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FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

f

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OK THL

MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY.

(MANCHESTER MEMOIRS.)

Volume LVIII. (1913-14.)

MANCIIES'IKK :

-56, GEORGE STREET.

1915-

-/LLcj^/^ U^^oc^cJL in

NOTE.

Tlie authors of the several papers contained in this
volume are themselves accountable for all the statements
and reasonings which they have offered. In these par-
ticulars the Societ}' must not be considered as in any way
responsible.

CONTENTS.

INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

The Old Manchester Natural History Society and its Museum.
By the rrcidcnt, Franxis Nicholson, F.Z.S. ... pp. i — 15

(hsncd separately, December iiid, igiS-)

!\1KM0IRS.

I. Changes in tlie Ijranchial lamellae of Lii^ia occanica, after pro-
longed immersion in fre.sh and salt water. By Dokothy
A. .Sti:\vakt, B.Sc. With 2 Pis pp. i — 12

(Issued separately, December 31 si, IQIJ-)

II. Note on some products isolated from Soot. By Professor
Edmund Knecht. I'h.D. , and Eva Hibbert, Assoc.
M.S.T pp. 1—5

(Issued se/'arately, December iftli, igij)

III. The Willow Titmouse in Lancashire and Cheshire. By T. \.

Coward, K.Z.S., K.E.S. pp. 1— S

ylssiied sepaiatcly, March 271/1, IQI4.')

\\ . Observations on the Ilomoplcrous Inject ['hromiiia (flala)
maigincUa Oliv. in the Himalayas. By A. D. Im.ms, M.A.,
D.Sc. With 2 Pis. and I Text-fig. pp. i — 12

i^lssued separately. April ijth, IQ14-.)

\ . The Specihculion of ilie Elcmenls c,f Stress. Part III. The
definition of the dynamical specification and a test of the
elastic specification. A chapter in Elasticity. By R. Y.

GWYTHER. M.A. pp. I— 21

(Issued separately. May 16th, iqi4)

VI. How does the Plant obtain its nutriment from the Soil ? By
A. D. IlAix, M.A., F.R.S. With 6 Pis. and i 7'e.xt-

''s pp- 1-22

(Issued separately. May .'Jt/t, 11)14.)

VI CONTENTS.

VII. Some Notes on the Measurement of Air Velocities, Pressures,
and Volumes. By William Ckamp, M.I.E.E., M.Sc.Tech.
With s Text-^lgs. pp. i — 16

{Issued separately. May 2bth, 1^14.)

VIII. Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere. I. Introduction and
Methods. By W. INI. Tattersall, D.Sc, and T. A.
Cow.-iRD, F.Z.S., F.E.S. With I PL and I Map ... pp. i — 21
(Issued st/ara/e/y, May 30th, 11^/4.)

IX. Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere. II. Vertebrata. By T. A.

Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S pp. 1—37

(Issued separalety, May Jot k, igi4.)

X. Carbon : its molecular structure and mode of oxidation. By

Maurice Copisarow, B.Sc. With 6 Text-figs. ... jip. i — 11

(Issued separately, May 22nd, 1QI4.)

XI. Note on the Intrinsic Field of a Magnet. By J. R. Ashworth,

D.Sc pp. 1—6

(Issued separately, July 2nd, 11)14.)

XII. The Specification of Stress. Part IV. The Elastic Solution :
The Elastic Stress relations and conditions of Stability :
Struts, ties and test-pieces. By R. F. Gwyther,M.A. pp. 1—9

(Issued separately, Septonber iqtii, 11)14.)

XIII. Faunal Survey of Rostherne. III. Prehminary List of Lepi-
doptera found round the Mere. By A. W. BoYD, M.A.,

F.E.S pp. I— 12

(Issued separately, June igth, ii}i4-)

XIV, Juvenile Flowering in Eucalyptus globulus. By Professor

F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S. With 2 Pis pp. 1—4

(Issued separately, October 31 st, 1^14.)

XV. Quantitative Absorption Spectra. Part I. The chemical
significance of absorption spectra and the methods of ex-
amining them. By F. R. Laxkshear, B.A., M.Sc.

With 2 Text-figs. pp. I — 12

(Issued separately, October ibth, igi4-)

CONTENTS VU

PROCEEDINGS i.— Ixxii.

General Meetings ... ... ... iv. , xiii., xiv., xvi., xviii., xx., xxiv.

Special Meeting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxiii.

Annual General Meeting ... ... ... ... ... ... xxvi.

Report of Council, 1914, with obituary notices of Professor
Paul F. Ascherson, The Rt. Hon. Lord Avebury, D.C.L.,
F.R.S., Sir William H. Bailey, M.I.Mech.E., E.R.G.S.,
Mr. Walter L. Hehrens, Mr. Henry Brogden, F.G.S.,
M.I.Mech.E., Mr. Robert Cotton, M.Sc, Mr. William H.
Johnson, B.Sc, Sir John Murray, K.C.B.. Sc.D., F.R.S.,
Professor John T. Nicohon, D.Sc, Mr. William H. Sut-
cliffe, F.G.S., and Mr. Tlujuias Thor|), I'.R.A.S. ... xxix.— xlix.

Treasurer's Accounts... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1. — Hi.

List of the Council and Members of the Society ... ... ... liii. — Iviii.

List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal Iviii.

List of the Wilde Lectures ... ... ... ... ... ... Ixix. — lx\.

List of the Special Lectures .. ... ... ... ... Ixx.

List of the Presidents of the Societv ... ... ... Ixxi. — Ixxii.

viii INDEX.

INDEX.

M = Memoirs. P- Proceedings.

Accessions to Library. V. i., v., vii., x., xv., xvi., xviii., xxi., xxiii., xxvii.,

xxviii.
Adamson, R. .S. Obituary notice uf V. V. Ascherson. P. xxxii.
Annual General INIeeting. P. xxvi.
Annual Report. P. xxix.

Ascherson, P. F. Obituary notice of. By R. S. A. P. xxxii.
Ashworth, T- R. Note on the Intrinsic Field of a Magnet. M. li.

P. xxviii.
Atom, The Structure of the. By .SV;- E. Rutherford. P. x.
Auditors. P. xvii.
Avelnirv, Lord, Obiluaiy Notice of By O. H. I', xxxiii.

liailey, A'/V W. II., Reference to the death of. By V. E. Weiss. P. x.

Obituary notice <>f By C. L. B. P. xxxv.

Bakelite, Exhibition of. By W. W. Haldane Gee. P. xiii.
Barnes, C. L. Exhibition of small prayer roll. P. v.

Obituary notice of Sir W. H. Bailey. P. xxxv.

Plane trees and pulmonary troubles. P. xxvii.

Behrens, W. L. Obituary notice of. By \V. B. P. xxxvii.

Bleaching .\gents, The Action of, on various Natural Colouring blatters.

By R. L. Taylor. P. xiii.
Boy<l, A. \V. Faunal Survey of Rostherne. Part IIL Preliminary List

of Lepidoptera found round the Mere. M. 13. P. xxiv.
Brabbee Tube, Exhibition of. By W. Cramp. P. iii.
Bragg, W. II. Crystalline structure as revealed by X-ray.-^. P. xxiii.
Brogden, li. Obituary notice of. By F. N. P. xxxviii.
Burton, W. Obituary notice of W. I>. Behrens. P. xxxvii.

Carbon : its molecular structure and mode of oxidation. By M. Copisarow.

M. 10. P. xvii. and xviii.
Carpenter, II. C. H. The crystallising properties of electro-deposiletl Iron.

P. vi.
Changes in the branchial lamellae of Ligja oceani(a... By D. A. Stewart.

M. I. P. iv.
Controversies concerning... the Dawn-Man found near Piltdown. By

G. Elliot Smith. P. vii.

INDEX. IX

Copisarow, M. Carbon: its molecular structure nnd iiiode nf oxidniinn.

^I. lo. P. xvii. and xviii.
Cotton, R. Obituary notice of. ByC. 11. P. \xxix.
Coward, T. A. Exhibition of Peacock butterfly. J'attrssa io. P. xvi.

Faunal Survey of Romherne Mere. Part II. Veriebrata. M. 9.

P. XXIV.

The Willow Titmouse in Lancashire and Cheshire, ^I. 3. P. xvi.

See Tattersall, W. M.

Cramp, W. Exhibition of a Brabbee Tube. P. iii.

Some notes on the measurement of air velocities, pressures and volumes.

M. 7. P. XV.
Crystalline structure as revealed by X-rays. By W. II. Bragg. P. xxiii.

Dawn-iNIan Controversies. By G. Elliot Smith. P. vii.

Election of Ordinary Members. P. iv.. xiii., xiv. , xvi., xviii., xx., xxiv.
Electro-deposited Iron, The crystallising properties of. By PI. C. H.

Carpenter. P. vi.
Elliot Smith, G. Sec Smith. G. Elliot.
Eiicalyftiis globulns^ Juvenile Flowering in. By F. E. Weiss. M. 14.

P. iii.

Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere. Pari I. By W. M, Tattersall and
T. A. Coward. M. S. P. xxiv. Part II. Vertebrala. By T. A.
Coward. M. 9. P. xxiv. P.ut III. Preliminary List of Lepidoptera
found round tlie Mere. By A. W. Boyd. M. 13. P. xxiv. Pait I\'.
Preliminary account of the Flora. By R. S. Adamson. P. xxiv.

Gee, \V. W. Haldane Exhibition of Bakelile. P. xiii.

Grummitt. \V. C. and Hick ling, i\. A Preliminary Note on the Structure
of Coal. P. XXV.

Gwylher, R. F. The Specification of ihe elements uf .Stress. Pari III.
The definition of the dynamical specification and a test of the elastic
specification. A chapter on elasticity. M. 5. P. xvii.

The Specification of Stress. Part IV. The Elastic Solution : The

Elastic Stress relations and conditions of .Stability : Struts, ties and
test-pieces. M. 12. P. xxiii.

The Specification of Stress. Part \'. An outline of the theory of

Hyper-elastic Stress. P. xxvii.

Hall, A. D. How does the Plant obtain its nutriment from the soil? M. 6.
Hibbert, E. See Knecht, E.

X INDEX.

Ilickling, G. Exhibition of a seiies of Old i'led Sniiflstcne Fisli. P. iv.

Obituary notice of Lord Avebiuy. P. xxxiii.

Obituary notice of R. Cotton. P. xxxix.

See Grummitt, W. C.

Hinson, R. F. Obituary notice of W. II. Johnson. P. xl.

How does the Plant obtain its nutriment from the soil? By A. D. Hall.

M. 6.
Hoyle. W. E. Obituary notice of 5?';- John Murray. P. xl.
Hubrccht, J. B. Studies in Solar Rotation. P. xix.

Imms. A. D. Observations on the Homoptcrous Insect Pliromnia [Plata)

iua7-ginella Oliv. in the Himalayas. M. 4. P. xvi.
Inaugural Address. See Nicholson. F.

Johnson. W. H. Reference to the death of. P. xviii.

Obituary notice of. By R. F. II. P. xl.

'\\\\^x\\\&Y\':)\\-GX\x\^'w\ Eucalypiiis glohiiiii!:. By F. E. Weiss. M. 14. P. iii.

Knecht, E. and Hibbert, E. Note on some products isolated from Soot.

^f. 2. P. vi.
On 1-piniaric acid from French rosin. P. xxii.

Lanksbear, V . R. (^)aaniilaiive Absorption Spectra. Part I. The chemical

significance of absorption spectra and the methods of examining them.

M. 15. P. xxviii.
Library Accessions. P. i.. \.. vii., x., xv., xvi., wiii., xxi.. xxiii., xxvii.,

xxviii.
Ligia oeeaiiica, changes in tlic branchial lamellae... I>y D. A. Stewart.

.M. I. P. iv.
Loeweniekl, K. Exhibition of Saphiringiass. P. xiii.

L-pimaric acid from French rosin. By E. Knecht and E. Hibbert. P. xxii.
Lubboclc. Sir]. .i>£ Avebury.

.Makowcr, W. .W Walmsley, li. P.

Manchester Natural History Society and its Museum, The Old. By

F. Nicholson. Inaugural Address. P. iii.
Members, Election of Ordinary. P. iv.. xiii., xiv., xvi., xviii., xx., xxiv.
Mercury, Film of. By T. Thorp. P. xvii.
Murray, SVrJohn. Obituary notice of. By W. E. H. P. xl.

Nicholson, F. Obituary notice of II. Biogden. V. xxxviii.

President's thanl<s. P. iii.

■ Reference to the deatli of Mr. W. H. Johnson. P. xviii.

Reference to the death of Mr. W. II. Sutchffe. P. v.

Remarks on Wlieal Ears. P. iii.

Remarks upon some Poisonous Plants. P. v.

The Old ^Manchester Natural History Society and its Museum.

Inaugural Address and P. iii.

Nicolson, J. T. Obituary notice of. By E. R. P. xliii.

Note on some iiroducls isolated from Soot. By E. Riieclu and E. Ilibbert.

M. 2. P. vi.
Note on t!ie Intrinsic P'ield of a Magnet. By J. R. Ashvvorth. M. Ii.

P. xxviii.

Oljituary notices. — P. I''. Ascher.son, P. xxxii. Lord Avebury, P. xxxiii.

Sir William H. l->aiiey. P. xxxv. W. L. Behiens, p. xxxvii. II.

Brogden, 1'. xxxviii. R. Cotton, P. xxxix. \\. II. Johnsim, P. xl.

Sir John Murray, P. xl. J. T. Nicolson, P. xliii. \V. II. Sut-

cliffe, P. xlvi. T. Thorp, P. xlvii.
Observations on the Homopterous Insect PhroDiiiia [/■7a/a) margiiiclla

Oliv. in the Himalayas. By A. D. Imms. '\\. 4. P. xvi.
Officers, Election of. P. xxvi.
Old Red Sandstone Fish, Exhibition of a Series of. By (J. Ilickling. P. iv.

Peacock butterfly. Exhibition of. By T. A. Coward. P. xvi.
Photographic Action of a-rays, The. By H. P. Walmsley and W. Makower.

P. xxvii.
Phroiiinia {F/afa) iuars,iueUa Oliv. in the Himalayas. By A. I). Imms.

M. 4. P. xvi.
Piltdown skull, Controversies. By G. Elliot Smith. ]'. vn'.

, Photographs of. By G. Elliot Smith. P. xv.

Plane trees and pulmonary troubles. By C. L. Barnes. P. xxvii.
Poisonous plants, Some remarks upon. By F. Nicholson. P. v.
Prayer roll. Exhibition of. By C. L. Barnes. P. v.
Preliminary Note on the Structure of Coal. liy W. C. Grummitt and

G. Hickling. P. xxv.

Quantitative Absorption Spectra. Part I. By F. R. Lankshear. M. 15.
P. xxviii.

Rostherne Mere, See F^runal Survey of.

Rutherford, Sir E. Obituary notice of. f. T. Nicolson. P. xliii.

The Structure of the Atom. P. x.

XU INDEX.

Salt, B'xhibition of a fused mass of. By G. P. X'arley. 1'. v.

Sapliiringlass, Exliibilion of. By K. Loewenft-ld. V. xiii.

Smith, G. Elliot. The Controversies concerning l!ie Interpretation and

Meaning of the Remains of the Dawn -Man found near Pilulown.

P. vii.

Photographs of the Pilldown skull. P. xv.

Some notes on the measurement of air velocities, pressures and volumes.

By W. Cramp. M. 7. P. xv.
Specification of Stress. By R. F. Gwyther. Part III., M. 5. P. xvii.

Part IV,, M. 12. P. xxiii. Part V., P. xxvii.
Stewart, D. A. Changes in the branchial lamellae of /./;'vVr oieanua. after

prolonged immersion in fresh and salt water. M. i. P. iv.
Stress, Specification of. By R. V . Gwyther. Part III., M. 5. P. xvii.

Part IV., M 12. P. xxiii., P. V., P. xxvii.
Stromeyer, C. E. Note on anagrams. P. xxi.
Structure of the Atom, The. By Sir E. Rutherford. P. x.
Studies in Solar Rotation. By J. B. Ilubrecht. P. xix.
Sutcliffe, W. II. Reference to the death of. P. v.

Obituary notice of. By F. E. W. P. xlvi.

Tatlersall, W. M. and Coward, T. A. Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.
Parti. Introduction and Methods. M.S. P. xxiv.

Taylor, R. L. The Action of Bleaching Agents on various Natural Colour-
ing Matters. P. xiii.

Thorp, T. Expetiment on the pressure required to obtain a film of mercury.
P. xvii.

Obituary notice of. P>y VV. II. T. 1'. xlvii.

Todd, W. II. Olutuary notice of T. Thorp. J\ xlvii.

Vanessa io, Exhibition of. By T. A. Coward. P. xvi.
Varley, G. I'. Exhibition of a fused mass of salt. P. v.

Walmsley, II. P. and ."Makower, W. The Photographic Action of a-rays.

P. xxvii.
Weiss, F. E. Juvenile Flowering in Eucalyptus globulus. M. 14. P. iii.

Obituary notice of W. H. Sutcliffe. P. xlvi.

Reference to the death of Sir W. II. Bailey. P. x.

Wheat-Ears, Remarks on. By Y. Nicholson. P. iii.

Willow Titmouse in Lanca.shire and Cheshire, The. By T. A. Coward.
M. ;. P. xvi.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 13).

INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

The Old Manchester Natural History Society and
its Museum,

By Th£ President,
Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.

October yth, igij.

The Manchester Natural History Society existed
from 1 82 1 to 1S68. Throughout its career its principal
work was the formation and maintenance of a natural
history museum in Manchester.

The formation of the Society was suggested primarily
as a means of keeping intact the fine private collection of
birds, insects and minerals got together by John Leigh
Philips, sold at his sale in 181 5, and in 1821 possessed by
Thomas Henry Robinson. The Society was formed on
30th June, 1821. At the beginning its members, or pro-
prietors as they were called, subscribed £10 as an entrance
fee, and paid an annual subscription of a guinea. Minor
changes were made from time to time in these conditions,
and at one period the annual subscription was two guineas,
and at another a guinea and a half For only a few years
was the annual income of the Society equal to its necessary
expenditure, and on several occasions proposals were made
for union with other Manchester societies: in 1822 with
the Literary and Philosophical Society, and in 1824 and
again in 1826 with the Royal Institution. In 1856 the
question of selling the property was considered, and in
1865 the Museum was offered to the Manchester Cor-
poration. It was refused, the sapient Corporation not
agreeing with the Society's condition that the Committee
of Management should include some persons interested in

December 2/id, 1913-

2 Nicholson, Inaugural Address.

science as well as representatives of the Corporation.
What the Manchester Corporation refused was sought by
the Salford Corporation shortly afterwards, but there
were some technical difficulties in the way.

In 1866 began the negotiations which resulted in the
Museum being transferred to the Owens College. At that
time the Society had the choice of several schemes — (i) to
sell part of the propert)' and collections, move into smaller
rooms, and perhaps join the Literary and Philosophical
Society ; (2) to accept the offer made by the Salford
Corporation to take the Museum on the same terms as
were refused by the Manchester Corporation ; (3) to
divide the collection amongst neighbouring museums and
societies ; (4) to hand the Museum and funds over to the
Owens College. The last plan was adopted. The details
finally settled were that the property of the Society should
be conveyed to the Owens College in trust, charged with
the payment of the liabilities of the Society, i^5, 000 for the
Building Fund of the College, £1,500 to the Literary and
Philosophical Society for the promotion of the study of
natural history in Manchester, and the balance was to be
an endowment for the Museum. There were unavailing
protests by E. W. Binney and others against the transfer.

The Museum was first housed in rooms in St. Ann's
Place from 1821 to 1824, when it was removed to rooms
in King Street, in a building where the Reform Club now
stands. In 1835 it was transferred to a more permanent
home, a building erected for the purpose on laud in Peter
Street and Mount Street, where the Y.M.C.A. now stands.
In this building, which was enlarged in 1850, it remained
until the Society's dissolution. The Museum was opened
there on May i8th, 1835.

In its early days the Museum was a private institution
for the use of its proprietors, who were allowed to give a

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 13). 3

written invitation to their friends to inspect the treasures.
In 1826 a general invitation to visit the Museum was
given to the officers of the troops stationed in Manchester.
In 1837 the Governors declined by a majority of two
to one to adopt rules which would have allowed the general
public to be admitted to the Museum on payment of one
shilling, and gratuitously on certain occasions. In the same
year Dr. J. E. Gray, of the British Museum, commented
unfavourably on the exclusiveness of the proprietors of
the Manchester Museum, which stood alone among pro-
vincial museums in entirely excluding non-members.

Specimens were not lent out, a reasonable precaution
which was taken even when men of the scientific eminence
of Professor Phillips and Dr. Hibbert Ware asked for
loans for scientific purposes, but drawings of specimens
were allowed to be made for Swainson's " Encyclopedia
of Natural History."

In 1838 the Society relaxed its exclusiveness by ad-
mitting non-subscribers to the Museum on payment of
one shilling each, schools on payment of threepence for
each scholar, and members of the working classes on
payment of sixpence each.

In 1^40, on the occasion of Queen Victoria's marriage,
some gentlemen paid £\o in order that the Museum
might be opened free from 1 1 to 4. Asa mark of appre-
ciation for their management of the crowd on the same
auspicious occasion the Chief of Police and his men, in
bands of twenty, were given free admission. The annual
income of the Society, including admission fees, was, in

1831-2, £6io\ 1832-3, ^594; 1833-4, £62\; 1834-5,
^492 ; 1835-6, £<^iA ; 1836-7, i^928 ; 1837-8, £1,1-^2 ;

1838 (7 months), ^^821 ; 1838-9, ;^996 ; 1839-40, ;^847 ;

1 840- 1, ^^784. On this income there was a charge for
interest on the loans out of which the Museum had been

4 Nicholson, Inaugural Address.

built, and the cost of the curator's salary and of general
maintenance had to be met.

The subscriptions showed a general tendenc}'to shrink,
and as old members died or resigned there was difficulty in
replacing them. While this process was going on the use
of the Museum by the general public was increasing. In
1863, when the public were admitted at one shilling and
working people at threepence, and the price of tickets on
Saturday was only twopence, the income from casual
visitors was £12% lis. id., while the subscription income
of £'^60 1 8s. 9d. was much less than half of the subscrip-
tion income in the Society's palmy days.

Ill 1853, when a request for the free admission of the
Owens College men was made to the Council, they were
offered non-transferable tickets at five shillings per annum,
an offer which was accepted.

The curators of the Museum were all men of dis-
tinction. The first curator was W. C. Williamson, appointed
in 1835, shortly after the removal to Peter Street. Mr.
Williamson was, of course, a very young man at this time.
In later years he attained great distinction as a scientific
man, and there is a long and appreciative notice of him
in the " Dictionary of National Biography."

The next curator, appointed in 1839, was Captain
Thomas Brown, a good all-round naturalist for those days,
with a specialist's knowledge of conchology, fossil and
recent. On conchology he produced several important
works. He wrote a number of popular books on natural
history ; he was author of a " Taxidermist's Manual " which
passed through twenty-one editions, and he edited one of
the better editions of White's " Selborne." He was born at
Perth in 1785, and owed his title of Captain to the position
he had held in the Forfar and Kincardine Militia. His
regiment was at one time stationed in Manchester, a fact

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. ( 1 9 1 3 ) . 5

which perhaps accounts for his subsequent connection
with the town. When his regiment was disbanded he
invested his money in a flax mill, which was burnt down,
uninsured. Afterwards he made a living as a scientific
author until he became curator at Manchester.

Captain Brown was a man well qualified for the posi-
tion of curator, but it is probable that there was too much
work in the Natural History Museum for one man to do
satisfactorily. Anyhow, the condition of the Museum and
specimens was far from good towards the end of Captain
Brown's time.

Captain Brown died on 8th October, 1862, and was
succeeded by Thomas Alcock, M.D., who had been a
member of the Council of the Natural History Society.

Dr. Alcock was an amateur rather than a professional
curator. He had qualified as a surgeon in 1848, and in
1857 graduated M.D. at St. Andrews, but he was only in
practice for a few years. Natural history was his hobby,
and he had a fine private museum at Ashton-on-Mersey
to which students were always welcomed. His work as
curator of the Natural History Museum must have been
hampered throughout by lack of funds, for the Society
was anything but prosperous in his time, but such work
as involved more labour for himself than cost to the
Society he did, and did well. The Natural History Club,
which consisted of enthusiastic amateur helpers of the
Museum, owed its formation to Mr. R. D. Darbishire
and Dr. Alcock. Dr. Alcock continued to be curator until
the Museum's dissolution, and he died at Evesham, 14th
July, 1891.

Dr. Boyd Dawkins, to whom, with Mr. Darbishire, the
Manchester Museum owes so much of its excellence, was
appointed curator in j 870.

Almost of equal importance with the curator was the

6 Nicholson, Inaugural Address.

taxidermist, Timothy Harrop. He had been a weaver
and was self-taught as a taxidermist. In office before the
appointment of the first curator, Harrop seems to have
been responsible for the manner in which the birds were
displayed. The arrangement, which differed from that in
every other museum of the time, and has not been followed
by an}' other since, was a grouping of the specimens on
artificial trees, each tree or separate branch being occupied
by the species of one genus ; each bird had a label, with
its generic and specific name, and its English name, with
the country which it inhabits. At the bottom of each tree
or branch the generic name was attached, so that all birds
of one genus could be traced. The birds could be dis-
played in more spirited attitudes than when placed on
stands, and the branches had a picturesque effect. Other
advantages of the method were the great economy of
space, and the ease with which a specimen of a species
hitherto unrepresented could be inserted in its proper
place in the classification. The boughs were of wire,
which could be attached to the stem wherever a new
branch was required. Timothy tiarrop was assisted and
succeeded by his son, and between them they did all the
taxidermy required by the Museum. Unfortunately their
work was not proof against neglect, and little of it now
remains. On one occasion the Council of the Museum
had to object to Timothy Harrop's economical methods,
for they found that he did not give his specimen two
eyes if the bird was intended to have one eye to the wall.
The character of the Museum was largely influenced
by the collections purchased in the early days before the
cost of maintaining a museum prevented the purchase of
specimens. Thus the Museum was always strong in its
collection of birds, which in 1839 was considered to be
little, if any, inferior to that in the British Museum.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (191 3). 7

John Leigh Philips's collection, with which the Museum
started, contained many specimens, and one of the early
purchases was a collection of birds belonging to Mr.
Tomlinson, surgeon (1821). In 1822 Mr. Joseph Strutt,
of Derby, sold his collection of minerals to the Society.
In 1825 Robert and William Garnett presented the
Egj'ptian mummy which for long was one of the most
interesting features of the Museum, and Jesse Watts
Russell presented a block of basalt from the Giant's
Causewa}'. In the same year ^^650 was paid for Swain-
son's collection of shells and the cabinets containing it.

In 1826 the Rev. W. Roby presented various specimens,
and in 1827 Robert Moffat and other missionaries made
gifts.

In 1826 Lewin and Agiiew's shells were purchased
and Mr. Lingard presented fossils and minerals.

In 1828 a set of Bowland fossils was purchased. Dr.
Henry presented organic remains and bones from Kirk-
dale Cave in Yorkshire, and Mr. Hardman presented a
piece of Pompey's Pillar.

In 1829 a Burmese deity from Rangoon, a series of
fossils from the Dudley limestone, and 31 Brazilian birds
were presented.

In 1830 a model of a Buddhist temple from Ceylon
was presented.

In 1831 Thomas Newton's collection of British birds
was presented by his brother. Edmund Howarth pre-
sented birds from India. Two hundred specimens of
volcanic productions from Mount Vesuvius, a large col-
lection of foreign coleoptera, and some Furness minerals
were also presented.

In 1832 the collection of shells was further improved
by a purchase from Mr. Gumming. In 1833 Mr. Gilden's

8 Nicholson, Inaugural Address.

collection of Crustacea was purchased, and in 1835 Lady
Parry presented a collection of sponges.

In 1835 the new Museum was opened, and a paid
curator was appointed, and henceforward few additions of
importance were purchased for the collection, the income
being absorbed by current expenses and the preparation
for display of the large collections already acquired.

In 1837 Richard Cobden made a handsome present of
birds. In 1842 a number of coins were presented, and a
valuable donation of reptiles by Thomas Norris rendered
that section "tolerably complete."

In 1847 some fossils from the Yorkshire shale were
purchased from Mr. Gibson. In 1848 Thomas Bellot
presented some Chinese coins. In the same year the
Council of University College, London, presented a Runic
cross which had been bequeathed to it by Dr. Holme, of
Manchester, and Dr. Holme's executors presented a
Roman altar. The Runic cross was part of one of the
crosses belonging to Lancaster Parish Church, and an effort
was made to complete it by begging the remaining
fragments from the Vicar of Lancaster.

In 185 1 began a distribution of duplicates. In that
year the Trustees of the Owens College asked for the gift of
one specimen of each genus in Natural History of which
there were duplicates, to illustrate the lectures of the Pro-
fessor of Natural History. The Council willingly complied
with the request, and Captain Brown was directed to select
from the duplicates such zoological specimens as were not
required for the collection, and after reserving a single
specimen in each genus for the use of the Professor of
Natural History in the Owens College, to forward a single
specimen of each species which remained for the use of
the Salford Museum.

In 1851 the Museum was enriched by the removal to

Manchester Me men rs, Vol. Iviii. {igi'^^). g

it of the geological collection belonging to the Manchester
Geological Society. The geological specimens previously
in the Museum were amalgamated with the Geological
Society's collection, and the section constituted the best
geological museum in the provinces. There was from
time to time much friction between the Natural History
Society and the Geological Society as to the custody of,
and responsibility for, the united collection, and at one
meeting of the Council of the Natural History Society a
resolution was passed asking the Geological Society to
appoint another representative on the Joint Committee
because of the conduct of their representative. This was
E. VV. Binney, F.R.S., who, at the time of his death, was
President of the Literary and Philosophical Society.
Binney was a distinguished man, and really had at heart
the interests of the two societies, but an autocratic temper
and a great want of tact made him for several years a
storm centre in Manchester scientific circles.

In 1854 Mr. H. E. B. Frere, afterwards well known as
Sir Bartle Frere, presented 98 birds from Scinde, and Sir
Edward Belcher, the explorer, presented some birds col-
lected in the Arctic regions. Important accessions either
by donation or purchase were afterwards few, though each
year the reports record some donations of single speci-
mens and small collections.

When Dr. Alcock became curator popular lectures
were instituted in connection with the Museum, and were
illustrated with specimens from the Museum. About the
same time the Council had a pious resolution to devote
more attention to botany, a section which had hitherto been
neglected, excepting for the work in this direction of
Thomas Coward, one of the honorary curators. Never-
theless the botanical section was never good.

No complete catalogue of the Museum was ever issued,

10 Nicholson, Inaugural Address.

and the manuscript lists were very brief, but Dr. Thomas
Ashton prepared a useful popular guide entitled "Visits to
the Museum of the Manchester Natural History Society,"
printed in 1856, and several times reissued.

In 1849 a valuation of the collection was made, and I
possess a copy of it in Captain Brown's handwriting.
The furniture and books were valued at ;^686 iis. lod.,
the showcases at £i,6jo 4s. od., and the collection at
^^5,042 IIS. id., the total value, excluding the buildings
being ^7,399 6s. iid. Another valuation was made in
1 861, and the value of the collection had increased only
by i^i,228 13s. lod., the Geological Society's collection
being responsible for ^600 of this increase.

On the 13th November, 1867, a special meeting of
Governors agreed to the dissolution of the Society as from
the date of the next annual meeting, 29th January, i868>
and on the 8th January Commissioners were appointed
to wind up affairs and to transfer the property to the
Owens College on the terms already mentioned.

The Museum was closed as a public institution in
1868, but the collections, or portions of them, were still
available for the use of students from that date to i890>
when the present Museum was opened. Of the specimens
some regarded as useless were sold by auction, a few were
given to other museums, and the local antiquities were
transferred to the British Museum. The neglect, due
primarily to the impecuniosity of the Societ}^ in its later
years, had resulted in many of the specimens of birds and
mammals becoming moth-eaten and of insects becoming
faded. A great number of the specimens had thus to be
discarded. The rarer specimens were retained and by
judicious treatment made suitable for exhibition, and are
now in the Museum. But in one way and another the
collection had become so reduced that the University

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (191 3). 11

authorities had to make almost a fresh start in some
sections.

It must be acknowledged that as trustees the Univer-
sity have more than carried out their trust. Tlie work
of the Natural History Society is being carried on much
more efficiently than it was, and the necessary cost is
much more than the Society could have afforded, even in
its most prosperous days. The endowment fund provided
for the sale of the Society's property has been augmented
by the gift of ^10,000 from the Whitworth Legatees, one
of whom was Mr. R. D. Darbishire, for long an active
member of the Natural History Society, and a grant of
;^400 made for several years by the Manchester Corpora-
tion has been increased to^^Soo.

The Manchester Museum is one of the finest museums
in the country, and it is the only really important museum
in South-East Lancashire. It is absolutely public, in the
sense that the public have daily and free access to it. Yet
the public, as represented by the City Council, contribute
towards its cost only ;j{^8oo per year. Other great cities
have built museums and maintain them out of the rates.
Manchester alone has left the provision and maintenance
of its Museum to a private society and a university. It is
a cheap arrangement for the city, but scarcely fair either
to the University or the Museum. Although it is only
recently that the Corporation grant has been increased,
it is not too soon to point out that the grant is still
inadequate. It is unworthy of the Corporation to spend
so little in maintaining one of the greatest educational
forces in the city.

For a student the old Museum had its value, and I
have spent many pleasant and profitable hours in it. The
general public were, it may be confessed, more interested
in a few curiosities which owed their presence in the

12 Nicholson, Inaugural Address.

Museum to other circumstances than their value as speci-
mens of Natural History.

One of the specimens which in a Natural History
Museum would be classed with mammalia was the mummy
of Miss Beswick. She was an i8th century lady with
fear of being buried alive. With this fear in her mind she
left, so it is said, her body and her money to her medical
man, Mr. Charles White, with the condition that she was
to kept above ground for a century. Mr. White mummi-
fied her, and eventually tiie mummy was placed in the
Museum. If Miss Beswick had known that her corpse
would be gazed at by Manchester crowds in a Natural
History Museum she would, I fancy^ have preferred the
risk of being buried alive to the ungenteel fate of being
a specimen in a museum.

At the dissolution of the Museum it was decided that
she should be buried, and as the authorities of the ceme-
tery could not bury her without a certificate of her death,
signed by a medical man, it was necessary to appeal to
the Secretary of State for an order for her burial, which
took place in the Harpurhey Cemetery on 22nd July, 1868.

Another mammal, Napoleon's Arab-charger, was
appropriately presented to the French Emperor Napoleon
ni. This quaint relic of the First Empire was placed in
a cellar at the Louvre and remained unpacked for 36 years !
The authorities found it in 1904, and it is now in the Army
Museum at the Invalides in Paris. There has been some
doubt as to whether this horse was " Vizier " or " Marengo,"
both famous chargers of the great Emperor. When, in
1842, it was presented to the Museum it was described
merely as " Napoleon Bonaparte's cream-coloured Ara-
bian charger," but as in the 1849 valuation (when it was
valued at £yS) and in Dr. Ashton's " Visits to the
Museum " it is called " Vizier," there can be no doubt as

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (191 3). 13

to the name of the animal. Another popular curiosity in
the Museum was the venerable head of "Old Billy," a
horse belonging to the " Mersey and Irwell Navigation
Company " which attained the age of 62 years.

The Natural History Society does not seem to have
had any meetings except business meetings, and this
probably suggested the formation of the Natural History
Club. The preliminary meeting of the Club was held on
1 2th November, 1861, when Messrs. Darbishire, Watson,
Sidebotham, Coward, Latham, Harrison, Brown and Ken-
derdine associated themselves as the Natural History
Club for the pursuit and cultivation of natural history.
They were all members of the Natural History Society,
all members of which were eligible for election as micmbers
of the Club ; and associates of the Club, not exceeding
ten in number, might be elected from outside the Society.
Mr. Darbishire was the President, Mr. Watson, Treasurer,
and Dr. Alcock, Secretary, and all retained office through-
out the existence of the Club. It was never a large Club,
but all its members were keenly interested in natural
history. By permission of the Society the Club undertook
the curatorship of the British Room in the Museum, and
the reports on the different sections show that the
Club did a much-needed work in the Museum. On 12th
May, 1862, Mr. Darbishire contributed a paper of sugges-
tions in furtherance of the curatorship of the British Room.
The objects of the suggestions were, the more effective
display of the specimens already in the Museum and the
most judicious increase of the collection. From Mr. Dar-
bishire's suggestions it appears that the British Section of
the Museum was " far from perfect and often out of order,"
and he proposed that each of the different departments
should be under the superintendence of a member of the
Club having special knowledge of that department. He

14 Nicholson, Inaugural Address.

concluded his suggestions with an appeal to collectors to
give of their best to the Museum, on the ground that
unique specimens belong of right to the public. The Club
accepted Mr. Darbishire's suggestions as the basis of its
work. The Society granted £\o to the Club for expenses
in the arrangement of the British Room. The various
superintendents reported on the collection in 1862. In
Crustacea Dr. Alcock found that "in their present state,
they cannot be called a collection. Many of the specimens
are imperfect, some are unnamed, and no kind of arrange-
ment of them has been adopted," and in mammalia Mr.
Darbishire noticed " the singular absence of excellence
throughout. The specimens, with very i&w exceptions, are
old and very dirty, some are atrociously stuffed," and he
recommended the removal or destruction of many of the
specimens. Dr. Alcock reported that the collection of
British echinodermata was very good, though not complete.
Mr. Sidebotham reported on the lepidoptera, that the
specimens in the showcases were bleached and required
renewal, while those in the cabinets were in fair condition
and of considerable value.

I should like to mention here that on June ist, 1863,
I was proposed for membership of the Club, being already
a member of the Society, by Mr. Geoige E. Hunt and
Mr. Thomas Coward, and was elected on June 30th,
1863.

In 1864 Dr. Alcock reported on the British mammalia,
and showed that in the two years that had elapsed since
Mr. Darbishire's report on the same class some improve-
ments had been made, but that the collection still con-
tained some poor specimens, though many of the old
specimens had been discarded. It is obvious, however,
that the Club had taken on more work in the Museum
than it could manage, and its meetings were not well

Manchester ATemoirs, Vol. Iviii. {igi-i,). 15

attended. In August, 1864, proposals were made for
converting the Club into a section of this Society, and
eventually it joined the Microscopical Section (formed in
1858), which became the Microscopical and Natural
History Section. The Natural History Club held its last
meeting on October 31st, 1864, and on November 21st,
1864, eight of the Club, Messrs. Hugh Harrison, G. E.
Hunt, Frederick Kenderdine, B. B. Labrey, J. Linton,
John Hunt, Francis Nicholson, and J. E. Whalley, were
elected associates of the Microscopical Section of the
Literary and Philosophical Society. It was for the con-
tinuance of the work of this Club that the sum of iJ"i,50o
was allotted to the Literary and Philosophical Society
when the Natural History Society was dissolved.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (191 3), No. 1.

I. Changes in the branchial lamellae of Ligia oceanica,
after prolonged immersion in fresh and salt water.

By Miss Dorothy A. Stewart, B.Sc.

(Covimunicated by Professor Sydney J. Hickson, D.Sc, F.R.S.)
(Received and read October 21st, igi^. )

The series of experiments described below were
carried out during the course of last winter in the
Zoological Laboratories of Manchester University, the
material used being numerous specimens oi Ligia oceatiica
which I was enabled to obtain from Swanage through
the kindness of Professor S. J. Hickson, F.R.S.

The group Isopoda, of the Crustacea, can be roughly
divided into species which are (i) exclusively terrestial,
such as the woodlice, (2) those which are exclusively
fresh-water, such as the Asellidae, and (3) those which are
exclusively marine, such as the Idoteidae, etc. Among
these forms Ligia occupies a somewhat interesting posi-
tion, for although it is invariably found in the neighbour-
hood of the sea-shore, it is of amphibious habits, and
there is a strong probability that it might, in course of
time, if external conditions were altered, become adapted
to fresh water or a purely terrestial life.

Ligia is commonly found around the sea-coast, fre-
quenting rock-pools, or, more usually, crawling over the
stones some distance above high-water mark.

It appears to prefer a terrestial rather than an aquatic
habitat, but some difference of opinion seems to exist as
to the exact position of its natural surroundings.

Deceinbcr jist, igij.

2 Stewart, Branchial Lamellae of Ligia oceanica.

Bate and Westwood (i) quote it as occurring in the
crevices of rocks, just above high-water mark, and observe
that " it is seldom found under water."

Delage (2) is of the opinion that "although they Hve
an exclusively terrestial life, and cannot stay long in
water without being asphyxiated, Ligias are marine
animals, in the sense that the immediate neighbourhood
of sea-water is as indispensable to them as the direct
contact of it is harmful."

Webb and Sillum (5) remark that Ligia occurs on
the sea-coast " at low tide, beneath stones." It would
appear from this that the usual habitat of Ligia is the
littoral zone of the shore, somewhere in the region of
high-water mark, but it is worthy of note that the Isopod
is occasionally found at a considerable distance from the
sea-shore. (Hewitt (3) in St. Kilda found a number of
specimens at a considerable height above the sea-level
and quite out of reach of the spray.)

The fact that one often finds Ligia in the rock-pools,
or crawling amongst the Ficcus which covers the shore
between tide-marks, leads one to speculate whether, if
■overtaken by the tide, the sea-louse could withstand
several hours of total immersion in water.

The gills of all Isopods have approximately the same
structure ; it follows, therefore, that adaptation to a dif-
ferent habit is essentially an adaptation of the gills to
different osmotic pressures, and it was with a view to
investigating the effects of altered surroundings upon the
gill structure that the following experiments were under-
taken.

It may be remarked here that the results obtained
are inadequate as yet to form a basis for any definite
statement ; numerous points remain to be cleared up,
and a further study of the structure of the gills in relation

Manchester Memoirs, Vol /vizi (igi^), No. t. 3

to the blood-system would be indispensable before any
conclusions can be arrived at.

T/ie luunersion of Ligia in Fresh and Salt Water.

The first experiments were carried out upon a number
of specimens which were obtained from Swanage early in
November ; these were large forms, and in a very healthy
condition. Of these, three were taken and placed in a
vessel containing fresh pond -water, in such a way that
they were continually immersed, and were closely observed
for a time ; simultaneously, a second batch was placed in
a vessel of sea-water.

The specimens in fresh water swam about rapidly at
first, and exhibited signs of considerable activity ; later,
they settled down and moved about on the bottom of the
vessel with their usual characteristic motion, but otherwise
did not seem to be in any way affected by their changed
surroundings.

The following morning, after immersion for 24 hours,
one was dead, but the other two still survived and were
apparently quite normal ; on the next day, however, they
became very sluggish, sank into a dormant condition and
eventually died.

On examination of the gills it was found that in all
three cases the endopodites, or inner lamellae of all but the
first pair, were considerably swollen and distorted. The
expodites, however, were unaffected.

Of the three specimens in sea-water, all appeared
normal and unaffected by the change during the first day,
but at ten o'clock the next morning they were found to
be dead.

A second batch, from the same collection, was again
placed in sea-water, but these also succumbed after an
immersion of eight hours This would seem to indicate

4 Stewart, Branchial Lamellae of Ligia oceanica.

that the effect of sea-water is more harmful than that of
fresh, but as the quality of sea-water used in this experi-
ment was very unsatisfactory, the contradictory result in
this case may, I think, be fairly disregarded.

On examination of the gills of the latter specimens,
they exhibited no such radical change as in the experiment
with fresh water — death in the second case being probably
due to the unhealthy composition of the water, rather
than to asphyxiation from prolonged immersion.

The remainder of the Ligias, which were kept among
a quantity of moist Fuais, in a tin receptacle, lived quite
healthily for ten days.

The second collection of specimens was received from
Swanage on Saturday, December 7th, and these again
were large forms, in excellent condition, many being egg-
bearing females ; of these, four were taken and placed in
fresh water, and four more were placed in a vessel of clean,
fresh sea water.

On the following Monday, of the forms in fresh water,
two were found to be already dead, and the other two
were in a dying condition ; in every case the gill lamellae
were considerably distorted and swollen.

The Ligias in sea water, when observed after 24 hours'
immersion, were all quite healthy, and displayed consider-
able activity ; they were kept in the same vessel and
lived for nine days, the water being kept continually
changed, and death eventually seemed due to insufficient
food rather than to the external conditions.

On a superficial examination the gills did not exhibit
any abnormal features.

Several more Ligias from the same batch were also
placed in a second vessel of sea-water, and lived for six
days, without appearing to be in any way affected by the
immersion.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. {\g\^^. No. \. 5

In every case the gills were removed immediately
after death and placed in a fixing solution of the following
composition : —

90 parts of 70% alcohol.
7 „ 5% formalin.

3 „ glacial acetic acid.

They were left to harden for two or three days and
then embedded, and cut into sections, which were ulti-
mately stained with haematoxylin or brazilin.

Microscopical examination of the Gills.

The gills of Ligia, as in all Isopoda, are formed by
the modification of the abdominal appendages, and appear
as five pairs of white leaf-like structures upon the ventral
surface of the body.

Each gill consists of a stout stalk, or peduncle, which
bears two broad, leaf-like lamellae, the endopodite and
exopodite. (P/. /., Fig^ i.)

They are very similar in external appearance, although
the exopodite is slightly stouter and more opaque than
the endopodite ; in a transverse section, however, we see
that there is a considerable structural difference.

The outer lamella {PI. /., Fig. 3.), which is slightly
larger than the itmer, consists of loose cellular tissue, with
nurnerous small nuclei, which stain deeply ; through this
tissue runs a well-defined and elaborate system of blood
vessels, and the whole structure is surrounded by a wide
hypodermal layer, and bounded by a thin cuticle.

The inner lamella (/V. /., Fig. 2.), on the contrary,
contains no such definite system of blood vessels, but
consists chiefly of a broad, cytoplasmic la}'er of tissue,
containing numerous large nuclei, and seeming to be of a

6 Stewart, Branchial Lamellae of Ligia oceanica.

plasmodial nature, as no definite cell-structure could be
made out in any of the sections.

This tissue surrounds a central lumen, which appears
filled with very loose, colourless, and faintly defined cellu-
lar tissue ; the whole structure, as in the exopodite, is
bounded by a definite cuticle.

In every case the outer lamella extends considerably
below the inner one.

The effect of the changed environment produces very
diverse effects upon the gill structure.

Upon examination of a transverse section of the gills
of specimens from the first collection, which had been
immersed in sea-water, no definite change was observed,
but in the case of Ligias from the second collection a
gradual change was seen to have taken place, the endo-
podite being distinctly affected, while the exopodite
remained more or less unaltered.

In a transverse section of the gill of a specimen kept
for four days in sea-water, it was seen that the soft
spongy tissue of the endopodite had become stringy or
striated, and numerous fine strands or threads of proto-
plasm were stretched across the lumen of the lamella.
{PI. /., Fig 4.)

In the case of a specimen which had survived for a
week in sea-water, it was seen that the protoplasm of the
endopodite had become somewhat swollen and diffuse ;
the obliteration of the lumen had been carried further, by
the spreading out of fine protoplasmic strands.

In another section of the gill of the same specimen
(/*/. 7/., Figs. I. and 2.), the cytoplasm was seen to be very
diffuse and swollen, only retaining its original form around
the scattered nuclei ; the lumen had completely dis-
appeared in places, and was only represented by one or
two disconnected spaces, crossed by the thread-like fibres.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (191 3), No. 1. 7

In this latter section, the exopodite also seemed to
have lost some of its original shape, and was very com-
pressed and much thinner, but more compact ; no other
change in the internal structure could be made out, and it
is possible that the attenuated appearance may be due to
the partial collapse or shrinkage of some of the larger
blood-vessels.

It will thus be seen that the effect of sea-water on the
gills is a very gradual one and does not lead to any
sudden change of shape.

In the case of the Ligias which were immersed in
fresh water, the distortion of the gill took place with con-
siderable rapidity, being noticeable in every case after the
animal had been submerged for about eight hours.

On examination of a T.S. of these gills {PL II.,
Figs. 3. and 4.), it was observed that whilst the exopodite
remained unchanged, the endopoditc had become very
swollen — the lumen had practically disappeared, whilst
the cytoplasm appeared very diffuse.

It is curious, however, that in this case the distortion
of the gill lamella was confined only to one side ; owing
to this, the lumen appeared squeezed over to a lateral
position, and thus was almost obliterated.

The general effect would seem to be somewhat
similar to what was noticed in the forms submitted to the
action of sea-water, but in the latter case the result was
obtained in a much shorter time, the effect appeared to
be greater, and the distortion was always confined to the
inner border of the lamella. There was no evidence of
any nuclear change in any gill which was examined ; the
altered form would seem to be due solely to the effects of
the changed pressure acting upon the gill-surface, and
causing more or less of a mechanical disturbance in the
cytoplasmic portion of the gill tissue.

8 Stewart, Branchial Lamellae of Ligia oceanica.

It is interesting to notice that Delage (2) in his
description of the circulation of the blood of Ligia, states
that the blood arrives from the venous cavities of the
body into the internal horde)' of the gill and returns round
the external border to the pericardium, after traversing a
system of lacunae.

It follows therefore that the external pressure on the
gill surface would be greatest at the point where oxygen
is being drawn into the impure blood : the fact that dis-
tortion of the gill lamella, after immersion in fresh water,
invariably takes place on the internal border would seem
to lend support to this view.

In the case of forms exposed to sea-water, there is no
such sudden change of osmotic pressure acting on the
most active point of the gill-surface, because the moisture
already contained in the gill-cavities is probably of a
saline composition ; the gradual change of shape, there-
fore, which occurs at every point on the outer surface, is
due more to the long-continued effect of the altered
pressure acting evenly on the gill-surface.

These observations seem to point to the following
conclusions : —

I. The internal lamella of the gill is more directly
concerned with respiratory functions than the
external lamella, because it is at once affected by
any changes in external conditions ; the fact that
the exopodite is not altered, even by a sudden
change, would appear to indicate that its res-
piratory functions, if they exist, are very slight.

II. Continuous contact with water for any period of
time causes a corresponding change in the mode
of breathing, and hence in the gill structure,
which ultimately leads to death.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (191 3), No. \. 9

III. Fresh water acts far more rapidly than sea-water,
and this would seem to indicate that Ligia,
although it spends most time in terrestial sur-
roundings, possesses a considerable adaptability in
regard to immersion in sea-water, which is pro-
bably indispensable in an animal whose habitat
so closely adjoins the sea.

LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED.

(1) Bate & Westvvood (1863-68). "A History of the British

Sessile-Eyed Custacea."

(2) I)KLAt;E (1881). "Contribution a Tetude de I'appareil

circulation des Crustaces Edriopthalmes marins." {Arch.
Zoo/, exper., T. IX., 1881.)

(3) Hewitt, C. G. (1907). "Ligia." Z. M. B. C. Memoir.

(4) Unwin, E. E. (1909). 'Respiration of Land Isopods."

{London Rep. of the Brit. Ass.)

(5) Webb & Sillum (1906). "British Woodlice."

lo Stewart, Branchial Lamellae of Ligia oceaiiica.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate L

Fig. I. — Transverse section of the third gill of Ligia oceanica
in the normal condition.
r« = endopodite, ^ = exopodite, <;= peduncle.

Fig, 2. — Enlarged portion of a T.S. endopodite.

a = cuticle, /' = nucleated hypodermal layer, t" = lumen.

Fig. 3. — Enlarged portion of a T.S. exopodite.

a = cuticle, ^ = cellular tissue of the lamella, r = blood-
vessel.

Fig. 4, — T.S. endopodite of the gill of a specimen kept for
four days in sea-water.

The soft tissue has become stringy, and numerous
strands of cytoplasm extend across the lumen.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LVITI. {No. 1).

Plate I.

Fig. I.

Fig. 2.

Fig- 3-

Fig 4.

12 Stewart, Bra?ichial Lamellae of Ligia oceanica.

Plate II.

Fig. I. — T.S. of the gill of a specimen kept for one week in
sea-water.

a = endopodite, ^ = exopodite.

Fig. 2. — T.S. endopodite of the same gill, magnified by Zeiss
objective \.

Fig. 3. — T.S. of the gill of a specimen kept for eight hours in
fresh water.

a = endopodite, ^ = exopodite, f= peduncle, x = point
at which the gill is first affected.

Fig. 4. — T.S. endopodite of same gill, magnified by Zeiss
objective \.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LVIII. {No. \). Plate II.

Fig. I.

Fi.Z- 2.

Pig- 3-

Fig. 4.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. {igi^), No.*i.

II. Note on some products isolated from Soot.

By Professor EDMUND Knecht, Ph.D.,

AND

Miss Eva Hibbert.

(Received and read November 4/h, igij.)

In a paper on some constituents of "Manchester
Soot " read before this Society in 1905 by one of us,
soot which had been collected from ordinary household
chimneys was extracted successively with water, dilute
sulphuric acid, caustic soda and benzene, and the extracts
were examined as far as circumstances would permit.
The sample under examination was shown to have the
following composition : —

Ammonia (as ammonium sulphate) ... 107 %

Mineral matter (ash)

Acid and phenolic constituents
Benzene extract (hydrocarbons)
Difference (carbon ?)

19-6%
109%

45-8%

loo-o %
Soot collected in London and in Prague was found to
contain much less extractive matter than soot collected
in Manchester.

The benzene extract was subjected to distillation
with a view to ascertain whether any definite organic
compounds could be isolated by this means, and it was
possible to show the presence, in the distillation products,
of a beautifully crystallised white hydrocarbon, which

December lyf/i, igij.

2 Knecht & HiBBERT, Products isolated from Soot.

was identified as the heptacosane C07H56 of Schwalb.
Although the distillation was done rapidly, some doubt
existed as to whether some of the products might have
been formed by pyrogenic action (technically known as
"cracking "), and for this reason we have now endeavoured
to isolate individual products without having recourse to
distillation at all, or at least only in one case, where it
•did not seem likely to exert a cracking effect. The work
proved to be very slow and difficult, and as we do not
consider the value of the results attainable to be com-
mensurate either from a theoretical or a technical point
of view with the time and material which it would be
necessary to employ for a more complete research, we
liave decided to discontinue our work in this direction.
We shall content ourselves, therefore, with recording here
the somewhat meagre results which we have obtained.

The soot employed in the new experiments was
household soot from the Warrington district. Mr. John
Allan, chemist to Messrs. J. Crosfield & Sons, kindly
undertook to extract 10 lbs. of this (very bulky) substance
in a small extractor in their technical laboratory. The
solvent employed in this very slow process was benzene,
which was specially rectified for the purpose. The
extract, after being freed from the solvent, amounted to
about 2 lbs., and represented a semi-solid, pitchy mass,
which softened on being heated, evolving a strong smell
of soot. This raw material is referred to below simply as
soot tar.

After having experimented on this soot tar with
a great variety of solvents, we were ultimately successful
in isolating a definite product from it by adopting the
following procedure : —

The substance was extracted with petroleum ether,
and after distilling off the solvent, the resulting yellow

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Iviii. (19 13), No. ?J. 3

oily liquid was treated with a large volume of hot alcohol.
On cooling the solution thus obtained, a crystalline
substance separated out, which on recrystallisation from
alcohol, or better still from methyl acetate, yielded white
crystals showing a constant melting point of 65 ^C.
Ultimate analyses gave the following results : —

I. II. Calc. for €271164-

C 85-52 ... 85-47 ••• 8571
H 14-37 — 14-41 ••• 1429

99-89 99'88 ioo"0O

The compound absorbs bromine.

From the composition, melting point and bromine
absorption, it is probable that this hydrocarbon is identical
with the cerotene isolated by Konig and Kiesow from
hay in 1873 {Ber. 6, p. 500). In order to satisfy ourselves
that this occurrence was not an isolated case, a sample of
soot from a different source was extracted directly with
petroleum ether, and the residue, after distilling off the
solvent, crystallised from alcohol as described. The same
compound was thus obtained.

