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FOR THE PEOPLE

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LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

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THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY

FOURTH SERIES

FIFTH VOLUME

MANCHESTER
36 GEORGE STREET

1892

NOTE.

The authors of the several papers contained in this volume are
themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings
which they have offered. In these particulars the Society must
not be considered as in any way responsible.

CONTENTS.

MEMOIRS. page

On the Decomposition by Shock of Endothermic Compounds. By J. A.
Harker, Dalton Chemical Scholar, and H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the Owens College ... ... ... ... 12

Experiments on the Transmission of Explosions across Air Gaps. By
Bevan Lean, B.Sc, Dalton Chemical Scholar, and Harold B.
Dixon, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Owens College ... 16

The 143 Six-letter Functions given by the first transitive maximum groups
of six letters, with full exhibition of the Values of the Functions. By
the Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman, M.A., F.R.S 2-,

Notes on Sewage Precipitation. By Harry Grimshaw, F.C.S... .. 55

On the Permians of the N.W. of England. Discovery of Two Plant
Beds in the St. Bees Sandstone, at Hilton, Westmorland. With
Plates. By William Brockbank, F.G.S.,F.L.S 66

On the Interchange of Two Differential Resolvents. By the Rev. Robert

Harley, M.A., F.R.S. , Corresponding Member ... 79

Hymenoptera Orientalis ; or Contributions to a knowledge of the Hymen-
opteraof the Indian Zoological Region. With Plate. By P. Cameron.
Communicated by John Boyd ... ... ... ... ... ... 97

On Iridescent Colours and a Method of examining Iridescent Objects,
Birds, Insects, Minerals, &c, so as to ensure uniformity in their
description. By Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc 149

Notes on some Ancient Dyes. By Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.... 158

On the action of Acetic Acid, with oxidising substances, on Indigo Blue.
By Charles O'Neill, F.C.S 162

PROCEEDINGS.
Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. — On the Artificial Colouration of Flowers

through the roots ... ... 147

On a Japanese Botanical Text-book on Timber-trees ... ... ... 172

Brockbank, W., F.L.S., F.G.S. — On the Artificial Colouration of

Flowers 142

Corbett, Joseph. — Memorandum on Lifeboats, as to the relative values

of Stability versus Self-righting Power ... 4

Dixon, H. Bm F.R.S. — On the Explosion of Carbonic Oxide and Oxygen

with other Gases, with reference to experiments by Professor Bekstoff 147

VI. CONTENTS.

PAGE
Faraday, F. J., F.L.S., &c. — On various Gifts to the Society i

On some Phenomenal Effects of the recent and previous Gales on

Buildings ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 93

On the theory of Mr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S., and his experiments

respecting the variation in the direction of the magnetic needle... 141

Gwyther, R. F., M.A. — On a Peculiar Shrivelling of the Leaves of Trees 10

On John Couch Adams ... 138

On an Intrinsic Differential Equation of Conies, and its relation to

the Invariants ... ... ... ... ... ... 138

Hodgkinson, Alex., M.B., B.Sc. — On Specimens of Clover Roots

shewing, under the microscope, the nodules developed by microbia 63

On some Curious Cores of Sand, observed protruding from the ends

of burrows in the perpendicular sides of a sand-pit 77

On a specimen of Colouring Matter extracted from Decayed Wood ... 94

Hoyle, W. E., M.A. — On the Giant Earth-worm, of Gippsland, Megas-

colides australts .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 77

On specimens of Rare Cuttle-fish from the Mediterranean 95

Melyill, James Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S. — Description of a New Species

of Latirns ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 92

O'Neill, C, F.C.S. — On the Solubility of Lead Formate with the

addition of a small quantity of Lead Nitrate ... 140

Reynolds, Osborne, F.R.S., &c. — On a Phenomenon which often
occurs in the Breaking of Glass Water-Gauges in the Engineering
Laboratory of Owens College 11

On the Possibility of a human Flying Machine... 145

Ross, W. J. Clunies, B.Sc. (Lond. and Sydney), F.G.S., Principal of
the Technical College, Bathurst, New South Wales. — On the
Caves of New South Wales 63

Schunck Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S. — Presentation of Bronze Bust of the

late Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., &c 1

On the Jubilee of his connection with the Society 138

On a copy of the "History of the Siege of Gibraltar," presented to

the Society by the author, Colonel Drinkwater ... 139

On a Letter from Colonel Drinkwater, accompanying a copy of a work

on the battle of St. Vincent ... ... ... ... ... •■• 141

On a specimen of Woollen Cloth of Egyptian production in the fifth

century ... 172

CONTENTS. VU

PAGE

Schuster, Arthur, F.R.S., &c. — On Summer Lightning 2

On Halos as Prognostics of Bad Weather ... ... ... ... 2

On Dust Figures .. ... 3

Taylor, Walter, A.M. I.C. E. — On a Jar made of rough, coarse,

unglazed clay, found in the cutting of the Ship Canal... ... ... 61

General Meetings ... ... ... ... 54, 60, 77, 141

Annual General Meeting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 170

Report of the Council, April, 1892, with Obituary Notices of Edmund
Salis Schwabe, Dr. W. C. Henry, Emile de Laveleye, Sir Thomas
Sowler, Tames Nasmyth, Sir G. B. Airy, John Couch Adams, Hermann
Kopp, Oliver Hey wood, and C. F. Von Romer ... ... ... 174

Treasurer's Accounts .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 192

Meetings of the Natural History and Microscopical Section : —

Annual 173

Ordinary ... 10, 60, 90, 95 140, 146

Annual Report of the Council of the Microscopical and Natural History

Section and Accounts ... 195

List of the Council and Members ... ... ... ... ... ... 198

PLATES.

TO FACE PAGE

I. — To illustrate Mr. Cameron's paper on Hymenoptera Orientalis —

Part IV 137

II., III., and IV. — To illustrate Mr. Bruckbank's paper on the Permians

of the N.W. of England... .. 79

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 6th, 1891.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

The President unveiled and presented to the Society
a bronze bust of the late Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., taken
from a bust in white marble by T. Nelson MacLean, and
briefly referred to Dr. Smith's services to science, his long
connection with the Society, and particularly to his work
for it as the author of the Memoir of Dalton and History
of the Atomic Theory, and of the Centenary of Science in
Manchester^ published by the Society.

A hearty vote of thanks was awarded to Dr. Schunck
for his valuable gift.

Mr. FARADAY briefly recapitulated some previous in-
teresting gifts to the Society, including the bust of Dr.
William Henry, F.R.S., which Sir Francis Chantrey was
commissioned to execute for it in 1836 ; the bust of Eaton
Hodgkinson, by Slater, presented in 1862 by Dr. Joule,
Dr. Schunck, Mr. (subsequently Sir) John Hawkshaw,

2 Proceedings.

Mr. (subsequently Sir) Joseph Whitworth, Mr. James
Hey wood, Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. Thomas Turner, Mr. G. R.
Stephenson, and other members ; a collection of the MSS.
of Sturgeon and Eaton Hodgkinson, and a manuscript
volume of lectures on chemistry by Mr. Thomas Henry,
one of the founders of the Society, presented in 1863 ; Dr.
Dalton's chemical apparatus, presented by Dr. William
Charles Henry, to whom the apparatus was bequeathed by
Dalton ; a portrait of Dr. Joule by G. Patten, A.R.A., pre-
sented by Mr. Binney and others in 1864, and a bust of Dr.
Dalton, presented by Mrs. Samuel Fletcher in the same
year ; the manuscript journals of Mr. George Walker, pre-
sented by Mr. B. H. Green in 1871, and a collection of
Dalton's MSS., presented by Dr. W. C. Henry in 1863 ; the
manuscript journals and other papers of Mr. Thomas Heelis,
F.R.A.S., presented by Dr. Crompton and Mr. John Heelis;
a bust of James Wolfenden, of Hollinwood, a noted mathe-
matician (B. 1754, D. 1 841), who calculated the first tide-
table for Liverpool in 1807, presented by Mr. Binney in
1873; a portrait of Dr. Percival, one of the first Presidents,
painted by Crozier, and presented by Mr. Francis Nicholson
in 1878 ; a portrait of Eaton Hodgkinson, painted by Duval,
and presented by Sir Thomas Fairbairn in 1878; a portrait
of Mr. Binney, painted by W. H. Johnston, and presented
by Dr. Joule in 1879 ! an^ medallion portraits of Mr. and
Mrs. G. Walker (the former one of the founders of the
Society), presented by members of the Council in 1883.

Mr. Faraday stated that he had compiled this list from
the records of the Society, and remarked that as it was
incomplete, it would be more interesting if other members
would supplement it.

The following note " On Summer Lightning " was read
by the author, Professor ARTHUR SCHUSTER, F.R.S. : —

" During a recent journey to Switzerland I happened to
be, late in the evening, at a considerable height on the

Proceedings. 3

glacier which stretches down from the Dent Blanche towards
Ferpecle, and there noticed a phenomenon which has probably-
been described before, although I cannot recollect any
definite reference to it. The sky was perfectly clear, but a
cloud filled the valley of Evolena, and reached up to a
height of about 7,000 feet, while I was at an altitude of
about 1 1,000. About once every two or three minutes there
was an electric discharge, of the kind known as sheet light-
ning, from the cloud upwards. At the time, I was under
the impression that the discharge took place between the
cloud and the rocks of the Dent Blanche ; but, on considera-
tion, it seems to me equally probable that the discharge took
place towards the upper parts of the atmosphere. The
following reflections are suggested by the phenomenon : —
The cloud lay in a deep-cut valley, the mountains on all
sides rising high above it. If the cloud was at the same
electric potential as the surrounding parts of the earth, there
could be no discharge between them, and we should certainly
not expect a discharge towards the upper regions of the
atmosphere to take place from the inside of a cavity. The
cloud therefore must have been at a different potential from
the mountains ; but unless there was some cause at work
which kept up that difference of potential we could not
have such a series of flashes lasting certainly for more than
an hour. The cloud seemed to rise up in the valley as time
went on, but probably the lower boundary kept stationary,
while the upper boundary of the cloud extended more and
more upwards as the mountain sides grew colder. If the
water-drops were charged electrically, and increased in size,
this would of course account for a gradual rise in potential.
We know too little, however, of what happens when a cloud
forms in an electric field, to speculate further."

The following note on " Halos as Prognostics of Bad
Weather " was read by the author, Professor ARTHUR
Schuster, F.R.S. :—

4 Proceedings.

" The halo I am referring to is the ring of light, generally
slightly coloured, which is occasionally seen surrounding
the sun at an angle of about 22°. The explanation of the
halo is to be found in the refraction of light through small ice
crystals. The halo is generally seen in front of a cyclone,
and is considered a prognostic of bad weather. The
following observations will show, however, that the
prognostic is by no means as certain as it is sometimes
supposed to be. On Tuesday, the 25 th September, about
12 o'clock, the sky above the Zermatt Valley became
pretty suddenly covered with a thin film of cirrus clouds,
and a halo appeared surrounding the sun. The barometer
during that day was rising slightly. The sky cleared in
the afternoon, and the two succeeding days were perfectly
fine. On one of these days — I am sorry to say I have not
kept a record which it was — another halo was seen by
others, though not by myself. On Friday, the 28th, the
sky clouded over during the morning, and there was a
drizzling rain in the afternoon, the barometer keeping high
all the time. It cleared about 4 a.m. on Satur lay and
remained perfectly clear that day. I have not, unfortunately,
access to the Swiss weather charts, but I understand that
there was much bad weather on the Italian side of the Alps
during the days the halos were seen. Cirrus clouds,
supposed to be ice-clouds, are often seen without the halo,
and there is, a priori, no reason why halos should only be
seen in that kind of cirrus sky which lies in the front of
the track of a cyclone, but observation seems to point in
that direction. Halo prognostics are known to break down
when a cyclone changes its direction, but it is also possible
that in the high regions of the Alps the atmospheric
conditions are somewhat different than over plains. At
any rate, a more systematic record of all visible halos seems
called for, especially in the districts which contain mountains
of high altitudes."

Proceedings. 5

The following note " On Dust Figures " was also read
by Professor ARTHUR SCHUSTER, F.R.S., the author : —

"In the house which I occupy at present there are two
sitting rooms, separated by a wide opening, with a slightly
curved top. The opening is closed by a curtain hanging
down from a pole about four inches above its highest point.
The former tenant used a wooden pole on one side of the
opening. That pole was removed, and I substituted a brass
pole on the other side of the wall, so that the wall above
the opening, where the previous pole was, is now perfectly
clear on that side on which the previous pole had been
placed. I took possession of the house two years ago. The
wall paper in both rooms was carefully removed, the walls
cleaned, and a white paper put up, which was subsequently
distempered with a uniform tint. About a year ago I
noticed, what seems to me to be a very remarkable fact.
A black band was seen stretching across the wall above the
opening, exactly at the place from which the pole had been
removed. This black band, it was ascertained, is due to
dust having deposited in greater quantity where the pole
had previously been than in other places. Leaving out of
account any possible effect of the brass pole on the other
side of the wall, we are driven to the conclusion : that a
wall which has been stripped of its paper, been washed and
then been repapered, shows, by the way the dust deposits
on it, the place where, two years ago, a wooden pole had
been placed, while the old paper was still on the wall."

(Added, October 2j.) — "Since writing the above, and
partly in consequence of the remarks made by some of the
speakers at the meeting, I have made further inquiries, and
heard from the former tenant that he believes an iron beam
is imbedded in the brick wall at the place where the dust
line shews. This beam was not visible when the paper was
removed, and is therefore completely covered with plaster.
Nevertheless it may account for the dust mark by causing

6 Proceedings.

some inequality in the shape or texture of the surface of
the wall. No unevenness is visible, which shows what a
delicate test we have in the deposit of dust in tracing slight
inequalities in the nature of a surface."

The following " Memorandum on Lifeboats, as to the
relative values of Stability versus Self-righting Power," was
read by the author, Mr. Joseph Corlsett : —

" Lifeboats have been in use for more than a century,
but the self-righting principle was only introduced in 1852
by the Northumberland Prize Committee. This Committee
recorded the principle as a contested one, but decided
to try it. No methodical competitive trial of the principle
has ever been made, and it has been continuously chal-
lenged as being so detrimental to the working powers of a
lifeboat as to be not worth having. The Southport Life-
boat disaster in December, 1886, when the crews of two
self-righting lifeboats were all drowned, except two men,
called public attention very urgently to the dangers of
these boats ; but, unfortunately, the genera! drift of criticism
was that lifeboats should be made more positively self-
righting than heretofore. Professor Osborne Reynolds read
a paper before this Society, ' On Methods of Investigating
the Qualities of Lifeboats,' in which he advocated experi-
ments with models. The Committee of the Royal National
Lifeboat Institution appointed a special sub-committee 'to
make a searching investigation into the self-righting and
other properties of the Institution's boats,' and thiscommittee,
after three months of laborious inquiry, and experiments with
self-righting boats, made its final report, in April, 1887,
recommending the introduction of copper air-cases in place
of canvas-covered wooden ones, and ' a careful revision of
the weights and materials used in the several parts of the
boats, ensuring increased stability, strength, and sea-
worthiness, at the same time largely increasing their
self-righting power,' also recommending the appointment

Proceedings. 7

of a consulting Naval Architect, and making other good
suggestions, all of which were immediately adopted. The
Southport Local Committee, after careful deliberation,
obtained, through the Institution, a sailing lifeboat, designed
by Mr. G. L. Watson from their sketches, which is the
most powerful existing lifeboat, and non-righting. I had
corresponded with some of the chief officials of the Institu-
tion, and with other good authorities on lifeboat work, in
1867-68, in connection with a paper on lifeboats, read by
me before the Manchester Institution of Engineers, in
which I ventured to challenge the self-righting boats as
compared with the Tubular and the Norfolk boats; and
twenty years continued attention to the question had
materially strengthened my convictions. Having obtained,
with some difficulty, working drawings of all the types of life-
boats used by the Institution, I got working models made to
one-twelfth or one-sixteenth scale, ascertained their ' curves
of stability* and other chief elements for comparison,
prepared a paper on the subject, and was favoured by the
Building Committee of the Institution with a long discus-
sion on it, on May 6th, 1889. The Committee then requested
their Naval Architect, Mr. G. L. Watson, to embody some
of my suggestions in a design for a large Sailing Lifeboat,
not self-righting. Having read a resume of my paper
before the Institution of Naval Architects on March 28th,
1890, I received most encouraging letters from Mr. R. E.
Froude, and from several naval architects, and eventually
the Committee of the Lifeboat Institution very liberally
offered me £600 to pay for a non-righting Rowing and
Sailing Lifeboat on a modified plan, resulting from con-
ferences with Lancashire honorary officers and coxswains
of the Institution. But our deputation made the further
request, which was kindly granted, that this liberal offer
should be set aside and Mr. G. L. Watson commissioned,
with 'a perfectly free hand,' to design a lifeboat to compete

8 Proceedings.

with a self-righting lifeboat of similar size. These lifeboats,
with several others representing various approved types, are
to be subjected to exhaustive practical trials early next
year ; and it is confidently hoped that, as the result
of these practical experiments, a very superior type
of lifeboat may soon be available. It has been often
erroneously stated on behalf of the self-righting
boats, that the elements which give the self-righting
power also add to the working stability and safety of a
boat ; but the contrary may be proved point by point —
thus : — ist. The high end-air-cases are the essential feature
of all self-righting boats. They seriously hinder progress
to windward, either under sails or oars, by enlarging the
total end-area. They increase the liability to being cap-
sized by increasing the side area exposed to the waves.
They also hinder the access to stem and stern, and unduly
restrict the space available for the crew and passengers.
On the other hand, it must be conceded that they protect
the crew from a head sea. 2nd. It is requisite that a self-
righting lifeboat be only lightly loaded in proportion to its
effective buoyancy. This reduces the momentum of the
boat in proportion to its end area, rendering it less capable
of holding way through the waves, and also causing it to
drift more to leeward when across the wind. The reduced
weight in proportion to bulk, like reduced specific gravity,
renders the boat more liable to capsize from the violent
movements of the waves. On the other hand, this increased
buoyancy tends to ride over, rather than to dash
through, the wave crests ; and thereby to keep the
crew somewhat less wet. 3rd. The cross-sectional
form of a self-righting boat must be something like
that of a barrel, and so restricted in breadth that
for all angles the meta-centre shall be above the centre
of gravity ; resulting in the meta-centric curve not sur-
rounding the centre of gravity when delineated on the

Proceedings. 9

body plan. This necessitates a narrow and high form of
boat, with small side-air-cases, and therefore with small
stability. My experiments indicate that from 50 to 60
per cent of the available stability at all angles up to about
900, has to be sacrificed in order to obtain the self-righting
quality. This serious diminution of stability necessarily
increases the liability to capsizing. It also proportionately
reduces the sail-carrying power, and thereby the power of
beating to windward, and it hinders rowing by so increasing
the boats' rolling as to have earned for the self-righting life-
boats the nickname of ' roly poly boats.' dth. The heavy
keel required for a self-righting boat is claimed as a valuable
attribute of the system ; but, in fact, heavy keels are used on
all classes of sailing boats, and non-righting boats can advan-
tageously carry heavier keels than the self-righters. Thus,
I find no element of the self-righting power which is, on
the whole, beneficial to the ordinary use of a lifeboat ; and,
therefore, I venture to hope that the forthcoming practical
competition between different types of lifeboats will
result in the success of some more stable type. The
Northumberland Prize Committee, who first introduced
self-righting, only valued this quality at 6 points out of 100
points apportioned to the various desirable qualities in life-
boats ; yet, for nearly forty years past, 50 or 60 per cent of
stability and sailing power, and 30 per cent of momentum,
have been sacrificed for this one object. Now that methodical
competitive examinations are at last to be extended to life-
boats, we may hope for increased safety and greatly increased
efficiency in the lifeboat service, which has for a century
past been one of our noblest and most honoured
institutions."

io Proceedings.

{Microscopical and Natural History Section.']

Ordinary Meeting, October 12th, 1891.

Alexander Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc., President of the
Section, in the Chair.

Mr. Hyde showed a number of natural history-
specimens mounted in glass-topped boxes to illustrate the
method he has adopted for preparing such objects for
class-teaching purposes. They are packed up to the glass
top with cotton wool, so that they will stand any ordinary
handling. Mr. T. Rogers exhibited a number of dried
specimens of Gentiana p7ieumonantJie collected by him
during the past summer near Moelfre Bay, Anglesea.

A general conversation followed on rooks collecting
acorns, edible fungi, variation in the common star-fish, the
parasites found on the common dung-beetle, etc.

Ordinary Meeting, October 20th, 1S91.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

Mr. R. F. Gwyther, M.A., called attention to a peculiar
shrivelling of the leaves of trees, which occurred during the
gales immediately following the hot weather early in

Proceedings. i i

September. The shrivelling appeared to be sudden,
partial, and quite distinct from the ordinary withering
process.

Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, F.R.S., described a
phenomenon which often occurs in the breaking of glass
water-gauges in the Engineering Laboratory of Owens
College. The peculiarity of which Professor Reynolds
wished to have an explanation is that the fracture is
indicated by a slight sharp crack, which, after a pause, is
followed by a serious loud explosion, and the whole
gauge disappears almost in dust. The explosion occurs
after the tube is broken. Professor H. B. DlXON, F.R.S.,.
suggested that the fracture happens at the bottom, where
the water is in contact with the tube, and that when
the fracture reaches the top the more serious explosion of
steam takes place.

Professor H. B. DlXON, F.R.S., read a paper, by
himself and Mr. J. A. HARKER, entitled " On the Decom-
position, by shock, of Endothermic Compounds."

A paper, entitled " Experiments on the Transmission
of Explosions across Air-gaps," by Bevan Lean, B.Sc,
Dalton Chemical Scholar, and Professor H. B. DlXON,
F.R.S. , was also read by the latter.

The Rev. T. P. Kirkman, F.R.S., communicated a
paper on " The 143 Six-letter Functions given by the First
Transitive Maximum Group of Six Letters, with full
Exhibition of the Values of the Function."

12 Mr. J A. Harker and Mr. H. B. Dixon on tin

On the Decomposition by shock of Endothermic Com-
pounds. By J. A. Harker, Dalton Chemical Scholar,
and H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the Owens College.

{Received October 20th, 1891.)

In his work " Sur la Force des Matiercs Explosives,"
published in 1883, M. Berthelot described some experiments
on the decomposition by shock of certain bodies formed
with absorption of heat. Most of his experiments were
made on gases. He exploded a charge of o-i grm. of
fulminate of mercury in a strong glass tube holding about
25 cc. of the gas. With acetylene the experiment always
succeeded, only about -oi cc. gas remaining undecomposed,
and a deposit of very finely divided amorphous carbon
being left on the walls of the vessel. Cyanogen was some-
times wholly decomposed, sometimes not at all. The other
gases he succeeded in breaking up were nitric oxide and
arseniuretted hydrogen. The decomposition, started by
the fulminate, is, according to Berthelot, a detonation pro-
pagated from layer to layer with extreme rapidity, and is
of the same nature as the ' explosion-wave.'

In the Journal of the CJiemical Society for 1889, Prof.
Thorpe stated that he had discovered accidentally that
carbon bisulphide could be detonated with a bright
flame in the same way, yielding a mixture of carbon
and sulphur. No explosive, he says, would cause the
decomposition except fulminate of mercury, and the
brown powder, obtained by the action of a fluid alloy of
potassium and sodium on carbon bisulphide. The explosion
•of one-twentieth of a gram of mercury fulminate will de-

Decomposition by Shock of Endothermic Compounds. 13

compose the carbon bisulphide vapour filling a tube 600 mm.
long and 15 mm. diameter. Thorpe accepts Berthelot's
explanation, which he gives as follows : — " The shock of the
explosion communicates to the layer of gaseous molecules
in immediate proximity to the fulminate an enormous active
force, whereby the ' molecular edifice ' is shaken to pieces,
and the initial active force is augmented to a degree corres-
ponding to the heat evolved in the decomposition of the
gas. A new shock is thereby produced in the next layer,
and the action is repeated, and so propagated."

According to this view, it would seem that the explosion,
once initiated in cyanogen, acetylene or carbon bisulphide,
should travel as far as the gas extends, and that the rate of
explosion should conform to the laws governing the propa-
gation of the explosion-wave in gaseous mixtures. It
appeared, therefore, of interest to determine whether the
explosion, set up by the shock of the fulminate, was propa-
gated along a tube filled with one of the gases ; and, if so,.
to measure the rate at which the flame was propagated.

The experiments described below were carried out by
one of us — Mr. J. A. Harker.

The first gas tried was acetylene. To produce the shock,
a mixture of acetylene and oxygen (2 vols, to 3), one of
the most violently explosive gaseous mixtures, was fired in
contact with the acetylene. A coiled leaden pipe, 13 mm.
in diameter and 20 metres long, was provided with a glass
firing-piece and tap at one end, and, at the other, a detachable
tube of strong glass and a second tap. The whole was
first filled with acetylene, and then a mixture of acetylene
and oxygen was driven in at the firing end so as to
form a column of about a metre in length. The taps
were then closed, and the mixture fired by a spark. The
explosion made the " ping " on the walls characteristic of
extreme violence, but the flame did not appear at the
further end of the tube. On examination it was found that

14 Mr. J. A. Harker and Mr. H. B. Dixon on the

the great bulk of the acetylene was undecomposed. The
experiment was repeated with the same result.

An apparatus was then fitted up, to test the action of
fulminate of mercury. It consisted of a steel cylinder or
'bomb,' holding about 400 cc, provided with a screw top,
through which passed insulated copper wires, and having a
tap for admission of gas. This was connected by a union
joint with a lead tube similar to that used in the last
experiment, having at its other end a strong glass tube and
steel tap. The bore through the joint was not less than
that of the tube itself. The fulminate used was procured
from the Roburite Explosives Company, in the form of
detonators containing one gram each. After each explosion
the bomb was immediately detached, and the end of the
leaden tube stopped by a cork till its contents could be
examined. In no case was there any flame in the glass
tube at the other end, and on testing the contents of the
tube, it was found that the gas was never decomposed down
the tube for more than about 1 5 cm. The acetylene in the
bomb itself was decomposed, and the sides of the bomb
were covered with a deposit of fine carbon.

A second series of experiments was then made, in which
carbon bisulphide vapour was used instead of acetylene.
This gave a different result. On attaching to the bomb
described a strong glass tube I % metres long, instead of the
lead one, and filling the whole, by exhaustion, with vapour
of CSo, one of the same detonators produced complete
decomposition of the gas, and a deposit of carbon on the whole
of the inner surface of the glass. A repetition of the
experiment gave a similar result. An attempt was then
made to measure the rate of transmission of this explosion.
The passage of the flame down the tube was timed by
making it break in turn two silver ' bridges ' stretched
across the tube, each bridge being connected with a
magneto-electric style tracing a mark on a moving plate.

Decomposition by Shock of EndotJiermic Compounds. 1 5

In order to fire the fulminate at a given moment, the
detonator was fastened by a caoutchouc ring in the end of
a firing tube filled with electrolytic gas. This firing tube
was screwed into the bomb, so that the detonator on one
side was in contact with the electrolytic mixture, and on
the other with the carbon bisulphide vapour in the bomb.
The electrolytic gas was fired by the moving plate of
the chronograph, and the explosion was transmitted
to the fulminate, and so to the carbon bisulphide.
The bomb, with the detonator in position, was connected
with a long glass tube, having a silver bridge about one
metre from the bomb, and a delicate arrangement, capable
of being adjusted to be broken by a shock of greater or
less violence at the other. The other end of the tube was
closed by a tap, and the distance between the breaks was
five metres. On repeating the experiment with this
apparatus the decomposition was in no case propagated
more than about 2-5 metres ; the density of the deposit
decreasing with increasing distance from the bomb. On
repeating the experiment with a lead tube coiled up in a
water-bath at 100°, the second bridge circuit was unbroken.
The decomposition in the bomb itself is extremely violent,
and a flash of intense yellow colour can be seen in the
glass tube as far as the explosion proceeds.

It appears, therefore, from these experiments, that the
decomposition by shock of acetylene and carbon bisulphide
is not propagated like the explosion-wave at a constant
velocity as far as the gas extends, but that the decom-
position set up by the fulminate dies out at a distance from
the detonator, depending on the nature of the gas and,
probably, also on the intensity of the initial shock and the
•cooling power of the walls.

16 Mr Bevan Lean and Mr. H. B. Dixon on

Experiments on the Transmission of Explosions across
Air gaps. By Bevan Lean, B.Sc, Dalton Chemical
Scholar, and Harold B. Dixon, F.R.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the Owens College.

{Received October 20th, 1891.)

How far the shock produced by the explosion of a
gaseous mixture can be transmitted through a column
of air so as to ignite a gaseous mixture beyond — is a
question often asked in the discussions raised as to the
nature of colliery explosions. Some practical men have
expressed the opinion that the shock can be transmitted
through air along great lengths of straight gallery, so as
to cause the explosion of accumulations of fire damp at
the further end ; others hold that a few score yards of
gallery free from firedamp and dust, will effectually
prevent the propagation of an explosion in a mine. To
obtain some data by which to decide the question, the
following experiments were tried on the small scale.

Apparatus. — The apparatus consisted of two lead tubes,
880 mm. in length, and 17^ mm. internal diam., which
could be connected together by glass tubes of varying
dimensions by means of brass junctions.

Explosive Mixture. The explosive mixture employed
was one of two vols, of hydrogen mixed with slightly more
than 1 vol of oxygen. The mixture was kept over water
in a stale gas-holder. The hydrogen was made from zinc
and sulphuric acid, without special purification, and the
oxygen was prepared from potassium chlorate.

Experiments on the Transmission of Explosions. 17

1 L

•BR

•&
$

11

•-Mb

fa

£

eg

c

Pn .*

T3
C

>1

j-
Pi

qj <L>

£ 2

>-

<:

O

o

pq o

o

3

0

1)

'ft

0

bO

C

0

*

CC

o M- +->

"" <D o

-T1 -° ""

x <u

ft "bb <u

t/3

oj o

R jj i S

c

hJ Q X

1 8 Mr. Bevan Lean and Mr. H. B. Dixon on

Fig. 2.

The means for connecting either brass junctions up to A
or B is shown in fig. (2).

UV is a circular ring which when screwed up over WY
makes an airtight connection between the brass piece
and the lead tube A.

G and H (fig. 1) are small brass tubes, provided with taps
by means of which A may be placed in communica-
tion with B, without making use of X.

T and S are large taps in the brass junctions, connecting
X with A or B. The passage in each tap is 11 mm.
in diameter.

Method of Experiment. After passing a current of air
through the apparatus, air was enclosed in the tube X by-
turning off the taps T and S. The tube G was then con-
nected with H by means of an indiarubber tube, and the
explosive gas passed in at L, and through the apparatus,
until a sample taken at F was found to explode violently.
The taps at E, F, G, and H were then all turned off, and
the platinum wires in the firing piece connected up with a
Ruhmkorff coil. One observer then stationed himself
opposite the tube X, and immediately before giving the

Experiments on the Transmission of Explosions. 19

command to fire, quickly turned on the taps T and S. A
second observer, placed opposite DF, thereupon broke the
primary circuit of the coil, producing a spark in EC, and at
the same time closely watched DF for any flash indicating
that the mixture in B had been fired across the air gap by
the explosion in A.

Though the glass tube DF was very strong, it was found
necessary to wrap wire gauze around it, inasmuch as it
was several times shivered to pieces by the violence of the
explosion-wave. Though the glass tubes employed between
A and B were frequently comparatively weak, experience
showed that the pressure produced by the explosion against
the wall of the tube X was so small, that the tube was in
no case burst.

First Series of Experiments. — A number of experi-
ments were made with glass tubing of 20 mm. internal
diameter of various lengths. After fixing the glass tube
by means of Faraday's cement to the two brass junctions,
the distance from the centre of the tap T to the centre of
the tap S was measured. Only these experiments in which
this distance TS is exactly the same, are made under the
same conditions: it is not sufficient to make experiments
with a particular tube of say 200 mm. length at one time,
and again at a subsequent period, without making sure that
the tube is fixed on to the brass pieces in the same manner.
Differences in the length of TS with the same glass tube
to the extent of 10-15 mm. may easily occur, which subse-
quent experiments will show to be very important. We
shall therefore class experiments according to the length of
TS. The volume of the air-gap was determined in each
case by titration with water.

(1) TS = 283 mm. Vol. of air-gap 73 cc.

The flash produced by the explosion in A traversed the
whole length of X, but the mixture in B was not fired.
6 experiments made, with the same results.

20 Mr. Bevan Lean and Mr. H. R. Dixon on

(2) TS = 2i5 mm. Vol. of air-gap 53,6cc.

B not fired by explosion in A.

6 concordant experiments made. (May 6).

On May 9 the experiment was repeated, employing the
same glass tube, the same mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen, TS being 215 mm., as before. In 4 suc-
cessive experiments B was fired by the explosion
in A, but in two of these the glass tube DF ex-
ploded with great violence, and in the other
two the cement at one or other junction was
cracked. Thus, in these four experiments, in
which B was fired, the pressure in the apparatus
was relieved; since, therefore, it seemed conceivable
that in cases in which the limit had been nearly
reached, such relief of the pressure might enable A
to fire B across the air-gap, it appeared advisable in
future experiments only to accept as conclusive
those in which every junction had stood intact the
shock of the explosion.

4 more experiments were made, in which the apparatus

successfully stood the explosion, and in each case
B was not fired.

(3) TS = i75 mm. Vol. of air-gap, 38*2 cc.

B fired by explosion in A.
3 experiments made, May 9.

5 experiments made, May 12.

Thus the desired limit is to be found when TS lies,
between 215 and 175 mm.

(4) TS = 205 mm. Vol. of air-gap, 48*5 cc.

B not fired by explosions in A.

2 experiments made — cement intact.

(5)TS=i84mm. Air-gap = 40 cc.
B fired. 2 experiments.

(6) TS=i92 mm. Air-gap = 43 cc.

B fired. 2 experiments.

(7) TS=i96 mm. Air-gap = 44"7 cc.

B not fired. 3 experiments.

Thus the limit is to be found between (6) and (7.)

Experiments on the Transmission of Explosions. 21

Second Series of Experiments. — A number of
experiments were next made employing much narrower
tubing to enclose the air-gap, viz., 8-8^ mm. internal
diameter, instead of 20 mm., as in the former experiments.

(1) TS = 275 mm. Air-gap 17*5 cc. Internal diam. 8*5 mm.

B fired. 3 experiments.

(2) TS = 389 mm. Air-gap 27 cc. Bore 8*5 mm.

B fired. 4 experiments.

(3) TS = 532 mm. Air-gap 32^ cc. Bore 8 '5 mm.

B fired. 4 experiments.

(4) TS = 588mm. Air-gap 31^ cc. Bore 8"o mm.

B fired. 4 experiments.

(5) TS = 665 mm. Air-gap 38*2 cc. Bore 8*o mm.

B not fired. 3 experiments.

(6) TS = 656mm. Air-gap 37*6 cc. Bore 8-o mm.

B fired. 2 experiments.

(7) TS = 663 mm. Air-gap 38*1 cc. Bore 8-o mm.

B not fired. 2 experiments.
Thus the limit is found between (6) and (7).

We can now advantageously compare the main results
of these two series of experiments.

In series (1).

If TS =196 mm., and air gap = 447 cc, B is not fired.

If TS= 192 mm., and air gap = 43-0 cc, B is fired.
In series (2).

If TS = 663 mm., and air gap = 38*1 cc, B is not fired.

If TS = 656 mm., and air gap = 37*6 cc, B is fired.

It would appear, therefore, that the question as to
whether B shall be fired by A through a given air gap,
depends upon the volume of air interposed, rather than
upon the length of the column of air.

To test this conclusion a bulb was blown upon a

portion of the glass tubing (bore 8-o mm.) used in series

No. 2, and this was substituted for

a plane glass tube between the two

brass junctions.

22 Experiments on the Transmission of Explosions.

(r) TS= 198 mm. Vol. of air gap 83*5 cc.

B was not fired.
(2) TS= 144 mm. Vol. of air gap 78-8 cc.

B was not fired, though the bulb was filled with flame.

The two experiments last mentioned bear out the con-
clusion that for a given mass of a gaseous explosive minture,
there is a certain minimum mass of air which will, if
interposed between it and another explosive mixture, guard
this last in the manner of a protective shield or plug, and that
it is practically immaterial whether this air be enclosed as a
short and broad, or a long and narrow column.

Functions formed on Groups. 23

The 143 six-letter functions given by the first transitive
maximum groups of six letters, with full exhibition
of the values of the functions. By the Rev. Thos. P.
Kirkman, M.A., F.R.S.

{Received October 20th, i8gi.)

The groups to be treated are the elementary but highly
important ones of my §6, p. 301, Manchester Memoirs, 1862.
They are easily formed for every number n of letters, are
all of the order 2«, and all of the form G + RG, where G is
a transitive group of n powers 1,6, 02,0S. ., whose derived
derangement RG is composed of n square roots of unity.
It happens in the cases of n—6 and «=4 that they are
also maximum groups, (F.G. 4).

To form such a group of order 2;/, we complete under 1,
in unity =i2$...nt any vertical permutation C of the n
elements, and then complete the same circle C under every
element. This gives G.

For RG, we write the same C again under 1 by itself, and
complete C vertically n-\ times more under the other
elements by this rule— In the horizontal line beginning
with e, plant your 1 at the eth place.

For comparison of two given series of Q columns or
rectangles, each containing a function of n letters and its
Q— 1 values, i.e., for comparison of

$+•• and <&••',
it is necessary that <$a and Ob should both exhibit unity
under exactly the same line 2 of n arbitrary Greek ex-
ponents, all different or not all. Then the two series are
one and the same algebraically, when and only when every
value of (3+- • is the same sum of L products of powers, as
is some value of Ot " »

24 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

The title of our 60 equivalent groups of order 62 is
6-2 = l + 26 + 233 + 4222 + 32211 Q = G0.

That they are maximum groups appears from QL = «/,
i.e., 6o'i2 = 6!, L being the order, and Q the number of the
equivalents : (F.G. 4).

I shall refer by (F.G. a, b) to article a and equation b,
in my paper "Functions given by groups," in the Proceedings
and Memoirs of this Society, 1 890- 1 .

The index system S may be any of the nine (F.G. 5, 2)

afiydet, afiyecc, afiyylc, afiyyyy, afifiyyy, aa/3/3yy, aaa/3/3/3,
aa/30/3/3, a/3/3/3/3/3.

We choose the first,

2 = afiySee.

2. The index group determined by 2 is (F.G. 6),

I<+i = 12=123456 =i+0,
123465 = 0

of which the title is 2 = 1 + i2Uu.

Since our title (art. 1) has no subscript 21111, shewing
four elements undisturbed, none of our 60 equivalent groups
under S has any 9 in common with I(+1) (F.G. 12, 15).

Denoting by (234561), a principal substitution of it, the
cyclical group G + RG, we take this (234561) for Gd, and we
form (F.G. 10, 12) by 0 in I,+1 the equivalent of Gd,

0Grf0-1 = Ge = (2346i5),
which determines Ge by one of its two principal substitutions.
This Ge is (F.G. 8) to be marked out of our table (A„) of
60 equivalents.

We take any third group (235164) = Gdd, or, better, G2d,
for our second standard, which marks out
0G2(Z01~ = (236145) = G2c
from the table (A„).

We thus employ 30 standards,

^d> "2d> ^3rf- • • • ^30 d»

Functions formed on Groups. 25

of which each marks out a different group, in the order

*-*<:> *~*2<;j v*8e » • • • ^SOo

where Gi£ = eGidd~\ got by 0 in I,+1.

The 30 standards are written in vertical order in sixes
thus, which are to be read as (&d} 02dJ (J$Mj ®u, QMl (5M)
&C, all under afiycee.

a/3 ydee

a/3ySe e

a/3y£ee

a/3y0ee

a/3yB e e

Gd =234561

251643

342561

356142

452613 Ga5(i

Gw = 235164

251364

345l62

356214

456312

Gw= 235641

254163

345621

362514

465213

Gid= 241563

254631

352164

43526l

534621

G5(,= 246315

256341

35426i

435612

536241

G<w= 245613

265143

3546i2

452361

564231 G30d

<&& ■ • and <3(t+,w
are two different sets of 60 values, each value of 12 products.
And

are two sets of 60 values, each on the left algebraically-
identical with one on the right ; but the values on the left
are found in a different order from their equals on the right.
The 30 groups Gie are thus written in the order of the
standards Gid which mark them out :

Ge

= 234615

2^1531

342615

365 1 24

462531 Gase

Gie

= 236145

261345

316125

36524i

46532 1

G3e

= 236514

264135

346512

35264i

456231

G4

= 241635

264513

362145

4352I5

6345 1 2

G5c

= 245361

265314

364215

436521

635214

Goe

= 246531

256134

364521

462315

654213 G30e

But is this all quite proved ? How do we know, first,
that no one of the 30 standards under 2 has fewer than 60
values ? And, secondly, how do we know that

are none of them true under this 2 ?

26 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

These questions ought to have been put and answered
in (F.G. 12). We here consider them in turn.

