Consider the case of a body in motion. I shall first regard the body as rigid, and suppose that the problem is solved -on that basis, and that w,,v,, w,, w,. w,, w, are determined. Then consider such equations as m(uU, — UW. + Ww, — W.-Y + w,Z) —(w,? +, )x + 0,0, V + W,0.3) = ous oO a. _ Se ray itl lee These equations are to be treated as the statical stress equations have been treated, the reversed effective forces being included as “ forces,’ and thle corresponding values of the elements of stress determined as above. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xt. (1917), No. 2 II. Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals. By D. WARD CUTLER, M.A. (Cantab) Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator en Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. 7 Parthenogenesis, the production of an organism from an egg which has not been previously fertilised by the male element or caused to develop by artificial means, is of common occurrence in the animal kingdom, though, as will be seen, confined to but few of its great divisions. This phenomenon has been long known, but until recently Avas not regarded as of much importance in relation to general biological problems. The cytological discoveries and the work that has been done on the problem of the cause’ of sex has, how- ever, brought into prominence the importance of parthenogenesis. In 1906, a paper on the cytological aspect of parthenogenesis in Insects was published by Hewitt in the Memoirs, of this Society, in which he reviewed the principal work that had been done up to that time. Since then the number of publications have increased enormously, and some of the conclusions recorded in Hewitt’s paper have proved to be erroneous. I feel, therefore, that it may be of use to bring together some of the most important results which have been obtained by recent workers, and to indicate their bearing upon a few general biological problems. Passing in review the principal divisions of the animal kingdom in which partheno-. genesis is known to occur, it is found that the Arthropoda afford by far the most numerous examples. Among the Crustacea, most of the Cladocera and very many of the Ostracoda are capable of producing parthenogenetic eggs, and in almost all the groups of Insects some examples can be found. Outside the Arthropoda many of the Nematoda habitually reproduce by this method and in other invertebrate groups a few cases can be cited. In order, however, to obtain a clear understanding of much that follows in the paper it is necessary to realise that the sex of the animal produced by parthenogenesis is not always the same, and that the interpolation of this method of reproduction causes complicated hfe cycles to occur. 2 CuTLER, Parthenogenests in Animals LIFE HISTORIES AND PARTHENOGENEBSIS. Cladocera.—In the Spring females are produced from eggs that have remained dormant during the Winter. These lay par- thenogenetic eggs through the Summer from which other females hatch, so that a large number of generations are produced. As Autumn approaches, however, males appear parthenogenetically, which fertilise the females. The fertilised eggs are larger and have a thicker coat than the Summer eggs. These so-called Winter eggs remain dormant during the cold months and give rise to females the following Spring. The life history of the Ostracoda is similar to the above except that in some species parthenogenesis may continue ahens in- definitely. Rotifera.—A cycle, analogous to that already described, occurs here. In Hydatina senta the Winter egg gives rise to a female which lays eggs parthenogenetically. From these females hatch which reproduce in the same way; at certain times, how- ever, a second typie of female occurs capable of producing two kinds of eggs. If males are present fertilisation takes place and a Winter egg is produced. If males are not present, eggs are laid from which males appear parthenogenetically. Aphid@.— Here again the majority of the species pass through the Winter as resting eggs, produced tin the Autumn by a female which has been fertilised. From these resting eggs females are hatched, the stem mothers, which lay large numbers of eggs developing parthenogenetically into other females Dhe Ystem mothers are wingless, as are also, in many species, the first few _ generations of females which hatch from the eggs she has laid. At certain seasons, however, winged migrants are produced which pass to other plants. Toward the end of the year these migrant females lay parthenogenetic eggs from which wingless males and sexual females appear. Fertilisation takes place and the resting Winter egg produced. Slight modifications of this generalised account occur, as for example among the Chermes, the aphids living on conifers, but the main outlines are preserved in all the species. Cynipide. acter is the production of many parthenogenetic generations be- fore the sexual forms are produced. ' A more simple life history is to be found among some of the Hymenoptera, as in the Cynipidz or gall-fly family. Here, in many species, there is a regular alternation of generations. Some- times the galls produced by one generation are entirely different from one another in appearance, as are also the insects pro- ducing them; this occurs in Neuroterus lenticularis, whose life Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt. (1917), No. 2 3 history I will briefly describe, and which thas been extensively worked upon by Doncaster. In the Spring, from a fertilised Winter egg parthenogenetic females arise and lay their eggs in oak buds. From these eggs males and females, the sexual generation, appear in the Summer. Copulation takes place and the fertilised female: lays her eggs fin the tissue of young oak leaves. From fhese eggs the asexual generation will appear in the following Spring. The life cycle summarised above does not, however, appear in all the species of Cynipide. In Rhodites rose, for instance, parthenogenesis appears to continue almost indefinitely as the number of males produced is remarkably few. This condition of things is also found in some of the Phasmidz, and many of the Nematoda. _ Bees and Wasps.—As is ‘well known, the eggs which are fertilised give rise to the queens and workers, that is to females, for the workers are but females imperfectly developed, while the unfertilised or parthenogenetic eggs usually give rise to males; a few authentic cases are known, however, where workers have laid eggs not fertilised, from which females have hatched. Tenthredinide (Sawflies)—Here we get the same female producing parthenogenetic eggs and those which require fertilisa- tion. In some species from the former kind males are produced, in others females; while some sawflies are entirely bisexual. Lepidoptera.—These insects offer many examples of par- thenogenesis. which may be called accidental. In the silkworm (Bombyx mori) and in.Lymantria dispar two or three con- secutive generations have been obtained without fertilisation occurring, males and females being produced from the virgin eggs. Moreover, in the Psychidze parthenogenesis is a normal phenomenon resulting in temale offspring. Summarising what has been given above, we can divide par- thenogenesis into three groups. 1. Accidental, where the normal mode of reproduction is the sexual one: parthenogenesis only occasionally taking place, é'.g., Bombyx mori. 2. Facultative, where the same egg may or may not be fertt- hsed, e.g., ants, bees and wasps. 3. Obligative, where the eggs ‘are not capable of being ferti- lised because of the absence of males, é.g., Aphids, Cladocera, etc. It is of great interest to note at this stage that in all the cases mentioned fertilisation produces a female, but the partheno- genetic eggs may produce males or females. A) x CuTLER Parthenogenests in Animais EXTERNAL FACTORS AS THE CAUSE OF PARTHENOGENESIS A great deal of work has been done in trying to ascertain whether or not the jexternal conditions play the largest part in causing the change from the parthenogenetic mode of reproduc- tion to that of the sexual one. Kurz in 1874 showed that if the water in which Daphnia were living was slowly evaporated sexual forms appeared, and it was suggested that the increased concentration of the salts {was responsible for the change. In 1905 a paper appeared by Issakowitsch, showing that starvation © and low temperature were ‘wholly responsible for the changed mode of reproduction. The view that external conditions were not the sole agents in the production of this change was advo- cated by Weissman in 1875. His conclusion was that the animals were so constituted by natural selection that they tend spon- taneously to reproduce sexually in the appropriate season; and that they so do to a large degree irrespective of the external conditions. Thus, according to this observer, the change from parthenogenesis to sexual reproduction is an inherited character. A more recent worker takes an intermediate view; thus, accord- ing to Papanicolau, the ‘external and internal conditions act together in the production ‘of males and sexual females. He. recognises three periods: 1. Purely parthenogenetic period comprising the first few generations. 2. Transition period, when warmth fnduces parthenogenesis and cold sexual reproduction. 3. Late period, when the females are sexual and no external _ conditions can cause them to become parthenogenetic. Agar, however, does not entirely agree with the above con- clusions. From work done on Simocephalus vetulus, he says that there is no justification for stating that sexual forms appear after a certain number of generations have elapsed since the last fertilised egg; and that the onset of sexuality is influenced by environmental factors. It thas long been known that among the Aphids during the Summer months reproduction is entirely parthenogenetic, and it was Generally assumed that the cold of the later months caused the appearance of sexual forms. Kyber in 1851 experimented on the rose aphid (Aphis rose). By keeping the animals in a warm chamber he was able to extend the par- thenogenetic cycle for four years. [Identical results were also obtained by Slingerland in 1893. | Comparatively little exper- mental work has been done in this group, but ‘t is clear that external agents do have some influence on the life cycle of some species of Aphids. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xii. (1917), Vo. 2 5 In Hydatina senta there are two kinds of females, those which parthenogenetically produce other females with a similar method of reproduction, and females ‘which produce males in the same way. These females are also capable of being fertilised. The prob- lem is to discover what are fhe factors concerned with the appearance of these various forms. i Maupas connected the variation with differences in tempera- ture, and Nussbaum with variations in nutrition, but the results they obtained were not very conclusive. Punnett worked on a strain which had proved to be entirely female producing and subjected it to temperature variations. The rate of reproduc- tion was reduced, but no male-producing females developed. The same result was obtained by feeding experiments. He therefore concluded that temperature and nutrition have no effect on male production and that it is the property of certain females to produce male-producing females in a definite ratio; and also that the differences between tthe females were due to variations in the character of the gametes which united to form the resting egg from which each strain sprang. Recently extensive experiments have been made by two American zoologists, Whitney and ‘Shull. Shull in 1910 came to the conclusion that neither temperature nor starvation had any effect, but that the chemical content of the water in which the animals lived was the decisive agent in the production of males. A solution of horse manure was sufficient entirely to prevent the appearance of males, and identical results were obtained after the solution had been boiled or dried and redissolved. The substance in the solution which effected the result was found also to be insoluble in ether or absolute alcohol. The alkalinity of the water was also tested. A solution of — NaOH was diluted with ten times its own volume of spring 10 water, which was slightly alkaline: a second solution of the same substance was also diluted with forty times its own volume. The result of the experiment, controls being used the whole time, was that the greater the alkalinity the fewer males were produced. This lowering in the number of males was also observed with a weak solution of urea. Solutions of ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate, and ammonium hydroxide in the strength of a all caused the pro- 500 portion of males to be reduced] to one half the normal number. A further paper was published by Shull and Ladoff in 1916, in which it was shown that ee in the water increased male production. 6 CutLer, Parthenogenesis in Animals At about the same time Whitney was working at this problem with five species of Rotifers: Hydatina senta, Brachionus pala, Diaschiza iterea, Diglena catellena, and Pedalion mirium. If the parthenogenetic females of Hydatina senta, Diaschiza iterea, and Diglena catellena are fed on a Polytoma diet female-producing daughters are exclusively developed; if these females are, how- ever, transferred to a diet of Chlamydomonas they produced 80 per cent. or more male-producing ‘daughters. A scanty diet of green flagellates favoured the production of female-producing females in the other two species of Rotifers, while a superabundance of the same diet caused high male production. From these experiments the conclusion was drawn that the change of diet was the external agent for the production jof males and females. However, as Shull has remarked, the increase in the production of males when the diet was a Chlamydomonas one may be explained by the increased oxygen which is produced by photosynthesis; this assumption is ‘also borne out by the experi- ments of feeding scantily or abundantly with cultures of green flagellates. This explanation is, however, not entirely satisfactory, for when green alge, which were too large to be eaten, but which would produce oxygen, ‘were put into the water in which the animals were living, the result was negative. Thus it 1s prob- able that nutrition has some effect, but to what extent is not defi- nitely ascertained. INTERNAL FACTORS AS OPERATIVE AGENTS. As already mentioned, Punnett came to the conclusion that the whole problem could be solved on the basis of heredity, and that internal agents and not external ones were the operative factors. This conclusion was tested by Shull. Two pure lines were obtained, one from Baltimore, the other from New York; the external conditions were as far as possible rigorously kept constant. From the former the .proportion of males hatched was II-I per cent., from the latter 18-5 per cent., and these propor- tlons were found to be constant. Males and females from_ the two pure lines were crossed, and the resulting lines had in every case a higher proportion of male-producing females. On cross- ing one of these hybrids back with either of the original parents, the offspring gave rise ito pure! lines with a proportion of males intermediate between those of the two parent lines. Further, it was shown that with long-continued parthenogenesis the per- centage of male production was reduced. Punnett’s conclusion was not, however, entirely justified, for it was possible to alter the constant ratio of male-producing females by changing the external conditions. Thus the F, generation, which yielded more male-producing females than its parents, was caused to produce Manchester Memotrs, Vol. (xit. (1917), (Vo. 2 7 less by placing the animals in beef extract, which had previously been shown to act as a deterrent to male production. A very interesting result of the experiments was the demon- stration that there are definite male and female-producing females, and that the same female does not give rise to both male and female-producing daughters. Whether a female is to be a male- producer or a female-producer is decided during the growth period of the parthenogenetic egg from which) it is hatched. Thus “sex is determined a generation in advance.” It appears evident that both external and internal agents are at work in the change from parthenogenesis to sexual reproduction. These internal agents are probably capable of causing the appearance of males without any outside aid; indeed the evidence goes to prove that when external agents, with few exceptions, operate male production is prevented or diminished. It is possible that some external stimulus may modify the normal course of events in the internal economy of the egg. The discovery that oxygen increases male-production indicates that the cause may be attributed to an increased speed of reaction in the protoplasm. There is evidence also that the chromosome number is different in the two types of egg, and that the method of maturation is also ‘different. It is possible therefore that the external agents may so act on the egg as to cause the‘appearance of one or other mode of maturation, also, as we shall see later, there is evidence that in the Aphids the external and internal factors act together im the production of males and sexual females. CYTOLOGICAL ASPECT. As is well known, during the maturation divisions of the germ calls of sexual female and male animals, the somatic number of _chromosomes is reduced to one half; and thus when fertilisation occurs the somatic number is again obtained. From the researches of numerous cytologists during recent years it has been demonstrated, that in some species the males produce two kinds of spermatozoa, which differ one from the other in the number of chromosomes, one type possessing one or more than the other. The eggs are all alike in having an equal number. These chromosomes are also in many cases charac- terised by differing in shape and size from the others, and are known as X-chromosomes or sex ‘chromosomes. Thus if 2n represents the somatic chromosome humber, omitting the sex ones, the female will possess 2n-+ 2X), and the male 2n-+ X. After maturation divisions all the ova will have n-+ X chromo- somes, while the sperms will be of two types: (1) n-- X chromosomes ; (2) n chromosomes. 8 | CuTLER, Parthenogenesis 1n Animals Sperms of the second type fertilising an ovum will produce ‘males, while those of the first type will form females. In passing, it is worth mentioning that from the inheritance of sex limited characters there is reason to think that in a few animals, Lepidoptera and Birds, the reverse is the case and the female has two kinds of eggs. Cytological investigation has largely confirmed this view. In light of these facts it is of considerable importance to dis- cover what occurs in the maturation of parthenogenetic eggs. The question as to whether the chromosomes are reduced in number at the maturation divisions of the parthenogenetic egg is full of interest, and, as will be seen, in those eggs in which reduction does occur, modifications have developed to ensure that the normal number is reformed in subsequent generations. Ostracoda and Cladocera.—The parthenogenetic eggs of the Ostracoda have only one maturation division, which is equational, so that the number of chromosomes is not reduced. Weissmann, in 1886, showed that the parthenogenetic eggs of Polyphemus produced only a single polar body and that: the chromosome number was not altered.. Kuhn investigated the parthenogenetic eggs of Daphnia pulex and Polyphemus pediculus and arrived at the same conclusions. The cytological aspect of male production in these forms has not been in- vestigated. Branchiopoda:—Von. Brauer (1893) as a result of research on Artemia salina announced that there were two types of par- thenogenesis occurring in the same animal. In the first and most common the chromosome number was not reduced and only one polar body was formed. In the second type, however, both polar bodies were developed, and during the formation of the second the chromosome number was halved. This second polar body, however, instead of passing to the exterior of the egg and degenerating remained in the egg and gave rise to a reticular nucleus, which fused with the female pronucleus. Thus there was fertilisation by the second polar body. Petrunkewitsch (1902) reinvestigated the subject, but was unable to find any trace jof the second type of parthenogenesis. He therefore concluded that it was due to a pathological con- dition and was not a natural one. , This was in the main the conclusion of Fries (1909). Finally, in 1911 and 1912, two papers appeared by Artom in which it was stated that there were two races of Artemia, a parthenogenetic one and a sexual. The former differs from the latter in possessing a double number of chromosomes. The par- thenogenetic race (Artemia bivalens) develops with the diploid Se 5 : = Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xit. (1917), Wo. 2 9 number of chromosomes, while the ‘eggs of the sexual race (Artemia univalens) maturate in the usual manner. It thus appears highly improbable that Brauer’s account is correct. Ants, Bees, VWWasps.—Petrunkewitsch (1901) studied the matu- ration divisions of the unfertilised eggs which give rise to the male Honey bee, and showed that two polar bodies are pro- duced, the first division being the reductive one. He further asserted that after the production of the polar bodies the inner half of the first polar nucleus fused with the second polar nucleus to form a single one. The female pronucleus migrated inwards and the outer half of the first polar body degenerated. The nucleus formed by the fusion of portions of the polar bodies gave rise to the male germ cells by subsequent divisions. The number of chromosomes in the original nucleus before maturation was sixteen, after the formation of the polar bodies each nucleus had eight chromosomes, and the original number was reformed in the male germ cells by the fusion of the products of maturation. As the somatic cells are developed from the female pronucleus, which contained only eight chromosomes, the normal number, sixteen, was produced by a further division of the chromosomes, which on this occasion did not separate from one another. } This somewhat fantastic hypothesis was not disputed until 1904, when Meves published a short note, followed by more detailed work in 1907. Meves attacked the problem by studying the maturation of the germ cells of the male bee. He first showed that the number of chromosomes in the queen bee is thirty-two, and not sixteen, as Petrunkewitsch supposed. The spermatogonial cells of the male contain sixteen chromosomes, that is, half the normal number. At the first maturation division the chromosomes appear as eight long double rods, which shorten and thicken; the result of division is not two cells, each with eight chromosomes, but one large cell containing eight double chromosomes and a small enucleate bud at the top of thle spermatocyte. At the second division the chromosomes divide equationally, but instead of forming two functional cells, which will develop into spermatids, only one functional cell with eight double chromosomes is produced and the other cedi degenerates. Thus, as a result of maturation, only one spermatozoa instead of four is developed from each spermatogonium. In 1908 Meves published the result of investigations on the Hornet. Here the first spermatocyte division is similar to that of the bee, but the second division, on the other hand, results Io CuTLerR, Farthenogenesis in Animats in the production of two daughter cells, each of which develops into a spermatozoa, and each containing the reduced number of chromosomes. In these insects therefore we have the peculiar feature that the male passes the whole of its existence with half the normal number of chromosomes in the germ cells. The difficulty of how such an animal can at fertilisation restore the normal number to the egg is overcome by the suppression of the reductive division in the maturation of the male germ cells. In the somatic cells the chromosomes may divide to form 32 or 64. Nachtsheim (1913) reinvestigated the whole subject with great care, and has in the main confirmed the conclusions arrived at by Meves. In both fertilised and parthenogenetic eggs the maturation divisions are the same. The innermost group of the first polar body fuses with the second polar body to form the ‘“ richtungskopulationkern ;” while the outermost part of the) first polar body degenerates. This “ richtungskopulationkern ” is formed in all eggs, but it soon degenerates and gives rise to no part of the insect, as Petrunkewitsch asserted. The whole process is rendered clear by reference to the table, which is modified from the one given by Nachtsheim. (Diagram A.) Exactly comparable results have been obtained by other. observers in Osmia cornuta, .Xylocopa violarea, and in a few species of ants. The question as to the way in which the sexes are produced on the basis of sex chromosomes is also discussed by this author. He assumes that of the female chromosomes thirty are somatic and two sex chromosomes (30+ 2X). At maturation reduction occurs, giving a nuclead complex 15-+ xX, thus the unfertilised egg will develop into a male. During spermatogenesis no reduc- tion takes place and all the chromosomes divide, so that all the spermatozoa possess 15 + X chromosomes; thus fertilisation will always result in the production of females. Rotijera.—The maturation of the parthenogenetic eggs of Hydatina senta is similar, as regards male formation, to that described above. According to Whitney, the parthenogenetic eggs which will give rise tto females have only one maturation division, and thus only one polar body is produced and the chromosome number is not halved. In.the eggs which will give rise to males, however, the two polar bodies are formed and the chromosomes reduced; this also occurs in the maturation of the winter egg. We are, unfortunately, ignorant of the spermatogenesis of Hydatina, and therefore do not know whether the sperms are all ake or whether there are two classes produced, one forming a ‘Iyd QI = spedp g [Jeo o1e1oUSeseq —2— tS 2S “(NBYSIYORN WOAy peytpout) 22g AouoT] JO apAo of] Jo oles ‘Iy9 91 = spp g e0z0}eul1odS | | ‘Igo 91 = speAp 8 pueurods | ‘IyD O pnq o]¥oponue 9o}e1suesaq ‘IYD QI =spvdp g ayA00;eWIIEdG puz | ‘1yo Z€ = spekp g-+ spedp g (soyerouesop) ayerguesop uloyuonemdoyssuniyory ve 5 we \ ye \ yi ee ~ speAp g speAp 8 ‘IND 91 == spedp 8 ‘qd puz pestmieyun 5] ‘Iyo 91 =-spvAp 8 ayf00;eulleads js1 | ‘IND 91 = spedp g umntuoso}eulseds “STR re Io Ol —speAp g 83q odry Toa "IyD QI =speAp 8 ‘q'd 4sI “IYO QI = spedp 9 9149009 puz ‘IYD OI = spvei1j9} 8 aif00QCR) Si ‘VQ OUI Yeoiq “yo Zf oy} juowdopaep Surmnqd "ayo zf wniuo0s0(¢) Bhi fay (AS = spedp g-+ spedp g snopnu uworjesi[y1o4 oe ‘IND QI = spvdp g snajonu twaiods 12 Cutler, Parthenogenesis in Animals on fertilisation, eggs from which female-producing females hatch, the other male-producing females. Aphide.—This group of insects has been worked upon a great deal by American cytologists. Morgan has investigated with much care the Phylloxera and a fairly complete account of the life history from a cytological standpoint is known. In P. fallax there is a single stem mother which lays par- thenogenetic eggs, and from these develop wingless female in- sects. These females produce large eggs from which sexual females appear, and small eggs producing males. Fertilisation occurs, and from the eggs laid the stem mother of the follow- ing Spring hatches. The stem mother has twelve chromosomes, four of which are sex ones. The parthenogenetic eggs which this female lays _ also differ in their mode of maturation. From the sexual female- producing eggs one polar body is extruded and there is no reduction in chromosomes; the male-producing eggs also form one polar body, but the four sex chromosomes pair and two pass into the polar body to (be thrust out of the egg, leaving ten chromosomes (8 + 2X) in the female pronucleus. The males thus possess ten chromosomes and the sexual females twelve (8-+-4X). At spermatogenesis the eight somatic chromosomes pair and four pass to each pole of the spindle, the 2X chromo- somes also pair but do mot separate, and both pass to one pole. In this way two classes of spermatids are produced, one with &ix chromosomes (4-+ 2X), the other with four; this latter degen- erates, so that all spermatozoa contain six chromosomes. .The maturation of the eggs of the sexual females is of the normal type, so that when fertilisation takes place the original chromosome number is restored to the egg, which gives rise to the next stem mother. (Diagram B.) A second species, P. caryzcaulis, is of interest because it has been demonstrated that there are two types of stem mothers; one kind which produces nothing but sexual females, and the other from whose eggs only males develop. In this species there are eight chromosomes, including four sex ones. The general scheme of the chromosome cycle in the several generations is like that for P. fallax; there are, how- ever, slight differences in the sex chromosomes, two of them being large and two small. In the males also the two small chromosomes slightly differ one from the other. Adopt- ing Morgan’s notation, we may designate the large chromosomes by X and the small ones by x; the ‘differences in the male being denoted by priming one of the xs. 13 Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917), No. 2 "Iy. K JO UOTONpsy | | ‘XE][V} eroxoT[Ayd Jo afoAo of] JO suIaYyOS Jay}JOUI wWa}S "1yo V ayo xz7~+P ayo xz-+7 ullods o}e1aueseq uwiteds 337 | uonoNpey wosonpeut| Sas | | ‘IYO X2-+ 8 ‘Ayo XV + 8 uolonpal ON ‘1yo xb-t g ‘Iyo XV +8 Jgonpoid oyeut “‘yieg Jaonpoid sfeuley “YlIEg ey ee ays KV =- 8 IIYIOU UII1S uononpel oN ae o[eulsf [enxaS ‘qd Wvaovid r4 Cuter, Parthenogenesis in Animals At the maturation of the eggs, which will give rise to the male, the two large chromosomes pair, as do also the small ones. It will be seen from the accompanying Diagram C, that two types of males will be produced giving ries to two kinds of spermatozoa, one containing Xx, the other Xv’. If the former fertilises the eggs the resulting stem mother will be a _ female-producer (XXxx), if the latter, there will be formed a male-producing stem mother (XXxx’). At about the same date Morgan investigated the Aphid of the Bearberry. This insect, Phyllaphis corveni Cockerelli forms galls ion the leaves of the plant, and in each’ gall there is a single stem mother and her progeny. There are males and sexual females together with females which are parthenogenetic. The eggs of these latter all contain six chromosomes. The spermatogenesis of the male is very similar to that of the Phylloxera, but the spermatogonial cells only contain five chromosomes. Of these five chromosomes four pair together at synapsis, so that three chromatin clumps are formed, two of which are composed of paired somatic chromosomes, the third being the unpaired sex chromosome. At spermatogenesis the somatic chromosomes separate, but the sex chromosome passes undivided to one pole of the spindle. Thus two cells are formed, one with three chromosomes, the other with two: this latter degenerates. Von Baehr and Stevens as the result of work done on Aphis soliceti and seven other species confirmed the above result. It seems to be clear that in the Phylloxerae and Aphide the loss of one or more chromosomes from the egg is intimately connected with male production. That the absence of the sex chromosome is not the ultimate cause of male production is obvious, since it is determined in some way that certain oses shall extrude the chromosomes and others not do so. This has been noticed by Doncaster in his paper, “ Cheon. somes, Heredity and Sex,” in which is ithe following sentence: “But this cannot logically be regarded as ‘a proof that the presence or absence of X 1s not the cause of femaleness or maleness; it only means that some factor is present which decides whether X shall be extruded or not.” This factor may very well be environmental change, which acts on the protoplasm of the egg in a way somewhat similar to that suggested for the eggs of Hydatina senta. Cynipide.—The cytology of the eggs of Neuroterus lenti- cularis has been worked out fully by Doncaster. As I have already mentioned, the life cycle of this insect exhibits a con- stant alternation of bisexual and parthenogenetic generations. In the Spring parthenogenetic females hatch from the Winter Sons ~— LS Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxiz. (1917), No. 2 ‘synvoewdivo vioxo[[Ayq Jo Atoysty ofiT Fo swWaYyIS xX + 2 XX + 2 ‘Ty adky waeds +7 adAy, waads, uoljonpoy Poe OC ae Tal (= ae "Th a ew 4yo X ae jo sete | ve P9°@:9 Cams asonpoid oyew ‘yyIeg 3 XXEX + V ‘TIT addy, sayO; WAS XX + 2 337 | XXX + V ayewiey Tenxas | uoTIONpIy XXXK +P uolonpel ON toonpoid s[vuley ‘yeg Luolonpert ON | XXXX ‘; adAy, Toy,OUL WI91S ‘) WVYOVIC 16 CuTLer, Parthenogenesis in Antmals eggs and give rise to sexual females and males, which constitute the Summer brood. The Spring generation is also peculiar mm that two kinds of females are produced, from the one kind, eggs are laid from which only males develop, from the other type only sexual females. The somatic number of chromosomes is twenty m both the Spring and Summer generations. One of the points of interest is that the two types of females of the Spring brood differ in regard to the method of maturation of the eggs. In the female-producing eggs no maturation divisions occur, and the chromosome number is not reduced. thus there are twenty chromosomes in the female pronucleus. In the male-producing eggs. however, two maturation divisions take place and the chromosomes are reduced io ten. Here then we have a condition which parallels what occurs in the formation of the drone Dee. Spermatogenesis is also sumilar to that of the bee. The sper Matogonia contain ten chromosomes, Dut there is no reduction of chromosomes. The first division gives Mise, as in the Dee, to an enucleate bud of protoplasm and a functional spermatocyte with ten chromosomes. At the second maturation the chromosomes divide and there are formed two spermatids, each- with ten chromosomes. During oogenesis two maturation divisions take place, one of them reductive; in this way four groups of chromosomes are formed, of which the three outer form polar nuclei and the innermost, with ten chromosomes, the female pronucleus. The accompanying scheme illusiraies the essential phases of the hfe history. (Diagram D.) A pomit which sill remains doubdiful is what determines whether the Spring females shall be male-producing or female producing. This was the subject of an imvestgation ae Doncaster and I undertook Ii was hoped that t% might possible io show that there were two Classes of eae formed, but this expectation was not realised. At present if is impossible to indicate with ceriainty what constitutes the differ ence between these two classes of parthenogenetic females. Rhodites rose—Males are very rare in this speces. In fact, Schlep, a recent worker, found none during the course of his experiments; on rare occasions, however, they are said to occur. Henking (1892) stated that the somatic number of chromo somes was eighteen, which were reduced to nine m the eggs before maturation. The maturation division of the eggs was 17 Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt. (1917), No. 2 ‘SUETMOYUS] SNAOJOINEN JO ALOSTY aI] JO 9uTITOS ‘Iyo O1 “IYO O1 vozoyeutisds 337 “Iyo Oo ‘Iyo O1 uoHONpIy pnq santoqy 93A400;euI10dg | | uononpel ON | “Iyo O1 “IYO Of OPIN “oTeuUldy TeENXIS uoyonpsy ‘uMoTyeIOUAS AUIS uoyjonpar ON ‘IYO 0% “‘IYD 0% raonpoid afew ‘ye g Joonporad oyeuloy “Ye ‘uoneroues Suids ‘qd WVUSVIG 18 Cuter, Parthenogenesis in Animals equational, so that though four nuclei were formed, there was no reduction of the chromosome number. He also described a fusion of the second polar nucleus with the inner half of the first polar nucleus. The outer half passed to the periphery and was extruded and fusion with the second and inner-part of the first polar nucleus occurred. The result of greatest interest in his investigations was that the chromosomes of the female pronucleus were ‘doubled in number before the first cleavage took place. The same pheno- menon was said to occur by Petrunkewitsch in the honey bee, and by Delage in the artificial parthenogenesis of sea-urchin eggs. Schliep reinyestigated the cytology of the egg of Rhodites rose. He gives the somatic number of chromosomes as ten or twelve. This number is also found in the oogonia and the oocytes, thus confirming the statement that there is no reduc- tive division. Further, according ito this observer, there is no doubling of the chromosome number after maturation has taken place, the cleavage nucleus possessing ten to twelve chromosomes. Tenthredinide.—The sawflies are very varied as to the © manner of reproduction; some there are which lay partheno- genetic eggs from which only males appear (Nematus ribesii); in other species parthenogenetic eggs are laid from which only females are hatched (Pcecilosoma Juteolum); and a third group from which both males and females are produced from partheno- genetic eggs, as in the gallflies. Investigation into the, cyto- logical aspects were undertaken by Doncaster. As the results published for Nematus ribesti are probably incorrect, it is use- less to detail them here. It is hoped that the cytology of the eggs of this insect will be re-examined at somle future date, so that the present discrepancies in the account may ‘be rectified. In Pcecilosoma luteolum and Croesus varus two maturation divisions occur, and the ‘chromosomes do not appear to be re- duced in number. This conclusion is probably correct, but until the spermatogenesis and oogenesis have been studied the point cannot be said to be definitely settled. Lepidoptera.—The cases in which parthenogenesis occurs among the Lepidoptera are few. Platner and Henking studied the maturation of the unfertilised eggs of Bombyx mori. Two polar bodies were said to be formed and the chromosomes were thought to be reduced in number. Recently, however, Gold- schmidt found in the Gipsy moth that the oogonia and sperma- togonia of the insects, which had arisen parthenogenetically, contained the normal diploid number of chromosomes. . At present our knowledge of the cytology of the unfertilised eggs of the Lepidoptera is very scanty. Goldschmidt mentions in his Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xit. (1917), Wo. 2 1g paper, however, that the parthenogenetic eggs of the Psychidz have been studied by Dr. Seiler, whose paper is in the press. Chalcidide.—In this group of insects we find examples of polyembryony. ‘Silvestri studied Litomastix truncatellus; the egg gives rise to a number of cell clusters, each of which develops into a larve. A point of interest is that each individual which arises from the egg is of the 'same sex. If the original egg was fertilised females are produced, if unfertilised only males appear. (Silvestri was also able to examine the maturation divisions of the ovum, and found that in both the partheno- genetic eggs and the fertilised ones they were the same. Here then we have an excellent example of sex determination by fer- tiisation. Further, as the maturation divisions of both kinds of eggs are of the normal order, the males will arise from eggs having the reduced number of chromosomes, and will therefore be like those of the bee and Hydatina senta. PARTHENOGENESIS AND SEX. If a summary is made of the preceding cytological facts it will be found that the types of maturation in parthenogenesis are two :— (A.) (One maturation division, which is not reductive, as in the Ostracoda, (B.) Two maturation divisions :— (1) Chromosome reduction as in the Ants, Bees, Wasps, etc. (2) No chromosome reduction, both divisions being cauarioual, as in Rhodites rose, etc. A third type described by Brauer in Artemia we have seen to be probably incorrect. Before proceeding to a discussion as to how the cytological study of parthenogenesis affects the problem of sex determina- tion, it will be of advantage to enumerate the more important theories regarding sex. Castle (1903) propounded the theory that the male and female were heterozygous for sex, and that at maturation the male or female elements were eliminated with the polar bodies in the case of the female, and were segregated from one another at spermatogenesis in the male. Selective fertilisation was also assumed to occur, so that only male-producing spermatozoa could fertilise female ova, and only female-producing spermatozoa could conjugate with male ova. The zygote thus produced must of necessity be heterozogous and the resulting sex was male or female according as to which was the dominating element. There are many objections to this view, but taking one case, that of the bee, we at once encounter difficulties. As the males are produced from the unfertilised eggs which have undergone 20 CuTLER, Parthenogenesis in Animals maturation and reduction, we must assume that the female element has been eliminated, but by hypothesis the spermatozoa at fertilisation must bring into the egg the female tendency. It is difficult to see how this is ‘possible. Castle offered: a solution by pointing out that the testes were developed from the fused polar bodies, and that therefore they would contain the female element. We have seen, ‘however, that this observation of Petrunkewitsch is incorrect. A second theory due to Correns is based on experiemnts performed with Bryonia. The assumption here is that the male is heterozygous for sex, but the female homozygous. The difficulty of selective fertilisation is by this means overcome, for it is obvious that either a male or a female sperm can fertilise the ova, which in this case are all alike in character. The bee again offers difficulties, for the par- thenogenetic females must bear male tendencies, but according to the theory they lack them. Beard has suggested that this can be explained by ‘assuming two types iof eggs, sexual female- producing type, which must be fertilised, and male-producing type, where the female tendency is replaced by a latent male tendency. The assumption of a Jatent male tendency seems to me, however, to be too speculative in nature to warrant accept- ance. A reversal of Correns’ formula soi that the females are heterozygous and the male homozygous offers the same kind of difficulties, for, as in the Castle theory, the female tendency is eliminated at maturation of the parthenogenetic egg, and yet the sperm brings into the egg that tendency. In the foregoing brief account ‘of these theories of sex I have given very few objections to them, but reference to the literature of the subject will at once demonstrate that the difficulties are very numerous and are sufficiently great to warrant scepticism before they are accepted. Doncaster has formulated another view, in which it is supposed that the female is heterozygous for sex but that the male produces two kinds of spermatozoa, one of which contains a male determinant, but the other lacks any deter- minant for sex. The difficulty of accounting for the facts. observed in the bees, ‘etc., again arises. ; Doncaster suggested that the presence of a sperm in the egg influences the maturation in such a way as to cause normal maturation to occur. Then the chromosomes are halved both quantitatively and qualitatively and ‘the male determinant is eliminated. If the egg maturates without fertilisation the female determinant is removed. In this way the spermatocytes contain a single male determinant ‘which passes into one spermatid, leaving the other without any determinant. This latter is the abortive bud which degenerates. All spermatozoa then contain. the male determinant and 4fter fertilisation the sperm by its presence causes the male determinant of the egg to be eliminated. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917), Vo. 2 21 This hypothesis of sex was developed! to account for the phenomena observed in the sex determination of Abraxus grossu- lariata and in Neuroterus lenticulans. In Neuroterus lenticularis after spermatogenesis there would be two kinds of sperms formed, one kind possessing the male determinant ¢ the second lacking it@. Thus after fertilisation there will be two types of zygote, one male-producing, g Q the other female-producing, 9? ©. At maturation the ¢ 9? type will expel the female determinant and develop into a male, while {the other, which undergoes no maturation, will produce a female. Male prod. female. Female prod. female. $2 “© Reductive Division No reduction. Hi 3 Egg 2? © 6 Males. Sexual females. Spermotozoa Spermatozoa Egg. 3 © ¢ The female determinant is transmitted to all the eggs of the sexual females of the Summer generation, because the element remains in the pronucleus of the egg fat maturation. This suggestion of Doncaster, though explaining many phe- nomena, is highly speculative, as he admits, and must, I think, be treated with due reserve. The foregoing theories have all had their origin in the assumption that sex determination is a qualitative phenomenon, and that the eggs and spermatozoa carry a factor or ‘determinant, which causes the production of either male or female. Another theory propounded by Wilson and lately assumed by Castle presumes that sex production is brought about by a quantitative action of the germ cells. In an earlier part of the paper it was stated that in many animals the chromosome number in the male was found to be less than in the female, thus in Protenor the X element is ‘single in the male, double in the female. According to Wilson and Castle the determinants are not male or female respectively, but the female is quantitatively greater in some substance, probably a form of nuclear matter, than the male; thus “ femaleness is due to maleness plus some- 2k CuTLer, Parthenogenesis in Animals thing else.” The first objection to the hypothesis is the inherit- ance of certain characters in the Lepidoptera and Birds where it is necessary to assume that the order of things 1s reversed. As I have already mentioned ,however, there is evidence to show that in these two groups there is an odd element in the female. This is a very remarkable confirmation of the theory of the connection between chromosomes and sex, and as Doncaster remarks, “It can hardly be coincidence that the spermatozoa should be dimorphic in respect of a chromosome in the forms in which sex limited inheritance by the male takes place, and the eggs dimorphic in the same waly in those in which sex limited transmission is by the female. How then does this theory accord with the facts of partheno- genesis? In the Ants, Bees and Wasps a male is produced from eggs which have undergone reduction in the chromosome number. This is also the case with Hydatina senta, and probably so in Litomastix. Thus the female has the diploid, the male the hap- loid chromosome number. If, as Nachsteim suggests, in the bee, two of the chromosomes are sex chromosomes, in the female one of them is extruded at maturation and the egg will develop into a male. As all the spermatozoa of the male contains the sex chromosomes females must result from fertilisation. Whether the sex chromosomes are present or not in the female does not affect the theory, for the important point is that the male con- tains half the number of chromosomes found in the female. The observations of Jack and Wheeler, showing that in rare cases workers may produce females from the unfertilised eggs, cannot be discussed until the cytology of these eggs is investi- gated. Three possibilities are open to account for this variation. (A.) There may be two maturations, but both equational, as in the Saw-fly, Pcecilosoma luteolum. (B.) There may be but one maturation division which is not reductive. (C.) There may be non-disjunction of sex chromosomes, if these exist. This phenomenon of non-disjunction was suggested by Bridges as the result of work on Drosophila. . He found that on rare occasions the sex chromosomes of the egg stick together at the maturation divisions, and are both extruded with the polar body or both remain in the female pronucleus. If, in the case of the bee, both chromosomes remained in the female pronucleus the resulting insect would be a female. Rhoditis and Peecilosoma.—In both these insects females are almost invariably produced from the unfertilised eggs, and the maturation divisions are in {both cases equational, which is in a \ Ne ra Manchester Memoirs, Vol. ixit. (1917), No. 2 23 accordance with the theory. The rare occurrence of males is of interest, but at present we are entirely ignorant as to whether there is any difference in the maturation of those eggs from which males are produced. It may be that the males develop as in the bee, or there may be non-disjunction where the sex chromosomes are extruded with the polar nucleus. Lastly, the case of the Aphids must be considered. No re- ductive division occurs in the parthenogenetic eggs, but the males and females are hatched from them. In all cases investi- gated, however, the eggs from which males develop eliminate one or more chromosomes, which are retained in female-producing eggs. . Wilson has himself pointed out that in plants both males and females are formed from asexual spores, and that these spores usually contain the haploid chromosome number. This of course seems to be contrary to the theory, but it is possible that the male-producing ones may be characterised by the absence of one or more elements found in the female ‘spores. Goldschmidt (1917) put forward a view almost identical with the theory given above. He believes that the production of sex is a quantitative phenomenon due to two: factors, one of which is carried in the sex chromosome, the other by the cytoplasm of the egg. His reasoning is practically the same as that of Wilson. The chief importance of the suggestion is the possi- bility that the cytoplasm may be a carrier of inherited qualities. There is much evidence for this belief, but there is also a ten- dency to regard the nucleus as the only factor of importance in the study of problems of heredity. This is a mistaken idea, and if the cytoplasm be excluded from all study, advance in our know- ledge of the laws of heredity will be diminished. The evidence given in a previous part of the paper is suffi- cient to show that the sex of ‘an individual is affected by external conditions, but there is also reason to believe that internal factors exert a very definite influence on sex production. The proba- bility is that these 'two sets of factors act together. The experi- ments of Geoffrey Smith are of importance in this connection. He found that as a result of parasitism by Sacculina male crabs assume the female characters and may, even produce ova in the testes. Further, he demonstrated that metabolic changes occurred during the parasitism, with the result that the meta- bDolism of the affected male became almost identical with that jof the normal female. Great differences are also known to’ exist between the blood of male and female of the same species of many Lepidoptera. Observations such as these give rise to the suggestion that the differences between the two sexes are those pf metabolism. As Doncaster says in his paper, “ Chromosomes, Heredity and Sex,” the general conclusion must be that although 24 CuTLER, Parthenogenesis in Animals the observations connecting a particular chromosome with the determination of one sex are in many, cases indisputable; there is no evidence to show how this chromosome acts; and that since the sex of the offspring is in some cases modified by the environment, it is probable that the presence of the chromosome is associated with a particular kind of cell metabolism, of which sex 1s to be regarded rather as a visible expression than a cause. Dinophilus.