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MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY.

(MANCH E S T E R M E M O I R S.)

Volume LIII. (1908-9.)

MANCHESTER

36, GEORGE STREET.

1909.

Jo. ^^ ^^^e A^i4H (^.

NOTE.

The authors of the several papers contained in this
volume are themselves accountable for all the statements
and reasonings which they have offered. In these par-
ticulars the Society must not be considered as in any way
responsible.

CONTENTS.

MEMOIRS.

I. The Nature of the x Particle. By Professor E. Ruther-

I'OKD, F. R..S., and T. RoYDS, M.Sc pp. 1—3

(Issued separately., November iQtk, igoS).

II. .Sonic I'lopeitics of the Radium Emanation. By Professor

E. RUTHKKFORI), F.R.S pp. I — 2

(issued separately, Nozieinber igth, jgoS).

III. A ]\Ielht)d of Calculating the Number of Degrees of

Freedom of a Molecule among wliich the Partition of
Energy is governed by the Principal Temperature. liy
II. Bateman, M.A. 7 Text-figures ... ... pp. 1 — 9

{Issued separately, December ^rd, iqoS).

IV. Notes on the Spawning oi Eledone, and on the Occurrence

of Elcdoiie with the Suckers in Double Rows. By F. II.
Gravely, M.Sc. 3 Plates pp. i — 14

{Issued separately, December sSth, igoS).
V. On the Lucal Intensification of Draught produced in a
Horizontal Air Current by the Presence of an Inclinetl
Rod. By A. H. Gibson, M.Sc pp. i — 10

(Issued separately, December 24th, igoS).
VI. On the Production of While Ferrous Fcrrocyauide. By

R. L. Tayi.ok, F.C.S., PM.C pp. 1—2

{Issued separately, December ^ist, igoS).
VII. The Volatility of Radium A and Radium C. By Walter

Makowek, B.A., B.Sc. 2 Texl-figurcs pp. 1-8

(Issued separately, Jaiuiary ijtk, igog).
\'III. The Dawn of Human Intention. An Experimental and
CcMiiparative Study of Eoliths. By Professor Alfred
Schwartz and Sir Hugh R. Beevor, Bart., M.D.
7 Text-figures ... ... .. ... ... ... pp. i — 34

(Issued separately, February 3rd, igog).
IX. The Dowels of some Egyptian Coffins of the Xllth
Dynasty. By T. G. B. Osborn, B.Sc. 3 Text-
figures pp. 1—5

(Issued separately, February 24th, igog).
X. On the Diatomaceous Deposit of the Lower Bann Valley
Co.'s Antrim and Derry, and Prehistoric Implements
found therein. By J. W^ilfrid Jackson, F.G.S.
Plates L — IV. and .2 Textfigiires ... ... ... pp. i — 26

(Issued separately, April 2nd, igog).

VI CONTENTS.

XI. A Preliminary Account of the Submerged X'cgelalion of
Lake Windermere as affecting the Feeding Ground of
Fish. By Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S. With

Te.xl- figure PP- i— 9

{Issued separately^ April Tlh, igog).

XII. Differences in the Decay of llie Radium Emanation. By

Professor E. RuTHEKi'OkD and V. TuoMiKOSKi... \>\>. 1—2
{Issued separately, April ytk, lOog)

XIII. On llie Moving P'orce of Terrestrial and Celestial Bodies
in relation to the Attraction of Gravitation. By IIenuy
Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S pp. i-9

{Issued separately, April Slh, iQoc)).

XI\'. On the Occurrence and Distribution of some Alien A(]uatic
Plants in the Reddish Canal. By Professor F. E.
Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., and H. Murray, lyuh 7e.\i-
^igure ... ... ... ... ... ... ... pp. I — 8

{Issued separately, April 2/ st, igoq).

XV. The Use of Wind by Migrating Birds. By F. Stubbs.

(Communicated by T. A. Coward, F.Z.S.) ... pp. i — 9
{Issued separately, April 26lh, iQog).

XVI. On the Influence of Moisture on Chemical Change in
Gases. (The Wilde Lecture.) By II. Brereton Baker,

M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S pp. 1—8

{Issued separately. May tith, igog).

XVII. The Action of Hydrogen on Sodium. By Am-'keo

Hoi.T, jun., M.A pp. 1 — 5

{Issued separately, May nth, igog).

XVIII. On some Colour Demonstrations of the Dissociating

Action of Water. By R. L. Taylor, F.I. C. ... pp. 1—3

{Issued separately. May 2Sth, igog).

XIX. A Modification of the Beckmann Apparatus by which
Constant Readings are obtained in determining the
Boiling Points of Aqueous Solutions. By Professor
Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., and J. P. Batky, M.ScTech.
With Text-Jigure ... ... ... ... ... pp. 1—6

{Issued separately, May zSth, igog).

.XX. On the Tent-building Habits of the Ant, I.auiis itiger,
Linn., iu Japan. By Marie C. Stoi-ks, Ph.D., D.Sc,
and C. Gordon Hewitt, With Plate pp. 1—6

{Issued separately, June gt/i, igog).

CONTENTS. x; -> y _ Y'l , ^ ^

XXT. Report on the Recent Foraminifera from the Coast of the tc >

Island of Delos (Grecian Archipelago). Part \'I.
(Conclusion.) Uy IIf.nry Siokboi tom. Plalcs I.— V.

and Tex/ -figure ... ... ... ... ... pp. i — 32

(Issued se/arafc/y, June irt/i, iQog\

XXII. British Permian Footprints. Ry Ghoroe IIicki.ino,

R.Sc. Plates I. — IV. ... ... ... ... pp. T — 30

(Issued separately, June iStli, iQog).

XXIII. The Guatemalan Earthquakes and Eruption of 1902. Ry

\V. S. ASCOLI, F.R.G.S. Plates I.— II. pp. 1—8

{Issued separately, Ju>ie iSt/i, /QOQ).

XXIV. Geographical Distribution of Birds. I. (Genus .^A7r;w;;'.v,

Swainson). Ry Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S. lV?l/i

three Maps pp. I — II

(Issued separately, August 12th, igog).

PROCEEDINGS.

Dawicins, W. Boyd, D.Sc, F.R.S. — Criticism of views advanced

by Schwartz and Beevor in their paper on " Eoliths "' ... ix — x

Dixon, II. B., M.A., F.R.S. — Reference to Papers read before the
Chemical Section at the Meeting of the British Association
in Dublin, 190S ... ... ... .. ... ... iii

Reference to ihe death of Mr. R. D. Darbishire ... ... viii

l'].\hibit of apparatus used in experiments on the ignition point

of gases ... ... ... ... ... ... ... XV — xvi

Reference to the purchase by the Society of Dr. J. P. Joule's

chronometer watch ... ... ... ... ... ... xvi

Gamble, F. W., D.Sc, F.R.S.— The influence of light on the

colouration of certain marine animals (Hifpolyte, Wrasses) xi — xiii

Gravely, F. 11., M.Sc. — Apical pigment-spots in the pluteus of

Echiiuis luiliaris. (Abstract) ... ... ... xxii — x.xiii

Hewitt, C. Gordon, M.Sc. — E.xhibit and description of fossil

insects from Shiobara, Japan ... ... ... ... iv

Kay, Thomas. — Exhibit of a fossil coral {Syriiigopora ranuilosa)

found in the sindhill of Ilempshaw Lane, Stuckport ... xvii

Knecht, E. , Ph.D. — Preliminary connnunication on the hydrolysis

ofguncotton ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xx

Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. — Presentation of twenty-two volumes

to the Societj's Library ... ... ... ... ... xviii

Vlll CONTENTS.

RucAV, II. F., and Carpentf.r, II.C.II., Ph.D. — The permanent
chanj:;e of volume of cast iron after repeated licnlinqs.
(Title only) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxiv

RuTHKRi'OKi), Ernest, F.R.S. — Reference to papers read before
the Physical Section at the Meeting of the British
Association in Dulilin, 1908... ... ... ... ... iii

Experiments illustrating stjnie phenomena of radium emana-

tion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... vii

and RoYOS, T., M.Sc. — The action of the radium emanation

on water. (Abstract) ... ... ... ... ... vi — vii

StkOMFYKu, C. E., M.Inst.C.E. — Exhibit of pieces of mild steel

after contact with a caustic soda solution ... ... ... xviii

■ Effects due to the presence of nitrogen in steel ... ... xx

Taylor, R. L., F.C. S., F. I.C. — Further notes on the separation

of Cobalt and Nickel ... ... ... ... ... ... v

Exhibit of Drawing of John Dalton, by J. Stephenson ... xxiii

Tiiniu', Thomas, F.R.A.S. — Exhibit and description of a new

form of spring ... ... ... ... ... ... viii

Description of a simple method of silvering transparent grating

replicas "... ... ... ... ... ... ... xvi — xvii

Exhibit and pre.sentation to the Society of a silvered concave

grating... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xx

Watson, D.M.S., P).Sc. — Obyervations on a stone circle in tlie

Orkney Islands ... ... ... ... ... ... iv

Reference to llie Jubilee Celebration of the Geological

Society of Glasgow .. ... ... ... ... ... xviii

Wf.iss, F. E., D..Sc., F.L.S., and Murray, II.— Exhibit of

afpialic plants collected in the Reddish Canal ... ... xiv

General Meetings ... ... ... ... i, iv, v, vii, xi, xiii, xiv, xviii

Annual General Meeting ... ... ... ... ... ... xxi

Special Meeting for the delivery of the Wilde Lecture ... ... xvii

Report ol Council, 1909, with obituar}' notices of Professor

Gustave Dewalque, of l.iege ; Professor E. E. N. Mascart,

of Paris, For. Mem. U.S., and Mr. Standen Paine xxv — xxxi

Treasurer's Accounts ... ... ... ... ... ... xxxii— xxxiv

Li.st of the Council and Members of the Society ... ... ... xxxv--l

List of the awards of the Wilde and Dallon Medals and of the

Premium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Ii

List of ilie Wilde Lectures Iii— liii

List of the I'rcsidents of the Society liv— Iv

Manchester MeDwirs, Vol. Ihi. (1908), No. \.

I. The Nature of the n Particle.

By Professor E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S.,

AND

T. ROYDS, M.Sc.

Received and read N'ove?nber jrd, igo8.

The nature of the o particle from radioactive
substances has, for several years, been one of the most
important questions in Radioactivity. The evidence as a
whole indicates that the a particle is an atom of helium
carrying a positive charge. Recent experiments of
Rutherford and Geiger (Proc. Roy. Soc, 1908) have sub-
stantiated this conclusion. An additional proof of the
correctness of this point of view is afforded by the good
agreement between the rate of production of helium
calculated by Rutherford and Geiger, and the rate of
production recently measured by Sir James Dewar {Proc.
Roy. Soc, 1908).

This evidence is, however, of too indirect a character
to prove decisively that the a particle is an atom of
helium. It might be possible, for example, that the ex-
pulsion of an a particle led to the liberation of helium
from the active matter, but that the a particle itself was
not an atom of helium. In order to give a definite proof
of the identity of the a particle with a helium atom, it is
necessary to show that helium can be obtained from
accumulated a particles, quite independentl}' of the active
matter from which they are expelled. This has been
done in the following way : —

Purified emanation, corresponding to the equilibrium

November ipiA, igo8.

2 Ri'TilKRFORD & ROVDS, TJic Nature of the a Particle.

amount from 150 mgs. of radium, was compressed by
raising a column of mercury into a fine glass tube about
r5 cms. long. The walls of this glass tube were
sufificientl}' strong to withstand atmospheric piessure but
thin enough to allow the greater part of the expelled a
particles to be fired through them. After a number
of trials, Mr. Baumbach succeeded in blowing a number
of such fine tubes for us. The emanation tube was
surrounded by a larger cylindrical glass tube about 8 cms.
long and 1-5 cms. diameter. This was first exhau.sted by a
pump and the exhaustion completed by means of a
charcoal tube immersed in licjuid air. By means of
another side tube connected with a mercury reservoir, the
gases formed within the outside tube could be compressed
into a small vacuum tube attached to the top aiid their
spectra examined.

The tube containing emanation was about l/iOO
mm. thick. The stopping power of the glass for the a
particle corresponded to less than 2 cms. of air, so that
the a particles expelled from the emanation itself, radium
A and radium C escaped through the emanation tube,
and were fired into the walls of the outer glass tube.
Twenty-four hours after the introduction of the emana-
tion, no trace of helium was detected on compression of
the gases into the vacuum tube ; at the end of two days
the helium yellow line was seen faintly ; after four days,
the yellow and green lines came out brightl)^ and after
six days practically the whole helium spectrum was
observed.

An experiment was then made to test whether the
helium observed could have diffused from the emanation
through the thin glass walls. For this purpo.se, the
emanation was rei)laced by about ten times its volume of
helium and a new outer tube and vacuum tube placed in

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. I Hi. (1908), No. \. 3

position. No trace of helium was observed in the outer
tube over a period of eight days. Emanation was again
introduced, and after four days, the helium spectrum was
again observed.

In these experiments, every precaution was taken to
prevent possible contamination of the apparatus with
helium. Freshly distilled mercury and fresh glass
apparatus was used. No trace of helium was observed
unless the emanation was introduced into the fine
capillary.

This experiment affords a conclusive proof that the
o particle after losing its charge is an atom of helium.
Other evidence indicates that the positive charge on the a
particle is twice that carried by the hydrogen atom.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. "X

II. Some Properties of the Radium Emanation.
By E. Rutherford, F.R.S.

Received and jcad JVo7h-?ii/)cr jid, igoS.

In 1906 {Nature, Oct. 25), I drew attention to the
fact that tlie emanations of radium, thorium, and actinium
were completely absorbed by cocoanut charcoal at
ordinary temperatures. I have had occasion recently to
repeat these experiments with much larger quantities of
radium emanation and have found that the actual volume
of emanation capable of absorption by charcoal at room
temperature is very small. For example, several grams of
cocoanut charcoal are required to absorb completely the
emanation from 200 mgs. of radium at ordinary tempera-
ture although the volume of the gas is only one-tenth of a
cubic mdlimetre. As was to be expected, the absorptive
power of charcoal for the emanation increases rapidly with
lowering of the temperature. This was investigated as
follows : — A quantity 0"8 gram of cocoanut charcoal, which
absorbed about 4 c.cms. of air at the temperature of liquid
air, was connected with a pump and the air completely
removed by heating the charcoal. The charcoal
was then surrounded by a pentane bath at -I50°C.,
and the purified emanation from 83 mg. of
radium (about 05 cubic mm.) absorbed in it. As the
temperature of the bath slowly rose, the unabsorbed
emanation was allowed to expand into an exhausted
receiver of about 50 c.cms. capacity. This was pumped out
at different temperatures of the charcoal, and the emanation

November igth, igo8.

2 Rutherford, Souic Properties of the Radium Enuxnation.

collected and afterwards measured by the 7 raj- method.
At - 50' C. the amount of unabsorbed emanation was less
than yV per cent of the total. Above -40° C, the
emanation commenced to escapes rapidly, and half had
been pumped off at a temperature of 10° C. About 19
per cent, remained in the charcoal at 100° C, but prac-
tically all was released at a temperature of the softening
of glass. It is seen from these results, that at 10' C. the
charcoal absorbs about 03 cubic mm. of emanation per
gram, and at —40" C. about "06 cubic mm. per gram.

An experiment was shown to illustrate the rapidity
of condensation of pure emanation contained in an
exhausted vessel when one point was cooled to the
temperature of liquid air.

Manchester Moiiairs, Vol. /Hi. (1908), ^V^. JJ.

III. A Method of Calculating the Number of Degrees
of Freedom of a Molecule among which the
Partition of Energy is governed by the Principal
Temperature.

By H. Bateman, M.A.

Head October 20th, igo8. Received for Publication October 2jrd, i§o8.

I. In the statistical mechanics of a system of
molecules each of which has a definite number of
degrees of freedom, there is a remarkable theorem due to
Boltzmann* which establishes a law of equipartition in
the average distribution of energy among the degrees of
freedom.

The principal embodied in this law is apparently of
very wide application, for it is easy to recall many in-
stances in which there is equipartition in the distribution
of different types of energy. For instance in a plane or
spherical wave of light the magnetic energy is equal to
the electric energy, and in many types of wave motion
studied in the subjects of Hydrodynamics and Sound the
Kinetic energy in a wave length is equal to the Potential
energy.

In the case of a perfect gas Boltzmann's theorem
leads to an equation expressing the ratio of the specific
heats in terms of the number of degrees of freedom for

* It was enunciated by Waterston in a less general form in 1821 and
rediscovered by Maxwell in 1859. Boltzmann's investigation was given in
1868 in the Sitztingsb. der K. Akad. Wiss. Wieii, vol. 58, pp. 517-560.
The subject was again taken up by Maxwell in 1879. Camb. Phil. Trans.,
vol. 12, pp. 547-570 ; " Collected Works," vol. 2, p. 713.

December 3rd, igo8.

2 Bateiman, Degrees of Freedom of a Molecule.

which the energy is governed by the principal tempera
ture. To a first approximation* the equation is

(i) y=i+-

n

where n denotes the number of degrees of freedom

possessed by the type of molecule under consideration.

The validity of this equation has often been called
into question-f- but the principal dbjections brought
against it lose their force when the dissipation of energy is
taken into account, (Jeans, ^/. cit., pp. 188-196, 210-228.)

It appears that the degrees of freedom which must
be taken into account in calculating the value of n, are
those which allow for a permanent increase or decrease in
the amount of energy allotted to them, when the state of
motion of the molecule is suddenly changed. On this
view the degrees of freedom which correspond to damped
vibrations are excluded. When the molecule is considered
as a dynamical system consisting of a large number of
particles, the damped vibrations arise from a set of
displacements of the system for which the existing state
of motion is stable. The type of displacement which
must be considered in calculating the value of n is one
for which the motion of the system is either neutral or
unstable.^

Whatever view be taken with regard to the validity of
equation (i) and other equations of a more general char-
acter, it is not without interest to examine whether a set
of rules can be framed which will lead to a value of;/ for
which the calculated value of y agrees roughly with the
experimental value. Various attempts have been made

* A general investigation is given by Jeans, in "The Dynamical Theory
of Gases," ch. 10.

t E.g. Nature, Aug. 13, (1885), vol. 32, pp. 352, 533.

\ It may be mentioned here that Lord Kelvin was of the opinion that
a mode of vibration was not to be considered as a degree of freedom.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 3. 3

to connect n with the number of atoms in the molecule,*
but the experiments of Capstick f and others indicate
that the properties of the constituent elements must be
taken into account.

A set of rules leading to numbers showing a fair
agreement with the experimental ones, may be con-
structed on the hypothesis that an atom in a chemically
active state possesses a number of degrees of freedom
represented by 3+ the valency exhibited by the atom
under the circumstances.^ When a number of atoms are
in a state of combination, the number of degrees of
freedom of a molecule of the compound may be calculated
by adding together the numbers that must be ascribed to
each atom, and subtracting the number of conditions that
must be satisfied in order that the geometrical relations
peculiar to a stable configuration or state of motion may
remain permanent.

To take a simple geometrical illustration we shall
consider two ideal spherical atoms each of which contains
a ring of electrons. In the state of combination we shall
suppose that the system is stable when the spheres are in
contact (one condition) and the planes of the two rings
are parallel (two conditions). Thus in this ideal state of
combination three geometrical conditions have to be
satisfied if the stable state is to remain permanent, this
involves a loss of three degrees of freedom for the
combination.

When the molecules of a gas contain only one atom,
as in the case of Mercury, Helium, Krypton, Argon, the

* Naumann, Annalen der Chemie, vol. 143, p. 284, 1S67, also J. J.
Thomson in Watts' "Dictionary of Chemistry," vol. i, p. 89.

t Phil. Tratis., vol. 186, p. 564, 1895 ; vol. 185, p. I, 1894.

+ The author was led to make this hypothesis from considerations quite
apart from the law of equipartition. An account of these will be given in
another paper.

4 BatemaN, Degrees of Freedom of a Molecule.

value of ;/ must be taken to be three because the atom
does not exhibit any valency undci the given circumstances.
It is true that the Mercury atom does exhibit a valency
under different circumstances, because Mercury forms
chemical compounds, but it does not exhibit a valency
when the ratio of its specific heats is calculated, otherwise
there would be more than one atom in the molecule.

We adopt in fact, the view that valency is essentially
a relative property, and varies with the circumstances, but
that for each element it has a maximum value.

The rules which are given here are essentially of a
hypothetical character, so little is known of the geometrical
relations, which two atoms bear to one another, when in
a state of combination, that there is no definite information
to start from, and we are bound to work backwards from
the experimental values. The number of degrees of
freedom possessed by a molecule is bound to enter
implicitly in the numerical values of constants connected
with chemical reactions, and deserves to be estimated
just as much as the molecular weight.

These rules then are suggested as a working hypo-
thesis from which to start ; it is claimed that the assump-
tions made are quite reasonable, and that the exceptional
hypothesis made with regard to Chlorine in order to
explain Capstick's results is adhered to throughout.

In general a relation involving the form and orienta-
tion of the groups of electrons contained in two atoms
will be called a valency relatiofi, and a relation specifying
the distance apart of two atoms, or the nature of the
orbit which one describes round the other a distance
relation.

We shall suppose that a simple bond between two
atoms is in general equivalent to two valency relations
and one distance relation, that is three relations in all, in

Manchester Memoirs , Vol. liii. ( 1 908), No. 3. 5

some cases, however, a distance relation may not exist.
CI often appears to possess this peculiarity in certain
states of combination.

The different types of relations between atoms and
the equivalent number of conditions to be satisfied are
considered in the following table. The number of
degrees of freedom of various molecules are then calcu-
lated on the supposition that

the Carbon atom has 7 degrees of freedom since its valency is 4
Hydrogen „ 4 „ „ „ „ i

Chlorine „ 4 „ „ „ „ j

We shall denote the total number of degrees of
freedom of the molecule by n.

Nature of Cojmection
Simple bond

Double bond

Triple bond

Quadruple bond...

Simple bond without a
distance relation ..

Number of Conditions.
3
.S
7

Three atoms in one

straight line

H->C<-H

H,„ H

Four atoms in one plane

c,„

H„,

Two distances equal ...

s distances equal

Two planes parallel ...

Two planes the same ...

H =

a--.

H

H

6 Bateman, Degrees of Freedom of a Molecule.

2. Caiculatioi of the fiumber of degrees of freedom of
various molecules.
Hydrogen. If we assume the molecule to be represented by
the formula

H— H. ;; = 4 + 4-3 = 5-
Chlorine. If the formula is assumed to be CI - CI, we get « = 5
which does not give a value of y agreeing with the
experimental one. If on the other hand we assume the
formula to be CI - - CI, we get « = 4 + 4-2 = 6. The
deviation of the value obtained by assuming « = 5, may,
however, be due to the fact that Chlorine is far from
being a perfect gas.
Oxygen. 0 = 0. « = 5 + 5- 5 = 5.
Ozone. 0 = 0 = 0 gives « = 5 + 7 + 5-5-5 = 7.

O

oOo

rives « = 7 + 7 + 7-5 -5-5 = 6.

p. gives « = 5 + 5 + 5-3-3-3 = 6.
0-^0

It is possible that the first form is intermediate in the
formation of the second, so that in reality both types of
values occur. The recognised value of 7 is 129 which
corresponds to a value of n lying between 6 and 7.

Carbon di-oxide O = C = O gives « = 7.
//Sa gives « = 6.

just as in the case of ozone. The experimental value of
y is about I "3, which again corresponds to a value of n
lying between 6 and 7. In this case also, it is possible
that both kinds of molecules occur.

Marsh Gas

Fig. 6. « =7 + 16-12-5 = 6.

Methyl Chloride

Fig. 7. « = 7 + 12 + 4-9-2-2-2-1 = 7.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol iih. (1908), No. 3. 7

a-c--a - lh\

Fig. I. Fig. 2.

C C a r a

/ A I • / A •

Fig 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

a

H- "■ H

Fig. 6. Fig. 7.

8 Bate MAN, Degrees of Freedom of a Molecule.

Methylen Chloride

Fig. I. « = 7 + 8 + 8-3-3-2-2-2-1-1= 9.

Chloroform

Fig. 2. « =7 + 4+12-3-6-1 = 1 3.

Carbon tetrachloride

Fig. 3. « = 7 + 16 - 8 = 15.

CH^ group

Fig. 4. « = 7 + 8- 3- 3-- 2 = 7.

CH.^ group

Fig. 5. « =7 + 12-9-2-1 = 7.

Ethane

CH., -CH„ « = 7 + 7-3=11.

Propane

CH.-CH.-CR, « = 7 + 7 + 7-6=i5.

Butane
CH3-CH,-CH,-CH3

« = 7 + 7 + 7 + 7-9=1 9.

C,H„,+^ « = 7^-3(.y- i) = 4j + 3.

Ammonia. // = 6+12-9-2-1= 6.

In the COOH group, the four atoms can be supposed to

set themselves in one plane. Taking then the structural

formula to be

0=C-0-H

we get

« = 7 + 5 + 5 + 4-5-3-3- i=9-
Acetic Acid. Assuming that the geometrical relations may be
roughly described by the formula
(CHJ-CCOOH)
we get

« = 7 + 9-3=i3.

Methyl Alcohol (CH., - OH). If we assume as an approximation
that the H in the OH group is equidistant from the
other three, we get

« =7 + 6-3-2 = 8.
In the CHg group, when one H atom is replaced by an
atom or radicle having r degrees of freedom, the four

]\la)icJiester Meiyioirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 3. 9

constituents can be supposed to roughly set llieniselves
in one plane with the two H atoms equidistant from the
radicle. This gives

«=7l4+4+r-9-i-i=4+r
Eg. CH^,,-(CH.,-0-H). ;^=7 + 6 + 4-3=i4.

Table giving the calculated and experimental values oj 7.

Molecule. ,-'''• Calculated y. Exf>criiiienlat ^i.

' preedoni. '

H3 5 1-4 1-3977

CI, 6 1-333 1323

o, 5 14 1-39

^ 6) 1-333)

C0„

6| 1-3331

7J 1-286/

CH, 6 1-333 1-313*

CHX^l 7 1-286 1-279*

CH,/:i, 9 ....:. 1-22 1-219*

CHCl, 13 1-154 1-150

CCI4 15 ^'^il ^"'30*

7 ) 1-286 , .,.,

CHi i'264-^

9) 1-22

C„He II 1-182 1-182*

QHg 15 1133 • ••• i-'30*

C4H10 19 ii°5 ^"loS

NH3 6 1-33 1328

CH,0 8 125 1-25

CH/), 13 1-153 1146

C,H/) 14 1-143 1-14

* These numbers are from a paper by Capslick, Phil. Trans., vol. 186,
p. 564, 1895, vol. 185, p. I, 1894.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 4.

IV, Notes on the Spawning of Elcdone and on the
Occurrence of Eledone with the Suckers in Double
Rows.

By F. H. Gravely, M.Sc.

(Received and read November ij/Ii, rgoS. )

Spawning.

The spawning of Eledone has been described by
Joubin (1888), and also, I believe, by Korschelt (1893),
though I have not seen the latter paper.

The process rarely occurs in captivity however, and
so an account of it, as I saw it at the Port Erin Aquarium
this summer, may be of some interest, although I can do
httle more than confirm Joubin's description. Shortly
after my arrival at Port Erin early in Jul}-, I noticed a
cluster of eggs attached to the glass of the Eledone tank
in the Aquarium. A little later a fine large specimen
of Eledofie was seen completing the arrangement of
another cluster ; this specimen was at once placed in a
separate tank in order that it might be distinguished
from the others and carefully watched. It continued to
produce from one to four bunches of eggs almost every
day for about a month ; towards the end of that time the
spawning became less frequent and soon ceased altogether.
It usually occurred, as noticed by Joubin, in the morning
and evening ; and the eggs were soon destroyed if left in
the tank with the parent and fish. The clusters {Fig. 8«)
were much larger than the one figured by Joubin, though
the individual eggs were of about the same size : probably
he studied some species other than the common British
Eledone cirrosa. The eggs are pear-shaped, the narrow

December 28 Ih, igoS.

2 Gravkly, A'o/cs 0)1 the Spazvuing of lilcdonc.

end beint^ drawn out into a stalk whose free end is incor-
porated into the central common stem of the bunch ; they
are white, and opalescent. The yolk does not extend
quite to the pointed extremit}- (^I'igs. 7-8). The eggs are
all about 7 mm. long x 25 mm. maximum breadth. The
bunches are usually of about the same form and size as
the one seen in Fig. 8^-, and are fastened to some
hard substance (in this case either the glass or concrete
sides of the aquarium) by a disc attached to the main
stem. Occasionally, however, this disc was of greater
extent and the eggs attached to it singly (^'4''. 8/^). These
clusters contain fewer eggs than do those with a central
common stem.

Four of the bunches produced were preserved in
formalin ; the rest were removed and placed in one of the
hatchery tanks with a good supply of sea-water running
through it. After about a month there seemed to be a
slight diminution in the amount of yelk present, and some
eggs broke off from their stalks ; but they showed no
other signs of change. On the only occasion when I was
fortunate enough to see the actual commencement of the
processes involved in the production of a bunch of eggs, I
began to watch the specimen, which was then adhering
to the glass front of the tank, about two hours before the
eggs a]:)peared. During this time the small suckers near
the mouth showed a strong tendency to stretch out and
adhere to one another, as though in anticipation of receiving
the eggs. After some time — probably about an hour, but
the exact period was unfortunately not noted — several
violent waves of contraction passed over the body from
behind forwards, and the siphon directed a jet of water
into the oral funnel. Later on, the two lateral pairs of
arms were thrust into the mantle-cavity, and pressed hard
against the mantle as they moved about inside, whilst the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 4. 3

ventral arms were coiled together and pressed firmly
against the posterior end of the body, the dorsal pair
being held loosely back over the head. As the lateral
arms were withdrawn from the mantle-cavity, they and
the other two pairs of arms exhibited a most extraordinary
activity in the form of an extremely rapid spiral twirling.

It is possible that these movements, and the inter-
mittent placing of the small suckers near the mouth in
position for the reception of the eggs, may have been due
to some difficulty in oviposition having arisen as the
result of captivity ; for very few specimens seem able to
produce their eggs at all in captivity, a large number of
females dying in an egg-bound condition.

Joubin {loc. cit., p. 159) states that these movements
were followed, in the cases he watched, by the almost
immediate production of the eggs. In this instance, how-
ever, it was not so, and eventually, after altogether about
one and a half hours apparently futile waiting, I left the
aquarium to return to my work in the laboratory, return-
ing occasionally to see whether there were any further
signs of impending spawning.

After about half an hour I had the good fortune to
find the specimen under observation crawling sideways
across the glass front of its tank, and to see it come to
rest adhering to the glass by its large suckers, whilst the
mouth was withdrawn from the glass to the narrow
extremity of a funnel-shaped depression thus formed
between the bases of the arms ; across the broad opening
of this depression the small proximal suckers would
stretch out to clasp one another and then restlessly draw
back again.

Four or five jets of water were directed through the
siphon into this oral funnel, no doubt to insure its absolute
freedom from all obnoxious materials, and the proximal

4 Gravely, Notes oji the Spawning of Eledone.

suckers then closed over it completely. The siphon was
at once extended so that its distal end passed between the
two ventral arms, under the clasped suckers, and so
inwards till it must have been close to the mouth ; it was
held in this position for a few moments, during which the
eggs and a glutinous material must have been conveyed
through it to the oral funnel ; and directly it was with-
drawn the proximal suckers began pressing the glutinous
material upon the glass to form the disc for the attach-
ment of the bunch, and a few of the eggs appeared from
behind them.

As the remainder of the processes connected with the
formation of the bunch had been seen already several
times, the animal was disturbed at this stage in order to
find out how the eggs were then arranged. As it drew
back they were left, already in a cluster {Fig. 7), attached
by its upper end to the glass of the aquarium. When
removed, the whole bunch was found to be extremely
glutinous, holding together and sticking readily to my
fingers, and eventually to the cork on to which I pressed
the attachment plate that had already been somewhat
indefinitely formed out of the glutinous material. The
eggs were hanging in a matrix of this same material ;
they were all arranged stalk uppermost, but the free ends
of the stalks were not yet fastened together to form a
common stem for the whole bunch. As it seems hardly
possible that so many eggs should have been placed in
position in the extremely short time that j)a.ssed between
the time of their entering the oral funnel and the time
when the mother wasdriven away from them it may safely, I
think, be concluded that they all passed through the siphon
with their stalks pointing in the same direction. They
in no way differed from the eggs of a completed bunch in
appearance when laid, but since they were preserved in

MancJiester Mevioirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 4. 5

formalin they have turned a dirty, brownish colour. This
has not happened to the eggs of any of the three com-
pleted bunches preserved.

On several occasions the completion of the bunch
was watched from the point at which this one had
arrived when the parent was disturbed. The .proximal
suckers, after forming the attachment-disc by pressing
some of the glutinous substance on to the glass,
proceed to press on to this the free ends of the stalks
of the nearest eggs ; moreover, they press the ends of
these stalks together to form the commencement of the
common stem of the bunch, and then incorporate into it
the ends of the stalks of the eggs a little further back, and
so on, the whole of the bunch gradually passing into view
from amongst the suckers as it is formed. The eggs are
moved about individually, and apparently with great
deliberation, by the suckers in their immediate neighbour-
hood ; but I was unable to distinguish any rotation or
other definite type of movement that might in any special
way have helped in the formation of the central cord of
threads.

When the bunch has passed completely into view it
is held firmly against the glass for a short time between
the two posterior arms which are extended one on each
side of it as if to ensure the adhesion of the different
threads composing the central stem. At about the same
time the siphon begins to move about vigorously from
side to side, and water appears to be blown through it with
considerable force. When the manipulation of the eggs is
finished, two or three strong jets are directed full on to
them at short intervals. The arms then again display the
vigorous spiral twirling already described as occurring some
time previous to the production of the eggs; this movement
may also be occasionally seen in specimens that are not

6 Gravely, N'otes on the Spazvning of Elcdonc.

spawning at all. Finall}' one arm becomes less active
than the others and its distal slender portion is wrapped
round the bunch of eggs, the firmness of which it appears
to test as the unusual activity of the other arms disappears
and the creature moves away. The process from the
the time at which the mother finally settles upon the
selected spot, to the time at which she leaves the finished
bunch of eggs occupies from about fifteen to twenty
minutes. Occasionally the concluding twirling of the
arms and testing of the security of the bunch of eggs
are omitted.

When the eggs are left by the mother the whole of the
bunch is colourless ; during the first day, however, the
attachment-disc and central stem become green, no doubt
through the growth of some microscopic alga upon them.

The specimen whose spawning habits I watched
always attached its eggs near to the front of the tank —
usually on the glass itself — at a depth not exceeding two
feet, and usually well under that. Another specimen in
the next tank produced two or three bunches of eggs, and
attached them all to the back wall of the tank (furthest
from the light), at a depth of about three feet.

All the specimens o{ Elcdonc "CazX. had been associated
with the female under observation have since been pre-
served by Mr. Chadwick, and sent by him to Manchester,
where their sex has been determined by Miss Isgrove.
They have all proved to be female, so it is certain that
the eggs, if fertilized at all, were fertilized by sperm
supplied to the female before her capture.

Arrangement of the Suckers.
The last specimen sent here by Mr. Chadwick 1 took
to Dr. Iloyle for examination of the arms previous to
the dissection of the genital ducts. He at once pointed

MnDichester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 4. J

out to me that the suckers of each arm were arranged in
two rows, as in the genus Octopus, and not in a single row
as in Eledone. The general appearance of the animal,
however, was distinctly that of Eledone. An examination
of the radula of this specimen, and a comparison of it
with those of an undoubted Eledone and Octopus-., proved
conclusively that it was Eledone as originally supposed.
The comparative size, form, and arrangement of the teeth
of the radula of Eledone (from the specimen with two
rows of suckers) and of Octopus is shown in Figs. 5-6.
Their size, form, and arrangement in the normal Eledone
examined is identical with that found in the abnormal
specimen ; also the smooth margin of the ribband is very
much wider in the two specimens of Eledone than it is in
Octopus.

The arrangement of the suckers on one arm (the
right one of the ventral pair) of each of the same three
specimens is shown in Figs. 1-3. The slight irregularities
in the arrangement of the suckers of the Octopus have been
somewhat exaggerated ; it will be seen, however, that
they form two very distinct rows. In the abnormal
Eledone the distinctness of the rows is not so marked,
though it is more marked in the actual specimen in which
the suckers are closely crowded together, than in the
figure which is somewhat diagrammatic and shows them a
little more spread out ; the distinctness of the two rows
is most marked towards the end of the arm. In the
normal Eledone there is a single row of suckers arranged
here and there in a zig-zag manner so as to form two
rows ; in the few specimens I have examined I have been
unable to find any arm in which the single row of suckers
was not interrupted in this way at intervals. Mr. Chad-
wick, however, in a letter to me in connection with this
enquiry says : " This morning I have examined all our

8 Gravely, N'o/es on the Spaivning of Eledone.

preserved specimens, and have found three in which the
arrangement of the suckers agrees exactly with that in
my specimen of E. inoscJiata " — a specimen from Naples
of which he says: "The suckers on all its arms are in a
single straight row from base to tip, and there is no sign
of a zig-zag arrangement." He adds, " In three others
the uniserial arrangement extends but a short distance
from the mouth, and is replaced by the zig-zag arrange-
ment which extends to the tip of the arm. The suckers
of our two living specimens are so arranged. When the
arm is strongly contracted they do not become biserial
like the undoubted Octopus, nor do they become strictly
uniserial like those of the undoubted Eledotie when the
arm is extended to its fullest capacity." Of these two
living specimens, one is that of which the spawning is
described above. Mr. Chadwick has sent me a diagram
of the arrangement of the suckers on the basal portion of
its arms, and with his permission I reproduce it here
{Fig. 4). He says of it, "The alternating arrangement
of the suckers begins about the point at which the arm
becomes free from the interbrachial web, but it is much
less apparent when the arms are fully extended. I should
call it a single alternating row." This description would
probably also apply to the abnormal form, except that
as will be seen by reference to Fig. i, the alternation
extends right to the base of the arm.

A careful examination of an arm of Octopus, especially
of the distal portion, shows that its two rows of suckers
are simply an exaggerated form of this condition ; for their
peduncles present the appearance of a single row of
which alternate members extend in opposite directions,
and are held in this position by having partially
fused with that portion of the arm across which they
extend.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 4. 9

Dr. Hoyle has already pointed out (1886 : p. yG) that
in Octopus the double row of suckers is really due to the
zig-zag displacement of a single row, and has further (1904:
pp. 18-20 ; PI. 5, Figs. 3-9) described some young specimens
which he refers to this genus, in which the suckers appear
sometimes in one row and sometimes in two.

Special interest attaches to the settlement of the
question of the possible occurrence of two rows of suckers
in Eledone, in that it may explain certain insufficiently
authentic records of Octopus vulgaris in ]3ritish seas,
further north than the northern limit of its known
distribution.

In conclusion, I must thank Dr. Hoyle and Mr.
Chad wick for the valuable help that they have given me
in connection with this paper.

lo Grav?:lv Notes on tJie Spaivning of Eledojie.

LITERATURE REFERRED TO ABOVE.

1886. HoYLE, W. E. " Report on the Cephalopoda collected
by H.M.S. 'Challenger' during the years 1873-76."
ZooL Chall. Exped., vol. 16, part 44.

1886. JouBiN, L. " La Ponte de VElcdone et de la Seche."
Arch. Zool. exper., ser. 2, vol. 6, pp. 155-163; text-fig.,
P- 157-

1893. KoRSCHELT, E. " Ueber den Laich und die Embryonen
von E/edone.'^ Siiziifigsb. Ges. Naturforsch. Freunde
Berlin., Feb. 1893 (1894).

1904. HovLE, W. E. "'Albatross' Cephalopoda." Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., vol. 43, p. 1-7 1, pi. 1-12, 1904.

12 Gravp^.ly, Notes on the Spawning of Eledone.

EXPLANATION OF PLATK I.

Fig. I. Ventral right arm of Eledone cirrosa' witli the suckers
arranged in two rows, (r! nat. size.)

fig. 2. Ventral right arm of Eledone cirrosa* with tlie suckers
arranged in one row a little irregularly. {% nat. size.)

Fig. 3. Ventral right arm of Octopus vulgaris to show the
arrangement of the suckers in two rows. (§ nat. size.)

Fig. 4. Proximal part of an arm of Eledone ciirosa with the
suckers of the oral funnel in a single row, those beyond
the interbrachial membrane in two rows. (From a
diagram kindly supplied by I\Ir. H. C. Chadwick,
Curator of the Port Erin Marine IJiological Station.)

Fig. 5. A row of teeth from the radula of Eledone cirrosa. The
number of denticles on each side of the median tooth
varies from 2 to 3. ( x 23.)

Fig. 6. A row of teeth from the radula of Octopus vulgaris.
The number of denticles on each side of the median
tooth varies from 1 to 2. ( x 23.)

• The specimens from which these figures were taken have been deposited
in the Manchester Museum.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIII. (No. 4j.

P/ate 1.

■^

s

•2?

14 Gravely, Notes on the Spawning of Eledone.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IL

Fig. 7. Cluster of eggs* of Eledone cirrosa after attachment to
the glass of the aquarium, but before their arrangement
into a bunch with a central stem. (Nat. size. From a
photograph.)

Fig. 8. (a) A similar bunch completed* ; the central stem is
seen in two places as a dark body between the eggs ;
the attachment disc is also dark, and does not show up
against the black background. (/') An abnormal cluster*
in which the eggs are attached singly to an unusually
large disc. (Nat. size. From a photograph.)

* Tlie specimens from which these figures were taken have been deposited
in the Manciiester Museum.

Ma>iclu-stci Mcuioirs, ]u^l. I.I 1 1. ( Xo. \). P/afc IT.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 5.

V. On the Local Intensification of Draug-ht produced
in a Horizontal Air Current by the Presence of an
Inclined Rod.

By A. H. Gibson, M.Sc.

Received November 6/ It, read November lyth. igoS.

Among the many superstitions and beliefs which
have been handed down to the modern housewife from
the remote past, one of the most interesting and most
generally believed is that a poker, placed with its lower
end against the fender and the other end reared against
the bars of an ordinary firegrate without actually
touching the fire, has magical properties in inducing a
recalcitrant fire to burn up or to burn less smokily.

The only explanation of it ever given to the author,
is evidently almost as old as the custom itself, dating
back from a time when the devil and his attendant
demons took a more immediately personal interest in
household economics than is the case in the present
prosaic age. It attributes the beneficial effect to the fact
that the poker when so placed forms the sign of the cross
with the fire bars, this driving away the evil spirit to
whose influence the behaviour of the fire is of course due.
While perhaps not altogether satisfying to one of a
modern scientific school of thought, this explanation is
not without interest.

The idea that there might, after all, be some scientific
basis for the old belief first occurred to the author one
evening when, standing in front of a smoky fire, he
chanced to rest the end of the poker on the upper bar

December 24th, igo8.

3 Qi\v,^o^, Drmiglit produced by an Indhied Rod.

of the grate, its upper end being well out in the room.
Under these circumstances the presence of a distinct
current, travelling upwards and outwards along that side
of the poker nearest the fire, became apparent, being made
visible by the smoke which was drawn from the fire at
the tip of the poker and travelled up to within one or
two inches of its upper end before breaking away.

This suggested the possibility and indeed the
probability of a similar current being produced when the
poker is inverted. If such is the case, and if the draught
or velocity of inflow of the air is thereby locally increased
to any appreciable extent, its efficiency for the purpose
outlined must be granted.

The matter seemed so interesting that an attempt
was made to test this by measuring the velocity of inflow
at various points with and without the poker in position.

For this purpose a small " Reynolds " differential
draught gauge was prepared and was used in connection
with a double Pitot or Darcy's tube. The draught gauge
uses oil, s.g. "90, and water as its working fluids, 7-5 inches
of a movement of their surface of separation being
equivalent to a difference of pressure of i inch of water.
The Darcy gauge consists of two fine glass tubes -05"
outside diameter, with extremely thin walls and bent so
that their orifices face in opposite directions and are in
parallel planes 7 of an inch apart. When placed parallel

to the current this chives a direct measure of k- , where v

is the velocity of the current, and k, though not determined
for this gauge, is probably not far from unity.

On testing the combination it was, however, found to
be insufficiently sensitive to give an indication of the
draught in front of the fire great enough to enable
any quantitative observations to be made, while the

Manchester Meuioh's, Vo/. /m. (igoS), No. ^. 3

attempt to obtain accurate readings within a few inches
of a fire purposely made up to the utmost capacity of the
chimney with a view of increasing the draught, was not
unaccompanied by some discomfort.

The research was then transferred to the engineering
laboratories of the Manchester University, where a blower
for producing a blast for the forge fire, and driven fairly
steadily from the main line shaft, was available for
draught production.

From this blower a pipe was taken to a convenient
bench and was arranged to discharge its blast horizontally.
At some distance in front of this the poker, which was
I" diameter, tapering down to ^J' in a length of 5 inches
at its upper end, was clamped at its lower end in a retort
stand, while a light wooden frame 6" square and divided
into h" squares by means of very fine wires, was clamped
at right angles to the poker and at any required position
relative to the latter.

The Pitot tube was then used to explore the middle
point of each of these squares, the end of the tube nearest
the blast being held in the plane of the frame. In each
case the reading of the gauge was taken with the tube at
a given point first with and then without the poker in
position, and the direction of the tube was adjusted so as
to ascertain the maximum velocity at this point in each
case.

The results of the experiments proved somewhat
startling, for although it was anticipated that the effect
of the poker would be marked, the magnitude of this
effect was most surprising.

Details of these experiments are as follows : —

The results have been entered in diagrammatical
form, the diagrams representing the portion of the frame
in the neighbourhood of the poker, the tip of the latter

4 Gibson, Draught produced by an Inclined Rod.

being at the level represented by the central circle in
each case. The three numbers in each square refer to
the readings taken at the centre of the square, the first
and second being the gauge readings respectively with
and without the poker in position, while the third gives
the ratio of the square root of these two, and therefore
the relative velocity of flow with and without the poker.

Experiiiicjit I.

Poker inclined at 50" to horizontal with its tip in the
plane of the frame. Blast pipe horizontal, \V below level
of, and 19" behind tip of poker.

•44
•41

I -04

•57
■52

I "OS

•57
•51

I "06

•39
•42

•98

■91

■74

I'll

•91
•81

I 06

r

•77
•61

■■■3

■52
•47

I -OS

I '06

•93
1-07

■A

•92
1-03

•82
I 06

•74
•41

I '34

1-07
•92

I '08

•90
•85

1-03

•80
•67

I '09

•86
■45

I '35

MancJicstcr Mciiwirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No.

Experiment II.

Conditions as in I., but with poker moved i" nearer
blast pipe and away from frame.

•47
•40

I -08

•67
•52

I-I4

•67
•5'

^•15

•38
•26

I"2I

•37
•29

I-I3

•85
•80

.03

•88
•75

I '00

•53
1-03

•65
•56

I -08

•88
1-03

^ ...0

ro2

•88

•75

1^09

•67
•60

i'o6

I '26
1-30

•985

117
1-30

•95

•93

•90

I 02

Gibson, Draught produced by an Inclined Rod.

Experiment Iff.

Poker inclined at 38 to horizontal, with its tip in the
plane of the frame. Blast pipe horizontal, 275" below
level of, and i6"5" behind tip of poker. Blast much
weaker than in I or II.

■20

•2 1

•16

•16

1 2

•15

•11

■14

I"29

i-i8

1-20

ro7

■24

•30

■31

•23

■15

•19

•20

•17

1-27

I"26

r

•■2S

116

•38

S

•45

•40

•21

•26

■21

•27

1-35

I "39

1-30

121

•73

i"io

•97

•65

•44

•57

•47

•41

1-29

i'39

I 44

1-26

Manchester Memoirs, VoL liii. (1908), No. T\

Experiinent I J^.

Conditions exactly as in III., but with weaker
draught.

•05

"lO

■08

•05

•04

•06

•05

•04

I'I2

1-29

-

I'I2

•10

c

•15

-^ -OS

•05

•07

•07

•05

•035

I'20

i'47

1-38

I"20

•25

■28

•19

•23

i'i5

I'll

•70

•75

•55

•63

1-13

1*09

•97

1-05

•97

•98

i"oo

1-03

8 Gibson, Draught produced by an Inclined Rod.

Experiment V.

Conditions as in III. and IV., except that poker is
moved V nearer blast pipe and from frame. Weaker
draught than in III. and IV.

•lO

•08

1 "12

•04
02

1-41

•02
•01

1-41

*OI

•01

i-o

•26
1-41

•10
•04

•10
•03

1-83

•I I

•o.S

1-48

•40
•16

T-57

■A

•12
173

J

•37
•12

174

•23

•M

£•28

•42
•28

1-23

•66
•37

1-47

74
•38

1-48

•76
•4T

^•51

From these results it is clear that in practically every
case the draught, over the region explored, was very
sensibly increased by the presence of the poker, the
proportional effect being greater with the smaller inclina-
tion. The effect was even more marked at a short
distance past the tip of the poker than in the plane
containing the tip.

In Experiment V., where the proportional increase
was greatest and amounted to as much as 83%, the inten-
sity of the draught was less than in any other experiment,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 5. 9

and it will be noticed that this increase becomes generally
more marked as the intensity is reduced. It seems
reasonable to infer from this that the proportional
increase will be at least as great, and probably much
greater, when the intensity is reduced to the amount
obtaining in front of an ordinary fire grate.

In Experiment V. the average increase, over a circle
of 2" diameter having the poker as centre, was practically
50%, and even if the local increase in front of the fire
grate is no greater than this, it would certainly, under
favourable conditions, be more than sufficient to account
for the beneficial effect of the poker.

The explanation of the phenomenon would appear to
be found in the fact that when a current of air impinges
on a fixed body, eddies are formed on its leeward side,
where a region of low pressure (below that of the
atmosphere) in consequence exists. There is a tendency
to inward flow towards this from all surrounding regions,
accompanied by a consequent inward and upward flow
towards and along the under side of the poker and
towards the fire, this taking place along its whole length,
but particularly from its lower end which is shielded from
the direct influence of the draught.

In addition to this the air which is deflected by
immediate contact with the upper surface of the poker
tends, in virtue of its viscosity, to induce a secondary
current in the same direction in the surrounding air.

The net result of these combined actions is that a
larger volume of air passes the region immediately
surrounding the poker, than when the latter is not in
position, its direction of flow being brought more nearly
parallel to the latter. At the same time the intensity of
flow at points more remote is, of course, correspondingly
reduced.

10 Gibson, Draught produced by an Inclined Rod.

The action becomes very apparent if a sheet of
blotting paper moistened in sections with Hquid ammonia
and with hydrochloric acid be wrapped tightly around'the
poker, the dense white fumes which are then given off
enabling the direction and apparent velocity of the current
to be readily observed.

Under the conditions already described such observa-
tions showed that with a gentle horizontal blast and
with a poker inclined at 50" this directive influence was
felt over a region apparently about 3" in diameter,
extending from about f " above to 2Y below the poker.
Over this region the mean direction of the draught was
inclined at about 30' to the horizontal.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1908), No. 0.

VI. On the Production of White Ferrous
Ferrocyanide.

By R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C.

Received and read Deceinher 13th, igoS.

It is well known that a solution of a ferrous salt, if it
can be obtained free from even a trace of a ferric salt, gives
a white precipitate when a solution of potassium ferro-
cyanide is added to it. But there is such great difficulty
in obtaining a ferrous solution entirely free from ferric
that very few chemists have ever seen pure white ferrous
ferrocyanide. The precipitate usually obtained is a blue
one — lighter or darker in colour according to the amount
of ferric salt present — and consists of a mixture of the
white ferrous compound with more or less Prussian blue,
which is the very dark blue precipitate produced b)- the
action of ferrocyanide of potassium on a ferric solution.
None of the ordinary reducing agents will deprive a
solution of a ferrous salt of all trace of ferric ; but the
author finds that a small amount of a solution of " hydro-
sulphurous acid" (more correctly the genuine "hypo-
sulphurous acid," H2S3O4) will accomplish this. The acid
(mixed with some of its zinc salt) is easily prepared by
shaking up for a minute or two a solution of sulphur
dioxide in water with zinc "dust," and filtering the liquid.
Or a dilute solution of sodium hydrosulphite, Na^S^Oi*
may be used. The addition of either of these to an

* Sodium Hydrosulphite is now a commercial substance, and is made in
considerable quantities. It is patented by the Badische Company Limited
under the name of " Blankit." In the solid state it appears to be fairly
stable, but it scon decomposes when in solution in water.

December 21 sti rgo8.

2 Taylor, Production of White Ferrous Ferrocyanide.

ordinary solution of ferrous sulphate reduces it so com-
pletely that a creamy white precipitate is produced on
the addition of potassium ferrocyanide. Or a few drops
of either solution will change the ordinary light blue
precipitate into white ; indeed they are such powerful
reducing agents that they will turn Prussian blue perfectly
white.

If there is no appreciable excess of hydrosulphite
present with the white precipitate, it immediately begins
to turn blue at the top, where the air has access to it.

The white precipitate provides an admirable way of
showing the presence of dissolved oxygen in ordinary
water. If water which has been previously well boiled,
to expel dissolved air, is added to some of it there is no
change ; but ordinary tap water turns it blue instantly.
To ensure success in this experiment there must not be
any excess of the hydrosulphite present. Probably this
reaction might be adapted ro the determination of the
amount <.A dissolved oxygen in water.

PROCEEDINGS

ov

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

General Meeting, October 6th, 190S.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

Mr. A. H. Gibson, M.Sc, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Demonstrator
and Assistant Lecturer in Engineering in the University of
Manchester, was elected an ordinary member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, October 6th, igoS.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables. The following were among the recent
accessions to the Society's Library : — '" First Report on Research
Work... on the Vitality of the Typhoid Bacillus in artificially
infected samples of yaw Thames, etc., 7vafer" by A. C. Houston
(fol., London, 1908), and ^^ Reports of Comtnittees io be considered
at a Meeting of the Board...jyth July, igo8" (fol., London,
1908), presented by the Metropolitan Water Board; ^^ The
Radioactive Sjcbstatices" by W. Makower (8vo., London, 1908),
presented by the author ; " Hope Reports" ed. by E. B. Poulton,
vols. 1-6 (8vo., Oxford, 1897-1908), presented by Dr. Henry
Wilde, F.R.S. ; ^'National Antarctic Expedition, igoi04, Meteoro-
logy, Pt. /.," and ''Physical Observations" 2 vols, (fol., London,

ii Proceedings. {^October 6th, igoS.

1 90S), presented by the Royal Society of London ; '■'Key to the
Classifications of the Patent Specifications of France, Germany,
etc.,^' 2nd ed. ( i6mo., London, 1905) ; " Subject List of Works on
the Fine and Graphic Arts"... {i6mo, London, 1904), '■'Class
List and Index of the Periodical Publications...,''' 2nded. (i6mo.,
London, 1906), "Subject List of Works on Agriculture, etc."
(16 mo., London, 1905), " Subject List of Works on Heat and
Heat-engines" (i6mo., London, 1905), " Subject Lists of Works
on Aerial Navigation atid Meteorology" (i6mo., London, 1905),
'■' Subject List of Works on Military and Naval Arts'' (i6mo.,
London, 1907), "■ Subject List of Works on the Laivs of Indus-
trial Property" (i6mo., London, 1900), " Subject List of Works
of Reference, Biography, Bibliography, etc." (i6mo., London,
1908), presented by the Patent Office, London; "Monthly
Meafi Values of Barometric Pressure for yj... Stations "... (foL,
London, 1908), presented by the Solar Physics Committee,
London ; and " Canada's Fertile Northland," with " Maps,"
2 vols. (4to., Ottawa, 1907), presented by the Minister of the
Interior, Canada.

The President submitted to the members the following
Address of congratulation to the University of Oxford, to be
presented by him to that body on October Sth, the occasion of
the celebration by them of the Jubilee of the Oxford University
Museum : —

To the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford.
" We the Council of the Manchester Literary and Philo-
" sophical Society, desire to offer to the University of Oxford
"our greetings and congratulations on the celebration of
" the Jubilee of the University Museum.

