FORTHE PEOPLE FOK EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY / Bound aP \ fQtO / MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY (MANCHESTER MEMOIRS.) Volume LXI. (1916-17.) MANCHESTER : 36, GEORGE STREET. 1918. k"fe -'^■A3\'^- ^Uoc^.C NOTE. The authors of the several papers contained in this volume are themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings which they have offered. In these particulars the Society must not be considered as in any way responsible. CONTENTS. MEMOIRS. I. South African Gorgonaceu. By J. STUART THOM- SON, M-iSc, Ph.D., F.R.S.E. With 5 Plates and 5 Text-figs pp. 1—56 (Issued separately, May 2oth, igiy.) II. The "Mark Stirrup" Collection of Fossil Insects from the Coal Measures of Commentry (AUier), Central France. By HERBERT BOLTON, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. With 5 Plates pp. 1—32 (Issued separately, May nth, IQI7-) III. Note on the Action of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid. By Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. With I Text-fig pp. 1—3 (Issued separately, February 2Tth, JQIJ-) IV. An Egyptian Meteorite. By HENRY WiLDE, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S pp. 1—2 (Issued separately. March 23rd, igi7.) V. On the Contents of a Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants for; Presentation lo the N'ictoria, University of Manchester. By CHARLES BAILEY, M.Sc, F.L.S pp. 1—18 (Issued separately, July 12th, iQiy.) VI. An Ethnological Study of Warfare. By W. J. PERRY, B.A pp. 1—16 (Issued separately, June 6th, IQ17.) VII. Observations on the Nesting tiabits of the Palm Swift made by Mr. Arthur Loveridge in German East Africa. By T. A. COWARD, F.Z.S., F.E.S. pp. 1—3 (Issued separately, May 17th, tgry.) VIII. On the Atomic Weight of Tellurium in Relation to the Multiple Proportions of the Atomic Weights of other Simple Bodies. By HENRY WiLDE, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S pp. 1—3 (Issued separately, June iSth, 1917.J VI. Contents. IX. Recent Work on Overvoltage. By EDGAR NEW- BERY, D.Sc ... pp. (Issued separately Dec. i^th, 1917.) 1—20 PROCEEDINGS i.— xxiv. Annual Report of the Council, 1917, with obituary notices of Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., Ph.D., Sc.D., M.D., F. R.S., and Dr. Elie Metschnikoff, For. Mem. R.S. xxv.-xxx. Treasurer's Accounts ... . . .. ... ... ... xxxi.-xxxiii. List of the Council and Members of the Society ... ... xxxiv.-xliv. List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal ... ... ... xliv. List of the Wilde Lectures ... ... ... ... ... xlv. List of the Special Lectures ... ... ... ... xlv. List of the Presidents of the Society xlvi. INDEX. M. = Memoirb. P. = Proceedings. Accessions to Library. P. i., ix.,, xiv., xxiii. Action of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid. By F. Jones. M;; 3. P. xiv. Angell, John, Reference to the Death of. P. ii. Annual General Meeting. P. xxiii. Annual Report. P. xxiii., xxv*. Arsenic in Baking Powder. By 'FI.! Ei. Bradley. P. ix. in Food. By F. E. Briadley. P. vii. Atomic Weight of Tellurium. By II. Wilde. M. 8. Auditors. P. xviii. Awards of the Dalton Medal. P. xliv. Bailey, C. Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. M. 5. P. xxi. Bananas, Amounts of Sugar and Starcilii in. By J. Barnes. P. vii. Barclay, A. E. Gift af Microscope. P. xix. Barnes, C. L. Galvanit. P-. Xjvii^ J. Amounts of Sugar ajid Stardh in Bananas. P. vii. Behaviour of a Blackbird, Note on. By W., H. Todd. P. x. Bolton, II. Mark Stirrup Collection of Fossil Insects. M., 2. P'. x. Bomb, Exhibition of a German. P. vi. Boskop Skull, Endocranial Cast of. By G. Ellioit Smith. P. xv. Bradley, F. E. Arsenic in 'Baking Powder. P. ix. Arsenic in Food. P. vii. ^^ British Association, Discussion at the Ntrwcastle Meeting of. P. ii. British and Foreign Plants, Flerbarium of. By C. Bailey. M. 3. P. xxi. Castration -parasitaire in Insects. By A. D. Imms. P. xix. Copisarow, M. Trinitrotoluene. P. vi. Council, Election of. P. xxiii. List of Members. P. xxxiv. Coward, T. A. Nesting Habits of the Palm Swift. M. 7. P. xxiv. — — < Undescribed Habit of the Field Vole. P. xiv. Cramp, W. Breaking of Glass Tubes. P. vii. Dalton, John, Gift of Microscope whicJi belonged to. P. xix. Medal; Awards of. P. xliv. Dawkins, W. Boyd. P. xvii. viii Index. Egyptian Meteorite. By H. ,Wilde. |M,. 4. P. xix. Election of Officers. P. xxiii. Ordinary Members. P. iv., viii., xxi. Elliot Smith, G. See Smith, G. Elliot. Eoantliropus Dawspni. By G. Elliot S(miih. P. xix. Endocranial Cast of 'the Boskbp S,kull. By G. Elliot Smitli. P. xv. Ethnological Survey of Warfare. By W. J. Perry. M^, 6. P. xxiv. Field Vole, I'ndescribed Habit of. B[v T. A. Coward. P. xiv. Fishenden, R. B. Illustration Processes used in Scientific Publica- tions. P. xxi. Foraminifera. By S. J. Hickson. P. xvii. ^ Fossil Human Skulls. By G. Elliot Smith. P. v. Insects, Mark Stirrup Collection of. By H. Bolton. M. 2., P. x. Galvanit. By C. L. Barnes. I^. xvii. Glass Tubes, Breaking of. By W. Cramp. P. vii. Gorgonacca, South African. By J. S. Thomson. M. 1. P. vii. Gwyther, R. F. Specification of Stress. Part v. P. xxiv. Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. By C. Bailey. M. 5. P. xxi. Hickling, G. See British Association. P. ii., iii. Skull of a Permian Shark. P. xvi. Sun-Spots. P. xvii. Hickson, S. J. Polytrema and allied foraminifera. P xvii Honorary Members, List oif. P. xlii. Hydrogen, Action of, on Sulphuric Acid. By F. Jones. M'. 3. P. xiv. Illustration Processes used in Scientific Publications. By R. B. Fisih- enden. P. xxi. Imms, A. D. Remarks on " Castration-parasitaire " in Insects. P. xix. Insects, Mark Stirrup Collection of. Byi H. Bolton. Mj. 2. P. x. Jackson, J. W. Exhibition of Faceted Pebbles. P. ix. Jones, F. Action of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid. M. 3. P. xiv. Lamb, H. Deflection of the VerticaJ by Tidal Loading of the Earth's Surface. P. xui. Lang, W. H. Mode of Preservation and Structure of Rhynia Gwynne- Vaughani. P. iv. Library Accessions. P. i., ix., xiv., xxiii. Loveridge, A. Nesting Habits of the Palm Swift. M. 7. P. xxiv. Index. ix. Makower, W. The Photographic Action of a -Rays. P. xvii. Manchester Museum. See Museum. Manure, Manufacture of, from Peat. By F. E. Weiss. P. vii. Mark Stirrup Collection of Fossil Injects. By H. Bolton. Mi. 2. P. x. Meteor in Northern 9ky. By E. L. Rhead. P. v. Meteorite, A'n Egyptian. By H. Wilde. M. 4. P. xix. Metschnikofi, E., Obituary Notice of. P. xxix. Reference to Death of. P. ii. Microscope of John Dal ton, Gift of. P. xix. Museum, Place of the (Manchester — in a general scheme of Education. By W. Boyd Dawkins. P. xvii. Nesting Habits of the Palm Swift. See Coward, T. A., and Love- ridge, A. Newbery, E. Recent Work on Overvoltage. M. 9. P. xxiv. Newcastle Meeting of the British Association. P. ii. Noton, J. Gift of Microscope. P. xix. Officers, Election of. P. xxiii. Ordinary Members, Election of. P. iv., viii., xxi. List of. P. XXXV. Overvoltage, Recent Work on. By E. Newbery. M'. 9. P. xxiv. Palm Swift, Nesting Habits of. See Coward, T. A., and Loveridge, A. Peat, Exhibitions of Specimens Illustrating the Resiults of Pressure on. By J. Barnes. P. vii. ' 1 Manufacture of Manure from. By F. E. Weiss. P. vii. Pebbles, Exhibition of Faceted. By J. W. Jackson. P. ix. Pemberton, W. Specific Gravity Balance. P. xi. Permian Shark, Skull of. By G. Hickling. Pxvi. Perry, W. J. An Ethnological Study df Warfare. M;. 