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FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

[ '" CENTRA'
MEMOIRS' Al^tb PROCEEDINGS

OF s ,

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY

FOURTH SERIES

SECOND VOLUME

MANCHESTER
36 GEORGE STREET

NOTE.

The authors of the several papers contained in this volume are
themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings
which they have offered. In these particulars the Society must
not be considered as in any way responsible.

CONTENTS

MEMOIRS. PAOE

Incompleteness of Combustion in Gaseous Explosions. By Prof.
Harold B. Dixon, F.R.S.,and H. W. Smith, B.8c 2

A Decade of new Hymenoptera. By P. Cameron, F.E.S. Communi-
cated by John Boyd, Esq II

A New System of Logical Notation. By Joseph John Murphy.
Communicated by the Rev. Robert Harley, M,A., F.R.S.,
Corresponding Member ... ... .. ... ... ... ... 22

Notes on Some of the Peculiar Properties of Glass. By William
Thomson, F.R.S.Ed,, F.I.C., F.C.S. 42

On the British Species of Allolrina, with descriptions of other new
species of Parasitic Cynipidiz. By P. Cameron. Communicated
by John Boyd, Esq 53

On the unification in the measure of time, with special reference to the

contest on the initial meridian. By C. Tondini de Quarenghi.

Communicated by F. J. Faraday, F.L.S 74

Hytnenoptera Orientalis ; or Contributions to a knowledge of the

Hymenoptera of the Oriental Zoological Region. By P. Cameron.

Communicated by John Boyd, Esq o I

On the equation to the Instantaneous Surface generated by the

dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. By James Bottomley, D.Sc. 154

On the Vitrified Cement from an ancient fort. By G. H. Bailey,

D.Sc. Ph.D 185

Notes on a form of Plantago viaritima [L.] new to Great Britain :
/ Piimila (Kjellman). By James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S. 189

Colour and its relation to the Structure of Coloured Bodies : being an
investigation into the Physical Cause of Colour in natural and
artificial bodies and the Nature of the Structure producing it. By
Alexander Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc. With Coloured Plate. 193

On Leaves found in the cutting for the Manchester Ship Canal, 21 feet
under the surface, and on Green Colouring Matter contained therein.
By William Thomson, F.R.S. Ed., etc. With Plate 216

PAGE
On Sound propagated through an atmosphere, in which the surfaces of
constant density are parallel planes, in a direction perpendicular to
these planes. By Ralph Holmes, B.A 221

Notes on Seedling Saxifrages grown at Brockhurst from a single scape of
Saxifraga Macnahiana. By William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S. 227

On the Green Colouring Matter from Leaves found in one of the Cuttings
for the Manchester Ship Canal. By Edward Schunck, Ph.D.,
F.R.S 231

On an Old Canoe recently found in the Irwell Valley, near Barton, with
observations on Pre-Historic Chat Moss. By Mr. Alderman W. H.
Bailey. With Two Plates 243

PROCEEDINGS.

Bailey Charles, F.L.S.— On the decrease of Entomologists 90

BOTTOMLEY James, D.Sc, B.A., F.C.S.— "Note on the behaviour of

Iodine in the presence of Borax." 40

On Smoke Abatement 72

Cameron P. — "On the excessive abundance of Aphis dianthi, Schr.,
round Manchester in September, 1888." Communicated by
John Boyd, Esq 9

Clay Charles, M.D. — "On the results of some calculations with a

certain class of figures. " 215

Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A., F.R.S. &c. — "The Permanence of Oceanic

Basins." 36

Faraday, F. J., F.L.S., &c. — "An historical account of the spectro-
scopic evidence in support of the hypothesis that oxygen exists
in the sun, with special reference to M. Janssen's recent researches
on telluric oxygen and aqueous vapour lines and bands." 38

On the Study of Mathematics in the northern counties of England, and

particularly in Lancashire 20

On the proposed Paris Conference on the unification of time 153

Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc — "Electrolysis under Pressure." 21

GwYTHER, R. F., M.A. — "An account of Hertz's experiments showing
the propagation of electrical vibrations in direct accordance with
Maxwell's theory of light as an electro-magnetic phenomenon. " i

Holden, Henry, M.Sc.—" Electrolysis under Pressure." 21

PAGE

HoDGKiNSON, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc— On the iridescence of chlorate

of potash crystals ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 70

On the colour of humming-birds 213

On the physiological phenomena of colour sensation ... 215

On the colours of fish 220

On the luminosity of eyes in the dusk. ... ... ... ... .. 224

Johnson, W. H., B.Sc. — On commercial and laboratory copper 90

Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S. — On Zisyphimis haliarchus 183

Nasmyth, James, F.R.A.S. — Letter on an accompanying photograph

of his original drawing of the solar surface 71

Reynolds, Osborne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President.— Notice of

Professor Rudolph Clausius I

On the quantity of water passed through the condensers of the " City

of New York " Steamship ... 73

On the recent earthquake at Manchester 184

The death of Richard Peacock, M.P 192

Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.— On Lord Rayleigh's

colour-mixer ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 220

Springer, Alfred, Ph.D. — "On the Fermentation Theories." Com-
municated by William Grimshaw, Esq. 236

Williamson, W. C, LL.D., F.R.S. — "The Permanence of Oceanic

Basins." 33

The Krakatoa eruption Report ... ... ... ... ... ... 41

General Meetings 33, 73, 90, 226

Annual General Meeting 234

Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section : —

Annual ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 224

Ordinary 8, 38, 70, 89, 183, 213

Meetings of the Physical and Mathematical Section : —

Annual 214

Ordinary ...

Report of the Council, April, 1889, with Obituary notices of
Peacock and Rudolph Clausius

Report of the Microscopical and Natural History Section ...

Report of the Physical and Mathematical Section

List of the Council and Members of the Society

... 20
Lichard

... 252
... 267
... 214
... 270

ERRATA.

In Mr. Cameron's paper on Hynienoptera Orientalis. In the penultimate
paragraph of the Introduction on p. 92

for Sittaghui read Tittaghur.
,, Ishapue read Ishapore.
,, Serampue read Serampore.
,, Chandauague read Chandanagore.
,, Gusery read Goosery.
,, Port Cauumy read Port Canning.
,, Mussourie read Mussoorie.
„ Nischindepue read Nischindipore.
,, North-West Province read North-West Provinces.
On p. 138 for Tachytes Virchu read T. vischnu.

In Dr. Bottomley's paper on " The Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid " : —
Page line

163, I, forCD readQ,T>.

163, 11, for[-^yead[—^y

165, 23, The expression in this line should be multiplied by 2.

166, 2, for dz read dZ.

167, I, for

d(p cd^

^ cdyi ^ ^ dx

^/(S)'-(^)'•^(i)■'

Page line
167, 2, for

^-4

cdp

dV

^m

Page line
167, 3, for

^-'dz

^m

MY'^m'^®'"'''

v©^(^)^

-(sT

167, 24, forj^read^^

168, 3, for r2 read c^.

173. 15. fory„-y„^x,x&z.Ay^-x^ + x.

174. IS. for x=x read x = x^.
1 76, 9, for xd read dx.

I79> i» f°^ 750 ^^<^ 760.

ill^v

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF /

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 2nd, 1888.

Professor OsBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Reference was made by the PRESIDENT to the death of
Professor Rudolph Clausius of Bonn, elected an honorary
member of the Society in 1886, to whom, with Rankine
and Sir William Thomson, following Dr. Joule, belonged
the honour of developing the dynamical theory of heat.

Mr. R. F. GwvTHER, M.A., gave an account of Hertz's
experiments, showing the propagation of electrical vibra-
tions in direct accordance with Maxwell's theory of light as
an electro-magnetic phenomenon.

Professor H. B. DixON, F.R.S., read a paper on "Incom-
pleteness of Combustion in Gaseous Explosions."

Prof. Dixon and Mr. Smith on

Incompleteness of Combustion in Gaseous Explosions.
By Prof. Harold B. Dixon, F.R.S., and H. W.
Smith, B.Sc, Dalton Chemical Scholar, Owens
College.

(Received October 26th, 1888.)

In the course of an investigation, in which we were
engaged, on the rate of propagation of gaseous explosions,
it was noticed that when a mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen, in the proportions in which they combine to form
water, was exploded, there remained an explosive residue in
addition to the unavoidable slight excess of one or the
other gas due to inaccuracy in mixing. The mixture was
exploded in a leaden tube 100 metres long and 9 mm. in
diameter ; after the explosion the tap at one end was
opened, and air allowed to rush in. Air was then pumped
in by a bellows, and the other tap was then opened. On
applying a light to the out-rushing gases, for the purpose
of determining whether the hydrogen or the oxygen was
in excess in the original mixture, the gas at first driven out
proved to be rich in oxygen — supporting combustion
vividly — and then the succeeding gas burnt with a series of
sharp cracklings, and finally there was a flash down the tube.
From this, it appeared that even in a mixture of hy-
drogen and oxygen, containing a slight excess of oxygen,
the hydrogen was not completely burnt. If the mixture
had contained an excess of hydrogen it might have been
reasonably supposed that the explosive residue was made
up of the excess of hydrogen and the air admitted after
the explosion. This explanation could not be admitted in
tiie present instance, as the mixture contained an excess of
oxygen. A similar phenomenon was observed when a
slight excess of hydrogen was employed, and the residue
was swept out of the tube by a stream of carbonic acid gas.

Gaseous Explosions. 3

Led by these experiments we began the investigation,
an account of which is given in the following paper. Our
object was to determine the conditions affecting the amount
of this explosive residue — especially the influence of the
surface exposed to the exploding gases.

Mixtures containing slight excess, ist of hydrogen, and
2nd of oxygen were employed, and in all cases the residues
were collected and analysed. The first series of experiments
was made with the tube mentioned above, which was 100
metres long and 9 mm. in diameter, the surface exposed to
the gases being about 29,000 sq. cm. After each explosion
CO2 was admitted at one end of the tube until the pressure
was equal to that of the atmosphere, and then 1 litre was
driven out and collected over caustic soda solution at the
other end of the tube. It was found that the first litre driven
out contained practically all the gas left after explosion. The
amount of residue varied from 100 to 250 cc, according to
the accuracy of the mixture and the amount of nitrogen as
impurity in the original gas, and of air in the CO2. We give
below the mean results of analysis of a considerable number
of residues ; those given under A resulting from a mixture
containing an excess of hydrogen, whilst in those given
under B and C, the original gas contained oxygen in
excess.

I.
Explosions of Hydrogen and Oxygen.

(Capacity of tube 8,100 cc. ; diam. 9 mm. ; internal
surface 29,000 sq. cm.).

Mean composition of residue : —

Average Residue.

A.

B.

c.

A— 150 cc.
B-160CC.

H2 ...

CO...

■■■}54-3

29-5

5-1

20-5

5-8

C-220 cc.

0. ..

... 19-4

38-1

327

N2 ...

... 26-3

27-3

41-0

lOO'O

Prof. Dixon and Mr. Smith on

of original detonating gas unburnt : —

Maximum ... ro8

•92
Minimum "69

Mean '88

V07

With regard to the calculation of the amount of unburnt
detonating gas, a slightly different method is employed,,
according as the original gas contains excess of oxygen
or hydrogen. All the residues contain a certain percent-
age of nitrogen, part of which is due to inleakage of air,,
and to air in the CO2, used for sweeping out the tube, whilst
part exists as impurity in the original gas, being chiefly
derived from the water in the gas-holder. It is, however^
impossible to determine accurately how much is due to each
cause. In calculating the percentage of unburnt detonating
gas, a maximum and minimum are taken in the following
way. Firstly, assume all the nitrogen was present in the
original gas, and calculate all the oxygen as belonging to
the unburnt residue. This gives a maximum value for the
percentage unburnt. Secondly, assume that all the nitro-
gen got in (as air) after the explosion, and from the
percentage of oxygen, deduct the amount of oxygen
corresponding to the nitrogen (as air). In this way we get
a minimum value for the amount of unburnt detonating
gas, and the true percentage must lie between these limits.
If there is a sufficient excess of oxygen, we get only one
value for the unburnt residue, viz., i j^ times the residual
h37drogen. It will be observed that each of the residues
contains a small percentage of carbonic oxide. Part of
this is probably due to the grease used for the taps, and
part may be due to hydrocarbons derived from the zinc,
used in the preparation of the hydrogen (except in cases
where electrolytic gas was used). The carbonic oxide,
being a combustible gas, must be taken into account in
calculating the residual detonating gas. When there is an

Gascons Explosions. c

excess of oxygen, the carbonic oxide is liable to get.
burnt, and therefore should be considered as a portion of the
detonating gas left unburnt. When there is a deficiency of
oxygen, the carbonic oxide may be classed with the excess
of hydrogen left over, and whether it affects the amount of
unburnt detonating gas depends upon the quantity of
oxygen remaining.

To determine the influence of the amount of surface
exposed to the gases, a tube 4 mm. in diameter was next
employed. The length was about 170 metres, and the
internal surface 25,000 sq. cm. the capacity being 2,750 cc.
The method of procedure was the same as before. Under
A, in the following table, is given the mean of several
analyses of residues from mixtures containing an excess of
hydrogen, and under B, the mean result from mixtures
containing an excess of oxygen.

CO
O2

N2

Average Residue

% of original detonating gas unburnt : —

Max 1-34 2-27

Min -84 1-55

Mean 109 ipi

The % unburnt, under A, does not differ much from that
obtained with the wider tube. Under B we see a rather
larger percentage. In the next tables are given the means
•of analyses of residues obtained with a tube 19 mm. in

[I.

A.

B.

46-1

38-6

14-9

12-4

16-3

25-4

227

236

lOO'O

loo-o

75

cc.

82 cc.

6 Pkoi'. Dixon and Mr. Smith on

diameter (III.), and lastly (IV.), with an iron bomb made
out of an ordinary mercury bottle attached to a firing
tube. In the latter, there are only about i,6oo sq, cm. of
surface exposed for a volume of 3,075 cc. ; that is to say, a
surface only iV as great as that exposed in the 4 mm-
tube, the capacities being, however, nearly equal. From
the analyses it would appear that although the amount of
surface exposed to the gases has some influence on the
amount unburnt, the influence is not very great, and there-
fore it seems improbable that the incompleteness of
combustion is due to the cooling action of the surface of the
vessel.

III. IV.

C= 14,000 cc.

C

= 3,075 CC.

d= 19 mm.

d

= 100 mm.

S = 28,000 sq. cm.

S:

= 1,600 sq. cm.

'\verage residue 235 cc.

100 cc.

Mean composition of residue :-

-

H, 44-2

8-2

CO i8-o

1-2

0. 227

31-1

N, I5-I

59-5

loo-o

1000

^ of detonating gas unburnt : —

Max. 1. 1 6
Min. -86

•46

I -01

A number of experiments were made with a mixture
of carbonic oxide and oxygen.

In the first series of experiments the 9 mm. tube was
employed, and in the second series the iron bomb. The
mean results are given below.

Gaseous Explosions. y

Carbonic Oxide and Oxygen.

I. II.

C = 8, loo cc. C = 3,075

d=g mm. d= 100 mm.

S = 29,000 sq. cm. S = 1,600 sq. cm.

Average residue 205 cc. 55 cc.

Mean composition of residue : —

CO 26-0 41-4

H, 17 67

Oi 302 27-1

N2 42-1 24-8

lOO'O loo-o

°/^ unburn! : —

ro6 Max. i"i7

Min. I -or

Mean rog

In this case, therefore, we have also about 1% of the
original detonating gas left unburnt. The surface here
does not appear to have much influence, the percentages
unburnt being almost the same, although the surface
exposed to the gases was, with the tube, about 3^ sq. cm.
for each i cc. of gas burnt, against "5 sq. cm. per i cc. of gas
burnt with the bomb.

The fact that the incompleteness of combustion is char-
acteristic of the explosive wave, and is not observed in the
ordinary combustion in a Eudiometer, has an important
bearing on the theory proposed by Berthelot, to explain the
mode of propagation of the explosive wave, and also seems
to confirm the observation made by Mallard and Le Chate-
lier, that the rate of cooling in this method of combustion is
much more rapid than in the ordinary combustion.

Proceedings.

\_Microscopical and Natural History Section?^

Ordinary Meeting, October 8th, 1888.

Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S., President of the
Section, in the Chair.

Mr. J. Arthur Hutton was elected a member of the
Section.

Mr. Thomas Rogers exhibited a small collection of
shells from the neighbourhood of Brisbane, Queensland,
Australia.

Mr. P. Cameron, F.E.S., communicated some notes on
the excessive abundance of Aphis dianthi, in the neigh-
bourhood of Manchester in September.

He also read a paper describing ten new species of
Hymenoptera.

Proceedings.

Ordinary Meeting, October i6, 1888.

Professor OSBORNE Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Mr. John Boyd communicated the following note by
Mr. P. Cameron on "The excessive abundance of Aphis
dianthi, Schr., round Manchester in September, 1888" : —

The extreme abundance of Aphis dianthi in the Man-
chester district in September, calls for some remark. My
own experience of it has been chiefly in Cheshire, where it
occurred in such numbers as to be a perfect nuisance, through
•getting into the eyes of travellers. Near Wilmslow I came
across a swarm which formed a black cloud. In various
places I have noticed them congregating in heaps on plants
and walls, so as to blacken the surface on which they rested.
In the city they appeared in great swarms on many days.
It does not, of course, follow that these were bred in the city
or suburbs ; for, when these insects appear in such dense
clouds, they are driven about by the wind in all directions
and to great distances. Great numbers, too, must have been
brought into town on the market garden waggons, on the
clothes of passengers, and in other ways. This is not
the first occasion on which Aphis dianthi has come forth
in swarms. Gilbert White, in one of his letters, alludes to
them under the name of " smother flies," and notes them
as forming clouds which " almost obscured daylight." In
1834 they spread over Belgium in countless swarms, and
Morren, who records their presence, states his belief that
they were blown over from England. The species feeds
on a very large number of plants. In this country it is
always more or less injurious to turnips (hence it was
named Aphis rapi by Curtis), potato, cabbage, and mangold.

lO P ROC KK DINGS.

Frequently it damages garden plants, such as crocus, fuchsia,
oleander, Dianthus, &c., &c. In the autumn it has been
known to infest the peach and nectarine. Altogether it is
known to feed on over sixty plants, not even passing
over Atropa belladonna. As for the origin of the Cheshire
and Lancashire swarms, my own observations lead me to
believe that the vast bulk came from the turnip and
mangold fields. At the same time the aphides were un-
doubtedly injurious to many garden plants ; and in my
own garden they were abundant on the sun flowers.
Not unfrequently, when aphides are excessively nume-
rous, the lady birds {Coccinelld), which feed on them, also
swarm ; but I did not notice any unusual quantity of these
useful creatures. A species of ApJiidiits (an ichneumon
which destroys aphides) was, however, exceedingly abun-
dant.

A discussion ensued, during which it was suggested that
the phenomenon might have a causal relation with the
excessive rainfall of the year, or the early migration of the
birds.

Mr. John Boyd also communicated a memoir by Mr.
P. Cameron on "A decade of new Hymenoptera."

A Decade of New Hyvienoptera.

A decade of new Hymenoptera. By P. Cameron., F.E.S.
Communicated by John Boyd, Esq.

(Received October i6th, 1888.)

PROCTOTRUPID^.

Epyris BREVIPENNIS, Sp. nov.

Niger, fere apterus, iiia?idibulis, thorace, genicidis
tarsisgiie, rufis. Long. : 6 mm.

Hah. Gibraltar (/./. Walker, R.N.)

Basal joint of the antennae, curved, longer than the second
and third joints united ; the second joint more than three-
fourths the length of the third and longer than the fourth. The
scape piceous and thickened towards the middle, tapering
towards the apex. Head sparsely haired, strongly punc-
tured ; the eyes rather small, oblong, and situated a little
behind the middle of the head ; the antennal tubercles and
mandibles rufous. Prothorax rather broad, longer than
broad, obscurely punctured, the sides slightly excavated ;
the furrow in the centre deep, complete. Mesonotum finely
punctured ; scutellum shining, impunctate ; parapsidal
furrows broad and deep, sharply converging posteriorly.
Metanotum finely rugose, with a very stout central and two
lateral keels in the centre ; the sides keeled ; the apical
tubercles blunt, short ; metapleurae shining, longitudinally
striolated. Apical segments of abdomen sparsely covered
with longish white hair. Legs covered rather closely wath
stiff, white hair ; the femora incline to dull rufous on the
underside.

A rather closely allied species to E. hispanicus, Cam.
(Mem. & Proc. Manch. Lit. & Phil. Soc, 1888, p. 169), but
that differs from it in having the metathorax black, the apex
convex, with the sides projecting into stout teeth ; the

12 Mr. Cameron on a

vertical part rugosely punctured ; while in IFrtZ(vr/ the apex
is concave, with indistinct lateral tubercles, the perpendicular
part not rugosely punctured. The wings hardly reach to
the end of the metathorax, and seem to be infuscated in
the middle.

Betyla, gen. nov.

Eyes hairy. Antennae 15-jointed; the basal joint as
long as the six following united ; joints 2 — 7 longer than
broad ; joint 8 thicker than 7th, nearly longer than broad ;
the 9th still thicker ; 9 — 14 much broader than long ; the
15th twice longer than broad; sharply conical. Head
forming a broad snout before the antennse ; narrowed before
and behind the eyes. Thorax narrow, ant-like, narrowed
between the meso- and metathorax ; the former bearing in
front a stout tooth on either side, the scutellum not defined ;
parapsidal furrows absent ; metanotum without keels or
furrows.. Apterous. Abdomen much broader than the
thorax, the petiole longer than broad, stout ; the second
segment very large, occupying dorsally the greater part of
the entire abdomen, and with a distinct margin at its junction
with the ventre. The third and fourth segments together
the length of the petiole. There are apparently five ventral
segments. Petiole on lower side projecting into a large,
stout, tooth-like process. Femora clavate.

This genus belongs to the Belytidce. The only genus
with which it could be confounded is Miota, which has an
abdomen with three dorsal segments, of which the second is
very much lengthened, and reaches near to the tip. Miota
is winged, has only three dorsal segments, and no mention
is made of any peculiarity in the form of the thorax ; nor
of the absence of ocelli. In fact, Foerster's analytical
tables are hardly capable of being used for the identification
of the extra European genera ; and so far as I know the
type of Miota has never been described.

Decade of Nezu Hyinenoptera. 1 3

Betvla fulva, sp. nov.

Fiilva ; nitida, iinpunctata, capite abdoniineqite huge albo
hivtis; thoracc sparse fitsco hirto. Long. : fere 4 mm.

Hab. Greymouth, New Zealand {Helms).

The mesothorax is almost glabrous, and much more
shining than the rest of the body. The abdomen is haired
all over, but not very thickly, and the hair is longish, and
whiter towards the apex. The tibiae and tarsi are covered
with short, stiff white hairs, the femora more sparsely with
longer, soft hair. At the apex the metanotum is convex,
projecting into sharp teeth at the sides, and is very closel)-
united to the petiole, which is longer and a little narrower
than it.

Malvina, gen. nov.

Metanotum with a spine; parapsidal furrows obsolete;
scutellum bifoveate at base ; third, fourth, and fifth abdominal
segments subequal. Antennc-e 13-jointed, the club 6-jointed ;
the second joint not much shorter than the third, and longer
than the fourth. Petiole as long as the hind coxae. Wings
reaching to the apex of the petiole, fringed with long hair.

The only genus of BelytidcB with a spine on the meta-
notum is Oxylabis, Foerster. It differs, however, from the
genus here described in having the antennae 15-jointed, and
in the parapsidal furrows being distinct.

Malvina punctata, sp. nov.

Nigra ; fortiter piuictata, sparse pallida hirta ; anten-
narmn articulis \ — j pedibusqiie,riifis. ?. Long. 3^' mm.

Hab. Greymouth, New Zealand {Helms).

The front is shining, impunctate, and broadly keeled ;
the occiput clearly margined. Pro- and mesopleurs shining,
impunctate, slightly convex and narrowed towards the
sternum, metapleurae rugose. Apex of metanotum ending
in a spine on either side. Petiole shining, keeled, and

14

Mr. Cameron on a

densely haired. Abdomen shining, impunctate, the apical
segments pilose. Legs covered sparsely with pale hair ; the
coxEE usually black ; sometimes the femora are more or less
fuscous ; these are clavate. The joints of the club are
broader than long and become gradually broader to the
penultimate ; the last narrower than preceding and broadly
rounded at the apex.

CYNIPID/E.

EUCOILA CLARIPENNLS, Sp. IIOV.

Nigra, flagello antennaruni pedibusgiie, rufis ; a lis dare
hyalinis, nervis pallide fiiscis. $. Long.: 3-5 mm.

Hab. Mexico, Vera Cruz : in January. (//. H. Smith),
Antennae one half longer than the body, the third and
fourth joints nearly equal in length, straight. Pronotum
raised into a sharp margin, projecting in the middle above.
Scutellar foveae large, wide, and deep ; sides of scutellum
rugosely punctured ; the cup horse-shoe shaped, shallow,
depressed at the apex. Apex of metanotum semi-perpen-
dicular, bicarinate, hardly pilose. Abdomen shorter than
the thorax ; compressed, the hair fringe narrow, griseous.

EUCOILA MEXICANA, Sp. nov.

Nigra, niiida ; pedibus testaceis, alis griseo Jiyalinis, nervis
fiiscis. $ . Long. : i y^ mm.

Hab. Mexico, Orizaba, in December (//. H. Smith and
F. D. Godmaii).

Antennae about one-fourth longer than the body ; rather
stout ; the third joint thickened and curved, and about one-
fourth longer than the fourth. Cup of scutellum distinctly
raised ; the centre excavated rather deeply ; the apex
projecting ; sides of scutellum finely rugose. Edge of
pronotum margined. Abdominal hair fringe slight, dull
griseous. Radial cellule twice longer than broad ; the
second abscissa straight, three-fourths of the length of the

Decade of Neiu Hynienoptera. 1 5

third, which becomes curved towards the apex ; the costal
nervure thick. Cubitus complete. The femora are lined
with black towards the middle ; the hind tibiae are tinged
with fuscous.

EUCOILA MARGINICOLLIS, Sp. nov.

Nigra, nitida, pedibus rufis ; alls dare hyalinis, nervis
pallide fuscis.$ Long.: 1-5 mm.

Hah. Mexico, Orizaba, in December {H. H. SniitJi and
F. D. Godman).

Antennae longer than the body ; the four basal joints
dull rufous ; the joints becoming gradually but slightly
thicker towards the apex ; the third and fourth joints the
longest and thickest ; the third a little longer than the
fourth. Pronotum distinctly raised above the mesonotum
having a clear broad margin ; the centre slightly depressed.
Scutellar cup shallow, oval, the apex flat, not projecting ;
sides of scutellum rugose. Abdominal hair fringe slight,
fuscous. Radial cellule wide ; the second abscissa of radius
about one-fourth shorter than the third, which is roundly
curved towards the apex; cubitus completely obsolete.

GkONOTOMA GRACILICORNIS, sp. nov.

Nigra, nitida ; pedibus rufis ; alis hyalinis, nervis fuscis.
Long. \y2 mm.

Hah. Mexico, Orizaba, in December (//. H. Smith
and F. D. Godman).

Antennae slender, longer than the body, becoming but
very slightly thickened towards the apex ; the apical three
joints shorter than the preceding, but not forming a club ;
the third joint slightly curved, and a little longer than the
fourth. Pronotum not distinctly margined. Scutellar fovea:
large, deep ; the cup without a very distinctly raised margin,

i6 Mr. Cameron on a

oval, moderately deep. Metapleura: densely covered with
Ion"- white hair ; metanotum oblique. Abdomen com-
pressed, somewhat lenticular. Wings pilose; the radial
cellule twice longer than broad, the third abscissa of the
radius about three-fourths longer than the second ; cubitus
completely obsolete.

In having converging parapsidal furrows, a closed
radial cellule and no abdominal hair fringe, this species
ao-rees with Gronatoma, but the pleurae are finely aciculated
and the metapleurre glabrous.

LARRIDyE.

PlAGETIA FASCIATIIPENNIS, Sp. nov.

Nigra ; ore, antennis (basi et apice flagelli nigris),pro-
thorace, tegulis, metapleiiris, petiolo, pedibusqiie, rufotestaceis ;
clypeo bidentato ; alls hyalinis,fascia sidistiginatili fusca. $ .
Long. 7 mm.

Hab. Ceylon {George Lezuis).

Head opaque, granular, covered with a short microscopic
pile. Eyes at the top separated by about the length of the
second and third antennal joints united. Vertex broadly
depressed, a wide, but not deep, furrow leading down from
the centre of the depression. Front and clypeus covered
with short silvery pubescence ; three broad furrows on the
former. Clypeus projecting, broadly carinate in the middle ;
the apex ending in two large projecting, somewhat triangu-
lar, teeth. Tips of mandibles black. Scape of the antennae
as long as the following two joints united ; the third three
times the. length of the second, and a little longer than the
fourth. Thorax opaque, almost granular, covered with a
microscopic pile, the apex of metathorax with longish white
hair ; the metanotum finely transversely rugose ; the apex
irregularly striolated, and with a wide furrow (narrowed at
the base and ape.x in the centre). Abdomen shining, the

Decade of Neiu Hymenoptera. 17

apex whitish pubescent ; pygidial area rufescent ; margined
distinctly at base and apex ; the latter transverse. The
apical ventral segment is also margined laterally, and is for
the greater part rufescent. Tibiae and tarsi covered with a
silvery pile. The base of the four hind coxae, a line on the
femora beneath, the greater part of the four hind tibiae
behind, the calcaria and the basal two tarsal joints, more or
less black. The tibial spines are few in number and pale
in colour ; the metatarsal brush is short and whitish ; the
apices of the tarsal joints end in stiff white stout, sharply
pointed bristles. The longer spur of the hind tibiae is more
than three-fourths of the length of the metatarsus. Femoral
spine at the base nearly as broad as the total length ; the
apex ending in a blunt tooth.

Three species oi Piagetia have been described, namely:.

P. Ritsemcs, Ritzema, Ent. M. Mag. IX., p. 120. Java.

P. odontostoma. Kohl, Verh.z.-b. Ges., Wien, 1883, p. 31.,
Arabia.

P. lVoerde;ii, Kitzema, I.e., p. 121. Congo, South West
Africa.

P. RitsemcE differs from it in the wings having a cloud
which extends from the second cubital cellule to the apex ;;
theflagellum of the antennae is entirely black, this being also
the case with the metathorax, and the base of the abdomen
is not fulvous ; there is also a central longitudinal line on the
metanotum, which is absent in fasciatiipennis. The form of
the clypeus and spine in hind femora is quite different, but
as this may be a sexual character (the $ of Ritsenice is
unknown) no great reliance can be placed on these points.
P. odontostoma differs in the clypeus having four teeth, and
no central keel ; the body is almost entirely black, and the
wings are clear hyaline. The African Woerdeni has not
the clypeus ending in two large teeth, and differs in the
colour of the body, &c.
B

i8 Mr. Caimkron on a

CRABRONID^.

RlIOPALUM BUDDHA, Sp. UOV.

Nigrum, opacuni, flavo-maailatum ; metathorace riigoso ;
alis hyalinis. Long. 9 mm.

Hab. Poona, India. {R. C. Wrougkton.)

Scape clear yellow, flagellum closely covered with a
silvery pubescence. Head opaque, alutaceous, the vertex
sparsely pilose ; the antennal depression and clypeus densely
covered with silvery hair. Ocelli in a curve ; the clypeus
carinate in the middle ; mandibles clear yellow, the tips
blackish. Eyes with very course facets. Thorax opaque,
alutaceous ; the excavated side of the pronotum coarsely
obliquely striolated ; the metathorax obliquely rugosely
punctured, sparsely covered with a silvery pile, especially
thick and close on the pleuree ; two broad lines on the
pronotum, two below the tegulse, and two on the scutellum,
clear yellow ; tegulae piceous. Basal part of the petiole
shining, covered with long white hair, the apial part opaque.
The rest of abdomen almost opaque, with a plumbeous hue ;
the sides and apex covered with a white pubescence ; an
interrupted band on the base of the third segment, and a
short lateral band on the succeeding segments, clear yellow.
Legs covered with long white soft hair ; the apex of cox«,
the trochanters beneath, a broad band on the lower side of
the four anterior femora, and the tibiae and tarsi, yellow ;
there is a black line behind on the tibiae, and the tarsi are
reddish towards the apex.

The North Indian RJiapalum flavopictinuni. Smith, differs
from the present species in having " an impressed oblique
channel running down from each of the posterior ocelli,"
the first scutellum and the petiole are yellow ; there is " an
enclosed shining subcordate space at the base of the
metathorax, which has a longitudinal impressed line from
the base to the apex," &c.

Decade of Nezv Hymenopteva. 19

ANTHOPHILA.

Stelis JAPONICA, Sp. nov.

Niger, abdoinine rufo, basi niger ; alls violaceis, basi fere
hyalinis ; apice scutelli excisa. Long, fere 12 mm.

Hab. Japan. {^George Lezvis).

Scape sparsely covered with pale hair, the flagellum
microscopically pilose ; the tip obscure rufous. Head
rugosely punctured ; the sides of the face thickly covered
with long white hair ; the vertex and mandibles more
sparsely haired ; mandibles rugosely punctured, but not so
coarsely as the head, the apex shining, impunctate. Thorax
rugosely punctured ; the scutellum with larger punctures
than the mesonotum ; shortly pilose ; the metanotum
covered with long white hair. Mesonotum with a distinct
furrow down the centre. Scutellum with the apex pro-
jecting over the metathorax, margined, with a slight but
distinct waved incision ; at the base there is a deep curved
furrow in the middle. Abdomen shining ; punctured,
rugosely punctured towards the apex ; the segments im-
punctate at their junction, and depressed at base and apex ;
the apial dorsal segment with a distinct raised margin and
slightly incised in the middle. The femora coarsely
punctured, closely covered with pale to blackish hair ; the
tarsi thickly covered with fulvous hair on the lower side ;
and sparsely with pale hair above ; calcaria brownish.

The late Mr. F. Smith records {Trans. Ent. Sac, 1873?
p. 204) Stelis abdominalis, a species described by himself
from Celebes {Proc. Liin. Soc, 1858, p. 7), from Japan. It
is of course possible that he may have had the true Stelis
abdominalis from Japan, but it appears to me that the
species I have just described cannot be abdominalis, in as
much as the latter differs from it in several respects ;
namely, in being nearly two lines smaller ; in the abdomen
being entirely ferrugineous, in the " posterior margin of the
scutellum being rounded," and the wings are uniformly
coloured.

20 Proceedings.

{^PJiysical and Mathematical Section.']

Ordinary Meeting, October 24th, 1888.

Dr. James Bottomley in the Chair.

Mr. Faraday read extracts from a letter from George
Harvey, F.R.S.L. & E., communicated to the British Associa-
tion, at its first meeting fifty-seven years ago, on " the very
remarkable circumstance of the geometrical analysis of
the ancients having been cultivated with eminent success
in the northern counties of England, and particularly in
Lancashire." So far as Mr. Harvey was aware, the true
cause of this singular phenomenon of men in humble
life, surrounded by conditions which might have been ex-
pected to develope a taste for exclusively mechanical
combinations, becoming familiar with Porisms and Loci,
Sections of Ratio and Space, Inclinations and Tangencies,
subjects confined amongst the ancients to the very greatest
minds, was not known. Mr. Faraday suggested that the
Section should endeavour to collect information with a view
to the full historical elucidation of the phenomenon. Men
in advanced years, who might be able to furnish information,
are constantly passing away, and as their knowledge on the
subject is unrecorded, it is lost. Mr. Faraday urged that a
circular letter should be issued, asking for information, and
that the materials thus collected should be arranged by a
committee, or some one mathematician nominated by the
Section, and presented as a memoir to the parent society.

Dr. Bottomley made some remarks on a problem of
maxima and minima values.

Proceedings. 21

Ordinary Meeting, October 30th, 1888.

Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

A paper on " A new system of Logical Notation," by
Mr. J. J. Murphy, communicated by the Rev. Robert
Harley, M.A., F.R.S., was read.

Mr. W. W. H ALDAN E Gee, B.Sc, gave an account of
some experiments that he, in conjunction with Mr. Henry
Holden, M.Sc, had made on " Electrolysis under Pressure."
The experiments were begun with the view, firstly, of
ascertaining the influence of high pressures on electrolytic
polarisation, and secondly of designing a method whereby
high pressures could be readily produced by means of
electrolysis. The experiments were at first conducted in
sealed glass tubes in which dilute sulphuric acid was
electrolysed, the electrodes used consisting of platinum.
As the evolved oxygen and hydrogen gases accumulated,
the pressure gradually increased up to the explosion of the
tubes, which took place generally at pressures between 50
and 100 atmospheres. Under these conditions the polarisa-
tion was found to be very little affected. On attempting to
obtain pressures as high as 500 — 600 atmospheres by use of
a very strong gjt7z metal* cylinder, the authors encountered
the diflficulty arising from the violent explosive combination
of the mixed gases. Accordingly, in the latter experiments
the pressure was produced by means of a hydrostatic pump,
and dangerous accumulations of the mixed gases were thus
prevented. Determinations of the polarisation with this
apparatus are as yet incomplete, but they show, so far as
they have been conducted, that the influence of pressure on
polarisation is but small.

*A.s the apparatus was in the first instance designed to study some magnetic
effects under pressure, which the late Prof. Balfour Stewart wished the authors
to examine, the cylinder was constructed of gun-metal instead ot steel.

Mr. Murpiiv on a

A New System of Logical Notation. By Joseph John
Murphy.— Communicated by the Rev. Robert Harley,
M.A., F.R.S., Corresponding Member.

{Received October .23rd, 1888.)

In the present state of the science, no apology is needed
for offering a new system of logical notation. The use of
notation in logic is not to work problems, but to illustrate
principles ; and for this purpose the more systems of notation
we have the better, so long as they are not absurd, and not
mere reproductions of other systems.

The chief feature of the notation now proposed is that
the signification of all the literal symbols is purely qualita-
tive, unless they are expressly quantified ; so that x does
not mean "all .r" or " every ;r," but only "some .r" or " an;t'."
Consequently the equation

x=y

means "some x (or some one x) is j'," provided that both x
and y are the names of things having real existence : — if
either is non-existent, the proposition has no significance.

For all, Boole's symbol i is used ; consequently \x is
the expression for " all (or every) x " ; and " all x is y " is
written

ia"=_y.
The inverse of this is given by transposing the coefficient
of quantity and assigning to it a negative index, when we get

that is to say "only y is x" or "nothing but y is x." The
expression

IX = i~V
would mean " all x is nothing but j," and would be true,

Nciv System of Logical Notation. 23

but redundant in this place, though we shall find occasion

for it further on.

The form

i.r = jy

asserts the equivalence of x and y, and is Sir William
Hamilton's equation " all x is all j/," which he regards as
the fundamental form of proposition. A possible expression
for equivalence in this notation would be
\°x=y, or jc= i*'_y.
Contraposition is expressed with equal facility, by
changing the signs of the terms and transposing the co-
efficient without change of index : — thus, all the following
four forms of proposition are equivalents of each other.
The inverses are one above the other, and the contrapositives
in the same line —

ix=^y.

iy = x.

1 -Ij; = X.

i-'^x^-y.

These are in language : —

All X is y.

All not 7 is not x.

Only y is x.

Only not x is not y.

It will be noticed that the equation

1-1=1,
which is true in arithmetic, is not generally true here.

The most important application of this notation is to
the " logic of relatives," that is to say the theory of pro-
positions containing terms which signify relations. In what
follows, "absolute terms" or the terms between which
relations subsist — the terms of the old logic — are expressed
by Roman capitals, and relative terms by Italic capitals ;
and the corresponding negatives are expressed by the
corresponding small letters, as in De Morgan's notation.
" Of" is expressed by the sign of multiplication ; thus, let
A and B be the names of individuals, and let R mean the
relation of teacher, then

A = i?xB

24 Mr. Murphy on a

will mean that A is a teacher of B ; or let B mean boys,
then its meaning will be that A is a teacher of a boy or
boys. According to Boole's plan of indicating the co-
existence of attributes by the juxtaposition of their literal
symbols, 7?B means a teacher who is a boy.

The conversion of such a proposition as the above is
effected by transposing the relative term with change of
index, when, if both A and B are the names of individuals,

the transposed form

B = i?-ix A

means that B is a pupil of A. Let A : B mean the relation
of A to B, then the following four propositions are mutually
equivalent ;

A:B = 7? B:A = i2-^

A = 7?xB B = i?-A.

The same is true if i? be a numerical ratio, and A:B means
the ratio of A to B.

In converting a compound relative, the order of the
terms is reversed, thus

{R X S)-^ - S-^ X R~^.
For instance : if R means husband and 5 daughter,

will be the symbol for son-in-law, and its converse

S-^ X i?-i
for father or mother-in-law. This rule for conversion is
well known, but we have to show that it is true of our
coefficients of quantity as well as of symbols of relation. If
A and B are individuals as before, and R means teacher,
then " A is the only teacher of B " (or, as it might be
expressed, logically though not quite grammatically, " A is
all the teacher of B ") will be written in symbols

A=ii?xB
and the converse of this is

B = A'-ix i-iA

New System of Logical Notation. 25

that is to say " B is a pupil of none but A," or " of A only,"
Let 5 mean child, then

will mean " A is a teacher of all the children of B," and its
converse

B = ^'-ix i-»^x A

will mean " B is the parent of none but pupils of A." Thus
I means "all," or "only" with an adjective sense:— i~^ means
" none but," or " only " with an adverbial sense.

The simplest forms of this kind occur when A and B are
individuals. When they are classes — if for instance the A's
are the teachers and the B's the pupils of a particular
school — the proposition

A = i2xB

asserts only that " some A's teach B's," and is a partial
proposition. In the present essay, nothing more is said on
the theory of partial propositions. The proposition

iA = RxB

is singly total ; it asserts that " all A's teach B's," or, what
is better English, "every A teaches a B or B's." The
proposition

iA=/?x iB

asserts that " every A teaches every B," and is doubly total.
A doubly total proposition is defined in the system here
expounded as one where the two terms A and B are both
quantified by the coefficient i or i~\ In a singly total
proposition only one of them is so quantified ; in a partial
proposition, neither. A doubly total proposition, however,
as De Morgan has remarked,* is one proposition, not the
resultant of two propositions. " Every A teaches every B,"

' " On Ihe syllogism, No. IV., and on the logic of relations." — From the
transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Vol. X. Part II,

26 Mr. Murphy on a

and " every B learns from every A," which is thus expressed
in our notation

iA = i?x iB, iB = i?-'x lA

is manifestly only one proposition in two equivalent and
converse forms. Its doubly total character is visible to the
eye as printed above, but this is not so under all its transfor-
mations. It may be stated in the form

«= ir X B

i.e. " not-As are the only not-teachers of Bs ; " but this
again is shown to be doubly total by writing below it the
equivalent form

i.e., " not = Bs are the only not-pupils of As."

De Morgan, in the paper already quoted, states three
elementary forms of proposition containing a single relative
term. These are, when stated in our notation and with our
examples : —

iA = i?xB, iA = ^xiB,

iA = i2x i-^B,
that is to say : —
Every A teaches a B, Every A teaches every B,

Every A teaches none but Bs.
But as Prof Peirce has shown,* the symmetry of the system
requires a fourth form, which in our notation is thus sup-
plied.

A teacher of every B is necessarily a not-teacher of
none but not-Bs ; and the converse is also true. This is
expressed by the equation

ii?x iB = irx i-V;;

*"0n the Algebra of Logic," by C. S. Peirce, reprinted from the
Avc\enc7i.n /oiivjial of Mathematics, Vol. III.

N'ezu System of Logical Notation.

27

Consequently, we may write the second and third of the
above three forms thus : —

iA = i?x iB,
-^-xi-V;,

iA = ^x i-iB,
= ry. lb.
The fourth form, obviously, ought to be related to the third
as the first to the second ; so that the completed system is
constituted by the following four propositions, whereof two
are singly and two doubly total.

A = i?xB,

I A

That is to say^,
Every A is a teacher of
some Bs.

Kvery A is a not-teacher of
some not-Bs.

iA = ^=iB,

= ;' X i~^b,
iA = Iix i-^B,

= rx lb.

Every A is a teacher of ever)^

B, and a not-teacher of

none but not-Bs.
Every A is a teacher of none

but Bs, and a not-teacher

of all not-Bs.

The two forms of proposition

iA=Sx iB,

ma}' be called the complements of each other, or comple-
mentary to each other. Their equivalence is self-evident ;
nevertheless it is worth while to show it symbolically.

iA = J?xiB
becomes by conversion

iB = i?-ix lA,
which becomes by contraposition and inversion

1-1/' = ^"^ X I A,
and this again by conversion

iA = ?- X i~^^.

28 Mr. Murphy on a

It is to be observed that, somewhat as in the common

logic a total proposition, such as " every A is B," contradicts

and is contradicted by a corresponding partial proposition,

such as " some A's are not B " ; so that one of the pair must

be true and the other false, — so in the logic of relative terms

the same relation of contradiction subsists between a doubly

total proposition such as " every A is a teacher of every B "

and a singly total proposition, such as " every A is a not-

teacher of some B."

The proposition

iA = i?x iB

admits of the following equivalent forms. It will be
observed that they arrange themselves in pairs of converses.

iA = i2xiB iB = ;?-^xiA

i~-'« = /'xB i~-'(^ = r~^A

iA = /-x i"^^ iB = ?-"^xi"^«

a= i^-x B h= ir~^ X A

.iArxB = o iBr^'^ X A = o

lAR X i-^b = o iBR~'^ X i-^a = 0

All that has been yet stated is equally true, whether the
relation is transitive or not. A transitive relation is such a
one that

if A = 7? X B and B = A^C, then A = i^C,
or more briefly

RxR=R, ox R^ = R.
This is the algebraic expression of the common " syllogism
in Barbara." But it expresses nothing except the transi-
tiveness of the relation, and is not restricted to relations of
identity and co-existence. As De Morgan says in the
paper already quoted, " The law which governs every
possible case (of Syllogism) ... is this : — Any relation
of X to F, compounded with any relation of Y to Z, gives
a relation of X to Z." The following is a valid syllogism : —
" Abraham was the father of Isaac ; Isaac was the father of
Jacob ; therefore Abraham was the grandfather of Jacob."

N'ew System of Logical N'otatioii.

The notation explained in the present paper is appro-
priate to a set of propositions stated by De Morgan in the
paper ah'eady quoted, but without detailed demonstration.
The present writer, trying to improve on De Morgan, is but
a dwarf on a giant's shoulders, or rather a dwarf with his
feet on the shoulders of two giants, De Morgan and Boole ;
but it may be maintained with much plausibility that giants
were made in order to carry dwarfs ; and I think it will
be found that, for the present purposes at least, my notation
is clearer, less arbitrary, and more appropriate than De
Morgans. The theorems are as follows ; — they arrange
themselves in pairs of converses.

Every ancestor is an ancestor Every descendant is a des-

of all descendants (of his
descendants),and adescen-
dant of none but their an-
cestors ; a non-ancestor of
none but their non-descen-
dants, and a non-descen-
dant of all their non-
ancestors.

cendant of all ancestors
(of his ancestors), and an
ancestor of none but their
descendants ; a non-des-
cendant of none but their
non-ancestors, and a non-
ancestor of all their non-
descendants.

Every non-ancestor is a non-
ancestor of all ancestors,
and an ancestor of none
but non-ancestors.

Every non-desce4idant isa non-
descendant of all descen-
dants, and a descendant of
none but non-descendants.
Writing ancestors E, and descendants conversely E"'^ ; non-
ancestor e, and non-descendant conversely c~'^ ; these
theorems are thus written in our notation : —

I.

iE = Ex iE-\

2.

= E-'xi-'E,

3-

= ex i-h-\

4-

= 6"^ X IC,

5-

\.e = ey. \E.

6.

^Exy-h'

lE-

— E X I

lE.

-1

iE-\
: i~'e

30

Mr. Murphy tm a

These arc very simple, and are self-evident as soon as
understood, yet very unfamiliar; they are like no generally
recognised logical forms. They are, however, easily de-
ducible from the property of transitivcncss, by application
of the principles already stated.

It will be observed that the two sets of converse pro-
positions are identical in their formal properties, differing
only in the indices being reversed. It will consequently be
necessary to give the demonstrations of those of the first
column only.

Proposition i is proved by combining the definition of
a relative term with that of transitiveness. It belongs to
the definition of any possible relative, that it stands in the
specified relation to all its correlatives. Thus any ancestor
E is ancestor of all his own descendants ; which is expressed
in our notation by

E' = Ex lE-^xE' ;
combining this with

iE^E = E,
we get

iEy.E' = Ex lE-'x E\

that is to say every ancestor of E' is ancestor of all the
descendants of E' ; or, more briefly,
iE = ExiE-\

which asserts that every ancestor (of any man) is an ancestor
of all descendants (of that man).

Proposition 2 is directly derived from
iExE = E,
which may be written

iExE=i-'E,
whence by transposition

iE = E-'xi-'E.

Nexv System of Logical Notation. 31

Propositions 3 and 4 are the complements of i and 2
respectively. Proposition 5 is obtained by the contraposition
of

for, as we have seen above, the negative oi Ex E — ancestor

oi any ancestor — is ^x \E — non-ancestor oi every ancestor ;

so that the contra-position of the above equation gives

\e = e y. \E.

And Proposition 6

\c = E y. i~^e

is the complement of proposition 5,

We have worked these out with De Morgan's examples,

derived from the relation of ancestor and descendant. But

they are true of any transitive relation whatever, such as

before and after, and cause and effect (if we so define cause

that a cause of the cause is a cause of the effect) ; and

among others, of the relation of whole and part, which is

the fundamental relation of the common logic when the

terms are interpreted in extension ; so that if E is taken to

mean the relation of a part to the whole,

ExE^E,

means that a part of a part is a part of the whole ; or, as I

propose to express it, an enclosure of an enclosure is an

enclosure ; and conversely

E~^xE-' = E-\

or, an includent of an includent is an includent. Then

e and e~'^

will mean respectively non-enclosure and non-includcnt ;

and the expressions

A = EB, B = E-A,

A = ^B. B = ^-^A,

will mean respectively

A is (included in) B. B includes A.

Some A is not (included in) B. B does not include all A.

32 A New System of Logical Notation.

Consequently, all Do Morgan's theorems, as stated
above, admit of interpretations in the common logic.

The old logic, as perfected by the schoolmen and revived
by Whately, appeared to be a complete science, though
lying in a very narrow compass. But, as Mill remarks,
quoting from some unnamed writer, " on all great subjects
much remains to be said " ; and the science of logic is no
exception to this. The old, or common logic, is only one
corner of a vast and probably infinite field.

Proceedings.

General Meeting, November 13th, 1888.

Professor ARTHUR SCHUSTER, F.R.S., Vice-President, in
the Chair.

Dr. G. H. Bailey, of Owens College, and Mr. A. C.
Adams, of the Hulme Grammar School, were elected
ordinary members.

Ordinary Meeting, November 13th, 1888.

Professor ARTHUR SCHUSTER, F.R.S., Vice-President, in
the Chair.

Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S., opened a
discussion on " The Permanence of Oceanic Basins," by
pointing out the fundamental ideas of some modern geolo-
gists, viz., that our large oceanic areas had been much like
what they now are, throughout all geological times ; that
our continents were chiefly built up by the accumulation of
shore deposits, formed in what were virtually shallow Waters.
He was not prepared to accept these as postulates. In the
first instance there could be no doubt that the hills and
hollows of the earth's surface were primarily the result of
the cooling of its crust, and as a result of that cooling,,
shrinkage in the size of the sphere : not being elastic, such
shrinkage must have produced ridges and furrows on various,
scales of magnitude. These changes, being accompanied
by a corresponding reduction of the temperature of the
earth's atmosphere, in which much heated vapour must
have been held in suspension, would be followed by the
C

34

Proceedings.

deposition of water on the earth's surface, which, flowing
down to the lowest levels, would form streams, lakes, and
seas ; and these, by their erosive action, would produce the
earliest sedimentary deposits, — resting upon the hollow
depressions of the hardening crust. There is no reason to
suppose that these agencies did not operate in varying
degrees on every part of the globe. But further. Some
geologists believe that the thirty thousand feet of Archaian
Laurentian rocks in Canada, and the smaller layers of
rocks of apparently the same age in the Hebrides, represent
the cooled and hardened crust to which reference has been
made ; in other words, that these never were aqueous
deposits, like the more modern strata occurring everywhere
on the Continent. In all probability we can now identify
no part of the ancient and primeval crust. Whatever it
was, it has most probably been melted and re-melted by
the subterranean heat which has also fused the older strati-
fied beds ; the primitive line of junction between the two
being thus wholly obliterated. The contraction of the
earth's crust, due to the causes already referred to, has
probably not entirely ceased even now. The marvellous
inflections of the contorted strata of the Alleghanies and
of the Alps, affecting Cretaceous and Oolitic rocks, have
in all probability been due to similar agencies, causing
lateral pressure ; we find that these disturbing forces have
operated more or less throughout every portion of what
is now dry land, all of which has been more or less
frequently under water ; this has been the case with even
the mountainous parts that now rise thirty thousand feet
above the sea-level from which they have been uplifted ;
hence it is difficult to believe that whilst such changes,
due to cosmical causes, were taking place on the great
continents, the corresponding areas now occupied by our
largest oceans were resting in a state of undisturbed
tranquillity. Dr. Williamson said it seemed to him that

Proceedings. 35

whilst two-fifths of the globe were thus being alternately
raised and depressed, the remaining three-fifths must have
been similarly affected ; the deepest seas thus finally
balancing the loftiest elevations, and producing the equi-
librium of the earth's crust which we now observe.

But further. In the countless ages that have passed
away since the commencement of the earth's consolidation,
aqueous rocks, many miles in vertical thickness, have been
deposited. These rocks contain the remains of the successive
forms of life that have tenanted both land and sea during
these successive epochs. According to the modern theory
under discussion, if these great oceans were then such as they
are now, representative strata corresponding to the now
known vertical series seen on the land must underlie the
present ocean beds. The oceans under which the known
strata were formed must have opened into these larger and
supposed persistent ones ; and though accumulations may
have taken place in the latter more slowly than elsewhere,
they cannot have been absent. In like manner organic
remains must exist in them. How far they became sufficiently
shallow to be the home of our terrestrial plants and shore-
loving animals may be a question. But just as our modern
sharks and huge Cetaceans now traverse the deepest oceans,
so the huge Saurians and primeval Cephalopods must have
done the same. In like manner the innumerable Foraminifera,
which flourish chiefly, if not wholly, near the surface of the
sea, exist independent of depth. We know that they lived in
primeval time, and doubtless under the same conditions as
now. We have proof in the Nummulitic beds, which in
some places accumulated to a thickness of several thousand
feet, that such was the case, just as the Foraminiferous ooze,
or that which is a Foraminiferous residuum, can now be
found in most parts of our deep oceans. These few
fundamental facts suggest that, whilst lofty mountains and
seas of corresponding depths may, and probably did, always

36 rROCEEDINGS.

exist during the past geological epochs— it does not
follow that the one always stood and the other flowed
where they now do. In the case of the former we know that
this was not the case. The recent periods at which the
Alps, the Andes, and the Himalayas were upraised is now
well known. It is not impossible that similar mountain
ranges may have sunk into and now repose in the undu-
lating depths of the Pacific Ocean.