" Meeting, as our Council does, in the workroom of
"John Dalton, we think it not unfitting to recall that the
"concepton of the chemical elements on which Dalton
" founded his Atomic Theory, originated with Robert Boyle
"at Oxford; and that the recognition by chemists of the
"diatomic molecules of Avogadro (which reconciled the
" conflicting views of Dalton and of Gay-Lussac) was largely

October 6th, igoS.] PROCEEDINGS. iii

" due to the work carried out by Brodie in the Chemical
" Laboratory of the Oxford Museum.

"We have watched with the keenest interest the exten-
" sions of the Oxford Museum and tlie widening scope of its
" activities and usefuhiess ; we are glad to recognise that this
"increase accompanies and symbolises the growth inOxford
"of a new sympathy for scientific study and research, which
"now take their i)lace, honoured and giving honour, side by
" side with the older learning."

Signed

On behalf of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical

Society.

President.

Sept. 2gtk, igo8. Honorary Secretaries.

The terms of the address, and the offer of the President to

represent the Society were unanimously approved of.

Addresses were given by Professor H. B. Dixon and
Professor E. Rutherford on matters of interest in connection
with the meeting of the British Association at Dublin.

Professor Dixon briefly reviewed the work of the Chemical
Section, making special reference to papers by Sir Wm. Ramsay
on the transmutation of copper into lithium and neon under the
influence of radium emanation, and the controversy which
gathered about them ; and to the photographs, exhibited by
Professor Dewar, of the apparatus used by Dr. Kamerlingh
Onnes in the liquefaction of Helium.

Professor Rutherford gave rapid summaries of a number
of papers read before the Physical and Meteorological Section
by Dr. Hale, Mr. W. Makower, Dr. Stansfield, and others.
The work of Dr. Duffield on the influence of pressure on arc
spectra was enlarged on, and the chief points in the discussion
on the isothermal layer in the upper atmosphere were enumerated.
The latter remarks gave rise to a further discussion on this
interesting subject, in which Mr. C E. Stromeyer, Mr. R. F.
Gwyther, and others took part.

iv Proceedings. \Octobcr 2ot/i, igoS.

General Meeting, October 20th, 1908.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A.., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

Dr. Martin Liebert, Managing Director of Meister Lucius
and Piriining Ltd., Manchester, Swinton House, Wilhington, was
elected an ordinary member of the Society,

Ordinary Meeting, October 20th, igo8.

Professor H. B. Dixon, ALA., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

Mr. D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc, made some observations on a
stone circle in the Orkney Islands, recently inspected by him,
and explained what he believed to be the method by which the
stones were originally placed in an upright position. He also
stated that there was found in the rubble with which one of the
stones was cemented into the ground, a stone implement with
hollowed sides and rounded ends, the roughened surface of which
pointed to its having been used as a mallet. The similarity of
this to implements found in great numbers at Stonehenge seemed
to indicate that the two circles were of approximately the same
period, and dated from somewhere about 1400 B.C. or 1500 B.C.

Mr. C. Gordon Hewitt, M.Sc, F.E.S., exhibited and
described a collection of fossil insects from Shiobara, Japan,
collected there by Dr. Marie Stopes. These comprise a large
number of the aquatic larvae of Ephemerids ; examples of
certain larvae and a single pupa of insects belonging to the
dipterous family Ciilicidae; and representatives of a number of
different families of Diptera, including one or two excellently
preserved specimens of Cidicidae.

October 20th, igoS.'] PROCEEDINGS. v

The insects are preserved in a light grey laminated shale,
and the fossiliferous deposit was evidently of fresh water origin,
and appears to belong to the Tertiary age.

The collection, which is the property of the Manchester
Museum, is one of very great interest, as no fossil insects from
Japan have previously been des';ribed.

Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C , gave some further notes
on the Separation of Cobalt and Nickel. He referred to a
former paper in which he had described a modification of Rose's
method (barium or calcium carbonate in presence of chlorine or
bromine). In that paper he had pointed out that various con-
ditions caused a remarkable retardation in the precipitation of
the cobalt. He now proposes the use of magnesium carbonate
instead of calcium or barium carbonate, and finds that with this
there is practically no uncertainty in the action.

Mr. H. Bateman, M.A., read a paper entitled "On some
Questions connected with the Constitution of the
Atom." A portion of this paper is published in the Memoirs

under the title "A Method of Calculating the Number of
Degrees of Freedom of a Molecule among which the
Partition of Energy is governed by the Principal
Temperature."

General Meeting, November 3rd, 1908.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

Mr. Charles Frederick Smith, M.I.E.E., Lecturer in
Electrical Engineering in the School of Technology, Manchester
University ; Mr. William Cramp, M.I.E.E., Consulting
Engineer, 20, Mount Street, Manchester; Mr. J. A. Reekie,
Manager of the Hayfield Printworks, Woodhouse, Hayfield, were
elected ordinary members of the Society.

vi Proceedings. [Novcmbct'jrd, igo8.

Ordinary Meeting, November 3rd, 1908.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A , F.R.S., Tresident,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
boolcs upon the tables.

Professor E. Rutherford, F.R.S., read a paper entitled,
"The Nature of the a Particle," written in conjunction
with Mr. T, RovDS, J\I,Sc. The paper is printed in the
Memoirs.

Mr. T. RoYDS, M.Sc, read a paper written by Professor
E. Rutherford, F.R.S., and himself, entitled "The Action
of the Radium Emanation on Water." The paper was
communicated by Professor Rutherford, and the following
is an abstract.

Experiments were made to repeat the experiments of
Mr. Cameron and Sir William Ramsay, showing that neon is
formed by the action of the radium emanation on water.
Preliminary experiments showed that the neon present in J^ cc.
of atmospheric air could be detected spectroscopically while
•I cc. of air gave a bright neon spectrum.

The general methods adopted were similar to those employed
by Cameron and Ramsay. Pure emanation was condensed in
a small glass flask containing water which had been initially
completely freed from gases. After several days the mixed
gases formed by the action of the emanation on the water were
pumped out and examined for neon by the charcoal method. A
number of experiments were made but, provided care was taken
to prevent a leakage of air into the ap[)aratus, no trace of neon
was detected although the spectrum of helium was always
clearly seen.

A number of experiments were also made to see if neon
were present in the gases formed by the radium solution con-
taining over 200 mgs. of radium, but none was observed,
although a (juantity of less than loVo c.cm. could have Ix.'cn

November jrd, igo8?[ PROCEEDINGS. vii

detected. Cameron and Ramsay do not appear to have been
aware of the delicacy of the spectroscopic test for neon in air.
They mention that it was difficult to avoid a leakage of air into
their apparatus, and the amount of leakage in the experiment
quoted in their paper is, in our experience, quite sufficient to
give a bright spectrum of neon. Consequently, the experiment
is quite inadequate to prove the production of neon by the
emanation.

Professor E. Rutherford, F.R.S., read a paper entitled,
*' Some Properties of the Radium Emanation." The
paper is printed in the JSIemoirs.

In connection with the reading of the three above-
mentioned papers, experiments were shown to illustrate the
following phenomena : —

The fluorescence of a zinc sulphide screen, enclosed in an
envelope, and of a crystal of willemite, under the action of
the a particles of the emanation.

The rapidity of condensation of pure emanation contained
in an exhausted vessel when one point was cooled to the
temperature of liquid air.

General Meeting, November 17th, 1908,

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

Mr. Alfred Schwartz, A.K.C, M.Sc.Tech., M.I.E.E.,
Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Electrical Engineering in the
School of Technology, Manchester University, was elected an
ordinary member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, November 17th, 1908.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

viii Proceedings. {^November lyth, igo8.

Mr. T. Thorp exhibited and described a new form of spring
he had devised and to which he had given the name "Twin-
spring.' The main characteristic of the spring is its extensive
range and uniform force as compared with its length.

Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., read a paper,
entitled "Contributions to a Study of the Geographical
Distribution of Birds. Pt. I. : The Genus Macrotiyx,
Swainson." The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Mr. A. H. GinsoN, M.Sc, read a paper, entitled *' On the
Draught-inducing Properties of the Poker." The
l)aper is printed in full in the Memoirs utider the title "On
the Local Intensification of Draught produced in a
Horizontal Air Current by the Presence of an Inclined
Rod."

Mr. F. H. Gravely, M Sc, read a paper, entitled
" Notes on the Spawning of Eledone and on the
Occurrence oiE/edone with the Suckers in Double Rows."
'I'he paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Ordinary Meeting, December ist, 1908.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

The President referred to the death of Mr. R. D.
Darbishire, who for many years took an active part in the
proceedings of the Society. Mr. Darbishire joined the Society
in 1853, served on the Council from 1869 to 1S85, and was
elected President in 1886. Mr. Darbishire's services to the
Society, like his services to the community at large, were long-
continued, disinterested, and carefully considered : but great as
those services were, all who knew Mr. Darbishire were aware
that his personality was even greater than his works.

December ist, igoS.] PROCEEDINGS. ix

The President also announced that Mr. H. Brereton Baker,
M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Lee's Reader in Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Oxford, would deliver the Wilde Lecture on March 9th,
1909, the subject being "The Lifluence of Moisture on the
Combination of Gases."

Professor Alfred Schwartz, M.Sc. Tech., read a paper
written in conjunction with Sir Hugh R. Beevor, Bait., i\LD.,
entitled " The Dawn of Human Intention : an Experi-
mental and Comparative Study of Eoliths." The paper
will appear in full in the Memoirs.

The paper was profusely illustrated by lantern slides and
drawings, and several hundred specimens, together with an
experimental series, which members were invited to handle and
examine for themselves, were exhibited.

An interesting discussion followed in which Professor W
BovD Dawkins admired the ingenuity with which the authors
of this paper had imitated some of the simpler primitive tools
of man by experiment with flint splinters, and he thought it
probable that these belonged to a very early stage in the
evolution of culture because of their simplicity. They were
found in Palaeolithic and Neolithic deposits, and had not yet
been proved to occur in any strata before the Pleistocene age
in any part of Europe. The term ' Eolithic ' first used by
Mr. Harrison, which includes these and numerous other broken
flints probably not artificial, is based on the mistake that the
sands and gravels of the Kent Plateau are pre-palaeolithic.
They contain Palaeolithic haches of the usual type, as may be
seen by reference to the British Museum, and, therefore, belong
to that age. Professor Boyd Dawkins declined to accept any of
the speculations based on this mistake, such as those put for-
ward in the paper. The view that man lived on the earth during
the Oligocene Period, a period before any of the living higher
Mammalia had appeared on the earth is contrary to the law of
evolution, and if ' Eolithic ' flints do occur in these strata it is
an argument against their artificial character. While not denying

X Proceedings. [December is/, igo8.

that some Eoliths were the work of human hands, he looked
upon them as belonging to the Palaeoliiliic Period, and criticised
the classification of M. Rutot as an effort to push the first
appearance of man on the earth to as early a period as possible,
regardless of the evidence both biological and geological.

Ordinary Meeting, December 15th, 1908.
Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables. The following were among the recent
accessions to the Society's Library: — '■'■Neue Untersiichimgen
iiber die Reifung imd BefruchtiDig^^'' von F. Vejdovsky (fob, Prag,
1907) and " Un/ersuchungen iiber die klitnatischen Vcrhaltnisse
von Beirut^ Syrieii" von S. Kostlivy (4to., Prag, 1905),
presented by the K. Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften
Prag; '•'• Report on a recent Discovery of Gold near Lake
Megantic, Quebec^' by J. A. Dresser (8vo , Ottawa, 1908),
" Report on a portion of Conrad and Whitehorse mining districts,
Yukoti^'' by D. D. Cairnes (8vo., Ottawa, 1908), '■'■Preliminary
Report on a part of the Similkameen district, British Colmnbia"
by C. Camsell (8vo., Ottawa, 1907), and "•Preliminary
Report on a portion of the Mai?i Coast of British Columbia"
etc.,... by O. E. Leroy (8vo., Ottawa, 1908), presented by the
Geological Survey of Canada; '■'■Sketch of the Mineral Resources
of India^^ by T. H. Holland (4to., Calcutta, 1908), presented by
the Geological Survey of India, and "^ Monograph of the
British Des?Hidiacece," vol. 3, by W. and G. S. West (8vo.,
London, 1908), purchased from the Ray Society.

Mr. Waltkr Makowek, B.A., B.Sc, read a i)aper entitled,
" The Volatility of Radium A and Radium C."

Mr. R. L. Tavi.ok, I'.C.S., F.I.C., read a pa[)er entitled,
" On the Production of White Ferrous Ferrocyanide."

The papers will be printed in full in llie Memoirs.

Manchester ATeiuoirs, Vol. /Hi. (1909), No. 1.

VII. The Volatility of Radium A and Radium C.
By Walter Makower, B.A., B.Sc.

[Received and read December ijth, igo8.)

In the course of some experiments it was found
necessary to know the temperature at which radium A
volatilised, and as this had not previously been deter-
mined with accuracy, a series of experiments was carried
out to determine the volatilisation point of this product.
It was also considered of interest to redetermine the
temperature of volatilisation of radium C under different
conditions to see whether its volatility depended on its
environment. The experiment on this point will be
recorded after those relating to the volatility of radium A
have been described and discussed.

The Volatility of Radium A.

The method used to determine the volatilisation point
of radium A consisted in exposing a nickel rod to a
known quantity of radium emanation for ten minutes at
different temperatures, and examining the nature of the
deposit so collected on the rod by observing the activity
of the wire, measured by the a rays, and its rate of decay
after removal from the emanation by means of a quadrant
electrometer. Under these circumstances at ordinary
temperatures there is a rapid decay of activity after
removing the rod from the emanation for about fifteen
minutes, after which the activity becomes constant for
nearly half-an-hour, when it again begins to fall off
slowly. As is well known, the initial rapid fall of activity

January i^ih, zgog.

2 MakOWER, Volatility of Radium A and Radium C.

is due to the decay of radium A which has a time period
of three minutes. If, therefore, radium A were in any
way prevented from depositing on the rod, we should
expect that not only would the activity of the rod after
exposure to the emanation be much less, but on examining
the deposit on the rod, the initial fall of activit}- should be
entirely absent. These conditions would be fulfilled if
the rod, exposed to the emanation, were kept above the
volatilisation point of radium A ; and, therefore, by
examining the activity of a rod after exposure to the
emanation at different temperatures, it should be possible
to infer the volatilisation point of radium A by finding
the temperature above which the product ceased to be
deposited on the rod.

The apparatus used for carrying out the experiment
is shown in Fig. i, and was as follows. The nickel rod A,

^^:^-r^h-}

Fiz. I.

the activity of which was subsequently to be examined,
was held in position along the axis of an iron tube T by
the iron rods B and C, supported respectively in the
rubber stopper D and the glass tube E which was itself
held in position by the rubber stopper F. On the central
portion of the tube T was wound a coil of nickel wire G,
insulated from the tube by asbestos. The iron tube was
contained in a larger porcelain tube P which was filled
with kieselgur for heat insulation. By passing an electric

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. t. 3

current through the coil G the central portion of the tube
T, and therefore the rod A, could be brought to any
desired temperature which was recorded by a platinum
platinum-rhodium thermocouple situated near A (not
shown in the figure). To prevent the rubber stoppers
D and F from burning when the tube T was heated,
water-coolers VV were attached to ends of the tube T.
The rod A was made so short, compared with the length
of the iron tube, that its temperature was always sensibly
uniform.

To make an experiment the tube T was heated to the
required temperature and exhausted by a water pump.
A known quantity of emanation was then admitted
through the stop-cock K and the pressure adjusted to
atmospheric* After an exposure of ten minutes the
rod A was removed and the a radiation coming from it
tested in the usual way by a quadrant electrometer.
The results obtained will be apparent from Ftg: 2 in
which the decay curves of the active deposit on the nickel
rod at different temperatures are drawn.

The six curves given represent respectively the rate
of decay of the activity collected on the nickel rod when
maintained at 15° C, 710° C, 840° C, 885° C, 925° C, and
990° C. The first curve for 15° C. exhibits the usual
characteristics of the a ray decay curves of the active
deposit for a short time of exposure. The second curve
shows the nature of the decay curve when the temperature
of the rod is kept at 710° C. during the exposure to the
emanation. It will be seen that the initial fall of activity
due to the decay of radium A is still present, but the

* Previously lo admitting into the iron tube, the emanation was
exposed for about a minute to a strong electric field to remove any active
deposit with which it might be associated. In this way the conditions of
the experiments were rendered definite.

4 Makowkk, Volatility of Radium A and Radium C.

activity falls to a somewhat lower value before becoming
constant than when the exposure is carried out at the
temperature of the room. This is no doubt due to the
fact that 710^ C. is above the volatilisation point of

100

<

20 Jo 40 5a

TIME m MINUTES
/'isy. 2.

60

radium B, which cannot therefore be deposited on the
rod. That the temperature of volatilisation of radium B
is below 710' C. is further confirmed by the fact that above

MancJicstcr Meiiioi} s. Vol. liii (1909), No. 7. 5

this temperature the curves show a slight increase after
the first rapid fall of activity, instead of inereiy becoming
constant. This is what would be expected if the radium B
were volatilised as sooi^ as formed from the radium A
deposited on the rod. This result is in agreement with
the experiments of Curie and Daune,* who found for the
volatilisation point of radium B the temperature 600^^ C.
The 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th curves show the results obtained
when the rod was exposed to the emanation at the higher
temperatures. It will be noticed that already at 840° C.
the initial drop of activity after removing from the emana-
tion is less marked than at lower temperatures. At
885° C, the initial drop has almost disappeared, while at
925° C. there is practically no initial rapid drop of activity
at all, showing that at this temperature no radium A was
deposited on the rod. We may therefore infer that
radium A begins to have an appreciable vapour pressure
at 800" C, and that at 900" C. it is completely volatilised.

Volatility of Radium C.

The experiments on the volatility were undertaken
not only to redetermine the volatilisation point with
accuracy, but, as has already been mentioned, to investi-
gate whether the environment of radium C had any
influence on its volatility. The active deposit from
radium was collected on plates of various materials by
exposing them to radium emanation for several hours.
After removal from the emanation and the lapse of
sufficient time for the radium A to have decreased to an
inappreciable amount, the material was subjected to any
required temperature by inserting it in an electrically
heated platinum - strip furnace for five minutes. The

* Curie and Daune, Coinptes Rciuius, 138, 1904.

6 Makower, Volatility of Radiuvi A and Radium C.

presence of radium B did not constitute a disturbing
factor in the experiments as this product is known to
volatiHse at a much lower temperature than radium C.
Measurements of the activity before and after heating
gave an estimate of the quantity of active deposit removed
during the heating. The measurements were made with
an a ray gold-leaf electroscope in the usual way. Care
was always taken to blow through the furnace to obviate
the possibility of any active deposit which had been
volatilised and remained in the furnace from being
redeposited. The results obtained with platinum, nickel,
and quartz plates are shown in the table. It will be seen
that in all cases the volatilisation begins between 700°
and 800° C, but that whereas with platinum and nickel it
is complete at I200°C., the volatilisation of radium C on
quartz surfaces is incomplete even at i30o"C. It thus
appears that the volatility of radium C is to some extent
dependent on the nature of the surface on which it is
deposited, the volatilisation temperature being higher for
a quartz than for a platinum or nickel surface.

It is well known that the active deposit from radium can
be dissolved off a surface on which it has been deposited by
hydrochloric acid. It seemed of interest to see whether
the volatility of radium C was the same before and after
solution or whether by the action of the acid this product
had been chemically changed in such a manner as to be
more or less volatile. Although a considerable number
of experiments were carried out, no certain change in the
volatility of radium C after solution in hydrochloric acid
could be established. It always required, however, a
somewhat higher temperature to completely remove the
deposit from a quartz plate after solution in hydrochloric
acid than from a platinum plate. This is in agreement
with the observations mentioned above, with radium C

Manchester Me)Hozrs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 7.

7

deposited directly on quartz and platinum and docs not
point to any direct action of the acid.

Activity before Heating=ioo.

Platinum Surface.

Nickel Surface.

Quartz

Surface.

Tempeiature
Centigrade.

Activity after
Heating.

'remperatiire
Centigrade.

Activity after
Heating.

Temperature
Centigrade.

.Activity after
Heating.

750

90

760

96

900

83

980

56

980

71

1,130

40

1,090

32

1,1 10

25

1,200

33

1,140

^9

1,200

I

1,250

27

1,200

4

—

—

1,320

15

Effect of an Electric Field on Radium C.

It is well known that when radium A is produced from
the emanation under normal conditions it is charged with
positive electricity. It thus happens that, when a nega-
tively charged conductor is exposed to the emanation,
nearly all the radium A produced is driven to the con-
ductor, where it is deposited. It seemed of interest to
find out whether radium C is similarly charged after its
production from radium B.

Now we have seen that the volatilisation point of radium
A is at 900° C, and the volatilisation point of radium B
is lower. Since the volatilisation point of radium C is
about 1,200° C, it would be impossible for either radium
A or radium B to be deposited on a rod whose tempera-
ture was above 900° C, whereas radium C might, under
suitable conditions, be deposited on the rod. In order to
test whether radium C is charged at the moment of its

8 Makowkr, Volatility of Radium A and Radiinn C.

production from radium B, a [)latiiium rod was exposed
in the furnace described above {Fig. i) at 950° C, and an
electric field produced between the rod A and the iron
tube T by connecting the rod D and the tube T respectively
to the two terminals of a batter)' of 40 accumulators. The
experiment showed that whether the rod A was charged
positively or negatively with respect to the tube T, no
appreciable amount of active deposit was collected on the
rod A when subsequently tested in an electroscope. The
experiment failed, therefore, to reveal any charge on
radium C at the moment of its production, and it may be
inferred that this product, unlike radium A, acquires no
charge when it is formed from its predecessor in the radio-
active series.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. ( 1 909), No. 8.

VIII. The Dawn of Human Intention. An Experimental
and Comparative Study of Eoliths.

By Prof. Alfred Schwartz, Manchester,

AND

Sir Hugh R. Beevor, Bart, M.D., London.

{Read December ist, igoS. Received for publication December rStk, igoS.)

I. Introductory.

(i) In 1892, in a paper read before the Anthropo-
logical Institute, Harrison, Prestwich, and de Barri
Crawshay, brought to the notice of the scientific world
the Eoliths of the Kent Plateau. The views that they
advanced have given rise to a great deal of controversy,
and even after the lapse of 16 years the treatment of the
question appears to be very largely a matter of individual
opinion. At the present time there are a large number
of persons who believe that Eoliths are the work of man,
while an even larger number are convinced that they are
the work of Nature. We hope to shew that the existence
of Eoliths as the work of man is a fact which is capable
of scientific demonstration.

(2) It will readily be admitted that the work under-
taken by man in the earlier stages of his existence would
be simpler and more general in character than in sub-
sequent periods when specialised operations would be
introduced as his culture advanced and his needs
increased.

C3) This is actually the case, and we find the tools of
the earliest man confined to the simplest types with which

February jrd, igog.

2 Schwartz & Beevor, Dazvn of Hnvimi Intention.

they could perform operations of a general character.
From pre-paUneolithic time and throughout the lithic
periods we find these original types persisting, supple-
mented later from time to time by specialised implements,
such as arms, in accordance with the advancing needs of
the communities.

(4) From anatomical and mechanical considerations,
the fundamental processes in which primitive man would
need the aid of tools may be summarised as follows : —

(i) Striking.

(2) Cutting.

(3) Scraping.

(4) Piercing.

(5) The production of fire.

(5) It is submitted that these operations were per-
formed by the types of tools developed by pre-palaeolithic
man, and that these tools have persisted practically
unaltered in character right through the age of stone, and
that they have only ceased to be employed for the
original purposes with the extinction of the Tasmanians
in 1870.

(6) This view is due to Monsieur A. Rutot, of the
Royal Museum of Natural History, Brussels, who, by his
researches, has done so much to extend and explain the
discoveries of Benjamin Harrison, and who has given to
Eoliths their true place and significance in the history of
mankind.

(7) In order to conform to this view the term " Eolithic,"
which, in the first instance, was applied to tools found in
the chalk plateau in Kent and elsewhere, must now be
extended so as to include not only the later industries
with the same characteristics, but also the more ancient
industries found in France and Belgium. It will perhaps
then be convenient to consider the term " Eolithic " as a

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hii. ( 1 909), A^^. 8. 3

generic one qualifying it with a second term to denote
the chronological position of any given industry.*

(8) An Eolithic tool may be defined as one formed
from a fragment of hard stone generally of siliceous
material, which from its shape has been selected .as
suitable for the purpose in view, and which, when neces-
sary, has been adapted for use by trimming. Such
fragments may be purely natural, or may be obtained by
shattering one stone against another, or by deliberate
flaking.

(9) It is in connection with such trimmed fragments
that utilisation by man can be first asserted.

(10) A Palaeolithic or Neolithic tool, on the other
hand, may be defined as one which has been intentionally
fashioned and shaped to a specialised form.

(11) With Eoliths, therefore, we have the configuration
of the tools almost entirely natural, the fragments selected
having certain definite characteristics, and with Palseoliths
and Neoliths the configuration is almost entirely artificial,
and follows definite models.

(12) It is evident, therefore, that in judging whether
Eoliths are or are not the work of man, the accepted
criteria applied to Paleoliths and unground Neoliths, viz. :
the bulb, cone, and conchoid of percussion, will not hold,
as in the majority of cases the fragments from which the
Eoliths were made were fractured naturally.

(13) It becomes necessary, therefore, to set up other
criteria for Eoliths before we can assert definitely that
they are the work of man, and we would submit that the
following conditions with which an Eolithic implement
should comply are efficient criteria : —

*It is proposed that this term shall be understood as meaning in a
primary sense the form of the stone implements, with the purposes for which
they were used in successive periods ; and in a secondary sense the state of
culture which is indicated by the.se implements.

4 Schwartz & Beevor, Daw)i of Hiunan Intention.

{a) Evidence of choice of material. A selection and
utilisation of a fragment of stone suitable and
sufficient in shape and character as a tool for a
specific class of work.

{b) Evidence of wear. Evidence of specific work per-
formed, as shown by the conformability of the
traces left upon the tool with those due to the
class of work for which the tool was intended
under (<■?).

(<:) Evidence of Iiandling. The adaptability of the
tool for prehension and the dressing off of
excrescences and the intentional blunting of
certain sharp edges in conformity with the
design of the tool as under {a).

(d) Evidence of Sharpoiing. The occurrence of

secondary working or minor flaking on one side
of the edge (for the purpose of giving a new
edge to a blunt tool), identical in character with
that found on accepted Palaeolithic and Neolithic
forms, and conformable with the design of the
tool as under {a).

(e) Evidence of association with allied types. The

presence in a given stratigraphical position of

the principal fundamental classes of tool already

referred to, in association with the tool under

consideration.

(y") Evidence from Prehistory and Anthropology. The

persistence of the type of tool throughout the

stone age and its conformability with the type

used by the most primitive tribes within the

memory of man.

(14) It is not to be expected that every tool should

satisfy the whole of the above conditions — for example, a

hammer stone would not necessarily comply with {c), as

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8. 5

the natural crust of the stone in many cases needs no
dressing for prehension, and it would not comply with (^),
as it is not an edged tool, and would not therefore require
re-sharpening, but it would show special marks of bruising
from use.

(15) Apart, however, from some few special cases as
instanced above, we take it that a rigorous compliance
with the conditions specified would establish the fact that
a given tool was the work of man, and not a natural pro-
duction.

(16) As already stated, we hold that the Eolithic
tools were originated and developed by pre-palceoHthic
man, and in consequence the various industries prior to
Palaeolithic times may be designated as purely Eolithic.

(17) The Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods which are
characterised by the presence of stone and bone imple-
ments intentionally shaped and fashioned for a definite
and specialised, even if unknown, purpose, include also the
Eolithic types, which were retained for general purposes.

(18) There is evidence, however, at many places in
this country and on the continent, that in Neolithic times
isolated communities existed, which remained as the
Tasmanians did, entirely in the Eolithic culture stratum.

(19) Any industry which comprises only the original
types of simple tools, without any admixture of inten-
tionally shaped or ground tools, may be termed purely
Eolithic.

II. Eolithic Types.

(20) In classifying the various forms of Eoliths,
following Rutot, we have departed from the usual
methods of classification according to shape, colour,
locality, name of donor, etc., in favour of a classification
based on the manner in which the tools were employed,

6 Schwartz & Beevor, Daum of Human Intention.

and in this connection we recognise the following classes

of tools : — 1

(i) Striking.

(2) Pushing.

(3) Pulling.

(4) Rotating.

Each of these classes contains sub-divisions, which
will be dealt with in detail.

(21) Class I. Striking Tools.

{a) Hammer stones.

{b) Chopping tools.

{c) Pick hammers.

{d) Anvils.

{e) Sharpeners.

(/) Fire stones.

{g) Throwing stones. 1.

(22) Class II. PiisJiing Tools.

(a) Simple push-planes "l For use on bone,

(b) Double push-planes I wood, or hard

(c) Convex push-planes I material.

(d) Push scrapers or For use on skins or

" Sleekers " soft material.

(23) Class 111. Pulling Tools.

{a) Simple scrapers.
ijy) Double scrapers.
{c) Concave scrapers.
[d) Convex scrapers.
{e) Knives.
(/) Burins.

(24) Class IV. Rotating Tools.

(a) I5orers.

MancJiestey Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8. 7

(25) la. Hanivier Stones. These consist usually of
globular or cylindrical stones, one end or portion of vvhici\
is adapted to be held in the palm of the hand, the other
end in the case of flint or siliceous material presents a
rugous surface formed by the juxtaposition of a number
of little cones of percussion which are the product of the
blows. {Fis^. I.)

//uf'""rr

1^1/

C^c^^/rfy Tho/.-i

Fig. I.

CHARACTERISTIC TRACES OF WORK ON STKIKINC. TOOLS.

When used for pounding soft material the faces on the hammer and anvit
are marked with cones of percussion ; with hard material these are absent,
but the edge flaking remains.

A. Crevassed or splintered effect of prolonged use of chopper with
irregular flaking on both sides of the cutting edge.

B. Light chopping work gives only the irregular flaking.

^ Schwartz (k Beevor, Dawn of Human Intention.

(26) The striking end is also frequently surrounded
by an aureole of chijjs which have flaked off its periphery
where it has come into sufficiently violent contact with
the anvil. This condition is produced by pounding soft
material, as roots on a flint anvil ; the material being
easily crushed allows the hammer and the anvil to come
into frequent contact. In this case the anvil presents
similar characteristics to the hammer, namely, a rugous
surface and edge flaking.

(27) If the object to be broken or crushed is a hard
one such as bone, the characteristic traces of the work
are somewhat different in that the cones of percussion are
absent, or very much reduced in number, the edge flaking
is also frequently not so bold. This is due to the shock
of the blow being received on the hard material, and
being transmitted to a sufficiently large area of the anvil
to prevent the formation of cones of percussion. The
material to be crushed — particularly in the case of long
bones — usually takes a localised bearing on the edge of
the anvil, and transmits to it sufficient force to produce
edge flaking. For the same reason the cones of per-
cussion are in this case absent from the hammer, and the
edge flaking is present in a modified degree as in the
anvil.

(28) lb. Chopping Tools. There are two varieties of
chopping tool, the first or longitudinal type consisting of
a natural or artificial fragment of elongated form and
wedge shape in cross section. The thick edge is held in
the palm of the hand edge down, the arm working as with
a hatchet. This is the " percuteur a tranchant longitudinal "
or " Tranchoir " of Rutot.

(29) The second variety is the transverse chopping
tool, and is formed from a fragment in the shape of a
trapeze considerably elongated in the direction of its

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8- 9

height, the broad end bearing the cutting edge. This
implement is the " Tranchet " or " percuteur a tranchant
transversal " of Rutot, and is gripped between the fingers
and the palm of the hand, with the cutting edge down-
wards, the tool working as an adze.

(30) The characteristic traces of the work found on
chopping tools take the form of a number of flakes
irregularly displaced from the cutting edge. Owing to
the fact that the object to be cut is usually placed opposite
the median line of the body, and that the blows are
delivered a little from one side, it will be found that a
larger number of flakes are detached from one side of the
choppers than from the other. {Fig. IB.)

(31) From the relative sizes of these two types of
chopper, it would appear that the longitudinal variety,
which is the larger, was employed for the coarser kinds of
work, while the lighter transverse type was reserved for
less severe service.

(32) As regards the dressing for holding the tool, with
the longitudinal type, it is usually confined to the removal
of inconvenient excrescences, and the blunting of the
edges of the thick end, while in the transverse type, which
is grasped in the hand, more careful dressing is required
to prevent the fingers and the palm of the hand from
being wounded.

(33) If the action of chopping, as of pounding, be
continued for some time, the cones of percussion formed,
and the flakes detached from the chopper become so
numerous and intersect so frequently that the surface
material breaks away in splinters giving rise to what may
be termed a " crevassed " appearance, which is character-
istic of these modes of striking. {Fig. lA.)

(34) Ic. Pick Hammers. This type is simply the
common elongated nodule, one or both ends of which are

10 Schwartz & Bekvok, Dmvn of Hiininn Intention.

used for striking. The characteristic traces of the work
are some degree of those named for hammer stones,
namely an aureole of flakes around the striking end.
L-shaped stones are also employed, one branch being held
in the hand.

(35) ^^^- Anvils. The anvil may be regarded as a
passive hammer, and as already pointed out under \a
p. 8, the characteristic traces of the work are the same
as for hammer stones ; in addition to those traces, in some
instances the battering of the underside of the anvil
against the stones upon which it rests may be observed.

(36) The fragments selected for anvils vary consider-
ably in size, some being quite small. One surface is
usually flat and frequently the surface opposed to this is
flat also, and in such cases both faces are often used for
striking on.

{^Z7^ ^"^ would be expected, the blows received on the
anvil would vary considerably in intensity, and in conse-
quence the flakes detached are of all sizes from small to
large, disposed in an irregular manner along the edges,
but all running in the same direction, that is from the face
to the base.

(38) le. SJiarpeners. These are specialised forms of
hammers employed for producing the secondary working
necessary for re-sharpening a blunt tool. In form they are
elongated prisms, and on one edge show battering due to
percussion of a light character.

(39) If. Fire Stones. Throughout the lithic industries'
there occur fragments of stone bearing manifest traces of
flaking which in the present state of our ignorance it is
difficult to assign to a definite class of tool. They show
along their edges the effects of a series of blows distributed
in groups. The flaking, while it is in the same direction
for a given group, is frequently in reverse directions for

Mufichester Memoirs, Vol. liii. ( 1 909), No. 8. 1 1

different groups. In form they simulate anvils or even
planes, but they differ from these in the coarseness of the
flaking, and in the presence of the crust of the flint on
the face from the plane of w hich the blows were struck,
which at once disposes of the notion that these imple-
ments could have been used for cutting purposes. In
1874, Lartet and Christy* suggested that similar Moustier
specimens were used in the production of fire, and stated
that fire was obtainable not only by the friction of pyrites
and flint, but also from two flints, and that in Norfolk and
Suffolk less than 100 years ago fire was obtained in this
manner, by striking two flints rapidly against one another
in the presence of dry moss.

(40) This method is apparently practiced by certain
primitive tribes ; on Bathurst Island the Australianf
aborigines were seen with two pieces of white flint and a
tinder of the inner bark of the papyrus.

(41) With reference to the use of such fire stones by
the Tasmanians, Furneaux \ reports to have found in one
of the huts, " the stone they strike fire with and tinder
made of bark, but of what tree could not be distinguished."

(42) La Billardiere§ states that in Tasmania he "met
with pieces of flint (sic) and fragments of the bark of a
tree as soft as the best tinder," and that " these savages
undoubtedly produced fire by striking two pieces of flint
together."

(43) Lieutenant G. Mortimer!! states that in some of

*■ " Reliquiae Aquitanicae," pp. 85, 86, 138 — 140.

t"The Daily Life of the Tasmanians." J. Bonwick, London, 1870,
p. 21.

:t: Cook's Second Voyage, Hook i, Chapter \in.

§"An account of a voyage in search of la Perouse." f. J. de la
Dillardiere, London, 1800.

II "Observations and remarks made during a voyage to the Islands of
Teneriffe, etc." Cj. Mortimer, London, 1791.

12 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn of Human Intention.

the Tasmanian baskets " were a few flints and stones and
a little dried grass, from which circumstances I conclude
they produce fire by collision."

(44) Ig. Throwing Stones. These, if this be the
nature of their use, are of a somewhat indeterminate
character in that they bear no special traces of dressing
for prehension or of the work performed. Their general
characteristics may be stated as consisting of a polyhedral
form, made up of natural and artificially chipped faces
irregularly distributed, which present a number of cutttng
edges and points ; the size is such as to be suitable for
throwing.

(45) Class J J. Pushing Tools. These consist of a
fragment of stone held between the thumb and index
finger, the cutting edge being at the end away from the
operator. Their special characteristics consist of a plane
surface under the cutting edge or edges, the dressing for
prehension which consists in the blunting of the edges at
the sides, and in many instances in the formation of
distinct notches for the fingers and thumb.

(46) These notches must be carefully distinguished
irom the notches so frequently formed on the working
edge of the tool due to re-sharpening, for the reason given
later in the section dealing with sharpening.

(47) The various forms of push plane are shewn dia-
grammatically in Fig. 2. In each case the cutting edge
is shewn with a double line, and the usual positions for
the dressing for prehension with a broken line.

(48) Each of these various designs has its obvious
advantages for certain classes of work, but it must be
understood that the diagram is intended to represent the
initial forms of the implements, and that after being
re-sharpened several times these forms would be somewhat
modified. For instance, the rectilinear form would after

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Int. (1909), No. 8. 13

re-sharpening sometimes simulate the concave form,
although a close inspection will allow of their being dif-
ferentiated. In all cases re-sharpening tends to produce
irregularity of outline which continued work tends to
smooth down.

/Sea^/zMeftTf 7r-a*fst^rse £fovb/e

A<o^ Gy^r/^ £n^^eis .s/fett^ Mr as mwgm

Fig. 2.

(49) The push planes were probably actuated in a
downward direction, the surface to be worked upon being
more or less vertical.

(50) Class III. Scrapers. These implements are
usually formed from natural fragments or struck flakes
oval or D-shaped in form and wedge-shaped in cross
section. The thick edge is held in the palm of the hand
with the index finger extended along it, the thumb being
placed on the face nearest to the operator, and the remain-
ing fingers on the far side of the tool, while the cutting

14 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn of Human Intention.

edge, which is parallel to the axis of the forearm, rests
perpendicularly upon the surface of the work.

(51) In order to realise exactly the mode of operation
of this class of tool, it is necessary to consider the
behaviour of a thin flint edtrc when actuatedin various

ways.

Scfct pe^ osexii eirva t^ ^om Ope,rierH>r

Uriusec^ fi/tfC

£^Uge. as at /
AfH^ar use as a
Scrap*'' a/vci y

Fac£ ^

i/se. as isScro/ier:

ScrapeJ- i/s&e^ Totrards Opcrcr/or

t/rfuset^JSefge

f^ac^-ff

£iJfe.as<if' Z

cr/fKJ- . ,„,_

Scrap*ir- ^nnorc/s /S.cshii^/>e^ifi^ C/'Seas<^Scru/>*r-
Ofi^raYvr

P'S- 3-

(52; When such an edge is posed perpendicularly to
the work and pulled under pressure towards the operator,
a regular line of minute flakes is formed on the side of
the edge away from the operator.

(53) The tool should be used in one direction onl)-,
and after the edge has becouic dulled, it can be re-
sharpened by striking with another stone from the side of
the tool which faces the operatoi; when in use, a series of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8- 15

small contiguous flakes. Tiiese flakes will replace the
series of minute flakes produced by the work. On re-
suming the work after re-sharpening, it will be found that
the splintering of the edge continues, and tends to reduce
the irregular outline due to the re-sharpening. These
effects are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3.

(54) A consideration of this figure will show that by
turning the implement and reversing the positions of the
faces A and B relatively to the operator and changing the
pulling motion into a pushing one, the effects of the work
on the flint edge would not be altered.

(55) The " Racloirs" of Rutot are in his view used in
this way, but this method of working is open to criticism
on anatomical grounds, as the human arm is not capable
of exerting so much force in a push as in a pull, and it is
submitted that the most effective movement of the fore-
arm is towards the body. Its great strength and facility
in this direction has no doubt been induced from the
necessity of conveying food to the inouth.

There are, however, certain classes of work, such as
the dressing of skins, in which the motion away from the
operator is advantageous. In the Blackmore Museum,
Salisbury, there is a stone scraper used by the S. American
Indians of the Amazon district in this way, the operator
squatting or kneeling with the skin to be scraped
stretched across the thigh of one leg.

(56) There is, however, a further alternative ; if the
tool, instead of being posed with its cutting edge perpen-
dicular to the surface to be worked upon, be held with the
cutting edge towards the operator, and at angles up to
about 40"' from the horizontal, it will work quite well as a
pull tool, indeed in its initial state a great deal more
work can be done with a tool used in this way than in
either of the preceding fashions. The lower portion of

i6 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn of Human Intention.

Fig. 3 shows the arrangement, and the effects of the work
both before and after re-sharpening.

(57) The various types of scrapers are shewn dia-
grammatically in Fig. 4.

S/mj»/e ^/Tcay^ A^o/b/fee/

Dot/6/e.

A/o^k PVorA/rf^ Ec/^e^ s/rejy/i ///us

Fig. 4.

(58) It will be noted that knives are classed among
the instruments which are pulled. This classification is
based on anatomical considerations, and on the fact that
the Tasmanians have been observed using their stone
knives in this fashion. This they did by extending the
arm with the index finger pressed upon the knife at a
point furthest from the operator, and then drawing the
implement rapidly towards them.

(59) These tools are usually triangular in cross
section, thus giving a thin cutting edge, the thick back
affording a resting place for the index finger, and giving
strength to the tool.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8. 17

(60) The characteristic trace of the work of cutting
may be found in the irregular displacement of a number
of fine chips on both sides of the cutting edge. In
addition to the ordinary dressing for prehension, a
special dressing at the end of the knife is frequently found
for the extended index.

(61) Class I I If. Burins. Under this head we class
points with cutting edges which might be used by being
drawn towards the operator in forming grooves in the
handles of clubs, or cutting out narrow strips of bone for
needles, etc., from long shank bones.

(62) Class IV. Rotating Tools. In the majority of in-
stances these tools have not been deliberately shaped out,
but have been formed from natural pointed fragments, or
such fragments produced by .shattering one stone on
another. These points are adapted and dressed into
shape when necessary by means of a Re-sharpencr.

(63) If the hole be shallow, the tool would only be
rotated to and fro through an angle of 90". If, however,
it be deep enough to support the tool, the latter could be
completely rotated.

(64) The characteristic traces of the work in the case of
demi-rotation consist in the removal of small splinters
from both sides of the cutting edges. In the case of
complete rotation, this is observable only on one side of
the edges, and may have given rise to the "reversed
work " referred to above. It is interesting to note that
this form is still adhered to in modern solid steel drills.
(See Fig. 5.)

(65) With piercers which have been dressed into
shape by the sharpener, less trace of the work is found
than with natural borers.

1 8 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn of Human Intention.
III. Re-Sharpening.
(66) The method of re-sharpening a blunt tool by
striking off from one side of the cutting edge with another
stone a series of small contiguous flakes, has already been
referred to. This method is applied only to push-planes
and scrapers ; knives were not re-sharpened, as the knife
edge could not thus be reproduced.

Goitn^ido/ t/se^/hr CorrHrroous
^cf^wr^rio^ in one. Of'r^c^o^.

S/c/e. oy Cey/fir7^ jEafffes o^/e/

3or/ng iho/ose^/hr Oe^rri-rokif/ott
Of eac/f Ci/f/rng^c/^e .

Fig- 5-

CHARACTERISTIC TRACES OF WORK ON BOklNT, TOOLS.

{6y) A series of fine minor flakes can also be got by
pressure. This may be done by holding the cutting
edge at an angle approaching a right angle to a hard
smooth surface, and drawing it under pressure either to

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8. 19

or away from the operator, in which case a series of small
flakes will be detached from the face opposite to the
direction of motion. This on a thin edge is tanta-
mount to re-sharpening, but it cannot be used on an edge
with a high cutting angle.

(68) This effect can also be produced on a thin flint
edge by placing the flake flat on a smooth surface, and
drawing a knife blade, or a suitably shaped stone, along
the upper side of the edge under a moderate and even
downward pressure.

(69) A fresh flint edge will serve for about 5 to 10
minutes when working on bone. This time will, of
course, var}' with the vigour with which the work is
carried out, and with the nature of the material operated
upon, but it is of the order named.

(70) After being re-sharpened once, the edge will not
be found to serve for so long a time as in the first
instance, and the length of time of efficient service
diminishes with each subsequent re-sharpening. This is
due to the fact that the cutting edge is brought nearer
to the body of the tool with each operation of re-sharpen-
ing, and the angle of the cutting edge becomes corre-
spondingly less acute. {Fig. 6.) This factor limits the
number of times a tool may be re-sharpened to three or
four at the utmost, the cutting edge will then have been
worked back to a position where its angle will be a right
angle, and where the increased thickness of the tool
renders it impossible to detach small flakes, the blows
from the sharpener merely shattering the edge without
dislodging flakes. In this condition the tool must be
discarded, as it is useless for further work.

(71) The effects of secondary flaking for re-sharpening
are cumulative, and the number of times the tool has
been re-sharpened before being rejected may consequently

20 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn ot Human Intention.

be recognised, A tool rejected without having been
re-sharpened may be said to be in the " first state," after
being re-sharpened once in the " second state," and so on.
Eoh'thic tools may then be found which have been
discarded after use without being re-sharpened, or after
having been re-sharpened once, twice, or thrice.

O

Fig. 6.

(72) Implements which are frequently referred to as
being " fine specimens " are those in which the re-
sharpening has been pushed to the maximum extent
possible, and such are the less efficient tools having in

Manchester Monoirs, Vul. lizi. {igog), No. H. 21

reality been discarded as useless for further work. The
amount of re-sharpening to which the tools of a given
industry were subjected, depended to some extent on the
abundance or scarcity of natural fragments of suitable
character, or of the quantity of material available from
which suitable flakes could be struck. Where flint was
scarce, the tools are found to have been re-sharpened as
much as possible before being discarded.

(73) One of the objections urged against the authen-
ticity of Eoliths is the large numbers in which they are
found, compared with Palasoliths. We should, however,
expect that tools which were used for general purposes,
and which could be fabricated in a few minutes from
natural fragments, and which sufficed at the most for less
than half-an-hour's work, would be much more numerous
than the Palaeolithic implements which were designed and
reserved for special uses.

IV. Chronological Sequence of the Eolithic
Industries.

(74) The sequence of the purely Eolithic Industries
and their relationship to the Palaeolithic and Neolithic
groups, according to Mons. Rutot's classification, are
given in Table I.

Table I.

Classification of the Lithic Industries, by M. A, Rutot.

Note. — The purely Eolithic industries are shown in italics.

TER7IARY.

Period. Industry.

/Lower

Oligocene] Middle Fagnien (Hautes Fagnes, Belgium).

lUpper
I Lower
Miocene -| Middle

lUpper Cantalien (Cantal, France).

22 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn of Huma7i Intention.

I Lower

Pliocene ^ Middle Kentien (Chalk Plateau, Kent).

I Upper St. Prestien (St. Prest., France).

QUATERNARY.

Eolithic Reufeiien (Reutel Elouges Hainaut, Belgium).

Mafflien (Maffle. Salzinnes Hainaut, Belgium).
Mesvinien ("Exploitation Helin,"Spiennes Haine
Valley, Belgium).
Lower Palaeolithic Strepyien (Strepy, Haine Valley, Belgium).
(Drift)

Chelleen (St. Acheul, France).
Acheuleen L (Ditto).
Acheuleen H. (Ditto).
Upper Paleolithic Mousterien ( Vezere, France).
(Caves)

f Lower \
Aurignacien - Middle WVezere, France).
lUpper )

j-Lower (Solutre, France).
Solutreen ...j Upper (Laugerie Haute, Vezere,
I France).

(Lower -j
Middle VLa Madeleine, France.
Upper 1

Neolithic Tardenoisien (.Aisne, France).

Flemisien (Flenu, Belgium).
Campignyien (Campigny, France).
/Spiennien (Spiennes, Belgium).
I /Omalien (Omal, Belgium).

1 Scandinavian -(Megalithic (Bretagne, France), Scan-
Stone. I J T .
\ v dmavia.

Note. — The Neolithic classification is not yet definitely .settled.

(75) The following brief notes are explanatory of
Rutot's views of the character and position of the various
Eolithic industries referred to in Table I. The Palaeolithic

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8. 23

industries are not referred to, but it must be understood
that the Eolithic tools persisted through these periods
for general purposes. . . '

The Fagnien. The implements of this industry were'
discovered at BonceDes, near Liege, Belgium, at an
altitude of 860 feet above sea level, and 600 feet above
the level of the River Ourthe. The Eoliths were found
in the clay and flints at the base of the deposits of
the upper Oligocene containing Cytherea Beyrichi,
Pectunciihis obovatus, etc.

The Cantalien. This industry is that of Puy Courny.
A considerable number of implements have a bulb of
percussion.

TJie Kentien. This industry is represented in
Harrison's pits in the Kent Plateau gravel at an altitude
of about 700 feet above the sea level. It is also found in
the thin spreads of Ochreous gravels on the chalk plateau.
It has also been found by Dr. H. P. Blackmore in the
deposits of the " high terrace " at Laverstock, near
Salisbury, and by the Rev. H, G. O. Kendall on Hackpen
Hill, near Marlborough.* The surface of the Kent
Plateau also yields numerous specimens of Eoliths of the
Flenusien division of the Neolithic period. These can be
readily distinguished from the Kentien specimens by their
patina, and from the fact that they are unrolled. Owing
to their being rolled to a considerable extent, the Kentien
Eoliths are among the most difficult to make out, and it
is no doubt due to this fact that acceptance of Eoliths in ■
this country has made such slow progress.

St. Prestien. The Eoliths at St. Prest are associated
with Elephas nieridionalis. They are found at the base of
the deposits of the middle terrace of the river valleys at
altitudes of between 100 and 200 feet above the present

* Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. 20, p. 7, 1908.

24 Schwartz & BeeVOR, Dawn of Human Intention.

river levels. Dr. \\. P. Blackmore has found these Eoliths
in a.ssociation with ElepJias meridionalis at Dewlish.
Mr. Lewis Abbott has also found Eoliths of this period
in the Cromer beds.

The Reutdien is the oldest quaternary Eolithic
Industry. The implements are found on the top of the
gravel deposits at the base of the middle terrace, and it is
well represented in the neighbourhood of Salisbury,
especially at Alderbury.

The Mafflicn industry is met with at the base of
the lower quaternary deposits of the low terraces of the
valleys of the Franco-Belgian basin. It does not differ
much in character from the Reutelian. It is represented
at Erith.

The Mesvifiten industry is found in the gravels at the
top of the lower quaternary deposits. Many of the
implements bear the bulb of percussion, and the develop-
ment of intentional flaking belongs to this period. A
mixture of Mafflien and Mesvinien implements may be
found in the low terrace deposits of most of our large rivers.

The Strepyicn industry represents the transition
between the Eolithic and Pal.Teolithic cultures. It is
characterised by an admixture of Eolithic forms and rude
implements intentionally shaped and intended for
specialised uses. It is well represented at Rickmans-
worth. Many of the implements bear the bulb of
percussion. After the Strepyien came the Chelleen and
the Acheuleen and the Upper Pahisolithic industry from
the caves.

{j6) The Neolithic division is complex and varies
with locality, in Central Europe there appear to be five
or six divisions. The Tardenoisien (" Pigmy " tools) the
Flenusien and the Campignyien contain no polished
implements. The Flenusien is a purely Eolithic industry,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8. 25

and is wcil represented by the surface finds on the chalk
plateau of Kent and Surrey, which resemble in a remark-
able degree the Flenusien implements found at Grace
Berleur, near Liege, and in the Hesbaye, near Avennes.
The Campignyien industry or Scandinavian Kjokkenmo-
dinger industry followed on the Flenusien, and with it
the intentional shaping of tools re-appears, some of the
push planes having a regular convex edge. The

<Secy/ro/7 of a ^y'er- /^//<«^ sA/e^y'/r?^
7^« 7'hree Terr-crccs o^yihe c/zs/oosr/ro^

/Ve/y/Jfr^s a^ot^e f/yicr- /«»«//^7 A7efr&s
^f^h Terrace

Fig. 7.
Campignyien peoples in France, lielgium, and this
country were very partial to the black flint from the
chalk, and most of their implements bear the bulb of
percussion. They are well represented in the valley of
the Axe and on the hills at the mouth of the river, and
also on the surface of the Kent plateau and elsewhere.

{"jy) The sequence of the industries and their relative
positions with regard to the river terraces are well shewn
in Fig. 7 (Rutot).

26 SCPIWARTZ & Beevor, Dawn of Human Intention.

V. The "Bulbed" Eoliths of Croxley.

{y'^) In this section the term " Eoh'th " is used in the

connotation to express a tool of pre-palaeolithic type, for

the industry at Croxley cannot be considered as purely

Eolithic, as it belonj^s to the "Strepyien" or transition

[period from the Eolithic to the Palaeolithic cultures.

(79) With reference to the geology of the Croxley
Long Valley gravel pits, up to the present time the
remains of animals found are few. Sir John Evans
recorded Elephas antiquus and Cervus elepkus, and Prof.
Seeley has identified Equus fossilis and Bos. (?)

(80) The elevation of the chalk floor of this pit is
200 feet O. D., being 40 feet above the level of the river
"Gade" which skirts it. The gravel is moulded upon an
irregular chalk surface, differences of level of as much as
15 feet being obtained within a few yards. Hummocks
of Woolwich and Reading beds were left upon the chalk,
sometimes with layers of black ovate pebbles, sometimes
of yellow, white, or greenish sands, with botryoidal sarsen
stone concretions occasionally several feet in diameter.

(81) Above the floor a section shows about 20 feet of
sands with marked false bedding, containing pebbles and
cracked flints in varying proportion at different levels.
As a rule there is no loam in this sand, and even in the
least pebbly part a big flint, looking fresh from the chalk,
may occur.

(82) A narrow band of black gravel occurs, but not
persistently, in the middle and upper part of the section,
and at 20 feet from the chalk is a layer of clay, 2 feet in
thickness, which from its colour shows itself to be a relaid
remnant of the London clay, which has been denuded
from the upper levels of nearly all the adjacent country ;
this contains a few white flints, and is here and there
crumpled by dislocation from subsidences. Above this.

Manchester Metnoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8. 27

lies 6 feet of loamy or clayey " Plateau " gravel, which
extends for miles over this country.

(83) Compared with other pits in the valley there are
several peculiarities to be noted : —

(i) Its very sandy character, whereas loam is the
usual matrix. ;

(2) The numerous pipes — some even 20 yards in

diameter, of brown loam, or nearly pure brick
earth.

(3) The chalk over much of the base of the pit is

relaid to the extent sometimes of 2 or 3 feet,
with yellow pebbles scattered in it.

(4) In some parts a large proportion of the flints

are cracked, but frost pitted flints are seldom
found.

(84) Some hundreds of tons of gravel have been
moved daily and have yielded in the past two years
about 200 Palaeolithic implements. In type they closely
resemble those of St. Acheul. The large and very rude
Palaeoliths of the Chelleen type are also represented.

(85) Far more numerous than PalseoHths are these
Eoliths ; the workmen sifting the gravel roughly at the
lowest levels where the Eoliths are most numerous will
pick out about five to the cubic yard, most with the bulb
of percussion. They are quite unrolled, and rarely
scratched. The presumption accordingly is that we are
close to the habitat of their owners, except in the case of
the quite occasional much rolled Pala^olith or Eolith.

(86) A collection of several hundred specimens fell
readily and almost completely into the various divisions
of the classification already referred to. The bulbed
flakes fell at once into one of the three categories of
scrapers, push planes, and knives ; occasionally a drill,
anvil, or hammer might be found with the bulb, and but

28 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn of Hiunan Intention.

a very small remnant seemed to be the unutilized bye-
product of manufacture.

(87) Very rarely do these Eolithic tools show bilateral
symmetry, the majority have a considerable amount of
the original crust of the flint from which they were struck
left upon them. As to dimensions they are thick, and
generally as broad as they are long. These features,
though not precise for individual specimens, are very
distinctive when one looks at a collection, and similar
tools from the surface of the soil referred to below are apt
to run in a series of rather different proportions.