6. P. xxiv. Photographic Action of a Rays. By W. Makower. P. xvii. Polytrema. See Foraminifera. By S. J. Hickson. P. xvii. Presidents of the Society, I^ist of. P. xlvi. Ramsay, Sir William, Obituary Notice of. P. xxvii. Reference to Death of. P. li. Rays, Photographic Action of n. By W. Makower. P. xvii. Recent Work on Overvoltage. By E-. Newbery. M. 9. P. xxiv. Rhead, E. L. Meteor in Northern Sky. P. v. Rhynia Gwynne-Vaughani. By W. fL Lang. P. iv. Rutherford, Sir E. See British Association. P. ii., iii. X. Index. Skull of a Permiaai Shark. By G. HLckling. P. xvi. Smith, G. Elliot. Endocranial Cast of the B'oskop Skull. P. xv. Eoantliropus Dawsoni. P. xix. Recently Discovered Fossil Human Skulls. P. v. South African Gorgonacea. By J. S. Tliomson. iM, 1. P. vii. Special Lectures. P. xlv. Specification of Stress. Part v. By R. F. Gwyther. P. xxiv. , Specific Gravity B'alance. By W. G. Pemberton. P. xi. Square Roots, Method of Extracting. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. iv. Starch and Sugar, Amounts of, in Bananas. By J. "Barnes. P. vii. Stress, Specification of. See Gwyther, R. F. Stromeyer, C. E. Method of Extracting Square Roots. P. iv. . Sugar and Starch, Amounts of, in Bananas. By J. Barnes. P. vii. Sulphuric Acid, Action of Hydrogien on,., By F. Jones. M,. 3. P: xiv. Sun-Spots. See Hickling, G. P. xvii. Tellurium, Atomic Weig'ht of. By H. Wilde. M. 8. Termites. See '' Castration-parasitaire." Thomson, J. S. South African Gorgonacea. M. 1. P. vii. W. See British Association. P. ii., iii. Exhibition of Parts of a German Bomb. P. vi. Todd, W. H. Behaviour of a Blackbird. P. x. Treasurer's Accounts. P. xxxi. Trinitrotoluene. By M. Copisarow. P. vi. Undescribed Habit of Field Vole. By T. A. Coward. P. xiv. Warfare, An Ethnological Survey of. By W.: J. Perry. M. 6. P. xxiv. Weiss, F. E. See Bailey, C. P. xxi. Siee British Association. P. ii. Manufacture of Manure from Peat. P. vii. Wilde, H. Atomic Weig'ht of Tellurium. M. 8. Egyptian Meteorite. M. 4. P. xix. Lectures. P. xlv. Mancliestcr Meuioiis, Voi Ixi. (191 61, No. 1. I. South African Gorgonacea. By J. Stuart Thomson, M.Sc, Ph.D , F.R.S.E, [Lecturer and Soiiur Demonstrator in Zoology, in. the Victoria University of Ma>ichcster). (Read N ovcinbcr i-/.t/i, KjiO. Received for publication^ Ueceniber iSthj IQ16.) This paper concludes my report on the South African Gorgonacea, collected by the Government of the Cape of Good Hope, during the years i8g8 to 1907. In 1900 and 1904, Hickson published two pai>ers on the Alcyonaria of the Cape of Good Hope, m which he recorded the following Gorgonacese : — Family Briareidae, Sub-family Spongioderminfe — Spongioclerma verruca sum, Mobius. Family Melitodidae — Melilodes clichotoma, Pallas; Wrightella coccinea, Gray. Family Dasygorgiidas — Trichogorgia fiexilis, Hickson. Family Isidie — Ceratoisisis rauiosa, Hickson. Family Muriceidas — Villogorgia viaiiritiensis, Ridley; Acanthogorgia raniosa^ V'errill. Family Plexaurida? — Eiinicella -papulosa, Esper; Euplexaiira capensis, ? Verrill. Family Malacogorgiidae, Hick- son; Malacogorgia cafcnsis, Hickson. Family Gorgoniida? — Gorgonia flannnea, Ellis and Solander; G. capensis, Hickson; G. albicans, KoHiker; Eiigorgia gilchristi, Hickson; Gorgonia sp. (?), Gorgonia ? crista, Mobius. Family Gorgonellidae — Gorgonella stricta, Lamarck; J/incella elongata, Pallas; ]un- cella spiralis, Hickson. In 191 1 I described in a paper to the Zoological Society the following species from South Africa: — Family Briareid,ae, Sub- family Bnareinae — Suberia capensis, St. Thomson; Sub- family Spongioderminas, Spongiodernia verrucosian, Mobius. Family Melitodiclse — Melitodcs esperi, Wright and Stucler; Melitodcs nodosa, Wright and Studer; Melitodcs clichotoma, Pallas. Family Isid?e — Ceratoisis rainosa, Hickson. Family Muriceid,as — Muriceides fnsca, St. Thomson; Acanthogorgia arniata, Verrill. Family Plexauridae — Eiinicella fapillosa, Esper; Psauvnogorgia pulchra, St. Thomson; Euplexaitra media, St. Thomson. Family Primnoidas — Stachyodes gilchristi, St. Thomson; Thouarella hicksoni, St. Thomson. Family Gor- goniidre — Gorgonia capensis, Hickson; G. flammea, Ellis and Solander. Family Gorgonellidae — Scirpearia jurcata emend, Simpson; Scirpearia flagellinn emend, Simpson; Hicksonclla spiralis, Simpson = J iincella spiralis, Hickson. My present paper contains descriptions or records of the following 29 species, of which 11 are new: — ■ May 20th, igiy. 2 Thomson, South African (jorgonacea. Section Scleraxonia. Family Briareidae, Sub-family Briaremas — Anthothcla parvi- jlora, sp.n. Off Cape Recife. Family Mclitodidae — Meliiodes Fanni, sp.n. Off Kuskamma Point. Melitodes grandis, sp.n. Off Cape Seal. Mo-psella singidarisy sp.n. Oft Cape Morgan. Acaharia sp. Off Vasco da Gama Peak. W rigkiella irUineata, sp.n. Off Umkomass River mouth. Wrightella fragUis, sp.n. Off Lion's Head. Wrigktella furcata, sp.n. Off Scottsburgh Lighthouse. Wrightella, sp. Off Tugela River mouth. Section Holaxonia. Family Isida?, Sub-family Ceratoisid^e — AcaneUa eburnea, Pourtales. Off Buffels River. Family Muriceidse — Acanthogorgia armata, Verrill. Off Vasco da Gama Peak. Acanthogorgia sp. Off O'Neill Peak. Acanthogorgia sp. Off Cape Vidal. Muricella rajnosa, Thomson and Henderson. Off Dum- ford Point. Family Plexauridae — Eiinicella papdlosa, Esper. Off East Lon- don and False Bay. Euplcxanra parciclados, Wright and Studer. Oft' Stalwart Point. Family Primnoidiie, Sub-family Pnmnoinse — Stachyodes capen- sis, sp.n. Off Sandy Point, and off Cape Morgan. Family Gorgoniida? — Leptogorgia africana, sp.n. Off Cove Rock. Leptogorgia alba, Verrill. 7iar. capcnsis, off Dumford Point. Leptogorgia rigida, Verrill. Off East London. Leptogorgia aurata, sp.n. Off Durnford Point. Leptogorgia sp. juv. Off Umhloti River mouth. Lophogorgia lutkeni, Wright and Studer. Off Gordon's Bay. Gorgoniaflauintca, Ellis and Solander — Lat. 33° — 53' — 15", Long. 25^;— 51'— 45". Gorgonia albicans, Kolliker. Off Gordon's Bay. Gorgonia sp. Off Robben Island. Eugorgia Gilchristi, Hickson. Off Cape Recife. Engorgia lineata, sp.n. Off Nanquas Peak. Stenogorgia capensis, sp.n. Oft Algoa Bay. Family Gorgonellidae — Verntcella bicolor, Nutting. Off Tugela River mouth. Manchester Memoirs, V oL Ixi. (igi6), No. 1. 