Prof Boyd Dawkins held that the doctrine of the
permanence of oceanic areas is only true in a very restricted
sense, and as applying to such deep areas as those over
4,000 fathoms north of the Island of St. Thomas in the
North Atlantic, and off the coast of Japan in the North
Pacific. As the surface of the cooling globe followed the
contracting nucleus it must have been thrown into folds, in
which the re-entering folds would be the primeval oceans,,
and the salient folds the land. And this folding of the
surface would only be intensified along the old lines by a
still further shrinkage of the nucleus. From these a priori
considerations he held that the main centres of the land
and the sea had been where they are now through all geo-
logical time. The evidence of a considerable change in the
relations of land to sea is proved both by the marine
soundings and the history of the stratified rocks. The
soundings made by the "Dacia," in 1883, off the mouth of
the Congo, reveal the existence of a vast cailon plunging
from the 100 fathom line into depths greater than the i,ooa
fathom line {see Joiirn. Soc. Telegr. Engineers XVI., p. 479).
It is a submerged canon of the same order as that of the
Colorado river, and has been cut by the river Congo at a
time when the West Coast of Africa in that district stood
more than 6,000 feet above its present level. This is merely
one out of a vast number of cases which might be cited in
proof that the submarine contours, to a depth of 1,000
fathoms, arc due to the operation of sub-aerial agencies, by

Proceedings. 37

which the hills, and valleys, and ravines now submerged
have been carved out of the rock. On the other hand, the
witness of the rocks practically amounts to this — that there
are no deposits now forming dry land which could not have
been formed in depths of i ,ooo fathoms. Most of these have
been accumulated in shallow water close to the ancient land.
It is to be remarked also that the ancient land on the
margins of which the stratified rocks were laid down in the
northern hemisphere is the polar continent which Prof
Dawkins has termed Archaia, now represented by the
Archaian rocks of Labrador and Canada, Greenland, Scandi-
navia, and the western highlands of Scotland, and that this
has been land from the close of the Cambrian age to the
present time. The impression left on his mind by these
facts is that the great depths of the sea have probably been
where they are now from the very beginning, and that the
central nucleus of the continents has also been in existence
also from the beginning. It may also be noted, as Agassiz
and others have observed, that the low temperature of the
ocean at great depths would lower the temperature of the
rock on which they rest, and therefore tend to stereotype
the oceanic depths.*

* At the depths of 4,000 fathoms the temperature is a little above freezing,
.at a depth of 24,000 feet the temperature of the roclc is about 422" Fahr.

38 Proceedincs.

[Microscopical and Nixtural History Section?^

Ordinary Meeting, November 19, 1888.

Mr. J. Cosmo Melyill, M.A., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

Mr. Theo. Sington exhibited an abnormal growth^
or concretion of some hard substance, found outside the
bowels of a hen.

Mr. P. Cameron, F.E.S., read a paper "On the British
species oi Allotrincs, with descriptions of other new species
of parasitic Cynipid(zr

Dr. Alex. Hodgkinson showed a new form of electric
lamp, and explained the diffraction spectra, and the advan-
tage of parallel rays of light in microscopical research.

Mr. E. Pyemont Collett exhibited a specimen of
Trifolinin siiffocahnn from the sandy sea shore at Hastings,

Ordinary Meeting, November 27th, 1888.

Professor OsBORNE Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., .
President, in the Chair.

Mr. F. J. Faraday, F.L.S., gave " An historical account
of the spectroscopic evidence in support of the hypothesis
that oxygen exists in the sun, with special reference to
M. Janssen's recent researches on telluric oxygen and
aqueous vapour lines and bands," in the course of which
he pointed out that the two absorption spectra of Janssen,
obtained with oxygen in long tubes at different pressures,

Proceedings. 39

added to the four luminous spectra obtained by various
spectroscopists at different temperatures and pressures,
apparently made a total of six spectra of this one gas.
Janssen states that the two absorption spectra are pro-
ducible separately and independently, one being the line
spectrum in the A, B, and a region, that is, in the red and
orange-red, and the other a spectrum of bands in the
red, orange-green, and blue. The intensity of the former
spectrum varies simply with the product of the thickness
of gas traversed by the light, and the density ; whereas
the intensity of the band spectrum varies according to
the thickness and the square of the density. From the
fact that the assumed corresponding dark lines and bands
observed in the solar spectrum seemed to obey these
laws, when examined from the Grands Mulcts station on
Mont Blanc, at an altitude of 10,000 feet, the bands
being absent and the lines weakened proportionately,
Janssen infers that their presence and relatively greater
intensity in the solar spectrum when observed at lower
levels are undoubtedly due to the greater thickness and
density of the atmospheric oxygen traversed, and hence
that they are telluric lines and bands and in no way
indicative of the existence of solar oxygen. Referring to
the statement that Janssen's absorption bands occur in the
red, orange-green, and blue, Mr. Faraday pointed out that
Plucker's bright oxygen spectrum, which has been called the
" compound line " spectrum, of which a corresponding
reversal spectrum has been, it is believed, identified in the
solar spectrum, occurs in the red, green, and blue. Professor
Henry Draper's supposed bright band solar oxygen spectrum
was photographed in the blue, and there also are the dark
absorption lines by which these bright bands were subse-
quently found to be traversed, and which Professor J. C.
Draper suggested might be the reversal lines of oxygen.
Finally in the red and orange-green the absorption lines

40 Proceedings.

•due to the presence of aqueous vapour are most abundant,
and with regard to these lines it must be noted that
Janssen's observations on the Grands Mulets were made
under exceptionally favourable conditions, the air being
remarkably dry and the sky unusually clear. For all these
reasons Mr. Faraday suggested that it would be interesting
to test the spectroscopic evidence of the existence of oxygen
in the sun hitherto advanced, by means of the photographs
•of what might be spoken of as the purified solar spectrum
which M. Janssen stated that he had obtained at the Grands
Mulets.

Ordinary Meeting, December ii, 1888.

Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Dr. James Bottomley read the following "Note on
the behaviour of Iodine in the presence of Borax" : —

In the journal of the Chemical Society for this month
there is an abstract of a paper on Boric acid by P. Georgievic
(/• for Chem. [2], 38, 11 8- 120). The paper treats of the
position of boron in the classification of the elements. In
reference to the acid character of boracic acid it is stated
in the abstract that boric acid will not liberate iodine from
a mixture of potassium iodide and iodate or nitrite. Also
that boric acid is liberated from borax by the action of
iodine, sodium iodide and iodate being formed. Some
years since I read before this Society a Note entitled "On
a case of reversed chemical action" {Proceedings Lit. and
Phil. Soc., Vol. XIV., p. 65), treating of the action of
iodine on a solution of borax ; my experience was as fol-
lows : A solution of borax dissolved iodine, formine: sodic

Proceedings. 41

iodide and iodate ; but on concentrating the solution the
reversed action took place, free iodine being formed. Also,
on the addition of sodium iodate to a boiling solution of
sodium iodide and boracic acid, iodine was set free.

Prof W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., referred to the recently
published report of the Royal Society Committee on the
Krakatoa eruption, and a discussion on the meaning of the
term "smoke" in the report ensued.

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., read a paper
•on "The crystalline structure developed on ordinary glass
by the solvent action of fluorine compounds, with notes on
Prince Rupert's drops."

Mr. P. Cameron read a paper on "The British species
of Allotrincs with descriptions of other new species of
parasitic CynipidcB."

42 Mr. W. Thomson on the

Notes on Some of the Peculiar Properties of Glass.
By William Thomson, F. R.S.Ed., F.I.C., F.C.S.

(Received February 2.2nd, i88g.)

I. — On the Crystalline Forms produced on Glass by the action
on it of Hydrofluoric Acid and the Acid Salts of the
Alkali Fluorides.

At the Southport Meeting of the* British Association
(1883) I read a paper on this subject, and there shewed
pieces of glass on which very distinct hexagonal pyramids,
cubical, and other crystalline forms had been produced by
the action of solutions of the acid fluorides of potassium,
sodium, and ammonium, and anhydrous hydrofluoric acid
on the glass. Different crystals are produced on different
kinds of glass, depending on whether it contains potash,
soda, lime, or other base. Tessie de Mothay and Marechal
examined these crystals and mention that they are com-
posed of the fluorides of calcium and lead, by the separation
of which the surface is rendered more opaque. F. Reinitzer
in a paper on the same subject, 1886 {Dingl. Polyt. f. 262,
pp. 312-320) gives sketches of the same crystals, and offers
the explanation that they are the silico-fluorides of calcium
sodium or potassium.

The Rev. Professor T. G. Bonney examined my speci-
mens, and, whilst he would not venture on any distinct
theory, suggested that they might possibly be due to the
crystallization of free silica produced by the action of the
fluorides on the glass. Professor Bonney microscopically
examined them, and both he and I failed by the ordinary
means to find that they polarized light, although they were
sufficiently large to be seen by an ordinary pocket lens.

Peculiar Properties of Glass. 43

Both Professor Bonney and Professor Zirkel, with whom I
also conversed respecting them, were of opinion that if they
did not polarize light, and were not of the regular system,
they could not be regarded as crystals, however perfect in
form they might be.

Lately, I have given more attention to this subject, and
by the aid of Dr. Alexander Hodgkinson, of Manchester, I
have been able to demonstrate that these crystalline forms
actually do polarize light. The most distinct effect pro-
duced on them was by the employment of circularly
polarized light. When the microscope stage was rotated
with one of these crystals in focus, the regular changing of
colours was very distinctly seen on each crystal, thus
proving that the crystalline forms developed by the alkaline
fluorides possessed also the polarizing properties of the
irregular system to which most of them belong.

It is remarkable that these crystals are only seen near
the edges of etchings by the alkaline fluorides, or only
where the immediate surface of the glass has been removed.
In the deeper parts of the etchings an irregular surface is
presented, resembling to the naked eye a crop of small
crystals, but on microscopical examination shewing no
distinct crystalline form. It was somewhat difficult to
determine whether the crystals were indentations in the
glass or whether they stood in elevation, but after careful
microscopical examination both Dr. Hodgkinson and I
came to the same conclusion, that they stood in elevation.
In a large thick glass vessel, capable of holding ten gallons,
I placed six or seven gallons of fluosilicic acid solution con-
taining a little hydrofluoric acid. After some months the
vessel became deeply etched and, viewed from the outside,
the surface seemed to be covered by a crop of well-formed
crystals of considerable size. This vessel cracked in different
places, which I find usually results in time from dissolving
the inner surface of a glass vessel by hydrofluoric acid or the

44 Mr. W. Thomson on the

fluorides. On breaking this vessel I found the inner surface
to be very irregularly etched, shewing what appeared to be
irregular crystalline forms of an average of a quarter of an
inch across and yi to j^ inch deep from apex to bottom of
rough crystals, but on carefully examining these by the
naked eye, by a pocket lens, and by the microscope, no
distinct and definite crystalline forms could anywhere be
discovered. The observations which strike one regarding
these are : — -First, if glass possess that absolutely homo-
geneous or colloid or gelatine structure which it is generally
supposed to have, why does it develope these curious
irregularities when submitted to a slow solvent action. One
would expect it to dissolve like a surface of gelatine when
slowly acted upon by water if it were so absolutely colloid
in its structure. On the other hand, if it be presumed to
have a crystalline structure, one would expect that the
surface would present such irregularities as it actually gives
when the surface is thus removed.

With regard to the distinct crystalline forms produced
on glass by the action of the alkali acid fluorides, Tessie de
Mothay, Marechal, and F. Reinitzer seem satisfied that the
crystals \\dMQ:\iQQ.\\ produced by the solvent itself combining
with some of the constituents of the glass and depositing
crystals therefrom. The following is an extract from
Reinitzer's paper : —

" Fig. I represents the edge of an etched plate. The
" crystals are hexagonal, and agree with those of silicon-
" sodium fluoride. There are also a few of a longish shape,
" which are very like those of silicon-calcium fluoride. It is
" believed that alkali fluoride and hydro-fluoric acid act on
" the glass, forming sodium-silicon fluoride and silicon-
" calcium fluoride which are set free in a crystalline form ;
" whereas, hydro-fluoric acid etches the spaces between the
" crystals. Silicon and calcium are derived from the glass,
" sodium partly from the etching bath and partly from the

Peailiar Properties of Glass. 45

" glass. On etching potash glass, tesseral crystals of silicon
" potassium fluoride can be observed, and this suggests a
" simple method for the detection of potash glass."

There is, however, a simple method by which this theory
of Reinitzcr, and also of de Mothay and Marechal can be
tested, and that is, that sodium-silicon fluoride, calcium-
silicon fluoride, potassium-silicon fluoride, and also lead
and calcium fluorides are all easily acted upon by sulphuric
acid. If, then, these crystals be composed of the above-
named compounds, it is evident they should be dissolved and
removed, or destroyed by the action of sulphuric acid, which
attacks with facility those compounds. I have made the
experiment by boiling pieces of glass on which these crystals
had been developed in sulphuric acid of different strengths
up to prolonged boiling with strong vitriol, but on washing
the glasses after such treatment, none of the crystals were
destroyed or dissolved, and even their edges were not in the
faintest degree affected. Whatever, therefore, these crystals
may be, they are itot crystals of the sodium, calcium or
potassium silico fluorides, or of lead or calcium fluoride.
But assuming that they are so, then one would expect to
find them in the deeper parts of the etchings as well as near
the surface and edges ; which is not the case.

I am of opinion that these crystals existed originally in
the glass, and that the action of the solvent developed them
just as hydrochloric acid developes the crystalline structure
on tin when a weak solution is washed over a bright and
smooth surface of it. It is not suggested that the hydro-
chloric acid combines with and produces the crystals, it
merely dissolves away the surface of the tin at some parts
more than at others, so as to develope the metallic crystals ;
and if the etching with the acid is continued, the crystals
which are at first developed disappear, which is just what
happens with the glass.

I am of opinion that the crystals developed from the

46 Mr. W. Thomson on the

glass are the potassium sodium and calcium silicates, which
are not acted upon by the strong sulphuric acid above
mentioned, and which are developed from the surface of the
glass by the slow solvent action of the fluorides, just as the
metallic tin crystals are developed from the surface of tin
by the solvent action of dilute hydrochloric acid upon its
surface.

The objection to this theory is that glass does not
polarize light; but it cannot be deduced from that that
glass is not crystalline, because Pasteur proved that although
paratartaric acid does not polarize light it is still crystalline,
and is composed of crystals of the irregular system, but
that the crystals or molecules are so arranged that the
polarizing influence of one is neutralized by the reverse
action of another always found in juxtaposition with it.
Is it not possible, then, that glass crystals may be simi-
larly arranged to each other so that the polarizing influence
of one crystal may be neutralized by the reverse polarizing
influence of the other? And this seems to be borne out
by the fact that whilst small sodium and potassium silico
fluoride crystals shew distinct polarization when viewed
simply by two Nicol's prisms, the crystals on the glass do
not shew polarization by that means, and it was only by the
employment of circularly polarized light, produced by
passing the light through a quartz plate, that a distinction
could be observed between the crystals in question and
ordinary glass. I believe that these crystals are then
silicates of potassium, sodium and calcium, etc., and that
they are not produced by the combination of the solvent
with some of the constituents of the glass. Ammonium
fluoride, when heated on the surface of glass, developes a
beautiful fern-like structure on it resembling hoar-frost on
a window pane.

Peculiar Properties of Glass. 47

//. — On Prince Rupert's Drops.

In the seventeenth century Prince Rupert astonished and
amused the people of the English Court by producing drops
of glass with long tails attached, which burst into small
pieces the moment the tail was broken. Since his time
Robert Hooke and others have made experiments upon
them. It is believed that the explosive power of these
drops depends on an internal tension in the glass of the
drop due to the red hot, and consequently expanded, glass
being suddenly cooled and solidified, whilst the internal
contents have to adapt themselves to the rigid and ex-
panded envelope. These drops are produced by allowing
drops of molten glass to fall into cold water, a long tail
being left as the highly viscid molten glass falls. As a rule,
Rupert's drops contain a number of bubbles, which are due
to vacuous spaces, but there are some drops which are free
from such bubbles, and when the tail of one of these is
broken it bursts with greater force than a drop containing
bubbles.

That these bubbles are vacuous I proved by heating the
drop to redness, when the bubbles disappeared, and after
cooling the drop of glass appeared quite solid and trans-
parent.

To determine whether the Rupert's drop was less dense
than the drop after annealing, I took a large Rupert's drop
quite solid and transparent (free from bubbles) which
weighed in air I70"30 grains, and in water 102-66 grains.
It was laid on a piece of platinum, placed in a muffle
furnace, heated to redness, and allowed to cool gradually.
It then weighed in air 1 70*36 grains, and in water 102-960
grains. The specific gravity of the Rupert's drop was, there-
fore, 2-5177, whereas the specific gravity of the drop, after
the strain had presumably been removed by annealing,
was 2-5276, in other words, 100 volumes of ordinary glass

48 Mr. W. Thomson on the

produced ioo"392 volumes of Rupert's drop glass, or the
volume of the glass of the Rupert's drop may be repre-
sented as having increased the rssth part of the original
glass.

The specific gravity of a second Rupert's drop
without hibbles, made from a different kind of glass, was
taken before and after heating to redness and allowing to
cool slowly, the results obtained were —

Sp. gr. of the Rupert's drop 2-4762

Sp. gr. of the Rupert's drop after heating to

redness and allowing to cool slowly ... 2-4859
100 volumes of the ordinary glass used for making this
Rupert's drop produced 100-3902 volumes of Rupert's drop>
equal to an increase in volume of 2 Hth part of the original
glass.

I determined the specific gravity of a Rupert's drop
containing bubbles.

Grains.

The weight in air previous to the removal of

the bubbles by heating was 34'830

Weight in water ... 20-536
After the removal of the bubbles by heating

and allowing to cool slowly it weighed ... 32-948
Weight in water ... 19-700
(A piece of glass was broken off in removing
it from the platinum.)

Specific gravity before heating 2-4366

After heating 2-4870

100 volumes of ordinary glass produced therefore 102-027
volumes of Rupert's drop with bubbles.

The Rupert's drops with bubbles may therefore be repre-
sented as having expanded rather more than Ath part of
their volume.

In other experiments I determined the specific gravity
of a glass rod and found it to be 2-5029.

Peculiar Properties of Glass. 49

I then produced a number of Rupert's drops from it by
melting before the blowpipe, allowing the drops to fall into
water and then determining the specific gravities of the
drops so produced,

100 volumes of

of original glass Equal to

Specific became of increase of

gravity. Rupert's drop glass. volume.

{a) 2-451 102-073

{b) 2-460 101-714 -h

ic) 2-473 101-194

One drop was made by allowing to fall into heavy
mineral oil, heated to 80° C, instead of cold water, a fused
portion of the rod. It produced a drop with one large
bubble in the centre. Its specific gravity was 2-4475. lOO
volumes, therefore, became 102-213. One drop of molten
glass from the rod was allowed to fall into carbon
tetrachloride. The liquid seemed to assume the spheroidal
condition around the drops, so that it remained red hot for
a long time under the liquid. The drop thus formed was
free from bubbles and its specific gravity was 2*520, thus
shewing that under those conditions 100 volumes of the
original glass contracted to 99-317 volumes. This drop
possessed none of the properties of the Rupert's drop, and
neither did the ones dropped into oil, into carbon tetra-
chloride, or into ether.

The drop produced in ether had a specific gravity of
2-5018, whilst the original glass had a specific gravity of
2-4910, thus shewing that a contraction in volume had
resulted from the use of ether.

To find whether glass altered in volume on being heated
to redness several times, I took a small piece of glass rod
and heated it to redness, and allowed it to cool slowly in
the air on three different occasions, the specific gravity
being taken after each heating. The following are the
results obtained : —
D

50 Mr. W. Thomson on the

Specific gravity of original glass 2*4954

After first heating 2-4964

„ second „ 2-4981

„ third „ 2-4986

The same glass was then fused and dropped
into cold mineral oil, and its specific

gravity was 2-4694

The drop in oil contained vacuous spaces or bubbles, but
the drops formed in carbon tetra-chloride, chloroform, or
ether, were all free from vacuous spaces. The drop in
water ceased to shew red-hot after i to 2 seconds, whilst in
ether it remained red hot for 5 to 6 seconds, and in air for
about 20 seconds.

I placed a Rupert's drop in hydrofluoric acid till all the
outer skin was removed ; when the tail was then broken the
drop remained intact, and it was not till the thick part of
the drop was broken in a vice that the whole drop broke
into pieces, but the pieces into which it broke were much
larger than when broken in the usual manner.

A small drop was placed in hydrofluoric acid, and, after
a certain amount of the skin had been dissolved, an even
layer of about iVth of an inch was found broken into small
pieces equally all round the drop, these pieces remaining
in situ, and could be easily removed by the fingers, whilst
a bead of glass which formed the core came out clear and
transparent, and when this was broken in a vice it did not
break throughout into small pieces, but acted like an ordi-
nary piece of glass.

Two drops were taken, one was
dipped in molten paraffin, so that
the part from the line A, shewn in
A the figure, to the point was coated

with paraffin, the other was dipped
so that the part from the line A
to the bottom was thus coated.

Peculiar Properties of Glass. 51

Both were placed in hydrofluoric acid, with the result that
the acid dissolved away the surface in the first, whilst,
in dissolving away the surface from the bottom the whole
drop became disintegrated and was found in small pieces.

The experiment was repeated, and this time both top
and bottom surfaces were removed respectively to a depth
of about -iVth of an inch and the drops remained intact.
When the tail of the first with the top surface removed was
broken off, the drop remained intact, and it was only when
the glass was broken near the point A in a vice that the
bottom part became disintegrated.

In the second drop, when the lower surface only was
removed, the breaking of the tail burst the whole drop, but
the lower part broke into much larger pieces than it would
have done if the surface had not been removed.

According to Robert Hooke you may grind away the
bottom of the drop without producing disintegration, but if
this be attempted from the point downwards the drop in-
variably bursts. From the above experiments one is led to
believe that the drop might be ground from either end if
the necessary care were taken, which would no doubt require
to be much greater from the point downwards than from
the bottom upwards.

The explanation of the bubbles in the drops seems to be
that there are very minute bubbles of air in the glass, which
form nuclei for the formation of the vacuous spaces, and
where none of these nuclei exist the drop appears to form
as a solid transparent mass under greater tension than those
in which the bubbles have formed ; but the curious thing is
that whilst the Rupert's drops containing bubbles had in-
creased in volume over 2 per cent, those free from bubbles
had only increased by about ^ per cent. One would
suppose that if a drop of molten glass were thrown into cold
water its external surface would be solidified at once and
that, whether or no, bubbles formed afterwards in the centre

52 Peculiar Properties of Glass.

of the drop it would have somewhere about the same specific
gravity. This, however, is not the case, and the bubbles form
such a very considerable volume of the whole drop that it
is difficult to imagine it possible that the molecules of glass
could, as it were, stretch so as to accommodate themselves
to filling such spaces with a continuous solid mass of glass.
What seems to take place therefore is, that in the drops in
which the bubbles occur, the solid contents and surface of
the drop are forced outwards simultaneously with the cool-
ing. It seems curious, however, that drops cooled in oil,
although increasing in volume about as much as those
cooled in water, should not possess the bursting properties
peculiar to the drop formed in water. It is true that the
drop cools more rapidly in water than in oil, and a remark-
able thing is that one often finds bubbles formed from the
surface inwards in drops formed in oil, whilst I, have never
observed that in water-cooled drops.

I have to thank my assistants, Mr. H. Bowes and Mr.
J. P. Shenton, for much of the work contained herein.

British Species of Allot rincs. 53

On the British Species of Allotrinae, with descriptions
of other new species of Parasitic Cynipidae. By
P. Cameron. Communicated by John Boyd, Esq.

{Received November 22nd, r888.)

Neither in this country nor abroad have the Parasitic
'Cynipidae attracted much attention, and thus our knowledge
of the species is comparatively limited. That the group is
numerous in species there can be no doubt, but their correct
determination is a work of some difficulty, chiefly owing to
the shortness of the descriptions of Hartig, who is the
entomologist who first studied the species to any extent.
Until his types have been examined by the aid of the works
of Thomson and other writers, there must be always some
doubt regarding many of them. The Allotrin?e will probably
be found to be more difficult of specific discrimination than
any other section of Parasitic Cynipidae, from the absence
of much difference in sculpture or great variation in structure,
while also they are very numerous in species, and mainly
distinguished by differences in colour, in the form of
the antennae and in the alar neuration. As a sub-family
they are to be known by the broad radial cellule, the areolet
not being situated opposite its base : the first and second
cubital cellules are never complete and the cubitus (when
indicated) issues from the middle of the transverse basal
nervure ; the abdomen has the second segment the largest ;
the body (including the scutellum) is impunctate, and the
hind tibiae have only one spur. One of the most recent
writers on the subject (Mr. W. H. Ashmead, Trans. Am.
Ent. Sac, XIII., p. 64) includes yEgilips Hal. in the
Allotrincs ; but the entire structure of that genus comes so
near the Figitince and especially AnacJiaris, that I cannot

54 Mr. Cameron on the

look upon Aigilips as having any affinity with Allotria, from
which it differs in the rugose scutellum, in the shorter second
abdominal segment (which is not half the length of the
abdomen) and in the cubitus issuing from below the middle
of the transverse basal nervure. It is however very probable
that Aigilips Ashmead is different from Aigilips Hal.
Certainly that genus has a transverse groove before the
scutellum, the second abdominal segment is not " longer than
the others," and the parapsidal furrows are not parallel, as
stated by Mr. Ashmead to be the case with his Aigilips.

According to our present knowledge the Allotrincs are
attached to aphides, either as parasites or hyper-parasites
of the ichneumons which destroy the plant lice. So far
I am acquainted with thirty-three British species oi Allotria.
Those with the wings fully developed may be known by
the following table : —

1 (31) Radial cellule closed.

2 (10) Thorax (and head) more or less red.

3 (4) Thorax entirely red ; wings large, antennre and legs entirely clear

yellow. Megaptera, Cam.

4 (3) Thorax not entirely red, antennie not entirely yellow.

5 (6) Pleurse entirely, and base of abdomen broadly rufous ; legs clear

yellow, nervures yellow ; antenna; with the apical three-fourths
dark fuscous. Pktiralis, Cam.

6 (5) Pleurce not entirely, and base of abdomen but slightly rufous ;

nervures fuscous.

7 (8) Lower part of pleurae piceous-red ; legs rufo-testaceous ; radial

cellule small, one half longer than wide. Rtificeps, Cam.

8 (7) Pleurae rufous, the centre broadly blackish, legs yellow ; radial

cellule large, twice longer than wide. RiificolUs, Cam.

9 (i) Thorax, head and basal half of abdomen castaneous ; legs tes-

taceous ; radial cellule elongated, three times longer than wide.

Collina, sp. now

10 (21) Thorax black.

11 (16) Head red.

12 (13) Antennce uni-colorous yellow ; legs clear yellow.

Flavicornis, ITtg.

13 (12) Antennae fuscous, yellow at the base.

14 (15) Head entirely red ; radial cellule elongate. FzV/r/jir, West,

15 (14) Head with the vertex castaneous; radial cellule moderate.

Tscheki, Gir.

British Species of Allotrince^ 5g

i6 (ii) Head for the greater part black (entirely or with the oral region
piceous-red).

17 (20) Legs clear yellow.

18 (19) Radial cellule large, elongated, more than twice longer than

wide ; the femora slightly infuscated. Cvcuviscripta, Htg.

19 (18) Radial cellule small, not twice longer than wide ; femora clear

yellow. Minuta, Htg.

20 (17) Legs more or less fuscous-testaceous.

21 (28) Radial cellule elongated ; the second abscissa of the radius at

least one half longer than the first.

22 (23) Head piceous-red, radial cellule wide, the basal abscissa of

radius a little more than half the length of the second.

Curvicornis, Cam.

23 (22) Head black, radial cellule elongate, basal abscissa of radius

more than half the length of the second.

24 (25) Length scarcely i mm. ; basal joints of the antennte clear yellow.

Dolichocera, sp. nov.

25 (24) Length over l mm. ; basal joints of antennre fuscous or black.

26 (27) Head piceous, black on top ; the 4th and 5th joints of antennte

deeply curved. $, • Ancylocera, Cam.

27 (26) Head black ; the 4th and 5th joints of the antennae but slightly

curved. Longicornis, Htg.

28 (21) Radial cellule minute, not much longer than wide, the 3rd

abscissa of radius curved.

29 (30) Head black ; the abdomen strongly compressed, broadly piceous,

as long as the thorax. Microcera, Cam.

30 (29) Head reddish, castaneous on top ; abdomen shorter than thorax,

not compressed. Mullensis, Cam.

31 (i) Radial cellule open.

32 (49) Thorax black.

33 (40) Head red.

34 (35) Radial cellule greatly elongated. Macrophadnus, Htg.

35 {34) Radial cellule not greatly elongate.

36 (37) Collar broadly red. Mactdicollis, Cam.

37 (36) Collar entirely black.

38 (39) Base of abdomen red ; antenna; thickened towards the apex,

broadly and darkly infuscated ; legs reddish -testaceous.

Basiinacula, Cam.

39 (38) Base of abdomen black ; antennae hardly infuscated at the apex,

legs yellowish testaceous. Filicornis, sp. nov.

40 (33) Head black.

41 (44) Radial cellule minute, more or less trapezoidal, legs clear yellow.

42 (43) Antennae clear citron-yellow, hardly infuscated towards the

apex ; radial cellule twice longer than broad ; the third
abscissa of the radius not distinctly curved. Citripes, Thorns.

43 (42) Antennae blackish, yellow at the base ; radial cellule not twice

longer than broad ; the third abscissa of radius roundly and
distinctly curved. Trapezoidea, Htg.

56 , Mr. Cameron on the

44 {41) Radial cellule elongated, much longer than broad; legs and

antennse not citron -yellow.

45 {46) Legs and base of antennae clear testaceous-red ; radial cellule

elongated, the first abscissa of radius more than twice the
length of the second. UUrichi, Gir.

46 (45) Legs testaceous with the femora infuscated ; radial cellule not

elongated, the first abscissa of radius scarcely twice the length
of the second.

47 (48) Legs reddish-testaceous, the femora lined with fuscous ; the

second abscissa of the radius twice the length of the third ;
length li mm. Perplexa, sp. nov.

48 (47) Legs pale testaceous ; the femora fuscous ; the joints pallid.

Crassa, sp. no?.

49 (32) Thorax piceous-red or reddish-testaceous (head reddish or

castaneous).

50 (51) Legs and antennoe fuscous-testaceous, the femora infuscated ; head

castaneous, abdomen broadly rufous. Cakdonica, Cam.

51 (50) Legs clear yellow, the femora not infuscated.

52 (53) Head castaneous, abdomen black, reddish at the extreme base ;

radial cellule elongate. Fkeomaculaia, Cam.

53 {52) Head reddish, abdomen broadly reddish, black at the apex or base.

54 (55) Length i^ mm. ; abdomen reddish, black at the base ; radial

cellule elongate, narrow, the third abscissa of the radius not
distinctly roundly curved. Testaceiis, Htg.

55 {54) Length i mm. ; abdomen black, reddish at base ; radial cellule

short, -wide, the third abscissa of radius with a distinct rounded
curve. Nizriventris, Thorns.

Allotria dolichocera, sp. nov.

Black; the mouth, the base of the antenna (joints i — 4)
and legs pallid testaceous ; castaneous or infuscated broadly
in the middle ; wings hyaline, the nervures fuscous. An-
tennae longer than the body, very slightly thickened towards
the middle ; the third and fourth joints subequal and a little
longer than the second ; the last joint fully one-half longer
than the penultimate. Radial cellule wide ; the second
abscissa fully one and a half times the length of the second,
almost straight. ?.

Length ^ mm.

What is probably the $ has the antennae filiform, one
fourth longer than the body; the third joint curved; the
base of the abdomen rufous.

British Species of AllotrincB. 57

A. brevis Thomson comes very near this species, but
it has the antennae only the length of the thorax.

Hab. Cadder Wilderness near Glasgow, Dumfries, Peck-
ham {T.R. Bilhips).

ALLOTRIA COLLINA, sp. nov.

Black; the oral region, the thorax and base of abdomen,
castaneous ; the basal four joints of the antennae and legs
pallid testaceous ; the femora inclining to castaneous.
Wings hyaline, the nervures fuscous. Antennae nearly one-
half longer than the body, thickened gradually (but not
strongly) towards the apex ; the third joint not much longer
than the second ; the last longer than the penultimate.
Radial cellule elongate; the third abscissa of radius two
and a half times the length of the second. 9.

Length ^ mm.

Most nearly related to A. dolichocera, but readily known
by the castaneous thorax and base of abdomen, by the more
slender and, if anything, longer antennae, by the clear colour
of the legs, and by the more elongated radial cellule.

Hab. Mugdock.

Allotria filicornis, sp. nov.
Black ; the head red, castaneous on the top ; the legs
and five basal joints of the antennae clear yellow ; joints
^ — 13 fuscous ; wings hyaline, the nervures testaceous ;
metathorax and base of abdomen covered with long pale
hair. Antennae filiform, not thickened towards the apex ;
the third joint a little longer than the fourth, and both are
longer than the fifth; the last joint is fully one-fourth
longer than the penultimate. Radial cellule elongate, wide,
twice longer than wide ; the first abscissa of radius three-
fourths of the length of the second ; the third roundly
curved, two and a half times the length of the second. The
6 has the fourth and fifth joints curved ; the third is as long
as the fourth ; the two last are subequal.

58 Mr. Cameron on the

Length nearly lYi mm.

Most nearly related to A . inacrophadna ; but it is smaller^
the colour of the legs is yellow, not reddish or reddish-
testaceous ; the wings are shorter, the radial cellule is
shorter and narrower. In the $ the curvature in joints
4 and 5 is better marked, and the third joint is longer.

It is a larger species than A. bnsimacula ; the antennae
are of a paler and clearer yellow, not dark fuscous, and much
stouter and with the fourth and fifth joints thicker and
more curved ; the legs are clear yellow, not reddish tes-
taceous ; the abdomen is longer compared to the thorax
and the radial cellule is wider.

Hab. Cladich, Loch Awe, Clydesdale, Manual, Linlith-
gowshire, Moffat, Dumfries.

Allotria perplexa sp. nov.

Black ; joints i — 5 of the antennae and legs testaceous,
the femora broadly black or infuscated in the middle ;
wings hyaline, the nervures pale fuscous. Antennae as
long as the body, distinctly thickened towards the apex ;
the third joint one-fourth longer than the fourth ; the
last one-half longer than the penultimate. Radial cellule
moderate in length, broad ; the first abscissa of radius half
the length of the second, which is a little more than twice
the length of the third, the third slightly curved. The hair
on base of abdomen and metathorax very dense. The $
has the antennae filiform, longer than the body, the third
joint longer than the body, curved.

Length \y^ mm.

There are two species described which have the femora
darkened and with the tibiae and tarsi testaceous as in
perplexa and crassa, namely A. aperta, Htg., and A. fuscipesy
Thomson ; but both differ from perplexa and crassa in having-
the antennae shorter ; fiiscipes having them scarcely longer,,
and aperta almost shorter than the thorax.

British Species of Allotrince. 59

Hab. Sutherlandshire, Kingussie, Clydesdale, New
Galloway, Dumfries.

Allotria CRASSA, sp. nov.

Black ; the scape fuscous, joints 2 — 5 of the antenna,
the apex of femora and tibiae more or less and the tarsi,
testaceous ; the rest of the legs are fuscous ; wings hyaline,
the nervures fuscous. Radial cellule elongate, narrow ; the
basal abscissa of the radius about one-third the length of
the second ; cubitus short, obscure. Antennae as long as
the body, thickened towards the apex, the third joint one-
half longer than the fourth ; the last a little longer than
the penultimate.

What is probably the $ has the antennae filiform, longer
than the body, the basal three joints pale testaceous, the
others dark fuscous.

Length i mm.

A smaller species than A. perplexa ; the antennae are
shorter, the head inclines to piceous in colour ; the radial
cellule is more elongated and has the second abscissa of the
radius fully three times the length of the third ; and the
legs are pale testaceous, not reddish and are especially
pallid at the joints.

Hab. Sutherlandshire, Cladich, Loch Awe, Dumfries.

Kleditoma LONGIPENNIS, sp. nov.
Black, shining ; the knees, apex of femora and base of
tibiae, piceous ; wings hyaline, the nervures piceous. An-
tennae as long as the body ; the third joint scarcely one-
half longer than the fourth; the 3 — 8 joints thin, twice longer
than broad, fully half the width of the club, which is nearly
as long as the preceding six joints united ; the 5-jointed
club distinct, abrupt, its basal joint not much narrower than
the second and nearly one-half shorter than it. Scutellum
distinctly striated, the cup lanceolate. Sides of metathorax

6o Mr. Cameron o7i the

opaque, finely punctured ; the metanotum with a gradual
slope, the keels distinct. Abdomen shorter than the thorax,
compressed ; the hair fringe dense, dull griseous. Wings
ample ; the radial cellule elongate, its width twice the length
of the widest part ; the second abscissa of radius twice the
length of the first ; apical margin of wings incised, densely
ciliated. 9.

Length i^ mm.

Hab. Clober Moor, near Glasgow.

Kleditoma elegans, sp. nov.

Black ; the trochanters, apex of femora, tibiae, and tarsi,
testaceous ; wings hyaline, the nervures testaceous. An-
tennae a little longer than the body ; the third joint nearly
as long as the fourth and fifth joints united, the 4 — 7 equal
in length and thickness, the eighth one-half longer than
the seventh and distinctly thicker than it; the 5-jointed club
abrupt, the ninth joint thicker and longer than the eighth ;
the joints bear some moderately long hairs. Wings ample ;
the apex waved, almost truncate, but very slightly incised ;
radial cellule wide, moderately elongate ; in length nearly
twice the width of the widest part ; the second abscissa of
radius three-fourths longer than the first. Abdomen as
long as the thorax, looked at from the side almost tri-
angular ; hair fringe dense, griseous. ?.

Length nearly i^mm.

Allied to K. longipennis, but easily known from it by
the clear testaceous tibiae and tarsi, by the incision in the
wings being very much less deep, and by the eighth joint of
the antennae being clearly longer and thicker than the
seventh.

Hab. Mugdoch Wood, near Glasgow.

Kleditoma truncata, sp. nov.
Black ; the legs testaceous, the coxae for the greater part

British Species of AllotrincB. 6i

black, the femora black in the middle ; wings hyaline, the
nervures obscure testaceous. Antennae a little shorter than
the body ; the third joint twice the length of the fourth ;.
the 4 — 8 subequal, but becoming very slightly longer, and
of equal width, and about one-half longer than broad. The
5 -jointed club sub-abrupt, the ninth joint being distinctly
thinner than the tenth, and shorter than it. Scutellum indis-
tinctly striolated laterally ; metapleurae opaque, pubescent.
Abdomen shorter than the thorax ; the hair fringe dense,
griseous. Wings large, the apex hardly incised ; the radial
cellule elongate, more than twice longer than wide ; the
second abscissa of radius twice the length of the first.

Length ij^ mm.

Compared with loitgipennis the antennae are shorter and
stouter, the club sub-abrupt and the wings can scarcely
be said to be incised.

Hab. Bishopton.

Kleditoma Marshalli, sp. nov.
Black ; the legs testaceous, the coxae and base of
femora lined with black ; wings clear hyaline, the nervures
testaceous ; the apex incised but not deeply. Antennae as
long as the head and thorax united ; the second joint
sub-globose, thick ; the third one-half longer than the
fourth ; the rest broader than long ; the 3-jointed club
abrupt, the basal joint nearly as long as the three preceding
joints united, and a little shorter than the second ; the
third joint nearly as long as the two preceding joints
united and sharply conical at the apex ; the club nearly as
long as the rest of the flagellum. Scutellum strongly
longitudinally striolated ; the cup small, acutely pointed at
the base. Abdomen longer than the thorax, the hair fringe
interrupted on the top, clear white. Radial cellule elongate,
narrow, more than twice longer than broad ; closed at the
base and apex ; the second abscissa of radius one-fourth

62 Mr. Cameron on the

shorter than the third ; the apical incision broad, short but
distinct ; the fringe long.

The (J has the antennae one half longer than the body,
the third joint curved, not much longer than the fourth.

Length ? 2 mm. ; c? i ^ mm.

The great length of the club render this (for the group)
large species easily recognisable.

Hah. Barnstaple. (Rev. T. A. Marshall.)

KLEDITOMA FILICORNIS, Sp. 710V.

Black ; the legs pale testaceous, piceous towards the
base ; wings clear hyaline, the apex cordate, with a long
hair fringe ; the nervures testaceous. Antennae filiform, as
long as the body ; all the joints of the flagellum twice
longer than broad, distinctly separated ; the club sub-
abrupt, the joints narrow at base and apex ; the apical one-
fourth longer than the penultimate. Abdomen not much
longer than the thorax : piceous on ventral surface, the hair
fringe large, white. Radial cellule narrow, elongate ; the
second abscissa of radius two-thirds the length of the third.

Length i mm.

May be known from K. psiloides by the longer and
thinner antennae of which the joints are all twice longer than
broad, by the thinner less abrupt club, and by the longer
and thinner radius.

Hab. Bishop's Teignton. (Rev. T. A. Marshall)

KLEDITOMA LONGICORNIS, Sp. IIOV.
Black ; the trochanters, femora, tibiae and tarsi, testace-
ous ; the femora broadly lined with black above ; wings
hyaline, the nervures dark fuscous. Antennae as long as the
thorax and abdomen united ; the basal part of the flagellum
thin ; the third joint not much larger than the fourth ;
the tenth joint longer and thinner than the ninth and about
one-fourth narrower than the eleventh ; the 3-jointed

British Species of Allotrince. 63

club distinct ; the joints moderately elongate ; the last
sharply conical at the apex and longer than the others.
Scutellum laterally opaque, closely, longitudinally striolate ;
the foveae deep, wide, distinctly separated ; the apical fovea
small, shallow, circular ; at the apex the scutellum broadly
projects, narrowing towards the bottom, but not forming a
beak as in the section Rhyncacis ; abdomen longer than the
head and thorax united ; the hair fringe dense, large, grise-
ous. Radial cellule an elongate triangle, closed at base and
apex ; the nervures straight, the second abscissa fully one-
fourth shorter than the third ; cubitus traced ; apex of wing
roundly incised. 9

Length slightly over 2 mm.

In general coloration this species comes nearest to K.
Jilicornis, but differs from it in its much greater size ; in the
projecting apex of the scutellum (forming a transition to
Rhyjicacis) in the longer abdomen and in the clearly indi-
cated cubitus.

Hab. Barnstaple. (Rev. T. A. Marshall.)

Kleditoma gracilicornis, sp. nov.

Black ; the knees and tarsi piceous ; wings clear hyaline,
the nervures piceous. Antennae thin, twice the length of
the thorax ; the third joint one-half longer than the fourth,
the 4—8 wider than long ; the ninth oblong, thicker and
nearly twice longer than the eighth, and three-fourths of
the width of the tenth ; the 4-jointed club not very abrupt,
the three basal joints of nearly equal thickness and length,
oval ; the last longer and sharply conical at the apex.
Radial cellule subtriangular ; the second and third abscissa;
of the radius subequal. Scutellum aciculate ; the basal
foveae longer than wide. Abdomen longer than the thorax
and head united ; the hair fringe moderate, whitish. Apical
incision in wings slight. ?.

Length i mm.

64 Mr. Cameron on the

The much smaller size, the thinner and longer antennae,
the smaller and whiter abdominal hair fringe, sufficiently
distinguish this species from K. tetratoma.

Hab. Munton. {Rev. T. A. Marshall).

KLEDITOMA AFFINIS, sp. nov.

Black, shining ; the trochanters, knees and tarsi piceous ;
wings hyaline, the nervures dark piceous. Antennae longer
than the head and thorax united ; the third joint not one
and a half times longer than the fourth ; joints 4 — 8 dilated
towards the apex, longer than broad ; the apices truncated ;
the ninth distinctly broader than the eighth and a little
longer than it ; the 4-jointed club abrupt, distinctly separated ;
the joints of nearly equal thickness and becoming gradually
longer towards the apex ; the tenth a little narrower than
the eleventh. Radial cellule rather elongated, closed at base
and apex ; the second abscissa of radius distinctly longer than
the first. Pro- and metanotum slightly pilose ; abdominal
hair fringe, dense, griseous ; abdomen as long as the head
and thorax united ; scarcely petiolated. Scutellum laterally
finely striolated.

Length i^ mm.

Very similar to K. tetratoma, Thoms., but may be easily
known from it by the third antennal joint not being twice
the length of the fourth and by the shorter abdomen.

Hab. Bonar Bridge, Sutherlandshire.

Trybliographa crassicornis, sp. nov.
Black ; the flagellum of antennse and legs red ; the
coxae, the trochanters above and a line on the upper side
of the femora towards the base, black ; wings hyaline, the
nervures dull testaceous. Antennae fully one-half longer
than the head and thorax united ; the third joint one-fourth
longer than the fourth, which is as long as the fifth ; the
8-jointed club abrupt ; the sixth joint as long as the seventh

British Species of Allotrince. 65

and equal in breadth to it, moniliform. Scutellum rugose
at its sides and apex ; the basal foveae deep and wide.
Metapleurae densely covered with griseous hair. Abdomen
compressed laterally, lenticular, longer than the head and
thorax united ; piceous towards the base and apex ; the
hair fringe moderately broad, brownish, griseous at the apex.
The first abscissa of the radius curved, fully one-half the
length of the second, which is also curved and three-fourths
of the length of the third ; the latter straight ; the cubitus
reaches quite close to the apex of the wings.

Length 4^ mm.

May be known from T. scutellaris by the shorter an-
tennae, which are also thicker, with the club more distinctly
abrupt ; the third joint is not one-half longer than the fourth ;
the sixth not longer than the seventh ; the wings shorter
and clear hyaline ; the abdomen longer, being longer than
the head and thorax united.

Hab. Cambuslang on the Clyde.

EUCOILA SCOTICA, Sp. flOV.
Black ; the knees, four fore-tibise and tarsi, piceous-red ;
the hinder tibiae piceous-black ; wings clear hyaline, but
slightly pilose ; the nervures fuscous. Antennae nearly
twice the length of the thorax, with an 8-jointed club not
clearly separated ; the third joint not very much longer
than the fourth ; the sixth longer than the seventh, twice
longer than wide ; the other joints not much thicker than
it, but shorter compared to the width. Cup of scutellum
rather small ; the foveas at apex round, deep ; apex of cup
projecting ; scutellum coarsely punctured ; the depression
at base large. Cubitus indistinct, not much traced beyond
the angle of the radial cellule, which is short and broad ;
the first abscissa of radius slightly curved, one fourth
shorter than the second. Abdomen a little shorter than
the head and thorax united ; the hair fringe moderate.
Pubescence on the metapleurae sparce.
E

66 Mr. Cameron on the

The c? has the antennae longer than the body ; the third
joint thin, more than twice the length of the second, and
longer than the fourth, which is thicker than the third.

Length 2 — 3 mm.

Hab. Clydesdale, Dumfries, Colvend, Carruber Glen,
Dairy, Ayrshire.

A larger and stouter species than T. ciibitalis ; differing
from it in having the antennae quite black, stouter, and with
a less clearly defined club, and with the third joint not
much longer than the fourth. The radial cellule also is
shorter and much broader, it being not very much longer
compared to the greatest width ; the second abscissa is
only about one fourth longer than the third, and the
nervures are dark fuscous.

EUCOILA FORTINERVIS, Sp. nov.
Black ; trochanters, base and apex of femora, tibiae and
tarsi, red ; hinder tarsi inclining to fuscous ; wings hyaline,
with a decided fuscous tinge ; the nervures dark fuscous ;
spurious nervures and cubitus stout, testaceous. Antennae
one-half longer than the body ; the third joint a little
longer than the fourth and thinner than it. Prothorax
striolated in front, rather densely covered with fuscous hair.
Scutellum coarsely rugosely punctured ; the cup twice
longer than broad ; its base and apex depressed, narrowed
and rather sharply pointed at the base, the apex rounded,
pitted along the sides ; the apical foveae round, deep.
Scutellar fovese wide, deep, extending backwards nearly
to the middle of the cup, and not completely separated in
the middle. Metapleurae densely pubescent ; the meta-
pleural keels stout, straight. Abdomen shorter than the
thorax, the hair fringe, dense, griseous. Legs densely
pilose. Radial cellule twice longer than wide ; the first
abscissa of radius about one-fourth shorter than the second,
which is straight and nearly half the length of the third ;

British Species of Alloirince. 6y

the latter is curved near the apex ; cubitus thick, extending
to the apex. S

Length 3^ mm.

Hab. Gloucester.

EUCOILA PROXIMA, Sp. 710V.

Black, shining ; the flagellum inclining to fuscous ; the
apex of coxae, trochanters, femora, tibiae and tarsi, rufous ;
the base of femora hned with black ; wings clear hyaline,
pubescent, ciliated, the nervures clear testaceous. Antennai
nearly as long as the thorax and abdomen united, without
a club ; the joints becoming very gradually and slightly
thickened towards the apex ; the third joint a little longer
than the fourth, which is of the same length as the fifth.
Scutellar foveae longer than broad, deep, truncated at base
and apex ; the sides of scutellum punctured ; the cup
depressed at the base ; and apex not projecting much, with
a shallow fovea above. Metapleurse densely covered with
griseous hair. Abdomen a little longer than the thorax,
compressed, lenticular ; the hair fringe dense, griseous.
Radial cellule elongate ; the second abscissa curved, fully
three-fourths of the length of the third, which is nearly
straight; cubitus not extending beyond the radial cellule.

Length 3 mm.

Comes nearest to E. glottiana, but stouter ; has the
antennae stouter, shorter, and quite black ; the scutellar
foveas are longer and separated by a stout keel ; the cup is
somewhat more raised ; the apex of the scutellum, looked
at laterally, projects more and is rounded, while in glottiana
it is truncated. The wings, too, are clear hyaline.

Hab. ^en?LQ&i {T. R. Bilhips).

DiASTROPHUS (?) APHIDIVORUS, Sp. UOV.
Black ; the antennae testaceous ; the legs rufo-testaceous ;
the tips of the tarsi black ; wings almost hyaline, the ner-

68 ■ Mr. Cameron on tJie

vLires fuscous, thick. Antennae stout, a little longer than
the body, stout; the third joint attenuate, a little longer
than the fourth. Head large, a little wider than the thorax ;
shining, impunctate. Prothorax large, finely rugose ; semi-
perpendicular in the middle. Mesonotum shining, ob-
scurely striated at the base ; the parapsidal furrows distinct
at the base. Scutellum rugosely punctured, depressed in
the centre ; the basal foveae large, wider than long, curved,
united. Metapleurai rugosely punctured. Abdomen shin-
ing, the second and third segments subequal, apical ventral
segment bluntly plough-share-shaped, not projecting beyond
the apex. Hind tibiae curved, the metatarsus twice the
length of the second joint ; claws apparently simple, wings
ample ; the radial cellule open at base and apex and in
front ; narrow elongate ; the third abscissa of the radius
curved ; cubitus nearly complete. $

Length nearly i ^ mm.

On the whole, this species agrees fairly well with Diastro-
phns, and it is certainly distinct from either of the two
described species, but these are true gall-makers, forming
galls on Riibus and Potentilla, while the present species was
bred from the aphis of the nettle, by the Rev. T. A. Marshall.
The difference in habit probably indicates a generic differ-
ence, but in the absence of the ? one is hardly justified in
forming a new genus for its reception. The simple claws,.
the confluent scutellar fovese (which form a curved furrow),,
and the depression in the centre of the scutellum, are three
points of distinction between it and DiastropJuis.

Bred from the Nettle aphis by the Rev. T. A. Marshall
at Barnstaple.

The following new species of Eiicoila has been taken in
Trinidad by the Rev. T. A. Marshall, M.A., F.L.S.

EUCOILA RUFIVENTRIS, Sp. IIOV.
Black, shining, impunctate ; the legs fulvous-red ; the

I

British Species of Allotrince. 69

ventral surface of the abdomen rufous ; wings almost
hyaline ; the nervures dark testaceous. Antennae three-
fourths of the length of the body, without a defined club,
the joints becoming gradually thickened from the second
joint to the apex ; the third joint about one-fourth longer
than the fourth ; the fifth and sixth subequal ; the other
joints moniliform, longer than broad ; the last conical at
apex, one-half longer than the penultimate ; the basal joints
piceous on the lower side. Prothorax in the middle in front
raised above the mesonotum, and clearly margined above
and at the sides, the top being semi-circular ; at the sides
of the pronotum is a thick tuft of white hair. Scutellum
large, the apex rugosely punctured ; the cup large, oval, its
apex projecting, and with a shallow transverse, oval fovea ;
the basal foveae large, deep, wider than long, distinctly
separated ; there is a well marked transverse furrow in front
of them. Metanotum excavated deeply in the centre, with-
out keels, the apex punctured ; the metapleurai densely
covered with white hair. Abdomen a little longer than the
thorax, compressed ; the hair fringe gray, narrow, distinct ;
the apex and ventral surface widely rufous. Radial cellule
elongate, twice longer than wide ; completely closed ; the
second abscissa of radius distinctly curved, three-fourths of
the length of the third, which is only slightly curved at the
apex ; the cubitus complete.

The $ has the antennae somewhat more than twice the
length of the body ; the third joint curved and a little longer
than the fourth.

This is a true Eucoila, intermediate as regards most
structural points between Eucoila and PsicJiacra, Foerster,

Length (? 2, ? nearly 3 mm.

70 Proceedings.

{^Microscopical and Natural History Section?^

Ordinary Meeting, December 17th, 1888.

Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

Dr. Alex. HodgkinsoN exhibited under the micros-
cope, crystals of chlorate of potash, showing iridescent
colours, and explained the cause of these colours.

Mr. Stirrup exhibited a fruit of a silver fir, Abies
Douglasii, from Sir U. Kay Shuttleworth's estate in North
Lancashire.

Mr. P. Cameron made a communication on Pj'ret/nmn,
and its use as an insecticide ; describing its cultivation in
California, and its manner of use in America.

Proceedings. 71

Ordinary Meeting, December 27th, 1888.

Dr. James Bottomley, B.A., F.C.S., in the Chair.

The following communication from Mr. James Nasmyth,
F.R.A.S., &c., was read : —

" Hammerfield, Penshurst, Kent,
"December 21st, 1888.
"Dear Sir,

" Under the impression that the accompanying photo-
graph, taken from my original drawing of a group of sun-
spots may interest the members of the Manchester Philo-
sophical Society, I have much pleasure in sending it for
their acceptance,

" The remarkable objects seen in the photograph which
form the light-giving constituents of the solar surface, were
discovered by me on June 5th, 1864, when the condition of
our atmosphere happened to be in a most favourable con-
dition for my observation of such comparatively minute
details of the sun's surface.

" My discovery of them has been amply verified by Sir
George Airey, the then Astronomer Royal, as also by
Mr. Stone, Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, and by Mr. Warren de la Rue, and others.

" Believe me, 1 am,

" Yours very respectfully,

"James Nasmyth.

" To the Secretary of the

"Manchester Philosophical Society."

72 Proceedings.

Dr. BOTTOMLEY introduced the subject of the death-
rate and recent correspondence in the local newspapers on
smoke abatement. In the discussion which ensued it was
suggested that if the adoption of smoke-consuming furnaces
were to be accompanied by the abolition of tall chimneys,
the advantages of diminished smoke might possibly be off-
set by the invisible deleterious gases being concentrated in
the lower part of the atmosphere, instead of being diffused
at an altitude where they would be unlikely to be injurious.
Mr. R. F. Gwyther raised the question whether a smoke-
less fire might not give off carbon monoxide, and asked
how this gas would be eliminated from the atmosphere.
Mr. John Angell argued that the apparently perfect com-
bustion in well-arranged smokeless furnaces implied the
absence of the monoxide from the products, but admitted
that in the case of smokeless house fires or stoves the danger
alluded to by Mr. Gwyther might exist.

Proceedings. 73

General Meeting, January 8th, 1889.

Professor OsBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President in the Chair.

Mr. T. W. Brownell, of Manchester; Mr. CHARLES
James Heywood, of Pendleton ; and Mr. James Rait
Beard, of Longsight, were elected ordinary members.

Ordinary Meeting, January 8th, 1889.

Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

The President mentioned that he had found by a calcu-
lation that the quantity of water passed per hour through
the condensers of the steamship "City of New York," with
18,000 horse-power, equalled the average consumption of
water per hour in Manchester.

Mr. F. J. Faraday, F.L.S., communicated a paper by
M. C. Tondini de Ouarenghi, of the Bologna Academy of
Sciences, on "The unification of the measure of time, with
special reference to the contest on the initial meridian."

74 M. TONDINI on the

On the unification in the measure of time, with special
reference to the contest on the initial meridian.
By C. Tondini de Quarenghi. Communicated by
F. J. Faraday, F.L.S.

(Received December zytJi, iS88.)

I.

As early as the year 1862, the International Statistical
Congress held at Berlin, impressed by the many inconveni-
ences and delays resulting from the simultaneous existence
of different calendars, approached the Imperial Government
of Russia with the following representations : —

" The International Statistical Congress professing that
"the principal object of its meeting is the improvement of
" statistical publications undertaken by the several States, as
"well as the unification of the same, in order that their
" results may be actually compared ;

" Considering that uniformity and unification in the
" measure of time is a desideratum of the highest importance
" for many weighty points of science, such, for instance, as
"the assessment of births and deaths for every month of
' the year ; meteorological observations ; the date of the
" appearance of epidemics, and their exact duration ; many
" and various medical observations, and the like ;

" Considering also that the importance of that measure
"is equally evident for every kind of international relations;
" for commerce and the several branches of industry ; for
" railways, and the simplification of many computations ;

" Most respectfully expresses a wish that the Govern-
" ment of His Majesty the Emperor of Russia, and, in
"general, all Christians belonging to the Greek rite, may

Unificatioji in the ineasitfc of time. 75

" adopt for the measuring of time the Calendar generally
" used in Europe."*

If the writer is correctly informed, an Imperial decree
had been actually drawn up ordering, in compliance with
the request of the Berlin Statistical Congress, the general
adoption of the Gregorian Calendar throughout the empire,
but other considerations prevailed. It is only just, however,
to observe that, in 1862, the year of the emancipation of
the serfs, the attention of Russia was diverted by more
urgent reforms, which that of the Calendar might possibly
have endangered.

II.

On January 26, 1888, the Royal " Institute lombardo di
Science e Lettere" of Milan, received a communication " On
the advantages and possibility of the general adoption of
the Gregorian Calendar," and appointed a special committee
to report on the same.f

In March of the same year the Paris Academy of Sciences
allowed a Note " On the Unification of the Calendar " to
be read, appointed a committee to study the question, and
published the note in the Comptes-rendjis.\ Subsequently
several other communications, bearing on the same subject,
were brought before the French Academy.

The Paris Geographical Society, besides receiving at
their meeting of April 6th a first communication : " On
the general adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in its
relation to the universal hour" and, on March i8th, in the
presence of General Tcheng-ki-tong, the Chinese envoy in
Paris, a second paper : " On the Chinese Calendar, a propos
of the Unification of the Calendar," which were printed,

* See the original French text of this important document in the Coiiiptes-
rendus des siances de V Accui&mie des Sciences de Paris, 19 March, 1888, p. 813.
t Rendicoitti del R. Institnto lombardo, Serie II., Vol. XXI., fasc. II.
X Seance du 19 mars, 1888. T. CVI. No. 12, p. 813.

76 M. Ton DIN I on the

together with the General's Reply, in their Comptcs-
rendiis* went so far as to call by a special circular letter,
dated June 2nd, 1888, the attention of all other geographical
societies to the above communications, expressing the wish
that they would support the unification of the calendar, " as
a useful simplification, a real advance, both from a practical
and a scientific point of view, and a step towards the
desired general adoption of one initial meridian and the
same unit of time." As far back as the beginning of April,
1888, this same Society, by a special letter, congratulated
the Bologna Academy of Sciences, on their intention to
profit by the festival of the eighth centenary of the Bologna
University, to give a strong impulse to the unification of
time and promised them : " tout le concours des moyens
dont elle dispose."

An analogous step was taken by the Royal Academy
•of Belgium, as may be seen in the report of M. Folic, the
Director of the Brussels Observatory, headed : " On the
unification of the Calendar, proposed by the Royal Academy
of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna," inserted in the
Belgian Academy's Bulletin. Speaking of Russia, "There
"is a nation," says the Belgian Astronomer Royal, "whose
" assent in the matter would constitute the most valuable
" scientific gift made, in our century, to science."-|'

Coming back to the Bologna Academy of Science, as
early as February 19, 1888, a special committee was ap-
pointed to consider how the approaching festival of the
University jubilee might be turned to the advantage of
science. Professor Santagata's report was, on April 15th,
unanimously approved, and a special memorandum bearing
the title "Unification du Calendrier," was consequently

* Compies-rendits des Stances de laSocictidc G&ographie, 1888, pp. 218 and
307.

\ Bidklin de PAcadi/nie royale de Belgiqite, 3me serie, T. XVI. No. 7,
1888.

Unification in the measnre of time. 77

printed and addressed "Aux savants reunis a Bologne pour

la commemoration du huitieme centenaire de son Univer-

site." A little later the same Academy addressed to all

Universities and scientific bodies which had been represented

at the festival of the centenary a note, dated August 2, on

the progress of the question in its relation to the universal

hour,* and as soon as their attention was called to the

impending Bath meeting of the British Association for

the Advancement of Science, I was requested to profit

by the international character of that meeting, and, as the

Academy's delegate, to do all I could "to give a strong

impulse to the studies connected with the unification of

the Calendar."

III.

The Bologna Academy of Science, fully aware that the
first condition of success is to propose to one's self things
reasonable, has declared that the desired unification of the
Calendar ought to be urged " within wise limits." " This
Academy," they say, " beg to remark that the Universal
" Calendar, being merely intended to serve international
" relations and scientific purposes, will no more impede
" the maintenance and use of national calendars, with their
" own particular divisions, than the universal hour will be
"likely to impede the maintenance and use of the local
" hours. The abolition of the national calendars, provided
" they be correct, is by no means aimed at by our Academy,
" and the very circumstance of the festival in celebration of
"the eighth jubilee of our University witnesses to our
" respect for, and profound attachment to, the traditions of
" the past. Simplification is not levelling, and it would
"indeed be a poor service rendered to science to deprive
" people of the means of understanding their past history.
" The very fact, moreover, that all Christian countries employ

* Siir les derniers pr ogres de la question de runification dti Cakndrier, dans
ses rapports avec Fheiire imiverselle. Bologne, Gamberini, 1888.

78 M. TONDINI on tne

" two calendars, the one solar for civil usages and the other
" lunar for determining the epoch of movable feasts as well as
^' of many national feasts and customs, is a sufficient caution
" against unfounded or purposely excited alarms. As long
*'as there shall be on earth Israelites, tracing the origin of
^' their rites to Moses and Sinai, the Israelite calendar will
" not cease to exist ; as long as there shall be Christians
*' considering the Synagogue as an image and preparation of
" the Church, and anxious to keep, in the distribution of their
" solemnities, the order of those of the ancient law, the lunar
" calendar of the Jews will always be used. Let the same
" be said of the religious and national feasts of Musselmans,
" Chinese, and other people, distributed according to lunar
" calendars. Experience alone will by and by lead them to
" consider in what measure it would be for them more
"advantageous to adopt for civil usages the universal
" calendar. But before deciding on this point they must
" be led to feel its necessity or, at least, become aware of
" its utility, and this of course depends on local circum-
" stances and concerns every State in particular. No
" reflecting man will ever expect from a Chinese labourer
" who, living in the interior of the Empire, does not come
" into contact with foreigners, and who also feels thoroughly
" satisfied with the national civilisation, that with regard to
" the unification of time he should partake of the ideas of an
American or an Englishman."*

IV.

The wisest course to be taken for hastening the said
unification is to support the general existing movement in
favour of the so-called "universal hour" or "universal day."
A Calendar equally universal will come as the necessary
result of the adoption of a universal unit of time.

" The Fifth Resolution of the Washington International

* Unification du Calendrier. — pp. 14-15.

Unification in the measure of time. 79

*' Conference of 1884," — thus again the Bologna Academy of
Sciences — " proposes as * universal day ' the mean solar
"day, submultiple of our solar year. But neither in the
" notation of dates, nor in international relations, nor in the
" determination of the moment of scientific phenomena, can
" that ' universal day ' be isolated from a month and a year
" perfectly designated. We are consequently and forcibly
*' in presence of the question whether, in order to indicate
" that month and that year, a new chronology and a new
"calendar should be created, or we should resort to a
" chronology and a Calendar already in use. No one, we
" believe, will seriously think of creating anything new : the
"least inconvenience of such a scheme would be, if not
" entirely to break with the past, to augment, without any
"advantage, the difficulty of recurring to it. Far from
" hailing such a creation of a new calendar as an advantage
" for science, we should consider it as disastrous. Now, the
" choice among the existing calendars cannot be doubtful.
" Hence, the Bologna Academy of Sciences do not hesitate
"to express their conviction that, everything taken into
" account, and considering the advantage not merely of one
" particular science only, but of the whole hiinianmn scibile,
" the frank and entire adoption of the Gregorian Calendar
" is the measure which would best serve the interests both
"of science and humanity. A more regular division of the
" number of days for every month should be, at any rate,
" the maximum reform applied to our Calendar."*

The same opinion is expressed as the result of a critical
examination of our Calendar by Prof Forster, the Superin-
tendent of the Berlin Observatory, with the only additional
remark — which, of course, is already admitted by the
Bologna Academy of Sciences — that the intercalary day
of every leap year, should be assigned to the month of
December, and Dr. Forster seems also inclined to recommend

* Sur les derniers progres, etc. — p. 11-12.

8o M. Ton DIN I on the

what he calls " this last desirable simplification of our way
of measuring time" as a "compensation (Gegengabe)," offered
to the members of the Greek Church for their giving up
their special calendar, and thus entering into a complete
agreement with the civilised world in their way of dating
time* Alluding, moreover, to the many projects for a
more perfect way of intercalation, Prof Forster makes the
following truly scientific remark : — " The agreement of the
Gregorian year with the course of the sun is now sufficient,
and secured for a length of time beyond which our present
knowledge of the constant alterations in the duration of
the solar year is not able to reach." In other words : it
would be unscientific, as well as unwise, to make provisions
to secure the above agreement for a time before the coming
of which we may be obliged to alter our intercalary arrange-
ment again.

It is indeed satisfactory to have to announce such a
perfect agreement between the representatives of science in
different countriesf , and to make it, as it were, even more
satisfactory, owing to the special importance of the question.
Prof Forster, speaking in another pamphlet, of the " uni-
versal day," besides assuming as needing no proof, that it
will be dated according to the Gregorian Calendar, remarks,
by the way, that " Russia will thus gain the advantage of
having her Julian date absorbed {absorbirf) by the Gregorian
one."+

V.

That Russia had a prominent part in stirring up the

* FoRsrER (Wilh.), Ziir Beurtlieilung einiger Zeitfras;en, inshesondere
gegen die Einfilhrung emer detitschen Norinalzeit. Inserted in the Deutsche
Revue of 1881, Berlin. I. Band, p. 365,

t See also : Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of IVashington ; Meeting
of January 30, 1875, Vol. II., pp. 29, 30. Boletin de la Sociedad de geografia
estadistica de la Repuhlica Mexicava. Teriera epocha, Febrero 28, 1873. T.I.
p. 143, etc., etc.

X Forster (Wilh.). Ort'cit und IVeltzeit, Berlin, 1884, p. 20.

Unification in the measure of time. 8 1

question of the universal hour, is a well-known fact ; and
no Power gave more support to Mr. Sandford Fleming's
initiative, through the Canadian Institute, than Russia her-
self As far back as February 4th, 1870, Dr. Struve read
before the Imperial Geographical Society of St. Petersburg
a most important paper concerning the initial meridian,*
and his verdict was so authoritative that Prof Forster
and other scientific authorities referred to it as settling the
question. Unfortunately the International Geographical
Congress of Venice (188 1 ), the International Geodetic As-
sociation of Rome (1883), and, finally, the International
Meridian Conference, held at Washington in October, 1884,
proved equally fruitless, chiefly for want of agreement on
the initial meridian.

That things are now no more advanced than before the
Geographical Congress of Venice, is demonstrated by the
message of the late President of the United States to
the Congress, dated January 9, 1888, recommending the
Government "to take action to approve the resolutions
passed in 1884, and to invite the Powers to accede to the
same." These resolutions are consequently not approved
yet, not even by the Washington Government, nor have
the other Powers acceded yet to them. Moreover, the
delegates of the different Powers represented at Washington
declared from the very beginning that their presence there
was only ad referendum^ and could not in any way bind
their respective Governments. What these, consequently,
really think on the subject of the initial meridian is un-
known, and they are, at any rate, still at liberty to give or
refuse their adhesion to the Greenwich meridian. Other
Governments not represented at Washington, say China,
Montenegro, Servia, or Roumania, may claim a right to

* Struve (Dr. Otto) O pervoiit meridiane in the Geogyaphicheskia
Invesiia, etc.. No. I, March 15, 1870, pp. i and foil.
F

82 M. TONDINI on the

give advice which may equally result either in diminishing
or increasing the opposition to Greenwich.*

It is alleged that the Greenwich meridian is now used
almost everywhere even for geographical purposes, and
that, consequently, the best course to be taken is to let
things go their own way, until France, who opposed the
adoption of the Greenwich meridian, be morally compelled
in the interest both of science and humanity to give in.
As for the assertion that the Greenwich meridian is now
used almost everywhere, even for geographical purposes, it
should be carefully verified. At any rate exceptions are
to be found almost everywhere. This said, I venture to
advance that, paradoxical as it may appear, no Power is
more anxious that, with regard to the international initial
meridians now in use, no change be made, and that things
should be allowed to "go their own way" than France herself.
What is in fact, now-a-days, the general practice concern-
ing international meridians? That every nation is at liberty
to choose for their marine the meridian they like best, and
to make use either of the Nautical Almanac or of the
Connaissance des Temps, or of any other ephemerides, just
as they choose. Now, what was the respective attitude
of France, on the one side, and of the Powers dissenting
from her on the other, at the Washington Conference?
While France advocated for navigation and astronomy
the maintenance of the status quo, urging the application
of a neutral international meridian to matters to which
an international meridian had not been applied yet, the
Powers advocated the exclusive use for the marine of all
nations, of the Greenwich meridian and the Nautical Almanac
of Greenwich. On which side was the proposal of a change ?

*The following are the names of the twenty-six States represented at
Washington in 1884 : Austria-Hungary, Brazil, Chili, Columbia, Costa Rica,
Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Guatemala, Hawais, Italy, Japan,
Liberia, Mexico, Netherlands, Paraguay, Russia, San Domingo, Salvador,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United States, Venezuela.

Unification in the measure of time. 83

Consult the proceedings of the Washington Conference,*
and the official Report on the same by Dr. Janssen, the
President for 1888 of the Paris Academy of Sciences.f

It is customary to attribute the failure of the Con-
ference to a wounded national susceptibility of France.
That France had, after all, some reason for feeling wounded,
is the impression which one cannot help having when
carefully perusing the above documents ; yet the evidence
of facts goes to prove that the failure was not due to this,
but to a motive of a purely scientific nature and preceding in
point of time the debates of the Washington Conference.

In August, 1884, consequently two months before the
Conference, the French Minister of Public Instruction ap-
pointed a special committee composed of standard repre-
sentatives of science and men having a special competence
to give advice on the practical side of the question, charging
them carefully to consider the proposals which were to be
brought before the Conference. The conclusions of the
committee are given in a remarkable report by M. Caspari,
one of its members : \ " For navigation the question is
" extremely simple ; it does not find the least inconvenience
" in the statu quo ; it would find very great inconveniences
" in its modification. . . . We may say in conclusion that,

* House of Representatives. Executive Document, No. 14 ; Forty-eighth
Congress, Second Session, December 4th, 1884.

t CoTnptes-rendtis hebdoviadaires des Seances de P Acadimie de France.
9 Mars, 1885, pp. 706 — 726.

+ Here are the names of the members of that Committee : MM. Faye,
President, d'Abbadie, Bouquet de la Grye, Senator Dupuy de Lome, Janssen,
Vice- Admiral Jurien de la Gravi^re, Ferd. de Lesseps, Liewy, Contre- Admiral
Mouchez, Perrier, Vice-Admiral Paris, Tisserand, Wolff, all members of the
Institute of France. Moreover : MM. Blavier, director of the Superior
Telegraph School ; Gael, director ingenieur of telegraphs ; Caspari, hydro-
grapher ingenieur of the marine ; Charmes, director of the Secretaryship at the
Ministry of Public Instruction ; de Chancourtois, General Mines Inspector ;
Clavery, minister plenipotentiary director at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ;
Colonel Goulier, of the French G4nie ; Colonel Laussedat, of the French
Ghtie, and director of the Co7iservatoire des arts et m&tiers ; Noblemaire,
director of the Railway Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee,

84 M. TONDINI on the

" generally speaking, the unique initial meridian is rejected
" by astronomers, geodetists, and navigators ; that is by all
" those for whom the origin of longitudes ought to be traced
"with a great precision." On the other hand, "For general
" geographical cartography, especially for usage in the schools
"... for meteorology, physics, geology, and the telegraph
"service (provided it be without prejudice to the local hour)
"there are only advantages in trying to have a common
"initial meridian. . . . France, who in many respects has
" already opened the way to such international agreements,
" cannot stand aloof in the present case ; she can and must
" give her support to reforms wisely directed."*

In compliance with the instructions of the Committee,
and acting, moreover, on his own scientific convictions, Dr.
Janssen, the delegate of France at Washington, did all he
could to obtain that the Conference would previously discuss
the above important distinction. " Whilst there is advan-
" tage," he said, " in increasing the number of Observatory
" meridians, it is necessary to reduce as far as possible the
"origines of geographical longitudes.f Now it is evident

* The original French runs as follows : — " Pour la marine la question est
des plus simples ; elle ne trouve pas le moindre inconvenient au stahi quo,
elle en verrait de tres-graves \ le changer. . . . Nous pourrons dire que, d'une
fa5on generale, le meridien initial unique est repousse par les astronomes, les
geodesiens et les navigateurs, c'est-a-dire, par tous ceux pour qui I'origine des
longitudes a besoin d'etre definie avec une grande precision. . . .

" Pour la cartographic geographique generale, et surtout pour I'enseigne-
ment, il n'y aura que desavantages a tendre vers un meridien initial commun. . .
Nous avons fait valoir plus haut ces considerations ainsi que celles relatives a
I'heure universelle pour les meteorologistes, les physiciens et les geologues. Pour
le service telegraphique aussi, s'il est bien entendu que I'heure locale sera
conservee et si Ton obtient la transmission d'office de I'heure universelle sans
prejudice de I'heure locale. . . La France qui, a bien des egards, a ouvert la voie
a ces ententes internationales, ne peut done se desinteresser dans le cas present ;
elle peut et doit preter son concours a des reformes sagement conduites." —
[^Rapport Jait au nom de la Commission de Punijication des longitudes et des
hejires, par M. Caspari, ingenieur hydrographe de la marine. Aout 1884,
pp. 5, 6et 17.)

+ Quoted in the above report on the Washington Conference, 1. c. p. 712.
" Tandis qu'il y a interet a multiplier les meridiens d'Observatoires, il y a necessite
de r^duire, autant qu'on le peut, les origines des longitudes en geographie."

Unification in the measure of time. 85

that Dr. Janssen went to the very root of the question at
issue, and that a statement like his raised a doubt which
ought previously to have been dissipated by a fair discus-
sion. Instead of this, the choice of Greenwich, for all
international purposes, was carried, as it were, by acclama-
tion. Moreover, whilst Sir G. B. Airy, late Astronomer
Royal of Greenwich, in a letter dated June 18, 1879, to the
Secretary of State for the Colonies, said : " Nearly all
navigation is based on the Nautical Almajmc, which is
based on Greenwich observations and refer to Greenwich

meridian I, as Superintendent of the Greenwich

Observatory, entirely repudiate the idea of founding any
claim on this"; and whilst, as it was also acknowledged
during the Conference, " a law relative to the unification of
time notation is of less relative importance to the navigator,"*
the preference given at Washington to Greenwich was
almost entirely based on the argument disclaimed by Sir
G. B. Airy. It is not to be wondered at, after all this, if
Dr. Janssen, consistent with his scientific convictions, wrote
in the above Report : " The failure is not for France but for
science," and " The proposal of France (of a neutral inter-
national meridian except for astronomy and navigation) still
represents the impartial, scientific, and definitive solution of
the question, and we think it honourable for our country to
have defended that cause."f

* These are the very words of Dr. Struve, in his Report on the Wash-
ington Conference. It is to be found, together with the letter of Sir G. B.
Airy, a great amount of useful information and most valuable documents on the
question in Mr. Sandford Fleming's (C.E., C.M.G.), Universal oi- Cosmic
Time. Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, July, 1885, Vol. XXI.,
No. 143.

t " Si notreavis, tout scientifiqtie et desinteresse, n'a pasrallie la majorite,
I'echec n'est pas pour la France, il est pour la science," 1. c. p. 724.

" Le meridien propose par la France reste toujours comme representant
la solution impartiale, scientifiqtie, definitive de la question. Nous pensons
qu'il y a honneur pour notre paj's d'avoir defendu cette cause," p. 715.

86 M. TONDINI on the

VII.
On both sides, then, an appeal is made to science.
Now, the well-known Italian writer, Alessandro Manzoni,
remarks somewhere, in his Promessi sposi, that when, in a
contest, each party is only repeating its own argument, the
contest is likely to go on for a long series of generations.
To prevent this being the case with the initial meridian, the
Bologna Academy of Science has recently made an attempt
to conciliate every interest. At the last meeting of the
British Association, held at Bath, I made, as delegate, and
in the name of that academy, the following suggestion : —
" That navigators and astronomers being at liberty to go
" on using their ozvn initial meridians, another truly
" international meridian be chosen for all other
"purposes for which the unification of time is
" required.
"That, moreover, since the Jerusalem meridian has
"already the suffrages of scientific authorities, its
"appropriateness to serve as the universal initial
" meridian be seriously taken into consideration."*
This suggestion I was most kindly allowed to defend before
the committee of Section A (Mathematical and Physical
Science), and I am only too happy to express my thanks
for the way in which I was listened to and the encourage-
ments I there received in my endeavour, not indeed to have
the proposals carried through by all means, but merely to
have them carefully considered. A special committee was
appointed to report on them.

It is hardly necessary for me to remark that, had there
been any serious probability at hand that the Greenwich

* This suggestion was already to be found in the above-quoted Note of the
Bologna Academy of Science. ' ' Siir les dernios progres de la question de
Vtinification dii Caleiidrier daiis ses rapports avec Vheia-e Jiniversel/e," dated
August 2, 1888. pp. 12—14.

Unification in the measure of time. 87

meridian might be universally adopted, the Bologna
Academy of Science would never have thought of making
the proposals, nor would I have accepted a mission, which,
owing to the unavoidable misrepresentations usual in
matters of that kind, makes me appear as advocating, " the
suppression of the Greenwich meridian ! " More than
enough, and I speak by experience, to make me regarded in
England as a kind of bite noire.

As regards the choice of Jerusalem, "where every form
of religion, every nationality of East and West is represented
at one time,"* the Ottoman Government, which has been
already applied to, has shown the most favourable dispo-
sition.f Moreover, the Jerusalem antimeridian would cross
the land of Alaska, where the change of date was already
in use,| whilst should, as it was suggested, the meridian of
Behring Straits have the preference, the interests of science,
requiring a series of Observatories of various kinds and at
different latitudes along the initial meridian, would cause the
Behring one to be, practically, but a fiction, and the real
initial meridian to be its antimeridian. Now the Behring
antimeridian would constitute a German, Hamburg o''
Halle, initial meridian — a circumstance deserving con-
sideration. Let it also be observed, by the way, that the
present Jewish Calendar, reformed in the ivth century by
Rabbi Hillel Hanassi, is based on the Jerusalem meridian.§

* CoNDER (Claude Reignier, lieutenant), R.E. Tent work in Palestine.
London, 1885, p. 162.

t See in the Nouvelle Revue of November 15, the report of Coumbary
Effendi, Director of the Meteorological Observatory at Constantinople,
p. 440 : La Turquie, k Calendrier tuiiversel, et le nieridien initial.

X See Bulletin of the Washington Philosophical Society, Jan. 30, 1875,
p. 38.

§ See, on the present Jewish Calendar, Ideler (Ludwig) Handbuch der
mathefjiatischett und technischen Chronologie, 2nd edit., Breslau, 1883, and
Mahmoud, sur les Calendriers juddique et nnisulinan, in the Memoires des
savants etrangers, couronnes par tAcadeinie royale de Belgique. T. XXVI.
and XXVII.

88 Unification in the measure of time.

The longitude of Jerusalem was first taken by Niebuhr,
then by Seetzen* and Vignes.f Lieutenant Conder, well
known for his survey of Palestine, says, in the Encyclopcedia
Britannica -^ "The geographical situation of Jerusalem has
now been determined by trigonometry to be 31° 46'45"N.,
and 35° 13' 25" E. long, of Greenwich, taken at the dome
of the Holy Sepulchre church." Now, that of the French
Connaissance des Temps is 32° 52' 51" E. Paris, which would
make 35° 13' y" E. Greenwich. The difference is too great
to be overlooked, and it would be important to ascertain
whence it comes.

* See Zach (Baron von) Monatliche Correspondenz XVIII. Gotha, 1808,
P- 537-

t See Connaissance des Temps, 1868. Additions, p. 130. Sur la table
des positions geographiques, par M. Darondeau.

X Encyclopedia Britannica. T. XIII., p. 636. Art. Jerusalem.

Proceedings.

^Microscopical and Natural History Section?^

Ordinary Meeting, January 14th, 1889.

Mr. Charles Bailey, F.L.S., Vice-President of the Section,
in the Chair.

Mr. C. J. Heywood was elected a member of the
Section.

Mr. George Nash Skipp was elected an Associate of
the Section.

Mr. H. Hyde exhibited specimens of wood and stone,
perforated by PJwlas.

Mr. F. Nicholson exhibited Pallas' Sand Grouse,
both sexes, and made a communication on its recent
appearance in England.

Mr. H. C. CtlADWiCK showed a specimen of a rare star-
fish, Goniaster phrygiamis, taken by a North Sea trawler.

Mr. P. Cameron read a paper entitled "Hymenoptera
orientalis, or contributions to a knowledge of the hymen-
opterous fauna of the Oriental zoological region."

90 Proceedings.

General Mectini:^, January 22ncl, 1889.

Professor OsBORNE Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Dr. George Bowman, of Old Trafford, was elected an
ordinary member.

Ordinary Meetin_c,^ January 22nd, 1889.

Professor OsBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Mr. W. H. Johnson called attention to the fact that
commercial copper is now apparently being produced of
greater purity than laboratory " pure " copper, and a dis-
cussion ensued.

Mr. P. Cameron read a paper entitled "■ Hynienoptera
Orientalis, or contributions to a knowledge of the hymen-
opterous fauna of the Oriental zoological region."

During the discussion which followed, Mr. CHARLES
Bailey commented on the fact that the number of
entomologists has steadily decreased all over the world,
there being now very few left ; a circumstance, Mr. Bailey
pointed out, which is the more surprising as no department
of natural history, not even botany, offers so wide a field
of research and so rich a reward in the discovery of new
facts.

Hymc7ioptera Orientalis.

Hymenoptera Orientalis ; or Contributions to a know-
ledge of the Hymenoptera of the Oriental Zoological
Region. By P. Cameron. Communicated by John
Boyd, Esq.

{Received March nth, i88g.)

Part I.
Introduction.

Notwithstanding the large number of our countrymen
who reside in our East Indian possessions, our knowledge
of their insect fauna, even of the Hindostan peninsula, is
exceedingly meagre and fragmentary. A good beginning
has been made towards the study of the Lepidoptera, but
the same can hardly be said of the other orders. As regards
the Hymenoptera, excellent work has been done by our
distinguished countryman, Mr. A. R. Wallace, more par-
ticularly in the Islands ; and his labours have been recorded
in numerous papers by my late friend, Mr. Frederick Smith,
of the British Museum. But, with all that, very much
remains to be done before our knowledge of the Oriental
Hymenoptera can be fairly stated to be at all adequate.
The fact that less than 2,000 species have been recorded
from the Oriental region is sufficient evidence of the truth
of this statement ; and of the need of the attention of
Indian residents being directed to such a promising field
of entomological study.

My own attention was drawn to the inquiry by Mr. G.
A. James Rothney offering to place at my disposal for study
the beautiful and extensive collection formed by him during
many years' residence in India, chiefly in the Calcutta
district. This valuable source of information has been

92 Mr. Cameron on

supplemented by Mr. E. C. Cotes, lending me the material
in the Calcutta Museum ; by a large collection belonging
to the Bombay Natural Society, formed by Mr. R. C.
Wroughton, District Forest Officer at Poona; and by various
small collections, including a small, but very interesting one,
made by Mr. George Lewis, in Ceylon.

In order to make this paper as useful as possible, more
particularly to Indian residents, I have given : —

(i) A catalogue of all the known species, with their
localities, synonyms, habits, &c.

(2) Descriptions of rare or imperfectly known species.

(3) Descriptions of the new species.

(4) A list of all the works and papers relating to the
Oriental Hymenoptera, and

(5) Observations on their geographical relations.

Mr. Rothney's collecting was chiefly in the Calcutta
district, namely, in the neighbourhood of the City ; in
Barrackpore, Sittaghui, Samnugga, Ishapue, Serampue,
Chandauague, Gusery ; at Port Cauumy to the south,
Burdwan to the north ; Nischindepue to the north-east.
Also in Tirhoot, Bengal ; Mussourie, North-west Province
(in September and October), in Allahabad, North-west
Province ; and a few species from Dargeeling, Madras,
Bombay, and Ceylon.

Mr. Wroughton's collecting is principally from Poona
(Dekhan) and Bombay.

SPHEGIDyE.

Ammophila.

Ammophila, Kirby, Trans. Linn. Soc. IV., p. 195.
Psammophila, Dahlbom, Hyin. Ent. I., p. 16.
Parapsamnwpliila, Taschenberg, Zeits. f. d. ges. Natuviv.
in Halle. XXXIV.

Hyinenoptcra Orieiitalis. 93

List of species of ^i///;//^/////!?? known fronn the Oriental
region.

(i.) Petiole 2-jointed :

1. Atripes, Smith, Ann. and Mag., Nat. Hist. IX., 1852,

p. 46; Cat. Hymen. Ins., IV., p. 217, 43.
Hab. India. Common in Calcutta district {Rot/mej).
Khandala (Smith), Sumatra, China, Shanghai.

2. BASALIS, Smith, Cat. Hymen. Ins. IV., 214, 17.
Hab. North India, Punjaub.

3. BUDDIIA, Cam., infra.

Hab. Calcutta district, not uncommon.

4. DlMiDlATA, Smith, /. c. 216, 40.

Hab. India (Bombay, Madras, N. Bengal).

5. ELEGANS, Smith, /. c. 216, 42.
Hab. North India (Punjaub).

6. FUSCIPENNIS, Smith, Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool. VII.,

p. 187(1870).
Hab. Mainpuri, North-west Province.

7. HUMBERTIANA, Saussure, Reise d. Novara, Hyni. 25.
Hab. Ceylon.

8. L/EVIGATA, Smith, I. c. 215, 39, de Saussure, Reise d.

Novara, Hyni. 23.
Hab. India (Madras, Guzerat), Barrackpore {Rot/uiey),
Ceylon (Cutchevilly).

9. LONGIVENTRIS, Saussure, /. e.
Hab. Ceylon.

10. NiGRlPES, Smith, I.e. 215, 38.

Hab. India (Madras), Barrackpore {Rothney).

11. PUNCTATA, Smith, 218, 46.
Hab. Northern India.

12. Orientalis, Cam., infra.

Hab. Barrackpore, Allahabad {Rothney).

94 Mr. Cameron on

13. Smithi (Baly), Smith, I.e. 217, 45.
Hab. India.

14. SUPERCILLIOSA, Saussure, /. c. 24.
Hab. Philippines (Manila).

1 5. Taschenbergi, Cam. A mmophila erythropus, Taschen-

berg, Zeits. f. d. gesamnite Naturw. XXXIV. 434
{non Smith).
Hab. Java.

16. Vagabunda, Smith, /. c. p. 218, 47.
Hab. North China, North India, Sumatra.

17. ViSCHU, Cam., infra.

Hab. Mussoorie Hills, North-west Province.

(ii.) Petiole zvith one joint {P sammophila).

18. HiRTICEPS, Cam., infra.
Hab. Gilgit (Mus. Calcutta).

(iii.) Tarsal claws with tzuo teeth at the base {Para-
psammophila).

19. ViOLACElPENNis, Cam., infra.

Hab. Sambhalpur, Poonah ( Wronghton).

20. Erythrocephala, Fabricius. Sphex erythrocephala.

Fab. Ent. Syst. II., 204, 23.
Ammophila erythrocephala, St. Fargeau, Hist. Nat. Ins.

Hyni. III., 385, 26.
Hab. North India (Punjaub), Poona ( Wroughton).

A. Mesothorax transversely striolated. {Ammophila, sensu
sir.)

Ammophila buddha, sp. mv.
Nigra, fnsco hirta,petiolo, scapo,femoribus, tibiis tarsisqiie,
rufis, abdoinine c(2ruleo; alis flavo-hyalinis, apiceferefumatis,
nervis testaceis. Long. 25 mm.

Antennae short, thick ; the second joint two-and-a-half
times the length of the fourth. Head broad, retreating

Hynienoptera Oricntnlis. 95

behind the eyes, which are large and almost parallel ;
covered with a short sparse white down, and sparsely with
longish black hairs ; front and vertex obliquely aciculated,
the former only excavated immediately above the antenn.'E
and without a longitudinal furrow ; clypeus sparsely punc-
tured ; its apex almost transverse in the middle, the sides
somewhat oblique ; the centre slightly incised ; mandibles
obscure reddish towards the centre, the outer side broadly
at the base striolated. Thorax covered with a fuscous
pubescence ; the tubercles and a spot on either side of the
median segment silvery. Pro- and mesonotum strongly
transversely striolated, the striolations rather widely sepa-
rated ; propleurae obliquely striolated ; meso- and meta-
pleunie longitudinally rugosely punctured ; metanotum
transversely rugosely punctured ; scutellum longitudinally
striolated ; mesonotum with a shallow channel in the centre ;
metanotum not elevated in the centre ; a shallow indistinct
furrow below the spiracles. Petiole longish ; the second
joint usually blackish at the base. Coxae covered with a
dense moderately long silvery pile ; the trochanters, tibiae
and tarsi, with a shorter and thinner one ; hind coxae
coarsely punctured ; tarsal spines black ; fore calcaria red ;
hinder black, reddish at base ; apex of tarsi black. Second
cubital cellule at top a little wider or a little narrower than
the space bounded by the recurrent nervures ; third cubital
cellule a little wider at top than at bottom, the second
transverse cubital nervure bent outwardly at the bottom ;
tegulae blackish to piceous.

A. humbertiaiia, Saus. from Java, seems to be the nearest
ally of this species, but it has the metanotum "postice
oblique in V-formam elevato-strigato," and the trochanters
are not black. A. basalis is also nearly related to it, but is
smaller (15-17 mm.), has the face silvery pilose, densely
so on the clypeus ; the head smooth, impunctate, wings
hyaline, &c. Barrackpore ; Allahabad, N. W. Province.

96 Mr. Cameron on

Ammophila orientalis, sp. nov.

Nigra, arge^iteo Jiirta ; femoribns, tilnis, f arsis, petiolo,
abdominisqne segniento i° fere toto, rufis, alis Jiyalinis vel
fusco-hyalinis, apice fiimatis, costa testacea ; nervis nigris ;
abdomine ccEndeo. ?. Long. 17 — 19 mm.

Similar to the preceding species, but smaller, with the
pubescence shorter and sparser, and of a more silvery tint ;
the wings without such a decided yellowish tinge, and with the
nervures blackish ; the first abdominal segment is red, except
at the apex, and the third antennal joint is shorter, not being
twice the length of fourth. Mandibles broadly red at the
base, which is striated ; clypeus punctured, densely covered
with a silvery pubescence ; its apex with a broad shallow
sinuation ; front and vertex shagreened, sparsely and shortly
pilose. Antennae with the base of first joint testaceous, the
flagellum covered with a pale pile. Pro- and mesonotum
strongly transversely striolated ; metanotum more closely
and not so strongly ; scutellum strongly longitudinally
striolated ; propleura perpendicularly striolated, meso- and
metapleura obliquely rugosely striolated ; the raised part of
the metanotum shield-shaped. The tubercles and the sides
of the middle segment densely silvery pilose. The second
joint of the petiole is black above at the base ; the apex
has a silky pile ; the hind coxae are white with a dense
silvery white pubescence ; the trochanters are red, blackish
towards the base and apex, the anterior broadly black at
the base ; the tips of four anterior tarsi and the posterior
from the base of the second joint blackish ; spurs blackish.
Alar cellules pretty much as in y4. biiddha. The ocelli do
not form a triangle ; the anterior not being placed very far
in front of the posterior.

The clypeus and tegulae in some specimens are tes-
taceous ; the apex of the second joint of the petiole may be
black ; the basal joint of the antennse may be testaceous,

Hynienoptera Oriental'is. 97

and the middle joints may show a tendency towards fuscous
coloration. In size there is some variation.

Ammophila nigripes, Smith.
A specimen from Barrackpore agrees with Smith's
description so far as it goes. It is fully one line longer ;
the hair on the thorax is longish and tolerably thick ; the
clypeus is broadly transverse at the apex, the sides being
angled ; the mesonotum is furrowed in the centre ; the legs
are thickly pruinose ; the second cubital cellule at the top
is about one-fourth shorter than the third, and about equal
in length to the space bounded by the second recurrent and
second transverse cubital nervures ; the third cubital cellule
is almost equal in length at top and bottom, and the third
transverse cubital nervure is sharply elbowed a little below
the middle.

Ammophila atripes, SviitJi.
The Barrackpore specimens of this species, as named by
Smith, are uniform in coloration — black, the second joint of
petiole is red beneath, the first joint black, the other seg-
ments steel-blue ; the wings more or less fuscous, the
nervures black. Face and clypeus densely covered with
silvery white pile ; apex of clypeus transverse, the sides
rounded ; vertex and front with scattered punctures, shining.
Pro- and mesonotum strongly transversely striolated ; meta-
notum more closely and not so strongly ; scutellum and post
scutellum longitudinally striolated ; pleurae rugose. The
pubescence on the thorax is short and cinereous ; the
abdomen is thickly pruinose. At the top the second cubital
cellule is about one-half the length of the third, and a little
more than the space bounded by the second recurrent and
second transverse cubital nervures ; the third cubital cellule
is nearly equal in length at top and bottom ; the third
transverse cubital nervure is elbowed near the middle. The
H

98 Mr. Cameron on

female agrees in coloration, punctuation, and clothing with
the male.

Differs from A. nigripes in being longer, in having the
hair on the thorax less dense and shorter, the clypeus more
rounded at the apex, the mesonotum with the central furrow
less distinct, the wings darker, and with black nervures.

Barrackpore — common.

B. mesoiwtum punctured.

Ammophila Vischu, j/. nov.

Nigra, nitida, punctata; apice petioli, abdouiinisque
segmentis i — 2, nifis ; alls fuscis. Long. 22 — 24 mm.

Antennae stout, microscopically pilose. Face and
clypeus covered with a silvery white pubescence ; the front
and vertex bear long fuscous hair. Clypeus broad, flat, the
apex margined, truncated ; sparsely punctured. Front
depressed ; a distinct furrow down the centre ; rather
strongly punctured ; the vertex with the punctures more
widely separated. Thorax strongly punctured, the pleura;
and metanotum rugose ; scutellum with the punctures
larger and closer than on the mesonotum ; post-scutellum
rugose. Mesonotum with a distinct furrow, which becomes
wider towards the apex, where it is nearly filled up by a
keel. The pubescence is long and cinereous, long and dense
on the pleurse ; sparser above. The tubercles, an oblique
stripe on the pleura; and the middle segment laterally,
densely covered with silvery pubescence. Second segment
of petiole stout ; the extreme base black. Second segment
above wider than the space bounded by the first recurrent
and first transverse cubital nervures ; the third cellule much
narrowed at the top, usually there not one-fourth of the
length of the bottom. Tegulae black.

The male has the clypeus produced and rounded at the
apex, and is, as well as the face, densely covered with
silvery pubescence.

Hyuiciwptera Or'ientalis. 99

A. punctata, Smith, is apparently closely allied to this
species ; but no mention is made of the mesonotum being
furrowed, and the metanotum is said to have a longitudinal
carina in the centre ; the collar has "a minute tubercle in the
middle," and the wings are hyaline.

Petiole cojuposed of one joint {PsamniopJiihi).

Ammophila HIRTICEPS, Sp. nov.

Nigra; longe nigra Jiirta ; abdonmiis segnioitis 2 — /
riifis ; alis fere hyalinis, apice funiatis, nervis nigris.
Long, fere 15 mm.

Antennae stout ; pilose ; the third joint about one
quarter longer than the fourth. Head hardly punctured ;
covered with long and black hair ; the face and clypeus
densely covered with silvery pubescence ; apex of clypeus
broadly rounded, almost sinuated in the middle ; ocelli
nearly in a triangle ; the posterior separated from the eyes
by about the length of the third antennal joint ; front hardly
depressed. Thorax somewhat punctured ; the scutellum
apparently indistinctly longitudinally striolated ; metanotum
obliquely striolated, furrowed down the centre, and with a
keel in the centre of the furrow. The one-jointed petiole is
a little longer than the second segment, and is covered with
long black hair, the fifth segment is red at the base. Above
the second and third cubital cellules are sub-equal, and the
former above is about three-fourths of the space bounded
by the recurrent nervures ; the third cellule below is about
half the length of the second, and is rounded at the apex
below ; the third transverse cubital nervure bulges outwardly
on the lower half, then retreats towards the second cubital
nervure, thus making the third cubital cellule wider below
than above. Claws reddish.

Owing to the matting of the hair on the head and
thorax, I am unable to make out the sculpture of these
parts clearly. The species is a true PsamniopJiila.

loo • Mr. Cameron on

AmMOPHILA ERYTHROCErHALA, Fab.
This large and striking species is a Pa7-apsaininophila^
The head is large ; the eyes reach only exactly opposite
the level of the hind ocelli, the vertex being much more
developed behind them than usual ; they are quite parallel,
not converging at the bottom as in A. violaccipennis \ the
antennae issue from nearly opposite their middle, and not
so high up as in the latter species ; the clypeus does not
project in the middle, and is truncated at the apex. The
mandibles are very large and projecting, almost as in
Ampulex. The neuration of the wings is very much as in
Violaceipennis. Antennae black, pilose ; the 3 — 4 basal
joints red, the third is nearly twice the length of the fourth..

AmMOPPIILA violaceipennis, Sp. 1101'.

Nigra ; scapo antennaniin,petiolo pedibusqne, rufis ; coxis
apiceqiie tarsoruni nigris, alls violaceis. $ Long. 29 mm.

Head shining, sparsely punctured ; the clypeus and face
covered with silvery pubescence ; the front and vertex with
longish, blackish hair ; clypeus somewhat projecting ; the
apex with a distinct margin, a little sinuated ; mandibles
broadly red in the middle. The antennae incline to fuscous
beneath, especially at the base ; the third joint is longer
than the first and second joints united, and about one-fourth
longer than the fourth. Thorax densel}- covered with
blackish hair ; coarsely punctured ; the mesonotum rugosely
striolated in the middle at the apex ; scutellum coarsely
rugosely striolated ; metanotum coarsely rugosely punctured
in the middle, at the sides obliquely striolated ; the pleurse
coarsely rugosely striolated. Pygidium broadly rounded,
pilose. Second and third cubital cellules above subequal ;
the transverse cubital cellules elbowed towards the middle,
thus making the third cubital cellule wider in the middle
than at top or bottom ; the first recurrent nervurc is received

Hyjnenoptcra Oncntalis. i.Oj

before the middle of the cellule ; the second at nearly the
length of the third cubital cellule at the bottom from the
apex ; at the top the second cubital cellule is as wide as the
space bounded by the recurrent nervures.

This species belongs to Parapsanunophila, Taschenberg,
which is chiefly distinguished from Ainnwphila and Psani-
:viophila by the tarsal claws being bidentate at the base.

Pelopoeus.
Pelopoeus, Latreille, Hist, Nat. Ins. XIII.
C/ialybiofi, Dahlbom, Hyni. Ent. I., p. 21.

Catalogue of the oriental species of Pelopoeus : —

1. P. BENIGNUS, Smith, P roc: Linn.' See. II., loi, i nee

P.Javaniis, I. c. Vol. III., 15, note.
Hab. Borneo, Singapore, Java.

2. P. BENGALENSIS, Dahlbom, Hyni. Eur. I., 433, 2.
Hab. India, Philippines, China, Mauritius.

3. P. BILINEATUS, Smith, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. IX.,

47 (1852).
Hab. Bombay.

4. P. COROMANDELICUS, St. Fargeau, Nat. Hist. Ins.

Hyni. III., 302, 2.
P.fuscus, St. Fargeau, /.c 311,9.
Hab. Coromandel, Bengal, Central India.""

5. P. CURVATUS, Smith, Trans. Linn. Soe. Zool. VII.,

p. 187.'
Hab. Mainpuri, North-west Provinces.

6. P. FERVENS, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soe. II., loi, 2.
Hab. Java, Borneo.

7. P. Javanus, St. Fargeau, Nat. Hist. Ins. Hyni. III.,

306, 9.
Hab. Java, Malacca.

102 Mr. Cameron on

8. P. Madraspatanus, Fabricius, Syst. Pierj. 203, 3.
Hab. Bengal, Madras.

9. P. RICTUS, Smith, Cat. Hyiii. Ins. IV., 231, 22.
Hab. India.

10. P. SEPARATUS, Smith, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. IX.,

47 (1852).
Hab. Bombay.

11. P. SOLERI, St. Farg., Nat. Hist. Ins. Hym. III.,

318, 18.
Hab. India, (Smith). St. Fargeau gives Guadeloupe
as the Habitat of this species.

12. P. SPINOL.E, St. Farg. /. c. 307, 4.
Hab. Bombay, Ceylon.

13. P. SUMATRANUS, Kohl, VcrJi. z.-b. Ges., JVien 1883,

P- 375-
Hab, Sumatra.

14. VIOLACEUS, Fab., {SpJiex) Ent. Syst. II., p. 201, 12;

Lep., Nat. Hist. Hym. III., p. 321 ; Andre, Species

d» Hym. III., p. loi.
Pepsis violaceo, Fab., Syst. Pie.z. p. 211, 16.
Chalybion violaceiim. Dbm., Hym. Ent., p. 432, i.
Pelopoeiis flebilis, Lep., /. c., p. 321, 22.
Hab. Southern and Eastern Europe, " India," Java.

PfiLOPOEUS BENGALENSIS.

This is an external builder, erecting its nests on rough
walls, or corners, on grass, or on leaves. When on a grass
stem the mud is continued far up, thus breaking the out-
line of the cell, which is in consequence not so readily
observed. A solitary cell may be built, or over a dozen
may be placed side by side, the whole being then covered
well over with mud. (Home, Trans. Linn. Soc.NW. p. 163).

Hynienoptera Orien talis. 103

Pelopeous madraspatanus.

Of this abundant species (commonly called the mud-
dauber) an interesting account is given by Home {Trans.
Linn. Soc. VII., p. 161 — 163). In May, June and July the
females are found congregating by small puddles near
wells, treading the mud into little pellets of about the
size of buck-shot, which, when ready, are brought in the
mouth of the insect to the place where the nest is to be
constructed. This is in the most various situations. In
window-sills, in hollows in walls, in locks, in any cavity
between the wall and door-frame ; in a depression on the
floor, anywhere, in fact, inside or near a house. Home relates
how one individual commenced to build in the corner of a
door-frame, where it was crushed every time the door was
opened. Six times did the industrious creature commence
its habitation only to have it crushed every time. It takes
about a day to complete a cell ; two, or three, or five are
built together, the whole being then covered over with a
smooth coating of mud, so that it looks like a dab of mud
accidentally left on the wall. When the cell is finished it is
filled with small spiders to the number of twenty. Spiders
are the regular prey of the Pelopoeiis, but Home has also
seen it store small green caterpillars.

In the pupa state it remains from one to six months
according to the season.

Pelopeous bilineatus.

Unlike P. Madraspatamis, this form does not frequent
houses, but builds on hedges and trees, a favourite position
being a fork in the bough of Lawsonia spinosa. As a con-
sequence of the more exposed situation chosen for its nests,
these are much more solidly built.

Smith thinks that P. bilineatus is only a form of
Madraspatamis.

I04 Mr. Cameron on

Pelopoeus javanus.

Wallace states {Jour. Linn. Soc. Zool. XL, p. 296) that
this species enters houses where it constructs small earthen
cells, which it stores with paralysed spiders as food for its
young. According to Maurice Maindron {Ann. Soc. Ent.
Fr. 1878, p. 390) the largest nests are 7 centimetres long
by 5 in breadth ; contain five cells and are made of treaded
mud, almost black in colour, but covered in parts by a layer
of white earth. The largest and external cell is incomplete
and is formed of a whiter earth than the others. In form
the nests are irregular and arched ; and Wallace (/. ^.)
mentions that they may be plastered over with mud in an
irregular manner, so that the shape is completely hidden.
The cocoon is Je of an inch in length, and of a delicate
brown colour.

P. COROMANDELICUS.

This species has frequently the scutellum and
metanotum without the reddish spot. The clypeus is
reddish towards the apex, which is incised in the middle.
The mesonotum is transversely striated ; the scutellum
finely longitudinally striated, but not nearly so strongly as
the mesonotum ; the pronotum is depressed in the middle ;
the second cubital cellule is not much narrowed above
compared to the bottom, and is broad compared to the
length ; the first recurrent nervure is received a little
before the middle.

Sphex.

SpJiex, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. II., p. 198.

CJilorion^ Latreille, Hist. Nat. Crnst. et Ins. IV., p. 57
{partivi).

PronceuSy Latreille, loc. cit. IV., p. 56 ; Saunders, Trans.
Ent. Soc. III., p. 58.

Priononyx, Dahlbom, Hyni. Ent. I., p. 28.

Harpactopiis, Smith, Cat. Hyni. Ins. IV., p. 264.

Hyuicnoptera Orientalis. 105

I. Tarsal clazvs witJi a single tooth near the middle. = Chlorion,

pt. Latr., Hist. Nat. des Crust, et Ins. III. ; Proiueus,
Saunders, Trans. Ent. Soc. III., p. 58 (i 841).

1. Sphex CHRYSIS.

Sphex ccBridca, Christ, {non Drury) Natiirg. Ins. p. 308,

tab. 30, fig. 6.
Sphex chrysis, Christ, I.e., p. 310, tab. 30, fig. 7 ; Kohl,

Termes. Filzetek. IX., p. 173.
Chlorion lobatum, Fab., Ent. Syst. II., p. 206, 30 ; Syst.

Piez., p. 217, I ; Dahlbom, Hyni.Eur. I., p. 24, i ;

St. Fargeau, Nat. Hist. Hym. Ins. III., p. 330, 3 ;

Smith, Cat. Hym. IV., p. 237.
Chlorion azureum, Lep. et Serv., Encycl. Meth. X.,

p. 451, 2 ; Lep., Nat. Hist. Hvm. Ins. 1 1 1., p. 329.
Common in India all over ; also in Burmah, Singapore,
'Ceylon, China (Hong Kong) Penang and South Africa.

2. Sphex splendida.

Chlorion splendidujn, Fabricius, Syst. Piez., p. 218, 5 ;

Smith, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. VII., p. 32

(1851).
Sphex pulchra, Lep., Nat. Hist. Hym. Ins. III., p. 355.
ProncBus Campbelli, Saunders, Trans. Ent. Soc. III., p. 58,

tab. 5, fig. I.
Hab. North India, Burmah, Bombay (Mus. Calcutta),

Poona ( Wroiighton).