(88) When a good tool is found— in this pit at all
events — with the special characteristics of its class but
without the bulb of percussion, the presumption must be
that it is man's design, and not due to a chapter of
accidents.

(89) On the surface of the soil in the Croxley district,
bulbed tools of somewhat similar form to the above are
found in considerable numbers. They are never ochreous
in colour, and are manifestly not derived from the under-
lying gravel, and an inspection of a pit being worked
close at hand yielded no specimens.

(90) These surface bulbed flakes admit of a classifica-
tion corresponding to that which has been given for the
tools from the gravel. The same dressing for handling
and the same chipping for re-sharpening re-appear.

(91) No collection of them was made until a few
months back, and accordingly the exhibit here made is
the result of but a very meagre search over the plough-
lands of the neighbourhood, about 100 specimens being
collected at three sites of from one or two acres.

(92) Of the tools, knives have not presented them-
selves in any number, and such as have been found are
cruder than the usual long Neolithic knife flake, and

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. (Hi. (1909), No. 8. 29

resemble more the knives from the gravel. The larcjer
tools one is not surprised to pick up but seldom, as they
are likely to have been removed from the fields.

VI. EoLiTHic Chipping.

(93) Mr. S. Hazeldine Warren, in an able paper on the
origin of Eolithic flints by natural causes* suggests the
following possible means by which Eoliths may have
been formed : —

(i) Human agency.

(2) Water abrasion by wave action.

(3) Water abrasion by streams, rivers, and floods.

(4) Soil abrasion by the pressure and movement

of soil creep and foundering.

(5) The drag of ice.

(6) Wear and tear on the surface of the ground.

(94) Of these, the Human agency is the only one that
is applicable to all the situations in which Eoliths have
been found, the five remaining agents have to be invoked
in turn to account for chipping, which has a common
character independent of the location of the implements.

(95) ^^ ^•'6 prepared to admit that some of the
agents referred to may, under certain circumstances, pro-
duce flaking effects, which simulate those found on
Eoliths, but in considering the flaking produced by any
given agent, we must also consider its concomitants.
Thus, in the case of wave action, it has been shown by
Hahne and Rutotf that the Pseudo-Eoliths produced
under particular conditions at a certain part of the coast
of the Island of Ruegen are ephemeral. After being
exposed for a short time to the grinding action of large

* Jotirnal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. 35, 1905.
t " Eolithes et Pseudo-Eolithe?." Communication by A. Kutol to the
Societe d'Anlhropologie de Bruxelles, Jan., 1906.

,30 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn of Human Intention.

rounded blocks which are moved by the waves, certain
forms are produced which simulate Eoliths, but a further
exposure to this action speedily destroyed them.

(96) The same effect follows in streams, the action
in this case being one of abrasion rather than dis-
integration. Stream action on Palaeoliths as well as on
Eolithic forms associated with them is one of rounding of
edges rather than of flaking. MM. de Munck and
Ghilain* have independently carefully investigated the
action of rapid streams fed with angular fragments of
flint and with true Eoliths which were contained in the
beds, through which the upper reaches of the river ran.

Specimens from the river bed were taken from various
points down the stream, with the result that in a distance
of from I to 2 miles, the angular flints and Eoliths had
been transformed into rounded pebbles. Specimens from
the intermediate points shewed that the action was one of
abrasion and not of chipping.

(97) The experiments of MM. Boulef and Obermaier
with wash mills fitted with iron harrows cannot be
considered as having been carried out under conditions
comparable with those obtaining in natural streams.
F. J. BennettJ found that in the Kentish wash mills the
flints which had been in the mill a considerable time and
were out of the reach of the iron harrows were almost
perfectly smooth spheres.

(98) Striation and ' ladder fracture ' are concomitants
of ice action, and Eoliths subjected to this ai^ent are easily
recognisable.

* Congrfes prehislorique de France, Autun, 1907. '' La fin de la question
des Eoliths," A. Rutot.

t " L'origine des Eoliths," Marcelin Boule, L'' Anthi-opologic, vol. 16,
March-April, 1905.

X Geological Magazine , 1906, Decade v., iii, 69-72, 143-4.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8. 31

(99) Soil abrasion by the pressure and movement
due to soil creep and foundering is an agent of wider
application than the last named, but an examination
of deposits which have been subjected to considerable
thrust shows that the flints have been splintered and
shattered, but not chipped or flaked. Further if the edge
chipping were due to pressure on the flint in situ, we
should expect to find along the edge of the flint in
question, the series of detached flakes ; this, however, is
not the case.

(100) There is a large number of deposits of Tertiary
and Quaternary age in which the Eoliths have not been
subjected to the influence of rapidly flowing water, or to
pressure, as they are embedded in a matrix of fine sand
or clay which entirely surrounds them, the flints not
being in contact with one another. In some of the strata
in the Croxley pits Eoliths of the Strepyien period may
be found, most of them bearing bulbs quite unrolled, and
in their pristine state.

(loi) The action of atmospheric influences on flint is
well known as producing fractures, but rarely secondary
chipping.

(102) The action of herds of stampeding cattle which
has been invoked to account for the secondary working
of surface Eoliths cannot be seriously advanced when the
multitude of tools of Flenusien, Campignyien (with bulbs)
and other Neolithic industries is considered.

(103) We submit that in face of the very large number
of surface finds, the secondary work on which is identical
with that on specimens found in the drift, the advocates
of the theory of the formation of Eoliths by natural causes
must adduce satisfactory evidence of a natural agent
operating at or near the surface, if their claims are to be

32 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn of Human Intention.

substantiated, and this they have hitherto been unable
to do.

The Demonstration.

In submitting our case for the existence of EoHths as
the work of man, we relied upon the presentation of series
of actual specimens, as it is only by seeing and handling
the pieces themselves that their real signification can be
estimated.

The specimens exhibited may be divided into four
series. The first, which was experimental, showed the
characteristic traces of the various kinds of work for which
the tools had been used, together with the results of re-
sharpening on push planes and scrapers.

The second series consisted of Eoliths which were
unrolled, and in which the essential characteristics had
not been sensibly obliterated or masked.

The third series consisted of specimens from the
various Eolith-bearing formations, and showed the chrono-
logical sequence of the industries, the extent of their
distribution, and the persistence of type.

The fourth series consisted of accepted Palaeolithic
and Neolithic forms, shewing on their edges secondary
working- similar to that on T^oliths.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 8. 33

CATALOGUE OF SPECIMENS EXHIBITED.

1. Experimental series in flint showing the characteristic traces

of the work done on Hammer stones, Anvils, Choppers,
and Borers, and the characteristic traces of re-sharpening
on push planes and scrapers. 27 specimens.

2. T\pe-series of "Flenusien" tools from the surface of the

Kent Plateau, comprising Hammers, Pick Hammers,
longitudinal and transverse Choppers, x'\nvils. Push Planes,
Scrapers, Knives, and Borers. The "Flenusien" industry
is of Neolithic age, but of purely Eolithic facies.

18 specimens.

3. Series showing the persistence of Push Planes from the

middle Oligocene (Fagnien) down to modern times
(Tasmanian). 24 specimens.

4. Series showing the various types of Push Planes.

J/ specimens.

5. Series showing the persistence of Scrapers from the

middle Oligocene (Fagnien) down to modern times
(Tasmanian). 24 specimens.

6. Series showing the various types of Scrapers.

27 specimens.

7. Series showing the persistence of Knives and Borers from

the middle Oligocene (Fagnien) down to modern times.

26 specimejis.

8. Series showing the persistence of longitudinal and trans-

verse Choppers from the middle Oligocene (Fagnien)
down to modern times. 13 specimens.

9. Series of implements from Croxley (Herts.) of the Strepyien

period, each with a bulb of percussion. The Strepyien is
the transition period from the Eolithic to the Palaeolithic
culture. 2g specimens.

34 Schwartz & Beevor, Dawn of Human Intention.

10. Series of tools of Eolithic type from the surface of the soil

at Chalfont, near Croxley, mostly with the bulb of per-
cussion. Series of tools from the surface of the soil at
Ash (Kent Plateau) of the Campignyien period, mostly
with the bulb of percussion. The Campignyien industry
followed, and is possibly a development of the " Flenu-
sien," and is distinguished from it Ijy the feeling after
" form " in the tools. jo specimens.

11. Series showing ilie similarity of form in " Kentien "

(Tertiary) and '' Flenusien " (Neolithic) implements, both
from the Chalk Plateau of Kent. i6 specinuiis.

12. Series of Palceolithic and Neolithic bulbed flakes and imple-

ments of accepted form from Egypt and elsewhere, show-
ing traces due to work done and secondary work for re-
sharpening similar to those found on Eoliths.

2^ specimens.

13. Series of various Eolithic implements, Re-sharpeners,

Throwing Stones (.?), Stones for producing fire (?), and
Anvils. 20 specimens.

14. Series of Tasmanian Eolithic tools, collected by Dr. Fritz

Noetling in 1906 from the "Native Quarries."

75 specimens.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 9.

IX. The Dowels of some Egyptian Coffins of the
Xllth Dynasty.

By T. G. B. OsBORN, B.Sc,
Lecturer in Eco?iofnic Botany in the University of Manchester.

Received and read January 26th, igog.

Though we early obtained a fairly complete general
knowledge of the timbers employed by the ancient
Egyptians in building and carpentry, it does not appear
that any attention has as yet been paid to the details of
such knowledge. In the reports of the British Egyptolo-
gical committees the term " wooden objects " is generally
used, no mention being made of the species of timber
employed in their construction. The British Museum
Guide to the First and Second Egyptian Rooms states
that the wood in general use for coffins was " sycamore."
This name is rather misleading to English readers, who
are more familiar with Acer pseiidoplatmms under that
name than with Ficus sycomorus, the sycamore fig.

Wilkinson, in his "Manners and Customs of the
Ancient Egyptians," a book published as long ago as
1837, gives more details, telling us that sycamore was in
use for coffins, boxes, tables, etc., where large planks were
needed. Acacia was used for the planks and masts of
ships (this we find recorded in Herodotus), weapon handles
and furniture. Groves of this tree were cultivated at
Memphis and Abydos, while several species besides the
common A. Arabica {Niloticd) were employed. Boissier's
"Flora Orientalis " gives five species of trees, besides
shrubs, belonging to the genus Acacia, as occurring in the
Nile Valley.

February, 24th, igog.

2 OSHORN, Dozi'ds of some Egyptian Coffins.

Kendrick's " Ancient Egypt," thoii<^h published some
years later than Wilkinson, follows him in his information
on this subject.

The Manchester Museum has recentU- been enriched
by the complete set of objects from the tomb of Nekht-
Ankh and Khnumu-Nekht, found by Prof W. M. Flinders
Petrie at Rifeh. This set is a particularly fine example
of Xllth Dynasty work.

Through the kindness of Dr. W. E. Hoyle, the
Director of the Museum, I was afforded the opportunity
of examining in detail some chips from the sarcophagi,
with a view to determining the species of wood from
which they were made. Microscopic sections of the woods
were prepared, and from these, with the aid of Nordlinger's
" Holzquerschnitte," and the photomicrographs made by
Mr. J. A. Weale, of Liverpool, identification was possible.

Satisfactory sections of reasonable size were difficult
to obtain, as softening the wood, which is very hard and
brittle, in water led to its crumbling to powder. It was
necessary, therefore, to cut the sections without any
previous treatment, using a heavy razor or a scalpel.
The section thus cut was transferred dry to a slide glass,
and then moistened with water for examination under
the microscope. There was no difficulty in recognising
two types of wood among the fragments. These were
eventually determined as —

Ficus sycomorus.
Acacia sp.

The species of Acacia is, unfortunately, not deter-
minable. A. Arabica is the only Egyptian species with
which I have been able to compare it in detail. It is not
this, but might be any of the others.

An examination of the sarcophagi shows that they
are made of sycamore, while the Acacia was employed for

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. t).

the wooden pegs or dowels with which the planks were
joined. Acacia is a harder wood than sycamore, hence
its use for this purpose.

The Manchester Museum also contains a number of
boxes found at Kahun, a Xllth Dynasty town. These I
was also able to examine, and here again the dowels are
of Acacia wood. A full description of these boxes is given
in the " Kahun, Gurob and Hawara" report (Petrie 1). They
have flat lids of strips of wood passing lengthways, "secured
by two ledges across the inside. One ledge has pegs
along its outer side which fit into holes in the box, thus
the lid cannot be raised at one end. The other end of the
lid has a knob on it, which could be tied down to another
knob on the end of the box when it required fastening."

¥

Fig. I. — Box No. 259, side showing the holes into which the pegs of
the lid fitted. In this case there were two pegs on the ledge of the lid,
about 6 cms. apart.

When the holes AA wore down to slots, the pegs were shifted on the
ledge to fit into fresh holes BB, and so on. The shaded portion represents
the slots caused by the enlargement of the holes, the black portion the holes
the sides of which are not yet worn down.

Internal measurement of side i8'i cm. Fig. reduced \.

These pegs and knobs are made of the hard Acacia
wood, so that they may better withstand the wear they
would get, while the boxes in two cases are of cedar wood,
and in a third of sycamore, technically a " hard wood "

4 OSBORN, Dowels of some Egyptian Coffins.

{i.e. dicotyledonous), though softer than the Acacia. A
point of some little interest arises from this. The pegs
are of a hard wood fitting into holes bored in a softer one.
The result of constant opening and shutting of the box
has been in one case to enlarge the hole, box No. 259
{Fig. i), so that the peg no longer held. Fresh holes were
made, so that the inside of this box shows some eight
holes bored in it.

In box No. 255 the wearing away was obviated by
the letting in of a strip of Acacia wood over the hole

Fig. 2. — Box No. 255, the side showing inlet portion of
Acacia wood over the hole bored in the cedar wood side. The
Acacia has longitudinal shading.

Inside measurement of side = 23*5 cms.

Length of strip of Acacia wood = 9 7 cms.

Fig. reduced \.

{Fig. 2). Thus the peg would rub upon wood ot equal
hardness.

Box No. 254 is of sycamore, the top strip of wood on
the side into which the peg fitted is of Acacia. This
would be an improvement on the preceding case, since
the piece of wood inlet might tend to slip out.

Since the boxes are of the same approximate date,
the series has additional interest. It may be regarded as
a progressive one, the last type of box being a distinct
improvement on the first.

Since the above was written I have had the oppor-
tunity of examining the body coffin of Nekht-Ankh.
Each half is hewn out of a single log of sycamore wood.

MancJiester Moitoirs, Vol. lizi. {igog), No. 9. 5

The halves are held in place by two tenons each side, let
into slots, while these are fastened by pins of wood about
'5 cms. in diameter, passing through holes drilled through
the sides. The tenons are sycamore, but the pins are of
Acacia. This furnishes another instance of the use of
Acacia wood by the Ancient Egyptians in places where
great hardness and strength was required.

LITERATURE.

BoissiER, E. "Flora Orientalis." 1872. Vol. 2, p. 635.

British Museum. "A Guide to the First and Second Egyptian
Rooms." 1904. p- 15-

Kendrick, J. "Ancient Egypt under the Pharaohs." 1850.
Vol. I, p. 220.

Petrie, W. M. Flinders.

"Kahun, Gurob and Hawara." 1890, p. 24.
*' Gizeh and Rifeh." 1907. p. 12.

Wilkinson, Sir J. G. "The Manners and Customs of the
Ancient Egyptians." 1837. Vol. 3, p. 167.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 10.

X. On the Diatomaceous Deposit of the Lower Bann
Valley, Co.'s Antrim and Derry, and Prehistoric
Implements found therein.

By J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S.,

Manchester Museum.

(Communicated by Dr. IV. E. Hoyle, F.R.S.E.)

'(deceived and read Jamiary 26th, igog.)

CONTENTS :

I. Introduction.
II. Description of the Diatomaceous Deposit.

III. Description of the Prehistoric Implements.

a. Flint Implements.

h. Clay-slate and other Implements.

c. Grindstones and Whetstones.

d. Inscribed Whetstone.

e. Grain-rubber,

IV. Conclusion.
V. Bibliography.

I. Introduction.

For several years past the late Mr. R. D. Darbishire
has been particularly interested in the extensive diato-
maceous deposit along the valley of the lower Bann, and
in the prehistoric implements found so abundantly therein,

April 2nd, igOQ.

2 Jackson, Deposit of the Lozver Bann Valley.

and with the kind assistance of Messrs. R. Welch and
R. Bell, both of Belfast, he accumulated a considerable
amount of material, both in specimens and details of
various sections. His keen interest in the matter led him,
in 1903, in spite of his advanced years, to go over and
personally investigate the district under the guidance of
the above-named gentlemen. It was his intention, ulti-
mately, to record his observations and give a detailed
account of the various finds. Failing health and other
causes prevented him from carrying out his project, and
in 1907 he requested me to carry on his observations,
placing all his MS. notes, and fine collection of imple-
ments, since presented by him to the Manchester Museum,
entirely at my disposal.

At his request I spent some time in this district early
in 1908, and made many further useful observations.

His death has, unfortunately, somewhat interfered
with my original plans, and I have, therefore, thought it
advisable to place on record the observations made, so far
as they have gone, and to describe the more interesting
objects in his collection, along with others contained in
the magnificent series belonging to Mr. R. Bell, and
coming from the same locality.

Various accounts of implements found in this neigh-
bourhood have been written by several authors, including,
amongst others, the late Sir John Evans ; the Rev. James
O'Laverty ; Mr. Robert Day, junr., of Cork, and Mr. W. J.
Knowles, of Ballymena, a bibliography of whose papers
will be found at the end.

The peculiar character of many of the objects
described in this paper has not been touched upon
by previous writers, they having only been revealed
during the recent extensive working of the diatomaceous
deposit.

MancJicster Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 10. 3

II. Description of the Diatomaceous Deposit.

Associated with the bogs and alhivial flats along the
valley of the lower Bann— the division between Co.
Antrim and Co. Derr}- — is an extensive deposit of
diatomaceous earth, known locally as "Bann Clay." It
extends all along both banks of the river from Toome
almost to Coleraine. At Toome the deposit, so far as
can be judged from superficial indications, extends at
least a mile west of the Bann, forming what are known
as the Creagh meadows. It is perfectly flat and only a
few feet above the level of the river. It is here some
3 feet in thickness, and rests on about I foot of
peaty material overlying sand. The deposit appears to
be finest and lightest at the bottom, the upper portion
being coarser and full of impurities, and also much
stained in places with iron. Nearer Toome, on the
Antrim side of the river, it is about 4 feet 6 inches in
thickness, and of much the same composition. At both
these places it is at the surface. {Plate I.)

Good sections are visible along both banks of the
river to Lough Beg. These, however, can only be
examined from about April to September when the
Bann level is below the bottom of the beds. At other
times the water is sometimes almost level with the top of
the banks.

Below the peat to the west of Church Island, on
Lough Beg, the same deposit is met with, and at the
north end of the Lough, near the Ferry, I observed it
under 8 to 10 feet of peat in April, 1908, in a section
about a hundred yards from the river. Here, however,
the bed was only 18 inches thick. The overlying peat
was full of the roots — corkers — of large trees. Owing to
the saturated condition of the ground I was unable to

4 Jackson, Deposit of the Loiver Bann Valley.

ascertain the exact nature of the beds ininiediatcly below
the diatom deposit.

Between Lough Beg and Portglenone it is from
4 to 6 feet in thickness, resting in some places on a dark
gray stiff clay, and in others on a layer of peaty soil.
The banks of the river near Culbane and Portglenone are
about 5 feet high and consist of a small covering of
surface soil, then the diatom deposit, and below that a
clayey peat. At some little distance from the river the
deposit passes under peat of the ordinary kind.

Opposite Culbane, on the Antrim side, the same
deposit is 6 feet thick under 3 to 6 inches of soil, and
rests on what appears to be a blue marl.

North of Portglenone the deposit nearly disappears,
being only i foot deep at Annaghcraw. Near Portna it
lies 2 feet deep over peat, and again makes its appearance
along the narrow flat stretch north of Kilrea — 15 miles
from Toome — and ultimately dies out south of Coleraine.

This vast deposit is of great commercial value, and
several firms are working it at Toome and Lough Beg.
At Toome it has been worked for several years by
Messrs. J. & F. Grant, to whom I am indebted for much
information. The following chemical analysis was made
by Messrs. R. R. Tatlock & Thomson, of Glasgow, on a
sample taken from their works : —

Raw. C.ilcined.

Silica 74"90 per cent 8 7 '66 per cent.

Alumina 6'68 ,, 782 ,,

Iron O.xide 1*90 ,, 2'22 ,,

Lime I'oi ,, i"i8 „

Magnesia '72 ,, -84 „

Alkalies 24 „ 28 „

Organic matter and

combined water .. 7-20 ,, —

Moisture 7'35 ,, —

lOO'OO ioo"oo

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. I Hi. (1909), No. 10. 5

"Microscopical examination shows that sample con-
tains Httle or no sand."

The deposit, which is of a dull, bluish-gray colour,
with a brownish tinge when in situ, is dug out in the
shape of bricks with a turf spade, and spread out on the
surface of the neighbouring fields to dry, when it becomes
quite white. In this state it has a specific gravity of "5422.
When thoroughly dry it is milled to a fine powder,
and put up in sacks for export.

At Culbane, and further north, the deposit, though to
all appearances of the same composition, is not used in
the same manner, but is dug out by the local farmers,
mixed with clay, and made into bricks.

In the course of working the deposit at the various
places, and especially near Culbane, large numbers of flint
and stone weapons have been found embedded in the
deposit itself, and in the overlying peat. A number of
these are described in the following pages.

Through the kindness of Mr. S. Chaffers, of the Victoria
University, Manchester, I am able to give the following
fairly representative list of the principal diatoms occurring
in the deposit at Toome : —

Surirella biseriata Breb. var. Infrous Kiitz.
„ elegans Ehr.
„ robust a Ehr.
Piniuihxria nobilis Ehr.
„ major Kiitz.

„ heiiiiptera Kiitz.

„ stieptorapJie var minor Cleve.

EpitJicmia Hyiidiiuriini Wm. Smith.

„ turgida Kiitz \2,x. giaiiulata.

„ Miilleri.

Navicula (Caloneis) Silicula Ehr. var alpina Cleve.
,, „ latiusciila Kiitz.

6 ]\CK'>0^, Deposit of the LcK'cr Batm Valley.

N(iru'?ila ( Diploids ) clliptica Kiitz.

„ (Neidiuvi) Iridis Ehr.
Gomphoyiema gemmatuvi (Lyngb.) Ag.
Stauroncis Plioenicentron Ehr.
Cyvibclla EJirenbergii Kiitz.

„ aspcra Ehr. = {C. gastroidcs Kiitz).

„ Innceolata var. cormita, Ehr.
Cvniatoplcura clliptica lireb.

„ hibernica W'ln. Smith.

StepJianodisciis astrea Grun.
Melosira Normanni Arnott.

III. Description of the Prehistoric Imtlements.

a. Implevioits of I'liiit.

By far the most abundant implements found in
working the diatom deposit at Culbane and other places
in the Bann valley consist of flint, and ma\' be roughly
divided into several classes. The respective terms, how-
ever, applied to them, as well as to the succeeding series
of implements, are intended more to assist in their
classification than to determine the uses to which the)-
were applied.

Flakes. — Flint flakes appear to be the most numerous ;
they have been found in large quantities in the deposit
near Culbane. Some thousands have also been discovered
in the neighbourhood of Toome, but the majority of
these were obtained from the supposed crannoge-sites on
Toome Bar (Day '67, and h'.vans '68).

The Darbishire and Bell collections contain examples
from each of these localities. The flakes are of all sizes,
long and short, narrow and broad, and vary considerably
in thickness. They vary in length from i inch to as
much as 5 or 6 inches. Some examples present little or
no secondarj- working, while others exhibit a considerable

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 10. 7

amount, having been chipped along one or both edges,
and occasionally, to some extent, on the face ; the base in
many cases is worked into a distinct tang. Plate II.
exhibits a few typical examples from Culbane.

Scrapers. — A few of the flint flakes have been chipped
into a rounded outline at the ends or sides, so as to form
" scrapers." The various forms given by Evans ('97), the
horseshoe-shaped (figs. 204, 205, etc.), the kite-shaped
(fig. 212), the disc-shaped (fig. 219), as well as the flat
and hollowed forms (figs. 225 and 226A), are all repre-
sented in the collections from Culbane. In Mr. Bell's
collection is a Culbane example, 3^ inches long and
3 inches wide, trimmed on three of its edges ; it looks as
if designed either for a scraper or chopper.

Knives. — Several of the long narrow flakes should be
classed undoubtedly as knives. The Darbishire collection
contains a number of interesting examples from Culbane.
They vary from 2 to 5 inches in length, and the cutting
edge, usually curved, is formed by the natural fracture of
the flint. The opposite edge, which, if left shari3, would
be found very troublesome, has been dressed and blunted,
especially near the pointed end of the flake where the
index finger of the user was no doubt placed. The broad
end has been formed into a tang, either for insertion into
a handle, or, if of sufficient length, for use without.
{Plate II.)

Borers. — Under the head of borers might be classed a
number of small, slender, pointed implements of flint
found at Culbane. They are an inch or more in length
and about three quarters of an inch wide at the base, and
are finely chipped along both edges. They might have
served either as small borers or as arrow-points. Fig. 228,
given by Evans ('97), illustrates this type. Large borers,
heavy at the butt and chipped to a long point at the

8 Jackson, Deposit of tJtc Lower Baun ]'aUev.

other end, similar to that figured b\' Evans ('68, pi. i8,
f. 9), liave also been found at Culbane.

Some of the thicker ridged flakes, i.e., triangular in
section with a single ridge formed b}' two facets on the
convex face, have also been formed into boring tools. In
these cases the edges and opposite faces of the flake have
been chipped away, especially near tlie pointed end, so
that the cutting edges are at opposite angles. These
tools ajjpear better adapted for boring continuousl}- in
one direction. As the Culbane examples appear to be
rather an interesting and unusual tj'pe, a figure is given
below of a specimen in the Darbishire collection. (See
also Plate JI.)

Celts and CJiisels. — Mr. Bell possesses several examples
from Culbane of the long, narrow chisel t}'pe of celt, with
somewhat straight sides. One specimen, 6 inches long
and i^ inches wide, roughly chipped to shape, has the
cutting edge formed b)' the intersection of two facets — a
characteristic feature of the "Kitchen-midden type,"
described b\' Coffey and Praeger (04) in their paper on
the " Larne Raised Beach." Another cxamj^le, finches
long and i.^, inches wide in the middle, has been dressed

MancJiester ]\Teinoirs, JW. liii. (1909), A^^. 10- 9

almost to a point at each end, and might have been used
as a borer or pick. A somewhat similar example, but
not so pointed, is in the Darbishire collection ; it is also
from Culbane.

So far no specimens of oval flint celts have been found
at Culbane. Mr. l^ell, however, has a good example from
Toome ]5ar, which measures 4A inches long and 2 inches
wide, and is roughly chipped on both sides. It bears
some resemblance to the " Larne type," figured in the
above-mentioned paper (fig. 8, no. 6).

None of the flint celts examined show any signs of
polishing.

Arrozv-fieads. — Three types of beautifully finished
flint arrow-heads have been found in the deposit at Cul-
bane ; these are all represented in the Darbishire collec-
tion. They comprise (i) the leaf-shaped, (2) the indented,
(3) the stemmed, and are all well illustrated in the British
Museum "Guide to the Antiquities of the Stone Age,
1902," on pi. 9, figs. 2 and 3, pi. 10, figs. 5 and 9, and pi. 3,
fig. 5. Some are made of the same peculiar pale-brown
flint as that of tlie ordinary flakes, while others are almost
transparent. They are all exquisitely fashioned, the
chipping running right over them.

Along with the arrow-heads, etc., in the Darbishire
collection, are several flaking implements, " fabricators,"
and a number of water-worn pebbles of quartzite, etc.,
with abraded ends, " hammer-stones," all of which have
been found in the deposit at Culbane. These clearly
indicate industry' in the immediate neighbourhood.

b. Clay-slate and other impleuients.

Besides implements manufactured of flint, a large
number composed of coarse clay-slate, basalt, sandstone,
etc., have also been found in the diatom deposit at Culbane,

lo Jackson, Deposit of tlie Loiver Bann Valley.

the materials from which these were made being, in all
probability, obtained from the glacial drift which masks
the Lower Basalt of the neighbourhood. The majority of
those in the Darbishire collection are of clay-slate, a
material which appears better adapted, probably, than
any other for the easy manufacture of certain implements,
many of the specimens having been merely ground to a
cutting edge.

The implements of this section might be conveniently
grouped under two heads — celts and chisels.

Celts. — A small proportion only of the clay-slate
series have the typical shape of a celt. In Mr. Bell's
collection are several examples varying from 4 to 6 inches
in length and from i^, to 2\ inches in width, all of which
have been roughly ground and polished. They mostly
possess a semi-circular cutting edge, but one specimen,
5^ inches long, has a straight cutting edge bevelled on
each side. In my own collection is a very good specimen
obtained by Mr. Bell, 2 feet from the surface in the
deposit at Culbane. It measures j\ inches long, 3 inches
wide (except at the butt which is only i inch), and
1} inches thick ; it weighs 2lbs. It has been roughly
ground all over, but portions of the original surface are
visible in hollow places. The cutting edge shows signs
of hard usage, being much broken. {Plate II J., Fig. 11.)

Celts of basalt and other rocks are, on the whole,
more numerous than those of clay-slate. Owing, pre-
sumably, to the greater hardness of such rocks they
would be found more serviceable for the manufacture of
celts.

The majority in the Darbishire and Bell collections
have been wholly or partially polished, but some have
been roughly chipped to shape only. They are all of
much the same general shape, i.e.., the middle of the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 10. 11

implement swelling into an oval form, tapering to a more
or less narrow rounded butt at one end and to a semi-
circular cutting edge at the other. On the average the
sizes vary from 5 to 1 1 inches in length, and from 2\ to
4 inches in breadth. Some appear to have been formed
for dealing a heavy cutting blow ; other smaller examples
may have been employed as smoothing and polishing
tools, adzes, or chisels. Two celts of sandstone found at
Culbane are in the Darbishire collection. Another very
interesting example in this collection is a re-chipped
polished celt of felstone, which was also found at Culbane.
It has evidently been broken when in use, and afterwards
chipped away in an attempt to make some other type of
implement. The smallest celt in the above collection is
one composed of slate ; it is 2 inches long, i inch wide,
and |- inch thick. It has been ground all over, and was
found in the deposit near Culbane. A similar implement
of slate, but slightly larger, was found at Toome by
Mr. l^^ell.

Numbers of stone celts from Toome have also been
described by Wilde ('57), Day ('67), and Evans ('68).

CJiisels. — A good example of a sandstone chisel was
found 3 feet from the surface in peat overlying the diatom
deposit at Culbane, and is now in the Darbishire collec-
tion. It measures 6| inches long, and f inches wide, and
is nearly square in section. It has been ground to a
cutting edge at one end and smoothed on two sides.

The greater number of the clay-slate implements have
a chisel-like appearance. The examples in the Darbishire
collection vary considerably in size and shape, but are all
of the same rude character, being for the most part com-
posed of flattish pieces of rock with one end ground
down to a cutting edge. The sizes vary from about 2
to 8 inches long, and from i to 2 inches wide, some

12 Jackson, Deposit of tJie Loiver Bann Valley.

specimens beinf]^ oiil}' \ inch in lliickness. Traces of
grinding arc visible in places on the sides of the lai'f^jer
specimens ; the smaller examples have, in many cases,
been ground all over. {Plate III..)

A well-finished implement of cla\--slate of a triangular
shape was obtained 6 inches in the deposit near Culbane.
It measures 4;' inches long, 2 J, inches wide at the cutting
edge (which is semi-circular), and is onl)- 7"- inch in thick-
ness. This specimen is in m}' own collection. {Plate III.,
^^S- 7) I'l tl''C Darbishire collection is the fore-part of an
almost similar implement, which was also found at Cul-
bane, along with a rough triangular piece of cla\'-slate,
showing traces of grinding along one side, and at the
broad end on both faces, with the intention presumably of
forming a cutting edge.

Under the head of chisels might also be included a
coarse cla)'-s!ate implement in the above collection, 10',
inches long, 2% inches wide, and \\ inches thick, weighing
2\ lbs. ; it was also found at Culbane. it has been roughl}-
chipped in [)laces, and one end ground down to a sharp
cutting edge. {Plate J I J., /v;'". 10.) Used as a wedge for
splitting timber it would prove most effective, and it
appears to me highly prcjbablc that many of the larger
chisel-like implements were used for that puri:)Ose.

Tlie most remarkable implement of claj'-slatc, how-
ever, in the Darbishire collection, is one which was found
near Culbane in 1901, about 3 feet from the surface in the
diatom deposit overlaid by bog. It measures 17 inches
long, and is 4^ inches wide at one end, narrowing down
to 2^ inches at the other. It has been, in all probabilit}-,
several inches longer, as it appears to have been broken at
the narrow end. The thickness is only i inch throughout
and it weighs 61bs.

Implements of this descri[)tion are exceedingly rare

MaiicJiester Afemoijs, J^o/. liii. (1909), No. 10. 13

in Ireland. The only reference I can find to an imple-
inent of a similar character is that given by Sir W. R.
Wilde ('57, p. 43.) Hi.s description is as follows : — "The
largest celt yet discovered in Ireland is formed of coarse
claj'-slate. It is 22 inches long, 3;' inches broad at its
widest portion ; but is only i inch thick ; the arras has
been removed on the edge, as shown b}' the diagram of
its section (fig. 45). It might have been intended as the
coulter of a plough for soft ground, but bears no evidence
of ever hax'ing been so emplo\^ed. This beautiful speci-
men was found in deepening the bed of the river Black-
water, two miles below Charlemont, County of Armagh."
The Culbane implement has been roughly chipped in
some places, and smoothed in others, along both its
edges. The broader end has been treated similarly but
not sufficiently to ])roduce a cutting edge. Curiousl}-
enough, if the broken end was continued to a point like
the Black water imj^lement, it would be exactly 22 inches
in length. Its precise use is problematic, but the sug-
gestion made by Wilde seems a likely one and might
apply equally well here. The implement might also have
been used as a rough sort of spade, or hoe, for working in
soft ground. {Plate III., Fig. 12.)

c. Grindstones and Whetstones.

Grindstones. — Several stones of various shapes and
sizes, for grinding and polishing implements, have been
found at Culbane, but so far as I can ascertain, none have
hitherto been described from that place.

The following are some of the chief: — No. i was found
in sand up in Culbane Village ; Nos. 2 to 5 in the diatom
deposit near Culbane ; No. 6 fifteen inches from the
surface in peat overl}'ing the deposit at Culbane.

14 Jackson, Deposit of tJie Lower Batin Valley.

(i) A fairly heavy mass of fine-grained reddish sand-
stone, 15 inches long, 6 inches wide, and 5 inches thick,
weighing 20 lbs. It is sub-quadrate in section, and all four
sides have been used. The grinding surfaces are long and
fairly flat, ending each way with a slight upward
curvature. (Darbishire collection.) {Plate J V.)

(2) A smaller semi-circular slab of reddish sandstone,
somewhat similar to the above, 9 inches long, 5 inches
wide, and i to 2 inches thick ; weight 5 lbs. lioth the
upper and lower surfaces have been used. (Darbishire
collection.)

(3) A flat angular slab of soft yellowish-gray sand-
stone, 10 inches long, 9 inches wide, and 2 inches thick ;
weight 6 lbs. The centre of one face is considerably
hollowed out by use. (Bell collection.)

(4) A small specimen of light-griiy sandstone, 5 inches
long, 4 inches wide, and i inch thick. (Bell collection.)

(5) Two smaller fragments of light-gray sandstone,
each exhibiting several, more or less deeply worn, concave
surfaces. (Darbishire collection.)

(6) A small flat piece of sandstone, 4^ inches long,
3] inches wide, and |~ inch thick, having a saucer-like
depression in the centre, 2]; inches in diameter each way,
and I inch deep. Its precise use is doubtful ; by some
authorities it is looked upon as a palette for grinding
colours. (Bell collection.)

Whetstones. — Mr. Bell possesses two typical whet-
stones of clay-slate, which were discovered at Culbane in
the deposit. One is 7 inches long and \\ inches wide,
with a hollow groove from edge to edge running the
entire length {Plate 111., Fig. 3) ; the other, found 3 feet
from the surface, measures j\ inches long and lA inches
wide, and has a flat smoothed upper surface with deepl)-
incised markings in tjnc or two i)laccs {Plate III., hig. l).

Ma7icJieste7' Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 10. 15

A similar example, but much larger, is figured by Wood-
Martin ('95, fig. 152) from the site of a lake-dwelling in
the island of Achill.

d. Inscribed Whetstone.

Another example of a clay-slate whetstone in Mr. Bell's
collection is of peculiar interest. It was found near
Culbane 2 feet from the surface, embedded in the deposit
and measures 4 inches long and \\ inches wide, and
possesses two flat surfaces. One end is perforated with a
circular hole. On one of the flat surfaces near the per-
forated end are a number of small delicately inscribed

characters which can easily be distinguished by the naked
eye. Apparently the whole surface of the stone has been
covered with similar characters, but, owing to wear, those
at the opposite end have become partially obliterated, but
with a lens traces of their presence are indicated. Such
of the markings as are clearly visible are given in the
following sketch, drawn slightly larger than their natural
size, but occupying approximately the same relative
positions.

According to Wood-Martin ('95) Oghamic scribings
have been found on bone pins and other ornaments
from the lake-dwellings of Ballinderry and Strokestown.
He gives two figures (figs. 13 & 14, p. 41) representing

1 6 Jackson, Deposit of tJic Loiuer Bann Valley.

some of the rune-like characters, and stales that photo-
i^raphs of these examples were submitted to Prof. Stephens
of Copenhagen, but he could not decide whether they
were actually runes ; and neither Sir John Rhys nor Sir
Samuel Ferguson were able to interpret the seemingl)'
well-marked Oghamic scorings.

Ogham appears to have been used for mortuary
inscriptions carved on pillar-stones, as well as for com-
municating by messengers, and it seems at least possible
that the Culbane inscribed stone may well have been
used for the latter purpose. {Plate III., Fig. 2.)

c. Grain-rubber, or .saddle-qiiern.

A fine example of a "Grain-rubber" was found some
little time ago in the peat overlying the diatomaceous
deposit, 1 8 inches from the surface, near Portglenone.
As it has never been previously described, I take the
opportunity of putting it on record here.

It was obtained by Mr. Bell and is at present in his
collection. It is composed of what appears to have been
originally a coarse dolerite, the whole of the felspar of
which has now become weathered out, leaving the entire
surface of the stone full of innumerable holes and cavities.
This is, in all probability^ due to the action of the peat in
which it lay. It measures 23 inches long, 12 inches wide,
and 4 inches thick, and weighs 62lbs. As will be seen from
the photograph {Plate IV.)., its upper surface is hollowed
out in tlie form of a curve.

No top-stone, or rubber, occurred with it, hut a
rounded specimen of Antrim Chalk, 5x4x2 inches,
was found in the diatomaceous deposit below the peat.
This, though it has the general appearance of a rubber,
seems scarcely large enough, or (;f the right material, to
have been used in connection with the above.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. iiii. (1909), No. 10. 17

IV. Conclusion.

With regard to the precise age of the various imple-
ments found at Culbane, nothing, unfortunately, can be
decided until further observations have been made. There
appears, however, to be sufficient evidence to mark a long
period of development — probably from Early Neolithic
right into the Bronze Age.

Wherever possible some idea of the horizon in the
diatom deposit at which they occurred has been given,
but, as can readily be understood, many of them have
only been found on the disintegration of the material in
the process of brick-making, and their position, therefore,
cannot be stated. Even where the horizon is given, it is,
unfortunately, not of any great archaeological value, as
while the deposit was being formed, and possibly long
afterwards, it would be so soft that anything falling on its
surface would sink in some places right to the bottom,
and in other places possibly not so deep. The irregular
shape, too, of many of the implements may be due rather
to the original form of the stones from which they were
made, than to any particular design.

So far as I can ascertain, no Bronze implements have
been found in the deposit itself, though numbers of Bronze
weapons of various kinds have been found in the bed of
the Bann at Portglenone, and at Toome, indiscrimiiiately
mixed with flint arrow-heads, stone celts, etc., but these
are possibly the relics of various fights at fords which, in
all probability, existed at these places. These finds have
been fully dealt with by O'Laverty ('57), Day ('67), Wood-
Martin ('86), Alunro ('90), and others.

Regarding the probable uses of the numerous flint
flakes found in the vicinity of the Bann, the suggestion
made by Sir John Evans ('68) that they were used mounted

1 8 Jackson, Deposit of tJie Lower Bann Valley.

for spearint^ fish, seems a very likely' one, considering the
fact that Toome is so noted for its salmon fishery. This
fact would tend to make the Bann valley an important
fishing centre in former times as it is to-day.

It is probable that many, if not all, of the larger and
broader flakes were used as knives, as pointed out by the
Rev. G. R. Buick ('84) in his description of flint implements
found at Glenhue, Co. Antrim, about four miles east of
Culbane. He argues that their comparatively great breadth
precludes their use as spear heads. Many of them also
might have served equally well as scrapers, the sharp
cutting edge, formed by the natural fracture of the flint,
being especially adapted for this purpose.

Tliey were probably seldom used unmounted. Stevens
('70) mentions the finding of a flake of gray flint in the bed
of the Bann, at Toome, which had one end wrapped round
with moss (Hypnuni brcvirostre) intended apparently as a
substitute for a handle. This is interesting, but further
details are desirable.

In conclusion I must gratefully acknowledge the very
kind assistance received from Mr. R. Bell in lending me
numerous specimens and guiding me over the district.
To Mr. R. Welch, M.R.I. A., I am also much indebted for
advice and for several of the photographs accompanying
this article, and to Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A., F.R.S.E., for
his kindness in communicating the paper.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 10. 19

V. Bibliography of Literature referred to
IN the foregoing pages.

1857. O'Laverty, Rev. James : " Relative antiquity of Stone

and Bronze Weapons." — Ulster Journ. of Archczo/ogy,

vol. 5, 1857, pp. 122—127.
1857. Wilde, Sir W. R., M.R.I. A. : "Catalogue of Antiquities

in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy," Dublin,

1857-

1867. Day, Robert, jun., F.S.A. : "Flint Implements found on

supposed crannoge sites on Toome Bar." — Jotirn.
Kilkenny Archceological Society, vol. 5 (N.S.), 1867,
pp. 227 — 228.

1868. Evans, Sir John, F.R.S., etc.: "On some Discoveries

of Stone Implements in Lough Neagh, Ireland." —

Archceologia, vol. 41, 1868, pp. 397 — 408.
1870. Stevens, Edward T. : " Flint Chips," London, 1870.
1881. Knowles, W. J., M.R.I.A. : "Flint Implements from the

Valley of the Bann." — -Journ. Anihropol. Ins/., vol. 10,

(1880— i), p. 150.

1884. BuicK, Rev. G. Raphael, A.M. : " Flint-workshop sites
at Glenhue, Co. Antrim." — Journ. Roy. Hist, and
Archceol. Assoc, of Ireland, vol. 6 (4th series), 1884,
pp. 120 — 126.

1886. Wood-Martin, W. G., M.R.I.A. : "The Lake Dwellings
of Ireland," Dublin, 1886.

1890. MuNPO, R. : " The Lake Dwellings of Europe," London,

1890.
1895. Wood-Martin, W. G., M.R.I.A.: "Pagan Ireland,"

London, 1895.

1897. Evans, Sir John, F.R.S., etc. : "Ancient Stone Imple-
ments of Great Britain," 2nd edition, London, 1897.

1904. Coffey, George, and R. Lloyd Praeger : "The
Antrim Raised Beach." — Proc. Roy. Irish Acad,,
vol. 25, Sect. C, No. 6, Dec. 1904.

20 Jackson, Deposit of the Lower Bann Valley,

Plate I. Section of the Diatomaceous Deposit at Toome, Co.
Antrim. (Photo by R. Welch.)

Manchester Memoirs, JW. LIU. ( Xo. I0|

Plate I.

22 Jackson, Deposit of the Lmver Bann Valley,

Plate 11. Worked Flint Flakes from Culbane, Co. Derry.
[Darbishire collection.]

I St row. — Spear heads.
2nd ,, . — Knives.
3rd ,, . — Borers, etc.

iraihlu-sU-r Memoirs. ]'ol. I.lII.(Xo. \»).

I'l.r/,- IF.

Jt

(

I L

24 Jackson, Deposit of the Lower Bann Valley.

Plate III. Clay-slate Implements from Culbane, Co. Derry.
[Darbishire, Bell, and author's collections.]

Figs. I to 3. — Whetstones (No. 2 — Inscribed).
,, 4 to 10. — Chisels.
„ II. — Celt.

,, 12. — Hoe.?

Maiultcstci Memoirs, Vol. LI II. (No. 10>

Plate III.

I I — L-

26 Jackson, Deposit of the Lower Baun Valley

Plate IV. Upper figure. — Grindstone found at Culbane.
[Darbishire collection.] Lower figure. — Saddle-
Quern found near Culbane. [Bell collection.]
(Photos by R. Welch.)

MiViclicsU-y Memoirs, ]',>/. LI 1 1 {No. 10 j

rialc IV.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. liii. (1909), No. 11.

XL A Preliminary Account of the Submerged Vege-
tation of Lake Windermere as affecting the
Feeding Ground of Fish.

By Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.

Received and read February 2jrd, jgog.

Mr. Francis Nicholson, of the Windermere and District
Angling Association, has drawn my attention to the fact
that several of the shallow bays of Lake Windermere
have of late years become filled with various aquatic
plants, which have interfered considerably with the fishing
in that district. These gravelly reaches of the lake are
the natural feeding ground for trout and other fish, and
when covered with a rank vegetation, the fish are unable
to get at the worms and other animal organisms, and are
therefore driven to seek their food in the deeper water of
the lake, where they fall a prey to their enemy the pike
and the larger trout. Not only is the number of trout
thereby reduced, but the absence of fish from the shallow
water considerably limits the possibility of fly-fishing,
which should be best in these parts of the lake, for in
deep water the trout are practically only caught by
trolling.

The efforts of the Angling Association to improve the
fly-fishing in Windermere, by turning into the lake many
thousands of yearling and two-year-old fish of local and
foreign strain, have therefore been checkmated by the de-
terioration of the feeding grounds for these young fish and
their consequent destruction by their voracious enemies.

It seemed, therefore, important to examine the vege-
tation which is filling up the bays in question, and to find

Apri/ 7th, igog.

2 Weiss, Submerged Vegetation of Lake Windermere.

out, if possible, what measures might be employed to
keep it down and so restore the fishing prospects of this
popular sheet of water. For the final solution of the
problem, the plants in question will have to be carefully
studied at different periods of the >'ear, and for several
seasons, to see what the effect of certain preventative
measures may be, but as a preliminary examination of the
lake and its submerged vegetation undertaken during last
summer and autumn has suggested a remedy, it seemed
well to publish a preliminary account so that the author-
ities concerned in maintaining the fisheries might be
induced to revert to certain practices, which in the past
have been effective in keeping the submerged vegetation
in check.

In October last I visited together with Mr. Nicholson
a number of the affected portions of Lake Windermere.
An examination of the submerged vegetation at the
north end of Parson Bay, about 50 feet from the shore
and in 12 feet of water, showed that the bottom of this
bay was covered with a dense matted growth of Nitella
opaca some 18 inches in height, while above it spread
long straggling shoots of the Canadian Pondweed Elodea
canadensis. When visited in the autumn the Nitella was
dying down forming a black foetid mass, while on the
long rapidly grown summer shoots of Elodea, were the
numerous short dense autumn branches destined to repro-
duce this plant in the next season.

Nearer the centre of Parson Bay, where the overflow
from the sewage works falls into the lake, the vegetation
was particularly luxuriant. About 20 feet from the bank
and in 6 feet of water, the Water-Milfoil Myriophylluvi
was very plentiful, coming up to the surface of the water,
while below it was a stratum of Elodea, and below that
again the dense growth of Nitella. It would be quite

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. \\. 3

impossible in a place like this, or indeed in any part of
this bay, for fish to get any ground food.

A little to the north of Ramp Holme Island about 50
feet from the shore in 13 to 15 feet of water, streaming
plants of the Pondvveed Potavwgeton praelongus (Wulf)
were seen coming up to the surface of the water while the
ubiquitous Nitella here too covered the bottom of the lake.
At this point the Canadian pondweed was not met with ;
the slightly deeper water or the less sheltered position of
this region may have been unfavourable to its growth.
The Pondweed {Potamogeton praelongus) occurs up and
down the lake at intervals between the Ramp Holme
Island and Storrs Hall and affords I am told a good
harbour for pike and perch.

A visit to a bay at Cunsey, close to the Fish Hatchery,
was of considerable interest. Here the water is shallower,
and no Nitella was seen, but the bottom of the lake was
covered with the Canadian pondweed {Elodea), or Polly,
as it is locally called. Some two jears ago, about Christ-
mas time, the bay was cleaned, and I was told the present
growth of Eloden is only about one quarter as dense as it
was before the dragging. There was a little Potamogeton
present, but it was not so luxuriant as in the more open
reaches of the lake.

The last bay visited was the little rocky bay of Gill
Head, on the East side of the lake, nearly opposite
Cunsey House. Here the bottom was more stony, and
the vegetation of quite a different type. The bank
shelved down very gradually, and there was a large area
of the bay, between 2 and 5 feet in depth, in which were
growing between the coarse pebbles and stones numerous
but isolated plants of the Water-Milfoil {^Myriophylluni
spicaiuni), theQuillvvort {Isoetes lacustris L.), and the Shore-
weed {Littorella lacustris L.). These plants were never

4 Weiss, Submerged Vegetation of Lake Windermere.

massed together, and would not interfere with the ground-
feeding of the fish. But the pebbly bottom, and to some
extent the plants above mentioned themselves, were
covered with a dense growth of a creeping fresh-water
Alga, CladopJiora, which I was told grew especially rapidly
in hot weather, and formed a close carpet over the bottom,
thus preventing the fish from getting at the worms, etc.
This bay was a favourite place for drawing up the nets,
and at the time when they were in constant use this
insidious vegetable growth was said to have been practi-
cally absent.

A detailed description of the various forms of sub-
merged plants which interfere with the fishing, and their
methods of reproduction, is given as the measures to be used
in reducing this vegetation depend largely on the season
of flowering and their methods of vegetative reproduction.

Probably one of the most persistent and harmful of
the submerged aquatics in Windermere is the Nitella
opaca^ Ag., belonging to the group of Characeae or
Brittleworts. This is found rooted in the softer, more
muddy, parts of the lake at varying depths from 6 to i6
feet, growing some i8 inches to 2 feet in height Like
many of the Characeae it smells very strongly of garlic
when taken from the water, but this particular species
can readily be distinguished, apart from its detailed
structure, by the tendency to become nearly black as the
plants get older. Nitella opaca grows frequeiitl}' in
very deep water, being less dependent upon light than
other Characeae. It is a very variable species, and the
particular form fuund in the regions of Windermere
mentioned above is probably the variety elongata of
Alexander Braun, which is generally found on the
bottom of large lakes, where it grows to considerable size
and covers very large areas, forming regular meadows.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 11, 5

This form has long internodes and leaves, and does
not produce fruits very abundantly, a fact which is pro-
bably correlated with the scanty illumination it gets in
deep water and particularly when overshadowed by
Elodea and Potaniogeto7i as is the case in some of the
reaches of Windermere. It is a dioecious species, and
fruits in May and June, and the spores are said to com-
mence to germinate in August and September. It is
recorded in the Ninth Edition of Babington's " Manual of
British Botany," which was edited by Henry and James
Groves, the great authorities, as an annual plant, and the
appearance of the old plants in the late autumn was cer-
tainly suggestive of their dying down, though Dr. Migula
asserts* that they may live for three or four years when
growing in deep water. I have been unable to discover
whether this species reproduces by vegetative methods as
is so common among the Characeae. As this deep water
form fruits somewhat rarely, and as it covers such exten-
sive areas, it is most probable that it is endowed with
some kind of vegetative propagation.

Elodea canadensis, Rich., the Canadian Pondweed or
Water-Thyme is called Water Pest by the Germans on
account of the enormous damage it did both to fish-
ponds and waterways after its introduction into Europe.
Nothing is known of the means by which it was intro-
duced, but it seems to have made its appearance first in
1836 near Warringstown, in Ireland. In 1842 it was
found both near Dublin and also in Scotland, and in
1847 it was discovered near Market Harborough and also
near Chichester. After that it spread to most of the
canals and waterways where it flourished so vigorously

* JNIigula, \V. " Die Characeen," in Rabenhorst's " Kryptogamen Flora
von Deutschland, Oestreich und der Schwerz," vol, 5, 1897.

6 Weiss, Submerged Vegetation of Lake Windermere.

that it impeded the traffic and interfered with the opening
and closing of the locks. The same difficulties arose in
France and Germany some ten years later when it had
spread to those countries The history of its invasion
into Europe indicates that it has considerable powers of
rapid dispersal, and yet this does not take place by means
of seeds, for it is a dioecious plant, and so far only the
female plant has been known in England, and in the
absence of the male plant it is always sterile. In
the rest of Europe, too, only female plants have been
found, but in Science Gossips in 1880 (vol. xvi., p. 227),
Mr. D. Douglas has recorded the occurrence of male
plants in Scotland. Possibly small pieces of the weed
are carried by waterfowl or other birds from place to
place, for even the smallest detached pieces will root
under suitable conditions. Apart from the power it has
of rapidly spreading over a large area, its wonderfully
vigorous growth in a new country has been of great
interest, and the remarkable subsequent decrease of the
number of plants when once it had become thoroughly
acclimatised. Whether this latter reduction of vegetative
vigour is connected with the absence of seed formation
is a moot point, but at all events it is an observable
fact. Its method of reproduction in Europe is mainly
by short autumn shoots, about one to two inches
in length, which are formed in the autumn near the
ends of the long and straggling summer shoots. They
are easily recognisable in the autumn by their vivid green
colour, and in spring when the old shoots die away these
young branches take root and produce new individuals.
Besides these short dense autumn shoots Elodea produces
small specialised buds, comparable to the winter buds of
many aquatic [)lants, to which the name of " turions " has
been given. They have been observed by Alexander

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. liii. (1909), No. II. 7

Braun, 1870, and subsequently by Ascheron and
Graebner,* and are described and figured by Gluck.f

They do not seem to have been noted by English
botanists, but were clearly visible in specimens gathered
in February, and on which the old leaves of the stem
were dying away (/^/X''- '• ''^)-

Fig. I. A. Old shoot of Canadian Pond weed Elodea canadensis. The end
of the shoot is often bent up and is composed of closely set leaves.
An autumnal lateral shoot {a.b.) has also been formed besides the
winter buds {w.h.).
B. Winter bud enlarged showing decussate arrangement oi bud scales.

* Ascheron P. and P. Graebner, " Synopsis der Mitteleuropaeischen
Flora," vol. i,. part 6, p. 403.

t Gliick, H. ' Biologische und Morphologische Untersuchungen Uber
Wasser und Sumpfgewachse." 1906, p. 86.

8 Weiss, Submerged Vegetation of Lake Windermere.

They are about \ inch in length, and differ from the
ordinary winter-buds found in so many water plants in
not being disarticulated from the parent shoot. They
remain attached until the main shoot dies down, growing
out in spring into new vegetative shoots.

A detailed examination of these shows that the lower-
most leaves are always decussate — i.e., arranged in pairs
at right angles to the preceding and subsequent ones.
The same arrangement of the leaves will be seen at the
base of the branch in Fig. I. A, just above the lower winter
bud, and is quite usual with the basalleavesof a shoot,
while the upper parts have three leaves in a whorl.

The large Pondweed {Potaiuogcton praelojigus Wulf),
with its characteristic long shoots some 13 feet in length,
though plentiful near the ferry, does not occur in sufficiently
large quantities to seriously affect the fishing, particular!)-
as it does not cover the bottom, but grows up to near the
surface of the lake. It is a perennial plant, and flowers
in May and June. Possibly this form may reproduce
also by winter buds, as is not unusual in this genus. But
I was unable to observe any on the specimens collected
in the autumn.

The Water-Milfoil, like the Pondweed, is not a
dominant form of vegetation, and the Water-Starwort
{Callitriche), though dominant in some reaches, as for
example near the boat landing, is not so abundant on the
feeding grounds of the fish.