3. First, if Gy under 2 has fewer than 60 values there
must be in G/" under 2, i.e., in (B/*-, a repetition of the
value Q>f, and we must have

K0/ = G/, (a)

where KG is a derivate of G}, made by a substitution K ;
for the values of (3/ are obtainable only by substitutions
among the variables under barred or immovable indices :
that is, there is somewhere in the derivate KG7 a substitution
C, which under 2 is Q, algebraically identical with unity
under 2 in (B/> thus making (a) true. This C must therefore
be somewhere in the index group, and is no 9 common to
lt+i and G7; for no derivant C of Gf is in Gf; and not only
has every substitution of Im the value under 2 which
unity under 2 has, but no C having that property is
missing from lt+1. Wherefore when (a) is true there is a
substitution 0j=C in Im, which makes it true, making
C0/=K0/= Of, although

CG/=G/

is always false, if C be not in Gf; and 0/ i.e. Gf under 2,
must be symmetrical in ^the variables transposed by Gt = C.
Examples will occur. It is clear that none of our 60 maxi-
mum groups is, under 2 = a/3yoee, symmetrical in 5 and 6
disturbed by d in lt+1 in art. 2 ; for 5 and 6 carry different
indices all through every (3, except in two products.

Thus we know that no one of our 30 standards under 2
has fewer than 60 values.

Secondly, if
(a) (32<i = (3d, or 0,i+l)d = ed (a")

there must, if a' is true, be a derivate KG2(1, which under 2
has in it a product C algebraically identical with unity in
Gd under 2 ; so that KG2(! is CG2d, which, by what precedes

Functions formed on Groups. 27

in this article, must be 0,G2rf, where 0; = C is in l[+l, and is
no 6 of G2d ; and thus, if a' is true,

algebraically. This makes G2d one of the Ge marked out by
G„ (KG. 8, 5).

But this is impossible, because no new standard Gnd was
ever selected (F.G. 12) from the groups marked out by
preceding standards.

Wherefore neither a' nor a" is ever true of any two of
our retained standards.

We have demonstrated that there are thirty and no more
different functions of 12 terms that have, under 2 = a/3yoee, 60
values. They are formed by writing this 2 over the
rectangles of the maximum groups above given, each
given by a principal substitution, viz., Gd, G2d, ■ • G30d ;
which thus become 60-valued functions.

4. We shall next show how all these 30 functions, with
all their values, can be easily dictated more rapidly than
they can be written down.

Here follows the complete paradigm of the cyclical
maximum group (234561), or G^i = Gd- above handled.

The Paradigm of (234561)+ • ■ = G+- •

I

2

3

4

5

6

123456

124536

125346

123546

125436

124356

234561

24536i

253461

235461

254361

243561

345612

453612

534612

354612

543612

435612

456123

536124

346125

546123

436125

356l24

561234

361245

461253

461235

361254

561243

612345

612453

612534

612354

612543

612345

165432

163542

164352

164532

i63452

165342

654321

635421

643521

645321

634521

653421

543216

3542i6

435216

453216

345216

5342i6

432165

542163

352l64

532164

452l63

342165

321654

421635

521643

321645

521634

421653

216543

216354

216435

216453

216345

216534

2$

The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

7

8

9

10

II

12

123465

124635

126345

123645

126435

124365

234651

246351

263451

236451

26435 1

243651

346512

4635 1 2

6345 1 2

364512

6435 1 2

436512

465123

635I24

345I26

645I23

435I26

365124

651234

35I246

451263

45I236

35I264

651243

5I2346

5 1 2463

5I2634

5 x 2364

5I2643

5 1 2436

156432

153642

154362

154632

153462

156342

56432i

536421

543621

546321

534621

563421

6432I5

364215

436215

463215

346215

634215

432156

642153

362i54

632154

462153

34.2156

321564

421536

621543

321546

621534

421563

215643

215364

215436

215463

215346

215634

13

14

15

16

17

18

123564

125634

126354

123654

126534

125364

235641

256341

263541

236541

265341

253641

356412

563412

635412

365412

653412

536412

564123

634125

354126

654123

534126

364125

641235

341256

541263

541236

341265

641253

412356

412563

412635

412365

412653

412536

146532

143652

145362

145632

143562

146352

465321

436521

45362i

456321

435621

463521

653214

365214

536214

5632i4

356214

6352I4

532146

652143

362I45

632145

562143

352I46

321465

521436

621453

321456

621435

52I463

214653

2i4365

214536

2i4563

214356

214635

19

20

21

22

23

24

124563

125643

126453

124653

126543

125463

245631

256431

264531

246531

265431

254631

456312

564312

645312

465312

654312

546312

563124

643125

453126

653124

543126

463125

631245

431256

53I264

53I246

431265

631254

312456

312564

312645

312465

312654

312546

136542

134652

135462

135642

134562

136452

365421

346521

354621

356421

345621

364521

654213

465213

546213

564213

456213

645213

542136

652134

462135

642135

562134

452136

421365

521346

621354

421356

621345

521364

213654

213465

2 13546

213564

213456

213645

Functions formed on Groups. 29

25

26

27

28

29

30

132564

135624

136254

132654

136524

135264

325641

356241

362541

326541

365241

352641

256413

562413

625413

265413

652413

526413

564132

624135

254136

654132

524i36

264135

641325

241356

541362

541326

241365

641352

413256

4^562

413625

413265

413652

413526

146523

142653

145263

145623

M2563

146253

465231

426531

452631

456231

425631

462531

652314

265314

526314

562314

256314

625314

523*46

653J42

263145

623145

563142

253M6

231465

53M26

63I452

23x456

631425

53*462

3^652

314265

3H526

3M562

3^256

3*4625

31

32

33

34

35

36

132465

134625

136245

132645

136425

134265

324651

346251

362451

326451

364251

342651

246513

462513

624513

2645*3

642513

426513

465132

625134

245x36

645'32

425136

265134

651324

25^46

45I3&2

45T326

25*364

65*342

5:3246

5^3462

5^624

5*3264

5I3642

5*3426

156423

152643

154263

154623

152463

156243

564231

526431

542631

546231

524631

562431

642315

2643^

426315

462315

246315

624315

423156

643I52

263154

623154

463152

243x56

23^64

43*526

63^42

231546

631524

431562

3T5642

3^264

3J5426

3^5462

3^246

3*5624

37

38

39

40

41

42

132456

134526

135246

132546

135426

134256

324561

34526i

352461

325461

35426i

342561

245613

452613

524613

254613

542613

425613

456132

526i34

246135

546132

426135

256134

561324

261345

461352

461325

261354

561342

613245

613452

613524

613254

613542

613425

165423

162543

164253

164523

162453

165243

654231

625431

642531

64523i

624531

652431

542316

2543l6

425316

4523*6

245316

524316

423165

543l62

253l64

523164

453l62

243165

231654

431625

53l642

231645

531624

431652

3l6542

3l6254

3^425

316452

3*6245

316524

30 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

43

44

45

46

47

48

142365

143625

146235

142635

146325

143265

423651

436251

462351

426351

463251

432651

236514

362514

623514

263514

632514

326514

36SJ42

625143

235J46

635M2

325J46

265143

65M23

25J436

35x462

35*4*6

251463

651432

5*4236

5M362

5*4623

514263

5M632

5 1 4.326

156324

152634

153264

i53624

152364

156234

56324i

526341

532641

536241

523641

562341

632415

263415

326415

362415

236415

623415

324i56

634152

264153

624153

364152

234156

241563

34i526

641532

241536

641523

341562

415632

415263

4i5326

415362

415236

415623

49

50

51

52

53

54

142356

143526

145236

142536

145326

143256

423561

435261

452361

425361

453261

432561

235614

3526i4

523614

253614

532614

325614

356142

526143

236145

536142

326145

256143

561423

261435

361452

361425

261453

561432

614235

614352

6t4523

614253

614532

614325

165324

162534

163254

163524

162354

165234

653241

625341

632541

635241

623541

652341

532416

2534i6

325416

3524i6

235416

523416

324165

534i62

254163

524163

354162

234165

241653 341625 541632 241635 541623 341652
416532 416253 416325 416352 416235 416523

55

56

57

58

59

60

152346

153426

154236

i52436

154326

153246

523461

53426i

542361

524361

543261

532461

234615

342615

423615

243615

432615

324615

346152

426153

236154

436152

326154

246153

461523

261534

361542

361524

261543

461532

615234

615342

615423

615243

615432

615324

164325

162435

163245

163425

162345

164235

643251

624351

632451

634251

623451

642351

4325l6

2435l6

3245l6

342516

2345l6

423516

325l64

435l62

245 l63

425163

345l62

235l64

251643

35l624

45l632

251634

45l623

35l642

5 * 6432

5l6243

5l6324

516342

5l6234

516423

Functions formed on Groups. 3 1

If opycte be written in the paradigm over each of the
60 rectangles of 12 substitutions, and if they be then
read as 60 sums of 1 2 products of powers xfxfi . . Xo +

xfx£> .

. X\\ &C,

afoydee

a/3yCee

I23456

and

124536

afiycee

afjySee

+ 234561

+ 245361

aftycee

ajiydee

+ 321654

+ 421635

ct/3yoee

a/3yc$ee

+ 216543

+ 216354

being the two first of the 60 sums, the function on G+ ' ■ is
correctly dictated with its 60 values under S = a/3y^ee.

If we wish to dictate Gt5ii\ page 25, under 2, which is
(452613)+ •• under 2, given by its principal substitution,
whose vertical circle, read under I in the group of its six
powers, is 146325, we have to turn our G+ •■ into Gtsd-

We look for this vertical circle and find it in the 47th
rectangle of G+ ' •, the derivate 146325c,! = fGd.

We want

Ga6g=fGd<l>-1= i46325Gdi46325-1= 1463250^54263 .

The dexter operation of 0_1 = 1 54263 on this47th rectangle
so permutes its entire and unaltered vertical rows, that they
become exactly G25d headed by 123456; and, by writing
over this deranged rectangle our selected 2, we make it
(525rf- We have only thus to derange by <p~x the other 59
rectangles, and to impose over them the same 2, and we
have plainly before us <$t5d, with the function Oua under
«/3ySte in the 47th rectangle.

For one of the 59 is Gd) which so deranged has become
Gaty'1, = <p~1G25d, and is now a derivate of G25d. Another
is BG,,, which has become

BG,^-1 = B<p-\$Gdf-1) = B^G^a, = CGaw,
another derivate of G25d. And thus Gd and the 59 different

32 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

derivates of G(l have become G2S(Z and the 59 different
derivates of G^. We write our 2 over the 60 rectangles, and
(B^;, is complete before our eyes, with G.^ d not first but 47th.

The reader easily sees that in dictating to his own or to
another ear for penning, he could, without displacing rows,
so pronounce the first substitution of every rectangle of
our paradigm, that after completion, under the so deranged
elements of these penned first substitutions of the vertical
rows headed by them in the paradigm, and after writing
our 2 unpermuted over all, Oto'a would be correctly written
down, with G25,; as 47th rectangle. The 60 deranged first
substitutions have secured the position of every vertical row
of all the values under the proper index in 2, and every
product of each value is correct.

Or, simpler still, for dictation by a little girl. The
reader, instead of disturbing the vertical rows of the values,
in order to place each under the right index in 2, could
over all the rectangles by one rule, so permute the indices
as to place the right one over every fixed vertical row. No
product in Gto'j would be altered by thus deranging indices
instead of vertical rows.

In fact, this </>_1 names aloud, by place, the vertical rows
of every rectangle of the paradigm, over which you are to
write the first, second, third, &c, indices of the 2 that makes
GJ" into (3,!'", in order to turn that rectangle, as it stands,
into a value of Q.^a under that unaltered 2. Was ever the
reader's faith so tried before ? I hope they won't burn me
for a witch !

I have the right, and I beg permission here, to say, as a
very old clergyman under solemn ordination-vows, that the
real conjuring, which I am here doing, beats into fits that
ancient altar-conjuring which the clever craftsmen of my
cloth are now so triumphantly restoring. This conjuring
of mine will be both sacred and celebrated, when their
celebrations are all again historical rubbish.

Functions formed on Groups. 33

As soon as the reader is familiar with these few considera-
tions, all easily verifiable on the paradigm, and has proceeded
a little way into this paper, he will find that he has broken
every bone in the body of the champion problem of many-
valued functions of n variables. For what has just been stated
about dictation, by a little girl from one paradigm, of all the
values of every function given by the first maximum groups
of n = 6 elements, is equally true and practicable from one
paradigm for 11 = 600 elements, if only the girl can pronounce
in order correctly the figures or letters of a line so long.

And the one paradigm needs not be the cyclical. That
of any equivalent will serve equally well; but the cyclical
is most easily surveyed, because every substitution of it is,
backwards or forwards, in clear order 2n times cyclically
read. That is the only eminence or precedence which the
cyclical has over any other of the Q equivalents. It has
been deservedly preferred ; but has been very much over-
valued by writers who have rarely condescended to glance
at the equivalents.

5. As our title (art. 1) has no subscript containing in,
showing three circles of order one under unrepeated
exponents, none of our 60 equivalents has a substitution 0 of
the index group determined by 2. This group is, m = o,

I(+i = 10=123456 (F.G. 12, 15)

123564 = 6!
123645 = 6)3

i23465 = e8
123654 = 6*4

123546 = 65
Taking (234561) for G,,, we form

e123456i6»r1=235i64 = Gel; 02Gda~1 = 236514 = Ge2 ;

0sGA-1 = 234615 = Gc8 ; 6>4Grf6V = 236145 = Ge4 5

05GA~1== 235641 = Ge5;
and we mark out the five G/s as giving all the same (3<t ' ' ,
D

34

The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman

which contains 60 values, because (£<; is not symmetrical in
456 nor in any pair of them (art. 2). &d is one of our
sought functions.

We next take any seventh unmarked equivalent, 241563,
for G.,d, and by the same five 0's we obtain five groups more,
G2e G2ei- • • Go£5, to be marked out as all giving the function
and values ($?d". ($2d 1S another of our sought functions.

Thus we go on till we have ten standards selected from
groups unmarked, each heading, as follows, a line of five
groups Gie marked out by it.

2 = a/3yC()($.

Gf! =(234561): 235164; 236514; 234615
GM= (241563): 251364; 241653; 261345
G3d=(2463i5): 254631; 265143; 245361
£*<* = (245613): 256341; 264135; 246531
G5d = (34256i): 352164; 362514; 342615
G6d=(345l62): 3562I4; 364521; 346125
G7d = (34562 !): 356142; 346512; 365124
G8d=(43526i): 536124; 634512; 436215
G9d= (435612): 536241; 634125; 436521
G1o(i = (4563I2): 564231; 645123; 465321

Of these standards the last only is so symmetrical under 2
that a substitution C of Im gives

C6i<w = <Bio* (art. 3).

And every substitution of I<+1 is such a C.

This G^J =(456312) gives under 2 the function, 8>o,

a/3ycco aftycoo

6104=123456 + 456123

+ 231456 + 564123

+ 312456 + 645123

+ 132456 + 465123

+ 321456 + 654123

+ 213456 + 546123

which is six times repeated in Otoa' ' ar)d has therefore twelve

terms and ten values. There are but ten ways of making

236145; 23564i-

26i534; 251643.

2645^; 256134.

265314; 245163.

362145; 352641.

365241; 3546i2.

354261; 364215-

635^2; 534621.

635214; 534i62.

654213; 546i32-

Functions formed on Groups. 35

out of six letters a triplet containing 1 ; and every such
triplet under a/3y determines a value of the function.

2 = aftycll.
It is thus demonstrated that under 2 there are nine dis-
tinct functions, <3(i, 02*... <B9rf, each of 60 values and of 12
terms, and one function, 01Od of 10 values and of 12 terms.
All of them are easily dictated, with all their values, from our

cyclical paradigm of G^Uei-

2 = afiyyccJ.

6. Our title, art. 1, has three subscripts 221 1. That of
the entire group of order 6 ! has 45 of them. By

60-32211 = 4-452211
we see that four, and only four, of our 60 equivalent maxi-
mum groups have the same one of the 45. Of the four
containing 124365 two are

Grf= 123456 123456 = G2(1

356142 542631

642315 364125

215634 216543

534261 45T362

461523 635214

6=124365 124365 = 9

465132 632541

532416 453I26

216543 215634

643251 361452

351624 546213

Both have 0 of the index-group, which group of 4 is
broken up into up into the product of two groups, thus
I,+i = 1^=123456 =123456x123456 =J2xH2.

124365 = 6 6 = 124365 124356 = \
123465 = 0
i24356 = X.
We here require a theorem.

Theorem T. If It+] be any group of order t+i, of u
elements, which is the product of two groups J„l+1 and

$6 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

HA+1 of orders in + i and h+ i, that have no common sub-
stitution ; and if Gd be any maximum group of the n
elements, which has, in common with

i,+1 = i + e + e + • • + em (d)

+ Xi + x2 + ■ ■ + \h
+ 6, + 62 + • • + Bt_m_ht
the subgroup

Jm+i=i + 0i + ©2 + - - + em,

and no other substitution of I,+l ; then if

HA+1=i +\1 + Xa+ ■■ + Xh,
the h groups

XiGrfXf , X2GdX r 1... XhGdXh 1 ,

are h different maximum groups, equivalents of
For, be it supposed that two are equal, as
^aGdX~l = XhGd\ix ;
it follows that

XjT XaGd = Grf\4 Aa, i.e ,
XcGd = GdXc.

This is possible only on condition either that
\Gd = Gd = GdXc
shewing that Xc is in Grf, or that

XeGd = GdXc,
shewing that Xc Gd is a derived derangement of Gd

The first is impossible, because G^ has only unity in
common with Hh+1 ; and the second is impossib e, because
Grf is a maximum group (F.G. 4).
Wherefore all the 1 +/i groups

GdiXjGtfAf1} XaGdXjT •-•AjG(A«

are different maximum groups

The equation (d) above is (F.G. 8, 7) n more defined
form.

In this theorem in is not limited, being ;;/>o. When

m = o, h = t, IM 1 = H,_ 1 , Jw+i = Ji 1

Functions formed on Groups. 37

being unity ; and the number of different equivalents of
Grf is /. We proceed with S = afiyyll.

7. In the case before us we take the above Gd = (356142),
which has in common with 1,+1 the sub-group (art. 6)

J2 = 1 + O, and we have
H2 - 1 + A.
Wherefore

AGrfX"^ 1 24356 -356142 -124356 = (45 1632) = Ge

and this G, is to be marked out of our table of 60 equiva-
lents, because

We have here no use for 6 in I(+1, for it gives

0G.6-1 = XeGrfO^A-1 = \Ga\~1. = Ge
just found.

Thus it suffices, as was promised in (F.G. 13), to use
only the factor-group H2, and there is no inelegance of
repeated outmarking.

Taking next G2d = (542631), we obtain, by the same Ho,

G2<! = \G2(J\~1 = (635i24) or its reciprocal (452631),
which is also to be marked out.

We retain Gd and Gid, which have, under 2, 60 values each
of 6 terms (F.G. 13) ; unless the reader can find a C = K in
I,+1, which makes (a) art. 3, true of one or of both.

There remain 60 — 4=56 of our 60 groups which have
no 9 in common with I,+1, which now is (m = 6)

I«+i =Is+i= I23456 = H3+1
124365 = 6!
123465 = 63
124356 = 63

Taking as GD 234561, we form

VJaflT1- 246315, 6,GD6^ = 234615, 63GD63-1= 245361,
which are GEl, GE.2, Ge3, and are to be marked out, as all
giving the function and value 6+' ■ under a(lyy$&

3»

The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman

on

We then take at random G2D = 235614, on which we form
G2ei> G2e2, G2e3, to be marked out ; and then we proceed to
register 14 different standards GmD,each in a line with three
marked out by it, all by 0lf 0,,, 03, as follows :

2 = a/3yy££.

16315. 2:

^635, 23
56514, 24
HI35. 2t

>5I43» 2t

>53I4, zf

5526i, 34

51625, 4^

356l2» 3'

552I3, 4;

22315, 3<

55321, 3(

'253i> 4!

54231, 5^

The 14 standards are retained as all giving different
functions of twelve terms.

As to the numbers of their values, we see, by 34, 56, 21, in
its line, that G9d, if any, has a symmetry under 2, that may
for some 0 = C in Im make a, art. 3, true. We soon find that
each of the 3 0's is such a C, and that (3gD is thereby four
times repeated in Oik' ", and thus has only 15 values.

Q9d is the following 15-valued function (§>0) :

a/3 a/3 yyec yy^c
(12 + 21X3456 + 5634)
(34 + 43)(56l2 + i256)
(56 + 65X1234 + 3412)

which is all to be read under 2, i*2i33'J,4''586s + &c. We
have thus proved that there are constructible under

2 = a/3yy?£.

16 different functions, namely

GD

234561

246315.

234615,

245361 =G

g2d

235164:

241635,

236145,

241563;

G3D

235641

236514,

246315,

245613;

G4D

25*364

264135,

261345,

254163;

GfiD

251643

265143,

261534,

256134;

G6D

254631

265314,

264513,

256341 ;

g7d

342615

43526i,

342561,

436215,

Gsd

345l62

431625,

43i562>

346125;

G9D

345621

435612,

346512,

436521 ;

GlOo

35264i

465213,

456231,

362514;

Gud

35426i

462315,

364215,

452361 ;

Gi2D

3546i2

465321,

364521,

456312 ;

Gl3D

356214

462531,

452613.

365241 ;

Gl4D

534621

• 564231,

546321,

562341 =Gj

Functions formed on Groups. 39

Two, (3i ' ' and Oik " ' each of 6 terms and 60 values.
One (Bud* '1 of 12 terms and 15 values.
Thirteen others, <3£> ' ' above written as GrD, each of 1 2
terms and 60 values.

S = a/3yyyy.

8. We consider again the two groups Grf = 356142, and
G2(i = 542631 of art. 6. Both have 9=124365 in common
with our new index group I(+, = I24.

But we cannot write L4 as the product of two groups
Hl2, and J3 = 1 + 124365, because the only H12 contains this
Jn. We must then write l2i as the product of three
groups, thus :

I24 = H6-K2-J2 = 123456 x 123456 x 123456 =Hfi1R4
\1i24536 125634 = * 124365 = 6
X2i25346
*3i23546
X4i 25436
\Bi24356

We require here another theorem.

Theorem U. If lm is any group of n elements, of
order t+i, and is the product of two groups HA+1 and
IKuH-iXm+D °f which the latter is the product of two groups
Kk+1 and Jm+1, such that no two of the groups H, K, and J
have a common substitution, and where

Hft+i=i +\i + X2+ .. +\h,

K.jfc+1 = I + Tjl + ?/2 + . . + 1]k,

Jm+i = i + ei + e2 + ,, + e„1I

so that, in form more explicit than in (F.G. 8, 7).

It+i = 1 + Qi + ©2 + . . +Qm
+ \i + \2+ . . +\h

+ V1 + V2+ " + >lk

+ dx + 02 + • • + Qt-m-h-k )

then, if Gd be any maximum group of the n elements,

40 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

which has in common with l/+1 the subgroup Jm+1 and no
more, the h groups ■

are different equivalents of Gd, and the k groups

ViGavT1 + v&d07l + •• +VkGdVkl

are different equivalents of G,, ; but it is not hereby affirmed
that these h + k groups are h + k different equivalents of Gd.
For let it be supposed that

vaGdr)~1 = r)bGU)ii;1;
it follows that

m1iaGd=Gdr]blVa, i>e- veGd=GdT)c,

which is impossible unless either

VcGd= Gd=Gdr]c

showing that vr is in Gd, or

VcGd = Gdr)c,
shewing that icGd is a derived derangement of Gd. But the
first is untrue because Gd has only 9's and has no vc m
common with I(+i : and the second is impossible, because
Gd is a maximum group.

In like manner can be proved, exactly as in art. 6, that
no two of the aforesaid h equivalents of Gd are alike.

Thus theorem U is demonstrated.

g. Returning to (356142) (art. 8 and 6) as our Gd under
2 = 0/37777, we f°rrn with the X's of Hc the equivalents

XjGdXf , X2G,iXr , A3GdX;7 , X4GfZXi , XBG,jX5 , i.e.,
G<i = 4356l2>Gc2 = 3642i5,Gc3 = 3465i2)Ge4 = 534i62,G,5 = 45l632

which five are marked out by Gd, as all giving the same ($p .
Taking next (542631) art. 6 for G2(/, we get by the same

H6

G2«i = 354261, G2e2 = 452.3,61, G2r3 = 436521,

G2,4 = 34562I> G2e5 = 536241-

five groups marked out by G,d as all giving the same 62V'-

Functions formed by Groups. 41

Since >; in K2 (art. 8) is in It+] and is no 6, Gd is bound
(F.G. 8, 5) to mark out the group (F.G. 10)

rjGar)-1= 125634 -356142- 125634 = 536241=02,5 above.
Wherefore

and we have proved that

(B^--=(B2+e6'-,

whence

and all the 2*6 functions under 2 = aj3yyyy,

et-, (Be+l"...,(Bi--(32el...,

are the same function.

For the function Grf, i.e., 356142, of art. 6 under 2, is

a/3 a/3 a/3 a/3 a/3 a/3 =

2[(i2 + 21X3456) +(35 + 53)(i246) +(64 + 46X1235) J (y>o).

This is invariable by each of the substitutions
1, 125634, 123654, 125436,
which are all in Im and none of them in Gd (art. 6). Any
one of them is C giving (art. 3).

C0d = (3d,
wherefore (Bd is four times repeated in &%' '> and all the
aforesaid 12 are the same 15-valued function with its
values.

92. The cyclical GD= 234561 (2=aj3yyyy) has no 9 in
common with Lt, which is

= H24 x Ji

124=123456

12346512

X1I24365

12435613

X2i 26543

12564314

V25634

12653415

^123564

12365416

X5I25346

126345^

^124653

12456318

X7i 26435

12543619

X8i 23645

12354620

X9i 26354

12536421

X10i 25463

12645322

Xni 24536

12463523

42 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

If we name the 23 substitutions following unity,
010*03 ... 023, we get, for && = Q£x&\ GBa = 0aGD02-1, &c.

tO Gk23 = O^Gd^1,

the 23 groups here under written after GD = 234561 :

2 = aftyyyy.

GD (23456l)> 235164, 236514, 234615, 236145, 235641 ,»

GEi (246315), 254631, 265143, 245361, 264513, 256134 BM

GE2 (261345), 265314, 246531, 251364, 256341, 245613 R3J

GE3 (254163), 241635, 251643, 264135, 241563, 261534 Ko_,

These 23 are marked out by GD as all giving (3£ " '.
That GD is 60- valued is plain if we put y = o in GD ; for

aft aft aft a/3 a/3 a/3 a/3 a/3 aft aft aft aft

12 + 21 + 23 + 32 + 34 + 43 + 45 + 54 + 56 + 65 + 6l + 16 = <3„,

is a 60-valued function, and the 23 equivalents must be all
60- valued also. The function on G^ " is retained.

There are 60 — 1 2 — 24 = 24 groups yet unmarked. We
take 342615 for G2D. It has no 9 in common with L4
On this we form, by the same AiX2. • X23,

XlG2D\i =GaElj X2G2rA2~1 = G2E2, &c,
which are thus written after G2„ which marks the 23 out.

2 = aftyyyy.

G2D = (3426l5), 352641, 362145, 342561, 362514, 352164, E20

G2Ei, (43526i), 536l24> 634512, 436215, 635142, 534621, E2t

G2K2, (654132), 641532, 45I263, 564123, 541623, 461235, E22

G2E3, (561324), 465213, 546321, 651342, 456231, 645312, Ejs

The function of this group under S,
G2D= 123456 165432

342615

546213

264531

62435 1

456123

432165

615342

213546

531264

35l624

is that under 2 of its derivates by 125346, 124536,
124356, 125436, 123546, which are in \U) but not in

Functions formed on Groups. 43

G,D. Oin therefore has only 10 values, which are 6
times repeated in (&£/ \ Wherefore G,D, and every group
marked out by it give that 10- valued function, and G2d is
retained.

Under 2 = apyyyy,

we have won three functions :

(5d = (356142) has six terms and fifteen values :
0D = (234561) has twelve terms and sixty values :
0.2D = (342615) has twelve terms and ten values.
2 = «/3/3yyy.
10. The maximum groups

Gi= 123456 132546 G2d= 123456 132546

465213 5643i2 251364 341265

231645 321654 562143 463^2

654321 645231 645231 654321

312564 213465 436512 526413

546132 456123, 3^625 215634
have each 132546 in common with I12, which here is

I(+i = Ii2= 123456+ 132456= 123456x123456 = HJ2.

61123564 132564 123564X1 132546 =e

62123645 132645 123645X3

08i 23465 132465 123465X3

64123654 132654610 123654X4

65123546 132546611 123546X5

< Taking 0^ = 465213, above written, we get, by aid of

He,

XiGjX"1, X2G„X7\ X3GdX3~\ X&aK1, X5GdXorl, which are

546321, 465321, 456231, 564231, 456312, or
Gei Ge2 . . . Ge6j
to be marked out by Gdt as all giving G£ ' ', all functions of
6 terms. (F.G. 13).

It is evident in these five groups that every substitution
of H6 is a C, no Q, making (art. 3).

06,1=6.
a true, so that Od is six times repeated in G j • • under 2 and is a
ten-valued function, as are all the five G,7~i ' ', &c, marked out.

44 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

Taking now 0.^=251364, above given, we obtain by Hfi
G2rf, G^ . . Gof5 to be marked out by G2d. These are 261 534,
241563, 261345, 251643, 241635. G2i has no symmetry
under 2 in 23 or in 456, wherefore §.,a is a function of 6
terms and of 60 values. We retain Od and (32rf as won
functions.

There are 60- 12 = 48 groups not marked out. Taking
GD = 234561, which has no substitution 6 in common with
I12, as is clear by a glance at the substitutions beginning in
our paradigm with 1 , we name as above the 1 1 0's of I12, and
obtain 1 1 groups GE1, GE2. . GE11 to be marked out by Gp.
Then taking at random, as we require them, three more
standards, G2D, G3D, G4D, we obtain three more elevens,
G2 Ei, &c-j G3E], &c, G4E1, &c, to be marked out.

These elevens are all written below, headed by the
standards which mark them out.

2 = afjfiyyy.

GD =(234561),

235l64,

2365H,

234615,

236145,

235641,

342561,

352164,

362514,

342615,

362145,

352641.

God -(256341),

264135,

245613,

265314,

254163,

246531,

365241,

346125,

354612,

3562i4,

345l62,

364521-

G8D = (256134),

264513,

245361.

265143,

254631,

246315,

365124,

346512,

35426i,

356142,

345621,

364215.

G1D = (436521),

462315,

542631,

4356i2,

452361,

5362411

462531,

436215,

534621,

452613,

43526i,

562341.

The reader, if he likes to construct (art. 1) the last three
standards, will satisfy himself that by the absence of sym-
metry under, /3/3 and yyy, they are all proved to have 60
values.

Thus we have demonstrated that there are,

under n/3/3yyy,

six distinct functions constructible, namely,

(3d =465213, which has 6 terms and 10 values,
(3od= 251364, which has 6 terms and 60 values,

Functions formed on Groups. 45

and (BD= 234561, (32D = 256341, (58D= 256134, and (B4D = 43652 1,
each of the four having 12 terms and 60 values.
2 = aa/3/jyy.

Hi. The group of order 6! has I52„2 in its title: in our
title, art. I. stands 4222. The equation

6o,4222= 16-15222.
shows that each of the 1 5 is found in 16 of our 60 equivalents.
Of the 16 containing each 214365, four are

G^ 123456

G2d= 123456 G3(i = 123456 Gid= 123456

43652r

254631 3*6245 462315,

561234

536142 635124 356241

6 = 214365

341265 564312 215634

345612

462513 452631 641523

652143

615324 241563 534162

125634

163542 132654 126543

654321

645231 © = 214365 532614

341256

432156 425136 643251

216543

35l624 546213 6 = 214365

563412

526413 653421 35M26

432i65

6 = 214365 361542 465132

The index group is

13=123456 = 123456x123456 =HJ2

124365 2I3465XJ 214365 = 6

123465 124365X2

124356 214356X3

213456

214365 = 6

213465

214356

Taking ir

1 turn

G,j, Gzd, G3(/, G4rf,

above for standards, we get on them by XiX2X3 four threes,

G,,i &c, G2ei &c., G3ei &c, G4cl &c,

to be marked out.

These four threes are written as follows, each three

headed by the standard that marks it out.

46 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirk man on

S = oa/3/3yy.

Od =(436521), GM =(254631), GM = (316245), G4<l= (462315)
Gei= 651234, G2ol = 614523, G3el= 235164, G4el= 541362
Gt2 = 561243, G2(>2 = 265314, 0*2 = 412563, G4c2 = 354261
<Vi= 562I34, G2f3= 516342. G3c2 = 241635, G4e3= 634125
Our first standard under 2 (Bd is invariable by

XiX2Xs, i.e. \\Q>a = (3,j = ^2v?<i = X3(3<i >
so that Od is four times repeated in (BJ", and has only 15
values, as have also those marked out by it. (B2(?, (53(Z, and
(3Irt, having no such symmetry under aa/3/3yy, have 60
values ; and all the four standards under 2 have 6 terms.

ii2. The group (356142), (art. 6), has 6=124365 in
common with I8, which is now divided into products thus :

I8= 123456 x 123456 =HVJ'2.

Xi2i4356 124365 = 9
X22i3456
XS124356
Calling (356142) Gs, we get on it by Xi\2X3 in H4,
Gu = 6352i4, 6,2 = 365124, 0^=642513,
all to be marked out by Gs because they all give ($p:
1 1:;. The group which we take as G2S,
G2s= 123456 132654

456231 654321

23!564 32I546

564312 546213

312645 213465 = 9

645I23 465132

has 213465 in common with Is, which is now written

I8= 123456 x 123456 = H/J2"

X1214356 213465 = 9
X2213456
^124356
The preceding H'4 x J'2 being altered only in the second
factor. By the same X^Xg we get on G2S.

6^ = 532641, G2£2 = 546i32, 63,3 = 352641,
which three are marked out by G2§.

Functions formed on Groups. 47

n4. We take for G3s 462531, which is

G3s= 123456 i53624

462531 645231

516324 214356 = 0

341265 36l542

254613 5264i3

635*42 432165
and has 214356 in common with I8, which is now written

18=123456x123456 =H/J/'

^213465 214356 = 6
/"2213456

/M 23465
We get on

462531 = G3S by w^ in H4",

£3*1 = 541623, 6^2 = 641532, 03,3 = 452163.

The groups Ga, G2s, G3s, mark out each three, thus written ;

2 = aa/3/3yy.

Gs =(356142), G81 = 6352i4, G£2 = 365i24, 0^=642513;

G2S = (456231), G2£l = 532641, G2S2 = 546132, G2£3 = 352641;

G3S = (46253i), G3£1=-54i623, 6^2 = 641532, 63*3 = 452163.

We have given account of 7 standards and of 21 groups
marked by them.

Gs, G2s and GsS have no such symmetry under ao, (3ft, and
yy, that any C in I8 can make

C6/= 0/, art. 3,
true of any one of them. All three have 60 values.

n5. There remain 60-28 = 32 groups unmarked, which
have no substitution of Ig, which is now to be written
18=123456 21345664 -Hs-Jj

21436561 : 12436465
21435662 1243566s

213465^3 12346567

Taking at random from groups unmarked, as we require
them,

GD= 234561, GSD= 245613, G3D = 3426i5, 6^ = 354612,

G3D =

:I23456,

Gf4D =

=123456

342615,

354612

264531,

416235

GyEl,

346125,

"4 El,

456312

*~r3E2)

436215,

"4E2,

534621

*~*3E3,

352164,

G4e3,

562341

vx8E4j

43526l,

*-T4E4,

3645 2 I

GjE6j

362145,

^es,

564231

G3E6j

342561,

^Jr4ECj

465321

G3E7,

345l62,

^4E7,

546321

48 The Rev. Thos. P. Kirkman on

we get upon them by did,- -dly the three sevens here below
written under the standards which mark them out.
2 = na/3/3yy.
Gr> = 1 23456, G2D = 1 23456,
234561, 245613,

345612, 461325,

Gei, 415362, G2El, 316524,

Gb2, 245361, G.2E2, 416532,

Gb3) 3r4562, G2E3, 246531,

Ge*, 246315, G2E4, 235641,

GEB, 314625, G2E5, 236514,

GE6, 234615, G2E6, 415623,

GE7, 416325, G2E7, 315642,

We have thus given account of our 60 groups under
S = act/3/3yy. The reader will easily satisfy himself that no
substitution C of I8 can make

CG = 6 (a, art. 3).

true of any one of our 1 1 retained standards except the
first, Ocl. art. iix.

We have proved that 1 1 distinct functions are given
under aa/3/3yy; viz., putting = for given upon,

(3^ = 436521 has 6 terms and 15 values ;

0^=254631, ($^ = 316245, and 6^ = 462315 have each 6

terms and 60 values ;
(3^ = 356142, 025 = 456231, and 633 = 462531 have each 6

terms and 60 values ;
(3d =234561, ^20 = 245613, and <Bsn = 342615, and &id

= 354612 have each 12 terms and 60 values.
S = aaa/3/3/3

12. Our index group is I33. The group (456312), viz. :
Gd= 123456+ 13254663

456312 546213

6,312645 21365465

645231 654321

©1231564 32146564

564123 465132

Functions formed an Groups. 49

has the subgroup J0 marked in it in common with

1,6=123456 x 123456 =JB-H6

23I5640i i23564\x

31264563 123645X2

13254663 123465X3

32146564 123654X4

21365465 123546X5
On

Gd = 456312 by Xr "Xs in H6

we get the 5 equivalents marked out by Gd, which are
564231, 645123, 465321, 654213, 546132, or Ger--Ge6.
This Grf, being identical with its five derivatives, XxG^, &c,

under 2, has two terms and 10 values, as have the five

Gei . . . Ge5.

The cyclical GD= (234561) has, in common with I36'

9 = 321654. The index group is

I36= 123456 + X9132564 x 123456 = H18-J2,
Xi23i456 X1032i564 321654 = 6
X0312456 XU2 13564
X.,132456 Xiai 23645
X432i456 X13231645
X52 13456 X14312645
X6i 23564 X15i23645
X723i564 X1632i645
X83i2564 Xi72i3645
where H18 =. 1 + X2 + X2 4- • ' + Xn.

We obtain on 234561 by Hls the 17 equivalents GEi " " .
Gei7 marked out by GD, which are below headed by GD.
2 = aaaftj3(3.

<:,,( 234561)

6235164

12236514

Gei43x562

7531264

13631524

2241563

8251364

H261534

3342561

9352164

15362514

4412563

10512364

10612534

rt1^62

n3 J 5 264

173 1 6524

All these, like -the standard (5D, have under S 6 terms
and 60 values.
E

50 The Rev. Tiios. P. Kirkman on

There remain 60-6- 18 = 36 groups unmarked which
have no substitution of I3e. One of these is
Ga= 123456+ 146253

264135 432r65

6SI243 35J426

532614 564312 _

346521 623541 '

415362 215634

If we add to H18, above written, its derivate by 321654,
we have I36 before us, which is I36= 1 + Xi + X2 + ' ' " + A35-

On Ga = 264135 we get by these \x. X2,' ' X36 the 35
equivalents marked out by Ga. They are all that remain
of the 60 groups, and it is not necessary to write them
down. They all give the function (3A- ".

We have proved that under 2aaa/3/3/3,
there are three functions obtained :

(3d has 2 terms and 10 values ;
(3d has 6 terms and 60 values ;
(3 a has 12 terms and 60 values.

S = an/7/3/3/3.

13. The Group Ga = 234561 has 216543 in common with

I48=Ia4x 123456 =H2J2

216543 = 8

where H24 is exactly H 4 = I24 of art. g2.

Ga here marks out the 23 groups, which under
2 = a/3yyyy it marked in that art. g2, and which are there
headed by it as GD, which had no 9 in common with I.2t

under a/3yyyy.

(3a is now a 60-valued function of 6 terms.

The group 342615 = G2D of art. g.2 is here our standard
Goa, and marks out by the same H24 in that article the 23
groups that therein stand under it as G2d, which had no 9

of I2t under a/3yyyy.

(32a is a function here of 6 terms only.

G.>A is under this 2 in its 6 terms, as its twelve terms

Functions formed on Groups. 5 1

were under afiyyyy in art. g2, invariable by the same five
derivants, 125346, 124536, 124356, 125436, 123546. It has
therefore only 10 values.

The group Gs = 356142, which as Grf in arts. 91 and 8 had
only 124365 in common with Lj, has here, as

03=123456 + 12436561
356142 465132
642315 532416
62215634 21654363
534261 643251
461523 35l624,
four 6's of I18, which is now written

148=123456x123456 =H12-J4

Xii24536 I243650i

X„I 25346

215634©:;

X3I24356

21654363

^4l 23546

X6I 25436

\62 I3456

\72i4536

A82 15346

\9214356

X102I3546

A11215436

By this Hl2 we form on 1

Gs=356i42 the 11 to be marked

out by Gs, which are thus headed by Gs under aa/3j3/3/3 ;

03(356142)

5362410*6

0*1435612

345621 7

.541362

452361 8

s45l632

542631 9

4346512

436521 10

553416?

354261 11

and which were marked out in art. 91 under a/37777.