—I have left to the end a brief account of the mode of development of these animals, because it is so curious and unparalleled by any other organism that it 1s impossible at present to connect it with any scheme of sex determination. Two kinds of eggs are laid, differing in size; from the larger one females develop and from the smaller one males. These two types of eggs are laid in the same capsule. It was formerly thought that both these eggs required to be fertilised in order to develop, but the recent work of Shearer shows that this is not the case, for the larger female-producing eggs conjugate with the sperm nucleus, while in the male- progneas eggs no conjugation occurs. In Dinophilus gyrociliatus, the species on which Shearer worked, the rudimentary males hatch from the egg in a very short time, and are sexually mature. The females, on the other hand, when they hatch are in a larval condition, and definite ova are at this stage not yet developed. In spite of this, copulation at once occurs, and the spermatozoa find their way to the place where ova will be formed. As soon as the primitive oogonial cells appear they are at once joined by the sperm which penetrates into the cells. The sperm nucleus becomes situ- ated close to the oogonial nucleus, and. when the cells divide both nuclear elements divide simultaneously. ‘This continues for from torty to fifty divisions. Occasionally, however, the female nucleus divides first and the male nucleus is excluded from one of the daughter cells which are produced. Thus a condition is brought about in which some of the cells contain the whole of the male nucleus together with half the female nucleus, while others contain only half the female nucleus. This is the stage at which sex is determined: for those cells containing male and female elements will become female-pro- ducing eggs, while the male-producing eggs are developed from the oogonial cells containing only the female element. It will be noted that in the cells containing both male and female nuclear elements no fusion has at present taken place, and it is not until a late development of the egg that fusion of the male and female nucleus occurs. Further, in neither the male or female eggs has there been any trace of maturation divisions. These divisions do occur, Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xit. (1917), Wo. 2 25, but not until after the fusion of the male and female nucleus. Thus we have the extraordinary phenomenon of fertilisation pre- ceding maturation. Shearer was unable to obtain a detailed account of maturation of the eggs, but there appears to be twenty somatic chromosomes in both male and female. Two polar bodies are given off by both types of eggs, and in each case twenty chromosomes are extruded and twenty remain in the egg. What occurs in the formation of the second polar body of the female egg is not known, but in the male egg ten double chromo- somes are again extruded, leaving ten double ones in the egg. As Shearer remarks, the two most remarkable results of this work are the way in which fertilisation occurs, and maturation occurring after fertilisation. The maturation divisions are also very puzzling, and cannot be satisfactorily explained. The whole difficulty is so admirably expressed by Shearer that I cannot do better than quote his own words: “ With regard to matura- tion divisions, I am forced to admit that their evidence i 1s very puzzling, and I am quite unable to’ explain them at present. In the case of the male egg, ‘we should expect, as this has not been fertilised, and is therefore in a sense developing partheno- genetically, it should agree with the development of the male parthenogenetic ©g8 of Rotifers, and other forms, where they develop in the “n” condition, where “n” represents the reduced number of Tees This is certainly not the case in Dinophilus, where the male egg, after reduction (if any reduction takes place), possesses apparently the full 2n number. It is, however, possible that the male egg of Dinophilus is similar to that of the Phylloxerans, which develops in the 2n—1 or —2 condition, as it is difficult accurately to count the chromosomes in the segmentation divisions of the male egg on account of their small size. In the female egg we should expect them, since they have been fertilised before reduction, to be in the 2n-+n condition if we consider the sperm ‘to bring in the n number. In the first maturation division of the egg we should expect to find at least thirty chromosomes, whereas their number is somewhere about twenty. On the other hand, if we suppose the female germ cells to be in the “n” condition when they appear in the’ ovary, then after fertilisation they should show the 2n number of chromo- somes, which agrees with the facts, but ‘does not explain how the male egg, which has not been fertilised, is nevertheless in the 2n—I or —2 condition. Therefore, from whatever point of view we choose to regard it, there is no way of eee the facts of maturation divisions into line at present.”* * The question of sex production and the early differentiation, during develop ment, of germ cells from somatic cells has been ably discussed by Hegner i in a long series of papers. The whole matter is summarised in his book ‘‘ The Germ-Cell Cycle in Animals.” New York, 1914. 26 Cuter, Parthenogenesis in Animads INHERITANCE IN PARTHENOGENESIS. The inheritance of characters in parthenogenetic animals has not, up to the present, been greatly investigated. In 1899 ‘Warren inquired into the inheritance of the ratio between the length of the protopodite of the antenne and the body length in Daphnia magna. He found that the parental correlation was 0-466 + 0-054 (founded on 23 parents and 96 offspring), and the -grandparental one 0-27 + 0-12 (founded on 7 grandparents and 26 offspring). This denoted that there might be a diminution of the correlation as the ancestral distance was increased, but very few individuals were investigated. Similar results were obtained by investigations made upon the Aphid, Hyalopterus trirhodus. Here the characters employed were (1) distance be- tween the eyes; (2) the length of the mght antenna’; (3) the ratio of (1) and (2). About this time Johannsen published the result of work done with Phaseolus vulgaris. Two characters were chosen for investi- gation, the weight of the beans:and tthe ratio between the width and length. All the descendants arising from a single plant by self-fertilisation were called pure lines, and a number of these pure lines constituted a population. Experiment showed that in such a population the variations followed the normal curve and the correlation between the parent and offspring was 0-336 +oo12. When, however, pure lines were considered the varia- tions still followed the normal curve, but the correlation between the parent and offspring was nil. Further, the deviations of the parents from the mean were not inherited. Jennings’ extensive work on Paramoecium has in a marked way confirmed these conclusions. The recent .experiments of Agar are probably the most detailed that have appeared on the subject of inheritance and parthenogenesis. He chose as his animals two species of Simo- cephalus, one species of Daphnia and an Aphid, Macrosiphum antherinii. In the two species of Simocephalus the character used was the body length measured at the first instar and the first adult instar, and in the species of Daphnia the ratio between the posterior spine of the carapace and the body length. The results of the investigations showed that in a monoclonal popula- tion (one known to have descended from a single ancestor) the ancestral correlation coeffictents were insignificant, also there was no trace of Mendelian segregation. In general the conclu- sions were in complete agreement with those of Johannsen. In the experiments with the Aphid the characters chosen were those employed by Warren. The ancestral correlation Manchester Memoirs, Vol, lxtz. (1917), No. 2 24 co-efficients for the two species given below are reproduced from Agar’s paper. | Macrosiphum: Antherinui. Hyalopterus Trirhodus. Parental Grandparental Parental Grandparental: I17 parents | 54 grandparents 60 parents 30 grandparents and and and and 124 offspring. 60 offspring. 398 offspring. 291 offspring. Antenna |0'482+0 a) 0'165 +0°085| 0°427 + 0'029 | 0°177 + 0°038 Frontal Breadth] 0°433 40'049/ 0°231 + 0°082| 0°335 +0°031 | 0°321 +0 035 Ratio ...| 0°235 0°057 |-0°002 + 0°087| 0°439 + 0028 | 0'230 + 0'037 | It will be seen that the two results show a certain degree of similarity. and, as Agar says, “ afford) a certain presumption that the co-efficients are due to the physiological relationship between the grandparent, parent, and offspring, and not the accidental results of extrinsic causes.” Reasons are, however, offered for not accepting this conclu- sion too readily; thus there 1s the possibility that the viviparous nature of the animals and their short life history may have an effect in the result; for the maternal nutrition may have in- fluenced the size of the offspring, which was not able to attain the normal one during the short life of the insect. Further, the characters investigated were dimensional ones which are easily influenced by environment. In this connection it must also be noted that in Simocephalus exspinosus there was no evidence of any diminution of the correlation coefficients as the scale of ancestry was increased. The many variations which occur in Aphis averne led Ewing to study the inheritance of some of the characters of this insect. The conditions in which the parthenogenetic females lived were kept as far as possible constant. Pure lines were raised from these females and the mean for the characters investigated was determined in each case and found to be very constant. When extreme variants of a pure line were selected to act as parents for further lines, the mean obtained was the same as that of strains which had not been specially selected. Also the fraternal mean of a generation often exhibited great fluctuatoins from the mean of the strain, but these fluctua- tions were not inherited. Finally in 1915 a paper was published by McBride and Jack- son on the inheritance of colour in a stick insect, Carausius morosus. In this animal the colour patterns of the adults are 28 CuTLER, Parthenogenests tn Animals very numerous, but whatever may be,the colour of the parent all the parthenogenetically produced offspring were alike in having a pattern of green and brown. It fis as ‘growth proceeds that the different colour characteristics of the adults are gradually produced. Also there was no evidence, as regards green or brown, that the colour of the mother had any influence on the proportion of the young which finally assumed these hues. ARTIFICIAL PARTHENOGENESIS. The second part of the paper deals with the remarkable ex- periments which have been performed on the eggs of various animals, not normally parthenogenetic, causing them to develop without the action of the spermatozoon. This phenomenon has been termed artificial or experimental parthenogenesis. I do not intend to give more than a very, general outline of the work which has been done, as the subject is fully treated in Loeh’s book, “Artificial Parthenogenesis,” and also in that of Delarge and Goldsmith, pala parthénogenése naturelle et experimentale.” Though artificial parthenogenesis has only assumed a prominent place in biological literature during the last few years, the pheno- menon was noted by a few observers much earlier. Boursier in 1847 stated that a virgin silkworm placed in sun- hght and then in shade ‘had produced ‘eggs from! which cater- pillars had developed. Tichomoroff in 1886 published a short note on the artificial parthenogenesis in insects, in which he described how he had obtained caterpillars from a few unfertilised eggs (6 out of 99) of the silkworm by rubbing them between two pieces of cloth. This experiment is open to doubt, as later work has demonstrated that a small proportion of unfertilised eges of the silkworm will develop without outside aid. In 1902 the same naturalist used ‘as the stimulating agent concentrated sulphuric acid with marked SUCCESS O. Hertwig, in 1890, by shaking the eggs of Astropecten and Asterias induced the first stages of development, and in 1899 Loeb found that cleavage of unfertilised eggs of the sea urchin could be induced by the action of hypertonic sea-water. Since this date the number of workers have been exceedingly numerous and development has been induced by the most diverse means. I shall therefore content myself with giving! a brief resumé of the most important theories that have been deduced from ex- periments, together with a short account of some of the more important experiments performed. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt. (1917), Wo. 2 29 ‘THEORY OF LOEB. Loeb’s, early experiments were undertaken to discover the action of various acids on the unfertilised eggs of sea urchins. He found that cell cleavage could be induced by the action of HCl, HNO,, H.SO, etc., but after a few cleavages had occurred disintegration followed. Further development up’ to the plutei stage was effected in the original method by the use of a hypertonic solution of sea-water. The concentration of normal sea-water was raised 50 per cent. by the addition of sodium chloride. Unfertilised eggs were placed in this solution for two hours and then removed to normal sea-water.’ By further experiment it was found that practically any salt, so long as not actually poisonous, would effect the same result provided that the concentration of the water was raised 50 per cent. Thus it seemed that the stimulus for development was not due to any specific action of certain salts but to a change in the osmotic pressure. When eggs are fertilised by a sperm there is produced round the egg a membrane, known as the fertilisation membrane, also the eggs rise to the surface of the liquid. These two results of fertilisation were not produced by the artificial method described above. This led Loeb to devise a fresh series of experiments. Eggs of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus were placed for one minute in a solution lof 500 cc. of sea-water to which 3 cc. iof a decinormal fatty acid| had been added. The fertilisation membrane was produced, but segmentation did not occur. If, however, after being thus treated they were placed in a hypertonic solution of sea-water the eggs developed. This result was obtained with many of the monobasic fatty acids, such as formic, acetic, propionic, butyric. Summarising the results of many observations, we may say that substances causing hemolysis also cause membrane formation, for instance, saponin, bile salts, hydrocarbons, ether, etc. The theories that Loeb has formulated are many, but they are all purely chemical. The membrane formation was first supposed to be produced by the lhquidation of fatty substances which are resident on the egg surface. As a corollary of its formation oxidations are set up in the eggs, which if allowed to continue cause disintegration, and finally the death, of the eggs so treated. These oxidations are caused because the fatty substances round the egg prevent the diffusion of OH tons, but acids and the substances favouring membrane formation dissolve the surface fats and render the egg ‘permeable to the action of ions. The action is further supposed to consist in their com-: bination with the albuminoid substances in the egg to form new 30 CuTLeR, Parthenogenesis in Animals substances, which alter the power of the protoplasm to absorb water. This view has, however, been partially given un by the author in favour of a later one, in which it is suggested that the tons act by their electric charges causing modifications of those of the colloids. Loeb definitely established that oxidisation is increased by membrane formation, and this oxidation, if allowed to continue, prevents development from proceeding further than a few cell cleavages. The action of the hypertonic solution, which enables development to continue to late stages, is to inhibit or alter the internal oxidations of the egg. Further, the solution must be alkaline, if neutral the egg ‘breaks up into vesicles; also the action of the solution will only take place in the presence of free oxygen. In what way then is the development influenced? Here again Loeb’s explanation is chemical. The solution causes the formation of a substance or substances which orientate the development into the right direction, or control the first phase, that is, the membrane formation phase. This is brought about by the synthesis from the protoplasm of specific nuclein sub- stances of the nucleus, and this synthesis is again the result of an oxidation which is not of the same nature as the first one. It is mecessary to note that this second oxidation is not the direct result of the hypertonic solution, but 1s a consequence of dehy- dratton. Dehydration produces changes in the chemical equili- brium of the protoplasm, resulting in the dissociation of electro-- lytes. Loeb thus concludes that the sperm in fertilisation brings into the egg two substances :— (1) A catalyser which causes membrane formation. (2) A corrective substance which modifies the action of the first producing normal development. The foregoing theories are highly ingenious, but are perhaps too speculative in character to be taken as explaining the whole process of fertilisation. Also the author is so incuicated with the chemical aspects of the problem that he is in danger of overlooking the probability that many of the phenomena may have physical explanations. Further, as will be seen later, there are many eggs of various. species of animals which do not require to be treated by the above methods; for instance, there is no need to use hypertonic sea-water in order to obtain parthenogenesis in the eggs of Polynoe, Lottia or Acmza. These if acted upon by catalytic substances and then transferred to alkaline solutions, hyper- tonic or not, will readily develop. Manchester Memotrs, Vol. (xtt. (1917), No. 2 31 THEORY OF DELARGE. Delarge was one of the first to undertake work on artificial parthenogenesis. In rgo1 he tried the effect of various chloride salts on the eggs of starfish and! sea urchins, and obtained de- velopment up to the blastula stage. The theory with which he is associated, however, was developed as a continuation of his views in regard to the mechanism of cell division. In 1898 Montgomery showed that it was not necessary for the male and female pronucleus to fuse in order for development to take place. Delarge extended this observation by a series of others in which he was able to get fertilisation of enucleated pieces of egg. Cell division-is, according to this observer, a series of coagu- lations and liquefactions of the colloidal protoplasm. This con- ception was then extended to account for artificial partheno- genesis. As acids are usually coagulators and alkalies liquefiers of protoplasm, Delarge treated unfertilised eggs first with HCl and then with ammonia; by this means development was induced. In later experiments tannin was employed as the coagulating substance, with much better results, for by this method develop- ment proceeded to its final stage and young sea urchins were obtained. Later in the investigations tannate of ammonia was used with good results. This was explained by saying that the tannin was a feeble acid and the ammonia, a base; when in solution separa- tron occurred between the two substances and each worked separately. In comparison with the work of Loeb, it 1s of interest that Delarge demonstrated that the presence of free oxygen was unnecessary for inducing parthenogenesis, and also that a hyper- tonic solution was not of vital importance. The theory is different from Loeb’s in that there is not called into play any special chemical substances. The substances neces- sary for development are already resident in the egg and only, require to be set into motion. According to Loeb, the necessary stimulus for this is the chemical substances brought in by the sperm, according to Delarge the substances will arrange them- selves in the requisite manner under the influence of molecular forces. The nuclear membrane, centrosomes, achromatic spindle and the chromosomes are transient features of the cell, appear- ing and disappearing in the protoplasm as though they were in a state of a sol or a gel. The agents employed for artificial parthenogenesis then act as coagulators and liquefiers, thus pro- ducing a series of coagulations and liquefactions. which culminate in development. The feeble point in the theory 1s that these 32 CurLer, Parthenogenesis in Animals cyclic coagulations and liquefactions, which are supposed to occur in, a dev eloping egg, have never been satisfactorily demonstrated, and until this has been done the theory must of necessity remain a speculation. THEORY OF LILLIE. This theory has analogies with the preceding one. Lillie maintains that in the egg there is a latent mechanism, which can be set into action by various substances. While Loeb con- siders that this is caused by intra-cellular oxidations set in motion by catalysers, Lille takes up the position that the action is due to increased permeability of the egg membrane and not to any specific chemical substance. Dev elopment is always preceded by mitotic divisions of the cell, and as there is evidence that during this division there is a change in the cell permeabilfty, Lillie concluded that this is the direct agent in artificial parthenioe genesis. In 1910 he wrote: “ The egg is to be regarded from a simple physico-chemical point of view as a chemically complex semi-fluid colloidal system, enclosed by a semi-permeable surface layer, the plasma membrane, which is the seat of electrical polari- sation. Increase in permeability will evidently produce both chemical and physical changes in such a system; the chemical changes follow from altered conditions of interchange with the surroundings, as already seen, and involve disturbances of chemical equilibrium in the egg; these latter, on the present theory, initiate the chemical transformations which find expres- sion in the mitotic process. The chief physical changes from the present point of view would be ja decrease in the electrical potential difference normally existing between the exterior and interior of the cell. The seat of this potential difference on the membrane theory is the plasma membrane which appears to be electrically polarised in such a way as to have its outer surface constantly at a considerably higher potential than its inner; ‘this condition, the physiological polarisation, is a function of the im- permeability of the plasma membrane to ions other than certain cations, probably hydrogen ions. Here more or less complete fall of potential, ¢.e, depolarisation, must follow an increase of sur- face permeability sufficient to allow ready passage of anions, such depolarisation will be accompanied by increased surface tension. Alteration of surface tension thus induced form, in all probability, an important, if not the chief factor, in the charac- teristic changes of cell cleavage.” This conclusion was deduced from experiments, of which the following are examples :— gs of Arbacia punctulata were found to lose Unfertilised eg hen placed in isotonic solutions of various salts. their pigment w Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti. (1917), No. 2 pe These salts, however, were not equal in regard to their power of action, thus, Cl "and of ‘the upper /face’ of the leaves) LEIOPTILUM SARCOPHYLLUM VIRGULARIA ACANTHOPTILUM RENILLA (Wilson 1884, page 18) 2 LicutTsown, Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea This statement however, as recently pointed out by Professor Hickson, does not cover the whole facts of the case. ‘‘Since that “‘date Niedermeyer (1911, p. 36) has stated he could not find the “mesenteric filaments of Pteroeides griseum. On examining a ““series of preparations of Pt. malayense, Pt. caledonicum, Pt. “‘timorense, and Pt. argenteum, I could find no trace of dorsal ‘“‘mesenteric filaments, but in a similar preparation of Pt. ‘““Steenstrupu they were present and of considerable size. In the “‘genus Pteroeides therefore they are sometimes present and some- ' “times absent. This is also true for Umbellula and Pennatula. In “‘the large siphonozooids of the petaloid areas of U. Carpenteri “‘these filaments are present and well developed but in the small ‘““siphonozooids of the stem and stalk they are absent. In the ‘“‘siphonozooids of Pennatula phosphorea (Marshall 1882, p.46) “‘they are present and also in those of P. grandis but in the “‘siphonozooids of P. Murrayi they are absent.’’ (Hickson 1916, p.10). Mesenteric filaments have been recorded for a few other isolated species by recent writers as noted in the text of this paper. This research therefore was undertaken to investigate the dis- tribution of these filaments in the siphonozooids of the order Pennatulacea. For this purpose Professor S. J. Hickson most kindly placed at my disposal the whole of his preparations of the Pennatulacea from the Dutch ‘‘Siboga’’ Expedition and many specimens from his private collection. METHODS. In all species the siphonozooids were first examined whole, by cutting out a piece of the body wall or leaf and dissecting away the underlying tissue, slowly decalcifying in a weak solution of nitric acid in 70 per cent alcohol, and staining with Grenacher’s haema- toxylin. Where further examination was required transverse or longitudinal serial sections (Su — 6y thickness) of the siphono- zooids were made, and in these also Grenacher’s haematoxylin was found to give the best results. In many species, notably in those of Anthoptilum, sections in which this stain was used showed a dis- tinct double stain when washed in acid alcohol, the ectoderm off the stomodaeum and filaments appearing bright red, all other endodermal and mesodermal tissues bluish purple. This red stain however faded to a uniform purple on neutralising with alkaline alcohol, or even on exposure to sunlight; hence, in most of the permanent preparations the mesenteric filaments are not so strik- ingly contrasted with other structures as at the first examination. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) Wo. 4 3 Where the above methods failed to reveal filaments by reason of the contracted condition of the tissues, or of the presence of foreign matter in the coelenteric cavities, it was found that their presence could be demonstrated in longitudinal sections of the siphonozooids about 0.5 m.m. in thickness, cut by hand from a piece of tissue previously hardened for two or three hours in absolute alcohol. STRUCTURE OF SIPHONOZOOIDS. The siphonozooids of Pennatulacea are distinguishable from the autozooids by reason of their lack of tentacles (with the exception of certain zooids in Umbellula and Chunella which possess one tentacle) : the presence of a wide ciliated groove, the siphonogylph, down the ventral length of the stomodaeum: the comparatively slight development of the eight mesenteries: and the absence of longitudinal retractor muscles and gonads on the mesenteries. Mesenteric filaments are never found on the six ventral mesen- teries ; they may or may not occur on the dorsal mesenteries. The structure of the dorsal filaments and their ectodermic origin is well described by Wilson (1884, p.12) and little need be added to his account. It may be noted throughout the order that there is extraordinarily little variation in the structure and shape of the filament: the Y-shape in transverse section is constant, the two lateral lobes containing nuclei which stain deeply, the medium groove appear- ing clear. The diagrams given are typical for many species of the order. (Figs. I. and II.) There is a slight variation in the width of the filament in different species, and to a greater extent in the length; also in certain species the filaments appear straight or slightly curved, and in others they are considerably convoluted. How far this latter con- dition is natural, or to what extent produced by killing and fixing I am unable to state. It is recorded of fully expanded living polyps of Alcyonium or Paralcyonium (Wilson 1884, p.13) that the ventral endodermic filaments constantly change their form, being thrown into convolutions by the contractions of the mesenteries, but “the straight ectodermic filaments present a very different appearance.’’ If this is correct for the siphonozooids it might be expected that the part of the mesentery below the stomodaeum would shew signs of contraction in the tentacular zooids of Umbellula Carpenteri for example, but there is no appearance of such contraction. Marshall figures a siphonozooid of U. gracilis (1883 Plate XXV., fig. 33) with the filaments considerably coiled. 4 LicHTBown, Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea OCCURENCE OF FILAMENTS IN GENERA EXAMINED. Where the number of species under consideration is limited and incompletely representative it is impossible to make any absolute generalisations: furthermore, subsequent re-classification may destroy their value to some extent. It will be noted that the sub- mergence of two of Kélliker’s genera creates anomalies in Wilson’s list. The following conclusions then can be applied only within the limits of the investigation. Mesenteric filaments are present, with the single exception of Renilla, throughout the siphonozooids of the more primitive genera, that is in those genera where autozooids and siphonozooids occur together on the rachis, or where the autozooids are arranged in very primitive leaves :— LITUARIA FUNICULINA VERETILLUM PROTOPTILUM CAVERNULARIA CHUNELLA ACTINOPTILUM UMBELLULA ECHINOPTILUM OSTEOCELLA KOoPpHOBELEMNON PAVONARIA SCLEROBELEMNON ANTHOPTILUM In the Virgularias however the filaments are not developed in any species except V. Schultzei which is unique in the genus in having the siphonozooids on the leaves. In the genus Pennatula, the filaments were present in every species examined except P. Murrayi. For Leioptilum and Pteroeides no general statement can be made: the filaments are present in some zooids and not in others. In the latter genus the majority of species are without filaments in the siphonozooids, their presence being noted only in two. In Acanthoptilum, Sarcophyllum and Scytalium the filaments are entirely absent so far as these genera have been investigated. A complete list of species examined will be found at the end of this paper. ° FUNCTION OF THE DoRSAL MESENTERIC FILAMENTS. It has been shown that the ventral siphonoglyph of the siphono- zooids produces inhalent currents of water into the canal system of : the colony (Hickson 1883, Wilson 1884). The dorsal filaments on the other hand produce a current in the opposite direction, i.e. exhalent. Wilson suggests that the circulation thus set up is for the distribution of food (nutritive fluid) amongst the zooids of the colony (I.c. p.16). It is probable also that the circulation is for the purpose of keeping up active respiration in the colony. That the Manchester Memoirs, Vol. ixit, (1917) Wo. & 5 siphonozooids are exhalent as well as inhalent in function is proved for Pennatula rubra by the observation of Mrs. Musgrave (Q.J.M. S. 1909, p.455) that ‘‘clouds of methylene blue squirted among them were immediately dispersed in an outward direction.’’ The fact that P. rubra has mesenteric filaments appears to confirm the theory that these are exhalent in function. It must further be noted that in a few species of Pennatulacea there occur large zooids recently named Mesozooids by Professor Hickson (1916, p.11) which are apparently exhalent in function. These mesozooids are characterised by having no tentacles, and ‘‘a large open stomodaeum with a weak siphonoglyph supported by eight mesenteries provided with strong muscle bands,’’ hence the water is probably ejected by the forcible contraction of the zooids by means of these muscles. They are found in Pennatula Murray, P. grandis, and many species of Pteroeides. It is suggested by Hickson that the exhalent zooid of Renilla (Wilson 1883) may be of the same nature, also the ‘‘Scheitelzooiden’’ described by Jungerson (1888) at the distal end of the rachis of young Pennatula phosphorea colonies. Zooids resembling mesozooids occur on the ventral side of the rachis in Sarcophyllum. CONCLUSIONS. In view of the foregoing facts it appears probable that all the More primitive species are provided with dorsal mesenteric fila- ments which subserve the function of causing exhalent currents, and in the one genus of these families where filaments are lacking, namely Renilla, an exhalent zooid is present. It is possible that Renilla should be considered to be a specialised and not a primitive form, the exhalent zooid marking a certain degree of specialisation. In the higher genera the mesenteric filaments are supplanted by zooids specially modified for the function of exhalence. This com- clusion is tenable for the cases of P. Murrayi, Sarcophyllum and most of the species of Pteroeides where filaments are absent and mesozooids present. In other species of Pennatula, P. phosphorea P. rubra, P. fimbriata, where mesozooids are not developed, the dorsal filaments do occur. In Pennat. grandis, Pter. pellucidum, Pter..Steenstrupii, meso- zooids and mesenteric filaments in the siphonozooids are present together. As these species closely resemble others of their genera in all essential characters, it can scarcely be held that the persist- ence of filaments denotes a lower grade of development, or that with further evolution the filaments would disappear and the specialised mesozooids acquire the exclusive function of exhaling water. As far as Pter. Steenstrupii is concerned the presence of 6 LiGHTBOWN, /ilaments in the Siphonozoords of Pennatulacea filaments would appear to have some connection with the size of the colony, for this species is unusually fleshy. The two single rows of mesozooids may be inadequate to discharge the water from an exceptionally extensive canal system, and therefore the filaments may have been retained to promote efficiency in this respect. As Pter. pellucidum is not more fleshy than most species of Pteroeides the same hypothesis cannot be advanced with equal weight. In this species however, according to Kélliker mesenteric filaments are present only on the zooid-plate of the lower surface of the leaves. In the fleshier Pter. Steenstrupii mesenteric filaments are present in the zooids on both sides of the leaf. The two species are similar (if one may judge from Kolliker’s figure of Péter. pellucidum (1872, fig. 34, Taf. IV.) in that the siphonozooids of the leaves are net so densely crowded together as in other Pteroeides. If mesenteric filaments were common to all species at some point in the generic phylogeny, those species in which the siphonozooids were sparsely distributed would possibly tend to keep their filaments functional while mesozooids were evolving ; where large numbers of siphonozooids were present many of these would at once become superfluous and the tendency for the fila- ments to degenerate would be established earlier. This may to some extent explain the presence of filaments in Pt. Steenstrupi, and in some zooids of Pt. pellucidum, the siphonozooids of the latter being more crowded than those of the former, but not so much as in other species. In the absence of any phylogenetic evidence on this matter, any hypothesis can only be put forward very tentatively. Throughout the order it may be stated that generally the mesen- teric filaments are present in the more fleshy species and absent in the slender forms. Thus the filaments are absent in Scytalium several species of Virgularia and Pennatula Murrayi. In Virgu- laria mirabilis where Marshall records the fact that it is the rule to find the top of the colony missing (1882, p.60) it has been suggested that water is ejected from the open ends of the longi- tudinal canals by the contraction of their walls, these open canals being analogous to exhalent zooids. Filaments are present in Funiculina which is a very slender and delicate form, but as there still appears to be a certain amount of doubt whether the undeveloped zooids bearing only dorsal filaments are true siphonozooids perhaps this exception may be left out of consideration. In slender species the colony even when fully dis-, tended can hold but little water, and this could readily be expelled by contraction of the delicate muscles of the rachis, the specialisa- tion of mesenteric filaments being unnecessary. The presence of filaments in the comparatively slender form or V. Schultzei may be accounted for by the consideration that the Manchester Memoirs, Vol. [xtt, (1917) iVo. 4& 7 leaves which bear the siphonozooids have little muscular tissue whose contraction could drive the water out from the colony; filaments are therefore present to serve this function. In other species of Virgularia contractions of the rachis doubtless serve to eject the water which has been inhaled by the siphonozooids. In some species of Umbellula siphonozooids are recorded in the basal bulb of the colony. It is not established beyond doubt that these possess mesenteric filaments, but if their presence be estab- lished it would be in accordance with the general statement made above. There is no reason to doubt that respiration goes on in this part of the colony, even if the normal position is buried in the sea-bottom mud or sand, and mesenteric filaments would promote the circulation of water in this fleshy region as in the tassel at the distal end, while the intermediate zooids of the very slender rachis would not require filaments. Finally it may be suggested that in some cases it would be advantageous to use the presence or absence of dorsal mesenteric filaments as a character for classification. There is no reason to suppose that this anatomical character is not constant for a given species, and in cases where local environmental conditions produced some modification or variation in external character it might prove a valuable guide in identification. Nores oN MESENTERIC FILAMENTS. Liruaria Hicxsonit. Thomson and Simpson. Siphonozooids mounted whole and viewed from the surface or from. below showed no indication of filaments but transverse sections through the zooids shewed them to be present in every zooid. The average width was 0.048 m.m; most of the filaments were very definitely Y-shaped in section, but others which did not appear well preserved were more rounded and the medium groove was not well marked. | VERETILLUM MALAYENSE. Hickson. Siphonozooids mounted whole showed no indication of mesen- teric filaments. The specimen viewed externally seemed to be well preserved but the internal tissues were not in a sufficient state of preservation to determine whether filaments were present or not. In longitudinal section there were signs of cells in continuation from the stomodaeum but the characteristic structure of filaments: was not evident. 8 LicHtTsown, Silaments in the Siphonozootds of Pennatulacea V. cynomorium. Pallas. In describing the character of the genus Veretillum, Kolliker (1872, p.331) states that mesenteric filaments are present. (It may be noted here that all K6lliker’s statements on mesenteric filaments are made as a generic character : it must be assumed therefore that they apply to all the species whose descriptions follow, even though in some cases it appears doubtful whether the author has verified the statement for every species). Kikenthal and Broch describing the same species (1911, p.515) also mention their presence—‘‘Die zwei dorsalen Mesenterialfilamente laufen bis zu dem Grunde der Leibeshéhie hinab.’”’ VER. (POLICELLA) AUSTRALIS, Gray. VER. (POLICELLA) MANILLENSIS, KO6lliker. Of these species the following observation is made: “‘Die Zooide von Policella messen im Mittel in der Lange bis zum Ende des Magens 0.18 - 0.20 m.m., in der Breite 0.36 - 0.45 m.m., wovon 0.09 -0.12 m.m. auf den innen mit Flimmern besetzten Magen kommen und zeigen ihre Mesenterialfilamente von 0.028 -0.032 m.m. Breite keine bestimmte Stellung im Vergleich zum Stocke. Die weiten Leibeshéhlen der Zooide ragen mit ihren Mesenterialfilamenten bis unter die Langsmuskeln der Cutis und gehen hier in ein spongiéses Gewebe tiber, dessen Abzugskandle in den Zwischenwanden der Polypenzellen zu verlaufen scheinen.’” Kélliker, 1872 p.320. CAVERNULARIA ELEGANS, Herklots. According to Kiikenthal and Broch, filaments are present on the dorsal mesenteries (1911, p.513). C. OBESA, Milne-Edwards and Haime. This species affords a marked contrast to C. orientalis being extremely fleshy and the siphonozooids densely crowded, rendering investigation difficult. The filaments are slightly coiled and rua down the narrow zooid cavity closely parallel for an average distance of 0.42 m.m. or about 24 times the length of the stomodaeum. Kiikenthal and Broch (1911 p.513) record the presence of filaments in the species. i @ C. ORIENTALIS, Thomson and Simpson. The filaments here are exceptionally well developed, and are very readily perceptible owing to the transparency of the tissues of the colony. In most of the siphonozooids these filaments extend for an appreciable distance beyond the bases of the coelentera into the subjacent canals. In an average sized siphon- Manchester Memoirs, Vol. ixtt, (1917) No. 4 9 zooid the total length of one of the filaments was 0.672 m.m. and of this a length of 0.192 m.m. projected beyond the coelenteric cavity. In all the siphonozooids of this specimen the filaments were fully extended and showed no convolutions or coils: seen from the external surface of the colony they curved out from the base of the stomodaeum, the two filaments forming an angle of from 45 -90 degrees. C. pusitya, Herklots. In describing this species under the name Stylobelemnon, Kolliker states that the siphonozooids have two mesenteric fila- ments. Recent writers however cast doubt on this observation: a: auch Mesenterialfilamente vermochte ich meist nicht soiree ea Nach KGlliker (1872 p.350) sllen zwei Mesen- terialflamente vorhanden sein, doch reichte der Erhaltungszustand meines Materials nicht aus, um wUberail mit Sicherheit das Vorkommen dieser beiden, jedenfalls den dorsalen Septen zugehérigen Filamente wiederzufinden. Nur an ein paar Stellen habe ich diese dorsalen Mesenterialfilamente erkennen k6nnen”’ (K. and B. 1911 p.513). As I have had no opportunity of examin- ing this species | am unable to add anything further to these statements. ACTINOPTILUM MOLLE, Kikenthal. This species is closely allied to the Cavernularias and similarly possesses well developed dorsal mesenteric filaments. ECHINOPTILUM ECHINATUM, Kikenthal and Broch. A specimen dredged by the “‘Valdivia’’ off Somaliland is describ- ed as having siphonozooids with straight powerfully developed dorsal septa bearing filaments (K. and B. p.518). E. ELONGATUM, Hickson. The filaments in this species are the longest observed in the genus and reach a length of 0.288 m.m. E. minimum, Hickson. Mesenteric filaments short: 0.16 - 0.18 m.m. in length and aver- age width 0.037 m.m. E. ROSEUM, Hickson. The filaments are narrow and only reach down for a distance equal to the length of the stomodaeum. As in the other species of the genera they are straight. E. roseuwm, E. elongatum and E., minimum are new species taken by the “‘Siboga’’ in the East Indian Archipelago. 10.©6©. Ligutspown, /ilaments in the Siphonoszootds of Pennatulacea KOPHOBELEMNON PAUCIFLORUM, Hickson. The mesenteric filaments are here very much coiled up. K. Burcert, Herklots. K. STELLIFERUM, Miller. L. Leucxartn, K6lliker. Filaments are recorded in the siphonozooids of these species (Kolliker 1872, p.303). The observation on L. stelliferum is con- firmed by Kiikenthal and Broch (1911, p.523). SCLEROBELEMNON BURGERI, Herklots. The filaments are very much coiled up, and in a preparation of the whole siphonozooids, are difficult to identify, being in most of the zooids hidden by the stomodaeum. FUNICULINA QUADRANGULARIS, Pallas. There is some doubt among writers on this genus as to whether the small zooids without tentacles occuring on the rachis are true siphonozooids or young autozooids. Marshall says of them ‘‘They have only two mesenterial fila- ments, viz. those corresponding to the two long filaments of the ‘ polyps: like these latter they extend to the bottom of the body cavity. The remaining six mesenteries are present, but their free edges below the stomach are not thickened to form mesenterial filaments.’’ (1882 p.19). It is further stated however—‘‘in the younger specimens there appears to be a gradual passage from zooids to polypes, though whether zooids are in all cases destined ultimately to grow up into polyps must be left for the present undecided.’’ Kikenthal and Broch consider the zooids in question to be siphonozooids (1911, p.527 and Fig. 100, Taf. XXVIII). In the specimen I examined there appeared to be no transition from siphonozooids to autozooids, and the smallest zooids with no ten- tacles bore well-developed dorsal filaments of typical structure (0.037 m.m. broad) and no others. PROTOPTILUM CELEBENSE, Hickson. In this species the mesenteric filaments are of the coiled type. DISTICHOPTILUM. y, No specimen of this genus has been available for investigation, and having found no reference to the anatomy of the siphonozooids in the literature of the genus, I am unable to make any statement with regard to mesenteric filaments. The species are more slender than Protoptilum but as filaments are so generally found in all these more primitive forms it is probable they occur here also. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt, (1917) Wo. 4 II (CHUNELLA GRACILLIMA, Kiikenthal. - In his description of this species in the memoir of the ‘‘Siboga’’ Expedition (1916 p.112) Hickson describes the siphonozooids “found on the dorsal side of the swellings of the rachis that bear the autozooids,’’ and mentions that in them the mesenteries are little developed, ‘‘but there appear to be two long mesenteric fila- ments connected with the stomodaeum of each siphonozooid.’’ Further it is stated that siphonozooids were not found on the rachis between these swellings. Beyond confirming the observation of filaments and noting that they were somewhat coiled, I have made no further examination, but it would be interesting to determine whether the siphonozooids described by Kiikenthal and Broch in the slender parts of the rachis between whorls of autozooids possess filaments or not. UMBELLULA ANTARCTICA, Kikenthal. The siphonozooids on the rachis possess considerably coiled dorsal mesenteric filaments. i examined a single preparation, made from this ‘‘Siboga’’ specimen, of a piece of the body wall from the basal swelling of the stalk. This tissue was stained in borax carmine, which is not very satisfactory for the present purpose, but in it a few scattered -siphonozooids were discernable. This point is of interest in view of the fact that their presence destroys the value of the morphological diagnosis made by Jungersen (1904 p.82) that “‘the zooidless part of the bulb corresponds to the peduncle (i.e. stalk) of other Penna- tulacea, and the greater part of the stalk from the beginning is to be regarded as the rachis.’’ This point is discussed by Hickson in the “‘Siboga’’ memoir (p.118). For the purpose of the present investigation I can make no dogmatic assertion on the presence of mesenteric filaments in these basal siphonozooids: certain rather yellowish sinuous bodies by the side of the stomodaeum in most of the zooids bear a strong resemblance to filaments, but the fact that they have absorbed little or no stain casts a certain amount of doubt on their identity, and from lack of material I am unable to make further preparations for confirmation. In my experience, whatever the state of preservation, mesenteric filaments stain as readily as the ectoderm of the stomodaeum, and to a greater extent than the epithelium and mesoderm of the surrounding tissue. Fila- ments would undoubtedly be of use in promoting circulation of water in this fleshy part of the colony. UMBELLULA CARPENTERI, KoOlliker. The siphonozooids of the ‘“‘petaloid’’ region of this species possess filaments of unusually large size. ‘The siphonozooids 12 LicutTsown, Filaments tn the Stphonozooids of Pennatulacea average 0.3 m.m. in diameter, with a stomodaeum measuring 0.2 m.m. in dorsiventral.diameter and every coelenteron appears to be almost filled with the large convoluted filaments, 0.096 m.m. in greatest width; so that at any level of a series of transverse sec- tions a single filament may be cut through transversely two or three times, or may appear cut longitudinally for a length of .2 to .3 m.m. In describing a specimen taken by the ‘‘Discovery’’ Hickson (1907 p.13) refers to the small siphonozooids from the upper part of the bulb, which he examined in transverse section, and says of these : ‘“The specimen is not sufficiently well preserved to enable me to state definitely that the dorsal mesenteric filaments are present, but certain groups of darkly stained cells situated below the stom- odaeum probably represent these structures.’’ I have examined the preparations mentioned and though the material is not sufficiently well preserved to show any minute structure, the position and stained condition of these bodies justifies the supposition that they represent filaments. U. Graciiis, Marshall. = U. Linpauti, Kolliker. Mesenteric filaments in the siphonozooids are described by Mar- shall for a specimen trawled by the ‘‘Triton’’ (1883 p.146) but the statement and accompanying diagram (Plate XXV. fig. 33) refer to the large tentacular siphonozooids towards the top of the rachis, _ and while the author mentions that the zooids decrease in size to- wards the base of the rachis, he does not state if filaments are present in all. Jungersen identifies the U. Lindahl of KGlliker with the above species and confirms the observation of filaments. (1904 p.77). U. Jorpani, Nutting. In this species also the filaments are well developed, being of considerable length, and coiled, though not to the same extent as those in U. Carpenteri. OSTEOCELLA SEPTENTRIONALIS, Gray. Siphonozooids in this large fleshy sea-pen occur scattered on the dorsal track of the rachis and between the leaves, and in all mesenteric filaments are well developed. PAVONARIA FINMARCHICA, Sars. PavonariA (Hauipr.) Curistu, Koren and Danielssen. Of the first of these species K6lliker (loc. cit. p.242) referring to the siphonozooids, says ‘‘die ich als die zwei langen Mesenterial- filamente deute, die bei den Zooiden so vieler Pennatuliden sich finden:’’ of the second species which was described under the generic name Halipteris a similar observation is made (p.248). Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxtt. (1917), Wo. 4 rE 3) ANTHOPTILUM GRANDIFLORUM, Verril. The filaments are slightly sinuous and average 0.045 m.m. in breadth. A. KUKENTHALI, Hickson. In a specimen of this species from the Indian Ocean, Mrs. Musgrave (1909 p.464) observed siphonozooids in the lower part of the stalk. Though small in size they had the usual structure of siphonozooids but differed from others of the colony in possessing no mesenteric filaments. It is interesting to compare this condition with that in Umbellula, where there is some evidence of the fila- ments being present in siphonozooids at the base of the stalk. The explanation may lie in the fact that in Anthoptilum a far greater number of large siphonozooids with well developed filaments is present in the colony, and these extend comparatively much nearer the basal bulb than in Umbellula. In Anthoptilum, therefore, the exhalent currents set up by the filaments of the siphonozooids of the rachis are sufficiently strong to discharge water from the stalk, whereas in Umbellula this is not the case, and filaments are necess- ary in the basal stalk zooids. A. MALAYENSE, Hickson. The filaments are here more slender than in A. grandiflorunw but are considerably more coiled, and extend in some zooids to a depth of 0.5 m.m. from the surface of the colony. In examining the siphonozooids in situ this coiled mass of filaments is very striking. VIRGULARIA GRACILLIMA, KOlliker. In the genus siphonozooids are comparatively few in number. In this species they are situated on the rachis between leaves, and mesenteric filaments are absent. V. Gustaviana, Herklots. In this species, which he described as Halisceptrum, K6lliker- (1872 p.168) observes that the corners of the lower free end of the stomodaeum appear almost like mesenteric filaments, but expresses- the doubt “‘doch habe ich mir nicht die Ueberzeugung zu verschaffen vermocht, dass diese Anhange wirklich diese Bedeutung haben.’’ It would be of interest if the occurence of short mesenteric filaments was definitely established in this species which is rather of a fleshy character and has a large number of siphonozooids. The same author describes fifteen species of Virgularia, and makes the general statement that mesenteric filaments are lacking. For reference, a list of these species is 14 LicutTsown, Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea appended, exclusive of species which I have personally examined — and species synonymous with such. 1 VIRGULARIA GLACIALIS, Sars. Fj eal AFFINIS, (= V. Steenstrupii) Kélliker. Ma Evuisi1, Gray. ae ELEGANS, Gray. ie PUSILLA, Verrill. ae GRACILIS, Gabb. Re ELONGATA, Gabb. Confirmatory evidence of the lack of filaments in siphonozooids of the species listed would therefore be valuable. V. JUNCEA, Pallas. Siphonozooids do not possess filaments. V. MIRABILIS, Lamarck. An examination of longitudinal sections through the siphono- zcoids appeared to confirm the Marshalls’ statement (1882, p.72) that the stomodaea are blind sacs. There is no indication of mesenteric filaments and if the above statement is correct the zooids would appear to be functionless. The specimen I investigated was however small in size, hence it is possible that with further growth the stomodaea might acquire an opening into the body cavities. V. Rumpui, Kolliker. The siphonozooids occur in vertical rows between the leaves, and in them mesenteric filaments are entirely absent. It may be noted here that in the young zooids occuring in a groove near the base -of the rachis well developed dorsal mesenteric filaments were found. This observation confirms the opinion expressed by Professor Hickson (1916, p.149) that these zooids are young or undeveloped autozooids. | When mature, autozooids possess eight mesenteric filaments, but where development has been followed the fact has ‘been established that the dorsal ectodermic pair are the first to -appear. Accordingly, as mesenteric filaments are absent in mature siphonozooids, their occurence in these undeveloped zooids coupled with the fact of the presence of young gonads on the mesenteries, -appears to place Hickson’s interpretation beyond doubt. ‘V. .SCHULTZEI, Kiikenthal. The species is remarkable in the genus in having the siphono- zooids on the leaves, and in the fact of these siphonozooids being provided with short but well developed sinuous filaments. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti. (1917), Wo. 4 15 _ PENNATULA FIMBRIATA, Herklots. Filaments are present, being in some zooids slightly convoluted and in others practically straight; in the latter they extend in some cases as far as 0.064 m.m. beyond the lower edge of the stomodaeum. P. GRANDIS, Ehrenberg ( = P. BOREALIS, Sars). In the normal siphonozooids large thick and much coiled fila- ments are present ; mesozooids are also present, occuring on the dorsal rachis at the edge of each leaf. P. Murray, Kolliker. Mesenteric filaments are absent in the siphonozooids, but the species resemble P. gvandis_in having mesozooids, on being found at the edge of each leaf, in the same position as in the latter species. P. PHOSPHOREA, Linnaeus. Filaments are present, being long, straight and rather slender : maximum breadth 0.032 m.m., length up to 0.56 m.m.This con- firms the observation of the Marshalls (1882, p.46). P. RuBRA, Ellis. The filaments are similar in size to those in the siphonozooids oi P. phosphorea. In a few of the zooids, however, I was unable to find them ; it is possible they may have been accidentally dissected away with the mesodermal tissue in making preparations, or may actually have been present but obscured by mesodermal fleshy tissue. As the number of zooids in which filaments were not observ- ed was comparatively small, the point is of little importance. It may be noted here that in a surface examination of pieces of P. rubra from the Bay of Naples, I saw no evidence of the large zooid near the dorsal edge of the leaf which was described by Kiikenthal and Broch for a specimen obtained from the Indian Ocean (1911, p.383). LEIOPTILUM QUADRANGULARIS, Moroff. The siphonozooids crowded on the dorsal side of the rachis and between the leaves, bear mesenteric filaments. Their presence is of interest in view of the fact that Kélliker found no filaments in L. undulatum, Verrill, from California and Mexico. Of Leiop- tilum and Sarcophylum this author says ‘‘In einem andern Punkte stimmen jedoch beide Gattungen tiberein, namlich in dem Mangel der Mesenterialfilamente in den Zooiden. Von den lateralen Zooiden 16 LIGHTBOWN, Filaments in the Stphonozootds of Pennatulacea hat jedes eine geraumige Leibeshéhle mit 8 Septa, die unterhalb | -des Magens in einen kurzen Kanal sich fortsetzt, an dem ich eben- falls keine Filamente finde. ”’ In Ptilosarcus Gurneyi, Gray, now called L. Gurneyi, Gray (vide Hickson p.188) K6lliker did find two mesenteric filaments ‘‘of ‘tolerable length’’ and subsequently cited the occurence of them as one of the diagnostic characters of the genus Piilosarcus. (1872, p. 368). In the same writer’s account of the British Museum specimen L. sinuosum (= Ptilosarcus sinuosus, Gray) there is no statement. regarding the filaments of the siphonozooids, but in L. Grayt ‘(= Sarcoptilis grandis, Gray) their absence is noted. (l.c. p.368). Scytatium Batssi, Hickson. S MartTensil, Koélliker. oF Sarsil, Herklots. Filaments are absent in the siphonozooids of the three above -species. PTEREOEIDES ARGENTEUM, Ellis and Solander. wi CALEDONICUM, KoOlliker. a GRISEUM, Bohadsch. uk MALAYENSE, Hickson. is sPEciosuM, K6lliker. ba TIMORENSE, Hickson. Filaments are absent in the siphonozooids of all the above Pteroeides species. -PTEROEIDES PELLUCIDUM, KoOlliker. Siphonozooids situated on the lower surface of the leaves are stated to possess mesenteric filaments by Kélliker (1872, p.38) with the qualification—‘‘Doch sah ich sie bei einzelnen Individuen auch fehlen und weiss ich nicht, ob denselben ein allgemeines Vorkommen, bei den verschiedenen Arten zuzuschreiben ist.’’ In -other zooids of the colony they are absent. PTER. STEENSTRUPII, KOlliker. The siphonozooids on the leaves of this species are not densely crowded in “‘plates’’ but occur scattered apart, some singly, others in small groups of six or fewer. Filaments are present in them on both upper and under surfaces of the leaf, and while these filaments are of approximately uniform breadth (0.023 m.m. — 0.018 m.m.) there is considerable variation in length (0.032 m.m. — 0.352 ‘m.m.). iaaty Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxit. (1917), Vo. 4 17 LIST OF SPECIES. In the following list of species discussed in this paper, an asterisk denotes those which have not been personally examined. The family names are omitted, but the grouping of genera is in accordance with the classification used by Professor Hickson (1916). 1 mes. | Dorsal mes. Genus and Species. Locality. Saurabh ipamiaed: fils. present. | fils. absent. LITUARIA HICKSONII, Molo Strait, Thomson and Simpson. E. Ind. Arch. + VERETILLUM MALAYENSE, Bay of Bima, doubtful - Hickson. E. Ind. Arch. *V. CYNOMORIUM, Pallas. S. Africa. + *V. (POLICELLA) AUSTRALIS, Sharks Bay, Gray. Australia. | t - * V. (POLICELLA) MANILLENSIS, | Philippine Is. Kolliker. *CAVERNULARIA ELEGANS, W. Coast Herklots. Central Africa. | + C. oBEsA, Milne-Ed. and Haime. | Andaman Is. C. ORIENTALIS, Amboyna, Thomson and Simpson. E. Ind. Arch. *C. (STYLOBELEMNON) PUSILLA, | Sicily. doubtful Herklots. ACTINOPTILUM MOLLE, Cape of Good Hope. if Kiikenthal. *ECHINOPTILUM ECHINATUM, Somaliland. + Kiikenthal and Broch. E. ELONGATUM, Hickson. Kangeang Is. + E. Ind. Arch. E. MINIMUM, Hickson. S. Coast Timor, + E. Ind. Arch. E. ROSEUM, Hickson. Off Kei Is., + E. Ind. Arch. *RENILLA MULLER], Schultze. Coast of Brazil. ( + KOPHOBELEMNON PAUCIFLORUM,| Djilolo, + Hickson. E. Ind. Arch. *K. BuRGERI, Herklots. Japan. + *K, LEUCKARTII, KoOlliker. ‘ + *K. STELLIFERUM, Miiller. Trondhjem fjord. + SCLEROBELEMNON BURGER], Molo Strait, + Herklots. E. Ind. Arch. 18 Licutsown, Filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea ‘ A Dorsal mes. | Dorsal mes. Genus and Species. Locality. fils. present. ; FUNICULINA QUADRANGULARIS, | W. coast Scotland. iT Pallas. PROTOPTILUM CELEBENSE, Celebes. if Hickson. *P. CARPENTERI, Kolliker. Atlantic. t *P, Smitri, Kélliker. Atlantic. ii *P. THOMSONI, KOlliker. Atlantic. ii CHUNELLA GRACILLIMA, E. Java Sea. + Kiikenthal. UMBELLULA ANTARCTICA, near Saleyer, ih Kiikenthal. E. Ind. Arch. U. CaRPENTERI, Kolliker. Antarctic Ice Barrier i U. GRACILIS, Marshall. N.W. coast'Scotland ii U. LInDAHLII, Kolliker. Greenland. il U. JorpDaANI, Nutting. S. Celebes. i OSTEOCELLA SEPTENTRIONALIS, } Gray. *PAVONARIAFINMARCHICA, Sars. + *P. (HALIPTERIS) CHRISTI, off E. coast it Koren and Danielssen. England. ANTHOPTILUM GRANDIFLORUM, Cape of Good Hope. + Verrill. A. KOKENTHALI, Hickson. Indian Ocean. + A. MALAYVENSE, Hickson. off Flores Is., if E. Ind. Arch. VIRGULARIA GRACILLIMA, E. Buton Strait, Kolliker. E. Ind. Arch. *V. (Halisceptrum) GUSTAVIANA, | China. Herklots. V. JUNCEA, Pallas. Saleyer, E. Ind. Arch. V. MIRABILIS, Lamarck. W. coast Scotland. V. RUMPHII, Kolliker. Menado, { E: Ind. Arch. V. SCHULTZEI, Kiikenthal. Cape of Good Hope. + PENNATULA FIMBRIATA, S. coast Timor, 1 Herklots. E. Ind. Arch. P. GRANDIS, Ehrenberg. Faero Is. + P. MurRRAYI, Kolliker. coast Timor Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1917), Mo. 4 19 ; E Dorsal mes. | Dorsal mes. Genus and Species. Locality. fils. present. | fils. absent. P. PHOSPHOREA, Linnzus. Naples. t P. RUBRA, Ellis. Naples. it *ACANTHOPTILUM AGASSIZII, off French Reef, t Kolliker. Gulf Stream. *A, POURTALESII, Kolliker. off Carysfort Reef, if Gulf Stream. *LEIOPTILUM GRaYI, Kolliker. | probably Australia. i (=SARCOPTILIS GRANDIS, Gray). *L. (PTILOSARCUS) GURNEYI, California. Hh Gray. L. QUADRANGULARIS, Moroff. Hecate Strait, t Brit. Columbia. | : ie : ‘ undeter- *L. stNuosUM, Kolliker. California. ened *L. UNDULATUM, Verril. California. + SCYTALIUM Batssil, Hickson. Timor, + E. Ind. Arch. Sc. MARTENSII, Kolliker. Timor. t Se. Sars, Herklots. Java Sea. t *SARCOPHYLLUM AUSTRALE, Australia. + Kolliker. PTEROEIDES ARGENTEUM, New Guinea. t Ellis and Solander. PT. CALEDONICUM, Kolliker. Amboyna, it E. Ind. Arch. PY. GRISEUM, Bohadsch. Naples PT. MALAYENSE, Hickson. E. Borneo Bank. ii *PT. PELLUCIDUM, Kolliker. Philippine Is. t PT. SPECIOSUM, Kolliker. Molo Strait. t Pr. STEENSTRUPII, Kolliker. Tandjong Priok, it Java. PT. TIMORENSE, Hickson. S. coast Timor. i EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Figure I. Siphonozooid of Pennatula phosphorea in longitudinal section A, with stomodaeum whole; B, with stomo- daeum bisected in dorso-ventral plane. Figure 11. Siphonozooids of Echinoptilum minimum in trans- verse section, cut at three levels. A, section throug’: stomodaeum; B, section below stodaeum; C, section near base of coelenteron. 20 LicutTpown, filaments in the Siphonozooids of Pennatulacea LITERATURE. 1872 Korziker, A. Die Pennatuliden. Anatomisch-Systematische Beschreibung der Alcyonarien. 1882 MarsuHatt, A. M. and Marsuati, W. P. Report on the Oban Pennatulida. 1883 Marsuatt, A.M. Report on the Pennatulida dredged by H.M.S. ‘“‘Triton,’’? Trans. Royal Society Edinburgh. XXXII. a Witson, E. B. Development of Renilla. Trans. Royal Society. Part lil. 13884 Whuxson, E. B. The mesenterial filaments of the Alcyonaria. Mittheilungen Zool. stat. zu Neapel, V. 1888 JuNGERSEN, H. F. E. ‘Ueber Bau und Entwickelung der Kolonie von Pennatula. Zeits. Wiss. Zool. XLVII. 1904 JuNcERSEN, H. F. E. Pennatulida. Danish “‘Ingolf”’ Ex- pedition, Vol. V. 1907 HicKxson, S. J. Coelenterata, Alcyonaria. Nat. Antaractic Expedition, Nat. Hist. Vol. IHI., Brit. Mus. 1909 Muscrave, E. M. Experimental observations on the organs of circulation and the powers of locomotion in Pennatulids. Q.J.M.S. Vol. 54. 1911 KUKENTHAL, W. and Brocu, Hy. Pennatulacea Wiss. Ergeb der Deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem . Dampfer Valdivia, 1898-1899, Bd. XII. 1916 Hickson, S. J. Pennatulacea of the Siboga Expedition, Monograph XIV. REFERENCE LETTERS. AULGZ ee ee aULLOZOOIG: @ OVO Gi encoclenteniercavaty Guin oeg, oa) Wool) seo Glonselll nnesenlisay @imiefy 62 2 4. 28 dorsal, mesentenic ailament & Aaa aoa. Mada May al Comenelireran m. MEGAN OW AAma ny elect OE Sl. BPA a/ hens 1 esa. Sil}0) OVO LATOYe by7/0)0 st. ROM COO Ee stomodae una WAI. Vaca (aR alee eee eenViel tkallipiie se mbe ny, Manchester Memoirs, Vol. txit., No. a. Plate t. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti. (1917), Wo. 5 V. Somatose. By WILLIAM THomson, F.R.S.E.,; F.I.C., F.C.S. ( Received and read January 8th 1918.) The substance sold under the name of Somatose was invented by a German and prepared by a well-known German firm (The Bayer Co., Ltd.) some years ago. It was put up in small square tins containing 2 ozs. and sold at 3/2 per tin, i.e. 25/4 per Ib. It was claimed for it, that although taken in small doses of two or four level teaspoonfuls per day for adults, equal to 6 to 12 grammes, i.e. from one-fifth to two-fifths of an ounce, it rapidly increased the weight of the person taking it, and was specially recommended for invalids, and for all sorts of disease. At one time, probably on the reputation of the name of the manu- facturer, it was largely used and frequently recommended by medical men. Somatose was manufactured from the refuse left after extract- ing meat with warm water. The solution thus obtained, after concentration, constituted the meat extract which is a good tonic, but cannot be regarded as a food. The insoluble refuse or fibrine was no doubt suitable for food, if used at once, or if preserved in tins, although it would be some- what tough, but it was not always so used in the Argentine. It was often disposed of by being thrown into the sea. The process devised by an ingenious German was, to heat the fibrine with water under a pressure of 90 lbs to the square inch i.e. at a temperature of 320 degrees Fahrenheit for some time, when a large part of it went into solution. The solution was filtered from the insoluble tissue and fat and evaporated to dryness. This left a brittle brownish residue which on being powdered constituted Somatose. 2 THOMSON, Somatose The following gives the results I found by treating 100 parts of Raw Lean Beef calculated on the dry materials :— Per cent. Soluble Matter removed by digesting the meat in warm water, then boiling the meat extract to coagulate the albumen and filtering wu L9r2 it Soluble Matter obtained by heating the Sasclties part from the above, with water to 320 degrees Fahrenheit (under a pressure of 90 Ibs. to the square inch) (‘‘ Somatose ’’) : oe vues OMe Insoluble matter from j Non-fatty material) awoke OM ‘above treatment Viateeee ne if) .. 19.88 100.00 According to some of the most recent researches, any food material to be of full value must contain ‘‘ Vitamines ’’—principles which are destroyed by excessive heat in cooking, or which may be rubbed off the outside of the grains of rice (where it exists) in improving its appearance by means of ‘‘polishing ;’’ this ‘‘polish- ed’’ rice when eaten being regarded as the cause of the disease ““‘beri-beri’’ through the rice having been thus deprived of its vitamines. The process of digestion in the stomach and _ intestines are exceedingly complicated. They depend largely on certaia enzymes secreted in the salivary glands, the stomach, the pancreas, and the intestine, which break down the albuminous and other constituents of the food to elementary molecules, and on the pro- perties of other enzymes which re-build these unfolded constituents or elementary molecules into the complicated structures which constitute the various organs of the body. The structure of food of any kind is such that the various enzymes are liable to act on these delicately constructed molecules of which the food is composed. Leaving the question of vitamines out, does it seem probable that on heating an albuminoid substance of the nature of fibrin to a temperature of 320 degrees Fahrenheit for an hour, that the delicate molecules would remain in the same condition as they existed in the original fibrin? To get some information on this point I heated a solution of cane sugar to the same temperature with the result that the sugar was entirely destroyed and blackened, and there resulted what appeared to be a mixture of charcoal and water. It is obvious therefore—disregarding the presence of cer- tain delicate organic bodies called Vitamines—that in the case of cane sugar, the actual molecule is destroyed by heating to 320 Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxit. (1917), Vo. 5 3 degrees Fahrenheit, and it would certainly then cease to have any nourishing properties. The reason I came to study this problem was that a certain Port Wine was alleged to contain what was an equivalent in nourishing properties to 7 per cent. of its weight of lean meat. This so-called nourishing material put into the wine was Somatose which dissolved almost completely in it, and after settling or filtering, the wine, was obtained clear with the Somatose in solution. To arrive at the equivalent in Somatose of lean meat, the per- centage of Nitrogen in both were determined, and it was assumed that the equivalent of Somatose in Nitrogen was equal to the equivalent of lean beef in Nitrogen for feeding purposes. It need hardly be mentioned that this supposition is utterly fallacious, be- cause it might be similarly argued that a small quantity of Urea, which is rich in Nitrogen and has no food value would be equal as a food to a large quantity of lean meat. Somatose was obviously a complicated organic body. The following analysis of it is given by A. R. Tankard :— Per Cent. Water ee has zs Ne aes fi toi 4 2e Alkali Albumin (precipitated from the cold aqueous solution by Acetic Acid in slight excess) . SS Coagulable Albumin oes from the filtrate by Beboiline).... ses gh OSkO) Albumoses (precipitated om ‘the filtrate i Zinc Sulphate) . ae ake Ve S390 Peptones (precipitated ftom filtrate by Beene) he toe OG Meat bases (Calculated from excess Nitrogen oy factor 3.12) aie : Jae OL Ash (having an allcalinity ‘equivalent to 1.91 ner cent. Sodium Carbonate, Na,CO,) 208 ae BRE Roe 0) Difference (not accounted for) iA pe: Hiss Pe OROS 100.00 This analysis of such a complicated organic substance cannot be regarded as satisfactory, so I give as follows the analysis by Luff and Sir Thomas Stevenson :— Per cent. Deutero-Albumose hi Aa ee mJ ve SOO Hetero-Albumose i ue a Bs fe to 40 Peptone eh nee Ea 5 a tu i Baal Poet] a) Water ie fe Oh ats abe a .. 11.04 Mineral Matter... ae aA is sth ah Mus 3 024 Difference (not accounted! for) wes aie a . 13.94 100.00 4 THomson, Somatose These figures do not add anything to our knowledge as to its food value. The question then arose as to how it was possible to determine whether it possessed any, and if so, what food value, and I con- cluded that the only way was to feed animals with it as part of their food, and weigh them from time to time, to find whether they gained weight as compared with other animals eating the same kind of food to which an amount of lean beef had been added, equivalent in Nitrogen content to the Somatose. As I had only a small quantity of Somatose at my disposal I could only afford to feed small animals with it, and I decided to use tame mice. It required a series of trials to find the best method of feeding them. If the food were left in an open dish the mice scattered it and some was wasted. I finally put the food at the bottom of a small wide mouthed bottle which was laid on its side, so that the mice had to put their heads inside the bottle to get it; this prevented the scattering, and the food was then reduced in quantity to that which an average mouse would eat in 24 hours. The food supplied to each consisted of 2 grammes of Oats per 24 hours, the other constituents of the food being altered in accord- ance with their nature. It was desired in the first instance to find, as was stated, whether Somatose as measured by its Nitrogen content, was equal as a food to lean beef as measured by its Nitrogen content. The following are the proportions of Nitrogen contained in materials | employed for feeding purposes :— Per cent. of Nitrogen Oats Nu pate Be oly UN aie Pa 2) Lean Beef.. a: i is ae Bo Reon aratro Plasmon ... NG ne a NN Wak Pas lb) la US) Somatose... Ae se as Be aon oe Pals Lean beef contains about 68 per cent. of water, whilst Somatose contains 13.26 per cent. By my analysis I found that 2 grammes of lean beef contained 0.063 gramme of Nitrogen, whilst the same amount of Nitrogen was contained in 0.416 gramme of dry Somatose. The 2 grammes of raw meat contained 1.36 grammes of water, which left a total of solid matter in the 2 grammes of raw beef of 0.64 gramme: the dry Somatose containing 0.063 gramme of Nitrogen amounted to 0.416 gramme, I therefore made up the deficiency in total solid matter between the lean beef and the Somatose by adding 0.224 grammes of Dry Glucose to the Somatose ration. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti. (1917), Wo. 5 5 A third experiment was made by comparing both of these foods with ‘‘Plasmon’’ which is dried casein, as one of the constituents of the ration, in place of lean beef or Somatose. I found that 0.487 gramme of Plasmon contained the same amount of Nitrogen as 2 grammes of lean beef or 0.416 gramme of Somatose, and I there- fore weighed out this quantity, but as this left less dry total solid matter than that contained in lean beef, I made up the difference by adding 0.15 gramme of Glucose. 2 grammes of water were mixed with the oats and lean meat, this together with the water contained in the lean beef itself was equivalent to 3.36 grammes of water in the lean beef ration, and this quantity of water was added to the dry ration which contained Somatose, and which contained Plasmon. Two mice were fed on each of these rations, accurately weighed out, to each mouse every 24 hours, and each mouse was carefully weighed after that time. Some difficulty was found in weighing the mice, as they would not remain still on the pan of the balance ; this was overcome by putting each mouse into a small wide mouthed bottle, with a cover of wire gauze to keep it in and weighing the mouse plus the tared bottle and cover. The weight of each of the six mice was calculated in terms of its original weight, which was taken as 100 parts, and the following graph Fig. 1 shews the changes in weight during each day of 24 hours. The following were the daily rations for each mouse, numbered 1 to 6. : MICE. Nos. 1 and 2 Nos. 3 and 4 Nos. 5 and 6 Oats ae oie og 2.000 2.000 2.000 *Lean meat chopped fine and mixed with the Oats: ... a eae) 22000 *Dry Somatose ... ties 416 *Dry Plasmon _.... ue .487 Dry Glucose a Wis 224 .150 Water... be ... 2,000 3.360 3.363 6.000 6.000 6.000 *The weights of each of these rations contained 0.063 gramme of Nitrogen in addition to the Nitrogen present in the oats. The same amount of dry solid matter and the same amount of water was also contained in each. THOMSON, Somatose 6S.S1 | h9.z1 ob.g1 | ¥z.z1 1.01 | 61.21 yee-0 | VS.o1 o$.v1| 00.11 94.91 | 66.€1 skep Z1 4s1y oY] 10F Surpsey iayy | e0jag ‘SOULUIBIS UI SIFT JO S}YSIOAA [eNIOV ""* 9S0} 80S “Joog uvoT peulejuos 90.0 pauteyuoo asoy} Jo ye, a eS ae ee 00.9 00.9 c0.9 00.9 alias eve TO}E MA 9£.€ 9£.€ O£.€ Clohig —_|PP22 28080 Ven ““OnpIsayy OULAA SI. zz. —- “ gsoon[y) AIq JIOg osojyeuios | s}vo Arp se 6r. — = “uowse[g iq, ““QNpIsoy oulAA fue7ev} sea bg.o — ov. —_ ‘gsojyew0s AIG, Jog Arveutpig | v41}X9 oT, — — QO: - |e" Jaaqhuved. Cee ee wees ence 4@) $9.2 00.2 00.Z 00.Z vere ee ees eee 176) I ‘SON| VX z@ ‘SON 2O1JN 0} 99S SON | VRE ‘SON | 221 ‘SON SOI] |skep 11 = : SMOT[OJ SB 1oy pasueyo “SoULUIBIS skep ez Sulnp ulese posueyo suoyey ESL UI paysiam SAvp ZI }SIY oY} OF suOTyeY ae 02/0 >, 2 NS, ER Y/| | Oe oa os one 28 / UBO\9 JO /EAVHU/ SOIL UMTYOZ SILL vo He EN A J / E sae WO -- \ mee Ce Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (xtt. (1917), No. 5 7 After the first 24 hours all the mice gained in weight except No. 4 which ate the Somatose ration, and its weight did not change. 100 parts of the other mice became 103 to 106 parts. After the second day all the mice shewed increase in weight except No. 3 and 4 which ate the Somatose rations and No. 6. No. 3 was three and No. 4 eight parts below their original weight, whilst No. 6, Plasmon fed mouse, also fell to 14 parts below its original weight. After the third day the two Somatose fed mice still remained under their original weights, whilst the Plasmon mouse, from being i4 parts below its original weight became 9} parts above it, and it and all the others continued with little variations to gain weight during the following 12 days during which the experiment was continued. The Somatose fed mice remained with great variations below their original weights during the whole of the 12 days, or during the life time of one of them which died on the seventh day at 124 parts below its original weight. On the 12th day the othe~ Somatose fed mouse was six parts below its original weight and did not appear in good form. It suffered from diarrhoea like the one which died. The other mice were all above their original weights as follows and were well and happy. Gain in parts per 100 of Mice. Ration. original weight. After 12 days. No. 1. Lean beef and Oats ... Le 20 », 6. Plasmon and Oats _... AY 23 » 2 Lean beef and Oats ... ie 32 », 0 Plasmon and Oats ais ae. 344 After 12 days the feeding with Somatose, lean beef, and Plasmon was stopped and each mouse was given the same ration, viz :— Oats... ... soe Rae ee foe ... 2.71 grammes. Water ave eh oi: Re OTRO Be, 3 : 6.00 i The 2.71 grammes of Oats contained the same amount of solid matter as the 2 grammes of Oats plus the raw beef. The day after this ration was given (the 13th day) the most remarkable result was that No. 4 previously Somatose fed mouse, from being 6 parts below, became 7 parts above its original weight. .On the following or 14th day, its weight had fallen to 1 part above its 8 THOMSON, Somatose original weight, on the 15th day it was 114 parts above, on the — 23rd day (after 8 days more, having been fed from the 12th to — the 23rd day on oats and water alone) its weight had reached 323 — parts above its original weight. The. following shows the increase in each of the mice after 23 days :—i.e. After feeding with special foods including Lean beef, Plasmon, and Somatose for 12 days changed to oats and water for the succeeding 11 days. Increase above the original weight taken as 100. No. 5 Mouse previously fed with Plasmon, Oats, and Glucose.. 64 No. 2 Mouse previously fed with Beef and Oats uN 504 No. 6 Mouse previously fed oath Plasmon, Oats, and Glucose.. 404 No. 1 Mouse aarnne fed ith ‘Lean beef and Oats ... Os 35 No. 4 Mouse previously fed with Somatose, Oats, and Glucose. i 324 On the 23rd day a fresh series of experiments was started with the same mice, which were all much above their original weights. 0.71 gramme of the Oats was removed, and for it substituted 1 gramme (a) of the residue obtained by evaporating Port Wine to dryness, which contained Somatose equivalent in Nitrogen con- tent to 7 per cent. of Lean beef, and (b) of the residue obtained by evaporating ordinary Port Wine to dryness. Percentages. The Wines consisted of : Somatose Ordinary Port Wine. Port Wine. Alcohol and water... ed we OF, 64) 1 ih ygeaosee *Total dry solid residue... Aah wee) 12,30) eee nee 100.00 100.00 * Containing Nitrogen ... sis Vee Ont Seee .02 0.221 Nitrogen is equal to 1.69 Somatose and 7:0 of lean beef. These wines contained about 9 per cent. of sugar. The three mice, No. 1, No. 5, and No. 6, had the Somatose wine residue, and No. 2 and No. 4 the ordinary Port Wine residue ration, and this series was continued for 19 days more, that is, till the 42nd day of the experiment. Manchester Memotrs, Vol. xtt. (1917), Wo. 5 9 During this regime they all lost weight and on the 42nd day the following were the weights below the original weights taken the first time the mice were weighed : Parts decrease (original weight taken as 100) between the 23rd and the 42nd days. Somatose Wine Residue and Oats fed mice .. a eet TNOS Le 26.13 BA ilo 28.52 Bai al 17.49 Ordinary Wine Residue and Oats fed Mice fs 6 ING 2 15.84 Rae 4 11.31 These figures shew that the average loss of weight in the three ‘mice fed with Somatose Port Wine Residue and Oats, between the 24th and 42nd days was 24.71 parts per 100 of the original weights of the mice, whilst the average loss of weight in the two mice fed with Ordinary Port Wine Residue and Oats, during the ‘same time was 13.57 parts per 100 of the original weights. The Port Wine Residue was therefore not equal to the Oats as a feeding material, whilst the Port Wine Residue containing the Somatose, which was advertised as a wonderful feeding material, ‘proved much less valuable as a food than the residue obtained from -ordinary port wine. Another series of experiments was made by feeding two mice ‘each with rations per 24 hours of :— “A” Oats — 3 grammes, with 1 gramme of Glucose. “B” Oats — 3 grammes, with 1 gramme of Port Wine Residue “C” Oats — 3 grammes, with 1 gramme of Somatose Port Wine Residue — Water in each 2.5 grammes. The average weights for the two mice in each experiment shewed that, with ‘‘A’’ and ‘‘B’’ rations which were Oats, mixed respec- tively with Glucose and with Ordinary Port Wine Residue, the weights increased during the first 24 hours, with Port Wine Residue and Oats to 44 parts above the original weights taken at 100, with Glucose and Oats, to 2 parts per 100 above the original weight of mice, whilst in ‘‘C’’ with the Somatose Port Wine Resi- ‘due, mixed with Oats, both mice lost weight on the average to 4 parts per 100 of original weight of mice. On the second day the weights gained by ‘‘A’’ was 81 and by “B” 8% parts, whilst with “‘C,”’ although they had gained weight from the previous day, they were still 14 parts below their original ‘weights. These experiments were commenced on a Thursday at 10 THOMSON, Somatose 95) as| ' Fig 2. This graph shows the average daily weights of two mice in terms of their original weights taken as 100, each two fed on the following daily rations : grammes grammes grammes Mice A (OE Spin ecE cn Ra aha CRUDE A nes artureasan 3°0 na 30 uh 3-0 Glacose witch Bit dani caer ee ei snioaia raze) Wa — aes — Ordinary Port Wine Residue ...... — fs 1° a — Somatose Port Wine Residue ...... — ae — ae i ixo) WWia tent sch Leek Woe AORN Tay URED Ries 2°5 cae 2°5 an 2°5 65) We aie 6:5 The six mice each received at the beginning of the second day double rations (to last from Saturday till Monday). They evidently ate both during the first day or so and starved and lost weight during the second day. The same daily rations on the fourth day considerably increased their weights on the fifth day. It will be seen that those which ate the rations containing somatose lost weight from the first. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917), No. 5 II noon, and as the end of the second day was Saturday at noon, we decided to leave them with double rations, till Monday at noon, for two consecutive days, thus, on the fourth day the mice ‘‘A’”’ and “‘B’’ from being about 84 parts per 100 above, had fallen to 4 parts. below their original weights, whilst the ‘‘C’’ mice with Somatose Wine residue rations fell by 13 parts per 100 of their original weights. he mice had evidently eaten all the two days’ rations cn the first day, and starved during the second. It is remarkable that mice are capable of eating from half to a whole of their own weight of food per day. On the fifth day the ‘‘B’’ mice, fed with ordinary Port Wine residue rations were 9 parts above their original weight. The “A”? which had Glucose in their rations were 5 parts above their original weight, and the ‘‘C’’ series, which had Somatose Wine Residue were 44 parts below their original weights, I made another set of experiments, to find how the mice would fare if fed on the rations given in my first series of experiments, but in one series simply leaving out the Somatose without adding anything in its place. Two mice were fed therefore with Oats 2 grammes. Plasmon 0.487 gramme. Glucose 0.15 gramme. Water 3.36 grammes—Total 6 grammes, against other two mice fed with Oats 2 grammes. Glucose 0.224 gramme. Water 3.36 grammes. —Total 5.584 grammes, this being the same as the ration mixture of my first experiments, but with the Somatose left out. The mice fed on the first named or Plasmon ration, each gained weight during the first day, one mouse 7%, and the other, 9 parts. above their original weights taken as 100. The other two mice fed with a decreased weight of food corresponding to the weight of Somatose in the ration of my first experiments, each lost weight, the first to 14 and the other to 34 parts per 100 of mouse. At the end of the second day the two mice fed with Plasmon in their rations were respectively 114 and 154 parts above their original weights, whilst the other two with decreased rations were, the one 4 part below, and the other two parts above their original weights. At the end of the third day the first two mice fed with Plasmon in their rations were respectively 18 and 184 parts above, and the other two mice fed with decreased rations, were 1, and 23 parts respectively per 100 above the original weight. At the end of the fourth day the first two with Plasmon in their rations were respectively 23 and 24 parts above, and the other two without Plasmon were respectively 3 above, and 14 parts below their original weights. This series proved that whilst the Somatose fed mice in my first 12 days’ experiment remained practically below $20 12 THOMSON, Somatose This graph shows the weight results obtained by feeding two mice A 1 & 2 and B 1 & 2 with daily rations as follows : Grammes. AI&2 Bi&2 IDatsiei ee eae Ise 2°00 es Bees 2°00 Plasmon! (.0.-)..05-.000 49 tin none (*42 somatose omitted) Glucose se a) 15 ‘aS Pe "22 Water ye tere uae 3°36 be ihe 3°36 6:00 Bue 5°58 These experiments were made to find whether mice B 1 & 2 would thrive better without somatose, the other constituents of the ration shown in graph Fig. 1 being left in; for comparison the ration given to mice A I & 2 were as shown in graph Fig. t (mice 5 & 6). The nitrogen content of -49 gram. of Plasmon being the same as “416 gram. of somatose which was left out or of 2 grams. of lean raw beef. These results show that the food value of somatose was less than nothing as the mice thrived better without it. Manchester Memoirs, Vol, ixit. (1917), Wo. 5 13 their original weights during 12 days with very great variations below, the mice in this series simply with the Somatose omitted remained at or above their original weights with very little' varia- tion, the rations being sufficient to keep them in good health. These figures shew therefore, first, that Somatose is certainly not a food, and second, that it is not even a neutral body, so far as its food value is concerned, but is really an irritant, causing gastric disturbance and diarrhoea and yet this is the German super-food intended to increase the weight and body capacity of English people and especially invalids, at 25/4 per lb. I should have liked to try the effect of mixing Liebig’s Extract in Nitrogen equivalent in place of Somatose as a food, I believe it would have proved beneficial instead of acting as a poisoa like Somatose, but I learned that, to feed mice with any kind of food and weigh them, was in contravention of the Vivisection Act, and I therefore went no further. Before I became possessed of this knowledge I had made some experiments which it might be interesting to record as others, who can obtain the necessary permission from the Home Secretary, might follow them up. In this series of experiments I wished to find what effect on the feeding of mice different starches would have when mixed with Oats. I consequently took one heavy and one lighter mouse, and fed each with 1 gramme of different raw starches mixed with 3 grammes of Oats and 34 grammes of water. The starches used were :— Maize. Potato. Rice. Sago. Tapioca. Wheat. The feeding with the above daily rations was continued for 17 days and the results are given briefly as follows :— 1. Maize. The original weights of the two mice were 87.2 and 20.1 gramme respectively. They both remained about the same weight throughout the 15 days, but were a little above the original weights. 2. Potato Starch. The original weights were 79 and 12 grammes respectively. Both gained weight slightly during the first nine days, on the 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th days they both gradually lost weight, and both died on the 13th day. They then weighed 76 and 9 grammes respectively. 14 THOMSON, Somatose 3. Rice. Original weights of mice 87 and 20 grammes respectively. Each had gained after 15 days about half a gramme in weight. 4. Sago. The original weights of the mice were 88 and 21 grammes respectively and they both gained weight after 15 days. They weighed 91 and 24 grammes respectively. 5. Tapioca. The original weights of the mice were 91 and 24 respectively. They remained about the same weight throughout, weighing after 15 days 904 and 234 grammes respectively. 6. Wheat. The original weights were 89 and 22 grammes respectively. They remained about the same weight throughout. It was remarkable that the excrements of the mice fed with rations containing Potato and Sago, contained large quantities of starch granules intact with some slightly affected, and they were large and white as compared with the normal excrement. Those from the Maize and Tapioca fed mice, shewed a small quantity of the granules of the starches intact, whilst the mice seemed to have digested completely the rice and wheat starches. _ [From Volume 62, Part 1], of ‘‘ MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE MANCHESTER : LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,” Sesszon, 1977-1918. | Bethe Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl of the Cote des Basques, Biarritz BY EDWARD HALKYARD, F.R.M.S. EDITED WITH ADDITIONS BY EDWARD HERON-ALLEN, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S. AND ARGU DARL AND, ELR.M-Ss. Published by the Manchester Literary and oe LT las Soctety, with the co-operation of the late Mr. ard’s Trustees —\\sonian | stip At “ans Ms py, Es UCT14 4939 ¥#] \ onal Musee a" MANCHESTER: 36, GEORGE STREET. Price Eight Shillings and Sixpence. | Kebruary, 1979. The Fossil FORAMINIFERA of the Blue Marl of the COTE DES BASQUES BIARRITZ BY EDWARD HALKYARD, F.R.M.S. EDITED WITH ADDITIONS BY OVD Ee RON AE LEN, ELS., F:Gs., B-R:M-S: AND ARE O Re ARICA, Rees: MANCHESTER: 36, GEORGE STREET 1919 pag y .s 59 trochus 60 cn (>) Airs ifaxia dehiscens 77 elongata 78& lepida ORM. Trochammina milioloides 49 Truncatulina akneriana 287A culter 296 : haidingerii 286 humilis AIO 43 ee lobatula 288, 204, 207 pygmaea 203 Me! refulgens 288, 207 ... reticulata 291 Oy, robertsoniana 290, 295 tenera 292 tenuimargo 204 ungeriana 287, 200 ... variabilis 288 wuellerstorfi 289 3 XXill. Bake} TOM MIT. “117 “117 116, PAGE gs — oe PMODNIN OOO 00 (oe) 4 We to NI 5, 36 116 I19 116 118 IIQ 118 TSO) Toy, , 118 118 118 ri 117 117 XXIV. Index. Uvigerina angulosa 246 50 asperula 248A Bs canariensis 247 porrecta 248 ' Py gmacayZ4ewnuee , selseyensis 77, 78 5 tenuistriata 244 . a A var. debits. 245 Vaginulina legumen 179, 210 i i recta var. parallela 180 Verneuilina recurvata 75 A spinulosa 74 Py tricarinata 73 be triquetra 76 Virgulina lineata 85 ... a schreibersiana 84 sf subsquamosa 84A THE FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA OF THE BLUE MARL, COTE DES BASQUES, BIARRITZ. The Blue Marl of Biarritz forms a cliff stretching for nearly three-quarters of a mile in a direction from N.N.E. to S.S.W., and above the Bathing Establishment at its northern extremity where it abuts on the promontory of La Talaye it attains a height of about 135 feet. This height is maintained for about two thirds of its length, when it commences to decrease in altitude finally dying away at the valley of Chabiague to the south. At the northern section where the cliff is most precipi- tous, and until a short distance past the Villa Notre Dame, the beds are inclined at an angle of about 40°, dipping towards the north. This angle afterwards gradually decreases and at the villa called 1’Ermitage is from 10° to 15° only. At l’Ermitage a hollow in the upper part of the cliff is filled with red and yellow sands and gravels. In the upper part of the Marl hard layers are few and thin, these beds are wanting in the middle portion of the marl and are replaced by sparsely distributed large concretionary nodules of hardened marl of a light grey colour, tinged brown where weathered, a colouration no doubt due to iron oxide. In the southern section, commencing south of lV Ermitage, hard beds of limestone are numerous, and the mar! itself, except at the extreme base of the cliff is more sandy. In some portions these hard beds are aimost horizontal. The strata above described have been placed by geologists in the Middle Eocene series, and are believed to be contem- porary with the Bartonian beds of England. They are referred to as the Orbitoidal or Serpula spirulea Marls. Having written thus briefly of the physical features of the region of the Blue Marls I will now deal with their micro- zoological contents. The collection of Foraminifera which is about to be described was obtained at three different times. In the spring of 1893 a sample of marl having been taken with a view to a search for Foraminifera, the results were so encour- aging that a further examination was decided upon. A second visit was made to Biarritz in the autumn of the same year, and a systematic series of gatherings taken. It was at first thought 2 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl that it would be possible to learn from these gatherings some- thing of the relative predominance or scarcity of the different species at the different parts of the beds, but a third series of samples taken in an irregular manner in 1897 and 1902 showed that any deductions arrived at from the 1893 collections as to the distribution of species throughout the whole extent of the strata would be unreliable. These reasons, as well as the great thick- ness of these beds of Blue Marl and the lack of marked horizons in them, have led me simply to describe the Foraminifera col- lected as coming from the Blue Marl as a whole, though occasionally I may find it convenient to make a reference to the upper or lower beds as the undoubted provenance of a species. In order to show in a fuller manner the microzoic contents of the marl it will be well to give notes of washings obtained from nine samples of marl taken in November, 1893. These notes will give a good idea of the nature of the material dealt with. Before proceeding further, | may say that not only were samples taken of the soft beds, but also hand-specimens of the hard limestones containing numerous specimens of Nummulites and Orbitoides. Any species found in these hard samples will be referred to as having been so found. GATHERINGS, AUTUMN, 1893. Sample No. 1.—1 lb. of marl taken from near top of Cliff on ascending zig-zag footpath behind the Bathing Establish- ment. Marl light-coloured even when wet. Residue left after washing weighed 60 grains and consisted of Quartz-sand, fragments of Molluscan shells, Polyzoa, Echinoderm spines, Ostracoda, and Foraminifera, as well as casts in pyrites of small Molluscan shells and Foraminifera. Mulolina, plentiful and well preserved. Cristellaria, plentiful but rather broken. Operculina, frequent and much broken. Specimens often stained with iron oxide. Sample No. 2.—1 |b. of marl from half-way up the Cliff near the end of the sea-wall. This sample was taken from a block which had fallen on to the road under the cliff, otherwise a sample from this place could not have been obtained, the cliff being much too precipitous to be climbed. The residue left after washing this sample weighed 300 grains and consisted of coarse and fine sand, Foraminifera, Polyzoa, fragments of Molluscan shells, Echinoderm spines, Ostracoda, and Sponge- spicules. The most conspicuous Foraminifera were much worn and decomposed specimens of Operculina complanata, Crist- ellarie, Textularia trochus, and Tritaxia ulmensis. Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lit. (1917) 4, Sample No. 3.—1 |b. of marl from top of Cliff to south of large new villa (Villa Heeren) above end of sea-wall. Residue left after washing weighed 342 grains and consisted of sand, Foraminifera, small Molluscan shells and fragments of Jarger ones, Polyzoa, Echinoderm spines, Ostracoda, and a few small Fish-teeth. Pyrites frequent in this sample, many of the Foraminifera being filled with the same. Sample No. 4.—1 lb. of marl from base of Cliff 120 yards. south of last gathering. The residue left after washing weighed 43 grains and consisted of sand, Foraminifera, Polyzoa (plenti- ful), fragments of Molluscan shells, also casts of same in clay, Ostracoda, small Fish-teeth (very rare). The siftings (fine enough to pass through a sieve of 80 meshes to the inch) con- sisted almost entirely of Foraminifera. Altogether the wash- ings from this sample were coarser than those from No. 3, and were much richer in Foraminifera though the total weight was so small. Sample No. 5.—1 |b. of marl from base of Cliff about 1oo yards north of small rivulet descending from Villa Notre Dame. Total weight of residue 188 grains, composed of sand. fragments of Molluscan shells, Foraminifera, Polyzoa, Ostra- coda, Echinus-spines, tubes of Serpula, fragments of small Crinoids, and Sponge-spicules. Arenaceous forms of Foramini- fera were more common than in any previous sample, and many of the specimens are filled with calcite, whilst some genera, notably Miliolina, Biloculina, and other porcellanous forms are almost entirely represented by casts in this mineral, the small portions of shell-wall remaining being of a chalky consistency. Sample No. 6.