As all the plants described flower about May and
June, the artificial removal of the weeds should take place
not later than July. Experience shows that the best
method of effecting this is by drawing up of a net similar
to that used in fishing. Dragging the bottom with chains
has not been successful, as the weed is broken up but not
removed, and, as in the case of the Canadian Pondweed,

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. \\. 9

each piece can take root again, the dragging only helps
the weed to multiply. Probably the swans which are
found on the lake aid in the same manner in distributing
the Elodea. By the dragging with fishing nets the bay
near the fish hatchery was cleared of the Canadian Pond-
weed and the Brittlewort some two years ago, and the Gill
Head bay was formerly kept free from the CladopJwra
by similar means. At that time there were fourteen nets
worked at different parts of the lake, but latterly, b}-
arrangement with the Fishery Board, only two are allowed
to be used. A reversion to the former practice would
undoubtedly have a beneficial effect in keeping the weed
down.

At the outset it might probably be best to drag the
bays carefully both in the summer before the seeds and
spores of the ordinary water plants have ripened, and
then again in the autumn before the Elodea has broken
up and its autumn branches and winter buds have become
separated. Later on, if the nets are used regularly for
fishing, very little expense need be incurred in keeping
the bottom of the lake clean in the bays mentioned
above. The use of the 14 nets, instead of reducing the
number of fish, would actually increase the number by
preserving the feeding grounds, and thus give a better
chance of life to the thousands of young trout that are
annually turned into the Lake.

In conclusion I should like to add that I have
received the greatest assistance from Mr. Francis Nichol-
son in the examination of various portions of the lake,
and his intimate knowledge of the past and present
conditions of the fishing has been of the utmost value in
arriving at the conclusions expressed in the later para-
graphs of this paper. These conclusions may indeed be
taken to represent our joint opinion, arrived at after
long and careful discussion.

Manciiester Memoirs, \'ol. liii. (1909), A'(^. \*]t.

XII. Differences in the Decay of the Radium
Emanation.

By Professor E. RUTHKRFORD, F.R.S.,

AM)

Y. TUOMIKOSKI.

Received mid read March 2jrd, igog.

Determinations of the rate of decay of activity of the
radium emanation have been made by various methods
by a number of observers. The activity has been found
to decrease exponentially with the time with a period
(/>., time taken to fall to half value), varying in different
cases between 375 and 3'99 days.

Experiments were begun a few months ago by
Mr. Tuomikoski to determine the decay of the radium
emanation over a wide range of activity. For this pur-
pose a large amount of emanation was enclosed in sealed
tubes, and the decay of activit}' measured by the 7 rays,
using for the purpose an electroscope surrounded by lead.
The rate of decay of the emanation has been found to be
irregular, depending upon the treatment to which the
emanation had been subjected. For example, a sample
of emanation, purified by condensation with liquid air,
commenced to decay for the first five days with an
average period of 3"58 days. Between 5 and 20 days
the average period was 375 days, while between 20 and
40 days the decay has been nearly exponential with a
period of 3'85 days. Another preparation of emanation

April yt/i, igog.

2 Rutherford, Decay of the Radimn Emanation.

was found to decay exponentially from the beginning
with a period of 4*4 days. Similar differences have been
observed in a number (^f experiments. These variations
in period of decay must be ascribed to differences of
quality of the emanation in the various cases.

z^s a result of a series of experiments, it has been
found that samples of emanation which decay most
rapidly are more easily absorbed in water and more easily
condensed by liquid air than the more slowly decaying
fractions. For example, if the radium emanation is
allowed to stand over water for some hours, the part
absorbed in the' water decays more rapidly than the part
unabsorbed. In a similar way on condensing the emana-
tion, the part removed by pumping has a longer period
than the part condensed.

We have been unable to find any evidence that
radium produces two emanations, or that the products of
transformation of the emanation of slow period are in
any way different from those of the emanation of quick
period.

Tiie results indicate that the emanation is a non-
homogeneous chemical substance. So far as our observa-
tions have gone, it appears probable that the physical
and chemical properties of the emanation atoms vary
to some extent with their life, i.e., on the length of time
after production before disintegration. It seems probable
that the atoms of emanation undergo a progressive change
in properties before disintegration. Further experiments
are in progress to test the correctness of this point of
view.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 115.

XIII. On the Moving Force of Terrestrial and Celestial
Bodies in relation to the Attraction of Gravitation.

By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Received and read March sjrd, igog.

1. In the course of a lecture which I delivered before
the Society in 1902, " On the Evolution of the Mental
Facuhies in relation to some Fundamental Principles of
Motion," prominence was given to the historic controversy
respecting the measure of moving force of terrestrial bodies
which has exercised the minds of distinguished men of
science and learning for more than two centuries,

2. The proposition was enunciated by Descartes in
his Prmcipia^ " That when a part of matter is moved
with double the quickness of another, and that other is
twice the size of the former, there is just precisely as much
motion, but no more, in the less body as in the greater."
Forty years later Newton adopted in his Principia
Descartes' definition of the quantity of motion in a
moving body in substantially the same terms as follows : —
" The quantity of motion is the measure of the same
arising from the velocity and quantity of matter con-
jointly. The motion of the whole is the sum of the
motion of all its parts ; and therefore in a body double in
quantity with equal velocity the motion is double ; with
twice the velocity it is quadruple." To make this defini-
tion more explicit, Newton states under his second law,
" if any force generates a motion, a double force will
generate double the motion, a triple force triple the
motion, whether that force be impressed altogether and at
once, or gradually and successively.

* '^ Principia Philosophia'," Pars. 2, § XXXVI., 1643.
April 8th, igog.

2 Wilde, Moving Force of Terrestrial mid Celestial Bodies.

3. Although Galilei had long before demonstrated
that the spaces described by heav}- bodies from the
beginning of their descent are as the squares of the
times and also of the velocities acquired in falling through
those spaces, yet the significance of this law in relation to
the moving force of bodies was entirely overlooked until
Leibnitz made the announcement that the force of a body
in motion, by the free action of gravity, is as the square
of the velocity. To this measure of moving force
Leibnitz applied the term, vis viva, or living force.

4. The controversy which has since gathered round
the question of the measure of moving force and still
remains unsettled, forms a remarkable chapter in the
history of the physical .sciences. As might have been
anticipated, a priori philosophers, mathematicians, meta-
physicians, and men of letters, unskilled in experimental
methods of interrogating nature, adopted the Cartesian
measure of moving force. Of these ma}' be mentioned,
Maclaurin, Hutton, and Young ; Locke, Kant, Schopen-
hauer, Voltaire, and other writers of more or less note up
to the present epoch. Happily for the progress of science
a number of natural philosophers, among whom Smeaton,
Wollaston, Ewart, Dalton, Joule, and Fairbairn stand
pre-eminent, have proved conclusively by various methods,
that the true measure of the moving force of a body
under the free action of gravit)- is as the square of the
velocity.* Nevertheless, modern scholasticism has not yet
pronounced decidedly in favour of the law, and the

* These results have been abundantly confirmed by my e.Kperiments with
the gyroscope described in the lecture referred to, wherein it was shown
(l) that four limes the weight falling from the same height were required to
generate a double velociiy of the revolving disc ; (2) that one unit of weight
falling through four times the height also generates a double velocity of the
disc ; (3) that the moving force required to generate a double velocity of the
disc is independent of the time of its application and is as the scjuaie of ihe
velocity. — Manchester Metnotrs, vol. 46, no. 10, 1902.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. \%. 3

traditional error of Descartes and Newton still survives in
manuals of elementary and advanced science, under the
name of momentum, in contradiction of Newton's second
law which expressly excludes the element of time in the
measure of the quantity of motion in a body.

5. In the preface to his Principia Newton set forth
with singular lucidity and ingenuousness, the dependence
of the mathematical principles of natural philosophy
upon experimental mechanics in their application to the
motions of celestial bodies. It will therefore be obvious
that the question, whether the quantity of motion in a
planetary system is simply as the velocity, or as the
square of the velocity is one of fundamental importance.
So far as I know, no attempt has yet been made to deal
with this problem, and no explication of astronomical
science can be considered complete so long as it remains
unsolved.

6. In order to demonstrate that the moving force by
which the moon and other celestial bodies are maintained
in their orbits is as the square of the velocity, it is
postulated as general knowledge in physical astronomy : —

(rt) That the equatorial circumference of the earth
is 24,900 miles.

{U) That the versed sine of five miles (or more
exactly, 4"936 miles) of the earth's circum-
ference is 193 inches = 16 feet i inch.

{c) That a body at rest near the earth's surface falls
perpendicularly through the versed sine of
4-936 miles of arc of the earth's circum-
ference =16 feet I inch during one second
of time.

id) That as versed sines are as the squares of their
arcs, and the accelerative force of gravity
increases in the same proportion, a body

4 Wilde, Moving Force of Terrestrial and Celestial Bodies.

projected horizontally near the earth's surface
with a velocity 4"936 miles (26,062 feet) per
second, would revolve round the earth con-
tinually without touching it.

That 2490omiles ^ 5044! ^ 8407 minutes = the
4'936 miles 60^
time of revolution of a body round the earth
with an angular velocity of 26,062 feet per
second {d).

7. The mean distance of the moon according to
modern astronomy, is 6028 semi-diameters of the earth,
and the time of its revolution in respect to the fixed stars,
27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes = 39343 minutes. Now as
the times and velocities of rotation are reciprocally

equivalents of each other, we have ^^^^^ =468 as the
^ 84™ -07

ratio of the orbital times or velocities of a body revolving

round the circumference of the earth and the moon's orbit

respectively. Therefore 468 x 8407 = 39344"' = 27 days,

7 hours, 44 minutes, for the time of the moon's orbital

revolution.

8. Again, from the square of 468, as a velocity,
divided by the moon's distance in semi-diameters of

the earth we have T" 7^ = 3634, or reciprocally —

60-28 ^ -"^ 3634

the total moving force of a body revolving round the

earth's circumference and the moon's orbit respectively,

the numbers being the same as those deduced from the

law of attraction of gravitation for the same distance.

9. As the radius of the moon's orbit is 6o'28 semi-
diameters of the earth, we have with the earth's radius in
miles, 3964 X 2 X 60*28 X 3-1416= 1501370 miles for the cir-
cumference of the moon's orbit. Dividing this by the time

Miuuliestet Memoirs, Vol. liii. {\()oc)), No. VX 5

r 1 .• • • ^ u 1501370 miles ,, ^

of revolution m miiuitcs we have -^ — -^ : — = 36'ioo

39344 min.

miles per minute = 3358 feet per second for the moon's
orbital velocity.

10. That forces of any kind radiating from every
point of a body in free space are inversely proportional to
the square of the distance is a proposition requiring but
little demonstration seeing that it flows directly from the

'geometry of space. It will be sufficient if I mention in
this connexion the intensity of light which increases and
diminishes in this same ratio, as is commonly demonstrated
by photometers. Experimental mechanics were not
sufficiently advanced in Newton's time to enable him to
determine the ratios of the attractive and moving forces
of celestial bodies, as there was appare ntly no physical
connexion between such bodies, and it was chiefly from
observation and his geometry that the law of attraction of
gravitation as the inverse square of the distance was
established.

11. The application of the law to the moon's orbit is
the subject of the fourth proposition of the third book of
the Principia, and is of so much importance in relation to
my paper that I have thought it well to give an abstract
of the text from Motte's classical translation. The linear
quantities in the original are expressed in Paris feet, but
are here given in English measure in accordance with
modern usage : —

" Let us assume the mean distance of the moon to be
60 semi-diameters of the earth, and if we imagine the
moon deprived of all motion to be let go, so as to descend
towards the earth with the impulse of all that force by
which it is retained in its orbit, it will, in the space of one

6 Wilde, Moving Force of Terrestrial and Celestial Bodies.

minute of time, describe in its fall i6 feet i inch. For
the versed sine of that arc which the moon, in the space
of one minute of time, would by its mean motion describe
at the distance of 60 semi-diameters of the earth is nearly
16 feet I inch. Wherefore since that force in approaching
to the earth in the reciprocal duplicate proportion of the
distance, and, upon that account, at the surface of the
earth 60 X 60 times greater than at the moon, a body in
our regions falling with that force ought, in the space of
one minute of time, to describe 60X60X 16 feet i inch.
And with this very force we actually find that bodies here
upon earth do really descend. And therefore the force
by which the moon is retained in its orbit becomes, at the
very surface of the earth, equal to the force of gravity
which we observe in bodies there. And therefore the
force by which the moon is retained in its orbit is that
very same force which we commonly call gravity."

12. I have already demonstrated that the moon's
orbital velocity is 38160 miles per minute, and that a
body would describe an arc of 4'936 miles of the earth's
circumference in one second, during which time it would
fall through the versed sine of that arc =193 inches.
Now as the versed sines of arcs of the same length are as

the radii inversely from the centre, we have — ^:~q —

= 3"2i inches as the versed sine of 4936 miles of the

moon's orbit. Again, as versed sines are as the squares

r , ■ , 38-160 miles

of their arcs, we have f~~"^i — 7'7V x r2i, or nearly

' 4'936 miles ^ / J J > j

16 feet I inch, as the versed sine of 38'i6o miles

through which the moon falls towards the earth during

one minute of time in accordance with Newton's

demonstration.

13. The assumption by Newton of the whole number

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. VX /

60 as the distance of the moon in semi-diameters of the
earth in combination with the same even number in
seconds and minutes of time greatly facilitated the
demonstration of the law of the attraction of gravitation,
the truth of which could at once be perceived by a simple
mental calculation. Thus 60x60=3600 is the attractive

force at the earth's surface, and reciprocally -^ at the

3600

distance of the moon's orbit. Now this same demonstra-
tion is equally applicable to the quantity of moving force
of terrestrial bodies as well as at the distance of the
moon's orbit. For as the moving force is as the square
of the velocity, a body falling during one minute through
a distance of 16 feet i inch at the moon's orbit, that is to
say, with a velocity 60 times less than at the earth's
surface, its moving force would be 60 X 60= 3600 times
less than that of a body falling the same distance during
one second of time on the terrestrial globe. Therefore
the moving force and the attraction of gravitation are
alike inversely proportional to the square of the distance,
and are correlated equally in amount to maintain and
retain the moon in its orbit during the course of its
revolution round the earth.

14. The quantitative relations of the moving and
attractive forces of the planetary bodies are set forth in
the following new calculus of elements, wherein Mercury
is taken as unity instead of the Earth, as in ordinary
astronomical tables.

15. The masses of the bodies are taken as equal and
require to be multiplied by the specific mass of each
planet for the total force.

16. As the moving and attractive forces are

8 Wilde, Moving Force of Terrestrial and Celestial Bodies.

correlatively equal they are expressed by the same
numbers and their reciprocals, Mercury = rooo, and

Neptune = ^ ^0'000i6,as in the similar calculus of the
6020

moving and attractive forces of the moon during its
orbital revolution.

17. The planetary distances in radii of that of Mercury
may be taken as astronomically correct, as they are
derived from the periodic times ; but the numerical
expression of them in miles is necessarily only a near
approximation, from the fact that the value of the unit of
distance has not }'ct been exactly determined. Accepting,
provisionally, the unit distance of Mercury to be 35,860,000
miles, we have for the mean distance of the Earth from
the Sun, 2-583x35,860,000 = 92,626,380 miles, and of
Neptune, 77-59x35,860,000=2,782,377,400 miles. In like
manner the intermediate planetary distances in miles may
also be determined.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. liii. (1909), No. IS.

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Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), Av^ 14.

XIV. On the Occurrence and Distribution of some
Alien Aquatic Plants in the Reddish Canal.

By F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.,

Professo)- of Bo/any hi Ihc University of Manchesler,

AND

H. Murray,

Assistant Keeper in the Manchester Musen/n.

A'ead Jamiary 36th, igog. Received foi ptthlication, March gfh, igog.
With One Map.

Several interesting communications have been made
to this Society during the last few years, by Mr Charles
Bailey,* and by Mr. G. A. Dunlopf of Warrington, on
alien plants found in Lancashire. For the most part, the
aliens described, were terrestrial plants, which owed their
introduction to this country, partly to the disposal of
refuse and ballast, and partly to the use of corn siftings
for poultry food. There are, however, well known
instances of the introduction into this country of alien
pond and waterweeds, the most prolific of which, is the
now ubiquitous American or Canadian Pondweed {Elodea
Canadensis) which, growing with remarkable vigour, has
in many cases completely filled up ponds and waterways,

* Bailey Charles. " On the Adventitious Vegetation of the Sandhills of
.St. Annes-on-the-Sea, North Lancashire (vice-county 60)." Manchester
Memoirs, vol. 47, no. 2, 1902. " Further Notes on the Adventitious
Vegetation of the Sandhills of St. Annes-on-the-Sea, North Lancashire
(vice-county 60)." Jhid., vol. 51, no. 11, 1907.

+ Dunlop, G. A. '' Alien plants of the Warrington District." Man-
chester Memoirs, vol. 52, no. 15, 1908.

April 2 1 si, igog.

2 Weiss, A/irn Aquatic Plants iii tJie Reddish Canal.

and has greatly interfered with the fishing in some
locahties. One of the notable and interesting cases of
the establishment of alien aquatics in the Manchester
district, has been the (occurrence of several plants from
Southern Kurope, in a portion of the Reddish Canal,
where the temperature is more o\ less permanently raised
by the inflow of heated water from several Cotton Mills
along its banks. The two best known of these aliens, are
Naias grauiinca (Del.) var Delilci (Magnus) and Cliara
Brannii (Gmel.), were first reported as occurring in a
natural state in ICngland, at the meeting of the British
Association in Southport in 1883, and owe their discovery
to Mr. John Whitehead of Dukinfield. An excellent
account of Naias gi-aiiiinca, and of its occurrence in
Lancashire, together with an attempt to settle the manner
of its introduction into this country, was given by
* Mr. Charles Bailey in \\-\q. Journal of Botany, in 1884.
Naias grauiinca is not a native European plant, though it
has been found in some stations in the plains of
Lombardy, where according to Italian botanists it has
been introduced with East Indian Rice, which is cultivated
in Northern Italy. Mr. Bailey, however, came to the
conclusion that the seeds were not brought into Lancashire
from these European stations, but probably with bales of
Egyptian cotton, which is used in one of the mills, whence
the seeds were transported with the refuse from the
blowing and carding rooms into the canal. This is
rendered all the more probable by the fact that the variety
o{ Naias graniinca, named Delilci hy Dr. Magnusf occurs

* Charles Bailey. " Notes 011 the struclure, the occurrence in Lanca-
shire, and the source of origin of A^a /'as graniinea Del." loitrjial of Bofatty,
vol 22, nos. 262 and 263, 1884.

t Magnus 1*. " Uber eine hesondere geographische \'arietiil Atx Na;as
^raniinea Del. und deren Auftiett-n in I-2ngland." Bti: ner litutscli. Bol.
Geselt, 18S3.

Manchester Memoirs, IW. ////. (igog), No. 14. 3

in the Nile Delta, and also by the fact that the
accompanying form of Chara Bratinii* which occurs at
Reddish is very near the form of that species which occurs
in Northern Africa.

Shortly after my 'advent to Manchester in 1892,
I visited this interesting locality with Mr. Charles Bailey,
and we collected specimens of both these plants. I have
since visited this locality on various r ccasions, and always
found both plants present.

In December, 1908, being desirous of getting some
iresh specimens of these two interesting aliens to show to
the Botanical Survey Committee, on the occasion of its
visit to Manchester, I was disappointed to find it
impossible to obtain any specimens of Naias graDiinea^
and I have been equally unsuccessful on my visit last
week. Whether it has been unable to compete with the
more luxuriant development of the Canadian pondweed,
or whether the undoubtedly greater contamination of the
canal with refuse and other suspended matter, has affected
its growth or reproduction unfavourably, I cannot say,
but it seems to me not unlikely that both factors have
contributed to its disappearance, or at all events to a
considerable reduction in the number of its plants, for it is
still possible that it occurs in some reaches of the quarter
of a mile along which it was formerly found. But though
the filth on the bottom of the canal seems to have
accumulated, and the surface of the water is in parts
covered with a greasy film, vegetation is still fairly
abundant, and most of the other plants mentioned by
Mr. Bailey {Potamogeton crispus, P.pusillits, Myriophyllum,
Elodea and Chara Braunii) are present, and in some
places, fairly abundant. Zannichellia we have not been

♦Groves H. and J. "Notes on the British Characeae." /oiinia! of
Botany, 1884.

4 Weiss, Alien Agnatic Plants in the Reddish Canal.

able to find on our last two visits. The Chara Braunii
(Gmel.) seems very evenly distributed along the warmer
parts of the canal, and does not seem to have been affected
by the deterioration of the water. It occurs quite plentifully
in the middle of the canal opposite the new Kroadstone
Mill, and reaches from station i on the map, without
interruption to 7. Beyond that point it disappears
probably partly owing to the lower temperature and partly
to the greater vigour and abundance of Elodea and other
more hardy waterweeds. It reappears however, in stations
13 and 14, opposite other inflows of warm water from the
furthest cotton mill.

Portion of Manchesikr and Ashton-under-Lyne Canal.

Mixed with the Chara and the Elodea, one finds in
the deeper water several small algae ot which Cladophora
gloinerata is perhaps the most abundant, while Pithophora
which is closely allied to Cladophora, with which genus it
has sometimes been confused, is of more interest, being a
freshwater alga of almost exclusivel\- tropical distribution.
It was observed growing on some living plants of A^^/^j
graminea which we sent by Mr. Charles l^ailey to the
British Museum, and was described b}- ^ Dr. Rendle and

* A, B. Kendle and VV. WcnI, Jiini. "A New liiiiish lic.sluvaler
alya." founial of liolaiiy,\K)\. y], 1899.

MixncJicstcr Memoirs, Vol. Int. {igog), No. I4- 5

Mr. W. West in the fournal of Botany. It seemed to
these authors to agree most closely with Pithopliora
oedogouia, a tropical South American species, a variety
of which however, occurs in the Southern United States.
The Reddish form is looked upon as another variety, and
has been named var. polyspora (Rendle and West fils), on
account of the greater number of its spores. No species
of this genus has, as yet, been recorded from Egj'pt, or
indeed from any part of Africa. The assumption there-
fore, as regards this alga, is that it may have been
introduced with American Cotton. Its distribution in
the canal indicates that it is more resistant than the
other aliens to lower temperatures, as it extends un-
interruptedly from station i to 1 8, and may indeed, extend
far beyond the portion of the canal actually examined
by us.

On working through the material collected on our
visit in December, Mr. Murray discovered an alga not
previously recorded from Reddish, or indeed from any
locality in Britain, It is a small branching alga, of
greenish blue colour, slightly red in reflected light, and
which could easily be identified as belonging to the genus
Conipsopogon, Montague. This genus, the only one in its
family, occupies a somewhat indeterminate position among
the algae, being generally regarded as nearly related to
the Bangiaceae, a somewhat primitive or reduced family
of the Red Algae or Rhodophyceae. Most members of
the latter are marine, but there are a few freshwater forms
of the Rhodophyceae, such as Batrachospermiun the
common Frog-spawn Alga, and Le»iajiea, both of which
occur in our mountain streams. CoDipsopogon on the
other hand, is entirely tropical and subtropical in its
distribution, and its occurrence in the Reddish Canal,
must clearly be attributed to the same causes that have

6 Weiss, Alien Aquatic Pla^its in the Reddish Canal.

brought about the appearance of Pithophora and the other

aliens. Its distribution in the Reddish Canal, is more

restricted than that of Chara Braumi, and much more so

thdiV\\.\\di\.oi Pithophora. This may of course, be due to

its more recent introduction, and this view might receive

some support from the fact that it had not been previously

observed. But it might easily have escaped notice among

the Pithophora with which it is mixed, though, when once

it had been observed, it could be readily picked out

from the rest of the material. On the other hand the

fact that it occurs only at the stations 3, 4, 5 and 6, at

which the temperature was highest during our last visit,

ranging from 72) to 75°F. is in favour of temperature

being a limiting factor in the distribution of this alga.

Wherever it was found, it was pretty abundant, arising

as small unbranched filaments attached to Pithophora, and

Chara, and to the leaves of Elodea, Alisma, Potamogeton

and Vallisneria. Later on the filaments become branched,

and ultimately the large axial cells become covered in by

a layer of smaller cortical ones. Some of the latter have

a denser aspect, and are evidently the sporangial cells.

The escape of the large non-ciliate monospores, was not

observed, but empty sporangia were noted, so the plant

is evidently able to reproduce in the canal by spore

formation, a fact which is further attested by the numerous

small plants which have evidently arisen from spores. We

propose to follow out the life history of this interesting

alga, and hope that it may help to throw light upon a

genus of which our knowledge is still very incomplete.

A comparison of the plant with specimens at the

British Museum, shows that it agrees very closely, both

in its macroscopic and microscopic structure with

Coinpsopogon lepiocladus of Montague,* a species which has

* Montagne C L. " Cryptoganiia Guyanensis." Ann. des Sci. Nat.,
Bot., (3), vol. 4. PP- 2S3-309, 1850.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 14. 7

so far only been found in Guiana. The only species
recorded in Europe, is C. Corinaldi Menegh., which was
once found near Pisa, but has apparently now dis-
appeared.*

On our last two visits to the Reddish Canal, we were
much interested to find patches of Vallistieria spiralis
with its characteristic female flowers. This plant we had
not observed before, possibly owing to the likeness of its
leaves to those of young submerged plants of Alisina,
which are common along the banks of the canal. I am
told by Mr. Hardy, of the Manchester Museum, that the
Vallisneria was planted in the canal nearly 40 years ago.
Though planted between the swing bridge and the
mill (that is, near station 9), it has spread now along the
canal, and has established itself in several patches, all of
which are in the warmest regions of the canal. Thus one
clump was found near Broadstone Mill (station 4) to east
of the inflow from that mill, and one to the west of the
inflow (station 5). Two other patches occurred near the
inflow from Reddish Mill (station 6 and 7), and a fifth
and sixth ones at stations 12 and 13, that is, close to the
inflow from the furthest mill. The temperature of the
canal varied on the occasion of our last visit, from 39° to
76°F. at various points, and Vallisneria grew in water
which, for the most part was over 70°F. It will be seen,
therefore, that this plant has selected definite positions
apparently, according to the warmth of the water.

In concluding we should like to acknowledge the help
received from Mr. T. G, Osborn and Mr. W. Brierley in
our preliminary survey of the alien vegetation of the
Reddish Canal, which we hope to follow up more closely.
At present we may say that the aliens so far noted, have

* De Toni J. B. " Sylloge Algarum." Patavia. 1889-1907.

8 Weiss, Alien Aquatic Plants in the RcddisJi Canal.

established themselves more or less successfuU)' in the
canal in the following order : —

PithopJwra oedoi^onia, stations I to i8 (inclusive).
Chara /h-aiinii, i to 7, and 13 to 14.
Vnllisneria spiralis, stations 4 to 7, 12 and 13.
Conipsopogon sp., 4, 3 to 6 (inclusive).
Naias graviinea has apparently disappeared, or is at
all events, much reduced in amount.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. V\.

XV. The Use of Wind by Migrating Birds.

By F. Stubbs.
(Comnninicatcd by Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S.)

/'deceived and read February 2jrd, igog.

Most modern observers think that birds when
migrating, or even when moving short distances, fly
against a head wind, or with a beam wind. Gatke
(" Hehgoland," Etig. Trans., p. 27) beheved that " to
escape the disagreeable experience of having the wind
blowing obliquely through their plumage from behind "
birds turned their heads to the wind. Mr. Headley
states {British Birds,* vol i., p. 121, 1907) that "if a bird
flying with the wind only equals its velocity, he is part of
the moving current, as the balloon is. The air does not
resist, and consequently does not support him, but it
assists gravitation. It would also ruffle his plumage."
Mr. J. H. Gurney says without hesitation {Zoologist,
1888, p. 81) that "no one who has paid any attention to
the subject can have failed to observe that the feathered
visitants to this country will always, if possible, fly
against the wind."

Anyone acquainted with the literature of ornithology
will be able to add to these instances, but I am not aware
of any record of accurate observations supporting this
popular theory. Mr. W. E. Clarke's observations {Rep.
Brit. Ass., Liverpool, 1896, p. 476) that "strong winds

*The title of the magazine British Birds is printed in italics. The
titles of such completed works as Yarrell's "British Birds" are here given
in inverted commas preceded by the author's name.

April 26th, igog.

2 Stubbs, The Use of Wind by Migrating Birds.

have a curious effect on the fli,f:^ht of Gulls, compelling
them to move in a direction more or less directly heading
the wind. Thus a strong westerly wind causes great
numbers of Gulls to seek the estuaries and bays of our
east coast. On the other hand, strong westerly winds
will fill the estuaries and sea locks of the west coast with
these birds. The lee side of islands is also sought under
similar conditions of the wind," can be explained in another
way. A few writers, while not explicitl\' discarding this
"Head-wind Theory," have shown signs of leaning towards
the contrary opinion. A foot-note in Yarrell's " British
Hirds," (4th edit., vol. 3, p. 321) says: " It by no means
follows that the direction of the wind with which the birds
drop on the land is the same as that prevailing at a
greater elevation, and this should be taken into considera-
tion in estimating all records of the arrival of migrants."
Stevenson's "Birds of Norfolk" (vol. 2, p. 273) contains a
passage to much the same effect. It is strange that the
late Professor Newton altogether ignored the matter in
his comprehensive " Dictionary of Birds."

Let us for the moment assume that Giitke and others
holding this " Head-wind Theory " are in the right. To
the observer on the coast, the velocity of the wind must
be at least about ten miles an hour. .At an altitude of 500
feet, which is a very low elevation for the path of a
migrating bird, the velocity would be perhaps double — say
for example 20 miles an hour. A Goldcrest, a familiar
migrant, desires to cross the North Sea to England, a
distance of from 250 to 350 mile.s. We may call it for
the present 300 miles, and allow the bird a velocity of 25
miles an hour. In a perfectly calm atmosphere the
journey would occupy 12 hours. When the so-called
favourable head-wind is blowing, that part of the earth's
atmosphere lying over Western Europe is moving east-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 15. 3

wards at, say, 15 miles an hour — between force 2 and 3
of Fitzroy's scale : a moderate estimate for autumn. The
bird has thus to make its journey in a supporting medium
that is moving at the same time in an opposite direction.
In one hour it will have flown 25 miles through that body
of air, but during the same time the aerial mass has moved
15 miles eastwards. Between two points on the earth's
surface the bird will have travelled no more than 10 miles.
At this rate the journey will take 30 hours. It should be
quite evident that no bird can make any headway against
a wind with a greater velocity than its own speed of flight.
I am unable to refer to any definite statement by one
of those who hold this head or beam wind theory, but the
general opinion seems to be that when a bird flies head to
wind the air rushes past it at a total velocity which is that
of the wind plus the velocity of the bird. Of course, this
would be quite true in the case of a steamer, a cyclist, a
pedestrian, or even a swimming bird. But it is absurd to
assume that it is so in the case of a flying bird, or even —
the parallel may be useful to some minds — in the case of
a swimmer in a strongly flowing current ; the bird and
the swimmer are wholly in a moving supporting medium.
(I might point out here that it is not safe to study avian
flight by the aid of sailing ships. A ship is supported by
the water but propelled by the air. The bird is supported
by the air and propelled by its wings.) Mr. Headley's
remark that the wind " impinges on their backs and so
tends to drive them downwards " I fail to understand.
The same author, in his "Structure and Life of Birds"
(p. 185), compares the flying bird to a skater on thin ice,
passing rapidly from one portion of supporting medium
to another, none of which is sufficient to support it if the
bird or the skater remained stationary. This simile is
not, I think, justifiable.

4 Stuhbs, The Use of Wind by Migrating Birds.

Most of us, especially outdoor observers, form con-
ceptions of the wind which are altogether wrong. We
are apt to look upon it as a seething current, and we pity
the poor birds that are carried about by it. The substi-
tution of the word air for ivind in all matters relating to
the flight and migration of birds would prevent a great deal
of misunderstanding. There can be no doubt that if a bird
cannot find shelter it will be more comfortable on the
wing than on the ground during the progress of a storm.
Mr. T. A. Coward tells me that during a storm of unusual
violence the ducks on a Cheshire mere sprang into the air,
heads to wind, and fleiu at full speed in the teeth of the gale,
thereby keeping their places over the middle of the mere,
to the surface of which they dropped as soon as the
sudden storm was over. Their reason for this manoeuvre
was, obviously, to be out of the danger of being between
two conflicting elements, the stationary water and the
moving air. In the air they made no progress against the
wind, but had they flown with it, a few minutes would
have sufficed to place many miles between them and the
water they were so loth to leave.* This, I think, is the
explanation of the conduct of the Gulls mentioned by
Mr. Clarke. The bird, then, can fly about in any direction
in this wind, but it must be remembered that the whole
body of air is moving in some definite direction which
may or may not coincide with that in which the bird
happens to be flying. If the wind blows from east to
west at 50 miles an hour at an altitude of 5,000 feet — and
migration is carried on at far greater heights than this —
and the bird is capable of flying through the air at 50
miles an hour, its net velocity, between points on the
earth's surface, if it flies from east to west, would be 100

*I saw these mctliods adopted by the Gulls and Hooded Crows during
the blizzard which raged on the East Coast on March 6th, 1909.

Manchester Mcjiioirs, Voi. Hit. (1909), No. lij. 5

miles an hour ; in a contrary direction — with a " Head-
wind " — it would have made no progress at all, like the
ducks over the mere. If merely flying lazily round in a
50 feet circle it would have travelled in one hour 50 miles
which is the velocity of the medium supporting it.

I must now refer to Mr. W. E. Clarke's very important
report of the Committee (Prof A. Newton, Messrs.
J. Cordeaux, J. A. Harrie-Brown, VV. E. Clarke,
R. M. Harrington, and Rev. E. P. Knubley) appointed by
the British Association to investigate the subject of
migration. It appears in full in the Report of the
Liverpool meeting, 1896, pp. 451 — 477. It is here stated
that meteorological conditions have been closely studied
in relation to migration. Under the heading of Winds,
occurs the statement that " The importance attached to
winds in connection with bird migration, has hitherto
been much overestimated by popular writers, and their
influence, such as it is, misunderstood. The conclusions
to be drawn from a careful study of the subject are
(i) that the direction of the wind has no influence what-
ever as an incentive to migration ; but that (2) its force is
certainly an important factor, inasmuch as it may make
migration an impossibility, arrest, to a greater or lesser
degree its progress, or even blow birds out of their courses.
It is, however, a fact that particular winds almost invari-
ably prevail during the great autumnal movements, and
these have hitherto been considered by some as the direct
incentives to such migrations. Such is not the case, and
it may at once be stated that these supposed favourable
breezes are simply another direct result of the pressure
distribution favourable to the movements."

This last statement detracts very considerably from the
value of those parts of the Report that treat of meteorolo-
gical conditions. The breezes are 7iot in this instance the

6 STUlilJS, The Use of Wind by Migrating Birds.

result of the pressure distribution, but the very converse
is the case. These parts are still further weakened by
the separation of the portions headed Meteoj'ological {i.e.
Barometric conditions) and Winds. The author seems to
ignore the close connection between the two. Another
passage may be given here (p. 476) " There is really no
reason why westerly (west, north-west, or south-west)
winds, not too strong of course, should not, other things
being equal, be in every way as suitable for migratory
movements [westwards across the North Sea] as those
varying between such divergent points as north-east to
south." Then follows the passage I have already quoted
on the flight of Gulls. From what I have already
explained it will be seen that I cannot in the least accept
the suggestion.

Winds do not, in this part of Europe, move in straight
lines. They come to us, especially in autumn, in a curved
line from the Equator over the Atlantic, in a series of
huge eddies or " cyclones," laden with a mass of water
vapour, and, I now suggest, bearing at migration times a
horde of birds. A cloud to-day lying over Norway may
be trailing to-morrow over Manchester, and the next day
over the south of France. I believe that birds habitually
make use of these cyclones as a means of travelling from
one part of their range to another under the most
favourable conditions for the exercise of flight. It is clear
to mc that a bird, unless it possessed power of flight
sufficient to make it somewhat independent of wind,
would have great difficulty in struggling across the
concentric currents of a cyclone. This aspect of the wind
seems never to have been studied by the holders of the
" Head-wind " or " Beam-wind " theory, but I have
recently come across a passage in Mr. Abel Chapman's
" Wild Norway " (p. 339) that leaves little doubt that he has

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Hii. (1909), No. 15. 7

been led towards this point of view, and it is unfortunate
that so excellent an observer has not thought fit to go
deeper into the subject. As it is, his remarks are apparently
merely tentative. I give the passage in full. " Except by
aid derived from the operation of physical laws, the
nature and extent of which are unknown to me, and by
taking advantage of ' Trade wind ' circulations in the
upper air, I believe that migration is impossible for short-
winged forms of sedentary habit .... But that aid,
and those advantages, may facilitate, and perhaps vastly
accelerate, a process which is otherwise impossible."

I suggest that the bird takes up its position in the
nearest part of the rim of the cyclone to its point of
departure, and flies in the same direction as the wind
until that portion of the aerial medium that supports and
carries it arrives over that part of the world, or the nearest
point, which the bird desires to reach. I will not run the
risk of obscuring my point by dealing with anti-cyclones ;
the general process would be much the same. The
ascending currents of cyclones must be mentioned, for a
bird supported in one would soon be carried to a great
height, from which it might start a long "glide" on
open wings, supported by the upward current in the
manner of a Gull flying above a cliff.

Mr. Clarke's actual observations support my theory
{t.c. p. 470). He points out that favourable conditions for
autumnal migration are " the presence of a large anti-
cyclone over Scandinavia, and cyclonic conditions to the
westward of the British area, with a low pressure centre off
the west coast of Ireland." There is a strong outward and
downward current from above the core of an anti-cyclone,
and this would be most useful to birds crossing the North
Sea in autumn. This was the state of affairs on September
23rd, 1908, when a large migration was noticed on the

8 Stup.BS, Tlic Use of Wind by Migrating Birds.

coast of Norfolk {cf. Richards Brit. Birds, vol. 2, p. 200).
The barometer stood at 30"28 over Sweden, and at
29"8 over Ireland and south-west England. On the 25th
the depression had reached the North Sea, and on this
day we are informed that the migration considerably
decreased. The occurrence of such continental birds as
Red-breasted Flycatchers {Muscicapa parvd). Blue-throats
{Cyanecula suecicd), and Yellow-browed Warblers {Phyllo-
scopHS superciliosus) on these days would be due to the
prevailing southerly winds on the western edge of the
anti-cyclone carrying the birds out of their proper courses.
For an example of the effect of cyclonic movements, I
may refer to Mr. Clarke's invaluable observations at
Fair Isle {Anna/s Scott. N.ff., 1908, pp. 72-75, fide Brit.
Birds, vol. i., p. 982). The appearance at this island of
the Yellow-browed Warbler and the Siberian Chiff-chaff
{P. tristis), both birds of Northern Europe, coincides with
a period of strongly marked cyclones over the western
parts of the continent from October 20th to 24th,
1807. I have not been able to consult any barometric
readings for October 13th, 1 891, but on this date there was
a very heavy migration of enormous numbers of Gold-
crests, Robins, Buzzards, Owls, Blackbirds, and many other
birds. The zvind zvas east, blowing more than half a gale.
These observations were made on the coast of Yorkshire,
and published in Natural Science, vol i, p. 779, in a review
that has internal evidence of being the work of the late
J. Cordeaux. I should expect to find that on the date
given above there was a deep depression over France
or Holland. Of course, these meteorological charts have
been used before, but apparently without a knowledge of
the connection between wind and cyclones, and with a
wrong idea of the position of a bird flying in a moving
body of air.

Manchester Mciiioirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 15- 9

I may add that great caution is necessary in using
the data derived from the exact experiments made on
the vclocit}' of Pigeons, Partridges, and Pheasants {cf.
Newton, i.e., p. 566), and other estimates derived from the
performances of Homing J^igeons. Such birds are non-
migratory, and obviously handicapped in long journeys.
The Pigeon {Coliiiiiba livia) is not a good long-distance
traveller. A study of the facts and figures of pigeon
flying will prove this.

In conclusion, I must express my indebtedness to
Mr. T. A. Coward. Without his help and encouragement
this paper could never have been written.

January 12th, ipop.] PROCEEDINGS. xi

General Meeting, January 12th, 1909.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Cliair.

Mr. Hermann Henry Hoffert, D.Sc. (Lond.), Associate
of the Royal School of Mines, His Majesty's Inspector of
Schools, Lime Grove, Brooklands, Sa/e, was elected an ordinary
member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, January 12th, 1909.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the tables.

The President expressed his warm congratulations and
those of his fellow members to Professor E. Rutherford,
F.R.S., on the signal honour recently conferred on him by
the award to him of the Nobel Prize for his researches on
Radio-activity. Professor Rutherford, who was present, briefly
responded, and said the Society was known and honoured in
Norway for its association with the name and work of Dalton.

Dr. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S., Secretary of the Society,
read a paper entitled "The Influence of Light on the
Colouration of certain Marine Animals {Hippolyte,
Wrasses)."

The author gave an account of his work on the colour-
physiology of Hippolyte {the Aesop-prawn), and of one of the
common British Wrasses {Crenilabrus melops).

Hippolyte is a variably coloured prawn, each colour-variety
agreeing closely with the tint of the weed on which it is found,

xii Proceedings. \January 12th, igog.

and upon which it feeds. Previous experiments made jointly
by the author and Professor Keeble have shown that this
remarkable sympathetic colouration is in all probability not
inherited — i.e., the colour-varieties do not necessarily breed true,
but that the harmonious motley exhibited by this varying species
is the outcome of a very special colour adaptation acquired by
each individual, and that the colouration is controlled largely
by the colour of the weed at the time when the young prawn
settles down upon it, after a brief free-living larval existence.

The results of more recent researches by the author on this
subject have shown that the amount of red pigment in the larva
varies, in all races but the green one, with that in the parent.
The more there is of it in the parent, the more highly coloured
is the offspring. Green parents, however, gave rise to three
kinds of broods: (i) highly coloured ones like those of brown
parents, (2) pale ones, and (3) a mixed brood, containing
coloured to colourless in the proportion of 3 : i. This result
tends to show that green Hippolyte are derived (i) from brown
individuals that have been transformed into green, after migrat-
ing from brown to green weed; (2) from green individuals that
have remained on their weed, and (3) from a cross between
these kinds.

Further experimental results were obtained on the pro-
longed influence of light on the colouration of this animal
both when white light was reflected on the young Hippolyte
from a porcelain dish, and also when the young animals
were kept in coloured light (red or green). In the former case
the existing pigments (red and yellow) gradually disappeared
from the greater portion of the animal, and at length, after a
month's interval, only one strip of pigment remained, but this
formed a dense .screen around the nervous system. This screen
is probably of considerable physiological significance, as it is
found in many of the lower Crustacea, and also in many worms.

The coloured light experiments yielded an unexpected result,
namely, a complementary colour to that of the light employed.
Thus, under the influence of green light for a month, Hippolyte

January i2tJi, J'pop.] PKOCEKDlNCiS. xiii

lost its yellow pigment, and Ijecame hrillianti}' scarlet : while
under led light it became green. In both cases the animal at
starting was of a transparent and almost colourless appearance.
The value of this complementary colour production (which does
not appear to have been recognised in animals previously) upon
the problem of the colouration of ///)^//9/)'/^ was briefly'discussed.

General Meeting, January 26th, 1909.

I'rofessor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,

in the Chair.

Mr. George Percy Varley, M.Sc. (Vic), and Mr. John
Henry Wolfenden, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S. (Lend.), Assistant
Masters in the Municipal Secondary School, Manchester,
Mr. Sidney Russ, B.Sc. (Lond.), Demonstrator in Physics in
the University of Manchester, and Mr. H. E. Schmitz, M.A.,
B.Sc, of the Manchester Grammar School, were elected ordinary
members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, January 26th, 1909.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

The President stated that on March 9th, the occasion of
the Wilde Lecture, the Lecturer, Dr. H. Brereton Baker,
F.R.S., would be entertained at a dinner in his honour at the
Midland Hotel, and the price of the tickets would be 7s. 6d.,
not including wine, the same as last year.

xiv Procekdings. ^January 26tli, igog.

Professor V. E. Wkiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., read a paper, written
in conjunction with Mr. H. Murray, entitled "On the
Occurrence and Distribution of some Alien Aquatic
Plants in the Reddish Canal.'

The following specimens of the plants referred to in the
paper, collected by the authors in a portion of the Canal, were
exhibited : — Ahiias gra>?ii/iea, CJiara BraiDiii, and Vallisneria
spiralis ; a small green fresh water alga PithnpJiota and an
interesting red alga Compsoppgon, not previously recorded
for Pritain.

Mr. T. (i. P. Osr.oRx, P.Sc, read a i^aper entitled,
"The Dowels of some Egyptian Coffins of the Xllth
Dynasty."

Mr. J. WiLFRiiJ Jackson, F.G.S., read a ])aper, com-
municated l)y Dr. \\. \l. lIoYi.F,, I\R.S.E., entitled, " On the
Diatomaceous Deposit of the Lower Bann Valley,
N. Ireland, and Prehistoric Implements found therein."

The three papers are printed in the Memoirs.

General Meeting, February gth, 1909.

Professor H. P. Di.xon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

Mr. Frkdkrick. Howles, M.Sc, Analytical and Research
Chemist, and Mr. Charles Weizmann, Ph.D., D.Sc, Senior
Lecturer in Chemistry in the Manchester University, were
elected ordinary membeis of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, February 9th, 1909.

Professor IT. P.. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables. The following were among the recent

February c^lh, i^og.] PROCEEDINGS. xv

accessions to the Society's Library : — " Second Report on Research
Work... on the N'egative Restilts of the Examination of... Raw
Water... for... Typlioid Bacillus^' by A. C. Houston (foL, London,
1908), presented by the Metropolitan Water Board ; " National
Antarctic Expedition., igoi04, Album of Photographs and
Sketches,^' and " Album of Fa?toramas,'" 2 vols, (fol , London,
1908), and '^Reports to the Evolution Committee. Report
IV." by W, Bateson and others (8vo., London, 1908),
presented by the Royal Society of London ; " Legeeringen
van Tin en Lood. Proefschrift^' door P. N. Degens (8vo.,
Dordrecht, 190S), "■ Der niederldndische Boden u. die Ablage-
rungen des Rheines u. d. Maas" door P. Tesch (8vo., n. pi.,
1908), presented by the Technische Hoogeschool te Delft ;
" Capture and Escape" by J. A. Kellogg (8vo., n. pi, 1908),
" The Vicksburg Campaign,'' by W. F. Vilas (8vo., n. pi., 1908),
presented by the Wisconsin History Commission ; " Summary
Report on Explorations in N'ova Scotia, igoy" by H. Fletcher
(8vo., Ottawa, 1908), " TJie Geology and Mineral Resources of
Neiv Brunswick,'' by R. W. Ells (8vo., Ottawa, 1907), presented
by the Geological Survey of Canada ; " Codex Diplomaticus
Lusatiae superioris III.," Hft. 4, von R. Jecht (8vo, Cbrlitz,
1908), presented by the Oberlausitzische Gesellschaft Wissen-
schaften, Gorlitz ; '■'■ Reseha historica de los Ferrocarriles del
Peru" por F. C. y Laurent (4to., Lima, 1908), presented by the
Cuerpo de Ingenieros Civiles del Lima ; and " Catalogue of the
MSS. in the library of the Huiiterian Museum, University of
Glasgozv,'" hy ]. Young and P. H. Aitken (fol., Glasgow, 1908),
presented by the University of Glasgow.

Mr. W. H. Todd and Mr. C. Gordon Hewitt, i\LSc.,
were nominated auditors of the Society's Accounts for the
session 190S-09.

At this point AL. Fk.vncis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., occupied
the Chair.

The President exhibited some of the apparatus with which
he, in conjunction with his research students, had been repeating

xvi rROCEEUINGS. yi'cbniary c^th, igog.

experiments on the ignition point of gases by the method of
adiabatic compression suggested by Professor Nernst.

In the first experiments tried the compression was effected
in a strong glass tube, and photographs of the explosion were
taken ow a rapidly moving trim. The photographs showed that
the ignition was not set up instantaneously throughout the
whole mass of compressed gas, but began at one point, which
might be varied according to the velocity of the piston. In a
mixture of hydrogen and oxygen 'detonation' is very rapidly
set up, but not instantaneously.

The later experiments were made in a steel lube, a window
being inserted near the lower end of the tube so as to observe
the flame i)roduced.

Ordinary Meeting, February 23rd, 1909.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books U])on the tables.

The President made reference to the recent purchase by
the Society, of a chronometer watch belonging to the late
Dr. J. P. Joule, which the Council had resolved to place in
one of the Society's rooms, as a memorial of a distinguished
past President, whose work on the mechanical ccpiivalent of
heat, created a landmark in the history of science.

Mr. T. Thorp, F.R.A.S., described a simple method of
silvering lr;msparent grating replicas, whether i)lane or mounted
on curved surfaces. The process is a modification of the (juick-
silver and tinfoil method used for ordinary minors before the
wet silvering process had been discovered.

February 2jrd, /pop.] PK0CEEJ:)IN(;s. xvii

Mr. 'rhor[) stated that when required as a "silvered"
grating, it was necessary that the surface should be very perfect,
any inequality in such a reflecting surface being — ^^ or 4//,

where the refractive index is 1-5, more prejudicial than in a
transmission grating.

Mr. Thom.as Kay exhibited a fossil coral, stated on the
authority of Dr. Hoyle, of the Manchester Museum, to be a
s{)ecimen of the Syri7igopora ramulosa, a carboniferous fossil,
and some spherical concretions of clay, which were found in the
sandhill of Hempshaw Lane, in Stockport.

Its place in these sand hillocks, which were formerly dunes
by prehistoric lakes and rivers associated with the geological
fault which stretches from Bredbury to beyond Poynton, may be
due to its having been carried down from the great Derbyshire
carboniferous plateau by one of its earliest streams. The speci-
men has been silicified, whether by deposition of silica on the
carbonate of lime, or by the replacement of the latter by the
silica, was not certain.

Professor F. E. Weiss read a paper entitled '"A Preliminary
Account of the Submerged Vegetation of Lake Winder-
mere as affecting the Feeding Grounds of the Fish."

Mr. F. Stubbs read a paper, communicated by Mr. T. A.
Coward, F.Z S., entitled "The Use of Wind by Migrating
Birds.'

The two papers are printed in tiie Memoirs.

Special Meeting, March 9th, 1909.

The President, Profe.ssor H. P. Dixon, M.A , F.R.S.,
in the Chair.

The Wilde Lecture, on " The Influence of Moisture on
Chemical Change," was delivered by H. BRp:REiON Bakkr,
Es([., I ).Sc., F.R.S., Lee's Reader in Chemistry in the University
of Oxford.

xviii Proceedings. [Manh 2jrd, icjog.

General Meeting, March 23rd. 1909.

Professor A. Schuster, Sc D., I'.R.S., in the Chair.

Mr. W. W. Haldane Gee, A.M.I.E.E., P.Sc, M.Sc.
Tech., I'rofessur of Pure and Apphed Physics, Manchester
School of Technoloyy, was elected an ordinary member of the
Society.

Ordinary Meeting, March 23rd, 1909.
Professor A. Schustek, Sc.D, P.R.S., in tlie Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the tables, and also to Mr. Prancis
Nicholson, P.Z.S., for presenting to the Society's Library the
following volumes: — "Nicholson's Journal," vols, i — 5, 1778 —
1802 ; " Gilbert's Annalen der Physik," vols. 61 — 72, 1819 —
1822 ; "Studies in Anatomy from the Anatomical Department of
the Owens College," vols, i, 2, 1S91, 1900, "Studies from the
Physiological Laboratory of Owens College," vol. i, 1891,
" Handbook of the Manchester Meeting of the liritish Associa-
tion," 1887, and "Excursions of the British Association, Man-
chester," 1887.

Mr. D. IVL S. Watson, 13. Sc, who represented the Society
at the Jubilee Celebration of the Geological Society of Glasgow,
on Januaiy 28th, 1909, gave a brief account of the Proceedings
on tliat occasion.

Mr. C. E. Stkomeyer, M.Inst.CE., exhibited some pieces
of mild steel of which one had been made very brittle by contact
with a caustic soda solution of a density of about 100" Twaddle,
whilst the other, through having l)een suspendrd in a cast iron
vessel in which caustic soda was l)cing conccnlraled beyontl
100" Twaddle, had lost about jVths of its diameter in 340 hours.

March 2jrd, /pop.] PROCEEDINGS. xix

Dr. Hknrv Wii.dk, 1'M\..S., read a paper enlitled "On the
Moving Force of Terrestrial and Celestial Bodies in
relation to the Attraction of Gravitation. ' The paper is
printed in tlie A/emoirs.

Mr. Ai.FR?:n Hoi.t, Jr., M.A., read a paper entitled ''The
action of Hydrogen on Sodium." The paper will be

printed in the Memoirs.

Professor E. Rutherford, F.R.S., read a paper written in
conjunction with Mr. Y. Tuomikoski, entitled " Differences
in the Decay of the Radium Emanation." The paper is
printed in the Memoirs.

Ordinary Meeting, April 6th, igog.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., Vice President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables. The following were among the recent
accessions to the Society's Library; — ^'■Report on the North-
avipton Miuetal Field'' (8vo., Perth, 1908), ^'Report o>i the
Ranoivna Mines'" (Svo., Perth, 190S), and '■^Report on the
Mines of the Yilgarn Goldfield'" (8vo., Perth, 190S), all three by
A. Montgomery, presented by the Agent General for Western
Kw%\.xz}i\2i; '''■ The Darivin- Wallace Celebration iiehi . . . ist/nly\
jgoS^' (Svo., London, 1908), presented by the Linnean Society
of London ; " Physiological and Medical Observations among
the Indians of S. W. United States and Northern Ahxico" by
A. Hrdlicka (4to., Washington, 1908), presented by the Bureau
of American Ethnology ; " The Centenary of the Geological
Society of London" (8vo., London, 1909), presented by the
Geological Society; '■^Handbook of the Alanchester Meeting of
the British Association'" (i6mo., Manchester, 1887), and
" Excursions.^ Manchester Meetifig of the British Association "
(i6mo., Manchester, 1887), ^^ Nicholson's Journal" vols, i — 5

XX Proceedinc^s. {^April 6tJi, igog.

(4to., London, 1 797-1 S02), '■'■Gilbert's Annalen der Physik"
N.F., I — ^12 (Svo., Leipzig, 1819-1822), '^ Siudies in Analoiny
from the Auatoviical Department of Ike Owens Co//e(:;e," vols. 1 — 2
(8vo., Manchester, 1891, 1900), and '■'• Studies from the Physio-
logical Laboratory of Owens College^'' vol. i (8vo., Manchester,
1 891), presented by Mr. Francis Nicholson : ''Swedish Explora-
tions in. Spitsbergen, IJ^S — igo8," by A. G. Nathorst and others
(Svo., Stockholm, 1909), presented by the Kungl. Universitetets
i Uppsala Bibliotek ; '■'• Anatomie dii Corselet et Histolyse des
Muscles Vibrateurs, aprcs le Vol i\uptial, chez la Reine de la
fourmi (Las'iu^ niger)," Texte et Planches, par Ch. Janet, 2 vols.
(Svo., Limoges, 1907), presented by the author; '^ Magnetical,
Me/eo?'ological, and Se is nio logical Observations made at the
Governme7it Observatory, Bombay and Alibag . . . 1 902-1 905,"
by N. A. F. Moos (fol, Bombay, 1908), presented by the
Governor-General in ("ouncil, India; and '■'■ Comptes Rtndus des
Seances de la 1'''' et 2"" Reunions de la Commission Pertnanente
de r Association Internationale de Sismologie.. igo6-igo'/P 2 vols,
(fol., Budapest, 1906, 1907), presented by Professor A. Schuster,
F.R.S.

Mr. Thomas Thorp, F.R.A.S., presented to the Society a
silvered concave grating which he had produced by the method
described by him at the meeting held on V'ebruary 23rd, 1909.

Professor E. Knecht, Ph.D., in a preliminary communica-
tion (;n the hydrolysis of gun cotton, stated that, by heating the
hexanitrate of cellulose in water contained in a sealed tube to
190 C, he had caused it to pass completely into solution.