3. Sphex Melanosoma.

Chlorion melanosoma. Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., p. 238 ;

Magretti, B71IL Ent. Ital. XL, p. 578.
Hab. Pondicherry ; Kassala (Magretti).

4. Sphex rugosa.

Chlorion rngosnm, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., p. 239.
Hab. Sumatra.

II. Tarsal claws bidentate ; second cubital cellule narrozved

tozvards the radial, higher than long. — Harpactopns,

io6 Mr. CAxMERON on

5. Sphex .egyptia.

Sphex (sgyptia, Lep., Nat. Hist. Ins. Hym. III., p. 181 ;

Kohl, Termcs. Fiizetek IX., p. 181 ; Taschenberg,.

Zeits. f. d. ges. Natnriv. XXXIV., p. 412 ; Andre,

Species d. Hym. III., p. 147.
Sphex soror, Dahlbom, Hyin. Ent. I., p. 436.
Sphex grandis, Radosz., Hor. Ent. Ross. XII., p. 132, 2.
Harpactopus crudelis. Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., p. 264,.

i., pi. vi., fig. 4.
Hab. Eastern Europe, Syria, Egypt, Mauritius, Madras.

6. Sphex Nivosa.

Harpactopus nivosus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., p. 265, 4.
Hab. North India.

III. Tarsal claws zvith three teeth — Ejiodia.

7. Sphex albisecta.

Sphex albisecta, Lep., Nat. Hist. Ins. Hym. III., p. 358 ,^
Kohl, Termes. Fiizetek, p. 185 ; Andre, Species
d. Hym. III., p. 130; J. H. Fabre, Souvenirs
Entomologiqnes (1879) p. 174.

Sphex albisecta, Lep. et Serv., Encycl. MetJi. X., p. 462, 2.

Sphex trichargyra^ Spinola, Am. Soc. Ent. Fr. VII.,.
p. 466, II.

Enodia albisecta, Dahlbom, Hym. Ent. I., p. 28 and 438 ;
Costa, Fauna Reg. Napoli p. 12, PI. i, fig. 3.

Hab. South and Eastern Europe ; Africa, from Algiers
to the Cape. India.

8. Sphex pubescens.

Sphex fervens, Fab., Syst. Ent. I., p. 346 {nee Linne).
Pepsis pubescens, Fab., Ent. Syst. II., p. 205.
Enodia canescens, Dahlbom, Hym. Ent. IV., p. 28.
Enodia fervens, Dahlbom, /. c. p. 439.
Parasphex fervens. Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., p. 267.
Sphex pubescens. Kohl, Termcs. p. 188 ; Andre, Species. d^
Hym. Ill,, p. 130.

Hyincnoptera Orten talis. 107

Hab. Eastern Europe, Algeria, Guinea, Sierra Leone,
Gambia, Cape of Good Hope ; India, Madras,
Tirhoot {Rothney), and North Bengal ; China.
IV. Tarsal claws ivith two teeth. (Sphex sejisti str.).
9. Spiiex. apicalis.

Sphex apicalis, Smith, Cat. Hyni. his. IV., p. 253 {non
Smith, /. c. p. 262).

Hah. Sumatra.
TO. Sphex argentata.

Sphex. argcntifrons, Lep. Nat. Hist. Lis. Hym. III.,
p. 337 ; Kohl, Termcs Fiizetek IX., p. 196.

Sphex argentata, Fab. Ent. Syst. II., p. 196 ; Dahlbom,
Hym. Ent. I., p. 25. Andre, Species d. Hym. III.,
p. 143 ; Smith, /^/^r. Linn. Soc. (1869), p. 361.

Sphex albifrons, Lep. Nat. Hist. Ins. Hym. III., p. 337, $ .

Sphex metalica, Taschenberg, Zeits. f. d. ges. Nat., Halle.
XXXIV., p. 414.

Hab. Eastern* Europe, North Africa, China, Japan,
India (all over), Ceylon, Java, Amboina, Celebes,
New Guinea, Aru, Ceram, Morty Island ; Africa,
from Egypt to Senegal, Sierra Leone, Angola,
Gaboon, Guinea.

11. Sphex aurifrons.

Sphex aurifrons. Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. III., p. 1577, 3.
Hab. Java, Celebes, Aru, Africa.

12. Sphex aurulenta.

Sphex aurulenta, Fab., Ent. Syst. ; Kohl, Termes. Fiizetek

IX., p. 194.
Pepsis seficea. Fab., Syst. Pie::;., p 211.
Sphex sericea, Dahlbom, Hym. Ent. I., p. 26, 7 ; Lep.,

Nat. Hist. d. Ins. Hym. III., 341, 12.
Sphex fabrecii, Dahlbom, /. c. p. 27 and 438.
Sphex ferruginea, Lep., Nat. Hist. Ins. Hym. III.,

p. 345, 18.
Sphex lincola, Lep. /. c. p. 353, 27, $.

io8 Mr. Cameron on

Sphex ferox, Sn\\\\\ Jour. Linn. Soc. IV., p. 55.

Sp/iex Lepeletierii^ Saussure, Reise d. Novara, Hyiii.
p. 40, 8.

Sphex Godeffroyi, Saussure, Stett. Ent. Zeit. XXX., p. 57.

Hab. China, India, very common in Bengal {Rothney),
Poona( W^r^??/^///^;/), Ceylon, Java, Borneo, Sumatra,
Celebes, Amboina, Manilla, Malacca, Ternate,
Waigion, Bachian, Ceram, Aru, Timor, Floris,
Australia, Cape York.

13. Sphex erythropoda. Cam., infra.
Hab. India {Mns. Cal.).

14. Sphex flavo-vistata.

Sphex JIavo-vistata, Smith, Cat. Hyni. Ins. IV., p. 253, 56.
Hab. India.

15. Sphex nigripes.

Sphex nigripes, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., p. 253, 56;

Kohl. T emu's. IX., p. 197, 32.
Hab. Hong Kong, Java, Kaschmir.

16. Sphex Rothneyi, Cam., infra.
Hab. Allahabad ; Mussourie Hills.

17. Sphex rufipennls.

Sphex ntfipemiis, Fab., Ent. Syst. II., p. 201, 10 ; Kohl,
Ternies Fiisek., p. 198, 33 ; Andre, Species d. Hyni.
III., p. 149 ; Lep., Nat. Hist. Ins. Hyni. III., p. 334,
I ; Dahlbom, Hym. Ent. I., p. 436, 6; Taschen-
berg, Zeits.f d. g. Naturw., Halle, XXXIV., p. 41 1.

Pepsis rnfipefinis, Fab., Syst. Pies., p. 210, 12.

Sphex diabolicus, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. II., p. 100, 3.

Sphex fiilvipennis, Mocsary,Magy. Ak. Terin.Ertek. XIII.

Hab. North Africa, India ; not uncommon in Bengal.

18. Sphex vicina.

Sphex vicina, Lep., Nat. Hist. Ins. Hyni. III., 343, 16.
Hab. India.

Hymenoptera Orien talis. 109

19. Sphex zanthoptera, Cam., hifra.

Hab. Barrackpore, Mussourie Hills {Rothney).

Sphex splendida, Fab.

Rjtfa, abdoviine negro-cccnileo ; alls flavo-hyalinis, apicc
fwnatis, nervis nifo-testaceis. Long. 17 mm.

Scape of antennae on lower side bearing short black,
bristly hairs ; the second joint curved inwardly on the inner
side ; the third thin, more than one-half longer than the
fourth. Head almost shining, sparsely covered with black
hairs ; the front and vertex closely punctured ; the face and
clypeus more shining, imperceptibly punctured ; the labrum
and clypeus fringed with short black hairs, the latter with
two short stumpy teeth on either side of the middle ; a thin
furrow runs down from the vertex to the ocelli ; the central
part of the vertex slightly raised, but not forming a distinct
field. Mandibles bearing long black hairs ; and some stout
furrows towards the middle tooth ; the apex is black.
Palpi reddish. Thorax shining, sparsely covered with short
black hair ; the pronotum strongly striolated ; the top
shining, impunctate, and with a wide and deep furrow in the
centre. Mesonotum with scutellum very shining, almost
glabrous, sparsely and minutely punctured. Median seg-
ment striolated, depressed in the centre and with a furrow
along the sides above; the apex rounded, semi-perpendicular,
and bearing long black hair ; the oblique furrow on pleura
is wide and deep, and is divided at the top by an oblique
raised projecting part. Abdomen shining ; sparsely punc-
tured ; pygidial area covered with long black hairs. Legs
longish ; the hinder row of spines on the hind tibiae black ;
the others reddish, and there is a tuft of black spiny hair on
the apex of the hinder femora. Tarsal spines thick and
stout ; metatarsal brush short, thick, reddish. There are
some stiff black hair on the hinder tarsi before the claws.
Second cubital cellule a little wider at the bottom than at

no Mr. Cameron on

the top, which is a little longer than the top of the third
cellule, the latter being very much narrowed at the top, the
bottom being more than twice the length of the second
cellule, and its apex reaches near to the apex of the radial
cellule. The first recurrent nervure is received a little
beyond the middle of the cellule ; the second quite close to
the second transverse cubital nervure.

Sphex aurulenta, Fab.

A variable species. The commonest Bengal form is
the var. aiumlenta Fab. = Fabricii, Dbm. ^ femiginea,
'Le^.=godefroyi, Saussure. The var. sericea, \^q'^. = Lepele-
tierii, Sauss. also occurs ; but I have not seen any Indian
specimens that could be referred to the var. sericea Fab.=
ferox Smith, a form chiefly distinguishable from var. Lepc-
letierii by the hair on the pleurae and middle segment being
blackish-brown. The S from Bengal is the typical lincola
Lep. The hair on the head and thorax is hoary white;
the wings are hyaline, smoky at the apex ; the abdomen
black, the base and the segments at the apices above and
beneath reddish ; the tegulae and legs are blackish. A $ var.
also is met with ; it has the legs red, except at the base and
the tarsi : the tegulae are red ; the hair cinereous ; and the
abdomen may be red from the petiole, or red only at the
base as in the typical Hneola. This does not quite agree
with the description of >Sf. velox, Smith, which has the hair
fulvous.

Sphex erythropoda, sp. iwv.

Nigra, fusco pitbescens ; pedibiis rufis ; basi apiceqiie
tarsortun, nigris ; alis flavo-hyalinis, apice fninatis. Long.
15 — 18 mm.

Antenna of the usual length ; covered with a sericeous
pile ; the third joint not much shorter than the fourth and
fifth united. Head shining, bearing a scattered punctua-

Hyinejioptera Orientalis. 1 1 1

tion ; the front and vertex sparsely covered with longish
blackish hair ; the cheeks, face, and clypeus densely covered
with silvery pile and with longish fuscous hair. Eyes
slightly converging beneath ; the ocelli hardly forming a
triangle ; a furrow along their side, the furrows meeting
into a V-shaped depression, which has a sharp raised pro-
jection in its centre, Clypeus broadly rounded, the apex
depressed and with a short incision in the centre. Thorax
sparsely covered with a fuscous to black pubescence ; the
pubescence on the middle segment dull fulvous. Pro-
notum with a distinct and broad depression in its centre ;
the mesothorax is also slightly depressed in the centre,
and the scutellum and post scutellum are distinctly
and broadly furrowed. Median segment transversely and
regularly striolated ; a wide and deep furrow in its centre
at the apex, and there is an elongated pear-shaped depres-
sion on the upper part. Abdomen shining, with a plum-
beous tint ; the petiole covered with long black hair, and a
little longer than the coxae ; the pygidial area shagreened,
and with a few scattered punctures. Legs with the coxae,
trochanters and four apical joints of the tarsi and the spines
on the hinder tibiae, blackish.

In the colour of the body and pubescence this species
comes nearest to ^. ntfipennis, but is readily known from it
by the reddish legs. It can hardly, I think, be an extreme
variety of 8. mtmlenta, from which, apart from the dif-
ference in coloration of the head and thorax and their
pubescence (comparing the females), it differs in having
the pronotum more distinctly raised above and separated
from the mesonotum, besides being broadly furrowed in the
centre ; the mesonotum and scutellums are also broadly
furrowed, and the median segment, instead of having three or
four raised ridges, is uniformly and regularly striolated.

The amount of black on the tarsi varies, as does also
the colour of the spines and wings, the latter in one specimen

112 Mr. Cameron on

having the j-ellow tint very feebly developed. The tegular
are for the greater part black.

I have seen four females in the Calcutta Museum col-
lection.

Sphex rufipennis, Fab.

This species appears to be a common one in India.
The colour of the wings varies, the base, especially in the
form diabolicus. Smith, being more or less blackish, and
the yellow tint is something suffused with fuscous.

S. rufipennis has been recorded from South America,
but inasmuch as the $ genitalia differs considerably
from that of the Indian form, it is probable that the
American form, notwithstanding its almost identity in
coloration, size, &c., really represents a different species,
which I have provisionally named *S. erytJiroptera (Biol.
Cent. Am. Hynn. II., p. 30). The form of the scutellum
varies in being more or less deeply furrowed. The S.
rnfipennis. Kohl (Ternies. Fnrjetek, IX., p. 198), is, as I am
informed by Kohl, a different species from rufipennis. Fab.
— Inteipennis, Mocsary, the latter differing from nifipennis,
Kohl in having the post scutellum bituberculate, the
antennae thinner, and the wings black at the base.

Sphex argentata.

This large species is common all over the Oriental

region, extending also into the Australian Islands of the

Malay Archipelago. It is stated by Wallace (Jour. Linn.

Soc, XI., p. 296) to be common in the sandy streets of

Dobbo, in the Aru Islands, and also at flowering shrubs in

Celebes,

Sphex Rothnevi, sp. nov.

Nigra; capite et thorace dense et longe argenteo pilosis;
abdoniine pedibusqite riifis ; coxis, trocJiantcribus basique
femorum, rnfis ; alis Iiyalinis, apice fumatis ; clypeo inciso.
Long. 22 — 24 mm.

HyDienoptera Orientalis. .IJ.3

The face is densely covered with long silvery white hair ;
the front and vertex densely pubescent and covered
sparsely with long gray hair ; clypeus rounded. The
central incision narrow ; eyes slightly converging towards
the bottom ; mandibles reddish ; black at base and apex.
Antennai pubescent ; the third joint fully one-half longer
than the fourth, which is a little longer than the fifth.
Thorax densely covered with a silvery pile ; the pronotum
above, the metathorax and the pleurae thickly covered with
cinereous hair ; a thick line of silvery hair along the tegulaj
on the mesonotum ; finely punctured ; the scutellum shining,,
bearing distinct punctures, and furrowed down the centre.
Median segment with some stout transverse furrows,
opaque ; rounded and narrowed at the apex and nearly as
long as the mesothorax. Petiole black, covered with grey
hair ; and one-half longer than the hind coxae. Abdomen
shining, indistinctly punctured, elongate, sharply punctured
at base and apex ; the apical segments more distinctly
punctured. Legs longish ; broadly black at the base ; the
tibial spines red ; the tarsal reddish in part ; the calcaria
black, red at the extreme apex. The second cubital cellule
is oblique, of equal width at top and bottom and receives
the recurrent nervure a very little beyond the middle ; the
third cellule is longer at the bottom than the second, but at
the top is less than one-fourth of the length ; the recurrent
nervure is received before the middle of the cellule.

The $ does not differ in coloration or sculpture from
the $. The tegulae are reddish. The form of the cubital
cellules and the position of the recurrent nervures vary.

In form this species approaches closely to S. piibescens ;
but the black legs of that insect distinguish it at once.

SpHEX XANTHOrXERA, Sp. nov.
Nigra, argenteo sericeo pubescens ; facie, plenris, pronoto
metathoracegtie, longe cinereo pilosis ; alis flavo-Jtyaliiiisy
apice fumatis. Long. 17 — 18 mm.
I

114 M^- Cameron on

Head closely and minutely punctured ; the pile close ;
the hair on the face and clypeus long and thick ; clypeus
projecting in the middle, not incised ; roundly arched in
the male, which has the hair golden ; the hair on vertex and
front longish, sparse and pale. Mandibles reddish in the
middle. Thorax finely punctured ; the metanotum trans-
versely striated. The pile is close and dense ; on the
pronotum above ; the mesonotum at the sides ; and on the
metathorax the hair is longish and dense ; on the meso-
pleurae it is scarcely so thick. Petiole a little longer than
the hind coxae, densely covered with silvery white hair of
moderate length ; abdomen sericeous, bluish towards the
apex. Legs : coxae densely covered with long silvery hair ;
the femora and tibiae sericeous ; the latter thickly spinose ;
the claws armed at the base with two stout longish teeth.
The tibiae with some stout spines. The second cubital
cellule is a little longer at the top than at the bottom, and
receives the first recurrent nervure at its extreme apex ;
the third cubital cellule at the top is one half of the space
bounded by the first transverse cubital nervure and the
second recurrent.

The male differs in having the hair longer and the pile
denser ; the clypeus more projecting and broadly rounded
at the apex ; the abdomen is longer.

TRIROGMA.

Trirogma, Westwood, Trans. Ent. Soc. Ill,, 223.

I. Trirogma cceriilea, Westwood, /. c., 225, t. 12, f 3 c? ;
Arc. Ent. II., 66, t. 65, f 4?.

Hab. Barrackpore {Rothney), Poona ( Wronghton), Nor-
thern India, Madras,

Ampulicid.e.
Rhinopsis.
' Rhinopsis. Westwood, Arcana Ent. II., 68.

Hyvienoptera Orien talis. 115

RJdnopsis is chiefly distinguished from Ampulex by the
wings having only three cubital cellules, the first and second
being confluent, and by the body not being metallic green
or blue.

Rhinopsis RUFICORNIS, sp. nov.

Niger, antennis, ore, thorace, petiolo, tarsisqiie, rufis ; alis
hyalinis, fnsco bifasciatis ; nervis sordide testaceis. ? Long.
•10 mm.

Antennae shorter than the thorax ; the basal joint curved,
as long as the third, which is two-thirds longer than the
fourth. Head coarsely alutaceous, almost punctured ; the
front keeled, but not distinctly, the keel being interrupted
at the base and apex ; eyes parallel. The keel on the
clypeus projects at the apex into a stout sharp tooth, and
there is a shorter and blunter tooth on either side of this.
Prothorax a little shorter than the head ; the top part raised,
narrowed and separated from the lower, and deeply fur-
rowed in the centre ; the prosternum and extreme base of
pronotum black. Meson otum shorter than the prothorax,
parapsidal furrows slightly diverging at the base, and
there is an indistinct furrow between them. Meta- longer
than the meso-thorax ; the metanotum with a broad, shallow,
somewhat oblique, depression on either side ; in the
centre (between the depressions) are three keels, the central
straight, the lateral converging towards the apex ; but none
of them reach the apex of the metanotum. The meta-
pleurae are smooth, shining, impunctate ; the rest of the
metathorax strongly transversely striolated, running in parts
into reticulations. The apex is rounded, margined ; a blunt
tooth on either side, and the apex roundly and shallowly
incised. The apex is almost perpendicular, broadly fur-
rowed in the centre, and covered with a moderately long
white pubescence. Pro- and mesonotum coarsely aciculated,
sparsely covered with a white pubescence. Petiole smooth,
shining, clavate at the apex ; second abdominal segment as

ii6 Mr. Cameron on

long as all the succeeding segments united ; the latter above
(especially at their junction), as well as the sides of all,
covered with a short pale pubescence. Legs covered with a
white pubescence, the femora thickened in the middle, the
second cubital cellule is narrowed towards the top ; the
transverse cubital nervures are straight. Wings not much
longer than the thorax.

This species is closely related to the European R. rufi^
collis, Cam., but is much larger, the antennae and tarsi are
red, the metanotum is entirely red, the wings are shorter
and not so broadly infuscated in the middle, and with the
nervures for the greater part testaceous ; and the apex of
the petiole is much narrower, thinner, and more club-like.

1. Ampulex compressa.
Ainpulex, Jurine, Hyin. 134.

Sphex compressa, Fab., Ent. Syst. II., 206, 32.

Ampulex compressa, Dahlbom, Hym. Eur. I., p. 29 ; Lep.
Nat. Hist. Lis. Hym. III., p. 325, i ; Smith, Proc.
Linn. Soc. (1869) p. ^i^^)-

Chlorion compressum, Fab., Syst. Pies. p. 219, 7 ; West-
wood, Trans. Ent. Soc. III., p. 227.

A common species, generally distributed over the region.
It preys on Blattidse.

2. Ampulex hospes.

Ampulex hospes, Smith, Cat. Hym. Lis. IV., p. 272, 12;^

Proc. Linn. Soc. II., p. 981.
Hab. Borneo.

3. Ampulex smaragdina.

Ampulex smaragdina, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. II., 19, 3.
Had. Singapore.

■4. Ampulex insularis.

Ampulex insular is, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. II., p. 99, 4.
Hab. Borneo, Malacca.

Hymicnoptera Orientalis. Wj

5. AmpidexiJ) annulipes, Motsulsky, Bull. Mosc. XXXVI.,
(1863).
Hab. Ceylon.

Waagenia.
Waagenia, Kriechbaumer, Ztett. Ent. Zeit. XXXV.,
1874, p. 51.
I. Waagenia sikkimensis, Kriechbaumer, /. c.
Hab. Sikkim.

LARRIDAE.

The specific discrimination in this family is at the best a
work of some difficulty, and the identification of Smith's
species is rendered, in many instances, almost impossible
from the absence in his descriptions of any details of
structure. Pending an opportunity of studying his types I
have left over for future study various species of Notogonia
and allied genera.

PiSON.
Pison, Spinola, Ins. Lig., II., 255 ; Kohl, Verh, z.-b,
Ges. Wieii, 1884, 180.
1. P. (Parapison) agile.

Parapison agllis, Smith, Trans. Ent. 80c., 1869, 300, 4,
Hab. Ceylon.

1. P. (Parapison) erythropus, Kohl.

Parapison riifipes, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1869, 299, 2 ;

Tians. Zool. Soc, VII., 188, pi. xxi., fig. \2i. {non

Shuck.)
Hab. Mainpuri, North-west Prov. {Home).

2. P. (Parapison) obliteratum,

Pisonoides obliteratus, Smith, Jonr. Proc. Linn, Soc.

Zooly XII., 1857, 104,
Hab. Borneo ( Wallace).

ii8 Mr. Cameron on

3. P. PUNCTIFRONS, Shuckard, Trans. Ent. Soc. II., 1837,

P- 77, 5-
Hab. " India or St. Helena."

4. P. (PISONITUS) RUGOSUM, Smith, Gat. Hym. Ins., IV.,

313, 3-
Pisonites riigosns, Smith, Trans. Zool. Soc.Yll., 188,

pi. XXL, fig. 5a. ?.
Had. Mainpuri, North-west Province {Home), Calcutta
{Rothney), Poona ( Wroughton).

5. P. SUSPICIOSUM. .

Pison suspiciosns, Smith, Jonr. Linn. Soc. Zool. II.

(1857), 104.
Hab. Singapore ( Wallace).

TRYPOXYLON.

Trypoxylon, Latreille, Pric. Car. Gen. Ins. ; Kohl, VcrJu
z.-b. Ges. Wien. (1884), 190.

1. TRYPOXYLON ACCUMULATOR, Smith, Traus. Ent. Soc.

(1875), p. 38.
Hab. Barrackpore {Rothney).

2. T. BICOLOR, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., p. ^:i'j7.
Hab. Singapore, Java.

3. T. Buddha, Cam. infra.
Hab. Barrackpore {Rothney).

4. T. CANALICULATUM, Cam. iiifra.
Hab. Barrackpore, Mussourie Hills.

5. T. COLORATUM, Smith, Jour. Linn. Soc. Zool. II.,

(1857), 106,
Hab. Borneo ( Wallace).

6. T. GENICULATUM, Cam. i///m.
Hab. Barrackpore.

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 119

7. T. INTRUDENS, Smith, Trans. Zool. Soc. VII., 188.
Hab. Mainpuri, North-west Provinces {Home), Allaha-
bad {Rothney\ Ceylon {Lewis).

8. T. JAVANUM, Taschenberg, Zeits. f. d. ges. Natiirw.

XLV., 378, 13-
Hab., Java.

9. Nigricans, Cam., infra. \
Hab., Barrackpore {Rothney).

10. T. PETIOLATUM, Smith, Jour. Linn. Soc. Zool. 1857,

105.
Hab. Borneo ( Wallace).

11. T. PILIATUM, Smith, Cat. Hyjn. Ins. IV., 377.
Hab., Madras.

13. T. REJECTOR, Smith, Trans. Zool. Soc. VII., p. 189.
Hab., Mainpuri, North-west Provinces.

14. T. TINCTIPENNE, Cam. in/j^a.
Hab. Barrackpore.

TRYPOXYLON REJECTOR.
The habits of this species are but imperfectly known.
Home found the cells, which are formed of arenaceous mud,
and appear very delicate and fragile, but from the strength
of the cement used are really tenaceously held together.
They are attached to straws usually under cover and con-
structed chiefly in September.

Trypoxylon Buddha, sp. nov.
Nigrum ; fusco pilosum; pimctatum ; fronte fortiter
punctata; metanoto transverse striolato ; alis hyalinis ;
Long. 9 — 5 mm.

Hab. Barrackpore {Rothney).

Antennae subclavate ; covered with a close pile ; the
third and fourth joints subequal. Head fully broader than
the thorax ; the front shining, almost bare ; the clypeus and .

I20 Mr. Cameron on

lower part of cheeks densely covered with silvery hair.
Front raised, furrowed down the centre, bearing large,
distinct punctures, narrowed before the antennae into a
wedge. The eyes at top are separated by the length of the
second and third antennal joints united ; ocelli rather
widely separated ; clypeus with a raised margin, sharply
rounded at the apex. Mandibles reddish beyond the base.
Thorax shining, covered with long fuscous hair ; mesonotum
rather strongly punctured ; the scutellum and fore part of
the mesopleurae slightly punctured ; the hinder part of the
latter impunctate. Metanotum strongly transversely
striolated, the strise wide apart ; there is a wedge-shaped
depression in the centre of the upper part ; the depression
with a keel down its edges ; there are two lateral keels
and the posterior part of the metanotum is widely excavated
in the centre ; this portion having a gradual rounded curved
slope. Petiole as long as the mesothorax, clavate ; fully
one-third longer than the second segment ; the latter is a
little longer than the third, and both have an elongate fovea
on the top at the apex. At the apex the abdomen is
sparsely pilose. Femora sparsely haired ; tibiae and tarsi
closely pilose ; spurs pale testaceous.

Trypoxylon accumulator.

In this species the front is not much raised on either
side of the central furrow, which is wide but shallow ; the
eyes at the top are separated by about the length of the
third antennal joint, at the bottom below the antennae by
fully more than the length of the third. The third joint of
the antennae is nearly one-half longer than the fourth.
Clypeus broadly carinate, the apex projecting, broadly
rounded. Petiole longer than the thorax, rather abruptly
dilated towards the apex ; the second segment distinctly
shorter than the third.

Hynte7ioptera Orien talis. 121

Trvpoxylon tinctipennis, sp. nov.

Nigrum; abdominis segmentis 2°^^" rufis ; calcaria alius;
clypeo et facie dense argenteo pilosis ; tliorace longc albo piloso ;
alls fere hyalinis, apice late fnscis. 9. Long. 12 mm.

Hab. Barrackpore.

Antennas covered with a silvery down, the third joint
about one-fourth longer than the fourth ; the fourth and
fifth slightly curved on the lower side. Front and vertex
opaque, finely punctured. Front ocellus situated in a pit ;
the front before it raised on either side into a roundish
elevation, the two being separated by a furrow, at the end
of which is a fine straight keel, which reaches near to the
base of the antennae. Eyes at the top separated by the
length of the third and fourth joints united ; below reaching
to the edge of the clypeus ; below the antennae they are
separated by about the length of the second and third
joints united ; clypeus slightly concave, the apex scarcely
rounded, being straight to near the centre. Palpi testaceous
at apex ; mandibles rufous at tips. The pubescence on the
front and vertex is fuscous and very short, on the rest of
the head long and silvery white, being especially close and
thick below the antennae. Thorax shining, almost impunc-
tate and with a plumbeous tinge ; the mesonotum bears a
sparse short pubescence ; the pleurse and sternum are more
densely covered with longer silvery white hair. At the end
of the metanotum there is, in the middle, a bell-shaped
depression ; the median segment is deeply depressed in
the middle, the depression being widest at the base and
continuous with that at apex of metanotum ; its sides are
striated. Petiole dilated at the apex and nearly as long as
the thorax, and considerably longer than the second and
third segments united. The second segment is a little
shorter than the third. Legs pruinose, the coxfe bearing
longish silvery hair ; the femora are sparsely haired.

122 Mr. Cameron on

Trypoxylon canaliculatum, sp. nov.

Nigrum ; palpis, trocJianteribiis^ geniciilis, calcaria, tar-
sisque anterioribus, flavo-alhis, tibim anticis fiUvis ; alls
hyalinis, apice fere fimiatis ; tegtilis rtifo-testaceis ; apice
petioli abdominisgtie segmentis 2 <?/ j riifis. Long. 9 — 10 mm.

Antennae covered with a hoary down ; the scape
testaceous beneath ; the flagellum more or less fuscous ;
the third joint nearly one-half longer than the fourth.
Head opaque, closely punctured ; the clypeus, face, cheeks,
and eye incision covered with short silvery hair, only visible
in certain lights. Front slightly raised, furrowed in the
centre ; a not very distinct keel at the end of the furrow.
Clypeus bluntly carinate in the centre ; the apex gaping
the margin slightly curved before the middle, which is
rounded. Eyes at the top separated by fully the length of
the third antennal joint ; below the antennae, by hardly the
length of the third. Mandibles rufous. Pro- and meso-
thorax shining, impunctate ; the sides and breast covered
with longish white hair. Metanotum shining ; a wide de-
pression in the centre, the depression becoming gradually
widened to near the apex, which is rounded ; on either side
of this is a narrow furrow, of nearly equal width and con-
verging towards the apex ; both are transversely ribbed ;
metapleurae finely obliquely punctured. Median segment
widely furrowed in the middle, and covered with white hair.
Petiole as long as the thorax, broadly dilated at the apex,
and tuberculated at the basal fourth ; the second segment
distinctly shorter than the third ; sides of apical segment
distinctly margined laterally ; indistinctly keeled in the
middle. Legs pruinose ; the coxae bearing white hair.

Hab. Barrackpore, Tirhoot, Mussoorie Hills {Rothney).

Trypoxylon piliatum.
Several specimens from Barrackpore are probably refer-

Hynioioptera Ori en talis. 123

rablc to this species. The antennae bear a short white pile,
and have the third joint less than one-fourth longer than the
fourth. The cheeks, eye incision, and clypeus are densely
covered with silvery pubescence ; the front and vertex are
shining, minutely punctured ; and there is in the latter a
large depression, rounded behind, triangular in front, with a
distinct raised margin ; from the middle (at the angle) a
short keel runs to the eye incision ; and from the apex a
stout keel runs to the antennae. At the top the eyes are
separated by the length nearly of the second and third
joints united. The two hinder ocelli are placed in round
depressions, and are separated by a margin ; the front
ocellus is placed in the large frontal area. The meta-
notum is strongly transversely striolated ; at the base in
the centre there is a wide furrow, twice longer than broad,
surrounded by a broad margin ; and on either side of this
is a broad furrow which unites into a broad furrow running
down the centre to the apex. The metapleurse are much
more finely and closely striolated. The mesonotum is
finely punctured, and is of almost an olive hue. The
abdomen is more than twice the length of the head and
thorax united. The petiole is nearly twice the length of
the second joint. The calcaria are pale.

The peculiar shield-shaped depression separates this
species readily from the others.

Trypoxylon intrudens.
Smith has named doubtfully some specimens in Mr.
Rothney's collection as this species. They have the head
rather strongly punctured ; the front furrowed in the centre;
the eyes at the top separated by the length of the third
antennal joint ; there is a wide furrow in the centre of the
metanotum, with a curved narrower furrow on either side of
it, meeting at the central apical furrow. The furrows trans-
versely striolated ; the rest of the metanotum finely punc-

124 Mr. Cameron on

tured. The petiole is more than half the length of the
abdomen, and is dilated not far from the base, and clavate
at the apex.

On the whole the specimens agree fairly well with Smith's
description, except in what he says about the metanotum,
which has " a deep central longitudinal impression ; a semi-
circular enclosed space at the base of the metathorax, which
is transversely striolated."

T. intriulens was bred from cells constructed by Para-
'pison Tujipes.

Larra.

Larra, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. II., 220; Kohl, Verh. z.-b.
Ges., Wien 1884, 233 {iion Smith, \N\i\c}a. = Stigmiis).

Larrada, Smith, Cat. Hyiii. Ins. IV., 274.

Smith included in Larrada, at least three genera, namely,
Larra, Notogonia, and Liris ; probably also Tachysphex.
From his description it is impossible to make out to which
of these groups the majority of his species belong, as he
does not mention the structural details on which the genera
mentioned are grounded. In these circumstances I have
been compelled to leave over for future examination, by
means of Smith's types, several species of Notogonia. At
the best the species are exceedingly difficult to discriminate,
the points separating the species being usually minute struc-
tural details, most of which are not mentioned by Smith
at all.

The following is a list of Larra sensic lat., i.e., of those
species which cannot, without an examination of the types,
be referred to their precise genus, and which may belong
to Larra^ Notogonia, Liris, or Tacky spJiex.

I. Larra alecto, Smith, Jour. Linn. Soc. Zool. II.,
103, 6.
Hab. Singapore.

\

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 125

2. L. CARBON ARIA, Smith, /. C. I02, 2.
Hab. Singapore.

3. L. CONSPICUA, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., 276, 7.
/2^(^^. " India."

4. L. EXILIPES, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., 278.
Hab. Northern India.

5. L. EXTENSA, Walker, An7i. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) V., 504.
Hab. Ceylon.

6. L. LABORIOSA, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., 278, 12.
Hab. Philippines.

7. L. MAURA, Fab., Ent. Syst. II., 212, 55, Smith, Cat..

Hym. Ins. IV., 277, 9.
//«^. Tranquebar.

8. L. POLITA, Smith, /(?//?'. Linn. Soc. Zool. II., 102, 4.
/r«(^. Borneo, Sarawak.

9. L. SYCORAX, Smith, /(?;/;'. Z/;/«. 5(9r. Zool. II., 102, 3.
i/^f7/;. Borneo.

10. L. TisiPHONE, Smith, /^w. Linn. Soc. Zool. II., 103, 5.
Hab. Borneo.

11. L. TRISTIS, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., 277, 10.
Hab. Borneo.

12. L. VESTITA, Smith, Am. Mag. Nat. Hist. XII., 11.
Hab. North India.

I. Larra simillima.

Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., 275, 5.

The eyes on the top are separated by the length of the
second and third antennal joints united ; the vertex has a
broad curved depression behind the ocelli and along the
sides of the eyes, the centre being raised ; there is an
indistinct longitudinal furrow in the centre behind ; the
clypeus is margined, broadly transverse in the middle ; the
front excavated. The antennae are stout : covered with a

126 Mr. Cameron on

whitish pile ; the second joint is half the length of the third.
The pronotum has a slight incision in the middle behind ;
obliquely excavated laterally; shining and finely punctured.
The meta- is as long as the mesothorax, and is strongly
transversely punctured ; the puncturing being much
stronger than on the mesothorax ; the sides of the meta-
notum are somewhat depressed ; the pleurae becoming
narrowed from the top to the bottom. Pygidial area
shining, polished, with a few indistinct scattered punctures
along the sides and apex ; the sides with a raised margin
and with a furrow on the inner side of this margin ; the
apex broadly rounded, almost truncate.

Oi Larra personata, Sibi, from Celebes, Smith remarks,
^' This is probably merely a variety of L. siniillinia^ wanting
the black apex to the abdomen."

Hab. Tirhoot, Bengal {Rothncy) ; " Africa " (Smith /. c).

2. Larra, Sumatrana.
Kohl, Verh. z.-b. Ges, Wien, 1888, 354.
Hab. Sumatra.

3. Larra fuscipennis, sp. nov.

Nigra, argenteo pilosa, abdominis diniidio basali rufo,
medio nigro, alis fusco-fumatis, hasi sub Jiyalinis.

Long. 12 — 13 mm.

Hab. Tirhoot {Roihney).

Antennae short, thick, tapering perceptibly towards the
apex ; the second joint nearly three-fourths of the length of
the third, which is fully one-fourth longer than the fourth.
Head shining, strongly punctured ; the punctures distinctly
separated. Ocellar region not raised and separated ; a
broad, transverse curved furrow behind it ; above the front
there is a broad margin. Eyes almost parallel ; at the top
separated by the length of the third and fourth antennal
joints. Clypeus not, or hardly, projecting in the middle ; the

Hymenoptera Orient alls. 127

apex broadly projecting, and with a distinct incision in the
middle. Thorax half shining, coarsely punctured ; the
metathorax more closely punctured than the mesothorax,
and densely covered with white hair ; pleurae and sternum
shining, the punctures widely separated. Pro- and meso-
thorax closely covered with dull whitish pubescence. Pro-
notum in the middle projecting into the mesonotum, which is
thus incised broadly. Meta- longer than the mesothorax,
the apex perpendicular, indistinctly furrowed in the
centre. Abdomen as long as the thorax ; covered
closely with white pubescence (sparsely on the top of
the second and third segments), the apex rather acutely
pointed. Pygidial area punctured ; covered with a soft
white pubescence ; the sides not keeled, the apex incised.
The basal two segments are red, broadly black in the
middle ; the ventral segments are pale at their junction,
Legs covered with soft cinereous pubescence, tibial and
tarsal spines white ; calcaria black ; metatarsal brush pale.
The second cubital cellule at the top is half the length of the
third and hardly the length of the space bounded by the
current nervures.

Hab. Tirhoot, Bengal {RotJiney).

4. LARRA NIGRIVENTRIS, Sp. 710V.

Nigra, fere nitida, prjihiosa, mctatJiorace opaco, striolato,
fere longiore quain mesothorace ; alis fere fiavo-hyalinis ;
apice fuscis, nervis fiavo-testaceis. Long. 12 mm.

Antennae the length of the thorax, rather stout, covered
with a silvery pile ; the second joint one-third of the length
of the third, which is hardly one-fourth longer than the
fourth. Head wider than the thorax ; opaque, alutaceous ;
eyes at the top separated by more than the length of the
third antennal joint ; vertex depressed, a wide furrow along
either side, close to the eyes ; a shallow and less distinct
furrow in the centre, leading to and from the ocellus round

128 Mr. Cameron on

which it bifurcates, becoming wider and more distinct after
leaving it ; the presence of the hinder ocelH is not indicated,
and the anterior is elongated, being longer than broad, and
sharply pointed at base and apex. Face, cheeks, and
clypeus densely covered with silvery pubescence. The
clypeus slightly projects towards the apex, and is indis-
tinctly carinate down the centre ; the apex is broadly
rounded, almost truncate. Base of mandibles densely
covered with short silvery pubescence ; the apex is broadly
red, thorax opaque, alutaceous, covered with a sericeous
short pubescence ; pronotum ending in a rounded part in
the centre ; mesonotum truncated at base ; metathorax
nearly longer than the mesothorax ; not very distinctly
striolated, except at the sides and apex ; the latter semi-
oblique, furrowed in the middle, the sides densely covered
with silvery pile. Abdomen pruinose, hardly longer than
the thorax, the apex acute ; the pygidial area very shining
and bearing a few punctures. Radial cellule not reaching
to the apex of the third cubital, wide, and very sharply
oblique at the apex ; the second cubital cellule shorter than
the third, and a ver}' little longer than the space bounded
by the recurrent nervures. Legs densely silvery sericeous;
the spines and spurs black.

Hab. Barrackpore, Tirhoot; Allahabad, N.W. Provinces
{Rothnej'), Poona ( Wroiighton). Not uncommon.

NOTOGONIA.

Notogonia, Costa, Ann. Mns. Zool. Univ. Napoli IV.>
80 and 82 ; Kohl, VerJi. z.-b. Ges. IVten, 1884, 249.

Larrada, Smith = Tachytcs, Dahlbom, St. Fargeau,
Saussurc, Taschenberg.

This genus apparently contains more species than either
Lai'va or Liris.

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 129

I. NOTOGONIA PULCHRIPENNIS, Sp. IIOV.

Nigra, sericea; inandibidis, tegulis, pedibus (coxis tro-
chanteribusque nigris) abdoviinisque bast late, nifis, alls
flavo-hyalinis, apice finnatis. Long. 12 mm.

Antennae short, moderately thick ; the second joint half
the length of the third, the third and fourth subequal.
Head almost shining, the face densely covered with silvery
pubescence ; the vertex with a sparser and shorter pubes-
cence, which does not hide the surface ; alutaceous. There
is a somewhat triangular depression behind the hinder
ocelli ; a wide and deep furrow runs down from the anterior,
and the depressions on either side of it are deep, curved,
and broad. Clypeus not much convex, the apex slightly
depressed, and broadly rounded. Eyes at the top separated
by the length of the second and third joints united.
Thorax densely sericeous, alutaceous, the metathorax trans-
versely striolated, coarsely so at the apex; there is a shallow
furrow in the centre of the mesonotum, and there is a
narrower and deeper furrow on the apex of the metanotum.
The pile on the mesonotum inclines to golden ; the meta-
thorax bears a longish white pubescence. Abdomen longer
and narrower than the thorax, sericeous ; the pygidial area
rufous ; longitudinally punctured ; covered with a silvery
pubescence ; the sides keeled, the apex rounded, and bearing
stiff bristles. Legs moderately sericeous ; the bristles and
calcaria blackish to fuscous ; metatarsal brush silvery. The
second cubital cellule is one-third the length of the third at
the top, and somewhat less than the space bounded by
the recurrent nervures.
Hab. Jeypore {Rothney).

2. NOTOGONIA JACULATOR.

Smith, Cat. Hyni. Ins. IV. p. 279.

In this species the eyes at the top are separated by the
J

I30 Mr. Cameron on

length of the fourth antennal joint ; there is a longish
shallow A-shaped depression above the posterior ocelli ;
the front depressed where the front ocellus is ; and from
the apex of the depression a short wide furrow runs ; there
are three wide depressions on the front above the antennae,
the central being furrowed down the middle. The clypeus
is almost transverse. The basal joint of the antennae is
longer than the second and third united ; the second is
about one-third the length of the third, the latter not being
much longer than the fourth. The second cubital cellule is
about one-fourth shorter than the third, and wider than the
space enclosed by the two recurrent nervures. The pygidial
area bears a fulvous to cinereous pile ; the apex is broadly
rounded. The $ has the wings and the nervures darker
than in the ? ; the pygidial area has a soft, short, pale
pubescence.

Hab. Barrackpore, Mussoorie hills {Rot/mey), Poona
( Wroiighton).

3. NOTOGONIA DEPLANATA, Kohl, VevJi. .'2.-b. Gcs. Wien,

1883, 358.
Hab. Ceylon,

4. NoTOGONiA SUBTESSELATA, Smith. Cat. Hym. Ins. IV.,

277, II.

Hab, Barrackpore. Common {Rothney), Poona ( Wroiigh-
ton), Sumatra, Java.

A common species.

LIRIS.

LiriSy Fabricius, Syst. Piez. 227 ; Kohl, Verh. z.-b. Ges.
Wien, 1884, 254.

This genus contains, so far as is known, but few species.
It is readily known from Notogonia by the absence of a
notch on the lower side of the mandibles. The pygidial
area is clothed with short hair and at the end with stiff
bristles ; the abdominal segments are usually clothed with

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 131

a sericeous pile, and the fore tibiae are spined on the
outer side.

I. LiRIS H^MORRHOIDALIS.

Pompilius Jiaimorrhoidalis, Fab., Syst. Piez. 198.

Liris Savignyi, Spinola, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. VII., p. 476.

Lyrops aiLreiventris, Guerin, Icon. regn. aniin. t. III., 440,
//. LXX. f. 9. $.

Liris oricJialcea, Dahlbom, Hyin. Ent. I., 135.

Tacky tes illudens, St. Fargeau, Nat. Hist. Ins. Hyin. III.,
249, 12.

Larrada JicemorrJioidalis, Smith, Cat. Hyni. Ins. IV., 280.

Larrada Jicemorrhoidalis, Kohl, Verh. z.-b. Ges. Wien,
1884, 256.

A widely distributed species, being found in the Mediter-
ranean region, Syria, Egypt, Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone ;
Punjaub, Poona ( VVroiightoit). Smith (/. c.') records the species
from the Punjaub, but he omits it from his general Catalogue
of Indian species {Trans. Linn. Soc. 1869).

2. Liris auratus.
Sphex aurata, Fab., Ent. Syst. II., 213, 64.
Liris ajirata, Fab., Syst. Pies., p. 228, 3. Kohl, Verh.

z.-b. Ges. Wien, 1884, 241.
Larrada aiiridenta, Smith, Cat. Hyin. Ins. IV., 276, 6,

pi. VII. fig. 5.
Tacky tes opnlenta, St. Fargeau, Nat. Hist. Ins. Hyin.

III., 246, 7.
Widely distributed. India (common in Calcutta dis-
trict) ; Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Bachian, Celebes, China,
Japan, Cape of Good Hope, and Gambia.

3. Liris nigripennis, sp. nov.
Nigra, nitida, punctata ; facie clypeoque argenteo pilosis ;
area pygidialis aurea kirsuta ; alis fitsco-violaceis. Long.
? 18; $ 15 mm.

132 Mr, Cameron on

Antennae stout, as long as the thorax. The basal jonit
keeled on lower side ; as long as the second and third joints
united ; the second joint one-third the length of the third,
which is longer than the fourth. Head as wide as the
thorax ; almost opaque, closely punctured ; eyes at the top
separated by the length of the fourth antennal joint. A
triangular depression above the ocelli, the vertex above
this being indistinctly furrowed ; there is a wide depression
on either side of the ocelli close to the eye ; and the space
between the upper and lower ocelli is widely furrowed in
the middle, the furrow being continued beyond the lower ocel-
lus. The front above the antennae is widely furrowed along
the sides of the eyes, and down the centre. Clypeus distinctly
margined at the apex, slightly waved towards the centre.
Mandibles black ; somewhat hollowed and finely rugose at
the base; the apex piceous. Thorax finely punctured ; the
mesonotum shining, the pleurae opaque ; metanotum also
opaque, finely rugose. The pronotum is brought to a point in
the middle, and its edge bears a covering of white pubescence;
the mesonotum is a little depressed in the centre towards
the base ; the mesopleural furrow is almost complete ; the
■meta- is shorter than the mesothorax ; its apex is semi-
perpendicular and transversely striolated. Abdomen shorter
than the thorax ; shining ; the segments edged with a pale
short silky pile ; the pygidial area densely covered with a
stiff depressed — golden at the apex, fuscous at the base —
pile ; and its apex bears stiff golden spines ; its surface also
-bearing stiff blackish bristles. At the top the second
(Cubital cellule is one fourth of the length of the third ; the
recurrent nervures are almost united, and are received a
little before the middle of the cellule. The wings are pale
across the cubital cellules. The spines, etc., on the legs are
black ; the metatarsal brush and the brush on the inner
.spur dull fulvous.

The $ has the hair on the face and clypeus with a more

Hynienoptera Orientalis. 133-

golden hue ; the second cubital cellule is longer in com-
parison with the third ; the recurrent nervures are more
widely separated ; the pygidial area is less strongly pilose,
and wants the bristles on the surface and apex, being also
shorter, broader, and with the apex incised.

Hab. Bangalore {Miis. CaL), Poona {Wroughton).

PIAGETIA.

PlAGETIA, Ritzema, £■«/. M. Mag., IX, 120 ; Kohl, Verh.
z.-b. Ges. Wien, 1884, p.
I. Piagetia Ritsenicc, Ritzema, Ent. M. Mag. IX., p. 120.
Hab. Sourubuya, Java.

2. PlAGETI RUFICORNIS, Sp. IIOV.

Nigra, antennis, ore, clypeo, prothorace, metathorace {medio
metanoti nigro') petiolo pedibusquc, riifis ; alis J lyalinis, fascia
substiginatali fiisca ; nervis testaceis. ?. Long. 9 mm.

Antennje rather slender, almost bare. The second joint
half the length of the fourth, which is shorter than the third.
Head wider than the thorax, opaque, finely granular ; a
furrow runs down from the ocellus to the base of the
antennae, and there is a wider curved furrow on either side
of the front ; clypeus broadly keeled (the keel narrowed at
base), densely covered with a silvery pubescence, the apex
with an incision in the middle. Eyes at the top separated
by the length of the third antennal joint. Mandibles
black at the apical half Thorax finely aciculated,
covered with a close silvery pile ; the metanotum finely
rugose, with a shallow depression in the centre
having a fine keel in the middle. The mesopleurai and
sternum are entirely black ; the mesopleural suture rather
indistinct ; the mesonotum is broadly rufous on either side
at the base. Pygidial area almost bare, and marked all
over with large punctures. The second cubital cellule at
the top is longer than the third ; the recurrent nervures are

134 Mr. Cameron on

received not far from the base of the cellule, and are almost
united. There is a short black line on the top of the middle
femora ; the posterior femora are entirely lined with black
above ; the hinder tibiae are infuscated behind ; the coxae
black at the base ; the femoral spine is a mere thickening
as in P. ritsemce.

May be known from P. ritsenics by there being only a
fascia in the wings below the stigma, the entire apex not
being infuscated ; by the antennal being entirely red ; the
mesothorax black, &c.; from P. fasciatiipmnis it differs in
being larger; in having the antennae entirely red; in having the
mesonotum broadly red in front ; in the mesopleurae not being
entirely black, it being red at base and apex and under the
wings ; in the metanotum being only black in the middle^
the apex too being red ; in the second abdominal segment
being red at the base ; the pygidial area is entirely red and
much more strongly punctured ; the metathorax can hardly
be said to be transversely striated ; the wings are not so
clearly hyaline, having a fuscous tinge, especially behind
the stigma, and the cloud is much more distinct and wider.
There is of course, also, the difference in the form of the
clypeus and of the femoral spine, but these are doubtless
sexual differences which cannot be compared in the absence
of the $ of riificornis and the ? of jasciatiipennis.

Hab. Poona ( Wroiightoii).
3. P. fasciatiipeimis. Cameron, Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc,
Man. II. (4) 16.

Hab. Ceylon.

TACHYTES.

Tacky tes, Panzer, Krit. Revis. II., 129 ; Kohl, VerJi. z.-b.
Ges. Wien, 1884, 327.

Like Larra this has been split up into three genera, and
the same difficulty is experienced in elucidating Smith's
species.

Hyumioptcra Oricntalis. 135

The following are the species which cannot be referred
to their proper genus.

1. Taciiytes aurifex, Smith, /t?«r. Linn. Soc. II., loi.
Hab. Borneo.

2. T. FERVIDUS, Smith, Cat. Hyvi. Ins. IV., 298, 11.
Hab. " India."

3. T. NOVAR/E, Saussure, Novara Reise, Hym., 69.
Hab. Nicobar Island.

I. Taciiytes erythropoda, sp. nov.

Niget\ nitidus^ argenteo pubescens ; mandibulis, pedibits
{coxis nigris) abdoniinisque segjnentis i — 3, rufo-testaceis ;
alls hyalinis, apice fere fumatis. 9. Long. 8 mm.

Hab. Mussoorie hills {Rothney).

Head broader than the thorax, shining, sparsely punc-
tured ; the vertex sparsely, the cheeks and clypeus densely
covered with long silvery hair. Antennae short, thick,
microscopically pilose ; the second joint nearly half the
length of the third, which is a little longer than the fourth.
Eyes but slightly converging at the top; separated there by
the length of the first, second, and third joints united.
Ocellar area longer than broad, surrounded by a furrow,
and furrowed down the middle ; and a furrow winds down
from the front ocellus. Lateral prominences indistinct ;
the clypeus slightly projecting in the middle ; the apex in
the middle gaping, roundly incised. Thorax shining, im-
punctate ; the pronotum punctured ; the metanotum irregu-
larly transversely striolated and covered with long, silvery
white hairs. Abdomen longer than the thorax and narrower
than it, shining, covered with silvery white pubescence, except
on the basal segments in the centre ; pygidial area covered
closely with stiff fulvous, mixed with white, bristles; the
sides keeled ; the apex rounded ; beneath it is punctured.
Femora slightly, tibiae and tarsi densely covered with white

136 Mr. Cameron on

pubescence ; tibial and tarsal spines whitish ; calcaria rufous ;
claws for the greater part black. Second cubital cellule about
one-fourth longer than the third at the top, and one-half
longer than the space bounded by the recurrent nervures.

2. Tachytes monetarius.
Tacky tes monetarms, Smith, Cat. Hyju. Inst. IV., 298.
The largest and handsomest of the Indian species, and
readily known by the abdomen being covered all over with
silky golden pubescence. The antennae have the third
joint longer than the fourth, and four times the length of
the second. Front and vertex opaque, closely and finely
rugosely punctured ; eyes at top separated by a little more
than the length of the third antennal joint. Clypeus rounded
at the apex. Thorax opaque, closely roughly punctured ; the
medial segment much more strongly than the mesonotum
and finely and closely transversely striated at the apex.
Second cubital cellule at the top nearly one-fourth shorter
than the third ; the first recurrent nervure is received about
the length of the second cubital cellule from the transverse
cubital nervure ; the second is received a little beyond the
middle of the cellule.

The $ has the antennae stouter ; the third joint is
distinctly longer than the fourth.

Common, Barrackpore ; Mussoorie hills {Rothney),
Poona ( Wroicghton).

3. Tachytes modestus.
Tachytes modestus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., 299.

Saussure, Hym. Novara Reise, 72.
This is a larger and stouter insect than T. ornatipes ;
the legs are red, except the coxae, trochanters and base of
femora, the abdomen is shorter, thicker, and more ovate,
that of T. ornatipes being elongate and narrow ; the wings
have a more decided yellow tint, and the nervures are more

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 137

decidedly yellow or rather of a ferruginous colour, but in
this respect the wings vary.

Common. Mussoorie hills {Rot/mey). Shanghai {Saus-
siire).

4. Tachytes ornatipes, sp. nov.

Niger, geniculis, tibiis tarsisqiie anterioribus, nifo-testa-
€eis ; alls fere fiavo-hyalinis, nervis testaceis ; clypeo, facie
thoraceque longe fulvo-hirtis. Long. 12 mm.