—1 lb. of marl gathered 10 feet above base of Cliff on north side of rivulet descending from Villa Notre Dame. Residue after washing weighed 35 grains and contained much mica in finely comminuted state. The organic contents were Foraminifera, spines and fragments of tests of Echino- derms, Polyzoa, Ostracoda, and large Sponge-spicules. ‘Sample No. 7.—1 |b. of marl from base of Cliff 30 yards north of last ravine before coming to l’Ermitage. Weight of residue after washing was 160 grains and consisted of sand, Foraminifera, Polyzoa, joints of Crinoid-stems, fragments of Echinus-tests and spines, fragments of Molluscan shells. Ostracoda, and a few small Fish-vertebre. Calcite casts of Foraminifera were frequent Sample No. §.—1 |b. of very sandy marl from 15 feet above the base of the Cliff below l’Ermitage, hut slightly to the north of the same. Residue after washing weighed 713 grains: 4 HALKYARD, Fosszl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl and consisted of much quartz sand, grains of glauconite, Foraminifera, Polyzoa, Ostracoda (very rare), Echinoderm remains, Sponge-spicules, fragments of Molluscan shells and sand-casts of the same. Casts of Foraminifera occur in pyrites, ‘calcite, and glauconite. Sample No. 9..—I |b. of sandy marl from base of Cliff about 150 yards south of l’Ermitage. Residue (which was fine) after washing weighed 420 grains, and consisted of sand, Foraminifera, Ostracoda, spines and fragments of tests of Echinus, fragments of Molluscan shells, with very rarely Crustacean remains, plates of Synapta, and a few spicules of Alcyonidz or Gorgonide. The residues spoken of above were such as would pass through a sieve of twenty meshes to the inch. From the above analysis it will be seen that generally speaking the Blue Marl is of similar character throughout a large portion of its great thickness, though it does vary slightly in different parts; thus Sample No. 1 was very light-coloured and was easily seen to contain iron oxide in appreciable quan- tity. Sample No. 6 was notable for its micaceous constituent, while in Sample No. 8 glauconite was conspicuous. The gatherings taken in April, 1897, were chiefly from the marl beds in the neighbourhood of the end of the sea-wall. between tide-marks, and particular attention was paid to the search for sandy “‘pockets,’’ which were found to be very rich in the larger forms. One “‘pocket’’ of a few inches square and an inch or so in depth was found to contain over fifty specimens of Orbitoides tenuicostata, Gtimbel, besides numerous other species. At the same time search was made for large conspicu- ous isolated specimens, and many fine Nodosarie were obtained. Those of 1902 were partly from the end of the sea- wall and partly from top of Cliff 100 yards S. of l’Ermitage. As regards the fact noted that in Sample No. 5, 1893, the porcellanous species were mostly represented by casts, it will be as well to refer here to the experiments imade by, Cornish & Kendall* as to the relative stability, or resistance to solubility in presence of carbonated water, of porcellanous and vitreous Foraminifera, the former presumably being com- posed of carbonate of lime in the form of aragonite and the latter of the same substance in the form of calcite. The authors show that the stability of aragonite is much inferior to that of *On the Mineralogical Constitution of Calcareous Organisms, Geol. Mag., Dec. III., Vol. V., No. 2., 1888, pp. 66—73. Manchester M. emotrs, Vol. leet. (1917) 5. calcite, and is probably due to structural differences. For fuller information I must refer my readers to the original paper. To the best of my information very little has been written of the Foraminifera of the Blue Marl, and only the larger forms are recorded. Philippe de la Harpe has written five papers on the Nummulites of Biarritz which were published in the “Bulletin de la Société de Borda 4 Dax’’ during the years 1879 to 1881. Eighteen species are noted in those works, of which number six were found in the Blue Marl of the Cote des Basques. My search has been rewarded by nine (?) species, five of which do not appear in M. de la Harpe’s list. In 1873 M. le Comte R. de Bouillé published at Pau a work entitled ““Paléontologie de Biarritz et de quelques autres localités des. Basses-Pyrénées.’’ In the list of fossils in this work are men- tioned as being found in the Blue Marl two species of Operculina, five of Orbitoides, and three of Nummulites. (We have reproduced Halkyard’s notes on this work in Appendix A. H-A. & E.) In Prof. T. Rupert Jones’ “Catalogue of the Fossil Foraminifera in the Collection of the British Museum’’ there is mention made of many specimens of Nummulites, Orbitoides, and Operculina from Biarritz, some of which are marked “Middle Beds’’, and others though not so marked are evidently from the lower hard beds of the same series. These ‘‘Middle Beds” are the ones now under consideration. The works by the above-mentioned authors are the only ones of any importance which I have come across dealing in any way with the Foraminifera of Biarritz. (See, however, our Introductory Observations, H-A. & E.) Before proceeding to describe the species of /oraminifera in my collections, I desire to take this opportunity of recording my idebtedness to Mr. F. Chapman, A.L.S:, F.R.M.S., to whom my best thanks are due for his kind assistance in the determination of critical species. I also have to thank Mr. F. W. Millett for his ready response to my appeals for his help. In order to avoid an unnecessary addition to tne length of this paper, I have only given two references to figures of each species described, viz., one to the original figure and descrip- tion, and the other (where possible) to that given by the late Dr. H. B. Brady in his magnificent work on the Horaminifera collected during the Challenger Expedition, which work I believe the most generally accessible to all students of the Foraminifera. 6 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl DESCRIPTION OF GENERA AND SPECIES. SUB-KINGDOM: PROTOZOA. CIA 'S 2) IRJBUCZOIPOUD A. ORDER: FORAMINIFERA. FAMILY: MILIOLID/AE. SUBS AMMEY: NU BE CUE AiRiiNZss Genus Nuspecuxtaria Defrance. 1. NUBECULARIA DIVARICATA, Brady. Sagrina divaricata, Brady, 1879, Quart. Jour. Micro. Sci., vel. XEON: Sipe 27Opl. WALI tieishi22=276 Nubecularia divaricata, Brady, Chall. Rep. 1884, p. 136, pl. LXXVI, figs. 11-15. A few single chambers of this species were found in the upper portion of the Marl, the great majority being collected almost at the summit of the northern part of the Cliff behind the Bathing Establishment. (The specimens are all fragmentary, the characteristic aperture, however, renders their identification certain). SUB-FAMILY: MILIOLININZ. Genus BiLocutina, d’Orbigny. 2. BILOCULINA RINGENS, (Lamarck). Miholites ringens, Lamarck, Ann. Mus. 1804, 351, No. 1. Biloculina ringens, d’Orbigny, Ann. Sci.. Nat. VII, 1826, p. AOI. INO), 2 B. vingens, Brady, 1884; Chall. Rep: psi142, pla liiissa ace The specimens are small and sometimes only represented by casts and are by no means numerous. Generally speaking the species seems to be confined to the upper half of the marl- beds. (The few specimens in the collection in perfect condition are from Gathering 3 and of the type figured by Brady in the ‘Challenger Report, ut supra.) 3. BILOCULINA ANTIQUA, Karrer. Biloculina antiqua, Karrer, 1867, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, LV (@) ap. 365, pla tit hence Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) a This variety of B. ringens differs from the type in having the breadth of the chambers greater than the length. In extreme cases the chambers are twice as broad as long. Only five specimens were collected at Biarritz, and these are in the form of casts in calcite or pyrites. (All the specimens being casts, it is not easy to state abso- lutely what the external appearance of the original shell was. Karrer’s species is hardly separable from B. ringens. The Biarritz specimens which are more suggestive of B. depressa were probably even broader than Karrer’s figure, but even so seem hardly worth recording as a separate species). 4. BILOCULINA DEPRESSA, d’Orbigny. ' Biloculina depressa, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. VII, p. 298, No. 7. B. depressa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 145, pl. II, figs. 12, nel ewand: ple lL fois, vD,)2: Rare, and generally badly preserved, usually occurring in the form of calcite casts with a small portion of the original shell-wall adhering thereto. (The majority of the specimens though merely casts are identifiable with certainty owing to their shape.) GENUS SPIROLOCULINA, d’Orbigny. 5. SPIROLOCULINA EXCAVATA, d’Orbigny. Spiroloculina excavata, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram, Foss. Vienne, p. 271, pl. XVI, figs. 19-21. S. excavata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 151, pl. IX, figs. 5, 6. Frequent, most of the perfect specimens resembling Brady’s fig.6. The examples found in the 1893 gatherings are much worn and at times difficult to recognise. (With one or two exceptions the specimens are calcite casts and specific determination can only be presumed. One ‘good and distinctive specimen from Gathering 4.) 6. SPIROLOCULINA IMPRESSA, Terquem. Spiroloculina impressa, Terquem, 1878, Mem. Soc. Géol. cameo (G) vol.) EDs 153, Ole) \OX) tien oa uay S. impressa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 151, pl. X, figs. 3, 4. 8 HALKYARD, FHossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl Well-preserved typical specimens were collected both in 1893 and 1897, and were not infrequent though seemingly con- fined to the pure marl beds forming the upper portion of the formation. 7. SPIROLOCULINA CANALICULATA, d’Orbigny. Spiroloculina canaliculata, d’Orbigny, 1846, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 269, pl. XVI, figs. 10-12. S. lunbata, var., Brady, 1884, (Chall. Rep.) ipaytso.splame = SS. ly Be The species is rather rare in these marls and not typical, the chambers being few and broad and not so elongated as in the type, approaching more the form figured by Brady under the name “S. limbata, var,’’ though not so circular in contour. The oval extremity of the final chamber is slightly prolonged and connected with the periphery of the penultimate chamber by a web such as is seen in Brady’s figures of Spiroloculina acutimargo.* 74, [SPIROLOCULINA PLANULATA (Lamarck). | | Mihohtes planulata, Lamarck, 1804, AM. p. 352, No. 4, 1816, etc., Animaux sans vertebres, Paris, 1822, vol. VII. p. 613, No. 4. Spiroloculina planulata, Brady, 1884, FC. p. 148, pl. IX, fig. 11 a, b.j 8. SPIROLOCULINA ARENARIA, Brady. Spiroloculina arenaria, Brady, 1884,’ Chall, Rep yipaisssape Vil te 25 rarnbe One specimen has been found which must be assigned to this species. Owing to the somewhat imperfect condition of the example, the produced shelly aperture as figured by Brady is wanting and on one side of the test the sutures of the cham- bers could not be made out. The other side and the contour of the transverse section as seen in a view taken from the oval end of the test agree well with Brady’s drawings. After making drawings, which, however, do not appear in illustration of this paper, the specimen was broken up to obtain further evi- dence of identification, which corroborated the opinion formed upon the external features of the shell. * 1884, Chall. Rep., pl. x. figs. 12-15. Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) 9 9. SPIROLOCULINA CRENATA, Karrer. Spiroloculina crenata, Karrer, 1868, Sitz, k. Ak. Wiss. Wien., VeOueeAbthy Tp. 125-nple tT, fo) 9: S. crenata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. p. 156, pl. X, figs. 24-26. Very rare, only one small specimen being found. (The specimen is very small and not very typical. It shows a broad milioline aperture and is perhaps nearer to Quinque- loculina plicatula, Reuss, which Karrer referred to as being “very like’’ his species.) 10. [SPIROLOCULINA DORSATA, Reuss. | [Spiroloculina dorsata, Reuss, 1870, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. LXII, Abth. I, p. 97, pl. XX XVII, figs. 24-32. | IOA. SPIROLOCULINA LIMBATA, Bornemann. Spiroloculina limbaia, Bornemann, 1855, Zeitschr. deutsch. ecolkuGes. vol) Ville p.348; pl. IOS) fig. 1. S. limbata, Reuss, 1863, Sitz.k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. XLVIII ithe pos, pl. VAT fies. Soa, Cc. The specimens which I have thought necessary to assign to Bornemann’s species are rare in my collections and closely resemble the figures given by Reuss; there are also some others (two or three) which are broader, and have not the same excessive sutural limbation, and conform more to the ‘‘canali- culata’’ type. These might be named S. dorsata, Reuss, but as the few specimens found are a good deal decomposed and worn it is not desirable to record that species definitely, though they very probably do belong to it. In making use of Borne- mann’s name as the authority for the specific appellation “lumbata,’’ I do not forget that d’Orbigny in 1826 made use of the same name, but it was not applied to the same form and is more applicable to the variety of S. canaliculata assigned by Reuss to S. dorsata, viz:—that with chambers having slightly limbate sutures or excavate lateral surfaces, and a square or very slightly rounded periphery. This mode of regarding these nearly allied forms will, I think, be found a convenient one, as the strongly limbate form above described may be regarded as an elongated S$. dorsata which has put on an extra amount of sutural limbation, or as a S. impressa which has added a limbation to the already salient peripheral edges of its cham- bers. Moreover the reference of any specimens to the exact form figured by Reuss leaves no doubt as to the variety which is now recorded as occurring in the Biarritz marls. 10 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl (Halkyard apparently altered his opinion as regards the identification of these specimens, for the slide labelled S. limbata is empty and another, labelled ‘‘?S. dorsata, Reuss’’ appears in the collection, though not referred to in the MS. The few specimens on the slide are more or less fragmentary casts, but we have little hesitation in assigning them to S. dorsata ‘The synonymies of the two forms have been referred to by us at some length in our Kerimba monograph. (H-A & E. 1914, etc., KA eps 5i54e))) GENUS MiLioLina, Williamson. 11. MILIOLINA SEMINULUM (Linné.) Serpula seminulum, Linné, 1767, ed. 12, p. 1264, No. 791. Quinqueloculina triangularis, d’Orb., 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., Wolk, MILL, (Oo BO2, IN@s evel Miholina seminulum, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 157, pl. V, IBS... (OV Fl, Dy Ce Not uncommon at Biarritz, the general type being short and broad. The most robust specimens viewed from the side have the contour of MV. auberiana, d’Orb., but are less angular in transverse section than that species, which is intermediate between M. seminulum and M. cuvieriana, d’Orb. This broad form however is not constant, but in some instances becomes more like the type, viz.: —longer in proportion to the breadth; such specimens are usually small. In another direction it approaches M. circularis, Bornemann; and in yet another it merges almost imperceptibly into M. venusta, Karrer. (There is considerable variety among the specimens assign- ed to M. seminulum, many of which are calcite casts difficult to identify with certainty, but the general type is of the variety Quinqueloculina triangularis, d’Orb. (d’O. 1846. F.F.V. p. 288 pl. XVIII, figs. 7-9.)) 12. MILIOLINA CIRCULARIS (Bornemann). Triloculina circularis, Bornemann, 1855, Zeitschr. deutsch. Sco. Ges. volun Miipescdon pl CDG rhienyn Miliolina circularis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 169, pl. IV, ISA EM Dy (yebaval ly Wy ihe we) Ae This species seems to replace M. seminulum in the low- est beds of the pure marl, at any rate it only appears in gather- ings 7, 8, and 9 taken in 1893, whilst the above-mentioned form is at its highest development in Nos. 1, 2, and 3 Gatherings Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxit. (1917) II and in those taken in April, 1897, which are also fairly high up in the series. It must not be understood from this that M. seminulum is absent from the lower beds, on the contrary it has even been found in the hardest and lowest beds of sandy and pure limestone. (The majority of the specimens are casts, but are referable with tolerable certainty to M@. circularis.) 13. MILIoLina oBLoNGA (Montagu). Vermiculum oblongum, Montagu, 1803, Test. Brit., p. 522, pl. XING fio. G: Miliolina oblonga, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 160, pl. V, fig. 4a, b This variety is rare at Biarritz and nearly all the specimens are small. 14. MILIOLINA TRIGONULA (Lamarck). Miholites trigonula, Lamarck, 1804, Ann. Mus., V, 351, No. 3. Miholina trigonula, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 164, pl. ITI, figs. 14-16. Rare and small. | There are a good many typical specimens of fair size on the type-slides. | 15. MILIOLINA TRICARINATA (d’Orbigny). Triloculina tricarinata, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. VII, __b- 209) Noe 7 Miholina tricarinata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 165, pl. III, masa L7a, bb. This form is rare and has only been found in the upper portions of the marl. (The specimens are in good preservation and very large compared with those of M. trigonula. Both the long and short types are present.) 16. MILIOLINA vENUSTA (Karrer). Quinqueloculina venusta, Karrer, 1868, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. WNieitle, TE NANUE Na. i, OD. uno Serer, (6. Miliolina venusta, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 162, pl. V, figs. 5 and 7. 12 HALKYVARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl - Frequent through the whole series of gatherings but in the lower half of the beds is represented principally by calcite casts. (Very fine and typical specimens from Gathering 3. Less marked and smaller from elsewhere. From several localities the specimens are represented only by casts and identification is often only a matter of opinion, as the casts might refer to any Miliolid of similar structure.) 17. MILIoLIna FERUSSACII (d’Orbigny). Quinqueloculina ferussacu, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. VE paigom Noni: Not rare and approaching M. contorta (d’Orb.) in form. (Except from Gathering 1, the specimens are nearly all casts, and the specific features are therefore unidentifiable. From Gathering 1 the individuals are in our opinion nearer to M. contorta than M. ferussacu.) 18. MILIOLINA AGGLUTINANS (d’Orbigriy). Quinqueloculina agglutinans, d’Orbigny, 1839, De la Sagra, Hist. Phisiq! ete) Cuba, Foranmniferes,’7 p. 295) lean figs. 11-13. Miliolina agglutinans, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 180, pl. Vili iss: Oland7. Rare and typical. 19. MiLioLtna Brcornts (Walker & Jacob). — Serpula bicornis, Walker & Jacob, 1798, Adam’s Essays Micr., IDs Olgas DIL DIE WAS amet, 2). Milolina bicornis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 171, pl. VI, HLA Oly 01s, 12 Very small and very rare. (The few specimens from G. 3, represent several distinct types, the true M. bicornis being absent. They are very small and worn but so far as can be identified with certainty include M. brongmariu (d’Orb.), M. boweana (d’Orb.), and M. striata (Orb) Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lett. (1917) 1 20. [Muitrorina srrtata (d’Orbigny). ] 20a. MILTOLINA POEYANA (d’Orbigny). Quingueloculina poeyana, d’Orbigny, 1839, De la Sagra, Hist. nisig etc.,.de Cubas)))Foraminiferes,’ 7 pron, pl. XY, figs. 25-27. An elongated variety of M. bicornis, the chambers how- ever being more circular in transverse section, and the costez more strongly marked. Rare at Biarritz, only about half-a- dozen specimens being found in the 1897 Gatherings. (The specimens are not referable to the Cuban species M. poeyana, but to the much more robust form M. striata (d’Orb.) with which we dealt at some length in our Kerimba Monograph Geo Awcers noT4 etcs 1H. KO AU peso) pl LIV; figs, 13-17) 21. MILIOLINA PARISIENSIS (d’Orbigny) var. Ouimqueloculina parisiensis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., MO lMVCuleD. 20054 Now 5. Miholina parisiensis, Millett, 1898, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., ISOS. Wz SO folly MUU rater 2) 1b), Only two specimens were found, one of which was so worn as to leave very little of the external characters visible. The other one on being placed in fluid displayed clearly the rectangu- lar ornamentation shown in Millett’s figure. My specimens are broader in proportion to length than those from the Malay Archipelago and also lack the produced ultimate chamber, but there is no doubt in my mind that they ought to be assigned to the above species. (Ihe specimens can only be regarded as_ unsatisfactory examples of an unsatisfactory species. One of the specimens iS SO worn as to be unidentifiable, except by its resemblance in contour with the other specimen which is covered with minute pits. No signs of striz or coste remain on the test, which in form is nearer Quinqueloculina prisca,Terquem than parisiensis. The specific name M. parisiensis has now become identified Will Weapons. Inve (Abe oe) TOMO eM Mo ate) soll, | DG (XXVIT) fig. 21) of a common Paris Eocene fossil, which’ we identified and figured from similar material from Selsey Bill GEIS A calls 4) TOS, (eter, Sse shOOOs Pay aUGyaplayon Nintierse) (2-51) The Terquem form is covered with minute pits set in regular lines between the coste; d’Orbigny’s original name has only the descriptive definition added to it in the Pro- ainome (On 1849) "PY! 1850.) Vieln Min i pazoon) Nie. /'13264)) 14 HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl ““espece renflée et stri¢e’’ and his drawing from the Planche inédite as reproduced by Fornasini (F. 1905, S.O.M. p. 63. pl. II. fig. 9) shows no pitting, nor is any visible on d’Orbig- ny’s type specimens which we have examined both in Paris and at La Rochelle. Terquem’s figure has now become however so generally accepted for a determinate type that it seems im- possible to depart from it. It must be borne in mind that he also had examined the d’Orbigny types and plates in Paris * Yet another type with fairly distinctive features has been ascribed to this species by Millett (Millett, 1898, etc., F.M. 1898; ‘p: 9504, (pl) KML) fe! 1) a))b} ce): Phis) represents amtonran with regular cross bars between longitudinal costz, the ‘de- pressions thus formed being apparently regarded as analagous to the pits in the Parisian Eocene type of Terquem.) GENUS SIGMOILINA, Schlumberger. 22. SIGMOILINA TENUIS (Czjzek). Ouinqueloculina tenuis, Czjzek, 1848, Haidinger’s Nat. Abh., vol. TI ps 140) ple XI. tesh 29-24) Spiroloculina tenuis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 152, pl. X, figs. 7-11. Found frequently and well-preserved through the whcle thickness of the marl beds. (The species is represented by an exceptionally fine series of specimens. The propriety of transferring the species from Spiroloculina to Sigmoilina is we think open to question, especially when such a large and varying collection as the present one is considered. The Sigmoilina curve is of the most rudimentary nature, although it is apparent in some of the many broken sections which have been mounted for the purpose of displaying it. In the majority of specimens especially in some Gatherings (notably G. 8) where the specimens are exception- ally large there is hardly the faintest deviation from a typical spiroloculine growth. It is very curious how this delicate little Miliolid has, generally speaking, escaped the erosion from which the other Biarritz Miliolids suffer. If Halkyard’s theory of the disappearance of the Miliolid shell owing to a difference in its molecular composition, as compared with the shells of the perforate Foraminifera, is correct (see his Introduction) it points to a further difference in the constitution of the test of *See O. Terquem, ‘‘ Foraminiféres de l’Eocene de Paris,” Mem Soc. Geol. France, S.3, 1i, Mem. 3 p.11 and E. Heron-Allen, ‘‘Alcide d’Orbigny,” J. R. Mier, Soc. Presidential Address, 1617, p. 33. pian Manchester Memozrs, Vol. leet. (1917) 15 S. tenuis as compared with other Miliolids. We have observed this in other fossil deposits, as in the Miocene clays of Malta in which S$. tenuis is common and well preserved, while other Miliolids are represented by pyritic casts only.) GENUS PENTELLINA, Munier-Chalmas. 23. PENTELLINA LAVIS, sp. nov. Jal dls sales Ihe Test elongated, five to seven chambers visible externally, periphery angular, the chambers being oval in transverse section and each having its own entire enclosing wall. Texture smooth and glistening, unornamented. Length, .75 to .g5 mm. Breadth, .43 to .47 mm. This rare form has been assigned onaccount of the arrange- ment of its segments to the genus Pentellina although it has the ordinary Miliolina aperture and does not exhibit the Trema- tophore which is characteristic of P: saxorum.and P. tour- nouert. There may be a question whether it is worth while making a special genus for those Miliolids which, though possessing the arrangement of chambers as provided for in the genus Miliolina possess a more complicated or more fully developed form of oral aperture. 24. | MILIOLINA ANGULARIS, Howchin. | 244. PENTELLINA ATTENUATA, Sp. NOV. IP. WIN ies.) Ty eal” 2. Test very much elongated, five chambers visible externally, periphery angular, chambers flatter and longer in proportion to their width than in P. levis. Texture smooth. Length, 1 t® 1.25, maid, Iexe@eeliln, 27/ wo 53} sadinal, This species is rather more rare than P. levis, and is easily distinguished from it by its much greater length and more slender proportions. The shell-wall is so fragile through de- composition that I have been unable to find a perfect specimen, and though the drawing here given is to a certain extent a restoration it may be taken as representing a typical specimen. The species has only been found in the beds of mar! at the end of the sea-wall and is not plentiful there, only about a dozen specimens being found. (Halkyard subsequently found many more specimens, most of which are perfect and are well represented by his figure. * 16 HALKYARD, Fosszl Foraminzfera of the Blue Marl These are on his type-slides. The Biarritz specimens are iden- tical with Miliolina angularis Howchin (H. 1889 M.C.V. p. (reprint) 2, pl. I, figs. 1-3) from the Older Tertiary of Australia. The specific name angularis has been used by dOrbigny for two Miliolids and Howchin’s name is therefore somewhat un- happy. As, however, Triloc. angularis d’?Orb=M. tricarinata and Q. angularis d’Orb. = M. contorta, and only one subsequent author, viz. Terquem, has employed either name, we think that Howchin’s name might be allowed to stand.) SUB-FAMILY HAUERININ/A. Genus ARTICULINA, d’Orbigny. 25. ARTICULINA LHVIGATA, Terquem. Articulina levigata, Terquem, 1882, Mém. Soc. Géol. France [alb rol U o. ris, polls OW (OXTUUD), Stes, Zeon, Very rare, two imperfect specimens found in 1897 Gather- ings. (Terquem’s species judging from his figures (wt supra) is unsatisfactory, there being no apparent connection between the figure showing a broken series of rectilinear chambers, and the series of abnormal miliolids which are associated with it in the plate. Halkyard’s specimens are fragments, each consisting of parts of two chambers of the rectilinear series. In their smooth test they agree with Terquem’s definition, but apart from this we should have been inclined to associate them with A. contco- articulata (Batsch.)) 26. | ARTICULINA SuLcarA, Reuss. | [Articulina sulcata, Reuss, 1849-50, Foram. osterr. Tertiar- beckens. Denkschr, k. Ak. Wiss, Wien, vol- i, (1850), p- Bos oll: MENA i OXULID-©) savers nae nea 206A. ARTICULINA CONICO-ARTICULATA (Batsch). Nautilus (Orthoceras) conico- ee Batsch, 1791, Conehyl. desi Seesandess ps ia. (pila dallliiiion Articulina conico-articulata, Brady, "1884, Chall. Rep pestes, (Oly DIU ysavers, ara, as), Ehorel yous QCM Mewes 1-2 Rare, small, and only found in the immature stage without the linear series of chambers. __ (The two small specimens on which the record rests should in Our opinion to be referred to A. sulcata, Reuss.) Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxit. (1917) 17 Genus Havertina, d’Orbigny. 27. HAUERINA FRAGILISSIMA (Brady). eet) 2) Spireloculina fragilissima, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 149, pl. IX, figs. 12-14. Hauerina fragilissima, Millett, 1898, Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc , p. 610, pl. XIII, fig. 8, also 9 and Io. This species is not rare in my collections, though on account of its fragility it is rarely found perfect. Both the micro- spheric and the megalospheric forms are present. Of the former I show a transverse section. It will be seen that in the earlier portion of this form there is an apparent arrangement of the chambers in seven radial series before the shell takes on the spiroloculine manner of growth. If, however, the section is examined more closely it will be found that the chambers are really arranged in two involved opposed curves as in Sigmoilina but in a more complicated manner as each series consists of about 24 turns, after which it adopts the planospiral growth of Spiroloculina. The Sigmoilina growth is much more easily seen in the megalospheric form, the chambers being fewer and larger. As for the Hawerina plan of growth it is at best only slightly. indicated in my specimens, as in those figured by Millett and Brady, by a slight obliquity of the line of junc- tion of the spiroloculine chambers to the longitudinal axis of the earlier thicker portion of the test. The imperfect state of the Biarritz specimens also does not permit of any definite verification of the form of the oral aperture. This anomalous form may be perhaps with reason trans- ferred to the genus Sigmoilina but I am loth to recommend such a course at present, or until we have a fuller knowledge of the many variations of the milioline plan of growth, and besides, the earlier growth of a shell only shows us the line of departure from type, and the latter points towards the higher or lower type to which the particular form under observation is tending either progressively or retrogressively. In these circumstances I prefer to retain the generic name Hauerina for this species. (The specimens are small and poorly developed but appear to be referable to Spiroloculina tateana, Howchin, from the Tertiary of Muddy Creek, Victoria.* | Howchin’s species is clearly referable to the sub-genus Massilina owing to the pro- nounced milioline arrangement of the early chambers before * Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr. vol. xii. 1889, p. 3, pl. I., figs. 4, 5. 18 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl they take on the angular spiroloculine plan of growth. On the other hand Halkyard’ s suggestion that Hauerina fragil- issima would be better transferred to Sigmoilina does not com- mend itself to us, as a slight sigmoiline arrangement of the earliest chambers is of more or less frequent occurrence in many Miliolids, and should not in our opinion be regarded as of final importance in the determination of the genus.) SUB-FAMILY PENEROPLIDIN/S. GENUS CoRNUSPIRA, Schultze. 28. CORNUSPIRA INVOLVENS, Reuss. Cornuspira involvens, Reuss, 1863 (1864), Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Niitera Vol, MUL WIDE GH so. oy jolly 7, soKe, 2, C. involvens, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 200, pl. XI, figs. 1-3. Specimens very small and rare. (As all the specimens are represented by casts, specific identification appears to be a matter of opinion. ‘The casts. represent at least two different forms.) 29. CORNUSPIRA FOLTACEA (Philippi). Orbis foliaceus, Philippi, 1844, Enum. Mollusc. Sicilize, vol. II, Pay l47,) Diy DOING tie, 26) Cornus pira foliacea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 199, pl. XI, figs. 5-9. Specimens are small and rare, and do not show the rapidly widening whorls which are characteristic of the species, being of the form represented by Brady’s figure 6 (ut supra). One at least of the examples might possibly be referred to Bornemann’s C. reussi. (The specimens are of the original Philippi type, not of the rapidly expanding type subsequently figured by Williamson. Some of the specimens are near C. carinata (Costa).) 30. CORNUSPIRA CRASSISEPTA, Brady. Cornuspiwa crassisepta, Brady. 1882, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin- burch, vole Dela payarar Cc. crassise pta, Brady, 1884, Chall.) Rep.) p-,202)) pla Grails fig. 20. Very rare, one specimen only found in Gathering No. 1, 1893. This single example corresponds closely with Pray S. description and figure. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtz. (1917) 19: (The specimen agrees very closely with the original descrip- tion of the species. Brady’ s subsequent figure is not altogether satisfactory, the limbation being somewhat irregularly shown. ) SUB-FAMILY ALVEOLININZE. Genus ALVEoLiINnA, d’Orbigny. 31. ALVEOLINA Bosc (Defrance). Oryzaria boscti, Defrance, 1820, Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. XVI. p.. 104 sub Fabularia; Atlas Zooph., pl. XLVIII, fig. 4. Alveolina boscii, (d’ Orbigny), 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat. vol. VII, p. 306, No. 5. el. ioe Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 222, pl. XVII, figs. 7-12. Very rare. In the uppermost Sas taken behind and above the Bathing Establishment was found one small broken cast in pyrites which bore some traces of the porcellanous shell wall. (This cast seems to us probably to be a derived fossil. If Alveolina were present at all in a gathering it would almost certainly be of frequent occurrence.) FAMILY ASTRORHIZID. SUBST AIMLESS UNS IN SOURUSULZ IONE AS; GENUS ASTRORHIZA, Sandahl. 32. ASTRORHIZA GRANULOSA, Brady. Astrorluza granulosa, Brady, 1881, Quar. Journ. Micr. Soc., VOM OOD. As. eTonulosa, Brady, TSe4, Chall) Rep, p. 234, pl. 20, figs: 14-23. ; I have assigned to this species a single example found in 1893. On comparing this specimen with Brady’s figures I find that it is broader in proportion to the length and does not possess the same produced orifices, being in form almost simi- lar to Technitella melo, Norman, though having an aperture at each end of the test. My specimen is also much smaller than those described by Brady, the length of which is noted as at least $ in., whilst mine is but 7/1ooths of an inch long. The test of the Biarritz example is more consolidated than that of recent specimens, but that is easily accounted for by the sup- position that lime chemically concreted from the enclosing marl has supplemented the ordinarily-deficient cement of the test in this species and so tended to make the shell-wall more 20 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminzifera of the Blue Marl solid. This view is supported by the fact that my single speci- men is greyish white in colour and certainly shows a larger proportion of cement to sand than is usual. (The specimen is most unconvincing. We are not even satished that it is a Rhizopod. The specimen differs in every- thing—shape—texture—aperture—from the type, which would be very unlikely. to survive fossilization owing to its construc- tion.) GENUS PSAMMOSPHAERA, Schulze. 32A. [PSAMMOSPHAERA FUSCA, Schulze. | [Psammosphera fusca, Schulze, 1874, R. p. 113, pl. II, fig. 8. Psammosphera fusca, Brady, ey p. 249, pl. XVIII, figs. MUO), SUB-FAMILY RHABDAMMININ. GENUS ASCHEMONELLA, Brady. 33, ASCHEMONELLA CATENATA (Norman). JPA LS caters 2). Astroruga catenata, Norman, 1876, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. XOX Pape 23h Aschemonella catenata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 271, pl OXWV TL nes hyiin sand) pls XOX Vali yACihicicupiees Two fragments consisting of three chambers were found in 1893. As will be seen from the drawing here given this closely resembles in the form of the chambers one of the figures given by Brady (fig. 4, pl. XX VII). My specimens have per- haps a slightly rougher test and have the chamber cavities filled with calcite. PAMIRYO LIT WOT D As SUB-FAMILY LITUOLIN~A. GENUS REopHAXx, Montfort. 34. REOPHAX FUSIFORMIS (Williamson), Proteonina fusiformis, Williamson, 1858, Recent British Foram pry atey planlannce at Reophax fusiformis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 290, pl. XXX, figs. 7-11. Very rare, one specimen only found. (This specimen is not in our opinion identifiable with certainty.) Manchester Memotrs, Vol. txiz. (1917) 2m 35. REOPHAX scoRPIURUS, Montfort. Reophax scorpiurus, Montfort, 1808, Conch. Syst. I, p. 331, 83rd genre. R. scorpiurus, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 291, pl. XXX, figs. 12-17. Rare and small, the specimens being sometimes com- pressed and not circular in transverse section. May be R&. arctica, Brady. (Certainly not R. arctica, as suggested by Halkyard, which is a delicate thin-walled linguline form, whereas these are built up of coarse sand grains. Their compressed form is due to. their fossil condition.) 36. REOPHAX PLANA, Sp. nov. TEA Is asyeSe. 7, Ee Test compressed, consisting of two or three sub-dis- coidal chambers arranged in a linear series, each chamber being larger than the preceding one. Texture coarsely arenaceous. Length, 1.15 to 1.55 mm. Breadth, .85 to 1.5 mm. Out of the four specimens found only one has three cham- bers and, as will be seen from my drawing is smaller and not so robust as the other three specimens, which had only two chambers each. The nearest ally of this new species is Brady’s Reophax arctica* which is formed of about eight chambers forming a gradually-taperine test rather pointed at the aboral extremity, and compressed so that the width at any one point is about double the thickness at the same point. Goés also figures + a compressed Reopivar under the name of R. compressius, which he remarks is nearly related to Haplo- phragmium tenuimargo, Brady. His examples have five or six chambers and an approximately parallel contour. (The type specimens have not been found, but the descrip- tion suggests Haplophragmium calcareum Brady or H. pseudo- spirale (Will), certainly not Reopha.x arctica.) * Denkschr. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. XLIII, 1881, p. 99, pl. 2, fig. 2 and Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. V. vol. VIII, 1881, p. 405, pl. XXI, fig. 2. + A Synopsis of the Arctic and Scandinavian Recent Marine Foraminifera, 1894,. Stockholm, p. 27, pl. VI, figs. 203-210. 22 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl 37. | NoURIA POLYMORPHINOIDES, Heron-Allen & Earland. ] [Nouria polymorphinoides, Heron-Allen & Earland, 1914, etc., 1a KVAORIey AO) 0), 2K 2OCW ILL TSS, T=15,, | 37A. REOPHAX POLYMORPHINOIDES, Sp. Nov. TEMS ls eS. Os Fe Test elongate, compressed, consisting of an aggregation of compressed sub-discoidal chambers arranged in such a man- ner as to bear a strong external resemblance to Polymorphina. Texture roughly arenaceous. Length, 1.4 to 2.7 mm. Breadth, .82 to 1.15 mm. This species is not very rare in the Blue Marl. Its form is rather variable, sometimes it occurs with characteristics as well marked as those here figured but quite as many examples are found which are by no means easy to identify, as they appear externally to be only fortuitous agglomerations of particles of quartz, and can only be recognised by the company in which they are found. It will be seen from fig. 7 that in the immature stage ‘the test is an arenaceous isomorph of Polymorphina problema, d’Orb., whilst later it assumes more of the character of P. compressa d’Orb. Unfortunlately, I have not been able to make out the position and form of the oral aperture. (Halkyard’s specimens are clearly referable to our genus Nouria (ut supra), and probably to our species N. polymor- phinoides of the large type found at Kerimba. ‘They differ in their rougher and less finished construction and in the greater compression of the test, but this compression is variable in the Biarritz specimens and is probably due to pressure in the fossil- ization. For taxonomic purposes it may perhaps be advisable to separate the Biarritz specimens as a variety N. polymor- phinoides var halkyardi.) il GENUS HAPLOPHRAGMIUM, Reuss. 38. HaAPLOPHRAGMIUM AGGLUTINANS (d’Orbigny.) Spirolina agglutinans, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Fossiles Vienne, p. 137, pl. VII, figs. 10-12. Haplophragmium ag glutinans, “Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 301, pl. XXXII, figs. 19-26. Rather rare, stout in form and coarsely arenaceous in iFEXtUne: (The specimens are all of a large and roughly agglutinate iy Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxtz. (1917) 23 type, built up of angular sand grains and particles of calcareous matter. There is no selective tendency as recorded by us from several widely separated gatherings.) 39. HAPLOPHRAGMIUM PSEUDOSPIRALE (Williamson.) Proteonina pseudospiralis, Williamson, 1858, Recent British HoOrame pa 2 ple Ly tesi2-3. Haplophragmium pseudospirale, Brady, Chall. Rep., p. 302, pl. XXXIII, figs. 1-4. Not rare, distributed through the whole thickness of the marl. The majority of the specimens however were found in Gathering No. 5, 1893.) (Some of the specimens can only be accepted with reser- vation owing to their condition, but large and typical examples are represented from Gathering 5.) 39a. [HAPLOPHRAGMIUM TENUIMARGO, ane [Haplophragmium tenuimargo, Brady 1882, KE. p. 71 Hf. tenuimargo, Brady, 1884, FC. Da Soe joke 224. CRISTELLARIA BUDENSIS (Hantken.) IP WAL, imyer, As Robulina budensis, Hantken, 1875, Mitth. Jahib. K. ungar. SEOl, AWE. (Ds FS, ply WIDE, infer, i. Robulina budensis, Jones, 1876, Mon. Micr. Journ. vol. XV, pl CXEGV IS hie mice This variation of the cultrata type has not generaily been found in all the material collected. It is frequent in Gathering No. 4 (1893) but very rare in, or absent from, the others. The test is compressed, partially evolute, provided with an umbili- cal boss, and is of delicate growth, with a thin shell-wall. Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lait. (1917) 95 (This appears to be nothing more than a compressed and depauperate form of C. cultrata. Halkyard’s specimens are less pauperate than Hantken’s figure suggests.) 225. CRISTELLARIA ORBICULARIS (d’Orbigny.) Robulina orbicularis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. VII, p. 288, pl. VI, figs. 8-9. Cristellaria orbicularis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, PeS4O, ple XIX nes 17. Very rare. Found only in the sample of clay brought home in April, 1893, and strangely absent from the larger quantities of Marl collected at later times. 226. CRISTELLARIA WETHERELLII (Rupert Jones.) Marginulina wetherellii, Jones, 1854, Morris Catal. Brit. Fossils, ede. 37. Cristellaria wetherellu, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, P5375 ply CAV, fis. 14. The species is frequent in nearly all the Gatherings, but is best developed and most typical at the base of the Marl. In the upper beds the examples are short and delicate in growth, the surface ornamentation is not strong and almost every in- dividual is provided with a thin dorsal keel. Traces of this last feature are also to be found in the more typical specimens. (This is a fine series of specimens but none of them can be considered as typical as compared with the familiar Jondon Claygtypesn | (oe Gy 188s)ete, MC. p..652, pl. XV, fe: 18.) The Biarritz specimens are all short, broad, and except for the somewhat turgid cross-section are much more nearly allied to Brady’s C. gemmata (Chall. Rep. p. 554, pl. LX XI, figs. 6, 7.) than to C. wetherellu. Ina few of the Biarritz speci- mens there is a distinct tendency to dimorphic growth, the final chamber being globular, and in one case separated by a short neck from the penultimate chamber.) 227. CRISTELLARIA ASPERULA, Gitmbel. PERVERT ES) slOnplene Cristellaria asperula, Gitmbel, 1868, (70). Abh. m.-ph. Cl. k. bayer. Ak. Wiss., vol. X., no description, pl. I, fig. 65a, b. C. asperula is an elongate, rectilinear, and compressed form allied to C. wetherellii from which it is easily separated in the Biarritz Gatherings, there being found no intermediate links. It is not rare. ‘96 HALKYARD, Fossil Foramindfera of the Blue Marl (Halkyard’s specimens do not resemble Gumbel’s figure exactly, being more compressed and less strongly decorated. C. asperula, Gumbel, like its allies Marginulina fragraria Gumbel and C. cumulicostata, Gumbel, (all figured on the same plate) are usually regarded as mere synonyms of C. wethereilm, and it is almost impossible to separate them. But at Biarritz (fide Halixyard) there are no intermediates between the short and broad form which he assigns to C. wetherellu and the elongate form for which fragraria would be a better type than asperula.) | 228. CRISTELLARIA CUMULICOSTATA, Gumbel. ‘Cristeilaria cumulicostata, Gumbel, 1868 (70), Abh. m.-ph. Cl. k. bayer, Ak. Wiss., vol. X, p. 638, pl. 1, fig..67a, b Very rare. Only found in Gathering No. 8 (1893). It is allied to C. wetherellu, but differs in having the sutures marked by a continuous limbation instead of the tubercles and spines which in the latter species have a tendency to form longitudinal ribs on the surface of the test. (To attempt to separate species on such trifling grounds, especially in such an extremely variable group, is in our opinion most undesirable.) SUB-FAMILY POLYMORPHININE. Genus PotymMorpuHINA, d’Orbigny. 229. POLYMORPHINA GIBBA, d’Orbigny. Polymorphina (Globulina) gibba, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. VII. p- 266, No. 20; Modele. No. 63. Polymorghina gibba, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. TX, p. 561, pl EO i hieaarzat ib Frequent; found in most Gatherings. A few small fistu- lose examples occur in Gathering No. 5, (1893.) 230. POLYMORPHINA LACTEA (Walker & Jacob.) Serpula lactea, Waiker & Jacob, 1898, Adams’ Essays Micro., (Kannmacher’s edition), p. 634, pl. XIV, fig. 4. Polymorphina lactea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep.. vol. IX, p. 559, DI ODE aves vats \yahes alee, at, This species is more rare than the last named, but is also widely distributed throughout the Marl beds. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917) 97 231. POLYMORPHINA LACTEA, var. OBLONGA, Williamson. Polymorphina lactea, var. oblonga, Williamson, 1858, Recent Brit. Foram, p. 71, pl. VI, figs. 149-149. An exceedingly scarce variety in the Biarritz Marls. [am enly able to record one solitary specimen from Gathering No. 8. 232. POLYMORPHINA COMMUNIS, d’Orbigny. Polymorphina (Guttulina) communis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. VII, p. 266, No. 15. pl. XII, figs. 1-4. Polymorplina commums, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, pesos pl: IX XI], fe: 10. This connecting link between P. lactea (W. & J.) and P. problema, d’Orb. is rare at the Cote des Basques, specimens were not obtained until the examination of the material col- lected in 1897. 233. POLYMORPHINA AMYGDALOIDES, Reuss. Globulina amy gdaloides, Reuss, 1851, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesenolvlils ip: 82) ple Vilkihios 47. Polymorphina amygdaloides, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ee SOO. ple ee xa ie: 12" This is only a flattened variety of P. lactea, or perhaps rather of P. gibba, as the sutures are generally marked bv fine lines and are not depressed. The test is, as a rule, neatly formed and of symmetrical outline, having an oval transverse section. The species is very rare at Biarritz. 234. POLYMORPHINA COMPRESSA, d‘Orbigny. Polymorphina compressa, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Wrenner pa 232) pln alin hes) 22-2748 Polymorphina compressa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 565, pl. LXXII, figs. 9-11. Very rare, and apparently occurring only in the upper half of the Marl. 235. POLYMORPHINA SORORIA, Reuss. Polymorphina (Guttulina) sororia, Reuss, 1863, Bull. Ac. Roy. Bele., 2], vol. XV, p. 151, pl. Il, figs: 25-20: Polymorphina sororia, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 562, pl. LX XI, figs. 15-16. Very rare. The only specimens found are small. 98 | HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl 236. POLYMORPHINA LANCEOLATA, Reuss. Polymorphina lanceolata, Reuss, 1851, Zeitschr, deutsch, geol. Ges; vol) TMI i prsahyple Valerie So) Polymorphina lanceolata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX,. p. 564, pl. LXXII, figs. 5-6. Rare but small and approaching P. sororia Reuss in character. 237. PoLYMORPHINA ROTUNDATLA (Bornemann.) Guttulina rotundata, Bornemann, 1855, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. vol. VII, p. 346; pl. XVIII, mer, 3 Polymorphina rotundata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. De D5 SO) Ole ILOIUOLY eso 53, Extremely rare. Only one specimen found in Gathering INO, 3k 238. POLYMORPHINA ELEGANTISSIMA, Parker & Jones. Polymorphina elegantissima, Parker & Jones, 1865, Phil. iransenvoll Gl \VemMable > eip.4es: Polymorplina elegantissima, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 566, pl. LX XII, figs. 12-15. This species is rare in the material collected from the Biar- ritz Marl and does not attain a large size. 239. PoLYMORPHINA COMPLANATA, d’Orbigny. Polymorphina complanata, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 234, pl. XIII, figs. 25-30. Polymorphina complanata, Brady, Parker & Jones, 1870, Trans. Linn. Sec:, vol. XOOVil, py220), pl) Xo) en aanbe Very rare. The two specimens found in Gathering No. 7, are rather narrower than d’Orbigny’s figures and have the first chamber long and narrow, forming a sort of cauda at the base of the test. (The two specimens are very distinctive. In their general outline and acuminate base they are much nearer the specimens which we figured from Selsey, (H-A. & E. 1908, etc., S.B. 1909. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1917) 99) p. 432, pl. XVII. figs. 3-5.) than to d’Orbigny’s original figure,, but they differ from both in the extreme flatness of their faces and their sharply cut angular periphery.) 