Later, we found that the hydrocarbon can also be
obtained by extracting the soot tar with glacial acetic
acid, when about 90 % of the latter goes into solution.
The insoluble residue is dissolved in hot alcohol, and the
product which separates out on cooling is recrystallised
several times from ethyl acetate.

The solution of the soot tar in glacial acetic acid
referred to above) was diluted with water, when an oily
substance separated out, and this was taken up in ether.
The ethereal solution was first extracted with a 5 %
solution of caustic soda, and when thus freed from acid
and phenolic constituents it left on evaporation a dark
coloured semi-solid tar, which was distilled in vacuo.

4 Knecht & HiBBERT, Products isolated from Soot.

The greater portion of the distillate came over at a con-
stant temperature of 300°C., and formed a yellow oil
which was further purified by redistillation. The ultimate
analyses yielded the following figures : —

I. II. Calc. forCisHieO.

C 8479 ... 8470 ... 84-90
H 770 ... 7-64 ... 7-55

The substance had a slight but pleasant odour and
was sparingly soluble in benzene and in alcohol, but more
soluble in ether and in chloroform. Its solution in
chloroform is dextrorotatory (aD = 8°). The fact that it
must contain oxygen and at the same time cannot be a
phenol or an acid (as it is not taken up by caustic sodaj
would suggest that it is either an alcohol or some
other carbon compound containing oxygen. In 1890
Freund and Remse described an alcohol {Ber. 1890,,
p. 2863), which they had obtained synthetically and to
which they ascribed the formula of a diphenyl isopropyl
alcohol. It was obtained as a liquid which boiled under
reduced pressure at 300-302°, and as is shown by their
formula contains an asymmetric carbon atom.

The portion of the soot tar which dissolved in caustic
soda was precipitated by sulphuric acid, filtered off, re-
dissolved in sodium carbonate, and again precipitated by
acid, and thus yielded a yellowish brown substance which
dissolved in alcohol and crystallised out on cooling.
Several recrystallisations from this solvent resulted in a
substance having a light yellowish brown colour, and
showing a constant melting point of I35°C. Ultimate
analysis gave the following figures : —

Calc. for CgHgO.

C 73-82 ... 74'o7
H 619 ... 6-17

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (191 3), No. %. 5

The compound seems to be an organic acid having
the composition CioHjoO.,. It forms a lead salt which is
decomposed by dilute nitric acid, yielding the free acid
with its original m.p. Methyl atropic acid described by
Oglialoro {Gasz. chim. Ital. 15, 514) has the same em-
pirical formula and the same m.p. This acid, like ours,
is sparingly soluble in cold water.

By extracting the soot tar with water, a solution was
obtained which gave the reactions for guajacol. This
may not have emanated from the coal but from the wood
used in lighting the fires.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 3.

III. The Willow Titmouse in Lancashire and Cheshire.
By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

{Kecehrd and remi Jnnuary sjtli, rqr^. )

It is nearly sixteen years since it was first pointed
out that the Willow Tit was distinct from the Marsh Tit,
that in fact all previous British ornithologists had shut
their eyes to the possibility of specific variation amongst
the black-headed titmice which occur in Britain, although
many of them were well acquainted with the races and
subspecies which were found on the Continent and in
America. The announcement was sufificiently startling
to explain much of the incredulity of the older school of
ornithologists ; it is, however, surprising that there are
still many who are interested in birds who are ignorant
of the facts. Not only are the characters of the two
species evident to those who will take the trouble to
examine specimens, but the birds may be recognised in
the field, which is more than can be said of the geo-
graphical races or subspecies of certain birds, where the
differences can only be seen when large numbers of speci-
mens are examined and compared.

The black-capped titmice of the genus Pants, con-
sidered as one Holarctic group, show marked variation in
different parts of the range. The extremes have been
given specific rank, and now the more minute workers are
drawing the bonds of relationship closer although increas-
ing the number of subspecies, The forms fall readily
into two main groups, the one having as its type Partis
palustris of Linnseus, which we may call the Marsh Tit

March 2^1/1, 1Q14.

2 Coward, ]\'ilIoiv Titjiionse in LancasJiire and CJiesJiirc.

group, and the other Panis atricapilliis, named by
Linnseus from a Canadian bird. This we now take as
the representative of the Willow Tit group.

Perhaps the most noticeable difference between the
two groups is in the colour of the cap ; in the Marsh Tits
it is blue-black and more or less glossed ; in the Willow
Tits it is sooty or brown-black, and without gloss. In
addition, the feathers which are thus coloured are longer
and more loosel}' arranged in the Willow than in the
Marsh Tits, and in the majority of the races are continued
further along the neck.

In the next point of difference, the colour of the
edges of the secondaries, there is great variation, not
individual nor local but racial. In the extreme, the
typical palustris, represented in our islands by the sub-
specific form, Pariis palustris dresseri Stejneger, the pale
edgings are scarcely noticeable, but in the Norwegian
bird of the atricapillus group, Pariis atricapillus borealis
Selys-Longchamps, these edgings are so nearly white
that they give the impression of a white patch on the
closed wing of the bird.

A slight structural difference is not so marked in our
subspecies as it is in some of the other forms. The two
outer tail-feathers are longer in the Marsh Tits than in
the Willow Tits, and the effect is to give a squarer
appearance to the spread tails of the Marsh group, or a
rounder, more graduated one to those of the Willow
group. Other differences, such as the amount of buff on
the flanks, are noticeable in certain subspecies, but are
not equally well marked in others.

In 1897 Pastor Kleinschmidt and Dr. Hartert were
examining skins of the group in the British Museum
collection when they noticed two birds, obtained at
Hampstead, which approached the brown-headed rather

Manchester Monoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 3. 3

than the bhie-black headed type. In the same year the
Tring Museum received two of the same form which had
been taken at Finchley. Kleinschmidt announced the
new British subspecies of the Alpine Pants inontaniis in
a little-known German work,' but he gave the bird no
special name. Two years later Hellmayr named it Parus
montanus kleinscJtmidti after its discoverer.'' Hartert, how-
ever, considering that the distinction between the Willow
Tits of the Old and New World is not of specific value,
gives the bird the earlier name, and calls it Pains
atricapillus kleinschnidti Hellmayr.'^

It was not until the year 1907 that the " new" species
came prominently before the notice of many British
ornithologists, some of whom were well acquainted with
and admitted the specific value of the birds of this group
which occur on the Continent. In that year P. L. Sclater
asked for further details about this " supposed new British
Tit,"* and the Hon. Walter Rothschild promptly replied,'^
supplying full particulars of the knowledge of the British
Willow Tit up to date. This roused many observers to
critically examine all the Marsh Tits which they saw
or which were in collections, with the result that in a few
years it was found that the Willow Tit occurred in practi-
cally all parts of England and Wales, though mostly in
smaller numbers than the Marsh Tit, and that it was a
resident, breeding in many places. A still more surprising
result was the discovery that nearly all, if not all, of the
so-called Marsh Tits in Scotland were really Willow
Tits."

The fact that Mr. C. Oldham and I had recently

' Orn. Aloiiats/er., vi., 34.
- OrnitholO':;ische fahrbticji xi., 212.
" "Die Vijgel der paliiarktisclien Fauna," 378.
'■ "British Birds," i., 23. '■• Ibid. i. 44.

^ Hartert, etc., "A Iland-libt of lirilish Birds," 1912, 46.

4 Coward, JVillozv Titmouse hi Lancashire and Chcs/iire.

published a list of the birds occurring in Cheshire,' and
had made no mention of the Willow Tit, although we
had, of course, included the Marsh Tit, made me anxious
to discover the status of each species in the country. I
examined every Marsh Tit I saw as carefully as possible,
and also looked at the few specimens in museums and local
collections. The result of my investigations is that the
Willow Tit does occur in Cheshire and South Lancashire,
but that if compared with the Marsh Tit it is decidedly
rare. We were, in a measure, more fortunate than
Mr. Hugh S. Gladstone, who published his " Birds of
Dumfriesshire " in the same year, and who described the
British Marsh Tit as " A very scarce and very local
resident,"** and added that the British Willow Tit had not
been detected in the county. In 1912 he modified this
by saying that " Previous local records of the British
Marsh Titmouse, Parus palustris dresseri, should presum-
ably be applied to this species." — P.a. kleinscluiiidti?

I found that there were two Willow Tits in the War-
rington Museum, and submitted them to Mr. Witherb\-
for confirmation. One of these birds was obtained at
Padgate, near Warrington, in 1890, but the locality and
date of the other has been lost, although Mr. Madeley
feels sure that it is a local specimen and probably from
Lancashire/'' Birds in the Grosvenor Museum, Chester,
and in other collections were Marsh Tits, but in order to
support my opinion I forwarded a couple for confirmation
to Mr. Witherby.

In December, 191 1, I looked through the British-
taken black-capped Tits in the Dresser collection, but
found only one which I thought was incorrectly labelled.

" "The Vertebrate Fauna of Cheshire," 1910, i.
** " Birds of Dumfriesshire," 1910, 40, 41.

'-' " A Catalogue of the Vertebrate Fauna of Dumfriesshire," 1912, 16.
^" "British Birds," iv, 1910-1911, 337.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (^1914), No. IJ. 5

It was a bird which had been killed in Hainpstead, and
was marked on the label " Type of Birds of Europe."
Dr. Tattersall submitted it, together with one which we
were agreed was a Marsh Tit, to Ur. Hartert. He replied
confirming our identification.

" Undoubtedly a Willow Tit ; it is, however, not an
adult, but a bird of the year. It is doubtless the specimen
from which Fig. 2 {Plate 109 of Dresser's " Birds") has been
taken, though Mr. Dresser at the time does not seem to
have noticed that it is a young bird. The other specimen
is, of course, a Marsh Tit and not a Willow Tit."

Unfortunately, the artist also seems to have ignored
the brown-black of the head, for the specimen figured is
painted with a glossy head like the others on the same
plate,

On April 17th, 191 2, my attention was arrested by
the brown-black head of a Tit, one of a couple which I
saw in a wood near Rostherne ; I was satisfied that I had
at last identified the bird in Cheshire. On the following
day, by a curious coincidence, Mr. A. W. Boyd saw a pair
of birds, which he was equally sure were Willow Tits, in
Boggart-Hole Clough, Manchester. We recorded the
birds in the same number of " British Birds." " Mr. Boyd
mentions a fact, which has been noticed by others, and
with which I heartil}' agree, that the Willow Tit looks
"altogether duller" than the I\Iarsh Tit. It is worth
mentioning that a few da\s later I found a Marsh Tit
nesting in an adjoining wood to the one in which I saw
my birds.

Just a year later, on April 15th, 1913, I noticed that
a pair of Willow Tits were engaged in excavating a
nesting hole in an old white willow in a wood not far
from Bowdon. Throughout the season I watched these

' ' " British Birds,'" v., 328, 329.

6 Coward, Willow Titmouse in Lancashire and Cheshire.

birds constantly, and was able to see them on many
occasions at ver}- close quarters. ^Tessrs. A. W. Boyd,
T. Hadfield, C. Oldham and Dr. Tattersall also saw the
birds. For the first ten days the pair only occasionall}-
visited the hole, but on the 25th they were working ver\-
hard ; both birds excavated and carried away the chips
of rotten wood. These chips were not dropped at the
foot of the tree, but were carefully carried to a neighbour-
ing tree and then allowed to fall. On or about INIay 2nd
incubation began, but I ccjuld not tell what share, if any,
the male bird took in this work. By the i6th of the
month the young were evidently hatched, and both birds
were occasionally absent from the tree, seeking food for
the young, at the same time. On June 7th I found both
of the old birds in the bushes at the foot of the nesting
tree, and they paid no visits to the nest ; I am unable to
say if this brood was successful!}- brought off. On Jul}-
17th, however, I saw a pair of Willow Tits, accompanied
by two or three, if not more, \oung birds, feeding in
alders and reeds in another part of the wood.''

A glance at the remarks made by the better-known
and more recent writers on birds reveals some interesting
variation in the description of the head of the IMarsh Tit.
Taken in order of date, we find that Colonel Montagu, in
1802, says: "Crown of head black, but not glossy."
Pennant merely quotes from Montagu.

William Macgillivray, in 1837, described the bird thus :
" The head and throat brownish-black — the plumage is
blended, very soft and tufty, the feathers much elongated
on the hind part of the back. — The upper part of the
head and the hind part of the neck are black, with a tinge
of brown — the quills, their coverts, and the tail-feathers
dark brownish-grey, margined with yellowish -grex-, the

1- "Biilish Birds,'" vii., uO.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. ;{. 7

secondary quills with yellowish-brown." These points
are valuable, as I shall show.

Mudie, in 1853, says: "The plumage is more downy
and free from gloss than that of the former species (the
Coal Tit) ; and the black on the head is not so deep,
though from being entire and having no lustre, it shows
better."

Newton, in " Yarrell,' 4th edition, 1871-4, calls "the
forehead, crown and nape black, slightly glossed with
bluish-green."

Gould (1873J made an unfortunate error, for he de-
picted two undoubted ^larsh Tits with glossy blue-black
heads and quoted Macgillivray's description.

Seebohm (1883), after discussing borealis and other
forms, says " the typical form of the Marsh Tit has the
head, from the base of the bill to the nape, bluish black.''

Sharpe (1896) describes the "crown of head glossy
blue-black."

Saunders (1899) remarks : "upper part of head and
nape glossy black."

Stonham (1906) says: 'Forehead, crown and nape
glossy black."

Kirkman and his helpers, in the recently completed
" British Bird Book," figure and describe both species.

The natural conclusion from this list is that Newton,
Seebohm, Sharpe and Saunders were all correctly de-
scribing Pants palustris, although all four refer to racial
variation. Montagu, Macgillivray and Mudie took their
descriptions from Willow Tits, and Macgillivray's is,
perhaps, the most important, for he distinctly states that
the birds he examined were obtained in Scotland. This,
then, bears out the opinion that is now generally held
that the Willow Tit, and not the Marsh Tit, is the black-
headed titmouse north of the Border, or, at anv rate, that

8 Coward, JVilhw Titmouse in Lancashire and ChesJiii e.

it is more frequent there than the latter species. Practically
no study had been made of geographical variation in
Macgillivray's days, so that we can hardly accuse him of
having made an error. He was an original and careful
worker, and he accurately described the birds which came
into his hands. His deicription may thus be taken as the
first really full account of the Willow Titmouse.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 4.

IV. Observations on the Homopterous Insect Phromnia
~ (Plata) margmella Oliv. in the Himalayas.

By A. D. IMMS, M.A., D.Sc,

Reader in Agricultural Entomology , University of Manchester.
( Received and read, January 27th, 1^14.)

Several instances have been brought to light of the
Homopterous genus Phromnia (Plata) bearing a remark-
able resemblance to certain flowers. The earliest with
which I am acquainted is Frof. Gregory's^ account,
published in 1896. In the frontispiece to his book he
figures a cluster of insects belonging to this genus, closely
congregated on the upper part of a stem, and bearing a
curious resemblance to a flowering spike. The species
to which he refers exists in two forms, viz., a green and a
reddish one. In the illustration, the insects are repre-
sented so grouped on the stem, that the green individuals
occupy the upper portion, and the red individuals are
situated just beneath them, on the lower portion. In this
attitude they are curiously like a red-flowered spike with
the green unopened buds above. In 1902 Hinde- pub-
lished an article on this same subject. He remarks that
he had many opportunities of seeing the insect and still
oftener its larva in British East Africa, and his paper is
accompanied by coloured drawings made in the field by
his wife. He states that Prof Gregory's plate was

^ J. W. Gregory, " The Great Rift Valley," pp. 273-275.

- S. L. Hinde, "The Protective Resemblance to flowers borne by an
African Homopterous Insect, Plata tnis^rocincta (Walk), Trans. Ent. Soc,
Land., 1902, pp. 695-700; pis. xxvi.-xxvii. Also '^Proceedings," pp. xxvi.
and xxvii.

April 15th, igi4.

2 Imms, Houiopterous Insect PJiromnia {Flata) viargiiiella.

apparently drawn from dried specimens in England, and
that the green forms are not noticeably smaller than the
red forms, in spite of their being represented so in Prof.
Gregory's figures. He, furthermore, adds that he has
never seen the insects grouped together according to
their colours, but invariably mixed ; and neither has he
noted the larvae and imagines on the same stem, nor even
together on the same bush or tree. He also states that
he has never seen the imagines on vertical stems, but
always on those which are actually or approximately
horizontal. It by no means follows that Prof. Gregory
was mistaken in his impressions, but the curious con-
dition which he describes appears to be far from common.
Hinde's specimens have been compared with Gregory's
by Prof Poulton in the British Museum, who states that
both the series belong to the same species, viz., a form
slightly different to Flata migrocincia (Walk.), but evi-
dently closely allied and perhaps specifically identical
with it. Hinde remarks that both he and his wife recog-
nised a strong superficial likeness between the mixed
group of insects, and the flowers and buds of a leguminous
plant with which they are perfectly familiar. He states
they have mistaken the groups of insects for the flowers and
vice versa. Prof Gregory (p. 275) considers that the eggs of
Flata are laid from below upwards, so that the insects
towards the top of the stem would be the youngest and
most immature. Prof Poulton states that the difference
in colour cannot be due to immaturity, as old worn
examples of the green form are known to occur. The
first specimens of a group to emerge may, however, be
red, and those that issue later green ; and Prof Gregory
may have come across undisturbed groups which, there-
fore, had the green specimens above and the red ones
below. Hinde's observations may have been made upon

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. iviiz. {ig\/^), No. 4. 3

examples which had re-assembled, and thus lost the
arrangement which it is possible they may have possessed
on emergence from the pupa.

In 1 91 2 Mr. Gahan' exhibited before the Entomo-
logical Society of London a small series of Phromnia
siiperba, Melich., a "dimorphic" species of Homoptera
taken by Dr. A. C. Parsons in Northern Nigeria. In a
letter Dr. Parsons remarks that one day when he was in the
jungle his attention was arrested by a dove-coloured " pea
flower." On attempting to gather it the " blossoms " flew
up in a cloud of fluff about his head, and then re-settled
individually among the brushwood. He mentions that
the folded wings are the exact shape of the keel of a pea-
flower, and the insects were all arranged on the bare stem
of a bush. Their heads were all pointing in the same
direction, their colour graduating from green at the top of
the twig to a deep dove-colour, that would indicate the
lowest blossom below. Mr. Gahan remarked that Dr.
Parson's observations were a strong confirmation of those
of Prof. Gregory. At the same meeting of the Entomo-
logical Society W. A. Lamborn* exhibited a series of
specimens of the genus Plata, all taken together from one
plant about 70 miles E. of Lagos. He states that the
insects were "dimorphic," pink and green forms being
intermixed as they rested on the same plant. He had
not noticed any definite arrangement according to colour
as observed by Dr. Parsons although he was acquainted
with the same species.

While touring in the Himalayan foot-hills of Kumaon
in the Naini Tal district during June and July, 1909, I
came across some examples of an Indian species of the
genus, viz., Phro7nnia magtnella, Oliv. They occurred in

' Vzde Proc. Entoni, Soc. Land., pp. Ixxxviii.-xc.
■* Proc. Eni. Soc. London, 1912. p. xc.

4 Imms, Houwpteroiis Insect PJiroinnia {Flata) viarginella.

the jungle around the Sat Tal lakes at an elevation of
about 3,500 feet.

The larvae were found plentifully during the middle of
June, clustered on the leaves and twigs of several species
of small forest trees. They are covered posteriorly (P/. //.,
Fig. 3) with long white waxy filaments, which render
them very conspicuous even from a distance of 12 or 15
yards. The clusters of these larvae bear a resemblance
to groups of small white blossoms, I may add that two
friends who were with me at the time, and neither of them
entomologists, quite believed them to be flowers until the
insects dispersed by a series of leaps when disturbed.
The white filaments of the larvae, when removed, stick
tenaciously to any object brought in contact with them.
For this reason I believe that, in all probability, they
render the insects distasteful to birds. If a larva be seized
by a bird, the filaments would cling to the outside of its
beak, and would probably be removed only with difficulty,
after causing the bird a good deal of discomfort. The
larvae were found both on horizontal and vertical twigs,
and also on the leaves, but exhibited no marked arrange-
ment according to the age of the individuals forming any
particular cluster. No examples of the perfect insect
were then to be found. The larvae suck the juices of
plants, and gradually increase in size after each moult
until the arrival of the monsoon season, when the perfect
insects commence to emerge. Some fourteen days later
I revisited San Tal, and a few of the larvae were still
noticeable, but the majority had reached the winged state.
A number of the exuviae of the larvae attached to the
trees were evident with their waxy filaments still intact
and it needed close examination to distinguish them from
living insects,

The mature insect exists in two forms, a pea-green

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 4. 5

and a pinkish-buff, both having pearly white hind wings.
It is nocturnal, so far as my observations go, and during
the day is found resting in closely packed longitudinal
groups on the twigs and branches of small forest trees ;
the heads of the insects all point in the same direction.
The green form is considerably more abundant than the
buff coloured one, and only on two occasions I noticed
both forms on a branch together. In these two instances
they were intermixed and exhibited no definite arrange-
ment into the green forms above and the buff-coloured
examples below. I am not, however, prepared to assert
that this arrangement never occurs, and if Prof Poulton's
interpretation be correct, it must of necessity be rare to
come across such an occasion. It is to be hoped that
Indian entomologists will endeavour to clear up this
interesting feature, and the early part of July should be
the most likely time in the Himalayas to conduct observa-
tions. The insects bear a considerable resemblance to
leaf or flower buds just about to open, and the buff-
coloured examples appear very like unopened petals.
Out of seven colonies which I came across, all were dis-
posed along the middle or base of branches among the
foliage, and not at the apices of the twigs {PI. /., Fig. i,
and PI. II., Fig. 2). This fact rather mitigates against
the resemblance, though they closely harmonised with
the surrounding foliage. Whether the resemblance is
sufficient to deceive their enemies I am not in a position
to say. In this connection, however, it is noteworthy
that when individuals settled singly on leaves after being
dispersed, they were certainly more conspicuous to human
eyes than when grouped together on the twigs and
branches, Kershaw^ states that two species of the genera,
Salurnis and Geisha, closely allied to PJiromnia and found

' "Notes on Plata" Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 1912, xxi., p. 609.

6 Imms, Homopterous Insect Phrovinia {Flatd) vinrginella.

in S. China, are solitary as a rule, though several in-
dividuals may sometimes be found on the same bush. On
the other hand, he remarks that an Australian species,
Neomelicharia furtiva, is gregarious, having the same
habit as Phrovinia of many individuals resting closely
together on the same twig or branch.

In addition to Sat Tal, I have found Phromnia inargi-
nella near Ganai in British Garhwal, and it is also known
from the Central Provinces, Dehra Dun, Sikkim, the
Naga Hills, Cachar, Mussoorie, Margherita (Assam),
Tavoy, and Siam.'^ It also occurs plentifully in Ceylon,
and Mr. E. E, Green informs me that both forms are met
with in that island, but the green form predominates
there. He states that he has never seen the two forms
intermingled in one colony, though he would not be
prepared to state that it never happens. On the few
occasions that he has observed the buff form, the whole
colony has been of that colour. Phrovinia viarginella has
been confused in literature with the Indian wax insect
Ceroplastes ceriferiis, Sign. (Fam. Coccidae), which appears
to be comparatively rare, and has never been commercially
utilised, though it produces some amount of wax. It has
also been confused with the Chinese white wax insect
{Ericerus pe-la) by Staunton,'^ and in Westwood's edition
of Donovan's "Insects of China." Although this error
was pointed out by Hutton,^ it has been repeated by later
writers. It is further noteworthy that Ericerus, like
Ceroplastes, belongs to the family of the Coccidae and not
to the Fulgoridae.

Bugnion and Popoff^ have investigated the wax

^ E. C. Cotes, " White Insect Wax in India." Ind. Mus. Notes, vol. ii.,
p. 97-

'^ "Embassy to China." London 1797, vol. i., p. 353.

^ lourn. Asiatic Soc, Bengal, 1848-55, vol. ii., p. 379.

'•' Bull. Soc. Valid, des Sci. Nat., 1907, vol. Ixiii., pp. 549-63, pis.
xl.-xlvi. and four text-figs.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), iV^. 4- 7

glands of the larv^ of PJir omnia Jiiarginella, obtaining
specimens from Gimgatenagap in Ceylon at an altitude of
2,165 feet. They were found on January 26th on Salacia
reticulata, a plant belonging to the Hippocrateaceae. They
state that the wax glands are situated beneath a chitinous
disc, placed at the extremity of the abdomen, and divided
into a series of twenty plates. These plates are arranged
in four rows — two rows to the right and two to the left of
the anal and genital apertures. Each plate is studded with
small pores, which are the orifices of the wax glands

Text-fig. — Vertical section through a wax plate of a larva
of Phromnia margiiiella, showing the pores in the cuticle
and the elongate wax-secreting cells beneath. (After Bug-
nion and Popoff.)

-secreting the long white filaments. In addition, there are
also three small plates on either side of the sixth abdominal
segment, two on either side of the fifth, and one or two on
either side of the fourth. There are also scattered isolated
pores on the dorsal side of the body, which is powdered
with a small amount of wax. As shown in the accom-
panying text-figure, the cuticle covering the wax plates is
very thick and traversed with vertical striae. Beneath
the cuticle is the hypodermal layer, chiefly evident by its

8 Imms, Homoptcrous Insect Phroinnia {Plata) viarginella.

small rounded nuclei. The wax-secreting cells are
specialised cells derived from the hyperdermis and are
greatly elongated with the nuclei at their inner ends.
Each wax cell is traversed by an elongated cavity into
which the wax secretion congregates, to be ultimately dis-
charged through the corresponding pore to the exterior.
With regard to the structure of the cuticle, Bugnion
and Popoff remark : " L'emploi d'un grossissement plus
fort a permis de constater que les stries verticales ne
sont pas des canalicules, mais repondent au contraire
aux lammelles chitineuses qui limitent les pores. Les
pores sont les espaces clairs compris entre les stries.
On voit de plus : ( i ) que chaque pore surmonte une cellule
unique : (2) que le pore offre a sa base un collet retreci,
large de 2| /x, la chitine I'enserrant a ce niveau dans un
epaississment en forme d'anneau. La partie profonde de
la cuticle apparait sur les coupes obliques comme une
lame jaune percee de trous ronds a contours tres accuses.
Ces trous repondent aux collets des pores." There has
been a good deal of difference of opinion as to the
chemical nature of the waxy filaments of the larvae of
the Flatid group of the Fulgoridae. Spinola^" makes a
general statement with regard to the wax secreted by the
' Fulgorelles." He says that it dissolves entirely in
alcohol and gives off a distinct odour of horn when burnt
in a flame of a candle. Cotes" states that Murchison
examined the white filaments of a Fulgorid which was
either P. inarginella, or a species closely related to it, and
remarked that they were composed of what he believed
to be wax. An examination made by T. H. (now Sir
Thomas) Holland on Coates' behalf of the filaments of
larva; of P. niarginella, preserved in the collections of the

i« "Essai sur les Fulgorelles." An. Soc. Ent. Fr., T. viii,, 1839,
p. 197.

*i Loc, cit., p. 92.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. . 9

Indian Museum, has not confirmed Murchison's state-
ment. The white filaments attached to the specimens in
the Indian Museum were found to consist of fibrous
matter which not only refuses to melt but, on the con-
trary, decomposes when heated, does not dissolve in
naphtha, and under the microscope appears to consist of
minute particles of a filamentous nature. That observed
by Murchison melted on heating into transparent colour-
less wax, which was readily soluble in naphtha, crystallised
on cooling into acicular spicules, arranged in stellate
masses, such as is readily observable in the wax secreted
by Ceroplastes ceriferus. These observations seem to the
present writer to show that Murchison probably was not
dealing with P. marginella, but with an allied species.
In selecting material for analysis it is desirable to use
the distal two-thirds of the filaments as the basal portion
when amputated frequently comes away with portions of
the chitinous integument which is liable to give mis-
leading results. Kershaw" states that the waxy filaments
of the Australian Salurnis inarginellus, Guer. dissolve
instantly in spirit, and melt with heat, are of a waxy
nature, but a large part consists of hollow filaments or
hairs, much broken and interlaced, insoluble in either
spirit or potash, apparently much resembling in chemical
nature the hairs which project beyond the anal segment
of certain leaf-hopper nymphs. I am indebted to the
kindness of Professor A. Lapworth, F.R.S., for making an
analysis of the white filaments of the larvae of P. margi-
nella^ which he states are closely allied to Chinese white
wax in chemical composition. He remarks that it is freely
soluble for the most part in chloroform, but is sparingly
soluble in alcohol even when heated, but dissolves after
some hours boiling in methyl alcoholic potash. On pouring

^- Loc. cit., p. 608.

lO Imms, Homopterous Insect PJiromnia {Plata) viargmella.

the product into water, acidifying, extracting the ether,
drying and evaporating the latter, a semi-crystalline mass
was left. This was neutralised with methyl alcoholic
baryta, dried at lOO^C and extracted with acetone. The
acetone dissolves a crystalline material, probably one of the
higher fatty alcohols. Indications of cholesterol were
absent ; the barium salts, remaining after extraction with
acetone, were treated with warm hydrochloric acid, the
liquid extracted with ether, then dried and evaporated, and
a solid fatty acid was left. This had all the characters of
a higher fatty acid. The substance is unaffected by five
minutes' heating at a temperature of ioo°C. with strong
sulphuric acid, showing that it is not of a glucositic nature.
In addition to wax, the larvze of Phromma marginella
excrete a liquid giving a sweet taste, which falls on the
leaves where it hardens. According to Cotes, ^ in
Garhwal it is recorded that the natives eat this excretion,
and term the insects which produce it " Dhaberi,' meaning
sheep, in allusion to their habit of clustering together and
jumping away when disturbed. Nothing appears to be
known as to method of origin of this fluid, whether it is
excreted through the anus or by means of special glands.

' ^ Loc, cit. p. 97.

12 Imms, Honwpterous Insect Phromnia {Fiata) margznella.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Plate L

Ftg. I. — A photograph showing two groups [a and b) of
Phromnia marginella congregated along branches
in their characteristic resting attitude. (Sat Tal.,
July, 1909.)

Plate IL

Fig. 2. — An enlarged photograph of the lower group of insects
seen in the preceding plate.

Fig. 3. — A photograph of a group of larvae of Phromnia
marginella on a leaf of a species of Grewia ? (Sat
Tal., July, 1909.)

Manchester Mevioirs, Vol. L VIII., No. 4. Plate I.

A. D. I mills fi/iot.

Fig. I.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L VIIL, No. 4. Plate II.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol Iviii. (1914), No. 5.

V. The Specification of the elements of Stress. Part
III. The definition of the dynamical specification
and a test of the elastic specification. A chapter
in Elasticity.

By R. F. GWYTHER, M.A.

( Read and received Feb) tiary loth, 1<)I4.)

Introduction.

(i.) In this paper I make use of the phrase " dynamical
specification " of stress in an elastic substance, and I
contrast or compare it with the " elastic specification " of
the stress in the substance, and I must explain at the
outset the conceptions from which the idea and the
employment of the unusual term has originated.

The general idea of an elastic body, whether isotropic
or crystalline, need not be restated, and it is not proposed
to alter in any way the " elastic specification " of stress as
derived in the modern method from Green's restatement
of the relations between stress and strain. It is, however,
convenient to refer to the whole set of relations as
" Hooke's Law," although it is not now in the form as
stated by Hooke.

In order to state the point of view taken in this paper
in as simple a form as possible, I shall suppose that we
are dealing with a homogeneous isotropic elastic solid,
and, at a point in this solid statically strained, I shall
imagine a strain quadric and an elastic (or Hooke's Law)

May i6th^ 1914-

2 R. F. GWYTHER, Specification of the elements of stress.

stress quadric to be drawn. These two quadrics will be
coaxial.

We have three dynamical equations which give the
whole dynannical relation between the stresses, and to
which there is nothing to add. It is regarded, and the
truth will appear from the paper, that these relations fix
the characteristics of a stress quadric from the essentially
dynamical basis, but that they do not determine its
orientation. To complete the dynamical specification, I
make the further hypothesis that this quadric shall be so
oriented as to be coaxial with the strain and the elastic
stress quadrics, and be drawn on the same scale as the
latter. The strain quadric has now served its purpose
and may be ignored. We remain with two coaxial stress
quadrics, one the " elastic " stress quadric, the other the
" dynamical " stress quadric.

Each is definite, and they are not identical except as
the result of three further conditions of equality.

If we call the elements of the elastic stress

p:qiris[t:u:

each is defined by Hooke's Law.

If the elements of the dynamical stress are

P, Q, R, S, T, U,

we have

dF dU dT ^

— + ^- + ^ = 0,
cix vy ds

dU dQ dS ^

ox oy cs

dr ds dj? ^^

dx oy oz
or p__?^>_^3

^ ~ dz' dx' '

Manchester ]\Iemoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), Av. 5. 3

R

c-e.

?'e,

■

B.Y"

cj- ■

s=

T=

9U

U=

dxdy

The further h}'pothesis is

SIS'=TIT'= U'U' = 1,

3*0j /cw cv \

cv dz / '

or

dycz '* V?j

8*6., /3« dzv\

dxdj'~ \dx dy J'
The simplest mode of looking on these relations is to
regard them as giving //, v, zv. Thus

a

At any rate we have two specifications, one for P, Q,R,
on dynamical principles and one for P,'Q,'R' given by
Hooke's Law.

A very great simplicity results from this mode of
treatment whatever view may be held in regard to che
nomenclature.

1. The d}-namical equations can be looked upon as
solved.

2. The forms of displacement are found.

4 R. V. GwvTHEK, Specification of the elements of stress.

3. The analytical results arising from Hooke's Law
are obtained by simple processes.

The subject treated is one in which analytical simpli-
fication is greatly to be desired, and it appears that
some of the existing complexities have arisen from the
substitution of the six quantities P' O,' R,' S,' T,' U' in
the three dynamical equations, and any simplifications
which this paper proposes arise from an alteration of
method which does not necessarily depend on nomen-
clature nor upon the ideas which have seemed useful to
me.

(ii.) There is a further suggestion in the paper of which
it is requisite that I should give an explanation. This is
the suggestion that the comparison of the two specifications
for stress should be made use of as a test.

The exposition by Green of elastic stress in terms of
strain is a full exposition of the relations within a sub-
stance of unlimited extent, but it is not clear that the
relations so determined will hold good up to and at the
boundaries of a restricted body. In dealing with a
specific case, the process suggested is to determine
separately each specification of stress so as to satisfy the
surface conditions, and, after that stage has been completed,
to examine whether the t\\ o specifications can be made
identical, not merely over the interior but up to and at
the bounding surfaces.

If this condition cannot be satisfied, the next step
would be to assume some rational form of discrepancy
from Hooke's Law in order to locate the character of
discrepancy existing, its position and its extent.

This may be a formidable task, but it is not more
hopeless than the search for a specific solution by means
of the accepted elastic displacement equations.

(iii.) In previous Parts of this paper I have discussed at

Maiuhestcr Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 5- 5

some length tlie mathematical forms necessarily imposed
on solutions of the statical stress equations. In the
present Part, I have found it possible to proceed without
much reference to the earlier Parts.

In this Part I propose to deal also with elastic stresses
for which the mathematical forms of expression are based
on the hypothesis of Hooke's Law. On this basis it is
fundamental that the stresses, which are of considerable
and even of great magnitude, should appear as large
multiples of strains which are themselves extremely
minute and certainly not measurable by any direct obser-
vation. The large multipliers we call elastic constants.
To form a mathematical theory it is presumed that the
material is absolutely uniform in character, and that the
strains are everywhere continuous. In fact, an ideal
mathematical clastic material is presumed, and it must
always be borne in mind that the elastic theory applies
with accuracy only to such an ideal substance. When
the results are taken to apply to ordinary material, we
have to remember that such material is irregular and
coarse-grained and differs in many ways from the ideal
substance to which the theory actually applies.

It appeals to be thought by some writers on the sub-
ject, that by proceeding to a higher degree of accuracy' in
the mathematical expressions for the strains, a closer
representation of the actual state of a natural body under
stress might be obtained. The notion seems to me
fundamentally wrong and fallacious if it is supposed that
by introducing still more minute terms in the expression
for the strains in the ideal substance, any closer approxi-
mation can be made to the conditions in the natural
substances. A further refinement in the mathematical
expressions including terms of a higher order should
be deferred until the terms of the first order have been

6 R. F. GWYTIIKR, specification of the elements of stress.

shown to agree with the phenomena which they propose
to describe in natural materials.

(iv.) I add references to papers which I have previously
communicated to the Society, in which I have approached
the point of view from which the present paper has been
written.

1. Permanent Forms of Mathematical Expressions.

Alanchesier Alemoirs, vol. xxxix. (1895), No. 8, p. 119.

2. Rate of propagation of an Earth-Tremor.

Manchester Aremoirs, vol. xlvi. (1902), No. 15.

3. Conditions that Stresses should be Elastic.

Manchester Aieinoirs, vol. Iv. (igii), No. 20.

4. Specification of Elements of Stress.

Manchester Memoirs, vol. Ivi. (19 12), No. 10.

5. Specification of Elements of Stress. Part II.

Manchester Memoirs, vol. Ivii. (1913), No. 5.

Cartesian Coordinates.

I. The dynamical stress equations are :

cP dU cT ■■
ex ty cz

d[/ dO ds •■

+— ^ H = nV ,

dx dy dz '

— +5- + ^=p"' (0.

ex cy cz

Whatever values 11, v, w may have, we may always
write

tl

V

-Jy'

w

de..

dz

(2)

Manchester Memoirs, Vol Iviii. (19 14), No. 5- 7

Also, whatever values S, T, and U may have, we can
always write

cydz

T— 2

-'- ~~ i — K '
(IXOZ

i^.^ (3).

And we thereTore shall always have formally

cy vz-

e-^e.+ii'+'^'-o,

^-.e..S + S-o W-

2. The elements of the stress consequent on Hooke's
Law in a homogeneous isotropic elastic solid become, on
the substitution for the components of the displacement
given in (2),

^ \r!x- ay^ ^jZ J ^x^

with two analogous expressions for Q and R',

.S' = //;^-(0.,+ e,)

(^\ivz^ -

with two analogous expressions for T' and U . . (5)-

3. In order to make a connection between these two
specifications of stress I shall assume

^3==Mo^ + e,) (6).

This connection is sufficient, and is not redundant.
The consequence is that

S'^S, T'=T, U" = U,

8 R. F. Gnn'VTHKK, Specifidxtion of the elements of stress.

and that we have specifications which differ in form for
P and P\ Q and Q\ R and A".
Thus

F= pe, - «|.'-{e, + e,) + ,-,(e, + e.,)l,

with two analogous expressions for Q and R . . (7},
and

with two analogous expressions for Q' and A' . . (8).

4. If we propose to draw the full conclusions conse-
quent from the fulfilment of Hooke's law, we proceed to
postulate the identity of the expressions for P and P', Q
and Q', R and R'. But the assumption that the differences
between the values of P and /'', Q and Q\ R and R' are
small compared with P, Q and A" respectively is more
in accordance with the object of attaining a description of
physical phenomena. It is not proposed, it appears to be
unreasonable, to require that the ratio of the differences of
these stresses to the stresses themselves should be so
minute as to be comparable with that of the second powers
of the elements of strain to the first. The difference
corresponds much more closely with a variation in the
multipliers which we have spoken of as " elastic constants."
Accordingly, the elastic theory is here considered as a
rough approximation to a natural theory.

Before a closer approximation is taken into considera-
tion, it is desirable to review the assumptions which have
already been made.

Briefly, we have treated

^ (pBi)
vx

as identical with

p— ' , etc {a)

Manchestei Memoirs, J'o/. iviii. (1914), No.l
and

— {«(t>.. + t^J}

as identical with

7/,

~je., + ej, etc (/')

we treat P' as identical with t\ etc {c)

and in the integration of the resulting equations the
multipliers 111 and n are treated as constants.

Since the relative variations of p and vi arid n may
reasonabl}' be considered as possibl)' greater than the ratio

-r : r, the terms arising from these variations should be

considered before the results of a further expansion of the
displacement should be considered in the mathematical
expressions.

5. If we now equate P' and /'', Q' and Q, R' and R,
we readily obtain

/ r- c- c^\ /?-e, c'e.2 c-0..\

\(l.v- dy- cz- J ' \ca- d)'- Cz^ / ' '

and two analogous equations (9).

Before making any modifications in these equations,
it is well to review the analytical character of the assump-
tions that have been employed.

Neither

cB ?e, CO.,

dx <!j oz

nor

s=^s', r=r\ u=2",

are relations which would preserve the same analytical
form on change of the directions of the co-ordinate axes.
In the resulting equations the outstanding characteristic
is that ,oB,, oG,, f>Q. have the character of normal stresses.
Having made these remarks, I return to (2) and put

o =y'>^i,, o, = /'>/',, a. -/'"+//, , . ■ (10),

lO R. F. GWYTHER, Spccijicalion of ihe cUinents of stress.

and therefore

"'^4(^+/^:). ^tC,

We may, from principles of continuity, determine that F
shall have such a value that

?^+?>l + ?i^=0 (..),

ex- dy- C7J

so that the whole "condensation " is confined to F. We
may then re-write (9) in the form

{m + «)v-^+ ?'V7<i = p{F+ pi)

with two analogous equations (12).

These equations may otherwise be written

(jF- (ffi + fi)\/ -F+ ()^i - // V 7'i = 0

and this form repeats itself for other coordinate systems.
They will be considered at length in the following Part.

It has been part of the object of this investigation to
make stresses rather than displacements the chief object,
and to make use of displacements only as far as they
must necessarily be made use of

6. Viscous forces.

On the usual theory, the inclusion of viscous forces in
addition to elastic forces, only requires that in the equa-
tions throughout, ;/ should be replaced by

{ !i-\- V— I and }n by ( ;// + ~v— ]•
\ dtj V 3 ctJ

This alteration may be introduced in the final results, as
it will make no essential difference in the mode of pro-
cedure described.

Manchcsfcr Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 5. il

7. Elcmoital couples.

If the motion of an element of the material under
consideration is regarded in its widest aspect, and with-
out any limitation from habit or from casual experience,
the further possibility must be included of an elemental
couple in the stress and of an elemental change of angular
momentum in the material.

In the accepted theory it is assumed that either no
such elemental couple exists, or that if it does exist it
contributes no term to the work done on the element.
It is now proposed to include the consideration of such a
couple, and to examine more closely the reasons for its
admission or inclusion.

It will therefore be taken that the stresses are, follow-
ing an accepted notation,

p,u=s+i, p,„ - s - ^,

A.= <^+4, A.- ^-4 . . . . (13),

so that the elemental couple is measured by

2^, 2//, 2;' (14),

and the linear force on the element has the components

cP dU ?)T d'C d,j

dx oy dz dy gz'

vU ?0 dS oE o'C

vx oy c'z vz ?.t'

dT ?'S dR dr, dl

_— +:r- +.- +^ -r- . . . . (15).
cx cy rx dx Oy ^ ~"

In accordance, I shall write the components of the
displacement as

U = U, + — 3 _ -^-,
(y cz

(<z ox

12 R. F. GWVTIIEK, Spccificaticn of the elevunts of stress.

(t6),
or

IV

= 7V

„ 4

(X

ov

11 =

+

ri'

v =

29,

3v

+

0^,

dz "

I'X

00, a*', ?^, , ^^

.r = --5 + -^-_— ' (17),

d.2 d„r cy

where just as \\ e have connected 0,,B.,,H, with effective
normal stresses, we must now treat "^J^,, ■*1'.,, "^P",; as having
the character of effective shearing stresses, so that for the
rotational equilibrium of the element we must have

Similarly for the linear equilibrium of the element,
making use of this relation, we shall have

CF 'vU ?r rB,

OX cy rz ' rx

?[/ ?Q ?S (O.
c'.v cy cz ' cy

cx cv cz ' cz

Returning now to the elastic specification of stress,
the elements P, O, A', ^", T, U are given in terms of
Oj, 9,, 0,, ^^, ^K, and ^l'„ while the right-hand side of (19)
is given in terms of B,, O2, H onl)'.

It is, however, necessary to consider f, >/, C,. In the
usual theory, the values to be given to these quantities
are not discussed, but if we follow the course indicated by
Green in his analj-sis of the elastic relations, and find the
expressions for stresses as following from terms from the
work done, which work must be an invariantal expression

J\T(Vic/iestei' Mevioirs, V^ol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 5. 13

of the first differential coefficients of the displacement,

we find

'civ f I cv'^

(vu CU
' \c,o rx

fvv rii

(20),

as the only possible relation, and it is subject to the tests
which may be made as to the magnitude or existence
of /'.

The previous paragraphs have given the general
outlines of the treatment of the question now proposed,
and I shall only indicate the lines of adaptation.

In (17) write 8^ = F+^„ etc., and

o^„ M',, ?/(/
dy cz rx '

so that S / , , '\ , lo^\

;«<(=-((/) + /(, f /I, ), etc., . . . . (,2i;.

The specifications of stresses previously given will then
apply to (19) if we replace F+ij.^ by F+fL^ + fx^ as far as
the terms in which space-differentiation is concerned, and
if we retain /^+/x, in the terms in which time-differentia-
tion is to be performed. The relations between ,ui, /U,, //j
and /x', //'., lix., are contained in (18) and (20), and it follows
that

P^. = /^ft^-^) (^2)-

\ <y cz/

Hence »i/ -^ ''' / ^ ' •\ ^\r

7/ cy< z ■■ - ■ -

and therefore that

If k were a constant of about the magnitude of ;/, the

14 R- F. GWVTHER, Specification of the elonents of stress,

elemental stress couple would play the main part in the
general phenomena of stress and would not have escaped
notice. It will, therefore, be supposed that kjii is small,
and hence that

^'f ?/.. _., \_ ^%.. _.. \\

ny-

11 (oi; (Z- J

- '^vV,, etc (24).

n

Finally, we obtain these relations :

5 -, ,

« = —(/■ + /^/j + /^<, ), etc., where

Ox

"^JM ^1^ OJj^

- .>+,., + -. .1 = U,
r.v rjr fis'

■■ , k ,. A .

f'A'i +^ V7<i = U, etc.,

and where
and where also

which represents the type of three equations with the
subscript numbers i, 2, or 3, and which includes also the
small viscous terms.

To eliminate /m' requires further differentiation in
time, and a type of equation is then obtained which may
be the subject of further consideration in the hope of
explaining some phenomena, such as elastic after strain.

8. General case.

Application of the method to the general case where
the stresses are not identical with the ideal elastic
stresses.

In order to develop the proposed method in as simple
a form as possible, I have assumed up to the present that
S—S\ T—l\ U=U' are completely satisfied, and have
proposed that the equality of P and P\ Q and Q', R and
R' should be of the nature of a test.

Manchester Memoirs, W^I. Iviii. (1914), No. 5. 15

I propose now to show that we are prepared to
deal with the cases where no identity of the stresses is
postulated.

Returning to the equations numbered from (i) to (5),
and in (3), write

^_ S-(^, + ;//,)

vxcz

u^m^±^ (.5),

cxcy

while the relations (6) are retained, namely,

yir^ = ;,/(e^ + a,) etc.

We thus obtain

djoz

exes
17=U' + A- (26).

CXCV

Also we find P, Q, and R in the form of (27) which will
replace (7), that is

/>= „e, - ;/U^(ei + e,) + .-..(e, + 93) - ^- - ^ ,

Key cz- ) vj c^

etc., (27),

while the forms of P', Q', and K' in (8) are unchanged.

This section is not intended to treat of the case when
the stresses are functions of higher powers of the elements
of strain. That case presents points of difference and
will be dealt with in a subsequent Part.

1 6 R. F. GWVTHE];, Specification of the eleuients of stress.

Cvi.iNDRiCAi, Polar Coordinates.

9. The dynamical stress equations are now

?F P-Q T dU , cT
ir r r c'd cz

nU 2U ,1 ?(2 95 •

' r r r ( d cz

rT , T I cS , cR ■■ . Q,

;r— + - ^-::— + -~=pW .... (28).

rr r r r^ cz

1 am not able in this case to follow the simpler method
adopted for Cartesian coordinates, and I have to make
use of the solution of the statical equations corresponding
to (13) which I have given in Part I., and simplified in
Part II. of this series of papers.*

The solutions take the form

r- c'd" CZ' r or

f f- (_ Z'

„ _ r-'O., T r -0] 2 002 _ I c6i

cr' r' cd' r cr r cr

r ?ticz '

r rcz r cz r cz

U= - - .— ^ + ~, .— (29).

r ^ rr ti r~ c(j

10. The elastic specification of stress is as usual

given by

„ / \/cu u 1 CV dw\ en

-P ={m- n)[ .- +-4.-— + ^-+ 2U~

\cv r r cd cz / or

*The simpler nielhod which I luive used for Cartesians has been so
employed as an introductory method. That used for Polars, cylindrical and
spherical, is tlie general meihod.

Maiicliesicr Mcnioiis, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 5. ]/
with two otlier equations, aiul

^/ = ;/ + ) . . . . (30).

I [. I now prcKcetl as before to equate S and .S"',
7' and 7', 6'^ and U\ but in tliis case it is with the object
of finding whether and under what conditions a form of
displacement can be discovered, such as will conform
with the requirement.

Assuming, for convenience,

2 dz
we deduce i d .

«;, = li'.(o,-(L-o,) + ^i:ii^-^ . . . (31),

2 " r

from the equality of 5 and .S", T and T' .

The equality of U and U' requires the condition that
;-(0, -e,) = 0 (32),

and, with this system of coordinates, it is possible for the
relations to subsist together onl}- if this conditicMi is
satisfied. This condition is therefore a consequence
following on Hooke's Law.

1 2. The notation, which it has been found convenient to
employ while dealing with the connection of the shearing
stresses and the discovery of the form of displacement
may now be replaced more conveniently by the assump-
tions

ej-e,,-e,= 2(/'>/<0>

1 8 R. F. GWYTHEK, Specification of the elements of stress.

which brings the notation into accordance with that used
for cartesian coordinates.

The strain represented b}- F is a " pure " strain, and

the principle of continuity will justify us in requiring that

the whole "condensation" is given by this strain, and

consequently that

a>i I 3(2^1 -;<■>) I c>, 07,:, ,

cr- r or ?- ch' cs- ^^^'

The relations may now be written

nn = -— + -LI + ^J: — L' J
cr cr r

I djF I cu.,
/• dH red

cF III.,
niv — ^- -f- ^
cz cz

with the condition

^^^^-^^^0 (34).

« \c/- 8;-' /• rr ?' /

;? \r ?A- ?- (•(^" r cr ?' f" cd' /

F'=^-i^x^F-,.ri^+':tA (35).

n \cz- cz- /

r, , f. ■■ . f\cF I c-F c^F\
\r cr ■/- cd- cz- J

r cr f- oti- cz-

Q - p{F+ ^i,) + 2(ff+ '^) + fi,.,, + ^,,) + ^^(;., + ,,3) = 0.
\or- cO-y Cr- cz

\cr- r cr ?- cd- J cr-

r cr ?2 cy- /- cr

Manchester Memoirs , Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 5. 19

By equating P and P\ Q and Q\ R and R\ we get
equations of condition of the same form as in (12) where
V" now stands for

3- I 9 I 5- 9-
dr'- r dr r'- dd'- 9s-

Spherical Polar Coordinates.

13. In the case of these coordinates, I pursue the
course which I have followed in that of cylindrical
coordinates.

In a previous paper read before the Society, I pro-
posed for the case of spherical polar coordinates the
notation u, v sin 0, w sin Q for the components of dis-
placement, and in the previous Parts of this series of
papers I have prepared the expressions for the different
quantities which will enter on the supposition that this
notation is used. The notation is made use of here also.
Throughout x will be used to replace cos 0. It is
necessary to give the equations in full.

The Dynamical Stress Equations.

In these equations the stresses are /*, Q^ R, S, Ts'm 6,
and Us'mO, the elements of strain being e,/,£; a, (^sin 0,
c sin 0, so that T, U, b and c have not their usual
significance.

The resulting equations are

W 2P-Q-R I 9., ■-^m^I^^ I
— - + ^^ _ _ _^ // 1 _ X-) 6/} + - ^— = p?' .

or r r dx r om

df r rXZx \-x- ) r{i-x-)d(p

f .3l_ . 3 j(,.,.)5) + _L^|f-p. . (37).

dr r r{\-x-)dx r{i - x') d(p

20 R. F. GwYTHER, Specification of the elevients of stress.

The solutions which I have given of the corresponding
statical equations are

r, I - X- a-Oj , I B-e, , I 3(6., 4- Gs)

Jr — ■ — ■ — — -p ~ -r

r- Zx'- f'{i—x^)d(p' r dr

Q_c^e3 ^_ I 3'9i _^_ I 9(263- 9,) _x 99i

8?^ ?-"( I - x'-) d<p~ r dr r' dx

J? = ?!^ + ^ -^" ^'Qi . I 9(29o - 9i) _ A- a9i
dr^ r^ dx^ r dr r^ dx

S=l ^'Qi + -^' 39i

?-( I - ic^) 8a-90 r^( I - .T') 9^

^^_ I 9'93 ^ jc 8(9; - 93) _ I 89i /g.

r 9r9.r r(\ - o<?) dr r^ dx

Also with the same notation

du /-if, / o^v^ 1/ 9z£;\

^=— , f=-U^^rxv-{\-x-)^\, g=-[u + XV^~~\

dr r\ dx) r\ dcp /

^"' -:.('-;-*--'©•

dti d7V

,1/1 9z/ aze* \

d = ~[ -, - + r—~ - w

r\\ - X' 0(p or J

\( dv du\ / »

^=-(/'^ -z'-^j (39)-

r\ or ox/

Having given these expressions it will not be neces-
sary to write P\ Q, R' in full.

14. As before we equate 5 to na, Tto nb, S to nc, and
by a precisely similar analysis we find

dr r

nv^ - — 5-^9,-03- Wj;-— -r-

2r dx t\i - X-) '

' ^ (93-9i-9,) . . . (40),

2r{i - x:^) d(f)

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. ( 1 9 1 4), No. 5. 2 1
subject to the condition

\ - x^ "brX r ) r 'bx\ r }

"hz^^fit^) (4.).

As in the previous case we put

01 - e. - O;; = 2 {F-V ^,), etc. ,
and get

""^^ +^- ^^^-^' ,

dr dr r

1 'dF I 3/x.. x{lu
nv= ------ p--L^

r ox r ox r( i •

I dF I

IW = — —- + :

_ ^«

where

^(i - A") 9^ r{i - x'-) d(f)

3"/Xl 2 ByUj 2:C 3/Uo I — :K" 8yu.j

3r^ /- 9r r- 3.r xr dx'

I 9 / . ;i; 9 / X 2X'' (uo - JUs) / ->

- - -Ou2 - Ma) + - ^/^•^ - i"3) 5 ^- .. = o • (42),

r or r ox i - :x- r-

and subject to the conditional equation (41).

The equations of condition to satisfy Hooke's Law
are again of the form stated in (12), which applies to all
coordinate systems.

Manc/iester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 6.

VI. How does the Plant obtain its nutriment
from the soil ?

By A. D. Hall, M.A., F.R.S.

[.special ici-tiire, A/arch 4ih, igij. )
(Received for publication Jamtary i2ili, igi4.)

The theory of the nutrition of the plant may be said
to begin with the discovery that the plant draws but a
small portion of its substance from the soil, though from
that source alone it derives certain elements — in particu-
lar nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium — without which
growth will not take place. Moreover, it was early shown
that the compounds thus supplied by the soil must be in
a state of solution before they can reach the plant, so
that the source of nutriment is that body of water which
clings by surface tension to the particles of the soil — a
body which, though subject to considerable fluctuations
through its irregular depletion and renewal, is a perma-
nent element in the soil. This water contains, amongst
other materials, nitrates, phosphoric acid and potash
salts, derived from the solid materials of the soil ; it serves
as the intermediar}' whereby they are passed on to the
plant and is conveniently described as the soil solution.

Early in the history of agricultural science it was
realised that the soil itself contains a considerable stock
of the essential nutrients — nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash, so that it was difficult to understand why the
ordinary crop should ever be so short of these substances
that any further supply in the form of a fertiliser could

Alay 2jfh, igi4.