Antennae stout ; the third joint hardly longer than the
fourth, and three times the length of the second. The hair
■on the face and clypeus is long and dense, the front and
vertex sparsely haired, opaque and sparsely punctured on
the vertex, which is depressed and furrowed in the centre.
Eyes at top separated by the length of the third antennal
oint. Mandibles reddish at the basal half; punctured and
covered with silvery-golden hair ; palpi reddish testaceous.
Thorax opaque. Clypeus punctured ; the margin depressed,
incised in the middle, the scutellum distinctly punctured ;
the hair moderately long and thick ; the pronotum above
with a fringe of silvery pubescence. Abdomen shining ; the
segments bordered (except in the centre) with silvery
pubescence. Pygidial area densely covered with stiff
golden hair ; sharply narrowed towards the apex, which is
rounded. Ventral surface (especially towards the apex)
thickly covered with dark brown pubescence and with some
scattered longish hairs. Legs cinereous pilose ; the femora
with scattered hairs ; the anterior tibiae are entirely testa-
ceous ; the middle pair are broadly blackish in the centre ;
the posterior are black, testaceous at base and apex ; the
hind tarsi black, more or less testaceous at the apex and at
the apex of the two basal joints ; the spines pale testaceous ;
the spurs and claws for the greater part rufo-testaceous.
The second and third cubital cellules are subequal at the
top ; the first recurrent nervure is received at a little more

T3S Mr. Cameron on

than half the length of the top of the second cubital cellule
from the transverse cubital nervure ; the second a very
little beyond the middle of the cellule.

Hab. Barrackpore {Rothney),

5. Tachytes Virchu, sp. nov.

Niger-, femoribus postecis riifis ; capite tJioraceqiie dense
ftilvo-hirtis ; pedibiis dense argenteo pilosis ; alis ferehyalinisy
nervis fiiscis. $. Long. 8 mm.

Hab. Mussoorie hills {Rothney).

Antennae with the third joint a little shorter than the
fourth, and twice the length of the second. Pubescence on
clypeus, and face dense, silvery to fulvous ; front and vertex
bearing long pale fuscous hair ; opaque, alutaceous ; the
vertex rather deeply depressed in the centre. Clypeus with
the apex depressed, rounded and shining; thorax with the
hair dense and long, opaque ; the scutellum finely punctured ;
the apex of median segment irregularly transversely striated
and deeply furrowed in the middle. Abdomen ovate,
shorter than the thorax, shining ; the segments at the apex
with a dense broad silvery fringe slightly interrupted in the
middle, except on the apical segment. Pygidial area not
much longer than broad, densely covered with depressed
silvery hair ; the apex broad, truncated. Ventral surface
punctured, rather densely covered with dark brown pubes-
cence. Femora behind densely covered with silvery hair ;
tibiai and tarsi still more densely with a silvery pile. Spines
pale ; calcaria fuscous, testaceous at base and apex ; claws
reddish. Second cubital cellule fully longer than the third
at the top ; the first recurrent nervure received at the
length of the top of the second cubital cellule from the
transverse cubital nervure ; the second a little beyond the
middle of the cellule.

Hab. Mussoorie hills {Rothney).

Hyvioioptera Orientalis. 139

6. TxVCHYTES ROTHNEYI, Sp. HOT.

Niger, dense fnh'o-Jiirtiis ; abdominis segnientis argenteo
fasciatis ; tibiis tarsisque dense fidvo-pilosis ; alis flavo-
hyalinis^apicefercfnviatis; tegulis riifis. Long. 16 — 18 mm.

Head and thorax opaque, finely and closely punctured ;
the scutellum distinctly and strongly punctured ; the
metanotum at apex irregularly striated and deeply furrowed
in the middle. Face and clypeus densely covered with a
longish fulvous pile ; the vertex sparsely with longish
fuscous hair ; the occiput with a silvery pile ; the mandibles
at base with golden pubescence. Eyes at top separated by
the length of the fourth antennal joint. Scape of antennae
densely covered with a silvery pile and with some long
fuscous hair ; the third joint about one fourth longer than
the fourth, and three times the length of the second ; the
fourth — sixth joints are slightly contracted at base and
apex, bulging out broadly in the middle. Clypeus broadly
carinate in the middle ; the apex rounded, entire, and
depressed. Mandibles inclining to red towards the apex.
Abdomen longer than the thorax ; becoming gradually
narrowed towards the apex ; the basal segment covered
with fulvous pubescence ; the other segments broadly
fringed with silvery pubescence (but the fringe does
not extend quite to the middle) at the apex. Pygidial
area densely covered with silvery — inclining to golden — •
depressed stiff pile ; its apex truncated. Ventral segments
punctured and covered with blackish hair. Tibise and tarsi
densely covered with fulvous hair, the femora much more
thinly ; calcaria and spines rufous. The second cubital
cellule at the top is nearly one-fourth shorter than the third
but at the bottom is longer than it ; the first recurrent
nervure is received at one-half the length of the second
cubital cellule at the top, the second a little beyond the
middle, the distance between the two being a little more
than the length of the third cubital cellule at the top.

Tirhoot, Bengal {Rothney) ; Calcutta {Al2ts. CaL).

140 Mr. Cameron on

•J. Tachytes vicinus, sp. nov.

Niger, dense cinereo hirtus, abdominis segmcntis apice
pedibnsque argenteo pilosis ; facie et clypeo longe dense argenteo
pilosis ; alis fere flavo-hyalinis ; tegidis piceis. $ . Long.
13 mm.

Scape sparsely covered with long pale hair ; flagellum
opaque, microscopically pubescent : the third joint is, if
anything, shorter than the fourth, and not much more than
twice the length of the second. Eyes at the top separated
by nearly the length of the second and third antenna!
joints united. Clypeus equally projecting throughout ; the
apex rounded, hardly depressed. Vertex opaque, aluta-
ceous ; sparsely covered with longish fuscous hair ; the
front bears also long fuscous hair, and laterally a dense
silvery pubescence. The silvery pubescence on the clypeus
is long and dense. Clypeus distinctly punctured ; man-
dibles still more distinctly and strongly punctured at the
base, and bearing a short silvery pile ; at the apex they are
piceous. Thorax closely punctured all over ; at the apex
transversely striated. The hair is long and is especially
thick on the metathorax. On the sides of the pronotum,
and on the mesonotum in front of the tegulae is a patch of
silvery pubescence. The furrow on the apex of the meta-
notum is narrow and shallow. Abdomen aciculate ; the
base with sparse fuscous hair ; the segments at the apex
banded with silvery pubescence, interrupted on the second
and third in the middle. Pygidial area with the silvery
pile, dense and very bright ; the apex roundly incised.
Ventral segments at the apices bearing a dense tuft of
longish brownish hair, and strongly punctured. Tibiae and
tarsi densely covered with silvery pile ; the femora sparsely
haired ; the calcaria rufous ; the tibial and tarsal spines
whitish.

Had. Tirhoot (Ivot/iney).

Hyvienoptera Orientalis. 141

8. Tachytes nitidulus.

Crabro nitidultts, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. II., 294, 6 ; Syst^

Pies. 309, 7.
Tachytes nitidulus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IV., 298 ;

Dahlbom, Hyiii. Ent. I., 470.
Tachytes trigonalis, Saussure, Hym. Novara Reise, 72.
Common, Barrackpore {Roth^iey), Java.

9. Tachytes tarsatus.
Tachytes tarsatus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. 296.

A specimen from Barrackpore, and another from Tir-
hoot, are probably referrable to this species. The antennit^
are covered with a pale microscopic down ; the third joint
is a little longer than the fourth, and three times the length
of the second. Eyes at the top separated by the length of
the third antennal joint. Vertex and front almost shining,
finely rugosely punctured. Clypeus punctured, the apex
depressed, broadly rounded, entire. Thorax closely punc-
tured all over ; the median segment transversely punctured,,
the apex transversely striated, deeply furrowed down the
centre. Abdomen aciculated, punctured closely and finely
towards the apex. Pygidial area elongated, sharply pointed
at the apex. Ventral surface shining, sparsely haired,,
aciculated, the apical segments punctured laterally. Wings
yellowish hyaline, the nervures yellowish testaceous ; the
second cubital cellule one-fourth longer than the second ;
the first recurrent nervure is received about the length of
the top of the second cubital cellule from the recurrent
nervure ; the second about the same distance beyond it,
and before the middle of the cellule. The tarsi are only
red at the apex.

T.fervidus, Sm., is the only other known Indian species,
with red abdomen, but it has the legs reddish.

Hab. Tirhoot {Rothney),

142 Mr. Cameron on

lo. Tachytes basalis, sp. nov.

Niger, dense argenteo pilosiis ; mandibiilis, tegidis, scapo
antennariim, abdomine dimidio basalt apiceque tarsonun,
mfis ; alts hyalinis, nervis rufo-testaceis. ?. Long. lo mm.

Antenna stout, densely covered with a whitish pile ; the
third and fourth joints subequal, and about three times longer
than the second. Head almost shining ; the cheeks, face,
and clypeus densely covered with long silvery hair. A
narrow but distinct furrow runs down the vertex to the
front ocellus, going through the raised ocellar region, which
is shining and impunctate at the sides and behind. Clypeus,
broadly projecting, becoming sharply turned inwardly be-
fore the extreme apex, which thus does not stand on the
same plane as the rest of the clypeus ; the apex broadly
rounded ; eyes at the top, separated by about the length of
the second and third joints united. Mandibles black at
base and apex ; the base densely covered with silvery pubes-
cence ; the sides bear some long white hairs. Thorax
finely and closely punctured ; the metathorax finely rugose ;
its sides and apex densely covered with long silvery
hair ; the apical furrow rather narrow. Sides of meso-
notum bearing close to the tegulae a broad band of silvery
pubescence. The two portions of prothorax subequal la-
terally ; the sternum projecting in front of the fore coxa;.
Pleurae and head densely covered with longish silvery hair.
Abdomen shorter than the thorax, shining, aciculate ; the
segments edged with a fringe of silvery hair. Venter bearing
some long fuscous hair. Pygidial area elongate, sharply
rounded at the apex ; covered with golden, interspersed
with silvery bristles ; the sides with a not very distinctly
raised margin. The coxse, trochanters and femora in the
lower side densely covered with silvery hair ; the tibiae and
tarsi densely covered with silvery pile ; tibial and tarsal
spines pale white ; calcaria rufous ; outer row of tibial spines
rufous ; metatarsal brush pale rufous.

Hab. Mussoorie hills {Rothney).

Hymcnoptera Orient alls. 143

TACHYSPHEX.

Tachysphcx, Kdh\ Ber. Ent. Zeit. XXVI I., 166; Verh.
z.-b. Ges. IVie/i, 1884, 347, =Tac/ij/Us Auct.

I. TACHYSPHEX ERYTHROGASTER, Sp. IIOV.

Niger ; capite et thorace dense argenteo pilosis, basi anten-
naruni, clypeo, pedibns abdoniineque, rnfis, alis dare hyalitiis,
tegidis pallide riifis, nervis fiiscis. ?. Long. 13 mm,

Antennse short, stout ; the third joint somewhat shorter
than the fourth. Head finely rugose, but the rugosity hid,
except in the centre of vertex, by the dense pubescence ;
ocellar region raised, broadly, but not deeply, furrowed in the
centre ; eyes at the top separated by the length of the third
and fourth antennal joints united. Clypeus with an oblique
slope at the apex, which is truncated ; labrum with an
incision in the middle ; mandibles red, black at the apex ;
the base covered with silvery pubescence. Mesonotum and
scutellum punctured ; the sculpture of the rest of thorax
hid by the dense covering of hair. The apex of metanotum
furrowed, perpendicular ; abdomen longer than the head
and thorax united, very finely aciculated ; the segments at
the apices bearing a band of silky pile ; pygidial area im-
punctate, narrowing to a point from the middle to the apex ;
the sides not very distinctly margined. The second cubital
cellule less than one-fourth shorter than the third, and of
the length of the space bounded by the recurrent nervures.
Legs sparsely pilose, the spines white, the spurs red, the
claws blackish.

Hab. Poona ( Wroughton).

2. TACHYSPHEX ARGYREA.
Larrada Argyrea, Smith, Cat. Hyni. Ins. IV.
The eyes at the top are separated by fully half the
length of the third antennal joint. The part in which are

144 Mr. Cameron oji

the ocelli is raised ; there is a broad transverse depression
behind it ; a thin furrow is on the top of the vertex, and a
wider one runs down from the ocelli. Clypeus bare, shining^
impunctate, pale rufous ; the apex margined, projecting in
the middle. Antennae filiform rather than stout, densely
covered with a pale pile ; the second joint is one-third the
length of the third. Pronotum rather depressed, having an
oblique slope from the top. Pygidial area shining, impunc-
tate, bare, the sides margined, but not stoutly ; the apex
rather sharply pointed and truncate. The abdominal seg-
ments bear laterally a dense silvery pubescence forming
broad bands, which do not reach across.

The quantity of black on the abdomen varies, some
specimens having the middle segments only slightly infus-
cated, while others have broad bands on the third — fifth
segments. Smith, it may be added, does not state that the
clypeus of Argyrea is rufous.

Hab. Mussoorie hills [Rothney).

3. Tachvsphex bengalensis, sp. nov.
Niger, nitidus, pimctattis, metatJiorace riigoso-reticidato,
breviore qiiam mesothorace ; alis dare hyalinis, nervis fere
nigris. ?. Long. 10 mm.

Head as broad as the thorax, the vertex sparsely, the
cheeks, face and clypeus thickly covered with silvery hair ;
rather strongly punctured ; the eyes at the top separated
by the length of the second and third antennal joints united ;
ocellar region raised ; a a -shaped depression behind them,
with a short longitudinal furrow leading from it, this furrow
being continued through the ocellar region itself Clypeus
punctured ; margined, and almost truncated at the apex.
Mandibles covered with long silvery hair at the basal
half Antennae nearly as long as the head and thorax
united, covered with a dense greyish pile, the third and
fourth joints subequal. Thorax shining, bearing a fuscous

Hyinenoptera Orientalis. 1 45

to silvery pubescence ; the metathorax much more thickly
than the mesothorax ; strongly (especially the pleural)
punctured ; the scutellum not so strongly as the mesonotum.
Metathorax shorter than the mesothorax, broader than
long, almost rounded at the apex, coarsely rugose, running
into reticulations ; the apex strongly, nearly transversely
striolated. Abdomen as long as the head and thorax
united ; shining, obscurely shagreened ; the segments edged
with silvery bands of pubescence, interrupted in the middle ;
the apex rather acuminate ; pygidial area very shining,
margined along the side, sparsely punctured. Femora
sparsely, tibiae and tarsi densely covered with white silvery
hair ; the spines and claws pale ferruginous ; the calcaria
blackish, reddish on the lower side. The second cubital
cellule is about one-fourth longer than the third, the latter
at the top being somewhat longer than the space bounded
by t|je recurrent nervures. The apex of the radial cellule
is narrow, not sharply angled on the lower part, but rather
rounded, and reaches near to the apex of the third cubital.
The appendicular cellule is narrow, but distinct.
Hab. Tirhoot {Rothney).

4. TACHYSPHEX AURICEPS, Sp. 710V.

Niger, aureo-hirtus ; pedibus, abdominisque segmentis
I et 2 rufis, coxis, trochanteribiis basiqite femorinu, nigris^alis
flavo-hyalinis. ^ et $ . Long. 1 2 mm. $, 9 mm. $ .

Antenna; stout, covered with a short white pile ; the
third and fourth joints subequal. Head as wide as the
thorax ; the front, cheeks, face, and clypeus covered with a
golden pubescence, the vertex with a much shorter and
thinner fulvous to golden pile ; finely punctured ; the eyes
at the top separated by the length of nearly the second and
third antennal joints united ; the vertex furrowed in the
centre, the furrow ending in a short A -shaped furrow ; ocellar
region raised, a wide and shallow furrow in the centre,
K

T46 Mr. Cameron ou

continued down the front as a narrower and more distinct
furrow ; clypeus at the apex with a distinct, moderately-
wide margin, rounded and with some small irregular inden-
tations. Mandibles with a red band towards the apex.
Thorax covered with a short golden fulvous pile, much
longer and thicker on the sides and metathorax ; finely and
closely punctured ; metanotum irregularly transversely
rugose, the apex tranversely striolated. Abdomen longer
than the thorax ; the segments with a broad interrupted
band of white pubescence ; aciculate ; pygidial area with
a raised margin along the sides ; the apex sharply rounded,
bare. Legs shortly pilose ; the tibial spines and spurs red ;
the claws fuscous towards the apex. Second cubital cellule
at top half the length of the third, and less than the length
of the space bounded by the recurrent nervures, which are
received a little in front, and a little beyond the middle
respectively.

• The (J agrees in coloration with the 9, but the golden
pubescence on the head is closer and thicker, the eyes at
the top are separated by slightly more than the length of
the fourth antennal joint ; the third joint is shorter than the
fourth ; the metanotum is rugose ; the two basal joints of
the abdomen are banded with black ; the wings want the
yellowish hue ; the second cubital cellule is longer than the
third ; the nervures are fuscous ; and the first transverse
cubital nervure is more sharply angled, below the middle.

Had. Poona ( Wroiighton).

GASTROSERICUS.

Gastrosericus, Spinola, y3;/«. Soc. Ent. Fr. VII., 480;
Kohl, Verh. z.-b. Ges. Wien, 1884, 408.
• A genus of small extent, only three species having been
hitherto described.

Hymenoptera Orient alls. 147

I. Gastrosericus Wroughtoni, Sp. nov.

Niger, albo pilosns ; tegidis, abdominis segmentis i — 2
apiceque tarsoriivi, rufis ; alts hyalinis. Long. 1 1 mm.

Antennae as long as the thorax, densely covered with a
silvery pile ; the third and fourth joints subequal, dilated
at the apex ; the second one-third of the length of the
third. Head fully wider than the thorax ; the cheeks, face,
and clypeus densely covered with a silvery pubescence ;
the front and vertex much more sparsely. Eyes at the
top separated by fully the length of the second and third
joints united ; there is a shallow indistinct furrow in the
centre of the vertex ; ocelli surrounded by a deep furrow ;
hinder ocelli shining, curved, elongated ; vertex and front
coarsely aciculated. Apex of clypeus truncated ; mandi-
bles reddish, black at the apex. Thorax punctured, densely
covered with cinereous pubescence ; metanotum finely
rugose ; its apex perpendicular, almost truncated, but with
the sides rounded. Abdomen longer than the thorax,
shining, aciculated, the segments broadly banded with a
silvery pubescence ; pygidial area bare, except at the apex,
which bears long depressed fulvous hair ; the basal portion
with scattered punctures. Legs densely covered with silvery
pubescence, especially thick on the tibise and tarsi ; the
anterior tibiae and tarsi are for the greater part reddish, as
are all the knees and spurs ; the spines are whitish. At
the top the cubital cellule is somewhat longer than the
space bounded by the recurrent nervures, which are received
in the basal fourth of the cellule ; the second transverse
cubital cellule is curved to near the top, when it becomes
angled and straight.

2. Gastrosericus Rothneyi, sp. nov.
Niger, argenteo pilosns, punctatns ; geniculis lineaque
tarsomm, albis ; alts hyalinis, apice fere fnmatis ; nervis
fuscis ; tegulis albis. Long. 7 mm.

148 Mr. Cameron on

Antennae with a silvery pile; the third and fourth joints
subeqiial. Head closely punctured ; the face, cheeks, and
clypeus densely covered with long silvery pubescence ; eyes
almost parallel, at the top separated by the length of the
second, third and fourth joints united. Ocellar region
raised, roundish, surrounded by a furrow ; hinder ocelli
as in G. Wroiightoni ; a narrow indistinct furrow runs down
from the front ocellus. Clypeus with a broad truncated
projection in the middle at the apex ; the middle keeled.
Mandibles reddish, black at the base. Thorax finely and
closely punctured ; the metanotum finely transversely
striated, its apex with an oblique slope and furrowed in the
middle. The pleurae and the edge of the pronotum are
densely covered with silvery pubescence ; the pubescence
being especially long on metapleurse ; the tubercles are white.
Abdomen aciculate, the segments broadly edged with
cinereous pile ; pygidial area densely covered with fulvo-
golden stiff pubescence. The legs are pilose : the knees, a
broad line on the tibife behind, the apex of the tarsi and
the greater part of the claws are white. The second
recurrent nervure is joined to the first before the latter is
united to the cubital ; the second transverse cubital nervure
is not so sharply elbowed as in the preceding species.

Hah. Barrackpore {Rot/mey).

PALARUS.

Palarus, Latreille, Hist. Nat. Crust, et Ins. VII., 336;
Kohl, Verh. z.-b. Ges. IVien, 1884, 416.

1. Palarus orientalis. Kohl, /. c, 422.

(?) Palarus interruptus, Dahlbom, Hyni. Ent. I., 468.
Hab. Ceylon.

2. Palarus interruptus, Dahlbom, Hym. Ent. I., 468.
Hab. " Ind. Or."

A ST AT A.

Astatus, Latr., Precis, des caract. gen. des. Ins., p. 1 14, 14.

Hynienoptera Orientalis. 149

Astata, Latr., Hist. Nat. Gen. et part, des Crust, ct Inst.
t. III., p. 336.

Over thirty species of this genus are known from various
parts of the world, but more particularly from America.
Only two have hitherto been recorded from our region.

I. Astata maculifrons, sp. nov.

Niger, f route proparte tegiilisqiie flavis ; abdominis seg-
mentis 2 — 5 riifis ; alis fiisco-Jiyalinis. $. Long. 9 mm.

Antennas thickened towards the apex, the scape and
second and third joints covered with longish hair ; the
second joint a little longer than the third, and both are
perceptibly thinner than the succeeding joints. Front and
vertex strongly punctured, almost rugose ; the clypeus al-
most impunctate ; the apex broadly rounded ; mandibles
rugosely punctured at the base ; the apex piceous-red. The
yellow mark on the front is broader than long, and is
rounded at the sides, and is incised in the middle. Pro-
and mesothorax shining, sparsely but distinctly punctured ;
the pleurae more strongly punctured than the mesonotum ;
metathorax opaque, coracious, striolated at extreme base;
the central part separated from the sides by a curved deep
furrow ; there is an indistinct keel down the centre, and the
apex is rugosely punctured. Abdomen red, the base and
the apical two segments black. The second cubital cellule
is about two-thirds of the length of the third, and half the
length bounded by the recurrent nervures ; the first recur-
rent nervure is received not far from the base ; the second
a little before the middle of the cellule. The stigma and
the nervures beyond its base are testaceous ; the apex of
the wing is almost hyaline. The legs are covered with
long black hair ; the anterior knees, tibiai, and tarsi in front
are sordid testaceous, the posterior tarsi have the apices of
the joints testaceous.

Hab. Mussooric hills (^Rothncj).

ISO • Mr. Cameron on

2. ASTATA AGILIS.

Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1875. 39.

Nigra, facie pleiwisque longe argenteo pilosis ; abdominis
segmentis i — 3 rufis ; inetathorace reticulato ; alis hyalinis,
apice fumatis ; tegiilis piceis. 9. Long. 9 mm.

Antennae with a close glistening pile ; the third joint a
little longer than the fourth. Head shining, the front
closely but not strongly punctured ; the occiput, cheeks,
face, and clypeus covered with long silvery hair ; there is a
short furrow below the front ocellus ; the clypeus is rounded
at the apex ; the mandibles black, reddish in the middle
and on the lower side. Thorax shining ; the pro- and base
of mesonotum closely punctured, the rest of the latter and
the scutellum with scattered punctures ; the pleurje coarsely
punctured ; metanotum longitudinally reticulated ; the
metapleurse strongly obliquely striolated ; the apex coarsely
rugose. Abdomen aciculate ; the pygidial area finely ru-
gose ; margined at the sides, sharply pointed at the apex.
Second cubital cellule half the length of the third and of
the space bounded by the recurrent nervures ; the first
recurrent nervure is received a little before the middle, the
second at a somewhat greater distance beyond the middle
of the cellule. Tibise thickly spined, the apices of the tarsi
fuscous.

Hab. Tirhoot, Nischindepore {Rotkney), Poona ( IVrough-
ton).
3. AsTATA ORIENTALIS. Smith, Cat. Hyin.Ins. IV. p. 310,
14.

" India."

This species appears to be closely allied to the preceding,
but it differs in having four carinae on the mesothorax, the
wings are flavo-hyaline, clear at the apex, and with ferru-
ginous nervures.

Hab. Nischindipore (^Rothney).

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 151

4. ASTATA ARGENTEOFACIALIS, Sp. nov.

Nigra, argenteo hirstita, subtilis^ne punctata ; meianato
rugoso ; abdomine fusco \ alls hyalinis. ?. Long. 8 mm.

Antennae covered with a white microscopic pile ; the
third joint perceptibly longer than the fourth. Head
opaque, coarsely alutaceous ; the occiput, lower part of
front, face, and clypeus densely covered with a silvery
pubescence ; clypeus incurved in the middle at the apex ;
mandibles piceous-red, black in the middle. Thorax
opaque, coarsely aciculated ; the metanotum finely rugose,
furrowed down the centre, near to the apex above ; the apex
oblique, coarsely rugose ; the pleurae, the pronotum (except
in the centre), the sides of the mesonotum ; the hollow at the
side of the scutellum, and the sides of the metanotum densely
covered with silvery pubescence. Abdomen shining, very
finely aciculate ; the segments lined at their junction with a
silvery pile ; the basal and apical segments are more or less
blackish. Legs covered with a silvery pile ; the spurs and
spines white. The second cubital cellule at the top is half the
length of the third, and half the length of the space bounded
by the recurrent nervures ; at the bottom it is not much
shorter than the third ; the first and second transverse
cubital nervures are straight ; the first recurrent nervure
is received not far from the base of the cellule, the second
at nearly double the distance from the apex.

What is apparently the same species has the first and
second abdomial segments clear red, and the others quite
black.

Hab. Barrackpore {Rothney').

AST AT A NIGRICANS, Sp. noV.

Nigra, nitida, punctata, longe argenteo hirta ; metanoto

striolato ; alis hyalinis, nervis, fiiscis. $ . Long, fere 8 mm.

Antennae as long as the thorax, microscopically pilose,

152 Hymenoptera Orientalis.

the joints dilated slightly at the apex ; the third joint slightly
longer than the fourth. Head (except the ocellar region)
densely covered with long silvery hair, moderately punc-
tured ; the apex of clypeus rounded ; mandibles piceous
beyond the middle ; the palpi fuscous. Mesonoto and
pleurae punctured, the latter strongly ; the metanotum
strongly longitudinally striolated, and irregularly reticu-
lated ; the hair on the upper part moderately dense, on the
sides long and thick ; abdomen of the length of the pro- and
mesothorax ; shining, aciculated ; the sides and ventral
surface densely covered with long cinereous hair ; the
segments broadlydull piceous,red at the apices. Legs densely
covered with long cinereous hair ; the tarsi piceous-red.
Second cubital cellule at the top one fourth of the length of
the third, and half the length of the space bounded by the
recurrent nervures, which are received on either side of the
middle of the cellule. The appendicular cellule is incom-
plete, the nervure ending not far from the radial cellule ;
the third transverse cubital nervure is angled and issues a
short nervure below the middle ; the first is sharply angled
below the middle.

Hab. Poona ( Wroughton\

Note. — The reference to Pelopccus violaceus (p. 102) should be deletecU
I now believe, contrary to the opinion of Andre, that the European P. violaceus
is not found in India, and is quite distinct from P. beugalensis. — P.C., April
15th, 1889.

Proceedings. 153

Ordinary Meeting, February 5th, 1889.

• Professor OsBORNE Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Mr. F. J. Faraday read a letter from M. C. Tondini de
Quarenghi, stating that the French Minister of PubHc
Instruction had informed him that he proposed to invite a
conference in Paris this year to resume the consideration of
the question of the unification of time and the adoption
internationally of a common meridian for scientific purposes,
or, in other words, to take up the work of the unsuccessful
congress held at Washington.

Dr. BOTTOMLEY read a paper entitled, " On the equation
to the instantaneous surface generated by the dissolution of
an isotropic solid."

54

Dr. J. BOTTOMLEV on

On the equation to the Instantaneous Surface gene-
rated by the dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. By-
James Bottomley, D.Sc.

(^Received February ^th, iSSp.)

I. T/ie Subject considered geometrically.
Although the phenomenon of dissolution of a solid is
one of the most striking in chemistry, it does not, as a
general problem, seem to have been the subject of exact
enquiry ; nor do the text books of chemistry supply an
answer to the following question : — Given the form of an
isotropic solid placed in a menstruum capable of dissolving
it, what will be the surface at any subsequent time bounding
the undissolved portion. Considering the infinite variety
of forms which the primitive solid may have, whether
bounded by continuous or discontinuous surfaces, the subject
might seem to be impracticable. After some reflection on
the matter, two propositions occurred to me which seem to
be of sufficient generality to include every case which may
present itself The first of these propositions is as follows :
If lines normal to a curve be cut by a second ciirve at a
constant distance from the first, then these lines will be
normal to the second cnrve. The proof is not difficult ; let
X, Y be co-ordinates of a point P on the first curve, and

The Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. 155

X, y co-ordinates of a point Q on the second curve, let PT
and PS be the normal and tangent at P, also let PQ = c be
a constant, then we have

i^-xf^{Y-yf = <^ (i)

c being constant, and all the other variables being regarded
as functions of X, we get by differentiation

(X-.4-^).(V-,)(g-|) = 0 (.)

but \^ = tanPQR = tanPTS = cotPST = ; — %^ = -^
X-x ^ tan PS 1 £Y

dX
by substitution in (2) we get

dx_^ f^_±\
dX dVydX dXj
dX
.dY_^^^ (3)

••dX~dX dx
dx
dX
Hence the tangent at Q is parallel to the tangent at P, and
PT is normal to the second curve at the point O. This
proposition will be of service in treating of the dissolution
of cylindrical solids, and surfaces of revolution. The co-
ordinates of the curves will be connected by the following

relationship :

x = X- CCOSCj) (4)

J = Y - csin^

(p denoting the angle PTS. If for the angular functions we

substitute their values in terms of the co-ordinates X, Y',

we shall obtain equations which we may write

.T=/,(X,Y/) (5)

y=MX,Y,c)

and from these we may obtain equations of the form

Y = F,(^-j',^) (6)

X = F2{xj',c)

if the primitive equation be ^(X,Y) = 0, to obtain the de-
rived equations we must substitute for X and Y from (6).

/:

156 Dr. J. BoTTOMLEV on

In these equations <; is a variable parameter, and by giving
it successive values from 0 until we exhaust the normals to
the first surface, we may obtain the equations to the
successive derived curves from the commencement of
dissolution until its completion.

\i s and S denote the lengths of the derived and primi-
tive curves measured from two fixed points up to the
common normal, we may deduce from (3)

ds _d^ (7)

dx~dX'
and by integration

VS d_x_ dX (8)

dXdX

from (4) by differentiation we obtain
dx . dd)

// C T

also -rf>= -: — ; substituting in (8) and completing the inte-
^^r sm^ ' & V / r t>

gration we obtain the equation

s = S+C(j} + n,
n denoting a constant ; to find its value suppose that in
Fig. I MP = S and NO = j-, then we shall have simultane-
ously j = 0, S = 0, ^ = -; hence
equation may be written

There is also another equation which may be deduced from
this, which will be found useful. Suppose that c is not
greater than the radius of curvature at any point of the
curve MK, and that OM, OK are normals, then the area

MNLK may be written / sdc, if then we multiply (9) by

dc, and integrate we get

MNLK = &-^(;-,f) ('°'

The Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. 157

In the figure the angle at O is a right angle, so that in this
case 0 = 0. From the last equation we may obtain an
expression for the undissolved area, for we shall have

ONL - Oi\I K - Sr + ^Y?" -</.") (11)

when for 0, 0 must be written, if as in the figure the angle
between the extreme normals be a right angle. As a
particular example of the foregoing investigation, suppose
that we have a cylinder of which a section normal to its
length is the parabola

Y- = 4aX
From the two following equations

along with the equation to the parabola, we obtain
(.r-X)-^(X + «) = «^2

X( 2^- + X - xY ='ay- (12)

From these equations we may deduce

X- 2a /y^ + ,

{x - 2a)-

3 y^ 3 9

substituting this value of X in (12), we obtain the following
as the equation to the curve cutting the normals to a
parabola at a constant distance.

{~V-

^j-c^ (x - 2ay-}
3 9 I

w^^^

(x - lay x — 2a\ '-' , ^
9 3 J

This equation when expanded so as to get rid of radical
forms, is of the sixth degree ; it will also include an external
branch, cutting the normals produced externally at a distance
c. If in (13), 0 be written for c, it will be found to include
the parabola itself; for we then may write the equation
in the form

(/ - ^ax)\f- + (x - of) = o.

158

Dr. J. BOTTOMLEY

In the present enquiry it will only be necessary to consider
the internal portion of the curve. The radius of curvature
at the vertex of the parabola is 2a ; provided c be not
greater than this quantity, the internal curve will cut all
the normals to the parabola in the first quadrant in the
same quadrant, but if greater, it will cut some of these
normals in the lower quadrant, as in Fig. 2, where EB cuts

all the normals in the first quadrant, but the remaining
portion of this branch of the curve cuts them in the second
quadrant ; having descended some distance below the axis
of the parabola, this branch will cease to cut the normals,
but at the point A there is a cusp, and the portion AC cuts
the remaining normals drawn to the parabola in the first
quadrant; hence OC the intercept on the axis is equal to c.
From symmetry, we may infer that the branch AC will
be continued above the axis of x to a point D where there
will be another cusp, and that there will be a branch DF
corresponding to AB, and passing through E, which will
therefore be a double point. The position of the cusps is
given by the equations

TJie Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. 159

if in (13) y = ^ the corresponding values of x are ±t:

and a-\ — > this latter quantity will be the distance

OE of the double point from the origin. In order to
assign some definite volume to the cylinder, we may
suppose it to be bounded by two planes, of which the
sections by a plane normal to the length of the cylinder
are the lines GL, LH ; furthermore let these lines be normals
to the parabola at G and H, let also the planes just men-
tioned, and the extremities of the cylinder be covered with
some insoluble compound so that dissolution is confined to
the curved surface. The first stage of dissolution will be to
remove a thin shell in the element of time dt, this shell
having everywhere the same normal thickness dc ; to the
new surface the same lines will be normal, and in another
element of time dt a second shell will be removed, having
everywhere thesameinfinitesimal thickness, and sotheprocess
will continue until the solid be exhausted. Of the curve
in Fig. 2 the portion EAD has no physical existence ; the
portion bounding the undissolved area will be BEF ; as
dissolution proceeds there will be a progression of the point
E on the axis of x, at the same time the area BEF
diminishes, and the length of c increases, hence the object
of the enquiry will be to represent this area as a function of ^,
and if c be some ascertainable function of the time, we
may determine, either exactly or with any required degree
of approximation, the area of BEF, and consequently
the dimensions of the undissolved cylinder at any time.
At this point then we may see that the doctrine of solution
consists of two enquiries, the determination of the volume of
the undissolved solid as a function of c, and the determina-
tion of ^ as a function of the time, the first is a geometrical
question, the second a chemical one, to be decided by ex-

l6o Dr. J. BOTTOMLEY 071

periments in the laboratory ; the first enquiry may be
pursued in perfect independence of the latter. In the
present case the area BEF in terms of c may be obtained
as follows :

BEF - 2BEL = 2(0GL - EBGK - OKE)

Let 0 be the angle OEK, ^ the angle OLG, then
EBGK = arcKG.^ - - ( ^ - </>), KG = OG - OK

OK = a — ^ + alog{tan^ + v/ i + tan*^}

OKE = 4.W^ + /i^^i£^
3 ^ 2

also, we have the following equation connecting ^ and c

2a = ccos(p,

from these equations by elimination of (j> we obtain

area BEF ^ A + ^ .^ ' -Yc+2adoe, ^~

ba ° 2a

ria-cos-^")

wherein A stands for the area, and P for the perimeter of
the curve GOH ; if / be the length of the normal LG, then
the values of c in the last equation will extend from 2^: to / ;
in the latter case the area BEF vanishes, and this corre-
sponds with complete dissolution of the cylinder. If^be
less than 2a for the area BEF we should have the value
A-Vc+rQ,.

In what precedes the figure has been supposed to
represent a section of a cylinder, if we suppose the figure to
revolve round OL, the values of x and y deduced from
equations (4), and the equation to the parabola, intro-
duced into the expressions V = tt I j/^dx, would serve

to find the volume undissolved at any time of a surface
of revolution generated by the solution of a paraboloid,
the action being restricted to the curved surface.

Tlic Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid.

i6i

Next consider a right cylinder of which the section is
the ellipse

Also let us suppose that the action of the solvent is confined
to the curved surface, then x, y being co-ordinates of a point
on the instantaneous curve situated on the same normal as
the point X, Y we have the following relationship

Y-y fi'^X

X-.x «-'Y-^
whence

^~a%x-X) + d-'X
substituting this value of Y in the equation to the ellipse
and the equation

we obtain

X"{a''x - X{a'^ - b"") Y + a^b'^X^ - d^{a-x - X(«2 - //-) }^ = 0
(X - x)\ay- + {a\x - X{a' - b^) Y] - c^a^-x - X{a^ - F-) }- = 0
expanding these equations in powers of X, we may for
brevity write the results as follows

PX*-QX« + RX- + SX-T = 0 (14)

UX*-VX3 + WX--YX + Z = 0 (15)

the coefficients of the different powers of X having the
following values :

Y = \]^{a^-b^f
Q = 2a'^x{a^-b')

R = ayP + «*^2 _ ^2(^2 _ /,2)2

S^2xa\a^-b')
T = a'x^

Y = 2x{a'"-b^){2a^~-b')

W - a'i^.^ +/) + 4«2^^(fl2 _ b^) + («2 _ //2)2(^2 _ ^2)

Y = 2{a'x{x^ +y-) + a-x{a^ - b''){x- - c-)}

Since P = U, if we subtract (14) from (15), we obtain

X\Q - V) + X'^W - R) - X(Y + S) + Z + T = 0 (17)

L

(16)

[ =0

1 62 Dr. J. BOTTOMLEY on

If wc multiply this last equation by PX, and subtract from
(14), multiplied by Q — V, we obtain
-X«{Q(Q-V) + P(W-R)}+X2{R(Q-V) + P{Y + S)}

+ X{S(Q-V)-P(Z + T)}-T(Q-V) = 0
eliminating X^ between this equation and (17), we obtain
the following quadratic equation for determining X :
X-^ 1 (R(Q - V) + P(Y + S))(Q - V) + (Q(Q - V) + P{W - R))^
(W-R);-+x{(S(Q-V)-P(Z + T))(Q-V)-(Q(Q-V)
+ P(W - R))(Y + S)} - T(Q - V)- + (Q(Q - V)
+ P(W-R))(Z + T)

If we write the solution of this equation in the form

2A 2A ^

the following will be the values of the letters A, B, C
deduced from (16):
A = (fl2 - d"-y{x*{a"- - U'f + zx'iaY-ia' + U^) - {a" - U')\a' + ^^))

B = 2{a- - b'fd-x'i^ x\a" - b~f + x-(a:y-{2a" - b') -2(0^- b'fiir + r))

+ {ay- + {d'-b-'){d'-r)y}
C = {d' - b'fa'x-lx'id' - b') + .i--((2«-^ - b')f - 2{d' ~ b''){d' + r))

+ (y + a- - r){dy + {a- - b-){d' - r)) }
From the value of X thus obtained, we may deduce the
value of Y by writing in the formulae b, y, x for a,x,y
respectively ; these values of X and Y substituted in the
equation to the ellipse or in the equation

{X-xf+{Y-yf^r
will give the equation to the instantaneous curve generated
by the dissolution of an elliptic cylinder. It will also give an
external curve cutting the normals at a distance c from the
ellipse. The radius of curvature at the extremity of the

major axis of the ellipse has the value — , while c is less than

this value, the internal curve cuts the normals drawn in any
quadrant in the same quadrant, when c is greater, the curve
becomes more complicated and assumes the form repre-

The Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. 163-.

sented in the figure. The branch CD cuts a portion of the

normals to AB ; at D is a cusp and the remaining normals
in the first quadrant are cut by HD ; the normals to the
lower quadrant are cut by the branch FCEH, there being
a second cusp at E, and C being a double point ; to the left
of the axis of j there is another portion of the curve sym-
metrical with that to the right. Of the curve thus found
the portions ECD, LMK, have no physical existence, the
undissolved area at any time will be represented by CGKF.
The position of the cusps is given by the equations,

and

^-±^jJTi^-l^^^^^

the final positions of the cusps corresponding with total dis-
solution of the cylinder will be obtained by writing b for c,
they will be

b

The position of the double points is given by the equations

In order to trace the progress of the dissolution of the
cylinder it will be necessary to express the area as a func*

i64 Dr. J. BOTTOMLEY on

tion of c; by reference to Fig. 4, it will be seen that
B

CEFG = 4-OEC = 4(0BHK - EBHC - CHK).
X being the abscissa of the point H, we have the following
relations (^ denoting the angle HCA).

EBCH = ^.BH-^'(7r-0);

BH

J sir

dX ,

sin^'

OBHK = ^|-^v^'''-^%'''sin-^L
a [^ 2 2 a j '

X =

\/ a' + l^han-d

Cos<p

b yJlr-C-

c \J d- - b
CHK= cos(^sin(^.
From these equations we obtain by elimination

CEFG= -^ P + 2rt/'sin ^-a/ — — 77.

b by/ a- - b-

_ 4^^ f ''^' + 2ci-- _ sin-\ A5E^.

bj v/(aV-^*)(-^-<:-) V2 cSf a" - [^

This formula applies from

c= to c = o.
a

If we suppose the last figure to revolve round the axis

TJie Dissobitio7i of an Isotropic Solid. 165

of ,1', then the instantaneous curve will trace out the surface
bounding the undissolved portion at any instant, when a
prolate spheroid is acted upon by a solvent ; the values of
X and y substituted in the formula irj y^dx will give the
volume of this undissolved solid ; in like manner, if the
figure revolve round the axis of y, from the foregoing in-
vestigation we may deduce the value of the integral irj x~dy,
being the volume at any instant of the solid generated by
the solution of an oblate spheroid.

The second proposition, before referred to, which enables
us to investigate geometrically the dissolution of all solids is
as follows. // a surface be drawn cutting the lines normal
to a given surface at a constant distance from the surface, then
these lines will be normal to the surface so drawn. Let
X, Y, Z, be co-ordinates of a point on the given surface
0(X, Y, Z,) = 0 and ,r, y, z co-ordinates of a point on the
instantaneous surface ;//(.r, J', r) = 0, then c denoting a con-
stant we have the equation

(X-.rr + (Y-jO^ + (Z-s^) = .l (18)

At a contiguous point we shall have

(X + ^X - X - dxf + {Y + dY-y- dyf + {Z + dZ-z- dzf = c'^ ;
expanding and eliminating the constant, we get

(X - .t)(^ - ^v) + (Y -y){dY -dy) + {Z- z){dZ - dz)

+ (^X - dxf + (^Y - dyf + {dZ - dzf = 0;

if the second point be taken indefinitely near to the first
point, then neglecting small quantities of the second order,
the last equation may be written in the form

(X - .v)^X + (Y -y)dY + (Z - z)dZ = (X - x)dx

+ (Y -y)dy + (Z - z)dz.

since the line is normal to the surface 0(X,Y,Z) the ex-
pression on the left vanishes. Hence we have
(X - x)dx + (Y -y)dy + {Z- z)dz = 0,
and this is the condition to be fulfilled, that the line may be
a normal to the instantaneous surface (p(x,y,z).

i66 Dr. J. BoTTOMLEV on

From the two last equations we may deduce

dz--
hence we have

(j^>-m>-'

dZ

dY

Y-y
Z-z

dZ

dX

X-x

Z-z

dz
dx-

X-x

Z-z

dz

dy-

Y-y
~Z-z

hence

dZ dz dz dz

dX^dx ^"^^ dY^'^

and from these equations we may obtain,

the expression on the left measures the inclination of the
tangent plane at the point X, Y, Z, to the plane of xy, and
the expression on the right measures the inclination of the
tangent plane at x,y,s, to the same plane, hence these tan-
gent planes are parallel, therefore the line

X-x_Y-y Z-z
c ~ c ~ c

is normal to both surfaces. If a,j3, 7 be the direction angles
of the normal to the primitive surface 0(X, Y, Z,) we have
the equations

vT = X - fCOSa

J = Y - rcos/3 (20

z = Z- <rcosy

which may be written in the form

TJie Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. 167

^-'t

A&hm<^y

if in these equations we substitute for the differential coeffi-
cients their values in terms of the co-ordinates, we may write

x=MX,Y,Z,c) (2 1)

y=MX,Y,Z,c)

z=MX,Y,Z,c)

from these equations we may deduce

X = F,{x,y,z,c) (22)

Y = F,{x,y,z,c)
Z = F3(^-,j',5,c)
These values of X, Y, Z substituted in the equation
(/)(X,Y,Z) = 0, or in (18) will give the instantaneous surface
generated by the solution of the given surface. By the
variation of c, we shall obtain the successive surfaces from
the commencement until the completion of dissolution ; the
equation will also include the primitive surface if we write
0 for c.

In order to test the accuracy of the above reasoning,
suppose the primitive surface to be the sphere

X" + Y' + Z' = r-
then, since

dz _ X ^_^_ _Y
dx~ ~ V dY" Z
we shall have the additional equations

1 68

Dk. .

]. Bottom li-:y on

X

-x + (Z-s)| = 0

Y

-j + (Z-s)| = 0

:c) +(Y-

-yf + {Z-zf = r;

nay deduce

yr

(X

and these values substituted in the primitive equation give
the equation

representing two spheres, one cutting the normals to the
primitive surface internally, and the other externally, a
result which might have been expected. In the case of
solution we must take the radius r—c. It might be asked,
what is the interpretation of the equation with the ex-
pression r+cfor the radius? The physical interpretation
is this ; chemical solutions can not only dissolve but also
deposit and the external surface corresponds to the case of
deposition ; this remark will also apply to the external
surface included in the general equation to the instantane-
ous surface ; hence, dissolution and deposition are included
in the same mathematical investigation. In the present
enquiry, dissolution alone is considered. In the case of any
isotropic solid dissolution will proceed as follows : in the
element of time dt there will be removed a shell having
everywhere the same infinitesimal normal thickness ; lines
normal to the original surface will be normal to the new-
surface ; along these lines again measure off the elementary
length dc^ the locus of the extremities will be the new
surface bounding the undissolved portion ; this process,
continued until we exhaust all the normals, will exhibit
the process of solution from its commencement until its
completion.

The relation between the area of the primitive and of
the instantaneous surface may be obtained as follows :

The Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. 169

from (19) we have

d-a d-A
dydx~dYdX
integrating we obtain

changing the variables from x, y to X, Y b}' means of (20)
the last equation becomes

n^A-cJ J .ecv( -^ + — - j^V^X +.-_/ J sec,.

fdcosa dcosft dcosa dcosl3\

[-dx -^Y~—dT^T'r^'^^-

It will be possible to assign to c such values that the co-
efficients of c and c" in this equation do not contain c. If
we denote these coefficients by P and O, multiply both
sides by dc and integrate, and denote by V the volume of
the shell, bounded by the primitive and the instantaneous
surfaces we shall get the following equation

V = Ar-^P-^^-Q (23)

a result which will be frequentl}' useful in the theory of
solution.

II. Tlie subject considered chemically.

In the foregoing investigation, dissolution has been con-
sidered as a geometrical question, there yet remains to
consider the matter as a chemical problem.

The rate of diminution of a solid depends on a variety
of circumstances. If the acid be very dilute, the action is
slow, and if concentrated, in some cases the action may be
slow also, as in the case of strong sulphuric acid and zinc.
Solution requires not onl)' the presence of an agent capable
of forming a soluble compound with the solid, but also the
presence of some menstruum which continually removes
the product so formed. If the solution be heated, there is
usually an acceleration of action ; hence, if there be an evo-

170 Dr. J. BoTTOMLEV on

lution of heat during the solution, this will have some effect
on the rate of solution. Also, if there be an evolution of
gas, the adhesion of bubbles of gas may interfere with the
contact of the solid and solvent. Also the solid may be
partially soluble and like cast iron, contain carbon or silicon
in forms not soluble, .so that a crust of insoluble matter
may accumulate and impede the rate of dissolution.

In what follows, the following conditions are supposed
to hold : 1st, that the mass of the solvent is kept in such a
state of agitation, that at any time it may be considered
homogeneous ; in such a case the strength of the acid in
contact with the solid will be proportional to the total
quantity of anhydrous acid remaining uncombined. 2nd,
that the temperature remains unaltered during solution ; if
it be desired to keep the temperature from rising we may
suppose ice or some appropriate refrigerating agent applied
to the exterior of the vessel in which the operation takes
place, so that the flux of heat outwards shall neutralize the
rise of temperature due to chemical action, or by regulating
the external application of heat any constant temperature
compatible with the circumstances of the experiment may
be maintained within the vessel. 3rd, that the successive
surfaces exposed to the action of the .solvent are homogene-
ous, in which case the action of the solvent along every
normal to the surface is the same, so that the thin shell
removed in an element of time has everywhere the same
normal thickness. With these suppositions, it seems evident
that the rate of dissolution will be proportional to the extent
of surface exposed to the solvent, it will also be some
function of the unsaturated acid. Let v denote volume of
solid at time /, let a denote the mass of unsaturated acid
(anhydride), s surface of the solid at time t ; then we have

the relation

dv^ - ns(\^{a)dt (24)

where n denotes a constant depending on the temperature

TJlc Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. 171

at which the action takes place, and the quantity of water
holding the anhydride in solution, also on the chemical
nature of the solid to be dissolved. The number of vari-
ables in (24) may be diminished as follows. Suppose that
during the solution the same chemical compound is formed,
let <7o be the mass of the anhydride at the beginning, vi^ the
initial mass of the solid, vi the mass at time t. Then ing — in
will be the mass of the solid dissolved, and a^ — a will be the
mass of the anhydride which has entered into combination
with it, but by Dalton's law of combination the first of
these quantities will bear to the second a constant ratio
depending on the combining weights of the anhydride
and the substance to be dissolved, hence we have

Wo - m = h{a,^ - a)
w^hen h denotes a constant. Hence :

in + ha„ — m,„

h
Also if e denote the density of the solid ni = ev, and the
equation of chemical action becomes

dv= - ns<^[ J- °- \dt.

The form of the function f has, I think, not yet been
determined experimentally in a satisfactory manner ; subject
to previously mentioned conditions, I think it not unlikely
that the rate of dissolution will be found proportional to the
quantity of the anhydride remaining uncombined at any
instant. With this hypothesis the last equation may be
written in the form

-^=-lsdt (25)

Z' + r

where r has been written for ~—Vo and / for ^. Wehave

e h

now three cases to consider depending upon the values of

r. (i) Suppose that the quantity of acid is just sufficient

to combine with the solid then r=0 ; (2) suppose that the

172 Dr. J. BOTTOMLEY on

mass of the solid, is greater than that required to saturate the
acid, then r is negative ; (3) suppose that the mass of the
solid is less than that required to saturate the acid, then r
is positive. The expressions obtained by integrating (25)
will be different in each case. If we suppose r negative
and integrate (25) in its present form we obtain the equation

which may also be expressed in the form

when a denotes the mass of the unneutralised anhydride
at any time ; this would make the time required to saturate
the acid infinite, if the mass of the solid be just sufficient
to combine with the acid, or if it be greater than the
mass required to saturate the acid ; this would seem
contrary to experience, but practically the acid might be
considered to be neutralised in a finite time, for the quantity
remaining unneutralised might be too small to be detected.
For example, suppose the area of the surface exposed to
the acid to be constant so that we may write
a = a^e-^'' ;

if the quantity of acid neutralised in one hour be nine-
tenths of the initial quantity, after the lapse of ten hours

the quantity of free acid would be only of

I 0000000000

the initial quantity.

In a former part of the paper it was pointed out that
from an isotropic solid there would be removed in the
small element of time dt, a shell having everywhere the
same normal thickness dc, also that the volume remaining
undissolved at time / would be some function of c ; hence for
dv we may write -sdc, and (25) may be written in the
form

M^r

The Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. 173

I shall now consider the application of the foregoing
investigation to the solution of some of the more familiar
geometric forms. As a particular case consider the paral-
lelepiped, of which the lengths of the edges at any instant
are x, y, :y ; then the volume will be Ay::;, and after the
lapse of time dt the volume will become (x- 2 dx) (j/- 2dy)
{p- 2ds), if every face of the solid be equally acted upon by
the solvent ; also the area of the surface will be 2 {xy + sy + xa).
Neglecting products of small quantities we get the equation

d7> = 2{xydz + xzdy + zydx)
and as the rate of action is everywhere the same

dx = dy = dz
Integrating these equations, and denoting by z^^ y^, a^
initial values we get the equations

y ^Jo -Jo + ^, Z=^Z„-X^ + X.

Writing /h for y„-\-So — 2x„, and /h for (jo — ,fj (So-Xo) the

differential equations of solution becomes

dx

^ ~, 7 = - tdt

jf + x'hi + x/i^ + r

an expression which may be readily integrated, and its

value determined at any time when the arithmetical values

of the constants are assigned. If either y„=^o, or z„=:Xg,

hi vanishes ; if both the equations are true h^ vanishes also.

In this case the solid becomes a cube, and the integral

becomes

J 3 I

c - r^n=Ao^-~^ '- + -— tan

6 - x^^r v/3 ^iv/3^

the constant to be determined by the condition that when
/=() ,1'=^-" ; the time required for dissolution of the cube
may be obtained by writing o for x, and will be

If r be negative, the relation between the length of the
edges of the cube and the time which has elapsed will be

174 Dl<- J- BOTTOMLEY on

given by the formula

If the quantity of acid be just sufficient to dissolve the
cube, the equation of dissolution becomes

the complete integral will be

\/ I + 2ltx^
If the solid to be dissolved have the form of a sphere, x
being its radius at time /, the differential equations are

^^= -Idt

3

dx
= -Idt

3
the integral of the first expression is

the constant to be determined by the condition x^x^ when
/=() ; the time required to dissolve the sphere may then be
found by making ,r=0. If the quantity of acid be insuffi-
cient to dissolve the sphere, from the second equation we
obtain the following relation between the radius of the
sphere at any time, and the time which has elapsed.