240. POLYMORPHINA HIRSUTA, Brady, Parker & Jones. Polymorphina hirsuta, Brady, Parker & Jones, 1870, Trans. inne SOC Vola wav il pe 242 ple Wnts ay. Very rare. Found only in Gathering No. 3. (This adds to the somewhat rare records of this pretty species; the Biarritz specimens are quite typical and well-pre- served.) 241. POLYMORPHINA LONGICOLLIS, Brady. Polymorphina longicollis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 572, pl. LX XITI, figs. 18-19. Extremely rare. Only one specimen (a typical one) being found in Gatherings of No. 8 series. (The specimens are unquestionable, though in a very bad state of preservation. It is essentially a deep water form but has previously been recorded from Tertiary strata.) 242. POLYMORPHINA RUGOSA, d’Orbigny. Polymorphina rugosa, d’Orb., 1839, In de la Sagra’s Hist. Piviisigeyete Ge Cuba. Moraminiferes;: op. 138, pls, Il; figs. 14-15. Polymorphina rugosa, Brady, Parker, & Jones, 1870, Trans. ines Ocy Vole DOCVMIE Tp. 2277 ple XULy ties. 22a=—d) Rare, occurring only in the beds at the end of the Sea-wall. The specimens vary much in size and also in surface ornament- ation. (Halkyard’s reference is not strictly correct. D’Orbigny figured two distinct forms under the specific name rugosa—one from Cuba as given in Halkyard’s reference, the other (Globu- lina rugosa d’Orb.) from Vienna Tertiaries (1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 229, pl. XIII, figs. 19-20) The Cuba form is, as the author admits, abnormal, a mere sport of P. compressa prob- ably. The Vienna form, on the other hand, is a true decorated variety of P. gibba, d’Orb. The Biarritz specimens are identical with the Vienna types, and should be referred to them.) 100 HALKYARD, fosszl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl Genus Uvicertna, d Orbigny. 243. UVIGERINA PYGM@A, d’Orbigny.. Uvigerina pygmea, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. VII, p. 269, pl. XII, figs. 8-9. Uvigerina pygmea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., p. 575, pl. LXXIV, figs! ii-12) elongate vaniety, Wess uae A common species and fairly distributed throughout the Marl, but the specimens are only of moderate size. 244. ‘UVIGERINA TENUISTRIATA, Reuss. Uvigerina tenuistriata, Reuss, 1870. Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss.Wien. vol. EXT Abth. 1, p. 485; vy. Schlicht.) Horameysecran Pietzpuhl, pl. XXII, figs. 34-37. Uvigerina tenuistriata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 574 DIES eiies (4-7. Rather rare, and only found in about half of the samples of washings exainined. (There are a few slender and typical examples but the majority are only depauperate specimens of U. pygmea.) 245. UVIGERINA TENUISTRIATA, var. DEBILIS, nov. Earlier portion of test similar to that of U. tenuistriata. Last chamber, and sometimes the penultimate one, triangular in transverse section. Length, .45 mm. This variety, of which a fair number of specimens have been found, is a small and evidently weak form of its type, diverging in the direction of U. angulosa, Will. It has gener- ally been found in Gatherings in which U. tenuistriata does not occur, or is, at any rate, very rare. (There does not appear to be much reason for the creation of this new variety. Uvigerina, when present in material in any abundance, is abnormally subject to variation, and to passage forms between the species. Brady figures many such inter- mediate specimens. (Chall. Rep. Pls. LXXTV—LXXV.) ) 246. UVIGERINA ANGULOSA, Williamson. Uvigerina angulosa, Williamson, 1858, Rec. Brit. Foram., p. 67, pl VN ean TAO Uvigerina angulosa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 576, pl. LXXIV, figs. 15-18. Well characterised examples are frequent in nearly all the washings examined. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917) IOL 247. UVIGERINA CANARIENSIS, d’Orbieny. Uvigerina canariensis, d’Orbigny, 1839, Hist. Nat. Iles Canaries, vol. II, pt..2, “‘Foraminiféres,’’ p. 138, pl. I, figs.. 25-27. Uvigerina canariensis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, Pp. 573, pl. LX XIV, figs. 1-3. Occurs frequently in all Gatherings except No. I, 1893, where only one minute specimen was found. 248. UVIGERINA PORRECTA, Brady. Uvigerina porrecta, Brady, 1879, Quar. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. POS. 274, pl VINID, figs. 15-10. Uvigerina porrecta, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX. p. 577,. PeplepiscOCIW figs: 21-23. I have found but few specimens of this small species. The: majority of them occurring in the lowest beds of the Marl. (The specimens are all devoid of any produced neck, and are characterised by an extreme and regular biserial arrangement of the chambers, extending over the greater portion of the test.) [248a. UVIGERINA ASPERULA, Czjzek. | , [Uvigerina asperula, Czjzek, 1848, F.W.B., p. 146, pl. XIII,. figs. 14-15. Uvigerina asperula, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 578,. pl. LXX\V, figs. 6-8. ] (A few fairly typical specimens were found on one of the unnamed type slides in the collection.) SUB-FAMILY RAMULININA. GENuS Ramutina, Rupert Jones. 249. RAMULINA La&VIS, Rupert Jones. Ramulina levis, Rupert Jones, MS., Wright. Rep. Procz Belfast, Nat. Field Club, 1873-4, App. ITI, 1875, p. 88 [9o],. jDlly TDL asaters "aKoy R. levis, Chapman, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., 1896, p. 582 pl. OE nic 2 aridlibid 1898.4 p 2. pley EE ioee nee Rare, occurs chiefly in the upper portion of the Marl, only small isolated chambers found. 102. HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl 250. RAMULINA GLOBULIFERA, Brady. Ramulina globulifera, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. XTX, ps 272) ple Vil itess 22-23% R. globulifera, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 587, pl. LX XVI, figs. 22-28. Rather more rare than the last species, and found in similar condition, but in lower horizons. Small. FAMILY GLOBIGERINID/A. GENUS GLOBIGERINA, d’Orbigny. 251. (GLOBIGERINA CONGLOBATA, Brady. Globigerina conglobata, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. WO, XID, Dy ASO: G. conglobata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 603, DID OOX es r-5 | and ple IexXOxe anes temase The specimens collected are rather small, and more globu- lar than recent examples, the chambers not being flattened as usual. The supplemental sutural apertures are generally to be seen in the Biarritz specimens. ‘The species is not rare and seems to be most frequent in the middle and lower portions of the Marl, and has not been found at ail in the higher Gather- ings. | 252. GLOBIGERINA BULLOIDES, d’Orbigny. Globigerina bulloides, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. WIS Do Zaza) INO. ite G. bulloides, Brady, 1884; Chall’ Rep? vol) Xe) pessoa maple TO XOXGV A ele MIE XOXUIDXe aieises 3-7. Frequent, and found in all material examined. 253. GLOBIGERINA DUTERTREI, d’Orbigny. Globigerina dutertrei, d’Orbigny, 1839. De la Sagra’s Hist. Phisiq., etc., de Cuba, “Foraminiféres,” p. 845 plo TV, figs. 19-21. G. dutertrei, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 601, pl. LXXXI, figs) 1, a-c Typical specimens were noted in almost all Gatherings; but the number of examples is but few altogether. - Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt. (1917) 103 254. GLOBIGERINA INFLATA, d’Orbigny. Globigerina inflata, d’Orbigny, 1839, Hist. lles Canaries, vol. tae) Horaminiteres, 7) p. 1134, pl. il) fesi7-o: G inflata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 601, pl. LXXIX, figs. 8-10. Frequent and widely distributed. 255. GLOBIGERINA ZEQUILATERALIS, Brady. Globigerina equilateralis, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Seteivol. xox yip., 285. G. equilateralis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 605, pl. LXXX, figs. 18-21. Very rare. Three small specimens found in Gathering 3, (1893.) (The specimens are very small indeed and evidently existed under extremely unfavourable conditions.) 256. GLOBIGERINA DUBIA, Egger. Globigerina dubia, Egger, 1857, Neues Jahrbuch fur Min. p. 281, pl. IX, figs. 7-9. G. dubia, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. [X, p. 595, pl. LX XIX, “SHIGE: “TIGA oon Very rare and small. Occurs only in Gathering 7, 1893. (The same remark applies to this species.) 256a..[GLOBIGERINA CRETACEA, d’Orbigny. | [Globigerina cretacea, d’Orbigny, 1840, CBP, p. 34, pl. III, figs. 12-14. G. cretacea, Heron-Allen & Earland, 1914, etc., FKA, 1915, p. 678, pl. LI. figs. 10-13. | 257. GLOBIGERINA MARGINATA, (Reuss.) Rosalina marginata, Reuss, 1845 (6), Verstein. bohm. Kreide, pi le: p30; cpl OCLs. 08: Globigerina marginata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, Pp- 597, woodcut 17, p. 598. Very rare and small. Found two examples in Gathering No. 3, (1893.) (The same remark.) 104. HALKYARD, Fosszl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl 4 258. GLOBIGERINA LINN/EANA, (d’Orbigny.) =< Rosalina linneana, d’Orbigny, 1839, De la Sagra’s Hist. Phisiq. etc., Cuba, ‘“Foraminiféres, p. 101, pl. V, figs. 10-12. Globigerina. linneana, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 508, pl. CX1V, he. 21, a,c. Cretaceous specimens pie LXOC UU hoa nie amb Small and rare, the only specimens collected were a few from Gathering 9, (1893.) (The same remark.) GENUS OrRBULINA, d’Orbigny. 258A. [ORBULINA UNIVERSA, d’Orbigny. | [Orbulina unwversa, d’Orbigny, 1839, FIC. p. 3, pl. I, fig. 1 O. universa, Brady, 1884, FC. p. 608, pl. LXXVII, pl. LXXXI, figs. 8-26. et seq. | Genus Puutenta, Parker and Jones. 259. PULLENIA QUINQUELOBA, (Reuss.) Nonionina quinqueloba, Reuss, 1851, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol.. Ges yjole millet or aol Vienne. yam Pullenia quinqueloba, Brady, 1884,Chall. Rep:, vols 12@ pao PL OOXGI NV ies Paar Se Specimens are small and rare, and occur principally in the middle part of the Beds. GENUS SPHAEROIDINA, d’Orbigny. 259A. [SPHAEROIDINA BULLOIDES, d’Orbigny. | [Sphaeroidina bulloides, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.; vol.. VII, p. 267, No. 1; Modéle, No. 65. Sy bulloides, Brady, 1884, FE. p. 620, pl. LX X Xe tesa at TVA SG TROD VAVIIEID)A53,. SUB-FAMILY SPIRILLININAE. GENUS SPIRILLINA, Ehrenberg. 260. SPIRILLINA VIVIPARA, Ehrenberg. Spirillina vivipara, Ehrenberg, 1841, Abhandl. k. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, p. 442, pl. III, fig. 4r1. Spirillina vivipara, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 630, DIE MERON) snes, es Not rare and evenly distributed but small and weak. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lett. (1917) 105 260A. [SPIRILLINA MARGARITIFERA, Williamson. | [| Spirillina margaritifera, Williamson, 1858, RFGB, p. 93, pl. VII, fig. 204. S. margaritifera, Heron-Allen & Earland, 1914, etc. FKA, 1915, p. 685. | 261. [SPIRILLINA SELSEYENSIS, Heron-Allen & Earland. | [Spirillina selseyensis, Heron-Allen & Earland, 1908, etc., Sererooo, p4 440, pl XVILL, fies. 6,.7.] - 261A. SPIRILLINA RESTIS, sp. nov. Pi, Wi Liamves, (Gy Byavcl 1eliy WIUK siren, te. Test consisting of a plano-spiral tube of about five con- volutions, increasing slowly in width, tube not symmetrical in section, consequently one lateral surface of the test is larger than the other, the larger surface ornamented with oblique elongate tubercles, the opposite surface without ornamenta- tion except a septal limbation. Diam. .35 mm. ‘This new species is very rare, and is perhaps only an extreme development of Williamson’s $. margaritifera. I have found one or two specimens which tended in the direction of Brady’s S- inequalis, but, as the latter seems not to be a Spiril- lina (see the apertures in Brady’s figures), it has been thought best to include them with the better-marked specimens in the present species. The specimen figured on Plate VII only shows slight traces of the oblique corrugations of the whorls. (This appears to be identical with our previously recorded species S$. selseyensis from similar material from Selsey. Our name having priority must stand.) 262. SPIRILLINA LIMBATA, /Brady. Spirillina limbata, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. Peer ple Nill anice 262A be Spirillina limbata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX. p. 632, pl. LXXXV, figs. 18-21. Very rare. Three damaged specimens found in the beds exposed between tide-marks near the end of the Quai des Basques. 106 HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl SUB-FAMILY ROTALINA. GENUS PaATELLINA, Williamson. 203. PATELLINA CORRUGATA, Williamson. Patellina corrugata, Williamson, 1858, Rec. Brit. Foram., p. 46, pl. III, figs. 86-89. P. corrugata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 634, pl. LXXXVI) figs: 1-7. Very rare, small, and delicate. (The specimens although few in number are very remark- able, for they include not merely the original type of William- son, which is the sole representative of this species at G.3. but also the peculiar flat discoid type now typical of Australian shore-gatherings, which occurs in G. 8 and 9. This has been figured by Chapman. ((C. 1907..R.E.V. p. 1324) pla xe hice me) 264. [CHAPMANIA GASSINENSIS, Silvestri. | [Chapmania gassinensis, Silvestri, Atti. Pont. Ac. N. Lincei, Ann. 4. vili. (1904-5), Pp. 130. | 264A. PATELLINA CONICA, Sp. nov. Pl. VI, fig. 7, and Pl. VIII, figs. 6-7. Test conical with rounded apex, inferior face flat, peri- pheral edge obtuse. External or cortical layer consisting of numerous small chambers arranged at first in spiral whorls, latterly in concentric rings. Hollow central portion of test filled with perforated horizontal lamellze which are connected with one another by short vertical columns. Diam. 1.1 mm. Height, .g mm. This new species is rare, and hitherto has only been found in material collected from sandy and shelly veins in the beds exposed between tide-marks at the end of the Quai des Basques. The form is a well developed one and displays all the character- istics of the genus, but instead of large chambers sub-divided into chamberlets by transverse partitions, the cortical layer consists of numerous small chambers of square or rectangular section, and with a rounded apex which is pointed towards the vertical axis of the test, and at right angles to it. In a fortui- tously broken specimen I have observed the globular primor- dial chamber which is followed by two arc-shaped ones, this form gradually gives place to the ‘‘obelisk’’ form. The first Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lett. (1917) 107 horizontal whorl surrounding the primordial cell consists of six chambers. The arrangement of the chambers cannot be seen in unabraded specimens owing to the opacity and smooth- ness of the exterior surface of the test. The perforations of the central horizontal laminze are irregularly disposed and so aresthe vertical connecting columns. Fig. 6, Plate VI, shows well the transverse section of the cortical chambers. Fig. 7, Plate VIII, the longitudinal section of the same, as well as the construction of the shell-matter occupying the interior of the hollow cone formed by those chambers. I would wish to remark that the drawings given here are made from actual specimens and are in no-sense reconstruc- tions. (Halkyard’s species is represented in the collection by specimens on the type slides and by a balsam mount containing three vertical sections taken in different planes. The available specimens therefore are sufficient, in connection with his draw- ings, to connect the species with Chapmania gassinensis, Silvestri. The méasurements, size and shape of the chamberlets all agree fairly closely with that form. The species has been thoroughly analysed and discussed (together with its isomorph Dictyoconus egyptiensis) by Silvestri in the Rivista Italiana di Paleontologica (Ann. XI, 1905, Pt. III, pp. 113-120, pl. II.) Halkyard’s forms appear to be more bluntly conical than Silvestri’s, and the basal edge in consequence less acutely angu- lar. It will be observed that Halkyard gives as locality for his specimens “‘material collected from sandy and shelly veins in the beds exposed between tide-marks.’’ This does not alto- gether exclude the possibility of their being derived fossils washed from some earlier or later horizons than the other Biarritz specimens, and a note among the Halkyard MSS. shows that he inclined to this opinion himself.) [HALKYARDIA, GEN. NOV.] GENUS LINDERINA, Schlumberger. ““Test discoidal, thickened at the centre, composed of a single rank of numerous little chambers disposed circularly round a central chamber and in the same plane. The walls of each chamber are prolonged towards the middle above the chambers already formed. This calcareous envelope is traversed by large perforations which penetrate directly to the internal chambers.”’ 108 HALKYARD, Fosstl Foramznifera of the Blue Marl The above is the generic description given by Schlum- berger in ‘‘Note sur les genres Tvillina et Linderina’”’ (Bull. Soc. Géol. de France, 3e serie, tome X XI (1893), p. 120), and requires some modification to include such members of the genus as the two new ones described below which undoubt- edly must be classed in the same genus. The only species described by Schlumberger (L. brugesi) differs slightly from his generic description inasmuch as the chambers are not all in the same horizontal plane, the disc of chambers being slightly hollowed on the inferior surface, if one disregards the prolongations of the chamber-wall which cover the previously formed rows of cells and cause the thickening ot the central portion of the disc. This hollowing of the inferior surface, which is noted by Schlumberger in his description of LE brugesu, \is ) carried to) such an extent aang, Lo. \chapmant as) | to) produce), a) (test Qasimallaiaaemnie appearance to Ffatellina, or some forms of Cymbalo- pora with which latter genus Linderina is closely allied, the shell-wall in both genera being of the same character, and both forms having a small spiral commencement to the test followed by concentric rows of chambers, the cells of each row alter- nating with those of the previous row, so that the centre of each chamber is opposite the point of junction of two chambers of the preceding ring, after the manner of Planorbulina and Cymbalopora. In my opinion, after careful study of specimens of L. ovata mounted in Canada Balsam, Schlumberger is mistaken in affirming that “‘the wall of all the chambers is continuous on all the circumference, without any trace of suture, and is cor- rugated in order to form each of the little chambers.’’ I have observed this apparent duplication and corrugation of the cell wall which can only be seen in very few cells of the many com- posing a single test, and am satisfied that it can be accounted for in other ways such as cutting through the apertural pores of adjoining chambers. In the vast majority of cases the cells are arranged on the planorbuline plan, and consequently there is a well-defined suture. I must also remark that “Schlumberger’s photogravure (Fig. 7, Plate 3, representing a transverse section of a test), does not show the double shell-wall, neither does his wood cut on page 121, which I reproduce here (Plate VII, fig. 1.) Schlumberger’s specimens were collected from the Upper Eocene deposits at Bruges (Gironde). (Halkyard does not appear to have had personal acquain- tance with any specimens of Schlumberger’s Genus Linderina, Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtz. (1917) 109 otherwise he could hardly have confused his very distinctive types with Schlumberger’s. We have not attempted to modify the generic definition of Linderina in order to bring them in. The differences are too wide and deep for reconcilément, and we have found it necessary to institute a new genus for Halk- yard’s forms, which we have pleasure in associating with his memory under the name Halkyardia. We have had a great advantage in having previously be- come fully acquainted with the structure of Schlumberger’s Linderina brugesu in the numerous examples of the species which we identified, described and figured exhaustively in our Selsey Monograph (H-A. & E. 1908, etc. S.B. 1911. p. 332. pl. XII, figs. 1-7.) We fully confirm the diagnosis of Schlum- berger, which Halkyard disputes. The essential differences between Halkyardia and Lin- derina can be briefly explained. In Linderina we have a shell with a horizontal series of planorbuline cham- bers. These chambers by _ successive thickenings of picwmextesnal wall!) eventually 9 result) in a!) bicon- vex disc which, if cut in median section, shows a thick wall in the centre of the disc decreasing in thickness to each edge. The disc is usually somewhat ‘‘dished’’ instead of being symmetri- cally biconvex. In Halkyardia on the other hand the planorbu- line disc of chambers, concave in cross section, tends to fill up the concavity with a mass of shell substance perforated with numerous canals. Seen in section the thickening is confined to the concave side only. Both in shell structure and arrange- ment of chambers, Halkyardia is clearly very closely related to Planorbulina and Cymbalopora.) 2 265. [ HaLKYARDIA OVATA, sp. nov. | 265A. LINDERINA OVATA, sp. nov. Ble Wale ss: rook 2) Test depressed, ovate; superior surface slightly convex, inferior surface flat; composed of numerous small chambers, the first four or five of which are arranged in a spiral manner; the later ones disposed on either side of a series occupying the longitudinal axis of the shell. Only the outside row of chambers visible externally. Aperture porous, as in Cymbalopora, or sometimes consisting of one or two larger openings. Length -66 mm., breadth .35 mm. 110 ~=HALKYARD, fosstl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl Apart from the external form, being ovate and not circular, this species shows all the characteristics of L. brugesu, Schlum- berger. The form of the chambers,the shell-wall, and the ex- ternal appearance and structure of the thickened central portion are absolutely identical. The young shell is spicular or fusi- form, the long axis being sometimes five times as long as the shorter one, whilst in the most highly developed test I have . met with (fig. 10) the proportion is less than two to one. This seems to show that the cells on the long axis are at first developed more rapidly than the lateral ones, but, after a certain stage is reached, their increase is arrested and the lateral cham- bers gain the ascendency, so that it is quite possible that in time a discoidal shell like Schlumberger’s species might be pro- duced. This species is not common, but I have collected from eight samples of the Blue Marl, 30 or 35 specimens. (Apart from Halkyard’s efforts to bring the description of this species within the definitions of Linderina the foregoing remarks present nearly all that can be said for this very curious form. Viewed from the superior surface, both species of Halk- yardia might readily be mistaken for Cymbalopora poeyi (d’Orb.) of the depressed type; only when the under surface is viewed does the secondary deposit in the umbilical recess give the clue to its distinctive structure.) 266. [HaLKyARDIA MINIMA, (Liebus.) | [Cymbalopora radiata, Hagenow, var. minima, Liebus, 1911, Sitzb. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Math. nat. Kl. vol. CXX, JNdyelaly Wy, MONT, (De Czy oll JUL, inves, 77] : 2664. LINDERINA CHAPMANI, Sp. Nov. JENA WILE mers Ss Oy Test conical, with rounded apex, formed of concentric rows of wedge-shaped chambers. Centre of hollow cone filled up by prolongations of the inferior walls of the cells. The superior surface of the test thickened by the prolongation of the superior chambers-walis. Diam..6 mm. Height .3 mm. This very beautiful species shows clearly by tne form and arrangement of its chambers its relationship to Cymbalopora; it is however more regular in structure and of a higher type. A vertical section (fig. 9, pl. VI) shows plainly by the varying Manchester Memozirs, Vol. lett. (1917) III angle of the chambers in respect to the vertical axis of the shell, the evolution of the conical form of the mature test from the lenticular shape of the young shell. This species is rarer than the preceding one, only half the number of specimens being noted from six Gatherings of Marl. I have much pleasure in associating Mr. F. Chapman’s name with this interesting form, in grateful remembrance of the valuable assistance he has so willingly afforded me in overcom- ing the difficulties which I have encountered in my work on the collections now under consideration. (Halkyard’s intention of naming this new species after Frederick Chapman cannot unfortunately be carried out, inas- much as the form has already been described and figured as above, though Liebus misunderstood the structure of the test and referred his specimens to the genus Cymbalopora of Hage- now. In this species there is a limited amount of thickening of the shell wall on the superior side, thus perhaps affording evidence of some relationship between Linderina and the new genus Halkyardia, but the superior thickening is very limited in extent and is as coarsely perforate as on the inferior side. The species is absolutely indistinguishable from depressed specimens of Cymbalopora poeyi, (d’Orb.) when viewed from the superior surface.) Genus Discorpina, Parker & Jones. 267. DiscorBina optusaA, (d’Orbigny.) Rosalina obtusa, d Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 179, plex, mes. 4-6. Discorbina obtusa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., Vol. IX, p. 644, pile Cliie: oa. bcs The specimens found in my collections are both small and rare. 268. DIScORBINA ALLOMORPHINOIDES, (Reuss.) Valvulina allomorphinoides, Reuss, 1860, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien. vol. XL, p. 223, pl. XI, fig. 6, a-c. Discorbina allomorphinoides, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. Deion OF4 (ple, teseis..3 This species is more frequent than D. obtusa and attains somewhat larger dimensions, though it can hardly be said to be very well developed in the Blue Marl. 112 HALKYARD, Fossil Foramintfera of the Blue Marl 2609. DiscorBINA SAULCYI, (d’Orbigny.) Rosalina saulcyi, d’Orbigny, 1839, Voyage Amér. Mérid., vol. V. pt. 5, Poraminiferes,’ p. 42) (ple 1h) fasMo-me Discorbina saulcyi, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 653, Dl NCI Mesmoatib ac. Small and rare but fairly well distributed. 270. DISCORBINA VILARDEBOANA, (d’Orbigny.) Rosalina vilardeboanu, d’Orbigny, 1839, Voyage Amér. Meérid., vol. Vi, pt. 5, Foraminferes, ~ p) 445 pls Ville semnconse Discorbina vilardeboana, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 645, pl) LXXXVID ties. 9) 125 and pl LXOOay estes Very rare, only two small specimens found in the whole of the samples of Marl examined. 271. DISCORBINA RUGOSA, (d’Orbigny.) Rosalina rugosa, d’Orbigny, 1839, Voyage Amér. Meérid., vol. Viv pts) | Poraminiferes, /(p) 42, pli i siecemr 2 sie Discorbina rugosa, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 652, pl LXX XVI, figs. 3a;\b, c, and pli XC insaanaoees Rare and small, it seems to be limited to the upper portion of the Marl. (The specimens can hardly be described as typical.) 272. DISCORBINA GLOBULARIS, (d’Orbigny.) Rosalina globularis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. VII, PaeZ 7 Non le CMI tiiersei ta Discorbina globularis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX., p. QAR soll IOS OR WAL ISS. (Sy 12 Rare, but fairly distributed, specimens typical and well developed. (The specimens are all of the thick-walled highly perforate type.) 273. DISCORBINA OPERCULARIS, (d’Orbigny.) Rosalina opercularis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. Vil paZzzieNion ze Discorbina opercularis, Brady, 1884, Chail. Rep. vol. 1X, p. 650, pl. LX X XIX, figs. 8, 9. This form requires no special remark except that it is rare and occurs chiefly in the lower beds. Manchester Memotrs, Vol. lxitz. (1917) 113 274. DISCORBINA OPERCULARIS, Vat. ELEGANS, nov. Pl. VI, fig. 2 This variety differs from the type in its invariably smaller ‘dimensions, neater build, broader and less arched chambers, and the lesser and more gradually increasing width of its spiral whorls. The drawing given here represents well the character- istics described above. Diam. .3 mm. The variety is rare and not always accompanied by its type ‘species. (The variety would not appear to be worth separating. It probably only represents a depauperate form of the type exist- ing under unfavourable conditions.) 275. DISCORBINA PILEOLUS, (d’Orbigny.) Valvulina pileolus, d’Orbigny, 1839, Voyage Amér. Merid., vol. V, pt. 5, ‘““Foraminiféres,’’ p. 47, pl. I, figs. 15-17. Discorbina pileolus, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 649, pl. LXXXIX, figs. 2-4. Very rare; two small specimens found in the lowest soft beds of the Marl. 276. DISCORBINA CONCINNA, Brady. Discorbina concinna, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 646, pl. XC, figs. 7-8. Very rare, only two small specimens noted. 277. DISCORBINA ROSACEA, (d’Orbigny.) Rotalia rosacea, dOrbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. VII, p. B72 IN@s 5s Discorbina rosacea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 644, Dll, WOOO WANES sasise ies eZly Rare and small. 278. DISCORBINA ORBICULARIS, (Terquem.) Rosalina orbicularis, Terquem, 1876, Ess. Anim. Plage Dun- engulen pis 2 pH 7s ple lene di Sa sb Discorbina orbicularis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol, IX, p. 647, pl. LX XXVIII, figs. 4-8, Less rare than the last species but still not frequent. 114. HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl 279. DISCORBINA COMPRESSA, Sp. nov. Jel, WIL, ne, @. Shell compressed, thin, flattened on both surfaces, peri- pheral edge sharp, generally keeled. Test composed of. about sixteen arched chambers. The sutures and spiral line of earlier chambers limbate on superior surface, which is also decorated with scattered tubercles. Inferior surface smooth except for a few tubercles occupying the centre of the disc. Diam. 1.0. ~ mm. The species is rather rare but is easily distinguished from the other members of the genus. When unaltered by erosion, etc., the shell is seen to be thin and semi-transparent with com- paratively large pores. In the specimen figured the last cham- ber is fractured. I draw attention to this fact to avoid all possibility of misinterpretation of my drawing. (Halkyard’s drawing shows a feature which is not referred to in the description but which is certainly one of the most striking points in the species, viz., the prominence of the secondary, or asterigerine, series of chambers which are exposed on the superior surface of the test, but invisible on the inferior, contrary to the usual order of things. It is assumed that the carinate edge marks the inferior face, as in other species.) 280. DISCGRBINA GLOBIGERINOIDES, Parker & Jones. Discorbina globigerinoides, Parker & Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans.. De B35 Ce ABI oll, 2CIDK. ines, 7a), 1, Cz Extremely rare. A single well-grown specimen only having been found. (The specimen is an infiltrated fossil, and we cannot satisfy ourselves as to its identity.) GENus PLANORBULINA, d’Orbigny. 281. PLANORBULINA MEDITERRANENSIS, d’Orbigny. Planorbulina mediterranensis, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat... vol. Villon 280, pl OCIVE ties 4-6) Planorbulina mediterranensis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. XS (p.) O56, pl AGM ainciseat=3e , Very rare. Two small broken specimens from the upper part of the Marl. / Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lrit. (1917) 115 SUB-FAMILY TINOPORINZA. GENUS GyPsina, Carter. 282. GYPSINA INHRENS, (Schultze.) Acervulina inherens, Schultze, 1854, Organismus Polythal, Beeson ple Vil fie. 12: Gypsina inherens, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 718, pl. CII, figs. 1-6. Very rare. Four specimens noted. (Both of the specimens on the principal slide, should be referred to G. vesicularis (P. & J.). Two other similar specimens occur on another slide. The genus occurs in this place in Halkyard’s MS., but should come in after Pulvinulina.) 283. GYPSINA GLOBULUS, (Reuss.) Ceriopora globulus, Reuss, 1847. Haidinger’s Nat. Abh. II, p. Sep Ile Way atten We Gypsina globulus, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 717, ON (GIL, talkers Koy Extremely rare. A single typical specimen was found in material collected at the top of the cliff about 200 yards south of the villa known as |’Ermitage. 284. GYPSINA VESICULARIS, (Parker & Jones.) Orbitolina vesicularis, aa & Jones, 1860, Ann. Mag. Nat. JB0iSi3.5 [35 Awol VI, Gypsina vesicularis, Eyed, +884, CHW INEV., WOls IDX, Ws FAs, pl. Cl, figs. 9-12. Extremely rare. The solitary specimen found is almost globular in form, there being slight flattening and depression on one portion which seems to have been the point of attach- ment to some foreign body. This feature is the only difference between this specimen and the one assigned to G. globulus, and it is doubtful whether it would not be better to assign both specimens to the latter species. It may be remarked that the two examples were found in widely separated horizons of the Marl. (See No. 282.) Y16. HALKYARD, Fossel Foraminifera of the Blue Marl GENUS CARPENTERIA, Gray. 285. CARPENTERIA PROTEIFORMIS, GO6es. Carpenteria balaniformis, var. proteiformis, Goes, 1882, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. XIX, No. 4, p. 94, pl. VI, figs. 208-214; pl. VII, figs. 215-219. Carpenteria proteiformis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 679, pl. XCVII, figs. 8-14, Very rare. Only three fragments found. (See our note upon this species sub Columella, No. 50, note.) Genus TRUNCATULINA, d’Orbigny. 286. TRUNCATULINA HAIDINGERIT, (d’Orbigny.) Rotalina haidingeru, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 154, pl. VII, figs. 7-9. Truncatulina haidin. geru, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep.. a vol. IX, p. 663, pl. XCV, fig. Faw suCe This species is common in most of my Gatherings, and the specimens as a rule are robust and typical. (There is a considerable range of variation in the large series of specimens selected, many of them being almost flat on the inferior side.) 287. TRUNCATULINA UNGERIANA, (d’Orbigny.) Rotalina ungeriana, d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. LOZ ple VLE es. TOTS: Truncatulina-ungeriana, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p-664, pl, XCIV: fiszga, b,c: Occurs chiefly in the middle and lower portions of the Marl. The examples found are generally well-developed, but are not numerous. 2874. [TRUNCATULINA AKNERIANA (d’Orbigny). ] [ Rotalina akneriana, d’Orbigny, 1846, FFV, p. 156, pl. VIII, figs. 13-15. Truncatulina akneriana, Brady, 1884, FC. p. 663, pl. XCIV. eR iy 2H 1D Call 288. TRUNCATULINA LOBATULA, (Walker & Jacob.) Nautilus lobatulus, Walker & Jacob, 1798. In Kannmacher’s ed. of Adam’s Essays Micros., p. 642, pl. XIV, fig. 36. - Truncatulina lobatula, Brady, 1884, Chall Rep., vol. TX, p. 660, pl: XC, fis. 10, pl: XCIMS heswr 45. pleas figs. 4-5 Manchester Memozrs, Vol. lxiz. (1917) 13 7p Specimens frequent and well distributed. ‘Tending in form towards 7. ungeriana rather than towards the irregular, wild- growing form 7. variabilis, d’Orb. [288a. TRUNCATULINA REFULGENS, (Montfort.) ] [Cibicides refulgens, Montfort, 1808-10, CS. vol. 1, p- 122, 123, erie. ‘Petre. Truncatulina refulgens, Brady, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 659, Piece il, nes. 7-9. [Several specimens were found on one of the unnamed type slides. See also note to No. 207. | 289. TRUNCATULINA WUELLERSTORFI, (Schwager, ) Anomaiina wullerstorfi, Schwager, 1866. Novara Exped., Geol. II, p. 258, pl. VII, figs. 105-107. Truncatulina wuellerstorfi, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 662; pl. XCIII, figs, 8-9. Rather rare and found only in the upper beds of the Cote des Basques. j 290. TRUNCATULINA ROBERTSONIANA, EPrady. Truncatulina robertsoniana, Brady, 1881, Quart. Journ. Micr. VOU X I, Pp: 65. T. robertsomana, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 664, Pip MeNe fs. 4a. b, c. Examples are not very rare but are small and weak, show- ing that the conditions under which they lived were not suitable to the development of the species. Of the three localities from which Brady’s specimens came, two are in the West Indies, and the third off Pernambuco, S. America. The depths recorded are from 390 to 675 fathoms. (Very few of the specimens can be regarded as typical. The bulk of them are much more angular in periphery and tend in the direction of 7. ungeriana.) 291. TRUNCATULINA RETICULATA, (Czjzek.) Rotalina reticulata, Czjzek, 1848, Haidinger’s Nat. Abh. II, peas. pl DellL, fess 7-0: Truncatulina reticulata, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX p. 669, pl. XCVI, figs. 5-8. Frequent and fairly distributed, the species however be- comes rare in the lower Marl beds. The examples found are small but typical. 118 HALKYARD, Fosszl Foraminifera of the Blue Marl 292. ‘TRUNCATULINA TENERA, Brady. Truncatulina tenera, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 665, ple XC Viieeeitannbences Specimens few but well grown. The species can easily be distinguished from its isomorph Pulvinulina umbonata, Reuss, by the . different character of its oral aperture, which, in the latter, is without the raised margin so general in the genus Truncatu- lina. The shell-wall is also another point of difference between the two genera, being much smoother and with finer pores in Pulvinulina than in Truncatulina. (The shell wall is rougher and much more coarsely perfor- ated than in recent types.) 293. TRUNCATULINA PyGMma, Hantken. Pulvinulina pygmea, Hantken, 1875, Mittheil Jahrb., d. k- ung. geol. Anstalt, vol. 1V, p. 78, p. X, fig. 8. (Truncatulina pygmea on plate.) T. pygmea, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep. vol. IX, p. 666, pl. XCV, figs. 9-10. Very rare. Only two specimens found, both in the same sample of Marl (No. 4.) 294. “‘TRUNCATULINA TENUIMARGO, Brady. Truncatulina tenuimargo, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep.. vol. IX, p. 662, pl. XCITI, figs. 2-3. Rare. The examples found are somewhat irregular in growth, the superior face being generally concave in full- ‘grown specimens and the last two chambers often very deformed. The texture of the shell is smooth, and the sutures and peripheral edge thickened and glassy. (The specimens can only be referred to this variety by con- siderable latitude of identification. They are merely T. lobatula with a somewhat prominent marginal edge; there is no definite keel.) 295. TRUNCATULINA HUMILIS, Brady. Truncatulina humilis, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. 665, Ds MCI, shies 72k, 1, Very rare. cine specimens found in a single sample of Marl (No. 3.) (Brady’s species in itself, is on the author’s admission, very obscure, and we should prefer to regard Halkyard’s few speci- mens merely as immature stages of some other truncatuline Species, possibly T. robertsoniana, Brady.) Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1917) I19 296. TTRUNCATULINA CULTER, (Parker & Jones.) Planorbulina culter, Parker & Jones, 1865, Phil. Trans., p. 421, Plex fio. 1. Truncatulina culter, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. IX, p. Soap Ty . 338. NuMMULIres (ASSILINA) MAMMILATA, (d’Archiac.) 338a. NumMutites (ASSILINA) EXPONENS, Sowerby. Numm. (Assil.) mammilata, d’Archiac, 1853, Deser., Anim., groupe Nummulitique Inde, vol. I, p. 154, pl. XI, figs. 6-8 Nummiulina mammilata, d’Archiac, 1¢47, Bull. Soc. Géol., France [2], vol. IV, p. roro. ! Nummularia exponens, Sowerby, 1834, (1840,) ‘Trans. Geol. Soc. London, [2], vol. V, p. 719, pl. LXI, fig. 14. Numm. exponens, I’Archiac & Haime, 1853, Deser. Anim. groupe Nummulitique Inde, vol. I, p. 148, pl. X, figs. 1-10. N. mammilata which is the megalospheric form is very much more common than N. exponens the microspheric form. Of about twenty-five specimens examined only one was found with a microsphere. This specimen differs somewhat from the type in that the spire is rather more open than usual and the chambers are broader. SUB-FAMILY CYCLOCLYPEINA:. Genus Orprrorpes, d'Orbigny 339. ORBITOIDES PAPYRACEA, (Boubée.) Nummulites papyracea, Boubée, 1832, Bull. Soc. Géol. France, vol. II, p. 445, no figure. Orbitoides (Discocyclina) papyracea, Gtimbel, 1868 (1870), Abh. m.-ph. Cl. k.-bayer, Ak. Wiss. vol. X, p. 690, pl. III, figs. 3-12, figs. 19-29. Very common, particularly in the hard layers of the lower part of the Marls where seams several inches thick occur, formed almost entirely of this species with an admixture of different species of Nummulites. In the softer beds of the Marl it is rarer, but still the commoner form of the genus. 340. Orxsirorpes (DrscocycLIna) ASPERA, Giimbel. Orbitoides (Discocyclina) aspera, Giimbel, 1868 (1870), Abh, 1. ph. Cl. K. bayer, Ak. Wiss, vol. X, p. 698, pl. III, figs. 13-14; and figs. 32-34. Rare in upper soft Marls, more frequent in lower and harder beds. 140 HALKYARD, Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl 341. ORBITOIDES (DISCOCYCLINA) DISPANSA, (Sowerby. ) phris dispansus, Sowerby, 1837, (1840), Trans. Geol. 5 ae si vol. V, p. 327, P- 718, pl. XAIV, hg. 16, Oe: Orbitoides (Discocy china) dispansa, Gumbel, 1868, (1870), Abh. m.-ph. Cl. k-bayer, Ak. Wiss. A, p. 70I, pl. III, figs. Hosihy Rare on the Cote des Basques. In the bed of the Chabiague Brook, which is outside the limits from which the collections now under description were taken, there are horizontal layers of indurated Marls containing large quantities of Orbitoides dispansa. ‘These layers appear to be the lowest of the Blue Marls. At any rate they are the lowest in sight. 342. ORBITOIDES (ASTEROCYCLINA) STELLATA, (d’Archiac,) Calcarina stellata, d?Archiac, 1846, Mem. Soc. Géol. France, [2], vol. IT, p. 199, joul., WHI, Sales te Orbitoides (Asterocyclina) stellata, Gtimbel, 1868 (1870), Abh. m.-ph. Cl. k.-bayer, Ak. Wiss., vol. X, p. 713, pl. I, fig. 115; and pl. IV, figs. 4-7. Generally distributed but rather rare. 343. OrBITOIDES (ASTEROCYCLINA) STELLA, Gumbel. Orbitoides (Asterocyclina.) stella, Giimbel, 1868 (1870), Abh., m.-ph. Cl. k.-bayer. Ak. Wiss vol. X, p. 716, pl. II, fig. 117; and pl. IV, figs. 8-10, 19. Rare, and only found in two Gatherings. 344. OrpirorDEs (AKTINOCYCLINA) RADIANS (d’Archiac). Orbitolites radians, d’Archiac, 1848, Mém. Soc. Géol., France. 2], vol. Ill, p. 405, pl. VIII, fig. 15. Orbitoides (AkRtinocyclina) radians, Giimbel, 1868 (1870), Abh, m. ph., Cl. k.-bayer, Ak. Wiss. vol. X, p. 707, pl. Il, fig. 116; and pl. IV, figs. 11-15. Very rare. In the whole of my collections only one spec men was found, that occurring in No. 3a Gathering of No. 2 series. 345. ORBITOIDES (AKTINOCYCLINA) TENUICOSTATA, Gimbel. Orbitoides (Aktinocyclina) tenuicostata, Gtimbel, 1868, (1870), Abh. m.ph. Cl. k.-bayer. Ak. Wiss., vol. X, pl. Il fig. 114; and pl. IV, fig. 35. Rare in sandy pockets in the softer Marls. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. leit. (1917) APPENDIX A. Foraminifera mentioned by the Count “Paléontologie de Biarritz’ de Bouillé in his and localities where found. Chambre d’ Amour. Nummulites vasca, Joly and Ley- merie. Operculina ammonea, Leymerie, Nummulites intermedia, d’Archiac. REMARKS, Espéce répandue, d’ apres d’Archiac, de- puis la Chambre d’ Amour jusqu’ 4 l’Est du Phare. var. in d’Archiac. Espéce répandue de- puis Ja Chambre d’ Amour jusqu’ au Campost d’ Etienne ou Tres pots. Phare de Biarritz. Operculina ammonea, Leymerie. var, in d’Archiac. Lou Cachaou. Operculina ammonea, Leymerie. Orbitolites papyracea, d’Archiac. is Fortsii d’Archiac. ah sella, d’Archiac, ie, stellata, d’Archiac. Mistake of genus. Ought to be ‘‘Orbi- toides,’’ not ‘‘Orbi- tolites.”’ Villa Bruce (Bed at 400 metres N. of villa). Operculina ammonea, Leymerie. oe Boissyi d’Archiac. Orbitolites radians, d’Archiac. a stellata, d’Archiac. x Fortsii and var. d’ Archiac. 3s papyracea, d’Archiac. 5 sella, d’Archiac. Nummulites planulata, Lamarck. 5 Brongniarti, d’Archiac “ spira, de Roissy. Ought to be “ Orbi- toides,” not .“ Orbi- tolites,” La Gourépe. Nummulites Dufrenoyi, d’Archiac. Ps variolaria, Sowerby. 55 Biaritzensis. d’Archiac. 142 Appendix. Num, Orbignyi, Galeoti sp. Wemmelensis, de la Harpe & var. plicata Van den Broeck. 7 ”) ) o) A + var. granulata_ ,, 3 var. Prestwichi ,, es 93 +) planulata, Lamk. 5 Ss ,, var. incrassa elegans, Sowerby. ta, de la Harpe. var. depressa, de la Harpe. ” +) +) ,, vasca, Joly & Leymerie. 4 Pe i pe yar. incrassata, de la H. a i a ,, tenuispira os Ppouchert, de la Harpe. 7 Na i var. tenuispira a var. incrassata oe subpulchella, de la Harpe. 3) Couples. a, with microsphere. b, with megalosphere. N. complanata, Lam. .....--..... WW. Tchihatchefi, d’Arch. ....... , perforata, di Orbe foc 5, Luicasana, Defr. ......---.....- ,, intermedia, d’Arch. ........-- ,, Pichteli, Michel. ............... ,, contorta, Desh. .......-.+++++ istiiat ay pCa @UDerecrencen---- Proc. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. LXI., Pt.1., 17th July 1917. ° Known as Height Lane on the old Survey maps. ae i i ae Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixii. (1918), No. 9. 3 The materials of which these hills are chiefly composed belong to _ the Drift deposit No. 2 of Binney’s 1847 classification,! and are the so-called “ middle sand and gravel ”’ of various authors.” On first being exposed, the Pendleton section showed a depth _ varying from 6 to 20 feet, according to the slope of the hill and the inclination of the new road (Light Oaks Road) cutting through the Drift mound in a westerly direction. On the northern side of this road, and in another running from it northwards, the beds consisted, im descending order, of a small thickness (about 2 feet) of grass- covered sandy soil, dark in colour, and containing, at the base, scattered flint cores and flakes, including a few “ pigmies.’’ These scanty remains are insufficient to furnish conclusive evidence as to date ; but they possibly indicate a Neolithic floor. This is rendered probable from similar occurrences elsewhere (see p. 6). Below the soil-bed came a bed of lighter coloured sand, which, like the overlying soil, was noticeably devoid of stratification. This zone was about 2 feet in thickness and rested immediately upon a thick series of current-bedded Glacial sands with lenticular beds of small gravel and rolled coal-pebbles, and, in places, lenticular patches and layers of loam, the whole being much faulted. The Glacial sands themselves were remarkably free from stones. On the southern side of Light Oaks Road the section, except ' for some weathering, is at present much the same as when first ex- posed. It differs considerably from that of the opposite side. At the Claremont Road end the beds consist of sand and gravel, but farther west, about the position of the 200-foot contour-line on the 6- inch Ordnance Survey map, reddish clay with rounded stones replaces the sand and gravel asa surface deposit. Theclay occurs in bands of varying thickness, separated by thin layers of fine sand: it shows some contortion in places, and book-leaf layers are frequent. These beds rest immediately on current-bedded sands similar to those of the northern section. According to borings, made by the foreman in charge of the excavations, the greatest thickness of clay here is 5 feet 6 inches. This rests on some 30 feet of sharp sand entirely free from clay bands. This section is bisected by a short road running southward, and at one corner of this road a deposit of fine sand is seen filling what appears to be a slight depression or gully in the clay surface. Sand is also present overlying the clay in another portion of this road: this sand is apparently devoid of stratification. The absence of the intervening deposits between the northern and southern sections (removed in making the road) renders it difficult to correlate the two sections with accuracy, but from the presence of a thin band of clay near the top of the sands at the lower or western end of the northern section one is led to the conclusion that the reddish clay rapidly thins out here. There was no trace of its extension over the sands at the eastern end before these beds were cleared away. 1 Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. VIII., 1847, p. 204. ; 2 Geol. Surv. Memoirs, ‘‘ Bolton,”’ 1862 ; ‘“‘ Oldham,”’ 1864, etc. SS re eS ee The most noteworthy feature of these deposits is the occurrence 3 of large numbers of beautifully facetted and wind-worn pebbles m the sand-bed immediately below the soil-cap. These occurred in situ in a somewhat discontinuous layer, sometimes im nests or © pockets, at a depth of some 3 or 4 feet from the original land surface. They were first noticed in the weathered talus of the section, but ~ were ultimately located in the sand-bed below the soil-cap, and found to be strictly confined to that horizon. During the last two ~ years I have collected several hundreds of these wind-worn pebbles from this zone as the exposure was cut back and the sand carted away for building and other purposes. They can still be obtained in numbers from the portions of the section still standmg. They are not entirely restricted to the northern section, as I have obtamed several characteristic examples from the sand occupying the gully in the surface of the clay of the southern section mentioned previously (p. 3). The general field relations strongly suggest that the sand of the facetted: pebble zone is definitely a post-Glacial deposit, probably the result of redistribution by wind before a soil-cap with vegetation began to form, and that the contained pebbles were worn by sand- blast in post-Glacial times. The close association of this bed with the underlying Glacial Drift would seem to imply that no great interval of time can have intervened between the deposition of the - two series. The sand in the facetted pebble zone, in its natural condition, is somewhat dark in colour, but noticeably lighter than the over- lying soil : it adheres strongly to the pebbles when damp. On dry- ing it becomes very much lighter. On microscopic examination it is seen to consist largely of yellowish-colcured quartz in rounded and sub-angular grains, mixed with smaller grains of quartz and of various drift rocks. The pebbles showing wind action are typical of the North- Western Drift, consisting of slate, granite (Eskdale and others), Ennerdale granophyre, Borrowdale volcanic tuffis and ashes, _porphyries, quartzites, millstone grit, sandstones, chalk fiimts, carboniferous chert and other rocks. The largest facetted pebble so far found measures 113 =x 8} inches, and is 7 inches high. Others are of varying dimensions down to half-an-inch in diameter. Without exception, all the pebbles collected from this zone, whether facetted or not, show evidence of wind action on their surfaces. A close examination of these pebbles reveals several interesting features. They show all stages towards the formation of typical q dreikanter, or three-edged stones. The most remarkable feature, however, is the large percentage of stones which have been fractured or split. In some cases large stones, both igneous and sedimentary, have been split in half ; in others quite a third of the original pebble has been broken off: and in each case the fractured face exhibits most definite evidences of modification by blowing sand. Ina few cases the rounded unsplit pebbles show traces of facetting ; but the — | i : action of the wind has not been sufficient to produce anything like _ the beautifully sharp edges and faces seen in the fractured examples. Though most of the stones have been split on one face only, usually along a joint or bedding plane in the case of the sedi- mentary rocks, there are others which have been split in various directions, and modification of these faces by sand-blast has resulted in the production of three- or even four-edged facetted pebbles. The occurrence of these numerous modified split pebbles at Pendleton is interesting in point of view of the fact that similar -examples have been recorded from various other localities both in Europe and in America. The majority of the Pendleton facetted stones show a rounded water-worn base ; but others, including the large example mentioned previously, still retain very definite traces of Glacial strie on their bases. Several pebbles occurred in the sand completely inverted, and some show distinct traces of erosion on both sides—that is, they in- dicate wind action for a time with one side up, followed by similar action after the pebble had rolled over. A number of the stones were orientated i” situ, and in some of these the eroded fractured surface faced north-westwards, in others westwards, and in others again south-westwards—the direc- tions of the present prevailing winds. But as these also show wind erosion on other parts, it does not definitely indicate that these were the particular winds which eroded them. Differentiation, according to varying hardness and composi- tion, is well displayed on the granites, porphyries, grits, etc., where the weaker constituents have been strongly eroded, leaving the stones with an irregularly pitted surface, in some cases over the whole upper surface of the pebble. On the volcanic ashes, inequalities in texture, imperceptible to the naked eye, have been searched out, with the result that the pebbles have a roughened surface consisting of minute pimples of harder material standing out in relief. The facets are not absolutely plane surfaces ; they are usually somewhat concave, grooved, or fluted. The concavity may be in part original and owing to conchoidal fracture. The facets are variable in number: the majority of the stones present one face only—a modified split face ; others two or more. Some examples with flat tops show three, four, or even five incipient facets. On some stones, chiefly igneous, the grooving is of the nature of parallel series of elongated pits running transversely across the face and not at right angles to the edge (see Fig. 14). On such stones as these the facet angles are very irregular ; but on the quartzites and fine volcanic ashes the edges are much straighter and sharper. A fair proportion of the stones are elongate-oval and these usually possess a long median ridge, with occasionally two small ridges diverging from it at one end. Several small flat oblong pebbles, especially of quartzite, are interesting from the fact that they must originally have had fairly vertical sides ; these have been worn by blown sand, leaving the stones with two almost vertical sides and two somewhat Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 9. = eer Fe as 6 JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. sloping ones. The bases, too, in some cases, have been undercut, and around the basal edges of some of the fine grits a series of vermiculate grooves is present. With regard to the chert, this invariably occurs in rectangular blocks, the whole surface usually exhibiting a dull polish. Where fossils are present (Crinoid stems usually), these have been etched out, leaving the surface full of small holes. A few of the stones, the andesites especially, are remarkable from the fact that the sand-blast appears to have encountered a joint or crack in the stone and this has been enlarged and cut down considerably, giving the stone the appearance of having been cut by a blunt saw. : It would be quite impossible to describe the various modifica- tions seen in the different pebbles from the Pendleton section. A selection, therefore, has been made of the more striking examples in this prolific series, and these are figured on the accompanying plates (Figs. I-14). Since.my Pendleton discovery I have found two other localities near Manchester which have yielded facetted and wind-worn pebbles. One is on Kersal Moor, about 14 miles N.E. of the Pendleton site, and on the other side of the Irwell valley. The surface of the ground is here dotted over with similar moraine-like hills of Glacial sand and gravel, and on the S.W. slope of one of these—Sand Hill, altitude 250 feet above O.D.—I succeeded in finding about half a-dozen distinctly facetted Drift pebbles. Their occurrence here is an exact parallel to Pendleton, both as to position and from the fact that the pebbles which exhibit wind action have also been split or fractured. One specimen of fine grit was found im stu about 18 inches below the present disturbed surface—-7.e. about 9 inches deep in the sands. The top-soil consists of about 9 inches of densely matted rootlets of grass mixed with dark sand, which contains, amongst other things, numerous chippings of flint and chert. Other facetted pebbles were found in the sand where the top-soil had been removed. The presence of a Neolithic floor at this site was first brought to public notice in 1908 by the late Mr. C. Roeder, of Manchester, who found large quantities of flint cores, flakes, and scrapers, hematite, etc., also a Stone spindle whorl, all obtained from the top-soil.’ A similar Neolithic floor is present on an adjacent hill known -as Rainsough on which a “ camp ”’ is marked on the Ordnance maps. I have here met with identical flint and chert cores and flakes in the top-soil, but was unable to find any facetted pebbles owing to the dearth of suitable sections. Compared with coastal sites, the shallowness of the soil above these Neolithic floors in these inland localities is a noteworthy feature. The other site near Manchester lies about a mile south of the Pendleton locality, at Bolton Lodge sand quarry, off Eccles New Road, Weaste. Several wind-worn Drift pebbles were picked up here from the turned-up soil of an allotment overlying a small thick- ness of Boulder-clay, resting on Upper Mottled Sandstone. The site 1 Trans, Lancs, and Ches, Antiq. Soc., XXV., 1608. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 9. yi faces south and overlooks the canalised portion of the River Irwell : the altitude is about 75 feet O.D. Whilst on vacation last year in the Wirral district of Cheshire, I discovered three interesting occurrences of facetted pebbles in association with Glacial deposits. All are situated in the Hoylake neighbourhood. One of the sites lies between Caldy and West Kirby, on the Dee estuary. Here a few facetted Drift pebbles were obtained from the wind-blown sand overlying the cliffs of Boulder- clay. Another and more interesting site is at Hilbre Point, not many feet above sea-level. Wind-eroded pebbles, of Borrowdale and other rocks, were here encountered on, and embedded in, the surface of the Boulder-clay, overlying the Bunter Pebble-beds. Immediately above the zone of the eroded pebbles is a well-defined Neolithic floor underlying blown-sand. The most important and interesting discovery, however, was made at Dove Point, Meols. Pebbles of various North-Western Drift rocks, showing distinct evidence of wind erosion, were met with in profusion in the upper portion of the reddish Boulder-clay and in the lower part of an overlying layer of bluish clay, some distance out from the shore, and much below the level of an ordinary spring tide. The blue clay of the section is probably altered Boulder-clay. The sand content is chiefly in the form of well-rounded and fairly large grains of quartz. It underlies the Lower Peat and Forest-bed of the Cheshire coast. The peculiar character of the pebbles occurring in the blue clay below the Lower Peat and Forest-bed at this locality seems to have been incidentally noticed by T. Mellard Reade, some seventeen years ago, but he attributed their shape to being “ glactally facetted.”’ + Stones, it is true, are occasionally polished and facetted by glaciers, but these differ from those worn by sand-blast. The ground surface is flatter and generally exhibits characteristic glacial strie; the harder and softer constituents, too, of the rock have not been differ- entiated. The Dove Point examples, however, exhibit all the characters of wind-eroded pebbles. The only other indication I can find of the probable occurrence of wind -worn pebbles in the Wirral district is contained in a paper by W. T. Walker on “ The Boulder-Clay of North Wirral.” ? In his description of the clay pit owned by the Moreton Brick Company, this author states that amongst the objects of interest in this pit are: “ Tetrahedral pyramids and triangular prisms, and striated stones. These seem to be fairly abundant, and although many of the striations are undoubtedly caused by ice action, I would submit that some show evidence of wind-etching, and would on this account be classed as Dreikanters’”’ (Walker, op. cit., p. 322). Doubtless Mr. Walker’s conjecture is the right one, but unfortunately he does not specify the position of the pebbles, whether at the surface of the Boulder-clay or otherwise. The clay pit lies about half-a-mile from the coast, and the land surface is not more than 12 or 15 feet above sea-level. It is situated about a mile and a half east of the Dove Point section. 1Geol. Mag., March, 1900, p. 98. 2 Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., X1., Pt. IV., 1913, pp. 317-324. | | | 8 JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. Apart from the association of the Wirral facetted pebbles with Glacial deposits (in these cases the beds are said to be Upper Boulder- clay) is the further interesting fact. that, as at Pendleton and Kersal Moor, the pebbles are mainly split or fractured stones, which have been modified by wind action. 2. THE GEOLOGICAL HORIZON AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FACETTED PEBBLES As already pointed out, in the Pendleton and Kersal Moor localities the facetted and wind-worn pebbles occur in a well-defined zone overlying the Glacial deposits and immediately below a Neo- lithic floor. At Hilbre Point, in the Wirral, they are similarly situ- ated as regards the Drift and Neolithic deposits, while at Dove Point, in the same neighbourhood, they overlie what is regarded as Upper Boulder-clay. Here, however, a whole series of beds occur super- imposed above the facetted pebble zone, indicating important changes in the relation of land and sea in post-Glacial times. Some of these changes have undoubtedly taken place during Neolithic times. The general succession of these beds has been studied by C. E. de Rance, ! T. Mellard Reade,’ G. H. Morton,*® and others. From these observers we learn that the area occupied by these interesting deposits extends over the coastal portions of Lancashire and Cheshire, forming a low- lying plain stretching inland for several miles. Its inner margin is fairly well defined by the 25-foot contour-line, but a large part of its surface is low ground below sea-level, the sea being kept out in some places by a long range of sand-dunes that fringe the coast-line, in others by artificial embankments. The succession of the beds at Dove Point is given by Morton * as follows :— (x) Blown Sand, 15 feet. 2) Soil-bed, 2 feet. 3) Peat-bed, 1 foot. 4) Blue Clay, 1 foot. ) Upper Forest-bed, 3 feet. ) Blue Clay, 2 feet .6 inches. ) Lower Forest-bed, 1 foot. The Leasowe Embankment has since been extended towards Hoylake and some of the upper beds have been covered up by it. The lower beds of the section have also suffered denudation by the 1De Rance, ‘‘On the Post-Glacial Deposits of Western Lancashire and Cheshire,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., XXVI., 1870, pp. 655-668. 2T. M. Reade, ‘‘ The Geology and Physics of the Post-Glacial Period, as shown in the Deposits and Organic Remains in Lancashire and Cheshire,”’ Proc. L’pool. Geol. Soc., 1871-1872, pp. 36-88. (Reprint, pp. 1-53.) 3G. H. Morton, Geology of the Country around Liverpool, second edition, London, 1897, pp. 228-272. 4 Morton, op. cit., p. 235, and Plate XVI., Fig. C. ¢ Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 9. 9 encroachment of the sea, and very much of the Lower Forest-bed has _ been washed away. According to Morton (op. czt., p. 236), the spring tides cover the Upper Forest-bed 3 feet, while the Lower Forest-bed is about 8 feet below the level of an ordinary spring tide. Much difficulty is experienced in tracing the Lower Forest-bed in other parts of the Mersey district owing to the large amount of _ denudation it appears to have undergone previous to the deposition _ of the overlying beds. Where visible, or where proved by borings, _ it generally rests on Boulder-clay, the upper part of which is of a bluish colour for a depth of 6 inches to 1 foot, caused by the abstrac- tion of the peroxide of iron through the action of decomposed organic matter. Possibly this upper portion is to some extent redistributed Boulder-clay, as it is very full of pebbles. It is exposed at Dove Point, and is the bed from which I obtained the wind-eroded pebbles described in previous pages. Regarding the contemporaneous human history connected with these deposits, the evidence is far from being as complete as could be desired. De Rance (0p. cit., p. 659) observes that no historical or natural remains have ever been found in the Lower Forest-bed, but that the oldest relics of man, consisting of implements of Neolithic age, have been met with in the lower clay and silt below the Upper Forest-bed. There seems to be a general consensus of opinion that the Lower Forest-bed has yielded no evidence of man, and that the Roman and later antiquities found on the surface of the Upper Forest-bed have all been washed out of an overlying soil at the base of the sand- hills by the encroachment of the sea. The position of the Lower Forest-bed with regard to the Glacial deposits is interesting in view of the fact that similar relations exist elsewhere in the British Isles. These relations have been dealt with in detail by Coffey and Praeger in their paper on “‘ The Larne Raised Beach.” They regard the sequence displayed by the Belfast and Larne post-Glacial deposits as being in close agreement with similar series in Central Scotland, Northern England, and more especially in the Mersey area. In each of the areas dealt with by these authorities an identical series of beds appears to have been deposited ‘on a former land surface of Boulder-clay. So close is the corre- spondence that the whole can be arranged in parallel columns. The chief point of interest in connection with the Larne and Belfast deposits is the fact that some portions at least can be dated with a certain degree of accuracy, owing to the presence of Neolithic flint implements. These occur in nearly the whole thickness of the Larne beach deposits, and from this it is concluded that Neolithic man was on the ground during the submergence that allowed of the ‘continued laying down of the Larne gravels. In the Belfast area the Neolithic period has been correlated with the upper portion of the estuarine clays, etc., overlying the oldest post-Glacial land surface 1 Proc. Roy. Ivish Acad., Vol. XXV., Sect. C., No. 6, December, 1904, pp. 143-200, Pl. IV.-IX. s Io JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. in the district, represented by a bed of peat, lying at a depth of some 28 feet below high-tide level. Though the human evidence is so scanty in the case of the post- Glacial series of the Cheshire coast, there seems just reason to assume, from the analogous position of the estuarine series between the Lower and Upper Forest-beds to that of the Belfast section, that some portion at least is of Neolithic age. Unfortunately the well- defined Neolithic floors in this neighbourhood, at Red Noses, near New Brighton, and Hilbre Point, near Hoylake, do not lend any assistance in this correlation, as they are not definitely associated with the estuarine clay and forest-beds, both being situated on rocky eminences above the shore. They only tell us that Neolithic man — was certainly present in the neighbourhood. The geological horizon, therefore, of the facetted pebbles at Dove Point can safely be regarded as pre-Neolithic, as in the other cases dealt with. The mode of occurrence shows that, both at Dove Point and other Wirral localities, and in the Manchester area, the pebbles were acted on by sand-blast after the deposition of the Glacial beds on which they lay, and in this respect they agree with similar pebbles found in North Germany and in North America, these being gener- ally regarded as post-Glacial in age. Resting on the Boulder-clay in certain places in the Liverpool district is a deposit of sand variously known as the Upper Drift Sand (Morton), Washed Drift Sand (Reade),? and Shirdley Hill Sand (De Rance).? It is generally regarded by local geologists as a post- Glacia! deposit and is considered to be a blown sand of earlier age than the marine silts and forest remains exposed on the coast. It is irregularlv developed in the area between Southport and Garston, and is recorded inland as far as Bickerstaffe, Skelmersdale, Rainford. and Kirkby. Its thickness is very variable, and, as might be ex- pected from the nature of such a deposit, it occurs at times on high ground and not on low, and vice versa.*_ In some localities it is re- ported to rest on a basal gravel-bed.® Beds of peat are occasionally _met with in this sand and an examination of this peat exposed at Aintree has yielded an interesting assemblage of plant remains which have been described in detail by W. G. Travis.® The exact position of the Shirdley Hill Sand with regard to the Lower Forest-bed is not clear, but both Reade and Morton definitely place it below that horizon. It appears to be quite clear, however, that the sand is anterior in age to the period of submergence which 1 Morton, op. cit., p. 212. 2 Reade, op. cit., pp. 47-51. 3 De Rance, op. cit., pp. 662-663 ; ibid. ‘‘ The Superficial Geology of the Country adjoining the Coasts of South-West Lancashire, 1877”’ (Mem. Geol. Survey). 4W. G. Travis, Trans. Liverpool Botanical Society, Vol. 1., June, 1909, PP- 47-52; see also Geological Sketch Map by Harold Brodrick, in British Assoc. Handbook to Southport, 1903. > Reade, op. cit., p. 48. °W.G. Travis, op. ctt., pp. 47-52. hal i Dm " o fs Nod K 7 e ; a Manchester Memoirs, Vol. xii. (1918), No. 9. II allowed the accumulation of the deposits of mud and silt which underlie the Upper Forest-bed. Whether the pebble-bed at the base of this sand in various places can be correlated with the bed with facetted and wind-worn pebbles at Dove Point on the Wirral coast is uncertain, owing to the entire absence of the Shirdley Hill Sand at this locality. Its relative position, however, with regard to the Drift deposits is suggestive of such a correlation. It is of some interest to note that the basal gravel-bed of the Shirdley Hill Sand and the bed with facetted pebbles at Dove Point appear to occupy a somewhat analogous position with regard to the Drift to that of the basement bed, or ‘‘ Steinsohle,”’ of the Loess of the North German plain, where facetted pebbles are of frequent occurrence. Whether such pebbles occur in association with the Shirdley Hill Sand has not been recorded. From the foregoing remarks it seems legitimate to conclude that an intimate connection may exist between the period when the pebbles were eroded and the laying down of the Shirdley Hill Sand in early post-Glacial times, as the blown sand would provide the necessary medium for modifying the pebbles. Having discussed the geological horizon of the facetted pebbles dealt with in this paper, we can pass on to the question of the signi- ficance of such pebbles. That the various pebbles had been first fractured before being acted on by sand-blast is conclusively proved by the evidence of the pebbles themselves. The probable cause of this splitting might, therefore, be considered first. Judging from the generally rounded and perfect condition of the stones embedded in the underlying Glacial Drift, it seems a reason- able assumption that the pebbles concerned must have been in a similar perfect condition when they were left at, or near, the bare surface of the Drift on the retreat of the ice. Such being the case, they would be subject to the varied atmospheric agencies which bring about the disintegration of rocks. Of these perhaps the most important are variations of temperature and alternations of frost and thaw. The combined action of frost and thaw seems to provide a suffi- cient explanation for the splitting of pebbles left exposed on the bare surface of the Drift. It is possible that many of these Drift pebbles possessed incipient joints at the time they were carried along by the ice, and in this case continued exposure to alternations of frost and thaw would cause these joints to increase and result in the splitting or complete fracturing of the pebbles. It is of some interest to note that at the Pendleton section I found several wind-worn pebbles lying about on the talus which had been split into two or three pieces during the frost of last winter. The pieces were lying together and the splitting was along joint- or bedding-planes (see Fig. 8). They were all sedimentary rocks ; I saw no granites or igneous rocks so split, though such occur in abundance among the wind-worn pebbles obtained 7m situ, all of which show modification by sand-blast on their fractured faces. 12 JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. Possibly there were more frequent variations in temperature during the period when these lav exposed at the surface of the Drift. Dr. Bather, in his exhaustive paper on the subject of wind-worn pebbles (of. cit., p. 401), refers to several writers who have attempted to explain at all events the main contours of facetted pebbles as due to the breaking up of rocks into angular fragments, but, he goes on to say, ‘“‘ we have yet to learn of a rock in which the joint-planes lie at the angles usual in pebbles facetted by blown-sand.”” The series dealt with in this paper show that such cases are definitely present (see Figs. 4 and g). They also show that a typical Dreikanter form can be produced in this way. Though all the pebbles from the zone exhibit evidence of sand-blast, either in the form of polish or erosion, — there is little evidence that any large face has actually been produced by wind and sand action. . : We can now turn our attention to the interesting feature of wind-erosion and to a consideration of its significance. It has been argued by several writers on-the subject that wind-worn pebbles ‘imply desert, or, at least, steppe conditions. They have also been regarded as indicating uniform climatic, as well as geological rela- tions, and that the conditions leading to their production must therefore have a similarly general significance. These statements are not altogether borne out by the evidence provided by the numer- ous occurrences, for, as Bather remarks (oP. cit., p. 411) : ““ Facetted and wind-polished pebbles have been found over almost all parts of the present surface of the earth, under tropical, temperate, and Arctic climates, on plains, on hills, or in valleys, scattered over steppes and deserts, or confined to small clearings in the midst of tertile fields and evergreen forests.’’ He givesa list of a few recorded localities, as follows :—deserts of Libyaand Arabia ; desert of Sinai ; Kalahari desert of S.W. Africa ; 16 kilometres from Walfisch Bay, S. Africa; deserts of Central Asia; Reval; Schleswig-Holstein ; Jutland; Anholt in Kattegat; Silfakra, near Lund, East Scania and N. of Fjelkinge, near Kristianstad ; Halland; Iceland; sandy plateau of Brenne, in France ; surface of old moraines near Lyon ; New Zealand, various localities !; California ; Colorado ; Nebraska, Bad Lands; New Jersey and Northern New York. To these are to be added the numerous localities in Germany, recorded in the papers by Berendt, Chelius, Geinitz, Gutbier, Wittich, and others.? In Germany, it is true, facetted pebbles are scattered over a wide area, and their intimate association with the Loess, with its peculiar fauna, seems to imply a dry climate or steppe conditions, following on the retreat of the glaciers, when the North German Plain was covered with loose deposits as yet uncovered with vegeta- tion. But the evidence in favour of steppe conditions obtaining in ‘It is interesting to note that among the wind-worn pebbles from the Waitotara Grand Flats, near Wanganui, New Zealand, in the Manchester Museum, are one or two showing the beginning of wind-erosion on fractured surfaces. ‘i * See Bather’s paper, op. cit., for references to literature. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixii. (1918), No. 9. 13 _ this country in post-Glacial times-is far from being of a satisfactory ; selves cannot be regarded as evidence of steppes, or of a dry climate. _ The conditions at the close of glaciation in any country must have _ been favourable to the production of such pebbles. The land was nature. As already pointed out by Bather, facetted pebbles in them- bare and exposed to winds ; its surface was strewn with boulders and pebbles, and associated with them was an abundance of sand. Coupled with the fact that the pebbles had been previously fractured. by frost and thaw, as has been shown to be the case in the examples. dealt with in this paper, the above conclusion seems to provide the necessary explanation for the presence of facetted and wind-worn. pebbles in association with Drift deposits. SUMMARY In this paper facetted and wind-worn pebbles are described from three localities near Manchester, and from three others in the Wirra! peninsula ; in one case below the Lower Forest-bed of Cheshire. The mode of occurrence shows the pebbles to be post-Glacial and pre-Neolithic in age. They have been acted on by sand-blast at some time after the deposition of the Glacial beds on which they lay, and in this respect they agree with similar pebbles found in North Germany and in North America. A large number of the pebbles have been split or fractured. before being acted upon by blowing sand, and it is suggested that the splitting is due to trost-action. It is suggested that an intimate connection exists between the period of wind-erosion and the laying down of the Shirdley Hill Sand by aeolian action in early post-Glacial times. This sand usually rests.on the Boulder-clay and is sometimes separated from it by a gravel-bed. The latter and the several deposits of facetted pebbles« appear to occupy a somewhat analogous position with regard to the Drift to that of the basement bed, or “ Steinsohle,’’ of the Loess of the North German Plain, where facetted pebbles are of frequent occurrence. The presence of the pebbles below the Lower Forest-bed of Cheshire is of importance as it pushes the period of wind-erosion well back in post-Glacial times, as the forest is prior to the estuarine deposits of the 25-foot submergence, and the latter are nepatedi as. very early Neolithic. It is concluded that the facetted pebbles do not furnish con- clusive evidence of a dry climate or steppe conditions obtaining in. this country in post-Glacial times. Sa Se 14 JACKSON, Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits. EXPLANATION OF PLATES! ly AnD aie Figs. 1 to 14. Facetted and Wind-worn Pebbles. Pendleton, Lanes. Fig. ge. Fig. Hag 2ths Nat. Size. PLATE I. 1.—Coarse indurated ash with large quartz grains: upper surface showing two main facets, both of which show evidence of wind-erosion. The angle is probably due to erosion. 2.—Very fine compact sandstone: the facet is a wind-worn split face; the splitting almost coincides with the lamination planes. The whole stone, including the under surface, shows signs of sand-blast. The angles are clearly due to fracture. 3.—Very fine compact sandstone : upper surface showing two facets; one (the upper) is probably a split face smoothed by blowing sand, the other (lower) is the original surface of the pebble with the lamination planes slightly accentu- ated by wind-erosion. This pebble is also facetted on its under surface. 4.—Very fine compact sandstone: upper surface showing three main facets ; the lower facet faced N.W. when im situ. The left-hand facet coincides with the lamina- tion planes. The under surface is water-worn. The _ typical “ dreikanter ”’ form is clearly due to fracture. 5.—Very fine compact sandstone (bedding not perceptible) : an irregularly facetted form. The under surface shows numerous glacial striz in a longitudinal direction. 6.—Very fine compact sandstone (bedding not perceptible) : upper surface showing modified split face ; remainder of stone is worn smooth by sand-blast. The angle is clearly due to fracture. 7.—Fine gritty ash: upper surface showing five incipient facets and flat top, all differentiated. The under surface is quite flat and shows glacial strie in various directions. There is no clear indication that this form has here been determined by splitting. 8.—Very fine compact sandstone (Kirkby Moor Flag?): a typical “ dreikanter,’’ showing the relation of one of the three facets to natural planes of fracture due to recent frost-action by which the pebble has been broken. The fractured face (to left) would seem to have suffered considerable wind-erosion. g.—Fine compact sandstone: upper surface showing four facets and the picking out of bedding planes by wind- erosion. The facet to left coincides with the bedding planes. This pebble was found zm situ in an inverted position. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 9. 15 ACRE lulls Fig. 10.—“‘ Rhyolite”’ : showing well-defined flow structure which has strongly influenced the form of the deep pitting due to wind-erosion. The under surface is not differ- entiated. Fig. 11.—*‘ Syenite’’: typical “ dreikanter,”’ possibly wholly due to wind-erosion ; showing strong pitting. The under surface also shows erosion. Fig. 12.—‘ Felsite’’: the two facets of this pebble are extremely similar and deeply pitted, and both are probably due to wind-erosion. The under surface is flat and water- worn. Fig. 13.—Exceedingly fine brecciated and veined sandstone, with the structure brought out in high relief by wind-erosion. Fig. 14.—Porphyritic volcanic rock with abundant felspar pheno- - crysts: upper surface showing three facets, all deeply pitted and eroded. The pits on the two upper facets (at top in photo) are all elongated in a direction parallel with the ridge between these faces (vertical in photo) ; the pittings on the remaining face show no conspicu- ous elongation. The form of this pebble may, in some part, be due to fracture. = (All the above figured specimens, and a selection of others from the Wirral locality, have been deposited in the Manchester Museum.) a we ge 4., No. 9. Key Vol. 1. Manchester Memoirs, ae . Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxti., No. 9. Plate I. Ea me al i Natt AF” lita | Bre ae, ran < i < \ | : Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 10. X. Radio-activity and the Coloration of Minerals. By EpGAR NEWBERY, D.Sc., and HARTLEY Lupton, B.Sc. (Communicated by J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S.) (Read April 237d, 1918. Received for publication June 3rd, 1918.) The occurrence of the most varied and beautiful exotic colours in certain minerals is a feature whith attracts the attention of the most casual observer in a mineral museum. Many attempts have been made to explain the source of these colours, but it is remarkable that no explanation so far offered has met with general acceptance. It is well known that certain in- organic or mineral substances acquire strong colours under the influence of the radiations from radium or in a cathode-ray tube, and the occurrence of radium or other radio-active bodies in the earth has been shown to be so widespread that it is difficult to obtain a sample of rock which does not show some traces of this activity. The present work was undertaken, therefore, in order to deter- mine, 1f possible, how far the presence of radio-active substances must be taken into account when trying to solve the question of the source of these exotic colours. Previous Work.—So much work has been already done on this subject that it is impossible in a paper of this type to give more than the briefest outline of those papers which deal most directly with the same minerals as those used in the present work. Many state- ments have been made which apparently contradict each other, but which may both be true for the particular specimens used by each worker. It should therefore be emphasised that whilst the observa- tions described here could be repeated with certainty as often as desired with the specimens used, other specimens apparently iden- tical, and even from the same locality, may fail entirely to exhibit similar phenomena. An alphabetical list of references is given at ' the end of this paper. Wyrouboff studied the colours of natural fluor-spar and came to the conclusion that they are due to the presence of two hydro- carbons, one producing blue and the other red colours. Assuming the former to be the more volatile, he explains the change from blue or violet to purple which is observed on moderately heating certain fluor-spars. This explanation is untenable in the light of Berthelot’s experi- ments, since certain decolourised fluors had their original colour completely restored by prolonged exposure to radium. If the A I | | 2 NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals. colouring matter had been driven off by heat, it is inconceivable that it should be brought back by radium treatment. Barnes and Holroyd claim to have synthesised pure fluor-spar in crystals which showed all the known natural colours—green, yellow, rose, purple, etc. They therefore conclude that the colour is an optical phenomenon dependent upon the crystallisation and physical state of the substance. The essentially weak point in Barnes’ and Holroyd’s theory is their statement that their “synthesised ”’ fluor-spar was pure. It was made from calcium carbonate (presumably precipitated chalk, which usually contains traces of chloride, sulphate, sodium, water, etc.), and hydrofluoric acid. The latter, being always prepared from native fluor-spar, would contain most of the volatile impurities in the original fluor, together with other impurities picked up from the sulphuric acid used, the rubber bottle in which it was kept, etc. Finally the whole was heated in a steel tube to bright redness. Since the steel may contain carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, manganese, silicon, etc., in addition to iron, all of which may easily contaminate the fluor-spar, it is evident that the supposition that this fluor-spar was chemically pure is unjustifiable. Strutt found that phosphatic nodules (coprolites) and phos- phatised bones of all geological ages possess marked radio-activity, sometimes fifty times as great as that of the surrounding rock. He detected helium in these minerals even when they were not of more than Pleiocene age. He also detected and measured the quantity of helium in zircons, and from his results was able to calculate the minimum age of the rocks in which these were found. Glew exposed kunzite, a pink transparent variety of spodumene, to the y rays from radium for some days and found that the colour changed to green. On warming the crystal thus treated, a brilliant orange-coloured light was evolved for some minutes and the green colour was removed. He suggests that dissociation occurred under the action of the y rays and that the subsequent heating gave the dissociated ions room to turn round and recombine with evolution of energy in the form of light. Goldstein carried out a very interesting and extended investiga- tion of the effects of cathode rays on certain colourless salts. Since cathode rays in a vacuum tube are of the same nature as the / rays from radium, it is quite possible that the effects obtained by Goldstein in a few seconds may be similar to those produced naturally in radio- active rocks in the course of centuries. Sodium chloride was coloured deep yellow ; potassium chloride, violet ; potassuim bromide, deep blue and sodium fluoride a fine red by a few seconds’ exposure to cathode rays. These colours are only produced on the surfaces exposed to the direct rays and are sensitive to light and heat in very different degrees. Some of the bodies thus treated emit a phosphorescent light when warmed. If salts such as sodium chloride are exposed to the cathode rays for considerable periods until they become quite hot, the colours produced are not discharged by light or gentle . Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 10. 3 heating, and if the salt is dissolved in water a strong alkaline reaction is obtained. Giesel produced similar salts by exposing the neutral salt to the vapours of sodium or potassium. It is evident therefore that, in this case, chlorine is actually liberated and the free sodium left dissolves in a deeper layer of sodium chloride . unreached by the cathode rays. Debierne found that certain dark violet fluor-spars smell of ozone. When heated they lose their colour and thermo-luminescence and also yield:helium in variable but small quantity. On exposure to radium rays the violet colour was restored. Doelter has worked extensively on the question of the colour of minerals, and has in- vestigated the effect of temperature changes, radium, and ultra- violet light. He states that increasing the quantity of radium used in colouring a crystal does not diminish the time in strict proportion, but he gives no reliable data in support of this statement. He also states that the quantity of radium used has no influence on the final colour produged. “From slight differences in colour observed on treating certain minerals with radium in nitrogen and oxygen, he draws the doubtful conclusion that the radium rays exert a re- ducing action. Ultra-violet rays were found in general to exert the opposite effect to radium rays, substances coloured by the latter being de- colourised or the original colour restored by exposure to the light from an arc lamp. Glass and yellow diamond were found to be exceptions to this rule. Doelter finally concludes that the colour of fluor-spar, topaz, rose quartz, etc., is due to the formation of colloidal metals or other colloidal substances, and that these metals oxidise when heated. He also states that the velocity of coloration is dependent upon the diffusion of the radium into the material. Since certain colours may be induced by the action of radium through two glass tubes and o°5 cm. of lead, it is impossible to accept this last statement. Again, since strong colours may be induced 2 cms. deep in a clear solid fluor-spar crystal in a few hours by radium, and destroyed again in a few seconds by gentle heat, it is inconceivable that atmospheric oxygen can have any appreciable influence on the colour. Experimental.—The minerals chosen for experiment were, as far as possible, clear crystals of bodies which either were colour- less or were known to occur in a colourless state in nature. The following properties were studied :— i. Colour changes (a) on heating (6) on treatment with radium or cathode rays (c) on heating after treatment (0) ii. Luminescence (a) under influence of rays (b) on heating before treatment (c) on heating after treatment. Other minor effects, such as disruptive action, formation or enlargement of cleavage planes, etc., were also observed from time to time. 4 NewspEeRyY—Lupton, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals. The following substances were experimented with :— Elements.—Diamond, native sulphur. Halides.—Fluor-spar, cryolite, rock salt, sylvine and artificial potassium bromide and iodide. Oxides.—Quartz (including rose quartz, amethyst and cairn- gorm), ruby. Sulphates.—Selenite, anhydrite, celestine, barytes, anglesite. Phosphates.—Apatite, phosphorite. Silicates—Tourmaline, topaz, zircon, beryl, kunzite. Carbonates.—Calcite, strontianite. Other Substances. —Glass, bakelite. Exposure to radium was made in most cases by placing a glass tube containing the radium salt directly on or very near to the specimen under observation. In this way only 6 and y rays actually reached the crystal and of these only the y rays would penetrate to any appreciable depth. This method of treatment is implied throughout the present work unless the contrary is directly stated. In many cases it was easy to distinguish the separate effects of the two types of rays, but in case of doubt, y rays alone could be obtained by interposing a thin sheet of lead, or 6 rays alone by the use of a cathode-ray tube. In a few cases the specimen was exposed to the direct influence of the emanation by putting it into a tube containing the active gas over mercury. In this case a, 8 and y rays would act simultaneously. Diamond.—This was a small pale yellow crystal from New South Wales kindly lent to us by Prof. Boyd Dawkins. No change of colour and no luminescence was observed on heating to redness in a soft glass tube. When exposed to radium the specimen glowed with a bright blue light, while an imitation diamond placed alongside it was quite inactive. Exposure to 4 mg. of radium for twenty days had very little visible effect upon this crystal. The colour appeared very slightly deeper, but was restored to its original condition without lumines- cence on gentle heating. Exposure to 20 millicuries of emanation decaying over a period of seven days in contact with the crystal produced a more marked darkening of the yellow colour. Crookes, by embedding a Bingara yellow diamond in radium bromide for seventy-eight days obtained a bluish-green colour. Sulphur.—A clear crystal of native sulphur from Vesuvius was exposed for twenty days to 50 mg. of radium. No change of any kind could be detected and no luminescence was produced. Doelter states that sulphur is slightly changed in colour. Fluor-spar.—Owing to their wonderful range of colour and the remarkable thermo-luminescence of many specimens, the fluor-spars are undoubtedly the most interesting minerals dealt with in this work. In fact, a comparison of the very similar behaviour on heating of purple fluor and of glass which had been turned purple by radium was the initial observation which led to this research, aly if Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixit. (r918), No. 10. 5 A number of different specimens were used, including violet, purple,’ green and yellow crystals from Alston Moor, Cumberland ; a colourless specimen from the same locality ; a pale green chloro- phane from Cornwall; a colourless specimen from the Pyrenees, and another from Matlock. All the coloured specimens without exception lost their colour on heating, but the time and temperature necessary to completely discharge the colour varied considerably. The green specimens were the most difficult to decolourise completely, a dull red heat being necessary for fully five minutes. The colours artificially induced by the action of radium were much more readily dis- charged, warming to a temperature not much above 100° C. being sufficient in many cases. Thermo-luminescence was very marked in all the naturally coloured crystals, a violet light being emitted in most cases, frequently strong enough to read by at a distance of six inches. Decrepitation was generally violent, except with the pale purple crystals, but no naturally coloured crystal was found which could be heated without some decrepitation. The yellow and dark violet varieties were most violent. Of the colourless varieties, that from the Pyrenees gave an almost invisible glow when very strongly heated, while that from Matlock gave no light at all. Neither of these showed any tendency to decrepitate. The Alston Moor colourless specimen on the con- trary gave a very lively display of decrepitation and also of beautiful violet light. The Cornish chlorophane also decrepitated violently, but gave a beautiful green light instead of the violet light given by the other coloured specimens. All the fluor-spars showed a green glow when under the action of radium, and a violet glow in the cathode rays. The glow con- tinues in each case for a short time after removal of the exciting source. The colour changes produced by radium on fluor-spars are so varied as to be somewhat bewildering. A green crystal heated until all the colour was discharged and then given an exposure of two days to 25 mg. of radium showed a marked green colour. On further exposing for four days, this green colour was strengthened up to its original depth, and still longer exposure did not alter this. This result seems to indicate that the colour-producing substance in the green crystals, whatever that may be, is limited in quantity. A yellow crystal treated in the same way did not recover its original colour but acquired a peculiar shade of blue, which slowly changed to purple after two months without further treatment. 1 The distinction between violetand purple appears to be only one of degree and not of actual colour. A small violet crystal appears of the same colour as a large purple one when viewed by transmitted light. Many of the violet or purple crystals are only coloured on the surface or on thin plates or zones within the crystal, the main bulk of the crystal being nearly colourless. This zoning of the colour needs careful inspection to detect and is easily overlooked. 6 NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals. A purple crystal also failed at first to regain its original colour under the action of radium but acquired the same peculiar blue, which again changed to purple in a similar manner. The colourless Alston Moor specimen showed traces of a lighter blue colour after twenty days’ treatment with 25 mg. of radium, but immediately under the radium tube the crystal was broken up and a yellow stain produced. This yellow colour slowly penetrated the whole crystal on further treatment. The colourless Pyrenean specimen was uncoloured by the radium treatment given to it, but it rapidly acquired a deep purple colour with a brilliant bronze surface tarnish under the-action of the cathode rays. The most striking colour effect in this work was obtained with the colourless Matlock fluor. After only twenty-four hours under 50 mg. of radium, the whole crystal attained a wonderful deep blue colour, resembling, but deeper than, that of a copper sulphate crystal. This particular type of colour is very rare, if it occurs at all, in any natural fluor. It is quite permanent if the crystal is kept in the dark, but is rapidly destroyed (in about three hours) in direct sunlight, more slowly by diffused daylight. It is also destroyed by gentle heating, but may be restored as often as desired by renewed radium treatment. Strange to say, this species of fluor is difficult to colour by cathode rays, which only produce a faint purple on the surface. It appears therefore that the purple colour of fluor-spar may be produced by f radiation, while this blue colour, which is similar to though stronger than that produced in the decolourised yellow and purple crystals, is due to the action of y rays. The green, yellow and blue colours were produced right through the crystals, while the purple was never more than I mm. deep. No colour other than purple was given to any of these fluors by cathode rays. The thermo-luminescent effect after treatment with :adium was very striking. The coloured varieties, on strongly heating, completely lost their power of emitting light. After treatment with radium this power was restored, but in addition a new capacity for emitting a bright green light at a comparatively low temperature was imparted to all the specimens whether previously heated or not. The quantity of light emitted varied with the time of exposure to radium and also in different specimens. The Matlock fluor, after colouring blue with radium, gave a comparatively feeble green light on heating and this light soon faded without changing colour. The Pyrenean specimen, which was quite uncoloured by long exposure to radium, gave a wonderfully brilliant and lasting green light. Some pieces left on the table 6 in. away from the radium were nearly as brilliant as the fully treated specimens, although none showed more than an extremely faint glow before thus treating. This shows conclusively that the y rays are responsible for generating this eueeu thermo- luminescence. All the other specimens after treatment with radium gave at Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (r918), No. 10. i} first a green light on slightly heating. This reached a maximum, and then died down, but before it disappeared a new violet glow started which also reached a maximum and died down on further heating, after which no light was emitted as the crystal was heated to dull redness. a The Cornish chlorophane, which gave a brilliant green phos- phorescence, had evidently been in close proximity to radio-active matter giving y rays. This is quite in keeping with the known occurrence of pitchblende and other uranium minerals in’ Cornwall. Cryolite.