2 Hall, Hoiv does the Pla?it obtain its ?nitriuient ?

increase the yield. For example, a soil of less than
average fertility will contain 2,500 lb. of phosphoric acid
per acre in the surface layer down to a depth of nine
inches only, yet the crop of turnips will be very small
unless the soil is further supplied with 50 lb. per acre of
phosphoric acid in the shape of superphosphate, though
an ordinary full crop would contain no more than 30 lb.
of phosphoric acid per acre. In the light of these facts
Daubeny, as early as 1845, introduced a distinction
between the dormant and active plant food in the soil,
the latter being the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash
that are combined in such soluble forms as to be avail-
able for crop production. Nitrogen compounds in the soil
have to be resolved into ammonia and nitrates by bacterial
action before the plant can use them, and the rate at which
this change will take place depends upon a number of
factors, such as warmth, the amount of air and water
in the soil, the supply of lime, that are independent
of the total nitrogen supply in the soil. Daubeny even
attempted to discriminate between the dormant and
active phosphoric acid and potash by estimating the
amount of these constituents that would dissolve in a
very weak acid solution, but this method for determining
the proportion of active mineral plant food, though it
received a wide extension by the work of Dyer in 1894,
has failed to yield the information expected of it.
Speaking generally, analysis has failed to measure the
productivity of an unknown soil except in the most
general way, because it always reveals such an excess of
the essential nutriments over the amount the crop
can utilise.

A fresh point of view was introduced in 1903 by
Whitney and Cameron, the investigators in charge
of the Bureau of Soils of the United States Depart-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), ^Vc;. (J. 3

ment of Ajrriculture. Leaving out of account for the
moment the nitrogen compounds, they argued that all
soils are known to contain much the same compounds of
phosphoric acid and potash, in the former case combina-
tions with lime, iron and alumina, while potash finds its
place in certain complex hydrated double silicates of
alumina and the alkalis and alkaline earths. All these
compounds possess a low solubility, so low that the
amount of the solids present in any soil is always sufficient
to saturate the water contained in the soil. It may be
considered as established that plants draw their nutri-
ment only from the soil solution thus formed, and are not
capable of feeding directly upon solid compounds of
phosphoric acid and potash. Thus it would be a matter
of indifference to the plant whether the soil contained
0'2% or 0"05% of phosphoric acid ; in either case the soil
solution would be saturated with phosphoric acid, i.e., it
would contain the maximum amount in the dissolved
state that is in equilibrium with the solid compounds in
the soil, which ex JiypotJiesi in all soils are identical in kind
though not in quantity. All soils then should give rise
to a soil solution of equal concentration in phosphoric
acid and potash, and should have as regards these con-
stituents equal feeding powers for the crop. Moreover,
the addition of soluble phosphates or potash compounds in
the form of fertilisers should not sensibly disturb the com-
position of the soil solution, for the added soluble material
will, as is known, at once react with the bases in the soil and
pass into compounds identical with those already existing
in the soil, thus effecting no permanent change in the
concentration of the soil solution. The cardinal feature of
Whitney and Cameron's theory, then, is that all soils
must give rise to a soil solution of practically constant
composition. Furthermore, they argued on the basis of

4 Hall, Hoiv does the Plant obtain its luitriiiieiit ?

recorded experiments that the growth of the plant is in-
dependent of variations in the composition of the soil
solution, that provided, for example, there is some phos-
phoric acid in solution the plant will obtain all it can utilise
whether the concentration is 3 or 300 parts per million.
From these considerations they concluded that neither
the amount of phosphoric acid and potash in the soil nor
the further supply in fertilisers arc direct factors in the
nutrition of the crop, as is usually supposed. Since,
however, it cannot be dein"ed that fertilisers ha\e some
beneficial effect upon the crop, another mode of action must
be found for them, and Whitney and Cameron had recourse
to a theory originally suggested by de Candolle that plants
excrete and leave behind in the soil certain substances
toxic to themselves that will depress the renewed growth
of the same plant in the same soil. From this it would
follow that a judicious rotation, by giving time for the
specific toxin to decay before the particular crop comes
round again, would be as effective as a fertiliser in main-
taining the productivity of the soil. The fertilisers act by
precipitating, or otherwise putting out of action, these
toxins.

Man}' considerations make it difficult to accept so
novel a theory, but as the argument for a soil solution of
constant composition is a logical if too hard and fast a
deduction from accepted facts, it was decided to submit it
to the test of direct experiment.

Experimental.

The first line of attack was to test the nutritive power
of actual soil solutions derived from soils of known
origin, and accordingly solutions were made up from soils
selected from the wheat and barley plots at Rothamsted,
which had been growing these crops without break for

MnucJtcslcr Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 6. 5

the last half-century or more and had received the same
manurial treatment every year. The soil was taken fresh
from the field, added to such a volume of water as would
produce a mixture of 2C kilos dry soil and 35 kilos water,
left for a da)- and the solution filtered off. Pure lines
(to secure uniformity) of wheat and barley were grown in
these solutions, ten plants of each being grown in the
solution from each soil, and the solutions were renewed
fortnightl}- to ensure that the food supply was always
adequate. In order to confine the problem to the mineral
constituents only of the soils, the same amount of nitrate
of soda was added to each solution. From the outset,
growth proceeded much more vigorously in some solu-
tions than in others, the best plants being those growing
in the solutions from the soils that had been continuously
manured.

Table I. gives the average yield during the last ten
years on the plots from which the soils were taken.
Table II. gives the average weight of the wheat and
barley plants growing in the solution, while the diagram,
Text-fig. I, shows a comparison of the growth in the
solution with that in the field.

There can be no mistake about the significance of
these results : the growth in the solutions is strictly
parallel to the growth in the same soils in the field, if an
allowance is made for the nitrogen supplied to the solution
from the unmanured soil, which receives no nitrogen in
the field. The growths are such as would be expected
from the known history of the plots, and do not agree
with the idea that all soils yield solutions of the same
nutritive power.

The solutions themselves were next analysed with the
results set out in Table III., where also the analj'ses of
the soils are added for comparison. The composition of

Hall, How does the Plant obtain its nntrimeJit?

the solutions was found to vary in accordance with the
history and composition of the soils, and the growth in
the solutions is such as might be expected from their
composition.

A second set of experiments was then started in which
the deficiencies in the solutions from the unmanured and
partially manured soils were repaired by the addition of
phosphoric acid and potash, with the results set out in

Wheat. Barley.

Total Preduce
Lt).

ffeifiht of plant
2.0

•

' 1 5

1 1
1 i

1
1
1

1

1 !

1

i

1
1

1

1

1
1
1

1
«

1
1

1

1

!

1

1

Plot

11

1-0 2A 3A

7-2

Text-fig. I. Comparative yield of the crops in the field
(solid lines) and of the plants in the solutions from the same
soils (dotted lines).

Table IV. As wheat and barley had given identical
results in the first trials, the later experiments were
confined to barley.

From these figures it will be seen that the artificial
culture solution, which was calculated to be approxi-
mately equivalent to the soil solutions yielded by the
completely manured plots 4A and 7/2, yielded plants
whose weight (0763) was distinctly lower but of the
same order as those grown in the soil solutions

Manc/ifster Hfei/ioirs, J\>/, Iviii. (19 14), A^^. 0. 7

frcm the completely manured plots C0.963 and i'465).
The artificial culture solution of high concentration
yielded heavier plants (0943), approaching those obtained
in tile solutions from the completely manured soils,
though still below tiie maximum. The soil solutions
from the unmanured (1,0) and imperfectly manured plots
(2A) yielded plants of a much lower order of magnitude
(o'2i6 and 0"486). The addition of the missing nutri-
ents to the solutions from the imperfectly manured soils
produced growth approaching the maximum (r2i4 and
ri54) ; when the nutrients were added to set up the
higher concentration the growth produced was equal to
that obtained from the artificial culture solution of the
same concentration (o"974 and 0"925 against 0'943),
though still below the maximum. These results amply
confirm the conclusion drawn from the previous set of
experiments — that the growth of plants in the soil solu-
tions is in the main determined by the amount of plant
food the}' contain. One other point was suggested by the
results, that the soil solutions, particularly those from the
soil of the dunged plot, were better media for growth than
the artificial culture solutions of equivalent concentration,
possibl}' owing to the presence of soluble nitrogen com-
pounds specially valuable to the plant in the earlier stages
of growth. On the other hand it is unsafe to lay much
stress on such differences in weight as were exhibited in
the growth of the plants in the solutions regarded as
complete (0943, 1-214, 0-974, i'i54. 0-925, 0-963, 1-349,
1-465, 1-286).

In order to check the conclusions still further a third
series of experiments were made. A solution containing
per million 4-5 of phosphoric acid and 26 5 of potash was
taken as a standard, this being the approximate com-
position of the solutions of soils from the completely

8 Hall, How does tJie Plant obtaiji its mitrimcnt ?

manured plots of the barley fields 4A and 7/2. To the
solutions from the imperfectly manured plots (1,0, 2 A, 3 a),
phosphoric acid and potash were added in amounts
required to bring the proportion of these constituents up
to the standard, allowance being made for the small
amount already present derived from the soil.

The results of this series were in strict conformity
with those of the preceding series. The evidence was
slight for the presence in the soil solutions, even in those
from the dunged plot, of other substances favourable to
growth.

We may now consider how far these results bear on
the theory that crops leave behind in the soil specific
toxins which depress the growth of succeeding crops of
the same kind. In Series I. wheat and barley yielded
almost exactly the same weight of plant whether they
grew in solutions from the wheat or barley soils. (Table 1.)
As a rule, the wheat plants were a little heavier when
grown in the solutions from the barley soils than when
grown in solutions from the corresponding wheat soils
(3 compares v/ith 1,0, 1 1 with 2A, 7 with 4A, 2 with 7/2), but
the barley plants were similarly heavier in the solutions
from the barley soils. The ratio of root to shoot is very
close in the two sets. Again, wheat and barley grown in
the same solution yield weights agreeing within the range
of error of such experiments. These facts alone would
dismiss the hypothesis that the wheat soils contain any
soluble toxin injurious to wheat but not to barley, and
vice versa, notwithstanding the sixty years' repeated
growth of these crops in the same soils. In Series II. the
demonstration was pushed a stage further by including in
the comparison an artificial culture solution made from
pure salts, and containing phosphoric acid and potash in
the same proportions as the solutions from the completely

M ancJiester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 0. 9

manured plots. Another set of the soil solutions was
boiled before use, since boiling had been reputed to
destroy the toxin and would, at any rate, kill off any
bacteria that might be factors in the result. Lastly, in
another set the solutions were evaporated, the residue
ignited and dissolved afresh in a minimum quantity of
hydrochloric acid, then diluted to the original volume.

In this series boiling was without effect, whether the
solutions contained added nutrients or not ; the residue
left on evaporation, after ignition and revolution, gave
generally lower results, in some cases to a marked degree.
The soil solutions from completely manured plots gave
higher yields than the artificial solutions of corresponding
strength.

In order to ascertain whether the results were limited
in any way by the nature of the plant (it might be ob-
jected as regards Series I. that barley and wheat are so
closely akin as to excrete the same toxin), the experiments
in Series II. were repeated with sunflowers, white lupins,
and buckwheat. These plants are far from being so suitable
for experiment as barley, and the results were somewhat
erratic, but they in no way indicated the presence of a toxin
in the soil solution which depresses the growth of barley,
but ex hypoihesi'xs without effect on plants of another order.
Finally, in Series III., both barley and peas grew freely in
the soil solutions from the completely manured plots and
in the solutions from the incompletely manured plots
after repair of the deficiency by adding salts as in the
artificial solutions made up with pure salts. Indeed, the
superiority, though hardly large enough to be significant,
lay with the plants grown in the soil solutions. Thus the
experiments yielded no evidence of the existence in soils
on which a particular plant had been growing for sixty
years and upwards of a soluble " toxin " having a
depressing effect upon the growth of that plant.

10 Hall, Hmv does the Plan! obtain its nutriment ?

The next stajje in the investigation was to asceitaiti
how far the concentration of tlie nutrient solution had an
effect upon the growth of the plant. A standard solution
was made up and diluted to 1, -iVj ^^tcI ^V respectively,
barley being again the plant selected for growth. From
the very outset growth proceeded in the order of the
concentration of the solutions, but the results might be
open to the objection that the solutions became exhausted
and the final state of the plants had been limited b}"- the
amount of food at the plants' disposal.

Another series was then arranged on the same lines,
except that the solutions were renewed weekl}-, so as to
secure that the plant always had some nutriment at its
disposal.

The photographs {PL /., Figs, i & 2) representing early
and late stages in the development of these plants,
sufficiently indicate that the rate of growth depended
directly upon the concentrations of the solutions and not
merely upon the amount of food available for the plant.

Two further series of trials were then carried out, in
which the plants were grown in coarse sand contained in
vertical glass cylinders, through which the nutritive
solution of var}'ing concentrations was allowed to percolate
slowly, so that the roots were alwa}'s in contact with a
constantly renewed solution of the concentration indicated.
Again, the photographs, PI. 11. , may be taken as sufficient
indication of the character of the results obtained, which
confirmed the conclusion that within certain wide limits
the concentration of the nutritive solution is a factor in
the rate of plant growth, irrespective of the total amount
of plant food available.

The main purpose of the investigation had now
indeed been attained. Actual soil solutions made from
known soils had been found to vary in composition in

Manchester Meuwirs, ]\^L iviii. (^\()\d,). No. 0. II

accordance with the composition of the soils. Further, the
rate of growth either in these soil solutions or in others
artificially made up of varying concentration had been
found to depend both on the composition and the concen-
tration, and no evidence had come to light of the existence
in soils in which barlej^ or wheat had been grown for many
years in succession of the presence of toxic substances in-
jurious to these plants. The last experiments, however, had
raised an interesting side issue. One might conceive that
even if the normal soil solution be of constant composition
the rate at which it will be renewed after depletion by the
growing plant will vary with the actual amount of solid
compounds of phosphoric acid and potash in the soil. The
root hairs of the plant will exhaust the solution with which
they are in contact ; then since the water in the soil exists
in a state of thin films coating the soil particles so much
time might elapse during the travel of the nutrients from
the points of solution along the extensive film to the root
hairs that in a soil deficient in phosphoric acid and potash
the plant might always be less well nourished than in a
richer soil in which the length of travel of the nutrients
was smaller. To test this point, the nutrient solutions of
varied concentration employed in the last series of ex-
periments in bottles were also diffused as a thin film over
a mass of sand, until the sand was sensibl}' damp, but no
liquid could be squeezed out of it. The jars of sand
contained exactly the same bulk of solution as the
bottles ; they were weighed regularly and pure water
added as required. The photograph, PL III. (exactly
comparable with Pi /.), shows the results obtained, which
were unexpected, in that all the cultures in sand were
much better than the cultures in solutions of the same
concentration and amount in bottles (see Table VI.),
though they showed the same variation of growth with

12 Hall, Hoiv docs the Plant obtain its nutriment ?

concentration. Exactly the same results were obtained
when the experiment was repeated, but the nutrients
were placed in narrow porous pots sunk in the sand, in
order to ensure that the nutrients must diffuse before
they could reach the roots.

There was thus no depression of growth due to slow-
ness of diffusion of the nutrients along the water film on
sand particles, but it might be supposed that such lag
would become operative in the extended film that must
exist on the far finer particles found in an ordinary soil.
Accordingly a large quantity of sandy .soil was graded
into coarse sand as before, fine sand consisting of particles
between 02 and 0*04 m/m. in diameter, and silt between
004 and 001 m/m. Pure kaolin was taken to represent a
clay material largely constituted of still finer particles.
The same solution was diffused over all the materials.
1 he experiment was twice repeated, and the growth in all
the solid media was superior to that in the same volume
of solution in a bottle, so that the possibility of a retar-
dation of growth due to slowness of diffusion may be
dismissed. The photograph, however {PI. IV.), shows that
the growth in the sand was the best, next that in the
kaolin, while those in the fine sand and silt fell much
behind.

Why should the growth in the sand cultures be so
much better than in the equivalent solutions contained in
bottles ? We were led to suspect that differences in the
aeration of the roots might be the disturbing factor. The
sand when properly wetted remains in a very open state,
with large air spaces between the aggregates, and the roots
could be observed traversing the whole medium freely.
The kaolin preserved a very similar structure, whereas
the fine sand and silt quickly settled down to a close
mass. The appearance of the roots after they had been

Mixncliestcr MeiHoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. i\. 13

washed out of the sand, etc. (see photograph PL V.),
showed that they had been able to develop freely in the
coarse sand and kaolin but had been greatly restricted in
the fine sand and silt. Comparative water cultures were
then arranged, in which one series were not aerated at all,
whereas in the other bottles a continuous current of air
was bubbled through the solutions. The experiment was
repeated with barley and lupins, and the results obtained
are sufficiently seen from the photograph, P/. VI., of a
typical pair of aerated and non-aerated cultures.

These results are convincing as to the enormous gain
to the plant from continuous aeration of the root, and to
this factor alone may be set down the superiority of the
cultures in solid media over the ordinary water cultures
in which the aeration is not continuous.

Though several minor points remained for considera-
tion they need not be here discussed, as they did not in
any way modify the main results already set out.

The conclusions can only be regarded as entirely
adverse to the theory of Whitney and Cameron. That
begins by postulating a soil solution of constant com-
position in saturated equilibrium with the phosphates and
potash compounds which, though varying in amount,
should be practically identical in all soils. The solutions
from the Rothamsted soils were, however, found to
vary in composition in accord with their past manurial
history. Thus we must conclude that the compounds
of phosphoric acid and potash in the soil are by no
means .so simple and definite as they had been
supposed, but vary within wide limits in their solu-
bility according to their origin and the nature of
the general mass of soil particles. Furthermore,
the growth of the plant varied directly, though not
proportionally, with the concentration (within wide limits)

14 Hall, Hoxv does the P/aui oh lain its viiiyinient ?

of the solution with which its roots were in contact,
and the growth in the soil solutions corresponded to the
composition of the solutions, which in its turn agreed
with the composition of the soils. That concentration
of the nutrient solution, independent of the total amount
of plant food available, is a factor in plant growth is a
new point in plant physiology which had not previously
been expected. Finally, no evidence could be found for
the presence in the soil of specific toxic substances
excreted by the plant and injurious to the repeated
growth of the same plant, even in the case of soils which
had grown the same plant for fift}- or more years in
succession.

From the point of view of agricultural chemistry, the
net result of these investigations is to restore our earlier
view of the direct nutrition of the plant by fertilisers and
fertilising substances in the soil. The composition of the
soil solution which determines the growth of the plant is
dependent on the amount and on the mode of combina-
tion of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the
soil, both of which are affected by the fertiliser supply,
though in what manner and to what degree is not yet
exactly determinable.

Mtuichesier Memoirs^ Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. tt. 15

\ V

Table I.
lELD OF WHEAT AND BARLEY, ROTHAMSTED, 1902-11.

character of Mamniiig.

Wheat-

-Broadbalk.

Barley— Hoos.

Plot.

Yi

3ld per acre.

Plot.

Yield per acre.

Grain.
Bush el.s.

Straw,
cwt.

Total

Produce.

lb.

Grain.
Bushels.

straw,
cwt.

Total

Produce.

lb.

Un manured

continuously

3

109

9-6

180I

1,0

93

6-2

1276

N only, no l^.Og.

K,0

10

18-4

i5"o

3256

—

—

—

—

. N + P,A

II

I9"2

21-8

3778

2 A

29 7

i9'3

3972

N + K,0

—

—

—

3--^

20-3

15-6

2985

Complete arificial

fertiliser

7

31-0

35"5

6015

1

4A

38-4

25"3

5<^87

Dung every year. .

2

35-1

40-8

6925

7/2

443

31-6

6184

i6 Hall, Hoiv does the Plajit obtain its mitriinent ?

Table II.

GROWTH OF WHEAT AND BARLEY IN SOLUTIONS OF

ROTHAMSTED SOILS. SERIES I., 191 1.

MEAN DRY WEIGHT IN GRAMS.

Soil.

i Wlieat.

Barley.

Shoot.

Root.

Total.

Ratio.
Shoot

Shoot.

Root.

Total.

Ratio.
Shoot

Wheat, Plot 3

Root

Root

o"i7o

0-135

o"3o5

1-26

0-2I2

0-105

0-317

2-02

„ 10

o'i57

0-127

0-284

1-24

O-I71

o-ioi

0-272

1-69

5) „ II

0-598

0-260

0-858

2-30

0.660

o"i75

0-835

3-77

)> )) 7

0-923

0-448

i'37i

206

1-302

0-442

1-744

2-95

2

i"i37

0-425

1-562

2-68

1-249

0-377

1-626

3-31

Barley, Plot 1,0

0-240

0-169

0-409

1-42

0-264

0-138

0-402

i-9£

5) >» 2A

0-476

0-199

0-675

2*39

o-6ii

0-137

0747

4-46

,. 3A

0-208

0-201

0-409

1-03

0-275

o'l 19

0-394

1

2 31

J. )) 4A

1-203

0-627

1-830

1-92 j

1-600

0-477

2-077

3-35

„ 7/2

^■195

0-511

1-706

2-34

I "364

0-486

1-850

2-81

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. i». 17

Tai:lk III.

COMPOSITION OF SOIL SOLUTIONS AND SOILS.—
ROTHAMSTKl).

Phosphoric Acid.

Manure
annual

Potai-h.

Manure
annual

Soil

Soil.

Soil.

Field and Plot

solu-

supply

Soil

supply-

tion

parts

per

million.

Total

Citiic

Acid

soluble

lb.
per
acre.

1 solu-
tion.

Total

Citric

Acid

soluble

lb.
per
acre.

Wheat, Plot

3

0-656

O-II4

O-CO78

0

3-64

0-220

00032

0

>' It

10

0-881

0*123 00074

j

0

\ 3'5S

0-240

0-0032

0

») 1 J

II

3-839

0-197 00405

60

' 3'88

0-197

0-0032

0

») )»

7

3-938

0-195 0-0547

60

^ 2622

0-262

00232

100

)) ))

2 4-838

0-215

0-0560

46

1 29-85

0-285

0-0384

60

Barley, Plot

1,0

0-525

0009

0-0055

0

3-40

0-183

0-0036

0

)) ))

2A

3-900

0-I73

0-0425

60

388

0-248

0-0023

0 1

)) 11

3A

0-808

0-102

0-0081

0

l3o'33

0-257

0-0407

100

)) 5)

4A

4025

0-182

0-0500

60

24-03

0-326

0-0298

100

)) ))

7/2

4-463

0-1761 0-0447

46

26-45

0-167

00321

60

1 8 Hall, Hoiu docs the Plant obtain its nutrintent ?

Tablk IV.

GROWTH OF ILARLEY IN SOLUTIONS FROM HOOS

PARLEY PLOTS. SERIES IL, 1912.

Nature of Solution.

1 ' Artificial culture solution, low concen-

tration

4 : Artificial culture, high concentiation...

2 I Soil solution, Plot 1,0, unmanured. ..

Soil solution, Plot 1,0, + added salts,
low concentration

Soil solution, Plot 1,0, + added salts,
high concentration

Soil solution, Plot 2A, lacking potash

Soil solution, Plot 2Aj + added salts,
low concentration

Soil solution, Plot 2A, + added salts,
high concentration

Soil solution, Plot 4A, complete fertil-
iser

Soil solution. Plot 4A, -1- added salts,
H.C

Soil solution. Plot 7/2, dunged

Soil solution. Plot 7/2, dunged, -f added
salts, H.C

Koot. Total.

o'SM I o"249

o 652 ! 0'29I

0-763

o'943

O'l 16 Q-IOO ! 0-2 16

0-865 i o'349i I '2 14

0-677 i 0-297
o'353 i 0133

0-974
0-486

0795 o'359i '■•54

i

06 1 9 i 0-306 i 0-925

0-685 I o'278| o'963

0-926
1-069

0-S14

0423 I ["349
o'396i I 465

0-472 i'2S6

Ratio
Shoot.

2-06
2-24

ri6

2-48

2-28
2-65

2-47

2-19

2-70

173

COMPOSITION OF SOLUTIONS.

Nutrients, parts per million.

l^rom Soil.

From adiled
Salts.

r.,o.

K.O

P.O.

KjO

1

2

3

4

5

Artificial culture solution
Soil solution

Nil.
^0-6

Nil.
as (2)

Nil.
to \

26-7J

Nil.
as(2)

47

Nil.

4'5
3^3-5

303-5

26-7

Nil.

26-5
312-4

312-4

Low concentration.
Varies with plot.

Varies with addi-
tions as required. 1
High concentration.

High concentration.

Soil solution, with added
salts

Artificial culture solution

Soil solution, with added
salts

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. C 19

Table V.

BARLEY AND PEAS IN SOLUTIONS FROM HOOS FIELD
BARLEY SOILS. SERIES III., 191 2.

Artificial
culture
solution.

Plot 1,0,
unmanured.

Plot 2a,
lacking:
potash.

Plot 3a,
lacking-
phosphoric
acid.

Plot 4a,
complete
manure.

Plot 7/2,
dunged

Parts per million.

Phosphoric acid in original
solution

4-5

o"52S

3 '90

o-8o8

4-025

4*463

Potash in original solution.

26"5

3"4o

3-88

30"35

24-03

26-45

Nature of solution.

I

)ry weigh

t of Plant.

Barley —

Solution only

0-319

0-I49

0-213

0-167

0*303

0-403

,. +N

0*292

0-149

0*226

0-184

0-346

0-404

„ + N, PA and
K..0 to standard

—

0'420

o"395

0-323

„ + N + standard
, P.,().,andK.,0

0-366

0-435

0*400

0-364

0-358

0-438

Peas-
Solution only

1731

1-082

i-i84

1-192

1-449

1-630

,. +N

T 524

i'i57

1-404

I 335

1-720

1743

„ + N, P.O5 and
KijO to standard

—

2-299

rSoo

1-961

—

,, + N + standard
P.,05 and K,,0

1-769

2"553

2 493 '

2136

2-157

2-182

20 Hall, Hotv does the Plant obtain its nutriment ?

Table VI.

COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF BARLEY IN SAND
AND WATER CULTURES OF EQUAL
CONCENTRATION.

!

Concentration of Solution.

Dry weight of plant.

i

Water.

Sand. '

Gms.

Gms.

I

'•655

7-050

)j

2-075

4-200

1/5

i'245

3539

)>

1-492

3031

i/io

1-030

3"i7i

j>

o'943

2-882

1/20

o-68i

•■556

II

0-537

^•437

22 Hall, Hozv does the Plant obtain its nutriment ?

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I. Growth of barley in solutions of varying concentration
but similar composition. Fig. i after 8 weeks.
Fig. 2 after 4 weeks.

Plate II. Growth of barley in similar solutions diffused over
sand particles. Fig. i after 8 weeks. Fig. 2 after
4 weeks.

Plaie HI. Growth of barley in sand through which solutions of
varying concentration were percolating.

Plate IV. Growth of barley in coarse sand, fine sand, silt,
kaolin, and water, the solution being of the same
concentration in all.

Plate V. Lupins grown under similar conditions to the barley
\n Plate IV., the roots washed free of the medium.

Plate VI. Barley grown in nutrient solutions aerated once a
day (left) and continuously aerated (right).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L I'll I. ^No. i»).

Plate I.

/-». I.

Fi9. 2.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L VIII. {No. 6)

PL II.

Fh. I.

Fi9. 2.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L VIII. {No. 6).

Plate III.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L VITI. {No. 6).
t

Plate IV.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L Vlll. {No. «>).

Plate V.

I. Coarse Sand. 2. Fine Sand. 3. Silt. 4. Kaolin. 5 Water.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L VII 1. {No. 6).

Plate VL

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 1.

VII. Some notes on the measurement of air velocities,
pressures and volumes.

By William Cramp, M.I.E.E., M.Sc.Tech.

{Received and read J'amia>y i^th, igi4.)

I. Measurement of Air Velocity.

The measurement of air velocity is usually carried
out by means of an anemometer or a so-called " facing
gauge" and manometer. The former is well known, and
may give fairly accurate results if sufficient precautions
are taken. Thus to obtain the air velocity at any point
in an air duct many readings must be taken and the
results averaged. To obtain the average velocity over a
given section of a duct, many positions over the section
must be selected and several readings taken at each,
when a proper average may be obtained. To attempt
such a series, however, is often impracticable, for the
following reasons : —

(i) The anemometer is not a small instrument, and
its very presence in the duct is often sufficient
to falsify the normal condition in the duct.

(2) The reading is often required at a position within
a pipe where the anemometer cannot be seen
at all, much less handled. The absurdity of
relying, on it in such a case is obvious when it
is remembered that it must be used in con-
junction with a stop watch, and that the plane
of its wheel must be normal to the current
measured.

May 26th, igi4.

2 Cramp, Measurement of Air Velocities.

(3) Acceleration and retardation must exist in con-

nection with the wheel, so that the operator
never knows in timing it when it attained its
final in the duct.

(4) Friction must make an enormous difference to its

readings, and it is impossible to eliminate this
or to make it follow any definite law.

Thus in nine cases out of ten occurring in ordinary
practice the anemometer is unreliable. The sole instance
in which it may be of use is that in which the Admiralty
adopt it, viz., to measure the volume of air at the
open end of a tube carrying air, by a series of velocity
readings taken uniformly over the open end. Generally
speaking, the author has found it entirely unsatisfactory,
and he regards it more as an indicator than a scientific
instrument.

The facing gauge consists of a tube with one end
square with its axis placed or shaped so that this end
faces the current to be measured, the other end being
connected to a manometer. If the other end of the
manometer be open to atmosphere, the pressure registered
will be the sum of the static head above or below atmos-
phere at the gauge tip and the kinetic head due to the
velocity at the same place. Thus the manometer reading

where h is the static head of air, v its velocity, and p and p^
the densities of air and the manometer fluid respectively.
Since p and p^ are usually known with sufficient accuracy,
V can be deduced if h is known, and the instrument being
small and accurate it can be used where anemometers are
impossible. Now careful tests show that/ can be obtained
accurately if the facing tube be {a) small in diameter, {b)

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 7- 3

shaped so as to disturb the stream lines as Httle as
possible. These are conditions easy of fulfilment.

It very often happens, however, that /t is of the same
order as v'l2g, whence great inaccuracies result in deducing
V unless h can be measured very accurately, or eliminated
by using the facing gauge at practically atmospheric
pressure. The latter, however, is often impossible, and
it is thus necessary to measure h accurately. So the
accurate measurement of velocity is seen to depend upon
the accurate measurement of static head or pressure.

II. Measurement of Air Pressure {h).

Measurement of pressure is usually attempted by pro-
viding an orifice whose plane is as nearly as possible
parallel to the stream lines at that point, this orifice being
in communication by means of a small tube with a bour-
don gauge, manometer or other instrument of a similar
nature. Since the insertion of such a tube in the stream
itself tends to disturb the stream lines, it is usual to make
both tube and orifice as small as possible. So long as
the effect of any disturbance due to the presence of the
tube is small compared with the pressure measured, such
a method is satisfactory and practical. But there are
very many circuits in which this is not the case, particu-
larly when the velocity of the air stream far exceeds the
limit of steady flow. Then is observed that phenomenon
known as " induction effect," which is in reality a lower-
ing of the pressure to be recorded by a counter pressure
due to the rush of the fluid past the orifice. This effect
may be so large as to mask altogether, or even to reverse
the true pressure reading, and no change in the form or
sensitiveness of the gauge will help matters. Thus, with
air circuits for ventilation and dust-collecting purposes,
where the total pressure above or below atmosphere does

4 Ckamv, Measuteinefit of Air Velocities.

not exceed about lo in. of water while velocities of 40 ft, to
70 ft. per second are common, a good deal of trouble may
be experienced, and the characteristics of ordinary centri-
fugal and propeller fans are often falsified by the- error
referred to.

Now Heenan and Gilbert, in 1895,* published some
careful tests on various orifices or tips with the object of
discovering one that would reduce these disturbing effects
to a minimum. The tips which they used are illustrated

Fig. I.

in their paper, and the method of test consisted in attaching
the tip to a long arm, which was rotated in a circular tank
7 ft. in diameter, provided with baffles to reduce the move-
ment of air in the tank. Free communication was estab-
lished by means of a special tube between the tip under
test and a recording water gauge. In this way, if there
were no induction the reading of the gauge should cor-
respond with the pressure due to the centrifugal force ot
the air in the rotating tube. From the speed the value
of the latter could be exactly calculated, and thus the
inductive effect was deduced. The best results were
* PiOL.Inst.C.E.,\'o\. cxxiii., pt. i.

Manchester Me)iioirs, Vol. Iviii. ( 1 9 1 4), No. 7. 5

obtained with the tip shewn in Fig. i, and so this was
adopted throughout their subsequent work.

The gauge, however, which Messrs. Heenan and
Gilbert used would only read to 1/44 of an inch of water,
and further, by their very method of adopting baffles
they reduced the movement of the air. This, while
tending to increase the inductive action on the tip, would
also tend to produce a condition of the air quite different
from that existing in air having the same relative velocity
with respect to a stationary gauge.

Some three years ago the author had occasion to test
accurately a number of fans, and he very soon discovered
that the tip recommended by Heenan and Gilbert gave
results inconsistent with its supposed accuracy. He
therefore determined to test it, if possible, by a method in
which the conditions should be those existing in the ex-
periments which he was about to carry out. To obtain
such a method was, however, very difficult, as it involved
separating the true pressure from the " induction effect "
without being able to determine the actual value of the
latter. Since the equation was : —

Measured pressure = true static head + induction effect.
The only possible method seemed to be that of measuring
the pressure at a point where the true static head was
known. Now the only value of the latter that could be
properly known was zero : and an apparatus was therefore
constructed in which a zero point could be found, and
which was of such a size as to be a test under practical
conditions.

Apparatus. This consisted of an ordinary six-bladed
centrifugal fan having a wheel 6^/^ in. wide at the outer peri-
phery, and 1 8 in. in diameter over the blades. The case was
properly constructed with diffuser and volute, the latter
having a mean outside diameter of 30 in. The eye was 10 in.

6 Crkiav, Measurement of Air Velocities.

in diameter, and the outlet 9 in. in diameter. An air circuit
was made up of an isosceles triangle of 9 in. tinned iron
piping. At the junction of the two equal sides was placed
the fan, drawing from one side and delivering into the
other, the length of these sides being 29 ft. The length of
the base of the triangle was 33 ft. 8 in., and this was joined
to the sides by two bends (forming the angles of the base)
each 10 ft. in diameter. It is evident that somewhere near
the middle point of the base of such a circuit the true pres-
sure must be atmospheric, and accordingly a slot, 7/16 in.
wide and 2 ft. long, was provided at the middle of the base
and fitted with a sliding cover so that various gauges could
be inserted and moved for a distance of ift. on either side
of the central point. It was argued then that any gauge
reading zero at one point, and with one velocity, should
read zero at all velocities at that point if there were no
induction.

This argument is not quite sound unless the whole
air circuit be truly symmetrical, which in practice can
never be the case. If, however, the circuit can be adjusted
so that under any circumstances an increase of velocity
tends to move the zero point towards the outlet of the
fan, then induction and zero-movement are of the same
sign with increasing velocity ; and consequently that tip
which with increasing velocity shows the smaller change
of reading will be the least affected by induction.

It is easy by slides at the inlet and outlet of the fan
to arrange the conditions under which the zero will move
slightly as required above, and this was done for all the
experiments.

Instruments. It will be clear that for such measure-
ments manometers were required of a far more delicate
nature than those used by Heenan and Gilbert. The
apparatus selected was a Krell micromanometer having two

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 7. 7

inclinations, viz., 1/20 and 1/4. These give corresponding
multiplications. The fluid used was alcohol of specific
gravity 08. The gauge can be read easily to | m/m.,
and this corresponds therefore to approximately 1/40 m/m.
or 1/1200 inch. An interesting point is that with such
readings no ordinary glass tube is sufficiently accurate,
and the scale must be made to the instrument to counter-
act irregularities in the bore of the tube.

The following tips were selected for tests : —
(i) A disc gauge exactly like that of Heenan and
Gilbert.

(2) A disc gauge with a tin disc 2^ in. diam.

(3) A disc gauge „ „ ifin. „

(4) A Nipher collector. (Fig: 2.)

(5) A Brabbee tube. (Fig;: 3.)

(6) A side tube 1/16 in, diameter, with orifice flush with

the pipe wall.

The Nipher and Brabbee tubes were included because
they are the latest instruments in use in Germany for the
purpose. The side tube was used for two reasons :
firstly, because being in the pipe wall it should be very
free from induction, because the air velocity is so much
lower there ; secondly, because it was strongly recom-
mended to the author by Mr. S. C. Davidson, of Belfast,
who has done much good work in this direction.

The Nipher collector (Fig: 2) is a disc gauge made up
of a number of discs of gauze held between two plates.
The air passing into the central tube a (Fig. 2) must
pass through the holes h in the outer disc and thence
through the gauze. The Brabbee tube will be seen from
Fig. 3 to consist of a side gauge, combined with a facing
gauge. Pressure readings are taken from the pipe a,
which is in communication with the holes//. Ifthepartof
the tube containing the holes // is parallel with the air duct

Cramp, Measurement of Air Velocities.

and the end n faces the current, the stream lines passing
the tiny holes // must be parallel with the tube, and little
induction effect is to be anticipated.

As a general result it may be stated that the side
gauge and the Brabbee tube read practically alike
throughout, and their readings are therefore placed in one

«H

lAVERS OF GADZE.

P'g- 3-

column. Again, Nos. i and 2 read practically alike
throughout, and they are accordingly placed together.
No. 3 was never as good as either i or 2, and its readings
are therefore omitted. The Nipher collector was found
to be so inaccurate that its use was abandoned. An
example of the readings obtained with it is, however,
given below. All the preliminary tests are omitted from
the following tables, which simply give sample tests
showing the order of the differences obtained. For each
table the slides at the fan inlet and outlet were carefully

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 7. c,

Experiments with Side Gauge Tips.

Apparent induction at a point at ivhich the Brabbee gauge f;ave

zero reading at 6' 8 mjsec.

Velocity.

Brabbee Tube.

Disc Tip.

Nipher Collector.

ni/sec.

Reading ni/m.

Reading ni/m.

Reading nm/m.

680

— 0

-0-150

7-15

- 0

-0-150

779

-0-025

- 0-200

8-54

-0-050

-0-250

8-68

-0-050

-0-250

8-97

-0-050

- 0-250

9"45
Difference 2*65

- 0-075

-0-275
-0-125

-0-075

lO'OO

- 0

-045

-1-975

I IIO

-0-05

- 0-60

-2-30

11-50

-0-075

-0-725

-2-875

I2-l6

-0-150

-0-775

-3-35

12-98

-0-175

- I -00

-3 60

1345

- 0-I75

- 1. 00

-3825

14-0

-0-025

-1-075

-4-225

14-48

-0-275

-1-25

-4-505

15-02

-0-375

-1-35

- 5-00

Difference 5-02

-0-375

- 0-90

-4-025

Second set of experiments — Zero determitied by disc gauge.
JVhirl prevented by wooden cross in the inlet.

Disc

Brabbee

Disc

Brabbee

Velocity.

Reading.

Reading.

Velocity.

Reading.

Reading.
+ 0-375

5-73

— 0

+ 0-075

9-29

0

6-00

- 0

+ 0-050

9*73

0

+ 0400

6-66

-0-025

+ 0-050

10-62

-0-025

+ 0-425

693

-0-075

+ 0-050

11-68

-0-050

+ 0-450

7-08

-0-075

+ ©■050

1 1 80

-0-075

+ 0475

7-42

-0-075

4- 0-025

12-38

-0-075

+ 0500

Diff'

7-80

-0075

+ 0-025

13-09

-0125

+ 0-500

rence 2 07

-0-075

+ 0-05

380

- 0100

+ 0-135

readings above atmosphere, - below.

lO Qkkui?, Measurement of Air Velocities.

set, and velocity changes were then obtained by means of
the shunt motor driving the fan, the speed being varied
by means of a shunt resistance.

The velocity readings in these tables were obtained
by a carefully-constructed facing gauge forming part of
the Brabbee tube. The disturbance caused by this tube
in the current of air is probably less than that due to any
other form of tip, its tapered and thin shape allowing the
air to flow smoothly past it with little eddying. A further
advantage is that the actual velocity and pressure are
measured at nearly the same point in the air stream.

Criticism of Results.

In the first series of figures the difference in reading
between the Brabbee and the Disc tip is nearly imm. as
a maximum, and this would mean an error in the velocity
of nearly 30%, so that the question of the accuracy of the
pressure gauge is of enormous importance. The readings
generally showed so much more difference than I antici-
pated that I sought for a reason. I found that the air
many feet before the eye of the fan showed a whirling
motion due to change of direction on entering the eye.
This is a curious fact which was hardly to be expected,
and shews that air behaves much more like an elastic
solid than might have been anticipated. The distance
along the pipe from the eye at which this whirl had con-
siderable effect was as much as 20 feet. I therefore in-
serted just before the eye of the fan a wooden cross about
4 inches wide, forming four guide blades to prevent
rotation of the air. The results are shown in the second
series, and clearly indicate hat this whirl affected the
Brabbee very little compared with the disc.

The total differences are shewn at the bottom of the
columns. When these are worked out per metre change

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hnii. {\gi^), No. H. ii

in air velocity they shew the great superiority of the
Brabbee tube over any other form of side gauge except
that which is flush with the pipe wall. The disadvantages
of the latter are very apparent For, firstly, in a commercial
pipe system it is utterly impracticable to bore holes at
all sorts of places for pressure measurement, and to
render pipes in such holes absolutely flush with the inner
duct surface. Another disadvantage lies in the im-
possibility of getting a pressure measurement at the same
point as the velocity measurement, which is sometimes
of considerable importance.

The Brabble tube combines the pressure and velocity
tubes in a single portable and accurate apparatus, which
can be inserted at any hand hole or other accessible place
in the air circuit.

Tests on Accuracy of Position.

It will be realised that where tubes like the Brabbee,
Nipher or Pneumometer (see Fig. 5) are used, the position
of the tube with respect to the pipe conveying the air may
make a considerable difference. I made a few tests on this
matter with the disc gauge, the Brabbee tube, and the
Nipher collector by placing each in turn in the air pipe
at a particular place, and keeping the air conditions con-
stant. In the first instance each tube was set as accurately
in its proper position as careful measurements would
allow, and having taken pressure readings by this means
the tube was moved through various angles to ascertain
the effect on the pressure measurement of errors in setting.
The angles were not very carefully measured, because the
result of even a small movement of one or two degrees
was sufficient to show that the Brabbee tube was the only
one which gave readings of even approximate consistency,
I believe that in the setting of this tube (as far as pressure

12 QwKViV, Measurement of Air Velocities.

is concerned), an angular error of even lo" is not of very
great importance. Of course for velocity readings the
end of the facing gauge must not be displaced by more
than about one degree.

III. Measurement of Air Volumes.

When the average air velocity over any given section
of a pipe is known the volume of air passing that
section per second can easily be determined by measuring
the pipe. But the average velocity cannot easily be
measured ; for even where accuracy in velocity measure-
ment can be obtained it is a long and trying process to
take measurements all over the section in order to obtain
the average. To avoid the necessity for this, it is very
usual to measure the velocity at the centre of the pipe
and to allow a coefficient of contraction thus : —

Area of pipe section X velocity at centre X ^ = volume
of air per second where t= coefficient of contraction
allowed.

The value of c seems to vary considerably with
different authors, although a small change in its value
is of enormous importance in measuring, for instance, the
efficiency of a fan. The values adopted by different
authorities seem to vary between 065 and 09. The
latter, I believe, is adopted by Davidson, while the former
is used by Innes.*

In order to test the accurac}' of such figures in pipe
circuits, I took a series of tests in a pipe 9 in. in diameter
by means of a Brabbee tube and micromanometer. For
each set of tests about ten positions of the tube were tried,
and velocities ranging from 6 to 9 metres per second were
adopted.

The result is shown in Fig. 4, whilst Table I. gives
the ratio average flux per unit area -f central flux per

* " 1 he Pan," first edition, p. 36.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 1. 13

Tests on Rate of Flow at Different Parts of Pipe Section.
Diameter of Pipe at this point = 8{r".

I 234 567

Velocity in Metres per Second.
Fig. 4.

Table I.
Coefficients of Velocity

Round Tube 8f" inside diameter.

No. of Cui've.

Mean Vel. lu./sec.

Vel. at centre.

c.

I

6-i8

6-89

0-8

2

6-98

772

0-9

3

775

8-53

0-9

4

8-28

9*i6

0-9

5

8-69

9-42

0S8

14 Cramp, Measurement of Air Velocities.

unit area expressed above as c* It will be seen that
the value of c varies slightly with change of velocity,
but that the least value measured was little less than
0'9. With no slip at the boundaries, and assuming
the value of yu for air to be constant (as it is practically
if the temperature be constant) the curves shown in
Fig. 4 should be parabolas, in which case the value of c
would be 0'5. It is very clear that over an area of
diameter = about half the pipe diameter, the velocity in all
the tests is extremely uniform, and that the difference in
the value of c is due more to the slope of the velocity
curve from the edge of this diameter to the boundary than
to any uniform change over the pipe area as a whole.

It is also worth while remarking that in the case of
pipes carrying water the ratio c is of the order 0"85.

Note on the Fneumometer,

Recently there has been introduced into Germany
an instrument for velocity measurements known as the
Fneumometer. It was originally invented by Dr. Krell,
but a more convenient and more recent form is that
invented by Dr. Prandtl {Fig. 5). The chief advantage
of the latter lies in the fact that it may be used in a
stream of air carrying considerable quantities of dust
without becoming choked. The construction of the
instrument is clear from the figure, and its action is as
follows : —

When a circular lamina or disc e is immersed in a
moving stream of fluid there is a small region on either
side of the lamina where the fluid is at rest. If the plane
of the lamina be at right angles to the stream, this region

* Note. — If the velocity = (?>);- where r is the radius, the total flux
— J 2'nf {(p)rdr ; in the table the integration has, of course, been carried out

graphically as <p is very complex.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 1. 15

of " dead water " will be about the centre of the disc and
on either side of it, and will be bounded by a surface of
discontinuity.

On that side of the disc which faces the current, the
pressure of the still fluid is given by the formula :

and may be measured by a manometer in connection with
the small tube d.

Fig. 5.
On the opposite side of the disc the pressure is lower
than this in the ratio of i : 0'37. This has been tested at
many velocities, and the ratio proved to be constant.
Thus when the two tubes of the Pneumometer c and d are
connected to the two ends of a manometer respectively, the
pressure which the latter reads is :

1 6 Cramp, Measurement of Air Velocities.

From which it is evidently easy to determine the velocity
from the manometer reading.

The great advantage of the instrument is that static
head is entirely eliminated, and the velocity is measured
practically independently of any other condition. Thus,
if the manometer be read in millimetres and the velocity
in metres per sec. for o° C. and 760 m/m Bar. the con-
stant is : —

^' = 3-33 VA
while for 15° C. it becomes : —

t;=3.4i Jp.

I have not been able to carry out careful tests with
this instrument, but so far as I have been able to use it
it agrees well with the Brabbee tube measurements, and
therefore it must be fairly accurate.

Where clean gases are being dealt with, the form of
Pneumometer invented by Krell is likely to be more
accurate than that invented by Prandtl ; for the former
has no obstruction near the disc which can vary the
pressure or cause eddy readings. Where, however, as is
usually the case, there is dust in the stream, the small
holes in the middle of the disc are liable to become
choked, and its superior theoretical construction is then
less useful than the more practical form of the other
inventor. In the latter case it will be noted that even
large pieces of material in the air would not influence the
reading so long as the instrument is not damaged.

My acknowledgments are due to Messrs. Henry
Simon, Ltd., who placed at my disposal the apparatus here
mentioned, and to Mr. C. P. Kinnimonth, B.Sc.Tech., my
assistant, who took many of the readings and helped me
in every possible way.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 8.

VIII. Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.
I. Introduction and Methods.

By W. M. Tattersall, D.Sc.

AND

T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

(Read March s^tk, 1(^14. Received for publication March 31st, igi4.)

During the last twenty years a considerable amount
of attention has been paid by biologists on the Continent
and in America to the study of the fauna of fresh-water
lakes and rivers, more especially to the plankton, its
constituents and periodicity. It is only necessary here to
refer to the classical works of Forel on Lake Geneva,
of Wesenburg-Lund on the lakes of Denmark and of
Kofoid on the Illinois River in America, to indicate the
thoroughness with which the study of Limnology has
been prosecuted in these countries.

Owing mainly to the comparative inaccessibility of
the British lakes and to the consequent difficulty of
collecting samples regularly, the fauna and flora of our
lakes have not received the attention they deserve. We
owe to Messrs. W. and G. S. West a large series of observa-
tions on the phytoplankton of the British lakes, mainly
from the lakes of Scotland and the Lake District of
England. The late Sir John Murray, some fifteen years
ago, instituted a bathymetric survey of the Scottish lakes
and paid considerable attention to the fauna and flora,
while Dakin and Latarche have recently published an
account of the plankton of Lough Neagh, in Ireland, with

Mav jot/i, igi4.

2 TatterSALL & Coward, Fmma of Rostheme Mere.

special reference to its periodicity and to the seasonal
changes in the organisms constituting it.

No complete account of the fauna and flora of any of
the English lakes has, however, yet been published, so far
as we are aware. The proximity of Rostherne Mere to
Manchester seemed to us to present a favourable oppor-
tunity for undertaking work of this kind, since it was
possible to arrange for the collection of samples with some
attempt at regularity. This mere, one of the largest and
most important of the characteristic sheets of water which
occur throughout the Cheshire plain, presents two features
which render the elucidation of its biology of added in-
terest, (i) the mode of its formation and (2) the geological
strata upon which it lies. Rostherne Mere appears to be
what has been described as a dissolution basin, that is, a
depression on the surface of the earth caused by the
gradual removal of underlying soluble rock as the result
of the chemical and mechanical action of underground
water. In this case, the bed rocks are themselves of a
more or less impermeable character, but are underlaid at a
greater or lesser depth by soluble rock salt. The gradual
removal of this salt by underground water has resulted in
subsidence of the surface and the consequent formation of
a lake basin. The majority of the lakes of Scotland,
the English Lake District and Wales are glacial basins,
depressions on the earth's surface scooped out by the
action of moving glaciers. Lough Neagh, on the other
hand, is a tectonic basin, that is, a basin formed by de-
formation of the earth's crust by the subsidence or faulting
of rock material deposited as the result of volcanic action.
Rostherne Mere has thus been formed in quite a different
way from any of the other British lakes whose biology
has been investigated. The majority of the English,
Welsh and Scottish lakes lie on the Pre-Cambrian or

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 8. 3

Early Palaeozoic rocks, while Lough Neagh is underlaid
by Tertiary rocks, basalt of the Miocene period. The bed
rocks of Rostherne Mere belong to the Triassic series of
the Mesozoic or Secondary period. Here again, therefore,
Rostherne presents an interesting comparison with the
other lakes. We cannot yet say whether the mode of
formation and the character of the underlying rocks have
any direct relation to the fauna and flora ; but the differ-
ences in these two features did seem to us to present
points of interest, attention to which might yield important
results in instituting a comparison with the fauna and
flora of the other lakes of Britain. We may, perhaps,
here point out that the character of the underlying rocks
of the drainage area of a lake does seem to have a direct
bearing on the nature of its plankton. Messrs. W. and
G. S- West have pointed out that, in lakes situated on or
draining the Pre-Cambrian and Early Palaeozoic rocks,
Desmids are the dominating constituent of the plankton
and that the rich Desmid areas correspond geographically
with the distribution of lakes on these primary rocks.

Our investigations were started with the sole object of
studying the plankton, but we have been led to extend
our observations to the whole of the fauna and flora
in the hope of arriving at a knowledge of the inter-
dependence and economy of the various living organisms
which occur within a specified and naturally restricted
area and of the correlation between the planktonic and
benthonic forms. Completed in this way, our results will
we hope form a basis for comparison with the fauna and
flora of other British lakes. Mr. R. S. Adamson has
kindly undertaken an ecological investigation of the flora
of the mere and its surroundings, and wc hope to present
to the Society from time to time a series of reports by
specialists on the various groups of the fauna. Finally,

4 Tattersall & Coward, Fauna of Rosiherne Mere.

we shall attempt a summary of the results obtained. In
the present communication we propose to describe the
geological and topographical characters of the mere, to
give some account of the chemical composition of the
water, and of our methods of working. This is followed
by an account of the vertebrates observed by one of us
(T. A. C.) in or on the mere during a long period of years,
and a preliminary list of the Lepidoptera collected on the
fringe of the mere by Mr. A. W. Boyd.

We owe especial gratitude to the Right Hon. Lord
Egerton of Tatton, and to the Honourable Maurice
Egerton, not only for permission to undertake the work
on private waters, but for the interest they have invariably
shown, and for the kindly assistance they have rendered
during operations which have, of necessity, been carried on
over a prolonged period. Through their kindness we
have had the frequent use of a boat and the help of a
gamekeeper, Mr. John Millington, who has, whenever we
required it, rendered us valuable service.

Messrs. A, W. Boyd and Travers Hadfield have
accompanied us and shared in the work of collecting and
observing on many of our visits, and several specialists,
whose assistance will be acknowleged in the proper place,
have given advice and practical help in working out the
collections in various branches.

We also desire to express our thanks to Mr, E. Moore
Mumford, M.Sc, for kindly undertaking a chemical
analysis of our samples of the water, and to Mr. W.
Riddell, M.A., for much valuable help and criticism.

Description of the Mere.

Rostherne Mere is a large sheet of water in the north
of Cheshire. It lies a little over ten miles S.W. of Man-
chester, three miles S.S.W. of Aitrincham, and three miles

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Iviii. ( 1 9 1 4), No. 8. 5

N. of Knutsford. The lake itself, and the whole of the
land surrounding it, is on the estate of Lord Egerton of
Tatton. No road, or even public footpath, touches its
banks, and in consequence its fauna is comparatively
undisturbed and its waters uncontaminated. Of its cir-
cumference of about 3,160 yards, woods and willow beds
bound it for nearly 2,300 yards.

The surface area of the water at the time of the last
ordnance survey revision — March, 1893 — was ii8"252
statute acres. Henry Green, in " Knutsford, its Traditions
and History," 1859, gives the area as 115 acres, which
may have been then correct, but the statement in Bag-
shaw's " Cheshire Directory " for 1850, that it is 156 acres
is manifestly erroneous. Green's calculations were pro-
bably based on an informal survey conducted by Captain
Cotton about the year 1840.

Measurement on the 2 5 -inch Ordnance Survey gives
the greatest length — from the north to a little west of the
outflow brook — as 3,850 feet (1,283 yards), and the
greatest breadth at right angles to this line as 2,100 feet.
This only differs slightly from Captain Cotton's measure-
ments of 1,250 and 695 yards. It is quite possible that
the area has increased to this extent in seventy odd years.

In 1893 the surface level was 6y feet, but there is no
record of the level at the time of Cotton's investigations.
Although the drainage area is inconsiderable, the water
will rise several feet after heavy rains, considerably in-
creasing the area in one or two places where the banks
are low. In May, 191 3, practically the whole of the Gale
Bog, over six acres in extent, and an even larger area at
the south end of the mere, were submerged for many
days.

The mere lies in a great hollow, a deep depression or
subsidence. Except at the south-west, where the inflow

6 Tatters ALL & Coward, Fauna of Rostheme Mere.

brook enters, and at the south-east, where the outflow
leaves, the lOO feet contour is never more than 600 feet
distant from the margin ; in places it approaches within
300 feet.

The village of Rostheme, on the south bank, rises
from 100 to 160 feet, and the nearest farm on the north
stands at an altitude of 120 feet; the Manor House, on
the south-west, is 167 feet, or 100 feet above the normal
surface of the mere. The watershed is in most places
considerably under 200 feet, and thus the drainage area
is small.