3 Section Scleraxonia. Family Bricircidrc, Sub-family Briarcma?. Atitliothela purvtflora, sp.n. Pla/e II.. Fig. 5; Plate V., Fig. 4. Diagnosis of Genus. — Colonies creeping or more usually upright and branched. Polyps large projecting, with a calyx not completely retractile. The upper part of the polyp com- pletely retractile within the calyx, and the latter usually marked out into eight rays or lappets. The coenenchyme of the cortex with large canals, smaller canals present in the medulla. Spicules : thorny spindles, spinous clubs, and rods. This new species is represented m the collection by three colonies or parts of these. The most complete example has an expanded base, from which a branch arises at a low level, which divides into a larger and smaller s-econdary. The main stem continues in an upward direction, and gives rise firstly to a branch with a single poly]>. and then on the other side to an offshoot with nine piolyps. The main axis has then three polyps arranged in a tri-radiate manner around it, and then divides dichotomously into two branches of equal length, the one with se\'en, the other with ten polyps. The branches are not straight, but are twisted or curved, and they usually come off at an angle of about 4S degrees. The outer surface of the colony is fairly hard and firm, and has a somewhat stony and slightly silvery appearance. When the general surface of the main stem and branches is examined with a lens, a granular appearance is observed, which is due to the spicules. The size of the most complete specimen was S6mm. in height and 50mm. in the other direction. The polyps are very prominent, and the calyces have eight grooves and ridges. The position of the polyps relative to one another is varied owing to the curving and twist- ing of the branches on which they are situated ; as a rule they do not stand opposite to one another, but at one point, however, three polyps originate at the same level around the stem. A rough transverse section through the primary shoot of the colony shows a dense outer part with numerous small spicules very thickly disposed, within this an area with fewer spicules, and with about twenty-four canals arranged in a more or less circular manner, and in the centre a part of compara- tively large diameter, with long spicules and yellowish fibres, surrounding a few small canals. The branches are approximately cylindrical, the expanded base is about g by S mrn. in diameter. In the most complete specimen the intervals between the branches (starting from the base) are as follows: — 5 mm., 16 mm., 3 mm., 3.5 mm., g mm., zj.gmm., 6 mm. The branches vary in length, the two terminal branches are 4.9 mm. and 4.5 mm. The branches terminate in 4 Thomson. South Africa}? Gorgonacea. a polyp or polyps. The diameter of the main stem at a slight distance from the base is 3 mm. ; near the apex 2 mmi The polyps vary considerably in size; this is partly due to the vary- ing degree of expansion and contraction. They range from about 2.5 mm. in length and 1.5 mm. in diameter to 7 mm. and 2 mm. respectively. The calyx of any one polyp may decrease in diameter to the extent of i mm. between base and apex. The polyps are distinctly constricted at the bases of the ten- tacles, thus the apex is clearly delineated. The tentacles are in some cases fairly well extended but not fully, the pinnules may be seen with a lens. The polyps are cylmdrical, rays of longitudinally directed spindles are easily seen on the surface of the calyx. These spicules have a glistening appearance. At the base of the calyces the longitudinal areas of spicules arc discontinued, and after a short intervening free space the spicules of the general surface of the coenenchyme commence. The spicules are disposed in eight longitudinal areas on the calyx, and also on the polyp crown ; on the former, spicules clearly project beyond the surface. Wy specimens agree with the diagnosis of the genus AnthDthela, as given by Broch and by Studer. Anthothcla grandifiora (Sars), Verrill, occurs oft the coast of Norway, Newfoundland and North America, as far south as Martha's Vineyard, in the upper part of the abyssal zone. Anthothela argentea, Studer, was collected during the dredging operations of the Steamer " /-Vlbatross," in Lat. 23°- — i6'N., Long. 107° — 31'E., at a depth of 852 fathoms. Professor S. J. Hickson has handed me a type specimen of Briar euni {^An- thothela) grandijloritm from Trondhjem Fjord, and there is an excellent recent description of this species by Broch, the latter author also giving a useful list of synonyms. In regard to Anthothela argentea, Studer, a detailed description is want- ing. The general shape of the colony of my species dift"ers con- siderably from that of Anthothela grandifiora, (Sars) Verrill. A. grandifiora is much more bushy or shrublike, and has anas- tomosing branches and a plumper appearance, my specimens being of a more slender and tree-like build. The polyps are in my form not so thickly distributed on the stem and branches. The stem and branches of Anthothela grandifiora are not so cylindrical. Studer writes of a chief trunk in Anthothela argcntea ; Broch states that in Anthothcla grandifiora, a princi- pal stem does not occur, and that the branches anastomose with one another so frequently as to form a thick colony, which sometimes reaches the size of a man's head. In Anthothcla grandifiora several polyps frequently originate at about the same level on the branches, in my specimens this is rarely the case, as the polyps may be separated from one another by con- siderable intervals. The polyps is as in A. grandifiora, formed of a distinct calyx, and an upper part which can be invaginated into the former. As in Anthothela grandifiora, the calyx seems to have to some extent the power of contraction, and in those Mauclicstcr Memoirs, Yol. Ixi. (igi6\ No. I. 5 few cases it appears as a small rounded swelling. In A. grandi- ■flora and in my form when the polyp is contracted into the calyx, one sees a small pit, and usually the surface is very distinctly marked out into eight lappets or rays. The spicules of the rind or cortex are of two types or sizes, as in A. grandi- ■fiora. The larger spicules are straight or curved, and somewhat irregularly spindle-shaped. They have a fairly large number of projecting spines, the number of these spines appearing to be larger in my specimens than in Aniltothcla grandiflora. These spicules, however, appear as a rule to be larger than those of Anthothela grandillora, thus many are i.i 10 or 1.8 mm. long, and 0.276mm. broad, while those of A. grandtillora are only about half this length, namely, 0.5 or 0.6 mm. 7\part from this difference m size, these spicules resemble those of .4. grandiflora very much in shape. As in .4. grandiflora, there is in the cortex a number of spicules of a smaller and different type. These are rods and clubs, which are much better provided with pro- cesses than those of the last type; the latter spicules are also larger than the corresponding ones in Anthothela grandiflora, ranging from about o. i to 0.2 mm. The spicules of the calyx are mostly of one type, namely, broad spindles with numerous large and prominent processes. There are only a few of the longer type of spicule, they are similar in shape to those figured by Broch for .4. grandiflora. The first type varies considerably in size from about 0.1380 x 0.368 to 0.644 x 0.276 mm. The second type of spicule (which is rare) varies from about 0.644 x 0.276 to 1.840 X 0.276 mm. The spicules of the tentacles are mostly long, thin spindles or rods, with few processes. These tentacular spicules are fairly similar in form to those of A. grandiflora, but apparently in some cases at least are much longer. They vary in size from about 0.460 x 0.092 to 1.656 x 0.184 mm. The spicules of the medulla or central part of the stem and branches are usually long, slender rods or spindles, with few processes. They resemble those of the tentacles and the long spicules of the cortex very much m form. They range in size from about 0.462 x 0.0Q2 to 2.1 16 x 0.276 mm. It will thus be noted that the spicules in my form tend to be larger than those of A. grand ill or a; and further, the predominance of one type of spicule m the calyx is noteworthy. While it is a simple matter to distinguish my species from A. grandiflora, it is not so easily compared with A. argcntea, Studer. It re- sembles A. argentea in its arborescent form, slender branches and slightly silvery spicules. It differs from .4. argentea m the branches not arising at nearly right angles, in the tenta- cular crown being retractile within the calyx, and in the polyps being apparently less abundantly disposed than those of that species, for Studer writes: — " Ics branches .... couvertes de polypes qui sont poses sur la l)ase sous des angles droits." From the briefness of the description and the absence of a figure of Anthothela argentea, it is almost impossible to be 6 Thomson, South Africa)! Gorgonacea. certain that my specimens do not belong to this species, but this appears to me to be a new form. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 655, S.S.W., off Cape Recife. De^jth, 256 fathoms. Taken by dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks. November 14th, 1898. P. F. 524. Off Algoa Bay. Depth, 100 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks. Date, November ist, i8q8. Family AIelitodid.-e. Mcl'itodes Faitrii. s]).n. General Characters. — The branching is usually from the nodes, rarely from the internodes. The spicules of the cortex are spindles or spinous clubs. The nodes are penetrated by endodermal canals. At one part the polyps are predominant on three surfaces of the branches, and are there thickly dis- tributed; they are not biserial in arrangement. The branching is almost entirely in one ]ilane. The cortex is thin at the base, thicker near the apex. The polyps are retractile within con- spicuous calyces,. Specific Characters. — The nodes are large and prominent. The internodes are shorter near the base, longer near the apex of the colony. There is a considerable amount of anastomosis. The branches have a slightly sinuous course. The branches frequently originate at angles of 45". There is a slight amount of flattening of the branches near the base, but in the upper parts they are cylindrical. The internodes are from 4 mm. in length near the base, to 13 mm,, in the upper parts of the colony. The presence of endodermal canals in the internodes is not certain. The nodes are expanded at all j:)arts of the colony; they are brownish or yellowish in colour, the calyces stand at right-angles, or at slightly less than right-angles to the surface, in the lower part they are arranged on three sides of the stem and branches, more apically they are arranged on all sides. The polyps are comparatively hit;h, the anthocodi^ show the 8-rayed arrangement very clearly; the calyx is also very dis- tinctly S-partite. The polyps frequently originate from the nodes. The spicules of the tentacles are straight spindles, curved spindles, curved spindles with more and larger processes along the outer side of the curve, spinous clubs, clubs with expanded processes, a few of which are nearly of the foliaccous type. The spicules of the calyx are simple and curved spindles, clubs with expanded broad processes, clubsayjproachine- the foli- accous type, a few heads with expanded processes and irregular spicules. Notes.- — The specimen is very fragile, and the upper parts have become broken into a number of pieces; it is white, only relieved by the yellow or brown colour of the nodes. The coenenchyme is slightly rough owing to the spicules. There Manchester Memoir:' )l. Ixi. (iQi6), No. I. 7 are faint lines or grooves runnint^ oblicjucly longitudinally on the surface of the ccenenchyme of ihe lower steins and branches. The base is large and encrusting, and the first polyps occur iSmm. from it. To some extent the main branches, with branchlets, ascend m parallel planes to one another. The nodes at the base are extremely prominent, one is 6 mm. in length and 5 by 4 in diameter. Near the base the polyps are separated by an interval of 1-3 mm. ; in the upper branches and twigs they are practically in contact with one another. A polyp in which the pinnules can be seen is 2-3 mm. in length, the anthocodia I mm. The spicules of the polyps are arranged in eight longi tudinal areas, witli a circular band at the base of these, then a slight free space intervenes, and beneath the latter the spicules of the calyx are prominently disposcxl over its surface. l',-xt-fig. I. Spicules of Melilodes Faurii^ sp. n., upper, from polyp; lower, from ccenenchyme near base. The spicules and their dimensions in millimetres are as fol- lows : — A. : Spicules from the ccenenchyme near the base of the colony; (i) straight spindles (a few) with simple processes, from 0.081 X 0.023 to 0.108 X 0.054; (2) curved spindles with simple processes from 0.063 x 0.023 to 0.144 x 0.054; curved spindles with larger processes on the outside of the curve, from 0.126 X 0.072 to 0.144 x 0.081 ; clubs with expanded processes, from 0.072 X 0.063 to 0.144 X 0.081 ; clubs fa few) approaching very closely to the foliaceous type, about 0.126 x 0.054; heads which have lost or nearly lost the shaft, about 0.126 x 0.072. B. : The spicules from the ccenenchyme of the central nodes. (i) Straight spmdles, from 0.108 x 0.036 to 0.288 x 0.054; curved spindles, from 0.18 x 0.036 to 0.270 x 0.036; spinous clubs with exi)anded processes from 0.08 1 x 0.036 to 0.144 x 0.072; clubs very nearly foliaceous, about 0.144 x 0.072, and a few heads and irregular spicules. C. : The spicules of the 8 Thomson, South Africaji Ciorgonacea. tentacles are as stated previously, with a great Dreponder- ance of simple and straight curved spindles, the largest of which are about 0.36 x 0.036. D. : The spicules of the calyx as stated previously, with a greater predominance of clubs, the largest about 0.18 x o.ogo. E. : Smooth rods, with rounded ends from the axial part, from 0.063 x 0.006 to 0.104 x o.cog. Locality, etc. P.P. 13,549. Kuskamma Pt. N.E. by E. 5 mi. Depth, 33 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, broken shells and rocks Date, August 27th, igoi. . P. F., No. 11,315. Tugela River mouth, N. by W., J W., 15.^ miles. By shrimp trawl. Depth, 40 fathoms. Nature of bottom, mud. Date, January loth, 1901. I name this species after Sir Pieter Fauie, who as Minister of Agriculture at the Cape, showed great interest in the de- velopment of the Fisheries, and in the Marine Investigations, and after whom the Government trawler — the " Pieter Faure" was named. Melitodes grandis, sp.n. Generic Characters. — The polyps have projecting calyces. The branching is most frequently from the nodes, sometimes from the internodes. The large basal nodes are penetrated by canals, the internodes are not perforated by channels. The polyps are not widely separated, but are close together. The branching is dichotomous, and the branches spread out to some extent in parallel rows over one another. The polyps arise on three sides of the lower stem and shoots, on all sides of the upper branches; the calyces are low. The arrangement of the polyps is not bi.serial. The upper branches are not flat- tened. . Specific characters. — The specimen has from its mode of branching a bushy appearance. There is a slight amount of anastomosis. The lower stem and branches are slightly flat- tened, the upper are more cylindrical. The internodes are 5-12 mm. in length, the