\3A 6'°^\47r.--3r V(4-)*^-(3'-)Vf

/ 2(47r)^a?+ (3r)4 _A^-^f^o-^^V'f\ ^

If the quantity of acid be just sufficient to dissolve the

TJic Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid.

sphere

the integral become

s

3

I '

which

we may also

write in

the form

(-

3

f

Next suppose the solid to have the form of a right cylinder
with a circular section, and first suppose that the ends of
cylinder are covered with sealing wax or some other
material not acted upon by the acid, so that dissolution is
confined to the curved surface ; the three differential
equations assume the form

n-KX- + ?•
dx

-Idt
-Idt
-Idt

mtx- —

7117,1

n denoting the length of the cylinder, and x the radius of
the base at any time. The complete integral of the first
expressions will be

The time required for complete dissolution of the c}-linder
will be

(tan-fi5Y.,)_J_,.
V \r ) Jl{mrrf

The complete integral of the second expression is

2 t^'o \/ niT + r'^ x^ iiTT - r^j
If the quantity of acid be just sufficient to dissolve the
cylinder, the complete integral is

- - = flirlt.

As a variation of the problem, suppose the whole surface
of the cylinder to be exposed to the action of the solvent.

176 Dr. J. Bottom LEV on

The whole surface will be 2Trx^-\-2ir.xy,.v denoting the radius
of the cylinder and j its length, also the volume will be
Tra-;'. If the cylinder be isotropic, and dv the decrement of
the radius, dy the decrement of each extremity, we shall
have the relation dx=-dy\ whence j/ = ,r+j/o—,t,„ and the
expression to be integrated become
dx

■KJ? + izx\yo -Xo) + r

dx
■KK? + Trar(jo - x„) - r
xd

-Idt,

- kit,

- kit.

TT^ + Trx-{yo - Xg)

Hence in each case the velocity of the action is expressible
as an algebraic function of the variable x ; in each case the
determination of the complete integral will offer no diffi-
culties when the arithmetical values of the constants enter-
ing into the equation are given. If the length of the
cylinder be equal to the radius, the differential equations
differ from the corresponding equations for the sphere in
haviner tt as the coefficient of x'' instead of — , and the
integrals may be obtained by making this substitution in
the corresponding integrals relating to the sphere.

As another example, suppose the solid to be one of the
regular solids ; then x denoting the length of the edge of
one of the plane faces bounding the solid, for the volume of
the solid we may write w,^-^ and for the surface nx' ; the para-
meters jn and u having different values for each of the five
regulai polyhedra. Differentiating the expression for the
volume with regard to x, and substituting in the general
equations of solution we obtain

5^^^-=-lndt
mx^ + r

^^^f' =-lndt

mor - r

^^=-lndt,

TJie Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. 177

the velocity of dissolution is therefore in each case a simple
algebraic function of the variable, and the determination of
the integral will present no difficulties when the kind of
regular polyhedron is specified. In the previous examples
the mass of the solvent has been supposed to be finite ; but
we may suppose that we have a solvent consisting of an
infinite amount of anhydrous acid mixed with an infinite
amount of water. If in such a mixture a solid of finite
dimensions be dissolved, and the medium be kept in a con-
stant state of disturbance, the diminution in strength of the
acid due to neutralisation by the solid will be so small as to
be negligible, and the acid may be considered to be always
of its initial strength ; this will be approximately the case
when a small mass is dissolved in a large mass of the
solvent. If the solvent be an acid solution the strength of
the acid will depend on the ratio of the mass of the anhy-
dride to the mass of the water ; if this ratio be denoted by
q, and this letter be substituted for ^{a) in (24), the dif-
ferential equation of solution becomes

dv = - 7iqs(Jt,
from which by substituting — i-rt'^ for dv, we obtain the
equation dc=-7iqdt,

and by integration c=ngt.

Under these circumstances the time required for the
complete dissolution of some of the familiar forms of solids
becomes a simple function of some linear dimension of
the solid ; for instance the times required to dissolve spheres
are as their radii, the times required to dissolve cubes are
as their edges ; this last remark also applies to the remain-
ing regular polyhedra. By substituting for c in the instan-
taneous equation, we may also determine its form and
dimensions at any time, and by substituting in (23) we may
determine the mass of the shell removed from a solid in
time /.

The most complete series of experiments which I have

iVI

178 Dr. J. BOTTOMLEV on

found in connection with the subject of this paper are
contained in a memoir by Spring and Van Aubel in the
Annales de Chiviie et de Physique [6], 1 1. They there give
the details of experiments to determine the velocity of
dissolution of spheres of zinc containing a minute amount of
lead in Hydrochloric, Hydrobromic, and Hydriodic acids of
different degrees of concentration, and at different tem-
peratures. They found that the maximum velocity,
measured by the volume of Hydrogen evolved, did not
occur at the commencement of the reaction ; they first
noted an increase and then a decrease. The period during
which the velocity is increasing they term the period of
induction ; this is most noticeable when the acids are
dilute ; with concentrated acids, the maximum velocity is
almost simultaneous with the commencement of solution.
Unfortunately their results are not strictly comparable with
the results of the theory announced in this paper ; I have
supposed that the mass of the solvent is kept in such a state
of disturbance that at any instant the whole mass may be
considered homogeneous. This condition does not seem to
have been fulfilled in their experiments ; the evolution of
Hydrogen when brisk would no doubt tend to mix the
different parts of the solution, but when the evolution was
slow this agency might not be sufficient to secure the
supposed condition. Hence we might expect, on comparing
results of experiments with calculations founded on the
above theory, that the times found b}- experiment would
depart further and further from the calculated times as the
solution approached completion. The calculation applies
of course only to that portion of the observations which
commences at the completion of the period of induction.

The numbers in the following table are taken from the
memoir above cited ; they show the results of the action of
a 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid at the tem-
perature 15° C. on a sphere of zinc. Complete solution

The Dissohition of a7i Isotropic Solid.

179

would furnish 1145 cc. of hydrogen at 750 mm. pressure
and 15° C. The sphere was acted upon by sufficient acid to
produce this quantity of gas.

A.

B.

A.

B.

0

0

600

■ 1573

50

301

650

1788

100

455

700 ..

2044

150

• 561

750 ••

2356

200

649

800

2746

250 .

731

850 ..

3283

300 ..

. 813

900

4018

350

899

950 ..

5082

400

995

1000

6748

450 ..

1 106

1050

—

500 ..

• 1239

IIOO

—

550

1392

1145 ..

—

The numbers in columns A are the cubic centimeters
of gas given off, the numbers in columns B the times in
seconds required for the evolution of the corresponding
volume of gas. If we subtract 561 from 649, the difference
is 88, this number of seconds has elapsed while 50 cc. of
gas were given off; if we subtract 649 from 731 the differ-
ence is 82 ; therefore, in this interval, the velocity has been
greater than in the former one ; if we examine the succes-
sive intervals we shall not find a greater velocity than this.
Suppose then that we commence our observations after the
lapse of 649 seconds, we then derive the numbers given in
columns A and B of the following table.

A.

B.

C.

D.

0

0

0

0

50

82 .

82

82

100

.. 164 .

172

167

150

250 .

271

256

200

346 .

- 381 ..

. 348

250 .

457 •

505 ••

445

300 .

590 .

644

546

350 •

743 ••

803 ..

• 653

18©

Dr. J. BOTTOMLEY OH

400

929

985 .

766

450

.. 1139 .

.. 1175

886

500

•• 1395 •

1449

1014

550

1707

1749

•• 1153

600

2097

2128 .

.. 1304

650

2634 .

2607

.. 1470

700

3369 •

•• 3243

.. 1695

750

•• 4433 •

. 4140 .

. 1872

800

.. 6099 .

• 5531 •

2124

850

. 8055 .

. 2446

900

• 14693

. 2914

945

00

• 4572

Column A contains the quantities of gas given off ; column
B has been formed by subtracting 649 from all the succeeding
numbers in the corresponding column in the first table ; it
shows the time which has elapsed. The total volume of
hydrogen which the sphere could furnish by dissolution,
at the commencement of the observations recorded in the
second table, will be 1145 — 200 cc. ; that is, 945 cc. In a
former part of the paper the following expression was
obtained for the radius {x) of a dissolving sphere at time t:

This formula may be adapted to the present case as follows.
Let H be the equivalent in hydrogen of the mass of the
sphere at any time, H^ the equivalent of the initial mass ;
then we may derive the equations

3 3

d denoting density and n a constant
we may write the equation in the form

Ho

k denoting a constant. If h denote the hydrogen already
given off, the last equation may be changed into

Substituting in (26)

H

t{i^^-\

TJie Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. i8i

from this equation the calculated numbers in column C of
the last table have been derived ; the value of the constant
employed is 0'00045, and has been obtained from the
observation that 50 cc. of gas were evolved in 82 seconds.
In several cases there is a fair agreement between the
observed and the calculated time ; in the latter stages of
the dissolution, the observed intervals increase more rapidly
than the calculated intervals ; the reason may probably be
the one previously suggested, that there was not sufficient
disturbance of the solvent to render it homogeneous. The
observed rapid diminution of evolution of the gas towards
the end of the operation would also harmonise well with
the theory which I have advanced, which would require for
perfect solution an infinite time. In none of their experi-
ments have the authors given the observed time of the
complete dissolution of the sphere ; they only carried their
observations as far as the evolution of 1,000 cc. of gas.

The authors in their paper give the following equation
to denote the velocity of solution,

V = KSo( A - C)IAi
In this equation V denotes the velocity of the solution, S^
the initial surface of the sphere, A the initial concentration
of the acid employed, and C the portion of the acid con-
sumed in the operation, K denotes a constant.

This formula does not appear to me to be adapted to their
own results. They have estimated the velocity as follows :
they collected the gas in a graduated vessel, and the time
required for the evolution of each successive 50 cc. of gas
was noted ; this number divided by the interval of time
they take as the velocity ; but this will not be a correct
expression for the velocity at any given instant, it will be
the mean velocity during the interval, and will only be
suitable when the velocity varies slowly. If k be the
volume of hydrogen evolved at time /, the proper expres-
sion for the velocity will be -!• Let H denote the volume

1 82 The Dissolution of an Isotropic Solid.

of hydrogen corresponding to the initial strength of the acid,
// the volume of hydrogen corresponding to the acid con-
sumed ; then 7i denoting some constant quantity, we have

H = ;7A, h = nQ,
substituting these values in their equation, writing / for
KSoAht^ we obtain the following differential equation :

Integrating and determining the constant by the condition
// — 0, ^ = 0, we get the following equation :

t = p{Hi-{U-m (27)

The value of p determined by the condition t=S2 //= 50 is
465-9. By means of equation (27) the numbers in column
D in the last table have been derived. The divergence of
the observed and calculated times in the latter part of the
operation is very marked. Also solution ought to have
been completed in 4572 seconds, but according to the ex-
periment it was not completed in 6099 seconds, and even
then there remained 145 cc. of hydrogen to be evolved with
a rapidly diminishing velocity.

Proceedings. 183

[Microscopical and Natural History Section^

Ordinary Meeting, February nth, 1889.

Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S., President of the
Section in the Chair.

There were exhibited : —

By Mr. P. Cameron : A collection of European Chry-
sididcB, containing nearly 60 species.

By the PRESIDENT : Zizyphimis haliarchus, a new and
unique species of Troclms, described by him in the current
number of the Journal of Conchology, January, 1889.
The specimen belongs to the Museum Collection at
Owens College, having been formerly in the possession of
Mr. Reginald Cholmondeley, of Condover Hall, Salop. It
IS the fourth or fifth in size in the genus, most of the
larger species being natives of Australia or New Zealand,
From the former country the Z. haliarchus in all probability
•comes, but there has been some little misplacement in the
original labelling. It differs from all the existing species in
its truly conical and pyramidal contour, with straight sides,
light structure,smoothish whorls, being very minutely beaded
in close grained lines, the graining slightly larger and coarser
at the sutures, colour pale fawn, with darker brown flames
surrounding the periphery. Specimens of the nearest allies
to this new species were exhibited also for comparison.
The President also exhibited a form of Plantago maritima
new to this country, and a collection of other species of
Plantago for comparison, both British and European.

Mr. H. C. Chadwick read a paper on two nematode
worms, Ascaris mystax, and Ascaris lunibricoides, and
showed specimens of both species.

1 84 Proceedings.

Ordinary Meeting, February 19, 1889.

Professor OsBORNE Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Dr. A. HODGKINSON and Mr. R. HOLMES, B.A., were
appointed auditors of the Society's accounts.

A coloured representation of the Roman pavement at
Leicester, part of which was uncovered in 1832 and the
remainder in 1885, sent by the Leicester Literary and
Philosophical Society, was exhibited.

The President referred to the recent earthquake in
Manchester, the occurrence of which at Fallowfield he timed
at 10.36 p.m.

Dr. G. H. Bailey read a paper " On Vitrified Cement
from an Ancient Fort."

Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill read a paper " On a form of
Plantago niaritima, new to this country."

TJie Vitrified Cement from an ancient fort. 185

On the Vitrified Cement from an ancient fort. By
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D.

{Received March ^th, i88g.)

In October, 1882, Dr. Angus Smith described before
this Society a vitrified mass of stone from Glen Nevis, and
gave an analysis of the stone.

In the Manchester Museum at the Owens College is
also a mass composed of fragments of gneiss cemented
together by vitrefaction and said to be derived from the
forts of the Picts.

Having recently visited some of these forts in the High-
lands, I was interested in this specimen, and having, by the
permission of Professor Boyd Dawkins, obtained a sample
of the stone, I asked one of my students, Mr. W. B. Hopkins^
to make an analysis of the vitrified part. The points of
interest seemed to me to be : —

{a) Whether the materials which had been converted
into the molten mass had been selected by trial in order that
a body of low fusing point might be obtained or had been
taken indiscriminately ;

{b) whence they were derived ;

{c) what temperature would be required in order to bring
about the fusion ?

The vitrified part showed locally a glazing, and had
been distinctly fluid, but now presented somewhat the
appearance of lava, being honeycombed with air spaces
from which gases had apparently escaped during the fusion.
Samples were taken from different parts and mixed together,
and partial examination was made of the different samples
with a view to detecting variations in the composition of

1 86 Dr. G. H. Bailey on

the mass. No considerable differences were found, except
that in some parts the iron was entirely oxidised, whereas
in others it still remained, for the most part, in the ferrous
condition, and in addition to this there seemed to be rather
more alkalies in the denser parts of the mass. The typical
sample gave on analysis the following results, the sample
analysed by Dr. Angus Smith being placed alongside for
the sake of comparison, though I have no evidence that
they are identical specimens, and indeed the analyses them-
selves would certainly indicate that they were not.

Mass in Mass from

Manchester Museum. Glen Nevis.

Silica

69*59

68-88

Alumina

1112

16-17

Ferric oxide

13-01

5-33

Lime

053

373

Magnesia

0-32

3-39

Potash

1-86

1-83

Soda

1-49

0-26

Loss on ignition ...

I-I2

0-92

There may have been originally more alkalies present ; the
stone is of such a porous nature that these would be partially
dissolved away by exposure to atmospheric conditions.

There is then a very low proportion of alumina, prac-
tically no lime or magnesia, and little alkali. No common
mineral or rock substance, as far as I am aware, shows such
a composition.

It has been suggested by previous writers on this sub-
ject that basalt was added to clay, or some such substance,
to form a mass which could be fused at such temperatures
as were likely to be at the command of the builders of these
forts. Wood, it has been suggested, was the fuel used, and
indeed in one case wood has been actually found in situ
between the layers of stone constituting the wall.

In the case of the specimen examined, however, no
basalt can have been added, for though the large proportion

The Vitrified Cement from an ancient fort. 187

of iron might have lent some colour to such a suggestion,
it is absolutely negatived by the absence of calcium and
magnesia, which are alv^ays present in basaltic rocks.

For the same reason, and because of the low percentage
of alkalies, it cannot have been a gneissose or granitic base
that was used, nor (consideringthelowpercentageofalumina,)
can kaolin or clay have constituted any considerable portion
of the material. In some parts of Scotland where such forts
occur there are beds of red sandstone (of the old red
sandstone age and of formations older than this), and the
essential difference in composition between these lies only
in a rather lower percentage of iron and of alumina and a
little higher percentage of silica. These rocks, however,
approach nearer to the vitrified stone than any other
accessible material, and with the addition of a little iron ore,
or slag, might at any rate be brought in almost exact
agreement. The question of the source of the material,
in this particular case, is rendered more difficult because the
actual locality from which the mass was obtained is not
known, and in any case it would be necessary, in order to
solve such a question satisfactorily, to analyse samples of
vitrified forts from different districts, and to take the
results in connection with the rocks found in the district.
With regard to the temperature that would be required
to bring about the fusion of such a mass, I may call to
notice a series of investigations which have, during recent
years, been undertaken by Seger {Thonindiistrie-Zeitnng,
1886, p. 135,) with a view to determine the relation of fusibi-
lity of a mixture to the proportions in which the constituent
parts occur. Seger made up mixtures of silica, kaolin,
and marble in different proportions, until he, by means
of trials in a pottery furnace, arrived at a proximate
idea of the best proportions for obtaining low fusibility.
Having found this, he then made a large number of mixtures,
varying the several constituents, whilst keeping others in

1 88 TJie Vitrified Cement from an ancient fort.

the proportions established by the prehminary trials. It is
already known that the presence of alkalies, especially soda,
increases the fusibility of a mixture, and that oxide of iron
acts also in the same direction. He found, however, that the
keystone to fusibility rested with the relative proportion of
alumina and its relation to the other bases. It is singular
that in this particular the vitrified stone agrees very nearly
with the proportions discovered by Seger.

If, therefore, we take this in conjunction with the
peculiar composition of the vitrified stone, it would cer-
tainly seem to show that, in this case at any rate, the
materials used were an artificial mixture of natural products,
the proper constituents of which were arrived at by a
process of trial, and that the builders of the fort had some
acquaintance with the behaviour of different substances
under the action of heat, nor indeed can it be thought very
remarkable if they did possess some such knowledge. It
has been thought that in some cases the actual stones them-
selves were melted together by heat, and, however this may
be, there can be no suspicion of this in the example before
us. The schist, of which the fort has been built, shows
no marked alteration, and certainly nothing approaching
fusion. The temperature of fusion of such a mixture as is
indicated by the results of the analysis, would be about
1,200° C. to 1,300° C, and this could be readily attained
by means of wood, in the manner already suggested by
different writers on this subject.

Plantago maritiina. 189

Notes on a form of Plantago maritima [L.] new to
Great Britain : f. Pumila (Kjellman). By James
Cosmo Melvill, F.L.S.

{Received February 21st, iSSg.)

On 20th July, 1888, the ascent of Ben Hope, a high and
imposing mountain in north-west Sutherlandshire, was
made by Mr. Frederick Hanbury, F.L.S., and myself. Most
of the mountains in this district, e.g., Ben Hee, Ben Clibreck,
Ben Leoghal (Loyal), with Ben Hope, stand alone, and
these four form, roughly speaking, a quadrilateral, situated
some ten miles apart from each other, Ben Hope being
in the north-west corner of the quadrilateral and nearer to
Ben Leoghal than to the others.

The botanical riches of this mountain are notorious ;
but it is not very often ascended, owing to its forming part
of a deer forest, and, consequently, being strictly preserved
and closed to the public.

The primary object in view was to study the Hieracia,
and in this we were more successful than our most sanguine
expectations, obtaining one or two probably new and un-
described forms. I forbear more detail on this subject at
present as the plants are being cultivated by Mr. Hanbury,
and will flower this summer, and till then, it is premature
to discuss their distinctness or otherwise, suffice it to say
that new county records for Hieracium lingiilatum (Back-
house) and H. holosericeiini (Backhouse) were established.

We ascended by the west face, to the left of the Altna-
caillich Waterfall, and passing through a tract of boggy
ground, rich in Carices, e.g., C. pauciflora, C. vaginata, etc.,
rounded a great spur of the mountain, and soon came to

ipo Mr. Cosmo Melvill on

plenty o{ ArctostapJiylos alpina, Jiiniperiis nana, Betiila nana,.
etc. Soon some Alpine Hieracia, and Cherleria sedoides
were displayed, and the ground became very barren and
stony, with spaces of pulverised sand, caused by the small
disintegration of the boulders strewn everywhere in inex-
tricable confusion. Turning towards the large corrie on
the south-east, at about 2,900 feet, we came upon patches
oi J uncus trifidus, Lunula spicata, a stunted form oi Armeria
maritima, with very woody roots, and large heads of
flowers, and a Plantago, which did not resemble the mass of
P. maritima we had gathered at lower elevations. At the
time I took it to be more allied to P. alpina{l..) so frequent
in the mountains of the Valais in Switzerland.

This plant, which I now exhibit, has been submitted by
me to Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., of Kew, to Prof C. C.
Babington, F.R.S., of Cambridge, and Mr. Arthur Bennett,
F.L.S., of Croydon, and the following notes shew what
opinions these gentlemen have, at present, as to this curious
form : —

Mr. Baker wrote on 2nd January : —

" We have a Plantago here (in the Kew Herbarium) that
exactly matches your Ben Hope specimen, among the plants
of the Nordenskiold Expedition of 1875. It is labelled
P. maritima (L.), var. pumila (Kjellman), and was collected
at Cap Grebenig, Insula Wajgatsch, Scandinavia, in July,
1875, by Kjellman and Lundstrom, the botanists of the
expedition. A very similar form grows in Teesdale on the
sugar limestone of Widdy Bank Fell."

Prof Babington favoured me with three letters on the
subject, of which the first is as follows : —

"Your Plantago is undoubtedly difficult. I have the
dwarf form gathered by Mr. Tate, Bressa Sound, in Shet-
land, and which appears quite distinct from yours. I believe
the Bressa plant is the P. maritima-hirsuta (Syme) =
setacea-lanata (Edmundstone). I do not look towards the

Plantago viaritiina. 19 r

Alps for your plant, but to the north, and if Baker clearly
identifies the plant (as one collected during the Norden-
skiold Expedition) that must be enough."

And again, in his next letter : —

"Without seeing specimens, I find it difficult to determine
Lange's P. borealis. His description in Fl. Dan. (here
follows description) is not your plant. It has very short
scapes, not rising above the leaves. This was gathered by
Sir W. J. Hooker in Iceland, at Thingwellen, and it is the
alpina (?) of my Flora of Iceland {^Journal Lmn. Soc. Botany
1870, p. 323] and is very near the niarithna-Jiirsiita (Syme)
\_E71g. Bot. t. 1 167]. My final conclusion is that I fear your
plant must stand as a mountain form of P. viaritiina at
present."

Mr. Arthur Bennett writes February 8th, 1889 : —

" Many thanks for the little Plantago. I write at once
to say that Kjellman did not call it a var. — (but a form) —
P. viaritima (L.) f. pinnila (Kjelln.). — 'Vega' Exped.
'Vekuskaplajn Arbeten,' p. 324. Found near Cap Grebeni,
Svenska Exped. 1875."

This form of an abundant plant throughout our
country, especially near the sea coast, mainly differs
from the type in the shortness of the leaves, and also
their not being at all fleshy, the isolated growth of
individuals, the leaves forming a rosette round the
central rootstock. In the round flower spikes, it resembles
P. alpina (L.). Upon examining the various forms of P.
maritima with the continental forms of P. Crassifolia
(Forster) subulata (L.), serpentina (Vill.), recurvata (L.),
carinata (Schrad), alpina (L.), etc., one cannot help being
confused with the mass of synonymy and entanglement
that has arisen : and though none of them, except perhaps
P. alpina — and there is some doubt about this — is Scandi-
navian, very likely upon our southern shores some of
the afore-mentioned may impinge, and, therefore, I would

ig:

Proceedings.

keenly advocate large gatherings being made of all the
forms of our species, and what is more important, they
should, if possible, be placed under cultivation, before any
decision be attempted as to their specific or sub-specific
merits.

Ordinary Meeting, March 5th, 1889.

Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., L.L.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

The President referred to the loss sustained by the
Society through the death of Mr. RICHARD PEACOCK, M.P.,
M.InstC.E.

The first of a series of papers entitled, " Colour and its
relation to the Structure of Coloured Bodies, being an
investigation into the Physical Cause of Colour in natural
and artificial bodies, and the Nature of the Structure
producing it," by ALEXANDER HoDGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc,
was read by the author.

The Structure of Coloured Bodies. 193

Colour and its relation to the Structure of Coloured
Bodies; being an investigation into the Physical
Cause of Colour in natural and artificial bodies,
and the Nature of the Structure producing it.
By Alexander Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc.

{Received April 8th, iSSg.)

Introduction.

Colour has always been to me a subject of special in-
terest, and as far back as I can remember I began to collect
objects characterised by striking colour effects or possessing
some peculiarity of appearance produced under varying
conditions of illumination. In the course of years my col-
lection became extensive, and a voyage round the world
some twelve years ago enabled me not only to add to my
collection, but also gave me the opportunity of personally
obser\ang many natural objects of great beauty not to be
seen under the same favourable conditions away from their
native habitats.

With the object of ascertaining the cause of the colour
of these various bodies — animal, vegetable, and mineral —
they have been submitted to different methods of examina-
tion. Miscroscopic investigation is, of course, essential for
discriminating the different parts of such structures ; but
alone, and as a mere amplifying appliance, the microscope
is inadequate for revealing the structural cause of colour in
most of the objects under consideration. Nor is this to be
wondered at, since the colours of all objects, whether
natural or artificial, are due to the suppression of certain of
the rays of light received from the source of illumination,
and such suppression is due either to so-called absorption
N

194 Dr. a. Hodgkinson on

or to interference. Both these phenomena are known to be
dependent on structural arrangements of a magnitude com-
mensurate with the wave-length of light, and light tends to
break down, so far as its image-forming capabilities go,
when acted on by structures of such small dimensions.
Now the microscope is essentially dependent for its effect
on image formation, and hence the possibility of its inade-
quacy under the above conditions. Failing other methods, the
microscope has been employed, and that by most careful and
reliable observers, for the purpose of determining the cause
of colour in many of the most striking colour-producing
structures, e.g., iridescent feathers, innumerable species of
gaudy insects, opal, mother of pearl, and the like. In
the varying results of these observations we have one of
the most convincing proofs of the inadequacy of the
microscope alone to reveal this cause. A few instances of
these varying results may be cited out of innumerable
examples. The changing colours of the opal are by one
observer attributed to a structure of fine lines, by another to
thin plates, whilst a third holds them due to both these
causes. Again the iridescent hues of the feathers of hum-
ming-birds, sun-birds, and various other tropical birds, as
also the brilliant and changing tints of innumerable insects
are, by almost all observers, considered due to a structure
of fine lines. In some of these instances, as for example in
the case of scales from the wings of Lepidoptera, and from
the elytra of some beetles, and various parts of other insects,
the fact that lines andmarkingsdo exist, as we shall presently
see, would seem at first sight to confirm this assumption.
Whilst fully recognising the existence of lines and markings
in these and numerous other instances, and whilst admitting
that the most brilliant diffraction colours are produced by
them, facts will be adduced to show that the colours pro-
duced by these lines and markings are either imperceptible
in the natural condition of these objects, or, if apparent, so

The Structure of Coloured Bodies. 195

inconspicuous as to play no part in the characteristic
colours of these bodies. Such characteristic colours are, as
will be shown, due to the same cause as the colours of thin
plates in all these structures almost without exception. The
colours of these bodies, all, therefore, obey the laws which
regulate the change of tint in thin plates with varying obli-
quity of illumination. Thus, as the angle of incidence of the
illuminating light increases, or the direction becomes more
oblique, all such iridescent objects as feathers, butterflies,
beetles, flies, opal, mother of pearl, &c., &c., change in
colour from red towards violet in the order of the colours
of the spectrum. Thus, if any of this extensive group of
iridescent bodies, whether bird, insect, or mineral appears
red when the light by which it is illuminated falls on it
and is reflected from it at a certain angle, such body will
appear yellow when the angles of incidence and reflection
become greater, that is to say when the light is made to fall
on the object at a greater obliquity, and if these angles are
still further increased the body will appear green. Examples
of this are seen in the case of the crimson body of the com-
mon British fly, the Ruby-tail, Chrysis ignita, and many
other members of the same genus, the curious little beetle
Poropleura bacca, feathers from the crest of the humming-bird
Chrysolampis mosquitus or Ruby-crest, and innumerable
other natural objects. Again, if any of such class of bodies
appears yellow when the light falls on it at a small incident
angle, it will change to green, and then perhaps to blue as
the incidence becomes successively greater. I say ' perhaps '
because it is not always possible, though commonly it is so,
to observe three changes in the same object. Examples of
yellow objects changing to green are met with in the
cases of all iridescent feathers, the colour of which is yellow
at normal incidence. Thus the orange throat, or gorget as it
is termed, of the same humming-bird Chrysolampis is seen
to change to green on increasing the obliquity of the

196 Dr. a. Hodgkinson on

illumination, and the same is well seen in the case of
the outermost ring surrounding the eye of the peacock's
feathers. Various golden beetles and iridescent flies
are examples, as also various iridescent minerals, fire
marble liunichella, opal, &c. Examples of iridescent
objects, both natural and artificial, presenting at a normal
or small angle of incidence some shades of green, are
innumerable ; feathers of humming-birds, sun-birds, hosts
of tropical beetles and flies, and butterflies. In the
mineral kingdom may be mentioned opal, hunicJiella
labradorite, &c., and of artificially prepared bodies thin
films of mica and certain crystals of chlorate of potash.
On inclining any of these bodies, so that the illumination is
more and more oblique, the colour is seen to change from
green, through the various intermediate shades of greenish
blue, to blue, and then possibly to purple. Such change is
well seen in the outer ring of the eye of the peacock's
feather. Though not so common as the above, both natural
and artificial iridescent objects exist, which, at perpendicular
or normal incidence, are blue, and this, as the incident
angle is increased, changes to purple, and by further increase
in the obliquity of the illumination such objects cease tO'
appear coloured, reflecting white or colourless lights. Various
insects, more especially Lepidoptera of the genus Morphoy
the so-called Glory-of-Brazil butterflies, belong to this group,
also flies and beetles, feathers of numerous birds, mother of
pearl, and various mineral bodies as labradorite, specimens
of various ores covered with films of tarnish, thin films of
mica, certain iridescent crystals of chlorate of potash, &c.
Lastly, iridescent objects are met with which, even at normal
incidence, appear either violet or purple, and then, as the
light is made to fall on them more obliquely, simply change
to a higher degree of the same tint and then become white
or colourless as the incidence becomes still more oblique.
Examples of this are met with in the case of the

The Structure of Coloured Bodies. 197

feathers of many humming-birds, e.g., tail feathers of
the blue-tailed sylph, Cyanthus forficatus, the glossy blue
black plumage of many tropical and British birds, the
purplish blue patch (speculum) in the wing of the mallard,
innumerable flies, dragon flies, beetles, and butterflies,
and many minerals, as labradorite, opal, &c., mother of
pearl, and also bodies artificially prepared, as thin films
■of mica, certain crystals (twin crystals) of chlorate
■of potash. It is needless here to individually specify these
various objects, because in their appropriate sections
I purpose mentioning striking and typical examples from
the various groups of coloured bodies for the purpose
of drawing attention to the nature and properties of their
colours and the structures producing them. The above
sequence of colour phenomena is what is commonly observed
in almost all iridescent natural bodies in which the colours
are due to thin plates. How constant this change of colour is
maybe inferred from the fact that, keeping in mind thesimple
principle which governs the production of colour by thin
plates, I was able to predict, without a single mistake,
the sequence of changing tints that arose by regarding from
different points of view the numerous specimens constituting
that magnificent collection of humming-birds known as the
Gould Collection at the South Kensington Museum.

It was this constancy in the colour phenomena pre-
sented by thin plates that naturally suggested the inference
that if such colour phenomena zvere really constant and peculiar
to thin plates, sue J L appearances might be accepted as proof of
the existence of a structure of thin plates, even though such
structure might not be apparent by ordinary microscopic
investigation alone. But the fact that the same colours and
sequence of colours are observed on viewing a structure
composed of a series of fine lines, at once proves that
such colours, so far as regards their composition
or tint, and also as regards their sequence, are identical :

198 Dr. a. Hodgkinson oh

though the cause varies, the effect, so far as regards tint and
sequence, under var}-ing incidence of Hght is the same. Hence
the reason why some observers have inferred thin plates as
the cause, others fine Hnes, in the same object. Though
identical in tint and sequence of colours, it occurred to me
to ascertain whether there were not some features in the
colour phenomena of fine lines which differed from the
colour phenomena of thin plates, because, if such could be
found, the two phenomena could be distinguished and the
correct structural cause inferred. To answer this question —
and I go into detail on this point to serve as an example of
methods I have adopted, with the necessary modifications,
in other instances — I took examples of both these struc-
tures, thin plates and fine lines, prepared artificially, so
that there could be no doubt of their structural nature. For
a thin plate I took an iridescent film of mica, for fine lines
a small diffraction plate consisting of a series of fine lines
engraved on silvered glass by Zeiss. These I examined in
the following manner : — First by transmitted light ; placing
the diffraction grating, the lines of which were of course suffi-
ciently near to one another to produce diffraction colours, on
the stage of the microscope, I illuminated it from below in the
usual manner, except that I used a diaphragm with an
aperture made by a fine needle point. Employing a low
power ( I in.), I focussed, not for the grating but for this
aperture, so arranging the grating that the light passed
through it before entering the objective. On observing the
result, as seen through the eyepiece, a central colonrless^
image of the aperture of the diaphragm is seen, and on
either side of this central image, and in a plane at right
angles to the direction of the markings, is a series (in this
instance two) of spectra of this opening in the diaphragm
having the violet end of each spectrum towards the central
opening. If the grating be rotated in altitude on an axis in
the direction of the Hnes, the colourless imaee still retains

The Structure of Coloured Bodies. 199

its central position, but the lateral spectral images become
individually broader and more distantly separated from each
other. If the grating be rotated in azimuth the plane of
the spectral images also rotates so as always to maintain a
direction at right angles to the direction of the lines. Apart
from the distinctive appearance of this phenomenon we
learn from it that light transmitted by a structure composed
of fine lines gives rise to colour — diffraction colours, but
the light m the axis of the illuminating beam is colourless.

If now, adopting precisely the same arrangement of the
microscope as in the previous instance, I replace the series of
lines by a film of some material sufficiently thin to give rise
to the so-called colour of thin plates — say a film of mica —
and, using the same objective (lin.), I focus for the small
hole in the diaphragm with the film in such a position that
the light from this opening on its way to the objective
passes through such film, on viewing such opening in
the ordinary way through the eye-piece it is seen as a single
central faifitly-coloured image. On rotating the film in
altitude, it is seen to change in colour. Rotating in azimuth
no alteration in appearance is perceptible. From this we
learn that the light transmitted by an iridescent thin plate
is only in the axis, or parallel to the axis, of the illuminating
beam and is coloured. The colour is confined to the direction
of the illuminating beam.

From these two results we learn that in the case of colour-
producing structures composed of fine lines, thus examined
by transmitted light, the resulting colour is absent in the
axis of the illuminating beam, whilst in the case of a colour-
producing structure of thin plates, the colour is confined to
the direction of the illuminating beam.

Such is the result of examination by transmitted light,
available therefore in the case of transparent structures
only. Most of the objects under consideration, however,
are opaque bodies, and therefore only admit of examination

200 Dr. a. Hodgkinson on

by reflected light. To make our investigation complete,
therefore, it behoves us to examine the manifestations of
these two colour-producing structures, fine lines and thin
plates, by reflected light.

Using the same objects, a series of engraved lines, and a
film of mica, I will first consider the fine lines.

Placing this object on the stage of a binocular micros-
cope and employing a i-inch objective, the following
method of illumination is employed : — Removing one of the
eye-pieces, I substitute a mirror so arranged that a beam of
light may be reflected down the tube and through the
objective on to the object beneath. If now the plane of
reflection of the object is normal to the direction of this
beam, the light is reflected up the other tube, forming an
image of the object which is obscured in the usual way.
Such image i?i the present instance is seen to be colourless.
Rotated in altitude at any azimuth, the image disappears.
From this we learn that a colour-producing structure of fine
lines reflects colourless light at an angle equal to that of
incidence. The above arrangement ensures incidence and
reflection being equal, since they are identical, being both
normal to the reflecting plane.

Replacing the fine lines by an iridescent film of mica,
mounted on black velvet so as to avoid the reflection of
adventitious light, and subjecting it to precisely the same
method of examination as in the last instance, a striking
difference is noticed in the result. Instead of the colourless
image of the object as observed in the previous instance,
the image of the film appears as an intensely brilliant object
tinged with hues which, though they may be equalled, are
certainly unsurpassed, even by the interference colours of
polarised light. If by tilting the stage the film is made to
rotate in altitude at any azimuth, the colours immediately
disappear. From this we learn that a colour-producing
structure of thin plates reflects a coloured light only at an

The Structure of Coloured Bodies. 201

■angle equal to that of incidence, a feature which distinguishes
it at once from a structure of fine Knes.

We see from these experiments that, however closely
the colour manifestations of these two colour-producing
structures may resemble each other to ordinary observation,
when in the above typical form, and submitted to some such
method of examination as the above, the resemblance breaks
■down, and we have presented phenomena so markedly dis-
tinct as scarcely to admit of confusion. Could we, therefore,
ensure these conditions being always complied with, our
investigation would be a comparatively simple matter.
Such is, of course, not the case. Whilst our method of exami-
nation, being adapted for opaque as well as transparent
objects, is constantly applicable, infinite variations from the
typical condition of the structures examined exist. In the
case of thin-plate structures we shall find them wonderfully
constant in their manifestations, but even here I shall draw
attention to natural and artificial bodies in which colour
phenomena of singular interest and beauty are produced by
the superposition of numerous iridescent plates, seen in the
case of most iridescent beetles and flies, silvery-scaled
fish, and certain twin crystals of chlorate of potash, &c.
When other methods of colour production co-exist with that
of thin plates, as we find of constant occurrence, the appear-
ances, though more complex, still admit of analysis if
properly examined, and, each phenomenon having its own
-Structural significance, the results of examination in such
instances are of more than ordinary interest. Thus, in the
case of mother of pearl zcheji groiDid, we have an example
of a structure composed of thin plates and fine lines, and,
accordingly, this substance yields colour phenomena bearing
the characteristics of both these structures. As shown by
Brewster, the diffracting structure of this substance is
communicable to wax. I shall show that in the case of
mother of pearl, however, the diffracting structure is

202 Dk. a. Hodgkinson on

probably caused by the grinding, thus leaving the natural
colours of mother of pearl due to thin plates alone. Again,,
another common mode of colour-production, absorption,
may co-exist with that of thin plates, constituting a method
of colour-production not, so far as I am aware, before
described. From the mode of formation of this class of
colours I shall refer to them as the Colours of TJiin
Absorption Plates^ and under this title I have devoted a
section to their consideration. This mode of colour-pro-
duction is interesting, as affording an explanation of the
reflected and transmitted colours of metals, aniline colours
and iridescent crystals of permanganate of potash, and some
other almost opaque bodies.

Finding, as a result of experiment, that these two
colour-producing structures — fine lines and thin plates —
when in their typically perfect condition, and when
examined in a suitable way, produced optical effects
peculiar to, and therefore characteristic of, such struc-
tures, and noting that even when the structures were
not typically perfect, proportionately characteristic results
were obtained, I was led to see that there are other indi-
cations of structure than mere image formation ; that
there are, in fact, two ways in which minute structure may
reveal itself by the agency of light ; one in which the
illuminating light is so refracted or reflected as to admit of
the formation by means of one or more lenses of an appre-
ciable image on the retina. This, which may be termed
the direct method, is what occurs in ordinary microscopic
observation when the instrument is used as a mere magni-
fying appliance, and in this instance we have to do
with an image of the object identical in appearance and
differing from such object only in size. In the second or
indirect method the structure so materially modifies the
light as to reveal itself, not in the form of an image or
replica of itself, but b}- the production of some other optical

The Structure of Coloured Bodies. 203

effect, such as reflection, refraction, absorption, dispersion,
interference, diffraction,and double infraction, or polarisation.
What is the structural significance of these various phen-
omena, and to what extent we are justified in relying on
them as indications of structure, I have considered in
detail in a paper on "Ultra-microscopic Structure, and
Methods of its Investigation," which I hope to have the
opportunity of laying before the Society.

In the present communication, dealing as it does with
coloured bodies, I purpose selecting from the various
divisions of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms,
typical examples of objects characterised by striking
or peculiar colour-production. Having drawn atten-
tion to the peculiar features of such appearances, and
the modification these undergo by varying conditions
of illumination, I shall, so far as I am able, describe
the structural or physical cause of these colours. This,
the main object of the communication, was in the first
instance my sole intention, and this more especially as
I have, in the previously mentioned paper, considered in
detail the methods for investigating ultra-microscopic
structures. It occurred to me, however, that without some
explanation of the methods by which I had arrived at the
results in the present instance, these might not be so
interesting or acceptable as if a sufficient reason were given
for them. Accordingly I have devoted preliminary sections
to the consideration of the nature and properties of colour,
and having described the different modes of colour-produc-
tion, and shown the relationship, so far as known, to the
structures producing them — in other words, their structural
significance. I have considered separately each of these
different modes of colour-production in order to ascertain
their characteristic features, so that they might, by exami-
nation, be easily recognised.

The main object in such methodical examination has

204 Dr. a. Hod(;kinson on

been so to vary the relationship of the various natural and
artificial bodies, or their parts, to the source of illumination
^as to produce characteristic appearances, or colour changes.
When such colour effect has been found to agree in its
nature and properties with one of the known modes of
colour-production, it has itself been referred to such group,
and the same structural cause has been inferred to exist in
it as characterises the group even thongJi microscopic and
■other methods of examination fail to reveal such structure.
Such method, which is only a part of a more extensive,
but similar, method framed to allow of the investigation of
all bodies, whether coloured or not, vide " Ultra-microscopic
Structure and Methods of its Investigation," I shall speak
of under the title of " Chromatic Analysis," and to facili-
tate such method, I have constructed a systematic table, by
following which, the different colour phenomena may be
the more readily grouped. I have felt justified in thus
taking colour-production as a manifestation of structure,
because I find that of all optical phenomena, excepting of
course image formation, those attended by the produc-
tion of colour are the most significant of structural con-
formation.

Examination of bodies, according to the plan advocated,
naturally necessitated some modification in existing instru-
mental appliances. These I shall, as occasion arises, bring
before your notice. On the present occasion I will only call
your attention to a microscope, constructed for me by
Messrs. Smith and Beck, and so arranged as to allow of great
variety in the relationship of bodies, or their parts, to the
source of illumination. The moveable parts are all graduated
so that this relationship may be known and recorded.
Without some such appliance as this, I should have been
quiteunableto havedone evenwhat little I have accomplished.
In the preceding cursory sketch I have attempted to
convey some notion of the nature of the enquiry I have

TJie Structure of Coloured Bodies. 205

entered upon, and have alluded to the necessity of employing
some method other than mere microscopic examination for
carrying on such enquiry. According to their action on
light all structures may be divided into three distinct
classes : —

{a) Structures, the physical nature of which is such as to
allow of a visible image being formed of them by reflection
or refraction of light, and these, since they are amenable to
ordinary microscopic examination, I have characterised
as microscopic structures. As examples of microscopic
structures may be cited all such as are sufficiently large or
coarse, and of suitable optical density, or colour, in relation
to their environment, to allow of the formation of a per-
ceptible image. Their name is legion.

{b) Structures which, from their physical nature, are in-
capable of so acting on light as to admit of the formation
by reflection or refraction of a visible image (or replica)
of themselves, yet can so modify light as to produce some
optical phenomenon which is characteristic of the structure
producing it. To this group belong all bodies which appear
structureless by ordinary microscopic examination, and yet
give rise to some optical effects, as reflection, refraction,
absorption, polarisation, and various interference pheno-
mena. This is the class to which I have applied the term
ultra-viicroscopic, since the microscope is either not appli-
cable for their investigation, or, if employed, is merely
used as an aid to some other method of observation, or to
observe some other feature of the object than its ordinary
image.

Since most colour-producing structures belong to this
group, it is that with which we are the most concerned in
the present inquiry.

{c) Finally we have abundance of evidence of the exis-
tence of structures, the physical nature of which is such as
to render them invisible, and incapable of producing any of

2o6 Dk. a. Hodgkixson on

the abo\'e optical phenomena, and therefore to belong to
neither microscopic nor ultra-microscopic group as defined
above. Films of mica may be separated so thin as to be in-
capable of reflecting light of any colour at any incidence, and
therefore to appear black under any conditions of illumina-
tion. The same condition is met with in the case of the
thin film constituting the central spot of Newton's rings.
True it is, that in these instances, the invisibility is ascribed
to interference, arising, as pointed out by Young, from the
loss of half an undulation which occurs when light is
reflected at the surface of the denser of two media. Still,
even though this loss of half an undulation were an un-
doubted truth, the fact remains that transparent films, the
thickness of which is less than a quarter of a wave-length of
violet light, neither reflect light nor give any other positive
optical evidence of their existence. In the case of inter-
ference from thicker films,on the other hand, we havereflected
and refracted colours of the most varied description. Again, a
complex arrangement of portionsof such invisiblefilms would
still remain invisible, and the same is true of structures
generally when composed of elements too thin to produce
optical effect. Thus, in the case of mica, certain crystals of
chlorate of potash, and other minerals which exhibit cleavage,
we notice no internal evidence of arrangement in lamella;,
and yet no one can doubt that such structural arrangement
does exist, but the lamella; being in optical contact, that is
separated by intervals of less than a quarter of a wave-
length, and themselves of similar dimensions, fail to give
optical evidence of their existence, and thus the mass appears
homogeneous. Just as transparent films when of a certain
thinness are invisible, so must transparent particles when of
the same diameter be invisible, and a body composed of
such small particles would appear homogeneous ; and just
as a thin invisible film which gradually increases in thick-
ness when illuminated by white light, first reflects those rays

The Structure of Coloured Bodies. 207

•of shortest wave-length, namely, violet or blue, so do small
particles always first reflect light of the same colours,
thus producing the phenomenon of opalescence. The
blue of the sky, of smoke, and of steam is of this
nature. That such transparent particles before attaining a
certain size are invisible, is well exemplified in the case of a
jet of steam, in which, in immediate proximity to the nozzle
before the particles have run together by condensation and
thus augmented in size, they are invisible, but assume a blue
colour so soon as the diameter of the particles is equal to a
quarter wave-length of this colour. Again, in the case of a
structure composed of fine lines. Abbe has conclusively
demonstrated that the microscopic image of such structure
is constituted by the superposition of the ordinary or
dioptric image and the interference images formed by
diffraction, and that when the diffraction images are
■obstructed by diminishing the aperture of the objective,
or otherwise, the appearance of such object may be modified
so as to present the most varied appearances, or to present
an absolute blank, according as the diffraction images are
partially, or wholly, excluded from taking part in the image
formation. Of the truth of these facts any one can easily
satisfy himself, since Messrs. Zeiss and Son, the opticians of
Jena, supply apparatus of the most simple kind, by means
of which the part played by diffraction in image formation
is rendered apparent. This variation in the appearance of
such objects where examined by the microscope has called
forth the opinion expressed in a recent publication, " The
Microscope in theory and pratice," Naegeli and Schwenderer,
p. 235, that "under these circumstances every attempt
to discover the structure of finely organised objects, as, for
instance, diatom valves, by the mere observation of their
microscopic images, must be characterised, is wholly
mistaken."

Seeing now that the microscopic resolution of structures,

2o8 Dr. a. Hodgkinson on

e.g., a series of fine lines, of less than a certain degree of
fineness, is essentially dependent on their dififractive action,,
and seeing it admits of easy proof that, when the distances
between the centres of the lines constituting such structures
is less than half a wave-length of light, no diffraction can
occur even with light of any obliquity, it is evident that such
structure must be invisible under any microscopic power.
Since, moreover, such structure, so far as I am aware,
fails to produce any optical manifestation whatever, it can-
not be classed in the group we have termed ultra-
microscopic. To take one more example : — Structures of"
the same optical density and colour as their environment
yield no optical evidence of their existence, and belong,,
therefore, neither to microscopic nor ultra-microscopic
structure. A slip of crown glass, for example, is invisible-
in cedar-wood oil, and the same is true of other structures
of the same refractive index and colour. So far as
ordinary light is concerned such structures are non-existent.
On this fact, indeed, is founded the homogeneous immersion
system of lenses.

It is thus evident that a class of structures exists-
which are wholly unsuited, from their physical nature
and that of light, for investigation by any known optical
method. Such structures might be aptly termed Hyper-
photic, since it seems unlikely they will ever be revealed
by the agency of light. With such a group, therefore,
the method of investigation we are at present considering
is in no way concerned, since an essential feature of
ultra-microscopic structures is that they so modify light
as to produce characteristic optical effects. It remains-
now to briefly refer to the relationship of such method
of ultra-microscopic examination to ordinary or unaided
microscopic investigation. In other words, can we attain,
results by its employment not to be attained b}-
means of the microscope alone? And, if so, are such

TJie Structure of Coloured Bodies. 209

results of sufficient importance to justify the expenditure of
the time and trouble required ? The answer to this may-
best be given in the form of an example. For this purpose
any of the various bodies we have been treating of might
be selected. I have taken an iridescent feather from the
breast of the humming-bird Chrysolampis mosquitus. Placed
on the stage of the microscope, and examined in the ordinary
way, it is seen to consist of a central shaft or rachis, from
the sides of which spring the so-called barbs, and arranged
along the edge of these are seen numbers of elongated
flat bodies, termed 'barbules,' which, towards the extremity
of the feather, overlap. These latter, with the barbs, con-
stitute the web, and the two webs with the intermediate
shaft, the vane of the feather. These barbules are seen to
be brilliantly coloured, they constitute the colour producing
structure of this iridescent feather. Here, so far as the struc-
ture of these barbules goes, microscopic examination ends,
and here ultra-microscopic investigation steps in. Retain-
ing the structure on the stage of the microscope, modified
so as to permit of the necessary adjustment, the object
is, by suitable movements of stage and illumination, ex-
amined by light falling on it, and reflected from it at varying
angles. It is seen to change colour from a higher towards
a lower order of tint as the incident light becomes more
and more oblique ; in other words, it belongs to the class
of iridescent bodies. Such colours might be due to disper-
sion, polarisation, diffraction, or interference of thin plates.
Polarisation we may at once exclude, since the object is a
natural body, and colour by polarisation, so far as I am
aware, is unknown in nature. Examined according to
the method already alluded to for the distinguishing
of diffraction colours from those of thin plates, it is
seen to belong to this latter group, to consist of
thin plates. But the theory of colour-production by thin
plates is well understood, and it can easily be shown that,
o

2IO Dr. a. Hodgkinson on

neglecting the effect produced by variation in the optical
density of the substance composing the plate, a given colour
is produced by a given thickness of plate. That is to say,
if the colour is known, the thickness of the plate can be cal-
culated. To ascertain the nature of the colour we employ
the only reliable test of colour composition, the prism.
Adapted to the microscope in the form of the so-called
microspectroscope, this shows the orange light reflected
from the feathers at normal incidence to have a composition

■60 -515

Spectrum of feather from breast of the ' ' Ruby and Topaz " Humming-bird
( Chrysolampis mosqiiilus).

indicated by the above spectrum. Such spectra are readily
mapped out on blank charts prepared for the purpose.
Since now, as remarked above, disregarding optical density,
a given spectrum is peculiar to a given thickness of plate,
it only becomes necessary to compare the obtained spectrum
with the spectra of thin plates of known thickness to learn
the thickness of plate-structure producing the spectrum
in question.

To facilitate such comparisons I have constructed the
accompanying " Spectral Chart." (See coloured plate.) This,
as seen, allows of the immediate determination of all inter-
ference colours whether due to polarisation or produced by
thin plates, from the ist to the 7th order inclusive. We shall
subsequently refer to the construction of this chart. To use it,
it is merely necessary to slide the map of the spectrum of
the body under observation up the spectral chart, beginning
at the bottom, until on a level with a tranverse section of
the chart which shows the same colour composition as the

TJie Structure of Coloitred Bodies. 2 1 1

map. Opposite such points in the right hand column of
figures we have the approximate thickness of the plate in
micromillimetres, and still further to the right the corres-
ponding undecomposed colour. On applying the map of
the spectrum of the breast feather of our humming-bird, it
is seen to correspond in colour composition with a line
crossing the spectral chart at a point indicated in the right
hand column by the number -485. This number, therefore,
represents the thickness of the plate in question in micro-
millimetres. This point, moreover, is opposite the orange
of the 2nd order, and we thus also ascertain the position of
the colour examined on the Newtonian colour-scale.

From the foregoing example it is obvious that something
more has been ascertained regarding the structure of the
objects under observation than can be determined by the
microscope alone. The barbules, which to ordinary micro-
scopic investigation appear devoid of structure, are seen to
possess the property of colour-production. Examining
such colour phenomenon, under varying conditions and
with suitable appliances, it is seen to correspond in all
respects with the interference colours produced by thin plates.
We are, therefore, justified in assuming the same structure
as the cause of the colour in the barbules, and, therefore, of
attributing to the colour-producing portion of the feathers a
structural arrangement composed of thin plates. It has
been pointed out how an approximate measurement of the
thickness of such plates is indicated by the position of the
spectrum on the chart.

In the above example we have an instance of a structure
exhibiting a marked optical effect, namely, the production of
colour. From the nature and properties of such colour we
have inferred the nature of the structure producing such
effect. If all ultra-microscopical structures possessed the
property of colour-production, and if the structural cause of
all colour-production were known, the determination of the

2 1 2 The Structure of Coloured Bodies.

nature of ultra-microscopic structures generally would be
a simple matter. Such is, however, not the case. Though,
as we shall see, structure does commonly manifest colour
I)hcnomena, in numbers of instances no such effect is ap-
parent. In other instances colour is produced giving rise to
appearances of the most distinctive kind, but which, owing
to our ignorance of the cause of such colour-phenomena, have
for us no structural significance. So-called absorption colours
are of this nature, since, though many attempts have been
made to explain their production on a physical basis, they
have, so far as I am aware, as yet had no satisfactory
explanation.

Colour alone, therefore, not being a universal manifesta-
tion of ultra-microscopic structure, we must in such instances
rely on other optical phenomena as indications of structure.
Such are polarisation, reflection, opalescence, &c. These I
shall subsequently consider and endeavour to show to what
extent they are indicative of structure.

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Proceedings. 213

^Microscopical mid Natural History Section^

Ordinary Meeting, March nth, 1889.

Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S., President of the
Section, in the Chair.

There were exhibited : —

By Mr. H. Hyde, shells of various species of ZizypJiinus.

By Mr. P. Cameron, an apparently undescribed species
of Athalia from Japan, and a new species of Saw-fly from
Gibraltar, allied to Athalia, but with the antennae 20-jointed
and forming probably the type of a new genus.