This 356i42 = Gs. has under 2 three terms only (F.G.13)
and being invariable under 2 bv 213456, 125436, and
215436, which are in I12 and not in Gs, has fifteen values
Od being four times repeated in (5§ ".

52 The Rev. Tiios. P. Kirkman on

We have proved that there are given under

2 = aa/3/3/3/3.
©A = (234561) having 6 terms and 60 values,
©2A = (342615) having 6 terms and 10 values,
©5 = (356142) having 3 terms and 15 values.

2 = a/3/3/3/3/3.

There is one function of 6 terms and one value.
14. We appear to have constructed on the first 60 equiva-
lent transitive maximum groups of 6 letters, whose title is

6-2 = l+26+233 + 4222+322„, Q=60,
all possible many-valued functions, viz. :

under aftycerj,
60 functions each of 12 terms and of 60 values :

under a/3y3ee,
30 functions of 12 terms and of 60 values :

under o/3yc)c)c>,
g functions of 12 terms and of 60 values ;

1 function of 12 terms and of 10 values :

under a/3yycc,

2 functions of 6 terms and of 60 values ;
1 function of 12 terms and of 15 values ;
13 functions of 12 terms and of 60 values :

under «/3yyyy,
1 function of 6 terms and of 15 values ;
1 function of 12 terms and of 60 values ;
1 function of 12 terms and of 10 values :

under a/3/3yyy,
1 function of 6 terms and of 10 values ;
1 function of 6 terms and of 60 values ;
4 functions of 1 2 terms and of 60 values :

under no/3/3yy,
1 function of 6 terms and of 15 values;
6 functions of 6 terms and of 60 values ;
4 functions of 1 2 terms and of 60 values :

Functions formed on Groups. 5 3

under aaa/3/3/3,
1 function of 2 terms and of 10 values ;
1 function of 6 terms and of 60 values ;
1 function of 12 terms and of 60 values :

under oa/3/3/3/3,
1 function of 6 terms and of 60 values ;
1 function of 6 terms and of 10 values;
1 function of 3 terms and of 1 5 values' :

under a/3,3/3/3/3.
1 function of 6 terms and of 1 value.
In all, 143 different functions.

I believe that no difficulty, which has not been overcome
in the pages preceding, will be found in giving an equally
good account of all the many-valued functions constructible
on any tribe of maximum groups of n letters ; and this by
inspection of the paradigm of any one only of the equiva-
lent groups, whether transitive or not.

P.S. — I must beg leave to withdraw my unguarded promise in
the last page of " Functions given by Groups." E.G., the 6-valued
function of Serret (KG. 16) has no value which can be so written,
that when exponents are effaced it shall be a single group.

In my 87th year I can safely predict that this will be my last
contribution to the theory of Groups and their Functions. My
last word on the more difficult, but not less (over 34 years ago)
fully worked out, Theory of the Polyedra, is to be found (I have
a few copies to give) in Vol. XLIII. of the Proceedings of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool. Vide'm C.R. the
Prize Questions, proposed at Paris in 1858, for i860 and 1861.

Concerning the opinion of any living reader, upon what was
30 years ago by the R.S. permitted to appear of my Polyedra, I
have to say exactly what I said in P.G., p. 19, about groups and
their functions.

54 Proceedings.

General Meeting, November 3, 1891.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

Mr. Edward Halkyard, of Knutsford, and Professor
Arthur W. Hare, M.B., F.R.C.S.E., F.R.S.E., of the
Owens College, Manchester, were elected ordinary members
of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, November 3, 1891.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

Mr. Harry Grimshaw, F.C.S., read a paper " On the
Purification of Sewage." An animated discussion ensued,
in which Mr. S. Clement Trapp, Mr. William Thomson,
F.C.S., Dr. Schunck, Mr. Joseph Corbett, Mr. S. B. Wor-
THINGTON, and others took part. The general conclusion
was that the possibility of making waters, polluted by
sewage and industrial refuse, optically pure by means of
chemical precipitation was no longer a matter of doubt,
but that the practicableness of any of the methods pro-
posed must depend on cost and on the possibility of
disposing of the precipitated matter. Mr. Joseph Corbett
spoke in high terms of praise of the results already obtained
by the Salford Corporation in dealing with the sewage
pollution of the I r well.

Sewage Precipitation. 55

Notes on Sewage Precipitation. By Harry Grimshaw,
F.C.S.

{Received December, iot/1, iSpi.)

Among the innumerable chemical substances which
have been used for the precipitation of the impurities in
sewage, the salts of iron have of late years come prominently
to the front, and have been much studied and experimented
with in this relation. Both the natural and artificial iron
compounds have been used with considerable success in
different parts of the country.

The authorities of Buxton have taken advantage of a
natural iron water, which they have conveyed a distance of
a mile and adopted as the precipitating medium for their
sewage, with the addition of a little lime.

The success of the Buxton process is such, that the river
Wye below the sewage works contains, I believe, fish which
greatly exceed in size and number those in the same river
above the sewage outfall.

The Metropolitan Board of Works, it is stated, found
very considerable benefit accrue from the addition of a few
grains per gallon of an iron salt to the London sewage. In
fact, experts are apparently coming to the conclusion that
the salts of iron, if they can be procured at a cheap enough
rate, are bound to be of great assistance in sewage puri-
fication. This is not only so in England, but is also being
discovered on the Continent, as indicated, for instance, by
the work done by some of the foreign chemists, as stated
in recent numbers of the Chemical Trade Journal.

I do not propose, at present, to go into any exhaustive
analysis of the respective merits of the numerous and
various salts of iron which have been investigated in this

56 Mr, Harry Grimshaw on

connection, but merely to call attention to some experi-
ments of my own with a special preparation of a per-salt of
iron, which is, I understand, coming into use, and which
would appear to be destined to take a high place as a
sewage precipitant. It is a solution of the perchloride and
peroxide of iron prepared in the following manner : — A
peroxide of iron, either anhydrous or hydrated, but in
either case free from ferrous compounds, is dissolved to
saturation in hydrochloric acid, and to this solution
hydrated ferric oxide is then added, which dissolves largely
in the ferric chloride, forming a basic chloride or oxy-
chloride of iron. This compound appears to have very
great power of precipitation on the impurities of sewage,
which is possibly due to its great neutrality and to the easy
dissociation of the basic compound. The excess of oxide
of iron, also, no doubt, " weights " the precipitated matters,
and helps to cause a quick subsidence.

The three points I wish to illustrate by my experiments
are (i) the remarkably quick action of the salt in causing
coagulation and precipitation of the sewage ; (2) to show
that the conditions of acidity, alkalinity, or neutrality affect
the action of sewage precipitants very materially ; (3) that
by a proper method of treatment some manufacturing
effluents are also precipitated directly by this iron salt,
whilst those which are not precipitated alone are very
completely clarified when mixed with a sufficient quantity
of sewage.

(1) The first sample is of the sewage of Failsworth, which
is an example of one nearly free from manufacturing
refuse, but containing domestic and farm drainage. You
will see that one drop of the iron salt completely clarifies
this sewage, and on subsidence gives a liquid some degrees
clearer and brighter than Manchester water when unfiltered.

The mixed sewage of Salford and Pendleton contains
a large proportion of manufacturing refuse, and, in fact,

Savage Precipitation. 57

is about as complex a mixture as you can well have, but
not what I should call excessively concentrated, being as a
rule under 300 grains per gallon of solid matter. This
requires a little more of the precipitant than the Failsworth
sewage, but is easily coagulated and settles very quickly,
giving an effluent of very satisfactory clearness. A slight
filtration improves this sewage more than the former one,
but with some little time for settling it does not appear to
require filtration.

The next is a very filthy sewage, from a cesspool in
Clayton, containing domestic and farm refuse, largely from
"piggeries." It requires about the same amount as the
Salford sample, and the precipitant throws down a com-
paratively enormous quantity of sediment, much of which
is brought out of solution. The supernatant liquor in this
sample is brighter-looking than the Salford one after
clarification, but its character is not so good.

A notable point to be observed in the action of this
salt of iron is that it always brings a considerable amount
•of impurity out of solution, and, as this is in all cases of a
nitrogenous character, the albuminoid ammonia is very
considerably reduced, the purification in this respect being,
as a rule, from 80 to 90 per cent of alb. ammonia removed,
according to the general average of the samples I have
analysed.

A striking illustration of this purification from nitro-
genous and, therefore, noxious decomposable matter is shown
by taking a sample of the water now in the Ship Canal
docks at Manchester. This has been settling for a long
time, and looks fairly clear, and is free from suspended
matter, and, in fact, does not appear to want any treatment.
The addition, however, of about 10 grains of the iron salt
to the gallon soon brings down a considerable sediment,
and the water thus purified is so clear that the original
appears of a very inferior character.

5^ Mr. Harry Grimshaw on

The effluent from the ordinary lime process of sewage
treatment, also passable in general appearance, would no
doubt show a similar presence of coaguable nitrogenous
matter if subjected to the action of the iron salt, but I have
not had an opportunity to try this.

The proportion of the iron salt required for the Salford
sewage is from 15 to 20 grains as a rule, but sometimes not
more than 12 grains to the gallon. I am informed that the
cost of this quantity amounts to one to two pounds
sterling per million gallons.

(2) The next series of experiments illustrates the pecu-
liarities of condition which are necessary for the successful
purification of samples of sewage of different natures.

The sewage last-named would require, in its natural
state, a very large excess of the precipitant to clarify it, on
account of the unusually large quantity of free ammonia
contained. We must, therefore, add a small quantity of a
crude acid, say brown vitriol, or mix it with a faintly acid
sewage, which is often available ; after which, as shown, a
single drop of the iron salt clarifies it completely. On the
other hand, a sewage too acid, say with manufacturing
waste water, must be almost neutralised by the addition of
a little lime, in which case it is best to add the iron salt
previously, as is done at Buxton.

Some descriptions of sewage, however, must be rendered
distinctly acid if treated alone, or no precipitation can be
effected. The sewage of Pendleton is sometimes of this
character, but, as a rule, becomes mixed with so much from
other parts of Salford that it creates no special difficulty.

These few experiments are, I think, sufficient to show
that the chemist requires to know the exact condition of
the sewage under treatment, and to make an intelligent
allowance for it, or what is really a comparatively simple
problem becomes most inexplicably complicated.

(3) A few experiments upon the effluent waters from a

Selvage Precipitation. 59

dyeworks, a bleach and sizing works, a paper mill, and a
rubber factory will demonstrate the mode of procedure by
which they can each be clarified. A drop or two of the iron
salt is added to each. There is no apparent effect on the dye-
water, which remains like ink. The bleach and paper
works' effluents are coagulated, but no effective precipitation
takes place. The rubber works' effluent is very satisfactorily
clarified. We now mix a portion of the three non-pre-
cipitable effluents with varying proportions of sewage,
taking preferably the very filthy one from Clayton. When
one or two drops of iron salt are now added there is an
immediate coagulation and separation of solid matters, and
we get a very complete subsidence of the mixture carrying
down the former obstinate impurities. In the case of the
dye-water, filtration through a proper filter at once shows
the " ink " converted into clear water.

This property of many kinds of sewage to coagulate
under the action of the iron salt, and carry down even a
soluble impurity, is strikingly shown by the addition of a
quantity of sewage to a very strong solution of aniline blue,
which is, of course, quite unaltered by subsidence or filtra-
tion, until, by the addition of two or three drops to the
mixture, a clarification is at once effected, and, after subsi-
dence, the former densely blue liquid becomes like town's
water, the nitrogenous matter having, as a matter of fact,
abstracted the dye just as wool exhausts a dye beck.

The foregoing experimental illustrations will, I think,
tend to show the great part which properly chosen iron
salts will play in clarifying and disinfecting our sewers and
rivers, and they certainly show that a somewhat intimate
study of the chemical condition of the sewage and effluents
is necessary at the time the purifying agents are added, if
anything like uniform success is to be attained.

60 Proceedings.

\_J\Iicroscopical and Natural History Section.']

Ordinary Meeting, November 9th, 1891.
Mr. Charles Bailey, F.L.S., in the Chair.

Mr. H. Hyde gave the result of some observations on
the common Ring Snake, which he had kept in captivity.
He had found that it was able to twine itself round a gas
pipe, and thus raise itself up so as to escape out of the top
of the vivarium.

Mr. Mark Stirrup made a communication about the
new mammal lately discovered in Australia by Professor
Stirling.

Mr. Boyd exhibited under the microscope the Gamasus,
so often found parasitic on beetles.

General Meeting, November 17th, 1891.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

Mr. Samuel Joyce, A.I.Elec.E., Manchester, was
elected an ordinary member of the Society.

Proceedings.

6\

Ordinary Meeting, November 17th, 1891.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Mr. Walter Taylor, A.M.I.C.E., exhibited a jar
made of rough, coarse, unglazed clay, found in the cutting
of the Ship Canal, and read the following note on the
subject : —

" This earthen jar was picked up by myself on the site
of the Pomona Docks, now in course of construction by the

62 Proceedings.

Manchester Ship Canal Company. It was lying on the
ground opposite the Ordsall Paper Works, in a portion of the
old river bed of the Irvvell from which the water has been
diverted for the purpose of constructing the Manchester
Ship Canal. Unfortunately, the spot where it was found
was not the exact spot from which it was excavated, it
having been thrown on one side by the workpeople. But
by enquiry I ascertained very nearly the exact spot. It
was about 10 feet below the present river bed, on a deposit
of an older age. The present river bed, for about 9 feet
thick, is largely composed of ashes, sand, and gravel.
Below this, very distinctly marked, comes a greyish silty
sand, having coarser gravel below containing boughs and
trunks of trees, and the jar, I have little doubt, came from
the bed of greyish sand, as the sand inside of the jar was
the same and contained no ashes. The shape of the jar
is circular, it is 11^ in. high over all, 8 in. high to its
greatest breadth, which is 8^4 in. diameter, tapering to
51^ in. near the base, which is curved. The neck is 2)4 in.
wide, the shape is by no means true, the workmanship crude,
and the vessel appears to be a dolmia, or wine cask, of
common quality. The colour is a yellowish brown, but the
fracture shews the centre of the clay burnt to a brightish
red. The clay contains quartz pebbles, and what appear
to be particles of a metallic substance. The rings, so
characteristic of Roman pottery, are very clearly to be seen,
especially inside the jar, which has an appearance of glazing
in parts."

Professor BOYD Dawkins said he did not like to speak
positively as to the age of the jar, but suggested that it
might be of early Roman or late Celtic age.

Mr. Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc., exhibited
specimens of clover roots showing, under the microscope,
the nodules developed by microbia, which, according to
recent investigation, have the property of fixing the free

Proceedings. 63

nitrogen of the atmosphere and thus supplying the plants
with nitrogenous nutriment.

A paper by Mr. W. J. Clunies ROSS, B.Sc. (Lond.
and Sydney), F.G.S., Principal of the Technical College,
Bathurst, New South Wales, " On the Caves of New South
Wales," communicated by the Rev. ROBERT HARLEY,
M.A., F.R.S., was read by one of the secretaries, and
photographs of the caves were exhibited.

The author stated that one of the first things that

strikes a geologist from England when he resumes his

studies at the Antipodes is the great similarity of Australian

rocks to those he was familiar with in the old country. It

is quite possible that detailed investigation may shew

peculiarities in Australian rocks, especially the igneous

ones, which distinguish them to some extent from those of

Europe, but at first sight they appear identical. For

example, massive limestones, composed almost entirely of

encrinite stems, and exactly agreeing in colour and general

appearance with the well-known encrinital limestones of

England, are found. The scenery, too, in some cases, is

very similar. Thus, around Pirate's Bay, in Tasmania,

the visitor is reminded of North Devon, especially the

neighbourhood of Clovelly, and it is interesting to find

that the rocks in both places are of carboniferous age.

Following out these similarities there are many caves in the

Australian limestones. In New South Wales there are

quite a number already known such as the Wellington,

Abercrombie, Wombeyan, Jenolan, and Yarrangobilly Caves.

Some of these are rather difficult to reach, and have

only been partially explored ; but the Jenolan, which are

the best known, are comparatively accessible, and are

both very extensive and singularly beautiful. To a

geologist desirous of studying the formation of caves, and

the changes they undergo, these caves are especially

interesting, since, in the course of a few days, caves in

64 Proceedings.

various stages of formation and decay can be seen. The
geological situation of the caves is also interesting, being
quite close to one of the principal watersheds of the Colony,
namely, that dividing the rivers which flow to the Pacific
Ocean from the inland system of drainage, the waters of
which ultimately reach the sea by the River Murray.
The creeks which flow through the caves contribute
their waters to the Neapean River, and finally reach the
sea by the Hawkesbury, while, within a few miles, is the
Fish River, one of the two streams which unite to form
the Macquarie, near Bathurst. The Macquarie is a
tributary of the Darling, and this joins the Murray. So
close are the caves to this system of drainage that they
are often called the Fish River Caves, although separated
from that stream by the watershed. There is a good
deal of similarity between most caves in limestone, but
there are certain features about the Jenolan caves which
render them especially interesting to a geologist as
well as to a non-scientific visitor, amongst which are the
great beauty and variety of the deposits of calcite in
the caves. In one of the caves, the elder, a curious
species of blind spider has been found. One of the
caves, only partially explored, is known as the Mammoth
Cave, and contains passages 10 miles long. The Wellington
Caves are far away to the North-west from the Jenolan,
being about six miles from the town of Wellington, which
is 248 miles from Sydney, and 995 feet above sea level.
They were discovered in 1832 by Sir Thomas Mitchell, and
are interesting from the fossil bones which have been
obtained there, such as those of Diprotodon, Thylacoles,
and other extinct marsupials. Tools, drawings on the
walls, and other indications of man's presence, have also
been found, shewing that they were once inhabited, but the
period at which they were so is uncertain.

Mr. WILLIAM BroCKBANK, F.G.S., read a paper

Proceedings. 6$

entitled " On the Permians of the North-west of England-
Discovery of two Plant Beds in the St. Bees' Sandstone at
Hilton, Westmorland." A discussion ensued, in which
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., and Mr. C. E. de
Rance, F.G.S., took part, both gentlemen supporting Mr.
Brockbank's determination.

66 Mr. Brockbank on

On the Permians of the N.W. of England. Discovery
of Two Plant Beds in the St. Bees Sandstone, at
Hilton, Westmorland. By William Brockbank,
F.G.S., F.L.S.

{Received November ijth, 1891).

The late E. W. Binney contributed to the Proceedings
of this Society several papers on the Permians of the N.W
of England. These were the outcome of actual field work
continued over many years, and they laid the foundation
for what afterwards came to be accepted as the Permian
system, in the N.W. of England.

In 1864 a joint communication by Sir R. I. Murchison
and Prof. Harkness was made to the Geological Society of
London, which summed up all the conclusions arrived at
by the Geological Survey at that date, together with the
researches of Prof. Sedgwick, Mr. Binney, and others who
had given this subject especial attention. This article pro-
pounded what was stated to be a new view of the aggregate
and component parts of the Permian group in Britain. By
this arrangement these rocks were placed in direct correla-
tion with their equivalents in Russia and Germany. In
particular the Zechstein (Magnesian limestone) or its
equivalents of great masses of superposed red sandstone,
were in the N.W. of England, removed from the New Red
Sandstone, or Trias, to which they had previously been
assigned, to the Permian system, considering them to be
the natural upper limit of the palaeozoic deposits. In many
Memoirs, published previously to this date (1864), these
rocks had been classed with the New Red Sandstone, a fact

The Permians of the N. W. of England. 67

which it is important to remember in pursuing this subject
in its early literature.

Murchison and Harkness thus affirmed that the tripartite
arrangement, which Murchison had insisted on some years
before, as existing in parts of Germany, of a lower sand-
stone, or Rothliegende, a central limestone or Zechstein, and
a connected superior sandstone, is clearly developed in the
counties of Westmorland, Cumberland, and Lancashire.
Sir Roderick added : " It is with great satisfaction that I
state that the conviction of Prof. Harkness and myself upon
this point has been also arrived at by the independent
researches of my friend E. W. Binney, who, more than
anyone of our countrymen, has vigorously and ably
explored and brought into order the Permian rocks of
the N.W. of England, and has also followed out their
relations into Dumfriesshire and adjacent parts of Scotland.
Incredulous, in the first instance, as he has assured me,
regarding the natural connexion in Britain between the
upper sandstone above alluded to, and those fossiliferous
shales near Manchester that represent the Magnesian
limestone, he has no longer any doubt that — and entirely
coincides with us in considering — the sandstones of St.
Bees Head, Corby, and other places described in this
memoir, are the upper members of the Permian group." Sir
R. Murchison then explained " that the transference of
these sandstones of St. Bees and Corby to the Permian
group is not founded on any evidence of a continuation of
a similar type of a fossil fauna or flora, but that it was based
on the evidence afforded by clear and unmistakable
sections which show that these upper sandstones are
connected with the lower sandstone, or Rothliegende,
through the intervention of the Magnesian limestone, or its
equivalent, and that, thus united, all these strata, from the
base to the summit, form a continuous series. In truth, the
central, or calcareous, member has alone, as yet, proved to

68 Mr. Brockbank on

be really fossiliferous, certain footsteps only having been
found in the lower sandstone."

The Permian system, as thus laid down by Sir R. Mur-
chison and Prof. Harkness, in 1864, has been accepted by
geologists almost up to the present time, when, by the
intervention of Mr. J. G. Goodchild, of the Geological Survey,
the upper member of the group is again relegated to the
Trias, and one of the newest maps of the survey is published
with the upper member of the Permian described as Triassic.

Mr. Goodchild's section, which is now exhibited by the
kindness of Mr. W. Topley, F.R.S., of the Geological Survey,
gives the following order of strata as applicable to the Cum-
berland and Westmorland district. {See Diagram next page).

My attention was directed to this question in connection
with the paper I communicated to this Society last session,
on the section at Frizington Hall, near Whitehaven, where
the upper coal measures with Spirorbis limestones had been
proved, immediately overlaid by the Permian breccia ; and
near thereto the St. Bees sandstone. I had also traced
these Permian rocks to the east of the Whitehaven Coal
Field, resting high up on the Silurians of Dent and Copeland
Forest, near Calder Abbey and Gosforth. Before resuming
the study of these Permian strata in West Cumberland,
I was wishful to examine the sections in Westmorland,
where similar strata were lifted high up the flanks of the
Crossfell range ; and more particularly the complete typical
section at Hilton Beck, where the plant remains were
acknowledged to be undoubtedly Permian.

As the Geological Survey map of the district was not
yet published, I wrote to Mr. Topley for information, and he
kindly sent me down a plan, section, and draft memoir,
giving the survey and results in that district. I was
astonished to find that the surveyors had abandoned the
arrangement, settled by Sir R. Muchison, in 1864, and again
by Sir A. Ramsay, the Director in 1881, and that the St.

The Permians of the N. IV. of England.

69

General Section of the Red Rocks,

In the Southern part of the Vale of Eden. By J. G. Goodchild, F. G.S.

St. Bees Sandstone. Sun cracks, footprints {Cheiro-
tkerium) and poikolitic colouration, as seen East of
Langwathby, Ousby, etc.

Passage beds downwards into Red Shales and Marls.

Ocaasional bands of brecciated quartziferous conglomerate.
Magnesian Limestone of Bela, Hilton Beck, etc.

Chocolate Shales and Marls with Gypsum.

Plant Beds. Alternations of Magnesia-calcareous sand-
stone and impure Magnesian limestones with shales
and saffron-coloured sandstones. Occasional bands
of Lignite, and one or two thin coals. Fragmentary
remains of plants, much carbonized.

Yellow Sandstones, with waterstones, graduating
downwards into thinly bedded red sandstone.

Upper Brockram. Alternations of breccia and thin
sandstones, graduating north-westwards into sand-
stone, and south-eastwards into the hard Brockram
of Kirkby Stephen.

False Bedded Bright Copper Red Sandstone.

Lignite beds of the Giants Caves, Penrith.

Lower Brockram, of Burrells, Stank, and the Bela.

yo Mr. Brockbank on

Bees sandstone was now classed as Trias ; the line being
drawn at the top of the Magnesian limestone, where the
Permians were in future to end.

It will thus be seen that a very important change is
taking place under the present Director General of the
Geological Survey, whereby the tripartite Permian series in
England is to be assimilated to the Dyas of Germany, and
all the labours of Binney, Harkness, and others, with whom
Lancashire geologists were and are in accord, are to be
discarded, and in spite of the facts which are clearly in
favour of the old arrangement.

Hilton Beck Section.

The rare occurrence of fossils in the Permians of England
makes the section at Hilton Beck, near Appleby, the more
interesting, as there we find plant beds of a distinctly
Permian "flora." Prof. Harkness was, I believe, the dis-
coverer of the plant bed, and he describes it in the paper
before mentioned.

The Hilton shales, sandstones, and limestones are the
equivalents of the Magnesian limestones of the East of
England, and here they form the central part of the
Permian series of the N.W. of England. Below them lie
the Penrith sandstones and the breccia, or " brockram,"
which form the basement of the Permian group in the
district. A similar section occurs on the Belabrook, near
Brough, a few miles southwards — a description of which is
given by Mr. Binney in our Proceedings, and later by Mr.
James Eccles in the Proceedings of the Manchester Geological
Society. A plant bed occurs in the Bela section, but the
plants are in a very fragmentary condition. The sections
may, however, be considered as similar, and this establishes
the general group of rocks in the Hilton and Brough
districts.

Mr. Harkness states that the basement beds of the

The Permians of the N. IV. of England. 7 1

middle Permian rocks, as seen at Hilton Beck, consist of
cream-coloured shaly sandstone with thin partings of grey-
shale, and occasionally a narrow band of impure sandy
limestone. These beds contain a considerable number of
vegetable remains, among which Mr. Etheridge recognised
the following : — SpJienopteris Naumanni, S. dichotoma, Ale-
thopteris Goepperti, Ulmannia Selaginoides, U. Bronnii, (base
of cones shewing bracts) Odontopheris, SpJienopteris, and
Cardiocarpum triangulare ; portions of coniferous wood
also occur. Of these plants, two, viz., Ulmannia Selaginoides
and U. Bronnii are common at the base of the Magnesian
limestone of Durham, and the other forms occur also with
the Ulmanniae in the Kupferschiefer of Germany. These
Hilton fossils, therefore, indicate an absolute identity in
fossil remains with the Magnesian Limestone or Zechstein.

Mr. Harkness remarks that these plant beds are
succeeded, upwards, by thin bedded sandstones, with
impure limestones and shales, the highest member of the
middle series being red clays, and that no clear evidence of
the occurrence of plants has yet been detected except by
the sides of Hilton Beck. In a similar section at Barrow-
mouth on St. Bees Head, succeeding quite conformably to
a Magnesian limestone band, is the highest member of the
middle series of Permian rocks. It is a mass of red shales,
containing fine white gypsum, which Mr. Binney estimated
at 29ft. thickness.

The mineral character of this band is identical with the
middle portion of the Permian formation in the valley of
the Eden. At Barrowmouth also the Magnesian limestone
(which affords no fossils at Hilton) yields Permian fossils —
Schizodus Bakevillia,8ic. — just as we find them in the Permian
marls of Manchester. At Hilton the contemporaneous strata
contain yellow and grey shales with true Permian plants.

Above these beds in the N.W. of England we have
the Upper Permians, the St. Bees, and Corby sandstones,

72 Mr. Brockbank on

which consist of red sandstones with courses of red shales,
all perfectly comformable to the underlying Permians, there
being a regular transition, or passage, into these, from the
Middle Permians just described. (These are the beds
which are to be relegated to the Trias, unless we can prove
them to be Permian — and this, I think, we shall be able to do.)
" In all situations," say Messrs. Murchison and Hark-
ness, "where we have examined them, whether in Westmor-
land, the east of Cumberland, or on the north portion of St.
Bees Head, where they are largely and clearly displayed,
they exhibit not only a perfect conformity to the middle
Permian strata, on which they rest, but also an intimate
connexion with them. Whatever may be the angle of
inclination of the one is always that of the other, and
nowhere is there to be seen a trace of erosion on the upper
parts of the supporting strata, from which a separation might
be inferred, such as would be expected between rocks of
palaeozoic age, and others of a mesozoic date. We have,
therefore, no hesitation in expressing our conviction that
these sandstones of St. Bees Head and Corby must be
removed from the New Red or Trias, with which they have
hitherto been grouped, and viewed as the upper zone of the
Permian Group."

•

The Hilton Plant Beds.

The special object of my visit to the Hilton section was
with the upper portion of it, known as the St. Bees Sand-
stone, or Upper Permian ; and I wished to make myself
fully acquainted therewith, because of its bearing upon the
similar group of rocks in West Cumberland. I examined
the whole section of Hilton Beck, but will confine my
remarks to its upper portion.

The plant beds occur at Ashgill, about a mile below
the village of Hilton. The section here is well known
geologists, being the only locality hitherto known in the

The Permians of the N. W. of England. 73

N. W. of England where plant remains of true Permian
character have been found. The whole section is interesting,
as it shews the curious Permian breccias or "brockrams." The
plant beds occur at a bend of Hilton Beck, in a wood where
there is a good escarpment of red rocks. At the base there
is a dark purple soft sandstone, above which are several
laminated beds of yellow sandstone, with some seams of
almost yellow ochre. The plant beds occur just below
these yellow beds, and are in greyish whitish stone, with
thin clay partings. The plants are much comminuted, and
wholly carbonised, and shew clearly, on the light coloured
stone, like black etchings. I was fortunate in obtaining a
very representative collection of specimens of truly Permian
facies {see Plate II.), including Ulmannia, Walchia, &c, and
in a very thin waferlike grey shale parting I found what I
take to be Chondrites, which I have not seen noted before,
and which agrees, as also do the others, with a figure in
Geinitz ' Dyas.'

Above these beds come a series of yellow sandstones
which are much spotted with plant remains, and amongst
these occurs the representative of the magnesian limestone.
These beds bear a very striking resemblance to those
occurring at Barrowmouth,on St. Bees Head, where they yield
Schizodus, Bakevillia, and other Permian shells. Here Mr.
Goodchild draws the line as the limit of the Permians in the
new survey sections at the top of the Magnesian Limestone.

Above this point came a mass of red marls, which Mr.
Goodchild classes with the lower gypseous marls at the
base of the Bunter (" Excursion to Edenside," p. 2), and he
states that they graduate upwards into the St. Bees sand-
stone, which he calls Trias.

Proceeding up the valley beyond the marls, and on the
opposite side of Hilton Beck, there is a sandstone quarry
by the road side, a quarter of a mile or so below Hilton
Bridge. It shews a face of rock about 30 feet high. The

74 Mr. Brock bank on

upper portion is a red bedded sandstone, below which are
thin bedded yellow sandstones with clay partings. This
stone is full of red clay small nodules, and here again
occurs a plant bed with true Permian plants of the Ulmannia
and Walchia types (see Plate III.). These thin beds are
about 2ft. 6in. thick. The red rocks below them are also thin
bedded, and show ripple marks, sun cracks, and other interest-
ing peculiarities, with numerous small clay nodules about the
size of coffee beans. All these sandstones are much spotted
with black carbonaceous markings, and have clay partings,,
and the surfaces of the beds are ripple marked, and seamed
with sun cracks. Some plant remains occur in the thin clay
partings, and are very perishable.

The next good exposure of red rocks is about three-
quarters of a mile further up the stream, beyond the village of
Hilton, and here again plant remains were found. There
is a rock outcrop here, the upper 20 feet of which is a
bedded red sandstone of Permian colour, below which are-
several thin beds of yellow sandstone, with red marl partings.
All these rocks contain the small clay nodules, so perfect
in form as to suggest fossils, but I was not able to
discover any traces of shell structure. Beneath these
a soft red rock, blotted all through with black car-
bonaceous spots, and full of the small oval and circular
clay lumps. On examining the specimens collected from
this furthest group I found that one of the white sandstones
which was faced with a shaley film contained very beautifully
preserved plant remains under the shaley surface, of the
same facies as the other Hilton beds — showing Ulmannia,
Walchia, and fern fragments (see Plate IV.). All these red
rocks, with their thinner grey and white beds and the plant
remains, are evidently one series, the whole of them being
much intermixed with carbonaceous matter, and all of them
having plant beds of true Permian types. If, therefore, the
plant beds of Ashgill are Permian, there can be no doubt

The Peri u tans of the N.W. of England. 7$.

whatever that the whole series are Permian, right up to the
Pennine fault, and thus the St. Bees sandstone is proved to
be Permian and not Triassic. Drawings of all these plant
remains have been submitted to Prof. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.,
and to Mr. Goodchild, F.G.S., who agree in considering them
of Permian facies.

This is the last exposure of red rocks, and occurs some
50 yards below the Old Hilton Smelt Mill. Just beyond
it the great Pennine fault crosses Hilton Beck, Silurian
rocks being seen crossing the stream tilted at a high angle ;
and here we come upon the Cross Fell inlier described by
Professor Nicholson and Mr. Marr in the Quarterly fournal
of the Geological Society, November 2nd, 1891.

It will thus be seen that the whole series of rocks from
the Ashgill beds to the Smelt Mill are undoubtedly Permian.
It has been suggested that as this is a district of great
disturbance, the recurrence of the plant beds may be the
result of faults which may have brought in again the Hilton
plant beds, but this is almost an impossibility. The beds
are not the same bed, but are one series. The sequence was
mapped by Prof. Harkness, and his accuracy has not since
been questioned, and has been confirmed by the geological
survey. It is quite clear also that no faults could alter their
Permian character, as proved by the fossils. Although
Harkness did not discover the fossils in these uppermost
beds, he called them Permian from other observations.

Mr. James Eccles, F.G.S., read a paper to the Geological
Society of Manchester in 1874, describing the Bela Valley
section a few miles to the south where similar red rocks
occur, and there he found a plant bed as already stated.
I forwarded the drawings of the Hilton plants to Mr. Eccles,
and he says they agree with what he saw in the Bela
Valley 20 years ago, only they were too fragmentary to be
particularly recognized. I think, therefore, we may safely
say that the sandstones from Bela to Hilton arc thus proved
to be Permian.

y6 The Permians of the N. W. of England.

Prof. H. A. Nicholson published in 1868 an interesting
essay on the Geology of Cumberland and Westmorland,
in which he describes the upper part of the Hilton
Beck section as follows : — " The Magnesian breccias
are conformably succeeded at Ashbank by the Middle
Permians, or Hilton Shales, consisting of thin bedded
sandstones of various colours, with thin courses of marly
shales and impure Magnesian limestones, the two former
containing numerous remains of plants. They are sur-
mounted by sandstones overlaid by a single stratum of
impure limestone about 6ft. in thickness, and apparently
without fossils. To this succeeds a mass of red laminated
clays of no great thickness, forming the highest member of
the middle Permians. The total thickness of the middle
Permians, as exhibited at Hilton Beck, is from 1 20 to 1 50 feet.
The Hilton shales are directly succeeded by the upper
Permians, which extend up the stream as far as the Hilton
Smelt Mill, where they are cut off by the Pennine fault,
and are brought abruptly against the Skiddaw slates, which
form the base of Roman Fell. They consist of fine grained
dark red sandstone, seldom, if ever, false bedded, often
beautifully ripple marked, and having intercalated with
them beds of white sandstone and way boards of red shale —
the whole attaining a thickness of 700ft."

To this excellent description we can now add that the
white sandstones contain Permian plant remains. Prof.
Nicholson writes me, " You are quite right in thinking that
I never discovered any plant beds in the Hilton section
above the red marls, or rather above the Magnesian lime-
stone. Your discovery that plant beds occur higher up in
the section, and that the remains of these have the general
' facies ' of the Ashfield beds below is a very important one,
and ought to be conclusive, it seems to me, as to the
Permian acre of the series throughout."

\th Series, Vol. V. HILTON PLANT BED, (Ashgill).

Plate, II,

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS, MAXCHESTrR LIT. AND PHIL. SOC.

d;h Series, Vol. V. HILTON PLANT BED, (at Quarry). Plate. Ill,

M

\%.-.- "^

-^'4'

^

; J"
.:4

* '

*L.

So Si

~*a3KSf

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS, MANCHESTER LIT AND PHIL SOC

\th Series, Vol. V. HILTON PLANT BED, (near Smeltmill). Plate. IV.

H^V N6

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS, MANCHESTER LIT. AND PHIL. SOC.

►i no v

Proceedings. 77

General Meeting, December 1st, 1891.

James Bottomley, D.Sc, B.A., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

Mr. John Edward King, M.A., High Master, Man-
chester Grammar School, was elected an ordinary member.

Ordinary Meeting, December 1st, 1891.

James Bottomley, D.Sc., B.A., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

Mr. Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc, gave an account
of some curious cores of sand, observed protruding from
the ends of burrows in the perpendicular sides of a sand-
pit, the burrows having been made by moles from the
surface of the land.

Mr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A., exhibited a specimen of the
giant earth-worm, of Gippsland, Megascolides austmlis, and
read the following note on the subject : —

" The specimen now exhibited was presented to the
Manchester Museum by Professor Baldwin Spencer, of the
University of Melbourne, formerly a student in the Owens
College, who has written an elaborate memoir on its anatomy.
The worm lives principally in the sloping sides of creeks,
but is sometimes found among fallen logs or turned up by
the plough. The largest living one hitherto measured had

7$ Proceedings.

a length of 6 feet, but about 4 feet may be put down as the
average ; the thickness being roughly ^ inch. It secretes
a milky slime in such quantities that jets will spurt out of it
to a height of several inches when it is held in the hand.
This fluid lubricates the burrows in which it lives, and
enables it to move with very great rapidity; as it does so it
produces a gurgling sound, which is one of the readiest and
surest means of detecting its presence. When alive it has a
curious odour resembling that of creosote, which, when it
dies, becomes much stronger and more objectionable. It is
hardly surprising to learn that fowls refuse to touch it dead
or alive ; in decaying, the body passes into an oily fluid,
said by the natives to be very good for rheumatism.
Beside the worm is exhibited the cocoon, which contains a
single embryo enclosed in a tough leathery case. At the
present time we know of three specially large kinds of
earthworms, one from S. Africa, one from India and Ceylon,
and one from the south of Australia ; if future research
should reveal the presence of another in South America, it
would suggest the theory that these large worms are relics
of a once widely-spread race, just as we believe to be the
case with other forms of life found only in the southern
parts of the great land masses."

The Rev. Robert Harley, M.A., F.R.S., read a paper
on "The Interchange of Two Differential Resolvents."

The Interchange of Two Differential Resolvents. 79

On the Interchange of Two Differential Resolvents.
By the Rev. Robert Harley, M.A., F.R.S., Cor-
responding Member.

{Received December 22nd, 1891.)

1. The doctrine of differential resolvents rests on the
following theorem, discovered by Sir James Cockle,1 viz.: —
That from any rational and entire algebraic equation of the
degree n, whereof the coefficients are functions of a single
parameter, we can derive a linear differential equation of
the degree n— 1, which is satisfied by the roots of the
algebraic equation. The derived equation is called with
eference to the algebraic equation, its "differential resol-
vent " ; and the two equations considered together are
sometimes called "co-resolvents."2 The solution of the
algebraic equatibn gives the particular integrals of the
differential equation, and, on the other hand, the integration
of the differential equation gives the roots of the algebraic
equation.

2. The above theorem, with its enunciation and proof
m was given more than thirty years ago, and, considering its

importance in relation to both algebraic and differential
equations, it is curious that it has not yet found its way
' into any of the ordinary text-books on these subjects. Its
value, however, has been recognised by some of our most
eminent analysts, and contributions to the general theory

1 Cockle. "On Transcendental and Algebraic Solution." Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. XXI., May, 1861, pp. 379-383.

2 Cockle. "Introductory Chapter on Co-resolvents." Quarterly Journal
of Mathematics, Vol. VI., 1863, pp. 9-20, 151-162, 226-229.

80 The Rev. Robert Harley on

will be found in the writings of Boole,3 Cayley,4 Spottis-
woode,5 Russell,6 Rawson,7 and others.

3. In early numbers of the Proceedings of this Society,8
I showed that every differential resolvent is satisfied not
only by the roots, but also by the constituents of the roots
of the co-resolvent : these constituents are, in fact, particular
integrals of the differential equation. In the same series
of papers, I also showed that any homogeneous linear
function of the roots will satisfy the differential resolvent
provided only that such resolvent be also homogeneous.

4. In a later paper9 I have enunciated and proved the

y Boole. "On the Differential Equations which determine the form of
the Roots of Algebraic Equations." Philosophical Transactions for 1864,

PP- 733-755-

" Differential Equations." Supplementary Volume, 1865, pp. 190-199.

* Cayley. "Note on a Differential Equation." Manchester Memoirs,
Vol. II., Third Series, 1861-2, pp. 111-114.

5 Sfottiswoode. "Note on Differential Resolvents." Manchester
Memoirs, Vol. II., Third Series, November, 1862, pp. 227-232.

"On Differential Resolvents." Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, Vol.
VI., 1864, pp. 262-266.

c Russell. "Solutions of the Quartic Resolvent." Manchester Pro-
ceedings, Vol- II., 1862, p. 240.

"Solution of the Differential Resolvent." Manchester Memoirs, Vol. II.,
Third Series, March, 1863, pp. 296-301.

7 Rawson. — "On a New Method of Determining the Differential Resol-
vents of Algebraical Equations." Proceedings of the London Mathematical
Society, Vol. IX., 1878, pp. 202-215.