The lake is fed by a few springs and small streamlets
and one fair-sized stream, Rostherne Brook. This brook
rises in Tabley Moss, about two miles south of the mere,
at an altitude of 170 feet. After passing Mere Mere
(167 feet) it falls rapidly through a clough or dell, Ros-
therne Banks, and enters the raere just below the manor.
The next stream of any size has a length of little more
than 1,000 feet, and flows through Harper's Bank Wood.
The bed of Rostherne Brook is mostly fine gravel and
sand, that of the smaller stream almost entirely sandy.

The outflow, Blackburn's Brook, is at first a wide
sluggish stream, with banks which at one time were
evidently cut straight and protected, so as to drain the
artificial osier bed on its right. It flows from the south-
east bend of the mere in an easterly direction, and then
bends northward until it joins the Birkin, a tributary of
the Bollin. The Bollin formerly flowed into the Mersey,
but now empties its waters into the Ship Canal, thus
presenting an additional obstacle to the ascension of
salmonoid fish.

The deepest sounding obtained by Captain Cotton
was 103^ feet, but our deepest, a little to the south of the
centre, was only 100 feet 6 inches. Mr. James Kenyon,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 8. 7

according to a rough chart he sent to the Fishing Gazette,
March 30th, 1907, found a depth of 105 feet, but the surface
of the mere may then have been higher. The late Robert
Okell ^ thought, from memory only, that the depth was
more like 130 or 140 feet, and Mr. Anthony Carter fancies
that his father talked of even deeper holes, but it is
certain that it is now nowhere much over 100 feet.

The soundings show steep descent on the south-west,
where the ground rises rapidly from the bank to the
church. The drop from 20 to 80 feet is very rapid, but a
considerable area in the centre is between 80 and 90 feet.

At the south-east, towards the mouth of the outflow
brook, the mere is shallower, many acres being less than
20 feet in depth.

At the north, where the lake narrows, it is bounded
by a moss or bog, known as the Gale Bog. Here there
is the appearance of a secondary subsidence, but of no
great depth. A bar or shallower ridge divides the two
portions of the mere ; the depth is about 14 feet at the
bar, and falls to the north again to 22 feet. Local tradi-
tion insists that the depth close to and under the bank at
the edge of the Gale Bog is 40 feet, but this is incorrect.
Although the peaty edge of the bog slightly overhangs
deep water in places, our soundings only give 18 feet at
the immediate edge.

To the south of the Gale Bog, on the western margin,
is a small inlet or pond, marked on the map with the
word " Sluice." No real sluice exists now, but it suggests
that at one time this pond was used as a " stock pond,"
and is probably artificial ; it is connected by a narrow,
though deep, opening with the mere.

Except at the Gale Bog end, where the soil is almost
entirely peat, the margin is sandy, but most of the bottom

1 Fishing Gazette, April 6th, 1907.

8 Tattersall S: Coward, Fauna of Rostheme Mere.

deposit is fine oozy, black mud. A small sandy delta has
formed at the mouth of Rostherne Brook, and is a favourite
resting place for gulls and wading birds.

The marginal reed-bed on the east and south-east
extends for about 1,200 yards, and is in many places more
than a dozen yards broad. On the south margin there are
two beds of about 170 and 100 yards, and on the west,
three, extending for about 260, 130, and 130 yards
respectively. These extensive beds of reeds and other
aquatic plants have a distinct bearing upon the character
of the vertebrate and invertebrate inhabitants and visitors.

The mere lies in a cup-shaped
Geological FotDiation. hollow in the Triassic Red

Marl of the Keuper Series of
the New Red Sandstones. Overlying the Marl is the
Drift — Lower Boulder Clay and Sand. At a short distance
from the western margin of the mere is the southerly
extremity (so far as has been ascertained) of a " great
Warburton fault," which runs in a south-easterly direction
from the Lancashire Coal Fields.

Hull^ says : — " It appears to be a continuation of the
' Cannel-fault of Lice,' as both lie in a direct line ; but it
is remarkable that the directions of the down-throw are
reversed.... it ranges towards Rosthern {sic) Lake, though
I doubt if it has had any connexion with the position of
the lake itself"

Within half a mile west of the mere it separates the
Red Marls from the Waterstones, which were formerly
quarried at Millington, a mile from the mere. The salt
deposits lie in the Red Marls to the south of Rostherne ;
the Cheshire rock-salt was first discovered at Marbury,
seven miles south-west, and brine is now pumped at
Holford, which is only five miles to the south.

- Edward Hull. "The Geology of the Country around Altrincham,
Cheshire." Memoirs of the Geological Survey, 1861, p. 7.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 8. 9

G. W. Ormerod" says : — " The exact northern extent
(of the salt deposits) has not been determined. It is
probably the line of fault before mentioned which passes
from the South Lancashire coal-fields by Warburton and
Rostherne in a south-easterly direction to the Rud3/ard
fault." He further states that brine was met with at
Woolstone, near Warrington, which is west of the fault,
but considerably to the north of Rostherne, but the dis-
covery of brine within recent years at Warburton proves
that there are beds north and east of the fault. We may
then admit the probability of salt below the marls in the
immediate neighbourhood of Rostherne, a supposition
which has considerable bearing upon the possible origin
of the mere.

Hull* says : — " The rather uniform features of the
landscape are agreeably varied by the frequent occurrence
of little lakes or meres in artificial or natural hollows.

" The largest and most interesting of those in this
district is Rosthern Mere, a natural lake about lOO feet in
depth, its bed being about 20 feet below the sea-level,
occupying a deep depression excavated in Boulder clay
and sand. The other meres, as far as I have been able to
ascertain, are situated in the same Post-pliocene formation,
as are also those of De la Mere Forest and Ellesmere.

" It is, however, a remarkable fact, that these natural
reservoirs are all (I believe) situated upon the Red Marl,
that formation which holds the beds of rock salt. Now
this mineral, whenever rainwater has access to it, is liable
to be dissolved, the brine being carried away in under-
currents. Such a process long continued would probably
result in the production of hollows, for wherever the

*" Outline of the principal Geological features of the Salt-Fields of
Cheshire and the adjoining districts." Quart, /ourn. Geol, Soc. of London,
IV., 1848, 281.

* Op. CiL, \-^. I.

10 Tattersall & Coward, Fauna of Rostheme Mere.

melting of the salt proceeded most rapidly, there the sub-
sidence would be greatest. It may thus have happened,
at least in some cases, that hollows in the surface of the
ground thus produced have given origin to the lakes of
Cheshire, and to this cause Mr. Ormerod appears inclined
to attribute Budworth Mere and Pickmere, which lie a
short distance to the north of Northwich, and certainly
within the limits of the great beds of rock salt "

This theory, suggested by Ormerod
Origin of the Mere, and upheld by Hull, has been
generally accepted. It is largely
supported by the subsidence of land, noticed many
years ago and still going on, in those parts of the Cheshire
basin where brine is artificially pumped. The main subsi-
dences are above the actual rock salt mines, into which,
after much of the rock salt has been removed, water is
allowed to flow, dissolving the remaining beds and the
pillars which were left to support the roof of the levels.
When this is pumped out as brine there is usually a surface
subsidence. It is argued, reasonably, that dissolution of
salt has been in operation naturally for ages, for brine
springs were known centuries before rock salt was dis-
covered. Water constantly percolated through the marls
and reached the salt seams, slowly dissolving the salt, and
natural subsidence was liable to follow whenever the
water was not in sufficient quantity to support the upper
strata. No more satisfactory explanation of the formation
of these deep, rounded, cup-shaped Cheshire hollows has
been suggested.

Reference to the map of Rostherne Mere, which we
have prepared, shows that its bed consists of two distinct
depressions, a large southerly one (the main lake basin)
and a small northerly one. We accept Ormerod's ex-
planation of subsidence, consequent upon the dissolution

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 8. ii

of salt from the strata underlying the bed rocks of the
mere, as certainly applying to the main southerly basin.
The small northerly depression is just as certainly a
subsequent formation, and the barrier separating it from
the southerly basin must at one time have marked the
north boundary of the mere. We have not yet determined
how this depresssion was formed. The bottom is com-
posed entirely of peat, and the banks of the mere
surrounding it are composed of SpJiagnuni peat overlaid
in parts by clay derived from the surrounding country.
Before the formation of the second depression, the banks
of the north end of the mere must have been a peat bog
and the birch wood now to be found on the Gale Bog
marks the highest development of the peat. The subse-
quent depression of this peat mass may have been formed
in a similar way to the main basin of the lake, i.e., by
subsidence due to the removal of salt from the underlying
rocks, or it may have been formed in a manner comparable
to that suggested for the formation of the shallow pools
which have been and are being formed at the present time
in the Delamere Forest country, where salt is not known
to occur. The character of these forest pools differs
essentially from that of the northern and eastern meres, and
Hodge '^ suggests their formation in the following way. A
Sphagnum peat bog has first developed on the surface
sand which lies above the Trias in this neighbourhood.
Subsequently, by the action of superficially subterranean
water, this sand has been slowly washed away, resulting in
the subsidence of the peat and the formation of a shallow
pool. Mr. R. S. Adamson hopes to be able to decide this
point, but his researches are not yet completed, and a
definite statement of the origin of the northerly basin of
the mere cannot yet be made.

* Lancashire Naturalist, April and May, 191 2.

12 Tattersall & Coward, Fauna of Rostheme Mere.

Remains of Red Deer, Cervus elaphus^ almost certainly
from the Drift, have been recovered on at least three
different occasions from the bed of the mere. Particulars
of these were supplied by the late Earl Egerton,* and one
of the antlers, which we have seen, is very massive in the
beam. The earliest find consisted of part of a skull with
both antlers attached, About the year 1880 a vertebra
was found, and in 1883 a second broken skull with a
single horn. All were brought up on fishing lines, the
captured fish having entangled the lines round them.

When trolling for pike on February 28th, 1914,
Coward's hook caught on an obstacle in about 20 feet of
water ; when the line was reeled in, the rib of a Red Deer
came up attached to the hook.

References to Rostherne Mere in older
Literature, literature have very little bearing upon the
study of its fauna, and most of them are un-
important. Indeed, in the Domesday Book account of
"Rodesthorne" the lake is not even mentioned. Beamont''
translates it as below : —

" The same Gilbert holds Rodesthorne. Ulviet held
it. There is i virgate of land rateable to the gelt. The
land is i carucate. It was waste. There are ii acres of
wood. In King Edward's time it was worth iv shillings."

Daniel King^ gives some information, but of a very
general character.

" Of Waters, there is also a great store, in manner of
Lakes, which they call Meres ; as Combermere, Bagmere,
Comberbach, Pickmer, Ranstorn Mere, OkeJiajiger-Mere...

* Proc. Lane, and Cheshire Antiquarian Soc, II,, 1 16.

'■ Beamont, William. "A Literal Extension and Translation of the
portion of Domesday Book relating to Cheshire and Lancashire,"
p. 53. Chester, 1863.

* "The Vale-Royall of England, or The County Palatine of Chester,
illustrated." London, 1656.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 8- 13

wherein aboundeth all kinds of Fresh-Fish ; as Cnrpes,
Tenches, Breuies, Roches, Daces, Trouts, and Eeles, in great
store."

The earliest reference of any importance which we
have discovered is in an ancient book on fishing by-
Richard Brookes, published in 1740®; the extract supply-
ing a most useful early account of the Smelt is given in
full when referring to that fish.

Aiken ^" who wrote a few years later than Brookes,
either lacked knowledge or took no special interest in
fish. He merely states that " Rosthern-meer " is " well
furnished with fish."

Later references to the fauna in periodical or other
literature are mentioned under the various species.

Folk-lore and tradition, as might be expected, have
arisen in the neighbourhood of so large and deep a lake,
but the various stories have more interest for the anti-
quarian than the zoologist. Even now the tale exists
that the mere has no bottom, or rather that the actual
bottom has never been discovered, but the most ignorant
of the natives has probably ^ceased to credit the tradition
that an underground passage connects the lake with the
sea. Through this passage, so the story goes, a mermaid
travelled at certain periods, and some connect her presence
with one of the bells from the church. This bell, so we
are told, was obstinate and apparently objected to being
placed in the church belfry, whereupon one of the annoyed
workmen consigned it to the Devil. The Devil accepted
it, and the bell at once tore itself loose from its fastenings,
bounded down the slope and buried itself in the deeps.
The mermaid rings the bell once a year, but the exact

* "The An of Angling, Rock and Sea-Fishing; with the Natural
History of River, Pond, and Sea-Fish." London. 1740.

^" "A Description of the Country from thirty t(j forty Miles round Man-
chester." London. 1795-

14 Tattersall & Coward, Fatma of RostJieme Mere.

date differs according to the tales of the various people
who never hear it ; it varies between Easter Eve and
Christmas Eve. A reference to the tradition can be
found in Henry Green's " Knutsford." "

It is interesting to note that a very similar legend is
told of the largest of the Cheshire meres, Combermere.

Temperature.

The temperature of the surface water was taken on the
occasion of each visit to the mere from May, 19 12, to
November, 19 13. The temperatures are set out on the
following chart, and the resulting curve gives a very fair
idea of the range of temperature to which the mere is sub-
ject. The winter of 1912-13 was comparatively mild, and
the temperatures recorded were never very low. On the
other hand, we believe that in many years the temperature
of the water in the summer must rise above the highest
figures we obtained, 19° C. The maximum temperature
of 19'' C. was reached in July, 1912, and August, 1913,
and the minimum, 4'2°C., in January and February.

In the matter of temperature, Rostherne Mere shows
a similar range to that noted for Lough Neagh by Dakin
and Latarche,'^ and a considerably greater range than that
exhibited by the Scotch lakes, in which the annual range
is only about 5 — I5°C. This is to be explained by the
fact that the Scottish lakes are very much deeper than either
Lough Neagh or Rostherne, and have relatively much more
steeply sloping shores. The annual range of temperature
is an important factor in determining the nature of the
plankton of a lake, and it is quite possible that the absence
of " water bloom " in the Scotch lakes and its regular

>' Green, il. "Knutsford, its Traditions and History," p. 92.
London, 1859.

^■- Proc. K. Irish Acad., Vol. XXX., Sec. B, No. 3, 1913.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L VIII. {No. 8).

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Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. S. 15

appearance in Lough Neagh and Rostherne Mere may be
partly explained by the differences in the annual range of
temperature, more especially to the difference in the
maximum temperature reached in both sets of lakes.
The somewhat irregular nature of the curve in both the
summers concerned is possibly to be explained by some
such cause as the presence or absence of recently-fallen
rain or excessive inflow water at the times of our visits.

Chemical Composition of the Water.

One of the most noteworthy features of the fauna of
Rostherne is the presence in its waters of the Smelt,
Osmerus eperlanus, a Salmonoid fish usually associated
with estuaries. We have no direct knowledge as to how
it got there, though it is possible that it was introduced
into the mere at some time or other and has become
acclimatised. There is no inherent difficulty in this
possibility, as we know that in many of the fresh-water
lakes of Sweden it is resident all the year round. Its
occurrence in Rostherne, however, has given rise to
interesting, if groundless, speculation, and two main
opinions have been held to account for its presence there.
Firstly, Rostherne has been supposed to be in some way
or another influenced by the tide, and secondly, by reason
of its origin as a subsidence or dissolution basin on strata
overlying deposits of rock salt, it has been alleged that,
at the bottom of the mere, the water is salty, due to the
solution of rock salt from the underlying strata, and thus
affords a suitable home for Smelt. No evidence has, so
far as we are aware, been brought forward to support
either of these opinions. They seem to have been manu-
factured to fit the case, and we can find absolutely no
evidence in support of the first of them. As for the
second, it seems almost obvious that, if the bottom layer

i6 TatterSALL & Coward, Fauna of Rostheme Mere.

of water were dissolving salt from the underlying rocks,
the process of diffusion would, in a comparatively short
time, cause the effects of the presence of salt to be evident
all over the mere, and to be detectable at the surface by
merely tasting the water. In order to settle the question
we collected samples of both surface and bottom water
for analysis. The surface sample was taken near the
centre of the lake, one of the bottom samples at a depth
of 80 feet, and the other at a depth of 40 feet near the
outlet brook. We are indebted to Mr. E. Moore Mum-
ford, M.Sc, of the Frankland Laboratory at the University,
for kindly undertaking the analysis of the samples for us.
His results are given in the following table : —

Analysis of Water from Rostherne Mere
(parts per 100,000).

Surface. 40 ft. Soft.
Nitrogen as : —
Free and Saline Am-
monia O'OOS ... 0'0I2 ... 0"0l6

Albuminoid Ammonia 0012 ... o'oii ... o'oio

Nitrites very faint trace nil very faint trace

Chlorine (ionised) 4'oo ... 3*85 ... 2-80

(expressed in terms of
Sodium Chloride)... 6-6i ... 6-35 ... 4-62

Oxygen (absorbed, 4

hours) '46 ... '46 ... "46

Hardness, calculated in
terms of Calcium : —

Temporary 4"i9 ... 4'i9 ... 4"o6

Permanent 2-48 ... 261 ... 170

Looked at in the first place from the point of view
from which it was taken, namely, to determine whether
there was any trace of the influence of the sea on the lake,
and also whether the bottom layers contained a large
amount of salt in solution from the underlying rocks, the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), iVc. 8. 17

analysis gives conclusive negative evidence in both cases.
The chlorine in sea water is about 1885 parts per 100,000,
so that an infiltration of only i per cent, of sea water into
the mere would increase the chlorine in its water by
18-85 parts per 100,000. The chlorine at no depth exceeds
4 parts per 100,000, which is regarded as quite a normal
amount for pure fresh water. We may, therefore, dismiss
the idea that the lake is subject to marine influence as
simple folk-tale. The fact that the chlorine is greater in
amount at the surface than at the bottom, and that,
moreover, at the surface it is no more than normal, also
does away with the idea that the bottom water of the
mere is salt by reason of the solution of rock salt from the
underlying strata.

We may note in passing that the water possesses only
five degrees of total hardness, and may, therefore, be
regarded as quite a soft water.

The analysis brings out another interesting point,
namely, that the total salts present in the water, as ex-
pressed in the figures for the chlorine content and the
hardness (both temporary and permanent) are relatively
greater at the surface than at the bottom, viz., 13 "28
parts per 100,000 at the surface, as against iO'38 at the
bottom, showing that the water at the bottom of the mere
is actually fresher than at the surface. Dr. Hickling has
suggested to us that this difference is the result of evapora-
tion and the consequent concentration of the salts at the
surface.

The analysis, so far, fulfils the purpose for which it was
made, but further consideration of the figures obtained
reveals features of considerable interest. The amount of
oxygen absorbed in the course of the analysis suggests the
presence of large quantities of organic matter in solution.
According to the table of standards devised by Frankland

1 8 Tattersall & Coward, Fauna of Rostheme Mere.

and Didy, water absorbing more than 30 parts of oxygen
per 100,000 must be regarded as organically impure water.
This is borne out by the high amount of albuminoid
ammonia {i.e. ammonia derived from the organic matter
in solution in the water) present. From what is this
excess of organic matter derived ? We may here point
out that Rostherne Mere is extremely rich in plankton at
all times of the year, and that a certain part of the organic
matter in solution must be derived from the countless
number of organisms which die and sink to the bottom,
there to decompose, but we believe that the greater part
of the organic matter revealed by the analysis is derived
from the peat hole at the north end of the lake. The
general flow of water in the lake will allow of the peaty
water from the north end influencing the entire water of
the mere.

Regarded from the public health point of view and
judged from the chemical standpoint only, the water looks
suspicious. But we can see no possible source from which
the mere can be polluted, and the absence of nitrites in
the water supports the idea that the lake is uncontami-
nated by sewage or pollution of any kind. We have not
had a bacteriological examination of the water of the
mere made, and, of course, without such an analysis it is
impossible to be certain that no pollution exists. We
merely give our opinion that there does not appear to us
to be any possible source from which pollution can be
derived. The pollution or otherwise of water may be
partially judged from a consideration of the amounts of
free and albuminoid ammonia present. In sewage-pol-
luted water free ammonia is generally far in excess of the
albuminoid ammonia, while, on the other hand, a high
amount of albuminoid ammonia, associated with a low
percentage of free ammonia, suggests vegetable con-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 8. 19

tamination. In Thresh," we read that peaty water
may contain -oi parts per 100,000 of free ammonia,
associated with more albuminoid ammonia, and yet
be pure, and an analysis of peaty water given there
shows 001 of free ammonia and 024 of albuminoid
ammonia per 100,000 parts of water. We take it,
therefore, that Thresh means to convey that in peaty
water the albuminoid ammonia is always in excess of the
ammonia. This is borne out by an analysis of peaty free
waters given by Dachnowski.^^ For pure bog waters
his figures are -519 parts of free ammonia and i"034
parts of albuminoid ammonia per 100,000 parts of
water, and for lake water on the same island as the
bogs and presumably influenced by them the figures
are "295 and "45 parts per 100,000 respectively. In
both these cases the albuminoid ammonia is in excess
of the free ammonia, though not to the extent that
Thresh's figures give, where the albuminoid ammonia was
twenty-four times as great as the free. Still they bear
out Thresh's statement that, in cases of vegetable con-
tamination, the albuminoid ammonia is in excess of the
free. In the present instance, the amounts of free and
albuminoid ammonia are more or less equal, and there is,
therefore, an excess of free ammonia, over and above that
due to the peat contamination, to be accounted for. We
believe that this excess of free ammonia is derived from
the action of the bacteria of putrefaction, which, acting
upon decaying organisms, liberate free ammonia. We
have already pointed out that Rostherne Mere is very
rich in planktonic organisms, and these, dying and sink-
ing to the bottom, provide the material upon which the

""The Examination of Water and Water Supplies," 2nd edit.
London, 1913.

'* Botanical Gazette, July, 1911.

20 Tattersall & Coward, Fauna of Rostheme Mere,

bacteria act. We believe, therefore, that the excess of
organic matter in solution in the water of Rostherne Mere
is derived from two sources, the peaty water from the small
northerly basin, and the abundance of decaying animal
matter with which the bottom of the mere must be
covered.

We have entered at some length on the discussion of
the chemical composition of the water, because it seems
possible that later on we shall find that it has an important
bearing on the nature of the plankton of the lake. We
do not propose to discuss that question at present.

Methods of Investigation.

Our methods of investigation of the fauna have been
as follows. One of us (T. A. C.) has had the mere under
frequent observation for upwards of thirty years, and
within the last ten years his visits have been more or less
regular, with the object of observing the vertebrate fauna.

For eighteen months, from May, 1912, to November,
191 3, approximately fortnightly visits were made to the
mere for the especial purpose of collecting the plankton.
At the same time a little dredging and shore collecting
were done and these are still being carried on. In making
our collections of the plankton, we used three nets, two for
surface hauls and a Nansen net, kindly lent by the Lanca-
shire and Western Sea Fisheries Committee, for vertical
hauls. The latter were made in the deep water of the
mere, at depths varying from 85 to 95 feet, with the object
of making a quantitative examination of the plankton by
the counting methods. The two nets used for surface
hauls were a coarse one made of muslin, and a fine one
made of Muller's gauze, No. 20. They were towed at the
surface of the water in the centre of the mere, the fine net
for five minutes and the coarse one for ten minutes.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 8. 21

Though at the time of our investigations we were un-
aware of Wesenberg-Luncl's arguments for the use of nets
of varying degrees of coarseness, if a fair idea of the nature
of the plankton is to be obtained, our experience prove the
wisdom of his contention. We have found the contents of
the fine and coarse nets, hauled at the same time, to differ
very widely, and if we had only used a fine net, our ideas
as to the relative abundance of the larger organisms, such
as the Crustacea and larger Rotifera, would have been
quite erroneous. We suppose that the fine net very
rapidly has its meshes choked with small phytoplanktonic
organisms, and that, though nominally towed for five
minutes, it is actually straining water for a very much
less time. After the meshes of the net become choked, the
net plus the contained water acts as a solid object pulled
through the water, and instead of straining, it merel}-
pushes the water aside. In this way the large organisms
are not captured, and an erroneous idea of their relative
abundance results.

Although we admit that a vertical haul, in which the
organisms are duly counted, conveys the only exact idea
of the relative abundance of the planktonic organisms at
a given time, we submit that regularly collected surface
hauls, with both fine and coarse nets, give a very fair idea
of the seasonal changes and periodicity of planktonic
organisms. Our surface hauls were made entirely from
the qualitative point of view, but, in so far as we have
examined them, we believe also that they present an
accurate picture of the variations in number and kind
of the organisms which constitute the plankton through-
out the year.

Manchesi

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. L VIII. (No. 8).

BATHYMETRIC MAP DF ROSTHERNE MERE

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 9.

IX. Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.
II. Vertebrata.

By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., RES.

{Read March 24th, igi4. Received for publication March jist, igi4.)

In considering the vertebrate fauna of a restricted
water area such as Rostherne Mere, one of two courses
could be followed : either to include all the species, in
addition to the fish, which occur within any given distance
of the bank, many of which may have no real connection
with the mere at all, or to restrict our attention to those
forms which are in one way or another actively influenced
by the presence of the water. We have chosen the latter
course, but have allowed ourselves considerable latitude
in estimating how the various species are influenced.

Thus the Mammalian list is a small one, although
many purely terrestrial forms, whose habitat is close to
the margin of the mere, may use it regularly in their
search for water. They are not, however, specially
attracted to or by the mere ; a pond or streamlet would
serve their purpose just as well.

Amongst the Birds again there must be many which,
passing from point to point, cross the mere, whilst others
may actually nest in trees which overhang the water —
their connection with the water is purely accidental.
They are but a portion of the large and varied avifauna
which inhabits the whole country round about the mere.
There are some which feed in the waterside trees, or even
in the more aquatic vegetation, but merely by chance,

May 30, igi4.

2 Coward, Faimal Survey of Rostherne Mere.

and not because they are specially attracted by the
aquatic insects. There are others, however, which so
habitually resort to the reed-beds for food that they must
have considerable bearing upon the status of the various
species of reed-haunting invertebrates. Some habitually
nest in aquatic vegetation, whilst others again are attracted
to the reed-beds for purposes of gregarious roosting at
times of migration. All these birds whose connection
with the mere we may term intentional and not accidental
we have considered.

Mammalia.

Daubenton's Bat, aptly
Myotis daubentonii (Kuhl). called the Water Bat by

the late Major Barrett-
Hamilton, who adopted the name from the German
Wasserfledermaus, must, unfortunately, only be included
provisionally in the Rostherne fauna. We have never
actually seen this aquatic bat flying over the water of the
mere. The explanation is, probably, that we have not
been at the right spot at suitable times and seasons, for
the species occurs in the immediate neighbourhood. We
have seen it on the river Bollin, less than a mile from the
mere on the one hand, and in abundance on pools on
Knutsford Moor, and we have had specimens taken from
a tree on the margin of the neighbouring mere at Tatton.
It is plentiful in Dunham Park and other places at no
great distance, and it would be remarkable if it did not
occur in some numbers at Rostherne.

The habit of this bat is to fly low over the surface of
the water feeding on aquatic flies, which it apparently
occasionally picks from the surface and constantly cap-
tures as they fly a few inches above the water. When it
is numerous it must destroy multitudes of night-flying

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 9. 3

clipterons, which, we may guess, would escape the attacks
of insectivorous birds.

Matschie, in Brauer's " Die Siisswasserfauna Deutsch-
lands " (1909), includes two other bats, one of them the
Whiskered Bat, but the insectivorous habits of any of the
Vespertilionidae lead them occasionally to the presence of
water, and all might be included. We have seen the
Noctule flying high above Rostherne, and other unidenti-
fied species hawking near the margin, but their presence
is not habitual like that of the Water Bat.

The Water Shrew

Neomys fodiens bicolor (Shaw), occurs in the outflow,

Blackburn's Brook,
but we have not met with it in the mere itself. The
brook is broad and slow-flowing but not very deep ; it is
an ideal habitat for this shrew, which feeds on small
crustaceans, insects and molluscs.

It is doubtful if any

Lutra hitra (Linnaeus). Otters reside permanently on

the bank of the mere, but the
animal is a fairly constant visitor. It occurs not infre-
quently on the rivers Bollin and Birkin, and at Tatton
Mere. In 1866 the skull and skin of an Otter which had
been killed at Rostherne were exhibited at a meeting of
the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,^ and
about the year 1880 one which had been trapped on the
mere was kept alive in Rostherne village for some time.
This water, however, does not appear to be so attractive
to the Otter as the neighbouring mere in Tatton Park, for
it is more unusual to find otter-killed fish at Rostherne
than at Tatton, nor have we heard the animal whistling
in the reed-beds as we have done after dark at the latter
mere. At Redesmere the Otter feeds upon the fresh-water
1 1S66. Proc, v., 122.

4 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.

mussels, Anodojita cygnea, but we have not found the
shells of this mollusc with tooth-marks of the Otter at
Rostherne. Possibly the greater depth of the water
makes the capture of the fish more difficult than in the
shallower meres, but this would not apply to the mussels
which are easily seen in the shallower portions.

The Water Vole is de-
Arvicola ajnphibius (Linnaeus), cidedly more abundant

along the banks of
the outflow, Blackburn's Brook, than on the edge of the
mere. It feeds on the edge of the brook and in the osier-
bed at the south end of the mere. We have never found
its spherical nest, supported on a raft of cut reed-stems, in
the reed-beds at Rostherne, though we have occasionally
found it on other Cheshire meres ; at Rostherne the nests
appear to be underground.

The Brown Rat is at
Epimys norvegicus (Erxleben). once the most abundant

and troublesome of the
aquatic mammals. It is a common and destructive pest in
all game-coverts, and those which surround Rostherne
Mere are not exceptions. It burrows in the banks, no
doubt aiding their erosion ; it lives in the entangled roots
of the waterside alders, and raids the nests of birds which
breed in the reeds. Its omnivorus tastes lead it to
destroy vegetation as well as to kill and devour other
animals. The eggs of Mallards, Coots and other birds
are sucked by the Rat, and on one occasion we heard a
scuffle in the reed-bed and saw a full-grown Rat emerge,
followed by an irate Coot ; the young Coots had hatched
a day or two before and were scattered amongst the reeds
near the nest, and on this occasion the parent bird had
probably driven the intruder away. Close to the hole, into
which the Rat went so soon as it saw that it was observed.

Manchester Me^noirs^ Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 0. 5

were the skin and partially picked bones of a youni^
Rabbit. The influence of so many Brown Rats as occur
round the mere must be far reaching but is difficult to
estimate ; there is no question, however, that the Rat is a
factor in the regulation of the numbers of many other
animals. It is to some extent an alien influence, for it
is of comparatively recent introduction.

AVES.

A large and varied avifauna inhabits the woods and
fields which surround the mere, and the selection of those
which can be claimed to be aquatic is exceedingly
difficult. Thus the Redbreast and the Hedge Sparrow,
much commoner woodland birds than most people imagine,
occur so abundantly near the mere that they may easily
be responsible for the death of many aquatic animals ; yet
it would be absurd to class them as aquatic. Again, in
spring, the Willow Wren and Chiffcaff frequently feed in
the willows and alders, and even make insect-hunting
excursions into the reeds, but it would be hair-splitting to
include them and leave out the Garden Warbler and
Blackcap, both abundant in Mere Side and Harper's Bank
coverts, because we have not actually detected them
feeding so close to the water.

The Rook and Jackdaw are

Pica pica (Linnaeus), common in the neighbourhood,
and the Carrion Crow has
occasionally succeeded in eluding the vigilance of the
keepers for some little time, but although the two former,
at any rate, may sometimes be seen feeding on the fields
near the edge of the mere, they can hardly be said to have
much influence upon its fauna. On some of the less
carefully preserved Cheshire meres, however, the Magpie
is a constant waterside visitor, and as the bird, although

6 Coward, Faunal Survey of RosfJierne Mere.

uncommon, does occur from time to time in the woods,
and in the Gale Bog, it may perhaps be included for the
same reason. The Magpie may be seen seeking food on
the spits of sand or deltas at the mouths of inflow brooks,
as well as on sandy margins when the water is low. What
it is seeking is not so easy to tell, but it is probably the
smaller molluscs, worms, crustaceans and insects which
are stranded on the sand.

The connection of the
Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus. Starling with the mere is

domiciliary rather than
gastronomic, although it is not during its nesting season
that it becomes a factor in the economy of the mere. The
gregarious Starling makes use of the reed-beds for roost-
ing purposes in the autumn, and to a lesser extent in
winter. The migratory movements of the Starling are so
complicated that it is impossible to say how many of the
birds which roost in the reeds are home-bred and how
many immigrants or passage migrants, bat the numbers
which congregate nightly are so immense that we can
safely conclude that very many of them have come from
abroad. The birds begin to collect in small parties soon
after the breeding season is over, and in July and August
many repair to the reeds, but the numbers reach their
height in September, October and November. In these
months the gatherings cannot be counted with anything
like accuracy. Even before dusk parties of birds, varying
in numbers, begin to come in from all directions ; at first
they collect in trees in the neighbourhood of the mere,
but so soon as a large number have arrived, they go
through wonderful concerted aerial evolutions. The flocks
will mass together, split up, join again, wheel and change
direction with remarkable accord. VVe have seen a line
of many thousands of birds, extending far beyond the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 9, 7

confines of the mere, thus considerably more than a mile
in length. When the light is fast fading the birds literally
rain down into the reeds, and at once there begins a
twitter of thousands of voices, which can be heard at a
great distance.

The effect of so large a number of birds resting on the
withered autumnal reeds is that many of these are broken
down, and later in the season the flocks frequently move
to the more sheltered parts of the surrounding coverts.
The deposits of droppings by the roosting birds must
have cultivating influence upon the vegetation, and may
also have effect upon the aquatic fauna of the reed-beds.
In sandy gulleries the guano enriches the soil and induces
the growth of nettles, chenopodiums, and other rank-
growing plants.

Both the Les-
Carduelis cannabinncannabiiia{lJ\nr\dieus). ser Redpoll

and the Lin-
net nest in the Gale Bog, but we have not thought fit to
include all and every bird which uses this spot for nidifi-
cation. The Linnet, however, occasionally, at any rate,
roosts in the willows when on migration, both in autumn
and spring Mr. Boyd has seen many in September and
several in spring, suggesting that passing flocks make use
of the shelter and food supplied by the marsh.

Redpolls and more
Emberisa schoeniclus Linnaeus. occasionally Siskins

are mere-side visit-
ing finches, but the attraction is the seeds of the alders
and birches, and these birds need not be considered. The
Reed Bunting, however, in addition to using the reeds for
roosting purposes when flocks are arriving in early spring,
is a regular nesting species in the aquatic vegetation.
At Rostherne, the favoured nesting sites are in the clumps

8 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.

formed by the cut osiers, but the nest may also be found
in rushes or other waterside plants. A few Reed Bunt-
ings are usually present throughout the winter, but the
majority of the nesting birds leave in the autumn.

The Meadow Pipit, al-
Anthtis pratensis (Linnaeus), though occurring as a

resident in some locali-
ties at no great distance from the mere, is only a passing
migrant at Rostherne. We have met with it in fair-sized
flocks in March and April in the neighbourhood of the
inflow brook, where a few odd birds may often be seen in
spring either on the sand-spit at the mouth of the brook
or on the marshy fields.

Four of the Wag-
Motacilla flava rayi (Bonaparte). tails have more or

Motacilla boarula Linnaeus. less regular con-

Motacilla alba lugubris Temminck. nection with the
Motacilla alba alba Linnaeus. mere, either as

visitors or resi-
dents. The first of these, the Yellow Wagtail, is a summer
visitor and is much less of a waterside bird than the other
three. When it first arrives, however, it roosts in the
reeds, often with Pieds and Whites, and more occasionally
with Greys. It is probable that the Yellow Wagtails
which thus use the reed-beds are simply resting on passage,
and that the local birds distribute almost as soon as they
arrive. We have not detected the Blue-headed Wagtail
amongst the roosting Yellows at Rostherne, but it is not
unlikely that it is an occasional passage migrant.

The Grey Wagtail occurs on passage and also as a
not infrequent winter visitor to the margin of the mere.
This species may either take a long migratory journey,
or the individuals which nest freely on the upland streams
may go no further than the lowland streams and lakes.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. d. 9

Birds seen in January or February may be safely looked
upon as wintering, but the occasional small flocks in
autumn and spring are birds which are merely stopping
for rest or refreshment.

The Pied Wagtail occurs as a breeding species in
spring, more rarely as a winter visitor, and in considerable
numbers as a passage migrant, A favourite nesting
place at Rostherne is on the rafters of the boathouse,
where, in 191 3, we ringed one brood on May 29th, and a
second in the same nest on August i6th. In both cases
the young were just ready to fly.

The White Wagtail is only known as a passage
migrant, and is not common : it is more frequently
noticed on the spring than the autumn passage, but
the reason of this is that the adult birds in spring dress
are more easily recognized than autumn adults or birds of
the year.

It is open
Parus major newtoiii Prazak. to question

Parus caem/eus obsacrus Prazak. whether

Parus ater britan}uciis'^h2iX^Q.^.x\diT)xQ's,s>Qr. any of the
Parus palustris dresseri Stejneger. Titmice

Parus atricapillus kleiiiscJiDiidti Hellmayr. should be

included
as waterside birds, and yet the visits of two or three
species to the reeds are so regular that we are in-
duced to include all the five species which nest in the
woods — often within a few yards of the bank. The larger
Great Titmouse is not so frequent a visitor to the reeds as
the Blue, Coal and Marsh Titmice, and the Willow Tit-
mouse is a much rarer bird than the others, but we have
seen it conducting its young through the reeds. The Blue
Titmouse is so regular a bird in the reeds that it must have
considerable influence in the reduction of those insects

lo Coward, Fannal Stirvey of Rostherne Mere.

which frequent, and in many cases feed upon the water-
side vegetation.

For a similar reason,
Acrocephalus strepe7-2is {W\e\\\ot). it might be argued

that we ought to
include two of the genus Phylloscopus, the Chiffchafif and
Willow Warbler, but their visits to the aquatic vegetation
are so infrequent that we can look upon them as more or
less accidental ; most of their food is obtained amongst
the trees and bushes further from and beyond the direct in-
fluence of the water. On the other hand, the Reed Warbler
is pre-eminently a bird of the reed-beds, nesting and
feeding amongst them and seldom wandering far from
their shelter. It usually reaches Cheshire towards the end
of April or very early in May, but it is not always in a hurry
to build its suspended nest, and often both eggs and
young birds may be found at the end of June. The bird,
as a rule, selects the young reeds for support for its nest ;
it weaves the structure round two or three stems. It is
an exceptionally deep nest, so that there is small chance
of eggs or young being thrown out should wind sway the
pliant reeds. In 191 3 the reeds were late in growing, and
one bird, at any rate, built its nest on the old reeds and
succeeded in bringing off its young in safety. Another
nested in raspberry canes and brambles, a few feet from
the edge of the reeds, whilst others again were singing in
the covert at some distance from the water's edge.

The Sedge
Acrocephalus schoenobaenus{\.mx\diQ\\?,). Warbler is per-
haps as plentiful
at Rostherne as the Reed Warbler, but it nests in the
osier beds, or in the zone of semi-marsh vegetation behind
the reeds. It is, however, constantly in the reeds and the
food of both species largely consists of insects which, as

Manchester Memoh'S, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 1>. ii

larvse, are aquatic. Like the Reed Warbler, it is only-
known as a summer visitor.

The Grasshopper
Locustella naevia naevia (Boddaert). Warbler is dis-
tinctly a marsh
bird, but is nowhere abundant in Cheshire. It probably
nests in the marshy part of Harper's Bank, where its
curious reeling note ma}' constantly be heard in spring.

Of the warblers of the
Sylvia comvmnis Latham. genus Sylvia, four of

which occur regularly
in the woods, only one, the Common Whitethroat, can be
said to be aquatic in its habits. It is sometimes common
in spring in the osier beds at the Gale Bog and the south
end of the mere.

The Song Thrush
Turdus inerula merula Linnaeus. nests occasionally

close to the water's
edge and even on the ground in the osier beds, but of all
the thrushes the Blackbird is the most frequent as a
waterside feeder. In winter a few may be generally met
with feeding along the landward edge of the reed fringe.

The Whinchat, an in-
Saxicola riibetra (Linnaeus), sectivorous summer vis-
itor, nests regularly in
the osier beds and feeds on the margin of the mere
amongst the aquatic vegetation.

The chief reason
Troglodytes troglodytes (Linnaeus) for including the

Wren as a factor
in the regulation of the numbers of aquatic insects is that
few of the woodland birds are more frequently to be met
with in the reeds. Not only does it haunt the reed-beds
for food, but it may be met with seeking insects amongst

12 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rest heme Mere.

the partly-exposed roots of the alders, or in the thick
clumps of rushes or other plants which grow actually in
or close to the water. Not infrequently the water grad-
ually washes away the soil from around the roots of the
trees which grow at the edge of the mere, and in conse-
quence they fall during strong winds ; the Wren almost
invariably builds amongst the exposed roots of these
fallen timbers.

Naturally all three of
Lhelidon rustica (Linnaeus.) our regular summer
Hirundo urbica Linnaeus. swallows are constantly
Riparia riparia (Linnaeus). to be seen over the

waters during their stay,
but the numbers vary considerably. When the birds first
arrive in spring they remain about the water for a period,
the length of which mainly depends upon the date of
arrival and the weather at the time. Should a cold snap
follow the arrival, the birds find far more food above the
water than in the surrounding districts, and they do not
distribute to their nesting haunts until a return of more
favourable conditions. At night they roost gregariously
in the reed-beds. But even after the home-breeding birds
have settled down there are repeated arrivals of passage
birds, spending a few days in feeding as they move slowly
northward, keeping more or less regular pace with the
advance of spring. The Swallow nests in the boat-house
and a summer-house close to the water's edge, but the
House Martin goes further afield. There is no suitable
sandy bank of sufficient depth for the Sand Martin. As
the summer advances the numbers of all three species
which feed above the water increases ; local birds begin
to pack, families joining families and forming small flocks,
and these repair to the reed-beds for roosts ; then the
passage birds from the north arrive, and in the late

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 0. 13

summer immense numbers of Sand Martins, the first of
the three to arrive and the first to depart, congregate
nightly above the mere, and like the Starlings go through
remarkable aerial evolutions.

In 1908 and 1909, according to Mr. Boyd's notes, the
Swallows began their autumnal gathering between August
5th and nth, and by the beginning of September their
numbers had become very large. The numbers tailed
off towards the middle of the month, and in 1908 all had
gone b)'' the 27th. In most years the greatest gathering
is during the first half of September. The dates of the
House Martin practically correspond with those of the
Swallow, for the two species constantly move in company.
On the spring passage the Sand Martin is generally most
abundant in the latter half of April, although the bird
often appears before March is ended. The autumn passage
reaches its height during the first few days of September.

The Swift is a frequent visitor
Apus apus (Linnaeus), for food, flying high, backwards

and forwards, above the mere,
but it neither roosts in the reeds nor nests on the margin,
there being no suitable buildings immediately at the edge
of the water. Above the mere, however, is the most
likely place to see the first and also the last Swifts of the
season, so great is the attraction of the insects which fly
above the water. Throughout May and early June the
numbers vary considerably, and any day birds may be
absent or only one or two visible, and the next day scores
or even hundreds may be flying with the Swallows and
Martins.

The Kingfisher is a common
Alcedo ispida Linnaeus. bird at Rostherne; it may be

surprised from a perch on
the overhanging branch of some tree at any time. No

14 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.

doubt it destroys numerous fry or young fish, but the
bird also feeds upon small crustaceans such as Gannnarus
and Asellus, both of which occur in the shallower water
near the banks.

Two of the raptorial
Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus), birds have special re-
lation to the mere, but
both are rare visitors only. The Marsh Harrier has
occurred once, at any rate, within recent years. On May
4th and 5th, 191 3, Mr A. W. Boyd saw a female or
immature male in an osier-bed and reed-bed at opposite
ends of the mere, on the later date putting it up three
times, once when within ten yards.^ A search on the
following day in all the reeds and willows failed, and no
doubt the bird had then passed on.

An Osprey, after having
Pandion halia'etus (Linnaeus), been seen fishing on the

mere for several days,
was shot at the end of April, 1865. It was devouring a
two-pound Bream when it was killed. At a meeting of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, on May
15th, 1865, it was exhibited by the late H. Harrison.'
The bird passed into the collection of Mr. F. Nicholson,
and subsequently to the Warrington Museum, where it is
still preserved. There is no other record of the Osprey
at Rostherne, but in the winter of 1893-94 two were seen
on several occasions fishing in the neighbouring mere in
Tatton Park.'

The Common Heron is a
Ardea ciiierea Linnaeus. regular Rostherne bird ; it

is seldom possible to walk
round the mere without disturbing one or even several

2 British Birds. VII., 18.

3 Zoologist, 1866. XXIV., 30.

* Coward, "Vertebrate Fauna of Cheshire," I., 297.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. t). 15

birds. The stakes in the shallower water, placed there to
serve as mooring posts, are used as perches by this bird,
but when actually fishing it generally stands in the
vegetation at the edge of the mere. The nearest heronry
is in Tabley Park, near Knutsford, only a few minutes'
flight for these strong-winged birds. On the neighbouring
mere in Tatton Park the Herons feed largely on the
Bream, a fish which is more plentiful there than in the
deeper waters of Rostherne. Examination of the pellets
cast up by the Tabley birds proved that Water Voles
were largely preyed upon. We have no evidence of the
particular animals which are mostly captured at Rostherne.

The Bittern is
Botaunis stellaris stellaris (Linnaeus), an occasional

winter visitor to
the Cheshire meres, and when one appears it is seldom
alone. Unfortunately the bird is looked upon as a de-
sirable specimen, and one of the pair usually falls to the
gun in its wanderings in search of food. This is all the
more regretable because the Bittern almost without
question once nested in the reed-beds of the Cheshire
meres, and the experience of the last two or three years in
Norfolk proves that, if unmolested, the bird will remain to
nest. In February, 1900, a Bittern was unfortunately shot
at Rostherne, and a second bird was seen a little later;
since that date, however, Mr. Egerton has given orders
that no rare birds are to be shot, and one which was seen
by one of the gamekeepers in February, 1909, was
unmolested. The description of the bird was accurate.

The Mute Swan is not looked
Cygnus olor (Gmelin). upon as a wild bird, but it

exists throughout Cheshire in
a semi-domesticated condition, and the numbers which
visit Rostherne vary considerably. Pairs, families or

1 6 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.

small parties of Swans fly from mere to mere, and on so
large a water the resident birds are often unable to drive
away visitors from other places. In most years only a
single pair nest, but no sooner can the young fly than two
or more families may often be seen on the water. The
economic value of the Swan on a small water as a useful
factor in keeping in check the rapid growth of the
American weed, Elodea, is now generally recognised, but
although this troublesome weed does occur, the area of
deep water is too considerable to be choked by its spread.
The Swan is blamed for annoying breeding ducks and
other waterfowl and killing the young, but at Rostherne,
again, the number of nesting birds is so much larger than
of Swans, that little serious damage is done.

It is likely that occa-
Branta leucopsis (Bechstein). sionally wild geese visit

Rostherne, but we lack
satisfactory evidence of the fact. Grey geese do pass over
the county on migration, and we have had reports of birds
at Rostherne which sounded like both Barnacle and Brent.
On February 8th, 191 2, or possibly a day or two earlier,
Mr. G, E. Robinson, one of the gamekeepers, saw a very
wild bird flying about the mere ; he described it to us as
like a Canada, only smaller. That this bird was probably
a Barnacle is suggested by the fact that on January i8th,
191 2, the day following a notable gale which brought
many birds inland, one was seen by Mr. M. V. Wenner
on Radnor Mere, Alderley.^ Other birds which were
driven inland by the same gale remained in the neigh-
bourhood for some time, and it is possible that the bird
which was seen at Radnor wandered from mere to mere,
or that others of the same species were moving about
Cheshire.

^ British Birds. V., 279.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 0. 17

The Canada
Bra}ita canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus). Goose, a 1-

though origi-
nally an introduced bird, is now so firmly established as
a permanent resident that it must be considered as an
important member of the avian fauna. One or two
pairs nest in most springs on the shores of Rostherne,
but it is in autumn and winter, when gregarious and
restless, that it is most noticeable. At one time flocks of
from 200 to 300 Canadas might be seen on the meres or
passing from water to water, but early in the present
century a succession of " bad " years considerably reduced
the numbers. Lately, however, there has been a rally, and
some fair-sized parties have visited Rostherne ; seventy,
eighty and upwards of a hundred birds have occasionally
been counted. These Canadas are very wild and take
wing at the approach of a boat with loud clanging cries,
but during the moult they will occasionally swim to the
side and partially conceal themselves amongst the alders
and willows.

Probably the rare visits
Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus), of the Sheld-duck to

Rostherne are incidents
of recent years only, for the species has increased enor-
mously in Cheshire, as in other parts of the country. At
one time the bird was seldom met with as a nesting
species at any distance from salt water, but novv-a-days it
nests regularly in warrens in inland localities, and one of
the earliest spots to be selected was the sandy bank of
Oakmere. The increase of the Sheld-duck as a nesting
species on the Mersey Estuary and Ship Canal banks no
doubt accounts for the wanderings of birds in search of
suitable nesting spots and feeding grounds round the
Cheshire meres, and the bird is a more frequent visitor to

l8 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rostheme Mere.

Marbury and other waters which are nearer to the estuary
than Rostherne On July 21st, 1908, we first saw one on
Rostherne ; again there was one on the water on April
17th, 191 1, and another on March 29th, 1912. On no
occasion did the birds make a prolonged stay ; they were
shy and nervous, and one which we saw depart went off
north towards the salt water.

In July and August, 191 3,
Casarca ferriighiea {VdiWdis). a Ruddy Sheld-duck was

constantly on the water.
It was wild and sh}^ flying strongly when approached
by a boat, but there is little doubt about its origin.
It was almost certainly one of a number bred by Lord
Newton on his ponds in L}'me Park. The birds,
he informs us, usually leave the park in August, and
return about the end of October. Some which left Lyme
in the summer of 19 13 did not return, and as a bird was
shot on Frodsham Marsh on September 4th, shortly after
we missed the Rostherne visitor, and two others at Stret-
ford in October, it is probable that the wanderings of this
artifically reared bird led to its destruction.^'

The Mallard
Anas platyrJiyiuJia platyrJiynciia Linnaeus, is, as on other

waters, the
most abundant duck at Rostherne. There is no regular
stocking of the water by hand-reared birds, although a
few gathered eggs are sometimes placed under hens, but
on one or two other meres birds are reared from bought
eggs. On the whole, however, the Rostherne birds show
little sign of domestic blood, which is often apparent
on waters where birds are artificial!}- reared. Many pairs
nest in the coverts and withy-beds round the mere, and
almost annual)}'- wild birds will mate with the few white

'^British Birds. VII., iiS, 199.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 9. 19

call-ducks. The numbers of resident birds are increased in
summer by the many broods of flappers, but it is in
September and October that the first great change occurs.
Probably the immigrants arrive in small numbers through-
out the autumn, but towards the end of November there is
usually a sudden and large second increase in numbers. It
is,however, during a smart frost that the biggest gatherings
of Mallards are to be seen. Rostherne, being deep, is the
last of the Cheshire meres to be frozen over, and when the
other waters are closed by ice great congregations of
ducks collect on the still open portions of Rostherne ; the
Mallards then often number some thousands. On May
6th, 191 3, we found a nest of a Mallard in the under-
growth of the Gale Bog which contained eleven normal
eggs and one which in colour and shape approached more
nearly to the egg of the Tufted Duck. The gamekeeper
placed the eggs under a hen, but unfortunately the small
egg was destroyed, and we were unable to discover if it
was a case of dual ownership.

Although the Teal nests
Alias crecca crecca Linnaeus, in considerable numbers

in Tatton Park, and is
often present on Tatton Mere in flocks consisting of forty,
fifty or more birds, it is not an abundant duck on
Rostherne. It is, however, frequently present in small
numbers from autumn until spring; occasionally a
"spring" of half a dozen or more birds will remain on
the water for several days together, but as there is, all
through the winter, frequent movement between Rostherne
and Tatton, birds which are present one day may be
absent the next

The Wigeon is both a
Anas penelope Linnaeus. passage migrant and a

winter visitor at Rostherne.
The largest numbers occur in winter ; we have on several

20 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.

occasions seen parties of from thirty to sixty or more
birds in November, December, January and February.
We have not met with it later than April, nor earlier than
September on the return passage.

As a rule the Shoveler is

Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus), a rather irregular spring

and autumn bird of
passage, but occasionally a fair number remain for the
winter. This was particularly the case in the winter of
1913-1914, when varying numbers were usually present
from the end of September onwards ; on December 31st,
191 3, there were more than two dozen together, and
several of these were old drakes in excellent plumage.

The Pintail is little more

Dafila acuta (Linnaeus), than a straggler to Rostherne,

as indeed it is to all the
Cheshire inland waters, though common in the Dee and
Mersey estuaries. Birds, however, which visit the water
will sometimes stay for several weeks. In 1909 we noticed
a drake on September loth ; it was then in eclipse ; it
attained full plumage about the middle of October and
remained until well into December, when it was joined by
another. There was a Pintail on the water, possibly the
same bird, at the end of February, 19 10. A drake, on
March 12th, 191 2, was consorting with a duck Mallard,
but it was alone on the 26th ; in April, and even so late
as May ist, there were a pair on the water, presumably
the drake being the original bird.

The Pochard, like

JVyroca ferina /erz'na (Linnaeus), most of the diving

ducks, is both a bird
of passage and winter visitor ; its numbers vary consider-
ably, and there is frequent movement from water to
water, so that the absence of birds from the mere at any

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 9. 21

time does not prove that they have left the district.
Occasionally a bird will remain for most if not all of the
summer, but we have no evidence that the Pochard has
nested on Rostherne up to the present time ; at any time
this species, which is extending its nesting area, may
remain to breed. As a rule the flocks of Pochards are
not so large as those of Tufted Ducks, but from time to
time many hundreds may be seen together. In most
years the majority of the birds depart in April, but they
begin to return in July, and the number gradually increases
until November. The largest numbers are usually to be
seen when the smaller meres are ice-bound.

The Tufted Duck has not
Nyroca fuligula (Linnaeus), only increased in numbers

as a winter visitor to most
British waters, but is rapidly extending its breeding range.
On Rostherne it was, until about 1890, a winter visitor in
varying numbers, and, as a rule, all birds left in March ;
since then, however, there have been changes, which at first
showed themselves in the lengthening of the spring stay,
and the early return of the birds towards the end of
summer. In 1906 one or two birds remained throughout
the summer, but it was not until 1908 that the presence
of young birds on the water suggested that one pair at
least had nested in the vicinity. The parentSj however,
managed to keep the very young birds hidden, and we
failed to find a nest, until at the beginning of September,
191 3, we surprised a duck with five young in down on the
open mere. This was a late brood, and it is possible
that earlier broods had been brought off, for there were
young birds, able to fly, on the water at the same time.
From 1908 onwards there were usually two or three
drakes, sometimes, but not always, accompanied by a
duck, on the water in May and June ; it is more likely

22 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.

that the ducks were sitting or tending young than that
these drakes were unattached.

The immigrants begin to arrive in July or August,
and by November there are often large numbers on the
mere ; early in December there is generally an increase,
but, as with the Pochard, the largest numbers are to be
seen on Rostherne when the birds are driven by frost
from the shallower waters. The best feeding ground
for all diving ducks is at the southern end of the mere,
but a few may usually be seen diving near the bank
alongside the Gale Bog and Harper's Bank wood.

The Scaup is an

Nyroca inariia marila {\Anm.e\xs,). infrequent visitor

to Rostherne, as to
other Cheshire fresh waters. We have only met with it
on three occasions. On October loth, 1908, Mr. Boyd
saw a duck with the typical broad white mask. Towards
the end of July, 191 2, a drake spent a few days on the
water, and at the end of November, in the same year, a
female or immature bird was on the water.

The Goldeneye
Nyroca clangula claugula (Linnaeus), is not so frequent

a visitor to Ros-
therne as it is to some other Cheshire waters — Oakmere
for instance — but it has occurred on passage in March,
April, August, and October, and as a winter visitor in the
months of November, December, Januarj^ and February
in various years. The birds, which are usually brown-
headed and immature, seldom number more than two or
three together, and solitary individuals are more frequently
met with. Occasionally, however, an adult drake, accom-
panied by a few brown-headed birds, pa)'s a passing visit,
and in December, 191 3, there were two fine drakes on the
water at the same time. The Goldeneye is the least

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 0. 23

sociable of the diving ducks, and it is exceedingly shy ;
when feeding it keeps apart from the others, and when
flushed speedily flies to the opposite end of the mere.