Mr. C. E. Stromkyek, M.Inst.C.E., mentioned that he had
found that although the nitrogen contained in some samples of
steel, analysed for that element, did not miprove the general
quality of the steel, it certainly had a very powerful effect on its
tenacity ; and he suggested that the difficulties which had
hitherto been experienced in harmonising the best results
obtained with steels from different works were due to nitrogen,
which had not been previously determined for this purpose.

April 6th, IQOQ^^ Proceedings. xxi

Mr R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C., read a paper entitled,
" On some Colour Demonstrations of the Dissociating-
Action of Water."

Mr. Henry Sidebottom read a paper entitled ** Report
on the Recent Foraminifera from the Coast of the
Island of Delos (Grecian Archipelago). Part VI."
(Conclusion.)

Examples of Polytretna miniaceiim, Linne sp., Triincatulina
variabilis, d'Orbigny, and a decorated form of Rotalia beccarni^
Linne, were shown under the microscope, and drawings of
numerous other species were exhibited.

Mr. George Hickling, B.Sc, read a paper entitled, "On
Permian Foot-prints."

The three papers will be printed in the Memoirs.

A/anc/iester MetJioirs, Vol. Hit. (1909), No. 10.

THE WILDE LECTURE.

XVL On the Influence of Moisture on Chemical
Change in Gases.

By H. Breketon Baker, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Delivered March gth, jgog.

Thirty years ago, Prof. H. B. Dixon investigated the
behaviour of carbon monoxide and oxygen when they
were dried as completely as possible, and he discovered

0
j
i
f
CORRIGENDUM. s

1

"Manchester Memoirs" vol. 53, No. 18, page 3, line 8 t

from the bottom, n'rtis? sulphocyanide/r-^r salicylate. »

myself and others. It has been shewn that hydrogen and
chlorine can be exposed to light without explosion,
ammonia and hydrogen chloride mixed without union,
sulphur trioxide can be crystallized on lime, ammonium
chloride and mercurous chloride give undissociated
vapours, hydrogen and oxygen can be exposed to a red

May nth, i^g.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Hit. (1909), No. 10.

THE WILDE LECTURE.

XVL On the Influence of Moisture on Chemical
Change in Gases.

By H. Brereton Baker, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Delivered March gth, igog.

Thirty years ago, Prof. H. B. Dixon investigated the
behaviour of carbon monoxide and oxygen when they
were dried as completely as possible, and he discovered
that under these circumstances electric sparks caused no
explosion. Some years before Wanklyn had discovered
that purified chlorine did not act on sodium, but he did
not identify the impurity, now known to be a trace of
water, which causes the vigorous action which takes
place under ordinary circumstances.

In 1882 Cowper investigated the action of dried
chlorine on several metals, and found that the removal or
moisture in many cases inhibited the reaction.

In the following year, working in Prof Dixon's
laboratory at Balliol College, I found that purified carbon
could be heated to redness in dried oxygen, and that
sulphur and phosphorus could be distilled in the same gas
without burning. In the investigations which followed
some twenty-five simple reactions have been tried by
myself and others. It has been shewn that hydrogen and
chlorine can be exposed to light without explosion,
ammonia and hydrogen chloride mixed without union,
sulphur trioxide can be crystallized on lime, ammonium
chloride and mercurous chloride give undissociated
vapours, hydrogen and oxygen can be exposed to a red

May nth, ipog.

2 Baker, hiflncuce of Moisture o?i Chcviical Change in Gases.

heat without explosion, and lastly in 1907 my wife and I
obtained nitrogen trioxide as an undissociated gas for the
first time by carefully drying the liquid, and evaporating
into a dried atmosphere.

The amount of water required to bring about these
chemical actions is extremely small. Mere passing of a
gas through long columns of phosphorus pentoxide is
insufficient to prevent chemical action, and this treatment,
according to the determinations of Prof. E. W. Morley,
leaves only 3 mg. of water in 1,000,000 litres of the gas.
For extreme dryness to be attained prolonged contact of
phosphorus pentoxide is necessary. Of the reactions
which have been tried with the utmost attention to purity
of the substances, only a few, the combustion of carbon
bisulphide, cyanogen, and some hydrocarbons in oxygen
appear to be unaffected by the presence of small traces of
moisture.

Many explanations have been attempted of the
influence of moisture on chemical action. Dr. Armstrong
suggested, during the discussion on my first paper at the
Chemical Society in 1884, that all chemical actions were
electrolytic in character, and that in ordinary reactions in
gases the water vapour, impure as it would be, served as
electrolyte. I believed in 1902 that I had obtained
evidence in favour of his view, because on heating a
mixture of very pure hydrogen and oxygen not completely
dried, water was produced, doubtless very pure, but no
explosion resulted. Prof Dixon has since pointed out
that the want of explosiveness in the wet mixture may
have been due to the gases having been diluted b}' the
steam formed and in presence of a neutral gas no
explosion would be expected.

Sir J. J. Thomson in 1893 .showed that if the com-
bination of atoms in a mcjlecule is electrical in its nature,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 16. 3

the presence of liquid drops of water, or drops of any
liquid of high specific inductive capacity, would be
sufficient to cause a loosening of the tie between the atoms,
and this might result in chemical combination of the
partially freed atoms to form new molecules. He showed
in the same paper {^Phil. Mag., 36, 321) that drying a gas
very completely stopped the passage of a current of 1,200
volts. In the same year I was able in the same way to
prevent the passage of discharge from an induction coil, a
discharge which would traverse a spark gap of three times
the distance in undried gas.

Shortly after the discovery of Rontgen rays it was
found that they would ionize a gas through which
they passed. At the time it was thought that this
ionization was similar to that taking place in electrolysis.
If this were so the rays would probably cause chemical
union to take place even in a dried gas, and accordingly
Prof. Dixon and I undertook some experiments on the
subject which were published in a joint paper {CJieni. Soc.
Jour., 1896). The results were negative, no chemical
action could be detected. Since that time the ionization
of gases has been shown to be of quite a different nature.
The negative ion has been shown to be a particle of the
mass of irnnr^^ ^^^^ °^ ^^^ hydrogen atom ; the positive
ion is the residue, but whether it is the residue of an atom
or of a molecule seems to be still uncertain. Since the
ionization of gases is different from that in electrolysis
the retention of this term is much to be deprecated.

In order to illustrate the possibility of positive ions
being charged atoms, and not molecules from which an
electron had been split off, I devised a new experiment.
It is known that mercury vapour in its ordinary state
contains atoms only. It occurred to me to try if the
charged ions in the mercury vapour lamp had any

4 Baker, Influence of Moisture on Clwniical Change in Gases.

increased chemical activity. Accordingly, after running
such a lamp, containing speciall)' purified mercury, the
current was cut ofif, and shortly afterwards oxygen was
admitted. The surface of the metal was found to be
covered with red oxide. The temperature of the lamp is
less than 150°, and at this temperature there is, under
ordinary circumstances, no chemical action between
mercury and oxygen.

In order to test further the question as to whether the
ionization of molecules, as distinguished from atoms, can
bring about chemical change, I have investigated the
action of radium bromide on very pure and dry hydrogen
and oxygen. The gases were sealed up with some radium
bromide contained in an open silica tube. The containing
vessel was provided with a vacuum gauge, by means of
which the combination of-^Voth part of the gases could
be easily detected. No action whatever was observed,
although the substances were left in contact for two
months. A further experiment showed that, as was to be
expected, very dry air is readily ionized by radium. Two
more tubes were then set up, similar to the first, containing
mixtures of carbon monoxide and oxygen, one very dry,
and the other containing traces of moisture, and although
the radium bromide has been in contact with them for
more than two months not the slightest contraction can
be observed. In these cases therefore ionization produces
no chemical change.*

There is, however, a possibility that ionization may
bring about a chemical action in a mixture of gases which

* Madame Curie lielieved lh;U radium bromide produced ozone in the air
in which it is sealed up. The evidence for this statement is thai a smell
resembling ozone is oVjserved on opening,' such sealed tuljes. I have opened
several such tubes which have been se.iled up for a year or more, but I have
only noticed a smell of bromine, which of course when fairt resembles
that of ozone.

Manchester Memoirs, Vo/. liii. (1909), No. 16- 5

is under conditions whicli are nearly, but not quite,
suitable for chemical action to take place. The gaseous
mixtures mentioned only combine, even when moist, at a
red heat. Since the experiments were done at 2o'\ they
only show that ionization does not produce chemical
action in gases which are otherwise unable to combine.

There remained the possibility that if gases were just
on the point of combining, increasing the ionization might
accelerate the rate of action. I sought for a case of simple
chemical union which would proceed at a manageable
temperature, and at a rate, which could be measured. Of
those tried, the reaction between hydrogen and nitrous
oxide was found to be the most suitable. The gases used
were as pure as possible, but dried only by passing through
phosphorus pentoxide tubes. They were found to com-
bine with great uniformity when heated in clean Jena
glass tubes to 530''. An electric resistance furnace was
used, consisting of a wide silica tube which formed the
heated chamber. It is known that many substances when
heated ionize a gas ; lime is fairly efficient, thoria more so,
and, of course, radium bromide most of all. In the first
experiment two tubes of the same Jena glass, containing
the hydrogen and nitrous oxide mixture, were heated side
by side. One contained some lime, and in order to make
the conditions as similar as possible, an equal quantity of
powdered Jena glass was introduced into the other. As
soon as the requisite temperature was reached, the action
proceeded rapidly in the tube containing lime, the rate in
the first five minutes being five times the rate of combina-
tion in the tube containing only powdered glass. After
I 5 minutes the second tube had caught up the first, and
the rates of union were equal up to the completion of the
action. With thoria the effect was still more marked, the
rate increasing to twenty times the rate in the tube

6 Baker, hifluence of Moisture on CJicniical Change in Gases.

containing the glass. Finally about 2 mg. of radium
bromide was heated in the mixture of gases. As soon as
the combining temperature was reached, the gases in the
radium bromide tube exploded.

From these three experiments it is seen that as the
amount of ionization was increased, there was a rapid
increase in chemical action.

The next experiment tried, illustrates one way in
which the ionization of a gas may bring about chemical
change.

Hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide can be
mixed at the ordinary temperature in presence of traces of
moisture, but in presence of liquid water, decomposition
takes place into sulphur and water. The gases were dried
before mixing by calcium chloride, which leaves about
4 mg. of water vapour per litre in the gas. After mixing,
a small open silica tube containing about 2 mg. of dried
radium bromide was introduced. After six hours no
apparent change had taken place in the gas ; there was no
deposit of sulphur on the sides of the jar, and it seemed at
first as if no action had been produced. On opening the
jar, however, an inrush of air was noticed, and the contents
were almost odourless. On heating the radium tube a
large quantity of water was driven off, and a copious
sublimate of sulphur was seen. The whole of the gaseous
contents of the jar had condensed in the small tube con-
taining the radium bromide. The explanation of this
action of radium bromide is probably simi^le. Water
vapour condenses on the ions emitted, liquid drops are
formed, and in them the chemical action takes place.*

* I have invariably noticed ihal water collects in lubes containing radium
preparations exposed to undried air. The salts are not at all deliquescent^
the crystals appearing quite sharp-edged under the microscope. 1 found
that lo mg. of radium bromide exposed to an atmosphere saturated at o"
for two days caused a deposition of water on its surface weighing 15 mg.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 10. 7

Is this e>cplanation to be applied to the experiment
with hydrogen and nitrous oxide? Can ionization of gas
containing a mere trace of moisture cause deposition (^S.
this moisture in a form approaching that of a h"quid ?
Prof. Tovvnsend has very recently published an account of
some remarkable experiments, in which he has shown
that there is a very marked decrease in the mobility of
negative ions in the presence of an amount of water
vapour represented by a pressure of ^^th mm. The air, in
his experiments, was ionized by Rontgen rays, but it is
known that all gases are to some extent ionized, and it is
possible that it is these ions, causing the deposition of
water, which bring about chemical action, according to
the theory of Sir J. J. Thomson, mentioned above.

I have found that if thoria is heated in hydrogen and
nitrous oxide, dried over phosphorus pentoxide for a
fortnight, no action at all is apparent when the tube
is heated for five minutes to 530°. Hence ionization
without water is ineffective in producing chemical action.
Experiments are in progress to determine the question
whether, if the spontaneous ionization of a gas is removed
by an electric field, chemical action will be prevented
even in the presence of water, but they are not suflficiently
advanced to justify their publication.

Some experiments have been made upon the influence
of metallic conductors on chemical change. Such sub-
substances should, if Sir J. J. Thomson's theory is true, be
even more efficient than drops of liquid having a hio-h
specific inductive capacity. Dixon and Lowe {Chein. Soc.
Jour., 1885, 571) showed that platinum brought about
complete union between dried carbon monoxide and
oxygen by continued heating, and the Rev. P. J. Kirkby
has shown that hydrogen and oxygen at low pressure
behave similarly. I have never been able to heat

8 Baker, Influence of Moisture on Chemical Change in Gases.

hydrogen and oxygen in contact with platinum without
causing explosion in the dried gases. A thin silver wire
can, however, be melted in the mixture without causing
explosion.

Mr. J. C. Thomson has recently done some experi-
ments for me on the hydrogen sulphide and sulphur
dioxide mixture. He finds that liquid alcohol and liquid
sulphur dioxide (both having high specific inductive
capacity) can bring about the decomposition in the
mixture, while carbon tetrachloride, whose specific induc-
tive capacity is low is inert. Also metallic aluminium
and metallic mercury are apparently unable to affect the
change.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 11.

XVII. The Action of Hydrogen on Sodium.
By Alfred Holt, Junr., M.A.

Received and read Ma}-ch 2jrd, igog.

Some time ago the author, while preparing some
specimens of sodium hydride according to the method
described by Moissan {Coviptes rendus, vol. 134, p. 71),
noticed certain features in the reaction of hydrogen with
molten sodium which seemed to throw light on the
relation of the hydride NaH with the compound Na„H
described by Troost and Hautefeuille {Comptes rejidus,
vol. 7^, p. 807).

Many experiments were performed, of which the
following present points of interest : —

1. A piece of pure, oil-free sodium was heated in a
glass tube filled with hydrogen and standing over mercury.
The metal was first heated for five days at 270° C. The
bright metallic surface was then found to be covered with
a white film of hydride, but none was sublimed on the
glass. The volume of hydrogen absorbed was extremely
small, not greater than that required to form the film of
hydride. More prolonged heating at the same tempera-
ture did not perceptibly increase the volume of hydrogen
absorbed by or combined with the metal. It is clear
from this that at 270° C. the absorption of gas is small
and is accounted for by the formation of the film of
hydride.

2. Some sodium was heated in a current of hydrogen
to about 400" C, at which temperature the hydride was
subliming on the cooler portion of the tube. The sodium

May nth, igog.

2 Holt, The Action of Hydrogen on Soditini.

was then allowed to cool. Almost at once it became
covered with a layer of h}'dride.

When cool it was reheated in the current of hydrogen.
The white film of hydride round each globule of molten
metal remained unaltered until about 370° C, when it
disappeared, only to reappear on the cooler parts of the
tube.

3. Some of the pure crystalline hydride (free from
sodium) was heated in a current of h\'drogen. It decom-
posed almost completely at a temperature below that at
which it begins to sublime. The sodium arising from its
decomposition became at once covered with a film of
hydride, and at about 370° C. sublimation of the hydride
began as in the previous experiments.

From this experiment, it appears that the hydride
decomposes at a lower temperature when heated alone
than when it is present as a film on the surface of molten
sodium.

4. Some sodium was heated in a current of hydrogen,
as in the previous experiments, until the hydride was
subliming. It was then allowed to cool as rapidly as
possible. When cold the sodium was analysed. The
volume of hydrogen which it gave when treated with
absolute alcohol was only slightly in excess of that which
would result from an equal weight of pure sodium. As
in this experiment the metal was heated to about 400° C,
the amount of hydride dissolved in the sodium at this
temperature cannot be very large.

5. A piece of sodium was heated in hydrogen in a
vessel standing over mercury. At a temperature of about
450 C. the metal began to volatilise and attack the glass,
but the absorption of hydrogen was extremely small, and
there was no visible sublimate of hydride.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. ( 1 909), No. 17. 3

Now Moissan has shown that when sodium is heated
to temperatures between 340° C. and 430° C. some hydride
must be dissolved in the molten metal, since by the action
of liquid ammonia (in which sodium is soluble) at — 40°C.,
a residue remains which consists of nearly pure hydride.
Troost and Hautefeuille from their observations, concluded
that sodium when heated to 380° C. for a long time
absorbed a volume of hydrogen consistent with the
formation of a compound of composition Na^H but that
this compound began to dissociate about 300° C, the
amount of dissociation rising rapidly with the temperature,
till at 421° C. the tension of the hydrogen in the com-
pound is 760 m.m. Hence, at this temperature, none of
the compound is formed unless the hydrogen in which the
sodium is heated has a pressure greater than that of the
atmosphere.

It appears quite possible to co-ordinate the formation
of this supposed hydride Na^H of Troost and Hautefeuille
with the known compound NaH prepared by Moissan.

When sodium is heated in a current of hydrogen at
atmospheric pressure combination begins at 270° C, the
hydride NaH being formed.

Most of this dissolves in the excess of sodium, forming
a solution which may be conveniently regarded as sodium
dissolved in sodium hydride (or NaH.Na). The addition
of sodium to the hydride NaH will reduce its vapour
tension, and hence none of it sublimes.

As the temperature rises the combination of the
sodium with the hydrogen becomes more rapid, and the
sodium dissolves more of the sodium-sodium hydride
solution, the ratio of sodium to the hydride decreasing.
But as the ratio decreases, the vapour tension of the
hydride becomes greater, until at length it begins to
sublime.

4 Holt, TJie Action of Hydrogeyi on Sodiuvi.

At the same time the solution NaH.Na dissociates
more and more rapidlj^ as the temperature rises.

About 380 C, the NaH.Na dissolved in the sodium is
very largeh' dissociated, and at about this temperature the
compound NaH begins to sublime.

This would explain experiment (4), for at the tem-
perature to which the sodium was heated, very little of
the dissolved hydride would remain undissociated. Troost
and Hautefeuille failed to obtain the compound NaH since
they heated their hydrogenised sodium in a closed vessel
in order to determine the dissociation, whereas in Moissan's
experiments the vapour of the hydride was condensed at
the moment of its formation, and so removed from the
equilibrium of H, Na hydrides. It would appear to be an
analogous case to the dissociation of CaCO^. Very little
COj or CaO is obtained unless one of the decomposition
products is removed as fast as it is formed.

The formation of an easily dissociating compound
Na„H or NaH.Na as described by Troost and Haute-
feuille is quite consistent with the sublimation of the
compound NaH.

The finest crystals of the hydride (NaH) were
obtained when the glass tube in which they were formed
was about one inch internal diameter, and when the
sodium was heated to the lowest temperature at v/hich
the hydride would sublime. The current of hydrogen
should be at rather more than atmospheric pressure, as
otherwise the crystals of hydride are found to be mixed
with particles of metallic sodium.

The reactions of the compound have been studied in
detail by Moissan, and the author has also repeated most
of them. The action of a concentrated solution of hydro-
chloric acid produces a somewhat curious result. If a
mass of the hydride is dropped into a test tube containing

Manchester Mevioirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. II. 5

a few drops of the strong acid, it catches fire and burns
while falh'ng through the moist gas above the h"quid.
The moment it touches the acid solution a violent decom-
position, accompanied by a bright flash and a sharp
report, takes place, while fine strings of sodium chloride
crystals hang down in the acid liquid from the point at
which the hydride touched it. The only other reaction
which presents points of interest is with absolute alcohol.
The hydrogen of the hydride seems to be given off
entirely at the moment of contact with the liquid, as
there is an immediate hissing and evolution of gas while
the alcohol becomes warm, after which small globules
and filaments of sodium swim about and disappear more
gradually.

The other reactions will be found in the paper by
Moissan to which reference has already been made.

The University, Manchester.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Hit. (1909), No. 18.

XVIII. On some Colour Demonstrations of the
Dissociating Action of Water.

By R. L. Taylor, F.I.C.

(Received and read April 6th, rgog.)

It is now almost universally recognised that the
Theory of Ionic Dissociation affords the most satisfactory
explanation of many otherwise inexplicable phenomena
which accompany the solution of most acids, bases, and
salts in water. For example, there are a considerable
number of remarkable facts connected with the colours
of various solutions of salts in water, which find the most
reasonable explanation in this theory.

Thus it was long ago shown by Ostwald that the
colours of dilute solutions of all permanganates were the
same, no matter what the bases were. This is exactly
what one would expect from the theory. All permanga-
nates when in dilute solution are almost completely disso-
ciated, and the negative ion is always Mn04, which is a
purple coloured ion. The colour of a dilute solution of a
permanganate, then, is always the colour of the Mn04 ion,
and is therefore always the same. Similarly, the colour
of the negative ion of chromates (Cr04) is yellow, and
therefore dilute solutions of chromates all have the same
colour, no matter what the bases are, unless they are
coloured as well. The blue colour of solutions of copper
salts also is recognised as due to the positive copper ion.
Copper chloride, however, both solid and in strong solu-
tion, is green, and copper bromide is dark brown, — almost
black. These are the colours of the coviponnds ; but when
they are diluted with water they both turn blue ; — they

May 2^lh, igog.

2 Taylor, Colour Demonstrations of Water.

both dissociate, and both yield the same copper ion, which
is blue.

The above examples are all well known, but they are
all connected with salts which dissociate when in solution
yielding coloured ions. But we know a number of com-
pounds which are themselves highly coloured, and are
soluble in water, but which can be made from colourless,
or almost colourless, materials. For example, ferric sul-
phocyanide is a compound with a deep blood-red colour,
which is produced when a solution of a sulphocyanide
(colourless) is added to a solution of a ferric salt (which
when dilute has a pale yellow colour). 1 he compound is
very soluble in water. According to the theory, what
ought to happen if this highly coloured compound is
diluted with much water? If it dissociates, its ions are
all but colourless, so that the blood-red colour ought to
disappear. This is exactly what does occur. If some of
the deep red liquid is poured, a little at a time, into a
considerable bulk of water (one or two litres), it is very
striking to notice the complete disappearance of the colour
of the first portions added, and the really considerable
amount which has to be added to produce a permanent
red colouration in the water.

If an amount of the coloured liquid, just insufficient
to produce a permanent red colouration, has been added
to a considerable volume of water, it is interesting to note
that the red colour appears on the addition of either solu-
tion of potassium sulphocyanide, or ferric chloride. The
existence of the red compound depends on the concentra-
tion of the ions Fe and (CNS'), and if the concentration
of either of these ions in the solution is increased, some
of the red compound is formed.

The red compounds ferric acetate and ferric formate,
when diluted with water, behave in a similar way to the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 18. 3

sulphocyanide, but, as their colours are not nearly so
intense, the effect of dilution is not so striking. Ferric
salicylate, which has a deep purple colour, behaves on
diluting with water almost in the same way as the sulpho-
cyanide, although the latter appears to dissociate some-
what more readily.

The colour of a solution of ferric salic}'late is not very
unlike that of a solution of potassium permanganate, and
this enables us to see the remarkable difference in the
effect of diluting the two solutions. (Diluting a solution
of a permanganate will, of course, increase its dissociation ;
but here the negative ion is coloured. In the other cases
there can be no colour unless some of the undissociated
compound is present.) If we take a solution of potassium

( N\

permanganate I say about I, two or three drops of it

will impart a perceptible purple colouration to half a litre
of water. I f, on the other hand, we prepare a solution of
ferric salicylate, which has about the same colour intensity
as the permanganate, seven or eight cubic centimetres of
it are required to produce a perceptible purple colouration
in the same amount of water. It is not so easy to compare
the colour intensity of ferric salicylate with that of the
permanganate, but it is possible to prepare .solutions of
the two which have approximately the same colour inten-
sity, and in this case the difference in the amounts of the
two solutions which are required to produce a perceptible
colouration in the same quantity ot water, is even greater
than in the case of the permanganate and the ferric
salicylate.

Manciiester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909 J, No. 19.

XIX. A Modification of the Beckmann Apparatus by
which Constant Readings are obtained in deter-
mining the Boihng Points of Aqueous Solutions.

By Professor EDMUND Knecht, Ph.D.,

AND

J. P. Batev, M.Sc.Tech.

Read May 4tli, igog. Received for piibliiation May i8th, igog.

In the course of a research into the condition of
certain dyes in aqueous solution, we desired to make
ebullioscopic determinations of their molecular weights
by determining the elevation which they produced in the
boiling point of water. Owing to the complex nature
and sparing solubility of these substances, it was only
possible to obtain a very small rise in the boiling point,
and it was found that with the types of Beckmann
apparatus at our disposal it was not possible to obtain a
sufficiently regular boiling point for our purpose. This
we supposed was due to superheating effects caused by
the cohesion of the liquid on the glass walls of the boiling
vessel. To avoid this we were led to try an electric
heating method in which the heat is supplied by a
platinum wire, in direct contact with the solution.

A tube was made with a platinum heating coil inside,
while somewhat thicker wires, fused through the glass,
served for making the connections.

When in use the apparatus rested in an outer cylin-
drical glass jacket which itself rested in a wide-mouthed
bottle, packed at the bottom and round the neck with

Afay 28(h, igog.

2 Knecht & Batev, Boiling Points of Aqueous Solutions.

cotton wool. {See diagram.) It was found that with
this arrangement the boiling point of the solution re-
mained constant to o-ooi'C. We subsequently found

0MJ>CN5E'R

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. |<). 3

that electrical heating had been used before for this
purpose. S. L. Bigelow {Ainer. Cheni. Joiirn., vol. 22, p. 280,
1899) first used the method, and demonstrated its usefulness.
Later the subject was fully discussed by E. Beckmann in
his paper : " Fehler der ebulHoskopischen Verfahren und
Versuche zu deren Beseitigung." {Zeii. Phys. Chem.,
vol. 63, p. 177, 1908.)

Both these experimentors state that the method is not
applicable for use with aqueous solutions.

Thus, Bigelow says : — " Electric heating is not applic-
able for use with water solutions, for difficulties due to
electrolysis would surely be encountered."

Beckmann found that a solution of potassium bromide
was instantly turned brown when a current of 2 amperes
was passed through the heating coil ; and this, even when
alternating current was used.

We repeated the experiment with KBr in our appara-
tus with a direct current of 7 amperes, and not a trace of
bromine was liberated. In view of this fact we were led
to compare the physical constants of Bigelow's and Beck-
mann's apparatus with those of our own.

Bigelow and Beckmann both used a heating coil of
5 ohms resistance. The current used by Beckmann to
produce the necessary heating effect was : —

li amperes for low boiling solvents.
2 „ high

The drop in potential across the coil would therefore
be yh to 10 volts.

In our apparatus the resistance of the heating coil at
lOO'C. was 0"47 ohms.

Current used 6'5 am[)eres.

Drop in potential across wire 3 volts only.

Evidently the electrolysis will depend on the drop
in potential across the heating coil, and when this is

4 Kneciit & VtkTYJS, Boiling Points of Aqueous Solutions.

reduced to a certain point (for KCl about 2\ volts) the
amount of electrolysis will be theoretically nil*

The following experiments were done with a view to
ascertaining how much electrolysis actually does take place.

A lO per cent, solution of KCl was put in the apparatus
and a current of 7 amperes passed for 4 hour.

The liquid was then titrated for chlorate by means of
titanous chloride, and it was found that only 02 per cent,
of the KCl had been converted into KCIO;,.

A 10 per cent, solution of KI was treated with 7
amperes for I hour. The liquid was then titrated for
iodine by means of thiosulphate (after acidifying).

Found — Iodine (free and as iodate) 05 per cent, on the
weight of KI.

A 10 percent, solution of KI treated with "jl amperes
for f hour.

Found — ro per cent, iodine (free and as iodate).

A 2 per cent, solution of crystal scarlet was treated
for 30 minutes with 6\ amperes, and was then titrated
with titanous chloride.

Foujid — I'S per cent, of the dye destroyed.

In the above experiments the currents used are
slightly greater, and the time much longer than would be
the case in carrying out a determination.

It is evident, therefore, that by using a heating coil of
low resistance the amount of electrolysis which takes
place is negligible.

Measurements of the molecular elevations produced,
have been made with several clcctrolj'tes and non-electro-

* This was shown to be the case in another apparatus in whicli the
resistance of the heating coil at ioo° was 0'32 ohms. With a current of
7 A amps, this would correspond to 2*2 volts. With a io% solution of KCl,
and boiling for half-an-hour under these conditions, no chlorate was
produced. In this apparatus the electrolysis of KI was less than in the
other one.

Manchester Meniotrs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 10. 5

A.

B.

C.

Kg.

W.Bz.

S.

KCl

0*2715

0736

1*105

0*250°

0672

i*oi8

9*26
9*17
9*24

9*24

9'i3
9*22

9"33
9'25

9'o3
9-19

0*280

o"577
0830

o'248°

0*502

0*730

877
8*70
880

Kg.

L

S.

H.Bz.

1-NO,

8*99

8-65
869

8*34

9-02
865

9*27
8-79
8-54

0*0564

0*389

0*442

0733
1*390

0*059
0-394
0*439
0734
1*440

10*8
10*13
9'94

I0*02
10*38

Kg.

W.Bz.

s.

H.Bz.

NaCl

9*14

9"39
10-13

9*11
9-5'

9*67

10-5
9-3

1004

loS

10*35

io'35
10-28

1056

0*0298
0-1703
03301
0*1281
0*2742

04157
0-586

0*022
0*167
0*318
0131
0*280
0*416
0-565

(8-57)
957

9*65
10*22

I0"20

998
9*91

4-97
5*26

L.

Bn.

F.Kr.

CH^COONa

9*28

907
934

8*94

8-5
8-57

929

00977
01950

0*049
o*io6

Kg.

L.

Bn.

Cane Sugar...

4*94

5'io

4*86
4*86

0*0922

0-317

0658

0*989

1522

0-037
0134
0*280
0*444
0*682

(3-9)
4*22
4*26
4-52
4'5o

L.

Bn.

Tj rea

474
456

4-32
4*27

435
4-27

6 Kneciit & Batev, Boiling Points of Aqueous Solutions.

lytes, and in the iollowing table the results obtained are
compared with those of other observers.

Column A gives the strengtii of the solution in gram
molecules per litre. B is the observed rise in temperature,
while C is the molecular elevation of the boiling point.

C= lo .
A

In the remaining columns are given values for C
obtained by different observers at approximately the same
concentration of solution.

It will thus be seen that by employing a heating coil
with suitable resistance, internal electrical heating can
be used for aqueous solutions.

It possesses the one great advantage over the usual
method of heating, in that absolutel}- constant readings
are obtained, without any special precautions.

Where the necessary current and appliances are avail-
able, the electrical heating is more convenient than gas
heating.

LITERATURE REFERRED TO IN THE TABLE.

Kg. = L. Kahlenberg. Jonru. PJiys. Chcm., vol. 5,
p. iG6, 1 90 1.

\V.Bz.=- W. Biltz Zcit. PJiys. C/i., vol. 39, p. 414, 1902.

S. =A. Smits. „ „ vol. 40, p. 208, 1902.

L. =W. Landsberger. Zcit. ^iiiorg. 6//., vol, 17,
p. 436, 1898.

Bn, = K. Beckmaini. Zcit.Phys. C7/.,vol. 6, p. 459, 1 890.

II. Bz. =11. Bikz. " Practical Methods for Determina-
tion of i\Iolecular Weights." — Translated
by Jones and King.

h\Kr. = F. Krafft. Ber., vol. 28, pt. 3, p. 2573, 1895.

Chemical I )c[);irtmcnt,

Municipal School of Tcclinology,
Manchester.

Mmichcster Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. !iO.

XX. On the Tent-building Habits of the Ant Lasius
niger Linn, in Japan.

By Marie C. Stopes, Ph.D., D.Sc,

AND

C. Gordon Hewitt

iThe University, Manchester).
(Received and read May 4th, igog).

During the recent visit of one of us (M. C. S.) to
Japan, the tent-building habits of the common brown or
black garden ant Lasius niger Linn., which forms tents
of a character and shape hitherto undescribed, were
observed. The tents were found on Ilex integra, which
was growing on a low hill near the sea at Hayama, a
small bathing village within fifty miles of Tokyo.

L. niger is one of the commonest species of ants in
England. Prof W. M. Wheeler, who kindly confirmed the
identification of the specimens collected from these tents,
says that he is unable to distinguish these and other speci-
mens previously received from Japan from the common
European form. In England they usually construct
subterranean galleries and frequently cultivate Aphides
for the sake of the honey-like fluid, the so-called " Honey
dew " which appears to be formed in the alimentary canal,
and is used by the ants for food. It has been stated
that during the winter they take the eggs of the Aphides
into their nests as a protection against frost.

In the colonies of the Japanese ants about to be des-
cribed, the form of the tents and the covered passages which

Jtiiie gt/i, igog.

2 Stopes & Hewitt, Toit-lmildhig Habits of the Ant.

connect the same with the underground nests of tlie ants
can be seen best from the figure. This shows the stump
of a stem i^A) of the Ilex which had been cut down, and in
consequence was provided with several leaf}- shoots near
the ground. B is the base of the adjacent uncut stem,
about 30ft. high, which had no leafy shoots near the
ground, nor did it show any traces of ant habitation.

The tents were of the detritus type. In their con-
struction the ants had used the sand from the soil in the
neighbourhood, which was of a blackish colour ; mixed
with it were numerous white fragments of broken shell.
Very little cementing material appeared to have been
employed, since in the dry condition the tents were broken
by the slightest pressure.

The form of a complete tent can be seen at e in the
figure. It will be observed that the whole twig and its
leaves, with the exceptions of the ends of the leaves, are
enclosed in the detritus tent. The whole, therefore, forms
a cylindrical, sausage-shaped mass, from which the tips or
unrolled edges of a {q\\ of the leaves (//.) project, but most
of the leaves are completely enclosed in the sand)' cover-
ing, through which run galleries which were found to be
swarming with ants.

The tents communicate with the subterranean nests
by means of covered galleries {g.g) which were built of
detritus and wound round the tree trunk in a curved
manner. By means of these galleries the ants travel from
the ground to the interior of the tents where the aphides
are housed.

At the tips of the enclosed branches the young leaves
(^.) can be seen projecting as the}' have recent!}' been
unfolded from the bud. The ants soon turn their attentions
to these new leaves, which are treated like the rest in a
peculiar manner. They appear to bite the lower side of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. {igog), No. *Z^. 3

the midrib, and this results in the curling of the leaves
ventrally, the upper side of the leaf being outwards, as
seen at br., where the young leaves have begun to be
inrolled. On the left-hand side of the figure a twig is
seen, which has not yet been enclosed by a detritus casing.
Here the leaves are more tightly rolled up as they grow
older, and the space formed by the inrolled portion is
enclosed with sand. The ants are found in these inrolled
leaves. When fresh, the leaves appeared to be living, as
no doubt was the case, otherwise the aphides, for whose
protection the tents are constructed, would be unable to
subsist on them. They had, however, no trace of green
colour, but were instead a livid purple. The leaves which
project from the tent, as //., had green tips. A normal
untouched leaf is shown at 71.

Unfortunately, as the observations were made during
a few days vacation, no reagents or instruments were
available, and no field experiments could be made. The
specimens collected were fixed in the local wine sake',
which proved to be an excellent preservative, as its per-
centage of alcohol is very high.

In their anatomy the dwarfed and rolled leaves show
no fundamental difference from the normal ones, but all
the tissues, particularly the vascular tissue and palisade
cells, are much less differentiated. For example, one
layer only of short palisade cells in them represents the
elongated double layer that is found in the normal leaf.
Along the under side of the midrib are several smaller
wounds, which remain as brown scars of destroyed tissue,
as seen under the microscope ; these are probably pro-
duced by the biting action of the ants' mandibles, and
cause the rolling of the leaves. Brown scars also occur
along the edge of the leaf, which in some instances is
slightly toothed.

4 Stopes & Hewitt, Tent-building Habits of the Ant.

The cause of the curling and dwarfing of the leaves
does not seem to be an effect of the aphides, or at any
rate of the aphides alone, but appears to be the result of
direct manipulation by the ants. Several plants of the
same species in the neighbourhood bore twigs with ants
on the backs of leaves which were beginning to curl, but
which seemed entirely free from aphides.

Prof W. M. Wheeler in a letter to one of us (C. G. H.)
says that this species and its varieties in America are in
the habit of building tents over plant lice and mealy-bugs,
and in his interesting paper (1906) on the habits of the
tent-building ant Crematogaster lineolata Say, he refers to
the same habit of L. niger. The common American form
L. niger var. americana occasionally builds detritus tents
around the stems of plants.

Huber describes the tent-building habit of L. niger in
his classic work (1810). Small spherical tents were found
on the spurge, and, as in the case of the tents of the
Japanese ants, the stem of the spurge formed the axis of
the structure. The latter was of the carton type, being
constructed of wood. In these shelters the ants kept the
plant-lice, which were thus protected from their enemies
and also from the rain and sun.

Forel (1874) has also described the tents which several
European species of Lasins construct. One form, L.
brunneus, constructs galleries made of detritus over large
bark aphides. Some species of Myrviica cover the
aphides with earthen cells which communicate with the
nest by means of covered galleries.

There is no doubt that this habit of building detritus
and carton tents has developed for no other purpose than
that of protecting the various species of aphides which
are kept by the ants for the sake of their honey-like
secretions. By the construction of such " cowsheds," as

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. /80. 5

they might be termed, the aphides are able to continue
sucking the juices of the plant and at the same time they
are not only protected from their enemies but also from
alien ants. The protection from cold is also important,
as Brandes (1894) has found that aphides are most active
during the warmer part of the day, so that in keeping
them warm the ants would also be obtaining a larger
supply of the secretion from them. In addition to these
explanations of the tent-building habits of ants, Wheeler
(/.r.) also suggests that the tents may be to prevent the
escape of the aphides to other plants or other parts of the
same plant.

The evolution of the forms of the tents which are
found iii the different genera of tent-building ants may
have started with the small earthen cell covering a few
aphides : this may have been constructed either on the
stem or by filling the space formed by the inrolling of
certain of the leaves. Further enlargement and elabora-
tion would lead to the formation of a spherical or
cylindrical tent having the stem as axis, and finally, to
secure for themselves the greatest comfort and conveni-
ence, the ants would connect these tents either with the
earth or with their subterranean nests by means of covered
passages.

The phenomenon does not appear to be common in
Japan, for though travelling widely over the country, the
observer noted these galleries and tents only in one
district. Simple nest building ants inhabiting trees were
reported as being widely distributed, but the type of
structure here described does not seem to have been
noted hitherto, and may possibly be a local peculiarity of
the ants.

6 Stopes & Hewitt, Tent-buiidivg Habits of the Ant.

LITERATURE REFERRED TO.

l8lO- HuKKK, p. : '• Recherrhes sur les Mueuis dcs Fourmis
indigenes." Paris, p. 198.

l874' I'OKEL, A. " Les Fourmis de la Suisse." Zurich.

1894 PR.\NDE.s, G. " Die Blattlaus und der Honigbau."
Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., vol. 66, pp. y8 — 103.

1906 Wheeler, \V. M. "The Habits of the 'Pent-building
Ant [Crematogaster lineolata Say)." Bull. Amer. A/us.
Nat. Hist., vol. 22, pp. i — 18, 3 figs., 6 pis.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Ilex integra bearing tents of Lasius nigcr L.

A. Stump cut off near to the ground, leafy twigs sprouting from

it.

b. bud of leaves projecting from a ' tent.' l)r. new
leaves beginning to be rolled, c. tent. g.g. covered
galleries of detritus. //. tips of leaves projecting
from the tent. 11. normal leaf. s. leaves which
are inrolled, the space underneath being enclosed
in detritus,

B. Base of a stem which reached a height of 30 feet : it had no

branches near to the ground and no ants were found
upon it.

(Tlie liguie was drawn from llic livini; .spcciiueii /;/ iitii by M. C. S.)

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIIL (No. *}0j
^L^ —

Plate.

-C i;?mm

'(/

;, !

B

Xl

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. *Z\.

6'^. 3 1,2 (jiqo^

XXI. " Report on the Recent Foraminifera from the <
Coast of the Island of Delos (Grecian Archi-
pelago)." Part VI. (Conclusion.)

By Henry Sidebottom.

(Received and read April 6ih, igog.)

Planorbulina, d'Orbigny.

*Planorbulina mediterranensis, d'Orbigny. (PI. i,
Figs. 1-3).

Planorlmlina vulgaris, d'Orbigny ('39), p. 134, pi. 2,
fig- 30.

P. vulgaris (d'Orb.), William.son C58), p. 57, pi. 5,
figs. 119, 120.

P. meditej'ranensis (d'Orb.), Brady ('84), p. 656, pi. 92,
figs. 1—3.

P. mediterranensis fd'Orb.), Silvestri ('98), p. 286, pi. 6
(11), figs. 4-7.

P. mediterranensis (d'Orb.), Flint ('99), p. 328, pi. 72,
fig. 6.

This form occurs in three varieties. The first,'* Fig. i,
PI. I, is often of irregular growth, with inflated chambers,
and has the peripheral edge rounded. The second,*
Fig. 2, PI. I, has the peripheral edge sharp, and the under
surface quite flat. The third variety. Fig. 3, PI. i, has
also the peripheral edge sharp, or slightly blunted, but
the central portion of the free surface is covered with
irregular chambers. The planorbuline arrangement of
the segments on the underside (superior) is quite distinct,
as also are the apertures, though small. The first and
second varieties are frequent, and the third not quite so
frequent.

* The asterisk denotes that this species occurs at Palermo.
June lltli, iQog.

2 SiDEBOTTOM, Forai)ii)iifcra from the Islatid of Dclos.

Planorbulina acervalis, Brady. (PI. i, Fig. 4.)

Planorbulina acervalis, Brady ('84), p. 657, pi. 92, fig. 4.

P. acervalis (Brady), Brady, Parker and Jones ('88),
p. 227, pi. 46, fig. 1 1.

P. acervalis (Brady), Flint ('99), p. 328, pi. 72, fig. 7.

Brady ('84) reports this species from the Red Sea and
other places. It resembles certain forms of Gypsina, but
is distinguished from them by its peripheral apertures.
Rather rare.

Truncatulina, d'Orbigny.

*Truncatulina lobatula, Walker and Jacob, sp.

Triaicat7ili7ia lolhit/ila,{\N .^].) d'Orbigny ('46), p. 168,
pi. 9, figs. 18-23,

T. lobatula, (\V. & J.) Williamson ('58), p. 59, pl- 5-
figs. 1 21-123.

Planorbulina lobatula, ( W. & J.), Goes ('94) p. 88, pi. i 5,

fig. 774-

This common foraminifer in the Delos gatherings, is

subject to a great deal of variation, both as to size and

contour. Common.

*Truncatulina refulgens, Monfort, sp.

Truncatulina refulgens (Montfort), Brady ('65\ P- 105,
pi. 12, fig. 9.

'/'. refulgens (Montfort), Brady, ('84), p. 659, pi. 92,
figs, 7-9.

The specimens are small, and good bell-shaped tests
are very rare. Rare.

'*Truncatulina variabilis, d'Orbigny. (Pi. i, P^igs. 5,6,
and V\. 2, Figs. I-3).
Trujicatulina variabilis (d'Orb.;, Brady, ('84), P- 661,
pl- 93. fig^- <^' 7-

Manchester Meuioi IS, F^/. ////'. (1909), iV^. !i 1 . 3

T. rarmbilis (d'Orb.), Brady, Parker and Jones, ('88),
p. 227, pi. 45, fig. 17.

T. variabilis (d'Orb.), Jones and others, ('96), p. 309,
pi. 6, fi£]f. 23.

This occurs in two forms, one,* a small and rather
feeble outspread and coniplanate variet)', and the other *
which is present in great numbers, very large, coarsely
perforated, and often showing a number of heavily lipped

'frtiiuatuHna variabilis, d'Orb. After Soldani.

orifices. Except in the young stage, this latter variety
shows hardly two specimens alike. The contour of the
tests is often extraordinary, and the specimens are in
some cases, found enveloping the stalks of weeds. In
large examples, the perforations are very plainly seen,
even under low powers, and the coalescing of their edges
often forms an areolation over the whole surface. I had
been puzzled over the identification of these forms, but

4 SiDEBOTTOM, Foi anmiifcra from the Island of Dclos.

Professor A. Silvestri, of Spoleto, Italy, kindly sent me
tracings of some of Soldani's figures in the " Testaceo-
graphia " of wild-growing Tnincatiilina, which d'Orbigny
grouped under Trnncatulina variabilis. Some (jf these
tracings are almost identical with the Deles examples.
I reproduce one of them in the text-figure on p. 3.

Many of the tests found are larger than those I have
figured on I'l. 2.

*Truncatulina reticulata, Czjzek, sp. (PI. 2, P'ig. 4).

Rotalina reticulata., Czjzek ('48), P- 145, pi- ^3, fig^- 7-9-

Siphonina fiinbriata, Terrigi ('80), p. 212, pi. 4, fig. 69.

Truncatulina reticulata (Czjzek) Brady ('84J, p. 669,
pi. 96, figs. 5-8.

T. reticulata (Czjzek) Brady, Parker and Jones ('88),
p. 228, pi. 45, figs. 23, 24.

T. reticulata (Czjzek) Chaster ('92), p. 66, pi. i, fig. 16.

The examples are characteristic of the species. Rare.

Carpenteria, Gra)'.

^Carpenteria, sp. ? (Pi. 2, Fig. 5;.

Having found only one specimen from Delos, and one
from Palermo, I have not been able to decide definitely
as to the genus of this foraminifer. The planorbuline
arrangement of the chambers shows distinctly on the
superior side (adherent surface) (jf the test. The edge of
the test slightly spreads out, and is fimbriated ; the
aperture is an arched slit, and shows plainl}-, as will be
seen from the figure. The perforations on both sides of
the test show plainl)-. I have placed it under the head of
Ca rpcn te ria p r o v i s i o n a 1 1 )' .

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. I Hi. (1909), No. %\. 5

Pulvinulina, Parker and Jones.
Pulvinulina repanda, Fichtel and Moll, sp.

Nautilus repandns, Fichtel and Moll ('03), p. 35, pi. 3,
figs, a — d.

Puiviiiulina repanda (F. & M), Terrigi ('80), p. 206, pi.
3, fig. 61.

P. repanda (F. & M.) Brady ('84), p. 684, pi. 104, fig. 18.

P. repanda (F. & M.) Egger (93), p. 405, pi. 18, figs.
2S-30, 34, 35-

Very good examples occur. F"requent.

* Pulvinulina lateralis, Terquem sp. (PL 2, Fig. 6, PI. 3,
Figs. I, 2 (?)).

Rosalina lateralis, Terquem ('78), p. 25, pi. 2, fig. 11.

Pulvinulina lateralis (Terquem) Brady ('84), p. 689,
pi. 106, figs. 2, 3.

P. latei'alis (Terquem) Egger ('93), p- 413, pi i8, figs.
48-30.

Mr. Millett in his Malay Report ('98— :04) states that
this species in the living condition appears to be nothing
more than a wild-growing variety of P. repanda, and that
our knowledge of its distribution in the existing seas, is
confined to the localities mentioned by Brady ('84) and
the solitary station recorded by Egger. Mr. Millett states
also that it " is tolerably plentiful at St. 22 of the Malay
Report and is represented at a few stations mostly in
Area 2." I can report it also from the Bay of Eleusis
(not quite typical), Gulf of Oman, Madeira, Tuticoran,
and White Dog's anchorage, off River Min, China All
the Delos examples (with one exception) are, I believe,
wild growing specimens of this species. Those from
Palermo do not suffer quite so much in this respect. Rare.

6 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraniiiiifcra from the Island of Delos.

I am doubtful about the odd specimen Fig. 2, PI. 3, as it
bears a certain resemblance to Fornasini's (1900) outline
figure on page 396, fig. 45, under the name Pitlvinulina
adriatica, of which it might possibly be an immature
example. This specimen is much more complanate than
the others.

* Pulvinulina oblonga, Williamson, sp.

Nautilus auricular, var. j3, Fichtcl and Moll (:03),
p. 108, pi. 20, figs, d, e,f.

Rotalina oblonga, Williamson ('58), p. 51, pi. 4, figs.
98-100.

Ptilvinulina oblonga, (Williamson), Brady ('84), p. 688,
pi. 106, fig. 4.

Only about six of moderate size were found. Some
of the Palermo tests are large. Very rare.

* Pulvinulina oblonga, (Williamson), var. scabra, l^rady ?
(PI. 3, Figs. 3, 4).

Pulvimdi)ia oblonga (Williamson), var. scabra, Brady
('84), p. 689, pi. 106, fig. 8.

I am a little doubtful as to whether these should be
placed under this species, or under P. oblonga. The tests
run smaller than the Delos or Palermo examples of P.
oblonga, but they can be distinguished by the fact that the
surfaces of the earlier chambers on the superior side are
concave, or flat, whereas in P. oblonga they arc more or
less convex.

In the Delos and Palermo specimens the rugosity of
the superior surface is very seldom present. The final
chambers of the tests are not .so much inflated on the
superior side, as are the specimens I have from Cebu, and
especially those from Bermuda, nor is the amount of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. %\. 7

rugosity so great. Brady's fig. 8^, pi. 106 ('84) does not
convey the impression of having been drawn from the
same example as fig. Zc, and it will be noticed that this
latter figure gives the idea of the earlier chambers being
convex, whereas all the tests in my collection show them
to be flat or concave. Both the smooth and rugose con-
dition are here figured. Rare.

* Pulvinulina concentrica, Parker and Jones, (PI. 3,

Fig- 5).

Pulvinulina concentrica (P. & J. Ms.), Brady ('64),
p. 470, pi. 48, fig. 14.

P. concentrica (P. & J.), Brady ('84), p. 686, pi. 105.
fig. I.

Large examples occur of this beautiful foraminifer,
the characteristic broad band bordering the chambers
being well marked. Frequent.

^Pulvinulina hauerii, d'Orbigny sp. (PI. 3, Fig. 6).

Rotalina hauerii, d'Orbigny ('46), p. 151, pi. /.figs.
22-24.

Puivimdina hauerii (d'Orb.), Brady ('84), p. 690,
pi. 106, figs. 6, 7.

The tests are not typical, their peripheral edges in-
clining to angularity. The clear portion of the surface of
the final chamber on the inferior side is well marked and
characteristic of the species. Rather rare.

^Pulvinulina karsteni, Reuss, sp. (PI. 3, Fig. 7).

Pulvinulina karsteni (Reuss), Brady (64), p. 470, pi.
48, fig. 15.

P. repanda v. karsteni, Parker and Jones ('65), p. 396
pk 14, figs. 14, 15, 17, and pi. 16, figs. 38-40.

8 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraviinifcia from the Island of Deles.

P. karstcni (Reuss), Brady ('84), p. 698, pi. 105, figs.

8,9-

The Dclos examples of this species are not quite

typical, the umbilical region being covered with granula-
tions. Similar tests occur in the Bay of Naples. Rather
rare.

Pulvinulina schreibersii, d'Orbigny, s[). (PI. 3, Fig. 8).

Rotah'na schreibersii, d'Orbigny ('46), p. 154, pi. 8,
figs. 4-6.

R. badensis, Czjzek ('48), p. I44, p'- I3. ^gs- i-3-

Pulvinulina schreibersii (d'Orb.), Ikady ('84), p. 697
pi. 115, fig. I.

The Delos specimens reveal this to be one of the most
beautiful of the foraminifera, of which it is impossible to
give adequate illustrations.

The test is very transparent, and looking down upon
its apex the minute tubuli appear like very small delicate
feathers. There is generally a "boss'' in the centre of
the lower surface, and the amount of stellate sutural lim-
bation varies considerably, as also does the height of the
spire. The examples are in s[)lendid condition, and of a
very pale, light-brown colour. Brady ('84^ states that
Parker and Jones record its occurrence in the Red Sea,
40 fathoms, and in the Mediterranean, 90 fathoms Very
frecjuent.

^Pulvinulina vermiculata. d'Orbigny, sp. (PI. 4, Fig. i).

Pulvifinlina rerniiculata (d'Orb.), Carpenter ('62), p.
211, pi. 13, figs. 4-6.

P. venniculata (d'Orb.), Brady (84), p. 687, pi. 115,
fig. 2.

This is an interesting form, and large and characteristic
specimens occur in these Dclos gatherings. Rather rare.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. ^I. 9

Pulvinulina nitidula, Chaster. (PI. 4, P'ig. 2).

Pulvimilina nitidula^ Chaster ('92), p. (^^, pi. i, fig. 17.

Dr. Chaster's description of this pretty little species,
which occurs off Southport, Lancashire, runs as follows :

" Test small, much depressed, highl}' polished ; convo-
lutions about two in number, there being seven or eight
segments in the last ; superior surface slightly convex ;
sutures not depressed ; inferior surface concave ; aperture
large and oblique ; periphery acute. Diameter, "125 mm.
The test is so thin that the sutures on the inferior surface
are seen through the shell, and give it a pseudo-Cassiduline
appearance. Shore mud and in shallow water. Very
rare."

The tests from Delos are quite typical. I have also
three specimens from the coast of Iceland. Rather rare.

Pulvinulina globosa, n. sp. (PI. 4, Fig. 3).

Test clear and delicate, composed of three convolu-
tions, made up of about thirteen inflated chambers, conse-
quently the sutures are deeply sunk. The aperture
appears to be concealed in the deeply sunk umbilical
region b}' granular siiell growth. The final convolution
consists of five chambers, and these are adorned on the
inner surface by very fine lines, radiating from the umbi-
licus. The test is very smooth, and finely perforated, and
of an irregular globular shape.

About ten specimens were found of this minute species.
The one figured is the largest of the set. Very rare.

Pulvinulina simplex, n. sp. (PI. 4, Figs. 4, 5).

The test is transparent, and consists of four, five, or
six segments, having generally only four peripheral seg-
ments. The initial chamber is comparatively large.

lO SiDEBOTTOM, Forainiiiifcra from the Island of Delos.

The test is compressed, elongated, and has the peri-
phery rounded. The umbih'cal cavity is deeply sunk, and
has a few ver\' fine lines ornamenting its sides. The
sutural lines are slightly sunk. This simple Pulvinniina
apjjears to belong to the " obloiga " group. Rare.

Rotalia, Lamarck.
*Rotalia beccarii, Linnc, sp. (PI. 4, Fig. 6).

Rotalina deccarti {hmnc), Williamson ('58), p. 48, pi. 4,
figs. 90-92.

Rotalia beccarii (Linne), Parker and Jones ('65), p. 388,
pi. 16, figs. 29, 30.

R. beccarii (Linne), Brady ('84), p. 704, pi. 107, figs.

2 ^

R. beccarii (Linnc) Goes ('94), p. 99, pi. 16, fig. 811.
/\^. beccarii (Linnc), Flint ('99), p. 331, pi. 75, fig. 2.

Three varieties of this common species are present,
one* small, with the outermost whorl consisting of si.x to
eight chambers, and a second" variety, much larger,
with ten or eleven chambers in the final convolution.
The former rather rare, the latter common. In this latter
the septal lines are often liiubate and raised. The third*
variety, which is very rare {Fig. 6, PL 4), is the largest of
the set, and highly decorated with tubercles, and exoge-
nous shell-growth. Mr. Millett kindly sent me a couple
of examples of this decorated form from the Pliocene of
St. Erth, and they agree well with those from Delos. He
writes me that he had listed them as Rotalia punctato-
granosa, Seguenza, but now considers them to be a variety
of R. beccarii, and also states that as far as he knows this
is its first recorded occurrence in the recent condition.
It is not quite so rare off Palermf).

jJanc/iesle)' Afetnoirs, Vol. Hit. (1909), No, !4I. 11
TiNOPORIN/i:.

Gypsina, Carter,
*Gypsina globulus, Reuss, sp.

Ceriopora glohilus, Reuss ('47), P- ZZ^ P^- 5) ^S- 7-

Gypsina globulus, (Reuss) Brady ('84) p. 717, pi. 10 1,
fig. 8.

G. globulus (Reuss) I^rady, Parker and Jones ('88),
p. 229, pi. 46, fig. 13.

The specimens are not quite so symmetrical as the
one figured by Brady ('84), and it is possible that some
of them might be brought under G. vesicularis. Rare.

Gypsina inhcErens, Schultze, sp.

Acervulina ifi/icereus, Schultze ('54), p. 68, pi. 6, fig. 12.