"On the First \ Resolvent of the Quartic y4 + *y2 +x,y - ^a-= 0." Mes-
senger of Mathematics, Vol. XL, 1881, pp. 19-23.

" On Differential Resolvents and Partial Differential Resolvents." Man-
chester Memoirs, Vol. VIII., Third Series, 1882, pp. 41-53.

8 " Remarks on the Transcendental Solution of Algebraic Equations."'
Manchester Proceedings, Vol. II., Sessions 1S60-61 and 1S61-62, pp. 181-
186, 199-203, 237-241.

0 " Notes on a Differential Equation." Quarterly Journal of Mathematics,
Vol. XVIII., 1SS1, pp. 41-46.

The Interchange of Ttvo Differential Resolvents. 81

following theorem, viz. : — That if u represent the mth power
of any root of the algebraic equation

a0yn + «iyn=\ . . + »„_# + ffB = 0,

whereof the coefficients a are functions of a single parameter
x, then n satisfies a certain linear differential equation which
is, in general, of the order ;/. This differential equation
admits, when m is a whole number, of a first integration,
and may therefore be reduced to an equation of the order
n — i ; not, however, always of the same type as the higher
equation. And I have shown, more generally, in the same
paper, that if

u = bQym + biym-\ . . + bm_iy + bm,

where the coefficients b are functions of x only, and m is an
integer, we may by known processes, transform the above
n — ic equation in y into an « — ic equation in n, and thence
derive a linear differential equation of the order n—i, which
will be satisfied by any one of the values of u, or by any of
the constituents of u.

5. The object of this paper is to show that if two
algebraic equations be so connected as that either can
be changed into the other by assuming, without loss of
generality, certain relations among the disposable quantities,
then cases exist in which the two differential resolvents
may also be interchanged by means of the same substitutions.
Such interchanges, if practicable, are manifestly important,
because they enable us, when one of the differential
resolvents is calculated, to determine the form of the
other by a simple substitution, and without the labour of an
independent calculation.

6. We have a good example in the following case. The
differential resolvents of the two trinomial algebraic
equations

yn - ny + (n - 1)# = 0 (a)

yn~nyn-\+(n-\)x = 0 .... (/3)
G

$2 The Rev. Robert Harley on

(to which all algebraic equations of a degree not greater
than 5 may be reduced,) are

•■"i-sj y-(*-i) l^i^-^tj y • ■ (a>

^{n-\)Jd^'l-{n-l)[n4x-n-l)

respectively, where the usual factorial notation

[a]b = (a)(a-l)(a-2) . . . (a- 6+1)

is adopted.

7. I may observe here that these forms were obtained
originally by induction.10 The determination of the
differential resolvents of the two trinomial equations (a) and
C/3) for the particular cases n = 2, 3, 4, 5, on which the
induction was founded, necessitated many complicated and
laborious calculations, which, however, led in all cases to
remarkably simple and uniform results. Much of the
labour might have been saved had I noticed at the time,
what I now proceed to show, viz., that either of the general
forms is implicitly contained in the other ; in fact, I might
have derived (/3') from (a'), or vice versa, merely by a
change of the variables. When once the general forms had
been suggested, there was not much difficulty in completing
the induction, and showing that the equations held for all
values of n, excepting only n = 2. The exception occurs in
the first form (a), which, when n = 2, should evidently coin-
cide with (j3')i seeing that in this case, (a) and (/3) become
identical. Now in (a) when n = 2, the sum of the roots
(Sj) is not, as in other cases, equal to zero, and the

10 "On a Certain Class of Linear Differential Equations." Manchester
Memoirs, Vol. II., Third Series, 1861-62, pp. 232-245.

" On the Theory of the Transcendental Solution of Algebraic Equations."
Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, 1862, Vol. V., pp. 337-360.

The Interchange of Two Differential Resolvents. 83

differential resolvent must therefore contain a term indepen-
dent of y. This term written on the dexter = x, and the
terms on the sinister follow the law indicated in (a').
8. If in equation (a) we write —

for //, x, y respectively, it becomes —

3/ -(»' + l)y' +?iV = 0 . . . . (y)
an equation which is, in form, the same as Q3), and coincides
with (/3), when we drop accents and write n— 1 for ;/. Here
observe that

d , , ,x , d

x
or

^--(M'+1)w

D= -(»' + l)D'3

where, for shortness, D and D' are written for

d , , d
x— and «— -,
a« ax

respectively.

Effecting in the differential resolvent (a') the same

substitutions which changed (a) into (y), and reducing by

means of the formula

f(D)xru = xrf(D + r)u,
we are led to

(n + l)n+l[ - (n- + 1)D' + l]-('"+D

-n'*[-(n'D' + l)]-^'+»xy = 0 . . . (7'0)
a result which I obtained many years ago, when I was
seeking to pass from the differential resolvent of (a) to the
differential resolvent of (|3). The form was considered
" curious and interesting," and I placed it on record in the
Memoirs of this Society, remarking that it involved an
" anomaly," and that I should " probably discuss it at some
future time."11 The supposed "anomaly" may be cleared

""Ona Certain Class, &c." (paper cited in the last footnote) Art. 13, p. 244.

84 The Rev. Robert Harley on

up, and the transformation carried forward to a satisfactory
conclusion, by observing that, in conformity with the laws
of the factorial notation, [ — a]'b may be replaced by

[a -If
as may be readily shown, thus : —

[a]" = (a)(a-l)(a-2) . . . (a- 6 + 1),

[a-b]c=(a-b)(a-b-l){a-b-2) . . . (a-b-c + 1),

and therefore

[af[a-b\c = [a]^ (1)

an equation of identity which, we will assume, holds uni-
versally, that is to say, for all values of a, b, and c.
First, in (i), make b=o ; then

[a]°[«]c = [a]c, or[a]°=l.
Next, in (i), write — b for c ; then

[af[a^]-6 = [«]°, =1;
changing the signs of a and b,

[-a]'\b -«]*=1:
or, since

[6-a]6=(6-a)(6-a-l)(6-a-2) . . . (-a + 1),

= (-lf[a-lf,
therefore

r_a-i-&=_lzJJL . ... (2).

L J [a- If V ;

Applying the formula (2) to the differential equation (jo),
we have

[-(„<+i)D'+i]-«=[(^c;rw

and, therefore,

/ _ I w+i
r _ (n'jy + i)Yn'+1 = v -'

(»' + !)"'

[{n'+l)D'-2f+lV ~[>iD']"+Sl/ ~

The IntcrcJiange of Tzvo Differential Resolvents. 85

or, more simply,

(ri + l)'"+1[VD']"'+y - ri\(n' + 1 )D' - 2],i'+Vy' = 0,
an equation which contains the factor (D'-i). The in-
tegration gives

(ri + l)n,+1[>'D']ny - ri(ri + ID' - ri + 2)

[(n' + l)Ty-2]ll'-lx'y' = Cx,

an equation which must be satisfied by any one of the
roots of (7). To determine the constant, sum for the
(«'+ 1) roots ; then, since Sy = ;/'+ 1, we have

(ri + 1)" +1[riD']n'(ri + 1 ) - n'(n + ID' - ri + 2)

[(ri + 1)D' - 2f'-1x (ri + 1) = C(»' + l)x,

which, reducing by the aid of the formula

/(D>>=a;'/(r),
gives

C = [rif.

Hence the differential resolvent of (7) is

(ri + \)n'[riT>'Y'y - n'(ri + ID' - w' - 2)

[(»' + l)D'-2]"'-V3/' = [ra'],lV . . . (y).

Drop the accents and write n~ 1 for n; the result is the
differential resolvent of (j3), viz. :

nn-\(n - 1)D]B"V - (» - 1)(mD - w - 1)[>D - 2]"-%

= [w. — lj"_1x,

an equation which coincides in every point with Q3').
9. It may be noticed here that if we write

-<»'-i>. (^n-

((w'-l)VW'

for n, x, y respectively, and after substitution, drop the
accents, (a) will be changed into (j3) ; also that the same
substitutions enable us, by the foregoing process, to change
directly (a) into Q3').

10. 1 now proceed to show how a certain set of sub-
stitutions which change (j3) into (a), will also change (j3')

86 The Rev. Robert Harlev on

into (a). Here it will be convenient to write (|3) and (/3')
as under : —

Y*-»Y*-I + (»-l)X-0 .... (/3o)

mm-l[(m - lJD'T"-^ - (m - l)(mD' - m - 1)

[mD'-2]'"-2XY = [m]'»X . . . (/3'0)
where

Now (j30) is changed into (a) by substituting

-<-).(-r-'.-!:

for m, X, Y respectively. Making the same substitutions
in O'0), and remembering that in this case

D'= » .

n — 1

we obtain the differential equation

<-^>1-^J"(-?)+»<:d+»- »>

[_(D + 2)]-'n+1/-^T^n-2y

/ 1V,+1
-[-<»- l)]-fB"1J(--) ■<"-1>

which, by the process employed in Art. 8, reduces to

<D]»+V - (n - 1)(D - n + 1)(^ - *^) V* - °-

Operating on both sides of this equation with
(D-n + l^'P-n)-1,
we have

= cxa;" + Co«"_l . . . (a'0)
clt c% being arbitrary constants. In order to determine these

The Interchange of Two Differential Resolvents. 87

constants, it should be observed that the sum of all the
roots of (a) is a constant, viz., o or 2 ; let us therefore write
for the moment, c in place of 2y. Using the last found
differential equation (a'0), and summing for the n roots of
(a), we have

?in-\J)f-1c - (n - 1)""1(7^ " VZt) C*"~1 = ^^ + C;iC" ''
or, by reduction,

-c(n~l )n~H — -= J = cxnx + c2n,

a relation which must hold universally. Hence 4 = o, and

c n

n%-3n + \\n-x'

ct

When n is greater than 2, S^ = o, and therefore c = o, <ra = 0,
and the differential equation becomes

„-.[D]-V - (» - D-{^i - ^T J Vl" - °'

which agrees, as it ought to do, with (a).

In the particular case n = 2, we have Sj = 2, and there-
fore <:=2 and Ci—l. Hence

2(D)y - (2D - 3)ay = ff,

the differential resolvent of

y1 - 2y + x = 0.

II. Interchanges similar to the foregoing may some-
times be effected without any change of the variables x and
y. I give an example.

If u represent the m* power of any root of the algebraic
equation

ay" + byr + ex — 0 . . . (A)

where the co-efficients a> b, c, are independent of x, then

83 The Rev. Robert Harley

on

u, considered as a function of>, satisfies the linear differential
equation.

(-^D-J?.T[Dr.B

\n -r n-r/L J

= ^¥?\^TrJ)-n-r-l)X U • • • • (A')
where,12 as before,

ax

Now the substitution

t r, n, b\

\ — r, w. — ?', c/

changes the algebraic equation (A) into _

ayn + bxyr + c = 0 (?>)

and the same substitution changes the differential equation
(A') into

\ n nj

a'cn\ n n J

which, since

(-l)b

is equivalent to

[D]^=(-)^rr-D+^-iTr^rD-m-iT"^ . . . (bo

v arc"\ji n J |_ n n A

in which ?/ is the mth power of any root of the algebraic
equation (B).

It is hardly necessary to remark that the same substitu-
tion will change (B) into (A) and (B') into (A').

12 Addendum to Mr. Robert Rawson's paper, "On a New Method, &c."
(cited in footnote 7). Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Vol.
IX., 1878, pp. 216-221. • • -

" On Certain Linear Differential Equations." British Association Report,
for 1878, pp. 466-470.

The Interchange of Two Differential Resolvents. 89

12. The above is an extension of Boole's Theorem.
For, make r=n—i, 0=1, £= — 1, and c= — 1 ; then (B)
becomes

yn-xyn~1-\=0 (B0)

which is the algebraic form dealt with by Boole, and (B')
becomes

Aw _ "I o>i \n-l

w[D]n«=N -— D + --1J (D-m-n)xnu . . (B'0)

which is connected ywith (B0), as Boole shews,13 through the

relation

u = y"\

1 3 See Boole's paper " On the Differential Equations," &c. , cited in footnote 2.
See also a paper of mine "On Differential Resolvents," printed in the Pro-
ceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Vol. I., 1865, Paper IV. I may
add here that the explicit form of the complete cubic differential resolvent,
published in the British Association Report for 18S6 (pp. 439 — 443), was
calculated independently by Mr. Robert Rawson and myself.

90 Proceedings.

\Microscopical and Natural History Section.]

Ordinary Meeting, December 7th, 1891.

Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

There were exhibited : —

By Mr. R. Wheeler, a collection of weapons, articles
of dress, etc., belonging to the native tribes inhabiting the
district around the Ogowe River, Equatorial West Africa.

By Mr. J. COSMO Melvill, an almost complete set of
the ferns of Simla, N. W. Himalayas, collected by Mr. H. F.
Blanford, F.R.S., and numbering over one hundred
specimens of about eighty-seven species ; also a perfect
specimen of Papilio Antimachus (Drury), the rarest butterfly
known, on which Mr. Melvill communicated the follow-
ing note : —

"For nearly 120 years, ever since Drury figured, and that
most excellently, a specimen of this rare butterfly in his
well-known work on exotic Lepidoptera, it remained almost
unique, until a few specimens were secured in the damp
forests at the base of Clarence Peak, in the island of
Fernando Po, off the Gold Coast region of Tropical
Western Africa. The late Mr. William Chapman Hewitson
possessed two specimens, and a few others existed in other
cabinets or came to hand from time to time. But its
extreme rarity was proved by the inadequacy of a very
high quotation to cause the demand to be supplied. Not
seven years ago one was offered for £$6, and two years
ago £10 was paid severally for a few specimens in fine
condition. Even now the female, being scarcer than the male,
would secure a high price. Professor Aurivillius made this

Proceedings. 91

insect the type of a new genus Druryza, as in many
ways it differed from the typical Papilio or swallow-
tail butterfly. Both by the nervures, by the habit, and
much greater breadth of wing, of any species excepting
the Ornithoptera, it seemed to merit generic distinction,
since fine specimens measure seven inches across the wings.
There are many points of resemblance, however, between
this fine insect and the smaller P. Ridleyanus, also from
Tropical Africa. Both seem to resemble certain Acrace in
form, a group almost peculiar to Africa. Mr. H. D. Wheeler
recently sent to his father, Mr. R. Wheeler, of Manchester,
six specimens captured by himself in the neighbourhood of
the Ogowe River, about 300 miles from the sea. Of these
six specimens, five were in very good condition, and one of
these I have the pleasure to exhibit this evening."

Mr. P. Cameron, F.E.S., communicated Part IV. of his
Hyvienoptera Orientalis. The PRESIDENT of the Section
gave an address on the hive bee ; which was illustrated by
diagrams and by a number of anatomical preparations
shown under the microscope by Mr. Boyd.

9~ Proceedings.

Ordinary Meeting, December 15th, 1891.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Mr. James Cosmo Melvill, M. A., F.L.S., read the
following " Description of a New Species of Latirus" : —
"L. FR.ESTANTIOR, Sp. flOV.

L. testa fusiformi, turritd, solidd, rufofuscescente,
anfractibus decern, longitudinaliter fortitcr angulatim crassi-
costatis, transversim undique regidariter Jiloliratis, ad
su turns Iczvibus, dud bus vel tribus liris in medio anfractuum
omnium apud angulos costarum distinctioribus, canali pro-
ductd, apertures faucc intus fortiter costulatd, a/bidd,
columella quadriplicatd.

Long. 2^/2, inch.

Lat. "fa inch.

Habitat. Mauritius.

It is to be regretted that this fine shell did not arrive
into my hands prior to the publication of my ' Historical
Account of the Genus Latirus ' in the Memoirs and
Proceedings of the Society in the early part of this year
(1891), for it exceeds in size any of the eleven species
of Latirus and Peristernia described in that monograph
for the first time. The shell is rufous-brown, elegantly
fusiform, turreted, somewhat solid, possessed of ten whorls,
each regularly ornamented with thick longitudinal ribs,
crossed transversely (excepting at the sutures, where the
shell is smooth) with equidistant filamentous lira. The
canal is produced, the mouth distinctly ribbed within,
columella four plaited, white. There is some little resem-
blance to Fasciolaria filamentosa (Lam.) in miniature, or,
among the Latiri. to L. Gracilis (Reeve), and especially

Proceedings. 93

L. concentricus, also of Reeve, next which it must be placed.
This specimen, at present the only one known, formed part
of the collection of Sir David Barclay, Bart. I also
acquired, at the same opportunity, and from the same
collection, the fine type of Latirus {Leucoaonici) BelcJieri
(Ad.), and two varieties of L. rudis (Reeve), of a light
fawn colour, with darker shading at the channels of
the angles, which at first sight, seemed a distinct
species. Also two very extraordinary varieties of L.
nodatus, which Sir David Barclay valued highly, and
considered different from that species, though at present I
cannot see my way to separate them. They have the
umbilicus widely developed, which is not the case in
normal nodatus, but as I have before shown this trait varies,
in most of the known species, especially amongst the
larger kinds."

Mr. Faraday described some phenomenal effects of
the recent and previous gales on buildings — windows and
walls being apparently drawn out in the teeth of the wind
instead of being blown in — and suggested that approximate
vacua, or great diminutions of external pressure, might result
from the swirling or other action of the wind when sweeping
round corners, or encountering obstructions, the result being
a kind of suction similar to what might be observed in the
eddies of streams. A discussion ensued, in which Professor
Osborne Reynolds, Mr. Harry Grimshaw, Mr. Francis
Nicholson, Mr. Gwyther, and others, took part, various
suggestions being made as to possible pressure of wind
entering by chimneys or doors on the inside of the windows
or walls of buildings.

Mr. Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc, read a paper,
entitled " On Iridescent Colours and a Method of Examining
Iridescent Objects — Birds, Insects, and Minerals — so as to
ensure Uniformity of Description."

94 Proceedings.

Ordinary Meeting, December 29th, 1891.

James Bottomlev, B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

Mr. Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc, exhibited a
specimen of colouring matter extracted from decayed wood ;
the pigment is not peculiar to one kind of wood. It is of a
blueish-green colour, soluble in boiling acetic acid. It is
separable into two distinct pigments — one green, soluble
in cold acetic acid, the other blue, insoluble in cold acetic
acid, but soluble in nitric acid. The spectrum shows that
it is not chlorophyll.

Two fragments of the decayed wood containing the
colouring matter, picked up in widely severed localities,
(North Wales and Radnorshire) were exhibited, and were
described by Mr. CHARLES BAILEY as apparently hazel
and oak respectively.

A paper by Mr. P. Cameron, entitled Hymenoptera
Orientalis, Part IV., was communicated by Mr. John
Boyd.

Proceedings. 95

Ordinary Meeting, January 12th, 1892.

Professor Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Vice-President, in the chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

Reference was made to the deaths of Dr. W. C. Henry,
ordinary member, and Sir George Airy, Baron Emile de
Laveleye, and Dr. Ferdinand Romer, honorary members,
which had occurred since the previous meeting, Dr. Henry
being the oldest member, and Sir George Airy the oldest
honorary member of the Society at the time of their deaths.

Dr. Schuster read a note on the late Dr. Joule's
thermometers.

Mr. W. E. HOYLE, M.A., exhibited specimens of rare
cuttle-fish from the Mediterranean.

[Microscopical and Natural History Section.'] '

Ordinary Meeting, January 18th, 1892.

Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc, President of the Section,
in the Chair.

Mr. E. Halkyard was elected a member, and Mr. R.
Wheeler an associate of the Section.

Mr. Chas. Bailey presented, for the Microscopical
Cabinet, twenty-five mounted objects from the collection
of the late Mr. John Barrow, which had been kindly sent

cj6 Proceedings.

by Mr. Barrow's family. A vote of thanks for this highly
valued set of specimens of the manipulative skill of the
Section's late member was passed.

Mr. James Cosmo Melvill exhibited a fine <J specimen
of the Oleander Hawk Moth (CJiaerocampa Nerii), collected
by the late Mr. George Crozier, at Prestwich, in 1846. The
insect was quite perfect, and finely coloured. He also men-
tioned that two other specimens from the same locality, both
collected at light, in 1886 and 1891 respectively, are in the
possession of Mr. J. R. Hardy and the Manchester Museum,
Owens College. As only twenty-one individuals have been
recorded as having occurred in these islands, it is interesting
to consider that one-seventh of the total number have
occurred within five miles of Manchester. It is as yet
impossible to ascertain whether there is a colony of this
insect established in this locality, and, if so, on what they
have been accustomed to feed, and it is well worthy the
attention of the entomologists of this neighbourhood.

Mr. SCOWCROFT exhibited some varieties of Argynnis
ag/a/o, from Scotland ; a series of X antJiia cerago [silago
South), and a set of dried flowers preserved most success-
fully so as to show their natural forms and colours. The
results obtained, even in such difficult flowers as orchids
and the Christmas rose, were very remarkable and perfect.

Hymcnoptera Orientalis. 97

Hymenoptera Orientalis ; or Contributions to a know-
ledge of the Hymenoptera of the Indian Zoological
Region. By P. Cameron. Communicated by John
Boyd.

(Received December 29th, iSgi.)
Part IV.

scoliim;.

The identification of these striking insects is rendered
very easy by the well-known Catalogns Specierwn Generis
Scolia of Messrs. Saussure and Sichel. I have followed
their arrangement of the species, and have adopted the
genera as defined by them, namely : —

Liacos, with its two divisions of Triliacos and Diliacos ;
Scolia „ „ „ „ „ Triscolia and Discolia ;

Elis „ „ „ ,, „ Trie/is and Die/is.

Liacos.

I. With three closed cubital cellules = Triliacos.

1. Liacos analis.

Scolia analis, Fab., Syst. Pies., p. 245, 37.

Scolia dimidiata, Guerin, Voy. de Coq.,\\., p. 247 ; Bur-
meister, Scolidae, p. 15, 2; Smith, Cat. Hym. III., 138;
Jour. Linn. Soc, IV., p. 118, 10.

Campsomeris Urvillii, Lep., Hym. III., 503> I2 ', Smith,
Cat. Hym., III., p. 112, 127.

Scolia Penangensis, Saussure, Melanges Hym. p. 39, 17,
9, var. b.
H

98 Mr. Cameron on

Liacos (Triliacos) analis, Saussure and Sichel, Cat.
Specierum gen. Scolia, p. $$.

Hub. Java, Borneo, Malacca, Philippines, Mollucas,
Celebes Bouru, Sulu, Senegal.

2. Liacos fulvo picta, sp. nov.

Black, the third and following segments, pale fulvous,
and covered with long fulvous hairs ; the wings deep
violaceous. Head and thorax marked with large, clearly-
separated punctures, the punctures on the head and pleurae
smaller than on the mesonotum ; the front above and
between the antennae raised ; the apex slightly incised ; the
surface longitudinally punctured ; and above it is an
impunctate border, which extends to near the middle of the
eye incision. The front ocellus in a pit. The mesonotum
has the furrows slightly curved, and extending from the
apex to a little beyond the middle ; the apex of the
scutellum is impunctate, and has a short longitudinal
channel in the centre at the apex. The median segment
shallowly concave at the apex ; the sides convex ; there
are two converging furrows in the middle ; the space on
the outer side of these at the base being impunctate.
Abdomen punctured like the thorax ; the hairs on the basal
two segments black ; and they have a bluish tinge ; the
base of the third segment is black, the black being dilated
in the middle. The antennas bare, dull black ; the joints
not dilated ; the third joint distinctly shorter than the
fourth. The second cubital cellule is dilated at the top ;
the transverse cubital nervures bulging out.

Length, 25 mm.

Allied to analis and crythrosoma, but easily known by
the fulvous, not red, apex of abdomen ; differing otherwise
in the head being much more strongly punctured, this
being also the case with the thorax.

Hab. Barrackpore {Rothney).

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 99

3. LlACOS ERYTHROSOMA.

Scolia erythrosoma, Burmeister, M011. Scol. 151; Smith,
Cat. Hym., III., 113, 134.

Scolia dimidiata, Smith, I.e. ; Journ. Linn., Soc. VII., 29
12, part, var. from Bachian and Gilolo.2

Liacos (Triliacos) erythrosoma, Sauss. and Sichel, Cat.
Scot. 35.

Hab. Poona, Sumatra1 ; Bachian and Gilolo.2

Smith, Jour. Linn. Soc., 1869, p. 348, sinks erythrosoma
as a variety of ana/is.

1 1. With two closed cubital celhdes - Diliacos.

4. Diliacos Sicheli.

Liacos Sicheli, Saussure, Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1859, p. 172,
f. 1, $ ; Cat. Scol, 36. !
Hab. Sumatra.1

Scolia.

I. Three cubital cellules = Triscolia (Species 1 — 16).

1. Scolia nudata.

Scolia nudata, Smith, Cat. Hym., no, 120; Sauss. and
Sichel, Cat. Scol., 38, 7.1
Hab. North Bengal.1

2. Scolia brevicornis.
Scolia brevicornis, Saussure, Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1858,
p. 198, 2 ; Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol., p. 39, 81.
Hab. Java,1 Borneo.1

3. Scolia kollari.

Scolia kollari, Saussure, Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1858, p. 174;
Sauss. et Sichel, Cat. Scol., 401.
Hab. Java1.

ioo Mr. Cameron on

■ 4. SCOLIA FORAMINATA.

Scolia foraminata, Saussure, Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1858, p.
173 ; Sauss. et Sichel, Cat. Scol., p. 40.1
Hab. Java.1

5. Scolia unimaculata.

Scolia 7inimaculata, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1889, 446.1
Hab. India.1

6. Scolia tyrianthina.

Scolia tyrianthina, Kirby, I.e. pi. XV., fig. 2.1
Hab. Andaman Islands.1

7. Scolia velutina.

Scolia velutina, Saussure, Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1858, 175 ;
Sauss. et Sichel, Cat. Scol. 41, 131.
Hab. Java.1

8. Scolia opalina.

Scolia opalina, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. II., 89, 91. ; Sauss.
et Sichel, Cat. Scol. 45.
Hab. Borneo.1

9. Scolia rrocer.

Scolia procer, Illiger, Mag., I., 196, 26 ; Fab., Syst. Piez.y
238 ; Burmeister, Mon. Scol, 19, 9 ; Lepel, Nat. Hist. Hym.,
III., 519, 3 ; Sauss. et Sichel, 43, 16.1

Scolia capitata, Fab., Syst. Piez., 239, 3 ; Smith, Cat}
Hym.? III., in, 122.

Scolia patricialis, Burm., Mon. Scol, 19, 10.

Hab. Java,2 Sumatra,2 Singapore,2 Borneo,1 Moluccas,
Malacca.'

Smith, Journ. Linn. Soc, 1869, p. 343, regards patricialis
as a good species, but does not indicate the essential points
in which it differs from procer.

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 101

IO. SCOLIA SPECIOSA.

Scolia speciosa, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 90, io1 ; Sauss.
et Sichel, Cat. Scot. 44, 17.1
Hab. Borneo.1

11. Scolia magnifica.

Scolia magnifica, Sauss., Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1859, 175 ;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scot., 44.1
Hab. Java.1

12. Scolia cincta.

Scolia cincta, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 89, 71 ; Sauss.
and Sichel, Cat. ScoL, 45, 19.

Hab. Borneo, Sumatra, Sulla, Java.1

13. Scolia rubiginosa.

Scolia rubiginosa, Fab. Ent. Syst., II., 230, 8 ; Syst.
Piez., 241, 10; Coquebert, Must, t. 13, f. 4 ; Klug, Weber,
u. Mohr, Beitr., II., 211, 38 ; Lepell, Nat. Hist. Hym., III.,
5, 18, 2 ; Burm., Cat. ScoL, 19, 11 ; Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins.>
III., 1231 ; Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. ScoL, 46, 20.

Scolia ornata, Lepell, I.e. 517? l-

Hab. China, Siam, India, Borneo, Java, Malacca.1

14. Scolia insignis.

Scolia insignis, Sauss., Ann. Fr. Ent. Soc, 1858, 197, 1 ;
pi. v., fig. 1, ? ; Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. ScoL, 47, 22.1
Hab. Persia?1 East Indies.1

16. Scolia ducalis.
Scolia ducalis, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, V., 1 18, 9 ; Sauss.
et Sichel, Cat. ScoL, 49.

Hab. Moluccas,1 Ceram.1

102 Mr. Cameron on

15. SCOLIA CAPITATA.

Scolia capitata, Guerin, Voy. Coq., 248 ; Burmeister,
Scol.y 20, 13, a £ ; Sichel and Sauss., Cat. Scol, 47.
Scolia ruficeps., Smith, Cat., Ill, 126.1
Hab. Philippines.

16. Scolia h^emorrhoidalis.

Scolia hcemorrhoidalis, Fab., Mant., I., 280, 7 ; Lep., Nat.
Hist. Ins.Hym., III., 552, 5 ; Burm. Scol., 187 ; Smith, Cat.,
no, 119; Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol, 50.

This is a Palaearctic species only known from our region
on the authority of Fabricius.

II. Two cubital cellules = Discolia

17. Scolia humeralis.

Saussure and Sichel, Cat., 32 1.1
Hab., Singapore.1

18. Scolia scapulata.

Gribodo, Ann. d. Museo Civico di Storia Nat. di Genova, I.
Hab. Burma.

19. Scolia cephalotes.

Scolia cephalotes, Burmeister, Mon. Scol, 37, 60 ;: Smith,
Cat. Hym., III., 90, 20; Saussure, Sfc#. Ent. Zeit., 1859,
184?2 Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol, 102, 90.

Hab. Java,1 Borneo.2

20. Scolia cyanipennis.

Scolia cyanipennis, Fab., Syst. Pies, 244, 35 ;l Burm., Mon.
Scol, 2,7, 59; Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 90, 21 ; Sauss., ^4««.
is#£ Soc. Fr., 1858,209, 16; Sauss. and Sich., Cat. Scol, 103,
91.2

Hab. Java, Ceylon.2

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 103

21. SCOLIA COERULANS.

Scolia coerulans, Lep., Nat. Hist. Hym. Ins., III., 526-71 ;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scot., 104, 92.
/fa£. "East Indies."1

22. Scolia melanosoma.

Scolia melanosoma, Sauss., Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1859, 1851;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scot., 105, 94.
Hub. Java.'

23. Scolia Redtenbacheri.

Scolia Redtenbaclieri, Sauss., Stctt. Ent. Zeit., 1859, 1861;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol., 105, 95.
Hab. Java,1 Barrackpore.

24. Scolia carbonaria.

Scolia carbottaria, Sauss., Ann. Ent. Fr., 1858, 210, 171;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol, 106, 96.
Hab. "East Indies,"1 Java.1

25. Scolia aureipennis.

Scolia anreipcnnis, Lep., Nat. Hist. Hym., III., 523, 91 ;
Sauss. and Sichel, Oat. Scol, 109, 102.2

Scolia Jurinei, Sauss., Mclan. Hym., 45, 21.
Scolia instabilis, Smith, CVz/. Hym., III., 88, II.
Scolia ruficomis, Klug, Weber u. Mohr, Beitr., I., 25, 8.
Zfo£. " East Indies," Java,2 Poona.

26. Scolia erratica.

Scolia erratica, Smith, Cat. Hym. III., 88, 10;1 Linn.Soc,
88, 1 ; I.e., 9, 1 ; Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol, no, 103.

Scolia vertical'is, Burm., Mon. Scol, 37, 61 {nee. Fab.)1.
„ westermanni, Sauss. and Sichel, Ann. Ent. Fr.f
1858, 212, 19.23

Hab. Java,1 Borneo,2 Sumatra ;3 " East Indies." l

104 Mr. Cameron on

27. SCOLIA MOLESTA.

Scolia erratica, Sauss. (nee. Smith), Ann. Ent. Fr., 1858,

211, 18 ; Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1859, 187.

Scolia molesta, Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Seo/., Ill, 104.1
Had. Pulvo-Penang,1 Siam,1 Singapore,1 Sumatra,1 Java,'

Borneo.1

28. Scolia vollenhoveni.

Scolia vollenhoveni, Sauss., Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1859, 188 ;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scot., 112, 105.1
Had. Sumatra.1

29. Scolia obscura.

Scolia obscura, Lep., Nat. Hist. Hym. Ins., III., 527, 14 ;
Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 89, 16.1
Had. East Indies.1

30. Scolia quadripustulata.

Scolia 4-pustulata, Fab., Spec, his., I., 453, 13 ; Ent. Syst.
II., 234, 6; Burm., Mon. Scol, 36, 58; Lep., Nat. Hist.
Hym. Ins., 528, 16; Smith, Cat. Hym., III., S/, 7; Sauss.
and Sichel, Cat. Scol., 113, 108.

Larra 4-pustulata, Fab., Syst. Pica., 244, 34.

Scolia dinotata, Fab., Syst. Piez., 244, 36.

Scolia dipunetata? Klug, Weber u. Mohr, Beitr. I.,

36, 32-

Scolia 6-pustulata, Klug, I.e. 35, 30, var. £

Scolia fasciatopunctata, Guerin, Voy. d. Cog., II., 254.

Scolia fervida, Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IX., 46 ;
Crttf. Hym., 89, 15.

i/tf£. Barrackpore, Bombay, Java, Sumatra.

31. Scolia bengalensis, sp.nov.
Black ; the flagellum of the antennae red ; two small on
the second and two larger yellow marks on the third

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 105

abdominal segments. Clypeus impunctate, except a row
of pustules round the apex ; the space above and between
the antenna very strongly and coarsely punctured ; the
vertex with groups of punctures round the ocelli, above these
and almost impunctate to near the edge, which is closely
and finely punctured. Thorax closely covered with long
black hair and strongly and coarsely punctured all over,
except the edges of the pleurae. Apex of median segment
transverse with a sharply oblique slope. Abdomen covered
all over with widely separated punctures ; the ventral
segments with the punctures stronger, but with the base
impunctate ; the hair thick, longish and black. The $ is
similar but not quite so strongly punctured ; the third
joint of the antennae is shorter than the fourth, and the
yellow marks are on the third and fourth abdominal
segments.

Length, 25mm.

Hab. Poona ( Wroughton).

Comes near to 4-pustulata ; but that species has the
antennae black ; the marks on the abdomen red, not yellow ;
and the thorax is not punctured all over.

In one example of bengalcnsis there is, in the 9, two
small marks on the fourth abdominal segment.

32. SCOLIA BILUNATA.

Scolia bihmata, Sauss., Ann. Ent. Fr., 1858, 212, 20;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol., 115, 109.
Hab. Nepaul.1

23. SCOLIA BIOCULATA.

Scolia bioculata, Sauss., Stctt. Ent. Zeit., 1859, 189;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. ISco/., 115, no.'
Hab. Java, Sumatra.1

106 Mr. Cameron on

34. SCOLIA FULVIFRONS.

Scolia fulvifrons, Sauss, Melang. Hym., 43, 19, f. 11 ;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scot., 116, in.1

Scolia personata, Smith, Cat. Hym.f 91, 23.

Scolia bipunctata ? Klug, Weber u. Mohr, Beitr., I., 36, 32.

Had. East Indies.1

[35. Scolia splendida.

Scolia splendida, Sauss., A nn. Ent. Fr., 1 8 5 8, 2 1 3, 2 1 , pi. V.,
f. 2 ; Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol., 116, 1 12.1
Had. Asia1 (India)?].

2,6. Scolia nobilis.

Scolia nobilis, Sauss., Ann. Ent. Fr., 1858, 214; Sauss.
and Sichel, Cat. Scol, 117, 113.1
Had. East Indies.1

37. Scolia specifica.

Scolia specifica, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins., III., 89, 131;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol., 117, 114.
Had. East Indies.1

38. Scolia stizus.

Scolia stizus, Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol., 118, 115.1
Had. Tranquebar,1 Poona ( Wroughton).

39. Scolia nitidula.
Scolia nitidula, Sauss., Ann. Ent. Fr., 1858, 215, 23 ;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol., 119, 117.1
Had. Java.1

40. Scolia indica.

Scolia indica, Sauss., Melang. Hym., 46, 22, f. 10; Sauss.
and Sichel, Cat. Scol., 119, 118.

Scolia ignita, Smith, Cat. Hym. III., 101, 77.
Had. Bengal, Silbet.

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 107

41. SCOLIA ELIFORMIS.

Scotia eliformis, Sauss. Ann. Ent. Fr. 1858, 215, 24 l ;
Sauss. and Sichel, Cat. Scol, 120, 119.
Hab. East Indies,1 Ceylon.1

42. SCOLIA VENUSTA.

Scolia venusta, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 90, 17; Sauss.
and Sichel, 120, 120.1
Hab. East Indies.1

43. Scolia histrionica.

Scolia Jiistrionica, Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl, 256, 35 ; Klug,
Weber u. Mohr, Beitr., I., 25, 9?; Sauss. and Sichel, Cat.
Scol., 121, 121.

Scolia Picteti, Sauss., Mel. Hym., 42, 18.

Scolia pulcJira, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 88, 12.1

Hab. India, Poona ( Wroughtoii).

44. Scolia decorata.

Scolia decorata, Burm., Mon. Scol, 30, 39 ; Sauss. and
Sichel, Gal. Scol, 122, 122.1

Scolia flavopicta, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 91, 22.
Hab. Sumatra.

45. Scolia vivida.

Scolia vivida, Smith, Cat. Hym., 89, 14 ;! Sauss. and
Sichel, Cat. Scol, 123, 125.1

Hab. Madras,1 Poona ( Wroughtoii).

46. Scolia modesta.

Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 91, 25 ;L Sauss. and Sichel, Cat.,
124, 126.

Hab. Philippines.1

io8 Mr. Cameron on

Ells.
I. With two closed cubital cellules = Dielis.

1. Elis azurea.

Elis azurea, Saussure, Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1859, 269 ' ;
Sauss. and Sich., 185, 194.
Hab. Java, Sumatra.1

2. Elis bicolor.

Elis bicolor, Saussure, I.e. Ann. 80c. Ent. Fr., 1858, 233,
46, pi. v., f. 4 j1 Sauss. and Sich. 156, 195.
Hab. Java.1

3. Ells marginella.

Elis marginella, Klug, Weber u. Mohr, II., 214, 44 j1
Sauss. and Sich., 186, 196.

? Colpa parvula, St. Farg., Hym., III., 548, 17.
? Scolia hirtella, Klug, I.e. 215, 45.
Hab. East Indies.1

4. Ells tiioracica.

Tephia tiioracica, Fab., Ent. Hyst. Supp., 254, 15 ; Syst.
Pierj., 235, 19.

Sphex albicollis, Christ, Hymen., 260, t. 26, f. 1.

Sphex Jlavifrons, Christ., I.e. 261, t. 26, f. 2.

Tiphia nigra, Fab., Ent. Syst., II., 225, 9; $;'.$•/. P/asr.,

234, 13-

Campsomeris aureicollis, Lep., Hym., III., 499.°
Zi/Zi- tiioracica, Saus. and Sich., £#/., 188, 197.
//«£. Java, China, Barrackpore, Poona.

Hymenoptcra Orientalis. 109

5. Elis fimbriata.
Elis fimbriate Burmeister, Scol., 25, 6 ; Sauss. and Sich.,

189, 198.

Scolia thoracica, Klug, Weber, and Mohr, I., 33, 24.
Campsomcris collaris, Lepel., Hym., III., 498, 5.
Hab. Java.

6. Elis Asiatica.
Elis Asiatica, Saussure, Ann. 80c. Ent. Er., 1858, 231,
34;1 Ent. Zeit, 1859, 266 ; Sauss. and Sichel, Cat., 190,200.
Had. Java, East Indies.1

7. Elis reticulata, sp. nov.

Black, the wings fusco-violaceous. Clypeus coarsely
punctured at the base ; the space above and between the
antennae coarsely and closely punctured ; the vertex with a
few scattered punctures, behind the ocelli with the punctures
closer together and more numerous. The entire head
thickly covered with long black hairs. Thorax closely and
strongly punctured all over, except the apex of the scutellum
and the apex of the mesopleurse, and the base of the meta-
pleurse : the pronotum transverse in front ; the apex of the
median segment, almost transverse ; without furrows and
with an oblique slope, and punctured closely all over ; the
entire thorax bearing long black hair. Abdomen shining,
having a bluish tinge, sparsely punctured and densely black
haired all over ; the apex of the anal segment impunctate ;
the ventral segments sparsely punctured all over. Antennae
dull black; the third and fourth joints subequal; the apical
joints dilated beneath. $ .

Length 19 mm.

Hab. Poona ( Wroughton).

Comes near to Javana but that species has in the $ the
abdominal segments cinereo-ciliated, and the mesonotum
impunctate in the middle.

no Mr. Cameron on

8. Elis Javana.

Elis Javana, Lepel, Hym., III., 498, 402 ;' Sauss. and
Sich , Cat., 191, 202.
Hab. Java.1

9. Elis Tristis.

Elis tristis, Saussure, Ent. Zeit., 1859, 265 ;a Sauss. and
Sich., Cat., 193, 205.

Hab. Java, Borneo, East Indies.1

10. Elis luctuosa.

Elis luctuosa, Smith, Cat. Hym., 10 1, 77 (Scolia) ; Sauss.
and Sich., Cat., 194, 206.

Scolia ^.-guttulata, Sauss., Mil. Hymen., 58, f. 12.
Hab. India, Java, Philippines.