The Scoter is dis-
Oidemia nigra nigra (Linnaeus), tinctly a salt-water

duck, and we have
only observed it at Rostherne in two years. In 19 12 a
single drake was first noticed on the water on August
13th, and remained there throughout the month. In 1913
there were extraordinary movements of Scoters in different
parts of England and Wales, and black and pale-faced
birds appeared on Rostherne and neighbouring waters
from June 19th until the end of the first week in July.
The largest number noticed on any one date was seven
adult drakes on July 7th. In the same year, on December
7th, there were four pale-cheeked birds on Rostherne.

The Goos-
Mergus merganser merganser Linnaeus, ander is a

winter visitor
to Rostherne, but is not noticed every year. We observed
it during the winters of 1902-3, 1905 (January), 1906-7
and 1912 (February). More brown-headed female or
immature birds visit the Cheshire meres than adult
drakes, but on several occasions there have been fine
drakes on Rostherne. The birds are more on Tatton
than on Rostherne during their visits, for probably it is
easier to capture fish in the shallower waters, and on one
or two occasions the visits to Rostherne have been on
days on which Tatton was ice-bound.

The Smew is a rare visitor
Mergus albelliis Linnaeus, to the Cheshire meres, and

it has only been noticed on
Rostherne on one occasion. At the end of January, 1909,
a duck, which we saw first on Tatton, appeared on

24 Coward, Fminal Survey of RostJierne Mere.

Rostherne when Tatton was frozen and consorted with a
Goldeneye.

Although the
Phalacrocorax carbo carbo (Linnaeus). Cormorant is

a not infrequent
visitor to some of the inland waters it has seldom been
noticed on Rostherne. On September 17th, 1908, Mr.
Boyd saw a couple of birds near the mouth of the stream,
and shortly afterwards they followed fish into a strike
net and were killed. They are in the possession of
Mr. Egerton. On May 6th, 1914, there was a young bird

on the water.

Towards
Phalacrocorax graculus graculns (Linnaeus), the end of

January,
191 2, there was an extraordinary incursion of Shags to
inland localities in Cheshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire and
Worcestershire.'^ The birds were not driven in by any
local bad weather. Two immature birds reached Ros-
therne, and were either starved or frozen ; we did not see
either alive, but found their bodies in February and March.

The Great
Colyinbus cristatus cristatus Linnaeus. Crested Grebe

is a common
resident on Rostherne, and except when the waters are
frozen there are always some birds to be seen. The
numbers, however, fluctuate not only at different seasons
but in different years ; at times the birds appear to rear
most of their young, but in other years very few are got
off. Pairing and display is most noticeable in February
and March, but occasionally pairs may be seen displaying
in November and December. The eggs are usually laid
in May, but occasionally in April, and young of various

/, British Birds. V., 279, 307, 341.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivih. (19 14), At?. 9. 25

ages may be seen throughout the summer ; we saw birds
still feeding young on October nth in 1908, but this was
exceptionally late. In September and October there are
often a large number of Grebes on the water, a score
being not unusual, but in November and December the
numbers fall off, probably many of the younger birds
leaving. In January and February there is frequently an
increase ; in the latter month and in March twenty, or
even more, is not an unusual number. It is difficult to
estimate the number of pairs which nest in the extensive
reed-beds, but probably an average of half-a-dozen pairs
is a low estimate. On April ist, 191 2, there were at
least nine pairs.

The Black-
Colyvibus nigricollis nigricollis (Brehm). necked Grebe

has occurred
on Rostherne. In February and March, 1912, two fre-
quented the water for several weeks ; we noticed them
first, when both were in winter dress, on P'ebruary i8th,
and one remained until March 31st, by which time it had
attained almost complete nuptial dress. About a week
after we missed the birds from Rostherne two were
noticed on Marbury, and their plumages agreed with those
of the two Rostherne birds when we last saw them. We
watched them from time to time on Marbury but missed
them after April 26th, by which time both were in full
breeding plumage.

The Little Grebe
Colyvibus nificollis ruficollis Pallas, or Dabchick is

a common re-
sident, nesting like its larger relative in the reed-beds.
It may be met with on all parts of the mere, but is
perhaps most abundant at the southern end and it
frequently feeds in Blackburn's Brook, where we have on

26 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere.

two or three occasions caught it by hand. On Februar3i.
2 1 St, 1902, we found one in the brook which had been
choked when attempting to swallow a Bullhead, Coitus
gobio ; the spines on the gill-covers of the fish had been
driven into the flesh at the sides of the bird's gape. This
bird had been feeding on Bythinia tentaculata and beetle
larvae.

The Great Northern Diver
Gavia z;;/;«^r(Brunnich). is an occasional winter

visitor. There is a specimen
at Tatton Hall which was shot at Rostherne " about forty
years ago." It had been on the mere for some time. On
January 8th, 1902, we saw one on the mere; it was
feeding busily, and during one of its dives it was more
than three minutes below the water. Another frequented
Rostherne for over two weeks in December, 191 1 ; we saw
it first on the lOth and last on the 26th.

There was an
Haeinatopus ostralegus Linnaeus. Oystercatcher at

Rostherne on May
loth, 1914.

The Golden Plover
Charadrius apricarius Linnaeus, is a common autumn

and winter visitor to
the fields in the neighbourhood of Rostherne, and on two
or three occasions we have seen flocks or a few odd birds
feeding with the Lapwings on the edge of the mere.

Lapwings, sometimes in
Vane//us vane//us (hinnaeus). large numbers, feed in

the fields which border
the mere, where also many pairs nest, and frequently
large numbers of birds may be seen feeding on the sandy
margins or spits of sand at the mouths of the inflow
brooks.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914^ No. 9. 27

The Knot is a very
Canutiis camitus (Linnaeus), occasional visitor on

passage. We saw one
on the edge of the mere on April ist and 2nd, 1912.

The Dunlin appears
Erolia alpina alpina (Linnaeus), less frequently on

Rostherne than on
some of the other meres, Marbury for instance, where it is
not uncommon on passage. We have only seen it
occasionally in May, when the birds were in breeding
dress.

A few pairs of Common
Tringa hypoleuca Linnaeus. Sandpipers nest annually

on or near the edge of the
mere. In 191 3 one nest was well in the covert at Wood
Bongs and another was close to the water, within a few
inches of a footpath, in the Gale Bog. Here the bird
sat so tight that it was evidently overlooked, and
eventually the eggs were accidently trodden on. The im-
migrants arrive early in April, but towards the end of the
month there are often more birds round the mere than
actually remain to nest ; passage birds halt to feed and
rest.

The Green Sandpiper
Tringa ochropus Linnaeus. is a regular passage

migrant and occasional
winter visitor to the streams in the neighbourhood, but
we have only occasionally seen the bird on the edge of
the mere.

The Redshank is not
Tringa totamts (Linnaeus), uncommon as a visitor

on passage, and is occur-
ring more frequently now that its numbers are everywhere
increasing and that it is extending its breeding area. We

28 Coward, Faunal Survey of RostJierne Mere,

have seen it most frequently during the spring passage, in
March and April, but in 191 3 there was one on the sand
at the edge of the mere on July 27th.

At almost any
Numenius arquata arquata (Linnaeus), season of the

year Curlews
may be heard and seen passing over the mere ; the birds
when in flight no doubt see the gleam of the water and
are attracted in the hope of food. In spite of this fact,
however, it is seldom that they alight or remain long
when they do ; they are, however, quick to see when any-
one is about, and probably stay longer when the coast is
clear. Probably the birds seen in March and April are
passage migrants or residents going up to the Pennine
hills, and those in August on the return passage, but it is
hard to understand why individuals should pass in June
and early July unless the moorland birds take occasional
flights to the Mersey or Dee estuaries for food during the
time that they are occupied with young.

The Common
Gallinago gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus). Snipe is a

fairly abund-
ant resident, nesting in some numbers in the Gale Bog
and the withy beds. From early March onwards its
drumming call is to be heard every evening and often
during the day. In the autumn the numbers of the
resident birds are increased by immigrants, and there
is often a second and large invasion in November or
December.

The Jack Snipe is
Livinocryptes gallinnla (Linnaeus), a winter visitor,

but is never in
such large numbers as the Common Snipe ; it frequents
the same boggy spots.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 0. 29

The Woodcock is an
Scolopax rusticola Linnaeus. autumn and winter

visitor to the coverts
which border on the mere, and it feeds in the brooks and
ditches which run into the mere. It is possible that a pair
may nest occasionally ; we have seen the bird so late as
April.

The Black Tern
Hydi'OcJielidon nigra nigra (Linnaeus), is a fairly regu-
lar spring and
autumn passage visitor to the Cheshire meres, but it has
seldom been noticed at Rostherne. Mr. J. J. Cash saw
two feeding over the water on August 1st, 1887, and in
191 1 one, an adult bird, remained about the mere from
April 20th to the 30th.

It is not always easy to
Sterna hirnndo Linnaeus. identify the terns which

Sterna paradisaea Brlinnich. which appear on migra-
tion on our inland
waters, but two which were flying over Rostherne on
April 29th, 1908, but did not come near enough to be
distinctly seen, were very likely Common Terns, for on
the same date two or three out of five which were at
Marbury Mere were certainly referable to this species,
having well-marked black tips to their bills. A bird,
however, which remained for two or three days at the end
of July and beginning of August, 1912, was undoubtedly
an Arctic Tern, as were two which we saw over the water
on May 19th, 191 3. These birds at times feed upon
insects which fly above the water, stooping for them and
picking them up after the manner of the Black Tern, but
they also dive for something just below the surface and
the quarry in this case is probably small fish.

30 Coward, Fauna I Survey of Rostheme Mere.

The Lesser Tern is
Sterna minuta niinuta Linnaeus, not so frequently-
met with inland as
the two larger birds, and one which was feeding over the
mere on July ist, 191 3, was probably a wanderer from
the estuary and not a passing migrant.

The Blackheaded Gull
Lams ridibundus Linnaeus, has, within late years,

become an almost regu-
lar Rostherne bird ; it is even present in small numbers
during the nesting season, but there is no evidence that it
has nested near the mere. Most if not all the birds which
frequent the water in April and May are immature. On
April 4th, 1910, we saw a pair of mature birds repeatedly
stoop at a Heron which was standing on one of the moor-
ing stumps ; their angry cries resembled those of breeding
birds when attempting to drive intruders from the neigh-
bourhood of the nest. After the breeding season is over
young birds of the year appear with the adults and begin
to roost nightly on the water ; as autumn advances the
number of birds which come in every evening increases,
and it reaches its maximum in the winter. From
December to February there are usually several hundred
gathered at dusk in a dense flock in the centre of the
mere. The birds arrive from all directions, but the largest
number come from the north and north-west ; those also
which have been feeding on Tatton Mere during the day
leave in a body in the afternoon and join the congregation
at Rostherne. The birds straggle in for several hours in
the afternoon ; they arrive singly or in large or small
parties, often flying in chevron formation. On the after-
noon of February i6th, 191 4, we estimated that there
were between 600 and 1,000 Blackheads on the water at
about 4-30 p.m., and others were arriving. At the end of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 9. 31

December there are often numbers of birds on the water
by 2 p.m. This habit of roosting on Rostherne appears
to have originated within the last ten years, and less than
twenty years ago the bird was a rather uncommon visitor.
On April 17th, 1912, during a partial eclipse, a number of
Blackheads came in and settled down as if to roost ; they
remained for a short time and then returned to their
feeding grounds.

The Common Gull
Laj'us canus camis Linnaeus. visits Rostherne in

the winter, and a few
roost with the Blackheads. We have not noticed the bird
on the water later than the beginning of April, but it
returns towards the end of July or beginning of August.
In winter, when the mere is frozen, both Commons and
Blackheads will roost on the ice.

Both the Herring and

Lams argentatus argentatiis Lesser Black-backed

Pontoppidan. Gulls are frequent

Lariis fiiscus Linnaeus. visitors from time to

time and sometimes
roost with the other gulls. The Herring Gull is, as a rule,
a winter visitor only, but the Lesser Black-backed Gull
frequently appears on migration in April and May and
in autumn. Immature or non-breeeding Lesser Black-
backs may be met with in summer. These birds, whose
backs are often very dark, appear to wander from mere
to mere in search of food ; we have noticed them often,
singly, or in twos or threes, in June and July.

Between February i6th
Porzatia porzana (LinndLQWs). and April 6th, 191 2,

we several times saw a
small Crake, presumably a Spotted Crake, which had
wintered on Rostherne. We never succeeded in ejetting:

32 Coward, Faunal Survey of Rosthenie Mere.

a really good view of the bird, but its size and appearance
suggested this species. We saw it running through the
reeds and swimming in the open beyond the bed.

The Water Rail is a
Rallus aquaticns Linnaeus. not uncommon resident,

but it is easier to see
and flush in the winter than in the summer. On many
occasions we have heard its loud scream, almost like that
of a rabbit in distress, in the reed-beds. On one occasion
we flushed the bird immediately after hearing the call.
This call note is similar to but not so loud or prolonged
as the spring " sharming."

The Moorhen
Gallinula chloropus cJiloi'opus Linnaeus, is an abundant

resident at Ros-
therne ; it nests in the bushes at some distance from the
mere, as well as in the vegetation close to the water.

The Coot is exceeding-
Fulica atra atra Linnaeus. ly abundant on the mere

and most of the nests
are built in the reeds, where these already bulky structures
are added to if the water rises. It is difficult to say if any
immigrant Coots reach Rostherne, but the numbers un-
doubtedly rise in winter ; this, however, may be due to
the wanderings of birds from mere to mere. Almost any-
time in winter from 80 to lOO Coots may be counted on
the water or the banks, where the birds frequently feed.
We saw a mob of 188 on January 29th, 1909.

Reptilia and Batrachia.

Only one of our Reptiles, the Ringed Snake, has
aquatic habits, and it has not been found, so far as we
know, at Rostherne.

Manchester Meifioi?'s, Vol. Iviii. {igi^). No. ^. 33

Four Batrachians — the
Rana temporaria Linnaeus. Common Frog, Com-
Biifo bufo (Linnaeus). mon Toad, Crested and

Molge cristata (Laurenti). Common Newts — occur

Molge vulgaris (Linnaeus). in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Rostherne,
but we have no recollection of seeing any of them, nor
their spawn, in the mere itself

Pisces.

The difficulty of netting so deep a water as Rostherne,
and the fact that it is comparatively little fished, accounts
for the scarcity of information about its fish fauna.

Certain fishes, the Torch
Percafluviatilis Linnaeus. especially, are more easily

tempted by a bait than
others, and most fishermen who visit Rostherne try either
for Perch or Pike. The Perch in this mere are fine, deep
fish, and often bite freely. It is not unusual to take a
dozen or more and for the fish to average ^ lb., or even
a pound ; the largest we have taken personally weighed
just under i ^ lbs. The Rostherne Perch feed freely on
Ase/lus, and we have found these crustaceans alive in the
stomachs of fish some hours after capture. We have also,
in July, August and September, on several occasions,
found larval Perch in the stomachs of fish that we had
caught. In June we have found the Carp-louse, Argulus
foliaceus^ on fish. We once found a living leech in the
stomach of a Perch.

The Bullhead or Miller's
Cottus gobio Linnaeus. Thumb occurs in Blackburn's

Brook, but not often in the
mere. Coward found one dead at some distance from
any brook.

34 Coward, Fajuial Survey of Ros theme Mere.

The Pike, a favourite sport-
Esox Inciiis Linnaeus. ing fish at Rostherne, some-
times attains considerable
size ; we have, however, no record of a heavier weight
than 155^ lbs. When walking along the edge of the
mere in March and April numbers of spawning Pike will
be seen darting through the reeds into deeper water ;
indeed, at all seasons it is not uncommon to disturb small
Pike from the edge of the mere, but the larger fish do not
come so close inshore. Smelts, we are told, have been
disgorged by Pike which had just been captured. The
stomachs of five that we took on February 28th, 1914,
contained very little food ; all, including females, 6 lbs.
and 7 lbs. 4 oz. in weight, had been feeding on Asellus
aquatiais, and the larvae of aquatic beetles.

The Eel is a fairly
Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus), abundant fish in the

mere, and often attains
a large size. The largest we know of was over 5 lbs, in
weight,

Mr. J. Millington, the game-
Tinca tinea (Linnaeus). keeper at Rostherne, has no

knowledge of the Tench in
the mere, but on May 9th, 1910, Coward saw a dead fish
near the bank which he believes was a Tench. It was
about 2 ft. long, and had very small scales. He was un-
aware, at that time, that the fish was unknown in the
mere, and did not examine it carefully.

The Minnow occurs in
Phoxinus aphya (Linnaeus.) Blackburn's Brook, but

is not common.
The Bream occurs at
Abramis /^;'(TWrt (Linnaeus.) Rostherne,but is seldom

fished for, A Bream
weighing 5 lbs. 7 oz. has been caught in the mere.

Mane /tester Memoirs, Vo/. Iviii. (19 14), No. J>. 35

The Roach is fairly
Lenciscns rntilus (Linnaeus.) plentiful in the water.

On July 1 2th, 19 13, we
saw a large fish come to the surface and struggle. We
picked it up and it died immediately. Mr. James John-
stone, who kindly examined it for us, found that it was not
diseased, but its gills were coated with a deposit of phyto-
plankton, in which he could recognise some species of
Ceratium, Stephanodisats and Anabaena. The mere at that
time was " breaking," and the fish had, without doubt, been
suffocated by the extraordinary abundance of these plants ;
it had been unable to breathe on account of the " water-
bloom." Our tow-nettings for that date show that these
three constituents of the plankton, and Asterionella, were
greatly in excess of their normal numbers. Roach of
rather over 2 lbs. are sometimes taken in the mere.

In a water in which large
Salmo trutta Linnaeus. Tike occur there are not

likely to be many Trout,
although introductions have been attempted, and the
river Birkin, into which Blackburn's Brook flows, is a
good Trout stream. On February i6th, 1895, when the
mere was frozen, we saw a fair-sized Brown Trout em-
bedded in the ice, and this is not the only evidence that
these fish occasionally elude the Pike for some time.
When we were trolling for Pike on February 28th, 191 4,
Mr. T. Hadfield caught a Loch Leven, a very silvery fish,
which scaled 2 lbs. 14^ oz. No Loch Levens have been
released in the mere itself, and the dates at which these
fish have been turned down by the Bollin Angling Society
do not appear to warrant a Trout of this size ; on the
other hand, one may have escaped from a stock-pond in
Tatton Park and have found its waj- into the mere. If
so, this fish must have been in the mere for two or three

^6 Coward, F an jmI Survey of Rostherne Mere.

years, and have grown considerably during that period.
The food in its stomach largely consisted of Asellus
aguaiiciis and the larvae of Caddis-flies in their cases.

The Smelt or Spar-
Osiiierns eperlaniis (Linnaeus), ling is the most in-
teresting fish in
Rostherne. As already explained," Day's statement that
the Smelts were introduced by a Mr. Egerton** is refuted
by our knowledge of their presence in the mere at an
earlier date than he evidently refers to. It seems to be
possible that the anadromous Smelts were land-locked at
some remote time, and succeeded in maintaining their
position. A rather ingenious theory of monastic intro-
duction has been suggested by Mr. H. Hulme. As he
points out {ill lit), a portion of the Tatton estate was
handed over to the monks of Norton, who established
themselves at Mobberley circa 1200, and these Mobberley
monks possessed nets and boats and had rights of fishing
in Tatton Mere. The monks of Norton I'riory would be
familiar with the estuarine Smelts and may have stocked
Tatton and Rostherne, or, finding that Tatton was un-
suitable for the fish, have established them successfully in
Rostherne. There is, however, no documentary evidence
referring to actual stocking of either waters. The only
Rostherne Smelts which we have seen personally were a
number which we cut out of the ice in February, 1895,
and two we picked up dead on yXpril 4th, 1912.^*^'

The earliest known reference to the Rostherne Smelts
is in Richard Brookcs's "Art of Angling," published in
1740. He calls the fish "the Sprat or Sparling," confus-

* " Vertebrate Fauna of Cheshire," II., 151, and Coward, T. A., Man-
chestir Memoirs, Ivi. {19 12), No. 15.
0 "Britisli Fishes," II., 123.
i» Coward, T. A., "The Smelt in Rostherne Mere," Manchester Memoirs,
hi. (1912), 15.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 9- 11

ing it with the young of the Herring, but it is evident
that he means the Smelt.

"In Rotherston, or Rostern-Meer in Cheshire, there are
Sprats taken annually for ten Days about Easter, which
are not to be distinguish'd in any manner from Sea-
Sprats, being of the same Colour, Shape and Taste.
Likewise at the same time that they are taken in the
Meer, they are also caught in the River Mersey below
Warrington-Bridge^ where the Tide brings up the Salt-
Water, which Place is about seven or eight Miles from
the Meer. But the most remarkable Circumstance
relating to the Affair is this, That the' there is a Rivulet
runs thro' the Meer into the River Mersey, and though
there are several Weirs between the Lake and the River,
yet no Sprats have been ever caught or seen between
these two Places." The remainder of the article is specu-
lation as to the origin of the Smelts in the mere.

So far as we can discover, Richard Brookes's state-
ment that the Smelt does not occur in the Bollin has
never been refuted, although at a later date Benjamin
Martin, when describing the rivers of Lancashire,"
mentions " the Bollen, a small River rising in Cheshire,
which is also augmented with other Rivulets, and princi-
pally abounds with Sparklings or Smelts."

This work, which is undoubtedly a compilation, is not
reliable on other points, and possibly Martin copied from
Brookes, but misunderstood him.

The Brook Lamprey occurs

Latnpetra planeri l^\oc\\). in Blackburn's Brook, but

we do not know that it
actually enters the mere. Large numbers were running
up out of the Birkin on April 21st and 22nd, 1912.

^* "The Natural History of England," 2 vols. 1763. II., 254

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 10

X Carbon : its molecular structure and mode
of oxidation.

By Maurice Copisarow, B.Sc.

( Read Feb) nary 24th , 1914. Received for publication April 23rd, igi4.)

As it often happens in the sphere of ideas the
conception of the mode of oxidation of carbon has
passed through several stages of development, gradually
expanding with the accumulation of observations and ex-
perimental evidence.

In the last quarter of a century the reduction theory of
Lang {Zeit. Phys. Cheinie, 1888, 2, 62) has been replaced
by that oi gradual oxidatio7i by Baker {Phil. Trans. .^ 1888,
A 179, 571) and Dixon {J.C.S., 1896, 69, 774; 1899, 75.
630), which in its turn is likely to be substituted by the
theory of complexes propounded by Rhead and Wheeler
{J.C.S., 1910,97, 2181; 191 1, 99, 1 140; 1913, 103,461).

After careful consideration we find that none of these
theories is either absolutely wrong or a complete repre-
sentation of the actual reaction. Each of them represents
a more or less partial view of the phenomenon, the
true explanation of which will require the correlation
of these theories with one another and all the facts known
up to now considered from a logical standpoint. In
making this attempt we shall postulate the following
three fundamental assumptions as a basis.

I. A carbon molecule contains a large number of
atoms. (This is suggested by its high volatilisation point.)

May 227id, 1^14.

2 COPISAROW, Carbon : its nioleadar structure, etc.

II. A carbon atom is always tetravalent. (Gomberg's
experiments on tri-phenyl methyl and Nef's on the poly-
methylene compounds do not necessarily imply the
non-tetravalency of a carbon atom.)

III. Carbon exists in three allotropic modifications
(several new modifications suggested by Brodie, Berthelot,
Luzi and others have been proved by Moissan and Le
Chatelier to be either compounds or solutions and
mixtures of carbon with some other element).

As we have to deal with the combination of carbon
with oxygen, it is obvious that the knowledge of the
mechanism of such a combination must be of essential
importance. It seems to me that there are two, and only
two possible hypotheses, which can explain the process : —

1, The carbon molecule disintegrates at the first
instant into single atoms, which combine subsequently
with oxygen.

2. Oxygen combines at the first instant with the
atoms inside the carbon molecule, next follows a disruption
of the complex and the formation of the known oxides.

Which of these two hypotheses is the correct one ?
Can we reasonably suppose that by the mere presence of
oxygen, which has not yet reacted chemically, the carbon
molecule falls to atoms, which would imply the volatility
of carbon at a temperature below red heat ?

I think that the first hypothesis is, at least, improbable.

Now what can be said about the second ?

(a) It is in complete agreement with the most recent
experimental evidence.
{b) It is quite logical.
{c) It explains facts.
{d) It is the only one left.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii, (1914), No. 10. 3

Accepting the second hypothesis we are immediately
confronted by a multitude of complexes, requiring in their
turn a clear conception of a carbon molecule.

What is a carbon molecule ?

Is it a formless mass of atoms in a state of chaotic
disorder, or is it organised similar to the assumed
structure of carbon compounds?

Our assumption will be — organisation.

Now, if carbon is always tetravalent, what is the con-
stitutional, or, as Butlerow calls it, structural formula for
a carbon molecule ? Not much work has been done up
to the present in this direction.

Victor Me\'er (Beric/ife, 1871,4, Soi ; Liebig's An..,
1875, 180, 195), from results obtained on moist oxidation
of carbon, assumes a carbon molecule to be polyatomic.

Kekulc {Zeti. fiir angeiv. Cheinie, 1899, 950) regards a
carbon molecule as consisting of 12 atoms.

Barlow and Pope {J.C.S., 1906,89, 1742) suggested
the possibilities of a tetrahedron and tri-naphthalene con-
figuration for a carbon molecule.

fk. I.

Dewar {Chevi. News, 1908, 97, 16) proposed the
formula

4 COPISAROW, Carbon : its molecular structure, etc.

Fig. 2.
basin,^ his view on the oxidation of amorphous carbon to
meHitic acid— Cc(COOH)6. Redgrove and ThomHnson
{Chem.Nezvs, 1908,98, 3?) suggested certain modifications
of Dewar's formula.

Aschan {Ckeui. Zcit., 1909,33, 561)^ criticising Dewar's
suggestion, put forward the formula

Fi^. 3-

Maiichester Memoirs, Vol. Ivii?. {1^14), No. 10. 5

Dimroth and Kerkovius {Liebigs An., 1913, 399, 120)
thought a carbon molecule to consist of pentagons as
well as hexagons.

Bragg {Proc. R. S. 191 3, A6101, studying crystalline
structures by means of a A'-ray spectrometer, advanced
a three-dimensional configuration for a molecule of
diamond.

H. Meyer {Moiiats/i., 19 14, 35, 163) discussing the
the carbon " molecule," puts stress on the difficulty, if not
the futility of trying to define the chemical entity of the
three forms of carbon.

Here we see that the number of suggestions varies
more with the number of investigators than the number
of allotropic modifications of carbon.

Now keeping in mind the proposed fundamental
assumptions, let us follow the possibilities for such a
representation (;/ being the number of atoms in a carbon
molecule).

The first class is noted by the poiver of free rotation
of the units (single atoms or groups) constituting the
carbon molecule. (See Fig. 4.)

The second class is noted by the partial rigidity of
the molecule, owing to the two single bonds linking some
units. (See Fig 5.)

The third class is noted by complete rigidity of the
molecule. (See Fig. 6.)

Here we have before us the striking fact that any
possible formula for carbon will fall into one of these
three classes. These three distinct classes are remarkable
from the fact that they would account for the three modi-
fications of carbon, and suggest the possible formulae for
amorphous carbon, graphite and diamond.

We may hope that the careful study of the compara-
tive reactivity, theory of strain, refraction and other

6 CoPISAROW, Carbon : its moleculay structure, etc.

physical properties of these forms will enable us to assign
to each modification its constitutional formula.

ccc<:

•I I I T

URSI

Fig. 4.

Manchester Memoirs, Vo/. Iviii. {igi^), No. \i^. J

The following considerations may serve as a pioneer
attempt in this direction.

The calorimetric measurements of the heat of complete
combustion of carbon per gram-atom give the following
numbers (Nernst) : —

Amorphous carbon ... 97650 cals.
Graphite .. ... 94-8 10 „

Diamond ... ... 94"3io „

mmu (LASS.

Fig. S-

These calorimetric measurements indicate the sum-
total of the energy liberated during the formation and
degradation of the complexes, plus that of the oxidation
of CO to CO,.

The whole process can be represented in the following

manner : —

I. II. III.

2c,+/0,-^2c,p;->aC0 + /3co,-^(a + /j)C02.

S COPISAKOW, Carbon : its molecular structure, etc.

These three stages can be conveniently represented
by the equation : —

K= a\h\ c.

Where K represents calories, a the heat of formation
of the complexes, b the heat of their disruption, c the heat
of oxidation of CO to CO.,.

^^''\

^

1 .-' / \

'y / \

.■ • / ^

,'' ^it'. ,\...

TIIIUD CLASS

Fig. 6.

It seems at first sight possible to use this formula as
a means of comparison and determination of the class to
which each form of carbon belongs, but, on more careful
consideration this fails, owing to the fact that each member
of the equation varies with the particular modification
and experimental conditions.

Taking equal weights of amorphous carbon, graphite
and diamond, and subjecting them to complete com-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), A''^ 10. 9

bustfon, we find that the amount of heat evolved is different
for each form of carbon, although the number of atoms
taken and the number of CO2 molecules formed is identical.

Looking for the cause of this dissimilarity, we are
driven to attribute it to the varying stability of the
molecules in the three cases, which must depend upon
the mode of linkage of the units inside the molecule.

Returning to our table of classification, we expect
that the least stabilit}' will be shown by molecules whose
units have the power of free rotation ; the maximum
stability will be found in the molecule all the constituent
units of which are in a state of rigidity, the intermediate
case being a molecule having some units which are rigid
and some free.

Now, considering the fact that the greater the stability
the smaller will be the evolution of heat on complete
combustion (compare the case of phosphorus), and corre-
lating this with the calorimetric measurements quoted
above, we find that

Amorphous carbon is represented b)- Class I., where

none of the units are rigid \
Graphite, Class II., some units are rigid ; and
Diamond, Class III., (^r// units are rzWc/.

Although these deductions are in good agreement
with Barlow and Pope's, Aschan's and Bragg's views, still
they cannot be taken as quite conclusive, as the calori-
metric measurements, which serve as a basis for these
conclusions, not only differ in magnitude with every
experimenter, but unfortunately contradict one another.
(Favre and Silberman, A. ch. [3] 35, 357, 1852.

Berthelot and Petit, A. ch. [6] 18, 80, 1889.

Mixter, Amer. J. of Science [4] 19, 440, 1905.

Roth and Wallasch, BcricJite 46, 896, 1913.)

lO COPISAROW, Carbon : its vwlecnhir structure, etc.

Clearing up the ground so far as we can as regards
the structure of carbon molecules, we shall proceed with
the consideration of the complexes of the general formula
C.O..

In the process of gradual oxidation C,0„ may be
regarded as a physico-chemical variable, depending upon
the allotropic form and extent of oxidation, x being
always equal to the number of atoms in a carbon mole-
cule, unless sub-complexes are also formed, when the
number of atoms in a carbon molecule will be a multiple
of X.

Although the number of intermediate theoreticall}'
possible complexes is very large, still judging by the
actual ultimate products the final complexes may be :

C,0, = C„0„ ; C„0„+, or C„0.,„

\
only CO formed ; CO^tCO,, formed : only CO., formed.

where n is the number of atoms in a carbon molecule,
and r the number of carbon atoms forming CO., molecules.
Therefore the general formula for the final complex
will be :

where « is a variable depending upon temperature,
pressure or concentration of oxygen as well as the parti-
cular form of carbon, and varying between zero and n.

Generalisations.

I. Polyatomic molecules combining with one another
and o-iving finally single molecules, must either disintegrate
before the reaction (under the influence of T, P, etc.), or
form a complex or complexes, stable or unstable, as the
case may be.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 10. 11

II. Polyatomic molecules of elements may be repre-
sented by constitutional formulae in a way similar to the
molecules of compounds.

In conclusion I wish to express my great indebted-
ness to Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., for his sympathetic
interest and kind criticism, and to Dr. H. F. Coward for
several suggestive discussions in connection with this
paper.

Chemical Department,

The University, Manchester,

February, igi4.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol, Iviii. (1914), No. II.

XI. Note on the Intrinsic Field of a Magnet.

By J. R. ASHWORTH, D.Sc.
(^Cojiwuiuicated by Dr. George Hickling, F.G.S.)
{Received aitd read May 12th, igi^.)

The researches of P. Curie have shewn that the
magnetic properties of the ferro-magnetic bodies above
their critical temperatures, the intensity of magnetisation
then being very feeble, may be represented by an equation
which is exactly analogous to the gas equation, in which
the gas pressure is replaced by the strength of the applied
field, the gas density by the intensity of magnetisation,
and the gas constant by a constant which, in the magnetic
equation, depends upon the nature of the magnetic
material.

Curie further showed that a ferro-magnetic body in
passing through the critical temperature from the state
of strong magnetism into the state when the gas equation
applies behaves in general like a fluid in passing from
the liquid to the gaseous state.

In order to develop this line of thought I have
suggested the application of an equation to ferro-
magnetism which is analogous to Van der Waals' equation
to fluids.'

Van der Waals extends the gas equation by introducing
a mutual attraction between the molecules equivalent to

^ " The Temperature Coefficient of the Ferro-magnetic Metals." Nature,
Aug. 25th, 1910. "The Temperature Coefficients of the Ferro-magnetic
elements in corresponding states." Phil. Mag., Jan., 1912, p. 36.

July 2nd, igi4.

2 ASHWORTH, Intrinsic Field of a Magnet.

a pressure and by putting a limit to the density. In
ferro-magnetism it is generally admitted that there is a
mutual attraction of the molecular magnets, and that there
is a limit to the intensity of magnetisation, and these are the
counterparts of the leading ideas in Van der Waals' theory.

This view of ferro-magnetism requires that there
should be an intrinsic field analogous to the intrinsic or
molecular pressure in a liquid, and, further, if the quantity
analogous to the gas constant R is to be treated as
constant over the whole range of temperature as in the fluid
equation, then this intrinsic field must be very large, and
in this respect is analogous to the large intrinsic pressure
in a liquid.

In a recent paper {Phil. Mag., February, 1914)^ I have
shewn that the ferro-magnetic equation in its main features
is in agreement with experimental facts, and it is easy to
deduce from the data there given that the intrinsic field
must be of the order of several millions of gausses, which
it is needless to say is far greater than any magnetic field
yet produced in air.

Prof. P. Weiss has developed a kinetic theory of
magnetism based on Curie's views, and has found it
necessary to introduce into his theory a molecular field
which must be of the same large order. He claims to
have established the existence of this field by showing
that the gradual increase of the specific heats of the ferro-
magnetic bodies up to their critical temperatures and the
rapid change at that point to the normal value is exactly
explained by the energy absorbed in the diminution and
final destruction of such a field due to thermal agitation of
the molecular magnets.' But so far the magnitude of

2 "The Anhysteretic Properties of Iron and Nickel." Fhil. Mag., Feb.,
1914.

» P. Weiss and P. N. Beck, /. de Pkys., 1908, (4), t. vii., p. 249.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 11. 3

this intrinsic field cannot be readily explained according
to recognised laws. If such a field exists its lines of force,
if uniform, apparently do not extend to the outside of the
magnet, and the fact that a very small reverse applied
force easily demagnetises a magnet is a difficulty in
accepting the idea of an intrinsic field of large magnitude.

It is therefore desirable to look for additional evidence
either for or against the existence of such a field and the
following experiment supplies further information on the
question.

Let two iron wires of the same structure dip into the
limbs of a U-tube filled with a suitable electrolyte. If one
of the limbs be placed between the poles of an electro-
magnet an electro-motive force is established between the
wires of such kind that the magnetised wire acts to the
unmagnetised like copper to zinc in a simple cell. This
can be explained by considering the iron ions as tending
to pass into solution, but where there is a magnetic field
the magnetic ions are held back and thus more positively
charged iron ions pass from the unmagnetised than from
the magnetised electrode into the solution, and hence the
current is from the unmagnetised to the magnetised
electrode through the solution.

The experiment arranged in this way has been carried
out in recent years by Hurmuzescu* in fields up to 7,000
gausses, and by R, Paillot^ in fields up to 30,000 gausses
with concordant results. The latter finds a maximum of
electro-motive force developed in afield of 25,000 gausses.

Assuming that the electro-motive force arises from the
magnetisation of the iron the experiment can be sub-
mitted to calculation by applying the hypothesis that the
electrical work is the equivalent of the magnetic work.

V- dePkys., (3), t. iv., p. ii8. 1895.
^ Comptes Rendus, 131, pp. 1 194-5. 1900.

4 ASHWORTH, Intrinsic Field of a Magnet.

Treating the intrinsic field within the iron as the unknown
quantity its magnitude can then be calculated, and the
result is found to be of the order of the intrinsic field
required by the ferro-magnetic equation analogous to Van
der Waals' equation, or as required by Prof P. Weiss in
his investigations.®

Although the experiment is thus in favour of an in-
trinsic field of some millions of gausses, the derivation of
this enormous field is still unexplained, and its magnitude
needs further confirmation.

There are other experimental results which might be
brought to bear on the question. For example, there is
a remarkable and rapid change in the thermo-electro-
motive force of both iron and nickel at or about the critical
temperature of these metals. Also the temperature co-
efficient of electrical resistance of iron and nickel is
abnormally large compared to other pure metals. These
facts are probably connected with the magnetic qualities
of iron and nickel, and, if so, should give some clue to the
magnitude of the intrinsic field when submitted to quanti-
tative investigation.

Sir J. A. Ewing's Presidental address to Section G at
the British Association Meeting at York in 1906, on the
similarity of crystalline polar forces to molecular magnetic
forces, is suggestive in connection with these newer views
of a very large intrinsic field in a magnet.

" Vide Appendix.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 11. 5

Appendix.

1. Van der Waals' equation in terms of pressure (/),
density {p), and absolute temperature (Z) may be written

where - is put for Van der Waals' b.

Po

The analogous ferro-magnetic equation is

(^+/(/))(i-i)=A-7:

Here /(I) represents the intrinsic field. If R' is an
unique constant, both below and above the critical tempera-
ture, and equal to the reciprocal of Curie's constant, then
it may be shewn that the intrinsic field in iron is of the
order 10^ gausses.

2. The magnetic work done in transferring an element
of volume {dv) of magnetic material from a place where
the intensity of magnetisation is zero to a place where it
becomes / is

The corresponding electrical work is

Edq
where E is the potential difference, and dq the quantity
of electricity transferred.

Let z be the electrochemical equivalent and ^ the

density of the magnetic substance, then

z
dv = ~^dq.

If the magnetisation arises from the intrinsic field

(//i), then

/

6 Ash WORTH, Intrinsic Field of a Magnet.

and the magnetic work may be written

Equating the magnetic to the electric work, we have

\lH^^dq^Edq

. rj _ 2E I 2E I

<T being the specific magnetisation.

3. The magnitude of the intrinsic field is obtained as
follows : —

Iron. 2E

Zrr

E- -03 X 10- cg.s units {vide R. Paillot loc. cit.).
Z= 3 X io~^ cg.s. units for divalent iron.

ff= 212.

2 X o^ X 10*
* 3 X io~" X 212
= 9"4 X 10"

According to Prof Weiss'' the maximum intrinsic field
of iron is 65 x 10® gausses.

Nickei.

E= 'ooi X io''{?) (vide Hurmuzescu /oc. cit.').

Z= 3 "08 X 10"* cg.s. units for divalent nickel.

<r=56.

2 X 10^
H, -

3"o8 X 10"^ X 56

= I'2 X 10^.

According to Prof Weiss^ the maximum intrinsic field
of nickel is 6"4 x 10® gausses.

The values for E and cr given above are maxima, but
the E.M.F. of magnetisation of nickel is not precisely
stated, but is said to be of the order given above.

^ P. Weiss and P. N. Beck,/, dt Phys., 1908, (4), t. vii., p. 249.

MancJiester Meuioirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. \%.

XII. The Specification of Stress. Part IV. The Elastic
Solution : The Elastic Stress relations and con-
ditions of Stability : Struts, ties and test-pieces.

By R. F. GwvTHER, M.A.

( Received and iead, Marcli loffi, igi4.)

In Part III. of this series of papers I developed a
mode of treatment of stresses in a medium, and of the
relation between stresses and strain in an isotropic solid.
The method can readily be adapted to suit a crystalline
medium, but in the present Part I propose to complete
the solution for an isotropic elastic solid. I shall also
obtain a simple form of the six relations between the
elastic stresses. This form is intended to be applicable
to the consideration of the fulfilment of surface-traction
conditions. Although conditions of this character are not
considered in this Part, an illustration of the employment
of the stress relations is given by considering a special
case.

The results arrived at are of a general dynamical
character, but under statical conditions they depend on
Laplace's equation only, and are more completely definite
than in the case of motion.

The formal Elastic Solution.

It is proposed to complete the solution of the con-
ditions arrived at in Part III., where the displacement
and the elements of strain and stress in an elastic solid
were given in cartesian, in cylindrical and in polar co-

September jgth, igJ4.

2 R. F. GWYTHER, Specification of Stress. Part IV.

ordinates in terms of F^ jn^ ju^ and /u^, and where it was
stipulated that

dx^ + a/ +8^2 -'J u;-

The relations between the four functions essential for
elastic conditions are

with two analogous relations (2).

Omitting some stages in the investigation, the solu-
tion in cartesians takes the form

F--

r If d4>. d<p.^ d<p\\

I 2\ f'.r vy czJ }

[ 2\ OX cy CzJ )
with two similar expressions for ju., and /z., . . . (3)-
The condition arising from (i) becomes

.T^V-</),+;'^ vVo + s^vV. = 0 . . . (4).

vx cy ' rz

In order that (2) may be satisfied, it is requisite that

p<p = {7;i + ;/) v-'/>,

P<t>i = « V -(p, ,
with two similar conditions for ^„ and (p^ . . . . (5),
and also that

and

^^ +J>V + s- V -J/ = 0.
1, dx cv dzj

From these we may now construct expressions for the
displacement, and for the elements of strain and stress,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. \%. 3

applicable for cases of rest or of motion, and including
the case of stability of equilibrium. The expressions lor
the elements of stress found in this manner are complete
solutions, but it is thought convenient to express separately
and in as simple a manner as possible the relations between
the elements of stress and the elastic constants after elimi-
nating" any reference to displacement or strain.

The Elastic Stress relations.

The relations are readily obtained by the method of
this series of papers, but they can also be verified from
the fundamental stress equations and the six geometrical
elastic stress relations, and by this means a test of
accuracy of working may be attained.

I state in the first instance the typical relations in
cartesian coordinates in the form in which I obtained
them.

These typical forms are as follows :

{ {yn - n)(fn + ny ^ ')

Altering the form of these relations in order to obtain
a further simplification, I write them as follows :

yii-H ^ ^ ' yn-ndx ^ '

These are the stress relations the correctness of which
can be otherwise verified. It will be noticed that the
invariant P+Q + R appears in every term on the right-
hand side.

4 Iv. F. GWYTIIER, Specification of Stress. Part tV.
To obtain these results in the simplest form, I write

P^Q^R^^^'^-^ (8),

so that

•■ „ „ mini - n) , , ?'

pP-nS7 -P^— V V + 2f/i^^„V-<p

•■ 3' .
nS- U\7'^S=^ 2m;^-r-\7\p (q).

' oj'cz

By adding the three equations, of which the first
equation in (9) is the type, we get

v4p»/^-(w + «)vV)} = 0, (10),

which gives a description of i/r, and which is in agreement
with the necessary condition that

p{P+Q + P)-{'>i + n)\7'{P+Q + P) = 0.
It will be noted that xj/^ is described but not defined, it
will contain an arbitrary function F such that v'^f^=0.

Returning to equations (g) and omitting some steps
in the reduction, we find as a simplification or solution,

^ „ m- n n , S^ ,

n ^ dx ■

with the analogous equations. In these equations we
have with (8) and (10)

p/o-wV-Zo^O, pSo-n\7-So = 0. . . . (11).

The correctness of the results in (11) may be verified by
substitution for P, or S, in (9).

The six relations given in (7), (9), and (11) consti-
tute the relations between the elements of stress which I
proposed to find. In them no direct reference is made
to displacement or to strain.

In the previous Fart of this paper, I extended the
forms of expression so as to include cylindrical and

Manchester Mevwirs, Vol. hui.{igi/i^), No. 1^. 5

spherical polar coordinates, and thus have prepared^ the
way for the introduction of the corresponding stress
relations. In cartesian coordinates it was sufficient to
give two typical relations, each giving the fornn of three
others, but this will not suffice in the other cases, and it
will be necessary to find the relations in full.

[In the paper as subnfiitted a statement of results was
given here. I have decided to reserve this statement for
amplification in view of its importance and to insert an
outline of the method of verification in its place.

In cartesian, cylindrical polar, or spherical polar co-
ordinates we have three dynamical equations given in
(i), (28), or (37) of Part III.'

For each system of coordinates we have six relations
between the elements of stress derived from the six geo-
metrical relations between the strains.

In Part II.'" combined with Part I.'^ I have shewn that
the six relations between the elements of stress may be
obtained by writing in the expressions referred to in the
pages named from Part I.,

^-^f^l(^+^ + ^) ^""^ ^«^>' ^^^^

and ,5 for 2n^\\ , etc.

The six dynamical relations between stresses only

may be obtained by eliminating in every way the strains

from the original dynamical equations and simplifying

the results by making use of the six geometrical relations.

In the case of cartesian coordinates the results are

readily obtained as in (7). The other cases are more

laborious. The present paper is now limited to the case

' Manchester Memoirs., Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 5, pages 6, 16, or 19.

- Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ivii. (1913), No. 5, page 2.

■' Manchester Memoirs., Vol. hi. (1912), No. 10, pages 5 and 9 and
Tabic A.

6 R. F. GWYTHER, Specification of Stress. Part IV.

of cartesian coordinates, but it will indicate the iin-
portance of the series of stress relations for an)' system of
coordinates.]

The expressions for the elements of stress are not
complete solutions of any problem, but they are pro-
posed as convenient forms to 'aid in the solution of any
specific question — for example, when surface-tractions
are defined.

The Suhition of the Statical Stress relations.

Returning to the set of equations (7), put /^ = 0, etc.
Then we have

v'(/'+(2 + i?)-0

V"^=--^^^ A(^+(? + ^) • • • (12),
etc.,
and we obtain

yji — H ox
etc.,
in which v'/'o---0 (13).

These equations constitute the formal solution in the
case of equilibrium of the six elastic relations, but they
are still subject to three conditions which will affect the
arbitrary functions, namely, that
dP dU IT

The Conditions for Stability of equilibrimn.

It is sufficient to consider one of the elements of
stress, say P.

In the general case, P must satisfy

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. \% 7
and therefore will have the solution

where

(4-./v')/',= 0

indicates the notation.

In the state of equilibrium

and there will be the solution in the form

ex
or in some similar form.

To examine the stability of the state of equilibrium
in regard to some displacement, we introduce time-terms
into P without altering its form ; that is, without departing
from that configuration in equilibrium of which we pro-
pose to examine the stability.

We will call the new element of stress P' . Then we
shall have two cases according as V^P' is or is not identi-
cally null.

If V^/^' is not null, then it will be necessarj' that

as in the general case.

But if v*P' = 0, then P' must satisfy the equation

7?

;r-of P^. - (w + 2//) V - )/'"' = 0
8/\' 8/- ^ ' J

°' F'=U+Vt + F',„^.„ (14),

when U and V are any functions of .t', j' and -c.

S/r7/fs, ties ana test-pieces.

In order to indicate how, in special connection with
the method proposed, the solution of the stress relations

8 R. F. GWYTHER, Specification of Stress. Part IV.

under statical conditions is to be employed, without
making use of surface-traction conditions which have not
as yet been introduced, it is necessary to make some
general assumption on which to base an illustration.

St. Venant has discussed the case when /' = 0, = f/O,
^ = 0, and has given the general method on which surface-
conditions may be treated.

I select the case of a strut connecting parts of a
structure, considered to be straight, or, at any rate, to have
a definite axial direction, which I shall take to be the axis
of ^'. The object of a strut is to convey a state of stress
from one part of a structure to another. I shall suppose
as describing the conditions of the special case to be con-
sidered that all stresses are independent of .s', so that the
stresses are communicated without change from section
to section of the strut.

The conditions to be made use of are (13) and the
fundamental static equations

^P ZU . oU -bQ r. dT ^ dS n

ox vy dx dy ' ?^x ?i'

The relations obtained from (13) become
P = P„~ J^!L^ xl{P-^Q^ P) ,

or

yn - n rLr

<?=(?„-

- '" yl{P+Q + P),

3W - n oy

P=^Po,

s = s„,

T=T„,

f/= U„-

. '" x'' (P+O + P)

3W-;/ ?r^^ +e^ + A),

= l^u-

T,m - n vx

(^5).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 1^. 9

The sole condition in regard to .V and T is that they
shall be conjugate functions.

In regard to Pu, Qo and f/„ we obtain on elimination
of P^Q^R

oxoy

6'P„ d'U ?)'Q^

— +2 °+_^" = (j (16).

dx' dxdv dv' ^ '

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 13.

XIII. Faunal Survey of Rostherne.

III. Preliminary List of Lepidoptera found round
the Mere.

By A. W. Boyd, M.A., F.E.S.

( Read Ma) cli 24th, igi4. Received fo7- publication Apiil jth. 1^14.)

The following list of Lepidoptera is the result ot
more or less casual collecting by day during the last
three years round Rostherne Mere, which I have visited
fairly often, principall)- to look for birds.

As I did not wish to disturb the game in the coverts,
I only collected by night on two occasions, once visiting
the sallows in spring and once at midsummer, when sugar
was tried ; consequently the list of Noctuze is a singularly
poor one, and I have no record of many species which
are certain to be abundant ; comparatively more atten-
tion has therefore been paid to the Microlepidoptera.
Little collecting seems to have been done at Rostherne
before ; three records in Day's Lepidoptera of Cheshire
are all that I can discover, though some of the old records
for Bowdon, made b}- IVlr. R. S. Edleston, may possibly
refer to Rostherne.

In all I can record 148 species, but hope to add many
during the coming season.

The Gale Bog is the best collecting ground, and a big
willow-bed at the other end of the mere contains some
species in plenty ; the game coverts contain remarkably

It is interesting to note the presence of several species
which, in Lancashire and Cheshire, are usually found on
the "mosses" or in similar country, such as Acronycta

Jioie igfh, igi4.

2 Boyd, Faunal Survey of Rostlierne.

leporina, Lygvis testata, Geometra papilioiiaria, Acidalia
straniinata (var. ciirellata), P(Bdisca solandriana, Argy-
resthia retmella, Elachista cerussella, etc.

Platyptilia bertrami, Hedya ocellana, Elachista cerus-
sella, Elachista apicipunctella, Laverna raschkiella, Litho-
colletis vifninlella and Lithocolletis stettinensis are new to
the Cheshire list, and a few other species have seldom
been recorded before for Cheshire.

As is always the case in this district, a tendency
towards melanism is to be seen in a number of species,
such as Phigalia pedaria (var. monacharia), Hybernia
margi)iaria (var. fuscata), Cidaria truncata, Malenydris
didyniata, Hydriomena iinpluviata (ab. infuscata), Diurnea
fagella, Hedya ocellana, etc.

I must acknowledge my thanks to Mr. W. Maiisbridge
and Mr. J. H. Durrant for kind help in identification of
the Microlepidoptera.

The nomenclature followed is that of R. South in the
Moths of the British Isles (1907 and 1908) for the macro-
lepidoptera, and in his synonomic list of British Lepi-
doptera (1884) for the Microlepidoptera.

Pieris napi, L.

Fairly common ; the only butterfly 1 have seen.

Smerinthus populi, L.

A batch of ova on a poplar-trunk below the
Church ; at present in pupa. One emerged
16.3. 14.

Chcerocavipa elpenor, L.

Recorded by Mr. J. Thorpe in Day's Lepidoptera
of Cheshire.
Orgyia antiqua, L.
Dicranura viuula, L.

One in the large willow-bed, 25.5.13, freshly
emerged above its pupa on a willow-stump.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 13. 3

Porthesia similis, Fues.

Abundant both as larva and imago.
Drepana falcataria, L.

One on Harper's Bank, 8.5.12.
Cilix glaucata, Scop.

18.5. 12 and 4.6.13.
Nola aicullateila, L.

A few, July 191 1 and 1912.

Acronycta leporina., L., var. bradyporina, Tr.

One in the Gale Bog, 9.7.10.
Acronycta psi., L.

1.7.13.
Noctua augur, Fb.

Several at sugar in the Gale Bog, 1.7.13.
Noctua baja, Fb. \
Noctua brunnea, Fb. j

Larvae in the neighbouring covert of Yarwood-
heath in 191 1.
Noctua rubi, View.

Several in the Gale Bog, 1.7. 13.
Mainestra thalassina, Rott.

In the Mere Covert, 7.6.13.
Eumichtis protea, Bork.

One, 27.9.08.
Diloba ccBruleocephala, L.

A larva on the Gale Bog hedge, 7.6.13 ; imago
emerged in the autumn.
Apamea gemma, Hb.

Two, 1.7.13.
Miana strigilis, Clerck.

1.7.13.
Phlogophora meticulosa, L.

1. 7.13.

4 Bovi), Fajinal Survey of Rosthertie.

Ochria ochracea, Hb.

Recorded by Mr. J. Thorpe in Day's Lepidoptera
of Cheshire.
Leucatua iiiipura, Hb.

8.7.12, flying in the Gale Bog.
Petilmnpa arcuosa, Hw.

Recorded by Mr. J. Thorpe in Day's Lepidoptera
of Cheshire.
Pachnobia ritbricosa, Fb.

A few at sallows in the Gale Bog, 3 1.3. 13.
Tceniocampa gothica, L.

Common at sallows in the Gale Bog, 31.3.13.
Tceniocavipa stabilis. View.

A few at sallows in the Gale Bog, 31.3.13,
TcBniocainpa mcerta, Hufn.

A few at sallows in the Gale Bog, 3 1.3. 13.
Tceniocainpa gracilis. Fb.

A fair number at sallows in the Gale Bog, 3 1.3. 13.
It also occurs commonly at the neighbouring
covert of Yarwoodheath.
Blips ilia satellitia, L.

One taken by Mr. T. A. Coward in the boat-
house in the autumn of 191 2.
Plusia gaiinua, L.

1.7.13.
Abrosivla triplasia, L.

1.7. 1 3.
Zanclognatha grisealis, Hb.

1 8.6. 1 1.
Hypena proboscidalis, L.

1.7.13.
Geojuetra papilionaria, L.

A pair in the Mere Covert, 18.7. 13.

The $ was of a yellow form. It was not bleached
and had evidently not long emerged.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 13. 5

Acidalia strammata, Tr., var. circellata, Gn.

3.7.13. This is a most interesting record. Until
recently this local Northern variety was
thought to be a separate species, but it has
been shown to be a variety oi A. strmninata.
With the exception of one Yorkshire locality
(Skipwith), this variety is practically un-
known now ; it has long been extinct in its
old Lancashire locality at Chat Moss, but
one was taken in Delamere in 1903. Mr.
R. S. Edleston recorded it from Bowdon
many years ago ; it seems possible that this
old record actually refers to Rostherne,
which is only 2\ miles from Bowdon. The
typical insect is really unknown in this
district — only one specimen ever having
been taken in Lancashire and Cheshire.
(Delamere, 1901.)
Acidalia bisetata, Hufn.

Two in July, 1912,
Lygris testata, L.

Two in the Gale Bog, 14.7. 12.
Cidaria tnincafa, Hufn.

In the Harper's Bank wood, 7.6.13 ; a dark form.
Cortviia unidetttaria, Hw.
Not uncommon.
Coremia designata, Rott.
Not uncommon.
Amcebe viridaria, Fb.

Fairly common.
Malenydris didymata, L.