Gypsina inJuvrens (Schultze) Brady ('84), p. 718, pi. 102,
figs 1-6.

One of the examples is very similar to Brady's fig. 3
in the above reference, being wrapped round the stem of
some object. Several also agree with Brady's figs, i, 2.
Very rare.

Polytrema, Risso.

* Polytrema miniaceum, Linne, sp. (PI. 4, Fig. 7.)

Polytrema niiniaceuni (Linne) Brady ('84), p. 721,
pi. 100, figs. 5-9, and pi. loi, fig. I-

P. niiniaceuni (Linne) Schlumberger ('92), p. 196, fig. 5.

This common Mediterranean form is present in great
nuinbers, many of the specimens being finely branched.
In the above reference Schlumberger states that he found
this species in the embryonic stage in material from the
Azores. This stage is represented by a small irregular
globular test, ro.s}' in colour, and free. I have found

12 SiDEHOTTO.M, Fonviiinifera frovi the Island of De/os.

about twenty-five* in the Delos gatherings. Sclilumbcrger
also refers to the fact that a section made through the
trunk of an adult sjjecimen, not far from the attached
surface, reveals the embryo embedded in it.

My own sections shewed them very plainh". \'ery
coinmon.

*Polytrema miniaceum (Linnc), var. alba. Carter.

Polytrej)ia uiiiiiaccHiii,\^.x. Q'ax\.q.x ('77)) P- -^3. P'- I3>
fig. 14.

P. miniaccinn (Linne), var. allux (Carter), l^rad\- ('84),
p. 721, pi. loi, figs. 2, 3.

This variation occurs both in the adult and embrj-onic
stages, but is very rare. The colour is not snow-white,
but rather a voy light shade of cream-colour.

They agree w ith specimens I have from Cebu.

NUMMULINID/E.

POLVSTOMELLIN.K.

Nonionina, d'Orbigny.

"Nonionina depressula, Walker and Jacob, sp.
(PI. 4, Fig. 8).

Nonionina iiiuhilicatula, Williamson ('58), p. 97, pi. 3,
figs. 70, 71.

Polystoviclla iyispa,\?iX. {NoiioJiina) depressula, Parker
and Jones ('65), p. 403. pi. 14, fig. 39.

N. depressula (W. & J.), Terrigi ('80), p. 21S, pi. 4,
fig- 77-

N. depressula (W. & J.), Brady ("84), jx 725, pi. 109,
figs. 6, 7.

N. depressula (W. & J.), Goes ('94), p. 103, pi. 17,
fig.s. 825, 826.

MaticJiester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. %\. 13

The tests agree well with the "Challenger" figures,
although they do not all show the granular markings at
the umbilicus. Rather rare.

*Nonionina stelligera, d'Orbigny, (PI. 4, Fig. 9).

Nonio)iiua stelligera, d'Orbigny ('39), p. 128, pl. 3,
figs. I, 2 {siellifera on plate).

Polvstoviella erispa, var. {Nonionind) stelligera, d'Orb.,
sp., Parker and Jones ('65), p. 404, pl. 14, figs. 40, 41.

Noniouiua stelligera (d'Orb.), Brady ('84), p. 728,
pl. 109, figs. 3-5.

N. stelligera (d'Orb.), Morton ('97), p. 121, pl. i,
fig. 18.

The Delos tests of this species are much more stoutly
built than those of the former, which are delicate and
colourless, while the latter are semi-opaque and of a pale
ivory colour. Rather frequent.

*Nonionina scapha, Fichtel and Moll, sp.

Nautilus seapha, F'ichtel and Moll (:03), p. 105, pl. 19,
figs. ci-f.

Nonionitia sloaiiii, d'Orbigny ('39), p. 46, pl. 6, fig. 18.

N. scapha (F. & M.), Brady ('84), p. 73c, pl. 109,
figs. 14, 15.

.V. scapha (F. & M.), Brad)-, Parker, and Jones ('88),
p. 230, pl. 43, fig. 20.

N. scapha (F. & M.), Flint ('99), p ^^,17, pl. 80, fig. i.

The Delos examples are small and transparent.
Very rare.

*Nonionina turgida, Williamson, sp.
Rotalina turgida, Williamson ('58), p. 50, pl. 4, figs.
95-97-

14 SlDEBOTTO^r, Forajiii)iifera frovi t/ic Island of Delos.

Polystoiiiella crispn, var. {luviionhia) tiirgida, Parker
and Jones ('65), p. 405, pi. 17, fig. 5/.

Ahviiojiina tiirgida (Williamson), Brad}- ('84), p. 731,
pi. 109, figs. 17-19.

All the specimens are developed inequilaterally. Rare.

Polystomella, Lamarck.

*Polystomella striatopunctata, Fichtel and Moll, sp.
(PI. 4, Fig. 10, and PI. 5, Figs, i, 2.)

Nautilus striatopuiu-tatns^ Fichtel and Moll (:03) p. 61,
pi. 9, figs. a-c.

P. striatopuuctata (F. & M.). Terrigi ('80), p. 216, pi. 4.,

fig^- 7Z^ 74-

P. striatopuiictata (F. & M.), Brady ('84). P- 7l1^ pl- 109,
figs. 22, 23.

Polystomella striatopunctata (F. & M.), Brad}-, Parker,
and Jones ('88), p. 230, pl. 43, fig. 17.

This common and variable species occurs in three
forms. The first, as figured Pl. 4, Fig. 10, is transparent
and much flattened, and the " fossettes " are feebly marked.
In the second* variety, Pl. 5, Fig. i, the test is much
stouter, the perforations shew distinctl}-, and the "fossettes"
in certain lights shew a fine, or a dotted line, on either
side, proceeding from the umbilicus to the periphery.
These lines are somewhat too distinct in the illustration.
The third form, Pl. 5, P^'g. 2, has the whole of the test (in
most ca.ses) apparentl}- very finely granulated, especially
in the region of the " fossettes," this giving the test a
banded appearance. When damped the " fossettes" shew
• juite plainl}-.

The first variety, rather rare ; the second, frequent ;
and the last, not so frequent.

MancJiester Memoirs, l^o/. liii. (1909), No. %\. 15

*Polystomella crispa (Lintie), sp.

Polystomella crispa (Linnc^ Williamson ('58), p. 40, pi.
3, figs. 78-80.

P. crispa (Linnc), Carpenter ('62), p. 278, pi. 16, figs.
4-6.

P. crispa (Linne), Brady ('84), p. 'J},^, pi. 1 10, figs. 6, 7.

P. crispa (Linnc), Flint ('99), p. 338, pi. 80, fig. 3.

I'ine and typical examples are common fi-om this
locality.

^Polystomella verriculata, Brady. (PI. 5, Fig. 3).

Polystoinclla verriculata, Brady ('84), p. 738, pl. iio,
fig. 12.

P. verriculata (Brady), Millett (104), p. 604, pl, 1 1, fig. 3.

The Delos examples are small, and not very well
developed. The net-work appearance caused by the
joining of the septal ridges and retral bars, as a rule, only
shows on the earlier chambers. Very rare.

* Polystomella macella, Fichtel and Moll, sp. (Pl. 5, Fig. 4).

Nautilus 1/iacellus, var. a, Fichtel and Moll, (:03), p. 66,
pl. 10, figs. e-g.

Polystomella lessouii, d'Orbigny ('39), p. 29, pl. 3, figs.
1-2.

P. Jichteliaua, d'Orbigny ('46), p- 125, pl. 6, figs. 7, 8.

P. macella (F. and M.), Brady ('84), p. 737, pl. no,
figs. 8, 9, II.

Good examples of this species are present. The tests
are typical, with a slightly depressed umbilicus, and acute
peripheral edge. Some of the tests are flatter than the
one illustrated, and have spines projecting from the edge
of the earlier chambers I have still finer specimens from
dredgings near Mount Athos. Rather rare.

i6 SlDEF.OTTOM, Foraniinifcra from the Island of Dclos.

*Polystomella macella, Fichtel & Moll., var. granulosa,
nov. (PI. 5, Fig. 5).

Thi.s is an interesting variation, in which the limbatc
sutures are broken up into exogenous beads, and the
whole of the test is likewise covered with minute granules
or tubercles. The " fossettes " show quite plainl}- when
the test is damped, Two or three poor examples occur
at Palermo. Rather rare.

*Polystomella subnodosa, Miinster, sp. (PI. 5, Fig 6).

Polystomella subnodosa, (Miinster) l^euss, ('55). P- -40.
pi. 4, fig. 51.

P. subnodosa (Miinster) Brady ('84) p. 734, pi. iio,
fig. I.

/-*. subnodosa (Miinster) Goes ('94) p. 102, pi. 17, figs.
817-819.

The tests are of a very pale milky-blue colour, slightly
transparent. The surface is polished, and the pores
hardly ai)parent under moderate powers. I have a note
from Mr. Millett, dated a few years ago, in which he
says " Goes figures specimens under this name from New-
foundland and Nova Zemlya. His figures are doubtful.
As a recent shell it had only been found in the Eastern
Archipelago until n^chi obtained it from Delos."

Since this note, Mr. Millett reports its occurrence in
the Malay Archipelago, saying it is found in both areas,
and is abundant at stations 13, 18, and 21. I have also
examples from the l^ays of Salona and ICleusis. Very
frequent.

MmicJiester Mevwirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. %\. 17
x^PPENDIX.

*Miliolina ferussacii, d'Orbigny, sp. (I'l. 5, Fig. 7.)

Qninqiieloculina rodolphhia, d'Orbign)' ('46), p. 299,
pi. 20, figs. 7-9.

Q. Maritc, d'Orbigny ('46), p. 300, pi. 20, figs. 13-15.
Miliolhia fentssacii (d'Orb.), Brady ('84), p. 175, pi.

113, fig- 1;-

The specimens found are apparently very feeble
examples of the elongated variety of M. ferussacii. Those
from Palermo are al.so elongated, but better developed,
and finer in every way. Rare.

Miliolina contorta, d'Orbigny, sp. (PI. 5, Fig. 8.)

Quinqueloculina contorta, d'Orbigny ('46), p. 298,
pi. 20, figs. 4-6.

This appears to be a weak form of this variable
foraminifer, in which the chambers have lost most of their
angularity. The specimens vary a good deal in this
respect, and in the one selected for illustration the
angularity is hardly apparent. Frequent.

Miliolina, sp. (PL 5, Fig. 9.)

There are four or five of these, of which the one
figured is the largest, and has the costae much more
developed than the others have. All the tests appear to
be distorted, and I feel doubtful under which species they
should be placed. The test is very much compressed,
and keeled, and the mouth is a narrow slit. Terquem
figures specimens from the Pliocene of the Isle of Rhodes
('78), P- 70. pl- 13 (pl- 8), figs. 4, 8, under the name of
Quinque/oc?i/irza depressa d'Orhigrty, which, bear a, certain
amount of likeness to the Delos forms, especiall)' his

1 8 SiDEBOTTOM, Forami)iifera frovi tJic Island of Dclos.

fif^. 8, which appears to resemble one of the smallest of
the Dclos examples. Ver}- rare.

*Discorbina parisiensis, d'Orbigny, sp. (PI. 5, Fig. 10).

Discorbina parisiensis (d'Orb.), Wright ('77)' P- 105,
pi 4, f^g. I.

D. parisiensis (d'Orb.), lirady ('84), p. 648, pi. 90,
figs. 5, 6, 9-12.

Five were found, of which the one figured has the
highest spire, and shows only four chambers in the
outermost convolution. One ot the tests is quite flat,
and excepting the figured specimen, they all have five
chambers in the final convolution, Very rare.

^Discorbina, sp. (PI. 5, Fig. 11).

I am unable to determine to what species this belongs,
and Mr. Millett "thinks it may be an immature form of
Discorbina vilardcboana, or D. vesiailaris, or even D.
globnlaris, and should be judged by its associates," but in
this respect there appears to be nothing to guide me.
The tests are very transparent, and the umbilical cavity
deeply sunk. Very rare. Not so rare at I'alermo.

Note.

I hope next year to deal with the foraminifera from
Palermo, describing and illustrating the species that occur
there and not at Delos. This contribution, taken in
conjunction with my Delos papers, will give a complete
record for Palermo.

JMancJiester Memoirs^ Vol. liii. (1909), No. %\. 19

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Brady, H. B. ('64). " Contributions to our knowledge of the
Foraminifera. On the Rhizopodal Fauna of the Shet-
lands." Tf-ans. Liiineaii Soc, vol. 24, pp. 463-475, pi. 18,
1864.

('65)- "A Catalogue of the recent Foraminifera of
Northumberland and Durham." iVa/. Bist. Tratis.
Northd. and Durham^ vol. 1, pp. 83-107, pi. 12, 1865.

('84). " Report on the Foraminifera collected by H. M.S.

'Challenger' during the years 1873-76." Zool. Chall.
Exp., vol. 9, 814 pp., 115 pis., 1884.

Brady, H. B., W. K. Parker, and T. R. Jones ('88). " On
some Foraminifera from the Abrohlos Bank." Trans.
Zool. Soc.y vol. 12, pt. 7, pp. 211-239, pis. 40-46 and
chart, 1888.

Carpenter, W. B., W. K. Parker, and T. R. Jones ('62).
" Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera." Ray.
Society, 319 pp. 22 pis., 1862.

Chaster, G. W. ('92). "Report upon the Foraminifera of the
Southport Society of Natural Science District." First
Rep. Southport Soc. Nat. Sci., pp. 54-71, pi i, 1892.

CzjZEK, J. ('48). " Beitrag zur Kenntniss der fossilen Foramini-
feren des Wiener Beckens." Haidinger's Naturiviss.
AbhandL, vol. 2, pp. 137-150, pis. 12-13, 1848.

20 SlDEV.OTTOM. Foraj>ii7nf era froi/i the Island of Delos.

Egger, J. G. ('93). " Foraminifeien aus Meeresgrundproben,
gelothet von 1874 bis 1876 von S. M. Sch. 'Gazelle.'"
Abhandl. k. Bayer. Akad. IViss., 2 cl., vol. 18. part 2, pp.
193-458. 21 pis., 1893.

FiCHTEL; L. VON, KT J. P. C. VON jNIoLL. (lo's). " Testacea
Micioscopica aliaque minuta ex generibus ArgoJimita at
Nautilus ad naturam delineata et descripta." 124 pp.,
24 pis., ^^'ien, 1803.

Flint, J. M. ('99). "Recent Foraminifera, a descriptive
catalogue of specimens dredged by the U.S. Fish Com-
mission, steamer ' Albatross.' " Rep. U.S. A'at. Mus.,
PP- 249-349. ^o P's-, 1897.

FoRNASiNi, C. (:00). " Foraminiferi Adriatici." Me»i. R. Accad.
Sci. 1st. Bologna, [5], vol. 8, pp. 357-402, figs. 1-50,
1900.

Goes, A. ('94). " A synopsis of the Arctic and Scandinavian
Recent Marine Foraminifera hitherto discovered." K.
Svenska. Vetensk.-Akad. Handl. Stockhohrt, vol 25, no. 9,
127 pp., 25 pis., 1894.

Jones, T. R. ('96) and others. "A monograph of the Forami-
nifera of the Crag." Palceontographical Society., 402 pp.,
7 ])ls., 1866-1897.

MiLLETT, F. W. ('98 '99 :00 :0I :02 :03 :04). " Report on the
Recent Foraminifera of tlie Malay Archipelago, collected
by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S." Journ. R. Micr. Sac,
1898-1904.

Morton, F. S. ('97). Proc. Portland Soc. Nat. Hist., Portland^
Maine, vol, 11, pp. 105-122, pi. i, 1897.

MaiicJiestey Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. ^1. 21

Orbigny, a. I), d'. (39). " Foramini feres," in: Ramon De la
Sagra, " Histoirc physic|ue, politique et iiaturelle de File
de Cuba," pp. 48, 1-224, 12 pis., 1839.

('39). " Foraminiferes," in : Barker- Webb and Berthelot,
" Histoire naturelle des Isles Canaries," vol. 2, pp. 119-
146, 3 pis, 1839.

('46). "Foraminiferes fossiles du Bassin tertiaire de

Vienne," p. 1-36, 1-312, 21 pis., 1846.

Parker, W. K. and T. R. Jones ('65). " On some Foramini
fera from the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, including
Davis Straits and Batifin's Bay." Fiiii. Trans., vol. 155,
PP- 325-441, pis. 12-19, 1865.

Reuss, A. E. ('55). " Beitrage zur Charakteristik der Tertiar

schichten des nordlichen und mittleren Deutschlands."

Sitzuugsb. K. Ak. Wiss. IVien., vol. 18, pp. 197-272,
12 pis., 1855.

ScHLUMBERGER, C ('92). " Note preliminairc sur les Forami-
niferes draques par S. A. Le Prince Albert de Monaco."
Man. de la Soc. Zool. de France, vol. 5, pp. 193-198, pi. 8,
and figs, in text, 1892.

ScHULTZE, M. S. ('54)- "Ueber den Organismus der Poly-
thalamien (Foraminiferen) nebst Bemerkungen iiber die
Rhizopoden im Allgemeinen." 4to, Leipzig, 68 pp., 7 pis.,
1854.

SiLVESTRi, A. ('98). " Foraminiferi Pliocenici della Provincia
di Siena." Mem. Accad. Font. Niiovi Lincei, part 2,
PP- 155-381. 6 pis., 1898.

22 SlDEUOTTOM, Foraiiiinifera from tJic Island of Delos.

Terquem, O. ('78). '' I-es Foramiiiifi-Tcs ct les Entomostraces
Ostracodes du Pliocene superieui de I'lle de Rhodes."
Mem. Sac. Giol. France, ser. 3, vol. 1, 1-133, pis. 1.14., 1878.

Terrigi, G. ('80). " Fauna Vaticana a Foraminiferi delle
Sabbie Gialle nel Pliocene subapennino superiore." Atti
Accad. Font. Nitovi Lincei, vol. 33, pp. 127-219, i)l. 1-4,
1880.

AViLLi.vMsoN, W. C. ('58). " On the recent Foraminifera of
Great Britain." Fay Society, pis. 7, 1858.

Wright, J. ('77)- " Recent Foraminifera of Down and
Antrim." Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1876-1S77,
Appendix, ])p. 101-104, pi. 4, 1877.

Mauclh'stcr .Urnioirs, Vo/, I Hi, ^^1909), No. '-J I. 23

ERRATA.

Line iS, vol. 48, 1904, p. 18, for d'Orbigny sp. read Schlumberger.

„ 2, from foot, p. 24, for Chelaston, near Derby, read Lias
of Leicestershire.

„ 5, from foot, p. 26, for d'Orbigny sp. read Schlumberger.

,, 13, from foot, vol. 51, (907, p. 7, for fragraria read
fragaria.

,, 10, from foot, p. 7, for fragraria vesid. fragaria.

,, 5, from top, p. 24, {qx fragreria xt-x^ fragaria.

Plate 3, erase lines l)et\veen figs. 12 and 13.

24 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraminifcya from the Island of Dclos.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Figs. Page.

I — 3. Piafiorhclina 7nedi/erranensis, d^O\h\gny x 25 ... i

4. Planorlm/ina ncerva/is, 'QxSidy x 25 ... 2

5, 6. Trimcatitlina va)iabilis, d'Orbigny x 50 ... 2

Manchester Menioirs^ Vol. LI 1 1. (No.'lV).

Plate I.

Za

6a

B. Sidebotttjin, (/./. ud nut.

Foramiiiitera from the coast of the ishaud of Delos.

26 SlDF.BOTTOM, Foraminifcra frovi tJie Island of De/os.

Plate II.
Figs. Page.

I — 3. Truncatiilina variabilis, d'Orbigny x 25 ... 2

4. ,, reticulata, Czj/ek, sp. x 50 ... 4

5. Carpenteria, sp ? x 25 ... 4

6. Pulvinulina lateralis, 'I'eniueni, sp. x 25 ... 5

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIIl. '\Xo. %V).

Plate IL

4n!,

fir/

6/y

//. ^i,l,-b„tto,n, ,lrl. nd i„(t.

Foraminifera from the coast of the island of Delos.

28 SiDEDOTTOM, Foraminijera ffoui tJic Tslajid of Delos.

Plate III.

Figs. Page.

I, 2 (?) Pulvinulina lateralis, Terquem, sp. x 25 ... 5

3, 4. ,, oblonga (Williamson), var.

scabra, Brady ? x 50 ... 6

5. „ concenfrica, Parker and Jones x 25 ... 7

6. ,, //a?/m/, d'Orbigny, sp. x 50 ... 7

7. ,, karsteni, Reuss, sp. x 50 ... 7

8. ,, schreibersii,dLQx\:>\g\vj x 25 ... 8

Mauclicster XTcmoirs, Vol. LI 1 1. {No. %\).

\a

4a

5«

6a

8ft

H. Si,l,'hottmii, r(i-l. ml lUir.

Foraminifera from the coast of the island of Delos.

30 SWEBOTTO^l/Foj a;m'Hi/era /ro7H the Island of Delos.

Plate IV.
Figs. Page.

1. Pulvimilina vermiailata, d'Urbigny

2. ,, nitidula, Chaster

3. ,, globosa, n. sp.

4. 5. ,, simplex, n. s{).

6. Rotalia beccarii, I.inne, sp. var.

7. Polytretna miiiiaceniii (embryonic stage)

8. Nonionina depressula, Walker and Jacob,

sp. X 75 ... 12

9. ,, stelligera, (MOxhxgny x 50 ... 13

10. Polystomella striatopunctata, Fichtel and

Moll, sp. X 75 . 14

X 25

. 8

X 75 ■

• 9

X75

• 9

X75 •

• 9

X about 1 8 .

. 10

j:e) X so .

I I

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LI II. {No. %V).

Plate IV.

3a

4a

6r'

8a

//. Sid'-holtum, ,)rl, "'I .

Foraminifera from the coast of the island of Delos.

2,2 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraniinifcva frovi the Island of Delos.

Plate V.

'"IGS.

rALiK.

I, 2.

PolystoJtieUa siriaiopunctata, Fichtel and

Moll, sp. X fig. 1, 50,

fig-

2, 75 ..

• 14

3-

55

verriculata, Brady

X75 ••

■ 15

4.

55

maceila, Fichtel and Moll,

sp.

X 50 ••

• 15

5-

55

macella (F. & M.), war. graftu-

/osa, nov.

X50 ..

. 16

6.

>S

snbnodosa, Miinster, sp.

X 50 .

. t6

7-

Miliolina ferussacii, d'Orbigny, sp.

X 150 .

• 17

8.

55

costata, d'Orbigny, sp.

X50 .

• 17

9-

55

sp.

X 50 .

■ 17

TO.

Discorbina parisiensis, d'Orbigny, sp.

X75 •

. 18

I I.

55

sp.

X75 •

.. 18

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIU. {No. JJI).

Plafe V.

^'

//. shirl.otlom, ilel. ,„l nat.

Foraminifera from the coast of the island of Delos.

MancJieslcr Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. *4!''J.

XXII. British Permian Footprints.
By George Hickling, B.Sc,

Lecturer in Geology in the University 0/ Mancltester.
( Read April bth, igog. Received for publication May 'jth, igog.)

Introduction.

The main object of this communication is to ^Ive. a
review of the known fossil footprints from the Permian
rocks of this country, and to show that they may be used
for the purpose of distinguishing Permian from Triassic
deposits. In this manner two important series of rocks
may, I beHeve, aheady be shown to belong to the former
series, viz., the Red Sandstones of Dumfriesshire, and the
footprint-bearing beds near Elgin ; while the impressions
recently discovered near Exeter will doubtless throw
light on the age of the Devonshire red rocks. (Clayden,
:08^, :08/^).

In 1906 I published a description and figures of a
series of footprints from a sandstone intercalated in the
Magnesian Limestone of Mansfield, Notts. (Hickling, :06),
No impressions had previously been figured from the
undoubted Permians of this country, one collection only
having been briefly described by Mr. Varty Smith from
Penrith (Smith, Varty, '84). Through the kindness of
Mr. Smith I have recently been able to examine those
prints, the more definite of which are figured in Plate II.,
Figs. 9 — 13. On examining the quarry in which the
Mansfield impressions were found, I discovered numerous
other impressions, the description of which has been

June 18 th, igog.

2 HlCKLlNCi, British Permian Footprints.

postponed in the hope that the quarry, which has been
standing for some years, would be re-opened. It now
appears to me desirable to call attention to what is
already known without further delay.

I shall first refer briefly to the new prints from Mans-
field, and then to the Penrith specimens. Those two
collections, being definite Permian, will serve as a basis
for comparison. The Dumfries prints will then be con-
sidered : outlines of them are given in Plate III., as the
existing figures are very inaccessible. The prints from
Elgin and Exeter will follow, and lastly a comparison
will be drawn between the British and Thuringian
Permian prints, and between the Permian and Carboni-
ferous forms.

Detailed descriptions of the impressions will not
be given. Figures alone can characterise footprints
sufficiently.

It does not appear to be desirable that footprints
should bear biological names ; j-et some index by which
they may be referred to is essential, and an indication of
the groups in which they may be arranged is valuable.
Names for such groups are also useful. The dominant
type of impression in the British Pcrmians appears
undoubtedly to be that to which the prints, named by
Jardine " Chelichnus " (Jard., '50), belong. Impressions of
this " chelichnoid " group may therefore be indicated by
the letters CI., with a number to indicate the particular
form. Other groups may be treated in a sitnilar manner.
This is essentially the same system as that used by Mr.
Beasley in treating the Triassic footprints (Beasley, :o3).

The Mansfield Footi'kint.s.

ChelicJinoid forms. — The large prints already described
(Hickling, :o6) appear to belong to this group as possessing

Manchester Mevioirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. %% 3

the following characters : The prints are oval in form,
with the digits directed forwards, increasing in length
from I. to IV., III. and IV. being nearly equal, and V.
much shorter. There is a broad "sole," rounded behind,
and the sand is pressed out in a mound behind the
impressions. In the track, the impressions of the right
and left sides are widely separated.

These impressions are shown in Plate /., Figs. \p (pes),
nil (manus) and \b (portion of the track). The first digit is
not shown in the manus, but was probably present. The
toes were almost certainly webbed, and it is therefore
difficult to determine their true outline. These and all
other figures in Plates /., //. and ///., (except those of
tracks) are exactly half natural size.

I propose to refer to these impressions as CI. 7. They
are represented by a small slab in the Manchester
Museum, Owens College (L 6334) and a large slab, from
a portion of which the track, Fig. \b is drawn, at the
Nottingham Museum.

There are numerous other chelichnoid forms to be
found in the Mansfield quarries, mostly of smaller
dimensions, but I have not found examples sufficiently
good to figure.

Unclassified forms. — The remaining Mansfield types
do not belong to groups which I feel justified in naming.
It would seem convenient to indicate all unclassified
prints by the letter x.

Fig. 2, Plate /., shows a large print which needs no
further description. It was a very light impression. I
was not able to collect the slab, and drew the print on the
spot. It appears to be identical with a form from Dumfries
{Plate I 11.^ Fig. 16). It may be referred to as a-4.

Fig. 3, Plate /., is a small print showing four digits
(I. to IV.,) with a doubtful indication of V. It was an

4 IIlCKLING, British Pcriiiian Footprints.

isolated print on a large slab, and was drawn in the quarry.
There is little to separate it from impressions from Pen-
rith {Plate II., J^ig. 9) and Elgin {P/ate II., Figs. 7 and 8).
It may be termed xT).

In /v>. 4 is represented a footprint from Mansfield
now in the Manchester Museum (L. 6894). Digits II.,
III., IV., and V. are well shown. III. being the longest,
and a slight impression of I. indicating it as a much
shorter digit. This print appears to be identical with
those forming an unnamed track from Dumfries in the
Edinburgh Museum {Plate III, Fig. 19). In the Dumfries
prints digit V. is not shown. There may be a doubt as to
whether it really occurs in the Mansfield specimen, as it
is confused with another small print. I propose to call
this form x^.

The last Mansfield print figured {Fig. 5) is quite unlike
any other I have seen. I was not able to collect it.
Being a strongly characterised form it will be useful for
comparison with future discoveries elsewhere.

Penrith Footprints.

These prints occur in the well-known Penrith Red
Sandstone. Further particulars of the occurrence will
be found in the original account by Mr. Varty Smith
(Smith, G. v., '84). Most of the individual prints are
imperfect, but good tracks are abundant in the quarries.

Cheliclmoid forms. — Numerous small representatives
of this type occur. Plate II., Fig. 13, shows a typical
track, with the prints of the manus partly obliterated by
those of the pes, and the typical semilunar mound behind
the prints. Other tracks of this t}pe show a considerable
amount of variation in the relative [)osition of manus and
pes, in size, and in length of stride. These points taken

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii.{\(^og\ No.'%%. 5

together would appear to indicate the presence of several
species.

Figs. 10, II, and 12 show some individual prints
of these forms which indicate the form more clearly.
In all of them the impression of the "sole" appears
to be incomplete {cf. ChelicJinus ambigims, Plate III.,
Fig. 21). It is improbable that these three figures belong
to really identical forms, but until better material is
available I think it is better to group them together under
the title a. 6.*

Lacertoid form. — Fig. 14 represents a very interesting
isolated print on one of Mr. Varty Smith's slabs. It is
unlike any other British Permian impression I have seen,
but it agrees with certain impressions from the Thlir-
ingian Permian, and from the Kansas Coal Measures, in
possessing 5 slender curved digits, with ball-like pads,
the fifth being " thumb-like," and in having little or no
trace of a " sole." This type of foot is very characteristic
of modern lizards, and I think the term " lacertoid " may
be aptly applied to it. This print will therefore be Lc. i.

Other forms. — Fig. 9 has already been mentioned as
nearly identical with ,t"3 from Mansfield. In many of the
impressions, the fifth digit (left in the figure) is absent,
and the agreement is then very marked. Only the
difference of locality, and a slight difference in size, lead
me to provisionally separate it. The track is almost

* Note. — Since writing the above I have received a photograph of the
slab on which I found the original of Fig. 12, and which I was not able to
examine fully in the quarry. It is now possible to trace the track to which
the print belongs, and to see that this form is not, as I had supposed, allied
to those shown in Figs. 10 and 11, but is a Herpetichnoid form, having the
toes turned inwards nearly at right angles to the track. It must therefore
be designated Hp. 3.

This instance serves to illustrate the necessity for observing prints in
tracks, and not merely individually.

6 HiCKLING, British Permian Footprints.

identical with that shown in Fig. 13, except in the digits
alone being shown. This fact raises a suspicion that these
forms may really be chelichnoid, in spite of the apparent
difference. These prints may be referred to as x2.

Several other types occur at Penrith, too imperfect
for description.

The Dumfriesshire Footprints.

A considerable literature exists in reference to these
impressions, but practically the only figures are those in
Sir Wm. Jardine's " Ichnology of Annandale," a very
inaccessible folio.

The footprints have been found in a number of
quarries extending over a considerable tract. The
following is a list: Corncockle Muir, Applegarth; Templand
quarries, Lochmaben ; Craigs Quarry, Dumfries ; Green
Mill Quarry, Caerlaverock ; Locherbriggs (Harkness, '51).

The rocks in which the impressions occur, have been
transferred from Trias to Permian, and back again many
times. Until recently they were mapped by the Survey
as Permian, but lately they have been returned to the
Trias. 1 trust the evidence now considered, will be
allowed to settle them definitely in the Permian.

Chelichnoid forms. — In 1828, the Rev. Dr. Duncan
described the first fossil footprints from Corncockle Muir
before the Royal Society of Edinburgh (Duncan, '28).

The one track figured by Duncan was again figured
by Buckland from a cast and referred by him to a tortoise
(Buckland, '36, p. 261), and was named Testndo Duncani
by Owen (Owen, '41). Jardine gave the name Cheliclmus
Duncani (Jard., '50).

This track is here figured from a cast in the Manchester
Museum, which I believe to be a copy of that figured by

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Hit. {igog). No. ^"Z. 7

Buckland {Plate III., Figs. 20, 206). The cast only shows
four digits distinctly in the best print of the pes {Fig. 20),
but it seems evident that the first digit was really present.
Both Duncan and Buckland describe it as really having
five digits. The third and fourth digits are nearly equal
in length ; the fifth is short and turns outwards. The
impressions of the pes immediately precede those of the
manus, sometimes nearly obliterating the latter {Fig. 20b).
The pes and manus appear practically identical. There
are large mounds of sand behind each impression.
Specimens are in the Edinburgh Museum. This print will
be termed CI. i.

ChelicJiniis aitibiguus, Jard, (Jard., '53, plates VI.
and XI) is drawn in Figs. 21 and 21b, taken from Jardine's
plate VI. This form differs from Cl. i in its more slender
digits, and in showing distinct evidence of a web between
them. The prints are smaller and the track less wide.
All the prints in this track are less deeply impressed, but
this is much more marked in the anterior than in the pos-
terior impressions. I believe the anterior represent the
manus, but this is not quite clear. The fifth digit is no-
where shown. There is an example in the Edinburgh
Museum. This form will be described as Cl. 2.

Batrichnus lyelli, Harkness sp., is shown in Fig. 22,
from Jardine's plate XIII. It was described by Harkness
(Hark., '51, p. 94) as a " Labyrinthodon " {i.e. a cheirothei-
roid print), under the name labyrinthodon Lyelli. The
only reason, apparently, for this curious reference is the
small manus. The track is of the usual chelichnoid type,
as are the prints themselves. The prints figured by
Jardine are not very clear, and Fig. 22 has been drawn by
a careful comparison of several. 1 have no doubt as to
its correctness. There are distinct marks of a web in

8 HiCKLING, British Periiiian Footprints.

some of the impressions. Harkness describes the small
manus as having five thick short digits. Jardine mentions
three or four. I cannot distinguish more than four. The
name BatricJnuis was instituted by Harkness in the fore-
going paper for another allied print.

It may be thought that the very small manus of this
form, should cause its removal from the chelichnoid group.
As, however, it agrees in all other essentials, with the
members of that group, and as the}' show considerable
variation in the proportions of pes and manus, I prefer to
keep it here under the term CI. 3. This form is recorded
only from Green Mill, Caerlaverock. The type is in the
Edinburgh Museum.

HerpeticJuuis Bucklandi, Jard. (Jard., '50, p. 209)
is shown in Fig. 18, from Jardine's plate VII. It is a very
unsatisfactory print, which I should not have figured but
for the fact that similar small impressions are common at
Mansfield. The track is broad and rather irregular, the
prints being in pairs in the relative position indicated in
the figure. There is nothing to indicate which is pes and
which manus. Jardine states that four digits are some-
times discernible. I see no reason whatever for referring
it to the herpetichnoid group. So far as it can be made
out, it seems to be a small chelichnoid form. It may be
referred to as CI. 4.

Herpetichnoid forms. — The "genus" HerpcticJinns was
founded by Jardine in 1850 (Jard., '50).

HerpctichiiJts saujopU'sins, Jard. (Jard., '50, p. 209),
is stated b}' Jardine to be one of those originally
described by Duncan (presumably the No. 3 of Duncan's
account) and to be the commonest type of impression
after CI. i. They are, unfortunately, nearl\- al\va}'s
im[Derfect. Fig. 17 shows a right pes and nianus from

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. ( 1 909), No. */i*-i. 9

Jardine's plate V. The pes shows well the characteristic
features of the group — the inwardly-directed digits,
digit IV. being the longest and furthest advanced. The
impression of the first digit is very slight. The associated
manus figured is unusual in form — ordinarily, it is
elongated like the pes. Jardine states that it shows four
toes, and evidently regards the longest one as digit III,
If this is really the case, it is difficult to reconcile this
manus with the usual form. My own conviction is, that
what looks like the outermost digit, is an impression due
to some pad on the " sole," and that three digits only are
really shown (III., IV., and V.), though I. and II. were
probably also present, and directed inwards as in the foot.
This interpretation is supported by the other manus on
the same slab which certainly only shows three digits.

The track of this form was narrow, for a Permian one.
Jardine states that it sometimes reached a considerably
greater size. This type may be termed Hp. i.

Heypetichniis loxodactyliis, Dudgeon, is the only new
print hitherto described from Dumfries since Jardine's
account, as far as I have been able to discover (Dudgeon,
'78). Fig. 23, taken from Dudgeon's plate, represents a
cast of the right pes (/>., a left pes, if regarded as an
impression). Only the impression of the " ball " of the
fifth digit appears. Were the claw shown, the resemblance
to Hp. I would be more marked. The manus was smaller,
with a length of 2'3 inches against 3'5, and was placed
2 inches in front of the pes. The stride was 10 inches.
The print was obtained from Locherbriggs quarry. It
will constitute the type Hp. 2.

Other forms. — Fig. 19, P/^/^ ///., shows a print from
an unnamed track in the Edinburgh collection, which
appears to be completely identical with the form x^ from

lO HiCKLING, British Permian Footprints.

Mansfield {Plate /., Fig. 4). The impressions of pes and
manus are indistinguishable, and in all the impression of
digit V. is absent. In the single Mansfield print there is
a doubt about this digit. Certainly a digit exists in the
position shown in Fig. 4, but unfortunately it is mixed up
with another small footprint, and it is not impossible that
it may really belong to that print.

The prints in this Edinburgh track are closely set,
with the right and left sides well separated.

Fig. 16, Plate III.., shows a print of x\ from this
locality. This impression is deeper than the one from
Mansfield; hence the "sole" is marked to some extent
and the claws appear longer. Otherwise the prints arc
identical. The impressions form a normal track with
short stride, and no apparent difference between the marks
of pes and manus. Specimen in Edinburgh collection.

Aetibates triassae, Jard., is a very unsatisfactory, but
very distinctive footprint, which is sufficiently illustrated by
Fig. 24, from Jardine's plate IX. Each print consists of
2 to 4 round or irregular impressions, most characteristically
of 3, forming a triangle. The most remarkable feature is
the great variability of the impressions. Without further
comment, this track may be left for future reference with
the designation Ab. \.

Several other tracks are figured and named by Jardine
which cannot be properly characterised, though they are
useful for reference.

Clicliclinus titan^ Jard., is a large print, 9 or 10 inches
in length, and about the the same in breadth. Successive
prints separated only by 7 or Sin. Width across entire
track 2\ feet. (Jard., '53, p. 10). A specimen is in the
Edinburgh collection.

Chelichmts gigas, Jard. Large oval impressions about

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. ^'-i. ii

5 to 5 "5 inches lon£^, by 4"8 broad. Successive prints
separated by about 16 inches. No indication of the
digits. Track comparatively narrow. (Jard., '53, plate /.).

ChelicJmtis plagiostopus, Jard. A track of very closely
set impressions. Each impression probably consisted of
an obliquely set line of digits only. They are all covered
with matrix. Track wide compared with the short stride.
(Jard., '53, plate X).

Harkness described and named a number of impres-
sions, but did not figure them. (Hark., '51).

ChelicJinus planciis. Hark., is a little chelichnoid print,
only f inch across the pes, with a tiny manus \ inch broad
nearly covered by the pes, from Locherbriggs, Craigs,
and Green Mill quarries. It would seem to fall near CI. 3.
{Plate III., Fig. 22).

Batrichnus Stricklandi, Hark., differs from CI. 3 chiefly
in size, the pes being usually under i inch in length.
Green Mill Quarry.

Sanrichnus acutiis. Hark., appears to be almost exactly
like a small x\ {Plate III., Fig. 16), with the "sole" fairly
well impressed in some cases, but usually slight. Entire
print slightly under i inch long. It cannot be far from
A'3 {Plate /., Fig. 3). Green Mill quarry.

ChelicJnms obliquus, Hark., appears to be a small
chelichnoid form, with prints about i inch broad, inclined
slightly outwards on the track, and with a stride of about
8 inches. Green Mill quarry.

Chelaspodus Jardini, Harkness, appears to agree in
some respects with Actibates, but is slightly smaller, with
the prints still more closely set in the track. It usually
shows four marks in each print.

12 Hick LING, British Pet-niian Footprints.

I am not aware that any other " species " have been
published for Dumfriesshire.

Age of the Dumfries Footprints. — Nine distinct types
of impression are here figured, while as many more
certainly exist which are too imperfect for complete
specification or have never been figured. The argument
from negative evidence, that among these types there is
not one that can be identified with the still larger number
of known British Triassic prints (see Beasley, :03 — :08), is
strong against the Triassic age of these strata. It is much
strengthened by the fact that the principal t}'pes of
Triassic prints are represented by identical forms from
several Triassic localities. Thirdly, the whole fades of
the Dumfries prints differs from that of the Triassic
series. On the other hand, out of five types of impression
from Mansfield here figured, two appear to be identical
with Dumfries forms, while I am convinced that the
number of coincidences may be readily increased. In
both localities, impressions of the " Chelichnoid " type are
dominant. Finally, though no exact coincidence between
the Penrith prints and those from Dumfries can )'et be
shown, the general fades is again in close agreement
{cf, Plate II., Fig. 13, with Plate III, Figs. 20b and 21b).
These facts appear to me practically conclusive in favour
of the Permian age of the Dumfries strata. It is interest-
ing to note that Harkness identified some of the Penrith
prints as Chelichniis Dnncani. (Hark., '62, p. 218.)

The Elgin FooTrRiNTS.

These tracks, first noticed by Captain Lambart
Brickenden (Brickenden, '52), were subsequently described
by Huxley (Hux., '59 and '77)- I'l t^""^' l^^lgin district

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. I Hi. ( 1 909), No. "X'Z. 1 3

tracks have now been obtained from the Cummingstone
quarries and Bishop Mill quarrj', and doubtful ones from
the Nairn quarries (Gordon, '93), but only the Cumming-
stone ones have been described.

Chelichnoid Forms. — Chelichmis megacheirus, Hux., is
shown in Plate II., Figs. 6m, 6p, and 6b. Huxley regarded
the larger prints as those of the manus, but in this I
think he was misled by their position in the track. This
form appears to be closely allied to CI. 7 from Mansfield
{Plate /., Fig. i). There was one print from Mansfield,
which has unfortunately been mislaid, which showed the
correspondence much more closely. In the Mansfield form
the larger print is certainly that of the pes. In both tracks,
the larger prints are not quite so widely separated laterally
as the smaller ones. Both forms appear to have been
webbed. Huxley remarked that the Dumfries prints
were the only ones with which this form could be
compared. It may be termed CI. 5.

The track figured by Brickenden {loc. cit.) is a typical
small chelichnoid track, which may be matched perfectly
by some of the tracks from Penrith. Unfortunately all
the individual prints are imperfect.

Unclassified form. — Figs. 7 and 8, from Huxley's
plate XV. (Hux., '77), indicate a print which is clearly
allied very closely to .v2 {Plate II., Fig. 9) from Penrith, and
to XT, {Plate /., Fig. 3) from Mansfield. The manus in this
form is probably not so small relatively to the pes as
would at first sight appear. Behind the proper print in
Fig. 7 is shown a blurred impression which in Huxley's
figure might at first sight be taken for a part of this print,
I have no doubt that it is really a pair of imperfect impres-
sions accidentally juxtaposed, but lest there should be any

14 IIICKLIXG, Biitish Pcnniaji Footprints.

doubt I added Fig. 8, which clearly represents the same
form, and in which there is nothing of the sort.

Age of the Cnnwiingstojie beds. — Small as the pub-
lished evidence of the footprints from this locality is, 1
think its indication is clear. Of the close relationship of
CI. 5 with the Mansfield forms I am convinced. x\ may
be matched both at Mansfield and Penrith, while Bricken-
den's track is a typical Penrith form. Adding the absence
of any suggestion of Triassic forms, the evidence could
scarcely be more emphatic in favour of the Permian age
of these footprint beds. This evidence is corroborated by
a recent paper by my friend Mr. D. M S. Watson, in
which he points out that the beds containing Gordonia
Geikie and Elgiuia, are distinct from those containing the
remaining Elgin reptiles, and that the forms named are
distinctly of Permian rather than Triassic affinities (Watson,
:09). There is unfortunately no direct evidence as to the
relation of the footprint beds to any of the reptiliferous
deposits.

The establishment of true Permian in this area, is a
fact of unusual interest as going not a little way towards
lessening the discrepancy of the stratigraphical and
pala^ontological evidence as to the relations of the " Old "
and " New " Red Sandstones.

The quarries of Bishops Mill and Nairn, from which
footprints are also recorded, are in accepted Upper Old
Red. In confirmation of these occurrences, we have the
undoubted footprints of Tarbartness, which are in beds
which have never been separated from the Upper Old
Red. Unfortunatel}', I have not seen any of these
impressions, and no account of them is published, but I
believe a careful examination of them, might go far
towards settling the long-standing enigma of the rocks in
this part of Scotland.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 3^. 15

The Devonshire Footprints.

I do not intend to give any description of the prints
which have recently been discovered by Principal Clayden
in the Red Sandstones near Exeter, as they are under
full investigation by their discoverer. They are illustrated
only by Fig. 15, Plate II., drawn from Mr. Clayden's
plate (Clayden, :o8)- The resemblance of this track to
some of those from Penrith is obvious. Mr. Clayden
hopes to settle the age of these beds by means of the
footprints, and I have little doubt they will prove to be a
Permian group, thus confirming the opinion now generally
entertained, concerning the correlation of these rocks.

Relation of the Permian Footprints to those
OF THE Trias and Carboniferous.

The comparison with Triassic footprints can be very
briefly disposed of I have never yet seen any Permian
print which could be confused with a Triassic one. What
is more significant, the whole fades of the two sets of
impressions is distinct. In the Permian, impressions of
a plantigrade type are decidedly the rule ; in the Trias
they are rare — a fact not without its palaeontological
interest. In the Permian again, " wide " tracks {i.e., with
right and left sides well separated) are the predominant
type, while the Triassic forms tend to have the sides
more approximated — again a feature of both palaeonto-
logical and stratigraphical interest. There is no well-
defined Permian track yet known which has the char-
acteristic feature of all the cheirotheroid forms : the
prints of the right and left sides nearly in a line.

The relation of the Permian and Carboniferous
footprints promises to be interesting. Unfortunately no

1 6 Hick LING, British Permian Footprints.

well-defined British Carboniferous prints have yet been
described, though there is little doubt they exist. Mr.
Barkas referred to a find of good prints in the Lower
Carboniferous, near Otterburn, Northumberland, at the
British Association meeting at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, but
I have not been able to find any published account of
them (Barkas, '89). In the same year Mr. John Smith
published a description of a track of imperfect prints from
the Calciferous Sandstone, near West Kilbride, Ayrshire
(Smith, J., '89). The track is very like some of the
Permian ones, but more cannot be said. The same
gentleman is at present, I believe, engaged in an account
of further discoveries in the same rocks. There is in the
Manchester Museum a remarkable track from the Mill-
stona Grit of Tintwistle, Cheshire, described by Mr.
Binney, and named by him Chelichnus ingens (Binney,
'56). It is again too imperfect for comparison. A more
perfect track was described by Haines from the Millstone
Grit of Kilrush, Co. Clare, but in the absence of figures
the description is insufficient (Haines, '52). The foregoing
examples show at least that we may hope for more
satisfactory material if it is looked for.

The North American Carboniferous rocks have yielded
quite a number of excellent tracks. Plate IV. is devoted
to some of these, together with some of the prints from
the Rothliegende of Thiiringia. A comparison of Fig. 27
{Ichniiiin ganipsodactybnn, Pabst, from Friedrichroda,
Thiiringia) with Fig. 31 {Dromopus agilis, Marsh, from
Coal Measures of Kansas), shows at once a remarkable
resemblance. From a careful examination of the original
fiigures, I believe the two forms are really almost identical,
and may be taken as indicating the presence of very
closely allied animals. (Pabst, :05, and Marsh, '94<7 and '9\h).
Similarly a marked resemblance exists between Fig. 25/'.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. %^. 17

{Ichniujn sphaerodactylum, Pabst, from Tambach,
Thiiringia), and Fig. 33 {Baropus lentiis. Marsh, from the
Coal Measures of Kansas). It is interesting to note here
that Mr. Varty Smith has obtained from the " Yoredale"
Sandstone, near Penrith, a print which closely resembles
the IcJiniuni spliaerodactylum, when that print is preserved
so as to show only the tips of the digits.

The remaining figures on Plate TV., should be useful
for future comparison. Meanwhile it seems clear, that
the relationship of the Permian series of footprints is
likely to prove much closer with those from the
Carboniferous, than with the Triassic forms — a fact quite
in keeping with the general relationships of the
Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic faunas.

The present communication is necessarily of a
preliminary character, and is mainly put forward with a
view to stimulating future research, and to show that
fossil footprints are worthy of more than summary
dismissal with a quotation from Longfellow.

1 8 Hick LING, British Permian Fout prints.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Barkas, T. p. ('89). "Notes on the numerous newly-discovered
Footprints on the Lower Carboniferous Sandstones of
Northumberland, near Otterburn." Rep. Brit. Assoc,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1889. Sections p. 565.

Beasley, H. C. (:03— :07). " Reports of the Committee for the
Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the
British Isles. Report on the Footprints from the Trias."
Fart I., Rep. Brit. //5.y<?r., Southport 1903, pp. 219-230.
Part II., ,, Cambridge 1904, pp. 275-2S2.

Part III., „ S. Africa 1905, pp. 162-166.

Part IV., „ York 1906, pp. 299-301.

Part V. ,, Leicester 1907, pp. 300-304.

Beckles, S. H. ('59). " On Fossil Footprints in the Sandstone
at Cummingstone." Q.J. G. S., vol. 15, p. 461, 1859.

BiNNEV, E. W. ('56). "On some Footmarks in the Millstone
Grit of Tintwistle, Cheshire." Q. /. G. 6"., vol. 12, pp.
350-354, 1856.

Brickenden, Capt. Lamrart ('52). "Notice of the discovery
of Reptilian Footmarks and Remains in the Old Red or
Devonian Strata of Moray." Q. J. G. S., vol. 8, pp.
97 100, and pi. 3, 1852.

Buckland, Wm. ('36). "Geology and Mineralogy," pp. 258-266
and pi. 26. London, 1836.

Manchester Meniozrs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. %%. 19

Clayden, a. W. {-.QZa). " Note on the Discovery of Footprints
in the Lower Sandstones of the Exeter District." Trans.
Devon. Assoc, vol. 40, pp. 172-3 and 3 pis., igo8.

(:08/')- " On the Occurrence of Footprints in the Lower

Sandstones of the E.xeter District." Q- J. G. S., vol. 64,
pp. 496-500, and pi. 51, 1908.

Dawson, J. W. ('63a). "The Air-Breathers of the Coal Period
in Nova Scotia." Pt. L Canadian Nat. and Geol.,
vol. 8, pp. 1-12, and pis. i and 2, 1S63.

(^S*^)- " Note on the Footprints of a Reptile from the

Coal Formation of Cape Breton." Canadian Nat. and
GeoL, vol. 8, pp. 430-1, with fig., 1863.

('68). "Acadian Geology," 2nd edn., pp. 353-8. Macmillan,

London, 1868.

('82). " On the Results of Recent Explorations of Erect

Trees containing Animal Remains, in the Coal Formation of
Nova Scotia. NotellL On the Footprints of Batrachians
observed in the Carboniferous rocks of Nova Scotia."
Fhit. Trans., vol. 173, pt. 2, pp. 621-659, 1S82.

Dudgeon, Patrick ('78). " Note on a New Fossil Footprint
from the Permian Sandstone of Dumfriesshire." Troc. Roy.
Soc. Edin., vol. 9, pp. 154-5 and pi. i, 1878.

Duncan, Rev. H. ('28). " An account of the Tracks and Foot-
marks of Animals found impressed on Sandstones in the
Quarry of Corncockle Muir in Dumfriesshire." Trans.
Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 11, pp. 194-209 and pi. 8, 1831.

Geinitz, H. B. ('63). "Beitrage zur Kenntniss der organischen
Uberreste in der Dyas." Neues JaJirb. JUr Mineralogie,
PP- 385-398 and pis. 3 and 4, 1863.

20 HiCKLING, British Permian Fuotprints.

Gordon, G. and Joass, J. M. ('63). "On the Relations of the
Rossshire sandstones containing Reptilian Footprints."
QJ. G. S., vol. 19, pp. 506-510, 1863.

Gordon, G. ('93)- "The Reptiliferous Sandstones of Elgin."
Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc, vol. 6, pp. 241-245 (with map),
1893.

Haines ('52). Remarks on a Slab with Footprints from the
Millstone Grit of Kilrush, Co. Clare. Aii?i. Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 2, vol. 9, p. 433, 1852.

Harkness, R. ('50). " On the Position of the Impressions of
Footsteps in the Bunter Sandstone of Dumfriesshire."
Ajin. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 2, vol. 6, pp. 203-208, 1850.

('51)- "Notice of some New Footsteps in the Bunter

Sandstone of Dumfriesshire." An?t. Mag. N'at. Hist.,
ser. 2, vol. 8, pp. 90-95, 185 1.

('62). "On the Sandstones and their associated Deposits

in the Vale of Eden, the Cumberland Plain, and the
South-East of Dumfriesshire." Q- /■ G. S., vol. 18, pp.
205-218, 1862.

('64). "On the Reptiliferous Rocks and the Footprint-
bearing Strata of the North-East of Scotland." Q.J. G. S.,
vol. 20, pp. 429-443, 1864.

HiCKLING, G. (:06). "On Footprints from the Permian of
.Mansfield, Notts." Q. /. G. S., vol. 62, pp. 1 25-1 31

(with figs.), 1906.

HuxLEV, T. H. ('59). " On the Stagonolepis Roberisoni Ag.
of the Elgin Sandstones \ and on the recently-discovered
Footmarks in the Sandstones of Cummingstonc."
Q. J. G. S., vol. 15, pp. 440-460 and pi. 14., 1859.

MancJicstcr Mcmoiis, Vol. I Hi. (1909), No. *V^. 21

Huxley, T. H. ('77)- "The Crocodilian Remains found in the
Elgin Sandstones, with remarks on the Ichnites of Ciim-
mingstone." Mems. Geol. Stir., Monogr. III., pi. 1-16,
1877, rep. "Scientific Memoirs," vol. 4, pp. 188-241.

Jardine, VV. ('50). " Note to Mr. Harkness's paper ' On the
Position of the Impressions of Footsteps in the Bunter
Sandstone of Dumfriesshire.'" Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 2, vol. 6, pp. 208-9, 1850.

('53)- "The Ichnology of Annandale." Edinburgh, 1853.

King, A. T. ('45«). " Description of Fossil Footmarks, found
in the Carboniferous Series in Westmoreland Co., Pa."
Atner. Jour. Set., vol. 48, pp. 343-.>52 (figs.)> 1845.

('45(^). " Footprints " [from the Carboniferous of West-
moreland County, Pa.]. With figures. Amer. Jour. Set.,
vol. 49, p. 216, 1845.

Lea, Isaac ('55). " Fossil Footmarks in the Red Sandstone of
Pottsville, Pennsylvania." Philadelphia, 1S55.

Leidv ('79)- " Fossil Foottracks of the Anthracite Coal
Measures." Proc. Acad. Nat. Set. Philadelphia, 1S79,
pp. 164-5.

Lyell, Charles ('46). "On Footmarks discovered in the
Coal Measures of Pennsylvania." Q. J. G. S., vol. 2,
pp. 417-420, 1846.

('65)- " Elements of Geology," 6th Edn., pp. 503-507.

London, 1865.

Marsh, O. C. ('94«). " Footprints of Vertebrates in the Coal
Measures of Kansas." Amer. Jour. Sci, vol. 48, pp. 81-
84 and pis. 2-3, 1S94.

22 IIlCKLING, British Penman Footprints.

Marsh, O. C. ('94/')- " F"ootprints of Vertebrates in the Coal
Measures of Kansas." Gcol. Mag., Dec. 4, vol. i, pp.
337-339. and pi. 11, 1S94.

MATTHiiw, G. F. (:03). "On Batrachian and other Footprints
from the Coal Measures of Joggins, N.S." Bull. Nat.
Hist. Soc. A^ew Brunswick, vol. 5, no. 21, 1903.

IMURCHISON, R. I. ('59). " On the Sandstones of Morayshire
(Elgin, etc.), containing Reptilian Remains ; and on their
Relations to the Old Red Sandstones of that Country."
Q./. G. S., vol. 15, pp. 419-439. 1859.

OwEx, R. ('41). " Report on British Fossil Reptiles." /?e/>.
Brit. Assoc, Plymouth, 1841, p. 160.

('60). "Palaeontology," pp. 152-168. Edinburgh, 1S60.