11. Elis quadriguttulata.
E. quadriguttulata, Burmeister, Scol, 21. 17 (Scolia);1
.Sauss. and Sich., Cat., 195, 207.
Hab. Java.1

12. Elis eximia

Elis eximia, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 99, 69 (Scolia) ;x
Sauss and Sich., Cat., 195, 208.
Hab. India.1

13. Elis rubromaculata.
Elis rubromaculata, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 99, 67
{Scolia) ; Sauss. and Sich., Cat., 196, 209.
Hab. Java.

14. Elis annulata.

Elis annulata, Fab., Ent. Syst., II., 225, 7 (Tiphia) ;
Burmeister, Scol, 25, 27 ; Sauss. and Sichel, Cat., 196, 210.
Campsomeris Servillii, Lepel, Hym., III., 501, 9.
Hab. China, Japan, Barrackpore, Poona, Burma, Java,

Manilla.

Hymenoptcra Oricntalis. 1 1 1

15. Elis Drewseni.
E. Drewseni, Sauss., Ann. Ent. Fr., 1858, 232,44 s1 Sauss.
and Sich., Cat., 197, 21 1.
Hab. Java.1

16. Elis habrocoma.
E. habrocoma, Smith, Gz/. Hym., III., ioo, 711 (&»/*«) ;
Sauss. and Sichel, CV*/. 198, 212.
Hab. India.1

17. Elis Snelleni.
E. Snelleni, Sauss., S/WA Ent. Zeit., 1859; 268, tab. 2,
f. 4;1 Sauss. and Sichel, Cat., 198, 213.
Zfa£. Sumatra.1

18. Elis grossa.

E. grossa, Fab., Syst. Pies., 232, 4 (Tiphia) ; Burmeister,
,&»/., 23, 22 (Scolia) ; Sauss. and Sich., Cat., 199, 215.
Elis sericea, Sauss., #£ £>*«., 63, 31.
i/Vz& India, Java.

19. Elis hirsuta.

Elis hirsuta, Sauss., Ann. Ent. Fr., 1858, 234,47 ; Sauss.
and Sich., Cat., 200, 216.
Hab. Tranquebar.

20. Elis Iris.
Elis Iris, Lepel, Hym., III., 547, 16; Sauss. and Sichel,
Cat., 201, 217.

Elis phalerata, Sauss., Ann. Ent. Fr., 1858, 233, 45.
ffa£. Java.

21. Elis ceylonica.
Campsomeris ceylonica, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1889,452.
Hab. Ceylon.1

ii2 Mr. Cameron on

22. ELIS HINDENII.

Elis hindcuii, Lepel, Hym., III., 500. 8 (Campsomeris) ;.
Sauss. and Sich, Cat., 204, 219.

Scolia quadrifasciata, Fab., Ent.Syst. Si /pp., 255, 16-17.
Hab. Japan, China, India, Moluccas.

23. Elis limbata.

Elis limbata^ Sauss. Gat., 206, 220.1
Hab. Java.1

24. Elis aurulenta.

Elis aurulenta, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 206 ; Sauss. and
Sich., Cat., 206, 221.

Hab. Philippines, Celebes, Bachian.

25. Elis cyanea.

Saussure, Gat., 323.
Hab. Nicobar Islands.

26. Elis litigiosa.

Elis litigiosa, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 113, 133 ;' Sauss.
and Sich., 158, 164.
Hab. East Indies.1

1 1. With three cubital cellules — Trielis.

27. Elis orientalis, sp. nov.

Black ; the wings dark violaceous. The clypeus impunc-
tate, with a row of punctures round the apex ; the vertex
impunctate, except a semi-circle of punctures round the
hinder ocelli to near the eye incision ; front strongly
punctured above the antennae, and there is a row of
punctures at the edge of the vertex, the front densely
covered with blackish, the cheeks and outer orbits with
greyish, hair. Thorax moderately strongly punctured,

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 1 1 3

except on the mesopleuras behind the margin of the
propleurae, the metapleura^ at the base, and the centre
of the mesonotum ; the latter having the punctures sparser ;
and with the parapsidal furrows deep, and reaching
from the apex to beyond the middle. Scutellum sparsely-
punctured; the sides of the metanotum very closely rugosely
punctured. Median segment short, transverse at the apex,
which has a rather sharply oblique slope and is impunctate
between the furrows. Abdomen shining, sparsely punctured,
the hair black, longish, and sparse ; pygidial area coarsely
longitudinally rugose ; the ventral segment sparsely punc-
tured on the apical half and bearing long black hairs. The
third cubital cellule of nearly equal width throughout. The
hair on the legs is black, except on the fore femora, which
have it greyish ; the hind femora have behind a row of
punctures in the middle.

Length 17 mm.

Hab. Ceylon (Rothney).

MvziNE, Latr.
In his Catalogue of Indian Hymenoptera, Smith omits,
curiously enough, all the species described by himself in
his Cat. Hym., III.

1. Myzine anthracina.
Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 71, 9.
Hab. India.

2. MlZINE COMBUSTA.
Smith, New species of Hym., ijg.
Hab. India? or Africa?

3. Myzine dimidiata.

Guerin, Diet. pitt. d. Hist. Nat., v. 575, 17 ; Smith, Cat.
Hym., 71.

Hab. Bombay, Bengal.
J

1 14 Mr. Camkron on

4. Myzine fuscipennis.

Smith, Cat. Hynn., III., 72.
Hab. India.

5. Myzine Madraspatana.

Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 72.
Hab. Madras.

6. Myzine nitida. (PI. IV., f. 2.)

Black, shining, the abdomen with a bluish gloss ; the
wings fuscous, hyaline to the transverse basal nervure.
Head covered with longish greyish hair, especially long and
thick below the antennae ; coarsely rugosely punctured
below the ocelli, the vertex with the punctures small,
shallower and more widely separated ; the ocellar region
slightly raised, a depression on the outerside of the lateral ;
a not very distinct channel runs down from the anterior.
Mandibles testaceous black at the apex ; antennae stout,
opaque, as long as the abdomen, the first and second joints
subequal, the third, if anything, longer than the fourth.
The pronotum punctured, somewhat like the vertex ; the
mesonotum in front finely and closely punctured ; behind
with the punctures larger and widely separated ; the scut-
el lum slightly raised, very coarsely rugose ; the median seg-
ment rugosely punctured ; the mesopleura convex, coarsely
punctured ; behind there is a smooth, shining oblique
depression. The thorax bears a thick greyish hair. Abdo-
men very smooth and shining ; the pygidium margined
laterally, carinate down the centre ; the space between with
some large punctures ; the apical segments bearing longish
blackish hairs. Legs bearing a greyish pubescence ; the fore
tibiae yellowish in front. The second cubital cellule at top
and bottom shorter than the third ; the first recurrent

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 1 1 5

nervure received beyond, the second in front of middle of
cellule. Length nearly 15 mm.

Hab. Poona (Wrougkton).

Allied to M. fuscipennis ; but that species differs in
having " a central channel, which is margined by too slightly
elevated carinae," the abdomen strongly punctured at the
base, &c.

7. Myzine orientalis.

Smith, New species of Hym., 179.
Hab. Beloochustan.

8. Myzine pallida.

Smith, New Species of Hym., 179.
Hab. North West Provinces.

9. Myzine petiolata.

Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 72.
Hab. Poona ( Wrougkton).

10. Myzine tricolor.

Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 91, 1.
Hab. Borneo.1

Tipiiia, Fab.

1. Tipiiia COMPRESSA, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 82, 4.
Hab. Philippines.

2. Tipiiia iiirsuta, Smith, I.e. S3, 5.
Hab. North India.

3. Tiphia rufipes, Smith. I.e. 8s, 6.
Hab. North India.

4. Tiphia rufo-femorata, Smith, I.e. S3, 7.
Hab. North India.

1 16 Mr. Cameron on

5. TlPHIA FUMIPENNIS, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 90. 1.
Hab. Borneo.

6. Tipiiia CONSUETA, Smith, New Species of Hymcn-

optera, 184.
Hab. Ceylon.

MUTILLID/E.

MUTILLA, Linn.

1. MUTILLA ACCEDENS, Radoszkovsky and Sichel, Mon.

d. Mutill, 89.
Hab. Manilla, Luzon.1

2. MUTILLA AESTUANS, Gerstacker, Peter s Reise, 487,

pi. 31, f. 61; Radoszkovsky and Sichel, Mongr. J.
Mutill, 85.2
Hab. Ceylon,2 Mozambique,1 Caffreria.2

3. MUTILLA ANALIS, Lep., Hj'/n., III., 630, 521 ; Rad. and

Sichel, Mon. d. Mutill, 146.2
Mntilla fuscipennis, Fab., Syst. Piez., 436, 35.
Mutilla rufogastra, Smith, Cat. Hym., 36, 185.
Hab. India,' Ceylon.2

4. Mutilla anonyma, Kohl, Verb. z-b. Gcs. IVien., 1882,

482, f. 20.
Hab. Sumatra.1

5. Mutilla antennata, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 31,

166.1
Hab. India.1

6. Mutilla argenteomaculata, Smith, New Species

0/ Hym., 199.1
Hab. Bombay Presidency.1

Hymcnoptera Orien talis. 117

7. MUTILLA ARGENTIPES, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 31,

167} (PL IV. f. 3 <J,f. 14?).
Hab. India,1 Poona ( Wroughton).

8. MUTILLA AULICA, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 37, 1891;

Rad. and Sick, Mon. d. Mutill, 120. (PI. IV. f. 4).
Hab. North India,1 Poona {Wroughton).

9. Mutilla aureorubra, Rad. and Sich., Mon. d.

Mutill., 166.

Mutilla egregia, Saussure, Non Klug. Ann. Soc. Ent.

Fr., 1867,351. PL VIII. f. 1.
Hab. Trincomalia, Ceylon.

10. Mutilla aurifex, Smith, New Species of Hym., 198.
Hab. Bombay Presidency.

11. Mutilla aurifrons, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 31, 168.1
Hab. India.1

12. Mutilla basilis, Smith, new species of Hym., 200.1
Hab. Bombay Presidency.1

13. Mutilla bengalensis, Lep., Hym., III., 657, 63 ;'

Rad. and Sich, Mon. d. Mutill., 122.
Hab. Bengal.1

14. Mutilla bicincta, Saussure, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 18671

355. t. 8, f. 4.1
Hab. Paradinie, Ceylon.1

15. Mutilla blanda, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 32, 170.
Hab. India.1

16. Mutilla Buddha, Cam. (PL IV, f. 9).
Hab. Poona ( Wroughton).

17. Mutilla calliope, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 85, 8.1
Hab. Borneo.1

18. Mutilla cassiope, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 86, 12.1
Hab. Borneo.1

109.1

i is Mr. Cameron on

19. MUTILLA CEVLANENSis, Rad. and Sich., Mon. d. Mutill,
Hab. Ceylon.1

20. MUTILLA CHRYSOPHTHALMA, Klug, Hym. b. phys., 17,

pi. V., f. 3., Rad. and Sich., Mongr. Mutill, 95.'
Hab. Arabia, Ceylon.1

21. MUTILLA COMOTTII, Gribodo.
Hab. Burma.

22. MUTILLA CONSTANCES, Cam. (PL IV., f. 10)
Hab. Poona ( Wroughtori).

23. MUTILLA CORONATA, Saussure, Novara Reise, 106.
Hab. Ceylon.1

24. MUTILLA COROMANDELICA, Motsch., Bull. Mosc , 1863.

23-

Hab. India, Madura.

25. MUTILLA DARDANUS, Smith, Proc. Linn. Sac, II., 86, 13.1
Hab. Borneo.1

26. MUTILLA DECORA, Smith, New Species of Hym , 200.1
Hab. Pulo Penang.1

27. Mutilla Deidamia, Smith, Proc. Linn. 80c, 1 1. ,83, 3.1
Hab. Borneo.

28. Mutilla DENTICOLLIS, Motsch, Bull. Mosc, 1863, 22.
Hab. Ceylon, Mountains of Nura Ellia.

29. Mutilla DIMIDIATA, Lep., Hym., III., 628, 50;1 Rad.

and Sich., Mon., 147.
Mutilla rufogastra, Lep., I.e., 629, 51.
Mutilla sexmaculata, Smith, Cat, Hym., III., ^7, 188.
Hab. India,1 Pondechery, Triconomale, Timor, Luzon.

30. Mutilla diversa, Smith, Cat. Hym., 32, 171. '
Hab. India.1

31. Mutilla dives, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 32, 172.1
Hab. India.1

32. Mutilla erythrocera, Cam.
Hab. Poona {Wroughton).

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 1 19

2,Z- Mutilla familiaris, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 84, 7.1
.//#£. Singapore, Borneo.1

34. Mutilla funeraria, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 37, 190.1
//*?/;. North India.

35. Mutilla glabrata, Fab., Syst. Piez.,438,45 ;J Olivier,

£«/. J/////., VIII., 65,64.
Hab. India.1

S6. Mutilla gracillima, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 84,6.*
Hab. Borneo.1

37. Mutilla hexaops, Saussure, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., 1867,

169, 7.1
//"<z& Nattan, Ceylon.1

38. Mutilla Humbertiana, Saussure, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr.,

1867, 353, t. 8, f. 2.
Hab. Trincomalia.1

39. Mutilla hymalavensis, Radosykowsky, Home. Soc.

Ent. Ross., XIX.
Hab. Himalaya.1

40. Mutilla indica, Linne, Syst. Nat., I., 966, 3.1
Hab. India.1

41. Mutilla indostana, Smith, Gat. Hym., III., 33, 175.'
Hab. Madras.1

42. Mutilla insularis, Cam.

Hab. Sober Island, Trincomalia, Ceylon ( Yerbnrgh).

43. Mutilla intermedia, Saussure, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr.,

1867, 354, 4.1
Hab. Ceylon.1

44. Mutilla Kauar^e, Cam. (PI. IV., f. 2.)
Hab. Ceylon {Yerbnrgh).

45. Mutilla kauthell/k, Cam.
Hab. Kauthella, Ceylon ( Yerbnrgh).

120 Mr. Cameron on

46. MUTILLA MACULOFASCIATA, Saussure, Novara Reise,

Hyiu., 107, 5.
Hab. Ceylon, Timor, Luzon.1

47. Maiiacanayensis, Cam.
Hab. Mahaganay, Ceylon.

48. MUTILLA METALLICA, Cam.

Hab. Trincomali, Ceylon ( Ycrbuigh).

49. MUTILLA MIRANDA, Smith, Cat Hym., III., 33, *7&
Hab. India.1

50. MUTILLA NEREIS, Kohl, Verb. z. b. ges. Wien, 1882,

476, f. 2.1
Hab. Java,1

51. MUTILLA NIGRIPES, Fab., Syst Piez., 439, 51.
Hab. India.1

52. MUTILLA NOBILIS, Smith, Cat Hym., III. 33, 178.
Hab. Madras.

53. MUTILLA OCCELLATA, Saussure, Ann. Hoc. Ent. Fr.,

1867, 169, 6.'
Hab Ceylon.1

54. MUTILLA OPTIMA, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 34, 179.1
Hab. India.1

55. MUTILLA OPULENTA, Smith, Cat Hym., III., 34, 180.1
Hab. India,1 Kauthalla, Ceylon {YerbtirgJi).

56. Mutilla Pandora, Smith, Proc. Linn. Hoc, II., 85, 10
Hab. Borneo.1

57. Mutilla Philippinensis, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 40,

200 j1 Rad. and Sich., Mongr. Mutil., 88.
Hab. Philippines,1 Luzon.

58. Mutilla placida, Smith, New Species of Hym., 198. l
Hab. Bombay Presidency.1

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 1 2 1

59. MUTILLA PONDICHERENSIS, Radosykovsky and Sichel,

Monog. d. Mutilles, 66.
Hab. Pondichery.1

60. MUTILLA POONAENSIS, Cam
Hal). Poona ( Wroughton).

or. Mutilla Prosperina, Smith, Proc. Linn. &oc.,\\., 85, 9.1
Hab. Borneo.1

■62. Mutilla pulchriceps, Gam. (PI. IV., f. 17)
Hab. Poona ( Wroughton).

-63. Mutilla pulchrina, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 34, 18 1,1
(PI. IV., f. 6-8 and 16).
Hab. Madras,1 Savoy, Poona ( Wroughton).

■64. Mutilla pulchriventris, Cam. (PI. IV, f. 5)
Hab. Poona {Wroughton).

'65. Mutilla pusilla, Smith, Cat.Hyiu., III., $7, 191.1
Hab. North India.1

66. Mutilla regia, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., $S, 1921 (PL

IV., f. 7).
Hab. North India,1 Poona ( Wroughton).

67. Mutilla rufitarsis, Smith, New Species of Hym.,

199.1
Hab. India.1

68. Mutilla rufiventris, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 16,

184.1
Hab. India.1

69. Mutilla reticulata, Cat. Hym., III., 35, 183.1
Hab. India.1

70. Mutilla rugosa, Olivier, Ency. Meth., VIII., 61, 35 ;

Rad. and Sich., Mon. d. Afuti//., 121. (PI. IX. f. 4).
Hab. India,1

71. Mutilla semiaurata, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., s6, 187.
Hab. India.1

i22 Mr. Cameron on

J2. MUTILLA SERRATULA, Cam. (PI. IV., f. 1 2).
Hab. Poona ( Wroughton).

■J I. MUTILLA SEXMACULATA, Swed., Nov. Act. Ho////., VIII.,
286, 44; Rad. and Sich., Mon. d. Mntill, 109'
(non Smith).
Hab. Bengal,1 South India, Calcutta.

74. MUTILLA SIBYLLA, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 86, 1 i.
Hab. Borneo, Celebes, Arn.1

75. MUTILLA SUBINTRANS, Rad. and Sich., Mon. d. Mntill

90.1
Hab. Ceylon, Timor.1

76. MUTILLA SOROR, Saussure, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., 1X67,

354, t. 8, f. 3.1
Hab. Habourenne, Ceylon.1

77. MUTILLA SUSPICIOSA, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, 1 1., 94, 5.L
Hab. Borneo, Celebes, Amboyna, Bourn, Flores.1

78. MUTILLA TETRAOPS, Rad. and Sich., Mon d. Mntill. 1 19/
Mutilla lencopyga, Smith, Cat Hy/n., 1 1 1., 1 2, 74 (iiec Klug).
Mutilla sexmaculata, Smith, I.e. 37, 188 (nee Swed.).2
Hab. China, India.2

79. Mutilla trimaculata, Cam.
Hab. Poona ( Wronghton).

80. Mutilla Trinxomomalica, Rad.
Hab. Trincomalia.1

81. Tropbax.e, Cam.

Hab. Trincomalia ( Yerburgh).

82. Mutilla unieasciata, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 38,

193-
Hab. India, Celebes.

? Mutilla VICINISSIMA, Gribodo, Ann. d. Mus. Civ. a.
Storia Nat. d. Genova.
Hab. Burma.

Hynienoptera Oriental is. 123.

S3. MUTILLA UNIMACULATA, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II.,
87, 14.
Hab. Borneo, Celebes.1

84. MUTILLA URANIA, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc, II., 83, 4.1
Hab. Borneo.1

85. MUTILLA VEDA, Cam.
Hab. Boon a ( WrougJiton).

86. Mutilla Wroughtoni, Cam. (Bl. IV. f. 15).
Hab. Boona ( WrongJituii).

87. Mutilla Yerburgi, Cam.

Hab. Mahaagang, Ceylon ( Yerburgh).

The following table may enable the new species here
described to be more easily recognised : —

1. (2) Abdomen without spots. The apex of the second and
the third abdominal segments with golden bands ; the
head covered densely with a golden pubescence ;.
thorax elongate-quadrate, concave, dilated at the

apex.

Kan arte.

2. (1) Abdomen with spots.

3. (14) The spots golden.

4. (9) Head black.

5. (6) Sides of thorax irregularly serrulate ; tibiae and tarsi

testaceous. Second abdominal segment without a
large golden spot. Length 5 mm. serratula.

6. (5) Sides of thorax not irregularly serrulate ; tibiae and tarsi

black.

7. (8) Thorax laterally concave, dilated at apex, abdomen at

base with two large dilated marks, legs not densely
pilose. insularis.

8. (7) Thorax laterally not concave, narrowed towards the apex,,

abdomen at base with a small spot, legs densely pilose-.

Buddha.

9. (4) Head red.

10. (13^ Abdomen with two golden spots: the sides of thorax not
irre^ularlv serrulate.

I24

Mr. Cameron on

1 I.

(12;

I 2.

(")

'3-

(10'

14.

(3

i5-

(20

16.

(i7)

'7-

(16;

18.

(19

.9. (18

20. (15

21. (24

22. (23

23- (24

24. (21

25. (26

26. (25

27. (28

28. (27

Head large, more than half the length of the thorax; the

pubescence sparse, fuscous. erythroccra.

Head small, less than half the length of the thorax, the

pubescence dense, golden. pulchriceps.

Abdomen with one small golden spot at the base ; the

sides of thorax irregularly serrate. veda.

The spots white.

The head red, wholly or in part.

Abdomen with one spot and one band. Poonaensis.

With two or three spots and no band; abdomen purple.
With two spots, thorax laterally slightly convex, not much
narrowed towards the apex. metallica.

With three spots, thorax laterally concave in middle,
distinctly narrowed towards the apex, pidchriventris.
Head black.
Abdomen with no white band.

,, ,, two spots placed transversely.

Wroughtoni.
„ ,, three spots placed longitudinally.

trimaculata.
„ „ a band or two.

,, ,, one spot, the thorax dilated at apex.

Tapbanae.

„ ,, two or three spots, the thorax not dilated

at apex.

With two spots ; thorax without spines. Consianceace.

With three spots ; thorax more than twice the length of

the head, spined. Kauthellce.

Mutilla Kauthellae, sp. nov.

Black, the mesonotum dull red ; a broad macula on the
apex of the first segment, two oval ones on the second ;
and two irregular ones on the apex of the third, white ;
the ventral segments fringed with white hairs. Head large,
distinctly wider than the thorax, very coarsely, irregularly
rugosely punctured, forming almost reticulations beneath.
Antennal tubercles obliquely striated. The hair on the
vertex is fulvous, intermixed with longer fuscous hair ;

Hymcnoptera Orientalis. 125

on the lower part of the head pale to silvery. Eyes
oval, convex ; vertex convex, raised above the top of
the eyes. Scape of the antennae punctured, covered with
glistening, silvery hairs ; the flagellum thick, tapering
towards the apex, where it is brownish ; the third joint
more than twice the length of the fourth, and longer than
the fourth and fifth united. Thorax elongate quadrate,
with the punctures larger and deeper than on the head, the
mesopleuras almost opaque, aciculate ; above the line of
separation, between the meso — meta — and median, segment
is obliterated ; the prothorax is very short ; the mesothorax
becomes a little dilated towards the apex ; the sides at the
apex with two obtuse tubercles ; the base being also
dilated, so that the central region is narrower than the basal
and apical. On the base of the median segment, at the
side, is a large, shining, oblique tooth. Abdomen deep
black, at base subsessile ; longer than the head and thorax
united ; above thickly covered with black hairs ; there is a
line of dark, fulvous hairs on the side of the second seg-
ment ; pygidium finely rugose, covered with long brownish
hairs. Legs covered with long white hairs ; the calcaria
pale yellowish-testaceous ; the tibiae with stout spines.
Length, 12mm.

MUTILLA TAPROBAN.E, Sp. flOV.

Black, the thorax ferruginous ; an ovate mark on the
second segment in the middle, a square one at its apex, and
the third segment silvery-white. Head as wide as the
thorax, coarsely rugosely punctured ; sparsely covered with
long pale hairs ; convex above, but not much developed
above the eyes ; antennal tubercles smooth shining. Scape of
antennas and the second joint piceous ; the third joint more
than twice the length of the fourth, and as long as the
fourth and fifth united. Thorax punctured like the head,
quadrate ; the hairs long and black ; the sides very slightly

126 Mr. Cameron on

concave, rough, hardly dilated towards the apex. Meso-
pleurae shining, impunctate in the middle, the metapleurae
the same except at the apex. Median segment rounded,
and with a very slight slope. Abdomen as long as the head
and thorax united ; subpetiolate ; less strongly punctured
than the thorax ; the hairs at the base black, at apex pale ;
the ventral segments fringed with long silvery hair ;
pvgidium longitudinally striated, rufous in the centre.
Legs bearing whitish hairs : the calcaria pale ; the tibial
spurs thick and of four pairs. Mandibles piceous at the
base.

Length, 7 mm.

M. rufitarsis, Sm., appears to have pretty much the
same colouration and markings as the above, but it is
larger (4.3^ lines).

MUTILLA TRIMACULATA, Sp. 110V.

Black, the thorax dark rufo-testaceous, a round mark on
the base and apex of the second segment, and a larger
longish one on the fourth, glistening white. Antennae stout,
the flagellum dull brownish beneath, the scape obscure
rufo-testaceous, the third joint clearly longer than the fourth.
Head as wide as the thorax, rather strongly punctured ;
covered with long blackish hairs ; antennal tubercles
shining, dull rufo-testaceous, this being also the colour of
the mandibles at the apex. Thorax somewhat more
strongly punctured than the head; the pleurae impunctate;
the sides of the thorax above straight, becoming slightly,
but distinctly, narrowed from base to apex ; the median
segment with a rather sharply rounded slope. Abdomen
not much longer than the head and thorax united, the
pvgidium shining, finely punctured. The ventral segments
and pleurae dull piceous, the thorax and abdomen bearing
long blackish hairs; the apical ventral segments fringed
with whitish hairs ; the legs bear white hairs ; the fore

Hymcnoptera Oricntalis. 127

tarsi piceous ; calcaria pale. Nearly related to M.
mctallica, but wants the metallic gloss on the thorax and
head ; the abdomen black, the base of the second segment
with a white mark, the fascia on its apex being con-
tinuous ; the third antennal joint shorter in proportion to
the fourth ; the thorax more distinctly narrowed from base
to apex ; the median segment with the slope more gradual,
not so sharply oblique.
Length, nearly 5 mm.

MUTILLA WROUGHTONI, Sp. nov.

Black, the thorax above rufous, the base of the second
abdominal segment with two oval white marks, Antenna;
stout ; the third joint about one-half longer than the fourth.
Head broader than the thorax, coarsely rugosely punctured ;
•eyes moderate, oblong, the head well developed behind
them. Thorax more coarsely rugose than the head, the
pleurae apparently impunctate ; the sides of the thorax
above rough, becoming gradually dilated to the apex ; the
apex of median segment oblique, black. Abdomen shorter
than the head and thorax united ; the subsessile pygidum
apparently punctured, covered with long hairs. The upper
surface of the insect has the hair black ; the ventral longer
and whitish. Legs covered with white hairs.

Length, 8j4 mm.

MUTILLA PULCHRIVENTRIS, sp. nov.

Head and antenna3 red, the latter covered on the top
thickly with pale golden pubescence, hiding the ground
colour ; thorax dull red ; abdomen a small spot longer than
broad at the base and two broader than long on the apex
of the second segment, white ; legs red ; the femora and
tibiae more or less purple. Head wider than the thorax ;
eyes large, oval, reaching quite close to the top of the head.
The third antennae joint as long as the fourth and fifth

i28 Mr. Cameron on

united. Thorax elongate, rounded at base and apex
concave near the middle, distinctly narrowed towards the
apex, above coarsely punctured ; the median segment with
the punctures larger, rounder, deeper, and more widely
separated ; pleurae coppery, the meso covered thickly with
white hair ; the mesonotum with long black hair, and with
a short white glistening sparse pubescence. Abdomen oval,,
wider than the thorax, narrowed at base and apex, closely
punctured and bearing long black hairs ; pygidium im-
punctate ; from the apex of the penultimate segment spring
two masses of white hair ; ventral segments filled with long
pale hair. Legs covered with pale hair ; there are three
rows of tibial spines ; the calcaria white.

Length, 9 mm.

Very closely related to metallica, but easily separated
by the different shape of the abdomen, which in M.
metallica, is longer, narrower, not dilated in the centre, but
becomes gradually narrower towards the apex ; it has also
the punctuation on the median segment as on the
mesonotum.

MUTILLA METALLICA, Sp. 110V.

Head and thorax coppery, metallic, with greenish tints ;
abdomen bright metallic purple ; the legs, antennae, and oral
region widely pale ferruginous. Head slightly wider than
the antennae ; shining, moderately strongly pnnctured ;
the oral region with a glistening white pubescence ; the
upper part with long blackish hairs. The second and
fourth joints of the antennae about subequal ; half the
length of the third. Thorax above, somewhat more strongly
punctured than the head ; the propleurae in the middle
punctured ; the mesopleurae in the middle aciculate ; above
the middle legs there is a small space finely longitudinally
striated. The sides of the mesothorax almost straight, but
very slightly narrowed towards the apex ; the median seg-

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 129

ment with a gradual rounded slope to the apex, where it is
distinctly narrowed. Abdomen as long as the head and
thorax united, more closely punctured than the thorax ; at
the base, narrowed, narrower than the apex of the median
segment ; it bears longish black hairs ; and they become
longer in the apical segments ; the ventral segments fringed
with pale hairs ; on the apex of the second segment are two
spots of white hairs, broader than long ; pygidium finely
punctured. Legs covered with long white hairs ; the tibiaj
and femora more or less metallic coppery green behind.
Eyes large, oval, convex ; head not much convex on top.
There are three tibial spines.

The quantity of ferruginous on the head varies ; the
extreme base of the thorax and abdomen are also of this
colour.

Length, 7 mm.

MUTILLA POONAENSIS, Sp. 1WV.

Head, thorax, base of abdomen rufo-testaceous, abdomen
black, with a purplish gloss, a small white mark on the
second segment near the base and a band on its apex,
glistening white. Antennae of moderate length, stout, the
third joint not much longer than the fourth. Head a
little broader than the thorax, closely and coarsely punctured,
covered with white glistening hairs ; the antennal tubercles
impunctate ; eyes large, oblong, reaching quite close to the
head. Thorax much more coarsely punctured than the head ;
the prothorax rounded in front ; the median segment with
a gradual rounded slope to the apex, coarsely punctured ;
mesopleurae shining, impunctate ; the thorax covered with
longish, fuscous to glistening white hairs. Abdomen sub-
petiolate, narrowed at the base ; pygidium impunctate,
covered with long fuscous and white hairs. Legs covered
with long white hairs ; the calcaria white. The sides of
the thorax slightly narrowed from base to apex.

Length, 6 mm.
K

130 Mr. Cameron on

MUTILLA VEDA, Sp. tlOV.

Head and thorax ferruginous ; abdomen black ; the ex-
treme base ferruginous ; a mark, broader than long, on the
base, and a large band (dilated in the centre) on the apex
of the second segment, pale fulvo-golden ; the scape and the
basal joints of the flagellum and the legs reddish ; the apical
joints of the flagellum brownish beneath ; the apices of the
femora broadly blackish.

Very closely allied to M. serratula, having the same
form of the thorax ; differing in having the head red, and
in there being a spot on the base of the second segment,
in the pygidium being covered all over with pale fulvous
hairs ; in the thorax at the base laterally being not so
rounded ; the sides at the extreme base project into a broad
tooth, roundly incised at the apex ; the sides in the middle
are not contracted, nor continuously serrate, but broadly
waved ; the apex of the median segment is rounded, not
brought to a point in the middle and serrate, the meta-
pleurae are distinctly punctured. Legs covered with longish
hair. The third joint of the antennas a little longer than
the fourth. Eyes moderate, oblong ; clypeus covered with
long fulvous hairs ; the base of the mandibles rufo-piceous.

Length, 5 mm.

MUTILLA PULCHRICEPS, Sp. tlOV.

Thorax ferruginous, the scape and base of the flagellum
and legs rufo-testaceous : abdomen black, two large round
maculae on the second, and the third and fourth segments
golden-fulvous ; the head apparently black, but hid by a
thick covering of fulvous pubescence. Head coarsely
punctured ; convex above, not much developed above the
top of the eyes. Antennal tubercles coarsely punctured,
eyes large, oblong. Second antennal joint shorter than the
fourth, the third about twice the length of the fourth.

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 131

Thorax coarsely punctured ; the hairs long and black ; the
pleurae shining impunctate. Sides of thorax from above dis-
tinctly concave, irregular ; the apex hardly wider than the
base; the sides of median segment serrate. Median segment
with an abruptly oblique slope. Abdomen as long as the
head and thorax united, subpetiolate. Pygidium longtudi-
nally rugose and covered with long pale fulvous hairs. The
ventral segment fringed with golden fulvous hairs. The
coxae and apex of the femora are black ; the hairs on femora
are pale ; on tibiae and tarsi pale rufous ; the tibial spines
five in number, longish, and like the calcaria, pale rufous.
Basal half of mandibles and antennal tubercles rufo-piceous.

Length, 8 mm.

Allied to M. soror and intermedia, with which it agrees
in colouration ; but differs in the head, being densely covered
with a golden fulvous pubescence. Soror is further dis-
tinguished from it in the thorax, not being concave, but
straight ; and intermedia has the metapleurae rugose.

MUTILLA ERYTHROCERA, Sp. 1WV.
Antennae, head, thorax and legs, for the greater part,
ferruginous; abdomen black, two large round macular on
the second segment, and the third and fourth segments
golden-fulvous. Head coarsely rugosely punctured, and
sparsely covered with long blackish hairs ; the hairs on the
clypeus pale fulvous ; antennal tubercles shining, impunctate.
Palpi testaceous ; eyes small, oval, in length about as long as
the third antennal joint,and situated before the lateral middle
line of the head, i.e., the space behind them is greater than
in front. Vertex roundly convex. The third antennal joint
not quite twice the length of the fourth, which is longer
than the second. Head wider than the thorax. Thorax
more coarsely punctured than the head ; the mesonotum
impunctate, the pro— and metapleurae rufose ; the sides of
mesothorax rough, very slightly concave ; eyes of median

132 Mr. Cameron on

segment bluntly serrate. Abdomen about as long as the
head and thorax united ; the hairs on the first and second
segment black. Pygidium apparently finely punctured ;
ventral segments fringed with fulvous hairs. Legs : femora
and coxae piceous ; tibia; and tarsi ferruginous ; the tibial
spines (6 in a row) black ; the hair long and pale fulvous.
Length, 9 mm.

MUTILLA BlIUDDA, sp. nov.

Black, the thorax ferruginous ; an oval spot on the base
of second segment and the whole of the third pale golden-
fulvous. Head narrower than thorax, very coarsely punc-
tured, almost reticulated ; eyes large, oval, antennal tubercles
impunctate ; vertex not much raised above the eyes, roundly
convex ; the clypeus fringed with long fulvous, the rest of
the head sparsely with fuscous hairs ; mandibles piceous
in the middle. Scape covered with pale fulvous hairs ;
the flagellum with a pale down, brownish beneath ; the
third joint not much longer than the fourth, shorter than
the fourth and fifth united. Thorax coarsely longitudinally
reticulated, the pleurae entirely impunctate ; becoming
gradually but not much narrowed from extreme base to
apex ; the edges rough, but without any distinct tubercles ;
apex of median segment obliquely sloped. Abdomen
longer than the head and thorax united ; the first segment
dilated, longitudinally punctured on the second segment ;
the others with their apices shining, impunctate, glabrous ;
the pygidium coarsely punctured ; the extreme apex finely
transversely striated ; the apical ventral segments fringed
with long fulvous hairs. Legs : the femora sparsely covered
with longish blackish hairs ; the tibiae and tarsi thickly
with pale fulvo-golden ; the calcaria and the bristles on the
underside of the tarsi rufous ; the four tibial spines stout
black.

Length, 1 1 mm.

Hymenoptcra Orientalis. 133

MUTILLA SERRATULA, Sp. 1WV.

Black ; the thorax red ; the scape and legs pale rufo-
testaceous ; the apex of second abdominal segment with a
pale fulvous band (dilated in the middle). Head as wide as
the thorax, coarsely punctured ; the antennae tubercles
impunctate. Pale testaceous, as well as the cypleus ;
mandibles reddish, the apices piceous black ; eyes large,
oval, reaching close to the top of the head. The third
joint of antennae about one-half longer than the fourth.
The sides of the thorax coarsely irregularly serrate, con-
tracted in the middle ; closely and coarsely longitudinally
punctured ; the apex of median segment above A -shaped ;
coarsely serrated ; the acute apex terminating in a spine.
The sides of the median segment serrate ; the pleurae
impunctate. First abdominal segment not dilated ; the
apical pale, testaceous, impunctate ; the apical ventral
segments fringed with pale fulvous hairs. Tibiae and tarsi
sparingly covered with testaceous hairs ; the apices of
femora fuscous.
Length, 5 mm.

MUTILLA INSULARIS, sp. 110V.

The antennae and head black ; thorax ferruginous ;
abdomen black, with two large oval united fasciae on the
second segment ; the third segment and the apex of the
fourth, golden-fulvous ; legs black, the femora for the greater
part ferruginous. Head coarsely rugosely punctured ; the
hairs fulvous. Eyes large, oblong ; reaching quite close to
the top of the head, which is slightly convex — Antennal
tubercles red, shining, finely striated. Antennae inclining to
piceous beneath towards the base ; the third joint twice the
length of the fourth ; the second and third joints subequal.
Thorax bluntly rounded at base and apex, twice the length
of head, more strongly punctured than the head ; the

134 Mr. Cameron on

pleural punctured, except at the apex ; the sides of the
thorax above rough, almost straight — pygidium longitu-
dinally striated ; the sides fringed with long fulvous hair — -
apical ventral segment slightly fringed with fulvous hair \
the basal segment with large deep punctures ; the others
with the punctures much smaller. Legs covered thickly
with long pale fulvous hairs, rufo-fulvous on the tarsi ; the
calcaria ; the tibial spines four, pale.
Length, 1 1 mm.

Mutilla Kauar .]•:.

Head covered all over with a golden fulvous pubescence
completely hiding the colour ; the basal three joints of the
antennae and the thorax and legs ferruginous ; abdomen
black, segments three and four the apex of the second and
the apical covered with golden fulvous pubescence. Head
a little wider than the thorax ; eyes large, oval ; mandibles
ferruginous at the base ; palpi testaceous ; antennae stout,
the third joint a little shorter than the fourth and fifth
united. Thorax about twice as long as the head, rounded
at base and apex ; the sides concave, the edge rough, hardly
wider at the apex than at the base ; the thorax above
coarsely rugosely punctured ; the plurae impunctate, shining ;
apex of medium segment with a gradually rounded slope.
Abdomen as long as the head and thorax united, subsessile ;
coarsely punctured ; the fourth and fifth segments bearing
long, dull, fulvous hairs ; pygidium longitudinally striated,
the apex more finely transversely : the sides fringed with
long golden hairs ; ventral segments punctured, fringed with
fulvous hairs. Legs covered with fulvous hair ; the tibiae
with four long spines ; the coxae are black ; the hair of tarsi
dense and long.
Length 1 1 mm.

Mutilla Constance. e, sp. nov.

Black, the thorax pale, ferruginous above, an irregular

Hymcnoptera Orientalis. 135

mark on the base and apex of the second segment and the
third segment white. Antennae with the third joint about
one quarter longer than the fourth ; the first at apex, the
second and the terminal beneath more or less piceous.
Head not much wider than the thorax, coarsely punctured,
densely covered with silvery hair ; the antennal tubercles
piceous, aciculate. Eyes oval, moderate, reaching quite
close to the top of the head. Thorax quadrate, rounded
at base and apex, the sides rough, slightly concave ; above
coarsely longitudinally punctured, the pleurae impunctate,
densely covered with white hairs, the upper also densely
covered with white hairs. Abdomen as long as the head
and thorax united, subsessile, dilated at the base of second
segment, becoming gradually narrowed to the apex ; coarsely
punctured, in the middle bearing rufous hairs, the sides
with silvery hair ; pygidium rufous, longitudinally striated,
the ventral segments fringed with long silvery hairs. Legs
covered with long silvery hairs ; the tibial spines testaceous;
the spurs white.

Length, a little over 6 mm.

MUTILLA YERBURGHI, Sp. UOV.

Metallic-blue, covered with a whitish pubescence ; the
antennae black ; wings fusco-hyaline. Antennae of moderate
length ; the third joint shorter than the fourth. Eyes
emarginate. Head punctured, behind the ocelli almost
smooth ; a channel runs down from the lateral ocelli.
Thorax rather strongly punctured, very slightly convex ;
the median segment reticulated ; pro- and metapleurae with
an oblique excavation, shining, almost smooth except for an
indistinct striation. Parapsidal furrows distinct. Abdomen
strongly punctured ; the second and following segments
thinly fringed with pale hair. Thorax truncated in front,
rounded behind. Legs covered with white hairs ; the cal-
caria white. Abdomen subsessile.

Length, 9 mm.

136 Mr. Cameron on

MUTILLA PULCHERINA, Smith.