longer being in the higher branches. The larger nodes near the base are as much as g mm. in length and 8 by 6mm. in diameter. The nodes are smaller in the upper parts of the colony, in the upper branches they are scarcely visible externally, partly because the brown colour is not present. The polyps vary in size according to the degree of extension, some are i mm,, in height, and about the same in diameter; the calyces are -0 to f mm. high. Notes. — This is one of the largest specimens of Melitodes on record; it is at least 24cm. in height, 12cm. broad, and 4 cm. wide. It is very strong in habit near the bas.e, but the upper branches are more slender and fragile, many of the latter being broken off in the preserved specimen. The general ground colour is white, the nodes arc brown, especially near the MancJicstcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi6), No. I. g base, and covered by a thin while coencnehyme. The latter coencnchyme has a finely granular appearance. The basal stems have a slightly quadrangular appearance. Short branches, which are often expanded at iheir tips, fairly frequently arise from the internodcs above the basals. The anthocodias have the spicules, which are mainly spindles arranged m eight longitudinal areas, and at the base of these lies a circular hand of spindles (with almost entire ^^J^. 'rcxt-fig. 2. S;)iculcs of Mc/i/oiics gramiix, sp. n., upjier, from coenenchyiiie of nodes ; lower, fioni polvps. margins), with about three spicules at any one place, counting in a vertical direction. The calyx is densely protected by spicules, mainly spindles and clubs, which cross and overlie one another in an intricate manner. The basal attachment is large and reptant. it is 3 by 2 cm. in diameter. Three large shoots originate from the base, one of which is g by 8 mm. in diameter. The upper branches are very much curved, and are sometimes 2 mm. in diameter, the polyps arc there closely adja- cent to one another, with less than a millimetre between them. The mternodes, when deprived of the coc^nench_\'me, are white 10 Thomson. So///// Afr/can (jorgon-tcea. The coencnchymc covering the axis is sometimes about i lOth of a millimetre in thickness. The sj)icules of the coencnchymc covering the nodes are: (i) straight, curved and kneed spindles, (2) clubs without folia- ceous processes, (3; a few irregular spicules, (4) rods with simple processes, and from the inner axial part, rods without processes. The spindles are from 0.000 x 0.018 to 0.252 x 0.072 mm.; the clubs from 0.072 x 0.018 to O.126 x 0.072 mm. ; the irregular spicules smaller than the last; the rods of the inner axial parts, from 0.036 x 0.0036 to 0.108 x o.oi8mm. ; The spicules of the polyps including the calyces and antho- codipe are fairly similar to the above, they appear as a rule to be larger, and some of the straight s[)inclles arc bifurcated at the end. The spindles are from 0.072 x 0.018 to 0.252 x 0.054 mm.; the clubs, from 0.072 x 0.054. to 0.198 x 0.054. mm. The spicules of the coenenchyme from the internodes are simi- lar to those of the nodes in shape, except that many of the spindles and clubs having a larger number of and better de- veloped processes. Some of these larger spindles are 0.270 x 0.072 mm. in size, and the clubs are about 0.216 x 0.090 mm. The rods without ])rocesses from the axial parts of the inter- nodes are from ac72 x 0.009 to 0.108 x o.OT8mm. The sneci- men in some respects approaches MeUtodes fiahellifera, var. cylindrala, Kiik. Locality, etc — Pieter Faurc, No. t8.78S. Ca}>e .*^eal W. by N., \ ^■. 7 miles. By large travvd. Depth. 30 fathoms. Nature of bottom, mud. Date, April 20th, 1906. Mopsella singulans sp.n. Plate II., Fig. 4. Diagnostic Characters. — The polyps have small projecting calcyes. Foliaceous clubs are present. The branching is from the nodes, several branches arise from a prominent encrusting base, which diverge in i:)lanes crossing one another, but in each of these the branching is in one plane. The distinction be- tween nodes and internodes is well marked, the former are yellov/, the latter white, the anthocodic-e yellow. The lower internodes are shorter and stouter than the upper, the unT>cr nodes become correspondingly smaller. The coenenchyme covering the nodes and internodes is rough and granular, due to the slightly protruding spicules. There arc not many polyps on the basal stems, those on the upper branches are mainly arrangc^d in a biserial manner; a few, however, occur on the two remaining sides. The distribution of pohn>s, except on the most apical branches, is rather sparse, and there is some in- terval between them. The polyps are not confined in their origin to the internodes, a number arise from the nodes even Manchester Mevioirs, Vol. Ixi. (i(;i6\ No. 1 1 near the base. A few faint longitudinal lines occur on the basal stenrjs, but they are never well marked. The specimen is very fragile. Notes on the Specimen. — The size, when complete, must have been about 7 cm. high, gem. broad, and i cm. wide. The basal part is bulky and encrusting, and is 10 by 7 mm. in diameter and 12 mm. in height. The basal nodes are from 3-5 mm. in height, and about the same in diameter, but they are slightly flattened. The basal internodes are from 3-8 mm., the upper about 8-10 mm. in height; their diameter is about 2-3 mm. basally, i mm. apically. When deprived of the coenenchyme, the axis is white, and has traces of spicules. The calyces arc sometimes reduced to very minute risings on the surface of the coenenchyme. The polyps, with calyces and anthocodiae, arc sometimes 1.5 mm. in height, and I mm. ^\ .SJ^ 7>.t/-A"v'. 3- Spicules from tlie nodes of A/o/'SL-Z/a siiti;;ii!aris, sp. n. in diameter. The inter\al between the polyi)s is al)i)ut 2mm. near the base, but on some of th(^ apical branches they are sometimes almost in contact. The branching is more or less dichotom.ous, the branches do not run in the straight manner characteristic of such genera as Acanella, but have a slightly twisted or curved course. A striking character is the flattening of the upper branches in a lateral direction, that is, in the reverse plane to that commonly found in Melitodidae. The spicules slightly protruding on the surface of the coenenchyme arc seen with a lens as being mass^rd together. The spicules covering the axial part of the nodes are yellow, and the latter a lighter yellow. The i)olyps are very well |)rotecte(l by spicules. The an- thocodiae have eight longitudinal areas of fairly long, dark yellow spindles, with simple processes, basally to these areas lies in a circular band of the same type of spicule, with 3 to 4 spicules at any one place counting in a vertical direction; beneath this ring the calyx is mainly protected by foliaceous clubs. 