Fairly common ; the specimens are dark.
Oporabia dihitata, Bork.
18.10.08.

6 Boyd, Faunal Survey of Rostherne.

Xanthorhoe montanata, Bork.

Very common.
Xantl'orho'c sociata, Bork.

Cotnmon.
Mesolcuca albicillata, L.

One in the Harper's Bank wood, 4.7. ii. I have
taken another (at no great distance) in
Tatton Park.
Mesolejtca bicolorata, Hufn.

In July, 1912 and 1913.
Pevisoma alcfietniilata, L.

Abundant along the big willow-bed, 10.7.10;
one 4.7.1 1.
Perizovia albulata, Schiff.

Common where the yellow-rattle grows, 191 3.
Hydriomena impluviata, Hb.

Common, (abundant in 191 1) ; ab. infuscata is the
commonest form, though a few of the t}'[)ical
form occur.
EupitJiecia vtilgata, Hw.

18.6.11 and 14.7.12.
Eupithecia satyr at a, Hb.

One, 1 5.6. 1 3.
Eupithecia exiguata, Hb.

One, 4.6.13.
Louiaspilis v/arginata, L.

Common among sallows, especially in the Gale
Bog.
Cabera pusaria, L.

Abundant.
Cabera exanthemata, Sc.

Common.
Opisthograptis luteolata, L.

Common.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), iVi^. 115. 7

Hyber}iia leucophcBaria, Schiff.

Sparingly in the Wood Bongs and the Mere
Covert on oak-trunks, 191 1, 1912 and 1913
(as early as Jan. 19). It is ver\' plentiful in
Tatton Park.
tJybernia inarginaria^ Bork., va.x. fiiscata, Harrison.

The males I have seen have all been of this dark
variety.
Hyberiiia defoliaria, Clerck.

Larvae fairly common.
Anisopteryx cBscularia, Schiff.

23.3.08, fl}'ing under an alder.
Phigalia pedaria, Fb.

A few in the Mere Covert, Feb. 191 1.
Pliigalia pedaria, Fb., var. monacharia. Stand.

1 1.3. 1 1. This black form occurs also in Tatton
Park and Dunham Park.
Boarmia geiiimaria, Brahm.

8.7.1 1.
Losograitima petraria, Hb.

Common among bracken.
Hepialus humtili, L.

Fairly common in a meadow by the brook, 19 12.
Hepialus hecta {hectus, L.).

Common in the Mere Covert and on Harper's
Bank, 191 2 and 191 3 ; feeds on bracken.
Scopaiia anibigualis, Tr.

Plentiful.
S copula hitealis, Hb.

Fairly common, 191 1 and 1912.

Scopula olivalis, Schiff.

22.7.13.
Hydrocampa )iympli.ceata, I -.

Common among water-plants.

8 Boyd, Faunal Survey of Rostherne.

Platyptilia berirami, Rossi.

1.7. 1 3, in the Gale Bog ; not previously recorded
from Cheshire.
MhncBseoptihis bipunctidactyla^ Hw.

1 2.7. 1 2, in the Gale Bog ; feeds on scabious.

Crambns pratelhis, L.

Two in June, 191 3.
Crambns tristellus, Fb.

9.7.1 I.
Cr ambus en line /Ins, L.

Abundant.
Crambus hortuelhis, Hb.

1.7.10.
Tcrtrix xylosteana, L.

9.7.1 1 and 14.7. 1 2.
Tortrix ribeana, Hb.

Common.
Tortrix nnifasciaiia, Dup.

Abundant.
Tortrix costana, Fb.

A fair number in 191 2 and 19 13, especially in
the Gale Bog.
Tortrix viridana, L.

Abundant.
Tortrix 7ni?iistrana, L.

27.5-1 1-
Pero?iea variegana, Schiff.

A few.
Teras contaminana, Hb.

Abundant in autumn.
Dictyopteryx Iccflingiana, L.

2.7. 1 1 and 3.7.13,
Dictyopteryx for skaleana, L.

9.7.1 1.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Iviii. (1914), iV^'. 13- 9

Penthina corticana, Hb.

Several, 18.6.11.
PeiitJntia vai'icgana, Hb.

4.7.1 1.
Hedya {Tinetocera) ocellana, Fb.

87.12. New to the Cheshire list. A melanic
form (identified by Mr. J. H. Durrant).
Hedya dealbana, Frol.

A few in July, 191 1 and 191 2.
SptloHota triinaculana, Hw.

Two in the Gale Bog, 4.7.12.
Aspis udinanniana, L.

23.7.12.
Sericoris lacunana, Dup.

Most abundant.
Cnephasia niusculana, Hb.

12. 5. 12.
Sciaphila subjectana, Gn.

Abundant.
Sciaphila hydridana, Hb.

7.7.1 1.
Bactra lanceolana, Hb.

Very common in the Gale Bog among rushes.
Phoxopieryx dinituiitana, Hw.

1 5.6. 1 3 ; feeds on sallow,
Phoxopteryx lundana, Fb.

Two, 12.5. 12.
Grapholitha subocellana, Don.

Plentiful in the big willow-bed, June, 1913 ; feeds
on sallow.
Grapholitha penkleriana, Fisch.

37- 13-
Hyperniecia cruciana, L.

23,7.11, and two in July, 1912 ; feeds on sallow.

lO Boyd, Fminal Survey of Rostherne.

Pcedisca bilunana, Hw.

18.6.II.
Pcedisca corticana^ Hb.

9.7.1 1.
Patdisca solandriana, L.

Several in the Gale Bog, July and August, 191 1.
Ephippiphora pflugiana^ Hw,

Two in the Gale Bog, June, 191 3.
Catoptria ultcetana, Hw.

May, 191 3 ; common among gorse.
Catoptria cana, Hw.

27.7.13.
SymcBthis oxyacanthella, L.

Common.
Eupcecilia inaculosana, tlw.

II and 12.5.12, on Harper's Bank.
Conchy lis siraminea, Hw.

8.7.12.
Diurnea fogella, Fb.

Abundant on the more isolated oak-trunks.
Among a large number I have only seen
one light form.

Scardia corticella, Curt.

On trunks in the Gale Bog in July ; the larva
feeds on fungus growing on trees.
Micropteryx subpurpitrella, Hw.

3.5.13. In the Harper's Bank wood.

Nemophora schwarziella, Zell.

Fairly common in May and June.
Adela viridella^ L.

May, 1912.
Swaninierdaminia pyrella, Vill.

8.5.12.
Plutella criiciferaruvi^ Zell.

Common, especially in the big willow-bed

Manchester Memoirs, Vol, Iviii. (19 14), No. 13. ii

Phibalocera quercana, Fb.

4.7. 1 1, etc. Not uncommon.
Teleia proximella, Hb.

27.5.1 1, etc. A few annually.
Teleia hiailella, Hb.

One on an oak-trunk, 30.6.12.
Dasycera sulplmrella, Fb.

Many pupae in a rotten alder-stump in May,
191 3 ; from these I bred a good number.
Also on Harper's Bank, 1 1.5. 12.
Endrosis fenestrella, Scop.

I3-5-I3-
ArgyrestJiia nitidella, Fb.

Very common.
Argyresthia spiniella, Zell.

28.7.1 1.
Argyresthia retinella, Zell.

24.6.12 and 3.7.13.
Argyresthia gcedartella, L.

Fairly common, especially in the Gale Bog.
Argyresthia brochella, Hb.

Fairly common, especially in the Gale Bog.
Ornix avellanella, Sta. (non Hb.).

27.5.13. Identified by Mr. J. H. Durrant.
Coleophora c(Bspititiella, Zell.

June, 191 2 ; among rushes.
Coleophora fuscedinella, Zell.

8.7.12.
Coleophora lutipennella, Zell.

20.7.12.
Bactrachedra prceangusta, Hw.

Abundant on poplar-trunks below the Church,
23.7.12 ; also near poplars in the Mere
Covert, 191 1.

12 Boyd, Faimal Survey of RostJierne.

Laverna raschkiella, Zell.

27.5.13. New to the Cheshire h"st. Identified by
Mr. J. H. Durrant
Chrvsodysta mirifrontella ^ Hb.

1. 7.10.
Elachista apicipunctella, Stn.

New to Cheshire. 15.6.13.
Elachista albifrontella, Hb.

1 5-6. 1 3.
Elachista cemssella, Hb.

Common in June, 191 3, in the big willow-bed ;
recorded from the Lancashire mosses by
C. S. Gregson — not previously recorded from
Cheshire.
Elachista rufocinerea, Hw.

Common.
Elachista argentella, Clerck.
15.6.13 and 37-I3-
Lithocolletis quercifoliella, Fisch.

19.5.13.
Lithocolletis vimintella, Stn.

Not previously recorded for Cheshire. Fairly
common in the willow-bed in May and
June, 1913. (Iden. J. H. D.)
Lithocolletis alnifolielia, Hb.

Abundant in May on alder-trunks on Harper's
Bank.
Lithocolletis stettinensis, Nic.

23.7.12. New to the Cheshire list. (Iden. J.H. D.)
Cemiostoma lahiirnella, Heyd.

On a laburnam in the Mere Covert.
Nepticula argentipedella, Zell.

24.5.13. Mr. J. H. Durrant identified this. He
writes : — " Somewhat worn, but probably
rightly determined."

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 14.

XIV. Juvenile Flowering in Eucalyphis globulus.
By Professor F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.L.S.

(Read October jth, igrj. Received fo7- publication, September i2:h, igi4)

It is a well known fact that the young plants of the
Blue Gum {^EncalyptJis glolndus) have very different foliage
from that which is characteristic of the mature plants.
In the former the leaves are arranged in pairs opposite
each other, they possess no leaf stalks and their blade is
horizontally expanded. The foliage is covered with a
waxy bloom which gives it the peculiar greyish tinge.
This immature foliage persists for many years. Under
cultivation in the greenhouse, particularly when pruned
back, plants may grow for fifteen or more years without
showing any trace of the characteristic foliage of the
mature plant. When this latter stage has been reached
the leaves are found to be inserted alternately on the
branches ; they are pendant, owing to the possession of a
distinct and slender leaf stalk, and the leaf is sickle-
shaped instead of possessing the bilateral symmetry of
the juvenile foliage. The mature foliage, owing to the
pendant position of the leaves, is undoubtedly better
adapted to resist drought and intense insolation than is
the foliage of the juvenile plant, which probably grows
for a considerable time in the shade and shelter of taller
trees. Such differences in the foliage of immature and
mature plants are not at all uncommon and among
Australian plants belonging to a widely different natural
order the Acacias ma)' be cited as another example,

October 2isl, 1Q14.

2 \W EISS, /uve7iz7e Flowering in Eucalyptus globulus.

though the juvenile foliage in these plants is generally
restricted to the seedling stage of the plant.' A more
strictly analogous though less striking difference can be
seen in the case of the immature and mature foliage of
the Holm Oak (Queirus Ilex).

The flowering of EucalypUis globulus is usually re-
stricted to branches possessing the mature foliage and
does not normally commence until the tree has assumed
considerable dimensions. I have however had under
observation two interesting cases of young trees, which
flowered at an early age and while still clothed with the
immature foliage. The first of the two plants, growing in
a six-inch pot, was cut down after its first year's growth
to the height of about two feet. One of the lateral buds
then became a leader, and growing some two feet in
length produced, towards the end of the second summer,
a number of flower buds in the axils of five pairs of leaves
of perfectly normal type, typical of the young plants, i.e.,
broad and rounded at their base and devoid of any trace
of leaf stalk. Most of these flowers expanded next
summer, i.e., in the third year of the tree's growth. They
were well formed and produced ripe pollen ; but though
several flowers were fertilised and showed some further
development of the ovary, no ripe seeds were produced.

Several plants which had been growing for many years
in the same greenhouse and which had attained much
greater dimensions showed neither any sign of mature
foliage nor flower buds. Even the oldest which has
occasionally produced branches with pendant leaves has
never formed flower buds.

It may therefore be that the severe interference with

' Pritzel has, however, described one species of Acacia {Acacia insolita)
which, in its mature condition, possesses both pinnate leaves and phyllodes.
Engler's Botaii. Jahrb., XXXV., 1904, p. 311.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 14. 3

the growth of the plant, which took place by the shortening
of its main stem, may have had some influence in the
production of the flowers. This is however by no means
always the case, though it has occurred in one other
specimen which had been similarly treated.

The production of flowers on such immature plants is
of some biological interest, and Cockayne has recently
drawn attention to the occurrence of numerous cases of
such precocity observed in New Zealand, while Diels^
in 1906 gave us a fuller account of the same phenomenon.

In this latter account he deals with several interesting
occurrences in the genus Eucalyptus, which he interprets
as cases of juvenile flowering, or more properly of the
retention of the juvenile foliage in mature plants.

According to Diels, Eucalyptus pulverulenta and Euca-
lyptus melanophloia seem to be juvenile flowering forms of
Eucalyptus Stuartiana and E. crebra, just as von M tiller^
had considered that Eucalyptus Risdoni from Tasmania
was only a form of Eucalyptu-s aniygdaliua, which had
retained the immature foliage in the cooler climate of
Tasmania.

I understand, however, from Mr. L. Rod way, of
Tasmania, that neither Miiller's nor Diel's suggestions
regarding the relationship of these species of Eucalyptus
are accepted by Australian and Tasmanian botanists
familiar with these plants in the field.

Mr. Rodway tells me that the reason why in many
instances Eucalyptus Risdoni retains its juvenile foliage
is that it often grows on the poorest and dryest mudstone.
Wherever Eucalyptus Risdoni establishes itself on land
not quite so poor it develops into the form referred by

^ Diels, L. " Jugendformen und Blutenreife im Pflanzenreich."
I'erlin, 1906.

^ Von iMuller, F. " Eucalyptographia," V. 1880.

4 Weiss, /uvenz/e Flowering in Eucalyptus globzilus.

Bentham to var. elata with long falcate, petioled leaves,
with the venation always more netted than in any form of
Eucalyptus aviygdalina. E. Risdo7ti appears to be very
variable and apparently flowers are borne both on speci-
mens with large opposite and connate leaves as well as
on others with narrow stalked leaves similar to those of
E. amygdalina, but with a different venation.

Eucalyptus globulus, under certain methods of culti-
vation as described above, may also produce flowers on
young plants with immature foliage.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I. — General view of upper portion of young plant of
Eucalyptus globulus, showing flowers at four of the
nodes of the shoot which has replaced the main axis
after the latter had been cut down to about two feet
above the soil.

Plate II. — Enlarged view showing the leaves of immature type
subtendinsf the flowers.

MANCHESTER MEMOIRS, VOL LVIII (NO 14^)

PL(hte^ I

MANCHESTER MEMOIRS. VOL LVIII (NO 14')

Ptcube. II

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 15-

XV. Quantitative Absorption Spectra, Part I. The
chemical significance of absorption spectra and
the methods of examining them.

By Frkdekick Russell Lankshear,

B.A.(N.Z.), M.Sc.(Vict.).

Read May 12th, igi4. Received for publicalion Septembej- igth., igi4.

Of recent years much attention has been given to the
study of the relation between the physical properties and
the chemical constitution of organic compounds. As a
result, knowledge of the internal structure of the molecule
has been greatly advanced. Not only have the relative
positions of the atoms in the molecule been more precisely
determined, but deductions have begun to be drawn from
experimental facts as to the nature of the forces which
hold atoms together in a state of combination. No
branch of this subject would seem bigger with possibilities
than the study of colour. Colour, whether in the ultra-
violet or visible regions, can easily be examined by means
of a spectrograph, it is a very characteristic property, in
many cases it is clearly allied to a definite structure, as in
the case of the a-diketones, and yet it must be confessed
that the results of the past thirty years' work have been
disappointing. It is true that the theory concerning
visible colour put forward by Witt and elaborated by
Hantzsch, Kauffmann and others is applicable to a wide
range of substances including the dyestuffs, but it is
rather a coordinated summary of observed facts than an
explanation of the origin of colour. In the field of ultra-
violet colour, the work of Hartley, Baly, Hantzsch and

Octok'?- i6th, igr4.

2 LankSHEAR, Quantitative Absorption Spectra.

others has led to some useful generalisations, yet here
again no really satisfactory theory of cause has yet been
put forward. One reason, and perhaps the chief one, for
the present state of affairs, is that the method of examin-
ing colours has been largely qualitative.

In the following pages a brief description of the
method at present in use for the study of ultraviolet
absorption spectra is given, together with a short summary
of the more important generalisations arrived at. A new
instrument is then described which permits quantitative
measurements of the amount of light absorbed by a given
quantity of a substance.

The present, or Hartley method, was suggested by
Hartley in 1 879 {Proc. Roy. Soc., 28, p. 233). It has been
considerably developed by Dobbie, Baly, Purvis and
others.

The Hartley Method.

Apparatus. The apparatus used consists of a source
of ultraviolet light, a quartz condenser, a suitable quartz-
ended containing vessel for the substance under examina-
tion, and a quartz spectrograph in which the transmitted
light is allowed to fall on a photographic plate after
dispersion.

Source of Light. A spark from a six inch induction
coil is passed between suitable electrodes with a con-
denser in parallel. An iron arc is also sometimes used.
The choice of the electrodes is a matter of some difficulty,
but the Jones' form is the most serviceable. This con-
sists of carbon poles impregnated at a red heat with
uranium acetate and ammonium molybdate. The tips
are wedge-shaped, and the long edges are placed parallel
to the optic axis. The spark gap is about 5 mm. The
spectrum of this spark is very rich in ultraviolet light, and

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 15. 3

consists of many strong lines on an almost continuous
background.

The Containing Vessel. Hartley used small quartz-
sided cells which held a definite thickness of solution.
Baly has, however, effected a great improvement. The
Baly tube consists of two concentric glass tubes, one end
of each of which is closed with a quartz plate. A piece
of rubber tubing serves to make a tight joint, and to
allow the smaller tube to move freely inside the larger.
The latter is provided with a bulb which acts both as an
entrance and as a reservoir to the apparatus. The side
of the larger tube has engraved on it either thicknesses in
millimeters or the logarithms of corresponding thick-
nesses.

The Spectrograph. Any spectroscope will do if fitted
with an optical train transparent to ultraviolet light and
with a camera attachment, but it is desirable that the dis-
persion should give a spectrum about seven inches long
from wave length A = 8,000 to 2,000,* all of which should
be in focus at the one time.

Solvents. The ideal solvents are those which are per-
fectly transparent between the above-mentioned limits.
It is doubtful, however, if any do fulfil that condition,
although some such as water, alcohol, and chloroform
show, in the pure condition, very little absorption. Still,
alcohol usually begins to show absorption at 3,200, and
bad specimens may transmit a weakened spectrum over
the whole of the ultraviolet.

Plates. Most plates are sufficiently sensitive down to
X = 2,500, beyond which region the photographic image
falls off in intensity, partly through the weakness of the
rays but probably to a greater extent through absorption
by the materials of the plate. In the examination of this

* All wave lenglhs are given in Angstrom units

4 Lankshear, Quantitative Absorption Spectra.

region recourse must be had to relatively long exposures.
Experiments are in progress for the making of a plate at
once sensitive and fast in the region X = 3,000 to 2,000.

The plates are treated by the ordinary i)hotographic
methods.

Exposure. Exposures of from 15 to 20 seconds
usually give a readable plate, but, as is shown elsewhere,
a readable plate does not necessarilj' mean a correct plate.

Plotting Results. In taking the photograph, a suitable
concentration of the substance being studied is chosen,
and exposures taken through thicknesses such as 50, 40,
35) 30, 25, 20, 17, 15, 12, 10, 8, 6, 5 mm. If necessary the
solution is then diluted down to one-tenth the strength,
and the process repeated. Between each exposure the plate
is racked forward sufficiently to prevent the overlapping
of the successive spectra.

After development the plate is read. This is done
by placing on the plate a wave length scale and reading
off the wave length of the last line visible in the given
exposure. In many instruments there are arrangements
for photographing a wave length scale directly on to the
plate. The curve can then be plotted. It is usual to
plot oscillation frequencies as abscissae and logarithms
of relative thicknesses in millimeters of M/io,000 solution
as ordinates.

Types of Curves In general, it is found that two dis-
tinct types of absorption occur, {a) general, {b) selective.

The general absorption curve may be either straight
or may have one or more bends in it, which in some
instances take the form of steps. Up to the present time
this form of curve has had only a restricted significance
for chemists, and is associated with aliphatic compounds
and comj)letely saturated aromatic compounds like hexa-
hydrobenzene.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 15. 5

The curve of selective absorption has one or more
maxima and minima, and the portions of the curve about
a minimum are said to form an absorption band and the
minimum itself is called the head of the band. The
vertical distance from a minimum to its adjacent maxi-
mum is termed the persistence of the band, and is the
range of dilution over which the band occurs. It thus
forms a rough measure of the strength of the absorption.

Generalisations. Certain conclusions have been arrived
at which will probably continue to hold good for some
time, although the use of more scientific methods may be
expected to give them a somewhat different form.

The following summary, though not complete, will
give some idea of their nature.

1. Aliphatic bodies give general, aromatic give selec-
tive absorption. Numerous exceptions exist on both
sides. For instance, aliphatic compounds containing the
group — CO.CHj — , in which keto-enol tautomerism to the
form — COH = CH — is considered to occur, show selec-
tive absorption, especially in their metallic derivatives,
such as — CONa = CH — , The same is true of aliphatic
a-diketones containing the group — CO. CO — . In this
case it is supposed that a reversible change to the form

-C = C-

I I
0-0

occurs. As regards aromatic compounds, the case of
hexahydrobenzene has been already referred to. This
may, however, be regarded almost as an aliphatic body,
but the general absorption of aniline, CgH6NH2, is not
capable of the same explanation.

2. Substances having analogous constitutions give
similar absorption spectra. This statement, first put for-
ward by Hartley in connection with the alkaloids, needs

6 LankshEAR, Quantitative Absorption Spectra.

some qualification. In the first place it is true only of
complicated bodies, and then only when the substituent
is optically inert, e.g. when —OH becomes — OMe.

3. Persistence and reactivity are closely related. This
is well brought out in the substituted benzoquinones,
where decrease in persistence is accompanied by a corre-
sponding decrease in the ease of oxime formation. In
the tetra substituted quinones the quinone band dis-
appears and no oximes can be form-ed.

4. Definite groups tend to give their band always at
the same dilution and wave length. Thus the a-diketone
band is just at the edge of the visible spectrum and is
given in N/io solutions. These substances are thus
characterised by their yellow colour. The difficulties
surrounding the subject of colour will be appreciated
when it is remembered that very many yellow bodies
exist which cannot have an a-diketonic structure.

5. Finally, both selective absorption in the ultra-
violet and ordinary visible colour are connected with the
existence in the molecule of one or more centres where
the chemical potential, or reactivity, is high.

The above statements, although subject to many
reservations, show the nature of the considerations which
affect the study of absorption spectra.

Various theories have been put forward of the origin
of selective absorption in organic compounds based on
the qualitative curves which the Hartley method gives,
but it is highly desirable that there should be accumulated
a large body of data derived from a more scientific method.
Certain criticisms to which the former method is open
may be made under the following heads : {li) source of
light, ib) exposure, {c) absorption of light by other than
the substance being studied, {d) change in constitution on
dilution, {e) difficulties in reading the plate.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 15. 7

Source of Light. The spectra of most, if not all,
sources of light contain weak regions where both the
maximum intensity of individual lines and the average
intensity of the region are less than in the surrounding
regions. There is thus a tendency to the formation of a
spurious band at this point, and where a genuine band
occurs at this wave length the effect will be liable to
exaggeration.

Exposure. Under average conditions an exposure of
15 to 20 seconds is sufficient to produce a fairly dense
and readable plate. Changes in the time of exposure
do, however, greatly affect the position of the curve with
reference to the concentration. Bands tend to become
narrower with longer exposure.

Thus, since no convention exists as to a light source
of standard intensity, it is only by chance that the curves
for a given substance obtained by two independent
workers will be perfectly superposable. As a rule, for the
purposes for which the method has mostly been used,
this is not serious, but it is a fatal objection to methods
of analysis based on absorption spectrum measurements.

Extra Absorption. Three sources of error are summed
up under this term, absorption by the solvent, scattering
of ultraviolet light by fine suspended impurity, and
absorption in the region \ = 3,000 — 2,000 by the materials
of the plate itself The second may easily be remedied by
good filtration, but is often overlooked, the first and the
third are serious. Hartley in his paper quoted above
gives a list of solvents transparent to ultraviolet light
down to A = 2,000. This list appears to have been
accepted without question by chemists. But it is easy to
show in every case that weakening of the transmitted
spectrum occurs as A = 2,000 is approached. To take the
case of alcohol ; an ordinary specimen of Kahlbaum's

8 LanksHEAR, Quantitative Absorption Spectra.

pure absolute alcohol will be found to show signs of
absorption at X = 3,000 through a length of 100 mm., and
even after careful fractionation over a few drops of
sulphuric acid, followed by similar treatment with lime,
absorption will show up between A = 2,800 and X = 2,000.
Gelatine absorbs ultraviolet light of short wave length,
and, since in the ordinary plate the silver bromide grains
are embedded in gelatine, they do not receive all the light
of short wave length which falls on the plate. The
sensitiveness to waves from X = 2,500— 2,000 varies very
much, but in all ordinary plates the effect becomes strong
as the wave length X = 2,000 is approached. Hence, for
measurements in this region, Schumann plates should be
used, in which variety a minimum of gelatine is used.
Unfortunately, these are not on the market and must be
prepared when required.

Changes in constitution on dilution. This difficulty is
not very common, but it manifests itself occasionally in a
sudden break in the curve at the point where the solution
has been diluted. For an example, see the camphor
quinone a — hydrazone and a — semicarbazone. (/. C. S.,
99, p. 1786.)

Reading- the Plate. It is usual in reading off the
point where a band begins to regard the last line visible
as the edge of the band. This works well enough with
portions of curves near the visible, but the greater part of
the ultraviolet spectrum is diffuse and certain strong lines
persist long after weaker ones have disappeared. This
trouble can be got over to a certain extent by using
another source of light, but it will always remain a cause
of uncertainty and additional labour.

Quantitative vietJwds. An interesting quantitative
method has recently been developed by M. Henri {Phys.
Zeit., 191 3, pp. 513-516), which will be briefly described

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (1914), No. 15. 9

Twenty-three spectra of exactly five seconds exposure
are spaced across a plate, leaving room for another
exposure between each. The gaps are then filled with
spectra transmitted through varying lengths of the solu-
tion for various exposures. Thus :

Standard Spectrum. Transmitted Spectrum

(Through 2 mm. of Solution).
Sees. Sees.

5 90

5 60

5 40

5 30- etc.

After development, those points are noted at which the
transmitted and standard spectrum have the same
intensity. By applying the Schwartzschild formula for
the intensity of the photographic image, and Beer's law,
the extinction coefficient for various wave lengths can be
arrived at. For instance, in the above example, the
transmitted and standard beam will be of equal intensity
at a certain point, X, for the exposure 90 sees, and the
length 2 mm. The two laws can now be applied, in the

forms —

/ / 1 V>

7r(\r

(Schwartzschild's formula for the densit)- of the photo-
graphic image where / and /, are intensities / and /i times
of exposure, and ;/ n number depending on the make of
plate, '9 in the Wratten panchromatic plate), and

/. = /. 10-^'^
(Beer's law where A is the intensity of the transmitted
beam, / that of the original beam, /c a constant, and d
the thickness of layer traversed).

Combining the two formulae and substituting the
numerical values, we have

A=- logy = 5-65.

lo Lankshear, Quantitative Absorption Spectra.

K=ec in the expression of Beer's 1^ = 1 . lO'^""^, where e is
the extinction coefficient and c the concentration in gram
molecules per litre. It is thus possible hy a choice of
suitable thicknesses and exposures to evaluate e over the
whole range of the absorption band.

M. Henri and his co-workers have examined a num-
ber of substances and have drawn several generalisations
of interest which will be considered in a later communi-
cation. Their method is open to criticism, and it is
computed that errors of the order of 30 per cent, may
affect their figures.

^':,

Fig 1

Fig I.

The first and most serious of these errors relates to
the standard spectrum. They made the exposure as
exact as possible by means of the rotating sector com-
monly used in photographic measurements, but there is
always the possibility of variation in the light source,
which is the condensed cadmium and iron spark. Further,
the accuracy of Schwartzschild's formula is assumed over
the whole range of the spectrum, for any plate, and for
any value of /. These defects are overcome in the
method about to be described. In this latter, due to

SLIT

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iviii. (19 14), No. 15. ii

Messrs. Hilgers, a beam of light is divided into two equal
portions by a pair of deflecting" windows of quartz. The
lower beam then passes through a rotating sector of fixed
aperture, and through a cell of definite length, containing
the solution under examination. It then falls on a
biprism fixed to the slit of the spectrograph. The upper
beam after deflection passes through a rotating sector,
the aperture of which is adjustable. It then traverses a
cell identical with the lower one containing the solvent
and falls on the biprism. The two images come to a

Fig. 2. — General appearance of apparatus.

focus on the object glass of the spectrograph, and form
on the plate two spectra side by side and just touching.
A blank photograph gives two spectra of equal intensity
over their whole range. By means of the adjustable
sector the strength of the standard beam can be cut
down by any known amount, the logarithm of the ratio
of the two apertures giving log. ///j. As in the Henri
method, those points are read ofl" at which the standard
beam and the transmitted beam are of equal intensity,

12 LankSHEAR, Quantitative Absorption Spectra.

i.e., points where log. ///^^the log. of the aperture ratio.
For simplicity, the adjustable sector is graduated logar-
ithmically. From a knowledge of d, the length of solution,
and c, the concentration, and log. ///j e, the extinction
coefficient, is readily calculated from the formulas
fi = I . 10 "'"'^ where e is the extinction coefficient, c the
concentration, and d the thickness.

The chief assumption in this method is the truth of
Schwartzschild's formula. This has been obviated by
calibrating each batch of plates used, and often various
plates of the same batch, with a piece of glass of known
extinction coefficient in the ultraviolet. Usually a small
correction has to be applied to the value of log. ///^ = log.
of aperture ratio. Variations in the intensity of the light
source have no effect since the standard and transmitted
beam are used simultaneously. Some disadvantages of
the method are the necessity of frequently calibrating the
plates, the long exposures required for the extreme ultra-
violet (of the order of 500 sees.) and the short length of
solution which can be used, 5 cms. as a maximum. The
advantages are : independence of variation of the light
source, ease of reading, for the plates give the wave
length and log. ///, directly, and the automatic allowance
for the effect of the solvent.

It is hoped shortl)' to describe an instrument in which
the Baly tube can be used, which gives a steady instead
of an intermittent beam on the slit, thus obviating the
Schwartzschild correction, and, finally, focussing the image
of the light source on the slit instead of the object glass.

Chemical Department,

The University, Manchicstkr.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October yth, 1913-

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, K.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

Mr. C. T.. Barnes, M.A., called attention to the recent
accessions to the Society's Library, and a vote of thanks was
passed to the donors of the books upon the table. The following
works were included in the recent accessions to the Society's
Library : ''A Bibliography of the Tunicnia" i46g-igio, by John
Hopkinson (8vo., London, 191 3), and " The British Parasitic
Cepepoda'^ Vols, i and 2, by T. and A. Scott (8vo., London,
1 913), published by the Ray Society, purchased ; " The Leeches
of Mifinesota" (Zoological Series, No. V.), by H. F. Nachtrieb
and others (8vo., Minneapolis, 191 2), presented by the Geo-
logical and Natural History Survey, Minnesota ; " Geologic
Alias of the United States" Folios Nos. 183, 184 and 186 (fol.
Washington, D.C, 191 2), presented by the United States
(ieological Survey ; " Descriptive account of the Chinese, Tibetan,
Mongol and Japanese Books ifi the Newberry Library," by B.
Laufer (8vo., Chicago, 111 , 1913), presented by the Newberry
Library, Chicago ; " Observaciones en la Mina Aguila, 5-,200 w. . ."
por Walter Knoche, and " Annuario Meteorolbgico de Chile,"
191 1 [2 parts]. (Publicaciones Nos. i and 3) (fol, Santiago de
Chile, 191 1 and 12), presented by the Institutio Central Meteoro-
l(5gico y Geofisico de Chile, Santiago ; '■'' Hoekijzerverbindingen

ii Proceedings. [October yf/i, ig^j-

in het bijzonder die der Langs aan Dwarsdrngers in Bruggen"
door J. H. A. Haarman (8vo., Delft, 19 13), '' Tektonis<he und
Stratigraphische Beobachhingen am siidwestrande des Limburgi-
schen Kohlenreviers," W. C. Klein, (fol., Amsterdam, n.d.),
" Snelheidsmetingen bij de Reactievan Friedel en Crafts... " door
S. C. J. Olivier (8vo., Delft, 1913), " Overheidsbemoeiingen met
Stedebouiv tot aan den Vrede van Munster ..." door W. B Feteri
(8vo, Alkmaar, 1913), "" Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Katalyse..."
door H. J. Prins (Bvo., Amsterdam, n.d.), '■'•Het Sociale Arbeids-
contract..." door J. van Hettinga Tromp (8vo., .Amsterdam,
1 913), and " Over eenige factoren^ die de ontwikkelitig van Peni-
cillium glaucum beinvloeden . . . ," door H. I. ^Vaterman (8vo.,
n.p., n.d.), presented by the Technische Hoogeschool, l^elft ;
" Official Year-Book of the Conunonwealth of Australia" 1901-
1911, No. 5, by G. H. Knibbs(8vo., Melbourne [1912]), presented
by the Commonwealth of Australia ; •' Reprints of Papers frotn
the Science Laboratories of the University of Sydney, igo8-g to
igii-i2, A. From the Departments of Mathematics, Physics,
Chemistry atid Engineering'^ (8vo., Sydney, 191 2), presented by
the University of Sydney, N.S.W. ; ^'The History of the Collec-
tions contained in the Natural History Departments of the
British .Museum. Vol. IL.-Appendix" by Albert Giinther (8vo.,
London, 191 2) ; ".4 Revision of the Ichneumonida; based on the
Collection in the British Museum ( Natural History)," Part II.,
by Claude Morley (8vo., London, 19 13) ; " Catalogue oj the
Heads and Horns of Indian Big Ga??ie bequeathed by A. O.
Hume, C.B., to the British Museum (Natiiral History)," by R.
Lydekker (8vo., London, 1913), and " The House-Fly as a
Danger to Health. Its life-history and how to deal with it," by
E. E. Austen (8vo., London, 191 3), presented by the British
.Museum (Natural History) ; " The Physiography of the Rio
Grande Valley, New Mexico,'' by E. L. Hewett and others
(Bulletin No. 54), (8vo., Washington, 1913), presented by the
Bureau of .American Ethnology, Washington, D.C. ; " The
California- Washington Arc of Primary Triangulation," by
A. L. Baldwin (Special Publication, No. 13), (4to., Washington,

October y til, I ijijl'X rkCH'KKDiNC.s. iii

1 91 3), and " Deterniination of Time, Longitude, Latitude, and
Azimuth," by VV. Howie (Special Publication, No. 14), (4to.,
Washington, 191 3), presented by the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C. ; "^ History of the First
Half-Century of the National Academy of Sciences, i86j-igrj"
(4to., Washington, D.C, 1913), presented by the National
Academy of Sciences, Washington; "■ Rafporten van de Com-
missie in Nederlandsch-Indi'd voor Oudheidkiiiidig Onderzoek op
Java, en Afadoera" (8vo , Batavia, etc., 1913), presented by the
Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen,
Batavia.

Mr. Nicholson thanked the Members of the Society for
the honour they had done him in electing him to the
Presidency.

Mr. William Ckamp, M.Sc.Tech., M.I.E.E., exhibited
and made some remarks upon a Brabbee tube, used for
measuring air quantities, velocities and pressures.

The Presiolnt reported that on September 26th last
a Wheat-Ear had been observed by Mr. Idle, of the Manchester
Reference Library, on the old Infirmary site, where it remained
for two or three days, feeding on insects and appearing as much
at home as if it were in its natural surroundings on the hilly
districts of the north of England. Mr. Nicholson commented
also on the presence of Starlings in the same locality during
the past summer, and further visits by Wheat-Ears on two
dates at the end of August.

The Pkesidknt read an inaugural address on "The
Old Manchester Natural History Society and Its
Museum."

This Address is printed in full in the Alenidrs.

Professor F. E. Wkiss read a paper, entitled "Juvenile
Flowering in Eucalyptus globulus P

This paper will be printed in full in the Memoirs.

iv ProceI'.DINGS. [October 21st, igiS-

General Meeting, October 21st, 1913.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

Mr. A. D. Imms, M.A., D.Sc, Reader in Agricultural Ento-
mology in the Victoria University of Manchester, was elected
an ordinary member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, October 21st, 1913.

T he President, Wx. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table.

A paper, entitled " Changes in the branchial lamellae
of Ligia oceaiiica after prolonged immersion in fresh and
salt water," by Miss Dorothy A. Stewart, B.Sc, was read by
Professor Hickson, F.R.S.

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Dr. H. G. A. HicKLiNG exhibited a series of Old Red
Sandstone Fish, from the Manchester Museum, presented by
Mr. D. M. S. Watson, M.Sc, and he alluded to the complete-
ness and to the valuable nature of the collection of fishes from
these rocks now contained in the Museum. A brief account
was given of the chief features of interest of the specimens
exhibited and of the bearing of these fish remains on the early
history of the vertebrates.

Noveviber ^th.igi^?^ PROCEEDINGS. v

Ordinary Meeting, November 4lh, 1913.

Ttie President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in tiie Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. The accessions included: '•'■ Biography and
Unparalleled Discoveries of T. J. J. See," by W. L. Webb (8vo.,
Lynn, Mass., 191 3), presented by the Author ; " The Menial
and Physical Life of School Children''' by Peter Sandiford (8vo.,
London, 191 3), presented by the hw&iox ; Index to the Proceedings
of the Royal Society, Vols. 1-75, rSoo-rgos'' (8vo., London,
1913), purchased; ^' Acrididen Japans," by T. Shikari (Bvo.,
Tokyo, 19 10) and " Monographic der Grylliden " von Formosa,"
by T. Shikari (8vo, Taihoku, 191 1), presented by the Bureau
of Productive Lidustries, Government of Formosa.

The President referred to the death of Mr. W. H.
SuTCLiFFE, F.G.S., a member of the Society, and the reader of
an important paper on "Some Modern Tendencies in Pre-
historic Anthropology" before the Society last March.

Mr. G. P. Varlky, M.Sc, exhibited a fused mass of
common salt which had remained in a saturated solution of the
same substance for four years. The mass had lost its rounded
surface, and was covered with portions of large crystals.

A small roll, examined at the British Museum and stated to
be a prayer or charm in Sanskrit, written in Tibetan script, was
shown by Mr. C L. Barnes, M.A.

The President read an extract relating to certain plants,
Le., Rhus toxicodendron (the 'poison ivy'), and a species of
Primula, which are supposed to have been, on more than one
occasion, the cause of eczema and similar skin eruptions in
persons cultivating them or living in close proximity.

vi Proceedings. [No2>ember^t/i,igij.

A paper entitled " Note on some products isolated
from Soot," by Professor Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., and Miss
Eva Hibbert, was read by the former.

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Professor H. C. H. Carpenter, M.A., Ph.D., read a paper,
entitled "The crystallising properties of electro-deposited
Iron." Specimens of electro-deposited iron sheet of a high
degree of purity have been found to exhibit remarkable re-
crystallisation effects when heated above the Ac3 change and
then cooled below the Ar3 change. In this way relatively
enormous crystals are formed in three seconds after cooling
below Ar3. The coarse crystals are sometimes "equi-axed"
and sometimes "radial." Frequently both types occur on the
same specimen. There is no reason for thinking that they are
constitutionally different, and they are most probably a iron.
These crystallisation effects are only obtained when the thickness
of the iron sheet or strip does not exceed a certain critical figure,
which is between o'oii and o"oi2 of an inch. Once the coarse
crystals are formed they cannot be destroyed, except either by
mechanical work, or by heating above Ac3 followed by quench-
ing, or by very prolonged heating above AC3 followed by ordinary
cooling rates.

The very heat treatment which produces coarse crystals in
the electro-deposited iron refines wrought iron and very mild
steel that have been rendered coarsely crystalline by "close-
annealing" between 700'' and 800° C. On the other hand,
annealing at 700° to 800" C. has no effect in coarsening the
structure of the electro-deposited iron which has been refined
by cold mechanical work. In these respects, therefore, the
behaviour of electro-deposited iron is precisely the opposite of
that of wrought iron and mild steel.

Noveifiber iSt/i,igij.'\ PROCEkniNGS. 'vii

Ordinary Meeting, November i8th, 19 13.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of tlianks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the t;ible. The recent accessions included: '■^ The Cele-
bration of the 2jOt/i Anniversary of the Royal Society of London,
July ij — Tip, igi2" (4to., London, 1913), presented by the
Royal Society of London ; Thirty Theses, presented by the
Kaiserliche Universitats- und Landes-Bibliothek, Strassburg ;
and " An Index to the fournal and Proceedings of the Academy
of Natunl Sciences, Philadelphia, 1812 — igi2" (8vo., Phila-
delphia, 1913), purchased.

A paper, entitled "The Controversies concerning the
Interpretation and Meaning of the Remains of the
Dawn-Man found near Piltdown," was read by Professor
G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.l)., F.R.S.

The author referred to the fact that on February i8th, last,
he was able to exhibit to the Society plaster casts of the frag-
ments found last year near Piltdown, Sussex, which Dr. Smith
Woodward kindly sent him for the purpose of that meeting. On
that occasion he gave an account of our knowledge of ancient
man, and explained the new light which these interesting Sussex
remains shed upon the general problem of the Antiquity of
Man.

Since then memoirs by Mr. Charles Dawson and Dr. Smith
Woodward have appeared {Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, March,
19 13), relating to the circumstances under which the fragments
were found, the nature of the material itself, and the objects
found with them. Mr. W. H. Sutcliffe also gave us a discourse
{Manchester Memoirs, Vol. 57, No. 7), in which he most
admirably summed up the evidence as to the nature of the
remains of ancient man in England, and incidentally drcussed
the evidence bearing upon the date of the Piltdown remains.

viiT Proceedings. [Novemberi8th,igij.

While agreeing with practically all that Mr. Sutcliffe wrote in
his memoir, Professor Elliot Smith criticized his phylogenetic
scheme published as Plate I.

Professor Elliot Smith then proceeded to explain the nature
of the controversies concerning other bearings of the Piltdown
discovery on the history of ancient man: — (i) The age of the
remains; (2), the question of the association of the jaw and the
skull ; (3), the significance of the jaw and teeth and the recon-
struction of the missing parts ; (4), the reconstruction of the
brain-cast and the nature of the brain; and (5), the place which
Eoanthropus should occupy in the phylogeny of the Hominidae.

(i) As regards the age — whether the fragments are Pleisto-
cene or Pliocene — he said it was practically certain that they are
of the Pleistocene date.

(2) That the jaw and cranial fragments found in the neigh-
bourhood belonged to the same creature there had never been any
doubt on the part of those who have seriously studied the
matter. There is definite internal evidence that the jaw is not
really an ape's ; the teeth it bears are human, and the skull,
although human, is much more primitive than any skull assigned
to the genus Homo. This association of skull and jaw is precisely
of the kind which on a priori grounds we should expect in an
ancestral type of man.

(3) The reconstruction of the jaw and teeth has now been
practically settled once for all by the subsequent discovery of
the canine tooth.

(4) With regard to the reconstruction of the skull, Professor
Elliot Smith thought there was no longer any room for doubt as
to the position the fragments originally occupied in the skull,
and he considered it highly improbable that the complete brain-
cast could be more than iioo cc. in capacity. He tiiought he
was justified in saying that this was a maximum estimate.

(5) Referring to the position of Eoatithropus in relation to
the ancestral tree of man, he was of opinion that there could be
no question of the ample justification for putting the Piltdown
remains into a genus separate from all the other Hominidae, for

November iSth, 1(^1 j;:\ PROCEEDINGS. ix

while in certain respects they resemble modern man much more
closely than the Neanderthal group does, yet they are so definitely
much more primitive and so unmistakably Simian in the character
of the jaw and canine teeth that the distinction is amply justified.
Having said this, the position of Eoaiithropus in regard to the
ancestry of the genus Homo is patent, for it must represent a
persistent and very slightly modified descendant of the com-
mon ancestor of Homo sapiens and Homo primigenitis.

The author argued that there is no positive evidence lo
show that the genus Homo, or even Ecanthropiis, had come into
existence in Pliocene times.

The fact of Eoanthfopus Dawsoni being found in a deposit
that may perhaps be as late as the Mid-Pleistocene does not
invalidate the conclusion that the genus to which it belonged
was ancestral to the Heidelberg man. It was shown by analogy
with the histories of other phyla (such as the Titanotheres,
studied by Osborn) that the occurrence of large eyebrow-ridges
in Homo pyiinigeiiius is no valid objection to the acceptance of
this view.

When man was first evolved the pace of evolution must
have been phenomenally rapid, by reason of the rapid weeding-
out of those who were not fleet of foot and nimble-witted to
meet the dangerous new conditions. Thus in view of the fact
that no human remains or undoubted evidence of human
workmanship are known earlier than the Pleistocene, it is quite
possible that amidst the turmoil incidental to the inauguration
of the Pleistocene Period a group of anthropoids rose superior
to the difficulties of new circumstances and became " Dawn-
men."

It is impossible to give a definite opinion as to whether the
Piltdown individual possessed the power of articulate speech,
but it is almost certain that man began to speak when his jaw
was in the stage represented in that of Eoanthropus. The brain
of the creature can be called human, and already shows con-
siderable development of the parts which in modern man we
associate with the power of speech.

X I'KOCEEDINGS. [Deccuiber 2uci, / gij;.

Ordinary Meeting, December 2nd, 1913.

Professor Y. E. AVeiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. Amongst these was " Results of Obstrvations
made at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Alagnetic
Observatory, near Honolulu, igii and igi2," by D. L. Hazard
(4to , Washington, 1913), presented by the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey.

Professor Weiss, in referring to the loss sustained by the
death of Sir WiUiam PI. Bailey, spoke of the deep regret felt
by the members of the Society at his loss. Sir William Bailey
had been a Member of the Society for twenty-five years, and
had held the ofiSce of President for the years 1905-6 and
T 906-7. He was also a Vice-President for five years. Mr.
K. L. Taylor represented the Society at the funeral.

A resolution, expressing the sympathy of the members of
the Society with the members of the family of the deceased in
the great loss they had sustained, was passed, and the Secretaries
were requested to convey this expression of sympathy to the
members of the family.

Professor Ernest Rutherford, D.Sc, F.R.S., read a paper
on " The Structure of the Atom."

Jn a paper given to this Society two years ago he described
a new type of model atom which has since been called the
"Nucleus Atom." It was supposed that the atom consisted of
a central nucleus, probably charged positively, of exceedingly
small dimensions, in which practically all the mass of the atom
was concentrated. This was surrounded by a distribution of
negative electrons, sufficient to make the atom electrically
neutral. This type of atom was specially devised in order to
explain the fact that the swift a particles in traversing matter
are occasionally deflected through more than a right angle as

December 2nd, igij.] Proceedings. xi

the result of a single encounter with another atom. It was
deduced that the number of electrons and consequently the
charge on the nucleus was numerically equal to about half the
atomic weight. A brief account was given of later experiments
in support of this view of the structure of the atom. In an
important series of experiments Geiger and Marsden have
shown that the large angle scattering of a particles is in very
close agreement with this assumption of the constitution of
the atom. In particular, they showed that the variation of the
number of a particles scattered through different angles by
dirterent elements agreed closely with the theory over a range
in number of nearly one million times. The deflection of the
o particle is due to its passage close to the intense field of the
nucleus. As a result of such a close encounter, the atom with
which the a particles collides is set in motion, the velocity
depending upon its mass. Special interest attaches to the
scattering of « particles by the passage through a light gas like
hydrogen, since it is to be expected theoretically that a small
fraction of the hydrogen atoms should acquire a velocity even
greater than the a particle itself. This question is now under
experimental examination by Mr. Marsden, and he has found
definite evidence that some of the hydrogen atoms actually
acquire such a great velocity by their encounters with a i)articles
that they are able to travel through hydrogen at least three
times the distance of the a particle itself through the same gas.
These swift hydrogen atoms are detected by then- property of
producing scintillations in a zinc sulphide screen.

On the nucleus theory it is supposed that the hydrogen atom
contains one posidve charge and the helium two. The number
of hydrogen atoms which are set in rapid motion is of about the
order to be anticipated from this point of view. There is one
very interesting deduction that can be made from such experi-
ments. It was pointed out two years ago that the diameter of
the nucleus even of a heavy atom like gold was exceedingly
small, viz., about lo"^- cms., compared with the ordinary
accepted diameter of the atom, viz., lo"® cms. In order to

xii I'kOCKI.DINC.S. [Decanbcr 2Jid,igij.

account for the production of such swift hydrogen atoms as
are observed, the centres of the two nucleii must approacli
within a distance of each other of 2 x lo"''' cms. This
distance is about tlie same magnitude as the diameter of the
electron. Remembering that this gives a maximum estimate ot
the diameter of the nucleus of the hydrogen or helium atom, it
is obvious that the nucleus must have exceedingly small dimen-
sions. If the mass of the hydrogen atom is electromagnetic in
origin, according to present theories, it should have a diameter
al)out 1/1800 of the diameter of the electron. While at present
tliere is no experimental evidence to give a minimum estimate
of the diameter of the hydrogen nucleus, it does not seem
improbable that it may have the minute dimensions necessary
for its mass to be entirely electromagnetic in origin. On such
a view the charged hydrogen atom is to be regarded as the
positive electron. Such a view has been proposed at various
times, and the proof of the minute dimensions of the hydrogen
nucleus certainly adds weight to this suggestion.

It has recently been suggested by A. van der Broek and
Bohr that the charge on the nucleus is not given by a number
equal to half the atomic weight but is equal to the number of
the element when arranged in a series of increasing atomic
weights. On this view\ for example, the charges on the nucleii
are for hydrogen, helium, lithium, carbon and oxygen i, 2, 3, 6,
and 8, respectively. The experimental evidence is distinctly in
favour of this view, and it has been supported by the recent
experiments of Moseley in The Philosophical Magazine. A brief
account was given of the attempts made by Bohr and others to
explain in detail the constitution of the simple atoms and the
spectra to which they give rise. It was pointed out that the
chemical and physical properties of the atom are ultimately
determined by the charge on the nucleus, which should con-
sequently be a more fundamental constant than the atomic
weight. The latter will depend on the inner structure of the
nucleus, and may not be proportional to the charge on the
neuclns

December i6th, 191 3.'] Proceedings. xiii

General Meeting, December i6th, 19 13.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

Miss Marion Handlky, M.A., Lecturer in the Municipal
Day Training College, Manchester, of '' Hwimel" Burtiage
Garden Village, Manchester, was elected an Ordinary Member
of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, December i6th, 19 13.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

Dr. Kurt Loewenfeld exhibited a piece of Saphiringlass,
as produced by Merck, of Darmstadt, possessing a dichroic
property — reflecting brown rays and transmitting green.

Professor W. \V. Haldane Gee exhibited samples or
Bakelite, an invention of Dr. Baekeland, obtained by the action
of formaldehyde on phenols in the presence of small amounts
of bases or alkalies. There are three types of the material,
A, B and C. Of these, type C is harder than hard rubber
or celluloid, and withstands solvents and most chemicals,
resists boiling water and steam ; heat neither melts it nor
softens it. It can be drilled and turned. It is tasteless and
has no odour, and is a good insulator of heat and electricity.
Tiiese properties make it very valuable for the manufacture of
many articles of commerce and for experimental work.

Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C., read a paper entitled
" The Action of Bleaching Agents on various Natural
Colouring Matters." He pointed out that in estimating the

xiv Proceedings. S^December i6th,igij.

bleaching power of the ordinary bleaching agents the kind of
colouring matter has to be been taken into account. Colouring
matters such as indigo and turkey-red are rapidly and com-
pletely bleached by either chlorine or hypochlorous acid, the
former being on the whole the more active of the two. A
solution of bleaching - powder, which is naturally strongly
alkaline, acts very slowly indeed upon the above colouring
matters. In ordinary unbleached linen, cotton, and jute, there
appear to be two quite different kinds of colouring matter, one
resembling those mentioned above, and rapidly bleached by
chlorine and hypochlorous acid, while the other is quite
unaffected by these bleaching agents, but is bleached by a
solution of a hypochlorite containing little, if any, free alkali.
The proportion of these two kinds of colouring matter varies.
In linen and jute a considerable amount of the colouring
matter is not affected by chlorine or hypochlorous acid, while
in cotton the proportion unbleached by these agents is very
small indeed. Still, cotton is not completely bleached by either
chlorine or hypochlorous acid, even after prolonged exposure
to those agents.

General Meeting, January r3th, 1914.

The President, Mr. Fr.^ncis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

Mr. William Charles Jenkins, Curator of the Godlee
Observatory, the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester,
was elected an Ordinary Member of the Society.

January 13th, ipij.] PROCEEDINGS. xv

Ordinary IMeeting, January 13th, 1914.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. These included : " Beschreibiing dcr Griechis-
chefi Autonomen Mu)ize7i im besitze der KUn. Akademte der
WissenschafteJi zu Amsterdam''' (410, Amsterdam, 19 13), and
''Afuaryllis" (8vo., Amsterdam, 1913), presented by the K.
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Amsterdam ; " Dwi?ie Love
Vindicated,'' by H. W. Southworth (8vo., London [1911]), pre-
sented by the author ; " Chippewa Music — //.," by F. Densmore
(8vo., Washington, 1913), presented by the Bureau of American
Ethnology ; " Catalogue of LoaJi Exhibiiioji of Paintings...
February and March, igij" (4to., Cardiff, 1913), and ^'■Hand-
book to the Exhibition of Welsh Antiquities, June-October, igij"
(4to., Cardiff, 1913), presented by the National Museum of
Wales ; " Katalog und Ephemeriden verdnderlicher Sterne filr
igi4^^ by Ernest Hartwig (Svo., Leipzig, 1913), presented by
the Remeis-Sternwarte, Bamberg ; and "Zd'x Prix Nobel en igi2 "
(Svo., Stockholm, 1913), presented by the K. Vetenskap-
Akademie, Stockholm.

Professor G. Elliot Smmh, M.D., F. R.S., showed a series
of photographs of the Piltdown skull, taken by his assistant,
Mr. Henry GoodinK, which revealed a number of features putting
beyond all doubt the accuracy of the reconstruction of the
skull which he demonstrated to the Society two months ago.

A paper, entitled " Some Notes on the Measurement
of Air Velocities, Pressures and Volumes," was read by
Mr. William Cramp, M.LE.E., M.Sc.Tech.

This paper will be printed in full in the Memoirs.

xvi Proceedings. [Jajiuary 27th, 191 4-

Ordinary Meeting, January 27th, 1914.

Tiie President, Mr. Fuancis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. These included : " Catalogue of current Mathe-
matical Journals, etc." compiled by W. J. Greenstreet (8vo.,
London, 191 3), presented by the Mathematical Association.

Mr. T. A. Coward exhibited a headless peacock butterfly,
Vanessa to, found amongst the contents of a cask received from
Cambridgeshire. The insect, after a minimum of seven days
in a headless state, was still alive.

A paper on "The Willow Titmouse in Lancashire
and Cheshire," was read by Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S.,
F.E.S.

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Dr. A. D. Imms read a paper entitled, " Observations on
Phromnia marginella in India."

This paper will be printed in full in the Memoirs.

General Meeting, February loth, 19 14.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

Mr. A. W, Boyd, M.A., The Alton, Altrincham, Cheshire
was elected an ordinary member of the Society.

Feluicaiy io!/i,igi^.'\ Prockkdincjs. xvii

Ordinary Meeting, February lolh, 1914.

Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon
the table.

Mr. Arthur Adamson, M.Sc.Tech., A.R.C.S., and Mr. 1).
Thoday, M.A., were nominated Auditors of the Society's
accounts for the session 1913-14.