Head and thorax ferruginous, the antennae, mandibles,
legs and abdomen black : a small, somewhat triangular, spot
on the basal segment, a broad band, dilated roundly in the
middle at the apex, on the base of the second ; the third
segment entering a broad band in the fourth (the latter two
interrupted in the middle), and a fringe on the apical
abdominal segments, golden fulvous. Antennas short, thick ;
the third joint about one-half longer than the fourth,
and shorter than the fourth and fifth united. Head
narrower than the thorax, very coarsely rugosely punctured ;
the antennal tubercles shining, impunctate ; eyes small,
oval, vertex convex, not much elevated above the eyes ;
the long hair on the vertex blackish ; on front and oral
region fulvous. Thorax coarsely longitudinally, irregularly
strialate ; but the furrows are not continuous ; mesopleune
shining, impunctate. The sides become gradually and
slightly narrowed from base to apex ; a little before the
middle there is a stout tooth ; and there is a blunt tubercle
a little beyond the middle. Abdomen distinctly longer
than the head and thorax united, subessile ; pygidial area
apparently strongly transversely aciculate ; the second
ventral segment very coarsely transversely punctured.
Legs (including the tarsi) densely covered with long fulvous
hair ; the femora coarsely punctured ; the calcaria pale
testaceous.

The band on the second abdominal segment varies, and
may become broken up into three rounded spots.

M. Aurifex is probably a variety ; but the description is
imperfect.

MUTILLA INTERRUPTA, var ?

Black ; the thorax rufous ; the abdomen with two oval
spots on the base of the second segment, and a broad

4th St

HYMEN OPTFBJl —

C<m«fct»c. ■ . Nat

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS MANCHESTER LIT. AND PHIL. SOC .

Hymenoptera Orientalis. 137

interrupted band on the third and fourth segments, white.
Antennae with the third joint about twice the length of the
fourth. Head wider than the thorax, coarsely rugosely
punctured ; the lower part bearing a white pubescence.
Eyes elongate. Thorax quadrate much more strongly and
deeply punctured than the head, the pleurae impunctate ;
the sides of the thorax above slightly concave, the apex
more dilated than the base, the apex of median segment
subperpendicular. Abdomen a little longer than the head
and thorax united, narrowed at the base ; pygidium finely
longitudinally striated. Tibial spines pale, four in number.
Nearly 9 mm.

Apterogyna, Latr.

1. Apterogyna mutilloides, Smith, Cat. Hpn.,III.,64,$.
Hab. India.

Myrmosida, Smith.
1. Myrmosida, paradoxa, Smith, Proc. Linn. Sot., II.,
88, 1, tab. 2, fig. 1.
Hab. Singapore.

THYNNID/E.

ISWARA West.

1. ISWARA LUTENS, Westwood, Trans. Ent. Soc, I. pi. 7, f. 5.
Hab. India.

2. ISWARA FASCIATA, Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 253.
Hab. Sind.

\

138 Proceedings.

Ordinary Meeting, January 26th, 1892.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in

the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

The congratulations of the members were presented to
the President on the jubilee of his connection with the
Society, Dr. SCHUNCK having been elected a member on
January 25th, 1842. Mr. CHARLES B.VILEY remarked
that it was pleasant to find a member who began his work
for the Society very soon after his election half a century
ago as one of its secretaries still manifesting his interest in
it in the presidential chair ; and Dr. SCHUNCK replied that
his association with the Society had been throughout one
of the chief pleasures of his life.

Mr. Gwyther referred to the death of the Society's
honorary member, John Couch Adams, F.R.S., elected
in 1847, who shared with Leverrier the distinction of
predicting, in 1845, the place where the then undiscovered
planet Neptune would be found, and pointed out that
Adam's calculations were so accurate that Professor Challis,
of the Cambridge Observatory, searching for the planet
under Adam's instructions, without the aid of the German
star maps, actually saw the planet twice in the place
predicted six weeks before the Berlin telescope was
directed to the sky by Dr. Galle to look for it according
to the indication of Leverrier.

Mr. GWYTHER read a paper entitled " On an intrinsic
differential equation of conies, and its relation to the
invariants," showing the method of deriving the ordinary

Proceedings. 139

invariants of a conic from the differential equation
discovered by Monge, and called by Halphen the differ-
ential invariant of a conic. Considerable simplification
results from taking as variables, magnitudes of which the
connection with the curve is of an intrinsic nature.

Ordinary Meeting, February 9th, 1892.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R S., F.C.S., President, in
the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

By the nomination of the President, Mr. C. S. Trapp
and Mr. CHARLES O'Neill were appointed auditors of
the accounts for the current year.

The President drew attention to a copy of the
" History of the Siege of Gibraltar," presented to the
Society by the author, Colonel Drinkwater, who served
with the Manchester Regiment during the famous siege,
and who was elected a member of the Society in the same
year in which the work was published and presented, 1786;
and also to a work on the " Department of Comptrollers
of Army Accounts " from the same pen, presented by
Colonel Drinkwater to the Society just fifty years later,
and containing an autograph inscription by him. A con-
versation on the Manchester Regiment and its officers
of the period of the siege ensued.

Professor Osborne Reynolds described the principle
of Mr. Edison's proposed system of telephoning over great
distances at sea by means of condensers.

140 Proceedings.

Mr. C. O'Neill, F.C.S., made a communication to the
effect that he had found that the solubility of lead formate
was greatly increased by the addition of a small quantity
of lead nitrate. It had been previously known that nitrate
of lead can be dissolved in a small weight of water,
compared with its own weight, by the addition of acetate
of lead, but the observation with regard to lead formate
and lead nitrate was apparently new.

[M icroscopical and Natural History Section^

Ordinary Meeting, February 15th, 1892.

Mr. Charles Bailey, F.L.S., Vice-President of the
Section, in the Chair.

Mr. H. HYDE described two specimens of perfectly
white moles, which had been sent to him, and mentioned
that in these albino examples the eye is much more con-
spicuous than in those of the ordinary colour.

Mr. T. Rogers exhibited some beetles from Vancouver,
and a selection of plants from the herbarium of the late
George Crozier, which has been presented to the Free
Library, by the family of his son, the late Robert Crozier,
the artist.

Mr. CUNLIFFE described some experiments made upon
a caged lion. When an article saturated with a strong
scent was introduced into his cage, the lion showed great
excitement and pleasure, and rolled himself about in the
scent, sniffing up its fragance with evident relish.

Mr. P. Cameron read a paper on the natural history
of "all insects.

Proceedings. 141

General Meeting, February 23rd, 1892.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in
the Chair.

Mr. R. M. Pankhurst, LL.D., Barrister-at-Law, St.
James's Square, Manchester, and the Rev. CANON JULIUS
LLOYD, M.A., Kersal, Manchester, were elected ordinary
members.

Ordinary Meeting, February 23rd, 1892.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in
the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.

Reference was made to the theory of Mr. HENRY WlLDE,
F.R.S., and his experiments respecting the variation in the
direction of the magnetic needle, and Mr. FARADAY pointed
out that Mr. Charles A. Schott, of the United States Geodetic
Survey, had stated that he had records of magnetic variations
with which Mr. WlLDE was not acquainted, and that when
these were used as tests, in addition to the large number
of verifications Mr. WlLDE had presented, the latter's theory
still held good.

Dr. SCHUNCK, in pursuance of remarks made at the
previous meeting, read a letter from Colonel Drinkwater,
one of the officers of the Manchester Regiment during the
siege of Gibraltar, accompanying a copy of a work on the
battle of St. Vincent, presented by him to the Society in
1797. In this communication Colonel Drinkwater acknow-
ledged the authorship of the work named.

142 Proceedings.

Mr. W. BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S., read a paper on
"The Artificial Colouration of Flowers," and exhibited a large
number of flowers which had been artificially coloured by
Mr. Win. Dorrington and himself. They had observed that
cut flowers, placed in a solution of aniline scarlet, absorbed
the colour, and became tinged thereby. Later on they
found that a beautiful blue was imparted to cut flowers by
the colour called indigo-carmine. A large number of dyes
were tried, and other sorts were partially successful ; but
none proved so good as the two above-named. They tried
indigo, cochineal, and sulphate of copper, with only partial
success. The fact, however, was easily established, viz.,
that cut flowers can be coloured rapidly by placing them in
a solution of aniline colour, of about the transparency of
claret — also that new features of great beauty are imparted
to many flowers thereby. The lily of the valley flowers
become beautifully tinted pink in six hours. Narcissi are
changed from pure white to deep scarlet in twelve hours.
Yellow daffodils are beautifully striped and fringed with
dark scarlet in twelve hours. The larger subject, of how
this rapid change is brought about, soon attracted Mr.
Brockbank'S attention, and proved extremely interesting;
as the method thus adopted opens out modes for investigat-
ing and demonstrating phenomena in vegetable physiology,
which promise to be of great value. The cellular theory
of sap circulation, which is well-known to botanists, Mr.
BROCKBANK maintained does not account for these results.
He arrived at the conclusion that there is a complete vein
system in plants, the vein tubes being clearly seen under
the microscope, passing through the leaves of the plants,
and also through the petals and other parts of the flowers.
In these tubes the motion of the fluid colour could be
seen, and it is these veins which convey the colour.
In the cases of cut flowers the action is very rapid.
The experiments and observations in proof of this were

Proceedings. 143

at first made entirely with cut flowers ; but the author
afterwards tried the experiment of taking a hyacinth and
narcissi out of the soil very carefully, and then placing the
root fibres in aniline water. In twelve hours the petals
began to colour, and the plant gradually became tinctured
throughout by the pink dye. The filtering appendages,
found at the tips of the rootlets, apparently prevent the
absorption of much of the colour, because the petals do
not become so deeply tinged, nor so quickly, as with cut
flowers ; but it is clearly seen that the vein tubes proceed
from the roots, and thus complete the system from root to
flower. The veins are beautifully shewn by the microscope
as clean tubes — running in parallel lines, gradually branch-
ing out as they proceed, and as they approach the margins
being much and finely branched. When the coloured
water reaches the margins of the petals, they thus become
deeply tinctured, especially in the narcissi, — illustrating the
cause whereby the daffodil so frequently obtains the deeper
colour at the margins of the corona. It is the same with
the Leucojum and snowdrop. The most singular results
were obtained from variegated leaves of the ivy and
acuba — plants which, in the winter season, one would
suppose, had the leaves quite dormant. Single leaves of
these plants, with the leaf stalk placed in aniline red water,
began to colour in about three hours, and in twelve hours had
the margins deeply coloured. Leaves thus separated from
the stem of the plant were thus shewn to have an absorptive
and circulating power in themselves, even if detached from
the stem. The pistils of the flowers always become
coloured — which the author considers an important fact,
as shewing that the solid matter of the colouring fluid is
secreted by the fruiting vessels of the flower. It has been
stated lately, that the free use of sulphate of copper for
dressing the vines in France, and watering the vineyards
|or the prevention of the Phylloxera, has been found to

144 Proceedings.

produce a copper flavour in the clarets. This is seen to
be exceedingly probable from these experiments.

An animated discussion ensued, in which Mr. CHARLES
BAILEY, Professor Hare, Dr. Ree, Mr. Cunliffe, and
others, took part, Mr. Bailey describing various experiments
on the artificial colouration of flowers during the last two
centuries, and Professor HARE suggesting elaborations of
Mr. Brock hank's experiments as likely to prove extremely
helpful in elucidating the structure and vital processes of
plants.

Mr. Charles O'Neill, F.C.S., read a paper on " The
action of formic and acetic acids with oxydizing agents on
indisro blue."

Proceedings. 145

Ordinary Meeting, March 8th, 1892.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

It was announced that the Annual Meeting would be
held on Tuesday, the 26th, instead of the 19th of April
(Easter Tuesday).

A question was raised as to the possibility of a human
flying machine. Professor REYNOLDS stated that the
limits of size were determined by the strength of the
material used. The machine must be strong enough, light
enough, and go fast enough, and the less efficient as a
flying machine the faster it must go. The difficulty was
not one of kinematics or construction of the machine, but
in the conditions under which the machine must be used.

Dr. SCHUNCK read a paper, entitled " Notes on some
Ancient Dyes." The materials examined by Dr. ScilUNCK
were supplied by Mr. Flinders Petrie through Mr. R. D.
DARBISHIRE, and are mainly scraps of woollens, fillings from
coffins from tombs in Lower Egypt, of date about 400 or
500 A.D. The discussion which followed turned mainly on
the methods of producing the fabrics, some of which were
of the nature of what are called dhooties, and some seemed
to be produced by the aid of a jacquard loom.

146 Proceedings.

{Microscopical and Natural History Section.]

Ordinary Meeting, March 14th, 1892.

Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc, President of the Section,
in the Chair.

Mr. H. Hyde and Mr. SCOWCROFT were appointed to
audit the accounts.

Mr. Boyd exhibited a number of flowers which had
been artificially coloured by immersing their stems in
various aniline dyes.

The President of the Section gave an account of
the causes of the very remarkable colours seen in some
fishes, and explained how, under certain conditions, these
colours are changed ; illustrating his remarks by a number
of prepared specimens shown under the microscope.

Proceedings. 147

Ordinary Meeting, March 22nd, 1892.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

Reference was made to the deaths of Mr. OLIVER
HEVWOOD, ordinary member, and Professor HERMANN
KOPP, of Heidelberg, honorary member.

The discussion on Dr. SCHUNCK's paper on "Some
Ancient Dyes," read at the previous meeting, was resumed
by Dr. Bottomley, Mr. W. Thomson, Mr. C. O'Neill,
and the President.

A discussion also took place on the artificial colouration
of flowers through the roots, some additional experiments
being described, and Mr. CHARLES BAILEY giving an
account of experiments by M. Maxime Cornu, a dozen
years ago, who stated that the dyes appeared to stop the
growth of the plants. Professor Hare pointed out that a
similar paralysing influence is observable in staining
microbia with aniline dyes.

Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., read a paper on " The
Explosion of Carbonic Oxide and Oxygen with other
Gases," relating to experiments by Professor Bekstoff, of
St. Petersburg, confirming the result arrived at by Mr.
DlXON, that the mixture of gases dried by phosphoric acid
does not explode. Bekstoff found that cyanogen confers
inflammability on the mixture. This had been previously
recorded by Mr. DlXON, who also found that carbon
bisulphide and oxygen could be fired in a mixture of car-
bonic oxide and oxygen without causing the union of more
than 10 per cent of the latter.

148 Proceedings.

Ordinary Meeting, April 5th, 1892.

James Bottomlev, D.Sc, B.A., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

There was a discussion on the supposed periodicity of
meteorological phenomena.

Iridescent Colours. 149

On Iridescent Colours and a Method of examining
Iridescent objects, Birds, Insects, Minerals, &c, so
as to ensure uniformity in their description. By
Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc.

{Received March 1st, 1892.)

On taking a general survey of coloured objects, whether
natural or artificial, we become aware of the fact that whilst
the colours of some remain unchanged as regards tint,
whatever their position in relation to the incident light, the
tint of others varies with every alteration in their relation-
ship to such light source. We thus see that so far as their
colours are concerned all bodies may be arranged in two
groups according as their colours change or do not change
in tint as their angular relationship to the light varies.
Nor is this classification entirely an artificial one, since, as
will shortly be seen, though this change in tint with
variation in the light source is an essential difference, it is
not the only difference, even in the colour manifestations of
the two groups, for it is also characteristic of the nature
of the colour-producing structure. It is to the above-
mentioned varying colours that we apply the term iridescent,
from the resemblance they have in the sequence or play of
colours to the tints of the rainbow. The unvarying group
of colours, having no equivalent term to " iridescence " to
express the nature of their colour production, are spoken
of as "pigmentary," or absorption colours. In naming
examples of objects, natural and artificial, grouped as
above in accordance with the nature of their colours, it is
difficult to make a selection where all are so varied and
characteristic. I have preferred therefore to cite only
L

150 Mr. Alex. Hodgkinson on

such instances as I myself possess, and am therefore able
to show you. As examples of pigmentary colours, I need
only name one or two for the sake of comparison, since the
colours of most objects ordinarily met with are pigmentary.
Leaves, flowers, dyes, birds, fish, insects, minerals, &c,
exhibit these colours, some almost entirely, and all,
excepting fish, in far the majority of instances. Of objects
displaying iridescent colours we have also examples in the
various divisions of the animal, vegetable, and mineral
kingdoms. Amongst birds the most striking examples are
found amongst the Humming Birds, Sun Birds, Birds of
Paradise, &c. Insects, again, furnish numerous examples,
more especially amongst tropical species, though not,
perhaps, proportionally in greater numbers than amongst
those belonging to our own more temperate regions. The
colours of fish are almost entirely iridescent, since their
very whiteness, or silvery sheen, is due to the admixture of
the iridescent colours of innumerable minute thin lamellre,
too small to be seen individually with the naked eye, but
plainly perceptible under the microscope. In the Vegetable
kingdom iridescent colours are far more numerous than is
ordinarily recognized, since the surfaces of the cell walls
produce interference colours which are more or less obscured
by the pigmentary colours of leaves and coloured flowers,
but may be readily seen in the case of white flowers by the
aid of a lens and sunlight. Under these conditions each cell
may be seen to sparkle with its own iridescent colour,
forming, by admixture of the interference tints of neigh-
bouring cells, the varying shades of white seen in numerous
flowers which are devoid of pigmentary colour. Mineral
bodies displaying iridescent colours are also numerous ;
opals, sunstone, fire-marble, felspar, mica films, tarnish on
various metallic crystals, certain crystals of chlorate of
potash, &c, are examples.

In describing the various natural objects for purposes of

Iridescent Colours. 151

identification, or mere description, no account can be con-
sidered complete which omits all reference to their colours,
and more especially is this the case where the colours consti-
tute such a striking feature, as in the case of iridescent bodies.
In innumerable instances, more especially amongst birds
and insects, their specific names are taken from some con-
spicuous colour they possess. It thus becomes evident that
a correct description of the colours of bodies is of import-
ance, and where these colours are of the pigmentary, or
unchanging kind, this is a matter of no difficulty. How
different, however, in the case of objects, the colours of
which not only vary with every change of position, but
disappear altogether, unless viewed with special relation
to the light source. Nor can it be wondered at that
descriptions of these objects, even by observers of undoubted
repute, vary according to the different angles from which
they have been viewed ; or are vague and profuse, owing to
fruitless attempts to describe their changing tints produced
by every movement. The fact is, no words can convey
an adequate impression of the gorgeous effects produced
by most of such objects, whether birds, insects, or fish,
when in motion in brilliant sunshine. Some notion of the
difficulties to contend with in describing the colours of
humming birds, for example, may be gathered from the
remarks of Wallace in his work on "Tropical Nature"
when speaking of humming birds :— " In some species they
must be looked at from above, in others from below; in
some from the front, in others from behind, in order to catch
the full glow of the metallic lustre ; hence, when the birds
are seen in their native haunts, the colours come and go and
change with their motion, so as to produce a startling and
beautiful effect." Most observers, in describing the colours
of iridescent bodies, do so by attempting to depict the varied
effects produced by casually changing the position of the
object in relation to the light, omitting to mention the exact

152 Mr. Alex. Hodgkinson on

sequence of the play of colours, or the relation of these
colours to the direction of the iridescent light, i.e., whether
produced by perpendicular or oblique illumination. Here is
a description of the tufted neck humming bird, TrocJiilns
omatits, taken haphazard from a well-known work : —
" The throat is of a fine green colour, variable in different
lights to a golden hue with a yellow or brown metallic
lustre, and below that the whole of the belly is a rich
brown, glossed with green, and golden." Such descrip-
tions as the above, which happen to be the first I met
with in seeking for an instance, are vague, and fail to
give a definite idea of the appearance of the object. But
vagueness in the description of these objects is not the only
result of the changing character of their colours. As might
be expected, where such variation in appearance exists, the
descriptions of different authors are almost as variable as the
colours. Few attempt descriptions without acknowledging
the hopelessness of the task. Thus Jardine, after des-
cribing this humming bird, CJiryslampis mosquilus, remarks:
" It is impossible to convey by words the idea of these tints,
and having mentioned those substances to which they
approach nearest, imagination must be left to conceive the
rest." And I adduce this quotation as fairly expressing the
feeling of naturalists in reference to the description of
iridescent objects generally. Recognizing the admitted
inability of observers to convey by description an idea of
the appearance of these iridescent objects, and having myself,
for many years, constantly experienced the same difficulty,
I have been led to adopt a method for the examination of
such objects, which, whilst extremely simple and available
in its application, yields unvarying results with different
observers, results, moreover, which admit of the simplest
description.

Before describing this method, I may say that long
experience in the examination of iridescent objects, has

Iridescent Colours. 153

proved to me that, almost without exception, the colours of
natural iridescent objects are due to interference produced
by thin plates. In order, therefore, to render clear the
principles on which the method I propose is founded, I will
briefly refer to certain fundamental facts in connection with
colour production by thin plates, and for this purpose
will select a thin film of mica, which, with light at perpen-
dicular incidence, appears red, iridescent red. If, now,
this plate be inclined so that the light falls on it at a more
oblique angle, it is, of course, reflected at the same angle,
and now appears orange, and if the plate be still further
inclined, the reflected light appears yellow, then yellowish
green, green, and bluish green, and if the light were not too
copiously reflected from the first surface to allow of per-
ceptible interference by further inclination of the plate, all
the colours of the spectrum in their proper sequence might
be observed. The same results, but much more vividly,
may be seen in these crystals of chlorate of potash. Thus,
we see that by rendering the incident light more and more
oblique, the reflected light changes from a lower to a higher
tint, that is, Irom the red towards the violet end of the
spectrum. And this is what occurs in the case of all
iridescent bodies, as the incident light becomes more oblique
the colour changes to the tint above it in the spectral order,
so that, if we know what colour any such object appears
when seen at a certain angle, we can infer what colour it
will change to on varying the incidence. This beetle (Sagra
purpurea), for instance, is red at perpendicular incidence, it
will, therefore, appear orange yellow and green when
examined by successively increased obliquity of light
And the same is true of all other iridescent red objects. If
the object at perpendicular incidence be green, as in the
case of this beetle (Bupristis), it will become blue and
then violet as the incidence is increased. We thus see
that an iridescent object varies in colour, simply because it

154 Mr. Alex. Hodgkinson on

is examined by light incident, and therefore reflected, at
different angles. Thus, different observers see the same
iridescent object of a different colour, when they view it
illuminated by light at a different angle of incidence. If,
however, the object is seen by all at the same angle of the
incident light it will present the same colour, and this is, in
fact, what the method I propose ensures, i.e., that iridescent
objects shall always be seen by light at one and the same
angle of incidence. The angle I select is one of 90 , so
that the incidence and reflection are normal or perpendicular
to the reflecting surface. By selecting this angle all trouble
of measuring angles is avoided, since we know that the
incidence is perpendicular when it coincides with reflection.
Now, the reflected light may be made to coincide with the
incident light by reflecting it on to the object by means of a
mirror, and so adjusting the object that the light reflected
from it passes to the eye through a perforation in the
mirror. When examined in this way iridescent objects are
marvellously altered in appearance, their changing colours
are replaced by one fixed tint, visible only in one position,
a fact which serves at once to distinguish them from bodies
coloured by absorption, which remain coloured whatever
the relation to the incident light. Such methods of
examining bodies scarcely takes more time than by the eye
alone. The mirror may be attached to a spectacle frame so
as to leave both hands free, such as the one I show, or may
be a simple hand mirror. For objects too small to be seen
by the unaided eye, I have so arranged the microscope that
light is made to pass down the tube of the instrument
through the object glass on to the objects, and by a special
arrangement, so adjusted the position of the object that
the light is reflected back again through the instrument to
the eye. The method is thus available for macroscopic as
well as microscopic objects.

To illustrate the practical value of this plan of examina-

Iridescent Colours. 155

tion, I have here a few objects exhibiting iridescent colours,
which, by trial, will be found to give the following results : —
The crest of this humming bird, CJirysolampis mosquitus,
which, to the unaided eye, appears resplendent with all shades
of red, orange, yellow, or green, according to the angle of
the incident light, appears, when examined by the mirror, of
one unvarying red tint, disappearing when the object is
moved, but absolutely unchanging in tint. Such an object,
therefore, I should describe as "iridescent red;" all else regard-
ing its colour may be inferred. Again, the breast, or gorget, of
the same bird reflects all shades of orange, yellow, or green
to the eye alone ; with the mirror it is seen of a deep
orange, which, as before, is unchanged in tints by any
variation in position. Such an object I would describe as
" iridescent orange." The gorget of another humming bird,
CallipJdox amethystina, to the eye alone appears crimson,
orange, yellow, or green ; with the mirror it is iridescent
crimson only, spectroscopically a red of the 2nd order.
Amongst insects, instances of iridescent species are number-
less, the results of examination are just the same as in other
iridescent bodies. This butterfly, Morpho, to the eye alone
appears either greenish-blue, blue, or violet, as its inclination
to the light varies ; examined with the mirror it appears
green, and should be described as iridescent green, or
iridescent bluish-green. This beetle, Poropleura bacca,
appears any shade of red, yellow, or green to the eye
alone ; with the mirror only iridescent red. In this extra-
ordinary beetle, CJirysochroa fulminans, we have all the
colours of the spectrum in their natural sequence, beginning
with red at the tip of the wing case, and ending with violet
higher up the elytron. These colours vary in an indescribable
manner when attentively examined at different angles of
incident light with the eye alone ; with the mirror the wing
cases are seen to be coloured successively from base to tip
iridescent green, yellow, orange, and red, and these tints

156 Mr. Alex. Hodgkinson on

remain unaltered by change of position of the object.
This piece of Haliotis shell exhibits indescribable changes
of colour with every movement, but the difficulty of descrip-
tion, though by no means removed, is immeasurably lessened
by the use of the mirror. And the same with this specimen
of iridescent iron ore, its colours, which vary to the unaided
eye, remain unchanged when examined by the mirror. To
simplify the description of iridescent objects, therefore,
I would advocate the above method, and would describe the
result of such examination by recording the colour observed
by aid of the mirror, and prefixing the term "iridescent" to
express the changing properties of the colour. Bearing
in mind the unvarying nature of these changes, a
far clearer idea may be formed of the appearance
of these objects than from any attempted description of
what is admittedly indescribable. Time and space are also
economised by the omission of lengthy descriptions. The
accuracy, and, therefore, the value of any description of
colour, is always enhanced by mapping its spectrum ; more
especially is this true in the case of iridescent colours.
This is easily done, and by applying such map to a
spectral chart, the order of the colour, and therefore its
tint, is apparent. In examining many objects, chiefly birds or
insects, by means of the mirror as above described, apparent
exceptions are repeatedly met with to the fact stated above
that the colour is invariable in tint and disappears by
inclination of the body. Such instances are no real excep-
tions, but are due to the reflecting plates being curved, or
having pigmentary matter beneath them, or an opalescent
medium above them. In this way some of the most extra-
ordinary and beautiful colour effects it seems possible to
conceive are produced. Some of them I hope to bring
before your notice on a future occasion.

In examining objects with the perforated mirror a single
light is necessary. The sun is of course the best, and the

Iridescent Colours. 157

electric light probably almost as good. I frequently employ
the limelight, but a good paraffin lamp may be used as a
substitute. Ordinary gas is unsuitable. The light should
be placed in front of the observer, its direct rays being pre-
vented from falling on the objects by means of a book or par-
tition of some kind resting on the table, and of such a height
that the light can be seen above it. On placing the mirror
to the eye the light may be reflected from the mirror on to
the object, and the latter manipulated so as to reflect the
ray back through the perforation in the mirror to the eye.
The incidence is thus known to be normal, and the colour
observed is the one to be recorded.

158 Dr. Schunck on

Notes on some Ancient Dyes. By Edward Schunck,
Ph.D., F.R.S.

{Received May 4th, 1892.)

The fragments of ancient dyed fabrics which I have
examined I owe to the kindness of Mr. Jl. D. Darbishire.
They are specimens from a lot found by Mr. Flinders
Petrie, in a tomb at Garob, Lower Egypt, supposed to date
from 400-500 A.D. They were used apparently for filling
the mummy cases where required, not strictly speaking as
grave clothes. My object in examining them was to
ascertain, if possible, what were the materials employed in
producing the various colours seen on them. The fabrics
examined consisted almost entirely of wool. Here and
there in the warp of some of the specimens were threads,
conspicuous for difference in colour, consisting of linen.
The following colours could be distinguished : — blue, yellow,
green, red, maroon, purple or claret, black. I will take
them in the order named.

Bine. — The colour of the fabric was a dull medium blue.
On treatment with hot caustic lye a great part of the wool
dissolved. The residue, which was dark blue, having been
filtered off, washed and dried, was treated with boiling
aniline, to which it communicated a bright blue colour.
The blue solution having been filtered boiling, deposited on
cooling a quantity of blue crystalline scales, which, after
being filtered off, washed with alcohol and dried, were
found to consist of indigo blue. On being treated in a tube
they gave a sublimate of regular crystals, blue by trans-
mitted, copper-coloured by reflected, light ; they dissolved
in concentrated sulphuric, giving a blue solution, and the

Some Ancient Dyes. 159

solution in aniline showed the absorption spectrum of
indigo blue. It is evident, therefore, that indigo in some
form or other was the material used in dyeing this colour.

Yellozv. — The colour of the patches dyed yellow was so
evidently faded, and showed so little intensity, as to make
it very uncertain whether analysis would lead to any precise
result; the examination was therefore omitted.

Green. — Of the material dyed this colour, I had but a
small quantity, but it was sufficient to allow of some con-
clusion regarding the means whereby the colour was
produced. On being treated for some days with dilute
hydrochloric acid it imparted to the latter a deep yellow
colour. The portion left by the acid, after being washed
and dried, yielded indigo blue on treatment with boiling
aniline. It is probable, therefore, that the colour was pro-
duced by first dyeing the fabric with indigo, then treating
with some mordant, such as alum, and, lastly, dyeing with
some yellow colouring matter, most likely of vegetable
origin. With the small quantity of material at my disposal,
I found it impossible to ascertain the nature of the yellow
colouring matter employed.

Red. — This was the most pronounced, and at the same
time the most interesting, of the colours examined. The
colour of the fabric was a full deep red. It might be called
a Turkey red : the dye, in fact, proved on examination to be
a kind of Turkey red as having the characteristic properties
of that dye.

On being burnt, the fabric left a considerable quantity
of ash, consisting of calcium sulphate, alumina, aluminium
phosphate, ferric oxide, and silica. A large portion
of this ash no doubt represents the mordant employed
in producing the colour. On treatment with hot dilute
hydrochloric acid the fabric lost its red colour and became
yellow. After removal of the acid by washing with water,
and pressing between blotting paper, treatment with boiling

160 Dr. Sciiunck on

alcohol deprived the wool of the greater part of the yellow
colour, a faint tinge only being left. The deep yellow
alcoholic liquid obtained left on evaporation a reddish-
brown amorphous residue. This, on being treated with a
boiling solution of alum, dissolved in part, yielding a pink
fluorescent liquid, which had exactly the same colour, and
showed precisely the same absorption bands as a solution
of purpurin from madder in alum liquor. On adding hydro-
chloric acid to the pink solution and heating, the colouring
matter was precipitated in orange-coloured flocks, the
liquid becoming almost colourless. The flocks after being
filtered off and washed with water dissolved easily in
boiling alcohol, yielding a yellow solution, which, on spon-
taneous evaporation, left a quantity of dark yellow needles
arranged in rosettes. These needles dissolved in caustic
alkali, giving a cherry-red solution, which showed the
absorption bands of purpurin. The solution, on exposure
to air and light, became colourless.

Some of the precipitated colouring matter, on being
employed in the usual way for dyeing a bit of calico to which
various mordants had been applied, yielded colours exactly
like those obtained with purpurin from madder, i.e., the
alumina mordant gave a bright red, the iron mordant dull
purple to black tints. The matter left undissolved, after
repeated treatment with boiling alum liquor, was still
highly coloured. It dissolved easily in alcohol, the solution
leaving on evaporation a brown amorphous residue, which
remained soft even after long standing. This residue con-
sisted for the most part of fatty matter, but it also contained
some colouring matter insoluble in alum liquor. That this
colouring matter was alizarin seemed probable, since the
colour which the mixture imparted to alkaline lye resembled
that of an alkaline solution of impure alizarin.

These experiments lead to the conclusion that the red
colour of the fabric was produced by dyeing with some kind

Some Ancient Dyes. 161

of madder, either wild or cultivated, the fabric having been
previously treated with a mixed aluminous and ferric
mordant, and then probably oiled— that it was, in fact, really
a kind of Turkey red.

Maroon. — The dull chestnut colour of this fabric pre-
sented a striking contrast to the bright red of the preceding.
Its constitution was, however, similar. Having treated it in
the same way as the other, I found that the colouring
matter must have been derived from madder ; fatty matter
was also present, but the mordant contained a larger pro-
portion of ferric oxide, a fact which sufficiently explains the
brown tint of the dyed fabric.

Purple. — The fabric in which this colour was seen was
made up of a pale yellow warp, and a weft of a dull purple or
claret colour. The latter colour was found to be due to an
intimate mixture of red and blue, for the threads, on exami-
nation under the microscope, were seen to consist partly of
red, partly of blue fibres, the former predominating. The
two sets of fibres had, of course, been mixed before spinning.
The blue fibres were certainly dyed with indigo, the red
probably with madder.

Black. — The colour of the black fabric, like that of the
green, was a compound of two colours, one overlying the
other. Under the microscope the individual threads
appeared grey. On treatment with a mixture of alcohol
and hydrochloric acid they changed colour, a yellow liquid
being obtained, while the fabric itself now appeared blue,
and after washing and drying yielded indigo by appropriate
treatment. The yellow alcoholic liquid was found to con-
tain purpurin. The colour may be supposed to have been
produced in the following manner : — The woollen fabric
having first been dyed blue was mordanted, to use a modern
phrase, and then dyed with madder, the two colours
together producing the effect of black.

1 62 Mr. Charles O'Neill

On the action of Acetic Acid, with oxidising sub-
stances, on Indigo Blue. By Charles O'Neill, F.C.S.

{Received May 18th, i8g2.)

If a quantity of very pure indigo blue in fine powder be
placed in a glass or porcelain mortar, with 20 or 30 times
its weight of mono-hydrated or glacial acetic acid, well
mixed up, then crystals of permanganate of potash added
in small portions, at intervals of a few minutes, with con-
tinual stirring and grinding, it will be found that chemical
action is taking place, heat is evolved, the mixture thickens
almost to a paste, and when the quantity of permanganate
added is equal to about one-fourth part of the weight of
indigo operated upon, the operation is finished. Examined
under a pretty high power of the microscope, say with
yi inch objective, the contents of the mortar are found to
consist of a mass of small prismatic crystals floating in a
nearly colourless liquid ; the crystals have a faintly yellow
colour, and no indigo blue is visible. The thick mass of
crystals may be drained on a filter, washed with strong
acetic acid and then with water, until all soluble matters
are removed, then dried very gradually in a warm place,
where the temperature for the first few hours should not
exceed 200 to 250 C. ; after most of the water has evapo-
rated, the temperature may be gradually increased up to
ioo° C, at which heat the dry product is permanent, and
may be kept for years unchanged in a dry place.

Other oxidising agents may be used, but the only ones
to be recommended are the di-oxide of lead, the red oxide
of lead, either added directly or previously dissolved in
strong acetic acid, and lastly, the higher oxides of manganese
lower than the di-oxide. The two lead oxides act perfectly

TJie Action of Acetic Acid on Indigo Blue. 163

well, the only objection being that it is nearly impossible to
remove traces of lead from the indigo preparation. The
oxides of manganese which are between the mono-oxide
and the di-oxide are quite suitable if of good quality ; a
necessary feature is that the specimen used must be perfectly
soluble in dilute acetic acid to which sulphurous acid is added-

The amount of oxygen required is 1 at. to 1 mol. of
indigo. When the operation is successfully carried on with
permanganate of potash the reduction of the permanganic
acid to manganous acetate is complete, no manganic acetates
being formed ; under certain conditions of temperature and
dilution abundant crystals of manganous acetate are visible
in the finished mixture. They are perfect rhomboids ; these
crystals are more frequently visible when using a manganic
oxide as the converting agent, the manganous acetate being
but sparingly soluble in strong acetic acid.

Sometimes the operation with permanganate does not
go well, the minimum quantity does not complete the
operation, more has to be added, and the already formed
manganous acetate is converted into a manganic acetate,
which, in the subsequent washings, is decomposed, and the
indigo product would be contaminated with manganic oxides
if it were not treated before the final washings with dilute
acetic acid, containing sulphurous acid, which completely
removes the impurity.

The indigo blue used should be of a high degree of
purity; with commercial indigo of the best sorts, the
crystals are formed pretty well, but it is vain to expect to
obtain in any clear or certain manner the products of
decomposition to be presently described. No commercial
indigo that I have ever had in my hands contained more
than 75 °/Q of indigo blue, and the 25 °/Q of matters not
indigo blue are unconquerable impediments in the way of
getting a good product. The indigo precipitate obtained
by oxidising the dissolved indigo contained in a reduction

164 Mr. Charles O'Neill on

vat is very suitable for these experiments, but such a
precipitate made from commercial indigo is never pure
indigo blue ; very good specimens may shew 92 % indigo
blue, hardly ever a higher percentage. The nearest
approach to pure indigo blue suitable for the treatment
described is obtained by the reduction of pure crystalline
indigotine, obtained by sublimation, or better by solution
from boiling aniline. Such a product may contain 99^
indigo blue, and will give nearly the calculated quantitative
results in these experiments. It would have been very
desirable to act at once upon the pure indigo blue from
aniline, but its crystalline condition impedes the complete
action of the acids and oxidising agents ; with the calcu-
lated amount of oxidising matters only a small portion of
the crystalline indigotine is acted upon. If the quantity of
permanganate be increased to eight or ten times the calcu-
lated quantity, the crystals are finally acted upon, although
not completely, with evolution of heat. The solution in
which the action takes place is a saturated solution of
higher oxides of manganese, secondary reactions have taken
place, the yield is much smaller than with the amorphous
or very finely crystalline precipitated indigo, and it does not
shew quite the same results.

The product made, as described, from precipitated
indigo, viewed in bulk has a greyish, greenish, or blueish
colour ; in thin layers it is nearly white, with a yellow
tinge ; it is no doubt either white or a very pale yellow ;
the various shades that various preparations shew are
owing to the presence of small quantities of indigo blue
unacted upon. In the method of preparation it will have
been observed that two practically insoluble bodies are
used to produce a third insoluble body. It is curious how
this third body should assume the crystalline form, but it
does so, and envelopes a portion of blue in the crystals
which cannot be reached by the agents employed, unless

The Action of Acetic Acid on Indigo Blue. 165

used in such excess as to exercise a destructive action upon
the product itself. The oxy-aceto-indigotin, as the prepa-
ration may be named for the present, does not admit of
purification by any process of dissolution and recrystallising ;
for practical purposes it is insoluble in all menstrua that I
have tried. In some directions it possesses considerable
stability ; mineral acids, unless concentrated, have no action
upon it ; a mixture of permanganate and sulphuric acid,
which destroys indigo rapidly, has no action upon it, and
may be used to free a product from uncombined indigo ;
chromic acid, chlorine, etc., in dilute solutions, have no
action upon it ; it is very readily decomposed by
alkalies. I cannot claim to know the real com-
position or constitution of this new and interesting
body ; it contains no indigo blue, no isatine and
no acetic acid. Combustions of the purest and most
successful preparations were made again and again ; in those
thought best the C was to the H as 20 to 15, never as
20:16, as it was thought the ratio should be ; but as I had
never a pure product to analyse, and as the tendency of the
impurity was to reduce the proportion of hydrogen to carbon,
I have for the present adopted the ratio of C20 to Hie, and
believe the following equation represents the chemical
change : —

Indigo. Acetic Acid.

C16H10N2O2 + O + 2(C2H402) = H20 + C20H1GN2OG.
The assumption of the separation of the elements of
water during the reaction is deduced rather from theoretical
considerations of the behaviour of the compound than from
any very reliable observations in practice, but I think there
is no doubt the excess of acetic acid beomes diluted, and is
no longer able to act as the monohydrated acid acts. The
calculated yield is 145%. as much as 140% has been got, and
often 125% and 130%. The decompositions of the oxy-aceto-
indigotin are numerous, and some very complex. I only
M

166 Mr. Charles O'Neill on

propose to consider four or five of those which can be
followed most easily ; and, to trace the changes which take
place, will assume a structure for the body which has no
other pretensions than as forming a sort of working hypo-
thesis to illustrate the changes. The supposed structure is as
follows : —

UoH16W2U6 - c8H5NO/ U \C2H30/U-

I am not going to attempt defending this arrangement as a
rational arrangement. I know nothing about the constitu-
tion of the body, I have never read about any similar body,
and that acetic anhydride should exist in it seems very
improbable.

Decomposition by steaming and boiling with water. The
addition of the elements of water to the oxy-aceto-indigotin,
which is effected by boiling it in water or steaming it, splits
it up and produces two molecules of acetic acid, one of
isatin, and half a molecule of indigo blue. The calculated
percentage is acetic acid (mono-hydrated) 31 "6, isatin 345,
and indigo blue 387, making 104/8 ; these quantities have
been obtained many times ; the percentage of acetic acid
is very regular, but the percentage of indigo and isatin are
subject to a perturbation not yet clearly understood ; not in
every case, but in most cases, there is production of a small
quantity of a fourth substance, very little soluble in water,
but easily soluble in chloroform, from which it separates in
lustrous yellow or golden coloured crystals. It is apparently
the same substance which is formed by the direct oxidation
of indigo in air, it has not been obtained in sufficient
quantity to be examined ; it may amount to as much as 8
or \o°/ of the weight of aceto product, but generally much
less. It is believed to result from the interaction of indigo
and isatin at the moment of their formation, and to be a
substance intermediate in composition between indigo and
isatin. The length of time required to split up the aceto

The Action of Acetic Acid on Indigo Blue. 167

body depends upon the size and perhaps hardness of
the crystals. It commences immediately, and may be
completed in twenty minutes, or it may take several hours
boiling or steaming ; it is effected more rapidly and com-
pletely in sealed tubes heated to i5o°C.