Pabst, W. ('96- '.05). " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Thierfahrten
in dem Rothliegenden ' Deutschlands '."

Zeitsch. d. Dent. Geol. GeselL, vol. 49, p. 638, 1896.
Do. do. vol. 49, [). 80S, 1896.

Do. do. vol. 50, p. 701, 1897.

Do. do. vol. 53, p. 48, 1900.

Do. do. vol. 58, p. 361, 1905.

('95)- Address to the Forty-First General Meeting of the

German Geological Society at Ccburg. Zeitsch. d. Deut.
Geol. GeselL, vol. 48, pp. 570-576, 1895.

(:03)- " Die fossilen Thierfahrten aus dem Rothliegenden

Thiiringens." Gotha, 1903.

Rogers, H. D. ('50). "On the Position and Characters of the
Reptilian l''ool[)rints in the Carboniferous Red Shale For-
mation of Eastern Pennsylvania." Proc. Amer. .Issoc,
vol. 4, p. 250, 1850.

MnncJicster Mcmoiys, Vol. liii. (1909), No. S^. 23

Smi'i H, J. ('89). " Note on tlie Occurrence of Footprints in the
Calciferous Sandstone between West Kilbride and Fait lie "
(with fig.). Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. 9, pt. i, pp.
201-3, 1889.

Smith, G. Varty ('84). " On Further Discoveries of the Foot-
prints of Vertebrate Animals in the Lower New Red
Sandstone of Penrith." Q. /. G. S., vol. 40, pp. 479-481,
1884.

Stkickland, H. E. ('52). "On Recent Discoveries of the
Footprints of Extinct Animals in Ancient Formations."'
Froc Ashmolean Soc, vol. 2, pp. 321-3, 1852.

Watson, D. M. S. (:09). " The 'Trias ' of Moray." Geol. Mag.,
Dec. v., vol. 6, pp. 102-7, 1909-

Winkler, T. C. ^'86). " Histoire de ITchnologie." Arch, du
Mus. Teyler, ser. 2, vol. 2, pt. 4, Haarlem, 1886.

24 IIlCKLIKG, Biitish Pcnniaii Footprints.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

All figures of individual prints in Plates L, IL, and IIL are
exactly \ natural size.

Figures of individual prints in Plate IV. are ] natural size.

The figures are all accurate outlines of single impressions,
except Fig. 9, Plate II., figs. 18 and 22, Plate III. and fig. 25,
Plate IV., which are slightly restored by a careful comparison of
several prints.

Pl.xtk I.

Footprints from the Permian of ALinsfield, Notts.

Fig. I ^- CI. '] X I. See page 2.

iw = right manus. 1/ =-- right pes. i/^ = track x jV.
Fig. 2 =X4 X |. See pages 3 and 10.

Fig. 3 =x^ X i. See pages 3 and 5

Fig. 4 =a:5 X h. See pages 4 and 9.

/>(». 5 undescribed print x J. See page 4.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIU. {No. *>'^).

Plate I.

^(\0

C^o

(]

26 HiCKLING, British Pcnnian Footprints.

Plate II.

Figs. 6, 7,8. Footprints from Cummingstone, nr. Elgin.

Figs. 9 to 14. Footprints from Permian of Penrith.

Fig. 15. Footprints from near Exeter.

Fig. 6. = C/. 5 {Chelichniis }negac/teirHs, Huxley) x |.

6w = right manus. 6/^ = right pes. 6/; = track x yV-
See page 13.

Figs. 7 & 8. =xi X |. See page 13.

Fig. 9. = X2 X i. See page 5.

Left pes and manus in natural relation.

Figs. 10 & II. = C/. 6 X \. See page 5.

Fig. 12. =Hp. 3, X |. See Note, page 5.

Fig. 13. = Chelichnoid track (? C/. 6) x }.. See page 4.

Fig. 14. = Lc. \ X J,. See page 5.

Fig. 15. Track from Lower Red Sandstones, Exeter. Sfe

Clayden, :08-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LI 1 1. {No. '^'^).

Plate II.

6p

S ^'

6/. ^^

f^ ^>':

CO,

(\

13

\\\\''^\\

n i^i^\\/(/4

ay Cu^ ^o' ^^'

;2

r^

/)

^

/,5

'cS:

iW

\-b"g

1}

t^

v.-:>

28 HlCKLlN(;, British Permiat/ Footprints.

Plate III.
Footprints from the Red Sandstones of Dumfriesshire.

/'/•,•. 1 6. =:v4 X i. Seepages lo and 3.

Fig. 17. ^ Hp. I {Herpetichnns sauroplesius^]z.x^\x\€)y.\. See
page 8.
i7w = manus. 17/ = pes (prints twt in natural
relative position).
Fig. 18. =Cl. 4 {Herpetichnus Ftick/andi, Jardint) x ^. See
page 8.
(Manus and pes in approximately correct relative
positions.)

Fig. 19. =.V5 (unnamed print, Edinburgh collection) x |. See
pages 9 and 4.
Right side.
F'g. 20. = Ct. I {Chelichnus Diincani, Owen sp. )x^. See
page 6.
Right pes. Mound of sand to rear not fully shown.
20b. Track of same x ^^.
Pig. 2\. = CI. 2 (Chelichtius aiiil'iguus, Jardine) x ^. See
page 7.
Right pes and manus in correct relative position.
2i/^ Track of same x ^^.

fig. 22. ^ CI. 3 {Batrichmis f.yelli, Harkness sp.) x ^. See
page 7.
Left pes and manus in correct relative jjosition.

Fig. 2^. =Hp. 2 {Herpetichnus loxodactylus. Dudgeon) x i.
See page 9.
Left pes (really cast of right pes).

Fig. 24. = Al>. I i^Adibates triassae,]AxCi\x\^)y~^^. Seepage 10.
The form of each print is indicated as correctly as
possible.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LI II. {No. »»).

Plate in.

'^ fill

60

,0n

0^ 24

zol P]

30 HiCKLIXG, BritisJi Pcrniuin Footprints.

Plate IV.

Figs. 25, 26, 27. Footprints from the I'ermian (Rothliegende)
of Thiiringia.

Figs. 28 to 2,2,- Footprints from the Carboniferous of North
America.

Fig. 25. •<= Ichnitivi spiiaerodactyluvi, Pabst x ;|.
Left pes. 25^. Track of same X Jj-.

Tambach, Thiiringia.
Fig. 26. = Jc/inium acrodactylitm, Pabst x |-. Left pes.

Tambach, Thiiringia.

Fig. 27. = Jc/niium ga7?ipsodactylufn, Pabst x |.

Right pes and manus in correct relative position.

Friedrichroda, Thiiringia.

J'ig. 28. = T/ienaropus he/efodaciyitis, King x \. See King, '45.
Right pes and manus in approximately correct
relative position.

Westmoreland Co., Pennsylvania.

Fig. 29. Print found by Logan x \. See Dawson, '63.

Right foot. Lower Carboniferous, Ilorton l^luff,
Nova Scotia.

Fig. 30. Prints found l)y Dr. Harding x |. See Dawson '63.
Right pes and manus in natural relation.

Carboniferous, Parrsboro', Nova Scotia.

Fig. 31. — Droinopus agi/is, Marsh x j. See Marsh '94a.
Left pes and manus in natural relation.

Coal Measures, Kansas.

Fig. 32. = Sauropus primaevus, Lea x |. See Lea '55-
Left pes and manus in natural relation.

Lower Carboniferous Red Shales, Pittsburgh, Pa.

^'^- 33- = Baropus ietituSi Marsh x ^.,, See Marsh '94.

Coal Measures, Kansas.

M<iiic//cstn- Mniioirs, I'ol. LI II. {Xo. "VI).

Plate I V.

^

25^ ^^

^

27

.^'

CS^^2V

K

30

<n:

33

1\

32

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. Tiqcq), No. "V^.

XXIII. The Guatemalan Earthquakes and Eruption

of 1902.

By W. S. ASCOLI, F.R.G.S.
{^Counminicated by Mr. C. E. Stronieye)', M.hist.C.E.)
( Read April 20th, igog. Received for publicalioji May §th, igog.)

Through its situation on one of the great volcanic
centres of the earth, Guatemala has suffered considerably
during historical times from earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions, but it is doubtful whether an)' year has been
marked by disasters of the magnitude of those of 1902.
The first disturbance of the series occurred on January
1 8th of that year, when the village of San Martin, near
Ouezaltenango, on the slopes of the Santa Maria, was
partially destroyed. From that date till April i8th,
everything was quiet. Then at 8-20 p.m. on that da}- an
earthquake of great violence destroyed the town of
Quezaltenango. The duration of its greatest intensity
was 57 seconds. Two distinct phases were clearly notice-
able— the first, which lasted about 25 seconds, marked
by heavy undulations (causing but little damage to
buildings), and the second, consisting of a succession of
great vertical jolts, following each other with great
rapidity, which completely destroyed the town. So
violent were these jolts that the plant at the electric
generating station was overturned and the town was
plunged in complete darkness. Though many of the
houses were built of stone, few escaped severe injury, and
all were condemned as uninhabitable by the authorities.

May i8th, igog.

2 ASCOLI, (jtiatcmala)i Raytlujiicikcs and Ernptio}i of igo2.

The most utter confusion followed the disaster, for shocks
followed each other with great rapidity, and the terrified
populace were in constant dread that worse might still
follow. Out of a population of 20,000, the number of
dead was nearly 1,400. Had the shock occurred a few
hours later instead of at a time when people were taking
their evening stroll, few would have escaped with their
lives.

I was living in the town at the time of the disaster,
and, being in a first floor room which collapsed entirel}-,
had a very narrow escape. Moreover, for many reasons,
I was unable to leave the ill-fated tow'n for a week after
April 1 8th, and consequently had full opportunity for
seeing what havoc such a shock can cause.

Owing to its isolated position in the heart of the
mountains, and to the superstitious dread of the Indians,
who supply the market, the town was totalK' deserted
and cut off from the outer world for several days. In
addition to other privations, the poorer inhabitants
suffered greatly from hunger. Though efforts were made
to recover the dead and to alleviate the sufferings of the
wounded and destitute, little could be done on account of
the magnitude of the disa.ster and the few available
hands.

The centre of the disturbance seems to have been the
Santa Maria, for, in addition to Ouezaltenango, most of
the buildings on the coffee estates en the southern slopes
of the vf)]cano were completely wrecked. The town of
San Pedro to the W. of Quezaltenango was also destro)ed.

During the week following the great earthquake,
shocks were of great fre(|iiency, and continued for some
six weeks. Quiet reigned again during June, July, and
August. Then on September 23rd an earthquake of the
oscillating type, of great force and duration, shook the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. I Hi. (1909), No. *4:5. 3

country. From that date till the day of the eruption
— October 24th — shocks were again very frequent, and, as
the day in question approached, became almost incessant.
The scene of the eruption {Plate /., Fig. i) was the
Santa Maria, a volcano situated a few miles to the south
of Ouezaltenango. Previous to this, there was not even
the slightest sign of activity, though the neighbouring
Cerro Ouemado was in violent eruption about 100 years
ago, and still has a fairly active, open crater. From
personal knowledge, 1 can state that the old crater on
the summit, about 12,000 ft. above sea level, was totally
extinct, consisting merely of a shallow, rocky depression,
mostly overgrown. The slopes, from base to summit,
were covered with a thick forest, many of the trees being
of great size.

On the afternoon of October 24th, 1902, a column of
steam was seen to issue from the southern slopes at a
height about 6,500 ft. above sea-level. With great rapidity
this increased in violence, and by nightfall the new crater
was in full eruption. During 72 hours, paroxysms followed
each other with ever-increasing fury, during which time
the surrounding country, within a radius of many miles,
was plunged in complete darkness. So violent were the
detonations, that they were clearly audible in Costa Rica,
more than 500 miles distant.

The devastation, some of which is shown in Plate II.,
was immense. All that tract of rich tropical vegetation
and coffee-land, lying between the volcano and the Mexican
frontier, over 600 square miles in extent, was converted
into a desert of white ash and sand. The total area
covered by the ejecta was about 125,000 square miles, and
the cloud issuing from the crater was measured to be about
18 miles in height.

The new crater {Plate /., Fig. 2) measures about

4 ASCOLI, GuateDialan EartJiquakcs ami Eruption of igo2.

1X4 mile, and has a present depth of some 1,500 feet.
The whole of the side of the mountain above this and
up to the summit was completely blown out during the
first three days of the eruption, leaving an almost vertical
clifif, 7,000 feet in height, exposed. Though still in a
state of considerable activity, no further damage was
caused. The seat of activity at present is a small hot
lake in the S.E. corner of the crater. From the side of
this a great steam jet, of considerable violence, issues,
alternating horizontally and vertically.

I have frequently visited the scene of the eruption
both before and after the events described above. I have
ascended the Cerro Quemado many times, and the Santa
Maria once, before the earthquake of April i8th. Since
the eruption 1 have also visited both. At the end of 1902,
and the beginning of 1903, I made three attempts to reach
the new crater, none of which, however, was entirely
successful, owing chiefly to the state of the new ash.
But in January, 1907, accompanied by Dr. Tempest
Anderson, of York, I reached the crater, and some
observations of considerable interest were made.

6 •Ksco'Ll, Giialcinalan Earthquakes and Eruption of igo2.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Fig. I, PL 1.
Eruption of Santa Maria. October 24-27th, 1902.

Photo taken from Quezaltenango (protected) side at the
first sign of daylight : on the further side the darkness was
complete till sunset on the 27th. The new crater is situated
low down on the further side of the cone, to the protection of
which Quezaltenango owed its safety.

Fig. 2. PI. I.

iNTERirtR OF New Crater of Santa Maria. January, 1907.

The middle-distance shows southern crater-wall (about
1,500 ft. high), with hot lake and steam jet at base. The
devastated slopes in the background — in the direction of the
Mexican frontier — were formerly covered with rich vegetation.
The cone of the Santa Maria rises to the right of the picture :
to the left some 40 miles distant is the Pacific Ocean.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LI II. (No. ?i3;.

Plate I.

8 ASCOLI, Guatemalan Eart //quakes and Rniption of igo2.

Plate If.

Lower Slopes of Santa Maria. January 1903.

This area was formerly covered by a thick forest. The
photo shows clearly the early work of erosion by water on the
new ash : a year later these channels were converted into small
ravines, rendering access to the crater difficult. In the back-
ground is seen the S.E. lip of the crater, with steam rising from
l^elow. It was from the summit of this lip (about i inch from
the right-hand side of photo) that the view of the interior
{7^1. /., Fig. 2) was taken.

Ma)iilicstcr Memoirs, I'ol. LI 11. {No. 'V^).

Plate li.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. 24

XXIV. Geographical Distribution of Birds (Genus

Macrojiyx, Swainson.)

By Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,

Member of the British Ornithologists' Union, Corresponding Member of the
American Ornithologists^ Union, &^c., ar'c.

Received and read November ijth, igo8.

A few years ago I had determined to write a mono-
graph of the MOTACILLIDAE (Wagtails and Pipits), and
for the purpose I made a large collection of these birds.
The publication of the tenth volume of the " Catalogue of
Birds in the British Museum " seemed to take away the
necessity for my intended " Monograph," so I abandoned
the project, and dispersed my collection. In this I may, or
may not, have been wise, but the completeness of
Dr. Bowdler Sharpe's work in the " Catalogue " seemed
to leave me little to say.

I have, however, a mass of notes on Pipits and Wag-
tails in my possession, the result of several years' work,
and it has occurred to me that it might be interesting to
publish these in the form of papers on geographical
distribution, a subject that has always interested me.
New collections are continually arriving, and new facts
becoming known, rendering the most elaborate works,
like those of Reichenow and Shelley, incomplete, as will
be seen in this small essay, which is written to bring
up to date the geographical memoranda on the genus
Macronyx detailed by these celebrated ornithologists.

Macronyx is a purely Ethiopian genus, being confined
to the African continent, where the species are popularly

August i2th, igog.

2 Nicholson, GeograpJikal Distribution of Macronyx.

known as ' Long-claws,' from the unusual development of
the claw of the hind toe.

The species may be divided into two sections, those
with a yellow or orange breast, and those with a pink
breast. The most widely distributed is J/, crocais, which
belongs to the former section, and is found over the
greater part of Africa. The range of some of the others
is more confined, being as follows : —

West African Sub-Region, M. croceiis.

South „ „ J/, croceus.

„ „ „ M. ascensi.

„ „ „ AT. CAPENSIS.

M. AMELIAE.

East „ „ M. zvintoni.

„ „ „ M. AURANTIIGULA.

„ „ „ J/, croceus.

„ „ „ Af. a see us i.

„ „ „ M. FULLEBORNI.

Equatorial „ M. .SHARPEI.

„ „ Jl/. zjiutoui.

„ „ J/, eroeeus.

Abyssinian „ M. FLAVICOLLIS.

,, „ M. croceus.

In the above note on the geographical range, the name
of a species in small capitals indicates that it is peculiar
to that particular Sub-region.

No. I. capensis. No. 5. ascensi.

„ 2. flavicollis. „ 6. aurantiigula.

„ 3. croceus. „ 7. sharpei.

„ 4. fiilleborni. ,, 8. ameliae.

No. 9. wintoni

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. ( 1 909), No. 24. 3

I. Macronyx capensis.

7']/rt(:;w/j'.r m/^«j/j (Linn.), Sharpe, "Cat. B. Brit. Mus.," vol. 10,
p. 623 (1885); Shelley, " B. Africa," vol. 3, p. 2 (1902);
Reichen., " Viig. Afrikas," vol. 3, p. 320 (1904).

Macronyx capensis col/etii, Schou, Orn. MB., 1908, p. 119.

Hab. The higher " veldt " region of Natal, the Orange
Free State, and Transvaal, ranging into Matabele Land
and Mashoona Land (Stark, " Faun. S. Afr. Birds," vol. i,
p. 23S). Cape Colony, Cape Town {C. J. Andcrsson,
"Mus. Brit"; Sharpe, "Cat. Afr. B.," p. 73, 1871).
Knj'sna, May, Nov. (Grill, " Zool. Anteckn.," p. 25, 1858).
Abundant on the high plateau above Knysna (Layard.
"B. S. Afr.," p. 121, 1867). Karroo, Dec. to Feb. (Grill,
"Zool. Anteckn.," p. 25, 1858): rare in the Karroo (Stark,
"Faun. S. Afr. Birds," vol. i, p. 238}. Orange River
(between Aliwal North and Norval's Pont). Not common
in summer, but becoming very abundant in late autumn
and winter : first saw a pair on Jan. 9th (Whitehead, Ibis,
1903, p. 226.) East London and Port Elizabeth {Rickard :
Sharpe, ed. Layard, " B. S. Afr.," p. 530). Eland's
Fost {T. C. Atmore: Sharpe, ed. Layard, " B. S. Afr.,"
p. 530). Kingwilliamstown {Trevelyan : Sharpe, "Cat.
B. Brit. Mus.," vol. 10, p. 623). Windvogelberg (i?;//^^r ;
Sclater P.Z.^., 1866, p. 23). Natal {Ayrcs : Gurney, Ibis,
i860, p. 208). Durban (Shelley, Ibis, 1875, p. 73). Pine-
town, Jan., Feb. {T. L. Ayrcs : Sharpe, "Cat. B. Brit.
Mus.," vol. 10, p. 623) ; between Ladysmith and New-
castle, May : Pretoria, Dec. {^F. Oatcs : Sharpe in Oates'
"Matabele Land," app., p. 317). Ingagane River,
Oct., Nov. breeding (Butler, Fielden, and Reid, Zoo/.,
1882, p. 335). Zulu Land (R. B. and J. D. S. Woodward,
Ibis, 1897, p. 412). Eschowe {JVoodzcard : Sharpe, f.c,
p. 514). Sibudeni, 20 miles N.W. of Eschowe, Oct., Nov.

4 Nicholson, Geographical Distribution of Macro nyx.

{Claude Grant: Mus. Brit.)- Orange River Colony.
Kroonstadt ; plentiful all over the district (Symonds, Ibis,
1887, p. 333). Winburg and Kroonstadt districts {Holiib :
cf. Holub and Pelz., " Orn. Slidafr," p. 86). Transvaal.
Potchefstroom, May, Aug., Oct. {Ayrcs : Mus. Brit.).
Plentiful at the Goldfields as in all other parts of the
Transvaal (Ayres, Ibis, 1873, P- 282, 1876, p. 426).
Makalaka Country {Bradshaw : Mus. Brit.). Matabele
Land (Holub and Pelz., "Orn. Slidafr.," p. 86). Mashona
Land. Everywhere distributed, but nowhere plentiful
(Guy Marshall, Ibis, 1900, p. 238). Inshlangeen River
{Jameson), Matje Umschlope, Nov.; common (Shelley,
Ibis, 1882, p. 350).

In the Ornithologische Monatsberichte for 1908 (vol. 16,
p. 119), Mr. Schou has described a race from Zulu Land
as Macronyx capensis collctti, and says that in this form,
the yellow colour of the under surface reaches right up
to the black ring which encircles the reddish yellow of
the lower neck ; it has, moreover, a generally clearer
yellow streak above the eye, and a tuft of yellow feathers
below the latter, the yellow edge of the wing being
strongly marked.

Professor Neumann has examined the series in the
British Museum, and confirms the characters which
Mr. Schou gives for his sub-species, which is said to
inhabit Natal, Zulu Land, Orange River Colony, and the
Transvaal, while the true J\T. capensis is supposed to be
confined to the southern districts of Cape Colony.

Dr. Bowdler Sharpe and I have together gone through
the scries oi J\Iac)-07iyx'\n the British Museum, and neither
of us can perceive the distinctions which Mr. Schou claims
for his Macronyx. I fear that I\T. colletti must be con-
sidered a synonym of AI. capensis.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. ( 1 909), No. 34. 5
2. Macronyx flavicoUis.

Macronyx flavicollis, Riipp., " N. Wirb. Vog.," p. 102, pi. 38,
fig. 2 (1835); id., "Syst. Uebers.,"p. 79(1845); Shelley,
"B. Africa," vol. 3, p- n (1902); Reichen., "Vog.
Afrikas," vol. 3, p. 324 (1904).

Hab. Common on the Highlands of Abyssinia
(Ruppell, /.6-.). High Plateau of Semien, Wogara and
Begemeder, 8,000 — 10,000 feet (Heuglin, " Orn. N.
O. Afr.," vol. I, p. 330). Wadala Plateau, "only seen
on the highest part of the Dalanta Plateau, and near
the crest of the VVandaj Pass : never observed below
10,000 feet" (Blanford, " Geol. and Zool. Abyss.," p. 384).
Jifadensa, S. Abyssinia, Jan. 22 ; Balti, Jan. 23 (Weld-
Blundell and Lovat, Ibis, 1900, p. 142); Jifadensa,
S. Abyssinia, Dec. 28 ; Adis Ababa, Jan. 2nd. Common
over the higher plateau {A. E. Pease ; Grant and Reid,
Ibis, 1 901, p. 633). Dembretcha, Gamot in Godjam
{Degcn : Grant, Ibis, 1904, p. 263). Woddeccia, Shoa ;
Adda Galla, June; Rugghie ; Valley of Woddeccia,
June (Salvad., Ann. Mas. Genova (2), vol. i, p. 169, 1884) ;
Antoto, Shoa, Nov., Dec. ; Falle, Jan. {Ragazzi : Salvad.,
op. cit., vol. 6, p. 265, 1888). Entotto, Nov., V>qc. : Albaso,
Arusi Galla (Travcrsi : Giglioli, Ann. Mus. Getiova (2),
vol. 6, p. 35, 1888). Aveve, Province Kollu, Shoa, Sept. ;
Abuje and Badattino, Province Gindeberat, Shoa, Sept.,
Oct. ; Abera in Djamdjam, Dec. ; Gardulla, Jan. ; Djala
in Gofa, Jan. ; Bola Goschana in Doko, Feb. ; Schubba
in West Kaffa, Feb., April (Neumann, /(?«;-;/./ Oniith.,
1906, p. 237).

3. Macronyx croceus.

Macrotiyx croceus (Vieill.), Sharpe, "Cat. B. Brit. Mus.," vol. 10,
p. 623 (1885); Shelley, " B. Africa," vol. 3, p. 4 (1902);
Reichen., "Vog. Afrikas," vol. 3, p. 321 (1904).

6 Nicholson, Geographical Distrilmtum of Macrony.x.

II ab. Nearly the whole of Africa, below the Sahara,
and to the southward of 20" N. Lat.

West Africa. River Gambia. (Mus. Brit. ; IMus.
Brem. ; cf. Sharpe, " Cat. Afr. B.," p. 73). Casamance
{Verrcaiix : Hartl., " Orn. W. Afr.," p. yi). Sierra
Leone {Verrcanx : Hartl., /.r.), Bo, Sept, Oct., Jan.,
Feb. ; not numerous (Robin Kemp, Ibis, 1905, p. 237).
Liberia, Robertsport (Demeryj, Marfa River, Grand
Cape Mount River {Biittikofer and Sala : Buttikofer,
Notes Lcydcn. Mus., vol. 7, p. 174, 1885): I^aynesville
{Stainpfli: Biittik., Notes Lcydcn. Miis., vol. 8, p. 253, 1886).
Gold Coast. Common in all parts (Ussher, Ibis, 1874,
p. 70). Fanti Country {Shelley, Kirby : Mus. Brit.): sea-
shore, near Elmina, April (H. F. Blissett) ; Accra {G. E.
Shelley 3.nd T. E. Buckley : Mus. Brit.): (Reichen.,/6'/^;';^
/ Oniith., 1875, p. 46): Aguapim (Riis. : Hartl., "Orn.
W. Afr.," pp. yT,, 271). Togo Land. River Volta {Ussher:
Sharpe, Ibis, 1870, p. 481 : id., "Cat. Afr. B.," p. y^, 1871).
Nigeria, Shonga (IV. A. Forbes: Shelley, Ibis, 1883,
p. 543). Gaboon ( Verreaux : Hartl., " Orn. W. Afr.," pp. Ti,
271), Cape Lopez (Du Chaillu : Cassin, P. Acad. Philad.,
1856, p. 307). Fernand Vaz {Alarche : Bouvier, " Cat.
Marche Coll.," p. 16, 1S75). Loango Coast {Falkensiein :
Kexchcn., Journ.f. Ornith., 1877, p. 30). LOWER CONGO :
Landana, Chinchonxo {Petit: Sharpe and Bouvier, Bull.
Soc. Zool, France, 1876, p. 43): Angola, Cambambe
(Montciro, Ibis, 1S62, p. 334): Benguela, Huilla, Humbe
Ambaca, Caconda, {Anchieta : liocage, "Orn, Angola,"
p. 297).

South Africa. Extends as far south as Natal, but is
rarely found in Cape Colony (Stark, " Faun. S. Afr. Birds,"
vol. I, p. 239). Pondo Land. Resident and plentiful at
St. John's, in flat open country (Shortridgc, Ibis, 1904,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. %A. 7

p. 179). NATAL(^jj/;rj.- Gurncy, /(^/j-, i86o,p.2o8): Durban
{Gordgc : Shelley Coll.): Pinetown, Jan. to Nov. {T. L.
Ay res : G. E. Shelley: Mus. Brit.); common (Shelley,
Ibis, 1875, P- 73)- Zulu Land. Santa Lucia Lake (R. B.
and J. U. S. Woodward, Ibis, 1900, p. 524). Insusie
Valley, 20 miles N.W. of Eschovve, Dec. 8, 1903 ; Um-
folosi Station, June to Sept. 1904: Nyoye Forest, Sept.
25, 1904 {Claude Grant: Mus. Brit.). TRANSVAAL.
Lydenburg district, seen from Bloemfontein up to Pre-
toria and Nazareth, and on a trip to Rustenberg (Barrett,
Ibis, 1876, p. 208); Barberton District (Rendall, Ibis,
1896, p. 174), Legogot, Barberton District, May 3-16,
1906 {Claude Grant). Gaza Land. Abundant every-
where in the open grass country (Swynnerton, Ibis, 1907,
p. 40). Chirinda Forest, Feb. {D. M. Stanley, Mus. Brit.).
Portuguese S. E. Africa. Inhambane (Sclater, Ibis,
1899, p. 112, Francis) ; Cogunho, Inhambane, June 29, 1906
{Claude Grant : Mus. Brit.). Barratas, near Beira(H. S. H.
Cavendish ; Sharpe, Ibis, 1900, p. in). Mesenbeti, 23 miles
N.W. of Beira, Nov. 9, 1906 {Claude Grant: Mus. Brit).
Beira, Nov. 22-26, 1906, Feb. 10, 1907 {Claude Grant:
Mus. Brit.). Zambesi. Abundant on the sea coast of
the Delta (Kirk, Ibis, 1864, p. 318). Nyasa Land.
Zomba plains, Dec, Jan. (A. Whyte : coll. Sir H. H.
Johnston) ; Tschiromo, Sept. (A. Whyte : coll. Sir II. H.
Johnston). Liwonde, Namaramba, Aug. Mtondwe,
June. Kasungu, Oct. N. Nyasa Land, Sept. S. Angoni
Land, Aug., Sept. {Sir A. Sharpe : ShoW^Y, Ibis, 189S,
PP- 379. 553)-

East Africa. Zanzibar coast {Hildebrandt ; Cab.,
Journ. J. Ornith., 1878, p. 220). Mtoni, near Zanzibar
{Bohndorff : Mus. Brit). Usambara Hills : Dar-es-Salaam
{Sir J. Kirk: F. Buxton : Shelley, P.Z.S., 1881, p. 573 :

8 Nicholson, Geographical Distribution of Macronyx.

Nicholson, P.Z.S., 1S78, p. 356) : Kitui, Ukamba (Hilde-
brandt ; Cd^h., Joiim.f. Oniith., 1878, p. 220). Machako's
(F.J.Jackson : S. L. Hinde : Mus. Brit.). Lindi, Bagamojo,
Usaramo, Maurui, Pare, Arusha Galla country, VVapo-
komoland, Lamu, Barawa (Fischer, Joiirn. f. OrnitJi.,
1885, p. 137). Along the coast from VVitu to Mombasa,
and throughout the two Protectorates westward to
Uganda (Jackson, Ibis, 1905, p. iQi).

Equatorial Africa. Nairobi, Nov. ; Molo River,
Jan. ; Gessima River, Likipia, Jan. ; Msara, N. E. Kenia,
Feb. (Dclamere Coll. : Mus. Brit). Particularly plentiful in
the Nandi country, at an altitude of 6,500 feet, and again at
the Eldoma Ravine, and on the eastern foot-hills of Mau.
Breeds in Nandi, from April to June : also breeds near
Entebbe in Uganda (Jackson, Ibis, 1905, p. 10 1).
\V. Uganda {J. T. Cunningham : Mus. Brit.) Kazi,
Uganda {F. J. Jackson). Mabira Poorest (C. Christy).
Mruli : Kafu River in Unyoro : Usoga country {Ansorgc :
Ilartert in Ansorgc, " Afr. Sun.," A pp., p. 348). Mangiki,
Mt. Elgon {F. J. Jacksoji). Albert Edward Nyanza
{Scotl-Elliot : Mus. Brit.). Muggi, Nov. {Etnin Pasha :
Mus. Brit. : Hartl., Abhandl. Nat. Vcr. Bremen, vol. 7,
p. 99, 1881). Kiri, May {Emi)i Pasha: Mus. Brit).
Gazelle River (Antinori, "Cat descr. Ucc," p. 41 (1864):
Heugl., "Orn. N. O. Afr.," vol. r, p. 331).

4. Macronyx fulleborni.

Macroityx fUlleborni, Reicheii., Orn. MB., vol. 8, p. 39 (igoo) :
Shelley, "B. Africa," vol. 3, p. 9 (1902) : Reichen., " Vbg.
Afrikas," vol. 3, p. 322 (1904).

Hab. Unyika Highlands to the north of Lake
Nyasa, Tandala and Mararupia {Fiil/cborn : Reichen.,
I.e.), Ngomingi ( V. Marwit::), Songea {Booth). Cf.,
Reichen., I.e.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. ( 1 909), No. 24. 9

5. Macronyx ascensi.

Macronyx ascensi., Salvad., Boll. Mus. Torino., vol. 22,
No. 570, p, 6 (1907).

Hah. LuconzoUva, W. of Lake Moero, to the S.W. ot
Lake Tanganyika {Asccnso : Salvad., I.e.). Upper Lualaba
River, May 16, 1907 (S. A. Neavc). Caconda, Benguela,
Dec. 4, 1901 (C H. Pcnibcrtoti : Mus. Rothschild):
Kamesgori, 3 days' march from Pango Andongo, Angola,
July 21, 1903 {W.J. Ansorge : Mus. Rothschild).

I have examined the type of M. ascensi which was
kindly sent over to England by Count Salvadori, and I was
enabled to compare it with an example of the true M.filllc-
borni from Ngomingi, received by the Tring Museum from
the Berlin Museum, and identified by Dr. Reichenow. The
differential characters of the two forms were as pointed
out by Dr. Reichenow, and I follow him in keeping them
distinct. At the same time, the differences between
M. ascensi and M. fiilleborni are extremely slight, and I
imagine that when a larger series is available, we shall
find that the species are not separable. This is the more
probable from the evidence of their geographical distribu-
tion, so far as is known at present. This species is said
by Count Salvadori to resemble M. croceus, but to differ
in the tint of the yellow under surface, which is
more chrome than lemon-yellow in appearance. The
absence of streaks on the flanks is another character. In
this respect it approaches M. fiilleborni oiTix. Reichenow,
to whom Count Salvadori sent his specimen for com-
parison. Dr. Reichenow came to the conclusion, after
comparing the type of J/, ascensi \v\\.\\ that o{ M. fiilleborni,
that the two species were not identical, and that M. ascensi
was to be distinguished by the greyer colour of the rump
and upper tail-coverts, which had, moreover, no black

10 Nicholson, Geographical Distribution of Macronyx.

markings, as well as by the deeper }-ellow colour of the
abdomen, and by the yellow thighs, the latter being, in
]\I. fulkboriii brownish, tinged with yellow. The flanks
were also paler, being browner and of a clearer chestnut
shade in ]\I. fiillcborni.

6. Macronyx aurantiigula.
Mocronyx aurantiigula, Reichen., Journ. f. Ornit/i., 1891,
p. 222: Shelley, " B. Africa," vol. 3, p. 10 (1902):
Reichen., "Vog. Afrikas," vol. 3, p. 324 (1904).
Hab. East Africa. Pangani River (Reichen., Jonru.
f. OrnitJi., 1 89 1, p. 222: id., Joiirn.f. OrnitJi., 1892, p. 52:
id., " Vog. Dcutsch. Ost. Afrikas," p. 199, 1894). Manjara
Lake (Neumann, /^?/r;?.y; OniitJi., 1900, p. 290). Alaurui,
Jan.; Maeru Mts. ; Mt. Kiliminjaro (Fischer, ZeitscJir. ges.
Orn., vol. I, J). 308, 1884). Mt. Doinyo Narok, 4,300 feet,
March, 1906 {Pcrcival : Mus. F. J. Jackson).

7. Macronyx sharpei.

Alacro7tyx sharpei, Jackson, JluII. B.O.C., vol. 14, p. 74 (1904) :
id.. Ibis, 1905, p. 102, pi, 3: Reichen., "Vog. Afrikas,"
vol. 3, p. 323 (1904).

Hab. Equatorial Africa. Higher portions of the great
Mau Plateau, between 7,000 and 8,500 feet elevation.
Near the railway station of Lundiani at the head of the
Nyando Valley (7,500 feet). Breed.s. (Jackson, Ibis,
1905, p. 102) ; Loliondo River, Likipia (7,000 feet),
July I, 1906 (Mus. F. J. Jackson).

8. Macronyx ameliae.

Macronyx annii(c (Tarr.), Sharpe, "Cat. B. Brit. Mus.," vol. 10,
p. 628 (1885): Shelley, " B. Africa," vol. 3, p. 12 (1902):
Reichen., "Vog. Afrikas," vol. 3, p. 324 (1904).

Hab. Natal (A'. S. Fclloivs : Sharpe Coll. : Brit. Mus.).
Umlaas Flats, Dec. {Gordgc : Shelley Coll.). Zulu Land.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liii. (1909), No. %\. 11

Umfolosi Station, Zulu Land, June- Aug. (67rwc?6' Grant,
Mus. Brit.). Santa Lucia Lake (Woodward, Ibis., 1900,
p. 524). Matabele Land. Fantamatenka ^. {Brads kazu :
Shelley " B. xAfrica," vol. 3, p. 12). Zambesia ; Chicovva,
Zambesi R. (Boyd Alexander, Ibis, 1899, P- 5^3 (^■^^- ^^•
wintoui)).

9. Macronyx wintoni.

Macronyx ivintoni, Sharpe, Ibis, 1891, pp. 444, 5S9 : Jackson,
Ibis, 1899, p. 630 : Reichen., " Vog. Afrikas," vol. 3, p. 325
(1904). Macronyx ameliae, Shelley, " B. Africa," vol. 3,
p. 12 (1902).

Hab. Equatorial Africa. Found in three places only —
in the Rift Valley in the vicinity of Lake Naivasha, the
eastern side of the Guashangishu plateau, and in the
Nyando Valley in the vicinity of Kitotos (Jackson, Ibis,
1905, p. 103). West shores of Manjara Lake, Nov. 28,
1893: Mgogo, N. of Manjara Lake, Dec. 6, 1893.
Kossowa, March 3, 1894, Kavirondo, Oct. : Kvva Kissero,
Mori Bay, Nguruman {Neumann : Reichen., " Vog.
Afrikas," vol. 3, p. 325, 1904).

MacroJiyx zvintoni is a small race of jM. amcliae, and,
according to Dr. Bowdler Sharpe, differs from the latter
in its lesser size and smaller bill. Shelley unites it to
M. amcliae, but I think the constantly smaller size is a
sufficiently good character for its separation.

I::^

pq

C5

S

b

April 6th, /pop.] PROCEEDINGS.

XXI

Mr. R. L. T.WLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C., read a paper entitled,
" On some Colour Demonstrations of the Dissociating
Action of Water."

A[r. Henry Sidebottom read a paper entitled "Report
on the Recent Foraminifera from the Coast of the
Island of Delos (Grecian Archipelago). Part VI."
(Conclusion.)

Examples of Polyttema mitiiaceum, Linne sp., Trnncatulina
variabilis, d'Orbigny, and a decorated form of Rotalia leccarrii,
Linne, were shown under the microscope, and drawings of
numerous other species were exhibited.

Mr. George Hickling, B.Sc, read a paper entitled, "On
Permian Foot-prints."

The three papers will be printed in the Memoirs.

Annual General Meeting, April 20th, 1909.
Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was resolved :—" That the
Annual Report, together with the Statement of Accounts, be
adopted, and that they be {)rinted in the Society's Proceed ijigsi"

The Secretary announced, in accordance with Rule 22 of
the Articles of Association, that the name of E. F. Morris had
been erased by the Council from the register in consequence of
the non-payment of his subscription.

Mr. H. Bateman and Mr. R. H. Clayton were appointed
Scrutineers of the balloting papers.

The following members were elected ofificers of the Society
and members of the Council for the ensuing year.

President : Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.

Vice-Presidents: H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S. ; Thomas

xxii Proceedings. [April 20th, iQog>.

Thorp, F.R.A.S. ; Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. ; F. W.
Gamble, D.Sc, F.R.S.

Secretaries: R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C. ; C. Gordon
Hewitt, iM.Sc.

Treasurer: Arthuu McDougall, B.Sc.

Librarian: C. L. Barnes, M.A.

Other Metnbers of the Coiuicil : Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S. ;
Ernest F. Lange, F.C.S., M.I.Mech.E. ; Horace Lame, M.A.,
LL.D., D.Sc, ScD., F.R.S. ; W. H. Todd ; Arthur Schuster,
Sc.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. ; Edmund Knecht, Ph.D.

Ordinary Meeting, April 20th, 1909.

Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

Mr. W. S. Ascoli, F.R.G.S., read a paper, communicated
by Mr. C E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.C.E., entitled "The Guate-
malan Earthquakes and Eruption of 1902." The

Itcture is published in a condensed form in the Memoirs.

At this point the chair was occupied by Mr. Francis Jos'es,
M.Sc, F.R.S.E.

Mr. F. H. Gravely, M.Sc, read a paper entitled "Apical
Pigment-Spots in the Pluteus of Echinus miiiaris" of
which the following is an abstract.

In advanced living plutei of Echinus viiliaris from the
plankton of Port Erin Bay, there are present in close associa-
tion with the apical plate two pairs of pigment-spots, and one
pair of tufts of stiff cilia. The anterior pair of pigment-spots are
small and of a transparent red colour. The posterior pair are
larger, and of an opaque yellow. They are situated in the

April 20th, I goQ.'\ PROCEEDINGS. xxiii

general cavity, closely applied to the inner surface of the apical
plate, and are probably composed of the same substance as are
similar cells described by MacBride in other parts of the body
— especially in large masses beneath the four epaulettes — of the
piuteus of Echinus esculentus. This substance occurs, with a
similar distribution, in the piuteus of E. miliaris. Whether the
definitely paired spots of this and the red pigment in association
with the apical plate of E. miliaris, or the tufts of stiff cilia also
found in this position, have any sensory function, as might
a priori be expected from their position, has not been
determined.

Ordinary Meeting, May 4th, 1909.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables. The following were among the recent
accessions to the Society's Library: ^' Flora Cape?isis," ...\o\. 4
sect. I, part 6, by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Uyer (8vo, London,
1909), purchased; '^ Third Report on Research Work... on the
Storage of jRazu River Water antecedent to Filtration,^' by
Dr. A. C. Houston (fol., London, 1909), presented by the
Metropolitan Water Board ; " The Battle of Gettysburg," by

F. A. Haskell (8vo., n. pi., 1908), presented by the Wisconsin
History Commission; '•'•Atlas of the World with Index," by

G. W. Bacon (fol, London, 1908), and ^'•International
Dictionary of the English language," by W. Webster (fol.,
London, 1907), purchased.

Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.LC, exhibited a drawing of John
Dalton, signed by J. Stephenson, and dated June, 1882, which
had been for many years in the possession of Messrs. Steinthal.
It was thought that this was the original from which the
celebrated engraving by that artist was made.

xxiv Proceedings. [Jlltrj' 4.tJi, igog.

Professor E. Knecht, Ph.D., read a paper, written in
conjunction with Mr. J. P. Batev, M.Sc.Tech., entitled,
"A Modification of the Beckmann Apparatus by which
Constant Readings are obtained in determining the
Boiling Points of Aqueous Solutions."

Miss Marie C Stopes, Ph.D., D.Sc, and Mr. C. Gordon
Hewitt, M.Sc, read a joint paper, entitled, "On the Tent-
building Habits of the Ant, Lasius Niger, Linn., in
Japan."

Professor H. F. Rugan, of Tulane University, U.S.A.,
read a paper, written in conjunction with Piofessor H. C. H.
Carpenter, Ph.D., of Manchester University, entitled, "The
Permanent Change of Volume of Cast Irons after
repeated Heatings."

Samples of Iron that had been subjected to repeated heatings
were exhibited, and showed very clearly how considerable was
the growth that had taken place.

The first two of these three papers are printed in the
Metnoirs.

Annual Report of the Council. xxv

Annual Report of the Council, April, 1909.

The Society began the session with an ordinary membership
of 156. During the present session 16 new members have
joined the Society. Ten resignations have been received,
and there has been one death, viz. : Mr. Standen Paine.
This leaves on the roll 161 ordinary members. The Society
has also lost, by death, 2 honorary members, viz. : Professor
GuSTAVE Dewalque, of Liege, and Professor E. E. N. AIascart,
of Paris, For.Mem.R.S. INIemorial notices of these gentlemen
appear at the end of this report.

The average attendance at the meetings was 30 as compared
with ^2 for the session 1907-08.

The Society commenced the session with a balance in hand
of ;^2o8. 19s. 6d., from all sources, this amount being made up
of the following balances : —

At the credit of General Fund ;^i7 o 9

„ ,, AVilde Endowment Fund... 66 18 i

„ ,, Joule Memorial Fund 88 i o

,, ,, Dalton Tomb Fund 3^ 19 8

_;^2o8 19 6

The total balance in hand at the close of the session
amounted to ^^278. is. 6d., and the amounts standing at the
credit of the separate accounts, on the 31st March, 1909, are
the following : —

At the credit of General Fund ^46 10 10

„ ,, Wilde Endowment Fund... 114 2 2

„ ,, Joule Memorial Fund 79 10 10

„ ,, Dalton Tomb Fund 37 17 8

Balance 31st March, 1909 jQ-1^ 1 6

xxvi Anminl Report of tJie Council.

The Wilde Endowment Fund, which is kept as a separate
banking account, shows a balance of ^114. 2s. 2d. in its favour,
as against ;^66. iSs. id., at the beginning of the financial
year, there being an increase of ten pounds in the receipts from
the invested funds as compared with the receipts for several
years past.

The Joule Memorial Fund has this year incurred an expendi-
ture of sixteen pounds five shillings by the purchase and repair
of a silver chronometer watch, formerly belonging to the late
Dr. J. P. Joule, which the Council has resolved to place in one
of the Society's rooms as a memorial of a distinguished past
President.

The Librarian reports that during the session 876 volumes
have been stamped, catalogued and pressmarked, 759 of these
being serials, and 1x7 separate works. There have been written
366 catalogue cards, 211 for serials, and 155 for separate works.
The- total number of volumes catalogued to date is 31,549 for
which 11,225 cards have been written.

Satisfactory use is made of the library for reference pur[)Oses,
but the number of volumes consulted is not recorded. During
the session, 175 volumes have been borrowed from the library,
as compared with 200 in the previous session.

Further attention has been given to the comi)letion of sets,
68 volumes or parts having been obtained, which complete
three sets, and partly complete four. Of these, S volumes
were purchased, 20 volumes were presented by Mr. Francis
Nicholson, and the rest were presented by the societies publishing
them.

A larger amount of binding than usual has been done this
session, 316 volumes having been bound in 228.

A record of the accessions to the library shows that, from
Apiil, 190S, to March, 1909, 737 serials and 113 separate works

Amuial Report of the Council. xxvii.

were received, a total of S50 v(;lumes. The donatioti-s during
the session (exclusive of the usual exchanges) amount to 129
volumes and 177 dissertations; one volume has been purchased
(in addition to the periodicals on the regular subscription list).

During the past session the Society has arranged to excb.ange
publications with the following : — Societa Italiana per il
Progresso delle Scienze, Rome ; Manchester Municipal School
of Technology ; Observatorio Meteorologico Meridu de Yucatan ;
the Philippi)ie Journal of Science, Manila ; Sociedad de
Ingenieros del Peru, Lima ; and the Servicio Meteorologico de
la Republica Boliviana, La Paz.

The publication of the Memoirs and Proceedings has been
continued under tiie supervision of the Editorial Committee.

The Society is indebted to the following for the under-
mentioned gifts : —

Dr. Henry Wilde, E.R.S., for six volumes of Hope Reports.,
published by the Hope Department of Zoology in the
University of Oxford.

Professor A. Schuster, F.R.S., for two volumes of the
Coniptes Rend us des Seances... de la Commission
Perinanente de f Association InternatioJiale de Sismologie.

Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., for the following works : —
A/icholson's /oitrnal, vols, i — 5, 1798 — iSoi ; Anvakn
der Physik, Neueste Folge, Bde. i — 12, 1819 — 1822 ;
"Studies in Anatomy from the Anatomical Department
of the Owens College,'" vols, i, 2, 1891, 1900; "Studies
from the Physiological Laboratory of Owens College,
Manchester," vol i, 1891; "Handbook of the Man-
chester Meeting of the British Association," 1887, and
"Excursions of the British Association, Manchester,"
1887.

Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde, Berlin, for Arcliiv
fir Bionfologie, vols, i — 3.

xxviii AiDuial Report of the Council.

Dr. H. Brereton Baker, F.R.S., Lee's Reader in Chemistry
in the University of Oxford, was invited to deHver the Wilde
Lecture for 1909. The Lecture, on " The Influence of Moisture
on Chemical Change," was delivered on Tuesday, ]\Larch 9th,
1909.

The Linnean Society of London celebrated on July ist,
1908, the fiftieth anniversary of the readirig of the joint essay by
Charles Darwin and A. R. Wallace, entitled "On the Tendency
of Species to form Varieties ; and on the Perpetuation of
Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection," and this
Society was represented by Mr. Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F. L.S.

The University Museum of Oxford celebrated its Jubilee on
October Sth, 190S, and this Society was represented by the
President, Professor H. B. Dixon, NLA., F.R.S., who presented the
following address which had been approved by the Members : —

To the Vice- Cha7icellor of the University of Oxford.

"We, the Council of the Manchester Literary and
" Philosophical Society, desire to offer to the University of
" Oxford our greetings and congratulations on the celebration
"of the Jubilee of the University Museum.

"Meeting, as our Council does, in the workroom of John
" Dalton, we think it not unfitting to recall that the concep-
"tion of the chemical elements on which Dalton founded
" his Atomic Theory, originated with Robert Boyle, at
" Oxford ; and that the recognition by chemists of the
" diatomic molecules of Avugadro (which reconciled the
" conflicting views of Dalton and of Gay-Lussac) was largely
"due to the work carried out by Brodie in the Chemical
" Laboratory of the Oxford Museum.

" We have watched with the keenest interest the extensions
"of the Oxford Museum, and the widening scope of its
"activities and usefulness; we are glad to recognise that
"this increase accompanies and symbolises the growth in

Annual Report of tJic Conticil. xxix

" Oxford of a new sympathy for scientific study and research,
" which now take their place, honoured and giving honour,
" side by side with the older learning."

Signed, on behalf of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society.

H. B. DIXON, President.
F. W. GA\[BLE.

Hon. Sees.
R. L. TAYLOR,

September 2gth, igoS.

It was resolved that Dr. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S., one of the
Hon. Secretaries, be asked to represent this Society on the
occasion of the Darwin Centenary Celebrations at Cambridge,
in June, igog.

The Geological Society of Glasgow celebrated its Jubilee on
January 2Sth, igog, and this Society was represented by
Mr. D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc.

GiLLKS Joseph Gustave Dewalque was elected an
honorary member of this Society on the 17th of April, 1888.
Born at Stavelot, in Belgium, on the 2nd of December, 1826,
he became one of his country's most famous geologists, main-
taining an active leadership in scientific enquiry almost to the
day of his death at the ripe age of seventy-eight, on tlie 3rd of
November, igo5.

His brilliant work was rewarded with many honours. At
the University of Liege he received the Doctorates of Medicine
and Science, and in 1857 followed his famous predecessor,
Dumont, in the chair of Geology there. Eight years later the
subjects of Mineralogy and Palaeontology were also committed
to his care. His great interest in British Geology led to his
election, in 187 1, as a Foreign Correspondent of the Geological
Society of London, and in 1880 as a foreign member. He was

XXX Annual Report of the CoiDieil.

himself one of the founders of the active Socicte Geologique de
Belgique. In addition to membership of many other Scientific
Societies in Belgium, Moscow, Vienna, Luxembourg, etc., he
received many civil honours, notably the Commandeur de
rOrdre de Leopold, and Otiticier de I'Ordre des Sts INLaurice el
Lazare.

His earlier researches were on the L'assic rocks of Luxem-
bourg, on which he published, in 1853, in collaboration with
F. Chapius, an important monograph, "Description des Fossiles
des Terrains Secondaires de la Province de Luxembourg." His
later researches led him over the whole range of stratified rocks
in Belgium, from the Cambrian to the most recent, but his con-
tributions to our knowledge of the very important Devonian
rocks of that country stand out prominently. He did much
towards unravelling the complicated tectonic geology of his own
country, and was an ardent worker on the correlation of the
stratigraphical series in England and Belgium. The latter prob-
lem was the cause of his being a frequent contributor to the
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society and tiie Geological
Magazine. Among his other works, his " Prodrome d'une
Description Geologique de Belgique," published in 186S, and
revised in 1880, is notable, together with his " Carte geologique
de la Belgique et des Provinces voisines, 1899." It is a tribute
to his lasting energy that he presented to the Geological Society
a new map of Belgium, only a few months before his greatly
lamented death. G. H.

Eleuthkue Elie Nicol.\s Masc.akt was born at Quarouble,
near Valenciennes, on February 20lh, 1S37. Having completed
his studies at the Ecole normale superieure of Paris, he was
admitted to the degree of Docteur-es-Sciences in the year 1864,
and soon afterwards received an appointment at the " Lycee "'
of Versailles as Professor of Physics. In the year 1872 he
succeeded Regnault at the college de France, where he filled
the chair of Physics until he took charge of the Central Bureau
of Meteorology in 1878.

Annual Report of tJie Council. xxxi

Mascart was probably the first physicist who recognised the
services which photography could render to the progress of
science. At an early period of his career, and in the early
stages of Spectrum Analysis, Mascart contributed to its advance
by the construction of photographic charts and accurate measure
ments of wave-length. Among his other contributions to science,
his researches on the refraction and dispersion of gases deserve
special mention.

^^'e also owe to Mascart systematic treatises on Electricity,
Optics, and Terrestrial Magnetism ; these are all distinguished
by critical insight and clear exposition of facts.

His pre-eminence as an organiser found ample scope in the
reorganisation of the meteorological service of France. When
he appeared — as he often did — at international assemblies of
scientific men, he made his presence felt by his charming
personality no less than by his experience in the conduct of
business.

He was elected a member of the French Academy of
Sciences in 1884, and Foreign Member of the Royal Society in
1892. He retired from his official duties in 1907, and died on
August 26th, 190S. A. S.

]Mr. Standen Paine, Pharmaceutical Chemist, died at his
residence, Devisdale, Bowdon, on October 4th, 190S, at the age
of 73.

Mr. Paine, who served his apprenticeship with the historic
house of John Bell & Co., Oxford Street, London, came to
Manchester 45 years ago with the late Mr. Frederick Baden
Benger to manage the business of Mottershead & Co. in the
Market Place, and they became joint partners in the business a
few years later. The success of Benger's food, of which
Mr. Benger was the originator, is well known, and Mr. Paine, as
senior partner, was the head of this firm, also taking an active
part in its management until a few days before his death.

He joined the Society in 1901, but has not taken an active
part in its affairs. A. B.

Treasurer s Accoimts.

Sr.

MANCHESTER LITERARY AN

Arthur McDougall, Treasurer, in Accouul -.vt'lh i

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,, ,, 1908-09,

Subscriptions : — 1906-07,

,, 1907-08,

,, 1908-09,

,, 1909-10, I ,, ,,

To Transfers from the Wilde Endowment Fund
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To Dividends : —

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joule Memorial Fund
Wilde Endowment Fund

To H. Sidebottom for plates . .

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NATURAL HISTOF

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Treasurer s Accounts.

xxxiu

HllLOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

del)', from isl April, igoS, to 31st March, igog.

Charges on Property :—

Chief Rent (Income Tax deducted)

Income Tax on Chief Rent
Insurance against Fire
House Expenditure : —

Coals, Gas, Electric Light, Water, ifcc.

Tea, Coffee, it'c, at Meetings

Cleaning, Sweeping Chimneys, &c.

Replacements of mantles, crockery, towels, table cloths, dusters, etc. ..

Administrative Charges : —

Housekeeper .. .. .. .. ■■ _••

Postages, and Carriage of Parcels and of "Memoirs"

Stationery, Cheques, Receipts, and Engrossing

Memljers' Declaration Hook

Printing Circulars, Reports, &c. .. .. ....

Extra attendance at Meetings, and during housekeeper's holidays

Insurance against Liability

Extra assistance for Mrs. Kelly .. ..

Medical advice and attendance for Mrs. Kelly

Miscellaneous Expenses ..

r Publishing : — •

Priming " Memoirs and Proceedings"

lUu^trations for " Memoirs" (except Nat. Hist, papers)

Binding ".Memoirs''
r Library : —

Books and Periodicals (except those charged to Natural History Fund) _ . .

Periodicals formerly subscribed for by the Microscopical and Natural History
Section ..
r Natmal History Fund : —

(Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund below)

J joule Memorial Fund :—

(Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund below)

r AVilde Endowment Fund (Income Tax refunded) .. ..

1 Balance at Williams Deacon's Bank, 1st April, 1909

,, in Treasurer's hands

0

12

II

13

17

6

40

0

0

17

7
2

4
7
0

I
Si

8

65

31

6

0
4
5

0

II

2

5

0

I I

II

0

.s

8

0

0

12

0

I

13

0

Cc.