Mr. T. Thorp, F.R.A.S., described an experiment he liad
been making to ascertain the pressure required to force a film
of mercury between two plane surfaces varying from ^oVo ^^ ^^
inch to y/o„- apart. The apparatus used consisted of two
planes of thick glass touching at their upper ends but having
outlets and separated at their lower by means of a film of
celloidin -jjVo of an inch in thickness, the sides being sealed.
The lower end communicated, by means of a U tube, with n
manometer. The results obtained appear to show that pt=i
where p is lbs. per sq. inch and t the thickness in thousandths
of an inch, within the above limits, e.g. where / is 21 lbs. per sq.
inch then t^ri-^j^o ^^ '^^ inch. The thickness of the fihn was
checked by taking the number of interference bands given by
sodium light from zero thickness to the point to which the
11 ercury had reached at various pressures.

Mr. R. F. GwYTHER, M.A., read a paper entitled "The
Specification of the elements of Stress. Part III.
The definition of the dynamical specification and a test
of the elastic specification. A Chapter on Elasticity."

This paper will be printed in full in tiie Memoirs.

A paper by Mr. M. Copisarow, B.Sc, on " Carbon,
its molecular structure and mode of oxidation," was

postponed until the next meeting of the Society.

xviii I'KOCEF.niNGS. [Feh}2ia}-v 2^f/i,igi^.

General Meeting, Fel^ruary 24th, 19 14.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

Mr. William D Evans, M.A., Richardson Lecturer in
Mathematics in The Victoria University of Manchester, of
//, Harley Avenue, Victoria Paik, Manchester, was elected an
ordinary member cf the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, February 24th, 1914.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon
the table. These included : " Catalogue of the Le?iding Library "
(8vo., London, 19 14), presented by the Institution of Electrical
Engineers, London ; and "y^ Binary Canon showing residues of
Poivers of 2 for Divisors under 1000, and Indices to Residues"
by Lt.Col. Allan Cunningham (410., London, 19 10), presented
by the Committee of the British Association.

The President referrtd to the death of Mr. William H.
Johnson, B.Sc, on February iQth. Mr. Johnson hud been a
member of the Society since 1870, and had served both as a
Vice-President (1897-1899) and as a member of the Council.

Mr. M. CopiSAkow, B.Sc, read a paper entitled "Carbon:
its molecular structure and mode of oxidation."

In discussing the pioblem of the mode of oxidation of
carbon from a logical standpoint, the author arrives at con-
clusions which were fully corroborated by the most recent
experimental evidence. But admitting the foimation of com-
plexes, he attempted the elucidation of the structure of a carbon
molecule as such. Here, after numerous attempts, he found
that there were three distinct possibilities, varying as regards

February 2^th, igi^.'\ PROCEEDINGS. xix

connecting-bonds, for the representation of a carbon molecule.
This is rather significant, as it suggests the constitutional
formulae for the three modifications of carbon. Correlating this
with the calorimetric measurements and relative proportions of
oxygen, used up in the formation of the complexes, the formula
for each form of carbon can be deduced. This gives also the
possibility of deducing the general formula for the complexes

Mr. J. B. HuBRECHT, M.A., read a paper entitled ** Studies
in Solar Rotation."

An account was given of a spectvographic determination
of the solar rotation, as observed at Cambridge. Photo-
graphs had been taken showing the displacements of the
absorption lines due, in accordance with Doppler's principle, to
motion in the line of sight of the points on the sun's limb
compared. The velocity of such a point being in maximo
2 km. per second, as determined from earlier investigations,
the maximum displacement to be determined is o"o3o
Angstrom Unit. In order to get accurate measurements of such
small wave-length differences a large dispersion is necessary.
On the Cambridge plates this amounted to i mm. pero-88 A.U.
The measurements were all carried out by Mr. N. Tunstall,
student uf Manchester University, by means of the spectro-
comparator shown.

A total of 194 plates had been taken and measured.
'J'he plates, which were all obtained within one fortnight in
June, 191 1, gave comparisons between points situated, not,
as in the earlier investigations, at the ends of solar diameters,
but between points at 90° apart all round the sun. For
each complete set of observations round the sun, of which
there were four in all, it was possible to obtain two in-
dependent determinations of a quantity E representing the
difference between the sum total of ten velocities at certain
latitudes in the Northern and the sum total of ten velocities at
the same latitudes in the Southern hemisphere of the sun. Of
this difference, which in case of symmetry round the solar

XX Proceedings. [February 2/f.tli, 1914..

equator should be zero, eight independent determinations were
thus available, which gave for North minus South a mean of
E= +o'54o + o'oo6 in km. per second. A marked difference
between the rotational behaviour of the two solar hemispheres
thus seems to be definitely established for the epoch of observa-
tion.

A second result claimed from these observations concerns the
latitude law expressing the retardation of the revolutions away
from the equator. It is impossible to fit in the present series
with the usually accepted formula

V= (a - b?>m-<f))co?,<p,
where the second term inside the brackets introduces the retar-
dation. A positive third term is necessary, as in a formula

V= {a - (^sin'^ + fsin(^)cos9!)
which, with suitable constants, agrees very well with the values
of F observed at the latitudes (p.

Possibly the fact that all the spectrograms were taken within
a short interval of time is the cause of the appearance of this
term. In earlier investigations, all of which extended over a
much longer range of dates, the term may have been eliminated
by yet unknown, more or less periodical processes regulating
the velocities.

General Meeting, March loth, 1914.

The President, Mr. Fr.^ncis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

Miss Eva Hibbert, Assoc. M.S.T., Demonstrator in
Chemistry, The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester,
was elected an Ordinary Member of the Society.

March loth, 1^14..'] PROCEEDINGS. xxi

Ordinary Meeting, March loth, 191 4.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. These included : " The Internatioual Kite
and Balloon Ascents,^' by Ernest Gold (Geophysical Memoirs,
No. 5) (4to., London, 191 3), " The Free Atmosphere in the
Regions of the British Isles,'' by W. H. Dines (Geophysical
Memoirs, No. 6) (4to., London, 1914), :ir\d. ^^ A comparison...
Electrical Conditions .. .Atmosphere at Kezv and Eskdalenndr" bj-
Gordon Dobson (Geophysical Memoirs, No. 7) (4to., London,
1914), presented by the Meteorological Office, London; and
" The Anhysteretic Magnetic Properties of Irofi and Nickel,
Fart I." by J. R. Ashworth (8vo., [London], 1914), presented
by the author.

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.C.E., drew attention to the
following anagiam, composed by Jablonsky, Rector of the
school of Lissa, on the occasion of the return of Stanislaus,
subsequently King of Poland, from his travels. His family's
name was Lescinski.

D o i\i u s L E s CI N I A Housc of Lescinski,

A D E s I N c o L u M 1 s Uninjured art thou here,

o M N I s E s L u c I D A Entirely radiant art thou

•LUCiDA SIS OMEN Bright must thou be.

MANE siDUS LOCI Remain as an omen. Star of the land.

SIS c o L u M N A DEI A pillar of God.

I! SCANDE SOLIUM Go! ascend the throne.

Also, he pointed out that the first two lines of a poem by
J. a'Lasco read the same both backwards and forwards :

Aspice ! nam raro mittit timor arma, nee ipsa,
Si se mente reget, non tegeret Nemesis.

xxii ruoCEEDINGS. \Mivrch lot/i, igi-^.

Professor Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., read a paper by himself,
and Miss Eva Hibbkrt, Assoc. M.S.T., entitled, " On 1-pimaric
acid from French rosin."

The authors have succeeded in preparing l-pimaric acid
from French rosin in considerable yield by the following
process : — The rosin is dissolved by heating over a free flame
with glacial acetic acid and the solution thus obtained is set
aside to crystallise. 'J'he semi-crystalline mass, which separates
after standing for periods varying from a week to a fortnight, is
filtered from the mother liquor and oily constituents on the
vacuum pump, and is purified by re-crystallising several times from
glacial acetic acid and then from methyl alcohol until the melting
point and optical rotation are constant. In this manner it is
possible to obtain a yield of the pure acid equal to about 12^
per cent, of the weight of the rosin employed.

Ultimate analyses and molecular weight determinations
showed that the product possesses the composition C^oHgoOo. Its
melting point is i6i°C. and its optical rotation a^=- - 80°. The
specific gravity at i5°C.was found to be i'o6. Exposed to the air it
is oxidised, this being accompanied by a yellowing of the crystals
and a drop in the melting point and optical rotation. Exposed
to oxygen in a fiask at a temperature of 8o°C., to constancy
the gas is taken up in the proportion of two atoms of oxygen
to one molecular weight of the acid. The methyl ether
C20H.19O2CH3 is a thick colourless liquid having an optical
rotation a^= - 53°. The tribromide C.joH.j7Br30o is obtained by
mixing in the cold solutions of bromine and of 1-pimaric acid
in petroleum spirit, and was shown to be a substitution and
not an addition compound; its optical activity is oij=25°. By
passing nitrous fumes into the solution of 1-pimaric acid in
petroleum spirit, the nitrosate C.oHaoO.jN-.Oj separates out as a
cystalline mass.

When heated for several hours in an evacuated sealed tube
in the vapour of boiling aniline, 1-pimaric acid loses water and
yields an anhydride (CooH„90);0 which resembles rosin in
appearance and is optically inactive (in petroleum spirit solution).

March iSth, ipi^] PROCEEDINGS. xxiii

This product when crystallised from alcohol or glacial acetic acid
yields the racemic pimaric acid showing a melting point of 1 58°C.,
and having a specific gravity at i^'C. of i'o8. It is remarkable
tliat the racemic compound shows by cryoscopic methods (boil-
ing point in benzene and alcohol and freezing point in benzene)
a double molecular weight while the 1 modification behaves
normally. After numerous unsuccessful attempts to resolve tlie
racemic pimaric acid into its optical isomerides, it was found
that this could be effected by means of d-tetrahydroquinaldine.
'llie subject is being further investigated.

Mr. R. F. GwYTHKR, M.A., read a paper, entitled
"The Specification of Stress. Part IV. The Elastic
Solution : the Elastic Stress relations and conditions
of Stability : Struts, ties, and test-pieces."
This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Special Meeting, March iSth, 1914.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

At the Society's invitation, Professor W. H. Bragg,
M.A., F.R.S., delivered a Special Lecture on "Crystalline
Structure as revealed by X-rays.

Ordinary Meeting, March 24th, 1914.

The President, i\Ir. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. .Amongst these were : "• Elenienls of Ihc History

x-xiv Pkockkdings. [April yt/i, tqi^.

of the English Language,'^ by U. Lindelof (University of Washing-
ton Publications, English, T.) (i2mo., Seattle, iQii), and "77/6?
Political and Ecclesiastical Allegory of the First Book of the
Faerie Queerie" by F. M Padelford (University of Washington
Publications, English, II.) (lamo., Boston, etc., n.d.), ])resented
by the University of Washington, Seattle ; and one hundred and
seventy-three Theses, presented by K. Christian-Albrechts Uni-
versitat, Kiel.

The President referred to the death of Sir John Murray,
KC.B., Sc.D., F.R.S., on March T6th. Sir John Murray had
been an Honorary Member of the Society since 1894.

Four papers, on a Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere,

were read : —

1. Introduction and methods. By W. M. Tatter-

SALL, D.Sc, and T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

2. Preliminary account of the Flora. By R. S.

Adamson, M.A., B.Sc.

3. Vertebrata. By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

4. Preliminary list of Lepidoptera. By A. W.

BovD, M.A., F.E.S.

Nos. I, 3 and 4 are printed in full in the Memoirs. No. 2
will appear later.

General INIeeting, April 7th, 1914.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

Mr. S. Lees, M.A., Assoc.M.S.T., Fellow of St. John's
College, Cambridge, Reader in Applied Thermo-Dynamics in
the Faculty of Technology, the University of Manchester, was
elected an ordinary member of the Society.

April '/ik,igi4'] Proceedings. xxv

Ordinary Meeting, April 7th, 1914.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., succeeded by
Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon
the table.

A paper, entitled "A Preliminary Note on the
Structure of Coal," by Mr, W. C. Grummitj and Dr. G.
HiCKLiNG was read by the latter.

A preliminary account was given of an investigation which
promises to throw considerable light on the nature and history
of coal. It was suggested that the essential constituent of coal
is a homogeneous substance, red or orange in colour when thin
enough to be transparent. This material under the microscope
frequently shows evidence of " flow," and was doubtless a liquid
vegetable decomposition product. In its purest form this
material constitutes the " bright " layers of coal ; with strongly
developed "cleat" or cleavage. Vegetable structures are
preserved in coalin two forms : (i) in a " carbonised" condition, as
is found pure in " mother of coal " — this material is quite opaque
even when much less than i^j thick : (2) impregnated with
the transparent material described above ; spores are the most
readily distinguishable parts preserved in this manner, their
walls being greatly swollen by impregnation ; the "bright" bands
of coal also can often be seen to consist of wood or cortex im-
pregnated with similar material, but in this case the impregnated
cell-walls may so closely resemble the material filling their
cavities as to be distinguishable only with ditificulty, and it is
probable that vegetable structures really exist in parts where they
cannot on this account be distinguished at all. It is noteworthy
that the material which has impregnated the spores is always
much lighter in colour than that which has penetrated other
vegetable tissues. It has been shown that the ash from the
various coals consists largely of fibrous material which is clearly

xxvi Proceedings. [April 2StIi, igr^.

an incombustible residue of vegetable structure. This material
closely resembles the ash obtained by burning wood. It has
been found possible to isolate the spores from certain coals
by maceration with Schultz solution. Common coal appears to be
essentially similar in character to the material formed in "coal-
balls " with the difference that in place of being impregnated
with carbonate of lime, the mass has been impregnated with its
own decomposition products.

Annual General Meeting, April 2Sth, 19 14.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was resolved : — That the
xAnnual Report, together with the Statement of Accounts, be
adopted, and that they be printed in the Society's Proceedings.

Mr. Arthur Adamson and Dr. Walter AIakower were
appointed Scrutineers of the balloting papers.

The following members were elected Officers of the Society
and Members of the Council for the ensuing year : —

President : Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.

Vice-Presidents : Francis Jonics, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.;
William Burton, M.A., F.C.S. ; Sydney J. Hickson, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.R.S. ; G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries: R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C ; George Hick-
ling, U.Sc, F.G.S.

Treasurer: W. Henry Todd.

Librarian: C. L. Barnes, M.A.

Other Members of tJie Council: T. A. Coward, F.Z.S. ,
F.E.S.; W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.;
R. F. GwYTHER, M.A. ; H. R. Hasse, M.A., D.Sc. ; Thomas
Thorp, F.R.A.S. ; W. M. Tattersall, D.Sc.

April 2Si/i,ic)i4-'\ Procekdings. xxvii

Ordinary Meeting, April 28th, 1914.

'I'he President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded to the donors of the books
upon the table. These included: '•'■ Ethnozoology of the Tewa
Ijidiafis" by J. Henderson and J. P. Harrington (Bulletin 56)
(8vo., Washington, 1914), presented by the Bureau of An:erican
Ethnology, Washington ; and " Geologic Atlas of the United
States," Folios Nos. 185, 187, 188, 189 and 190 (la. fol ,
Washington, 191 2, 191 3), presented by the United States
Geological .Survey, Washington.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., inaugurated a brief discussion
relating to Plane trees as a cause of certain pulmonary troubles.

Mr. R. F. GwvTHER read a paper entitled "Specification
of Stress. Part V. An outline of the theory of
Hyper-elastic Stress." In this paper the author dealt
with the mathematical conditions of a body from the state of
exceeding the elastic limit and approaching that of rupture.

Neither experiments nor experience in engineering practice
have supplied information which will aid in the mathematical
treatment of the interval between the failure of complete fulfil-
ment of Hooke's Law and the earliest stage of rupture.

In this paper the author proposes to give a survey of the
mathematical conditions which obtain up to the stage when
rupture is imminent.

I'he method is one which the autlior introduced in a paper
read before the Society in 1895.

A paper on " The Photographic Action of n-rays,"

by Mr. H. P. Walmsley, M.Sc, and Walter Makower, B.A.,
D.Sc, was read by the latter. Dr. Makower discussed the
photographic action of «-particles and showed micro-photographs
illustrating the path of the rays through a photographic film.
Each ((-particles in striking a grain of silver affects that grain in

xxviii FkOCICKDINGS. [May I2ih, 1^14..

such a manner as to be capable of photographic development,
and thus the track of each ray is made evident under the micro-
scope as a dotted line in the negative.

Ordinary Meeting, May 12th, 19 14.

The President, Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.,
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon
the table. Amongst these were: ^^ Photographic Afaguiiudes oj
S/ars brighter than g'"^o bet^veeu Deciifiation -^ 7j° and the Pole,'^
(4to., London, 19 13), and '■'■ Fositioti of the Su?is Axis, as deter-
mined from Photographs of the Sit?i...iS'/4 to igi2" (4to.,
London, 191 3), presented by the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich ; and " An Artilterynian's Diary" by J. Lloyd Jones
(Original Papers, No. 8) (8vo , n.p., 1914), presented by the
Wisconsin History Commission, Wisconsin.

New exchanges have been arranged with the State University
of Iowa, Iowa City [Contributions), and with the Washington
University, St. Louis (Studies). The exchange with the Archi-
tekten-und Ingenieur-Verein [Zeitschrift fir Architektur und
Ingenieurweseti) has been discontinued.

Dr. J. R. AsHWORTH read a paper entitled, "Note on the
Intrinsic Field of a Magnet."

This paper is printed in full in the Metnoirs.

Mr. F. R. Lankshear, B.A., M.Sc, read a paper entitled,
" Quantitative Absorption Spectra, Part I. The chem-
ical significance of absorption spectra and the methods
of examining them."

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Annual Report of the Council. x>

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Aimual Report of the Council, April, igi4.

The Society had at the beginning of the session an ordinary
membership of 155. Since then seven new members have
joined the Society, eleven members have resigned, and six
members, Sir William H. Bailky, INLI.Mech E., F.R.G.S., Mr.
Henry Erogden, F.G.S., M.I.Mech.E., Mr. Robert Cotton,
M.Sc, Mr. William H. Johnson, B.Sc, Professor John T.
NicoLSON, D.Sc, and Mr. W. H. Sutcliffe, F.G.S., have died.
There are, therefore, at the end of the session, 145 ordinary
members of the Society. The Society has also lost, by death,
three honorary members, viz. : Professor Paul F. Ascherson,
the Right Honourable The Lord Avebury, D.C.L., LL.U.,
F.R.S.,and Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S.
Memorial notices* of these gentlemen will appear with tliis
report in the Memoirs and Proceedings.

Twenty-nine papers have been read at the meetings during
the year; eighteen shorter communications have also been made.

The Society commenced the session with a balance in hand,
from all sources, of _;^263. is. 6d., made up as follows: —

At credit of General Fund ^^142 2 7

„ ,, Wilde Endowment Fund... 116 11 5
„ ,, Joule Memorial Fund 476

Ijalance 31st March, T913 £,-^l> i 6

* Obituary notices of Mr. W. L. Behrens, not included in the last
volume of the Memoirs, and of Mr. Thomas Thorp, who died on June 13th,
1914, are also appended.

XXX AtiJiual Report of the Council.

The balance in hand at the close of the session amounted to
^548. 2S. I id., the amounts standing at credit of the various
accounts on the 31st March, 1914, being:—

At credit of General Fund £, Z^ 11 4

,, ,, Wilde Endowment Fund... 249 14 6
,, ,, Joule Memorial Fund 266 17 i

IJalance 31st March, 1 914 ^548 2 11

The Wilde Endowment Fund, kept as a sepaiate banking
account, shows a balance due to the Fund of ^249. 14s. 6d. in
its favour, as against a balance in hand of ^it6. i is. 5d. at the
end of the last financial year. The receipts for the year 19 13-14
again show a slight increase on those for the [trevious year.

The Librarian reports that during the session 955 volumes
have been stamped, catalogued and pressmarked ; 919 of these
were serials, and 36 were separate works. 244 catalogue cards
w-ere written, 160 for serials, and 64 for separate works. The
total number of volumes catalogued to date is 35,582, for
which 12,413 cards have been written.

The library continues to be satisfactorily used for reference
purposes. 285 volumes have been borrowed from the library
during the past year. The number of books borrowed dunng
the previous year was 238, and during 1911-12, 274.

During the year 267 volumes have been bound in 185
covers. In the previous session the corresponding numbers were
229 volumes in 192 covers.

The additions to the library for the session amounted to
896 volumes, 836 serials, and 60 separate works. The donations
(exclusive of the usual exchanges) were 57 volumes and 203
dissertations ; 3 volumes were purchased, in addition to those
regularly subscribed for.

Annual Report of i lie Council. xxxi

New exchanges have been arrai^ged with the followuig : —
The Cardiff NaturaHsts' Society (Transactions), Cardiff; the
University of ^Vmviesoia ( Research Publications, Bulletin, etc.),
Minneapolis ; The Washington University Library (Studies)
St. Louis, Mo. ; and the State University of Iowa (Bulletin and
Contrduitions), Iowa, U.S.A.

The following e.xchanges have been discontinued: — The
Society of Chemical Industry (Journal), London ; and the
Architekten-und Ingenieur-Verein (Zeitschrift fiir Architektur
und Ingenieurtvesen), Hanover.

The donations to the Society's Library during the session
include gifts of books by the Trustees of the British Museum
{Natural History), the Royal Society of London, the Committee
of the British Association, the National Museum of Wales, the
Meteorological Office, London, and Dr. Peter Sandiford.

The publication of the Society's Memoirs and Proceedings
has been continued imder the supervision of the Editorial
Committee.

The ;^258 Twenty years' loan to the Manchester Corpora-
tion stock, being the residue of the Joule Memorial Fund,
redeemable on 25th March, 1914, has been repaid.

Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S., represented
the Society at the 12th International Congress of Geology held in
Canada in August last.

On the invitation of the Selborne Society to nominate a
representative to serve on the Plant Protection Committee of
that Society, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc. F.L.S., was nominated
as the representative of this Society.

At the Society's invitation, Professor W. H. Bragg, M.A.,
F.R.S., delivered a special lecture before the Society on March

xxxii Animal Report of tJie Council.

i8th. The title of the lecture was "Crystalline Structure as
revealed by X-rays." Professor Bragg was the chief guest at the
Annual Dinner, held the same evening.

The Committees appointed by the Council during the year
were as follows :—

House and Finance.
The President. Professor F. E. Weiss.

Mr. Francis Jones. Air. W. H. Todd.

Mr. C. L. B.ARNES. Dr. H. 0. A. Hicki.ing.

Mr. R. L. Taylor.

Editorial.

The President. Mr. R. F. Gwyther.

Professor S. J. Hickson. Mr. R. L. Tavlou.

Dr. H. G. A. HiCKLiNG. The Assistant Secretary.

Wilde Endowment.
The President. Mr. W. H. Todd.

Mr. Francis Jones. Mr. R. L. Taylor.

Dr. H. G. A. Hickling.

Special Library Petiodical Committee.

The President. Professor F. E. Weiss.

Professor S. J. Hickson. j\lr. C. L. Barnes.

Professor W. W. Haldane Gee. Mr. R. F. Gwyther.
Mr. R. L. Tavi.or. Dr. H. G. A. Hickling.

The Assistant Secretary.

Professor Paul Ascherson, who died on March 6th, 1913,
was born in June, 1834. By his death the science of botany
has lost one of the leaders of the older school of workers in the
realm of floristics. Studying under such botanists as Alex.
Braun, Pringsheim and Caspary, Ascherson's early progress and

Annual Report of the Council. x.xxiii

enthusiasm bore its first fiuit in his " Nachtragliche Bemer-
kungen ziir Flora von Magdeburg," published in 1853, when he
was but 19 years old. Six years later, in 1859, appeared his
now classical work, " Flora der Provinz Brandenburg," one of
the best local floras published. This work was later republished,
in 1898-9, in collaboration with his pupil and friend, Graebner,
as "Flora des Nordostdeutschen Flachlande," a work which
marks a distinct stage in the progressive evolution of the flora.

Ascherson's work, however, was by no means confined
merely to North Germany ; he travelled somewhat extensively
in Europe, visiting at different periods England, Norway, France,
Italy, Sardinia, Hungary, The Carpathians, Dalmatia, Greece,
Turkey and Egypt. As one result of his travels he commenced,
along with Graebner, his greatest work, the "Synopsis der mit-
teleuropaischen Flora," the first part of which appeared in 1894.
This work he unfortunately did not live to see completed.

Whatever may be the verdict as to the details of this work,
there can be no doubt that, for exhaustive and complete treat-
ment, it ranks in the forefront of the great modern floras.

From 1860-76 Ascherson was assistant to the Director of
the Berlin Botanic Gardens. In 1865 he was assistant in the
Royal Herbarium, becoming keeper in 187 1, a post he re-
tained till 1884. In 1873 he was made Extraordinary Professor,
and Honorary Professor in 1908. Professor Ascherson was

elected an honorary member of this Society in 1892.

R. S. A.

By the death of Sir John Lubbock, first Lord Avebqrv,
this Society has lost one of the most remarkable of its honorary
members, a man of many parts who illuminated whatever he
touched. He was perhaps the finest example in his generation
of that class of scientific amateurs, happily numerous in Britain,
who command the respect of all by the clarity of their judgment,
and lay the specialist under ihe deepest obligation by their
breadth of view. The son of a banker, he left Eton at the early
age of fourteen to make a great name in the financial world.

xxxiv Annual Report of tlic Council.

His early taste for scientific recreation was doubtless largely
influenced by his neighbours, Sir Joseph Prestwich and Charles
Darwin, as well as by his life-long friend, Sir John Evans. So,
at the age of twenty-five, he became a Fellow of the Geological
Society of London, and, three years later, a Fellow of the Royal
Society.

In his earlier years, Lord Avebury took a special interest in
the remarkable communal instincts of insects, out of which arose
a long series of observations which were recorded in several
volumes and papers, of which the " Ants, Bees and Wasps " is
the best known. Though he never professed to be an original
investigator in the field of Geology, he nevertheless followed
closely the progress of research, especially in the region of
physiography, and his " Scenery of Switzerland " is deservedly
regarded as a classic among the works which endeavour to bring
the larger problems of earth-history within the grasp of the
educated public. But his contributions to Prehistoric Arche-
ology must always rank above all his other scientific attainments.
With Prestwich and Evans he must be regarded as one of the
founders of the modern study of primitive man ; it was among
his earliest interests, and his last literary effort was the revision
of his great work on " Prehistoric Times." His work in this
field was recognised by the Geological Society in 1903 by the
first bestowal of the Prestwich Medal.

Lord Avebury was one of those pre-eminent men in
honouring whom all learned associations delight to honour
themselves. Universities, learned societies and national institu-
tions in all parts of the world showered their distinctions upon
him, and to name even the societies over which he presided
would be tedious.

Though we naturally give precedence to his eminence in
the world of Science, his fame was equally justified by his
activity as a man of affairs. As a banker he was a recognised
leader, and as a politician he unobtrusively brought about
numerous reforms of a philanthropic character, notably the
institution of l^ank Holidays. For thirty years he was a mem-

Annual Report of the Coioicil. xxxv

her of the House of Commons, representing the University of

London from 1880 to 1900, in whicli latter year he was raised

to the peerage. Among other offices of great importance, he

was the first Chairman of the London County Council.

His other claims to an affectionate remembrance might all

be forgotten, and his memory be yet kept green by his purely

literary activities. Few prolific writers have been gifted with a

more simply charming style. While this characteristic pervades

all his writings, and has given pleasure to many thousands who

have read his scientific contributions, millions have read his

"Beauties of Nature" and "Pleasures of Life" and have felt

that something sweet and pure had been added to existence.

It is therefore no empty phrase that laments the great loss

which humanity sustained by the death of Lord Avebury on the

28th of ^Liy, 1913, in the eightieth year of his age.

G. H.

Sir William Henry Bailky was born in Salford in 1838,
and attended the Manchester Grammar School for some time,
until at the age ot fourteen he entered the Albion Works,
Salford, which had been established by his father in the year of
his birth. In course of time he became manager and sole pro-
prietor of the concern, now known as Sir W. H. Bailey & Co.,
Ltd. His aptitude for engineering soon declared itself, and
was maintained throughout his career, as may be seen from the
long list of patents, nearly a hundred in number, for which he
was wholly or partly responsible between 1858 and 191 2. They
include instruments for indicating the speed and flow of liquids
and gases, boiler fittings, lubricators for steam-engine cylinders,
pressure-gauges, pumps, hydraulic rams, silencers, carburettors,
speed-indicators for motors, and a great variety of devices of
general utility.

Sir William was always a hard woiker, and his abundant
energy found an outlet in many directions outside his profession.
Thus he entered the Salford Town Council in 1874, and became
Mayor of the Borough in 1893. In the following year he was

xxxvi Ainmal Report of tJie Council.

knighted by Queen Victoria on board the Royal Yacht on the
occasion of the opening of the Manchester Ship Canal by Her
Majesty. The interests of Manchester and Salford always lay
very near his heart ; thus he foresaw the enormous value of the
Ship Canal, and was one of its most ardent advocates : more-
over, he gave time and material aid ungrudgingly to many
movements and institutions which had for their object the
promotion of scientific, literary or social studies in the district.
He was an old Volunteer, and presented cups for shooting to
the 7th and 8th Battalions Lancashire Fusiliers, the Monmouth-
shire Territorial Association, and the Old Mancunian Territorial
Society. In 1874 he collaborated with Prof. Tyndall in the
experiments carried out off the South Foreland to determine the
relative value of guns and sirens for signalling in different states
of the atmosphere.

Sir William's connection with the Society began in 1888,
and in 1905 he was elected President, when he initiated the
custom of delivering an address from the chair on taking office.
Owing to his efforts a conversazione was held at the Society's
rooms in December, 1905, at which a large number of mem-
bers and guests were present.

In 1889 he read a paper "On an old canoe found in the
Irwell Valley, near Barton, with observations on pre-historic
Chat Moss " {Memoirs, 4th ser., Vol. II,). A communication
" On the topographical distribution of mechanical inventions
in the County of Lancaster, and their influence on some
British industries," occupies several pages of the " Proceedings "
for 1901, and in the following year he exhibited a model of a
switchback railway, invented and made by Richard Roberts
( I 789-1864). The Society is also indebted to him for a fine
photograph of the statues of Dalton and Joule in the vestibule
of the Town Hall.

His presence at our meetings was always welcome, and he
seldom failed to recall some experience connected with the
great inventors, ironmasters and engineers of the North of

Annual Report of the Conneil. xxxvii

England, wliose achievements he had by heart, or witli notable
members of the Society, many of whose names are now little
more than a memory. It was he, for example, who recalled a
little-known branch of Sir Henry Bessemer's activities in a com-
munication to Mr. E. F. Lange (see the la tier's paper on
"Bessemer, Giirannson and Mushet," Memoirs, Vol. I, VII.,
pp. 35-38), by quoting a letter from Bessemer to his niece,
Lady Allen, in 1897, when the famous inventor was 85 years
old. In this Sir Henry refers at some length to his early
discoveries of the method of making the so-called gold powder,
used for painting, and of embossing patterns on velvet by
means of heated rollers, a secret which he kept for many years,
and turned to profitable account. Such recollections were
invariably enlivened by literary allusions and quotations, of.
which Sir William possessed a remarkable store.

He died on November 23rd, 1913, and was buried at
Brooklands Cemetery, the Society being represented at the
funeral by Mr. R. L. Taylor (Secretary). L. C. B.

Walter Lionel Behnens was born at Oak House, Fallow-
field, Manchester, on July 15th, 186 [, and died on February
15th, 1 9 13, at his residence, the Acorns, Fallowfield.

He was the eldest son of the late Edward Behrens, of Man-
chester ; was educated at Rugby, and was for many years a
partner in the firm of S. L. Behrens and Co., of 16, Oxford
Street, Manchester.

In the eighties of the last century he made a tour round the
world, during which time he travelled widely in India and spent
some time in Japan. It was during this visit that he commenced
to collect Netsuke, Inros, Tsubas, and small lacquer pieces ; his
collection being finally recognised as one of the best of its kind
in the world. He was one of the original members of the Japan
Society in London and took great interest in its proceedings.

Mr. Behrens was for some years a member of the Museum
Committee of the Manchester University. He was also on the
Council of the Whitworth Institute. W. B.

xxxviii Annual Report of the Council.

HiiNRY Brogden, F.G.S., M.Inst.M.E., who died at his
residence, Hale Lodge, Altrincham, on the 21st June, 191 3, and
was interred at Brooklands Cemetery on the 24th, was elected a
member of the Society on April 2nd, 1861. He was the third
son of John Brogden, of Sale, and was born in Manchester on
September 30th, 1828. He was educated at King's College,
London, and spent a year in the locomotive works of INIessrs.
Stephenson and Co , Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he developed a
liking for shop work. At his home he had a very complete
workshop, and throughout his life took a great interest in
science. More than half a century ago he and his elder brother,
Alexander Brogden, M.P. for Wednesbury from 1868 to 18S5,
were amongst the foremost railway contractors of the day, and
as members of the firm of John Brogden and Sons, of London,
Manchester, and South Wales, they carried out many important
railway undertakings, not only in England, but in South America,
Australia, New Zealand, Holland and other countries. One of
their principal contracts in this country was the construction of
the railway between Carnforth and Barrow, which ihey succeeded
in laying after other contractors had failed to accomplish it.
The line passes over a large tract of land at the head of More-
cambe Bay which was reclaimed from the sea during its con-
struction under the superintendence of Mr. Brogden. He was
the engineer for the high level bridge at Stockport, for the
Llynvi and Ogmore Railway in South Wales, the Tondu Lon
Works and Collieries, and other important works in the "sixties
and seventies."

Though Mr. Brogden was a regular attendant for many
years at our meetings he never read any papers before the
Society nor did he ever hold any office or serve on the Council.
The only communication received from him was at a meeting of
the Microscopical and Natural History Section of this Society on
October 12, 1868 {Proceedings, 8, p. 69), where it is mentioned
that "Mr. Brogden forwarded three deposits of Diatomaceae
for distribution amongst the members, viz., from the daltee

Aiiinial Report of the Council. xxxix

Mountains, Ireland, collected in 1868; from Levers Water,
Coniston Old Man, collected in 1856 ; and from a stream, near
Half-Moon Bay, near Carrick-a-Rede, Antrim, July, 1861."

Mr. Brogden was not the kind of man who makes history ;
retiring and unobtrusive he filled his life with all sorts of hobbies,
scientific and other, which made him with his varied knowledge
and experiences a valued friend to those who had the pleasure
of his acquaintance. F. N.

Robert Cotton was a promising member of the Society
whose untimely death was deeply deplored by all who knew him.
He entered the University of Manchester in 1902 and graduated
with Honours in Engineering in 1905. After three years in
practice as a civil engineer he returned to the University as
Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, receiving at the
same time the degree of Master of Science. On the University
Staff he served for four years, and was then awarded the Vulcan
Fellowship for Research, wliich work he was about to take up
when his career was so suddenly closed.

In the University, Mr. Cotton was regarded with esteem
and affection by Staff and Students alike. Engaging and
courteous in manner, vivacious to a degree, his presence was
always welcome and desired. He entered with unusual fulness
into the social life of the institution, being for many years a
moving spirit in the Engineering Society and Geologists' Asso-
ciation. The Officers' Training Corps, in which he became a
lieutenant, was no less indebted to him. His buoyancy of
character might have misled those whose ac(}uaintance was brief
to underestimate his true intellectual worth; those who knew
him better were well aware of his true keenness as a student,
both in his own field of Engineering and also in Geology, which
was his hobby. Though his brief membership of this Society
doubtless prevented many of his fellow-members from dis-
covering his value, all will appreciate the real loss which they
sustained by his death, on April nth, 1913, at the early age
of twenty-seven. (j. H.

xl Aiiintal Report of tJic Council.

By the death of Mr. William Henry Johnson, B.Sc, of
Woodleigh, Altrincham, on February 19th, 1914, the Society
lost one of its oldest members. Elected an ordinary member
in 1870, he attended the meetings of the Society with great
regularity for many years, and took an active interest in its
welfare. From 1881 to 1892 and from 1899 to 1900 he was a
Member of the Council ; and for two years, 1897 to 1899, he
held the office of Vice-President.

Mr. Johnson's communications at the Society's Meetings
were about nineteen in number ; they included eight papers
and eleven smaller communications and exhibits. His first
paper, entitled " On the Influence of Acids on Iron and Steel,"
was read on March 4th, 1873, appearing in tlie Proceedings,
vol. xii. ; and most of his communications dealt with the pro-
perties of iron and steel.

At the time of his death Mr. Johnson, who for nearly half a
century had been well known in commercial life, was managing
director of a well known city firm. He was also a Governor of
the Manchester Grammar School ; and a Vice-President of the
Institute of Metals.

He died in his sixty-fifth year at his home at Altrincham.

R. F. H.

Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. — John Murray
was born at Coburg, Ontario, on March 3rd, 1841, the third
son of Robert INIurray, who had emigrated to Canada seven
years before. He came to England as a boy of sixteen and
completed his education at the High School, Stirling, and the
University of Edinburgh. Altliough a zealous and successful
student, he could never be induced to confine his attention to
any specified curriculum, but worked at various branches of
knowledge as they in turn appealed to him. One consequence
of this independence was that, though he studied at the Uni-
versity for twelve years, he never took a degree ; another was
that he had a thoroughly practical first-hand acquaintance with
many branches of laboratory work.

Annual Report of tJie Connai. xli

In 1872 occurred an event which determined the whole
course of his future Hfe : the famous "Challenger " expedition
was equipped and the ship sailed on her voyage of deep-sea
exploration with Professor Wyville Thomson as chief of the
scientific staff and John Murray as one of the naturalists.
'I'henceforward the furtherance of the study of oceanography
became the main purpose of his life.

During the voyage he made numerous observations on
pelagic organisms, which were collected by the systematic use
of tow-nets, but he soon perceived that important and far-
reaching results were likely to be obtained by a careful examin-
ation of the materials forming the bed of the ocean at great
depths. This work led him to an investigation of the formation
of coral reefs and islands and to the theory which still bears his
name, and which offers an explanation of the formation of atolls
in places where the Darwinian theory based upon subsidence of
the ocean-bed is not applicable.

Here reference must be made to a great service he rendered
to the expedition by undertaking the unromantic but very
necessary task of superintending the packing of the enormous
collections made during the cruise and dispatched home at
intervals from the various ports of call. The packages were alt
consigned to the University of Edinburgh, and, except for the
renewal of spirit which had evaporated, remained untouched
until Murray's return at the end of four years. Then began
the work of sorting and classifying the spoils and their distribu-
tion to the specialists who were to undertake their description.

In 1 88 1 Murray succeeded Sir Wyville Thomson as head oi
the editorial department connected with the publication of the
"Challenger" Reports, and under his superintendence the
series of fifty ponderous tomes containing the scientific results
of the cruise was completed. Indeed, the concluding volumes
were issued at his expense, for the Treasury grant for publica-
tion was exhausted before the work was finished. The work
was to him a lal)our of love, and he spared no pains to make

xHi Annual Report of tJie Council.

the presentment of the results worthy of their scientific import-
ance. He claimed to be the only living man who had read the
whole of the 29,000 and odd pages, and it is unlikely that any
one will desire to emulate him in this achievement.

He was part author of the " Narrative of the Cruise," and
contributed the " Report on the Deep-sea Deposits," in collabora-
tion with his friend the late Abbe Renard. In this he stoutly
maintained the theory of the permanence of ocean basiiis, first
propounded by Dana.

His interest in oceanography did not cease with the work in
the "Challenger" expedition; he founded marine laboratories
at Granton, on the Firth of Forth, and at Millport, on the Firth
of Clyde, made expeditions to the Faroe Channel in the
"Knight Errant" and "Triton," and more recently undertook
a voyage with his friend Dr. Johan Hjort in the Norwegian
fishing steamer "Michael Sars," himself defraying the cost of
the cruise. The results were published in a volume entitled,
"The Depths of the Ocean" (1912).

In 1898, in collaboration with Mr. Fred Pullar, he under-
took a bathymetrical survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland,
and continued the work on the death of his friend as a memorial
to him, his father, Mr. Laurence Pullar, contributing towards
the expenses.

Sir John Murray was also one of the {promoters of the Pen
Nevis Observatory and took a leading part in the scientific
investigation of Christmas Island, and became chairman of a
company which exploited its rich phosphatic deposits with great
success.

As might be expected, Murray's distinguished services to
science were recognised by numerous authorities both at home
and abroad. He was created K.C.P. in 1898 and received the
Royal Prussian Order "Pour le Merite " and the Grand Cross
of the Norwegian Order of St. Olav, as well as numerous medals
of learned societies and university degrees.

In 1889 Sir John Murray married Isabel, only daughter of

AuHJial Report of the Council. xliii

the late Thomas Henderson, of Glasgow. Chatacteristically

his eldest son was christened "John Challenger," and he called

his house near Edinburgh, " Challenger Lodge." Here it was

his delight to entertain his friends and scientific colleagues and

to enjoy discussing not merely problems of oceanography, but

practically all things "dreamt of in our philosophy," for he had

read widely and thought much. Despite his three and seventy

years he was full of energy and of schemes for future work when

on the 1 6th March, 19 14, a motor accident ended in a moment

his life of strenuous activity.

The world has lost a great scientist and a sound, practical

organiser, but the memory in the hearts of those who knew him

and worked with him is that of a man endowed with a deei)-

seated love of truth and of science for its own sake, of a loyai

comrade who unflinchingly, not to say brutally, told his friends

just what he thought of them to their faces, and never spoke ill

of them behind their backs ; of a considerate chief and a loyal

comrade, whose roughness of manner was only skin-deep, and

who could always be depended on for sympathy and help in

time of need.

W. E. H.

Professor J. T. Nicolson.* — The early death of Dr. J. T.
Nicolson, professor of mechanical engineering in the Manchester
School of Technology and in the University of Manchester, will
be much regretted by a wide circle of friends. His health during
the previous six months had given serious cause for anxiety, but
had improved sufficiently to allow him to return to his duties.
There followed a sudden rcla[)se, and he died at Macclesfield
on May 27th after a brief illness.

Prof. Nicolson was born at Amble, in Northumberland, in

i860, and received his early education at Watson's College,

l^dinburgh. He was then apprenticed to Hawthorne Leslie

and Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne. From there he gained a Whit-

* Reprinted in part front an arlicle in '•'■ A^a/ lire," June j;th, igrj.

xliv Ainuial Report cf the Council.

worth scliolarship and entered Edinburgh University, where he
graduated in iS8q, obtaining the D.Sc. degree some years later.
Alter graduation he spent two years in Charlottenburg, where
he investigated the strength of materials under Prof. Martens.
After holding the position of assistant-lecturer in engineering in
the University of Cambridge, he was appointed in 1892 professor
of mechanical engineering in McGill University, Montreal. He
took there an active part in the equipment of the engineering
department and in arranging the courses of instruction for
students.

His tenure of the chair in McGill University was marked by
several important investigations. He designtd and constructed
for F. D. Adams, Professor of Geology in the University, special
apparatus for submitting specimens of rocks and minerals to the
highest obtainable pressure for long intervals of time. This
combination of the engineer with the geologist resulted in
notable advances to our knowledge of the flow of rocks under
great pressures and varying temperatures. 'J'he apparatus
designed by Professor Nicolson proved very serviceable in a
number of later researches along similar lines made by Professor
Adams. When Professor Callendar was appointed Professor of
Physics in McGill University he undertook with him an investi-
gation on the valve-leakage of the steam on the surface of
condensers. This difficult and important investigation was
published in detail, and led to the award of the Telford premium
to the authors.

At the time of the building of the School of Technology in
Manchester, Mr. J. H. Reynolds travelled to Canada and
America to examine corresponding institutions in those countries.
He met Professor Nicolson in Montreal and was so impressed
with his energy and ability that he was selected in 1899 ^^ take
charge of the Engineering Department of the newly opened
School of Technology. Professor Nicolson was largely respon-
sible for the whole engineering equipment of that institution, an
equipment which in variety and extent is even now unsurpassed
in this country. When degree courses were instituted in the

Aiuiiuil Report of tlic Council. xlv

School of Technology in connection with the University of
Manchester he was appointed the first professor of Mechanical
Engineering, a position which he held until his death.

Although the routine duties of his Chair occupied a large
amount of his time, Professor Nicolson's energy led him to
undertake a number of important and extensive original investi-
gations. He made detailed experiments on rapid-cutting steels,
in which he showed the relations between the cut and speed
and the durability. The results of these investigations were
published as a report by the Manchester Association of Engineers
in 1903, and were well received by the engineering profession.
As was characteri.stic of Prof. Nicolson, he immediately applied
the experimental results to the improvement and design of

machine tools.

During the last few years of his life he took up the question
of the transfer of heat to boilers. The late Prof. Osborne
Reynolds had predicted in 1874 on theoretical grounds that
the rate of transfer of heat from a gas or fluid to a solid surface
should increase with the velocity of movement. This was con-
firmed for fluids by the experiments of Dr. Stanton in 1897.
Prof. Nicolson, in an elaborate series of experiments, showed
that the same result held for gases. He then applied this idea
to the design of boilers and condensers, the essential point
being that the heated gases were driven at a high speed through
the tubes of the boiler, the water circulating in the opposite
direction. As the result of an extended trial of a 60-h.p. boiler
over sixty days, it was found that the efificency of such a com-
bination was considerably greater than that of tlie ordinary
boiler. There has been much difference of opinion among
engineers as to the practicability of this idea, but Prof Nicolson
himself had the strongest belief in the greater overall efficiency
to be obtained by his methods.

The training of Prof. Nicolson fitted him admirably to fill
the position of a professor of engineering, for he had not only a
wide scientific outlook, but took a keen interest in the practical
side of his profession. This is shown by the promptness with

xlvi Annual Report of tJic Couneil.

which lie appHed the results of his scientific investigations to the
improvement of engineering practice. He was a man of strong
oi)inions on engineering questions, and vigorously supported
his opinions when attacked. His personal integrity, straight-
forward character, and sympathy with scientific difficulties
endeared him to his colleagues, while his vigorous personality
and ability as a teacher made a strong and lasting impression on
all his students. Owing to his increasing deafness he was unable
in recent years to take that active part in administrative matters
for which his wide outlook well fitted him. His premature
death is a great loss to science, and will be much regretted, not
only by his colleagues both in Manchester and Montreal, but
by a wide circle of friends. E. R.

William Henry Sutcliffk, born at Ashton in 1S55, wns
educated at the IManchester Grammar School and subsequently
attended classes in Geology under Professor Boyd Dawkins at
the Owens College. Though he had to devote his energies to
an industrial career, in which he attained a distinguished
position as the successful manager of a large Cotton Mill in
Littleborough, he always retained his early interest in geological
and arch?eoloL;ical pursuits and remained a hard worker and
keen student of both branches of science. His holidays were
usually devoted to scientific quests, and the collections of the
Manchester Museum and of the Grammar School were
frequently enriched by generous gifts of some of his most
valuable finds, foremost among which may be mentioned the
superb specimen of Plesiosauriis from Whitby, now in the Man-
chester Museum. He will always be remembered by
palaeobotanists for the generous way in which on more than one
occasion, he opened out the disused coal mine close to his mill
at Shore, to provide a new store of valuable coal balls containing
beautifully preserved plant-remains. These yielded numerous
forms new to science, several of which, such as Suicliffia, bear
his name ; but with innate modesty he asked his paljeobotanical

Auiiual Report of tlie Council. xlvii

friends that they should in future use the name of Shore and not
his own for the designation of new species. His interest in
archaeology centred largely in the study of prehistoric remains.
He had an extensive collection of flint implements and had
contributed several important pajjers on the "pigmy flints,"
underlying the peat of the hills near Rochdale. Me was also
greatly interested in prehistoric anthropology, and his last paper
read before the Society in 1913, dealt critically and exhaustively
with some modern tendencies in prehistoric anthropology.

A man of active and decisive temperament, he proved
himself a warm friend of all engaged in kindred pursuits and had
obtained a prominent position among Lancashire naturalists.
By his death in August, 19 13, the Society has lost a valuable
and energetic member. F. E. W.

Thomas Thorp, F.R.A.S., long an active member of the
Society, died at Prestatyn on the 13th June, 1914. His loss
will be keenly regretted by all who knew him, not only on
account of the numerous valuable and interesting discoveries he
made and of the ingenious instruments he invented, but still
more on account of his unassuming and genial manner to
all with whom he came into contact, and his readiness to
explain and to make suggestions on any subject in which
his wide knowledge could be of any assistance. He was
born at Whitefield on October 26th, 1850, was educated
at the Manchester Grammar School, and afterwards articled to
Messrs. Maycock and Bell, architects. Mechanics and mechani-
cal engineering, however, soon captivated his interest and for
over thirty years he made this field his profession. His interests
were not, however, confined to his daily work, but extended to
scientific pursuits, particularly in relation to the sciences of
light and astronomy, and he devoted his inventive abilities
(which he possessed in a remarkable degree) to improving and
devising new instruments for the advancement of those sciences.

He became a member of this Society in 1896, was a mem-
ber of the Council (except for one year) from 1902 to 191 2,

xlviii Annual Report of the Council.

was Vice-President from 1908 to 191 r, and was requested to
accept nomination for the Presidency, l)ut declined.

During his period of membership he contributed papers on
"A Mechanical Device for the Solution of Problems in Re-
fraction and Polarization" (1897), "Grating Films and their
application to Colour Photography" (1899), and '"On the pro-
duction of Polished Metallic Surfaces having the properties of
Jai)anese 'Magic Mirrors' " (1903) ; but it was perhaps more
for his numerous and valuable short communications, which he
so frequently made, and the instruments he exhibited at the
meetings of the Society, that he was so highly esteemed by his
fellow-memljers. Amongst his short communications may be
mentioned : " On a Method of Producing a Spectrum-like Band
from a Bolometric Curve" (1900), "On a Method of Silvering
Diffraction Films" (1900), "On an Instrument designed to
yield a pure Monochromatic Image of the Sun" (1901), "On
Shadow Bands" (1905), " Description of a Method of Silvering
Transparent (Jrating Replicas " (1909), and "A New Method for
Testing the Curvature of Parabolic Mirrors" (1911). His
exhibits, which were perhaps even more interesting, were {inter
alia) " Diffraction Grating on Speculum Metal " (1896), " Copies
of Diffraction Gratings on Celluloid Films " (1898), " Apparatus
showing Photographs in Natural Colours by the aid of Gratings "
(1899), "An Apparatus for facilitating the Sighting of a Gun"
(1903), "Anew Direct-vision Spectroscope" (1905), "A new
form of Spring having a Constant Tension" (1908), "A
Silvered Concave (^rating " (1909) (presented to the Society),
and "Celloidine Castings of (jratings " (1913).

In 190 1 he was awarded the Wilde premium for his paper,
"Grating Films and their application to Colour Photography "
and other communications to the Society.

While actively engaged in his professional duties he applied
his inventive faculties in various directions, particularly with
respect to scientific apparatus and gas-works appliances. He
was the patentee of several dozen inventions, all of them

Annual Repo)t of the Council. xlix

ingenious, those of more general interest being tlie Penny-in-
the-Slot gas meter, the Push Tap for water, important improve-
ments in pneumatic tools, Rotary and Discount gas meters, gas
lamps, colour photography, etc., and at the time of his death
he was engaged in perfecting a new cinematograph screen.

He was a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, and
Vice-Piesident of the Manchester i\stronomical Society. In-
terested in all branches of physics and astronomy, he kept in
touch with the leading workers in different countries. He
accompanied the solar eclipse expeditions to Algiers and Burgos,
important results being obtained by his special instruments.
He was the possessor of several fine telescopes, the best of
which will probably be offered to some educational authority
in the neighbourhood. Perhaps his best contribution to the
scientific world was the "Thorp Transparent Replica Diffraction
Grating," referred to above, these replicas enabling many insti-
tutions and private persons to procure gratings of high resolving
power at a trivial cost, though the original gratings could rarely
be obtained, even by those who could afford to defray the cost
of their purchase. With characteristic generosity he did not
patent his method of production, but published it to the world
and supplied hundreds at nominal prices. Invaluable for solar,
stellar and chemical work, it may be mentioned that the grating
is a thin film of celluloid material having upon its surface
parallel lines 14,500 to the inch (in the replicas of Rowland's
gratings). He was the recipient of several gold and other
medals, and received awards at the Franco-British and St. Louis
I'^xhibitions.

His generosity and kindness of heart, as well as his versa-
tility, were well known to all members of the Society, and his
loss will be keenly felt, particularly by regular attenders at the
Society's meetings. His name will go down to posterity as no
unworthy member of that fine school of non-professional scien-
tific investigatois, with Dalton at its head, of whom Manchester
may be justly proud, and through whom this Society has gained
renown throughout the world. W, H. T.

Treasitycr s A ccounts.

2)r.

MANCHESTER LITERARY A

IV. Henry Todd, Treasurer, in Accotin.' wilk

To Balance, ist April, 1913 ..

lo Members' Subscriptions: —

Quarter Subscription, 191 3-1

Half Suljscriptioiis, loio-ii,

,, iyii-12,

,, 1912-13,

.., . i9'3-i4i

SuViscriptions : — 1009-10,

,, 1910-1!,

,, igii-]2,

>, 1912-1,1,

,, i9i3-'4.

: ,^0 ic

£2. 2S. OJ.

I04

To Transfers from the Wilde ]'"nilo\vment Fnni
'lo Sale of Publications
To Sale of Catalogue
To Dividends : —

Natural History I'"inid

Joule ^Memorial Fund

To Income Tax Refunded : —
Natural History Fund
luule ^Memorial Fund
Wilde Endovvm.ent Fur.d

To National Health Insurance Act deductions ..

To E. F. Lange, reprints, binding, etc.

To F. Howies, replacing lost book . .

To ;£-258 Loan to Mancliester Corporation, redeemed on March 25th, 1914

x;

14^ K

4

4 0

8

S 0

27

0 0

21S

8 0

2-8

1,1

a2

<

0

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57

13 6

14

5 9

71

I

^

II 6

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13 10

21

5 10

25

11

7

24

M

0

5

,£9'

NATURAL

To Dividends (.n ;{[i, 225 Great Western Railway Company s Stucl;

To Remission of Income Tax, 1913. .

'i'o Balance against this Fund, ist April, 1014 ..

HISTO

57 ';

;£95

JOULE

To Balance. 1st April, 1013

To Dividends on X^sS Loan lo J1;nichester Corpornlion

To Dividends on ;£ioo East India Railway Company's 4 'I. .Annuity Stock

To .£258 Loan to Manchester Corporation, redeemed on Jiarch 25th, 1914

To Reiiiission of Income Tax, 1Q13

MEMORl

L s

4

7

6 J
25S
o I

.£277

WILDE ENDOWME

To Balance, 1st April, 1913 ..

To Dividends on i.7,500 (las Light and Coke Comjiany's Ordinary .Stock ..

To Remission of Income Tax, 1913

To Bank Interest

L

116 I
:;43 1

.^484

Treasurer s Accounts.

ILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

'.ty, from ist April, iQiJ, lo jisi ]\larcli, igi4.

ai.

Charges on Property : —

Dhief Rent (Income 'I'ax (.leiluctei-I)

nconie Tax . .

nsurance against Fire

House Expenditure : —

oals, Gas, Electric I.iglit, Water, &c.
Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings
Cleaning, Sweeping Chiimieys. &c.

[Replacements of mantles, crockery, chislers, ironware, etc.
Whitewashing, repairs, etc.
Vrc Lamp
\dministrative Charges ; —

ousekeeper

ostages, and Carriage of Parcels and of "IMenioirs"

tationery, Cheques, Receipts, and ICngrossing

rinting Circulars, Reports, &c.
lixtra attendance at Meetings, and dining housekeeper's holidays

nsurance against Liability
^Jational Health Insurance Stamps
Miscellaneous Expenses ..

ublisliing :—

rinting " Memoirs and Proceedings"

Uuslrations for "Jlemoirs" (except Nat. Hist, papers) ..

ibrary : —

ks and Periodicals (except those charged to Natural History Fund
eriodicals formerly subscribed for by the iSIicroscopical and Natural Histc
Section ..