By Mr. H. C. Chadwick, a piece of rock of a remark-
able hexagonal honeycomb structure.

By Mr. Theodore Sington, a number of specimens
of resin from the East Coast of Africa, containing insects,
spiders, &c.

By Dr. HODGKINSON, a humming bird, Chrysolanipis
inosqiiitits. Dr. Hodgkinson drew attention to the fact
that in this and most other humming-birds the brilliant
colouring is situated on the crest and gorget. The colour
is best seen when the position of the bird is such that the
light is reflected from those parts directly to the front.
The intensity of the coloured light thus reflected is very
great, and can be shown to be sufficient to illuminate very
perceptibly objects on which it falls. It would thus seem
that such light would serve to light up the dark tubes of
flowers which the bird might be visiting in search of insects
or honey.

214 Proceedings.

\PJiysical and MatJicmatical Section^

Annual Meeting, March 13th, 1889.

Wm. Thomson, F.R.S. Ed., F.C.S., F.I.C., Vice-President
of the Section, in the Chair.

The Treasurer's accounts for the year 1888-9 were
presented, and showed : — Balance from last year £^. 2s. 4d.,
cash received during the current year, ^4. is. 8d., making a
total of £(^. 4s. od., against which were payments during
the current year £^. 3s. lod., leaving a balance in favour of
the Section of ;^5. os. 2d.

On the motion of Mr. J. A. Bennion, seconded by Mr.
Wm. Thomson, it was resolved : — " That the Treasurer's
accounts be received and passed."

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Section for the ensuing year : —

President— JAU^ES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., F.C.S., D.Sc.

Vice-Presidejtts.—]AU¥.?, P. JouLE, D.C.L.,LL.D.,F.C.S.,
F.R.S. ; William Thomson, F.R.S. Ed., F.C.S., F.I.C.

Secretary.—]. A. Bennion, M.A., F.R.A.S.

Treasurer. — ^JOHN Angell, F.C.S., F.I.C.

The following is a list of the members and associates of
the section : —

Members.— ]o\i^ Angell, F.C.S., F.I.C. ; James
Bottomley, B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S. ; F. J. Faraday, F.L.S.,
F.S.S. ; J. P. Joule, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S. ; William
Mather, M.P. ; S. Okell, F.R.A.S.; Wm. Thomson,
F.R.S. Ed., F.C.S., F.I.C.

Associate.—]. A. Bennion, M.A., F.R.A.S.

Proceedings. 215

Ordinary Meeting, March 19th, 1889.

Professor OsBORNE Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Dr. Charles Clay read a paper " On the resuhs of
some calculations with a certain class of figures " embody-
ing some arithmetical calculations bearing on the problem
of the squaring of the circle.

Mr. W.M. Thomson, I^R.S.Ed., read a paper " On the
presence of green colouring matter in leaves found about
21 feet under the surface in an excavation connected with
the Ship Canal Works," and exhibited specimens of the
deposit.

Dr. Hodgkinson read the second of a series of papers
*' On Colour and its relation to the Structure of Coloured
Bodies ; being an Investigation into the Physical cause of
Colour in natural and artificial bodies and the Nature of
the Structure producing it," treating of some of the physio-
logical phenomena of colour sensation.

2i6 Mr. William Thomson on

On Leaves found in the cutting for the Manchester
Ship Canal, 21 feet under the surface, and on Green
Colouring Matter contained therein. By William
Thomson, F.R.S. Ed., etc.

{Received May 15th, iSSg.)

My attention was drawn by Mr. Alderman Bailey to
these leaves which had been found in the cutting for the
Ship Canal. On further enquiry I learned that they had
been brought to notice by Mr. Walter Taylor, one of the
Company's Engineers, to whom I am indebted for the
following notes respecting the position in which they
were found. I went to look at the deposit on the 19th of
March last, and by the kindness of Mr. W. O. E. Mead
King and Mr. Taylor, I was enabled to obtain a consider-
able supply of the leaves. They were embedded in the
sand in two or three different layers of one to two inches
in thickness, the one above the other ; at some places, with
a layer of sand of about an inch or two in thickness between
the layers of leaves. There was, however, chiefly one layer
of leaves, about two inches in thickness, which lay in a bed
curved in the direction of the width, which was about
40 feet by about 14 feet long. This bed of leaves was
found in the Partington Coal basin, near Irlam, 21 feet
under the surface : it was about 650 feet from the present
river, and 50 feet from the old Mersey river course, which
had been filled up near to the surface with mud and silt and
black mud. It occurred in the space between the two arms
in the bend of the old river known as Sandy Wharps, the
whole of the space between the two arms of this bend or
knuckle being filled up with loose sand, such as is found at

Leaves from the Ship Canal. 217

the sea side. This loose sand continued on either side of
the two arms of the river, and ended in a layer of clay
extending from the surface and sloping downwards on
either side towards the river arms, not many yards from the
opposite banks of the ancient river course. A few inches
below where these leaves were found occurred a layer of
ballast, and in order under that boulder clay, 6 feet thick,
coarse gravel, 3 feet, then the new red sandstone.

On further opening out the cutting towards Manchester,
at about the same depth from the surface (24 feet exactly)
this bed of leaves occurs more or less continuously for more
than 800ft. It is in several layers divided by thin beds of
sandy clay ; in one place the four or five layers, with the
clay between, reached a thickness of 1 5 inches. These leaves
differ slightly from the others, in that they contain a good
percentage of moss mixed with them, but are evidently
about the same date, being at the bottom of the deep layer of
sand under the top soil and clay. The deposit is about 800
feet (nearer Liverpool) from the old junction of the Mersey
and Irwell. The accompanying diagram of this section was
kindly provided for me by Mr. Hunter, another of the
Manchester Ship Canal Engineers.

When the leaves were removed from the sand they
were very damp, and possessed a dirty olive-green colour.
They lay very evenly on each other, so that they could
easily be separated into layers, each layer showing some
perfectly formed leaves, many of them differing from
the surrounding ones in colour, some being more or less
touched with yellow or other delicate shade, and it was
remarkable how free the}- were from sand, twigs, or
debris : there was mixed with them, however, the fruit of
certain trees and plants. It is evident from the remarkable
state of preservation of these leaves and fruit, that they
must have been suddenly immersed and imbedded, and it
might be assumed that this took place somewhere about

2i8 Mr. William Thomson on

the Autumn, as was suggested by Mr. Charles Bailey,
F.L.S., because of the fruit found.

When allowed to dry the leaves became more brittle,
and they could then be separated from each other only
with much difficulty. These leaves and fruit have been
examined by different botanists, and the following identified
by Mr. W. Carruthers, F.R.S., of the British Museum ;
Mr. Scott, M.A., F.L.S.,of the Science and Art Department,
South Kensington ; Mr. Cosmo Melvill, F.L.S., Mr. Charles
Bailey, F.L.S., Mr. John Boyd, and Mr. Leo H. Grindon, of
Manchester : —

Aspen {Pop7ilns trevmla, L.).
Oak {Qiierais Robur, L.).
Shoreweed {Litorella lacnstris).
Grey Willow {Salix cinerea).
Hawthorn {Cratcegus OxyacaiitJia).
Osier {Salix vhnmalis).
Fruit of the Rose (probably Rosa arvensis).
Black poplar {Popiiliis nigra).
Sedges.

Bramble seeds.
Buttercup fruit.
Potaniogeton fruit.
Dock leaves.
Acer fruit.

As to the age of this vegetation, so far as one can judge,
it must be at least some centuries and probably one or
more thousands of years. In some thin layers in the sand,
about the same depth from the surface, but at some distance
from this bed, I observed a number of bits of wood, rounded
pebbles, a few rounded bits of coal, &c. Mr. Percy F.
Kendal, of the Owens College, informed me that horns of
the red deer had been found in the Ship Canal cutting,
about the same depth underground, and that fact led him
to put the viinimnni age of this deposit at from 300 to 400

Leaves from the Ship Canal. 219

years. Not far from this deposit was subsequently found a
rude boat (since described before this Society by Mr.
Alderman Bailey) about 25 feet underground. This boat
lay on a bed of leaves, similar to the one above-mentioned,
but much more decayed.

The dark olive green colour of the leaves first-mentioned,
led me to examine them for chlorophyll, by the method em-
ployed by Berzelius, Verdeil, Schulze, and Mulder, in which
acid is employed in the separation. By thus treating these
leaves in comparison with ordinary grass, I obtained by
spectroscopic examination absorption bands which were
identical. Dr. Edward Schunck, F.R.S., however, who
must be regarded as our greatest authority on chlorophyll,
subsequently examined the colouring matter of these buried
leaves, and in his most interesting paper, given before this
Society, he shows that it is not really chlorophyll which
exists in these leaves, but modified chlorophyll, which is a
very much more permanent colour, produced by the action
of acid on chlorophyll. This colour, however, permanent as
Dr. Schunck has proved it to be, is entirely destroyed when
leaves are exposed to the air and rain and sunshine for a
few months, at all events within a year, and it, therefore,
seems an interesting fact that this modified chlorophyll
should have remained intact, buried in this wet sand for
at least some hundreds of years, and probably for one or
more thousands of years. I examined the leaves which
were supplied to me by Mr. Taylor, which were found under
the boat above-mentioned, and I could only detect in them a
comparatively very small quantity of the green colouring
matter (modified chlorophyll) found in the others.

Proceedings.

Ordinary Meeting, April 2nd, 1889.

Professor OsBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Professor SCHUSTER described Lord Rayleigh's colour-
mixer, for testing colour sensations. There are many small
peculiarities in colour sensation different from colour blind-
ness, but certain more distinct peculiarities are rare and
seem to run in families. Persons affected by these greater
diversities agree quite well among themselves in their judg-
ment of a colour, and there is no intermediate class between
them and those having normal sight.

Mr. Ralph Holmes, B.A., read a " Note on the Propa-
gation of Sound through an Atmosphere of Varying
Density."

Dr. HODGKINSON read a third communication "On
Colour and its relation to the Structure of Coloured Bodies ;
being an Investigation into the Physical Cause of Colour in
natural and artificial bodies and the Nature of the Structure
producing it," describing the structures which cause the
silvery sheen of the herring and other fish, and those which
produce the distinctive colours offish. The author explained
how, on drying, these scaly structures give rise to the
changing colours of the dying dolphin.

TJic Propagation of Sound.

On Sound propagated through an atmosphere, in which
the surfaces of constant density are parallel planes,
in a direction perpendicular to these planes. By
Ralph Holmes, B.A.

{Received May 8th, i88p.)

We will endeavour to obtain a solution of this question
when the law of change of density is any whatsoever, pro-
vided this change is very small.

With the usual notation let /, p be equilibrium density
and pressure at any point x, p +p' ; p + p' what these become
when there is wave motion.

Then

^_ ^ = X
p dx ^

I d . {p+p') _^ _dn _ du

p + p' dt dt dx

Hence to first order of/', p', u, we have

\ dp^ _p d_l ^ _du^ /jx

P dx p2 dx dt ^''

Also from the equation of continuity,

^M-J^^ = 0 (ii.)

dt dx ^ ^

Now, whenever we have compression or rarefaction of
air due to a wave of sound, on the supposition that there is
no ingress or egress of heat, we have the relation that the
change of pressure is y times as great as it would have been
had there been no change of temperature. Thus
I ^•p+p''_ y c.p + p''
p+p' c . t p + p' ^ . t-
But

^ d d
— = T- + ^(-1--
ht dt dx

222 Mr. Ralph HoliMES on

Hence

i[^^Jl\^yW^uf\ (iii.)

p\dt dx\ ^ydt dxj ^

P-

Hence, eliminating/, p' from (i.), (ii.), (iii.), we obtain
d'^u yfi (dhi . I dp dii^

yp/d'u idp du\ xld^_x dp 4\ . .

p-ydx"- p dx dx) p\dx^ p dx dx) ^ ''

Supposing that the changes in the pressure and density
are so small that we may neglect their second differentials
and products and powers of differentials above the first,
the equation (iv.) to determine ?/ becomes

py d'^ii y dp du d'u , ^ ^

p dx ' p dx dx dt'

If/ and p were constant, a solution of this equation may
be written

K'vf)-"('v?)

where A and B are constants.

Let us therefore assume, as a solution of equation (v.)

-('■/;b)-"("/;2)

where A and B are now slowly varying functions of x, such
that their second differentials and products of their first
differentials with the first differentials of p and p may be
neglected. We have, putting q^= ^'',
du dA ^B^ ^ _

dhi

^^, = A/" + BF'

Substituting these values in equation (v.), we have
\ q dx q'-dx pq dxy \q dx q^ dx pq dx)

The Propagation of Sound. 223

So that to determine A and B we have the equations

2 dK .tdq .'i- dp
- 'T^ + A- -/ + A— -7- - 0.
q dx q- dx pq dx

= 0.

2 ^B ^ g I dq

q dx q'^ dx

"■^pqdx^

:. a:-pY-

-- constant.

&B^/ip* =

= constant.

Thus

we

obtain

A/-

v-'/e-/»--'-t^/y^

9

where A and B must now be regarded as constants. This
result holds, whatever be the law of variation of pressure
and density, provided that their variation is slow.

If /<=«p'>', which is the case for convective equilibrium of
the atmosphere, we see that the amplitude of vibration

varies inversely as the th power of the density.

4

If /o<:p, we see in the same way that the amplitude of
vibration varies inversely as the square root of the density.

In the case of a constant temperature, where the varia-
tion of density is caused by a constant gravitational force
g, the terms which we have neglected in equation (iv.), viz.,

\dx:^ Q dx dx)

p dx dx
are actually zero.

224 Proceedings.

^Microscopical and Natural History Section."]

Annual Meeting, April 8th, 1889.

Professor W. C. Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., Vice-
President of the Section, in the Chair.

The Secretary read the Thirty-first Annual Report of
the Council of the Section, and the Treasurer submitted the
annual balance sheet and statement of accounts. (See p. 267).

On the motion of Mr. Charles Bailev, F'.L.S., seconded
by Mr. R. E. CUNLIFFE, the annual report and Treasurer's
accounts were approved.

The following gentlemen were elected officers and mem-
bers of the Council of the Section for the ensuing session : —

President: — J. CoSMO Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.

Vice-Presidents: — Charles Bailey, F.L.S., Alex.
HoDGKiNSON, M.B., B.Sc, W. C. Williamson, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

Treasurer : — Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.

Secretary : — John Boyd.

Other Members of the Council: — William Blackburn,
F.R.M.S., P. Cameron, H. C. Chadwick, Robt. E.
CuNLiFFE, R. D. Darbishire, B.A., F.G.S., F. Nicholson,
F.Z.S., Thos. Rogers, Theodore Sington.

Mr. A. A. MuMFORD, M.B. (Lond.), M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,
was elected an associate of the section.

Dr. Alex. Hodgkinson exhibited specimens of dis-
sections of eyes, showing that the cause of luminosity in
the dusk is due to the existence of a triangular patch of
flat colourless cells situated between the retina and the
pigmentary layer of the choroid. In the centre of the

Proceedings. 225

reflecting patch the cells are arranged in many layers, the
number of such layers decreasing toward the periphery. At
the extreme edge the cells constitute a discontinuous layer,
consisting in fact of isolated cells on a dark ground. The
cells are sufficiently thin to produce interference of the
reflected light. The rays reflected from the isolated cells
and portion of the patch consisting of a single layer are
bluish, nearer the centre greenish, whilst still more centrally
the reflected light appears yellowish white. Such appear-
ances may be observed in the living eyes of many nocturnal
animals as the cat, fox, &c.

226 Proceedings.

General Meeting, April i6th, 1889.

Mr, Charles Bailey, F.L.S., in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected ordinary members
of the Society :— Mr. George W. Moultrie, Bank of
England, King Street, Manchester; Mr. GEORGE NORBURY,
Hillside, Prestwich Park, Prestwich ; Mr. Herbert S.
Brooks, Slade House, Levenshulme ; Mr. T. B. Wilson,
C.E,, IJ, Arcade Chambers, St. Mary's Gate, Manchester ;
Mr. W. J. Robertson, Hollins Mount, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.

Ordinary Meeting, April i6th, 1889.
Mr. Charles Bailey, F.L.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Wm. Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S., read a paper
entitled " Notes on Seedling Saxifrages grown at Brock-
hurst from a single scape of Saxifraga Macnabiana" and
exhibited the plants referred to.

Dr. Edward Schunck, F.R.S., F.C.S., read a paper
entitled " On the green colouring matter from leaves found
in one of the cuttings for the Manchester Ship Canal," and
exhibited specimens of chlorophyll and its derivatives, and
their spectra.

Seedling Saxifrages. 227

Notes on Seedling Saxifrages grown at Brockhurst
from a single scape of Saxifraga Macnabiana. By
William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.

{Received April i6th, i88g.)

Saxifraga Macnabiana is considered to be the most
showy of all the cultivated saxifrages, having the scape of 5.
Cotyledon, but with the petals dotted over with deep carmine
spots. It was raised at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Edin-
burgh, in 1876, when Mr. MacNab was the curator, and was
named after him. Mr. Lindsay, the present curator, who
was the real raiser of the plant, informs me that nothing
whatever was known of its parentage, but that vS. uepalensis
produced the seeds. This is merely a garden variety of
S. Cotyledon, which occurs in the wild state throughout
Europe from the Pyrenees to Lapland. In Lapland it is
called the Fjeld frier, and it is the sweetheart's gift to his
lady-love in that country, where it produces lovely panicles
of white flowers two feet high. Mr. Lindsay when in Nor-
way, in 1877, gathered many specimens of 6". Cotyledon dif-
fering considerably from the type in flowers and foliage. It
will be seen that this susceptibility to variation is charac-
teristic of the plant under cultivation.

When 5. Macnabiana was raised, the only plant near
5. Cotyledon was 5. lingnlata, a species of dwarfer growth,
the petals spotted with pink, and the foliage edged with
encrusted pores. Mr. Lindsay therefore believes that .S".
lingnlata was the pollen parent, and this is probably the
case, as many of the seedlings are like this species, and the
dwarfer habit of the plant may also have been brought

228 Mr. William Brockbank on

about by this cross. 5. Macnabiana seldom exceeds halt
the height of 5. Cotyledon. Its leaves are also much
smaller. A fine flower scape will number over a hundred
flowers. One fine plant of 5. nepalensis, in flower at Brock-
hurst in 1883, carried 44 branches from the centre stalk,
each having from 12 to 22 flowers, so that there were about
750 flowers, each the size of a fourpenny-piece, in one panicle
of bloom. Now as these flowers occur in succession, it will
be clear that there may be considerable variety in the time
of ripening of the flowers, and thus there is room for great
divergence.

In 1886 a fine scape of 5. Macnabiana ripened its
seed in my garden, and a quantity was saved from it.
This was sown, and produced a large crop of plants. It
was soon noticed that there were great differences amongst
the seedlings, and these increased as the plants grew. The
most notable were therefore separated, and were grown on
in small pots, and of these 1 10 varieties are now exhibited ;
every one resulting from the seed of this one single scape.
In the garden where the plant grew there were nearly all
the known species and varieties of saxifrage, at least 150 ;
and, therefore, it is possible enough that pollen from a
great variety of saxifrages might be carried by insects to
the mother plant. Likenesses are evident, amongst the
1 10 seedlings, to the following species and varieties of
Saxifraga: — lingulata, Hostii, crnstata, pectinata, elatior,
carinthiaca, Cotyledon, Aiaoon, and Gnthreana.

Here then we have a remarkable illustration of the
multiplication of varieties from a single scape of bloom ;
and it affords an excellent example of the truth of
Darwin's investigations on the fertilization of plants by
insects.

Sprengel was, I believe, the first to point out that many
flowers were fertilized by insects ; and Andrew Knight
showed that in no plant does self-fertilization occur for an

Seedling Saxif images. 229

unlimited number of generations. Our own Dean Herbert
nearly made the same discovery, as he found that advantage
was derived from the seed obtained by pollen from another
individual of the same variety, rather than its own. Darwin,
however, finally showed by careful investigation that plants
were improved by crossing with another stock ; that the
application of pollen to the pistil of the same flower is less
efficient than pollen from another individual. He also
showed how frequently self-fertilization is prevented by the
relative position of the reproductive organs, or by their
ripening at different times. This subject has been carried
much further by Miiller, whose book contains minute
descriptions of the reproductive parts of every class of
flower, and long lists of the insects which are found to
frequent each flower in search of food. Miiller, however,
does not appear to have observed the saxifrages, and he
gives no list of insects frequenting them. He merely states
that Dr. A. Engler investigated 38 species of saxifrages,
and found them all to be proterandrous ; the pollen-tipped
stamens moving singly, in succession, towards the centre of
the flower. In this way the pistil became fertilized. This,
I find, may readily be observed in many of the saxifrages,
and particularly in S. oppositifolia, and there is but little
variety in this class of self-fertilized saxifrages. Miiller
then remarks that in some Alpine species there is the
peculiarity that the anthers are withered before the stigma
has ripened. He does not name 6". Cotyledon, or any species
having these habits, but herein we have the key to the
question before us.

Julius von Sachs, in his "Physiology of Plants," just trans-
lated by Professor Marshall Ward, describes this peculiar
arrangement under the term " Dichogamy," i.e., the non-
simultaneous development of the two sexual organs. When
this occurs, as it does in S. Cotyledon and 5. Macnabiana^
insects are the means by which the pollen is carried to the
Q

230 Seedling Saxifrages.

ripe pistil, and thus a great variety of pollen may be carried
to the individual flowers of a single scape, and the progeny
will be varied accordingly.

The no varieties of Saxifrages now exhibited are
illustrations of this curious subject.

Leaves from the Ship Canal. 231

On the Green Colouring Matter from Leaves found in
one of the Cuttings for the Manchester Ship Canal.
By Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

{Received April 2jtJi, i88g.)

At the Meeting of the Society held on March 19th, Mr.
William Thomson read a paper on a deposit of leaves
found at a depth of about 21 feet in one of the cuttings for
the Ship Canal, near Irlam. Mr. Thomson stated that he
had been able to extract from these leaves a green colour-
ing matter, the solutions of which showed the absorption
bands of chlorophyll.

Having myself paid some attention to the subject of
chlorophyll, I feel an interest in any new fact relating to it.
Some confirmation of Mr. Thomson's statement seemed
desirable, since chlorophyll, as everyone knows, is one of
the most fugitive and easily decomposed of natural colour-
ing matters, and it seemed improbable, therefore, that it
should have been preserved unchanged within the vegetable
tissue during the long period that these leaves are said to
have lain underground.

Having expressed a wish to make a few experiments
myself, Mr. Thomson very kindly placed at my disposal
some of the material employed by him, and an additional
quantity was supplied to me by Mr. Mead King, engineer
over that section of the canal where the deposit was found.

My examination is not to be considered exhaustive. I
merely wished to ascertain whether the colouring matter
referred to was chlorophyll, and, if not, whether it was in
any way related to the latter. The material was treated at
once with boiling alcohol, which extracted the whole of the

232

Dr. Edward Schunck on

colouring matter, leaving behind the cellular tissue of the
leaves mixed with sand and debris. The extract was filtered
boiling hot, and, being left to stand some time so as to
allow fatty matters and other impurities to deposit, was
filtered again. The extract thus obtained did not show the
bright green colour characteristic of solutions of pure un-
changed chlorophyll from fresh leaves, but had a yellowish-
green tint. Its absorption spectrum also differed in more
than one respect from that of chlorophyll.

a B C D E F

The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll shows four
bands, the first of which in the red is very dark, whilst the
fourth, near the line E, is faint. The alcoholic extract of
the leaves from the Ship Canal deposit, on the other hand,
showed a tolerably dark band near E, while the third band
between D and E appeared very faint and further away
from the red end ; its absorption spectrum coincided in fact
with that of so-called " modified chlorophyll." There can be
no doubt that modified chlorophyll is a product of the action
of acids on chlorophyll. When a solution of pure chlorophyll
is mixed with a little hydrochloric acid it loses its bright green
colour, and soon becomes yellowish-green ; it then exhibits
the spectrum of modified chlorophyll. Weak acids produce
the same effect, but more slowly. Hence it appears probable
that in the case of the leaf deposit, the chlorophyll had
come into contact with some acid conveyed possibly by
infiltration from above, or formed, perhaps, in consequence
of the oxidation of some leaf constituent or other, and thus
become modified. Modified chlorophyll, like all derivatives
of the colouring matter, is much more stable than the

Leaves from tJie Ship Canal. 233

parent substance. Its solutions may be exposed to air and
light for a considerable time without undergoing much
change, whereas solutions of normal chlorophyll, on ex-
posure to the same combined agency, are rapidly bleached,
with entire destruction of the colouring matter. The cir-
cumstance of the chlorophyll having undergone modification
in the leaves of the deposit may serve to explain its
continued presence after the long period during which it is
said these leaves have lain buried. Still the fact of its
remaining unchanged for so long a time, even in the modified
state, is sufficiently remarkable, and can only be explained
by supposing that the leaves were suddenly and completely
buried under a mass of material which to a great extent
preserved them from the action of light and air. It is
worthy of remark that the leaves of the deposit are com-
paratively poor in colouring matter, yielding far less than
the same quantity of fresh leaves would do.

234 Proceedings.

Annual General Meeting, April 30th, 1889.

Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Mr. Harry Thornber, of Rookfield Avenue, Sale,
Cheshire, was elected an ordinary member.

The following gentlemen, nominated by the Council as
honorary members, were elected : — Professors G. Halphen,.
and H. Resal, Membres de ITnstitut, Paris ; W. Hertz,
Bonn ; D. Mendeleeff, St. Petersburg ; Lothar Meyer,
Tubingen ; Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau ; W. G. Farlow,
Cambridge, U.S.A. ; WiLHELM RosCHER.Leipsic; George
Salmon, Dubhn ; Michael Foster, Sec. R.S., Cam-
bridge ; Messrs. Edward John Routh, F.R.S., Cambridge;
Ernst Werner Siemens, Berlin ; A. W. Williamson,
For. Sec. R.S., London ; Sir JOHN LuBBOCK, M.P.,
London ; W. H. Flower, F.R.S., British Museum ; and
W. Carruthers, F.R.S., British Museum.

The annual report of the Council was presented (see
page 252), and it was moved by Dr. SCHUNCK, F.R.S.,
seconded by Mr. Wm. THOMSON, F.R.S.Ed., and resolved,
" That the Annual Report be adopted and printed in the
Society's Memoirs and Proceedings^

It was moved by Mr. Alderman W. H. Bailey, seconded
by Mr. SAMUEL Clement Trapp, and resolved, "That the
system of electing Sectional Associates be continued during
the ensuing session."

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Society and members of the Council for the ensuing year :—

President: — OsBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents : — William Crawford Williamson,

Proceedings. 235

LL.D., F.R.S., Foreign Member of the Royal Swedish
Acad. Sc. ; Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. ;
James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.,
Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sc.) Paris, and Roy. Acad. Sc.
Turin ; ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Secretaries: — Frederick James Faraday, F.L.S.,
F.S.S. ; Reginald F. Gwyther, M.A.

Treasurer: — CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S.

Librarian : — FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

Other Members of the Council: — J AS. BOTTOMLEY, B.A.,
D.Sc, F.C.S. ; John Boyd ; William Henry Johnson,
B.Sc; James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S. ; Harold
B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.; Alexander Hodgkinson,
M.B., B.Sc.

2%6 Proceedings.

Ordinary Meeting, April 30th, 1889.

Professor OsBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Mr. Alderman VV. H. Bailey read a paper " On the
Ancient Canoe recently found near Barton, in one of the
cuttings for the Manchester Ship Canal," and exhibited
sections and diagrams.

A paper on " The Fermentation Theories," by ALFRED
Springer, Ph.D., of Cincinnati, U.S.A., was communicated
by Mr. WiLLIAM Grimshaw. The author called at-
tention to the following points: (i) The exciters of
fermentation are minute organisms reduced to a single
cell ; (2) Ferments, like all other living things, are subject
to physiological, or, more specially, pathological func-
tions of life ; (3) They are so sensitive that any abnormal
influence either changes their whole mode of existence,
or destroys it altogether; (4) A medium suitable to the
life of one special kind is changed by it into products
which cease to sustain it, but can nourish a lower class of
organisms, thereby making analyses, made at different times,
vary in their results. We cannot class such reactions with
those chemical ones taking place according to the laws of
equivalents. The author summed up Pasteur's "oxygen-
abstracting theory" of fermentation as "life without free
oxygen." In organic cells there resides a special force
capable of producing chemical reactions. This force reveals
its activity by decompositions effected upon complex mole-
cules. It is motion communicated by vital force, and
dependent upon it. Naegeli's theory that "Fermentation
IS the transmission of the molecular motion of the different

Proceedings. 237

/Compounds of the plasma or cell-contents to the fermen-
table material, without itself being affected," has caused
Liebig's chemico- physiological theory, that the cause of
fermentation is the communication of internal molecular
motion of matter in the course of decomposition to other
matter, the elements of which have a feeble affinity, to re-
gain some significance. Schlitzenberger repeated Pasteur's
experiments, but has given a different explanation. He
argues that if the decomposition of sugar were the result of
a respiration of the cells of yeast at the expense of com-
bined oxygen recruiting the free oxygen, it seems evident
that fermentation ought not to take place, or at least ought
to be sensibly lessened, in the presence of free oxygen ; but
the reverse of this is the case. The respiratory power of yeast
is independent of the quantity of oxygen contained in the
medium in which it lives ; it only varies with the tempera-
ture, and the more or less favourable conditions of nutrition,
as well as with the more or less perfect state of health of
the cell. The respiratory power and the fermenting power
are two qualities inherent in the cell of the SaccJiaroviyces
which are not the two variable terms of a constant sum, of
which the one vanishes when the other attains its maximum
value ; on the contrary, all facts tend to prove that these
two values grow weak, are destroyed, or attain their maxima
at the same time, under the influence of the same causes.
Pasteur and other zymologists have set down the following
laws: — (i) The spores of the Ascomycetes, when submerged
in a fermentable liquid, require a certain amount of free
oxygen in order to bud or develop into yeast ; when once
thus developed, they can abstract the requisite oxygen from
the compounds contained in the fluid, thereby fermenting
the same. Actual fermentation begins the moment the
ascospores have developed into yeast cells. (2) On the
total absence of free oxygen, the fermentative action of
budding yeast may continue for a number of generations,

238 Proceedings.

but after this the action becomes weakened and the ferments
cease to hve if not again brought in contact with free
oxygen. (3) The number of generations in which the
ferment-organisms can exist without free oxygen has not
yet been definitely determined ; but it seems to be greatest
with SaccJiaroniyces cerevisi(2. Yeast follows the general
laws of digestion, for it not only assimilates bodies from the
surrounding liquid, which it uses for its nourishment, but
it also excretes substances into it which are of no further
use. After a cell has reproduced several times, its time of
life expires, but the cell does not immediately become
inactive, for the membrane allows fluids to pass in and out
of it until equilibrium is established between it and the
outer liquid. These statements explain the manner of
nourishing and multiplication of yeast, but do not explain
the cause thereof It has been argued: — (i) The yeast
cell consumes the nutritive parts of the fermentable liquid,
and excretes alcohol, carbonic acid, and other products.
This theory assumes fermentation to be a purely physio-
logical act ; a small portion of sugar is used for the
construction of new cells, but the greater portion is thrown
off in a form useless to the ferment-organisms. According
to this idea the production of new yeast must be propor-
tionate to the amount of fermentation products. (2) The
yeast consumes only as much of the nutritive parts of the
fermentation liquids as it needs for its nourishment and
reproduction ; in its excretiaments one or more combinations
are formed which have the power of converting sugar into
fermentation products. This theory is purely a chemical
one. The organisms, and the reproductions thereof, have
nothing to do with the fermentation. The function of the
yeast is to produce that body or bodies which act as fer-
ments. If these real ferments could be artificially produced
without the intervention of organisms the theory would be
fully established. (3) The yeast cell nourishes itself on

Proceedings. 239

the existing substances, and, after vegetating for some
time, dies off, and thereby creates a fermentation of sugar.
This theory is a pathological one, according to which
it is not the normal productive yeast which acts, but the
dying one : that is, when it approaches its dissolution. Its
partisans claim that if sugar is consumed by the yeast and
alcohol ejected, then this action would be greatest when
it reproduces the most ; but this is not the case, for the
most alcohol is produced when the maximum reproduction
is passed. The author alluded as follows to the question
whether a ferment organism can change its physiologic;^!
action when placed under abnormal influence : — " I have made
some careful examinations in this direction, but cannot con-
scientiously affirm that the ferments sown in the liquids
were pure. For instance, if a quantity of starch or sugar,
and cheese or meat is sown with lactic ferment, butyric
acid is formed at the end of the reaction. If now we take
a trace of the butyric ferment out of the liquid, examine it
carefully under the microscope and perceive no other
ferment present, place it in a medium like the above, but
which has previously been heated so as to destroy the exist-
ing germs, then add the butyric ferment to the same, and
close the bottle with a cotton stopper, lactic acid is again
the first formed. Has then in this experiment the butyric
ferment changed into a lactic, or are the germs of the lactic
so small that, although present in the drop containing the
butyric ferment sown in the liquid, they escaped micro-
scopical detection? It seems to me that this question
can only be satisfactorily answered when an antiseptic
is discovered which has fatal effects on one and none
on the other. Pasteur's assertion that oxygen kills the
butyric ferment must still be taken with a grain of salt."
As regards the bearing of fermentation on technology, the
principal questions to be studied are, how to make the
mediums most suitable for the nutrition and multiplication

240 Proceedings.

of the desired ferments by keeping a sufficient supply of
the necessary ingredients ; and secondly, of no minor im-
portance, how either to get rid of the excremental matter
by separating it out, or combining it in such a manner as
to make it uninjurious to the other ferments. Could the
alcohol formed during alcoholic fermentation be removed,
the yield would be much greater. The temperature has
great influence on the formation of certain products during
fermentation. When a mash is kept below 65° C. starch is
converted into maltose and dextrin according to the follow-
ing equation: 4C6H10O5 + 2H20 = Ci8Hs40i7 + CeHwOs.
Maltose is fermentable, dextrin only slightly so. Should the
mash be kept close to 75° C, maltose and dextrin are formed
according to the following equation: 6C6H10O5 + 2H0O
= C18H34O17 + CcHioOe. Schlosing and Miintz have shown
that nitrification is due to the action of ferments. Etard
and Olivier assert that the sulphates of arable earth are
dissociated by bacteria. The author had the pleasure of
showing that the nitrates of dead plants are dissociated
by ferments and the nitrogen returned to the atmos-
phere. It has been claimed that the growing of plants
and the ripening of fruits are nothing but consecutive
fermentations where special cells play the part of fer-
ments. Pasteur claims that the power of resolving
glucose into alcohol and carbonic acid, or changing it into
lactic acid, and that again into a mixture of hydrogen,
carbonic, and butyric acids does not belong for each special
fermentation to a single organism, to a single ferment, or to a
species very nearly allied, as for instance the Saccharoniyces,
but that these reactions are the result of cell life in general,
when the organic cells are placed under special conditions.
Lechartier and Bellamy have been led to the important
conclusion that the elementary organs of plants in general
are endowed, though in a less degree than the cells of
yeast, with the property of exciting alcoholic fermentation.

Proceedings. 241

The ScJiyzoinycetes differ from other ferments in being able
to accommodate themselves to any reaction of the
fluid and almost any organic nutriment. Their very
simple organisation permits them to assimilate substances
upon which higher organisms cannot live. They can
hve without free oxygen, and if carbonic acid is passed
through a putrefying liquid, it does not check the process.
They can withstand high temperatures. Fluids must be
heated to I30°C. to be certain that they are all killed. All
antiseptics have less effect upon them than on other
ferments. They can withstand comparatively large amounts
of carbolic acid ; but bi-sulphide of carbon and sulpho-
carbolic acid are effective in destroying them. When a
fermentable liquid is left exposed to the air consecutive
fermentations take place. Thus, when fluids are attacked
by ferments, the highest organized first make their appear-
ance, as the mildews ; these are followed by the Saccha-
romyces, and these again by the lowest organisms, the split
fungi. With reference to antiseptics, the author pointed
out that they do not act with equal power on all organisms.
The alcoholic ferment thrives when oxygen is passed
through the fluid in which it is submerged. The butyric, on
the other hand (according to Pasteur)dies under the same con-
dition. An acid medium is injurious to the lactic and butyric
ferments, but does not interfere with some of the split fungi.
Gustave Le Bon arrived at the conclusion that the effect of
a disinfectant diminishes with the progress of putrefaction.
Further, between disinfectant power and antiseptic effects
on the putrescent agents there is no parallelism ; the potas-
sium permanganate, which is the most powerful disinfectant,
does not in the least affect the ferments. Alcohol, on the
contrary, which stuns them, is but a weak disinfectant.
Neither is there any parallelism between the power of pre-
venting putrefaction and that of checking it when once
begun. Alcohol and carbolic acid, which are powerful pre-

242 Proceedings.

servatives, do not have much effect when putrefaction has
once set in. Le Bon's experiments also seem to show that
there is no parallelism between the poisonous effects of a
putrefying body and that of the volatile products arising
from it. They seem inversely proportional. The very
small amount of advanced putrefaction products mixed
with air breathed by an animal, which is sufficient to kill
it, shows the terribly poisonous character of the volatile
alkaloids. In conclusion, the author suggested the desirable-
ness of a revision of the nomenclature of micro-organisms.

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An old Canoe from the -Irivell Valley. 243

On an old Canoe recently found in the Irwell Valley,
near Barton, with observations on Pre-historic
Chat Moss. By Mr. Alderman W. H. Bailey.

{Received May i^-th, i88g.)

Where Found.

The old Canoe, which I will endeavour to describe, was
found a few days ago in the Irwell Valley in the sand at
the cuttings of the Manchester Ship Canal, exactly one
mile west of Brindley's Aqueduct at Barton. It is some-
what interesting to note that the discoverer was Lady
Egerton, who happened to be passing at the time with a
party of friends who were inspecting the works. Her
ladyship called attention to the black-looking object in the
sand which a steam navvy had partially uncovered, and
said that in her opinion it was an old canoe. This surmise
proved to be correct, and it is only proper to place this
fact on record.

The river Irwell is 400 feet distant from the site of the
old boat ; the river bed is about 1 5 feet above the level
where it was found ; the boat had over it 6 feet of surface
soil, and about 20 to 22 feet of sand. (See section,
Fig. I.)

It will be seen from the map (Fig. 2) that in the vicinity
the river has a very tortuous course, and, many years ago,
in order to improve the navigation, the two feet of a figure
like the letter " M " were coupled together, and the distance
was thus shortened by what is called "Stickings Cut."

It will also be seen from the map that the position of
the canoe was about halfway between Chat Moss and
Carrington Moss from North to South.

244

Mr. W. H. Bailey on

Description and Dimensions of the Canoe.
Mr. Ward, the photographer, of Oxford Street, Man-
chester, has taken a very good photograph of the boat, but
in order that we may have an exact record of its dimensions
I have caused four mechanical drawings to be prepared,
from which it will be seen that the boat in section is nearly
an exact semi-circle slightly flattened at the sides. (See

1

J^ig- 3-

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5-

vy

Fio. 6.
Fig. 3.) It bears internal evidence of some attempt at
design. An imaginary line drawn right through the centre
from one end to the other becomes the true centre, that
is to say, there is as much boat on one side as there is on
the other. (See Fig. 4.) I would infer from this that before
the boat was made it was designed, and that it was not
made by what is called "rule of thumb." The inside

An old Canoe ffoni the Irivell Valley. 245

measurements are as follow: — At one end 17^ inches
deep, becoming deeper to the centre to 19 inches, and then
gradually decreasing to the other end to 1 5 ^ inches. The
width where it is deepest is 2 feet 9 inches, gradually
decreasing to 2 feet wide. The thickness at the sides is
lYz inches, gradually thickening to the bottom to 2^
inches. The thickness of the stem and stern is 6 inches.
It is 12 feet 4 inches inside measurement. (See Figs. 5
and 6.)

It is a matter of opinion as to which is the bow and
which is the stern, because both ends are so much alike,
except that one is shallower than the other, and that may
have been by design or by reason of the shape of the
timber. It seems to be the general opinion that the
material is oak. There is a peculiar strengthening piece
fastened on with four wooden pegs at one end of the boat,
and the projecting wooden nose or staple at the other end
is cut out of the solid timber, and has a hole 1 5<( inches in
diameter. This is supposed to have been for the passage of
a rope, no doubt for mooring purposes.

There is an interesting bit of patchwork at one end (see
Fig. 4 at A), showing a place which might have been for a
rudder, or it is possible it might have been a repair, for two
holes exist into which wooden pegs have been driven to
secure a small bit of timber, in the same manner as the
strengthening piece is fastened at the top of the boat at the
deep end. There is no metal of any sort on the boat.
There are tool marks distinctly visible all over the boat
inside, but whether these marks were made by iron, steel,
or bronze tools it is impossible to say.

Mr. Knott, a relative of Mr. Walker, the contractor for
the Manchester Ship Canal, who has charge of the Salford
docks' section of the canal, informs me that many similar
boats have been dug out by Mr. Walker's men in the
excavations for improving the Ribble at Preston.
R

246 Mr. W. H. Bailey on

The old canoe, as I have stated, was found in the Irwell
valley, near to the Chat Moss basin, which I will now
describe, adding some observations on the causes which led
to the formation of the Moss.

Pre-historic Chat Jlloss.

Chat Moss is in the Irwell valley, bounded- on the north
and east by the highlands of Patricroft, Worsley, and
Astley, on the west by the river Glazebrook, and on the
south by the river Irwell, which immediately changes its
name to the Mersey. On the opposite side of the valley,
near Partington, is Carrington Moss, and similar moss lands
or lagoons exist extending along the south side of the
valley to the tidal estuary of the Mersey. St. Chad, of
Chester, was Bishop of Mercia in the year 669, and had
dominion over an extensive tract of country, from Man-
chester to Chester and all lands between the Mersey and
the Dee ; and it has been said that this is the origin of the
name Chat or Chatley Moss.

Most writers assert, with but little evidence, that the
Moss was formerly an extensive forest. It is five miles
long from east to west, and about three miles broad from
north to south.

According to Baines, the forest of Chatley must have
disappeared before the Norman conquest, as the Doomsday
Book only gives in the Hundred of Salford very much less
forest land than the entire of Chat Moss, as the forests of
Horwich and Blackley alone were equal to nine miles long
and five and a quarter miles in width, which is about the
area of forest lands of the district recorded in that survey.

Underneath the Moss the soil is of a sandy nature, and
below this is found boulder clay ; and although I am not
in possession of sufficient information to lead to a definite
conclusion, I believe that a forest did not exist on Chat
Moss in the ancient days. We have sufficient evidence to

Afi old Canoe from the I rive! I Valley. 247

show that it was formerly a great lake, probably with forest
trees on the margin, and that it was fed by the Irwell and
subjected to occasional inundations of tidal water from the
Mersey, and that the outlet of this inland lake in course
of time became impeded by wind-blown sand driven from
the Mersey estuary by the western gales.

This wind-blown sand not only impeded the drainage of
this inland lake, but, from time to time, changed the course
of the Irwell as well as that of the Mersey. The enormous
amount of clean sand, absolutely free from pebbles or
boulders, laid bare by the excavations of the Manchester
Ship Canal in the vicinity and immediately below Chat
Moss, is, I think, convincing" testimony of this. This sand
would effectually impound the drainage of the small rivulets
and water-courses from the upper lands of Patricroft,
Worsley, and Astley, the water from which before went
into the river through the lake, which would probably
extend right across to the Carrington side of the river to
the high lands of Lymm, and would be in shape similar to
the great Mersey Bay lower down the stream, into which
the Ship Canal enters, and which I will call Eastham Bay.

The accumulation of rank vegetation would increase the
impediment, and in course of years the whole district would
become a moss, instead of a great lake. That the river bed
was formerly much deeper we have evidence in the discovery
of the old boat I have described, and in the great quantity of
old forest trees found even at much lower depths in the
Ship Canal cuttings. I have not been able to get the
exact levels all over the Moss, as it is difficult to obtain the
information. I, however, find that in some places it is
150 feet to the sand, and the depth varies to 50, ^o, and
25 feet. The greatest depth at present known is at a point
not far from Astley station, on the London and North
Western Railway ; indeed at one point in that locality it
is 180 feet deep. This places the level at the bottom

248 Mr. W. H. Bailey on

far below tidal water, as even a depth of 50 feet places it
much below the tidal water now coming up to Warrington.

The trees found in the Moss may have grown on the
banks of the lake, or more probably may have been washed
down from the upper reaches of the Irwell, for many similar
trees are continually discovered in the excavations of the
Ship Canal along the whole course of the valley. These
trees are trunks only, having no small timber about them,
no branches, or evidence of decayed wood near them. We
may infer that if these had grown in situ, branches and
roots would be in the vicinity. There can be little doubt
that these bare trunks have drifted from the forests of the
upper lands after storms.

It may be of some interest to state that the Moss is
subsiding gradually ; the farmsteads built on piles driven
through the Moss into the earth beneath are in some cases
now 10 feet above the level of the surrounding land, and
those built upon the Moss without the support of the piles
are from 5 to 15 feet below the surrounding level.

The geological formation of the strata at Chat Moss
has been described by Mr. W. Brockbank, in a paper read
before this Society in 1866, {Proceedings, Lit. and Phil.
Soc. of Man., Vol. V. p. 91.) In one place Mr. Brockbank
found 17 feet of peat moss, 18 inches of sandy clay or loam,,
and then a depth of 26 feet 6 inches of boulder clay, and
below that, soft red rock. Generally the bed of the moss is
sandy.

In consequence of the imperfect drainage, after long
continuous rains the Moss became so full of water many
years ago as to cause its upper surface to move.

Leland describes an accident of this sort, which occurred
in the reign of Henry the Eighth, as follows : —

" Chatelay More, in Darbyshire, is three or four miles in
" bredthe, and six miles yn length sum way brast up within
" a mile of Morley Hall, and destroied much ground with

An old Canoe from the Iriuell Valley. 249

" mosse thereabout, and destroied much fresch water fische
" therabowt, first corrupting with stinking water Glasebrook
*' and so Glasebrook carried stinking water and moss into
" the Mersey water, and Mersey corruptid carried the
" roulHng mosse part to the shores of Wales, part to the Isle
" of Man, and sum into Ireland. In the very toppe of
*' Chateley More where the mosse was hyest and brake, is
" now a fair plaine valley, as was in tymes paste, and a rille
" runnith in it, and peaces of small trees be found in the
^' botom. Syr John Holcrofte's house within a mile or
" more of Morle stoode in jeopardi with fleeting of the
" mosse."

Also in the reign of Elizabeth, Camden describes Chat
Moss as a swampy tract of great extent, a considerable part
of which was carried off in the last age by swollen rivers
with great danger.

In the 15th year of Edward II., the Moss is placed in
the manor of Manchester ; this would be in the year of our
Lord, 1322, and in a description of the time Chat Moss is
of the soil of the Lords of Barton, Worsley, Astley,
Workedby, and Bedford. " The tenants of these Lords had
here Common Turbary but no profit can be computed,
because of the unfair quality of it."

Modern Chat Moss.
The success of the works of the Bedford Level Drainage
on the East Coast caused much attention to be paid to
similar lands in other parts of the country. It will be
remembered that this great work was begun in the reign
of Charles I. Many thousands of acres of land have been
reclaimed and made profitable to agriculture. In an old
book I bought the other day, a poet encourages such
undertakings in verses of which the following are a sample.
The book was printed by Moses Pitt, at the Angel in St.
Paul's Churchyard, in the year 1665 : —

250 Mr. W. H. Bailey on

After long Tillage, it cloth then abound

With Grass so plentiful, so sweet, so sound,

Scarce any tract but this can Pastures shew

So large, so rich, And, if you wisely Sow

The fine Dutch Clover, with such Beauty spreads,

As if it meant t' affront our English Meads.

Ye busie Gentlemen, that plant the Hop,

And dream vast gains from that deceitful Crop,

Or by manuring what you ought to Let

Thrive backwards, and too dearly purchase Wit,

Leave off these Lotteries, and here take your Lot ;

The Profit's certain, and with ease, 'tis got.

Courageous Merchants, who, confronting fates,
Trust Seas and Pyrates with your whole Estates,
Part in this Bank, methinks were far more sure ;
And j-e, whom hopes of sudden Wealth allure,
Or wants into Virginia, force to fly,
Ev'n spare your pains ; here's Florida hard by.

If therefore Gain, or Honour, or Delight,
Or care of Publick Good, will Men invite
Into this fortunate Isle, now let them enter
With confidence ; since here they all concenter ;
But if all these be choakt, and drown'd with flegm.
Let them enjoy their Sloth, sit still, and dream.

The success of the Bedford Level undertaking, and in
later times the utilisation of other moss lands for agricul-
ture in the fen country, caused many experiments to be
made in this district.

Scroope Egerton, the first Duke of Bridgewater, and
Francis, the third Duke, commenced operations in the
neighbourhood of Worsley, and were to some extent suc-
cessful.

At the commencement of this century, William Roscoe
the poet, philosopher, and banker, the grandfather of Sir
Henry Roscoe, M.P., and, to use the words of Baines, " the
elegant historian of Leo X.," was a very busy man. His
genius was many-sided, for in the midst of active commercial
pursuits he found time to lecture on the fine arts as well as
on the national importance of introducing new food seeds,
and on improved methods of agriculture. He composed

A /I old Canoe from the Irzvell Valley. 251

odes, psalms, and sweet sonnets, wrote histories which are
classical to the student of Italian literature, and as an
orator and essayist he influenced the public conscience in
favour of the righteous work of his friends, Wilberforce and
Clarkson, the liberators of the African slave.

We also find him, with the sanction of Parliament,
engaged in improving Chat Moss, dividing it into farms,
draining it, and making it increase the food supply of this
country. For more than a quarter of a century this
energetic lover of utility and beauty devoted himself and
his fortune to the cultivation of this morass.

In 181 1 a poet pays homage to his achievements :

Koscoe to whose patriot breast belong
The Roman virtue and the Tuscan song,
Led Ceres to the bleak and barren moor,
Where Ceres never gained a wreath before.

It is interesting to note that it was through the work of
William Roscoe's steward, Mr. Stannard, that the difficulty
of crossing Chat Moss by the Manchester and Liverpool
Railway was overcome, as Mr. Stannard took the contract
to make the railway across the Moss, and it is possible that,
had it not been for his great experience in moss treatment,
Stevenson would have taken the railway a mile and a half
further north at a considerable expense to the Company.

Mr. Edward Baines continued the cultivation of Chat
Moss, commenced by Mr. Roscoe, and there are now
hundreds of acres under cultivation.

Permit me in conclusion to call the attention of the
members of the Society to the opportunities, which should
not be neglected, now presented to the geologist, the
antiquary, and to all students of the knowledge of causes, for
the Ship Canal steam navvies have opened more than 20
miles of the Irwell valley, and those who study the story
of the rocks have in the book before them, the records of
centuries on each page.

25-2 Annual Report of the Council.

Annual Report of the Council, April, 1889.

The Treasurer reports that the improvement in the
Society's finances, which was referred to in the Annual
Report of the Council for 1888, has been fully maintained
throughout the current year, and for the first time for many
years, balances remain at the credit of all the accounts.
The general balance in favour of the Society on the 31st
March, 1889, as represented by cash on deposit at the
Society's bankers, is ^335. 8s. 2d. In addition to this
amount, the Society holds ;^i,225 preference stock in the
Great Western Railway Co., the interest upon which is
devoted to Natural History purposes in accordance with
the terms of the trust.

The accompanying balance sheets will explain the
sources of income, and the expenditure, of the Society
during the session now ended, and, as usual, the corres-
ponding information for the previous session is appended
for purposes of comparison.

The Societies which are accommodated on the premises
are the same as last year, viz. : the Manchester Geological
Society, the Manchester Medical Society, the Manchester
Photographic Society, and the Manchester Scientific Students'
Association, who have paid the amounts stated in the
balance sheet.

A special item appears in the accounts this session, viz.,
a grant of £i^\. os. /d. from the Local General Committee,
and Guarantors, of the British Association Meeting held in
Manchester in 1887, which was paid over to the Society
in accordance with the terms of the following resolution,
passed at the Town Hall, Manchester, 6th March, 1888,

Annual Report of the Council. 253

proposed by Mr. Edward Donner, seconded by Mr. Mark
Stirrup, and carried unanimously : —

" That, after payment of all expenses, any balance
remaining over from the final call upon the Guarantee
Fund be divided between the Library of the Owens
College and the Literary and Philosophical Society,
in recognition of the valuable assistance rendered by
them in granting the use of their buildings and
rooms ; but that, previous to such division, a copy
of this resolution be sent to each guarantor, and
. his proportionate share be returned to any one de-
siring it."
Your Council's predecessors acknowledged this kindness
in last year's report.

There are few items in the Society's expenditure which
need any special reference. The index to the whole of the
Society's Proceedings, and Memoirs ist, 2nd and 3rd
Series, has been completed by Mr. Richard Hargreaves,
and will be printed in the course of next session. The Bind-
ing Fund has still a balance of ;^34. i8s. 2d., but works from
the Society's library have already been bound, which, with
what are still in the binder's hands, will exhaust this
fund.

The Editor reports that the publications of the Society,
which, as will be observed, include a more numerous list of
papers than last year, are complete up to March 5th, and
that the next number, which will complete the second
volume, will be issued in the course of the next fortnight.

The Council are very sensible of the honorary services
of the Editor in preparing the Society's Memoirs and
Proceedings. The new form of publication has proved
successful in respect both as to cost and as to promptitude
of issue.

The Librarian reports that the number of volumes
received in exchange from other Societies during the last

254 Annual Report of the Council.

year has increased. The Library now includes an almost
unique collection of the printed issues of foreign Societies,
and, amongst other works recently added, contains 43
volumes of " Reports on the Scientific Results of the
Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger." Authors'
presentation copies have been received from Professor
Cayley, " Collected Mathematical Papers " ; Professor
Prestwich, " Geology, Chemical, Physical, and Strati-
graphical " ; Professor G. G. Stokes, " Mathematical and
Physical Papers"; The Council of the Royal Society, "The
Eruption of Krakatoa and subsequent phenomena," and
also the following : — " Verdeeling Der Warmte over de
Aarde," by C. H. D. Buys Ballot ; " Notes, &c., Sur
L'Histoire Generale des Pays-Bas," by C. Paillard ;
" Tripolitania Cirenaica E. Fezzan," by F. Borsari ;
" Memoir on The Winds and Monsoons of the Arabian Sea
and North Indian Ocean," by W. L. Dallas ; " Report on
the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh," and " The Edinburgh
Equatorial in 1887," papers by C. P. Smyth; "The Cause
of Electricity, with remarks on Chemical Equivalents,"
" The Cause of Light," " The Planets upon Ccerdioides," by
G. T. Carruthers, M.A. ; " Eskimo of Hudson's Strait," by
F. F. Payne; "Treatise on Chemistry," Vol. III., Part 5,
by Sir H. E. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmer. These have
been duly acknowledged.