£. s. d. ^ s. d.

26 15 9

66 12 ?!

109 15

6

II 10

b

2 0

0

6

22 12

5

4 15

8

27
53

^

12

9

16

■^

0

16

IS

0

116 I

8

10 0

0

,0/^

0

£5^2 16 7

UND, 1908— 1909. (Included in the General Account, above.)

f Natural History Books and Periodicals

jT illusi rations for papers on Nat. Hist, in " Memoirs

^f Balance, 1st -April, 1909

£ s. d.

46 4 9
780
7 12 3

£6t 50

UND, 1908— 1909. (Included in the General Account, above.)

yr Purchase of Chronometer belonging to Dr. J. P. Joule
y Repairing ,, ,, >. • ■

y Balance, ist April, 1909 ..

'UND, 1908— 1909.

y Assistant Secretary's Salary, April, 190S, to March, 1909 ..
y Maintenance (jf Society's Library :—
Binding and Repairing Books . . _
y Repairs and Improvements to Society's Premi>e'
y Ke-caning Chairs

y Honorarium to Wilde Lecturer, 1909 ..
y I'ransfers to Society's Funds
y Cheque Book
y Balance at District Bank, ist April, 1909

fUND, 1908 — 1909.

Ho Expenditure this Session).

y Balance at Manchester and Salford Savings Bank, ist .^pril, 1909

£ s. d.
150 00

33 9
7 4

2 12

79 3

114

/407

£ s. d.

37 17 8

£-.7 17 3

xxxiv Treasurer s Accoimts.

Note. — The Treasurer's Accounts of the Session 1908-
1909, of which the foregoing pages are summaries,
have been endorsed as follows :

April 7111, 1909. Audited and found correct.

We have also seen, at this date, the certificates of the following Stocks
held in the name of the Society: — ;^ 1,225 Great Western Railway Company
5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,294, and 12,323 ; ^258
Twenty years' loan to the Manchester Corporation, redeemal)le 25th March,
1914 (No. 1,564); ;i{^7,50o Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary Stock
(No. 6,389) ; and the deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde
Endowment Fund, those conveying the land on which the Society's premises
stand, and the Declaration of Trust.

Leases and Conveyance dated as follow : —
22nd Sept., 1797.
23rd Sept., 1797.
25th Dec, 1799.

22nd Dec, 1820.

23rd Dec, 1S20.
Declarations of Trust : —

8th Jan., 1878.

24th June, 1801.

23rd Dec, 1820.

30th April, 1851.

We have also verified the balances cl the various accounts with the
bankers' pass books.

(W. HENRY TODD.
( Sig»-ed)

ic. GORDON HEWITT.

The Council. XXXV

THE COUNCIL
AND MEMBERS

CK THE

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

( Corrected to July 4th, igog. )

^JrcsiiicnL

FRANCIS JOxNES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

H. B. DIXON, M.A., P^.R.S., F.C.S.

THO.MAS THORP, F.R.A.S.

ERNEST RUTHERFORD, D.Sc, F.R.S.

F. W. GA>n3LE, D.Sc, F.R.S.

^ccrctiU'ics.

R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C.
C. GORDON HEWITT, M.Sc.

"iEi-ca-surcr.

ARTHUR McDOUGALL, B.Sc.

^ibvai-i;tu.
C. L. BARNES, M.A.

©thci' jiUmbcrei of the Council.

FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

ERNEST F. LANGE, F.C.S.

HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.

ARTHUR SCHUSTER, ScD., Ph.D., F.R.S.

W. II. TODD.

EDMUND KNECHT, Ph.D.

^ssietaut (SccrctiUMi jiiib librarian.

A. p. HUNT, B.A.

xxxv'i Ordinary Alejiibers.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Election.

1 90 1, Dec. 10. Adamson, Harold. Oaklands Cottage, Godley, near Man-

chester.

1902, Mar. 18. Allen, J. Fenwick. 147, Withington Road, Whaltey

A'ange, Manchester.
1870, Dec. 13. Angell, John, F.C.S., F.I. C. (y, BeaconsfielJ, Deiby Road,
Withington, Manchester.

1S65, Nov. 14. Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L.S. Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill
S. O. , Gloucestershire.

1858, Feb. 7. Bailey, Alderuiaa Sir William II., M.I.Mech.E. Sale

Hall, Sale, Cheshire.
1895, Jan. 8. Barnes, Charles L., M.A. 9, York Plate, Chorlton-on-
Medlock, Manchester.

1903, Oct. 20. Barnes, Jonathan, F. G.S. South Cliff House, 301, Great

Clo"iues Stieet, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
190S, Feb. II. Bateman, H., M.A., Reader in Mathematical Fhysics in the
University of Manchester. The University, Manchester.

1895, Mar. 5. Behrens, Gustav. Holly Royde, IVithington, Manchester.
1898, Nov. 29. Behrens, Walter L. 22, Oxford Street, Manchester.
1868, Dec. 15. Bickham, Spencer II., F.L.S. Underdo-am, Ledbur^'.
1901, Nov. 12. Bles, Abraham J. .S. Pahn House, Higher Broughton,

Manchester.

1896, Oct. 6. Bowman, F.II., D.Sc, F.R.S.E. 4, Albert Square,

Manchester.
1875, ^"V. 16. Boyd, John. Barton House, II, Didsbury Park, Didsb.iry,

Manchester .
1889, Oct. 15. Bradlej', Nathaniel, F.C.S. Sunnyside, Whallcy Range,

Manchester.
1861, April 2. Brogden, Henry, F.G.S., M.I.Mech.E. Hale Lodge,

Altrinchain, Cheshire.

1859, April 16. Brooks, Samuel Herbert. Slade House, Levenshiilnie,

Manchester.

i860, Jan. 24. Brothers, Alfred. Handforth, near Mancltes.'er.

l8S6, April 6. Brown, Alfred, M. A., M.D. Sandycroft, Higher Brough-
ton, Manchester.

1889, Jan. 8. Brownell, Thomas William, F.R. A. S. 64, U^per Brook
Street, Manchester.

18S9, Oct. 15. Budenberg, C. F., .M.Sc, M.I.Mech.E. Bo:odou Lane,
Marfle, Cheshiie.

Ordinary Members. xxxvii

Date of Election.

1906, Feb. 27. Burton, Joseph, A.R.C.S. Dublin. Tile Works, Clifton

Junction, near Alanchester.

1894, Nov. 13. Burton, William, IM.Sc, F.CS. The Hollies, Clifton

function, near Manchester.

1904, Oct. 18. Campion, George Goring, L.D.S. 264, Oxford Street,
Manchester.

1907, Jan. 15. Carpenter, H. C. H., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Metal-

lurgy in the University of Manchester. 11, Oak Road,

Withington, Manchester.
(899, Feb. 7. Chapman, D. L., M.A., Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford.

JesHS College, Oxford.
1901, Nov. 26. Chevalier, Reginald C, M.A., Mathematical Master at the

Manchester Grammar .School. 103, Clyde Road, West

Didshury, Manchester.

1907, Nov. 26. Clayton, Robert Henry, B.Sc, Chemist. Woodleigh,

Blackfield Lane, Kersal, Mafichester.
1901, Nov. 12. Coignou, Caroline, M. A., Science Mistress atthe Manchester
High School for Girls. 60, Cecil Street, Greenheys,
Manchester.

1895, April 30. Collett, Edward Pyeraont. 8, St. John Street, Manchester.
1903, Oct. 20. Core, William Hamilton, M.Sc. Grooinbridge House,

Withington, Manchester.
1906, Oct. 30. Coward, H. F., M.Sc, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in

the University of Manchester. Hiihne Hall, Plymouth

Grove, Manchester.
1906, Nov. 27. Coward, Thomas Alfred, F.Z. S. Brentwood, Bowdon,

Cheshire.

1908, Nov. 3. Cramp, William, M.Sc. Tech., M.I.E.E., Consulting

Engineer. 20, Mount Street, Manchester.
1895, Nov. 12. Crossley, W. J., -M.L.Mech.E. Openshaw, Manchester.

1901, Nov. 26. Darbishire, Francis V., B.A., Ph.D., Demonstrator and
Analyst at the South Eastern Agricultural College. The
College, Wye, Kent.

1895, April 9. Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Honorary
Professor of Geology in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. Fallowfield House, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1894. Mar. 6. Delepine, A. Sheridan, M.B., B.Sc, Professor of
Pathology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
7 he University, Manchester.

xxxviii Ordinary Members.

Date of Election.

1887, Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold Baily, M.A., M.Sc, F. U.S., F.C.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the \'ictoria University of
Manchester. The Univeisity., MaiuheUer.

1906, Jan. 30. Dunkerley, Stanley, D.Sc.

1906, Oct. 30. Edgar, E. C, D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Chemistry in the University of Manchester. The
University, Manchester.

T902, May 13. Ellison, Robert William. '■ Brookside,' Crofts Bank Road,
Urmston, Manchester.

1906, Nov. 13. Fisher, Kenneth, B.A. Oxon., Ph.D. Jena, Research

Student in the University of Manchester. The Lilacs,
7'iinperieyy Cheshire.

1907, Nov. 26. Flatters, Abraham, F.R.M.S. Syda'al Cottage, Bramhall,

Cheshire.
190S, Mar. 10. Fowler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Sale Ledge, Sale, Cheshire.

1908, Jan. 28. Fox, Thomas William, M.Sc. Tech., Professor of Textiles

in the School of Technology, Manchester University.
15, Clarendon Crescent, Eccles.

1898, Nov. 29. Gamble, F. W., D.Sc, F.R.S., Assistant Director of the
Zoological Laboratories in the Victoria University of
Manchester. The University, Maiichester, and Heath-
waite, Bravihall L.ane, Stockport.

1909, Mar. 23. Gee, W. W. Ilaldane, B.Sc, M.ScTech., A.M.LE.E.,

Professor of Pure and Applied Physics in the School of
Technology, Manchester University. Oak Lea, IVhalley
Avenne, Sale.

190S, Oct. 6. Gibson, A. fl., M.Sc, Assoc. NLInst.C.E., Demonstrator
and Assistant Lecturer in Engineering in the University
of Manchester. The University, Manchester.

1896, Nov. 17. Gordon, Kev. Alexander, M.A. Sutninen'ille, Victoria
Park, Manchester.

1907, Oct. 15. Gravely, F. II-, M.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Zoology in the University of Manchester.
Dalton Hall, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1907, Oct. 29. Gwyther, Reginald Felix, M.A., Secretary to the Joint
Matriculation Board. 21, Booth Avenue, ll'ithington,
Manchester.

Ordinary Members. xxxix

Date of Election.

1902, April 29. Herbert, Arthur M., B.A. Frankwyn, Hale, Cheshire.

1905, Oct. 17. Hewitt, Charles Gordon, M.Sc, Lecturer in Economic

Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. The

Unive7-sily, iMaitchesfer.
1902, Jan. 7. Hewitt, David 13., M.D. Grove Afowif, Davenham,

Cheshire.
1907, Oct. 15. Hickling, II. George A., B.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and

Demonstrator in Geology in the University of Manchester.

50, Lancaster Road, Falloivfield, i\Ianchester.

1895, Mar. 5. Hickson, Sydney J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of

Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. The

University , Manchester.
1884, Jan. 8. Ilodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc. 18, .SV. [ohn Street,

Jllatichester.
1909, J'ln- 12. Hoffert, Hermann Henry, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.S.M., His

Majesty's Inspector of Schools. Linie Grove, Brooklands,

Sale.
1905, Oct. 16. Holmes, H. T., M.A. (Cantab.). Eastnor, 77, Wellington

Koad, Heaton Chapel.
1905, Nov. 14. Holt, Alfred, M.A., Research P^ellovv of the University of

Manchester. Crofton, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1898, Nov. 29. Hopkinson^ Alfred, K.C., M.A., LL.D., Vice-Chancellor

of the Victoria University of Manchester. Fairfield.

Victoria Park, Manchester.

1896, Nov. 3. Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Ferns,

Aider ley Edge, Cheshire.
1909, Feb. 9. Howies, Frederick, M.Sc, Analytical and Research

Chemist. 20, Moxley Road, Crufiipsall, Manchester.
1889, Oct. IS. Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Director

of the Welsh National Museum, Cardiff. Cily Hall,

Cardiff.
1907, Oct. 15. Hiibner, Julius, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C., Lecturer in the

Faculty of Technology in the University of Manchester.

Ash Villa, Cheadle Htlme, Cheshire.

1899, Oct. 17. Ingleby, Joseph, M.I.Mech.E. Suviiner Hill, Pendleton,
Manchester.

1901, Nov. 26. Jackson, Frederick. 14, Cross Street, Manchester.
1870, Nov. I. Johnson, William IL, B.Sc. VVoodleigh, Altrinchani.

xl Ordinary JMevibers.

Date »/ Election.

1878, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Mamhester
Grammar School, and Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.

1886, Jan. 12. Kay, Thomas. Moor field, Stockport, Cheshire.
1895, Nov. 12. Kirkman, William Wright. The Grange, Timperiey,
Cheshire.

1903, Feb. 3. Knecht, Edmund, Ph.D., Professor of Tinctorial

Chemistry in the School of Technology, Manchester
University. Beech Mount, Marple, Cheshire.
1902, Feb. 4. Kolp, Noah. Woodthorpe, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1893, Nov. 14. Lamb, Horace, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, Sc.D., F.R.S., Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. 6, Wilbraham Road, Falloivfield, Manchester.

1902, Jan. 7. Lange, Ernest F., M.I.Mech.E., F.C.S. Fairholm,

3, Willow Bank, Fallo'vjield, Manchester.

1904, Mar. 15. Lea, Arnold W. W., M.D. 246, 0.x ford Road, Manchester.

1903, Nov. 17. Leigh, Charles W. E., Lilirarian of the University. The

University, Manchester.

1907, Oct. 29. Leigh, Harold Shawcross. Brentwood, ll'orshy.

1908, Oct. 20. Liebert, Martin, Ph.D., Managing Director of Meister

Lucius, and Bnining Ltd., Manchester. Swinton House,
Withington, Manchester.

1908, Jan. 14. Littlewood, J. E., B.A., Richardson Lecturer in Mathe-
matics in the University of Manchester. The University,
Manchester.

1902, Jan. 7. Longridge, Michael, ALA., M.Inst.C. E. Linkvretten,
Ashley Road, Boivdon, Cheshire.

'857, Jan. 27. Longridge, Robert Bewick, ALLMech.E. Yeiv Tree House,
Tab ley, Knutsford, Cheshiie.

1S66, Nov. 13. McDougall, Arthur, B.Sc. Tyndhurst, The Park, Bu.xton.

1905, Oct. 31. McNicol, Mary, ALSc, Research Scholar in the Victoria

University of Manchester. 182, Upper Cnorlton Road,
Manchester.

1904, Nov. I. Makower, Walter, B.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer in Physics

in the University of Manchester. 214, Upper Brook
Street, Manchester.
1902, Mar. 4. Mandleberg, Goodman Charles. Redely ffe, Victoria Park,
Manchester.

Ordinary Members. xli

Date of Election.

1875, Jan 26. Mann, J. Dixon, M.D., F.R.CP. (Lond.), Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in the Victoria University of
Manchester. 16, St. /ohn Street, Jllaiichesier,

1901, Dec. 10. Massey, IIerl)ert. Jvy Lea, Btirnage, Didshitry,

Manchester.

1864, Nov. I. Mather, Sir William, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. Iron
Works, Salford.

1873, Mar. 18. Melvill, James Cosmo, M. A., D.Sc, F.L.S. MeoU-Brace
Hall, Shrezvsbiiry.

1 88 1, Oct. 18. Mond, Ludwig, D.Sc, Ph.D., F. U.S., F.C.S. Winnitigton
Hall, Northivich, Cheshire.

1894, Feb. 6. Mond, Robert Ludwig, M. A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Wilming-
ton Hall, Northwick, Cheshire.

1902, Feb. 18. Moss, William E., B..A. Cjo Messrs. Davies, Benachi

(Sr* Co., 7, Kutnford Street^ Liverpool.
1908, Jan. 28. Myers, William, Lecturer in Textiles in the School of
Technology, Manchester University. Stone Edge, Marple.

1873, Mar. 4. Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. The Knoll, Windermere,
Westmorland.

1900, April 3. Nicolson, John T., D.Sc, Professor of Engineering in the

School of Technology, Manchester University. Nant-y-
Glyn, Marple, Cheshire.

• 884, April 15. Okell, Samuel, F. R.A.S. Overley, L^ngham Road,

Bowdon, Cheshire.
1907, Oct. 29. Osborn, Theodore George Bentley, B.Sc, Lecturer in

Economic Botany in the University of Manchester.

Windlehurst, Anson Koad, Victoria Park, Manchester .

1892, Nov. 15. Perkin, W. H., Ph.D., M.Sc, F.R.S., Professor

Chemistry in the Victoria University of ^Llnchester.
The University, Manchester.

1901, Oct. 29. Petavel, J. P].,B..A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Engineering

in the Victoria University of Manchester. The Uni-
versity, Manchester.
1885, Nov. 17. Phillips, Henry Ilarcourt, F.C.S. L.ynivood, Jurton,
nr. Bolton, Lanes.

1903, Dec. 15. Prentice, Bertram, Ph.D., D.Sc, Lecturer in Chemistry,

Royal Technical Listitute, Salford. Isca Mount,
MancheUsr Road, S'tvinton.

xlii Ordinary Members.

Date of Election,

1 90 1, Dec. 10. Ramsden, Ilerberl, M.D. (Lond.), M.B., Ch.B. (Vict.).

SiDifiyside, Dobcross, near Oldhatn, Lanes.
1888, Feb. 21. Ree, Alfred, Ph.D., F.C.S. 15, Mauhteth Road, IVith-

iiigton, Manchester.

1908, Nov. 3. Reekie, J. A., Manager of the Hayfield I'rintvvcrks.

IVoodhoitse, Hayfield.
1869, Nov. 16. Reynolds, Osborne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst. C.E.

St. Deaiinan^s, IVafche/, So»ie7-set.
1880, Mar. 23. Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.P. (Lond.)

Ravenswood, Brotighton Pa7k, Manchester.

1897, Oct. 19. Rolhwell, William Thomas. Heath Brezvety, Newton

Heath , near RIanchester.

1909, Jan. 26. Russ, Sidney, B.Sc. (Lond.), Demonstrator in Physics in

the University of Manchester. 2x4, Upper Break Street,
Manchester.

1907, Oct. 15. Rutherford, Ernest, M.A., F.R.S., Langworthy Professor

of Physics in the University of Manchester. 17, Wihns-
low Road, IVithington, Manchester.

1909, Jan. 26. Schmitz, Hermann Emil, ALA., B.Sc. , Physics Master at
the Manchester Grammar School. 12, Lime Grove,
Chorltoi2-on-Medlock, Manchester.

1873, Nov. 18. Schuster,Arthiir,Sc.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.,F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics in tlie\"icioria University of Man-
chester. Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1898, Jan. 25. Schwabe, Louis. Hart Hill, Eccles Old Road, Pendleton,

Manchester.

1908, Nov. 17. Schwartz, Alfred, A.K.O, M.Sc.Tech., M.LE.E.,

Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Electrical Engineering

in the School of Technology, Manchester Ihiiversity.

Moitrne Lodge, Buxtoi.
1908, May 12. Scott, Charles Prestwich, M.A. The Firs, Fallo%vfield,

Manchester.
1890, Nov. 4. Sidebolham, Edward John, ^LA., M.B., M R.C.S.

Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1903, April 28. Sidebottom, Henry. 7 he Hall Cottage, Cheadle Huhne,

near Stockf>ort.
1907, Oct. 15. Sinionsen, J. L., ALSc, Assistant Lecturer in C'hcniisUy

in the University of Manchester. 152, Barlow Moor

Road, West Didsbury, Manchtster.

Orduiary Monbcrs. xliii

Date of Election.

1906, Oct. 30. Smedley, Ida, D.Sc, Assistant Lectuier in Chemistry in

the N'ictoria University of Manchester. 'I he Uttivetsity,

Jllanchester.
1908, Nov. 3. Smith, Charles Frederick, M.Sc. Tech., M. I. E.E., Lecturer

in Electrical Engineering in the School of Technology,

Manchester University. 10, Athol Road, Akxa)idra

Park, Illanches/cr.
1906, Nov. 27. Smith, Norman, D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in

the Victoria University of Manchester. 7'he University,

Manckeslet .

1895, Nov. 12. Southern, Frank, B.Sc. 6, Park Aveutie, 1 imperUy,

Cheshire.

1896, Feb. 18. Spence, Uavid. Lozvood, Hitidhead, Haslernere, K.S.O,,

Surrey.
1901, Dec. 10. Spence, Howard. Audley, Broad Road, Sale, Cheshire,

1904, Nov. I. Stans6eld, Herbert, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.LE.E. 16, Lonsdale

Road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1897, Nov. 30. Slromeyer, C. E., RLList.C.E. Steam Users' Association,

9, Mount Street, Albert Square, Manchester.

1905, Nov. I. Sutclitfe, William Henry, F.G.S. Sho7-e, Littleborough,

Lanes.

1895, April 9. Tatton, Reginald A., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer to the

Mersey and Irwell Joint Committee. Manor House,

Chclford, Cheshire.
1893, ^'ov. 14- Taylor, K. L., F.C.S., F.I.C. Central School, Whitworth

Street, and 4, St. M'etlntrgli s Road, Chorllon-c. -Hardy,

A lauchester.
1906, April 10. Thewlis, Councillor J. H. Daisy Mount, Victofia Park,

Manchester.
1873, ■AP*''! '5- Thomson, AYilliam, F.R.S.E., P\C.S., F.LC. Reyal

Institution, Manchester.

1896, Jan. 21. Thorburn, William, M.D., B.Sc. 2, St. Peter's Square,

Manchester.

1896, Jan. 21. Thorp, Thomas, F.R.A.S. Moss Hank, White field, near
Manchester.

1899, Oct. 31. Thorpe, Jocelyn F., Th.D., F.R.S., Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Organic Chemistry in the Victoria University
of Manchester. The University, Manchester.

J 899, Oct. 17. Todd, William Henry. Greenfield, flixton, near Man-
chester.

xliv Ordinary Members.

Date of Election.

1909, Jan. 26. Varley, George Percy, IM.Sc. (Vic), Assistant Master i
the Municipal Secondary Schoo!, Manchester. 18, Vi,
toria Road, Whalley Range, Manchester.

1873, Nov. 18. Waters, Arthur William, F.L.S., F.G.S. " Alder ley,"
AIcKinley Road, Bour7iemouth.

1906, Nov. 13. Watson, D. M. S., B.Sc. IVindlelnirst, Anson Road,

Vicloria Park, Mancheiter.

1892, Nov. 15. Weiss, V. Ernest, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Botany
in the Victoria University of Manchester. 30, Brunswick
Road, IVithington, Manchester.

1909, Feb. 9. Weizmann, Charles, Ph.D., D.Sc, Senior Lecturer in
Chemistry in the University of Manchester. The Uni-
versity, Manchester.

1908, May 12. Welldon, Rt. Rev. J. F,. C, D.D., Dean of Manchester.

The Deanery, Manchester.

1907, Oct. 29. Whitehead, Thomas, B.Sc, Chemist to the Manchester

Steam Users' Association. 89, Kemuorthy Street,
Stalybria^e.

1901, Oct. I. Wild, Robert B., M.D., M.Sc, M.R.C. P., Professor of
Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the Victoria
University of Manchester. Broome House, Falloivfield^
Manchester.

1859, Jan, 25. Wilde, Henry, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley
Edge, Cheshire.

1905, Oct. 31. Willis, Ethel G., M.A., B.Sc, Science Mistress, Man-
chester High .School for Girls. The High School, Dover
Street, Manche<:ter.

1901, Nov. 26. Wilson, William, M.A. Carron Vale, 80, I-'itzwarren
Street, Pendleton, I\fanchester.

1907, Oct. 15. Winstanley, George H., F.G.S., M.I.M.E., Lecturer in
Mining Engineering and Mine Surveying in the Uni-
versity of Manchester. irii;shaw Grange, Ciilchetk,
near Warrington.

1909, Jan. 26. Wolfenden, John Henry, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.CS. (Lond.),

Assistant Master in the Municipal Secondary School,
Manchester. 13, Pole Lane, Failsworth.

1903, Oct. 20. Wood, Harry Edwin, B.Sc, Assistant to the Government
Meteorological Department, Johannesburg.

1905, Oct. 31. Woodall, Herbert J., A.R.CS. 32, Market Place, Stockport.

i860, April 17. WooUey, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

Ordinary Members. xlv

Date of Election,

1863, Nov. 17. Worlhington, Samuel Barton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.

Mill Bank, Bmvdon, and 37, Princess Street, Manchester.
1865, Feb. 21. Worthington, Thomas, F.R.I.B.A. Broomfield, AlderUy

Edge, Manchester.
1895, Jan. 8. Worthington, VVm. Barton, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Kirkstyles,

DufjUehi, near Derby.
1S97, Oct. 19. Wyatt, Charles H., M. A., Chel/ord, Cheshire.

N.B. — Of the above list the following have compounded for their
subscriptions, and are therefore life members : —

Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L.S.
Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S.
Brogden, Henry, F.G.S.
Ingleby, Joseph, M. I.Mech. E.
Johnson, William H., B.Sc.
Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc.

xlvi Honorary Members.

HONOR.ARY MEMBERS.

Date of Election.

i8y2, April 26. Abney, Sir \V. de W., K.C.B,, D.Sc, F.R.S. Rathmore

Lodge, Bolton Gardens South, South Kensington, I.onaon^

S.W.
1892, April 26. Amagat, E. II., For. Mem. R..S., Memb. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci.), Examinateur a I'Ecole Polytechnique.

Avenue d' OrUans, 19, Paris.
1894, April 17. Appell, Paul, Membre de I'lnslitut, Professor of Theoretical

Mechanics. Faculti des Sciences, Paris.
1892, April 26. Ascherson, Paul F. Aug., Professor of Botany. Universitat,

Berlin.
1S89, April 30. Avebury, John Lubbock,. Lord, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

J-Jigh Elms, Down, Kent.

1892, April 26. Baeyer, Adolf von, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Chemistry.

I, Arcisstrasse, Munich.
1886, Feb. 9. Baker, John Gilljert, F.R.S., F.L.S. 3, Cumberland

Road, Kew.

1888, April 17. Cannizzaro, Stanislao, For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb.

Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Chemistry. Peak
Universitci, Pome.

1889, April 30. Carrulhers, William, F.K.S., F.L.S. 14, Vermont Poad,

Nor7vood, London, S.E.
1903, April 28. Clarke, Frank Wigglesworlh, D.Sc. United States

Geological Smvey, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
1866, Oct. 30. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A..S., Pio-

fessor of Natural Philosophy. 3, Bardwell Road,

Banbury Road, Oxford.
1892, April 26. Curtius, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry. Universitat,

Kiel.

1892, April 26. Darboux, Gaston, Membre de I'lnstitut, Professor of
Geometry, P"aculte des Sciences, Secretaire perpetuel de
I'Academie des Sciences. 36, Rtte Gay Lussac, Paris.

1894, April 17. Debus, IL, Ph.D., F.R.S. 4. .Schlanqenweg, Cassel,
Hessen, Germany.

1900, April 24. Dewar, Sir James, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.,
I'ullerian Professor of Chemistry. Royal Institution,
Albemarle Street, London, IV.

Honorary Members. xlvii

Date of Election.
1892, April 26. Dohrn, Dr. Anton, For. Mem. K.S. Zooloqische Station,

Naples.

1892, April 26. Edison, Thomas Alva. Orange., N./., U.S.A^

1895, April 30. Elster, Julius, rii. I). 6, Lessingslrasse, IVolfenbiittel.

1900, April 24. Ewing, James Alfred, C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,

Director of Naval Education to the Admiralty. Royal

Naval College, Greenwich.

1889, April 30. Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany. Harvard College,
Catnbridge, Mass., U.S.A.

1900, April 24. Forsyth, Andrew Russell, M. A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Sadlerian
Professor of Pure Mathematics. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.

1892, Apiil 26. Fiirbringer, Max, Professor of Anatomy. Universitdt,
Heidelberg.

1900, April 24. Geikie, Jnmes, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Murchison Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy. Kibnorle, Coiiitton
Road, Edinburgh.

1895, April 30. Geitel, Mans. 6, Lessingsirasse, IVolfenbiittel.

1894, April 17. Glaisher, J. W. L., Sc.D., F.R.S., Lecturer in Mathematics.
Trinity College, Cambridge.

1894, April 17. Gouy, A., Corn Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor
of Physics. Facnlii des Sciences, Lyons.

1900, April 24. Haeckel, Ernst, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology. Zoologisches

Institut, /ena.
1894, April 17. Ilarcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

.SY. Clare, Ryde, Isle of Wight.
1894, April 17. Heaviside, Oliver, F.R.S. Hoinefield, Lower Warberry,

Torquay.
1892, April 26. Hill, G. W. West Nyack, N. Y., U.S.A.
1888, April 17. Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm, Professor of Physics. Polylech-

nicuin, MiinUer.
1892, April 26. Hoff, J. van't, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of

Chemistry. 2, Uhlandstrasse, Charlottenbiirg, Berlin.
1892, April 26. Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, G.C.S.L, C.B., O.M., D.C.L.,

F.R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (.\cad. Sci.). The Cawp,

Sunningdaie, Berks.

xlviii Honorary Me7iibers.

Date of Election.

1869, Jan. 12. lluggins, Sir William, O.M., K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.).
90, Upper lulse Hill, Brixton, London, S. W.

1892, April 26. Klein, Felix, I'h.D., For. Mem. R..S.,Corr. Memb. Inst.

Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Mathematics. 3, IVilhelm

iVeber St7-asse, Goltingen.
1894, April 17. Konigsberger, Leo, Professor of Mathematics. Universiliil,

Heiaelberg.

1892, April 26. Ladenburg, A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry. 3, Kaiser

IVilhelm Strasse, Breslaii.
1902, May 13. Larmor, Sir Joseph, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., Sec. R.S.,

F. R.A.S. Sl.JohiCs College, Cambridge.
1892, April 26. Liebermann, C, Professor of Chemistry. 29, Matthai-

Kirch S basse, Berlin.
1887, April 19. Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S., Corr. Memb.

Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Science School, South Kensington,

London, S. \V.
1902, May 13. Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., Principal

of the University of Birmingham. The University,

Birntinghain.
1900, April 24. Lorentz, Henrik Anton, Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.),

Professor of Physics. Hooigracht, 48, LeydtJi.

1892, April 26. Marshall, Alfred, M.A., Professor of Political Economy.

Balliol Croft, Madingley Road, Cambridge.
1901, Apri 23. Metschnikoff, Elie, D.Sc, For.Meni.R.S. Instititt Pasteur

Paris.
1895, April 30. Mittag-Lefller, Gosta, D.C.L. (Oxon.), For. Mem. R.S.,

Professor of Mathematics. Djursholm, Stockholvt.
1894, April 17. Murray, Sir John, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S-

CludliHger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

1902, May 13. Osborn, Henry Fairfield, Professor of Vertebrate I'aUvon-
tology. Columbia College, Ne-v York, U.S.A.

1894, April 17. Ostwald, W., Professor of Chemistry. Gioszbothen, Ki;r .
Sac h sen.

Honorary Members. xlix

Date of Election.

1899, April 25. Palgiave, Sir R. H. Inglis, F.R.S., F.S.S. Ilenstead Hall,

IVreiilhain, Suff'olk.
1894, April 17. Pfeffer, Wilhelm, For. Mem. K.S., Professor of Botany.

Bolanischts Institut, Leifsic.
1892, April 26. Poincare, II., For. Mem. R.S., Membra de I'Inslitut,

Professor of Astronomy. 63, Rue Claude Bernard, Paris.

1892, April 26. Quincke, (1. II., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics.

Universitcit, Heiaelbe>-g.

1899, April 25. Ramsay, Sir William, K.C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of

Chemistry in University College, London. 12, Arundel
Gardens, Notting Hill, London, W.
1886, Feb. 9. Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Lord, O.M., M.A., D.C.L.
(Oxon.), LL.D. (Univ. McGill), F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Terlivg Place,
IVitham, Essex.

1900, April 24. Ridgway, Robert, Curator of the Department of Birds, U.S.

National Museum. Brookland, District of Columbia,
U.S.A.
1897, April 27. Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield, B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
V.P.C.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). 10,
Bramham Gardens, Earl's Court, London, S. IV.

1902, May 13. Scott, Dukinfield Ilenry, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

East Oakley House, Oakley, Hants.
1892, April 26. Sharpe, R. Bowdler, LL.D., F.L.S., F.Z.S. British

Museum (Natural History ), Cromwell Road, London,

S. IV.
1892, April 26. Solms, H., Graf zu. Professor of Botany. Universitdl,

Strassburg.
1886, Feb. 9. Strasburger, Eduard, D.C.L., For. Mem. R.S., Professor

of Botany. Universitcit, Bonn.
1895, ^pril 30. Suess, Eduard, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., For. Assoc. Inst.

Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Geology. 9, Africaner-

gasse, Vienna.

1892, April26. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., CLE., M.A.,
Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Lately Director Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew. The Ferns, IVitcombe.,
Gloucester.

1 Corresponding Member.

Date of Election.

1895, April 30. Thomson, Sir Joseph John, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor

of Experimental Physics. 6, Scropt Terrace, Cambridge.
1894, April 17. Thorpe, Sir T. E., C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.,

V. P.C.S. Governmmt Laboratory, Clenti'jit^s Inn

Passage, Strand, Loudon, W. C.
1894, April 17. Turner, Sir William, K.C.B., M.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

F. R.S. E., Professor of Anatomy. .6, Eton Terrace,

Edinburgh.
l886, Feb. 9. Tylor, Edward Burnett, D.C.L. (0.\on), LL.D. (St. And.

and McGill Univs.), F.R.S., Professor of Anthropology.

Afusetim Llottse, Oxford.

1894, April 17. Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A., D.Sc, F. R.S., Sherardian
Professor of Botany. Ileadington Hill, Oxford.

1894, April 17. Warburg, Emil, Professor of Physics. Physikalisches
Institut, Neite Wilhelmstrasse, Berlin.

1894, April 17. Weismann, August, Professor of Zoology. Universitdt,
Freilmrg i. Br.

1888, April 17. Zirkel, Ferdinand, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Mineralogy.
A'ofiigslrasse 2a, Bonn am Rhein.

CORRESPONDING MEMBER.

1850, April 30. Ilarley, Rev. Rol)ert, Hon. M.A.(Oxon),F.R.S.,F.R. A.S.,
Hon. Memb. E.S. Queensland. Kosslyn, IVettbourne
Road, Forest Hill, London, S.E., and The Aihenattm
Club, London, S. IV.

Awards of Medals and Premiums.

Azuards

1896
1897
1898

1899
1900
1901
1903

1905
1908

of the IVi/de Medal under the conditions of the
Wilde Endozvment Fiind.
Sir Georc;e G. Stokes, Bart, F.R.S.
Sir William Huggins, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, G.C.S.I., C.B.,
F.R.S.

Sir Edward Frankland, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Ravleigh, F.R.S.

Dr. Elie Metschnikoff, For.Mem.R.S.

Prof. Frank W. Clarke, D.Sc.

Prof. Charles Lapworth, LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof Joseph Larmor, D.Sc, LL.D., Sec.R.S.

Awards of the Dalton Medal.
1898. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.
1900. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S.
1903. Prof Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.

Azvards of the Prejuium 2inder the conditions of the
Wilde Endowment Fund.
Peter Cameron.
John Butterworth, F.R.M.S.
Charles H. Lees, D.Sc.
Prof A. W. Flux, M.A.
Thomas Thorp.

1897
1898
1899
1900,
1901

Hi The Wilde Lectures.

THE WILDE LECTURES.

1897. (July 2.) " On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays."

By Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart, F.R.S. {28 pp>)

1898. (Mar. 29.) "On the Physical Basis of Psychical

Events." By Sir Michael Fo-Ster, K.C.B.,
F.R.S. {4.6 pp)

1899. (Mar. 28.) "The newly discovered Elements;

and their relation to the Kinetic Theory of
Gases." By Prof. William Ramsay, F.R.S.

1900. (Feb. 13.) " The Mechanical Principles of Flight."

By the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R S.

{26 pp:)

1901. (April 22.) " Sur la Flore du Corps Humain."

By Dr. Elie Metschnikoff, For.Mem.R.S.

1902. (Feb. 25.) "On the Evolution of the Mental

Faculties in relation to some Fundamental
Principles of Motion." By Dr. Henry Wilde,
RR.S. {34PP;3pn

1903. (May 19.) "The Atomic Theory." By Profes.sor

¥. W. Clarke, D.Sc. {j2 pp.)

1904. (Feb. 23.) "The Evolution of Matter as revealed

by the Radio-active Elements." By FREDERICK
SODDY, M.A. {42 pp)

TJie Wilde Lectures. liii

1905. (Feb. 28.) "The Early History of Seed-bearing

Plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora."
By Dr. D. H. ScoTT, F.R.S. {32 pp., 3 pi)

1906. (March 20.) "Total Solar Eclipses." By Pro-

fessor H. H. Turner, D.Sc, F.R.S. {32 pp.)

1907. (February 18.) "The Structure of Metals." By

Dr. J. A. EwiNG, l^R.S., M.Inst.C.E. {20 pp.,
3 pis., and 3 text -figs.)

1908. (March 3.) "On the Physical Aspect of the

Atomic Theory." By Professor J. Lar.mOR,
Sec. R.S. {3-^ pp.)

1909. (iMarch 9.) "On the Influence of Moisture on

Chemical Change in Gases." By Dr. H.
Brereton Baker, F.R.S. {S pp.)

liv List of Presidents of the Society.

LIST OF PRESIDENTS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of Election.

1781. Peter Mainwaring, M.D., James Massey.

1 782-1 786. James Massey, Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S.

1 787-1 789. James Massey.

1789-1804. Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S.

1 805-1 806, Rev. George Walker, F.R.S.

1807-1809. Thomas Henry, F.R.S.

1809. *JoHN Hull, M.D., F.L.S.

1809-18 1 6. Thomas Henry, F.R.S.

1816-1844. John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1844-1847. Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.

1848-1850. Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1851-1854. John Moore, F.L.S.

1855-1859. Sir William Fairrairn, I5art., LL.D., F.R.S.

1860-1861. James Prescott Joulk, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1862-1863. Edward William Binnky, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1864-1865. Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1866-1867. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1868-1869. Jamp:s Prescott Joule, D.C.L., P\R.S.

1870-1S71. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1872-1873. James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1874-1875. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1876-1877. Edward William Binnky, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1878-1879. James Prescott Joulk, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1880-1881. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1882-1883. Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1884-1885. William Crawford Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S.

1886. Robert Dukinfield Darbishire, B.A., F.G.S.

1887. Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S.

♦Elected April 28tli ; resigned office May sHi-

List of Presidents of the Society.

1888-1889. Osi'.ORNE Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.

1890-1891. Edward Schunck, Ph.D , F.R.S.

1892-1893. Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1894-1896. Henrv Wilde, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1896. Edward ScHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1897-1899. James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.

i899-[9oi. Horace Lamb, M.A., F.R.S.

1901-1903. Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S.

1 903- 1 905. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.x^., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1905 1907. Sir William H. Bailey, :\LLMech.E.

19071909. Harold Baily Dikox, M.A., F.R.S.

1909-1910. Francis Jones, IM.Sc, F.R.S. E.

Vol. 53 : Fart I.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 1908-1909.

CONTENTS

Memoirs :

I. The Nature of the « Particle. By Professor E. Rutherford,

F.R.S., and T. Royds, M.Sc. pp. 1-3.

(Issued separately, November iQth, igoS).

II. Some Properties of the Radium Emanation. By Professor E.

Rutherford, F.R.S. pp. 1—2.

(Issued sepatatel}', Novci>d>cr igtk, igoS).

III. A Method of Calculating the Number of Degrees of Freedom of

a Molecule among which the Partition of Energy is governed
by the Principal Temperature. By H. Bateman, M.A. 7 Text-
figs- ■ - pp. 1-9-

(Issued separately, December ^y-d, igoS).

IV. Notes on the Spawning of Elcdoue, and on the Occurrence of

Eledoiie with the Suckers in Double Rows. By F. H. Gravely,

M.Sc. 2 Plates pp. I— 14.

(Issued separately, December iSth, igoS).

V. On the Local Intensification of Draught produced in a Horizontal
Air Current by the Presence of an Inclined Rod. By A. H.
Gibson, M.Sc. pp. i— 10.

(Issued separately, December 24th, igo8).

VI. On the Production of White Ferrous Ferrocyanide. By R. L.

Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C PP- 1—2.

(Issued separately, December 31st, igo8).

■Proceedings PP- i-

-X.

)eceinbey j/st, igo8.

MANCHESTER:
56, GEORGE STREET.

Iprtcc ZTwo Sbilltngs.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Presented.
Birmingham— Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society.

Journal, \ol.s. 1—2. 1894—7.

Canada. — Geological Survey. Preliminary Report on a part of the Similkameen

District, British Columbia. By C. Camseli. 1907.
. Preliminary Report on a portion of the Main Coast of British

Columbia, etc. By O. E. Leroy. 1908.
. Report on a recent Discovery of Gold near Lake Megantic, Quebec.

By J. A. Dresser. 1908.
. Report on a portion of Conrad and Whitehorse Mining Districts,

Yukon. By D. D. Cairnes. 1908.

Canada;— Minister of the Interior. Canada's Fertile Northland. 1907.

,, ,, ,, Maps. 1907.

India.— Geological Survey. Sketch of the Mineral Resources of India. By

T. n. Holland. 190S.
London.— Metropolitan Water Board. First Report on Research Work... on

the Vitality of the Typhoid Bacillus in artificially infected samples of raw

Thames etc. water. By A. C. Houston. (1908).
. Reports of Committees to be considered at a Meeting of the Board

... I7lh July, 1908. (1908).
London. —Patent Office. Subject Li.st of Works on the Laws of Industrial

Property... and Copyright in the Library. 1900.

. Subject List of Works on the Fine and Graphic Arts in the ...

Lilirary. 1904.

• Key to the Classifications of the Patent Specifications of France,

Germany, etc.... 2nd ed., 1905.

. Subject List of Works on Agriculture, etc., in the ... Library. 1905.

. Subject List of Works on Heat and lleal-Kngines in tlie ...

Library. 1905.

Subject List of Works on Aerial Navigation and Meteorology in the

... Library. I905.

Class List and Index of the Periodical Publications in the ... Library

2nd ed., 1906.

• Subject List of Works on Military and Naval Arts in the ... Library.

1907.

- Subject List of Works of Reference, Biography, Bibliography,

etc., in the ... Liijrary. 1908.

Vor,. 53 : Part II.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 1908-1909.

CONTENTS
Memoirs :
VII. The Volatility of Radium A and Radium C. By Walter Makower,

B.A., B.Sc. 2 Text-figs. pp. 1-8.

(Issued separately, Jamcary iSth, /Qog).

VIII. The Dawn of Humaa Intention. An Experimental and Compara-
tive Study of Eoliths. By Prof. Alfred Schwartz and Sir Hugh
R. Beevor, Bart, M.D. 7 Text-figs. pp. 1—34.

(^Issued separately, February 3rd, igog).

IX. The Dowels of some Egyptian Coffins of the Xllth Dynasty. By

T. G. B. Osborn, B.Sc. 2 Text -figs. pp. i -5.

(Issued separately, February 24th, igog).

X. On the Diatomaceous Deposit of the Lower Baon Valley Co.'s
Antrim and Derry, and Prehistoric Implements found therein.
By J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S. Plates I.— IV. and 2 Text-figs. pp. 1—26.

{Issued separately, April 2nd, igog).

XI. A Preliminary Account of the Submerged Vegetation of Lake
Windermere as affecting the Feeding Ground of Fish. By
Prof. F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S. With Text-fig. - - - pp. 1-9.

(Issued separately, April 7tk, igog).

XII. Differences in the Decay of the Radium Emanation. By Prof. E.

Rutherford and Y. Tuomikoski pp. 1—2.

{Issued separately, April jth, igog).

XIII. On the Moving Force of Terrestrial and Celestial Bodies in

relation to the Attraction of Gravitation. By Henry Wilde,

D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. Pp. i— 9-

{Issued separately, April Sth, igog).

XIV. On the Occurrence and Distribution of some Alien Aquatic Plants

in the Reddish Canal. By F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., and

H. Murray. IVith Text-fig - pp. 1-8.

(Issued separately, April 2ist, igog).

XV. The Use of Wind by Migrating Birds. By F. Stubbs. (Cora

municatedbyT. A, Coward, F.Z.S.) PP- i-9-

(Issued separately, April 26th, igog).

Proceedings pp. xi.— xxi.

MANCHESTER:
^36, GEORGE STREET.

Ipcicc 3four SblUtngs.

A fir a ■joth, igog.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Presented.

Canada. — Geological Survey. Summary Report on Explorations in Nova
Scotia 1907. By H. Fletcher. 1908.

. — The Geology and Mineral Resources of New Brunswick. By R. W,

Ells. 1907.

Delft. — Technische Hoogeschool. Der niederlandische Boden u. die Ablage-
runi;en des Rheines u. d. Maas. Proefschrift door P. Tesch. 1908.

. Legeeringen van Tin en Lood. Proefschrift door P. N. Degens.

1908.

Erlangen.— Physikalisch-medizinischer Sozietat. Festschrift. ..zur Feier ihres
100 Jahrig. Bcstehens am 27 Juni 190S. 1908.

Frankfurt.— Physikalischer Verein. Der Neubau des...Vereins u. seine Eroff-
nungsfeier II Jan. 1908. [1908.]

Glasgow.— University of. Catalogue of the .MSS. in the Library of the Hunterian
Museum, University of Glasgow. By J. Young and P. H. Aitken. 1908.

. — Register of Members of the General Council of the University, 1909.

1908.
Gorlitz. — Oberlausitzische Gesellschaft Wissenschaften. Codex Diplomaticus

Lusatiae Superioris III. Hft. 4, von R. Jecht. 1908.

India, Governor General in Council. Magnetical, Meteorological and Seismo-
logical Observations made at llic Government Observatories, Bombay and
Alibag, 1902- 1905, under the direction of N. A. F. Moos. 1908.

Janet, Charles. Anatomic du Corselet et Histolyse des Muscles Vibrateurs,
apres le Vol Nuptial, chez la Reine de la Fourmi [Lasins niger). Texte
et Planches. Par C. Janet. 1907.

Lima. — Cuerpo de Ingenieros Civiles. Reseiia hislorica de los Ferrocarriles
del Peru, por F. C. y Laurent. 1908.

London. — Geological Society. The Centenary of the Geological Society of
London. 1909.

Linnean Society. The Darwin-Wallace Celebration held... ist July, 1908.

1908.

Metropolitan Water Board. Second Report on Research Work...

on the Negative Results of the Examination of... Raw Water... for... Typhoid
Bacillus. By A. C. Houston. [1908.]

Royal Society. National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-04. Album of

Photograi)hs and Sketches, and Album of Panoramas. 1908.

. Reports to the Evolution Committee. RejJort IV. By W. Bateson

and others. 1908.

Vol. 53: I'AKT III.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OK

THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

socurrY, 1908-1909.

CONTENTS.

^XvT''on the Influence of Moisture on Chetnical Change in Ga|es.

(The Wilde Lecture.) By H. Brereton Baker, M.A., D.bc. ^^

ppc. .----""■ '^'^

(Issued separately. May nth, igog).

XVII. The Action of Hydrogen on Sodium. By Alfred Holt, jun., ^^^ _^

' (hsiudsc/>a>-"-i'^'y^''^^'^y "^'''"^'"^'-

XVIII. on some Colour Demonstrations of the Dissociating Action of

Water. By R. L. Taylor, F.I. C. - - - - vv ^

(Issued sc/atatcly, May 2)th, igog).

VI V A Modification of the Beckmann Apparatus by which Constant
^^^- S ngs a?e obtained in determining the BoiUng Pomts of

Xqueou? Solutions By Professor Edmund Knecht, Ph.D..

and J. P. Batey, M.Sc.Tech. IVtth TcAt-Jig. - PP

(Issued separately, May 2Sth, igog).

Hewitt. lP''iifi Piatc. ••■■',■

(Issued separately, June gtk, igog).

Henry Sidebottom. Plates I.- V. ^nA Text-Jig. - PP- ^ i

(Issued sepaiately, June nth, igoq).

XXII. British Permian Footprints. By George Hickling. B.Sc. /^/«/..

(Issued separately, June iSth, igog).

' XXIII. The Guatemalan Earthquakes and Eruption of 1902. By W. S.

AscoU, F.R.G.S. Plates I.-II. - " " ^^

(Issued separately, June iSth, igog).

(Issued separately, Augti^t 12th, igog).

pp. xxi. — xxiv.

-XXXI.

-xxxiv

Srar'R?po;toftheCou„ci,-<«.hOMtu2^

srFo?.Ta'rR.s'.,'-^rMf.tSd« ?>,„= . ^^pp--

Treasurer's Accounts - - ' , ,. ' o^^iefT, pp. xxxv.— 1.

tSE S[ fSl Sr^L'ortr?i^n°;d'E.l,Sn M^daU and of the Pr=n,iun. ^^ ^^
List of the Wilde Lectures - - - " . pp. liv.— Iv.

List of the Presidents of the Society - - " . . .

Title Page and Contents for Volume -

MANCHESTER:
36, GEORGE STREET.

Ipricc Sir SbiUlngs.

August 20th, igog.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Presenled.

Canada.-Geological Survey. Report (.1. Tertiary Mants of Britisli Columbia.
By D. P. I'enhallow. 190S.

• Preliminary Report on Gowganda Mining Division District of

Nipissing, Ontario. By \V. II. Collins. 1909.

Delft-Tcchnische Hoogeschool. Parallelbedrijf van Wisselstroommachines.
Proefsclirift...door J. W. van Dijk. 1909.

• Over Rictwas ende Mogelijkheid zijner Technischc Gewinning.

Proefschrift...door A. Wijuberg. 1909.

- — • Bibliotheek der... Hoogeschool. Lijst dcr Periodieken. 2-= Uitgave.

1909.

Glasgow. -Geological Society. History of the. .. Society.. .1858-190S. Ed. by
P. .Macnair and F. Mort. 190S.

Liverpool. -Lyceum Library. Annual Supplementary Catalogue of the...
Library. 1909.

London. -British Museum. Guide to the Specimens of the Ilcse 1-amily.. in
the. ..Museum. 1907.

• ^"''■^'2 ^o Ihe Elephants (Recent and Fossil) in the. ..Museum. 1908.

• Guide to the Gallery of Fishes in the. ..Museum. 190S.

• Guide to the Domesticated Animals (other than Horses) in the...

Museum. 1908.

• Guide to the Exhibited Series of Insects in the ..Museum. 1908.

■ Guide to the Specimens illustrating the Races of Mankind in the...

Museum. 1908.

■ Guide to the VViiales, Porpoises and Dolphins in the. ..Museum.

1909.

• An Introduction to the Study of Rocks. By L. Fletcher. 1909.

• Synopsis of tiie Btitish Basidiomycetes. By W. G. Smilli. 1908.

Meteorological Office. Codex of Resolutions adopted at International

Meteorological Meetings 1872- 1907. By II. II. Hildebrandsson and
G. liellmaiin. 1909.

Metropolitan V»^ater Board. 1 bird Report on Research Work ..on the

Storage of Raw River Water antecedent to Filtration. By A. C. Houston.
(1909).

• Third Annual Report on the Results of the Chemical and Bacterio-
logical Examination of London Waters, 190S-09. By A. C. Houston

1909.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY . — Co/i^mned.

London --Metropolitan Water Board. I'Hurtli Report on Research Work. On
llie Vitality of the Cholera Vibrio in artiiicially infected samples of Raw
Thames, Lee... Water... 1909.

Patent Office. Subject List of Works on the Laws of Industrial Pioperty,

etc.... 1909

Peace Society. The Path to Peace upon the Seas, By A Carnegie. 1909.

Royal Institution of Great Britain. Low-temperature Research at the

...Institution 1900-07. By II. E. Armstrong. 1909.

Royal Society. Report of a Magnetic Survey of Soutli Africa. By J. C.

Bcattie. 1909.

Solar Physics Committee. A Discussion of Australian Meteorology. By

W. J. S. Lockyer. 1909.

Madison. — Wisconsin History Commission. The Battle of Gettysburg. By
F. A. Haskell. 190S.

Washington.— U.S. Department of Commerce and Labour. Precise Leveling
in the U.S., 1903-07. By J. F. Ilayford and L. Pike. 1909.

I'lin/iased.

Bacon, G. W. Atlas of the Worlil, with Index. 1908.

Guppy (H.) and Vine (G.). Classified Catalogue of Works on Architecture, etc.,
in Libraries of Manchester and Salford. 1909.

Seward (A. C). Darwin and Modern Science. Essays by different author.'-.
1909.

Webster (N.) International Dictionary of the English Language. 1907.

JVew Exchanges.
La Plata. — Observatorio. Annuario.

And the usual Exchansies and Periodicals.

RECKNT ADDITIONS TO THE L\BRARY.— Con(tKued.

Madison. — Wisconsin History Commission. Capture and Escape. By J. A.
Kellogg. 1908.

. — The Vicksbuig Campaign. By W. F. Vilas. 1908.

Nicholson, Mr. Francis. Gilbert's Annalen der Physik, vols. 61-72, 1819-1822.

Nicholson's Journal, vols. 1-5, 1797-1802.

Studies in Anatomy from the Anatomical Department of the Owens College,

vols. I, 2, 1891, 1900.

Studies from the Physiological Laboratory of Owens College, vol. i, 1891.

Handbook of the Manchester Meeting of the British Association, 1887.

Excursions ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

Riga. — Naturforscher-Verein. Katalog der Bibliothek der...Vereins. 1908.

Schuster, Prof. Arthur. Comptes Rendus des Seances de la V et 2"'« Reunions
de la Commission Permanente de I'Association Internationale de Sismo-
logie.. .1906-1907, 2 vols. 1906, 1907.

Uppsala. — Kungl. Universitetets Bibliotek. Swedish" Explorations in Spitz-
bergen 1758- 1908. By A. G. Nathorst and others. 1909.

Washington. — Bureau of American Ethnology. Physiological and Medical
Observations among the Indians of South Western U.S and Northern
Mexico. By A. Ilrdlicka. 1908.

Western Australia, Agent General for. Report on the Northampton Mineral
Field. By A. Montgomery. 1908.

Report on the Kanowna Mines. By A. Montgomery. 1908.

Report on the Mines of the Yilgarn Goldfield. By A. Montgomery. 1908.

J'unAased.

Bacon (G. W.)- Commercial and Library Atlas of the World with Index-
Gazetteer... 1908.

Thiselton-Dyer (Sir W. T. ). Flora Capensis. Vol. 4, sect, i, part 6. 1909.

Webster's International Dictionary of the English Language... New ed. 1907.

And the usual Exchanges and Periodicals.

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London. — Royal Society. National Anlaiclic Expedition. 1901-04. Meteorology
Ft. i. 190S.

.. — National Antarctic Expetlilion. 1901-04. Physical Observations

1908.

London. — Solar Physics Committee. Monthly Mean Values of Barometric
Pressure for 73 .. Stations... 1908.

Makower (W.). The Radioactive Substances. By W. Makower. igo8.

Philadelphia. —American Philosophical Society. Calendar of the Papers of
Benjamin Fianklin. Ed. by J. M. Hays. 5 vols. 1908.

Prag.— K. Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Neue Unter-
suchungen iiber die Reifiing und Befruchtung. Von Dr. F. Vejdovsky. 1907.

. — Untersuchungen iiber die Klimatischen VerhJiltnisse von Beirut,

Syrien. Von Dr. S. Kostlivy. 1905.

Wilde, Dr. Henry. Hope Reports. Ed. by E. B. Poulton. Vols. 1—6, 1893—
1908. 1897 — 1908.

West (W.) and G. S. West. « A Monograph of the British Desmidiaceos.
Vol. 3. 1908. (Ray Society.)

JV£IV EXCHANGES,

Berlin. — Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde,

Archiv fur Biontologie.

La Paz.— Servicio Meteorologico de la Republica Boliviana.

Boletin ntensual.

Lima. — Sociedad de Ingenieros del Peru.

{a) Informaciones i Memorias.
{b) Memoria.

Manila.— Bureau of Science. Philippine Journal of Science.
And the usual Exchanges and Periodicals.

CD

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