!^atural History !• inid : —

Items shown in the ISalaiice Sheet of lliis Fund below)
oule Memorial I'tnid : —

Item shown in the l^alance Sheet of this Fund IjelowJ
Vilde Endowment Fund (Income Tax refunded)
Balance at Williams Deacon's Bank, ist April, 1914
, in Treasurer's hands

£ s. d.

0

15

4
0

II

0

0

4

36

18

9

12

10

0

3

19

U

5

0

li

0

I

9

4

4

°

6s

14

4

.. 65

0

0

10

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4

16

9

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13

0

0

12

0

4
I

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17

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9^

—

135

0

0

^03

16

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17

17

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221

'3

42

4

4

ory

3

7

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—

—

45

1 1

10

90

=

3

10

10

0

21

S

10

2SS

8

s

10

0

0

-

29S

s

5

;£9i2

5

5

ND, 1913— 1914. (Included in the General Account, above.)

Halance against this Fund, ist .'^pril, 1913 ..

'Natural Histoiy Periodicals .. .. .. .. .. ,. .. ..

Uustrations for papers on Nat. Hist, in " Memoirs "
binding Periodicals

Oo 8
25 0

;£9,S o

ND, 1913 — 1914. (Included in the General Account, above.)

pecial Lecture
Balance, i^t April,

^ s. d.

10 10 o

266 17 I

^^277 7 I

fND, 1913— 1914.

Assistant Secretary's Salaiy
Maintenance of Society's Library : —
Binding and Repairing Books
Transfers to Society's Funds
-heque Book
Balance at District Baid:, 1st Apiil, 1914

^

s.

d.

:27

10

"

24
82

'7
0

lo

0

"49 14 u
^484 5 4

Hi Treasurer s Accounts.

Note. — The Treasurer's Accounts of the Session 19 13-
1914 have been endorsed as follows :

Apiil Slh, 1914. Aiidiled and found correct.

We have also seen, at this date, the certificates of the following Stocks
lield in the name of the Society: — ^;^i,225 Great Western Railway Company
5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,294, ^'^^1 12,323;
,/"7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary Stock (No. 8/1960) ; ;i^ioo
East India Railway Company's 4% Annuity Stock (No. 4032) ; and the
deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde Endowment Fund,
those conveying the land on which the Society's premises stand, and the
Declarations of Trust.

Leases and Conveyances dated as follow : —
22nd Sept., 1797.
23rd Sept., 1797.
25th Dec, 1799.

22nd Dec, 1820.
23rd Dec, 1820.

Declarations of Trust : —

24tli June, 1801.

23rd Dec, 1820.
8th Jan., 187S.
Appointment of New Trustees: — -

30th April, 1851.

\\e iiave also verified the balances cl the various accounts with the
bankers' pass books.

(A. Adamson.
(Si'^ncd) -

[d. Thoday.

The CoiDictl. liii

THE COUNCIL
AND MEMBERS

CF TliE

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

{Corrected io October jot/i, igi4.)

FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

'iSicc-J.Uceiilienl'?.

FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S.

SYDNEY J. HICKSON, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

^ccictaiie!?.

R. L. TAYLOR. F.C.S., F.I.C.
GEORGE IlICKLING, D.Sc, F.G.S.

W. HENRY TODD.

^ibvnvian.

C. L. BARNES, M.A.

m\\tx 4'tUmbcrs oi the (iTounril.

T. A. COWARD, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.

R. F. GWYTHER, M.A.

H. R. HASSE, M.A., D.Sc.

W. M. TATTERS ALL, D.Sc.

[One vacancy.]

Jl»0i£(taut <Secrctan) aub M)ibiavian.

R. F. HINSON.

liv Onilnaiy Members.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Dnte. oj Election.

1911, April 4. Adaniion, Ailliur, rj.Sc.Tech., ,\.R.C.S., Lecturer in

Physics in the Municipal School of Technology, Man-
chester. Municipal Scliool of Tecluiology, Sackville
Street, Alauchcstei'.
1901, Dec. 10. Adanison, Harold. Oaklands Cottage, Godlcy, nea> Mav-
chesia .

1912, Oct. 15. Adanison, R. Slephen, M.A., B..Sc., Lecturer in Botany in

the Victoria University of Manchester. The University,
Alancliester.
1870, Dec. 13. Angell, John, F.C.S., F.LC. 6, Beacons-Field, Derty
Road, U'itliinglon, I\Ianihester.

1865, Nov. 14. Bailey, Charles, iM.Sc, F.L.S. Hayinesgarth, Cleeve Hill,

S.O., Gtoziceslershire.
J^9S> Jnii- 8. Barnes, Charles L., M.A. 151, Plyxioitth Grove,

Manchester.
J903, Oct, 20. Barnes, Jonathan, F.G..S. .South Cliff House, 301, Great

Cloives .Stiect, Higher Broughton, /Manchester.
1910, Oct. 18. Beatlie, Robert, D,.Sc., M.LE.K., Professor of Electro-
technics in the Victoria University of Manchester. The

University, Manchester.
1895, Ma^"^' 5- Behrens, (iustav. Holly Royde, IVithijtgton, Manchester.
1868, Dec. 15. Bickhani, .Spencer IL, F.L.S. Underdoivn, Ledbury.
1914, Feb. 10. Boyd, k. W., M.A., F.E.S. The Alton, Allrincham,

Cheshire.
1875, J^^ov. 16. Boyd, John. Barton House, 11, Dutsbnry Park, Didshury,

Manchester.

1889, Oct. 15. Bradley, Nathaniel, F. C.S. Suiinyside, ll'halley Range,

jManchcster.
1912, Oct. 15. Brierley, \V.B., M..Sc., Lecturer in Economic Botany in

the Victoria Universit)- of Manchester, llie University,

Manchester.
1889, April 16. Brooks, Samuel Herbert. Slade Home, Levenshulvie,

Alanchester.
1910, Nov. I. Broome, James S., Science Teaclier in the Salford

Secondary School. 18, Seedley Park Road, Pendleton,

Manchesim .
1886, April 6. Brown, Alfred, -M.A., M.D. Beech Hill, Hale, Cheshire.

Ordinary ]\Tevibers. Iv

Date of Electiofi.

1913, Dec. 2. Brown, T. Cualiani, M.D., B.Sc, Lecturer in Experimental

Piiysiology in the X'ictoria University of Manchester.

The UniTei'sily, IMauclicster.
1889, Jan. 8. Brownell, Tlionias William, F. K.A.S. 64, Upper Brook

Street, Rlancheslcr.
i88o. Oct. 15. liudcnberg, C. F., M.Sc, M.I.lNIech.E. Bouuiou Lane,

Marple, Cheshire.
191 1, Jan. 10. Burt, Frank I'laxfair, B.Sc. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Bristol),

Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the Victoria Universit}-

of Manchester. 15, Oak Koad, Withiiigton, MancJiester.
1906, Feb. 27. Burton, Joseph, A.M.C.S. Dublin. Ti/e Works, Clifton

Jiniit/on, near Manchester.
1S94, Nov. 13. r>url(in, William, M.A., F.C.S. Ihi Hollies, Clifton

Junction, near Manchester.
1911, Oct. 31. Butterwortli, Charles F. M'aterloo, Poynton, Cheshire.

1904, Oct. 18. Campion, George Goring, L.D.S. 264, Oxford .Street,

Mancliester.
1S99, Feb. 7. Chapman, D. L., M.A., F.R..S., Fellow and Tutor of

Jesus College, Oxford. Jcsiis College, Oxford.
1901 Nov. 26. Chevalier, Reginald C, M.A., Mathematical Masler at the

Manchester Grammar School. 3, Fort Koad, Sedgley

Park, Prestwich, Manchester.
1907, Nov. 26. Clayton, Robert Henry, B.Sc, Chemist, i, Parkjield

Koad, Didsbury. Manchester.
191 1, May 9. Cook, Gilbert, INI.Sc, A.M.Inst.C.E., Vulcan Research

Fellow in Engineering in University of Manchester.

8, Clarendon Koad, Garston, Liverpool.
190^, Oct. 20. Core, William Hamilton, M.Sc. Groonihridge House,

Jt 'ithi);g-ton, Manchester.
1906, Oct. 30. Coward, If. F., D.Sc, Chief Lecturer in Chemistry in

the ]\funicipal School of Technology, Manchester.

Municipal School of Technology, Sackville Street,

iMainhester, and 216, Plyincuth Grove, Manchester.
1906, Nov. 27. Coward, Thomas Alfred, F.Z.S., F.E.S. Lirentivood,

Bo-<<- 'dcu, Ch esh ii c .

1905, Nov. 3. Cramp, William, M.Sc.Tech., M.LE.E., Consulting

Engineer. 33, Brazennose Street, Manchester.
1910, Oct. 4. Crewe, F. IE, Assistant Science Master in the Central
High School for Boys, Whitworth Street. Glengarth,
]Vcodford Koad, Branihall.

Ivi OnUnary ]\r embers.

Date of Election.

191 r, h\)x'\\ 4. Daivvin, ('. G., B.A., LecUirer at Christ's College, Cani-
Ijridge. CIu ist's College, Cambridge.

1S95, April 9. Dawkins, W. ]5oytl, M.A., D.Sc, KR.S., Honorary
Professor of (>eology in the \'ictoria University of ]\Ian-
ch ester. Fallowfield House, Falloivl'ield, ]\Ianchesier.

1S94, Mar. 6. Delepine, A. Sheridan, ^I.B., 13. Sc, Frofe.ssor of
Pathology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
Public Health I.abora/oiy, Yoi k Place, ]\laiicJiester.

1887, Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold Baily.M. A., Pli. I)., I\I.Sc.,F.K.S., F.C.S.,
I'rofessor of Chemistry in the \'icloria University of
Manchester. 7'lie UtiiTasily, H/aitches/e):

1906, Oct. 30. Edgar, Y.. C. , D.Sc, .Senior Lecturer in Ciieniistry in the

Victoria University of Manchester. 71te Uuiversity,

IManchester.
1910, Oct. 18. Evans, Evan ]enkin, l!..Sc., Assistant Lecturer and

Demonstrator in I'hysicsin the University ofManchester.

77^1? University, Maticliextei:
1914, Feb. 24. Evans, William David, M.A.. Richardson Lecturer in

Mathematics, The \'ictoria University of Manchester.

17, Harley A7'entte, I'ictoria ]\irl\ jMaiicIiester.

1912. Oct. 15. I'airlie, D. M., IM.Sc. 212, Pm ton h'oad, West Didsbnry,

]\Iancheittr.
1912, Feb. 6. P"order, IL G.. R.A., Senior IMathematical Master, Cardiff

Higli Scliool. 33, ]\'oi-dsivo>th A'l'eniic^ Newport Road,

Cardiff.

1908, Jan. 28. Fox, Thomas William, :M.Sc. Tech., Professor of Textiles

in the School of Technology, Manchester LTniversity.
Gledfield, 15, Clarendon Crescent, Pedes.

1912, Oct. 15. Garnctt, J. C. Maxwell, i\r.A., Principal of the Municipal
School of Technology, Manchester. 7'he Mnnicifal
School of Pechnoh\^y, Sac/cville Street, Afaiichestcr, and
U'estfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1909, Mar. 23. Gee, W. W. Ilaldane, B.Sc, M..Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.,

Professor of Pure and Applied Physics in the School of
Technology, Manchester L'niversity. Oak Lea, Jl'halley
Avenue, Sale.

1907, Oct. 15. Gravely, F. H., M.Sc. Aatural History Deft., Indian

RInseiiin, Calcutta.
1907, Oct. 29. Gwyther, Reginald Felix, M.A., Secretary to the Joint
INJatricuIalion Board. 21, Booth Avenue, Withington,
Llanchester.

Ordinary Members. ivii

Datt of Election.

1913, Dec. 16. Ilamlley, Marion, ^^.A. (Birm.), Lecturer in (he Municipal

Day Training College, Manchester. Hiiinnel, Bitrnage
Garden Village, JManch ester.
191 1, Oct. 3. Ilassc, II. R., M.A., D.Sc, Lecturer in JNIalhemalics in
the University of Manchester. 69, Mauldelh Road,
U'i/hiitQfoii, jl/anchesicr.

1914, Mar. 10. Ilibbert, Eva, Assoc. M.S.T., Demonstrator in Chemistry,

Tlie Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. 1'he

JMituicipal School of Technology, Maiichesler.
1907, Oct. 15. llickling, II. George A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Lecturer in

l'ak\;ontology in the \'ictoria University of Manchester.

Gleiiside, Afarple Bridge, near Stockport.
1895, ^I^'- 5- IJickson, Sydney J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of

Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. The

Unii'osity, Mancliestei .
1909, Jan. 12. Iloffert, Hermann Henry, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.K.S.M., His

Majesty's Inspector of Schools. Lime Grove, Brooklands,

Sale.
1909, Nov. 2. Holland, Sir Thomas II., K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.,

Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University

of Manchester, late Director of the Geological Survey

of India, ll'estwood, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1905, Nov. 14. Holt, Alfred, M.A., D.Sc, Research Fellow of the Uni-
versity of Manchester. Doivse field, A Her ton, Liverpool.
1S96, Nov. 3. Ilopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Ferns,

Alderley Eds^e, Cheshire.
1909, I'eb. 9. Howies, Frederick, M.Sc, Analytical and Research

Cliemist. Glcnlucc, Waterpark A'oad, Broiighto)i Park,

Manchester.
1S89, Oct. 15. Hoyle, William I<:vans, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Director

of llie Welsh National iMuseum, Cardiff. City Hall,

Cardiff".
1913, Feb. 4. HubrechI, J. B., M.A. 12, Canipden Llill Gardens,

London, II'.
1907, Oct. 15. Iliiljner, Julius, M.Sc. Tech., F.I.C., I.ectuier in tlie

I'aculty of Technology in the University of Manchester.

Linden, Cheadle LLuline, ClusJiire,

1913, Oct. 21. Imms, A. D., ]\f.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Reader in Agricultural
Ent(jmology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
Department of Agricnllural Entomology, The University,
Manchester.

Iviii Ordinary Illcinbers,

Da'e of Kh-ction.

1899, Oct. 17. Ingleby, Josepli, IM.I.Mecli.E. Sprhicificld, Holly Road,
]Viliinloiv, Cheshjie, and ^c, I\Ioiii!t S/recl, I\Iauchester.

1901, Nov. 26. Jackson, Fredeiicl^. 4^;, Chafcl Street . Salford.

1914, Tan. 13. ]enkin.s_, 'William Cliarles, Ciua'.or of the Godlee Ob.ser-
vatoiy, Tlie Municipal School of Technology, Man-
chester. 7 he I\htnieipal School of 1 echnology, Manchester.

1911, Oct. 3. Jolinstone, INIary A., I5.Sc.(Lond.), lleadmisties.s of tlie
Municipal Secondary School for Girls, \Yhit\vorlh Street,
Manchester. 43, //;// Top Avcinie, Chcadle Hiihiie,
Cheshire.

1S78, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, IM.Sc, F.K.S.E., F.C.S. Manchester
Graiitinar School, and 17, ^V]lallcy A'oad, WJialley
Raiiiyc, Manchester.

1903, Feb. 3. Knccht, ICdnuind, rii.l)., I'rofessor of Chemislry in the

School of Technology, ]\Tar.chesltr University. Beech

3!oiint, JMarple, Cheshire.

1893, Nov. 14. Lamb, Horace, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, Sc.D., F.K.S., Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the \'ictoria University of Man-
chester. 6, ]]'ilb) aham Koad, l-'allo7i'field, Llanchester.

1909, Nov. 2. Lang, William II., M.l!., ClNb, D.Sc, F.K.S., F.L.S.,

Barker I'rofessor of Ci\ptogamic Botany in the Uni-
versity of iMancliesler. 2, Heaton- Koad, Withington.
J\/atiehesier .

1902, Jan. 7. Lange, Ernest F., INI.LMcch.i:., A.IM.Inst.C.E., M.L & S.
Inst., F.C.S. 1-airholm, 3, Willoii' Bank, Fallc'rfe/d,
RlancJiester.

I9il,jan. 10. Lankshear, Frederick Russell, B.A. (New Zeal.), M.Sc.
(Mane), Demonstrator in Chemistry in iheVictoiia Uni-
versity Manchester. I'lie Unu'ersity, A/anehester.

1910, Oct. iS. Lapvvorth, Arthur, D.Sc, F.K.S., F.LC, I'rofessor of

Organic Chemislry in the ^"ict( ria University of Man-
chester. 30, Amherst Road, ]]'ilhingtoii, I\Ianchestcr.

1904, Mnr. 15. Lea, Arnold W. \V., INI.D. 246, O.xj'ord Road, Mancltesler.

1914, April 7. Lees, S., M. A., Assoc. M.S. T., Reader in Applied Thermo-
dynamics in the Faculty of Technology, The Univeisity
of Manchester. 1 he Municipal School cf I'echnology,
I\Ianchestcr,?c[\<\ Bricificld, Ashley Road, Hale, Cheshire.

1907, Oct. 29. Leigh, Harold Shawcross. Brentivood, Jl'orsley.

Oydinary Members. lix

Date of Election.

1908, Oct. 20. Liebeit, Martin, Pli.D., Managing Director of Meister

Lucius and Briining, Ltd., Manchester. i, Lancaster

Road, Didsbtiry, A/ancIies/er.
1912, Nov. 12. Lindsey, Marjorie, B.Sc, Reseaich Student in the

Victoria University of Manchester, j. Demesne J\oad,

W'halley Kaiii^c, iManchcs/er.

1912, May 7. I^oewenfeld, Kurt, Ph.D. Fern Bank, Ogden Road,
Byaiiihall, Chcsliiie.

1910, Oct. 18. McDougall, I\ol)eit, 15. .Sc. City Flour Mills, German

Si) eel, Maitihcsler.
1912, Oct. 15. McFarlane, John, M.A. (Ldin.), 15. A. (Cantab), M. Com.

(Mane), Lecturer in Geography in the Victoria

University of Manchester. Fhe University, Manchester.
1905, Oct. 31. McNicol, ^Fary, M.Sc. 182, Upper Chorllon Road,

Manchester.
1904, Kov. I. Makower, WaUer, B. A., D.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer in Physics

in tlie University of Manchester. May.'ands, Ihook

Road, Fallo2v/ield, Manchester.
1902, Mar. 4. Mandleherg, Goodman Ciiailes. Redclyffe, Vtctoi ia Park,

Manchester.

191 1, Oct. 31. March, Margaret Colley, M..Sc. TJie University, Edin-

bnroh.
1901, Dec. 10. .\Inssey, Herbert. Fvy J.ea, Burnage, Didshury,

Manchester.
1S64, Nov. I. Mather, Sir WiUiani.P.C, ^f.Inst.C.K., M.LMech.L. lion

Works, Sal ford.

1912, Nov. 26. .Melland, Edward. Kia Ora, Hale, Clieshire.

1873, ^f^r- '8. iMelvill, James Cosmo, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. Meole Brace

JIall, .Shrewstniry.
1894, Feb. 6. Mond, Robeit Ludwig, M.A., F. R.S.E., F.C.S. IVinning-

ton Hall, Northzvich, Cheshire.
1912, Nov. 26. Myeis, J. E., M.Sc, Beyer Fellow and Assistant Lecturer

in Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester.

Aciesfteld, Galley, Cheshire.
1908, Jan. 28. Myers, Wilh'am, Lecturer in Textiles in tlie School of

Technology, ^Fanchester University. Acresfield, Galley,

Cheshire.

1873, Mar. 4. Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. I'lie Knoll, Windennere,
1. IVestmorlana.

Ix Ordiunry ]\Ievilcrs.

Date oj Election,

1S84, April 15. Okell, Samuel, 1'Mn.A.S. Overley, Laiigham Road,
BoxVii'on, Cheshire.

1892, Nov. 15. Pcrkin, W. II., Sc.IX, rii.D., M.Sc, F.R.S., Waynflele
Professor of CheniisUy in tlie I'liiversityof Oxford. 71te

Universily, O.\'fo}\l.
1901, Oct. 29. Petavel, J. K., 15. A., D.Sc, I'.R.S., Professor of Engineering

in the Victoria University of Manchester. Tlie Uiii-

versity, MauchesU}'.
18S5, Nov. 17. Phillips, Henry llaicourt, l^C.S. l.ymwood, 7'urlou,

near Bolloii, l.aiiis.
1903, Dec. 15. Prentice, Pertrani, Ph.D., D.Sc, Principal, Royal Technical

Institute, Salford. hca RIcitnt, I\lanchester Road,

Siviutoji.

1901, Dec. 10. Ramsden, Herbert, ]\].D. (Lond.), M.B., Ch.P. (Vict.)
Sitiniysiii'e, Dobcioss, veai- OhiJiaiii, Lanes.

1888, Fell. 21. Ree, Alfred, Ph.D., P.CS. 15, Matihielh Road, With-
iiigion, Manchester.

1913, Jan. 7. Renold, Hans, RI.I.RIech.E. F-^-iistnall Hey, lieaton
Mci'sey, near Manchester.

1910, Oct. 4. Rhead, E. P., M.Sc.Tecli., F.I.C., Lecturer in Metallurgy

and Assaying, The INlunicipal School of Technology,
Manchester. Stonycroft, Polygon Avenve, Levenshnhne,
Alanchcsler.

1912, Oct. 29. Roberts, A. W. Rymer, M.A., Ellerbeck, Crook, mar

Kendal.
1880, Mar. 23. Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., L. K.S.E., L.R.C.P. (Lond.).

Ravensivood, Broiigliton Fail;, Manchester.

1911, Jan. 10. Robin.<^on, Robert, D.Sc. (Vict.), Professor in the University

of Sydney, N.S.W. Tlie University, Sydney, A^.S.IV.
19I0, Oct. 18. Rossi, Roberto, M.Sc. 'Irinily College, Cavibiidge.
1897, Oct. 19. Rollnvell, William Thomas. llealh Bjewery, Newton

Heath , near Miinchesler.

1907, Oct. 15. Rutherford, Sir Ernest, M. A., D.Sc, F.R.S., I.angworthy
Professor of I'hysics in the University of Manchester.
17, U'ihnsloiv Road, JVithington, Manchester.

Qydinary RI embers. Ixi

Date of EUction.

1909, Jan. 26. Sclimit?, Hermann Eniil, M.A., B.Sc, rh3sics IMaster at

the jNIanchesler Gianinnir Sclmol. 15, Brighton Giove,
Riislioliiie, Rlaiichtsler.

1873, ^''^'\- 18. Sclui.sttr, AiUuir, Sc.l)., I'li.!)., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Honorary I'rofej-stir of Physics in llie \'ictoria University
of Manchester. YeldaU, Iwyford, Berks.

1S98, Jan. C5. Schwahe, Louis. Ilai t Hill, Eccles Old Road, Vendleton,
RIaiiiheslcr.

1S90, Nov. 4. Sideliothnm, lidward John, M.A., M.B., Rl.R.C.S.
Erlesdeiie, Bo-icJoii, Cheshire.

1903, April 2S. Sitleholtoni, Henry. Wcodsiock, Braviliall, Cheshire.

1910, Oct. 4. Smith, Grafton Elh'ot, M. A., M.I)., F.K.S., Professor of

Anatomy in the University of Mancliesler. The Uiii-
versity, ]Ma)iclicsier.
1906, Nov. 27. SiTiith, Noiman, D.Sc, Assistant Lecluier in Chemistry in
the Victoria University of Manchester, llie University,
Alaiictiester.

1896, Feb. i8. Spcnce, David. J.oivood, Uinnhead, Ilaskiiiere, R.S.O.,

Surrey.
1901, Uec. 10. Spence, Howard. CjoHlessis. Peter Spence ^ Sons, J dd.,
Almn lVor/;s, Manchester.

191 1, Oct. 17. Stan, Laura, Lecturer in Art and Handicraft in the Uni-

versity of Manchester. Aloor View, 3/ayJield Read,
A'ersal, iMaiichester.

1897, Nov. 30. Slromeyer, C. F., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.ALE., M.L&S.In.st.

Steam O'.sers' dissociation, 9, Mount Stieet, All<ert Square,
Alaneliester, ai.d I.andfield, West Didshury.

1910, Oct. 18. Tatteisall, \VaIter Medley, D.Sc, Keeper of the Man-
chester Museum. The Manchester Miiscuvi, 1 he Uni-
versity, Manchester,

1895, April 9. Tatton, Reginald A., INLList.C.F., Engineer to the

Mersey and Irwell Joint Committee. Manor House,

Ciielford, Cheshire.
1S93, J^'<^>v- 14- Taylor, R. L., F.C.S., F.LC. Central High School for

Boys, Whilwoith Street, zw(S. y] , Mayfield Road, Whalley

Range, l\lauchester.
1906, April 10. Thewlii, Councillor J. H. Daisy Mount, J'icton'a Rath,

Manchester.

Ixii Ordinary Members.

Date of Election,

191 1, Oct. 17. Tlioda)', D., M.A., Lecturer in Plant Physiology in the
University of Manchester. I'Jw University, Man-
chest ei'.

1911, Jill- lO- Thomson, J. Stuart, Pli.D. (Bern),F.L.S., F.R.S.E., Senior

Demonstrator in Zoology in the Victoria University of

Manchester. 77ie Unirjersi/j, Manchester.
1873, April 15. Thomson, William, F.U.S.P:., F.I.C., F.C.S. A'oyal

Institution, I\Ianc]iester.
1896, Jan. 21. Tlioil^urn, William, M.l)., B.Sc. 2, .SV. liter's Square,

Manchester.
1899, Oct. 17. Todd, William Henry. KiviuQ^lon, Irlain Road, Hixton,

near Mancliester.

1909, Ian. 26. Yarley, George Percy, M.Sc. (Vic), Assistant Master in
the Central High School for Boys, Whitworth
Manchester. 19, May field Road, Wlialley Ran<^e, Man-
chester.

1912. Oct. 15. Walker, ]Miles, M.A., M.I. F.E., Professor of Electrical

Engineering, the Municipal School of Technology,

Manchester. The Cottage, Leicester Road, Hale,

Altrinchain.
1873, Nov. 18. Waters, Arthur William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Alderley,

McKinley Road, Bonriieinoiith.
1906, Nov. 13. Watson, D. M. .S., M.Sc. 60, I.isscndcn Mansions, Ilighgate

Road, London, N. W.

1892, Nov. 15. Weiss, F. Ernest, D.Sc, F.L.S., Acting A'ice-Chancellor
and I'rofessor of Botany in the Victoria University of
Manchester. Eascdale, Disley. Cheshire.

1909, Feb. 9. Weizmann, Charles, Ph.D., D.Sc, Reader in Bio-Chemistry
in the Victoria University of Manchester. The Uni-
versity, Manchester.

190S, May 12. Welldon, Rt. Rev. J. E. C, D.D., Dean of Manchestei.
llie Deanery, Manchester.

1911, Oct. 17. West, Tom, B.Sc, Chemist and Metallurgist, jot. Spring
Bank Street, Stalyhridge, near Manchester.

1901, Oct. I. Wild, Robert B., M.D., M.Sc, F.R.C. P., Professor of
Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the Victoria
University of Manchester. 96, Moslcy Street, Man-
chester.

Ordinary Members. Ixiii

Daie of Election.

1859, Jan. 25. Wilde, Henry, D.Sc.,D.C.L.,F.R.S. The Hmst, AkUrley

Edge, Cheshire.

1909, Jan. 26. Wolfenden, John Henry, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S. (Lond.),
Assistant Master in the Central High School for Boys,
Whitworth Street, Manchester. 13, Pole Lane, Fails-
wort li.

1905, Oct. 31. \Voodall,Herbert J., A.R.C.S. t,2. Market J'hue, Stockpri.

i860, April 17. Woolley, George Stephen. Vietoiia Bridge, Alanehester.

1863, Nov. 17. Worthington, Samuel Barton, M.Inst.C.E., IM.I.Mech.E.
Mill Bank, Bo'wdoii, and 37, Princess Street., Manchester.

1895, Jan. ^- Worthington, Wni. Barton, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Kirkstyles,
Diif/ield, near Derby.

N.B. — Of the above list the following have compounded for their
subscriptions, and are therefore life members :—

Bailey, Charles, M.Sc. , F.L. S.

Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S.

Ingleby, Joseph, M.I.Mech.E.

Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc, ]M.Inst.C.E.

Ixiv Honorary I\Tcvibers.

HONORARY .MEMBERS.

Dale of E ltd ion.

1892, April 26. Abney, Sir William de W., K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Ralliinore Lodge, Bolloii Garilem Soiitli, South Kensington,
London, S. IV.

1892, April ;6. Aniagat, ]':. II., For. Rltiii. R.S., IMenib. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci.), Examinateur a TFcole Folytechnique.

Avenue d'OrUans, 19, Paris.
1894, Aprili/. Appell, I'aul, Aleuibre derinsliliit, I'rofessor of Theoretical

Mechanics. Faailtc des Sciences, Pcuis.

1892, April 26. Baeyer, Adolf von, For. IMtni. K.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Munich, i, Arcissiiasse, Munich.

1886, Feb. 9. Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S., F.L.S. 3, Cumberland
Road, Kew.

1889, April 30. Carrutliers, William, F.K.8., F.L.S. 44, Central LLiU,
N'orwood, London, S.E.

1903, April 28. Clarke, Frank Wigglesworth, D.Sc. United States
Geological Survey, Jl'ashington, D.C., U.S.A.

1866, Oct. 30. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Experimental Philo.sophy in the University of
Oxford. 3, Barawell I'load, Banbury Road, Oxford.

1892, April 26. Ciutiiis, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Kiel. Unirei sitcit, L\iel.

1892, April 26. Darljoux, J. Gaston, Membre de I'lnstitiit, Secretaire per-
petuel de I'Academie des Sciences, Doyen honoraire de
la Facnlte des Sciences. 3, Rue Mazarine, I\iris.

1894, April 17. Debus, II.. Ph.D., F.R.S. 4. Schlangemveg, Cassei
/Lessen, Genu any.

Honorary ]\I embers. Ixv

Date of Election.

1900, April 24. Dew.ir, Sir James, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.,

Fiillerian Professor of Ciiemistry at Ihe Royal Institution.

Royal Insiilittion, All'cniark Street, London, W.

1892, April 26. Edison, Thomas Alva. Orange, N.J., U.S.A.

1895, April 30. F.lster, Julius, rii.l). 6, I.essingstrasse, Molfenhiittel.

1900, April 24. Ewing, Sir J. Alfred, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.K.S.,

Director of Naval Education to the Admiralty. Frog-

Iio.'e, Edenhridj^e, Kent.

18S9, April 30. Farlow, W. G., Professor of Itotany at Harvard College.
Harvai d College, Canibridge, DJass., U.S.A.

1900, April 24. Forsyth, Andrew Russell, ]\T.A., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics at the Imperial College of
Science and Technology. 7'lie Lnferial College of
Scienee and Technology, S. h'ensing/oji, London.

1892, Apiil 26. P'iirbringtr, Max, Professor of Analom}- in the University
of Ileidelherg. Univeisitat, LLeidclberg.

1900, April 24. Ceikie, James, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. , Murchison Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. I^ihiiorie, Colinton Road, Edinburgh.
1895, April 30. Geitel, Hans. 6, Lessingstrasse, IVolfenbiittel.

1894, April 17. Glaisher, J. W. L., Sc.D., F.R.S. 7yinity College,

Cambridge.
1894, Ajiril 17. (iouy, A., Corn Memb. In>>t. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor
of I'h)'sics in the Uni\ersity of Lyons. I''actttti des
.Siienees, Lfon.s.
V

1900, April 24. Ilaeckel, Frnsl, IMi.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Jena. Zoologisches Institjit, Jena.

1894, April 17. Harcourt, A. G. \'ernon, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
St. Clare, Ryde, Lsle of Wight.

1894, April 17. Heaviside, Oliver, Ph.D., F.R.S. ILome/ield, L.oiver War-
berry, Torquay.

1892, April 26. Hill, G. W. IVeit Nyack, N. ]'., U.S.A.

Ixvi Honorary ]\Ieinbers.

Dale oj Election.

1888, April 17. Ilitlorf, Jolianii Willielni, Professor of Physics at Miinster,
l^olytechiiicuni, i\liiii\ler.

1892, Apiil 26. Klein, Felix, Ph.D., For. Mem. R..S.,Corr. Menih. Inst.

Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Mathematics in the

University of Gottingen. 3, IVillielm IVaher Slrasse,
Goliingeii.

1894, April 17. Konigsherger, Leo, Professor of i\Iathematics in the Univer-
sity of Heidelberg. Uiiiversildl, Heidelberg.

1902, May 13 Larmor, Sir Joseph, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.,
P'.R.A.S. St. John^s College, Cainl) iJge.

1892, April 26. Lieberniann, C., Professor of Ciieniislry in the University

of Berlin. 29, JMalthiii- Kirch Shasse, Berlin.
1887, April 19. Lockycr, Sir J. Norman, K.CI!., LL.U., Sc.U., F.R.S.,

Corr. Memb. Inst. Yv. (Acad. Sci.). Hill Observatory,

Sakoiiibc Regis, Sidinotith, Devon.
1902, May 13. Lodge, Sir Oliver Josepli, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., Principal

of the University of Birmingham. The University,

Bit iiiini^haiu.

1900, April 24. Lorentz, Ilenrik Anton, For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb,
Inst. l'"r. (Acad. Sci.), Professor oi Physics in the
University of Haarlem. Zijiiveg, 76, Haarlem.

1892, April 26. Marshall, Alfred, M.A., formerly Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Cambiidge. Balliol Croft,
Uladingley Road, Cambridge.

1901, April 23. Metschnikofl, Elie, D.Sc, For.Mem.R.S. Inslitut Fasieiir,

Paris.
1895, April 30, Mittag-I.efller, Gosta, D.C.L. (Oxon.), For. Mem. R.S.,

Professor of Mathematics in the University of Stockholm,

Djtii 'sh olm , Stockli olm .

1910, April 5. Nernst, Geh. Prof. Dr. Walter, Director of the Physikal-
Chemisches Institut in the University of Berlin. Am

Karlsbad 2ba, Berlin W. Jj.

Houorarv ]\I embers. Ixvii*

Date 0/ Election.

IQ02, May 13. Osborn, Ileniy Fairfield, I'rofcssor of Vertebrate Palroon-
tology at Coluniljia College. American Museum of
Naiiiral History, ]V. 'jy Street, New Yoik, U.S.A.

1894, April 17, Ostwakl, W. , Professor of Clieniistr)'. Grosibothcn, A'f;r.
Sachscii.

1S99, April 25. Palgrave, Sir Robert II. Inglis, F.K.S., F.S.S. Henstead

Hall. ]Vrcnthaiii, SiiffoHc.
1S94, April 17. Pfeffer, ^Yilllelm, I'or. Mem. ]\.S., Professor of Botany

in the University of Leipsic. Bolanisclies Insliiiit,

Leipsic.

1S92, April 26. f^uincke, C. II., lor. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics
in the University of Heidelberg. Universitat, Heidelberg.

1S99, April25. Ramsay, Sir William, K.C.B., Ph.D., Sc.D., M.D.,
I'\R. S., Professor of Chemistry in University College,
London. 19, Chester Tcriaci, Kegcufs Fark, London,

A'.ji:

1S86, Feb. 9. Raylcigh, Right Hun. John William Slriitt, Lord, O.M.,

M.A., D.C.L. (Oxon.), Sc.D. (Cantab.), LL.D. (Univ.

McGill), F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci.), Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.

Titling Place, William, Esse.v.
19CO, April 24. Ridgway, Robert, Curator of the Department of Birds, U.S.

National Museum. Brookland, District of Columbia,

U.S.A.
1S97, Apiil 27. Roscoe, Right Hon. Sir Henry Enfield, B.A., D.C.L.

LL.D., F.K.S., V.P.C.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad.

Sci.). W'cst-Horsley, I.ealherhead, Surrey.

1902, May 13. Scott, Dukiiifield Henry, M.A., LL.D.. Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S. East Oakley House, Oakley, Hants.

1892, Apiil 26. Solms, II., Graf zu, Professor of Botany in the University
of .Strassburg. Uttiversitdt, Strassbttrg.

1892, April 26. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William T., K.C.M.G., CLE., M.A.,
Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Lately Director Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew. The I-'crns, Witcombe,
Gloucester.

Ixviii Honorary Members.

Dale 0/ Election.

1895, April 30, Tlionisoii, Sir Joseph Jolin, O.M., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S.,
Cavendisli Professor of Exiieriniental I'hysics in the
University of Ciimhridge. Tri)iity College, Caiitbridge.

1894, April 17. Tliorpe, Sir T. Edward, C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc, LL.D.,
F.R.S. , V.P.C.S. Whiiifield, Salcomhe,S. Devon.

1894, April 17. Turner, Sir William, K.C.B., M.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
-Sc.D., F.R.S., F.I\..S.E., Professor of Analoniy in the
University of Edinljurgb. 6, Elon Tertace, Ediiihiirgh.

1886, Feb. 9. Tylor, Sir Edward Burnett, D.C.L. (Oxon), LL.D. (St.
And. and RIcGill Univs.), !". R..S., formerly Professor of
Anthropology in tlie University of Oxford. Linden,
Wellington, Somerset.

1894, April 17. Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.,
Sherardian Professor of Botany in the University of
Oxford. lIeadin<;ton Hill, Oxford.

1894, April 17. Warljurg, Emil, Professor of Physics at the Physical

Institute, Berlin. Physikalisches instilnt, Neiie Wilhelin-

strasse, Berlin.
1894, April 17. Weisniann, .August, l'\)r.]Mem.R.S., Piofcssor of Zoology

in the University of Freiburg. Universitat, Freil>ittg i.

Br.

CHANGES OF ADDRESS.

JSIemhers are particularly rcqiicsled io inform ike Secretaries
of a/y errors in their addresses or descriptions.

Azvards of the Dalton JMcdal.

189S. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1900. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S.

1903. Prof. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., 1\R.S.

TJie Wildc Lectures. Ixix

THE WILDE LECTURES.

^^97- (jLily 2) "On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays.'
]^y Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart, F.R.S. {28 pp.)

189S. (Mar. 29.) " On the Physical Basis of Tsychical
Events." V,y Sir MicifAKL Fostkk, K.C.B.,
F.R.S. {46 pp.)

1899. (Mar. 28) "The newlj' discovered Elements;

and their relation to the Kinetic Theory of
Gases." V>y I'rof William Ramsay, F.R.S.

1900. (Feb. 13.) "The Mechanical Principles of Flight."

By the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigm, F.R.S.
{26 pp.)

1901. (April 22.) " Sur la Flore du Corps" Huinain."

By Dr. Elie IMetschnikoff, For.Mem.R.S.

isspp.)

1902. (Feb. 25.) "On the Evolution of the Mental

Faculties in relation to some P\indamental
Principles of Motion." By Dr. ITenky Wilde,
F.R.S. {3-^ pp., 3 pis)

1903. (May 19.) "The Atomic Theor}-." \\y Professor

F. W. Clarke, D.Sc. {32 pp)

1904. (Feb. 23.) "The Involution of Matter as revealed

by the Radio-active Elements." By FREDERICK
SODDY, M.A. {42 pp:)

Ixx TJic Wilde Lectures.

1905. (Feb. 28.) " The Early History of Seed-bearing

Plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora."
By Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. {32 pp., 3 p/s.)

1906. (March 20.) "Total Solar Eclipses." B3' Pro-

fessor H. H. Turner, D.Sc, F.R.S. {32 pp.)

1907. (February iS.) "The Structure of Metals." By

Dr. J. A. EwiNG, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. {20 pp.,
3 pis., and 3 text-figs?)

190S. (March 3.) "On the Physical Aspect of the
Atomic Theor)\" By Professor J. Larmor,
Sec. R.S. {3^ pp.)

1909. (March 9.) "On the Influence of Moisture on

Chemical Change in Gases." By Dr. H
Brereton ]5aker, F.R.S. (6'//-)

1910. (March 22.) " Recent Contributions to Theories

regarding the Internal Structure of the Earth."
By Sir Tho.mas H. Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc,
F.R.S.

SPECIAL LECTURES.

1913. (March 4.) "The Plant and the Soil." By A. D.

Hall, M.A., F.R.S.

1914. (March 18.) "Crystalline Structure as revealed

by A'-rays." By Professor W. H. Bragg, M.A.,
F.R.S.

List of Prcsidoils of the Society. Ixxi

LIST OF PRESIDENTS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of Election.

1781. Petp:r Mainvvaking, M.l)., Jamics Massey.

782-1786. James Massey, Thomas Pekcival, M.D., F.R.S.

787-1789. James Massey.

789-1804. Thomas Pekcival, M.l)., F.R.S.

805-1806. Rev. (Ieorge Walker, F.R.S.

807-1809. Thomas Henry, F.R.S.

1809. *JoHN Hull, M.l)., F.L.S.

809-1816. Thoal-xs Henry, F.R.S.

816-1844. John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

844-1847. Edward Holme, M.D., F.T.S.

848-1850. Ea'I'ON HODGKINSON, F.R.S., F.G.S.

851-1854. John ]^1oore. F.L.S.

855"'S59. Sir Willlaini Fairhairn, liait., LL.D., F.R.S.

860-1861. J.'VIMES PrKSCOTT JOULK, D.CM^., F.R.S.

862-1863. Edward AVilllam Binni;v, F.R.S., F.G.S.

864-1865. Robert Ancjus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S.

866-1867. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S-

868-1 S69. James Pre.scott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.

870-1871. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.

872-1873. Jamks IhiEscoTT Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.

874-1875. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

876-1S77. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.

878-1879. James Pkescott Joulk, D.C L., F.R.S.

880-1881. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.

882-1883. Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.

884-1885. William Crawford Williamson, I>L.D., F.R.S.

1886. Robert Dukinfield Darbishire, B.A., F.G.S.

1887. Balfour Stewart, LL.D., 1'". R.S.

* Klectcd Apiil 2Slh ; resigned office May stli.

Ixxii List of Presidents of the Society.

Date '>/ Election.

1888- 1889. Osborne Rkvnoi.ds, LL.D., F.R.S.

1890-1891. Edward ScHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1892-1893. Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1894-1896. Henry Wildk, D.C.L., F.R S.

1896. Edward ScHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1897-1899. James Cosmo Mei.vii.l, M.A., F.L.S.

1899- [901. Horace Lamb, M.A., F.R.S.

1901-1903. Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S.

1903-1905. \V. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

i905-[907. Sh- William H. Bailey, M.I.Mech.E.

1 907-1909. Harold Baily Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.

1909-1911. Francis Jones, M.Sc. F.R.S.E.

1911-1913. F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.

1913- Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.

Vol. 58 : Part I.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 1913-1914.

CONTENTS.
Inaugural Address :

The Old Manchester Natural History Society and its Museum.

By the President, Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S. - - -pp. i — 13^

{^Issued separately., December 2nd, igij.)

Memoirs :

I. Changes in the branchial lamellae of Ligia oceanica, after pro-
longed immersion in fresh and salt water. By Dorothy
A. Stewart, B.Sc. With 2 Ph. - pp. i— 12.

{hsued separately, December 31st, igrj.)

II. Note on some products isolated from Soot. By Professor

Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., and Eva Hibbert, Assoc. M.S.T.- pp. 1—5.

{Issued separately, December lyth, IQI3-)

III. The Willow Titmouse in Lancashire and Cheshire. By T. A.

Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S. pp. 1—8.

{Issued separately. Match 27th, IQ14.)

Proceedings -----.----.- -pp. i.— 20^

MANCHESTER:
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ipctcc ITwo Sbilllngs anO Sixpence.

March 31st, igi4.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

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Amsterdam. — Kbn. Akademie der Wissenschaften . Beschreibung der
Griechischen Autonomen Miinzen... K. Akademie der Wissen-
schaften zu Amsterdam. Amsterdam, 191 2. {Reed, ^o/xit.l/j.)

. Amaryllis. Carmen Raphaelis Carrozzari... Amstelodami, 1913.

{I\ecd. 2oljcii.//j.)

Ashworth (J. R.). The Anhysleretic Magnetic Properties of Iron and
Nickel. Part I. The Relation of Magnetic Intensity to Field
Strength and Temperature. By J. R. Ashworlh. [London, 1914.]
{Reed. /olin.li4.)

Bamberg — Remeis Sternwarte. Katalog und Ephemeriden veriinder-
licher Sterne fiir 19 14. Von Ernst Hartwig. Leipzig, 1913.
[h'eed. 9li.li4.)

Cardiff. — National Museum of Wales. Catalogue of Loan Exhibition
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. Handbook to the Exhibition of Welsh Antiquities, June-
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JLondon. — British Association. A Binary Canon, showing Residues of
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Lt.-Col. Allan Cunningham. London, 1900. {Reed. 24/U.I14.)

. — Institution of Electrical Engineers. Catalogue of the Lending

Library. London, 1914. {Reed. 2olii.l/4.)

. — Mathematical Association. Catalogue of Current Mathematical

Journals, etc By W. J. Greenstreet. London, 1913. {Reed.

I7li.li4.)

. — Meteorological Office. The International Kite and Balluon

Ascents. By Ernest Gold. (Geophysical Memoirs, No. 5.) Lon-
don, 1913. {Reed. 2S/ii./i4.)

. The Free Atmosphere in the Region of the British Isles.

eport. By W. II. Dines. (Geophysical Memoirs, No. 6.)
London, 1914. {Reed. 2jli2./i4.)

. A Comparison of the Electrical Conditions of the Atmosphere

at Kew and Eskdalemuir... By Gordon Dobson. (Geophysical
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Nobel en 1912. Stockholm, 1913. {Jvecd. QJi-lf^-)

Washington. — Bureau of American Ethnology. Chippewa Music— IL
By Frances Densm ore. (Bulletin 53.) Washington, 1913. {Jiecd.

jilxn.lij.)

.—United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Results of

Observations made at the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey Magnetic Observatory, near Honolulu,... 191 1 and 1912.
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Vor.. 58 : Part II.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OP

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, [913-1914.

CONTENTS
Memoirs :

IV. Observations on the Homopterous Insect Phiomiiia {Plata)

inargiiiella Oliv. in the Himalayas. By A. D. Imms,

M.A., D.Sc. With 2 Pis. and I Te\t-fig. . - - - pp. i— 12.

{[ssued separately, Ap> it /5th, iQi-f.)

V. The Specification of the Elements of Stress. Part III. The
definition of the dynamical specification and a test of the
elastic specification. A chapter in Elasticity. By R. F.
Gwyther, M.A. ---------pp. i— 21.

(Issued sc/iaratety. May i6tli, iQ'4^

VI. How does the Plant obtain its nutriment from the Soil ? By

A. D. Hall, M.A., F.R.S. With b Ph. and r Text-fis.- -pp. 1—22.
{Special Lecture.)
(tsstied separately, l\fay zjitt, igr^.)

VII. Some Notes on the Measurement of Air Velocities, Pressures,

and Volumes. By William Cramp, M.I.E.E., M.Sc.Tech.

IVith s Te.rt-fos. _.-._. .--pp. i— 16.

\{Iss!ied separately, Jl/ay 2bth, 1Q14.)

VIII. Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere. I. Introduction and
Methods. By W. M. Tattersall, D.Sc, and T. A. Coward,
F.Z.S., F.E.S. With I PI. and I ]\Iap. - - - -pp. I— 21.

(Issued separately, RI ay 301)1, igi4.)

IX. Faunal Survey of Rostherne Mere. II. Vertebrata. By T. A.

Coward, F.Z.S. F.E.S. PP- i— 37-

(Issued separately. May 30t/i, 1914.)

X. Carbon : its molecular structure and mode of oxidation. By

Maurice Copisarov/, B.Sc. With 6 Text-figs. - - - pp. i— 11.

{Issued separately. May 22/1-1, igi^..)

MANCHESTER :
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Stars brighter than 9'"'0 between Declination +75^ and the Pole,
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. Position of the Sun's Axis, as determined from Photographs

of the Sun. ..1874 to 1912. London, 19x3. (A'ad. J0J/V./14.)

Oxford. — University Observatory. Corrections to the places of the
Cambridge (Ast. Gesell.) Catalogue deduced from Photographic
Measures on the Plates of the Oxford Section of the Astrographic
Catalogue. Oxford Astrographic Catalogue, Vol. VIII., Part I.
Edinburgh, [1913.] (Reed. 27IV.I14..)

. Tables for facilitating the use of Harmonic Analysis, as arranged

by H. H. Turner. London, 1913. (Reed. 27IV.I14.)

. Collated List of Lunar Formations named or lettered in the

Maps of Neison, Schmidt, and Madler, compiled and annotated for
the Committee by Mary A. Blagg under the direction of the late
S. A. Saunder. (Lunar Nomenclature Committee...). Edinburgh,
191 3. (Reed. 27JV.I14.)

Seattle. — University of Washington. — Elements of the History of the
English Language. By Uno Lindelof (University of Washington
Publications, English, I.). Seattle, 191 1. (Reed, f^jni.//^.)

. — The Political and Ecclesiastical Allegory of the First Book of

the P'aerie Queen. F.y F. ]\I. Padelford (University of Washington
Publications, English II.). Bo.ston, n.d. (Reed. 7^/«Y. //./.)

Sidebottom (Henry). Report on the Lagenae of the South- West Pacific
Ocean (Supplementary Paper). By Henry Sidebottom. London,
1913. (Reed, 26/V.I14.)

Washingfton. — Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethno-
logy. Ethnozoology of the Tewa Indians. By J. Henderson and
J. P. Harrington. (Bulletin No. 56.) Washington, 1914. (Reed.

. — United States Geological Survey. Geologic Atlas of the

United States. Folios 185, 187-190. Washington, D.C., 1913.
(Reed. ijjiv.ji4.)

Wisconsin. — Wisconsin History Commission. An Artilleryman's Diary.
By J. Lloyd Jones. (Original Papers, No. 8.) n.p., 1914.
(Reed. 4lv-l^4')

Vol.. 58: I'AkI III.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OK

THE MANCMIlSTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, [9i3-[9i4.

CONTENTS

Memoirs :

XI. Note on the Intrinsic Field of a Magnet. By J. R. Ashworth,

D.Sc. pp. 1-6.

(/isii,- 1 sc/'iir.itt'/y, July 2)t !, iQf/. \

XII. The Specification of Stress. Part IV. The Elastic Solution:
The Elastic Stress relations and conditions of Stability :
Struts, ties and test-pieces. By R. F. Gwyther, M.A. - pp. 1—9.

{h:<iie<i s,-/'/ii\ilt/y, Septonbcr iQtIi, igi-f.)

XIII. Faunal Survey of Rostherne, III. Preliminary List of Lepi-
doptera found round the Mere. By A. W. Boyd, M.A.,
F.E.S. pp. I — 12.

(Issucil sc/'U>ati-ly. Jiuic iQth, iQi-f)

XIV. Juvenile Flowering in Kucalyf'iiis globulus. By Professor F. E.

Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S. With 3 Pis. pp. 1—4.

(f.ssin;/ sr/'arately, Ocfpbcr snf, iQi).)

XV. Quantitative Absorption Spectra. Part I. The chemical signi-
ficance of absorption spectra and the methods of examining
them. By F. R. Lankshear, B.A., M.Sc. Wilh 3 Tiwl-figs. pp. i -12.

(Issued s,-/>aratfh\ Octoh-r l6ih, IQI 4.)

Proceedings -- ---pp. xxi. —xxviii.

Annual Report of the Council, with Obituary Notices of Professor Paul
F. Ascherson; The Right Hon. Lord Avebury, D.C.L., F.R.S. ;
Sir William H. Bailey, M.I.Mech.E., F.R.G.S. ; Walter L.
Behrens; Henry Brogden, F.G S., M.I.Mech.E.; Robert Cotton,
M.Sc; William H. Johnson, B.Sc. ; Sir John Murray, K.C.B.,
Sc.D., F.R.S. ; Professor John T. Nicolson, D.Sc. ; William H.
SutcHffe, F.G. S. ; and Thomas Thorp, F.R. A. S. - - . xxix.— xlix

Treasurer's Accounts - - - - pp. 1.— Hi.

List of the Council and Members of the Society - pp. liii. — Ixviii.

List of the Awards of the Da.ton Medal pp Ixviii.

List of the Wilde Lectures pp. Ixix— Ixx.

List of the Special Lectures pp. Ixx.

List of the Presidents of the Society pp. Ixxi — Ixxii.

Title Page and Index pp. i.- xii.

M A XCII li-ST !■; R :
36, (IKORCil-; STKIOI'lT.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Presented.

CahJll (B. J. S.) An Account of a Land Map of tlie Woild, ii.p., 1913.
[CahillWorid Mal^Co.) (AV,vi'. j/iv'.//^.)

Delft. — Technische Hoogeschool. Dc V'oeding dci Oestei. By J. A.

lleymann. 's Giavenhagc, 1914. {Kecd. irlvii.\i^.)
. Hiocheniisclie Suikeihepalingen. I>y A. J. Kluyver. Leiden,

1914. {Reed. uJTii.j/./.)
. Over liel A erweiken van Tineilsen. By Jan Ruel). Den

Ilaag, 1913. {Reed. ii\7<ii.li4.)
. Drinkwalcrreiniging met 1 lypocldoiielen. By J. I). Buys.

Kolteidani, 1914. (Reed. 1 iItI/.I / 4.)
. Grundlagen der Vektor-und Afiinoianalysis. V,y J. A.

SclioiUen. Leipzig, ^ic, 1914. [Reed. riJTdt.jr^.)
. Dc Oxydatie en de I'olynieiisalie van Sojaolie. By N. J. A.

Taveme. Leiden, 1913. {Reed, /ij'i'n.ji^.)
. Temperatuuinielingen in een Dieselmotor. By V.. B. Woltif.

Amsterdam, n.d. (Reed, iij^'ii.ji-/.)
London. — Patent Office. Subject List of Works on Photo Meclianical

Printing and Pliotograpliy... Library of tlie Patent Oflice. (New

Series, CA— CC.) London, 1914. {Reed. 3j;lriii.l 14.)

. Suliject List of Works on tlie Fine and Cirapliic Arts...

Library of the Patent Office. (New Series, 15M— BZ.) London,

1 914. (Reed. 2j /via. 1 14.)
'. . Sulijecl List of Works on tlie Silicate Industries... Library

of the Patent Office. (New Series, CD^CK.) London, 1914.

(AV,(/. 2 si' ■Hi. 1 14.)
. Subject List of Works on General Physics... Library of the

Patent Office. (New Series, k'S— (iP.) London, 1914. {Reed.

r 81 is. 1 1 4-)
. Subject List of Works on ICnanielling, Art jMetalwork.

I'urnilure, (/ostunie and Hair Dressing and Working in the Library

of the Patent Oftice. (New Series, C:K 15 -CO 17.) London, 1914.

(Reed. iSlix.l/4.)
. Subject List of Works on Sound and Light (including

Music.) in the Library of the Patent Office. (New Seiies,

(iG— GP.) London, 1914. {Reed. /Sli.\:l/4.)

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.— (<////////, v/',

London -Physical Society. Report on Riidiation and the (^uanuini

Theory. % J. 11. jeans. London, 1914. (AVi,/. j/z'/W./zy.)
Madison.— State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Keul^en Gold
llnvailes. IJy 1'. J. Turner. Madison, Wis., 1914. (A'eaf.

Philadelphia. --American Philosophical Society. An Historical Account
of the Origin ... of the American Philusopliical Society. By
P. .S. dii Ponceau. Philadelpliia, 1914. (A'<vv/. J4lv//t.l 14.)

Washington.— United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Results of
Magnetic Ohservalions . . . U.S. Coast and deoilelic Survey.
Py K. L. Paris. (Special Bulletin, N<i. 15.) Washington, 191 3.
( Keid. uli'i.ji^. )

. Fourth Ceneial Adjustnienl . . . level Net . . . United Slates.

By W. Howie and 11. (',. Avers. (Special Bulletin, No. 18.)
Washington, 1914- (A'enL /■J'/7'/.//y. )

. Results of 01)servations . . . U.S. Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey at the Observatory at Sitka, Alaska. By D. L. Hazard.
Washington, 1914. {A'r'ii^. /.?/z7'.//^. )

A fid the usual Exchanges and Periodicals, with the exception
of those received from Belgium, Russia, Germany^ and
A ustrii I - Hu ngar) \

AMNH LIBRARY

100125088