—A white semi-transparent specimen from Canada was quite unchanged after prolonged exposure to radium, but acquired a slight thermo-luminescence. Rock Salt, Sylvine,; Potassium Bromide and Iodide.—All these alkali halides glowed with a bluish violet light under the action of radium. Rock salt is coloured brown throughout its mass, but more strongly nearest the surface exposed to the radium and on cleavage planes further in the crystal. Ina cathode-ray tube a similar brown colour is produced on the surface only. Sylvine is coloured blue by radium, but the colour is very evanescent and disappears after a few hours even when kept in the dark. Ina cathode-ray tube it is coloured deep violet, and chemic- ally pure potassium chloride acquires the same colour, which is much more stable than that produced by radium. Potassium bromide is coloured sea-green by radium, or cathode rays, the colour being nearly as evanescent as that of sylvine when produced by radium, but more stable when produced by cathode rays. The time necessary to colour this specimen was much longer than that for potassium chloride. Potassium iodide is coloured brown like sodium chloride, but the colour is much more stable than that produced in any of the other alkali halides. It was thought that the colour in this case might be due to the liberation of iodine, but when a small crystal which had been coloured deep brown was dissolved in water no trace of iodine could be detected by the starch reaction. None of the above group showed more than an extremely faint thermo-luminescence after radium treatment. Quartz—This mineral shows a still greater variety of colour than fluor-spar, but only a few of these varieties occur clear and transparent. The best-known are rock crystal, rose quartz, amethyst, cairngorm and citrine, all of which become colourless on heating. The temperature necessary to destroy the colour varies ereatly—rose quartz requires a red heat, amethyst requires strong direct heating in a blow-pipe flame, while nearly black cairngorm may sometimes be made quite colourless and limpid by heating in a soft glass tube. Prof. Rutherford found that radium exerts a powerful dis- integrating action on transparent fused quartz, a tube of this material becoming so rotten that it fell to pieces on being touched after being left in contact with radium for a few weeks. No sign of this 8 NEwsERY—LuPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals. ‘“‘ rotting’ action was observed with the crystalline specimens used in the present work, so that this appears to be a property of fused quartz only. With all the specimens the action was very slow. A clear limpid crystal on treatment with 25 mg. of radium for seven days became smoky, the colour being strongest at the spot where the radium tube was in contact with the crystal, but penetrating to a depth of 1 cm. into the crystal. Rose quartz after decolourising by heat also became smoky, but rather more readily than the rock crystal. The pink colour was also restored to a slight degree. Amethyst decolourised by heat showed little or no smokiness on treatment with radium, but the clear purple colour was slowly restored. A nearly black cairngorm, which was easily rendered clear and colourless by heat, slowly regained its colour under the action of radium, the change being rather more rapid than with any of the other quartz specimens. All the crystals thus recoloured were readily decolourised by moderate heat, and in all cases a very faint thermo-luminescence was observed. Ruby.—A small light-coloured fragment from Carolina on heating strongly appeared green, but regained its original colour on cooling. Treatment with 25 mg. of radium for ten days had no appreciable effect on the colour, but a slight thermo-luminescence was produced which rapidly disappeared on further heating. Other- wise, no change was observed. In view of the fact that artificial rubies, indistinguishable from natural ones, can be made by fusing pure alumina with a trace of chromium, the unchangeability of the colour by radium is not surprising, the colour being intrinsic and not exotic. Selenite—A number of clear and perfect crystals from the Kimmeridge clay were used. These decompose with loss of water of crystallisation at a comparatively low temperature, so that no thermo-luminescence could be observed. After the application of 50 mg. of radium for two days, a peculiar effect was observed in the crystal. On looking through the two large faces of the crystal at a white object, these faces appeared to be divided into four triangles by diagonals of the parallelograms. The two triangles having as bases the longer sides of the parallelogram were coloured a faint smoky brown, while the other two were unaltered. Further exposure to 25 mg. of radium for fourteen days darkened the coloured parts slightly, but left the remainder of the crystal still unchanged. Several crystals were tried and fresh clear faces prepared by cleaving off thin sections ; also the direction of the radium tube relative to the crystals was changed, but the same result was obtained in every case. The explanation of this peculiarity is due to Sir Henry Miers. When the crystal was in its initial stages of growth, its faces were similar, and similarly situated, to those of the fully developed crystal. Certain of these faces have different properties from other Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 1¢. 9 faces, and by reason of these properties (probably electrical) were able to attract certain impurities which had no effect upon the colour of the crystal before the radium treatment was applied. As the crystal grew, therefore, the path of growth of these faces was traced out by the presence of the impurities, and the impurities were then made visible by the action of the y rays from the radium. Anhydrite, Celestine and Barytes.—These anhydrous sulphates of the alkaline earths all occur in the state of clear glassy crystals, which are sometimes colourless and sometimes blue. Celestine in fact owes its name to the sky-blue colour of many specimens. Since this blue colour can usually be discharged by heat, it was expected that colourless specimens would, in some cases at least, be coloured blue by radium. This expectation was fulfilled with all three minerals, but to different degrees. Anhydrite in clear crystals is rare, and the only specimen the authors were able to get required six days under the action of 30 mg. of radium before any decided blue colour was obtained. The crystal emitted a green glow during exposure to the radium, and was slightly phosphorescent afterwards when heated gently. Celestine treated in the same way was coloured pale blue more readily than the anhydrite, but further treatment did not increase the colour appreciably. One specimen of barytes showed no colour after similar treat- ment, but a large clear crystal from Cumberland was coloured a fine deep indigo blue after nine days under the action of 25 mg. of radium. The blue colour was fairly uniform throughout the whole crystal and it is therefore probably due to the action of the y rays alone. This conclusion is:rendered more probable by the fact that a similar crystal of barytes was unchanged under the action of cathode rays. The fact that certain specimens of barytes and celestine are uncoloured, or hard to colour, by radium indicates that the blue colour is due to changes in some impurity and not to-dissociated particles of the pure substance. Anglesite was chosen for experiment as being the only available colourless crystalline anhydrous sulphate which could be compared with those of the alkaline earths. The action of radium was very slight. After twelve days under 30 mg. of radium a barely visible blue colour was produced. The action of cathode rays on this mineral is peculiar. When the tube is exhausted until cathode rays just begin to appear the crystal emits a bright blue glow, while a fluor-spar crystal by the side of it is hardly affected. As exhaustion proceeds and the rays become harder, the fluor rapidly increases in brightness, but the anglesite glow diminishes until it is barely visible under very hard rays. No other crystal used in this work showed this peculiarity. Apatite and Phosphorite.—These two minerals, though having identical chemical composition, show considerable differences under the action of radium. Several specimens were used, including brown and green crystals to NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals. from Canada, a very hard phosphorite from France, and a mixed apatite and phosphorite from Aqua del Todo Ano, Spain. This last specimen contained zones of a beautiful mauve apatite separated and surrounded by a white flaky phosphorite, and provided the most brilliant example of thermo-luminescence observed throughout this work. All the specimens used approached the colourless state on heating. The Canadian specimens became pale brown and very pale blue respectively on heating small pieces on a platinum wire before a good blow-pipe, while the mauve Spanish variety became pure white on warming in a soft glass tube. The green Canadian variety was also rendered white by long heating, but the brown specimen still retained much of its colour. All the apatite specimens gave a feeble phosphorescence on heating strongly in a hard glass tube. The French phosphorite decrepitated but gave no visible light. The Spanish phosphorite on gentle warming appears to take fire and a beautiful golden yellow glow is emitted, so brilliant that a fragment the size of a small pea allowed the time to be easily seen on a small watch held a foot away. This glow only lasts for about thirty seconds to one minute and then disappears, after which, further heating has no effect. No colour change was produced by the action of radium on any of the original untreated specimens, but the thermo-luminescence was increased in all cases. The green Canadian apatite, which had been turned white and semi-transparent by strong heating, was coloured a fairly strong brown by two days’ exposure to 50 mg. of radium. When this brown substance was gently heated in a soft glass tube a brilliant violet light was emitted many times stronger than that obtained with the unheated specimen... The brown colour faded rapidly in daylight. The brown Canadian apatite behaved similarly to the green variety, although the colour change on treatment with radium was hardly visible. fhe French phosphorite after treatment with radium was unaltered in appearance, but the thermo-luminescence was strong, and violet in colour. The Spanish phosphorite, after heating until all the glow had disappeared, was treated with 25 mg. of radium for six days. No change in external appearance was produced, but on heating it was found that the power of emitting the beautiful yellow light had been restored, and was greater and more lasting than that of the original specimen. The finest display of this yellow light was however obtained when a large fragment of the original material was brought under the action of the cathode rays. In this case there is no disappear- ance of the glow with time ; it continues with undiminished brilliancy as long as the rays fall on the substance. Also, a specimen which had been deprived of its thermo-luminescence by strong heating regained this property with increased brilliancy in the cathode rays. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 10. TE Tourmaline.—Though this is quite a common mineral, yet clear crystals are rare, and generally valuable, especially the lighter coloured ones. Three specimens were used, a dark green semi-transparent crystal from Cornwall, a pink crystal (rubellite) from Canada, and a small colourless specimen from Elba. The green specimen became darker and more opaque on heating, and no visible effect was produced by radium on the heated or _ unheated specimens. The pink crystal turned quite white and opaque on heating before the blow-pipe. Radium produced little visible effect on the original specimen (slight darkening of the pink colour), and none at all on the heated specimen. Cathode rays produced no colour effect on either, but the heated specimen showed a very fine orange glow, whilst the unheated crystal was unaffected. The colourless specimen showed a faint pink colour after one day under 50 mg. of radium, and this was considerably strengthened after four days’ further treatment. Its colour then showed con- siderable resemblance to that of the Canadian rubellite, and five days further treatment with radium did not change this. The limit of colour for this specimen had thus apparently been reached. Topaz.—Transparent crystals of topaz are common, and are found colourless, yellow, pink and blue, but are usually intersected with large numbers of flaws. Yellow topaz from Brazil changes to a purplish pink on strongly heating, while similarly coloured specimens from Aberystwith become almost colourless. None of these exhibit any thermo-luminescence before, and very little after, radium treatment. A clear colourless crystal from - the Mourne Mountains acquired a fine deep yellow colour after four days under the action of 10 mg. of radium. A yellow crystal from Brazil became slightly deeper coloured after similar treatment. A similar crystal, heated until it turned pink, and then treated with radium, regained its original colour and then became slightly deeper coloured than the unheated specimen. On reheating, the crystal again became pink, with slight thermo-luminescence. Zircon.—Clear crystals occur as hyacinth (pink to deep red) and jargoon (colourless). Specimens of hyacinth from Tasmania and from the centre of France were used. These varied greatly in their behaviour on heating. Some of the Tasmanian specimens became nearly colour- less when heated in a hard glass tube and quite colourless and transparent when heated on platinum wire in a bunsen flame. On the other hand, some of the French specimens still retained a pale yellow colour after five minutes’ heating in a good blow-pipe flame. All the specimens, heated or unheated, showed a greenish glow when exposed to radium. The unheated ones were unchanged in colour, but the heated ones all regained their colour to a greater or less extent. The colour of those Tasmanian specimens which had been 12 NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals. most easily decolourised was completely restored after only two days under 25 mg. of radium, while some of the French specimens which had been most difficult to decolourise were not visibly affected by this treatment, and only regained about half their colour after treatment with 50 mg. for ten days. One of the most refractory of these decolourised crystals was placed in a tube containing about 20 millicuries of radium emanation and left for twelve days. It had then acquired a reddish grey colour with a peculiar blue fluorescence somewhat similar to that of purple fluor-spar. On warming gently in a test-tube, a bright violet phosphorescent light was emitted and the crystal at once lost its blue fluorescent colour and turned red, the colour being now similar to that originally present. This colour was easily destroyed on further heating. Similarly all the crystals which had been re- coloured by radium, lost their colour at a much lower temperature than had been needed to discharge it before treatment. A decolourised crystal placed in a cathode-ray tube glowed with a blue light and regained part of its red colour. Beryl—The natural crystals show considerable variation in colour, from white or colourless, through pale blue (aquamarine) and pale green to the bright green of the precious emerald. Specimens of colourless, pale blue, and pale green beryl were used. The green specimens, from the Mourne Mountains, changed to pale blue on heating in the bunsen flame, while the other specimens were unaltered. No change in colour was produced in any of the crystals by radium treatment, but a pale blue crystal, 1 cm. long and about 3 mm. diameter, after treatment for ten days with 25 mg. radium, showed a feeble thermo-luminescence. This luminescence was bluish white and appeared on the hexagonal basal planes only, the remainder of the crystal being quite dark. Kunzite-—The behaviour was identical with that described by Glew. Calcite.—Several colourless specimens from Barrow and Iceland were used, some showing minute cleavage planes and others quite flawless. The latter were unchanged by the action of radium but the former showed considerable multiplication and enlargement of the cleavage planes. A very clear flawless crystal glowed with a fre red light under the action of cathode rays, and the glow continued for some time after removal of the crystal from the tube. Another specimen from Iceland also glowed both in cathode rays and under radium, but with a much whiter light. In the latter case the warmth of the hand was sufficient to restart the clow after removal from the radium. A third specimen showed a bright yellow thermo-luminescence after radium treatment. The variation in colour of the glow appears to indicate that it is due to the presence of impurity and is not an essential property of the pure substance. A piece of native strontianite showed a fine orange-red glow on one part of the mass under the action of Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixii. (1918), No. 10. 13 My i j cathode rays, while the other part remained unaltered. This again _ indicates that the glow is due to impurity present in the crude _ mineral. On heating the specimen thus treated, a bluish white _ glow was observed on the previously inactive part of the mass, while the remainder was quite dark. Glass.—The action of radium on glass is well known. Soda- glass is coloured violet by the prolonged action of radium, and when this glass is heated a pale violet light is emitted and the colour is discharged. In this respect its behaviour is very similar to that of purple fluor-spar, but the thermo-luminescence is not so bright. Some samples of treated soda-glass require heating to the softening point before all the colour is discharged. Jackson considers that the green phosphorescence of X-ray tubes depends upon the presence of traces of manganese. Without this the glow is faint blue. Lead glass acquires a fine brown colour under the action of radium, and this colour is also discharged by heat. Boro-silicate glass acquires a purplish brown colour. Other coloured glasses are described by Doelter. Bakelite, a hard resinous condensation product of certain aldehydes and amines, is amber-yellow when freshly made, but gradually acquires a wine-red colour under the action of daylight. If the red’ colour is not too strong it may be discharged by heating to 100-150° C. for several hours. One sample tested by the authors was restored to its original yellow colour by twelve hours’ heating to 130° C. in an air oven, whilst another more deeply coloured specimen was only slightly affected by three days’ heating to 150° C. + Radium or cathode rays produce an effect similar to that of day- light, but the colour thus produced is much more easily discharged on heating. This colour change of bakelite has proved objectionable when the substance has been used for ornamental purposes (imitation amber) and has led to its abandonment in certain trades. Summary and Conclusions.—There appears to be little doubt that the colours and thermo-luminescent properties of many minerals have been largely determined by the presence of radio-active matter either in the water from which they have been deposited or by the subsequent action of radio-active minerals in their immediate neighbourhood. It appears possible, though not proved, that fluorescence is produced by « radiation as in the case of zircons. Different colours may be produced by f and y radiation and all three effects may be observed in one and the same crystal (e.g. the fluorescent purplish green fluor where the green colour is restored by y rays, the purple by @ rays, and the complete colour by placing in a tube of emanation where a, 8, and y rays act together). Both @ and y radiation appear to be active in producing thermo-luminescence. In nearly all cases the colours produced are due to the dis- sociation of minute traces of certain impurities. The products of dissociation are removed to a very short distance from each other, " een 14 NEWBERY—LUPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals. and the size or density of these particles will determine the particular colours of light absorbed and transmitted. Disturbance of the molecular structure of the crystal by heat, daylight, etc., enables the dissociated particles to approach each other and recombine, with consequent loss of colour. | The quantity of impurity may be exceedingly small, since the dissociated body appears to act as a powerful dye, and in many cases it may be impossible to determine its chemical nature largely owing to the difficulty of obtaining a perfectly pure sample of the original substance. The question as to whether a perfectly pure substance is capable of showing these colours is still open to doubt, although Goldstein’s work seems to point to the conclusion that such is possible. With potassium chloride Goldstein obtained a deep violet coloration in cathode rays, and the authors of this work had no difficulty in repeat- ing the experiment. With potassium bromide, Goldstein obtained a deep blue coloration, while the authors obtained a green colour ; also this sample required twenty minutes’ treatment before any appreci- able colour was obtained, while Goldstein’s colour was obtained in a few seconds. It seems still possible therefore that the colours may be due to traces of impurity, which are always present in the purest obtainable samples. Goldstein estimates that certain impurities, amounting to not more than one part in a million, may produce quite ~ perceptible colour effects under the influence of cathode rays. He has also shown that the same impurity may give rise to different colours when present in different solids, a fact which well illustrates the danger of attempting to utilise the colour as a guide to the nature of the impurity in minerals. At first sight, the production of the Giesel salts by heating pure salts in sodium or potassium vapour, having the same colour as those produced by cathode rays, would seem to be indisputable evidence that the colour is due to metallic potassium or sodium. When the intensity of the colour is considered, however, the evidence appears much, less satisfactory. If a trace of metallic potassium, so minute that its presence is beyond detection by chemical means, is sufficient to colour a large mass of potassium chloride dark violet, then the quantity present in Giesel salts should render them so black that the colour is indistinguishable. This is not the case. It is quite possible therefore that metallic potassium, introduced either from outside or from within by the action of cathode rays, is only a reagent which causes the dissociation of the colouring material whatever that may be, and is not really the colouring agent itself. This theory would explain why long-continued action of the cathode rays never carries the depth of colour beyond a certain limit, although the quantity of free metal is steadily increasing all the time. It also explains why those colours which Goldstein terms “after colours of the first class ’’ should be identical in appearance with “ after colours of the second class.” The emission of light on heating the radiated crystals is probably due to intense vibrations set up by the dissociated atoms Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixit. (1918), No. 10. 15 coming together again. The impurities which give rise to this luminescence are frequently quite independent of those which produce the colour effects, since quite colourless crystals sometimes give brilliant thermo-luminescent effects, and deeply coloured crystals may give little or no visible luminescence during discharge of their colour. It is also possible that the approach of the separated particles due to electrical attracting forces may set up light-producing vibrations as successive obstacles in their paths are encountered or passed, while the colour disappears with the final coalescence of these particles. It appears to be fairly well established that phosphorescence cannot be produced in a perfectly pure substance. The most brilliant phosphorescent effects are produced in substances such as calcium sulphide by minute quantities of compounds of bismuth, mercury, etc., and this effect is quite destroyed either by largely increasing the impurity or by removing it altogether. The authors are of opinion therefore that thermo-luminescence, cathode-ray colours, exotic colours in minerals, etc., are due to the dissociation of traces of impurity in the bodies concerned and not to decomposition of the body itself. The marked differences in the action of 6 and y raysin producing different colours, thermo-luminescence, etc., in certain minerals seems to indicate some essential difference in the nature of these rays other than mere wave-length. The radium used in these experiments was the property of the Manchester and District Radium Committee, and to them the authors are indebted for permission to use it. In conclusion, the authors wish to express their thanks to Sir E. Rutherford, Mr. C. J. Woodward, of Birmingham, and Mr. T. H. Hill, of Manchester, for several of the specimens used, and specially to Mr. J. W. Jackson, of the Manchester Museum, for many specimens and for his con- tinued interest and encouragement in this work. Most of the specimens referred to have been deposited in the Manchester Museum, and may be seen on application to Mr. J. W. Jackson. ELECTRO-CHEMICAL LABORATORIES, Manchester University. ST | 16 NEWBERY—LUuPTON, Radio-activity and Coloration of Minerals. REFERENCES BARNES AND HOLROYD.—Tvans. Man. Geol. Soc. (1895), 24, 215. BAUERMANN.—Text-Book of Mineralogy (1884). BERTHELOT, M.—Comptes Rendus (1907), 145, 710. BERTHELOT, D.—Comptes Rendus (1907), 145, 818. CROOKES.—Proc. Roy. Soc. (1904), 74, 47. DEBIERNE.—Amn. Phys. (1914) [[X.], 2, 478. DOoELTER.—Ion (1909), 7, 30T. DOELTER.—Le Radium (1910), 7, 58. EGGLESTONE.—Tvans. Inst. Min. Eng. (1908). GIESEL.—Verh. d. D. Phys. Geo. (1900), 2, 9. GLEwW.— Journ. Ront. Soc. (1914), 106. GOLDSTEIN.—Nature (1914), 494. JaAcKson, H.—Nature (1915), 95, 479.. RUTHERFORD.—Radio-active Substances and their Radiations, 308 STRUTT.—Proc. Roy. Soc. (1908), A 81, 272. StruTT.—Pyroc. Roy. Soc. (1910), A 83, 298. Watson and BEarD.—Pvoc. U.S.A. Nat. Museum (1917), 53, 553: WvyrousporFr.—Bull. Mens. Soc. Chim. de Paris (1866), 5, 334. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 11. XI. The Superficial Geology of Manchester. By Marcaret CoLtLtEy Marcu, M.Sc. (Geological Department, The University, Manchester.) (Read May 7th, 1918. Received for publication July oth, 1918.) While much has been written concerning isolated exposures of the Glacial and alluvial deposits in and around Manchester, no general account of them has been attempted since the early descriptions by the late Mr. E. W. Binney and Mr. Hull. A precise knowledge of these surface deposits is of exceptional importance in a great city, in connection with building, municipal and general engineering operations, and questions of water supply and drainage. The opportunity has therefore been taken, in connection with a general investigation of the geology of the district for coal-mining purposes, to collect all the data available concerning the superficial deposits and to give a general account of them. The present account is based on an examination of all the pub- lished evidence (see Bibliography) supplemented by many sections of cuttings and bore-holes kindly supplied by the Manchester City Surveyor, together with large numbers of well sections supplied by Messrs. Mather & Platt, Mr. Charles Chapman and Mr. A. Timmins ; by information supplied by the Chief Engineer of the Manchester Ship Canal, and by field observation. Mr. J. W. Jackson, of the Manchester Museum, has also contributed his personal records and allowed the use of observations left in manuscript by the late Mr. Charles Roeder. In the latter portion of the paper some discussion will be given of the relation of the Drift deposits to the present surface configuration of Manchester, and of the form of the pre-Glacial surface. The distribution of the Drift in the Manchester area was first worked out by Mr. E. W. Binney, who published a description, illus- trated by a map of the district, in the Memoirs of this Society in 1848. Since his time a great deal of the Drift formerly exposed has been covered up, but, on the other hand, numerous fresh borings and sewer sections have been made in it, disclosing its vertical and hori- zontal distribution. The new evidence does not appear to require any great modification of Binney’s map other than a rather wider extension of the river gravels than he allowed. The superficial deposits are of three kinds, each of which occupies a distinct area : 1. River Gravels.—These deposits vary considerably. They in- clude true river gravels and sands, consisting mainly of re-sorted Drift materials, which are often difficult to distinguish from true Glacial A i 2 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester. deposits when they occur at high levels; loam and peat also come under this category. These deposits are, of course, post-Glacial. The low-lying area of the south-west of Manchester is almost entirely underlain by these deposits, which are spread on either side of the River Irwell and its tributaries, the Cornbrook, Medlock and Irk. From this area the gravels extend up the valleys as follows :— On the south side of the River Irwell itself, below the confluence of the Cornbrook, the gravels extend as far as the Stretford Gas Works, while to the south of the Cornbrook they reach a little way beyond Alexandra Road. In the Chorlton district the gravels stretch a little to the east of the point where Platt Brook joins the Cornbrook. Hulme, lying between the Cornbrook, the Medlock and the Irwell, is entirely on river gravels and sands. Farther north, the gravels cover the angle between the Medlock and the Irwell, and reach as far as the south-west corner of Central Station, and the junction of Minshull Street and Whitworth Street. Above this the gravels lie only very close to the Medlock itself. On the north side of the Irwell, below the confluence of the Medlock, the gravels underlie the area now occupied by the Ship ~ Canal docks, while on the same side of the river, below the junction of the Irk, they occupy a comparatively narrow belt. Between the points where the Irk and Medlock join the Irwell the gravels continue to Deansgate, where they gradually thin out, being replaced by Boulder-clay at Central Station, at the corner of South Street and Peter Street and in Albert Square. In the Irk valley itself river deposits occupy a narrow belt on either side the stream. Above the junction of the Irk and Irwell, on the right side of the Irwell, river gravels occur in Cheltenham Street, Pendleton and in Cobden Street. On the left side of the river there are alluvial deposits in Sussex Street, Broughton, and in Greecian Street, Broughton, while, accord- ing to Binney, they occupy the whole tract encircled by the loop of the Irwell. 2. Boulder-clay.—The Boulder-clay of the Manchester district is entirely of the North-Western Drift type—that is to say, the boulders contained in it are mainly from the Lake district, and apparently it contains none of the limestone blocks which characterise the Ribbles- dale Drift. The boulders themselves are often of enormous size, as, for example, the one which was obtained from Oxford Road, and is now placed in the quadrangle of the University. The Boulder-clay covers South Manchester in areas where it is not replaced or overlain by river deposits. In Salford and the south of Pendleton it covers the ground except in the river valleys. In Clayton and Newton Heath, Beswick and Bradford it forms the only covering, and in North Manchester it occurs to the east of Rochdale Road. 3. The Glacial Sands.—The sands often attain great thickness. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 11. 3 They show marked current bedding, and contain thick pockets of clay, and thin streaks of coal fragments. In places they are slightly faulted. They vary in texture from fine running sands to gravelly deposits. These sands cover the north of Manchester from Boggart Hole Clough in the east to Prestwich in the west, and are continued across the Irwell over North Pendleton and Irlams towards Eccles. The horizontal distribution of the post-Glacial and Glacial de- posits as Shown by recent information, therefore, agrees with Binney’s _map, except that the extension of the river deposits in the Stretford area has now been shown to be greater than was there indicated. The Vertical Sequence of the Drift Deposits There is considerably more information concerning the vertical sequence of the Drift than was available when Binney and Hull discussed the subject. In the Manchester area all the bore-holes and cuttings south of a line from Newton Heath to Pendleton showthat the Glacial deposits, where they have not been eroded by the rivers, consist almost entirely of Boulder-clay. In the south and north of this area sandy bands of considerable thickness are found to occur within the clays. These bands, however, are all lenticular and inconstant, as shown by the following examples. In the Fallowfield district the sewer laid along the Wilmslow Road shows great variability of superficial deposits. This is clearly seen in the section (Fig. 1, Pl. III.). Between Ladybarn Road and Mon- mouth Street there is a sand-bed which at Ladybarn Road is 11 feet thick, at Old Hall Lane more than 27 feet thick, and at Monmouth Street 9 feet in thickness. In the northern part of the Boulder-clay district a bore-hole put down by the Clayton Aniline Company shows clay with sandy bands. Roeder gives a section of a sand-pit in this vicinity, behind Clayton Hall. The record is incomplete, as the only mention is of a 7-foot sand-bed. In the 6-inch Ordnance Survey map published in 1847 two sand-pits are marked in this district ; one near the Ashton New Road end of Schofield Street, about 200 yards from the site of the present brick works, and the other about roo yards north of Alder- dale House, and the same distance east of Edge Lane. In a bore-hole at the Pott Street Hydraulic Power Station 80 feet of Boulder-clay with “sandy bands ” was proved. In the Newton Heath area the deposits are very variable, some showing clay only, others clay with sandy bands, while the bore-hole at Newton Heath Brewery has a 30-foot sand-bed, 19 feet from the bottom of the Drift, and that of the Heath Brewery proved 25 feet of quicksand, 50 feet from the base of the Drift. Farther to the east, in Jericho Clough, Clayton Bridge, a bore- hole recorded by Binney shows two sand-beds, the thicker being TZ mCee. 4 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester. North of Newton Heath, along the Rochdale Road, a-set of sewer sections show that there is Boulder-clay overlying a sand-bed. The rock below this sand-bed is not reached until the sewer is opposite the Manchester General Cemetery. Here the sand-bed is reduced to 7 feet in thickness and lies between Boulder-clay and the solid rock (Section, Fig. 2, Pl. II1.). To the east of the man-hole by the corner of Westbourne Grove, in Rochdale Road, five sections are known, the last being in the Moston Collieries. The first two are sewer sections and show clay on sand ; the first proves 73 feet of sand under 82 feet 6 inches of clay, the second 30 feet of sand under 44 feet of clay. In neither case was the base of the Drift reached. The next section is the well sinking in the old Crumpsall Workhouse, 150 yards from the second man-hole ; this section reaches rock, and shows, in descending order: clay, 5 feet; sand, 42 feet; clay, 583 feet ; gravel, o4 feet ; rock. The next sinking is a man-hole about 450 yards east of the workhouse, which proves a sand-bed 24 feet thick, with 714 feet of clay above and another clay below. The solid rock is not reached. From the Moston Collieries, about three-quarters of a mile farther east, there are two shaft sections which give details of the Drift. One of these is the No. 3 Shaft of the present colliery, the other is Moston Old Shaft, recorded by Binney in 1870 as Moston “ New ” Pit Section. Both these shafts agree in having a gravel bed at the base, but above this they show considerable variation. Moston Old Pit has three sand-beds, the top one being 5 feet 9 inches thick, the middle one 14 feet thick and the bottom one being 15 feet in thick- ness. Moston No. 3 Pit has one sand-bed only and that is 30 feet 7 inches in thickness and underlies 36 feet of clay. Between the Moston Collieries and Rochdale Road lies Boggart Hole Clough, which is about 600 yards north of the old Crumpsall Workhouse. In this clough the solid rock cannot be seen, the sides of the ravine showing nothing but glacial sands. Near the top there is a band of sandy clay about 5 feet in thickness. This sandy clay is unfit for brick-making. East of Rochdale Road deposits similar to those of Boggart Hole Clough are to be seen stretching from above Blackley, westward across Kersall Moor and southward to Alms Hill. Here, as in Boggart Hole Clough, the superficial deposits are Glacial sands with- out any covering of Boulder-clay. Near the top of these sands there are occasional lenticular bands of sandy clay which hold up the water. In places they have been cut through, and in these cuttings they can be seen dying away in all directions. In none do they attain a thickness of more than Io to 15 feet. Although the base of the sands cannot be seen on Kersall Moor or in Boggart Hole Clough, it is visible in the Irwell valley opposite to Agecroft Bridge, and has been proved in the bore-holes at Messrs. Levinstein’s Crumpsall Vale Dye Works, and on the eastern edge of the lake in Heaton Park. In the Irwell valley and the bore-hole at Messrs. Levinstein’s the sand comes down on to the solid rock without any intervening clay, but at Heaton Park there are 33 feet of clay between the sands and the rock. ; Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 11. 5 The evidence from the sections quoted above, and from numer- ous others, proves that there is great variability in the Glacial deposits of the Manchester district. In places these deposits consist mainly of thick clays or equally thick sands, but the clays may contain lenticular sandy bands, and the sands lenticular clay bands. It is very desirable to consider the vertical sequence of the Drift deposit in the Manchester area with reference to the classifications proposed for them, in view of the important theoretical and practical deductions which have been drawn from their supposed arrange- ment. Classification of the Glacial Deposits The first of these classifications was proposed by Binney in a paper which he read to this Society in 1848. In this paper he gave the vertical succession as being— *(4) River gravels. (3) Glacial sands. (2) Boulder-clay. (x) Gravel-bed. He himself, in referring to his classfication, says: ‘‘ Probably the deposits mentioned above will not always be found in the perfect order there laid down ; no doubt some of them may be found wanting at places ; especially the Glacial sands and the gravel-bed, which have often been removed.’”’ In the many sections now available the gravel-bed is absent nearly as often as it is present, so that it does not seem desirable to regard it as a definite stratum. The second classification was proposed by Hull in 1863 and was by no means tentative, as Binney’s was. It is as follows :— (3) Upper Boulder-clay. (2) Middle sands and gravels. (x) Lower Boulder-clay. This tri-partite division of the Drift was extended by Hull and De Rance to the Glacial deposits of Southern Lancashire generally, from the sea to the Pennines, and was adopted for the purposes of the Geological Survey. In his paper Hull says that the sands are very variable in thick- ness, and that sometimes the Upper Boulder-clay may be seen coming down on to the Lower Boulder-clay. This he attributes partly to variation in deposition but mainly to erosion. As an example of variation in thickness, he describes the Drift as being over 200 feet at Kersall Moor, while four miles away, at Newton Heath and Openshaw, it is only 20 feet. The Upper Boulder-clay, he says, occupies the districts, near Manchester, of Hyde, Denton, Newton, Failsworth, Oldham, and the 1 These beds are numbered by Binney in the reverse order, the uppermost being numbered (tr). 6 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester. higher parts of Harpurhey and Blackley, Clifton, Kearsley and ittley ever: / In considering the evidence bearing on these classifications it is important to remember that the sands often contain lenticular beds of clay of fair thickness (10-15 feet) which are merely local features, dying out in all directions. The same applies to sand “ pockets ” in the clay. This fact was noted by Binney.* Distribution of the Glacial Sands The thick Glacial sands, called the “ Middle Sands ” by Hull, occupy the country in the north of Manchester from Boggart Hole Clough to Pendleton. In the centre of this area, in Kersall Moor and Higher Blackley, they have been reckoned to be over 200 feet thick. The boring on the east side of the lake in Heaton Park shows 106 feet of sands. One sunk near the Prestwich Asylum passed through 99 feet of sands containing a 31-foot clay-bed without reaching rock, and the shaft of Hugh o’ th’ Wood Colliery in Prestwich Clough gives 154 feet of alternating sands and clays. If the sands are followed south from Boggart Hole Clough they are seen to be 42 feet thick at Crumpsall Old Workhouse. To the south of the workhouse a line of sewer sections along the Rochdale Road (Fig. 2, Pl. III.) shows these sands thinning out entirely in less than a mile. Farther to the west the Glacial sands are well exposed in Alms Hill, where extensive excavations are being made. Just to the south of Alms Hill come the Queen’s Road Clay Pits: here there is clay only. This complete change takes place in under a half-a-mile. On the south side, therefore, the Glacial sands die out, and are replaced by clays. To the east of Crumpsall Old Workhouse, and the south-east of Boggart Hole Clough, a similar replacement occurs, for in the Moston Collieries the sections show that the Drift is largely clay, with sand bands in it, the thickest of which is only 22 feet, while in the Fails- worth area the section at Failsworth Pole proves clay with a 19-foot sand-bed, and one at Lymeditch shows nothing but clay. The two sections in the Prestwich area have alternating beds of clays and sands of almost equal thickness. To the north of the Glacial sands, at Alkrington Colliery, which is about 2+ miles from Heaton Park, the section is very — similar to those at Moston, being clay with two sand bands, the thickest of which is 23 feet. To the west of the typical sand area the section of the Whitefield Incline Pit has an 11-foot sand-bed. In the North Pendleton district the sands are well shown in the Light Oaks Road—here a bore-hole was put down which proved 20 feet of sands without reaching rock. In Weaste, however, in the sandstone quarries overlooking the Irwell valley, the rock is covered 1 Mem. Lit. and Phil., V1., Series 3, p. 464. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii. (1918), No. 11. 7 by about 3 feet of clay only. Between Light Oaks Road and Weaste various exposures show sandy Drift with lenticular beds of sandy marl. These sections prove that the Glacial sands are absent in the areas surrounding the main outcrop; it may therefore be assumed that the sands form a huge lenticular patch, thinning out on all sides. It is true that the actual thinning is seen in one place only— that is in the Rochdale Road set of sewer sections, of which there are eight in a distance of a little over a mile. The first of these gives 60 feet of sand overlying clay, the second 59 feet of clay over more than 30 feet of sand, the third 56 feet of clay over more than 31 feet of sand, the fourth 66 feet of clay over 73 feet of sand, the sixth 87 feet of clay over more than 59 feet of sand, the seventh 81 feet of clay over 7 feet of sand, the eighth clay only. The first of these sections shows sand over clay, but, as the base of the clay is not reached, this may be only a lenticular band. In spite of the fact that this is the only set of sections in which the actual disappearance of the sand can be followed in detail, the rapidity with which the sands disappear by Alms Hill, Light Oaks Road, Boggart Hole Clough, Heaton Park and the sections beyond these areas shows that there is replacement of sand by clay. This seems to show that the sands of Kersall Moor occur as a lenticular patch, and not as a definite layer under or overlying the neighbouring - clays. There are, of course, sand-beds in some of the sections in the districts surrounding the typical sand area; these may reach a thickness of twenty odd feet. The sections described are fairly far apart, but in places where sections are sufficiently close to one another to allow of detailed correlation it may be shown that sand-beds of more than 20 feet in thickness are purely local lenticles inter- calated in the clays. Hence, in the absence of intervening sections, it is impossible to state definitely that the sands of Moston, Alkring- ton and Whitefield are continuations of the thick sands of Prestwich and Kersall, and in the absence of such evidence there is no ground for the belief that those sands constitute a definite stratum separat- ing an Upper from a Lower Boulder-clay. Evidence of the rapid incoming and dying out of sand-beds is given in several places. In the Fallowfield sewer cutting a lenticular bed of sand makes its appearance below the clay, attains a thickness of over 27 feet, and dies out again, all within a mile. A bore-hole in Newton Heath shows a sand-bed of 29 feet which is not seen in a second boring 150 yards to the east, nor in another 350 yards to the south. There are many other sections which show the irregularity of the deposits, but those mentioned are sufficient to demonstrate that sands more than 20 feet thick may be purely local in character. Hull himself recognised the great variability of the Glacial deposits, and accounted for the absence of the ‘“‘ middle sands ”’ in areas where he expected to find them by assuming that they had been eroded. Evidence of the lenticular character of the deposits as shown by the numerous sewer sections and the closely adjacent series 8 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester. of bore-holes and shafts which have been made since Hull’s day, together with the absence of sands in sections in the districts immediately surrounding the main sand area, points to the con- clusion that the sands and clays of the Manchester district replace one another irregularly and do not present any definite sequence. Unfortunately for the tri-partite classification of the Drift, those areas which have a thick top clay are without thick sands, while those which have true “ middle sands”’ have no top clay. These sands, when they do occur, may overlie a clay-bed, as at the Heaton Park bore-hole, or they may come straight down on to the solid, as at Agecroft Bridge, Levinstein’s Dye Works and Middleton Junction, The Glacial sands of this district cannot be said, therefore, to form a central layer between two clays. Distribution of the ““ Upper”? and “ Lower” Boulder-clavs If it be accepted that the sands of Kersall Moor and Prestwich are nothing more than a huge lenticular patch, it follows of necessity that the clay-beds above and below these sands must be also local in character. Evidence of this can be obtained from sections and in the field. Clay underlying the sands, which would be ‘“‘ Lower Boulder- clay,’ according to Hull’s classification, is seen at the Heaton Park bore-hole, where it is 34 feet thick, and in the well section of the Crumpsall Old Workhouse, where it is 68 feet thick. These clays do not form a continuous basal layer, for they are absent at Middleton Junction in the north, at Messrs. Levinstein’s works between the Crumpsall Old Workhouse and Heaton Park, and in the Rochdale Road sewer to the south, and on the west in the Irwell valley opposite to Agecroft Bridge, where the sands can be seen coming down on to solid rock. The “ Upper Boulder-clay’’ should, according to Hull, be present at Hyde, Denton, Failsworth, Oldham, the higher parts of Harpurhey and Blackley, Clifton, Kearsley and Little Lever. From the sections given in the Hyde and Ashton-under-Lyne districts it will be seen that thick sands are absent at Hyde, Hyde Lane and Lordsfield, and that at Ashton Moss, where the sands are thick, the top covering of clay is only 123 feet thick. In the sections given round Failsworth the sands are absent, as they are in Hollin- wood, on the outskirts of Oldham. There are no sections giving details of the Drift in Clifton, but at Middleton there is no top clay. In the west, sections showing thick sands as at Stand Lane and Out- wood have no overlying clay, and the Whitefield and Leigh pits have no sand. In the typical sand area, sections at Heaton Park, Crumpsall Old Workhouse and Messrs. Levinstein’s works give no top clay, and it is also absent both in one at Prestwich Asylum, which passed through gg feet of sand and clay without reaching rock, and in the shaft at Hugh o’ th’ Wood Colliery in Prestwich Clough. In addition to these sections the top of the sands can be seen in Boggart Hole Clough, above Blackley, across Kersall Moor, at Alms Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 11. 