12 Thorison, South African (jorgoii'icea. The yellow^ spicules of the anthocodiae are fairly long-, straight, narrow spindles with simple processes, a few yellow club-like spicules occur among these spindles. These spicules vary in size from about 0.072 x 0.018 to 0.270 x 0.072 mm. Ihe white spicules of the calyx are mainly foliaceous clubs, approximately 0.108 x 0.054 to 0.198 x 0.072 mm. in size. Spinous clubs and spindles are also present, though not nearly so abundantl>^^ and are of about the same size as those of the anthocodias. L he spicules of the coenenchyme covering the nodes are: (i) mainly yellow, more rarely white foliaccous clubs, in many of these the stalk portion is reduced, and the spicule thus becomes more equally foliaccous in all directions; the foliaccous clubs are from 0.108 x 0.090 to 0.216 x 0.144 mm. in size; (2) spheres with foliaccous processes, about 0.072 x 0.090 mm.; (3) double spheres, about 0.18 x 0.014 mm.; fd.) clubs reduced to heads, about 0.144 x 0.108 mm. ; (0 spindles, with simple processes, about 0.126 x 0.036 mm.; (6) spinous clubs, about 0.198 x 0.054 ""^n^- \ C7) simple usualh^ curved rods, without processes, and rounded at the ends, from 0.054 x 0.012 to 0.144 ^ 0.018 mm. The spicules from the coenenchyme of the internodes are similar to the preceding, differing mainly in being white. Locality, etc. — P. F., 13,122. Cape Morgan, N.N.E., 9f miles. By dredge. Depth, 47 fathoms. Nature of bottom, broken shells. Date, July 25th, 1901. Acabaria sp. Plate v., Fig. 5. This description is taken from an incomplete specimen, which is of a yellow colour, but darker at the nodes. The branching is in one plane, and the specimen is 93 mm. high, 70 mm. transversely, and 8 mm. thick. The axis, which is brown near the base and yellow near the apex, is horny and calcareous, giving stiffness and rigidity to the specimen. The branches apparently usually originate at the nodes. The coenenchyme on the surface of the axis is thin, and shows faint superficial lines. The nodes near the base are about 5 mm. in height, 7 mm wide, and 6 mm. thick, and are separated from ad- joining nodes by intervals of about 3 mm. The nodes are smaller and longer m the ufiper parts of the specimen, thus these nodes are sometimes 2 by 2 by 2 mm., and the internodes 13 by 2 mm. No calcyces are found on the colony, this is therefore presumably only the basal part. The branching is nearly clichotomous, but not regular, rarely branches may be seen originating from the internodes, and there is sometimes a slight anastomosis. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi6), Xo. I. 13 A rough transverse section through the nodes shows (i) a fairly thick cortex, densely crowded with yellow spicules, (2) the great mass of the section consisting of fairly soft brown fibrous tissue, with large canals, and with some small, white, rod-like spicules, and (3) a central part, not very well defined, with a few^ yellow spicules, and with while rods. The struc- ture of the internodes resembles the last, but the second area is replaced by hard, white, calcareous tissue, without canals, and the central part is better defined. A'lost of the spicules are yellow spindles and clubs, but there are also short, narrow, white rods, without processes. The spicules of the nodes consist of a dense mass of clubs, spindles, and more irregular forms, as well as smooth rods. The spindles may be approximately straight, or much curved, their ends are not much pointed. The clubs have broad, ex- panded processes, and lead on to more irregular spicules, which have lost the lower part of the club, or the latter has become broadened out. The spindles are from 0.075 "^ 0.027 to o. iqS x 0.057 m.m. The clubs are from 0.081 x 0.041 to o.iSg x 0.081 mm. The irregular spicules are from 0.075 ^ 0.063 '^^ 0.135 ^' 0.086mm. The rod-like spicules of the outer part of the axis of the nodes has chiefly rod-like spicules aboiit 0.108 in length, and about 0.013 ^^ breadth. The inner part of the axis has a few yellow spindles, clubs, irregular spicules, and many small white rods. In the mternodes the spindles are fewer, and the clubs and irregular spicules are the most conspicuous forms. .l\s in the nodes, there are rod-like spicules in the inter- nodes. The spindles are from 0.063 x 0.039 to 0.162 x 0.054 mm.; the clubs from 0.108 x 0.104. to 0.081 x 0.063 mm.; irregular spicules from 0.079 ^ 0.054 to 0.I/.17 x 0.072 mm. The rods are approximately the same size as those of the nodes. On account of the incompleteness of the specimen, and the absence of polyps, it appears unwise to give the examj^lc a specific name. Locality, etc. — Vasco da Gama, N.W., v N., 8 miles. Depth, 41 fathoms. Collected by dredge, Nature of bottom, rocks. Date of collection, April 27th, igoo. Wrightelia trilineaia, sp.n. Pla/e /!'., Fig. i ; Plate 1'., Fig. 3. The specimen is small, mainly red in colour, but with reddish-brown nodes, and white or yellowish polyj)s. The colony is 66 mm. in height, and about 53 mm. in breadth. The branching is nearly dichotomous, but is not com- pletely so, as for example, a slight anastomosis occurs near the base. The branching is almost entirely m one plane, and the distinction between nodes and internodes fairly prominent. The distance between the base and the first node is about 14 Thomson;, South African Corgonacca. 10 mm., and the diameter of the primary stem about 3 mm., that of the branches near the middle of the colony about 2 mm. The axis of the internodes is solid, hard and dense, with- out canals, and almost entirely composed of calcium carbonate, with only a trace of fibrous or horny matter; it contains short rod-like or needle-like spicules towards the outside. The axis of the internodes is pink, that of the nodes dark brown m colour. The nodes have no canals, they are composed of: (i; spicular coenenchyme at the outside, \2) a thick area of horny or fibrous tissue, and (3) a spicular or limy part in the centre. The polyps mainly originate from three sides of the stem and branches, leaving the fourth or ventral side free, although those of the lateral and dorsal surface are seen from this side. The arrangement of the polyps on the stem and branches is not quite uniform, but the general disposition is that of a series of polyps along each lateral surface, and a somewhat intermittent and irregular row between them. They are situated both on the nodes and internodes, and are more numerous on the apical branches. The tentacles are usually almost completely retracted within the calyces, the latter then having an 8-partite dome-shaped appearance, with a small circular opening, within which the minutest portion of eight tentacles can sometimes be seen. The spicules project very much on the surface of the calyces, especially near the apices and are roughly arranged in rings. The polyps are about 2 by 1.3 mm. in diameter, and 1.5 mm. in height. The interval between the polyps varies, some are i millimetre apart, others are almost in contact. The coenenchyme is thin, has a granular appearance, due mainly to the presence of red spicules^ but partly to a few white ones. Minute longitudinal, sinuous ridges and grooves occur on the external surface of the coenenchyme, more especially on that from which no polyps originate. The lower nodes are more distinct than the upper ; the first from the base is 4 mm. in height, and 3 by 2 mm. in diameter. One of the upper nodes is 2.5 mm. in height, and 2.5 by 2 mm. in diameter. The base of the colony expands into an enlargement, the exact limits of which it is difficult to deter- mine, owing to the presence of an encrusting Polyzoan. The spicules of the polyps are mostly white, they are as follows: — ia) straight spindles, {b) very much curved spindles, (r) spindles produced outwards at one end into two or three prongs, tending to become cross-shaped, (.llcction, July 26di, igoi. Wrighlella, s]x I have identified several fragments as belonging to this genus, the more detailed characters do not agree with other species of Wrightella which I have examined. I have made a number of preparations from these fragments, but in view of the incompleteness, prefer for the present neither to give a de- scription nor to append a specific name. Locality, etc. — P. F., 11,276-7. Tugela River mouth. N. by W., 4 W., 2\\ miles. Collected by large dredge. Depth, 79 fathoms.. Nature of bottom, rocks. January gth, igoi. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 10,525. Cape St. Blaize. N. by E., lOj miles. Depth, jg fathoms. Collected by large dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks. Date, October 24th, igoo. Melitodid Fragments. A few small fragments of a species of Melitodid which are not sufficiently complete for purposes of identification. Pieter Faure, No. 12,063. O'Neil Peak. N.W. ] W., gi miles. Depth, go fathoms. Taken by dredge. Nature of bot- tom, broken shells. Date, Feb. 28th, igoi. From this locality there are nine small fragments of one of the MelitodidiEc, but the pieces are so^ small that any attempt at identification would only be like a shot in the darkness. Pieter Faure, No. 852^. About 25 miles E. of East Lon- don. Depth, 22 fathoms. By shrimp trawl. Nature of bottom, mud. Date, Jan. nth, i8gg. From this locality there is a small fragment of a Melitodid, somewhat similar in superficial appearance to the last so far as the fragments allow one to judge, but it remains impossible to accurately identify the species. Section Holaxonia. Family, Isidae — Sub-family, Ceratoisidae. Acanella ebnrnca , Pourtales. Plate /., Fig. i . The specimen is unfortunately broken, and the base is absent. The mode of branching m the lower part differs from that higher up, namely, m the former it is not in one plane, but in the latter this is approximately the case From a node some little distance from the base three branches originate, equi- distant from one another, which diverge outwards, forming as it were an inverted tripod, and from the first node of each of these, three secondary branches arise. In a few cases four 20 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea. branches come off from a node. In the upper parts of the colony m which the branches arc thinner, the nodes smaller, and the internodes larger, the branching is nearly in one plane, and from the nodes only one or two branches originate. The lowest internode present in my specimen is 5.5 mm. in length and 2.8 mm. m diameter ; a node from the same part is 2.5 mm. in length and 2 mm. in diameter. One of the upper internodes is 12 mm. in length and 1.5 mmi in diameter, and a node .5 mm. by .1 mm. The polyps are large, usually originating from the inter- nodes, and at wide intervals from one another, but m rare cases they may arise from or very near the nodes. The distance between them varies, it is sometimes 6 to 8 mm. ; there is a slight tendency to their arrangement in a very wide spiral round the central cylindrical axis. The polyps do not origin- ate from the axis at right angles, but m a slightly oblique direction, with their apices projecting upwards ; their size varies according to the degree of extension from i mm. in height and 2 mm. in diameter near their bases to 3 mm. in height and 1.8 in diameter; in each case they are narrower at their apices. The pinnules of the tentacles can in a few cases be seen, but it is impossible to state their numbers. The internodes are ivory white, marked by fine longitudinal lines, and with a thin coenenchyme ; the nodes are horny, yel- low or bronze, with a metallic lustre, and the polyps are white, brownish or pinkish v/hite. The polyps are densely covered with long fusiform spicules, which seem to curve round their bodies, and eight specially large spicules project as points at the bases of the tentacles; the latter are provided with smaller spicules. The spicules from all parts seem similar in shape, only differing in size ; they may be grouped into long spindles and short spindles. These spicules have no processes such as have been figured by Wright and Studer for Acanella arbuscula, A. chiliensis, A. rig'ula and .4. simplex. The spicules of my specimen are spine-like, not pointed at either end, and with almost entire margins. The size of the long spindles on the outside of the polyps is about o.g6 x 0.06 mm.; the short spindles from the tentacles and coenenchyme are about 0.24 x 0.04 mm. There can be little doubt that the spicules of my specimen and those of A. ebiirnea, as figured by Wright and Studer, are very similar; their margins are, however, more entire. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,850. Buffels River, N. 15 miles. Depth, 310 fathoms. Collected by shrimp trawl. Bottom, coral and mud. Date, April 24th, igoi. From another locality at about the same depth, I have a second specimen of this species, which confirms my previous identification. In the first specimen I had some doubt about the identity of the spicules, as their margins appeared more Manchester Me jiioirs, I't;/. /.I'i. (1916), No. 1- 21 entire. The second specimen has the majority of tlic spicules with marj^ins exactly resembling those figured by Wright and Studcr, but the interesting point is that some of them resemble those of the first example in having almost entire margins. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,658. Bashee River beacon, N. I E., about 15 miles. Depth, 300-400 fathoms. By shrimp trawl. Nature of bottom, rocksi Date, April gth, igoi. Family, Aiuriceidee. Acanthogorgia aniiata., Verrill. This sj>ecics has previously been recorded from South Afri- can waters by Hickson and by myself. The specimens are rather fragmentary, as they are brittle, and tend to become broken. A point to which I will give further attention later on IS the occurrence of blackish spherical masses within the body of some of the polyj)s. The specimens were found in about the same locality as Hickson's specimen.. Locality, etc. — P. F., No. 2,567. Vasco da Gama. S.75'' E. 132- milesi. Collected by large dredge. Depth, 166 fathoms. Nature of bottom, black specks. Date of collection, April 25th, I goo. Acanthogorgia, sp. Plate IV., Fig. 4. The specimen is only fragmentary, and has been much rubbed. The axis is horny, yellow or brown. The polyps are long, cylindrical, and expanded towards the mouth. The spicules arc usually curved spindles or club-like forms, form- ing eight longitudinal rows on the body wall of the polyp, each row consisting of pairs of spicules. At the base of the polyp, each spicule of these pairs is arranged at acute angles with the other, but higher up this changes to an obtuse angle, and finally the position of the spicules becomes altered so that they run round the periphery. The tentacles on retraction are bent over the mouth, and external to them are the circles of protective spicules already mentioned, and then eight far- projecting spicules forming an outermost circle. The branching, so far as one can ascertain from the incom- plete specimen, is in one plane. The central axis is about I mm. in diameter; the covering coenenchyme with its project- ing spicules is very thin, and the axis can be seen through the tissue. The polyps at some {>arts are arranged in a spiral round the axis, and are usually closely adjacent to one another, with an interval of about a millimetre, but they are still more closely massed together at the apices of the branches. They are placed perpendicularly on their support, and are about 2.5 mm. in length, and 1.5 mm. in diameter. 