Decomposition by dry heat. Heated in a tube retort the
aceto-product suffers little change until the temperature
rises to 130° or 140° C. ; it then gives off acetic acid, and
continues to do so until a temperature of i8o°C. is reached,
the acetic acid when collected is found to be the mono-
hydrate, and crystallises readily upon cooling. The
residuum in the retort is a complex substance, yielding no
isatin to water or alkalies, contains a strong dark red
colouring matter, but is mostly a pitchy matter, very
soluble in chloroform, which leaves indigo insoluble, usually,
in a crystalline state, but in less quantity than indicated by
theory. In the hot air bath at 1800 C. acetic acid is expelled
quickly, partial fusion takes place, and chloroform dissolves
out only a red pitchy matter, leaving indigo ; but if the heat
be lower, say at 1400 to i5o°C, and the operation stopped
when the loss of acid is about 18 or 20°/ instead of 31 %,
and then treated with cold chloroform, there is dissolved
with the pitchy matter a notable quantity of the oxy-aceto
body. This chloroform solution soon decomposes upon
standing, depositing indigo blue, and is found to contain
isatin. If calico be dipped in the chloroform solution, it is
found after standing, or steaming and washing, to be stained
of a light blue colour, which is permanent, and, in fact, is an
indigo dye.

Decomposition with soda hydrate. If to a mixture of
the oxy-aceto-indigotin with water there be added a
sufficient quantity of soda hydrate, and the mixture left in
the cold for a time, complete decomposition takes place.
There is formation of indigo blue, no isatine, or only a trace,
is produced, two molecules of acetate of soda and the

i68 Mr. Charles O'Neill on

sodium salt of a new acid, and other substances. The
reaction may be expressed in this way, using H instead of
Na for greater clearness.

C8H5NO
C8H5NOJ

+ CsHbNO + C8H7NO,

O {qr'o}0 + 3H0H = 2(c*H*o0

or shorter

C8H5NO + 2 (HO) = C8H7N03.

This acid is precipitated from its soda solution by
mineral acids, and the yield is about 25 °/^ of the weight of
the aceto body. It is sufficiently soluble in boiling water to
obtain it in well-defined crystals. Cold water only retains
one part of the acid in one thousand ; it is very soluble in
strong or dilute alcohol. At first I thought I had obtained
the true isatic acid, which has not yet been isolated, but
upon combining it with bases I found it to be a polybasic
acid of a high molecular weight. The formula above
deduced must be multiplied by four, and comes
C32H28N4O12 ; molecular weight 660. The acid crystallises
from water and dilute alcohol in fine yellowish coloured
needles ; it can be made quite white by treatment with
animal charcoal ; it has a distinct acid reaction to litmus.
Its melting point is about 190° C, when it begins to decom-
pose, giving off, among other things, aniline, which can be
readily recognised. It forms at least two salts with soda.
The neutral salt Cs2H26Na2N4Oi2 is very soluble in water,
does not crystallise, but dries up to a gummy looking mass;
the acid salt C32H27NaN4012 is less soluble in water, and
crystallises pretty well from its hot solution. The silver
and lead salts are insoluble in water, but the copper and
some other metallic salts are soluble and crystallisable.

Decomposition with strong acetic acid. When the oxy-
aceto-body is heated along with mono-hydrated acetic
acid, another kind of decomposition takes place, the
whole is broken up, indigo blue is seen in suspension,

The Action of Acetic Acid on Indigo Blue. 169

and, upon cooling, bright yellow crystals are deposited.
It is difficult to separate these crystals from the indigo
in a pure state, and I have had recourse to the device
of taking the mixture of yellow crystals and destroying
the indigo with a mixture of permanganate and dilute
sulphuric acid, which has no action upon the yellow crystals.
Combustion gives a ratio of C to H as 16 : 7, or a little
under ; no doubt the H found in this is more than should
be, and I consider that the formula will be C8H3NO, or a
multiple of it. The reaction producing these two bodies,
indigo and the yellow crystals, is probably quite internal
to the molecule of the oxy-aceto-indigotin body, and merely
a re-arrangement of its elements under the constraining
influence of heat in a medium non-hydrating, as

{c.i:S8} ° {cSo}° = 2<c=h<°°> + c«h«n° + c-h'no-

The oxidised indigo nucleus is supposed to lose its attached
oxygen and two of hydrogen from one of the half molecules,
which form water and convert the acetyl rest into two of acetic
acid. This yellow body has not been closely examined.

170 Proceedings.

Annual Meeting, April 26th, 1892.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

Mr. Thomas Ewan, B.Sc. (Vict.), Ph.D. (Munich), of
the Owens College, Manchester, was elected an ordinary
member.

The following gentlemen were elected honorary mem-
bers : —

Capt. W. DE ABNEY, R.E., F.R.S., S. Kensington ; E. F.
Amagat, Paris ; Paul F. Aug. Ascherson, Berlin ;
ADOLF VON Baeyer, Professor of Chemistry, Munich ;
LUDWIG Boltzmann, Professor of Physics, Munich ;
Francesco Brioschi, Naples ; Dr. Anton Dohrn, Zoo-
logical Station, Naples ; W. T. Thisleton Dyer, F.R.S.,
Director, Botanical Gardens, Kew ; Gaston Darboux,
Professor to the Faculty of Sciences, Paris ; Thomas Alva
Edison, Electrician, Menlo Park, New York; Ch.Friedel,
Professor to the Faculty of Sciences, Paris ; Carl Gegen-
BAUER, Professor of Anatomy, Heidelberg ; Professor
F. W. Gibbs, Yale, U.S.A. ; W. G. Hill, Washington ;
Ch. Hermite, Paris ; Sir Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.,
Sunningdale ; Professor FELIX Klein, Gottingen ; AUGUST
Kundt, Professor of Physics, Berlin ; A. Ladenburg,
Professor of Chemistry, Breslau ; Alfred Marshall,
Professor of Political Economy, Cambridge ; Carl LUDWIG,
Professor of Physiology, Leipsic ; E. Mascart, Professor
at the College de France, Paris ; VICTOR Meyer, Professor
of Chemistry, Heidelberg ; J. C. De Marignac, Geneva ;
H. MoiSSAN, Professor at the Ecole Superieure de Phar-
macie, Paris ; H. POINCARE, Professor to the Faculty of

Proceedings. 171

Sciences, Paris ; W. H. PERKIN, F.R.S., Sudbury, Harrow ;
G. H. Quincke, Prof, of Physics, Heidelberg ; C. Lieber-
MANN, Professor of Chemistry, Berlin ; F. RAOULT, Pro-
fessor to the Faculty of Sciences, Grenoble ; J. Van't Hoff,
Professor of Chemistry, Amsterdam ; GRAF VON SOLMS
LAUBACH, Professor of Botany, Strassburg ; the MARQUIS
DE Saporta, Aix-en-Provence ; Osbert Salvin, F.R.S.,
Haslemere ; EMIL DU BoiS REYMOND, Professor of Phy-
siology, Berlin ; THEODOR CURTIUS, Professor of Chemistry,
Kiel ; ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE, Professor of Botany,
Geneva ; R. Bowdler Sharpe ; General Francis A.
Walker, Professor of Political Economy, Boston, U.S.A. ;
G. Wiedemann, Prof, of Physics, Leipsic ; Prof. Max
Furbringer, Amsterdam.

The Annual Report of the Council was presented, and
it was moved by the Ven. Archdeacon Anson, M.A.,
seconded by Mr. JOSEPH Corbett, and resolved : — " That
the Annual Report be adopted, and printed in the Society's
Memoirs and Proceedings."

It was moved by Mr. J. J. Ashworth, seconded by Mr.
JOHN ANGELL, F.C.S., and resolved :— " That the system
of electing Associates of the Sections be continued during
the ensuing session."

The following gentlemen were elected Officers of the
Society and members of the Council for the ensuing year: —

President. — Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., F.R.S.,F.R.A.S.

Vice-Presidents. — Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F.C.S. ; Osborne Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., &c. ;
James Bottomley, B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S. ; James Cosmo
Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.

Secretaries. — Frederick JAMES FARADAY, F.L.S. ,
F.S.S. ; Reginald F. Gwyther, M.A.

Treasurer. — Charles Bailey, F.L.S.
Librarian. — FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

Other Members of the Cou mil— HAROLD B. Dixon,

172 Proceedings.

M.A., F.R.S. ; Alexander Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc.;
John Boyd ; John F. W. Tatham, M. A., M.D. ; Alderman
Joseph Thompson; Charles O'Neill, F.C.S.

Ordinary Meeting, April 26th, 1892.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in
the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

Mr. Charles Bailey exhibited a Japanese botanical
text-book on timber trees, with thin specimens of the woods
cut in three directions, pasted in, as an illustration of
Japanese progress in technical education.

Dr. SCHUNCK exhibited a specimen of woollen cloth of
Egyptian production in the fifth century, and read a letter
from Professor Beaumont describing it as an illustration of
coarse reed manufacture, and stating that the fringe had
apparently been added to the fabric. This was disputed
by Mr. J. J. Ashworth, who contended that the fringe
was an integral part of the fabric, which was similar to a
" rep " cloth of the present day, except that the fringe was
a continuation of the weft instead of the warp.

Proceedings. 173

[Microscopical and Natural History Section.']
Annual Meeting, April nth, 1892.

The President of the Section, Alex. HODGKINSON, M.B.,
B.Sc, in the Chair.

Mr. P. CAMERON exhibited some nests of Indian
Hymcnoptera.

Mr. T. SlNGTON gave a description of some remarkable
geological formations he had observed in the Island of
Arran, and showed a number of rock specimens.

Mr. Hyde exhibited a fruit of Aralia Sieboldii.

After some discussion, the following resolution was
adopted unanimously : —

" That this meeting recommends that a list of Natural
" History books in the Library be printed for the use of the
" members and associates of the section, and that Messrs.
" Bailey, Melvill, Nicholson, and Sington be ap-
" appointed a sub-committee to carry out this resolution."

The Annual Report of the Council, and the Treasurer's
financial statement, were presented and adopted.

The following gentlemen were elected Officers and
Council for the ensuing session : —

President — R. E. Cunliffe.

Vice-Presidents. — Alex. Hodgkinson, M.B., B.Sc. ; P.

Cameron, F.E.S. ; J. C Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.

Secretary. — THEODORE SlNGTON.

Treasurer. — Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.

Council. — Charles Bailey, F.L.S.; John Boyd;
H. C. Chadwick; E. Pyemont-Collett; R. D. Darbi-
shire, B.A., F.G.S. ; F. Nicholson, F.Z.S.; W. R. Scow-
croft; T. Rogers.

174 Annual Report of the Council.

Annual Report of the Council, ist April, 1892.

The number of members on the roll on the 31st March,
1892, is 128 against 133 at the corresponding period in
1 89 1. The number of new members admitted during the
year has been 7, while 8 members have resigned. The
Society has lost 4 of its members by death, viz. : — Sir
Thomas Sowler ; Mr. Edmund Salis Schwabe, B.A. ; Dr.
W. C. Henry, F.R.S. ; and Mr. Oliver Heywood. It has
also lost five of its honorary members by death : — Baron
Emile de Laveleye ; Dr. Ferdinand Romer ; Sir George
Airey ; John Couch Adams, F.R.S. ; and Prof. Hermann
Kopp.

The receipts and expenditure of the past session are
set forth in detail in the accompanying balance sheets, and
the total balance in favour of the Society, on the 31st
March, 1892, stands at £171. cs. 9d., as represented by the
cash lying in the hands of the Society's bankers. The
amount at the corresponding period of the previous session
was .£353. os. 3d.

The diminution in the Society's funds is, in the main,
explained by the fact recorded in the last annual report,
that no payment had been made in the session 1890-91 for
printing and binding the Society's Memoirs, &c, whereas
this year's payments include two years' charges, viz.,
^"265. 1 6s. 3d. More than the normal expenditure has
been incurred during the session now closed for repairs to
building and furniture, and for cleaning carpets, curtains,
and the like. Some additional shelving for the increasing

Annual Report of the Council. 17$

library has been put up in the cloak-room, but this accom-
modation by no means provides for what is needed in this
direction.

The number of societies using the building for their
meetings remains the same as last year. One of these
societies dissolved in November last, viz., the Manchester
Scientific Students Association, whose books of minutes
have been presented to the Society. Arrangements have
been made with the Manchester Architects Association for
the use of the rooms for the meetings of that organisation.

The Council recommends the continuance of the system
of electing associates of Sections by the usual resolution.

The Librarian reports that there is a continued steady
increase in the number of volumes received from other
Societies, and that an addition has been made to the
number of periodicals purchased by the Society.

Amongst other works added during the year are
authors and compilers' presentation copies, as follows : —

Alexander Buchan. " The Meteorological Results of the Challenger
Expedition. "

Frank Vincent. "Around and About South America."
,, "Norsk, Lapp and Finn."

,, "In and Out of Central America."

,, " Through and Through the Tropics."

Sanford Fleming. "Time Reckoning for the 20th Century."
Wm. Sharp, M.D., F.R.S. "The Repetition of the Same Dose."
Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S. "On the Age, Formation, and Drift

Stages of the Darent Valley.1'
Charles Bailey, F.L.S. " Review of the Work of the Leeuwenhoek

Microscopical Club, 1867-1891."
Charles Bailey, F.L.S. " Catalogue of the Type Fossils in the Wood-
wardian Museum."

H. Resal. " Exposition de la Theorie Des Surfaces."

S. C. de L. Michele Rajna. " Sul Metodo Grafico Nel Calcolo Delle

Eclissi Solari."
S. C. de Michele Rajna. " Estratta dai Rendiconti del R. Istituto

Lombardo."
O. A. L. Pihl. "The Stellar Cluster fr Persei."

176 Annual Report of the Council.

G. DEWALQUE. " Prodrome d'une Description Geologique de la

Belgique."
Russo-Jewisii Committee. " The Persecution of the Jews in Russia. "
Hazeli.'s "Annual," 1891.
W. G. Farlow & A. B. Seymour. " A Provisional Host-Index of

the Fungi of the United States." Part 3.
W. H. Bailey. " Outside the Class-room. Thoughts for Young

Engineers."

E. L. Hicks. "The Collection of Ancient Marbles at Leeds."
Agnes M. Ci.erke. "The System of the Stars."

Mrs. David Chadwtck. "Thomas Sopwith, with Excerpts from his
Diary."

Arthur Wm. Waters. " Some Meterological Conditions of Davos."
R. Ingham Clark. " Notes on Varnish and Fossil Resins."
Australian Museum. " Descriptive Catalogue of the Nests and Eggs
of Birds found breeding in Australia and Tasmania." No. 12.

Pedro Montt. "Exposition of the Illegal Acts of Ex-President
Balmaceda."

Michael Foster, F.R.S., &c. "A Text Book of Physiology."
Vol. IV.

Henry Wilde, F.R.S. "On the Causes of the Phenomena of Terres-
trial Magnetism."

Arthur Cayley, F.R.S. , &c. "Collected Mathematical Papers."
Vol. IV.

Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., & C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S. "Treatise
on Chemistry." Vol. III., part 6.

A valued addition to the Society's property is the bronze
bust of the late Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., presented by
the president, Dr. Schunck.

As recorded in the Report for 1889-90 Professor
Osborne Reynolds, F.R.S., at the request of the Council,
undertook the writing of a Memorial Volume on the life
and work of the late Dr. James Prescott Joule. This is
now complete, and has been passing through the press
during the past session. The Editor reports that partly in
consequence of the locking-up of type in this work, and
partly owing to other circumstances over which he has had
no control, there has been unusual delay in the publication

Annual Report of the Council. 177

of the Memoirs and Proceedings for the session. The
Council trusts that in consideration of these circumstances
the members will excuse any inconvenience which may
have resulted. Two volumes will be issued to the members
for this session, viz., Vol. V. of the Memoirs and Proceedings ,
and the " Memoir of James Prescott Joule," forming
Vol. VI. of the Memoirs and Proceedings.

The number of papers presented during the session has
again been satisfactory evidence of the continued activity
of the Society in carrying on the work contemplated by its
eminent and public-spirited founders, one hundred and ten
years ago. During the session 22 papers, recording the
results of original research or observation, have been read
at its meetings, and of these 9, after careful consideration
by the Council, have been passed for publication in full as
Memoirs, some are still under consideration, and of the
remainder abstracts have been or will be printed in the
Proceedings.

Edmund Salis Sciiwabe, B.A., was born November
17th, 1841, and christened in the Middleton Parish Church
by the present Bishop of Chichester. He was educated at
Overslade School, near Rugby, and at University College
School, London. In 1858 he entered at University College,
London, and took his B.A. degree at the London Univer-
sity, with honours in mathematics, in i860. In 1 861 he
became a partner in the firm of Messrs. Salis Schwabe and
Co., calico printers, of Rhodes and Manchester. In 1865
he married Sophia Jekyll, who died in 1870, leaving one
daughter. He took a great interest in New College,
late of London, now of Oxford, and in Owens College,
Manchester ; he was an auditor of the former, and con-
tributed to the funds of both institutions. He was elected
a member of the Society in 1881, but did not contribute to
its Memoirs or Proceedings- He died at the Windsor
Hotel, Montreal, August 4th, 1891.

1/8 Animal Report of the Council.

Dr. William Charles Henry was at the time of his
death the oldest member of the Society, having been elected
on October 31st, 1828. He was the representative of a family
connected with it for three generations, his grandfather, Mr.
Thomas Henry, F.R.S., a native of Wrexham, who settled
in Manchester as an apothecary, and subsequently achieved
distinction as a chemist, besides laying the foundations of
the wealth of his descendants, having been one of its
founders, and, with Dr. Barnes, one of its first secretaries.
The Society possesses a portrait of him. His son, William
Henry, M.D., F.R.S., also for many years a member of the
Society and an eminent chemist, whose bust, by Chantrey,
is also in the possession of the Society, married Mary
Bayley, aunt of Mr. T. B. Potter, M.P., and his son, known
during his residence in Manchester as Dr. Charles Henry,
was born in Manchester on March 31st, 1804. His early
education was received at various schools and under
various teachers, including the Rev. William Johns, Dr.
Dalton, and the Rev. J.J. Taylor. In November, 1824, he
matriculated at Edinburgh University, and graduated M.D.
in 1827. He at one time contemplated a residence at Cam-
bridge, but, though he was admitted to Caius College, he
did not remain there long. During the winter of 1827-8
Dr. Henry was at Paris, walking hospitals and attending
the lectures at the Sorbonne. On his return to England he
was elected physician to the Manchester Royal Infirmary,
a post he held from 1828 until May, 1835, when he resigned
in order to continue his studies in the chemical laboratories
on the Continent. He spent a year at Berlin, working at
mineral analysis with Henry Rose, and a short time at
Giessen under Liebig. He published papers on " The
Physiology of the Nervous System," 1833 ; "A Critical and
Experimental Inquiry into the Relations subsisting between
Nerves and Muscles," 1831; "Remarks on the Atomic
Constitution of Elastic Fluids," 1834; "Experiments on

Annual Report of the Council. 179

the Action of Metals in determining Gaseous Combination,"
1835 ; and "Experiments on Gaseous Interference," 1836.
His separately published books were his graduation thesis,
u De Tuberculorum Origine," 1827, a " Memoir of the Very
Rev. Richard Dawes, Dean of Hereford," 1867, and
*• Memoirs of the Life and Scientific Researches of John
Dalton," issued by the Cavendish Society in 1854. Dr.
Henry was one of Dalton's most intimate friends, and to
him the philosopher bequeathed his scientific remains, sub-
sequently presented to the Manchester Literary and Philo-
sophical Society by Dr. Henry. Dr. Henry acted as Dr.
Dalton's literary executor. He was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1834. He was also a Fellow of the
Geological and Chemical Societies, a corresponding member
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Turin, and a magis-
trate for Herefordshire. Dr. Henry left Manchester about
half a century ago, and has since lived at Ledbury. He
married, in 1832, Margaret, daughter of Mr. Thomas Allan,
F.R.S., a distinguished mineralogist. He had two sons.
Mrs. Henry died early in 1890, after a married life of
almost 58 years. Dr. Henry himself died at his resi-
dence, Haffield, Ledbury, of influenza, on January 7th,
1892. To our Memoirs he contributed a paper on
the " Life and Writings " of his father, read before
the Society in 1837 (Vol. VI., Second Series), and a
biographical notice of Peter Ewart (Vol. VII., Second
Series). He was prominently associated with the movement
in 1837 for providing Manchester with the white marble
statue of Dalton, by Chantrey, and was the last surviving
trustee of the statue. He was a liberal donor to the Society's
centenary fund, out of which the house in 36, George
Street was extended, and also a liberal subscriber to the
fund for the white marble statue of Joule now being
executed by Mr. Alfred Gilbert, A.R.A.

Emile de Laveleye was born at Bruges, April 5th,

180 Annual Report of the Council.

1822. He studied at Bruges, Paris, and Ghent. In 1848
he turned his attention to the study of economics, which
henceforth became his special pursuit. From 1864 until his
death he held the chair of Political Economy in the Univer-
sity of Liege. No man ever lived with a greater absorbing
capacity for facts and ideas bearing on his favourite science.
An omniverous reader, and a frequent contributor to
English, French, and American periodicals, he also pub-
lished a French translation of the Memoirs of Sir Robert
Peel, and was the author of a long series of original volumes
on various subjects, several of which have been translated
into English. His purely economic writings were chiefly
on agriculture and the currency question ; but he also pub-
lished volumes on education, on free-trade, on various
questions of European politics, on socialism, on the land
question, on Italy and the Balkans (countries in the fortunes
of which he took a very special interest), on the primitive
forms of property, on forms of government, and on the
democracy. The purely literary side of his nature was
illustrated by translations of the Niebelungen and the Eddas,
a treatise on Provencal literature, and a history of the
Frankish kings. The combination of literary feeling with
observant power, sharpened by his interest in economic
problems, is exemplified in the volumes in which he
records his impressions as a traveller in various parts of
Europe. By his death it may be said that the world has
lost one of its most humane economists. In his hands
Political Economy was anything but a dismal science. A
Liberal of the broadest type, he was prepared to become a
Socialist all out if he could have satisfied himself that any
form of Socialism would make the general condition of
mankind better and happier. It was this spirit of sympathy
which led him to urge in his earlier volumes on the agricul-
ture of Holland, Belgium, Lombardy, and Switzerland that
the personal interest of the small peasant proprietor more

Annual Report of the Council. 181

than counterbalanced the economy of a division of labour
on a wholesale scale on large farms cultivated by hired
labour. It was the same spirit which led him to exclaim,
" O coton ! je te maudis au nom de l'art et au nom de
l'hygiene ! " when commenting in his letters from Italy on
the replacement of the picturesque costumes of bygone
times by the monotonous uniformity of cheap machine-made
fabrics. But his scientific faculties were also strong and his
learning profound. He insisted on the importance of
historical inquiry. Facts could not lie. By the test of the
past in economics we ought to be able to detect the weak-
nesses of mere dogmas and increase our understanding
of theories. All this explains Laveleye's unwearying
advocacy of bimetallism for a quarter of a century. It
cannot be doubted that his earlier inclination towards
monometallism was a result of the Californian and Aus-
tralian gold discoveries, which suggested that the yellow
metal would become a sufficiently abundant, cheap, and
elastic currency. But as he himself has told us, he had
already fought under the banner of M. de Parieu, " the
apostle of that grand and fruitful idea of monetary union
which he had the good fortune to realize in 186s in creating
the Latin Union," and his loyalty to the ideal of a Universal
Monetary Union, with the teachings of Wolowski, finally
" cured " him of " unhealthy inclinations towards mono-
metallism." Like Sir Louis Mallet, he regarded bimetallism
as a necessary part of Free Trade. Before Prince Bismarck
brought in his famous Tariff Bill, Laveleye predicted that
unless England took measures to stop the demonetisation
of silver she would witness a revival of Protectionism in
Germany and throughout the world. It was from the dying
hand of his master, Wolowski, that he received the message,
" My strength is forsaking me, but do you continue to defend
our cause, which is the truth." If he sometimes despaired
of Free Trade, it was because what he regarded as the selfish
N

1 82 Annual Report of the Council.

prejudices of England with regard to bimetallism led him to
think that the world was not yet good enough for Free
Trade. Yet he had a strong English feeling. He was a
member of the Royal Academy of Belgium, a corresponding
member of the Institute of France, and of the Accademia
dei Lincei of Rome, and had been invested with the orders
of Leopold, the Legion of Honour, the Crown of Italy,
Charles the Third of Spain, the Crown of Oak, St. James,
Christ of Portugal, and others. He was elected an honorary
member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society in 1887. A few weeks before his death the rank of
" Baron " was conferred on him by the King of the Belgians.
He died at the Chateau de Doyon, Namur, on January 2,
1892, and an international movement has been initiated for
the erection of a statue to his memory.

SIR Thomas Sowler was born in 1818 and died on
April 4, 1891, at his residence in Victoria Park, Manchester.
He was the son of Mr. Thomas Sowler, a Manchester book-
seller, who established the Manchester Courier in 1825. On
leaving the Manchester Grammar School, where he was
educated, Sir Thomas, with his brother, Mr. John Sowler,
who died before him, took an active part in the management
of the newspaper, of which he became the sole proprietor
in 1871. He took a leading part in promoting the modern
Volunteer movement in Manchester from its inception, when
he joined as a gunner in the Artillery Brigade, rising to the
rank of lieutenant-colonel, which position he resigned in
1874. Later he was made honorary colonel, and retained
that appointment until his death. He also took a prominent
part in the foundation of the Manchester Free Library
system. For many years he was secretary to the Man-
chester Natural History Society until its transference to
Owens College. He held prominent positions also in con-
nection with the promotion of music in Manchester, and

Annual Report of the Council. 183

with the Manchester Jubilee Exhibition of 1887. The
honour of knighthood was conferred on him by Her
Majesty on January 1, 1890. He was a Justice of the
Peace for Manchester, and in 1866 married a daughter of
the late Mr. James Yates. The Sovvler family originally
came from Durham, where they carried on the business of
printers in the early part of last century, the old anthem
books in use at Durham Cathedral up to 1845 having been
printed by the great-grandfather of Sir Thomas.

James Nasmyth, a notice of whose death was omitted
from the report for 1890-1, was born on August 19th, 1808.
He was the son of Alexander Nasmyth, the celebrated
Scottish painter. In his youth he knew many of the
literary men of Edinburgh, Sir Walter Scott among others.
At the age of 13, he attended scientific lectures at the
Edinburgh School of Arts, at the same time making model
steam engines for sale. In 1827, he made for the Scottish
Society of Arts a road steam carriage. At the age of 2 1
he went to London, and was engaged by Henry Maudsley,
the engineer, as his private assistant. He received as
wages, 10s. per week. He made the acquaintanceship of
Henry Brougham, a friend of his father's, who offered to
introduce him to men of science in London. Nasmyth
replied that the man he most wished to know was Michael
Faraday. Brougham accordingly gave him a letter of intro-
duction. Nasmyth says in his "Autobiography," " Not long
after Faraday called and found me working beside Maudsley.
He expressed himself delighted to find me in so enviable posi-
tion. This most pleasant and memorable meeting with the
great philosopher initiated a friendship which I had the good
fortune to continue to the close of his life." Nasmyth left
Maudsley 's in 1831, and returned to Edinburgh, where he
spent three years in making the engineer's tools for his future
foundry. At the age of 26 he began business for himself

184 Annual Report of the Council.

on a flat in Dale Street, Manchester, with a capital
of £63, being encouraged and supported in his enterprise
by the Brothers Grant, then residing in Mosley Street,
Manchester, the originals of Dickens's Cheeryble
Bros. Owing to a difference with the tenant below
him, he left this flat at the end of two years, and
removed to Patricroft, where he built the Bridgewater
Foundry. In 1839 he received an order for forging the
paddle shaft for the steamship Great Britain, but as no forge
hammer then in use was capable of forging a shaft 30in.
in diameter, he invented the steam hammer to overcome the
difficulty. He married, in 1840, Anne Hartrop, daughter
of the manager of some ironworks near Barnsley, belonging
to Eari Fitzwilliam. In 1842 he made some steam hammers
for the French Government, and travelled through France
and Italy. In 1843 he- visited St. Petersburg, Stockholm,
and Dannemora. He used to transact his business in the
morning and devote the afternoon to seeing the country.
In 1843 he applied the principle of the steam hammer to a
pile driver, which is so ingeniously arranged that the
whole weight of the machine, in addition to the force
of the blow, acts on the top of the pile. In addition
to mechanical engineering, he also took a great interest in
astronomy. He made for himself a 20-inch reflecting
telescope, with which he carried out some interesting
researches on the moon, and in June, i860, discovered the
willow-leaf pattern on the sun's surface. He gave a lecture on
the moon before the British Association at Edinburgh in 1850.
In 1856 he retired from business. He became a member of
the Society on August nth, 1837, and in 1862 was
elected an honorary member, on his removal from Man-
chester. He spent the last 35 years of his life at Penshurst,
in Kent, and died of old age at Bailey's Hotel, South
Kensington, on May 7th, 1890. To the Society's
Memoirs, he contributed the following : — " Remarks on

Annual Report of the Council. 185

the origin of the Babylonian or Arrow-headed character,"
in 1842 [Vol. IV., 2nd series]; "On the structure
of the luminous envelope of the sun," in 1861 [Vol. I.,
3rd series]; "On the planet Mars," in 1863 [Vol. II., 3rd
series]; and "On War Rockets," in 1868 [Vol. IV, 3rd
series]. His models of Lunar Craters, prepared in plaster
from his own telescopic observations, photographed and
engraved, are still the finest illustrations of the moon's
surface.

The Society has this year to deplore the loss in the
same month of the two most distinguished English
Astronomers of the age. George Biddell Airy was
born at Alnwick on July 27th, 1801, and graduated at
Cambridge as Senior Wrangler in 1823. Although he
partially maintained himself already as an undergraduate
by giving private lessons, his scientific work was begun
before he took his degree, and he was appointed Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in 1826, and transferred to the
Plumian Professorship of Astronomy in 1828. In a limited
space it is impossible to give an adequate account of Airy's
accomplishments, but it must not pass without notice that
he was the first in England to treat astronomy as a high
branch of science, and to enforce its practice in this sense
in the Observatory at Cambridge. In his report on the
progress of astronomy for the British Association in 1832,
he says :— " In those parts of astronomy, requiring only
method and judgment, with very little science in the
persons employed, we have done much. . . . Our
principal progress has been made in the lowest parts of
astronomy, while to the higher branches of the science we
have not added anything. ... An observer conceives
he has done everything when he has made an observation."
In this Airy made a radical change, both at Cambridge and
afterwards at Greenwich, when he became Astronomer

1 86 Annual Report of the Council.

Royal in 1835, but the details must be sought elsewhere.
In mathematics Airy was a prolific, clear and profound
writer. We are now in some danger of underrating his
work by comparing it with that of the succeeding generation
of brilliant men, with whom his great age made him
contemporary ; but it is probable that later generations will
recognise him as the forerunner of the men who have
revolutionised mathematical science in this century. An
accidental fall at his country house resulted in internal
complications, which necessitated a severe surgical operation.
From this he never completely rallied, and he died on
January 2nd, 1892, in his ninety-first year. Sir George Airy
was elected an honorary member of the Society on
April 1 8th, 1843.

John COUCH Adams was born at Lidcot, near Laun-
ceston, on June 5th, 18 19, and graduated at Cambridge as
Senior Wrangler in 1843. Already, in 1841, while still an
undergraduate, Adams had determined to attempt the
explanation of the irregularities of the planet Uranus in its
path, irregularities which were not accounted for by the
attraction of known planets. The story of the successful,
simultaneous, and independent solution of this problem by
Adams and Leverrier, and the consequent discovery of the
planet Neptune, is well known, and need not be retold here.
This discovery has, by its pre-eminence, swamped in the
general mind the steady and unremitting scientific work
which only terminated with his death. For one year Adams
held the Professorship of Mathematics at St. Andrews, but
returned to Cambridge in 1859 as Lowndean Professor of
Astronomy and Geometry. As professor, his lectures were
prepared and written with extraordinary care, which indeed
distinguished all his work. Besides the works which he
published on the Theory of the Moon and of the November
Meteors, which are perhaps the best known, Adams was

Annual Report of the Council. 187

Director of the Observatory at Cambridge from 1861 to his
death, and work of the greatest value appears in the Annual
Reports. He was never very anxious to publish, and an
impression exists that there is much valuable work ready for
the printer's hands. Adams was elected an honorary
member of this Society on April 20th, 1847. On Airy's
retirement, in 1881, the post of Astronomer Royal was
offered to him, but declined on the score of age. For a long
time he had been in failing health, and unable to do his
usual work, and his death, January 21st, 1892, was not
unexpected.

By the death of Hermann Kopp the Society has also
lost one of its most illustrious honorary members. Born in
1817, he entered upon his scientific studies at Heidelberg
in his eighteenth year, devoting himself especially to
chemistry and physics. Three years later he passed over
to Marburg and took his degree, with a dissertation entitled,
" De oxydorum densitatis calculo reperiendae modo." Soon
after this we find him engaged at Giessen, under Liebig,
carrying out investigations in the borderland of chemistry
and physics, whilst interesting himself with kindred prob-
lems in meteorology and crystallography. The disserta-
tion mentioned above affords, however, an indication of the
main direction of his thought, and though occasionally
drawn into other channels he pursued with great eager-
ness and diligence the study of the relations between
the physical and chemical properties of bodies. His
observations on the boiling points of liquids, on the
expansion of liquids by heat, on the changes of volume
during the passage from the solid to the liquid con-
dition, on the capacity for heat and the connection which
he showed to exist between such properties and the
chemical nature of the substance, rank amongst the
most important generalisations in the whole region of

1 88 Afinual Report of the Council.

chemistry. And the fact that by his 30th year he
had completed his history of chemistry, stamps him at
once as a remarkable man. The value of his work and
writings was soon recognised ; he became in succession
extraordinary and (when Liebig went to Munich) ordinary
professor at Giessen. Twenty years afterwards ( 1 863) he was
appointed professor at Heidelberg, where he remained to
the last. The agreeable surroundings of Heidelberg, and
the daily intercourse with such men as Bunsen, Kirchkoff,
Helmholtz, and Kuno Fischer were more to him than the
further advancements of position which were repeatedly
placed in his way. " Schon Bunsen allein halt mich in
Heidelberg fest" was his sufficient reply to all such
temptations, and with Bunsen he was almost daily to
be seen at such times as he allowed himself to be released
from his lecture room or his study. His experimental
researches, especially in the earlier years, were so extensive
that it is difficult to conceive how he found the opportunity
for any considerable literary work. We need only give the
titles of the more important of his writings, however, to
indicate his immense activity in this direction : —

(1) " Geschichte der Chemie," 4 vols., 1843- 1847 ;

(2) "Beitrage zur Geschichte der Chemie," 1869-75 ;

" Entwickelung der Chemie in der neueren Zeit," 1873;

" Die Alchemie in alterer und neuerer Zeit."

These latter works may be regarded as supplementary

to the first, and were meant to furnish the basis of a history

of Chemistry on even a more complete and exhaustive

scale than the original work.

(3) " Einleitung in die Krystallographie."

(4) Coadjutator from 1849 in the " Jahresbericht der

Chemie," and from 1851 in Liebig's Annalen, and in
Graham Otto's Physical and Theoretical Chemistry.

Annual Report of the Council. 189

(5) Several pamphlets of very great interest, amongst
which are : —

" Sonst und Jetzt in der Chemie."
" Aurea catena Homeri " a present to Liebig on his
8oth birthday.
" Aus der Molecularwelt " a present to Bunsen on his

70th birthday.
As an investigator Kopp carries us forward far in
advance of his time, and places before us themes of the
highest interest in the chemistry of to-day ; and as a writer
he carries us backward to the very dawn of chemistry and
alike, throughout all his work, with the same characteristic
clearness and accuracy of detail. Beloved by his colleagues,
he was none the less so by those who had the privilege to
be reckoned his students, amongst whom unvarying
kindliness and great-hearted humility will ever be associated
with the name of Kopp.

Oliver Heywood was born on the 9th of September,
1825. Though not himself a literary or scientific worker he
was closely connected with the Literary and Philosophical
Society, being the grandson of its founder, Dr. Percival,
and belonging to a family several of whose members held
the office of Treasurer between the years 1791 and 1850.
He was educated for some time at St. Domingo House,
Liverpool, by Mr. Carl Volker, several of his school-fellows
at this establishment eventually becoming prominent
public men ; and subsequently at Eton. On leaving
school he entered upon business life in the bank
bearing his family name, and remained in this capacity
until 1874, when the business was transferred to the
Manchester and Salford Bank, of which he became a
director. In 1888 he was made High Sheriff of Lan-
cashire, and the freedom of the City of Manchester
was conferred upon him. It is for his generous and

19° Annual Report of the Council.

active support of all educational and philanthropic causes
that he will be best remembered. He was for many years
president of the Manchester Mechanics' Institute, and bore
a prominent part in the transactions by which it was
converted into the Technical School. In 1849 he was
nominated among the trustees of the Manchester Grammar
School, and for many years he continued to serve its
interests, contributing largely to the improvement of its
educational apparatus, to the erection of new buildings
and to the increasing of its facilities for physical training.
In 1870 he became a member of the first Manchester
School board : he did not, however, continue on the
subsequent Boards. The restoration and preservation of
Chetham Hospital were due to his benevolence. But
perhaps his greatest services to education were those in
connection with Owens College, to which he remained a
constant and liberal friend, and of which he was a life
governor. He was elected a member of the Society on
March 22nd, 1864, and died at his residence, Claremont,
Pendleton, on March 17th, 1892. He was a liberal donor
to the Society's Centenary Fund, and also to the Joule
Memorial Fund, of which latter he was the treasurer.

C. Ferdinand von Romer was born at Hildersheim,
in Hanover, on January 5, 18 18. His father was a
Councillor of the Hanover High Court of Justice. He
received his early education in the Evangelical Gymnasium
of Hildersheim, and subsequently studied at Gottingen,
Heidelberg, and Berlin, receiving his degree of Doctor of
Philosophy at the University of Berlin in 1842. While
studying at Berlin, he engaged in investigations on the older
rocks of Western Germany, and in 1844 published the
results. In 1845 he proceeded to America and engaged
specially in the investigation of the Palaeozoic and Cre-
taceous rocks of Texas, publishing the results in papers

Annual Report of the Council. 191

which give a comprehensive view of the geology of Texas
after his return to Europe in 1847 and while engaged at
Bonn as a private tutor. In 1855 he was appointed
Professor of Geology, Palaeontology, and Mineralogy
in the University of Breslau. Thenceforth his original
researches were mainly on the geology of Silesia, on
which subject he published three quarto volumes in 1870,
for which he received the honour of knighthood and
the appointment of Geheimer Bergrath of Silesia. He
also made tours in England, Belgium, Poland, Austria,
Sweden, Norway, Russia, Turkey, and Spain. He died
at Breslau on December 14, 1891. The special feature
of Romer's career was the wide range of his work in
geology and palaeontology. He gave attention to
nearly every system, from the earliest to the latest rocks,
but his most important contributions to science are con-
sidered to be those relating to the Devonian system, his
investigations into which ranged from Devonshire to
Constantinople. His writings on palaeontology were exten-
sive and important, and he added many new genera
to this science. He also contributed to the literature of
mineralogy. He was elected an honorary member of the
Society on April 19, 1887. A movement has been started
for a memorial of him in the form of a marble bust, to be
placed in the Mineralogical Museum at Breslau.

19-

Treasurers Accounts.

Dr.

MANCHESTER LITERARY ANE

Charles Bailey, Treasurer, in Account with the Society.
Statement of the Account.

1892 — March 31st:
To Cash in hand, 1st April, 1891
To Members' Contributions : —

Old Members, 1889-90, 9 Subscriptions at 42s.
,, 1890-91, 25 ,, ,,

11 1891-92, 92 ,, ,,

1892-93, 3 „ „

New Members, 1889-90, 1 Admission Fees at 42s
,, 1890-91, 1 „ ,,

,, 1891-92, 2 ,, ,,

,, 1889-90, 1 Subscription

,, 1890-91, 2 ,,

11 I^9I'92i 4 1

To Library Subscriptions : —

One Natural History Associate, 1891-92, at 10s. . .
To Contributions from Sections : —

Microscopical and Natural History Section, 1890-91
11 11 11 11 1891-92

Physical and Mathematical Section 1890-91

To Use of the Society's Rooms : —

Manchester Geological Society to 31st March, 1891
11 11 .1 11 1892

Manchester Medical Society to 30th September, 1891
Manchester Photographic Society to 30th Sept., 1891
Manchester Scientific Students' Asso. to Nov., 1891

To Sales of the Society's Publications, 1891-92 ..
To Natural History Fund, 1891-2 : —

Dividends on ^1225, Great Western Railway Co. Stock
To Bank Interest, less Bank Postages, 1891-92 ..
To Joule Memorial Committee for Postages, &c.