9 Hill and in Pendleton. In none of these places is there any definite covering of Boulder-clay. Near the 275-foot contour-line sandy clays occur locally ; sometimes they have been dug out, showing a thick- ness of 5 to 10 feet. They are not brick clays, and can be seen thinning out on all sides. It is therefore evident that round Manchester the thick sands have no covering of Boulder-clay and that they may or may not over- lie clay, so that the clay deposits as well as the sands are lenticles. The appended sections (pp. 10-13), to which reference has been made, are only a few of those which give a detailed account of the Drift, down to the rock. They include the only complete available records of borings in and around the neighbourhood of the Glacial sands, together with a few from the Hyde and Ashton- under-Lyne area, which were selected because, according to Hull, Upper Boulder-clay should have been visible in that district. The other sections from the Manchester district, which cover an area about four times as large as that from which these were taken, show no sand-beds of any appreciable thickness. Thickness of the Drift As might be expected, the Drift is thinnest in the present river valleys. In Salford, Old Trafford and Hulme the general depth of the solid below the surface has not been yet shown to reach as much as 50 feet. An exception to this is seen in Trafford Park, where the bore-hole of the British Steel and Wire Company proved the depth of the pre-Glacial surface to be 94 feet below present sea-level, giving a thickness of 175 feet of Drift. It is impossible in this area to distin- guish definitely between Glacial and post-Glacial deposits, though, judging from the recorded sections, it is highly probable that they are mainly alluvium. East and north of this the Drift thickens considerably, though on the low ridge to the north of Fallowfield Station it is practically absent. In Levenshulme, by Albert Road and Stockport Road, it is over 50 feet thick, and at Levenshulme Print Works 82 feet. In the Openshaw, Ardwick and Bradford areas the thickness runs well above 50 feet. One boring in Openshaw shows 135 feet of Drift. Round Hyde and Ashton the Drift thickens out ; at Hyde, and in the Lordsfield and Ashton Moss Colliery sections it 1s over 100 feet thick, though at Hyde Lane it diminishes to 663 feet. The Newton Heath sections give a thickness of about 100 feet. North of this the Glacial deposits again thicken. At the Moston Pits they - ‘are 170 and 174 feet, on Kersall Moor and Higher Blackley they have been estimated to be over 200 feet in thickness, and at Boggart Hole « Clough they cannot be much less. At Failsworth and Hollinwood these deposits thin somewhat, being only about 100 feet thick, but at Heaton Park and Alkrington the thickness is 143 and 162 feet respectively, and at Middleton Junction 127 feet. Farther west, at Prestwich, the asylum boring passed through Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester. LO —— jaaf Ui UAATS sassauyory} TT | per ‘SSOUMIIY} [CIOL II forr ; | er F€er 209 | Bh = _ (enen'sy | | | £6 : “Avg. 10x : MED) [EVE 2 Ary) oe 2) co = “pues ies ae ee £ . | = = = e8l ACID | : a eee | ee - QI JoAvid pue 2 pEY2 WIeOT “Pues Ole Puce = ee cI spur pues oe MOF UPI [ARN pue pues | He * pues Bee fg Avy) Giz Av I [ID ai AreID oes Ae) a See Se Sea. ee YIOMS |B] oudT-rapun-uoyysy | AT snes Ee ore opAH ‘youpewAT 30d YWOMsTIVy ‘C19[]0D PlPYSp10'T SSOJ u0JYySyW SGNVS ‘1VIOVIL) 4O VAAY AHL GNNOUV GNV NI LaI¥q dO SNOILOUS jaaf Ul UAATS SessouyoIy} [TW 3 §vz1 & I £79 « 1 =| ecz — | ob ee LL {48 ‘“SSOUOI} [20], a) = € JeAvid puv pues = } 4 sees : : € : [PAvIn S = ewes Ae S 9) fee - Al) OV & z ‘Ss Reel ol= = pues S € pues SS fee tie * Key S me = = poe oon pure @ ie pues | + tg . 1 8) lily pues = ec: pue ee St pues aes See (A rN @) Wg J ONUTIS SPTIPEY Wq surpouy (2 Sass yet) AST poomur] [OF] AlatyJod poomng Tq MopEayy “DIaYaU AA 21°H ‘sydon eMC ae ‘K1a]JoD 1aMog ‘Arayjjo auey purys : -a10G YAVq uojwayy |fjesdunsy s_uteysuraay : GNOOYVY GNV NI Ladldq, dO SNOILOYS a ee 1Z ‘Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester. by puvs » Agjo ‘faavig ; Ary) ge AID (Gi pues $7r * Key) | pues £0€ : pues fee Aep |— = : A 3 “I Pali Ae) ce pis S21 °° ue S0c = WieOT ee Ee Eee pue pues | 6 g Ary a 2 Ary) Z . iA ue Oe NaS : ee 4 pues pue weo7T eee uonounf{ uo] ppryy cele) MON UOISUTILV ‘AIITTOD P[PY3IOIS YWOMsIey ‘9]0Y-910g apIsowly App. - S71 ‘SSOUMOIY} [P}O TL, SQ yreu AToAeIy ee * ke ys19T Gig usIaI0A0G Ud € oN ‘AxaTT[0D oon Aspsy SGNVS TIVIOVTL) 4O V4UVY AHL GNNOUV ANV NI Lalu¥q 40 SNOILOAS jaaf wt waars sossouxoryy TV = ecor FC PRNBEEN TOM SEN Czr ifAre PLT ‘ssouyoryy [230], WH ss | == : ——— - . Oe * JOARID) pb 5 “Kea £1z 5 [PARIS Ee = or IN) ee ecees - Ke = fe = | | Ss ; id m= yey z : : s Fe ee : a aoe ea ite pues Coa Aefp | o | = : sae : Cea MCG |S ae ee OO Arp |e : : : UeS |Z jaar aoe (Ai Ae = PUPS GAT Si eat re : Av) 3S Ors Pues | gt - pues ee eg z | WAG = DUES 8 £9 F Arig T EV AelD =e : i Ss 305 = 9 Arp TS aes Ary) jee = To pues ace keyg | 3S | Ke | S Le PUPS | cco - pues gb 8 pues eC pues = LE * pues | oe 8) | be ke ; (Crea? : Ary) ae eS = (Ge NG ye weyplo WSNO[O MOINS oe ceuny’ "IPAM 98110 4>410\\ | Wd £ ON ia ee pee grins | pio isdn) ‘1 1]]09) UOISOTN eee SEcTIONS OF DRIFT IN AND AROUND THE AREA OF GLACIAL SANDS Alkrington New tley Nook Sovereign Pit, Limeside Bore-hole Stockfield Colliery, 2 ; : Gaiten. No. 3 Pit Leigh Failsworth : Chadderton sae a Neue S ‘Clay a ees. Loam and sand 7 ae San : Cla ae ak | Gravelly marl 8} ee 5 and 2 y wh SaaS ee » 3ie ee oe Clay eee a eae Se e Cla . 9 | Sand and & eet) loam . 234| & Sand 5 TAN eS / Sand = 8) = Cla 5 Py i) y Clay OT Ss Cla ; = Clay 5 16{o y 3 Sand . 302| Sand T5n | egs S & | S | Clay 6 & Pee se ES | 5 - _ Sand resi ty) Sy | Clay G0 S Oey o é ; < | = | Gravel, clay &sand 4 | eee ee 3 | eae ax oe ee i Total thickness, 12% 314 140 633) 127 53 All thicknesses given in /ee¢ = Prestwic! 1A Co ~ Park Colliery, es | Workhouse Well = Annex ee ec he h Oldham =< eClayiis are nee 5. : Soil 9 Clay . er 25 | : Clay 24 Clay 5 30) Sand 2387 | Sand - 33 | Sand ee Sand aA: Clay - aes 32% Sand é Sand ._ Eee er I) “eax T9A ‘Sdtowa py daqsayoun py 14 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester. 99 feet of sands'and clays, while at Hugh o’ th’ Wood Colliery in Prestwich Clough the shaft section shows a thickness of 156 feet. Viewed broadly, therefore, the Drift around Manchester is thickest on the north and east, and thins to the south and west. Present Topography and tts Relation to the Drift The physical map of Manchester, Pl. I., contoured to every ten feet shows remarkable diversity in the character of the surface in differ- ent areas. In the north-west the surface is very irregularly broken. In the south and east the contours run very smoothly north-west to south-east. Up to-the 200-foot line the surface slopes gently to the River Irwell. From the 200- to the 250-foot contours the gradient increases. Between the 250- and 350-foot lines occurs another belt of more level land. The most striking feature of the map is the deeply trenched character of the valleys, which in the north-west about Kersall and Prestwich entirely change the nature of the surface. Instead of the regular contours of the south and east, the ground shows a relatively high sand plateau, deeply dissected on the margins by a series of ravines. On the right bank of the Irwell the ground rises from the river steeply, and relatively unbroken. Outside this area of irregular surface the levels stretching from south-west to north-east are only cut by the valleys of the Irk - and Medlock. In the north-east, by Oldham, the latter river has trenched deeply into the solid rock. Comparison of the physical map with one showing Drift thick- ness makes it clear that the area of broken country does not coincide with that of maximum Drift thickness; but if the comparison be made with a map showing the distribution of the sands and clays it becomes evident that the irregular surface occupies the same position .as the Glacial sands, which stretch from Boggart Hole Clough across Prestwich to Pendleton. It is quite natural that the rivers should cut deep gorges here, -as the loose nature of the sands makes erosion easy ; while on the east, where the almost equally thick deposits of Moston, Newton Heath the Ashton occur, the heaviness of the clay would prevent such rapid wearing. The Pre-Glacial Surface Unfortunately the records of the depth of the solid rock below the surface are too few and scattered to make it possible to draw -a map of the pre-Glacial surface, except in the area of central Man- chester and as far to the south as Alexandra Park. This map, reproduced in Pl. II., shows that there is no corre- spondence between the present and pre- -Glacial river valleys. One pre-Glacial valley is clearly seen near the centre of the map, where the pre-Glacial contours, which are marked in thick lines, trend from S.S.W. to N.N.E. This valley can be traced upwards from Brook’s Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxit. (1918), No. 11. 15 Bar, past the junction of Cornbrook Street with Chorlton Road to the east of Oxford Road Station and Manchester Town Hall, across Piccadilly and between Rochdale Road and Oldham Street. Reference to the map will show that there is a hill of some 120 feet in height, forming the western side of this valley. The highest part of this hill runs from just south of Albert Square to the north angle of Central Station, the pre-Glacial surface in general rising from the old valley-bed towards the present channel of the Irwell. On the eastern side of the same ancient valley is a hill of similar height -under London Road Station and its neighbourhood, and across this hill the Medlock is now cutting its way, as mentioned by Mr. Charles Roeder in his description of the Oxford Road sewer.' This pre-Glacial valley is joined, just to the north of Brook’s Bar, by another coming in from the east. This second valley can be traced upwards from the neighbourhood of Brook’s Bar to the south of the Royal Eye Hospital and across Plymouth Grove Recreation Ground. It may possibly be connected with one which lies near the Levenshulme Print Works. These two pre-Glacial valleys which unite near Brook’s Bar presumably open into a deep valley across Trafford Park, the presence of which is certainly indicated by the boring of the British Steel and Wire Company, to which reference has already been made, as well as by the channel exposed at Salford Racecourse in the cutting of the Ship Canal.* The information concerning this latter valley is insuffi- cient for mapping it ; it probably ran from north-east to south-west, as on such a line bore-holes give greater depths in the rock surface than those on either side. The present bed of the Irwell is un- related to this deep valley—this is clearly seen in the section, Pl. III., Fig. 3, which shows the Irwell cutting its valley in the rock which rises steadily to the west of the Brook’s Bar and Piccadilly valley as far as the Irwell. The most remarkable feature of this valley is its great depth. At Trafford Park it is 94 feet below O.D. As the fall of the river in pre-Glacial times from this point to its mouth cannot have been much less than it is now, this depth means that there has been an alteration in the height of the surface of about 178 feet since pre-Glacial times. A similarly deep valley has been described by Mr. Mellard Reade * in the neighbourhood of Widnes. Here the valley is 141 feet below O.D. and 163 feet below the surface. Allowing for the fall of the river to be the same from Widnes to the sea in pre-Glacial and present times, these figures give an alteration of 185 feet in level since pre- Glacial days. Another part of this buried valley is described by Mr. Hunter 4 as being 120 feet deep. Thisis at Latchford, near Warring- ton. Each of these deep channels, at Old Trafford, Latchford and Widnes, lies in the present river valley, but is not coincident with the existing river-bed. 1Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XX. 2? Hunter, C. E. Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XVII. 3 Proc. Liv. Geol. Soc., II. *Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XVII. —— == 16 Marcu, The Superficial Geology of Manchester. It has usually been assumed that the surface features of the pre- Glacial land have been obscured by the Glacial deposits, which have filled up the valleys, levelling-up the surface generally, and that it is through these deposits that the rivers are now cutting their valleys. The absence of relationship between the pre-Glacial and present con- tours bears out this assumption. But it may be seen that on the whole the pre-Glacial surface was smoother than the present one. This 1s only to be expected, as the elevation of the land and the addition of the Drift to the old surface would naturally give the streams renewed powers of vertical erosion, so causing them to have more deeply entrenched valleys. LITERATURE E. W. Binney. 1. “Sketch of the Geology of Manchester and its Neighbourhood.”” Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. I., 1841, 25. a “Sketch of the Drift Deposits of Manchester and its Neighbourhood.” Mem. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. VIIL., Series 2, 1848, p. 195. 3. “On the Permian Beds of North-West England.” Mem. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. XII., Series 2, 1855, p. 200. —_— 4. “‘ Additional Observations on the Permian Beds of North- West England.” Mem. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. XIV., Series 2, 1857, p. 103. —— 5. “ Additional Observations on the Permian Beds of South Lancashire.’ Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. II., 1860- TOO2) Paks 7e —— 6. - Remarks on Lancashire and Cheshire Dmit a ye7oe Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. I11., 1862-1864, p. 214. —— 7. ““A Few Remarks on Mr. Hull’s Additional Observations on the Drift Deposits and Recent Gravels in the Neighbourhood of Manchester.”” Mem. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. Ii1., Series 3, 1865, p. 462. —— 8. “On a Section of Drift and Underlying Triassic and Coal Measures at Ardwick.’’ Proc. Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. VI., 1866-1867, p. 119. —— g. “ Notes on the Lancashire and Cheshire Drift ”’ (read 1842). Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. VIII., 1868-1869, p. 30. ' to. “ Notes.on the Drift of the Eastern Parts of the Counties of Lancaster and Chester.”’ Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol er 8 70-18 7ia i kO: —— 11. “ Additional Notes on the Lancashire Drift Deposits.” Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. X1., 1871-1872, p. 139. —— 12. “ Additional Notes on the Drift Deposits near Manchester.” Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. XII., 1872-1873, p. 12. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixii. (1918), No. 11. 17 E. W. BINNEY. 13. “On Boulders from the Drift.” Proc. Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. XVIII., 1878-1879, p. 40. —— 14. “ Notes on a Bore through Triassic and Permian Strata lately made at Openshaw.” Proc. Manc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. XIX., 1879-1880, p. 99. W. Boyp Dawkins. 1. “A Section of the Glacial Deposits met with in the Construction of the New Docks at Salford.”” Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XX1X., 1904, p. 34. —— 2. “Permian Rocks South of Manchester.” Tvans. Mane. Geol. Soc., Vol. XVIII., 1882, p. 42. J. Dickinson. “ Notes on Castle Irwell, Pendleton, Manchester.” Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXVIL., 1901, p. 103. E. Hurt. 1. “ Additional Observations on the Drift Deposits and Recent Gravels in the Neighbourhood of Manchester.” Mem. Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. I1., Series 3, 1865, p. 440. — 2. “ Geological Survey Memoir on the Geology of the Country Round Oldham,” etc., 1864, pp. 46-51. Hunter, C. E. “A Geological Section of the Mersey and Irwell Valleys.” Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XVII., 1882-1884, p. 212" LampLucH. “On British Drifts and the Interglacial Question.” Brit. Ass. Report, 1906, p. 532. J. B. Prant. “Glacial Markings in Salford.” Tvans. Mane. Geolsoc. Vols VIL.; 1867, p. 120. C. RoEpDER. 1. “ Further Remarks on the Oxford Road Section.” Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XX., 1888-1890, p. 163. ——— 2. “Notes on the Upper Permians, etc., at Fallowfield.” Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XX., 1888-1890, p. 615. —— 3. “ Notes on the Permians and Superficial Beds at Fallow- field.” Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXI1., 1892, p. 104. —— 4. “ Notes on the Upper Coal Measures at Slade Lane Burnage.” Trans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XXI1., 1892, p. 114. —— 5. “ Further Notes on the Upper Coal Measures at Slade Lane Burnage.”’ Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., XXI., 1892, p. 199. SINGTON. “On the Recently Disclosed Sections of the Superficial Strata along Oxford Street, Manchester.” Tvans. Mane. Geol. Soc., Vol. XIX., 1886-1888, p. 603. WHYNFIELD RuopeEs. “Drift Deposits of Prestwich.” Tvans. Manc. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXXIV., 1915-1916, p. 126. October 2nd, 1917] PROCEEDINGS. i. PROCEEDINGS OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND } PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Ordinary Meeting, October 2nd, 1917. The President, Mr. WiLu1aM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair. _ A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the table. The President then delivered his Inaugural Address, in which he _ gave a sketch of the very important work which had been done in the Society since its inauguration in 1781. The Address is printed in full in the AZemozrs. General Meeting, October 16th, 1917. The President, Mr. WiLu1am THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C., in the Chair. Miss Grace WIGGLESWoRTH, M.Sc., Botanical Department of the Manchester Museum, The University, Manchester; Mr. FRED WiLkinson Barwick, Manager of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce Testing House, Royal Exchange, Manchester; Mr. Kenneth Lee, of Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst, Lee & Co. Ltd., Oxford Road, Manchester; and Mr. ALFRED J. Kine, Elleray, Windermere ; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society. ii. PROCEEDINGS, [October 16th, 1917 Ordinary Meeting, October 16th, 1917. Ae The President, Mr. WiLt1AM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair. A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the ' : table. Mr. D. Warp: CuTiER, M.A., read a paper entitled :— ‘* Natural and Artificial Parthenogenesis in Animals.” This paper is printed in full in the AZemozrs. General Meeting, October 20th, 19176 The President, Mr. Witu1Am THomson, F.R.S:E., F.C.S., F.LC., in the Chair. Rev. J. J. Incram, M.A. (Cantab), Science Master, St. Bede’s College, Manchester, was elected an Ordinary Member of the Society. Ordinary Meeting, October 30th, 1917. The President, Mr.. WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C., in the Chair. During the meeting a valuable gift to the Society was made by Mr. Henry Boddington, of Pownall Hall, who presented the original painting by Ford Madox Brown for the fresco in the Manchester Town Hall, depicting Dalton engaged in collecting marsh gas from a pool. It was unanimously resolved that the best thanks of the Society be accorded to Mr. Boddington, for his very valuable and appropriate gift. The following account of the picture is taken from the official descriptions of the Mural Paintings in the Town Hall :— “Panel No. 12.—Dalton Collecting Marsh-Fire Gas. John Dalton, inventor of the Atomic Theory, was born at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, in Cumberland, September 5th, 1766. As early as when only twelve he started a school in partnership with a brother only a few years older. The stronger pupils, it is stated, would challenge Dalton to fight November 13th, 1917] PROCEEDINGS. | iii. on his offering to correct them. For many years of his life he maintained himself, in Manchester, by school teaching, but this laborious, if honourable, occupation did not hinder him from-indulging in the most abstruse and far reaching specu- lations and researches ; the result being that the Manchester schoolmaster, alone and unassisted, made himself the father of modern chemistry—that is if chemistry is one of the exact sciences and not a succession of independent experiments. How the idea of the Atomic Theory first presented itself to : his mind it would be interesting to know, but we know very | little of it. All we hear is, that it occurred to him as required, | in order to explain certain remarkable phases of matter, which combines in some proportions and not in others. ‘Once that idea had taken hold of his mind, he never aban- doned it till he had worked it out. The natural gases * presented the readiest mode of investigation; so he is represented as collecting marsh-fire gas, one of the natural and primitive forms of gas. The mode of getting it is the usual one of stirring up the mud of a stagnant pond, while an assis- tant (in this case a farmer’s boy) catches the bubbles, as they rise, in a wide-mouthed bottle, having a saucer ready to close up the mouth under the water when the bottle is full. A group of children are watching him, and the eldest, who has charge of them, is telling the little boy who is bent on catching sticklebacks that ‘Mr. Dalton is catching Jack o’ Lanterns ’—marsh-fire gas being, when on fire, the substance the Will o’the Wisp is composed of .... ” Hon. Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., read a paper entitled :—‘‘ The Organisation of Museums and Galleries of Art and Technology in Manchester.” This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs. General Meeting, November 13th, 1917. The President, Mr. Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C., in the Chair. Dr. GEOFFREY Martin, Ph.D., F.1.C., F.C.S., Head of ‘the Research Department of the Co-operative Wholesale Society, Ltd. ; Mr, Witt1am Heap HOoL.anp, Spinner, The Cottage, Mottram Road, Alderley Edge, ; and Miss WiniIFRED Crompton, Assistant Keeper in Egyptology, The Manchester Museum, The University, Manchester ; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society. iv. PROCEEDINGS. [November 13th, 1917 ‘ Ordinary Meeting, November 13th, 1917. The President, Mr. WILLIAM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair. A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the table. These included a number of Natural History publications of the British Museum. Professor S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., communicated a paper by Miss Constance LicHtTsown, M.Sc. on ‘The Siphono- zooids of the Sea-pens.” This paper appears in full in the MZemozrs. Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.S. then read a paper on the ‘“ Regional Distribution of the Native Flora of Teneriffe,” by Dr. J. H. Satter. This paper will also be printed in the Memoirs. Ordinary Meeting, November 27th, 1917. The President, Mr. Wrenn TuHomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C., in the Chair. Hon. Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., exhibited and described ‘‘ Examples of Pre-Roman bronze-plated iron from the Pilgrim’s Way.” Professor Boyp Dawkins, exhibited an iron snaffle-bit, an iron harness-ring, and an iron hub of a wheel, covered with a thin layer of bronze, discovered in 1895, on the site of a village in Bigbury Wood, about two miles due West of Canterbury. The village is of Prehistoric Iron Age, and is traversed by the Pilgrim’s Way, and has yielded a considerable number of implements to be seen in the Manchester Museum. Of these the three above mentioned are of peculiar interest, because they show that the art of plating iron with bronze was known at that remote period, ranging indefinitely backward from the Roman conquest. The plating is very thin and beautifully executed, and more particularly that of the iron ring, in which the bronze surface repro- duces exactly the effect of a covering of leather stitched on an iron ring. With regard to the question as to how the plating was done, Dr. E. Newbery has suggested that it might have been effected either by plunging the carefully cleaned iron into molten bronze, or by heating the iron in a furnace in which bronze was being made. j November 27th, 1917| PROCEEDINGS. v. The implements found along with the plated articles consist of iron spears, axes, adzes, hammers, ploughshares, billhooks. and sickles, of the types found in settlements elsewhere of the same age, such as Hunsbury near Northampton, and the Lake Village of Glastonbury. In addition to these there were also fetters and a chain for a chain- gang of six, with six rings to put round the neck. Similar bronze-plated iron articles have been met with elsewhere. In a cemetery of the Prehistoric Iron Age at Aylesford, in the neigh- bourhood of the Pilgrim’s Way, north of Maidstone in the valley of the Medway, similar plating is to be seen on the hoops of a wooden bucket. The metal work is of beautiful design with the “late Celtic flam- boyants,” and similar to those on scabbards at La Tene in Switzerland. The date of Aylesford is fixed by Sir Arthur Evans to be from about too B.C., down to the Christian Era. Iron-plated articles also occur in settlements and burial places of the same age, in various parts of Britain. A snaffle-bit, for example, found in Hunsbury Camp, near Northampton, closely resembles that on the table. The trappings of the horses, and the metal work of the wheels, found in the “ chariot burials” in Yorkshire, is of the same elaborate type. From the wide range of this art in Britain and on the continent, it may be inferred that it was introduced from the latter, and was afterwards practised in our islands. It was probably brought into Kent by the invading Belgae, and into Yorkshire by the Parisii, whose name still survives in Paris, their ancient land. We may further note that the Pilgrim’s Way, proved by its passage through Bigbury Camp to be Prehistoric, forms a part of the network of roads in the Prehistoric Iron Age, affording free communication between the various settlements,—Manchester, York, Durham, Huns- bury (Old Northampton), Bath, the Lake Village of Glastonbury, Old Sarum, and the camps of the downs of Berks, Wilts, and Dorset. Mr. R. L. Taytor, F.I.C., F.C.S., then read a paper on “The Effect of Light on Solutions of Bleaching Powder.” Experiments were described in which solutions of bleaching powder, differing in concentration and prepared in different ways, were exposed to diffused daylight and to intermittent bright sunlight, while other similar solutions were kept in the dark. Some of the experiments extended over fifteen months. It was found that solutions exposed to sunlight decomposed quite rapidly, those exposed to diffused daylight much more slowly, while dilute solutions (one per cent.) kept in the dark remained quite unaltered for the whole period of fifteen months. A solution five times the strength of the latter, however, did undergo some decompo- sition, losing about 20 per cent. of its available chlorine even when kept in the dark. Solutions exposed to diffused daylight lost from wi PROCEEDINGS. [December 11th, 1917 70 to 80 per cent. of their available chlorine in fifteen months, while those exposed to intermittent sunshine lost from 80 to gg per cent, — in twelve weeks. It was found, as was anticipated, that the amount of — free lime present in the solutions had considerable influence on the rate of decomposition,—the smaller the Brppoi on of free limes the greater the decomposition. It was also found that the solutions which decomposed did not, as might be expected, decompose entirely in the normal way (the — hypochlorite, changing into chlorate and chloride), but in all cases there was a considerable loss in the total oxidising power of the solutions, due to the evolution of free oxygen. General Meeting, December 11th, 1917. The President, Mr. Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair. evaanc: Cooke, St. Bede’s College, Manchester; and Mr. J. WitFRID Jackson, F.G.S., The Manchester Museum, The University, Manchester; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society. Ordinary Meeting, December 1ith, 1917. The President, Mr. WiLLiAM THomsovn, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair. A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the table. Professor W. W. HALDANE GEE gave a short description of the Exhibits of Diagrams, Manuscripts, Apparatus, and Books, which chiefly related to John Dalton and William Sturgeon. The Society possesses three of the portable electric kites designed by Sturgeon for use in investigations relating to atmospheric electricity. Two of aie are made of calico and one measures 2 feet 8 inches by 2 feet 10 inches; and the other 3 feet 9 inches by 2 feet ro inches ; each possesses an arrangement oe braces so as to'relieve the wooten stretchers as much as possible from the strain produced by the wind. January 8th, 1918 | PROCEEDINGS: vii: The third kite, which is not complete, is made of “‘sarsenet.” These were used in conjunction with a Leyden jar which could be charged by the atmospheric electricity. Descriptions of some of the experi-’ ments are given in a manuscript in the Society’s possession. The following is an example of one of the records :— “Friday, May 22nd, 1829. Barrack Field, 2 p.m. Gentle North- East Wind—some clouds to windward—Thermometer—in the sun, 78°, in the shade, 69°.—Barometer, 29°3.—Light Kite— 300 yards string—floated high—Electricity positive. Steel needle feebly magnetised by the discharge of the Leyden Jar.” At the time these experiments were made Sturgeon was in the Royal Artillery at Woolwich ; he subsequently lectured at the Royal Victoria Gallery of Practical Science in Manchester, and lectures given there on Galvanism and Electricity were published in 1842 and 1843. He also gave popular lectures in the district and some of his lecture syllabuses are exhibited in the Society’s house. He edited the * Annals of Electricity,” and issued in.a large volume an account of his researches ; these publications, which are in the Society’s Library, were exhibited. The Memorials of Dalton included his lecture diagrams, optical apparatus used at his popular lectures, his herbarium, laboratory note books, a complete set of account books, letters, and published works. There was also an exhibition of early types of microscopes, which included the microscope designed by Culpeper and Scarlet in 1750— a very primitive instrument—made of wood with cardboard tubes ; a microscope made by Adams in 1776 with a cog wheel to incline the instrument at a convenient angle ; a reflecting microscope of Goring — described by Goring and Pritchard in 1837 in ‘‘ Micrographia” ; and a microscope used by John Dalton, recently presented to the Society. Ordinary Meeting, January 8th, 1918. The President, Mr. Witti1aAm THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair. A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books pon the table. These included “Britain’s Heritage of Science,” by A. Schuster and A. E. Shipley, and “ Overvoltage Tables,” Parts i, ii, iii, and iv, by E, Newbery. viii. PROCEEDINGS. [Jannary 22nd, 1918 The following resolution was passed unanimously :— “This meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society Of Manchester desires to give the most public expression of its” ° profound sense of the ‘humiliation wantonly imposed on the Nation by the reported action of the Government in wilfully submitting the priceless treasures of the British Museum to ~ the certainty of irreparable damage.” 4 Mr. T. A. Cowarp, F.E.S., F.Z.S. (Vice-President) then took the _ i chair, and the President, Mr. Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. read a paper entitled—‘‘ Somatose.” This paper is printed in full in the AZemozrs. General Meeting, January 22nd, 1918. The Vice-President, Professor S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., in the Chair. Mr. JoHN Maver Legs, F.C.A., Lymefield, Offerton, Stockport, was elected an Ordinary Memi per of the Society. Ordinary Meeting, January 22nd, ror8. ; The Vice-President, Professor S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., in the Chair. Mrs. CRAVEN exhibited a portion of a piece of coal containing a quantity of galena. Mr. J. WILFRID Jackson, F.G.S., read a paper entitled :—‘‘ The Association of Facetted Pebbles with Glacial Deposits.” This paper will appear in full in the Aemozrs. Professor S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., then gave a short account of a paper written by the late Mr. Epwarp HaLkyarbD, and edited and revised by Mr. Epwarp Heron-ALLen and Mr. A. Eartanp on “The Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl, Céte des Basques, Biarritz.” This paper will appear in full as Part II. of this volume. Vol. leii., No. 11. Manchester Memoirs, lem mn a] xq 3) a e = fx fe) Ay - = J < ic q Ay < 4 1} fo) ey o) al YTOURED AT INTERVALS OF IO FEET. =I mile. AOD? LE LD SSF ZI SZ ZS (ESI ff GaLLYy AM Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixii., No. 11. Plate I. TOPOGRAPHICAL Map OF MANCHESTER CONTOURED AT INTERVALS OF IO FEET. Scale, 1 inch=1 mile. 350 400 450 500550 690600 690 550600 Sze) ok SCS UC ENS ANG K cS Oe WQS \e XO hs Oy Ss. WO ~~. TAU oon ° Se ee, 0 N tenes Ny lil CEeRBReorRsEa ry HTH bh | : N i AU NTU A i IN “HOVAAAS (La1uq-ans) TVIOVI)-auYqd AHL AO AGNV AOVAUAS LINUSAAG FHL AO SYNOLNOD AHL ONIMOHS AALSHHONVI AO NVId | : “TL ON SUX] ‘10, ‘séromapy sagsayoun Wy ‘apIW TF 0} sayour € : a[8IG q aon ( b < | ( LY Cela Se) eT | —z*. aa = SSS PA eel Salle eee ipet ae Soe eS ye a Nese || | | lik -~ Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxtt., No. 11. a ———— -~-— Plate ITI. PLAN OF MANCHESTER SHOWING THE CONTOURS OF THE PRESENT SURFACE AND OF THE PRE-GLACIAL (SuB-D : UB-DRIFT) SURFACE RIVER |IRWELL = < ‘ \e \e anes = = = “6 X 1\60== — Saat \ . t mW fi 100 => PY cepa ——— ° a oe ' 4 Se a ae ee mae ze i Sse = L = —— - Sa ee - - = — = a “ws = Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii., No. 11. Fig. 1.—Diagram Showing the variation of the Glacic] D Wilmslow Road Recreation Grot Horizontal Scale + mile Sand | v “ial Swale 700 4 \ 200 wo “00 &—0yd5 2 Deal To mile * ee eS ee — ——— ee SS ° as go 74 vs Fig. 2.— Section along Rochdale F Base level 1oofeet o.D. Fig. 3.—Diagram showing the Relation belween Hulme Hall Lane Irwell i] Eunswttttlttyy Rock - black Dritt 7 Plate ITI. tS in the Wilmslow Road Sewer Didsbury Patk SCC UIA Weddin? Base level 40 feel oO Clay aw Sandy Clay ww Rock in black Driff Sewer S Horizontal 980 feel Vertical 200 feet LZ {772 Drif i € well Valley and the Pre-qlacial Surface Upper Moss Lane ll Soalla [DENSE De VaR Ae ie aera eee! R ° 720 a 209 339 &09 £40 yds Scale { mile | ° 25 EX) 7s TO0 Tia yds Manchester Memoirs, Vol. lxii., No. 11. Plate II ate ITI. Fig. 1.—Diagram Showing the vaniation of the Glacial] Debosits in the Wilmslow Road Sewer Wilmslow Road Recreation Ground Didsbury Park Base level 40 feel 00 HorizentalScale + mile 100 4 200 300 G00 a0 dS Sand i+ Clay ay Sandy Clay ww Rock in black Vertical Secle mile e (iS ee eee | ° a> SO 75 102 710 yds NS Drift Fig. 2.— Section along Rochdale Road Sewer ech Horizontal SEON, Vertical goo fect Base level 1oofeet 0.0. Fig. 3.—Diagram showing the Relation belween the Irwell Valley and the Pre-qlacial Surface Hulme Hall Lane Upper Moss Lane I+well 5 ‘ Dritt HH Hix Bate i lL TI! ia \- ; Vertical Scale 16 mile ° = February 5th, 1918. ] PROCEEDINGS, — 1x Ordinary Meeting, February 5th, 1918. The President, Mr Wit~tt1Am THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair. Mr. G. P. VARLEY, M.Sc., and Mr. J. WILFRID JACKSON, F.G.3., were nominated Auditors of the Society’s accounts for the Session 1917-1918. Professor G. E1iior SmitH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., read a paper by Captain Leonard Munn, R.E., entitled ‘Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad.” A paper entitled ‘“‘The Origin of Early Siberian Civilisation” was also read by Professor G. Elliot Smith. These papers will be printed in the Memoirs. Ordinary Meeting, February tgth, 1918. The President, Mr. Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F-.L.C., in the Chair. Mr. J. Witrrip JAcKson, F.G.S., exhibited specimens of Planorbis dilatatus (an American freshwater mollusc) recently obtained from the Bolton Canal, near Agecroft. This was first discovered in this canal in 1869, but apparently disappeared for many years. Dr. J. SruART THomMson, M.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., read a paper entitled “‘The Occurrence of Cavernularia Lutkenii, Ko//, in the Seas of Natal.” This paper is printed in full in the Memozrs. Mr. L. Srantey JAstT read a paper “On the Necessity of a Technical Library for Manchester and District.” Mr. Jast stated that a true library is a collection of books made productive, and implies properly constructed catalogues, careful selection of books, and skilled custodians. A special library is such by virtue of the act that it covers a limited field. This, in the case of technical books, means the useful arts, which in these days are usually applied science. A special collection, isolated from a general collection, loses a good deal of its value. Technology overlaps with pure science, with the fine arts, and with both sociology and history. The need for a great technical collection for Manchester, with adequate equipment and staff, is urgent. As a nation we have persistently ignored the fact that ideas, whether in the direction of discovery or in that of invention, are x PROCEEDINGS. [March 5th, 1918. not as a rule the result of practical work in the shop or laboratory. It has been well said that “ideas come to a man, not when his hands are full of things, but when his mind is full of thoughts,” and in the main we get our ideas from books. The suggestion obtained in the library may be worked out in the shop or laboratory. Manchester should lead in that provision of technical libraries which must form a not inconsiderable part of our equipment for. shouldering our due share of the commerce of the world after the war. | Dr. F. E. Bradley, Dr. G. Hickling, Professor Hickson, Professor W. W. Haldane Gee, and Mr. Thomson took part in the discussion of this paper, and the following resolution was passed unanimously :—_ “That the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, being a Society founded in 1781 for the Advancement of Science, appeals to the Manchester City Council to establish a Technical Library for Manchester and District, which should contain, for easy reference, all the Technical Works and Periodicals published throughout the world. “An eminent member of this Society, the late Dr. Angus Smith, said, in 1881, ‘ Manchester is rich, but without Science it will not remain so,’ and an up-to-date Technical Library in Manchester is urgently necessary for the full develop- ment of Technical Science in this district.” Ordinary Meeting, March 5th, 1918. The President, Mr. WiILL1AM THOMSON,’ F.R.S.E., F.C.S., EF.1-C., in the Chair. A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books on the table. Mr EE ReEAD, MSc Mech, IIe, read a paper entitled: ““The Corrodibility of Cast Iron.” The author pointed out that there was no intention to deal with the electrical conditions, state of passivity, or the formation of protective coatings of insoluble salts on the iron by the liquids in contact with the metal. The paper dealt with the effects of the impurities in producing during the solidification of the metal various solutions in which the impurities were concentrated. This was especially the case with the phosphide. The concentration depended on the lower melting point of the solution thus formed. Attention was also drawn to the production of graphite. These last portions of liquid to solidify lead, by contraction and subsidence by gravity, to the formation of cavities, crevices, and cracks of capillary size, which in many cases communicate March oth, 1918. | PROCEEDINGS. XI and form channels by which the corroding liquid or gas penetrates to the interior, and this is intensified by alternate expansion and contraction due to heating and cooling, and by vibration. This increase is most pronounced where the continuity of structure and cohesion is least—z.e. at the graphite flakes. It was shown by photo-micrographs and actual specimens of corroded material, that the concentration occurs, and that corrosion follows these segrega- tions and the graphite. Examples in which the graphite plate occupied the middle of the corrosion were pointed out. Specific instances in which the failure of cast-iron vessels was due to the increase in volume resulting from the corrosion, and the influence of the structure due to the segregation and coarse graphite, were dealt with and specimens shown. Analyses and examinations showed that the collapse of the vessels was due to these causes. Attention was also directed to the high silicon iron now used for chemical plant, and segregation was shown to take place to a marked extent. The author showed that the failure in many cases investigated was due to the presence of graphite and phosphide. Separated pellets of phosphide taken from cavities in metal con- taining 13.6 silicon and 0.41 phosphorus contained over 4.1 per cent. of phosphorus and only 10.45 of silicon. These were attacked while the silicon iron itself is but little affected. In a series of tests it was shown that, in the same metal, the amount of phosphorus removed by the corroding liquids employed was many times greater than the proportion in the mass of the metal, thus showing that the cavities and concentrations formed the line of attack, which led to the ultimate failure of the metal. Ordinary Meeting, March roth, 1918. The President, Mr. WittiAm THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C., in the Chair. The President referred to the death, on March rath, of Mr. George Stephen Woolley, who was elected a member of the Society in 1860. Mr. Thomson exhibited two specimens of .what were repre- sented as minerals which had been washed down from a mountain in Angola (a province in West Africa, south of the Congo). The one was a cube of Iron Pyrites about a cubic inch covered with a hard layer of the proto and per oxides of iron about a quarter of an inch in thickness. The pyrites was free from arsenic. The other was a specimen of what I found to be metallic iron associated with silicitum and graphite, but containing no nickel, and which, it was suggested, might have been manufactured by the natives, and not native iron, This might possibly be so, but xil PROCEEDINGS. [April oth, 1918. against this is the fact that the specimen was comparatively brittle and could be pounded to a rough powder in an iron mortar. In the iron manufactured by natives the temperature obtainable by them would not be sufficiently high to reduce silica to the form of silicium, and the iron produced by them would be presumably any- thing but brittle. On dissolving the metallic iron in hydrochloric acid and treating the residue with caustic soda solution, hydrogen was liberated showing that the silicium was there in the elementary condition, which strengthens the assumption that this iron existed as native metallic iron. Professor G. Eriior SmiTH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., read a paper on ‘‘Race, Character, and Nationality.” Professor G. Elliot Smith stated that the influences of race and heredity, geographical circumstances and language, though potent in various directions to affect the character and achievements of individuals and to play a part in the development of the true spirit of nationality in a community, are not the chief factors. The personal experience of each individual, his social environment and especially the traditions of his community, shape his outlook on life, determine his character and give specific directions to his in- herited aptitudes. The most powerful forces that mould nation- ality and weld together a heterogeneous collection of people of varied origin, abilities and traditions, consist of historical circum- stances, which provide the community with common aims and aspirations, common traditions and social fashions, common trends of thought and modes of behaviour. Such circumstances play a more vital part than mere race or hereditary aptitudes in the de- velopment of the spirit of nationality. Ordinary Meeting, April 9th, 1918. The President, Mr. WirtLt1AM THomsoNn, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.IC., in the Chair. The following resolution was passed unanimously :—* This meeting of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society has heard with concern that the War Office proposes to demolish the two cottages by Stonehenge, which serve as the domiciles of the custodian and the police constable charged with the safe-keeping of the monument. As these are the only available cottages in the neighbourhood, the Society feels that such action may be fraught with perilous consequences and therefore begs leave to direct the attention of the Secretary of State for War, to the urgent-necessity of taking adequate steps to protect this national monument from injury or defacement.” Apmnil 23rd, 1918. ] ‘PROCEEDINGS. xiil Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.M.E., M.Inst.C.E., made a short communication on “ Long-Range Guns.” Mr. KE. Stromeyer afterwards read a paper on “ Ancient History : “iethe Identification of Zophyrus.” The paper deals with the betrayal of Egypt and of Babylon between the years of B.c. 525 to 517. Herodotus mentions both events, but no direct reference is made to them in the Bible, although Isaiah gives a most accurate description of the traitor. By com- bining his hints and the accounts by Herodotus and by the prophet Zachariah, the catastrophes of these few years are clearly revealed. It appears that a man whom the Egyptians called Phanespand who was a highly placed official in the auxiliary forces of Amasis, King of Egypt, deserted to Cyrus, King of the Persians, and instructed them how to subdue Egypt. After the death of Cyrus, Cambyses his son, acting on his advice, with one blow at the Battle of Pelusium, crushed Egypt out of existence. Apparently the same man, known to Herodotus as Zophyrus, betrayed Babylon. He achieved this object by cutting off his nose and ears, and otherwise making himself the despised and rejected of men, deserting from the Persians to the Babylonians, and making them believe that he was a Persian noble- man, and that his indignities had been inflicted on him by Darius. He thus obtained control of the Army and of the Gates, and ad- mitted the Persians. He was rewarded by the temporary owner- ship of Babylon, and the prophet Zachariah tells us that one year after the fall of Babylon, Zephaniah sent gold and silver to Jerusalem. But Zephaniah is a name which links together the other two, a probability calculation based on the Greek alphabet, showing that the chances are about 1000 to one that the three names are those of the same man. This Zephaniah, alias Phanes, alias Zophyrus, seems to have perished in the Babylonian revolt, which occurred very soon after the above events. Isaiah refers to the despised of men as being *- dead. Annual General Meeting, April 23rd, 1918. The President, Mr. WiLL1AM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C., in the Chair. The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of Accounts were presented, and it was resolved :— “That the Ainual Report, together with the Statement of Accounts, be adopted, and that they be printed in the Society’s Proceedings.” Mr. D. Warp CUTLER and Mr. J. WILFRID JACKSON were appointed Scrutineers of the balloting papers, xiv PROCEEDINGS. [April 23rd, 1918. The following members were elected Officers of the Society and Members of the Council for the ensuing year :— President: WiLLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S. Vice-Presidenis: T. A. Cowarp, F.Z.S., F.E.S.; We Wwe HALDANE »GEE, B.Sc... M.Sc.Tech, A.M.1.E/E. > Syonpwie Hicxson, M.A., D.Sc., F-R.S.; Francis JONES, M.Sc) PVR@Suae ECS: Secretaries: R. L. Taytor, F.C.S., F.1.C.; GeorGr HicKrine,; DScvG:s: Treasurer: W. HENRY Topp. Librarian: C. L. BARNES, M.A. Other Members of the Council: Mary McNicoL, M.Sc. ; FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.; E. °L. RHEAD, MSc. Recheiwiees G ELLiot SmMirn, M.A’, M.D., FRS.; PF. B. Weiss; DiSceiaese F.L.S.; R. S. ADAMSON, B.Sc., M.A. Ordinary Meeting, April 23rd, 1918. The President, Mr. Witt1am THoMson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.LC., in the Chair. . 2 A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the table. These included “ The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia,”’ by W. J. Perry and “ Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture,” by J. Wilfrid Jackson. A paper entitled *‘ Radioactivity and the Coloration of , Minerals,” by Dr. E. NEwsBERY and Mr. H. Lupton, B.Sc., was ~ then read. This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs. General Meeting, May 7th, 1918. The President, Mr. WILLIAM THomson, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S., in the Chair. Miss MABEL Brook, B.Sc., c/o Messrs Tootal, Broadhurst Lee Company Ltd., 56 Oxford Street, Manchester, was elected an Ordinary Member of the Society. May 7th, 1918.| PROCEEDINGS. - XV Ordinary Meeting, May 7th, 1918. The President, Mr. WILLIAM THomson, I.R.S.E., F.LC., F.C.S., in the Chair. Mr. TAYLOR exhibited a notice of the meeting of the Society held on April 2nd, 1839, which was sent to Mr Just of Bury. Professor WeEIss exhibited a series of wools dyed with dyes obtained from British plants. This collection, which was prepared by Dr Plowright, is now in the possession of the Manchester Museum. Miss M. C. Marcu, M.Sc., read a paper entitled ‘‘ The Glacial Deposits of Manchester.” This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs. Wie Sb) | anna ETL | in aeneeaRNSAAAALA An gH Weng 1 1 liv yv¥* dae: f 4 Ls ie es pote Pie eam, aya ay uy ’ ‘pb ps a! \ bP ar? ae a Re! el “= ° 14) : at . ey 4b rip tre 4: i i + be! We ema Pape ost pag h binds” RAO a Tay Sa spartan noua 4 powaereedpe ot Lt AP ial | ||| i! Ry itis! : : " mot ’ c? be We 4 «No: eur Pee | pie” iT: - Loa e¢ Deugedoen : : . 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