Influenced by the example of the Royal, Linnean, and
other learned Societies, the Council decided during the past
session to arrange for a conversazione in the Society's
house, in order to exhibit some of the more interesting
memorials in the Society's possession, and to illustrate the
work of past and present members. A doubt having been
expressed as to whether the Council would be justified in
utilising the funds of the Society for this purpose without
a special resolution from the members, and it being con-
sidered undesirable, taking into account the experimental

Annual Report of the Council. 255

character of the project, to submit It for discussion at a
General Meeting, the President offered to defray the whole
cost of the gathering; whereupon, at a meeting of the Council,
it was resolved unanimously " that the Council thank the
President for his generous offer to defray the entire cost of
the conversazione, and gratefully accept it, with the con-
dition that he will permit all members of the Council who
may desire to do so, to be associated with him in bearing
the expense, and that the invitations be sent out in the
name of the President and Council." The conversazione,
therefore, has involved no charge on the funds of the Society.
It was held on the evening of April 4th, 1889, and about two
hundred ladies and gentlemen responded to the invitations
issued. A copy of the programme, suitable for binding with
the Memoirs and Proceedings, has been sent to each member.
To the list of exhibits described therein should be added
a special collection of living plants, for which the Council
were indebted to Mr. William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
including SyniJiiris renifonniSy a North American plant
introduced by the exhibitor to Kew in 1885, and described
in the Bot. Mag., Tab. 6860, 1886; examples of the Ajax
section of daffodils and various narcissi collected wild in
Portugal ;' and examples of dwarf Japanese maples with
many varieties of foliage grafted into each plant.

The Secretaries, on behalf of the Council, have duly
acknowledged the important assistance received from
various members and friends of the Society on the occasion.

The Council consider it desirable to continue the system
of electing Associates of the Sections, and the usual reso-
lution for the approval of the members will be submitted
at the Annual General Meeting. The Natural History
Section, in consideration of the large number of Associates
connected with it, has resolved to increase its annual
contribution from £2. 2s. to ^,^5. 5 s.

The number of ordinar}' members on the roll on March

256 Annual Report of the Council.

31st, 1889, was one less than at the corresponding date last
year. Eight new members had been elected, eight had
resigned, and one, Mr. Richard Peacock, M.P., M.I.C.E., had
died. The Society has also lost by death one honorary
member. Professor Rudolf Clausius.

Richard Peacock was one of that numerous class of
" self-made " engineers who have been connected with the
Society. He was the seventh child of a working lead
miner, and was born in Swaledale, in the North Riding,
in 1820. His father, Ralph Peacock, appears to have been
a man of much natural ability and especially ingenious
in mechanical construction, who worked his way, we are
told, to the position of foreman or superintendent of
several mines in the dale in which the subject of this notice
was born. Richard inherited his father's taste for mechanics,
and his future career seems to have been practically de-
termined by the bent given to his mind in consequence of
being taken by his father, at the age of five, to see George
Stephenson's " No. i " locomotive running on the Stockton
and Darlington Railway, opened on September 27th, 1825.
In 1830, the elder Peacock removed to Leeds to fill the
position of assistant superintendent in the construction of
the Leeds tunnel on the Leeds and Selby Railway, on
which line he continued to be employed for the remainder
of his working life. Richard's education was obtained at a
Sunday School and partly at the Leeds Grammar School,
and at the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to Messrs.
Fenton, Murray and Jackson, a firm employed in the con-
struction of locomotives for the Leeds, and the Liverpool and
Manchester Railways. His progress in mechanical know-
ledge is indicated by the fact that at the age of eighteen he
was offered the position of locomotive superintendent on the
railway on which his father was employed. Like young
Nasmyth, ten years earlier, however, he was inspired with
a desire to proceed to London, and, again like Nasmyth, he

Ainuial Report of tJic Council. 257

went thither armed only with useful introductions and a
readiness to engage in any kind of work in connection with
his special proclivities. An interview with Mr. (afterwards
Sir) Daniel Gooch, chief engineer under Mr. Brunei on the
Great Western Railway, resulted in an engagement on that
line. " Young Peacock's duties," says the writer of the
obituary notice in the MancJicster Guardian^ " were as varied
as they were laborious. Sometimes he superintended a
gang of navvies ; occasionally he took charge of an
engine used by the great engineer for running up and
down the line, and in this way established with him a
friendly relation which was interrupted only by Mr.
Brunei's death." At the age of 21 (in 1841) Peacock
obtained the appointment of locomotive superintendent on
the Manchester and Sheffield Railway. His connection with
Manchester dates from this event. He witnessed the
arrival of the first engine for the line, and continued in the
company's service for a period of fourteen years. " He chose
Gorton," adds the writer already quoted, " for the site of the
locomotive depot, which was afterwards erected from his
designs. This led to the rapid development of Gorton and
of the adjoining township of Openshaw, and of the great
engineering establishment with which his name will always
be identified. It was at his suggestion that Mr. Ashbury
built his extensive carriage and waggon works at Open-
shaw, of which Mr. Peacock laid the foundation stone. He
also recommended the late Sir Joseph Whitworth to transfer
to the same neighbourhood his manufactory of guns and
mechanical tools, and he purchased the land for the Midland
Railway on which that company placed its locomotive
sheds. Not inappropriately has he been designated as the
founder of the trade and prosperity of these two townships."
In 1854 Mr, Peacock entered into partnership with Mr.
Charles Beyer, previously manager of the extensive works
of Messrs. Sharp Bros, (and who, it may be mentioned,

25 S Annual Report of the Council.

was elected a member of this Society in January of the
same year), in order to estabhsh the well-known works at
Gorton, with which Mr. Peacock continued to be associated
until his death, officiating as manager and chairman of the
Board of Directors after the conversion of the firm into a
limited liability company in 1883. In these works from 2,000
to 3,000 people are employed, and about 200 engines are
annually constructed. Mr. Peacock was elected a member
of the Society in its centenary year, 1881. He took an
active interest in the educational, economic, and political
life of the district in which his business was established and
in which he lived, promoting the formation of savings
banks, the erection of new schools, and presenting to it a
church of considerable beauty, built from designs by another
member of the Society, Mr. Thomas Worthington,F.R.I.B.A.
The Brookfield church, Gorton, was built in 1870, to take
the place of the ancient non-conformist chapel, which
stood in the old burial ground on the low land below the
church, through which the Gore Brook flows. The site
was previously a most uninviting and desolate mass of clay
pits, and was raised considerably, with the adjoining high
road, so as to form a suitable position for the new church ;
in the erection of which Mr. Peacock took the liveliest
interest. The church is a structure of considerable size,
and with its lofty detached tower and spire forms a
land-mark in the district. It is in the early Geometric
style of the 13th century, and the tower contains a peal of
eight musical bells. Over the chancel arch a choir of
angels singing the Te Deum form a striking feature on
entering the building, and the general scheme of decoration,
with the polished granite columns and stained glass windows,
gives much richness of effect to the interior. In 1885 Mr.
Peacock was returned as the first representative in Parlia-
ment of the Gorton division, and was re-elected in 1886.
He died at his residence, Gorton Hall, on the evening of
March 3, 1889.

Annual Report of the Council. 259

. Rudolf Clausius, who died on August 24th, 1888,
was connected with us even more by the close relation of
his distinctive work with that of Dr. Joule, than by the fact
of his election as one of our honorary members. He was
born on the 2nd of January, 1822, one of the youngest of a
family of eighteen. For the sake of his younger brothers,
he felt himself bound to discontinue his studies in Berlin
and gain his own livelihood, first as a tutor, later as a
schoolmaster; ultimately graduating at Halle in 1848. In
1855 he was made Professor in the Polytechnicum at Zurich,
and in 1857 in the University of that town. In 1867 he
was called to Wiirzburg, and in 1869 to Bonn, where he
spent the rest of his life (declining invitations to Strassburg
and Gottingen) in the discharge of his duties and the cease-
less pursuit of his studies. The establishment of the
equivalence of heat and work by Joule and his fellow-
workers was the great scientific advance in Clausius' student
days, and it decided the direction of his life work. The
material theory of heat had led to no scientific result
comparable with Carnot's theory, and the destruction of the
material theory by the mechanical had left this important
and apparently correct result without support. Recognising
the inherent merits of Carnot's work, Clausius undertook
the examination of it from the point of view of the new
mechanical theory of heat, and in his first investigation on
the subject, presented to the Berlin Academy in 1850, he
showed that a new and independent principle in thermo-
dynamics was necessary, from which by an indirect method
he deduced Carnot's Theory. Considering Joule's Principle
of the equivalence of heat and work as the First Law,
Clausius' Principle of the equivalence of transfor-
mations, in one of its various forms, is accepted as the
Second Law of thermo-dynamics. Clausius has himself
stated it in different ways ; we give it thus: — It is incon-
ceivable that heat, unaided by any external agency,

26o Annual Report of the Council.

should of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body.
This essential idea he further developed in his memoirs
of 1854, 1862, and 1865, basing on it a great mechanical
principle, as Thomson had on Joule's Law, and enun-
ciating them together at the end of the last named
paper ; — The energy of the universe is constant, the entropy
of the universe tends to a maximum : principles now usually
called the Conservation and Dissipation of Energy. During
this stage of his activity, two Englishmen, Thomson and
Rankine, were working in the same direction ; it is no
part of our purpose to raise small questions of priority^
the work of each was original and distinctive, and
the new science of thermo-dynamics had need of all.
The fundamental ideas of the mechanical theory of heat
called not only Joule and Kronig, but also Clausius back to
Daniel Bernoulli's kinetic theory of gases. In a paper on
the Form of Motion which we call heat (1857) he deduced
Boyle's law with less special assumption than Joule had
employed, arrived at the conditions under which Charles'
law holds good, and established the law of Avogadro.
In a paper (1858) on the mean free path of a gas molecule,
he developed the statistical method of investigation which
the character of the problem makes necessary, and opened
the way to his successors. From this point Maxwell and
Boltzmann have carried the method to its fullest extent.
In this short notice we can only allude to Clausius' service
to Abstract Dynamics by his introduction of the Virial, to
his modification and development of W. Weber's electro-
dynamic theory, and to the papers on the theory of dynamo-
electric machines, which occupied the last years of his life.
Clausius' papers form a very long list, and are characterised
by an originality, thoroughness, and breadth of view which
are excelled by few. He was active in the discharge of his
duties as a professor, and that he performed his duties to
the State may be inferred from the fact that during the war

Annual Report of the Council. 261

of 1870 he acted as bearer in the ambulance corps of Bonn
students. By his death we have lost one of those who have
made the century remarkable for the progress of science.

The following papers and communications have been read,
or will be read before the close of the session, at the ordinary
meetings of the Society : —

October 2ncl, 1888.

"An account of Hertz's experiments showing the propagation of electrical
vibrations in direct accordance with Maxwell's theory of light as an
electro-magnetic phenomenon." By R. F. Gwyther, M.A.

" Incompleteness of Combustion in Gaseous Explosions. By Prof. Harold
B. Dixon, F.R.S., and H. W. Smith, B.Sc.

October i6th, 1888.

" On the excessive aliundance o^ Aphis dianthi, Schr., round Manchester
in September, i888." By P. Cameron. Communicated by John
Boyd, Esq.
"A decade of new HyDtejioptcra.^'' By P. Cameron. Communicated
by John Boyd, Esq.

October 30th, 1888.

" A New System of Logical Notation," by Joseph John Murphy. Com-
municated by the Rev. Robert Harley, M.A., F.R.S., Corresponding
iSIember.

"Electrolysis under Pressure." By W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, and
Henry Holden, M.Sc.

November 13th, 18S8.

" The Permanence of Oceanic Basins." By Professor W. C. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.S., and Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., &c.

November 27th, 1888.

"An historical account of the spectroscopic evidence in support of the
hypothesis that oxygen exists in the sun, with special reference to
M. Janssen's recent researches on telluric oxygen and aqueous vapour
lines and bands." By F. J. Faraday, F.L.S.

December nth, 1888.

" Note on the behaviour of Iodine in the presence of Borax." By James
Bottomley, D.Sc.

"Notes on some of the peculiar properties of Glass." By William
Thomson, F. R.S.Ed., F.I.C., F.C.S.

"On the British Species oi AUotrina:, with descriptions of other new
species of Parasitic Cynipidcv" By P. Cameron. Communicated Ijy
John Boyd, Esq.

S

262 Annual Report of the Council.

December aytli, 188S.

"Letter on an accompanying photograph of his original drawing of the
solar surface." By James Nasmyth, P'.R.A.S., &c.

January 8th, 18S9.

" On the unification in the measure of time, with special reference to the
contest on the initial meridian." By C. Tondini de Quarenghi.
Communicated by V. J. Faraday, F. L. S.

January 22nd, 18S9.

'■'' Hyine720ptera Orieiitalis ; or Contributions to a knowledge of the
Hymenoptera of the Oriental Zoological Region." By P. Cameron.
Communicated by John Boyd, Esq.

February 5th, 1889.

" On the equation to the Instantaneous Surface generated liy the dissolu-
tion of an Isotropic Solid." By James Bottomley, D.Sc.

February 19th, 18S9.

"On the vitrified cement from an ancient fort." By G. H. Bailey,
D.Sc, Ph.D.

" Notes on a form of Plaiitago viaritima [L.] new to this country, viz. f.
piimila (Kjellman)." By James Cosmo Melvill, F.L.S.

March 5th, 1889.

" Colour and its relation to the Structure of Coloured Bodies, being an
investigation into the Physical Cause of Colour in natural and
artificial bodies, and the Nature of the Structure producing it." Part I.
By Alexander Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc.

March 19th, 1889.

" On the results of some calculations with a certain class of figures." By
Charles Clay, M.D,

" On the presence of green colouring matter in leaves found about 21 feet
under the surface in an excavation connected with the Ship Canal
Works." By William Thomson, F.R.S. Ed.

" On Colour and its relation to the Structure of Coloured Bodies ; being
an Investigation into the Physical Cause of Colour in natural and
artificial bodies and the Nature of the Structure producing it. " Part II.
By Alexander Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc.

April 2nd, 1889.

" Note on the Propagation of Sound through an Atmosphere of Varying
Density." By Ralph Holmes, B.A.

" On Colour and its relation to the Structure of Coloured Bodies ; being
an Investigation into the Physical Cause of Colour in natural and
artificial bodies and the Nature of the Structure producing it."
Part II., continued. By Alexander Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc.

I

Animal Report of the Council. 263

April i6th, 1889.

" Notes on Seedling Saxifrages grown at Brockhurst from a single scape
oiSaxifraga Maaialnana." By Wm. Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.

" Some remarks on the Chlorophyll obtained by Mr. Wm. Thomson from
leaves found in cutting the Ship Canal." By Edward Schunck, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.

April 30th, 1S89.

"On the position of the ancient canoe found in cutting the Ship Canal."
By Alderman W. H. Bailey.

"On the Fermentation Theories." By Alfred Springer, Ph.D., of
Cincinnati. Communicated by William Grimshaw, Esq.

2)r.

MANCHESTER LITERARY AND

Charles Bailey, Treasm-er, in Account 'with the Society,
Statement of the Accounts

1889— March 31st :—
To Cash in hand, ist April, i
To Members' Contributions :
Old Members, 1886-7,

New Members,

3 Subscriptions at 42

4 Half „

8 Admission Fees

To Library Subscriptions : —

One Natural History Associate at los.
To Contributions from Sections : —

Microscopical and Natural History Sect!

Physical Mathematical Section

18S8-9

To Use of the Society's Rooms :

Manchester Geological Society to 31st March, 1888
,, „ 31st March, 1889

Manchester IMedical Society to 30th Sept., 1888
Manchester Photographical Society to 30th Sept., t888 . .
Manchester Scientific Students' Association to 3olh Sept., iSSS

To Sales of the Society's Publications, 1888-9

To Natural History Fund, 1888-9 :—

Dividends on ^1225, Great Western Railway Co Stock.

To Bank Interest, less Bank Postages, 1888-9

To Donation from Local Committee, British Association
To Binding Fund Subscriptions

£ s. d.

18S8-9.
■;£ s. d.
218 5 7

.887
C s

1

660

37 16 0

14 o yji S o

990

30 0 0

30 0 0

25 0 0

25 0 0

900

119 0 0

4 13 3

59 13 I

2 :5 6

51 0 7

.3 9

3.— April I. To C.ish in Manchester and Salford B.ink. Limited

i>lSi I 0/503 5 II

^335

13

17

6

2

13

10

3

5

°

28

9

9

i6

15

4

5

2

9

4

14

3

I

10

0

—

—

'7

10

0

6o

19

6

II

PHILOSOPHIC AT. SOCIETY.

fivin jst April, jS8S, to 31st March i88g, with a Comparative
or the Session 1S87-TS8S. Qi.

1888-9. 1887-8.

iS3q -March 3i.st:— £ s. A. £ s. d. £ s. A. £

r.y Ch.^rges on Property: —

Chief Rent (Income Tax deducted) ., .. .. .. 12 it 5 12 10 7

Income Tax on Chief Rent 063 074

Insurance against Fire 13 17 6

Repairs, &c. 53^

Tablets to Portraits

Pjy House Expenditure : — 31 ;

Co;il, Gas, Candles, Water, &.C. ,. .. .. .. 31 g 9

Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings .. .. .. .. .. 10 14 3

Cleaning, Brushes, &c 5 13 10

Expenses in connection with British Association ..

Step ladder for Library

By Administrative Charges :— 47 i

Curator and Assistant Secretary

Clerk and Housekeeper 62 8 o

Postages and Carriage of Parcels 21 16 10

Stationery, Printing Circulars, Receipts, and Engrossing 1504 12

Distributing ' Memoirs' 5 19 9 i

Legal Charges 1

Advertising, &c., for Clerk and Housekeeper i

By Publishing : — 105 4 11 ■

Printing and Binding ' Memoirs,' old series .. .. 31 10 o

Printing and Binding ' Proceedings ' . . . . 33

Printing and Binding ' Memoirs and Proceedings,' new

ser'« 97 18 o 3

Wood Engraving and Lithography 6

Preparing Index to 'Memoirs and Proceedings,' all the

By Library : — 134 8 o

Books and Periodicals 14 18 3 16

Assistant in Library 9 10 o 5

P.ilaeontographical Society for the year 1889 .. .. i i o 1

Ray Society for the year 1889 i i o i

Geological Record for the ye.ar 1879 o

Zoological Record, Vol. 24. .. ... .. .. .. 100

By Natural History Fund.. 27 10 3

Works on Natural History 16 13 2 13

Grant to Microscopical and Natural History Section .. 40 o o

Plates for Natural History Papers in ' Memoirs' .. .. 14 o o

70 13 2

By Balance 3iPt March, 18S9 , 33S 8 2

^7 ■is I o /50J

Audited and found correct, April, ;

ALEX. HODGKINSON.
R. HOLMES

266 Annual Report of the Conncil.

^ s. d. c s. d.

General Account : —

Balance against this Account, ist April, 1888 21-4

Expenditure during the Session 188S-9 346 19 8

368 5 o
Receiptsduring the Session 1S88-9 475 2 4

Balance in favour of this Account 31st, March, i8Sg .. 106 17 4

Compounders Fund : —

Balance in favour of this Account, ist April, 188S . . .. .. .. .. .. 151 5 o

Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1SS9 151 5 o

Natural History Fund : —

Balance in favour of this Account, Tst April, 1SS8 53 7 9

Dividends received during the Session 1888-9 59 13 i

113 o 10
Expenditure during the Session 1SS8-9 7013 2

Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1889 42 7 8

Binding Fund : —

Balance in favour of this Account, ist April, 18S8 34 iS 2

Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1S89 34 18 2

Cash in Manchester and Salford Bank, Limited, 31st March, 1SS9 ^^335 8 2

Microscopical and Natural History Section. 267

Annual Report of the Council of the Microscopical
and Natural History Section.

The usual meetings have been held each month during
the session, and at most of them interesting papers have
been read, and at all, numerous specimens and objects of
interest have been shown ; and advantage has been taken
of the fine set of microscopes the Society possesses, to exhibit
more minute preparations. Some very valuable original
papers have been contributed by Mr. P. Cameron,
and these are in course of being printed in, full in the
Society's Memoirs and Proceedings. The interest in the
meetings and the attendance at them has been fully
maintained.

The Council have felt it desirable to increase the annual
contribution to the funds of the parent Society to five
guineas.

The following is a list of members and associates of the
Section : —

Members: — Thos. Alcock, M.D., J. J. Ashworth, Chas.
Bailey, F.L.S., Walter Edward Barratt, John Barrow,
Spencer H. Bickham, Junr., John Boyd, Henry Brogden,
F.G.S., Alfred Brown, M.D., Samuel Cottam, F.R.A.S ,
Edward Coward, Robert Ellis Cunliffe, John Dale, F.C.S.,
R. D. Darbishire, B.A., F.G.S., Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S, Hastings C. Dent, F.L.S., W. K. Deane,
Frederick Jas. Faraday, F.L.S., Chas. James Heywood,
Alex. Hodckinson, B.Sc., M.B., Charles Herbert Hurst,
J. Arthur Hutton, Henry Hoyle Howorth, F.S.A., M.P.,
Prof. A. MiLNES Marshall, M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S., J. E. Morgan, M.D., M.A,
Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., Edmund Salis Schwabe, B.A.,
Prof. W. C. Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S.

268 Microscopical and Natural History Section.

Associates: — AVilliaim Blackburn, F.R.M.S., E. S. Bles,
H. S. Brooke, B.A., M.B, Peter Cameron, Herbert C.
Chadvvick, E. Pyemont Collett, Peter Cunliffe, F. R. Curtis,
G. J. Crosbie Dawson, H. L. Eari, B.A., James Fleming,
F.R.M.S., John Ray Hardy, Frank Huet, L.D.S., R.C.S.,
Henry Hyde, Leslie Jones, M.D., H. L. Knoop, W. Leach,
A. A. MuMFORD, M.B., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., John Noton,
F.R.M.S., J. B. Pettigrew, J. B. Robinson, F.R.M.S , Thomas
Rogers, George Nash Skipp, John Smith, M.R.C.S., Mark
Stirrup, F.G.S., Theodore Sington, J. Tatham, B.A., M.D.,
W. Ladd Torrance, Edward Ward, F.R.M.S , Sidney
Young, D.Sc.

Total 29 members and 30 associates, against 28 mem-
bers and 29 associates at the corresponding period of last
}-ear.

The Microscopical and Natural History Section of the Manchester Literajy and

Philosophical Society in account luith the Parent Society for Grant f/o/n

Natural History Finid.

2)r.

From 14th April, 1888, to 2nd April, iS8g.

Cr.

i883. £ s. d.

Apl. 16. To Grant by Parent Society

per Treasurer 40 o o

„ Balance owing to the Section 324

April 4. By Balance from 1887-8.. 20 10 i
July 6. ,, Challenger Publications,

Zoology, Vols. 23-25.. 734

Aug. 30 ,, Do. ., 26,27.. 368

Nov. 30 „ Do. Vol, 28 1 6 3

Jan. 25.
April I.
Jan. 17.

Do. ,, 29 (3 vols.)

Do. ,, 30 (2 vols. )

Dulau & Co., Durand,

Inde.x

Fowler's Coleoptera,

Parts 16-27 I12 parts)

-^43

2 10 o
£43 2 4

Mark Sti

Dr.

rup. Treasurer, in account li'ith the Microscopical and Natural History
Section of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. /j-

Apl. 14. To Balance in Manchester and
Salford Bank (St. Ann's

Street) 17

,, 16. „ Grant forBooks, by Parent
Society from Natural
History Fund 40

Dec. 20. ,, Interest allowed by Bank., o
1889.

Apl. 2. ,, Subscriptions and Arrears
received during the Ses-
sion 1888-9 26

Examined ar
(Signed)

6th April 1SS9.

d found correct,

J. B. PETTIGREW,
HENRY HYDE.

ptera, I
jour, j

Apl. 16. By Parent Society — Sectional

Subscription, 1887-8 2

May 14. ,, Jas. Collins & Co., Note

Paper o

,, ,, J. E. Cornish, Microscopical

Journal and Naturalist . . o
July 6. ,, \Yest, Newman, & Co.,

Journal of Botany, 1888.. o
,, ,, J. E. Cornish, ''Challenger

Reports," Zool. Vol. 23-25 7
,, ,, J. E. Cornish, Fowler's Cole-
optera, Parts 16-17 o

Aug. 10. ,, Do. do. Parts 18-20 o

„ ,, Do. Naturalist, April to

June o

17. ,, C. Simms & Co., Circulars o
31. ,, J.E.Cornish, "Challenger

Reports," Zool., Vol. 2r . . 2
,, ,, Do. do. Vol. 27

Nov. 30. ,, Do. Fowler's Coleop

Parts 22-23

,, ,, Do. Microscopical
and Naturalist . .
,, ,, Do. "Challenger Reports,"

Zool., Vol.28 _..

Dec. 14. ,, Do. American Naturalist

for 18S9

1889.
Jan. 24. ,, Gurney & Jackson, "Ibis,"

1889

25. ,, J. E. Cornish, "Challenger
Reports," Zool., Vol. 29,

3 Vols

,, ,, Do. Fowler's Coleoptera,

Parts 24-25

,, „ C. Simms & Co., Circulars,

Sep. to Dec

17. ,, Dulau & Co., per C. B.

Durand, Inde.x

Mar. 22. „ Parent Society — Sectional

Subscription, i88S-g

Apl. I. ,, J. E. Cornish, Fowler's Cole-
optera, Parts 21, 26, 27. . . .
,, ,, Do. " Challenger Reports,"

Zool., Vol. 30, 2 vols

Apl. I. ,, Charles Hargreaves, Tea,
Coffee, ttc, 62/8, Postages,

&c.,^ 30,'-

2. ,, C. Simms ife Co., Circulars

,, Balance in Manchester and

Salford Bank (St. Ann's

Street)

s. d.
2 o

6 6

18 2

12 O

I 6

5 6

5 6

16 o

5 o

12 6

1889. — April 2. To Balance to Credit of

Section £42

270 The Council.

THE COUNCIL
AND MEMBERS

OF THE

MAxNCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

April 30, 1889.

OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

Dia-^i'esibeut0.

WILLIAM CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.,

Foreign Member of the Royal Swedish Acad. Sc.

EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.,

Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sc.) Paris, and Roy. Acad. Sc. Turin.

ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

(Sccr^titms.

FREDERICK JAMES FARADAY, F.L.S., F.S.S.
REGINALD F. GWYTHER, M,A.

CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S,

FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

©thci- Jftcmbers of the (Eouucil.

JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S.

JOHN BOYD.

WILLIAM HENRY JOHNSON, B.Sc.

JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.

HAROLD B. DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.

ALEXANDER HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc.

Honorary Members. 271

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Date 0/ Election.
1847, April 20. Adams, John Couch, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.,

F.C.r.S., Director of the Observatory, and Lowndsean

Prof, of Astron. and Geom. in the Univ. of Cambridge.

Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c. The Observatory,

Camhi-idge.
1843, April 18. Airy, Sir George Biddell, K.C.B., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,

Hon. Mem. R.S.E., R.LA., F.C.P.S., For. Mem.

Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c. The White House, Crooiii's

Hill, Greenwich Park, S.E.
1887, April 19. Armstrong, Sir Wm. George, C.B., D.C.L., LL.D. Neiv-

castle-oii-Tyne.

1886, Feb. 9. Baker, Benjamin. 2, Queen's Square Place, Westminster,

S.W.
1886, Feb. 9. Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S. Keiv.
1886, Feb. 9. Berthelot, Prof. Marcellin, For. Mem. R.S. Paris.

1886, Feb. 9. Buchan, Alexander, F.R.S. E. j 2, Northumberland Street,

Edinburgh.
i860, April 17. Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Prof,
of Chemistry at the Univ. of Heidelberg. Heidelberg.

1887, April 19. Buys Ballot, Dr. H. D., Supt. of the Royal iNIeteor.

Institution. Utrecht.

1888, April 17. Cannizzaro, S. Professor of Chemistry. University of Rome.

1889, April 30. Carruthers, William, Pres. L.S., F.R.S. Keeper of

Botanical Dept., British Museum.
1859, Jan, 25. Cayley, Arthur, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., V.P.R.A.S.,
F.C.P.S., Sadlerian Prof, of Pure Maths, in the Univ.
of Cambridge, Cor. INIem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c.
Garden House Cambridge.

1886, Oct. 30. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S.,F.R.A.S.,Professor

of Natural Philosophy, Oxford. New Museum, Oxford.
1S89, April 30. Cohn, Ferdinand, Professor of Botany. 26, Schweidnitzer
Stadtgrabett, Breslau.

1887, April 19. Cornu, Professor Alfred, For. Mem. R.S. Ecole Polytech-

nil] tie, Paris.

18S6, Feb. 9. Dawson, Sir John William, C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D.,
F. G . S . Mc Gill College, Mojttreal.

1888, April 17. Dewalque, Gustave, Professor of Geology. University of

Liege.

1889, April 30. Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany. Harvard College,

Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

272 Honoi'ary Members.

Date 0/ Eiccticm.
18S9, April 30. Flower, William Henry, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. Director

of Nat. Hist. Dept., British Museum.
1889, April 30. Foster, Michael, M.A., M.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Professor

of Physiology. Trinity College, Catnbridge.
i86o, Mar. 9. Frankland, Edward, Ph.D., M.D., LLD., D.C.L.,

V.P.C.S. F.R.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.),

&c. The Vezas, Reigate Hill, Reigate.
1843, Feb. 7. Frisiani, nobile Paola, Pros., late Astron. at the Observ. of

Brera. Milan, Mem. Imper. Roy. Instit. of Lombardy,

Milan, and Ital. Soc. Sc. Milan.

1889, April 30. Halphen, Professor G. H., Membre de I'lnstitut. I'j, Rue
Ste. -Sophie, Versailles.

1889, April 30. Hertz, H., Professor of Physics. Bonn.

1848, Jan. 25. Hind, John Russell, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Superin-
tendent of the Nautical Almanac. Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.). 3, Cambridge Park Gardens, Twickenham.

1888, Feb. 9. Hirn, Gustav Adolph. Colmar.

1881, April 17. Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm, Professor of Physics. Polytcch-
7iicum, Munster.

1886, Feb. 9. Helmholtz, Geheimrath Hermann von, LL.D., For.

Mem. R.S. Prasident der Physikalisch-technischen
Reichsanstalt. Berlin.

1866, Jan. 23. Hofman, A. W., Ph.D., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Cor.
Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c, 10, Dorotheenstrasse,
Berli)!.

1869, Jan. 12. Hiiggins, William, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci. ). 90, Upper Tjtlse Hill,.
Brixton, London, S. W.

1872, April 30. Huxley, Thomas Henry, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,.
P. P. R.S. , Plon. Prof, of Biology in Royal School of
Mines. Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci. ), &c. 4, Marl-
borough Place, Abbey Road, N. W.

1852, Oct. 16. Kirkman, Rev. Thomas Penyngton, M.A., F.R.S. , Croft

Rectory, near IFarrington.
1SS6, Feb. 9. Kopp, Prof. Hermann. Heidelberg.

1887, April 19. Langley, Prof. S. P., Alleghany Observatory, Pittsburg,

U.S.
1887, April 19. Laveleye, Emile de, Liege University.
1887, April 19. Lockyer, Norman, F.R.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr., (Acad.

Sci.). Science School, Kensington.

1889, April 30. Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

IS, Lombard Street, E. C.

1889, April 30. Mendeleeff, D., Professor of Chemistry. St. Petersburg.
1889, April 30. Meyer, Lothar, Professor of Chemistry. Tubingen.

Honorary Members. 273

Date of Election.

1887, April 19. Newcomb, Prof. Simon, For. Mem. R.S. foluis Hopkins
University, Balti/nore, U.S.

1844, April 30. Owen, Sir Richard, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., V.P.Z.S., F.R.C.S. Ireland, Hon.
M.R.S.E., For. Assoc. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c.
Sheen Lodge, Richmond.

Pasteur, Louis, For. Mem. R.S. Paris.

Playfair, Rt. Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R S.,

F.G.S., M.P., V.P.C.S., &c. 68, Onslozv Gardens,

London, S. W.
Prestwich, Joseph, F. R.S., F.G.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci.). Shorehain, near Sevenoaks.

Ramsay, Sir Andrew Crombie LL.D., F.R.S., F.(j,S.,

15, Cronnvell Crescent, South Kensington, London.
Rawson, Rol^ert, F.R.A.S. Havant, Hants.
Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Lord, M.A., D.C.L.,
(Oxon.), LL.D. (Univ. McGill), Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Terling Place, Withani, Essex.
Rdmer, Dr. Fred. Breslau.
Resal, Professor Henri, Membre de I'lnstitut. Ecole Poly-

techniqite, Paris.
Roscher, Dr. Wilhelm, K. Geheimer Rath, and Professor of

Political Economy. Leipsic.
Routh, Edward John, Sc.D., F.R.S. Newnliain Cottage,
Cambridge.

Sachs, Julius von, Ph.D. Wurzburg.

Salmon, Revd. George, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. ,

Regius Professor of Divinity. Trinity College, Dublin.
Siemens, Dr. Ernst Werner von, Geheimer Rath. Provost's

House, g4, Markgrafenstrasse, Berlin.
Sorby, Henry Clifton, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S, &c. Broom-
field, Sheffield.
Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, Bart., M.A., M.P., LL.D.,

D.C.L., Pres. R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathem.

Univ. Cambridge, F.C.P.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad.

Sci.),&c. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.
1 886, Feb. 9. Strasburger, Professor. Bonn.
1861, Jan. 22. Sylvester, James Joseph, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

Savilian Prof, of Geom. in the Univ. of Oxford, Cor.

Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c. New College, Oxford.

1868, April 28. Tait, Peter Guthrie, M.A., PM-l.S.E., &c., Profes.sor of
Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh. 38, George Sijuare,
Edinbitri^h .

i886,
1851,

Feb. 9.
April 29.

i866.

Jan. 23.

1866,

Jan. 23.

1849, Jan. 23.
1886, Feb. 9.

1887, April 19.
1889, April 30.

1889,

April 30.

1889,

April 30.

1872, April 30.
1889, April 30.

1S89,

April 30.

1869,

Dec. 14.

1851,

April 29.

2/4 Honorary Members.

Date of Election.
1851, April 22. Thomson, Sir William, M. A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.S.

L. and E. Prof, of Nat. Phil, in Univ. of Glasgow. For.

Assoc. Inst. Yr. (Acad. Sci.), 2, College, Glasgow.
1872, April 30. Trecul, A., Member of the Institute of France. Paris.
1886, Feb. 9. Tylor, Edward Burnett, F.R.S., D.C.L. (Oxon.), LL.D.

(St. And. and McGill Colls.), Keeper of University

Museum. Oxford.
1868, April 28. Tyndall, John, LL.D., M.D., D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S.,

F.C.S. Royal Institution, London, W.

1889, April 30. Williamson, Alexander William, Ph.D., LL.D., For. Sec.
R.S., Corn Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). High Pit/old,

Shotterinill , Haslemere.

18S6, Feb. 9. Young, Prof. C. A. Princeton College, NJ., U.S.

1888, April 17. Zirkel, Ferdinand, Professor of Mineralogy. University of
Leipsic.

Corresponding Members. 275

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Date o/Ekction.

i860, April 17. Ainswurth, Thomas. Clea'or iMills, near Egre/iiouS,
IVhileliaven.

1861, Jan. 22. Buckland, George, Professor, University College, Toronto.
Toronto.

1870, March 8. Cockle. The Hon. Sir James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.C. P.S. 12, St. Steplieiis Road, Baysivater, London.

1866, Jan. 23. De Caligny, Anatole, Marquis, Corresp. Mem. Acadd. Sc.

Turin and Caen, Socc. Agr. Lyons, Sci. Cherbourg,
Liege, &c.

1861, April 2. Durand-Fardel, Max, M.D., Chev. of the Legion of

Honour, &c. 36, Km de Lille, Paris.

1849, April 17. Girardin, J., Off. Legion of Honour, Corr. Mem. Instit.

France, &c. Lille.

1850, April 30. Harley, Rev. I-iobert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 17, Wellington

Square, Oxford.
1882, Nov. 14. Herford, Rev. Brooke. Arlington Street, Boston, U.S.

1862, Jan. 7. Lancia di Brolo, Frederico, Due, Inspector of Studies, &c.

Palermo.
1859, Jan. 25. Le Jolis, Auguste- Francois, Ph.D. Archiviste perpetuel

and late President of the Soc. Nat. Sc. Cherbourg, &c.

Cherbonrg.
1857. Jan. 27. Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Mem.

Brit. Met. Soc, &c. Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.

1862, Jan. 7. Nasmyth, James, C.E., F.R.A.S., &c, PensJnirst, Tun-
bridge.

1867, Feb, 5. Schrinfeld, Edward, Ph.D., Director of the Mannheim

Ob.servatory.

?76 Ordinary Members.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Election.
1888, Nov. 13. Adams, C. N., B.A., The Htilme Grammar School,

Alexandra Road.
1881, Jan. II. Adamson, Daniel, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., The Towers,

Didshury.
1861, Jan. 22. Alcock, Thomas, M.D., Extr. L.R.C.P. Lend., M.R.C.S.

Engl., L.S.A. Oakfield, Ashton-on-Mersey.
^"^ll)^ J^i''- 7- Allmann, Julius. 70, Deansgate.
1870, Dec. 13. Angell, John, F.C.S., F.I.C. 81, Dmie Grove, Oxford

Road.
1861, Jan. 22. Anson, Ven. Archd. George Henry Greville, M. A. Birch

Rectory, Rtisholme.
1885, Nov. 17. Armstrong, Thomas, F.R.M.S. Brookfield, Urmston ;

Deansgate.
1837, Aug. II. Ashton, Thomas, -^.b, Charlotte Street.
1881, Nov. I. Ashton, Thomas Gair, M.P., M.A. 36, Charlotte Street.
1887, Nov. 16. Ashworth, J. Jackson. 35, Mosley Street, City.

1865, Nov. 15. Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College Road, Whalley

Rans;e, Manchester.
1888, Nov. 13. Bailey, G. H., D.Sc. Ph.D.. The Owens College.

1888, Feb. 7. Bailey, Alderman W. H. Szimmerfeld, Eccles Neiv Road.
1876, Nov. 28. Barratt, Walter Edward. Kersal, Higher Brojighton.

1867, Nov. 12. Barrow, John. Beechfield, Folly Lane, Szvinton.

1889, Jan. 8. Beard, }. R., Richmond Grove, Longsight.

1 868, Dec. 15. Bickham, Spencer H. Oakwood, Alder ley Edge.

1861, Jan. 22. Bottomley, James, D..Sc., B.A., F.C.S. 210, Lower

Broiighton Road.
1889, Jan. 22. Bowman, George, M.D. Monifieth, Stretford Road, Old

Trafford.
1875, Nov. 16. Boyd, John. Sandiway House, Palatine Road, Didshury.
1855, April 17. Brockbank, William, F.G.S., F.L.S. Prince's Chambers,

26, Pall Mall.
1861, April 2. Brogden, Henry, F.G.S. Hale Lodge, Altritichaiu.
1844, Jan. 22. Brooks, Sir William Cunliffe, Bart., M.A., M.P. Bank,

92, King Street.
18S9, April 16. Brooks, Herbert S. Slade House, Levenshulme.
i860, Jan. 23. Brothers Alfred, F.R.A.S. 12, .Siuinton Avenue, JUan-

chester.
1886, April 6. Brown.Alfred, M.A., M.B. Claremont, Higher Broiighton.

Ordinary Members. 277

1846, Jan. 27. Browne, Henry, M. A. (Glas.), M.R.C.S. (Lond.), M.D.

(Lond.)- Heaton Mersey.
1889, Jan. 8. Br'ownell, T. M. School Board Offices, St. lames' Square,

Manchester.
1872, Nov. 12. Burghardt, Charles Anthony, Ph.D. 35, Fountain Street,

Christie, Richard Copley, M.A., Chancellor of the Diocese,

The Elms, Roehampton, S. W.
Clay, Charles, M.D., Extr. L.R.C.P. (Lond.). M.R.C.S.

(Edin.). Tower Lodge, Poidton-le-Fylde, Lane.
Cohen, J. B., Ph.D. The Ozvens College.
Corbett, Joseph. 9, Albert Sqtiare.
Cottam, Samuel, F.R.A.S., F.R. Hist. .S., F.C.A. 49,

Spring Ga7-dens.
Coward, Edward. Heaton Met sey, near Manchester.
Coward, Thomas. , Higher Downs, Altrincham.
Crowther, Joseph Stretch. Endsleigh, Alderley Edge.
Cunlifife, Robert Ellis. The Poplars, Eccles Old Road,

Eccles.

Dale, John, F.C.S. i, Chester Terrace, Chester Road.
Dale, Richard Samuel, B.A. i, Chester Terrace, Chester

Road.
Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., F.S.A., F.G.S., 26,

George Street.
Davis, Joseph. Engineer's Offices, Lancashire and York-
shire Railway. Hunt's Bank.
1869. Nov. 2. Dawkins, William Boyd, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.S.,
Assoc. Inst. C. E., Hon. Fellow Jesus College, Oxford;
Professor of Geology in Owens College. The Owens
Colles;e.
1861, Dec. 10. Deane, William King. Almondbury Place, Chester Road.
1879, Mar. 18. Dent, Hastings Charles. F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 20, Thurloe

Square, London, S. W.
1S87, Feb. S. Dixon, Harold B., M.A,, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry.

The Owens College.
1886, Mar. 9. Dodgshon, John. Kingston Road, Didslniry.

1883. Oct. 2, Faraday, Frederick James, F.L.S., F.S.S. Ramsay Lodge,
Slade Lane, Levenshulme.

1886, Feb. 9. Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc. The Owens College.
1 88 1, Nov. I. Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton.

T

1854,

April

18.

I84I,

April

30.

1886,

Dec.

14.

1884,

Nov.

4-

1853, Jan.

25-

1859, Jan.

25-

1861,

Nov.

12.

1849, Jan.

25-

1876,

April 18.

1854.

Feb.

7-

1871,

Nov.

8.

1853, April

19-

1878,

Nov.

26.

278 Ordinary Members.

Date 0/ Election.

1874, Nov. 3. Grimshaw, Harry, F.C.S. Thornton Viezu, Clayton.
1888, Feb. 7. Grimshaw, William. Stonelei^h, Sale.

1875, F^^- 9' Gwyther, R. F., M.A., Fielden Lecturer in Mathematics,

Owens College. 77ie Owens College.

1862. Nov. 4, Hart, Peter. Messrs. Tennan/s &^ Co., Mill Street,
Clayton, N., Manchester.

1873, Dec. 16. Heelis, James. 71, Princess Street.

1828. Oct. 31. Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S. Haffield, near
Ledbury, Herefordshire.

1889, Jan. 8. Heywood Chas. J., Chaseley, Pendleton.

1833, April 26. Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 26, Kensing-
ton Palace Gardens, Lojidon, W.

1864, Mar. 22. Heywood, Oliver. Bank, St. Ami's Street.

1884, Jan. 8. Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc. 1% St. /ohn Street,
Manchester.

1846, Jan. 27. Holden, James Piatt, 3, Temple Bank, Smedley Lane,
Cheetham.

1887, April 19. Holmes, Ralph, B. A. Hiiliue Grammar School, Alexandra

Park.
1882, Oct. 17. Holt, Henry. The Cedars, Didshnry.
1873, Dec. 2. Howorth, Henry H., F.S.A. , M.P. Bentcliffe House,

Eccles.
1884, Jan. 8. Hurst, Charles Herbert. The Owens College.

1888, April 17. Hutton, James Arthur, sg, Dale Street.

1870, Nov. I. Johnson, William H., B.Sc. 26, Lever Street.

1878, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Gramtnar School.

1885, Dec. I. Jones, Henry, B.A. Norman Road, Rusholme.

1842, Jan. 25. Joule, James Prescott, D.C.L., LL.D., r.R.S., F.C.S.,
Hon. Mem. C.P.S., and Inst. Eng. Scot., Corr. Mem.
Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sc.) Paris, and Roy. Acad. Sc. Turin.
12, War die Road, Sale.

1886, Jan. 12. Kay, Thomas, J. P. Moorfeld, Stockport.
1852, Jan. 27. Kennedy, John Lawson. 47, Mosley Street.

1862, April 29. Knowles, Andrew. Szvinton Old Hall, Szvinton.

1886, Mar. 9. Lamb, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics
at the Owens College. 106, Palatine Road, Didsbury.

1863, Dec. 15. Leake, Robert, M.P. The Dales, Whitefield.

1884, April 15. Leech, Daniel John, Professor, M.D. The Owens College.
1850, April 30. Leese Joseph. Messrs. S. dj' E. Leese, Fylde Road Mill,

Preston.
1884, Jan. 22. London, Rev. Herbert, M.A. Pocklington, Yorkshire,

Ordinary Members. 279

Date of Election.
1857, Jan. 27. Longridge, Robert Bewick. Ye7v-Tree House, Tabley,

Kniitsford.
1870, April 19. Lowe, Charles, F.C.S. Suininerjield House, Reddish,
Stockport.

1866, Nov. 13. McDougall, Arthur B.Sc. Clifton Lodge, Gore Street,

Greet they s.
1859, Jan. 25. Maclure, John William, M. P., F.R.G.S., Whalley Range.
1875, Jan. 26. Mann, John Dixon, M.D., M.R.C.P., Lond. i6, Si./ohn

Street.
1879, Dec. 2. Marshall, Arthur Milnes, M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.,

Professor of Zoology, Owens College. The Oivens

College.
1864, Nov. I. Mather, William. Iron Works, Salford.
1873. Mar. 18. Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A,, F.L.S. Kersal Cottage,

Prestwich.
1879, Dec. 30. Millar, John Bell, M.E., Assistant Lecturer in Engineering,

Owens College. The Owens College.
1 88 1, Oct. 18. Mond, Ludwig, F.C.S. Winnington Hall, Northwich.
1861, Oct. 29. Morgan, John Edward, M.D., M.A., F.R.C.P. Lond.,

F.R. Med. and Chir. S., Professor of Medicine in the

Victoria University. I, St. Peter's Square.
1889, April 16. Moultrie, George W. Bank of England, King Street,

Manchester.

1873, Mar. 4. Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. 62, Fountain Street.

1889, April 16. Norbury, George. Hillside, Prestwich Park, Prestwich.

1862, Dec. 30. Ogden, Samuel. 10, Mosley Street West.

1884, April 15. Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Overley, Langham Road,

Bowdon.
1861, Jan. 22. O'Neill, Charles, F.C.S., Corr. Mem. Ind. Soc. Mulhouse.

Glen Allan, Manley Road, Whalley Range.
1844, April 30. Ormerod, Henry Mere, F.G.S. 5, Clarence Street.

1 86 1, April 30. Parlane, James. Rusholine.

1876, Nov. 28. Parry, Thomas, F.S.S. Grafton House, Ashton-under-
Lyne.

1885, Nov. 17. Phillips, Henry Harcourt, F.C.S. 18, Exchange Street.
1854, Jan. 24. Pochin, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, Conway.

1854, Feb. 7. Ramsbottom, John, M. Inst. C.E. Fernhill, Alderley

Edge.
1859, April 19. Ransome, Arthur, M.A., M.D., Cantab., F.R.S.,
M.R.C.S. \, St. Peter's Square.

28o Ordinary Members.

Date of Election.

1888. Feb. 21. Ree, Alfred, Ph.D., F.C.S. 121, Manches(e7 Road, Mid-

dle ton.

1869, Nov. 16. Reynolds, Osborne, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E.,
Professor of Engineering, the Owens College. Lady-
barn Road, Fallowfield.

1884, April 3. Rhodes, James, M.R.CS. Glossop.

1880, Mar. 23. Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S. Ed., F.R.CP. (London).
Ravenswood, Broiighton Park.

1889, April 6. Robertson, W. J., Hollins'Moimt, Heaton Moor, Stockport.
1864, Dec. 27. Robinson, John, M. Inst. C.E. Westwood Hall, Leek.
1858, Tan. 26. Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield, B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. ,

F.C.S., M.P. 10, Bramham Gardens, Wetherby Road,
Londo7i, S. W.

1 85 1, April 29. Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Garry Cottage, near Perth.

1870, Dec. 13. Schorlemmer, Carl, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Owens
College.

1842, Jan. 25, Schiinck, Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. J^ersal, Man-
chester.

1873, Nov. 18. Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Owens
College.

1881, Nov. 29. Schwabe, Edmund Salis, B.A. 41, George Street.

1886, April 6. Simon, Henry, C.E. Darwin House, Didsbury.

1859, Jan. 26. Sowler, Thomas. 24, Cannon Street.

1884, Mar. 18. Thompson Alderman Joseph. Riversdale, Wilvisloiu.
1873, April 15. Thomson, William, F.R.S. E., F.C.S., F.LC. Royal

Lnstitiition.
1889, April 30. Thornber, Harry. Rookfield Avenue, Sale.
i860, April 17. Trapp, Samuel Clement. 88, Mos ley Street.

1879, Dec. 30. Ward, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.

1873, Nov. 18. Waters, Arthur William, F.G.S. Care of Mr. J. West,

Microscopical Society, King's College, London.
1859, Jan. 25. Wilde, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alder ley Edge.
1859, April 19. Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Maiichester and Salford Bank,
Alosley Street.

1874, Nov. 3. Williams, William Carleton, B.Sc, Professor of Chemistry.

Firth College, Sheffield.
1888, April 17. Williams, E. Leader, M.I.C.E. Boivdon, Cheshire.
1887, April 19. Williamson, J. H. R. 14, St. Ann's Square.
1851, April 29. Williamson, William Crawford, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor

of Botany, The Owens College, M.R.CS. Engl., L.S.A.,

For. Mem. Swed. Acad. Egerton Road, Falloivjield.
18S9, April 16. Wilson, Thomas B. 37, Arcade Chambers, St. Mary's

Gate, Manchester.

Literary and Philosophical Society. 28]

Date of Election.
i860, April 17. Woolley, George Stephen. 6g, Market Street.
1863, Nov. 17. Worthington, Samuel Barton, M. Inst. C.E. 12, York

Place, Oxford Street.
1865, Feb. 21. Worthington, Thomas, F.R.I.B.A. 40, Brown Street.

N.B. — Of the above list the following have compounded for their sub-
scriptions, and are therefore Life Members :
Brogden, Henry.
Johnson, William H., B.Sc.
Sandeman, Archibald, M.A.
Lowe, Charles, F.C.S.

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Fourth Series. / Vol. 2 : No. i.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

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LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
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CONTENTS.

Proceedings pp. i, 9, 21

Microscopical and Natural History Section - - - - p. 8

Physical and Mathematical Section - - - - - p. 20

Memoirs : —

Incompleteness of Combustion in Gaseous Explosions.
By Prof. Harold B. Dixon, F.R.S., and H. W.
Smith, B.Sc. p. 2

A decade of new Hymenoptera. By P. Cameron, F.E.S.

Communicated by John Boyd, Esq. - - - - p. 11

A New System of Logical Notation. By Joseph John
Murphy. Communicated by the Rev. Robert Harley,
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LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

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1888-9.

CONTENTS.

Proceedings pp. 33—37, 38-41, 71—73

Microscopical and Natural History Section - - pp. 38, 70

Memoirs : —

Notes on Some of the Peculiar Properties of Glass.

By William Thomson. F.R.S.Ed., F.I.C., F.C.S. p. 42

On the British Species of AUotrinae, with descriptions
of other new species of Parasitic Cynipidae. By
P. Cameron. Communicated by John Boyd, Esq. - p. 53

On the unification in the measure of time, with special
reference to the contest on the initial meridian. By
C. Tondini de Quarenghi. Communicated by F. J.
Faraday, F.L.S. - - - - - - - P- 74

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Fourth Series. Vol. 2 : No. 3.

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1888-9.

CONTENTS.

Proceedings PP- 90, 153, 184, 192

Microscopical and Natural History Section - - pp. 89, 183

Memoirs :—

Hymenoptera Orientalis ; or Contributions to a knowledge
of the Hymenoptera of the Oriental Zoological
Region. By P. Cameron. Communicated by John
Boyd, Esq. P'9i

On the equation to the Instantaneous Surface generated
by the dissolution of an Isotropic Solid. By James
Bottomley, D.Sc. - - p. 154

On the Vitrified Cement from an ancient fort. By

G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D. P- 185

Notes on a form of Plantago maritima [L.] new to Great
Britain : f. Pumila (Kjellman). By James Cosmo
MelviU, M.A., F.L.S. p. 189

Colour and its relation to the Structure of Coloured
Bodies : being an investigation into the Physical
Cause of Colour in natural and artificial bodies and
the Nature of the Structure producing it. By
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however, be included with the next number (which the Editor
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An uncoloured proof of the chart (to be re-placed by the
coloured one) is issued with the present number.

Fourth S&ries.

Vol. 2 : No. 4.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

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THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
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1888-9.

CONTENTS.

Coloured Chart to illustrate Dr. Hodgkinson's paper on the

Structure of Coloured Bodies. To face - - - - p. 212

Proceedings pp. 215, 220, 226, 234, 236

Microscopical and Natural History Section - - pp. 213^ 224, 267

Physical and Mathematical Section p. 214

Memoirs : —

On Leaves found in the Cutting for the Manchester Ship
Canal, 21 feet under the Surface, and on Green
Colouring Matter contained therein. By William
Thomson, F.R.S. Ed., &c. JVM Plate - - - p. 216
On Sound propagated through an atmosphere, in which
the surfaces of constant density are parallel planes,
in a direction perpendicular to those planes. By
Ralph Holmes, B.A. - - - - - - p, 221

Notes on Seedling Saxifrages grown at Brockhurst,
from a single scape of Saxifraga Macnabiana. By
William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S. - - - p. 227
On the Green Colouring Matter from Leaves found in
one of the Cuttings of the Manchester Ship Canal.
By Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S. - - - p. 231
On an old Canoe recently found in the Irwell Valley,
near Barton, with observations on Pre-historic Chat
Moss. By Mr. Alderman W. H. Bailey. IFM
t7uo Plates -------__ p. 243

Annual Report of the Council p. 252

List of the Council and Members p. 270

Title Page and Index to the Volume.

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