To Donation : Rev. Thomas P. Kirkman, M.A

„ Mr. Win. Brockbank, F.G.S., &c.

18 18
52 10

193 4
6 6

>9I-2.

£
353

6 5

59 14 4
4 12 10

£ s. d.

D-91.
£ s. d,

277 5 K1

263 11 1

59 J4
C 18

^862 15 10

£674 O II;

1892.— April 1. To Cash in Williams, Deacon, Manchester and Salford Bank, Limited

£i7l ° 9

Treasurer's Accounts. 193

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

from ist April, i8gi, to Jist March, iSg2, with a Comparative

for the Session iSgo-gi. CC

1892— March 31st :— £ s- d.
By Charges on Property '.—

Chief Rent (Income Tax deducted) 12 12 o

Income Tax on Chief Rent 063

Insurance against Fire .. .. •• •• •• .. 13 17 6

Repairs to Building, Gas, and Furniture 21 17 1

New Book-shelves in Cloak Room 5120

By House Expenditure : —

Coal, Gas, Water, Wood, &c 34 12 2

Tea, Coffee, &c, at Meetings n 7 8

Cleaning, Cleaning Carpets, Sweeping Chimneys, &c. .. 12 15 11

By Administrative Charges : —

Clerk and Housekeeper . . 62 8 o

Postages and Carriage of Parcels 28 18 8

Stationery, Receipts, and Engrossing 2179

Printing Circulars, Reports, and Lists of Members . . ..2146

Distributing ' Memoirs,' Address Wrappers, &c 7 17 9

By Publishing : —

Honorarium for editing the Society's publications . . . . 50 o o
Printing ' Memoirs and Proceedings ' from 14th September,

1889, to 21st August, 1891 225 1 9

Binding ' Memoirs and Proceedings ' 19 10 o

Wood Engraving and Lithography 24 12 7

By Library : —

Binding Books in Library 1130

Books and Periodicals . . • • . . 30 14 8

Preparing New Catalogue and re-arranging Library (on a/c.) 40 o o

Assistant in Library 15 o o

Catalogue Boxes, Slips, &c 230

Palaeontographical Society for the years 1891 and 1892 .. 220

Ray Society for the years 1891 and 1892 220

Zoological Record, Vol. 27 .. 100

11-92.
£ s. d

£

]
s.

:3</>

d.

91.
£ s. d.

12

12

0

0

6

3

13

J7

6

4

8

2

54 4 10

0

0

0

34

6

5

12

7

1

5

9

1

58 15

9

62

8

0

26

8

6

6

2

4

94 14 8

By Natural History Fund :—

Natural History Books and Periodicals 18 6 7 21 18 11

Grant to Microscopical and Natural History Section ..000 000

Plates for Natural History Papers in ' Memoirs' .. . . 23 2 3 9 18 6

41 8 10 31 17

By Balance 31st March, 1892 171 ° 9 353 °

Note.— The Accounts (of which the above is a summary) have been audited, and found correct, 12th
April, 1S92, by Mr. Samuel Okell, F.R.A.S., and Mr. Charles O'Neill, F.C.S., &c.

194 Treasurers Accounts

Summary Balance Sheet, Session 1891-92.

£ s. d. £ s. d.
General Account : —

Balance in favour of this Account, 1st April, 1891 .. .. .. .. .. 114 2 6

Receipts during the Session, 1891-92 : —

Subscriptions, Admission Fees, Sections, &c. .. .. .. .£307 2 o

Donations from members .. .. .. .. .. .. 1500

Use of the Society's rooms .. .. .. .. .. .. 12100

Sale of the Society's publications .. . .. .. .. 265

Bank Interest .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4 12 10

45° 1 3

564 3 9
Expenditure during the Session, 1891-92 : —

Charges on Property .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 54 4 10

House Expenditure .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 58 15 9

Administrative Charges .. .. .. .. .. .. 123 6 8

Publishing 319 4 4

Library .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 94 14 8

650 6 3

Balance against this Account, 31st March, 1892 ...... 86 2 6

Compounders' Fund : —

Balance in favour of this Account, 1st April, 1891 .. .. 177 10 o

Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1892 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 177 10 o

Natural History Fund : —

Balance in favour of this Account, 1st April, 1891 .. .. .. £61 7 9

Dividends on Great Western Railway Co.'s Stock during the Session

1891-92 S9 14 4

121 2 1

Expenditure during the Session 1891-92 : —

Natural History' Books and Periodicals .. .. .. .. ,£18 6 7

Drawing, engraving, and printing plates on Natural History

subjects .. .. .. .. .. 23 2 3

41 8 10

Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1892 .. .. * 79 '? 3

257 3 5
Less balance, as above, against the General Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2 6

Cash in Williams, Deacon, and Manchester and Salford Bank, Limited, 31st March, 1892 .. ...£171 o 9

Microscopical and Natural History Section. 195

Annual Report of the Council of the Microscopical
and Natural History Section.

The meetings have been held as usual, monthly, through-
out the session, and the attendance and interest have been
fully maintained. Considering the small number of members
and associates this is encouraging, but the Council feels that
if the section is to be kept up to its old standard, there
must be an infusion of new blood, and, therefore, appeals to
all to make an effort to make known the advantages which
the section can offer to all naturalists in this neighbourhood,
so as to induce them to enrol themselves as members or
associates.

During this session four members and two associates
have resigned, one member has died, and one member and
one associate have been elected.

Amongst those members who have resigned is the
section's former president, Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON,
LL.D., F.R.S. He has left the neighbourhood and gone
to reside in London, and, therefore, is unable any longer
to attend the meetings. One of the earliest members
of the section, he has always been its good friend, and his
contributions to its discussions have been always highly ap-
preciated. He will be missed very much, but the Council
hopes that his health may be spared to him to enable him
to continue his valuable scientific researches.

It will be noticed from the statement of accounts that a
number of valuable books are still being added to the library,
such as the "British Hieracia," Fowler's "Coleoptera," and the
Journal de Conchyliologie. The Library also now contains a
complete set of the " Challenger Reports." Various scientific
periodicals are regularly taken in, and, from time to

196 Microscopical and Natural History Section.

time, as occasion offers, other important works will no doubt
be purchased. Students will do well to acquaint them-
selves with the valuable works of reference now on the
shelves, and to avail themselves of them by joining the
section.

The following is a list of members and associates of the
section : —

Members: — J. J. Ashworth, Charles Bailey, F.L.S., John
Boyd, Henry Brogden, Alfred Brown, M.D., Samuel Con am,
F.R.A.S., Edward Coward, R. Ellis Cunliffe, R. D. Darbi-
shire, B.A., F.G.S., Hastings C. Dent, F.L.S., William King
Deane, Frederick James Faraday, F.L.S., Edward Halkyard,
Charles James Heywood, Alex. Hodgkinson, B.Sc, M.B., Sir
Henry Hoyle Howorth, F.S.A., M.P., A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.,
J. E. Morgan, M.D., M.A., Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., J. F. W.
Tatham, M.A., M.D.

Associates: — W. Blackburn, F.R.M.S., E. J. Bles, M.B.,
Peter Cameron, F.E.S., H. C. Chadwick, E. Pyemont-Collett,
F.E.S., Peter Cunliffe, F. R. Curtis, H. L. Earl, B.A.,
John Ray Hardy, Arnold U. Henn, Henry Hyde,
Leslie Jones, M.D., H. L. Knoop, Thomas Rogers, W. R.
Scowcroft, Theodore Sington, George Nash Skipp, Mark
Stirrup, F.G.S., Wm. Ladd Torrance, Edward Ward,
F.R.M.S., R. Wheeler.

Microscopical and Natural History Section Accounts. 197

Mark Stirrup, Treasurer, in account with the Microscopical and Natural History
Section of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.

5)t. Session i8gi-g2. Qx,

1891. £

s.

d.

T891.

£ s. d.

April. To Balance in Manchester

April 28.

By G. F. C. Dawson, Returned

and Salford Bank (St.

Subscription, overpaid . .

0 10

0

9

7

July 3.

„ F. J. Hanbury, "British

TO

1 4

0

„ Subscriptions and Arrears

Aug. 14.

,, J. E. Cornish, " Fowler's

from April 14th, 1891, to

Coleoptera, " Parts 48— 4^9,

and " Naturalist," April-

0 9

7

Nov. 12.

„ West, Newman, and Co.,
" Journal of Botany,"
1891

1892.

Jan. 19.

,, Chas. Simms and Co.,

I 10

6

11 21.

,, A. Brothers and Co., 100
Prints of Plate, Cameron

0 15

0

Feb. 5.

,, H. Crosse, "Journal de
Conchyliologie," 1891 —

1 9

3

,, 12.

,, D. Douglas, "Annals of

Scot. Nat. Hist.," 1892..

0 7

6

„ 26.

,, J. E. Cornish, "Challen-
ger Reports," " Deep Sea
Deposits," and "Coleop-

2 13

5

,, M. C. Cooke, "British

Mar. 22.

2 0

S 5

n

,, Sectional Subscription

0

April 1.

,, C. Hargreaves —

4-

Postages, &c. . . 1 3 1

4 0

,, C. Simms & Co., Receipt

Book and Circulars ....

1 4

0

5-

„ J. E.Cornish,"Naturalist,"

0 4

6

7-

,, Cash in hands of Treasurer

I 14

3

By Balance in Manchester and Salford

Bank

Apt

a

^124

9

5

£1
il 7th, 1892,

24 9

5

Examined and found correct,

(Sti

W. R. SCOWCROFT.

The Microscopical and Natural History Section of the Manchester Literary [and
Philosophical Society in account with the Parent Society for Grant
from the Natural History Fund.

2Dr. April 16th, iSgi, to April 7th, i8g2. Cr,

i8pi. £ s. d.
April 16. To Balance of Grant unex-
pended 33 16 1

^33 16

To Balance of Grant unexpended 25 6 1

o

July

3-

Aug.

14.

1892.
Feb. 5.

26.

Jan.

21.

£ s. d.

By "British Hieracia," Parts

5—8 ••; • 1 4 °

,, " Fowler's Coleoptera,"

Parts 48— 53 1 5 o

,, "Journal de Conchylio-
logie;" 1891 — 1892 .... 1 9 3

,, Challenger Reports —

" Deep Sea Deposits". . 1 16 9

,, Cooke's "British Desmids" 200

„ A. Brothers and Co., 100

Prints 015 o

,, Balance 25 6 1

^33 16 1

198 The Council.

THE COUNCIL AND MEMBERS.

April 21, 1S92.

President.
ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Vice-Presidents.

EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D. F.R.S.

JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S.

JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.

Secretaries.

FREDERICK JAMES FARADAY, F.L.S., F.S.S.
REGINALD F. GWYTHER, M.A.

Treasurer.

CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S.

Librarian.
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

Of the Council.

JOHN BOYD.

HAROLD B. DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.

ALEXANDER HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc.

J. W. F. TATHAM, B.A., M.D.

Alderman JOSEPH THOMPSON.

CHARLES O'NEILL, F.C.S.

Honorary Members. 199

Honorary Members.

Date of Election.
1892, April 26. Abney, Capt. \V. de, R.E., F. R. S. S. Kensington.
1892, April 26. Amagat, E. F. Paris.
1887, April 19. Armstrong, Sir Wm. George, C. B., D.C.L., LL.D. New-

castle-on-Tyne.
1892, April 26. Ascherson, Paul F. Aug. Berlin.

1892, April 26. Baeyer, Adolf von, Professor of Chemistry. Munich.
1886, Feb. 9. Baker, Sir Benjamin, LL.D., M. Inst C.E. 2, Queen's

Square Place, Westminster, S. W.
1886, Feb. 9. Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S. Kew.
1886, Feb. 9. Berthelot, Prof. Marcellin, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de

l'lnstitut. Paris.
1892, April 26. Boltzmann, Ludvvig, Professor of Physics. Munich.
1892, April 26. Brioschi, Francesco, Naples.
1886, Feb. 9. Buchan, Alexander, F.R.S. E. 72, Northumberland Street,

Edinburgh.
1S60, April 17. Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Prof, of

Chemistry at the Univ. of Heidelberg. Heidelberg.

1892, April 26. Candolle, Alphonse de, Professor of Botany. Ge?ieva.

1858, April 17. Cannizzaro, S., Prof, of Chemistry. University of Rome.
1889, April 30. Carruthers, William, Pres. L.S., F.R.S. Keeper of

Botanical Dept., British Museum.

1859, Jan. 25. Cayley, Arthur, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., V.P.R.A.S.,

F.C.P.S., Sadlerian Prof, of Pure Maths, in the Univ.
of Cambridge, Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c.
Garden House, Cambridge.

1886, Oct. 30. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Piof.

of Natural Philosophy, Oxford. New Museum, Oxford.
1899, April 30. Cohn, Ferdinand, Professor of Botany. 26, Sclnveidnitzer
Stadtgraben, Breslau.

1887, April 19. Cornu, Professor Alfred, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de

l'lnstitut. Ecole Poly technique, Paris.
1892, April 26. Curtius, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry. Kiel.

1S92, April 26. Darboux, Gaston, Professor to the Faculty of Sciences.

Paris.
1886, Feb. 9. Dawson, Sir John William, C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D.,

F.G.S. Mc Gill College, Montreal.

1 888, April 17. Dewalque, Gustave, Professor of Geology. University of

Liege.
1892, April 26. Dohrn, Dr. Anton, Zoological Station. Naples.
1892, April 26. Dyer, W. T. Thisleton, F.R.S., Director, Botanical

Gardens. Kezv.

200 Honorary Members.

Date of Election
1892, April 26. Edison, Thomas Alva, Electrician. Menlo Park, New York.

1S89, April 30. Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany. Harvard College,

Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
1889, April 30. Flower, William Henry, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. Director

of Nat. Hist. Dept., British Museum.
1889, April 30. Foster, Michael, M.A., M.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Professor

of Physiology. Trinity College, Cambridge.
i860, Mar. 9. Frankland, Edward, Ph.D., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,

V.P.C.S., F.R.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.),

&c. The Yews, Reigate Hill, Reigate.
1892, April 26. Friedel, Ch., Professor to the Faculty of Sciences. Paris.
1892, April 26. Ftirbringer, Prof. Max. Amsterdam.

1892, April 26. Gegenhauer, Carl, Professor of Anatomy. Heidelberg.
1892, April 26. Gibbs, Professor F. W. Yale, U.S.A.

1886, Feb. 9. Helmholtz, Geheimrath Herman von, LL.D., For.

Mem. R. S. President der Physikalisch-technischen

Reichsanstalt. Berlin.
1889, April 30. Hertz, H., Professor of Physics. Bonn.
1892, April 26. Hermite, Ch. Paris.
1892, April 26. Hill, W. G. Washington.

1848, Jan. 25. Hind, John Russell, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Superin-
tendent of the Nautical Almanac. Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci.) 3, Cambridge Park Gardens, Twickenham.
1S81, April 17. Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm, Professor of Physics. Polytech-

nicum, Minister.
1866, Jan. 23. Hoftnan, A.W., Ph.D., M.D., LLD., F.R.S., Cor.

Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c. 10, Dorotheenstrasse,

Berlin.
1892, April 26. Hoff, J. Van't, Professor of Chemistry. Amsterdam.
1892, April 26. Hooker, Sir Joseph D., F.R.S. Sunningdale.
1869, Jan. 12. Muggins, William, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,

Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.) 90, Upper Tulse Hill,

Brixton, London, S. IV.
1872, April 30. Huxley, Thomas Henry, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,

P. P. R.S., Hon. Prof, of Biology in Royal School of Mines,

Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &C. 4, Marlborough

Place, Abbey Road, N. IV.

1852, Oct. 16. Kirkman, Rev. Thomas Penyngton, M.A., F.R.S., Croft

Rectory, near Warrington.
1892, April 26. Klein, Professor Felix. Gottingen.
1892, April 26. Kundt, August, Professor of Physics. Berlin.

1892, April 26. Ladenburg, A., Professor of Chemistry. Breslatt.

1887, April 19. Langley Prof. S. P., Smithsonian Institution, Washington,

U.S.

Honorary Members. 20 i

Date of Election.
1892, April 26. Laubach, Graf von Solms, Professor of Botany. Strassburg.
1892, April 26. Liebennann, C, Professor of Chemistry. Berlin.
1887, April 19. Lockyer, Norman, F.R.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad.

Sci.) Science School, Kensington.
1SS9, April 30. Lubbock, Sir John, Bart, M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

15, Lombard Street, E.C.
1892, April 26. Ludwig, Carl, Professor of Physiology,. Leipsic.

1892, April 26. Marignac, J. C. de. Geneva.

1892, April 26. Marshall, Alfred, Professor of Political Economy. Cam-
bridge.

1892, April 26. Mascart, E. , Professor at the College de France. Paris.

1889, April 30. Mendeleeff, D., Professor of Chemistry. St. Petersburg.

1889, April 30. Meyer, Lothar, Professor of Chemistry. Tubingen.

1892, April 26. Meyer, Victor, Professor of Chemistry. Heidelberg.

1S92, April 26. Moissan, H., Professor at the Ecole Superieure de Phar-
macie. Paris.

1887, April 19. Newcomb, Prof. Simon, For. Mem. R.S. Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, U.S.

1844, April 30. Owen, Sir Richard, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., V.P.Z.S., F.R.C.S., Ireland, Hon.
M.R.S.E., For. Assoc. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c.
Sheen Lodge, Richmond.

1866, Feb. 9. Pasteur, Louis, For. Mem. R.S. , Membre de l'lnstitut. Paris.

1892, April 26. Perkin, W. H., F.R.S. Sudbury, Harrow.

1851, April 29. Playfair, Rt. Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.,

F.G.S., M.P., V.P.C.S., &c. 68, Onslow Gardens,

London, S. W.
1892, April 26. Poincare, H., Professor to the Faculty of Sciences. Paris.
1S66, Jan. 23. Prestwich, Joseph, F.R.S., F.G.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci.) Shoreham, near Sevenoaks.

1892, April 26. Quincke, G. H., Prof, of Physics. Heidelberg.

1866, Jan. 23. Ramsay, Sir Andrew Crombie, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
15, Cromwell Crescent, South Kensington, London.

1892, April 26. Raoult, F., Professor to the Faculty of Sciences. Grenoble.

1849, Jan. 23. Rawson, Robert, F.R. A. S. Havant, Hants.

1866, Feb. 9. Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Lord, M.A., D.C.L.,
(Oxon), LL.D. (Univ. McGill), Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S.
Jirling Place, William, Essex.

1892, April 26. Reymond, Emil du Bois, Professor of Physiology. Berlin.

18S9, April 30. Resal, Professor Henri, Membre de l'lnstitut. Ecole Poly-
technique, Paris.

202 Honorary Members.

Date of Elcctien.

1889, April 30. Roscher, Dr. Wilhelm, K. Geheimer Rath, and Professor

of Political Economy. Leipsic.
1889, April 30. Routh, Edward John, Sc.D., F.R.S. Newuham Cottage,

Cambridge.

1872, April 30. Sachs, Julius von, Ph.D. Wurzburg.

1889, April 30. Salmon, Revd. George, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,

Regius Professor of Divinity. Provost's House, Trinity

College, Dublin.
1892, April 26. Salvin, Osbert, E.R.S. Haslemere.
1892, April 26. Saporta, the Marquis de. Aix en-Provence.
1S92, April 26. Sharpe, R. Bowdler.
1889, April 30. Siemens, Dr. Ernest Werner von, Geheimer Rath. 94,

Markgrafenstrasse, Berlin.
1869, Dec. 14. Sorby, Henry Clifton, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. Broom-
field Sheffield.
1851, April 29. Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, Bart., M.A., M.P., LL.D.,

D.C.L., Pres. R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathem.

Univ. Cambridge, F.C.P.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad.

Sci.), &c. Lens field Cottage, Cambridge.
1886, Feb. 9. Strasburger, Professor. Bonn.
1 86 1, Jan. 22. Sylvester, James Joseph, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,

Savilian Prof, of Geom. in the Univ. of Oxford, Cor.

Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c. New College, Oxford.

1868, April 28. Tait, Peter Guthrie, M.A., F.R.S.E., &c, Professor of

Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh. 38, George Square,

Edinburgh.
1851, April 22. Thomson, Sir William, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.S.

L. and E. Prof, of Nat Phil, in Univ. of Glasgow. For

Assoc. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), 2, College, Glasgow.
1872, April 30. Trecul, A., Member of the Institute of France. Paris.
1886, Feb. 9. Tylor, Edward Burnett, F.R.S., D.C.L. (Oxon), LL.D.

(St. And. and McGill Colls.), Keeper of University

Museum. Oxford.
1868, April 28. Tyndall, John, LL.D., M.D., D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S.,

F.C. S. Hind Head House, Haslemere, London, IV.

1892, April 26. Walker, General Francis A., Professor of Political Economy.

Boston, U.S.A.
1892, April 26. Wiedemann, G., Prof, of Physics. Liepsic.
1889, April 30. Williamson, Alexander William, Ph.D., LL.D., For. Sec.

R.S., Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). High Pit/old,

Shotlermill, Llaslemere.

1886, Feb. 9. Young, Prof. C. A. Princeton College, N.J., U.S.

1888, April 17. Zirkel, Ferdinand, Professor of Mineralogy. University of
Leipsic.

Corresponding Members. 203

Corresponding Members.

Date of Election.
i860, April 17. Ains worth, Thomas. Cleator Mills, near Egremont,
Whitehaven.

1870, March 8. Cockle, The Hon. Sir James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.C. P.S. 12, St. Stephens Road, Bayswater, London.

1866, Jan. 23. De Caligny, Anatole, Marquis, Corres. Mem. Acadd, Sc.
Turin and Caen. Socc. Agr. Lyons, Sci. Cherbourg,
Liege, &c.

1861, April 2. Durand-Fardel, Max, M.D., Chev. of the Legion of

I Ionour, &c. 36, Rue de Lille, Paris.

1849, April 17. Girardin, J., Off. Legion of Honour, Corr. Mem. Instit.

France, &c. Lille.

1850, April 30. Harley, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., 4, Wellington

Square, Oxford.
1882, Nov. 14. Herford, Rev. Brooke. Arlington Street, Boston, U.S.

1862, Jan. 7. Lancia di Brolo, Frederico, Due, Inspector of Studies, &c.

Palermo.
1859, Jan, 25. Le Jolis, Auguste- Francois, Ph. D. Archiviste perpetuel

and late president of the Soc. Nat. Sc. Cherbourg, &c.

Cherbourg.
1857, Jan. 27. Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Mem.

Brit. Met. Soc, &c. Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.

1S69, Feb. 5. Schbnfield, Edward, Ph.D., Director of the Mannheim
Observatory.

Date of Election.

1873,

Jan.

7-

1S70,

Dec.

13-

1861,

Jan.

22.

i8S5)

Nov.

17-

1837,

Aug.

11.

1881,

Nov.

1.

1887,

Nov.

16.

204 Ordinary Members.

Ordinary Members.

Allmann, Julius, 70, Dcansgate.

Angcll, John, F.C.S., F.I.C. 6, Deacons Field, Derby

Road, Fallozvjield, Manchester.
Anson, Ven. Archd. George Henry Greville, M.A., Birch

Rectory, Rusholme.
Armstrong, Thomas, F.R.M.S. Brookfield, Urmslon ;

Deansgale.
Ashton, Thomas. 36, Charlotte Street.
Ashton, Thomas Gair, M.A., 36, Charlotte Street.
Ashworth, J. Jackson. 39, Spring Gardens, City.

1865, Nov. 15. Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield College Road, Whalley
Ran°e, Manchester.

Bailey, G.H., D.Sc. Ph.D. The Owens College

Bailey, Alderman W. H. Su»i»ierf7eld, Eccles Xew Road.

Bickham, Spencer H. Underdown, Ledbury.

Bottomley, James, D.Sc, B.A., F.C.S. 220, Lower
Broughton Road.

Boyd John. Barton House, Didsbury Park, Didshwy.

Bradley, Nathaniel. 65, Mosley Street, City.

Brockbank, William, F.G.S., F.L.S. Chapel Walks.

Brogden, Henry, F.G.S. Hale Lodge, Altrincham.

Brooks, Sir William Cunliffe, Bart., M.A., M.P. Bank,
92, King Street.

Brooks, Herbert S. Slade House, Levcnshulme.

Brothers, Alfred, F.R.A.S. 12, Swinton Avenue, Man-
chester.

Brown, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Claremont, Higher Broughton.

Browne, Henry, M.A. (Glas.), M.R.C.S. (Lond.), M.D.
(Lond. ). The Gables, Victoria Park.

Brownell, T. W. School Board Offices, Dcansgate.

Budenberg, C. F., M.Sc. 23, Demesne Road, Alexandra
Road.

Burghardt, Charles Anthony, Ph.D. 35, Fountain Street.

Buxton John II., Guardian Offices, Manchester.

Christie, Richard Copley, M.A. , Chancellor of the Diocese,

The Elms, Rochampion, S. IV.
Clay, Charles, M.D., Extr. L.R.C.P. (Lond.), M.E.C.S.

(Edin. ), Tower Lodge, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lane.
Corbett, Joseph. 9, Albert Square.
Cottam, Samuel, F.R.A.S., F.R. Hist. S., F.C.A. 49,

Spring Gardens.

1888, Nov.

13-

1S88, Feb.

7-

1868, Dec.

15-

1861. Jan.

22.

1875, Nov.

16.

1889, Oct.

»S-

1855, April

17.

1861, April

. 2.

1844, Jan.

22.

1889, April

16.

i860, Jan.

23-

1886, April

[ 6.

1846, Jan.

27.

1889, Jan.

8.

1880, Oct.

15-

1872, Nov.

12.

1891, April

21.

1854, April

1 18.

1841, April

[30.

1884, Nov.

4-

1853, Jan.

25-

Ordinary Members. 205

Date 0/ Election.

1859, Jan. 25. Coward, Edward. Heaton Mersey ; near Manchester.

1849, Jan. 25. Crowther, Joseph Stretch. Endsleigk, Alderley Ed^e.

1S76, April 18. Cunliffe, Robert Ellis. Halton Bank, Pendleton.

1871, Nov. 8. Dale, Richard Samuel, B.A. 1, Chester Terrace, Chester

Road.
1853, April 19. Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., F.S.A., F.G.S., 26,

George Street.

1878, Nov. 26. Davis, Joseph. Engineer's Offices, Lancashire and York

shire Railway, Hunts Bank.

1861, Dec. 10. Deane, William King. Ahnondbury Place, Chester Road.

1879, Mar. 18. Dent, Hastings Charles, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 20, Thurloe

Square, London, S. IV.
1878. Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold B., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry,
The Owens College.

1892, April 26. Ewan, Thomas, B.Sc. (Vict.), Ph.D. (Munich). The Owens
College, Manchester.

1883, Oct. 2. Faraday, Frederick James, F.L.S., F.S.S. Ramsay Lodge,

Slade Lane, Levenshulme.

1886, Feb. 9. Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc. Technical School, Princess
Street, Manchester.

1 88 1, Nov. 1. Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton.

1874, Nov. 3. Grimshaw, Harry, F.C.S. Thorn/on View, Clayton.

1888. Feb. 7. Grimshaw, William. Stoneleigh, Sale.

1875, Feb. 9- Gwyther, R. F., M.A., Fielden Lecturer in Mathematics,

Owens College. The Owens College.

1889, Nov. 12. Hadley, H. E. The Owens College.

1889, Nov. 12. Hall, Charles John, Mus. Doc. Hawkesmoor, Sonthport.
1S90, Feb. 18. Harker, Thomas. Brook House, Fallowjield.

1890, Jan. 7. Harrison, Fred., M.A. The Grammar School.

1862, Nov. 4. Hart, Peter. Messrs. Tennants 6* Co., Mill Street,

Clayton N. , Manchester.
1873, Dec. 16. Heelis, James, 71, Princess Street.
1890, Mar. 4. Henderson, H. A. Eastbourne House, Chorlton Road.

1890, Nov. 4. Heenan, R. H., Engineer, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. Manor

House, Wilms low I ark, Wilmslow.
1889, Jan. 8. Heywood, Charles J. Chaseley, Pendleton.

1891, Nov. 3. Ilalkyard, Edward. The Firs, Knutsford.

1891, Nov. 3. Hare, Arthur W., M.B., F.RC.S.E., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Surgery. The Owens College, Manchester.

1833, April 26. Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 26, Kensington
Palace Gardens, London, W.

1884, Jan. 8. Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc. iS, St. John Street.

1882, Oct. 17. Holt, Henry. The Cedars, Didsbury.

1S73, Dec. 2. Howorth, Henry H., F.S.A., M.P. Bentdirfe House,
Eccles.

206 Ordinary Members.

Date of Election.
1889, Oct. 15. Iloyle, W. E., M.A., Keeper of the Manchester Museum.

25, Brunstuick Road, Withington.
1884 Jan. 8. Hurst, Charles Herbert, 151, High Street, C.-on-M., Man-
chester.

1870, Nov. 1. Johnson, William H., B.Sc. 26, Lever Street.
1S7S, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Grammar School.
1S90, Jan. 7. Joseland, II. L., B.A. The Grammar School
1 89 1, Nov. 17. Joyce, Samuel, Electrical Engineer, Technical School,
Princess Street, Manchester.

1886, Jan. 12. Kay, Thomas, J. P. Moorfield, Stockport.
1852. Jan. 27. Kennedy, John Lawson. 47, Mosley Street.
1891, Dec. 1. King, John Edward, M.A., High Master. Manchester
Grammar School.

1890, Nov. 4. Langdon, Maurice Julius, Ph.D., Chemist. Suubury,

Victoria Park.
1863, Dec. 15. Leake, Robert, M. P. The Dales, Whitefield.
1884, April 15. Leech, Daniel John, Professor, M.D. The Owens College.
1850, April 30. Leese, Joseph. Messrs. S. &> E. Leese, Fylde Road Mill,

Preston.
1S92, Feb. 23. Lloyd, Canon Julius, M.A. Moorfield, Kersal.
1S57, Jan. 27. Longridge, Robert Bewick. Yew Tree House, Tabley,

Knutsford.
1S70, April 19. Lowe, Charles, F.C.S. Summerfield House, Reddish,

Stockport.

1S66, Nov. 13, McDougall, Arthur, B.Sc. Fallow field House, Fallowfield.
1S59. Jan. 25. Maclure, John William, M. P., F.R.G.S. Whalley Range.
1875, Jan. 2°- Mann, John Dixon, M.D., F.R.C.P., Lond., Professor of

Forensic Med., The Owens College. 16, St. John Street.
1879, Dec. 2. Marshall, Arthur Milnes, M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.,

Professor of Zoology, Owens College. The Owens

College.
1S64, Nov. 1. Mather, William, M. P. Iron Works, Salford.
1873, Mar. iS. Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S. Kersal Cottage,

Prestwich.
1879, Dec. 30 Miller, John Bell, M.E., Assistant Lecturer in Engineering,

Owens College. The Owens College.
1881, Oct. iS. Mond, Ludwig, F.C.S. Wilmington Hall, Northwich.
1861, Oct. 29. Morgan, John Edward, M.D., M.A., F.R.C.P., Lond.,

F.R. Med. and Chir. S., Professor of Medicine in the

Victoria University. The Hut, Tabley, Knutsford.
1889, April 16.. Moultrie, George W. Bank of England, King Street.

1873, Mar. 4. Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. 62, Fountain Street.

Ordinary Members. 207

Dxte of Election,

1889, April 1 6. Norbury, George. Hillside, Prestwich Park, Prestwich.

1862, Dec. 30. Ogden, Samuel. 10, Mosley Street West.

1884, April 15. Okell, Samuel, F.R. A.S. Overley, Langham Road, Bowdon.
1861, Jan. 22. O'Neill, Charles, F.C.S., Corr., Mem. Ind. Soc. Mulhouse.

14, Cecil Street, Greenheys.
1844, April 30. Ormerod, Henry Mere, F.G.S. 5, Clarence Street.

1892, Feb. 23. Pankhurst, R. M., LL.D. (Lond.), Barrister-at-Law. St.

James Square, Manchester.
1 86 1, April 30. Parlane, James. Rusholme.
1876, Nov. 28. Parry, Thomas, F.S.S. Grafton House, Ashton-under-Lyne.

1885, Nov. 17. Phillips, Henry Harcourt, F.C.S. 183, Moss Lane East,

Manchester.
1854, Jan. 24. Pochin, Henry Davis, F.C.S, Bodnant Hall, Conway.

1854, Feb. 7. Ramsbottom, John, M. Inst. C.E. Fernhill, Alderley Edge.
1859, April 16. Ransome, Arthur, M.A., M.D., Cantab., F.R.S., M.R.C.S.
I. St. Peter's Square.

1888, Feb. 21. Ree, Alfred, Ph.D., F.C.S. I, Brighton Grove, Rtisholme.

1869, Nov. 16. Reynolds, Osborne, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E.,

Professor of Engineering, the Owens College. Ladybarn

Road, F alio- vji eld.
1884, April 3. Rhodes, James, F.R. C.S. Glossop.
1880, Mar. 23. Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S.Ed., F.R.C.P. (London),

Ravenswood, Broughton Park.
1864, Dec. 27. Robinson, John, M. Inst. C.E. Westwood Hall, Leek.
1858, Jan. 26. Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield, B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

F.C.S., M.P. 10, Bramham Gardens, Wetherby Road,

London, S. W.

1890, Jan. 21, Sacre, Howard C. Breeze House, Higher Broughton.
1851, April 29. Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Garry Cottage, near Perth.

1870, Dec. 13. Schorlemmer, Carl, LL.D., F.R.S. , F.C.S. The Owens

College.
1842, Jan. 25. Schunck, Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Kersal.
1873, Nov. 18. Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Owens

College.
1890, Jan. 21. Sidebottom, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Grohy Place,

Altrincham
1S90, Nov. 4. Sidebotham, Edward, Earlsdene, Bowdon.

1886, April 6. Simon, Henry, C.E. Darwin House, Didsbury.

1889, Oct. 15. Tatham, John F. W., B.A., M.D., Medical Officer of

Health. Town Hall, Manchester.

1890, Nov. 4. Taylor, Walter, A. M.I. C.E. The Hollies, Flixton.
1884, Mar. 18. Thompson, Alderman Joseph. Riversdale, Wilmslow.

2oS Ordinary Members.

Date of Election.
1873, April 15. Thomson, William, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. Royal

Institution.
1889, April 30. Thornber, Harry. Rookfeld Avenue, Sale.
i860, April 17. Trapp, Samuel Clement. 88, Mosley Street.

1879, Dec. 3°- Ward, Thomas. Brookfield Hoitse, Northwich.

1873, ^T°v- 'S- Waters, Arthur William, F.G.S. Villa Vecchia, Davos

Ddrfli, Switzerland.
1859, Jan. 25. Wilcle, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge.
1859, April 19. Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Manchester and Salford Bank,

Mosley Street.
1889, Nov. 12. Willans, J. W. Woodlands Park, Altrincham.

1 888, April 17. Williams, E. Leader, M. Inst. C.E. Spring Gardens,

Manchester.

1889, April 16. Wilson, Thomas B., 37, Arcade Chambers, St. Mary's Gate.
i860, April 17. Woolley, George Stephen. 69, Market Street.

1863, Nov. 17. Worthington, Samuel Barton, M. Inst. C.E. Mill Bank,

Bowdon.
1865, Feb. 21. Worthington, Thomas, F.R.I. B.A. 46, Brown Street.

N.B. — Of the above list the following have compounded for their sub-
scriptions, and are therefore life members :
Brogden, Henry.
Johnson, William H., B.Sc.
Sandeman, Archibald, M.A.
Lowe, Charles, F.C.S.
Bradley, N.

Fourth Series. Vol. 5 : No. 1.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY.

1891-92.

CONTENTS.

Proceedings - - - pp. 1, 10, 54, 60, 77, 92, 138, 141, 147
Natural History and Microscopical Section - pp. 10, 60, 90, 95, 140, 146

Memoirs : —

On the Decomposition by Shock of Endothermic Com-
pounds. By J. A. Harker, Dalton Chemical Scholar,
and H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.. Professor of Chemistry
in the Owens College - - p. 12

Experiments on the Transmission of Explosions across
Air Gaps. By Bevan Lean, B.Sc, Dalton Chemical
Scholar, and Harold B. Dixon, F.R.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Owens College - - - - p. 16

The 143 six-letter functions given by the first transitive
maximum groups of six letters, with full exhibition
of the values of the functions. By the Rev. Thos.
P. Kirkman, M.A., F.R.S. p. 23

Notes on Sewage Precipitation. By Harry Grimshaw,

F-C.S. - - - p. 55

On the Permians of the N.W. of England. Discovery of
Two Plant Beds in the St. Bees Sandstone, at
Hilton, Westmorland. With Plates. By William
Brockbank, F.G.S., F.L.S. p. 66

On the Interchange of Two Differential Resolvents. By
the Rev. Robert Harley, M.A., F.R.S., Corres-
ponding Member P- 79

Hymenoptera Orientalis ; or Contributions to a knowledge
of the Hymenoptera of the Indian Zoological Region.
With Plate. By P. Cameron. Communicated by
John Boyd - - - - - - - - - p. 97

MANCHESTER:
36, GEORGE STREET.

flMfce Seven Sbillfngs.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Presented.

Alexander Buchan. The Meteorological Results of the Challenger Expedition.
Frank Vincent. Around and About South America.

,, Norsk, Lapp and Finn.

,, In and Out of Central America.

,, Through and through the Tropics.

Sanford Fleming. Time Reckoning for the 20th Century.

Wm. Sharp, M.D., F.R.S. The Repetition of the Same Dose.

Joseph Prcslwich, F.R.S. On the Age, Formation, and Drift Stages of the
Darent Valley.

Charles Bailey, F.L.S. Review of the Work of the Leeuwenhoek Microscopical
Club, 1 867- 1 89 1.

Charles Bailey, F.L.S. Catalogue of the Type Fossils in the Woodwardian
Museum.

H. Resal. Exposition de la Theorie Des Surfaces.

S. C. de L. Michele Rajna. Sul Metodo Grafico Nel Calcolo Delle Eclissi Solari.

,, Estratta dai Rendiconti del R. Istituto Lombardo.

O. A. L. Pihl. The Stellar Cluster -f- Persei.

G. Dewalque. Prodrome d'une Description Geologique de la Belgique.

Russo-Jewish Committee. The Persecution of the Jews in Russia.

Hazell's Annual, 1891.

W. G. Farlow & A. B. Seymour. A Provisional Host-Index of the Fungi of the
' United States. Part 3.

W. H. Bailey. Outside the Class-room. Thoughts for Young Engineers.

E. L. Hicks. The Collection of Ancient Marbles at Leeds.

Agnes M. Clerke. The System of the Stars.

Mrs. David Chadwick. Thomas Sopwith, with Excerpts from his Diary.

Arthur Wm. Waters. Some Meteorological Conditions of Davos.

R. Ingham Clark. Notes on Varnish and Fossil Resins.

Australian Museum. Descriptive Catalogue of the Nests and Eggs of Birds found
breeding in Australia and Tasmania. No. 12.

Pedro Montt. Exposition of the Illegal Acts of Ex-President Balmaceda.

Michael Foster, F.R.S., &c. A Text Book of Physiology. Vol. IV.

Henry Wilde, F.R.S. On the Causes of the Phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Arthur Cayley, F.R.S., &c. Collected Mathematical Papers. Vol. IV.

Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., and C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S. Treatise on
Chemistry. Vol. III., part 6.

And the usual Exchanges and Periodicals.

Fourth Series. Vol. 5 : No. 2.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY.

1891-92.

CONTENTS.

Proceedings pp. iy0f 172

Microscopical and Natural History Section p. 173

Memoirs : —

On Iridescent Colours and a Method of examining' Iridescent
objects, Birds, Insects, Minerals, &c, so as to ensure
uniformity in their description. By Alex. Hodgkinson,

M.B., B.Sc. p. 149

Notes on some Ancient Dyes. By Edward Schunck, Ph.D.,

F.R.S. p. iS8

On the action of Acetic Acid, with oxidising substances, on

Indigo Blue. By Charles O'Neill, F.C.S. - p. 162

Annual Report of the Council - - - - - - - p. 174

Treasurer's Accounts p. 192

Annual Report of the Council of the Microscopical and Natural

History Section .p. 195

List of the Council and Members p. 198

Title Page and Contents for the Volume.

MANCHESTER:
36, GEORGE STREET.

price Cbree Shillings anfc Sixpence

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Presented.

M. Rajna. Soil' Escursione Diurna della Declinazione Magnetica a Milano.

G. Dewalque. Prodrome d'une Description Geologique de la Belgique.

,, Observations sur la Correlation des Diverses Bandes.

Dr. Heinrich Hertz. Untersuchungen ueber die Ausbreitung der Elektrischen
Kraft.

Transactions of the British Laryngological and Rhinological Association.
Vol. I.

F. Bashforth, B.A. Reprint of "A Description of a Machine for finding the
Numerical Roots of Equations."

A. Liversidge. On some New South Wales and other Minerals. Note No. 6.

James E. Keeler. Elementary Principles governing the Efficiency of Spectroscopes
for Astronomieal purposes.

Catalogue of the Type Fossils in the Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge.

Review of the Work of the Leeuwenhoek Microscopical Club, 1867— 1S91.

H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. Victorian Vear Book, 1890-91. Part 1.

And the usual Exchanges and Periodicals.

a

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