22 Thomson. Soufli African Gorgon:Jcea. The spicules are {li) simple curved spindles with only a few processit^s, about 0.34 x 0.02 mm. in size; {b) short club-like spicules, about 0.56 in length, and 0.16 mm. in diameter at the expanded end, and 0.02 at the narrow end, the broad end only- bearing processes ; (r) long spindles or club-like spicules pro- jecting prominently at the apices of the polyps, with a long handle or shaft, without processes, and an expanded head armed with projections. This type of spicule is sometimes 1.14 mm. in length, o.iomm. in diameter at the expanded, and 0.04 at the narrow end ; {d) various shaped spicules. Owing to the fragmentary nature of the specimen, I have not been able to give this form a specific name. Locality, etc. — P. F., ii,q6i. Cape Vidal, N.N.E. \ N.. 9^, miles. Depth, So to 100 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks. Date, February 27th, 1901. Acanthogorgia, sp. This specimen only consists of a small forked twig, and even this is not complete as part of the coenenchyme, and some of the polyps have been rubbed away, but there can be little doubt that it belongs to the genus Acanthogorgia. The sf)icules are similar to those of Picter Faurc, No. ii,q6i, but rather smaller. It would be rather incautious to give a specific name to this fragment. The specimen had also become dried during transit from South Africa. Pieter Faure, No. 12,064. O'Neil Peak. N.W. j W., ()% miles. Depth, qo fathoms. By dredge. Nature of lx)ttom, broken shells. Date, February 28th, 1901. Muricella ramosa, Thomson and Henderson. Syn. M. ceylo)icnsis, Thomson and Henderson. The axis is brown or black, and is covered by a fairly soft coenenchyme with slightly protruding spicules, the base is expanded, and of a woody texture. The branching is in one plane. The polyps are thickly distributed, but they are irregu- lar, as sometimes they are close together, at other parts separ- ated by a wide interval. The anthocodiae are in many cases extended beyond the calyces, the latter are minute. There is a slight degree of anastomosis between the branches. The mode of branching is very variable; as a rule the branches do not arise opposite one another, but are alternate, adjoining branches are very unequal in size. The colony is slightly fan-shajx^d. The upper branches are flexible. The height of the specimens is about 14 cm., the breadth locm. The large branches have almost as great a height and thickness as the main stem. The lower part of the main stem is cylindrical, the median very slightly flattened, and the upper similar to the lower, but reduced in size. The branchlets gener- Manchester Memoirs, \ol. Ixi. (igi6), No. I. 23 ally come off on two sides- of the mam stem or of the primary- branches. The branchlets are cylmdrical. The maui stem and chief branches ascend in an undulating way. The branches commence to come off at 6 nmi. from the base. The branchlets often arise at right angles. Short unbranched twigs arise from \ arious parts, these are generally expanded at the end. The ter- minal twigs are blunt at the apices, and have two or more ix)lyps at the extreme summits. The length of the main stem is at least 12.5 cm., the diame- ter at the base 2.5 cm., the length of a terminal twig 18 mm., its diameter 1-1.5 mm. The polyps on the smaller branches and twigs are more thickly distributed on two sides, although they also occur to some extent on the other; still, one can distinguish a central area on which the polyps are less abundant — on the terminal tuigs they are almost entirely bi-lateral. The polyps are usually ])laced at right angles to the surface, the larger are i.Smm. in height and I mm. in diameter. At the base of the polyps on the surface of the coenenchyme there are long spindles, easily seen with a lens; these are specially prominent on the upper branches and twigs, but apparently do not occur to any extent at the bases of the mam stem and branches. The polyps consist of a minute calyx and a tentacular part, the former is hardly distinguishable from the superficial coenen- chyme. The arrangement of the spicules of the polyps consists of spindles arranged '' en chevron " in eight longitudinal areas, beneath which spindles are arranged m a circular manner, and basally much larger and broader spindles are arranged in a vertical or oblique manner. The axis is 3 mm. near the base of the main stem, and i/ioth of a millimetre m diameter m the apical branches; it is black near the base, brown towards the centre, and yellow at the apex of the colony. The spicules of the polyps (including anthocodia and calyx) are small narrow spindles and larger broader spindles, the former range in size from 0. 144 x 0.018 to 0.414 x 0.054 mm.; the latter from 0.360 x 0.090 to 0.630 x 0.108 mm., both of these types of spicules may be straight or curved. The spicules from the coenenchyme of a main branch are also small and large spindles, straight or curved, the former ranging in size from 0.18 x 0.018 to 0.360 x 0.036 mm., the latter from 0.396 x 0.090 to 0.774 ^ 0.144 mm. The spicules from the superficial coenenchyme of the upper and smaller branches are similar to the last in shaj:>e, some of the larger spindles are as much as 1.080 x 0.162 mm. I have no hesitation in naming these specimens Muricella ramosa, Syn. M. ceylonensis. This species has been recorded from the Andaman Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Manaar. off Galle and onwards u[) the West Coast of Cevlon. .;24 Thomson, South Ajncan i'lorgonacea. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,165. Durnford Pt., N.W. by N. II miles. Depth, 45 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, shells and stones. Date, February 28th, igoi. Family, Plexauridae. Eunicella papulosa, Esper. This IS an mcomplete specimen which I did not at first recognise as Eunicella p'jpillosa, which has been previously re- corded from South African waters. The spicules of the calyces are (i) characteristic torch-like spicules, (2) double spindles, and (3) a very few long simple spindles. The torch-like spicules and the double spindles seem to be about equally abundant. The double spindles are usually larger than the torch-like spicules. The spicules of the coenen- chyme are all or nearly all torch-like spicules. A few double spindles are seen in my slides, but they are comparatively few in number. The dimensions of the spicules are as follows: — From the calyces: (i) The torch-like spicules, from 0.0782 x 0.034 to 0.0952 X 0.0442 mm.; (2) Double spindles, from o.iiQO X 0.0476 tO' 0.1598 X 0.0646 mm. From the cocnenchyme : (i) Torch-like spicules, from 0.0816 x 0.034 to 0.0918 x 0.0374mm.; (2) Double spindles, from 0.0782 x 0.0442 to 0.1020 x 0.0408 mm. Locality, etc. — Pieter F^aure, No. 907. Off East London. Depth, 85 fathoms. By dredge. Date, June 28th, 1899. Pieter F^aure, No. 457. Buffels Bay, False Bay. Collected l^y means of tangles. Date, October 13th, 1898. Euplexaiira parczclados, Wright and Studer. This description is based on one specimen. It is slender throughout, has few branches, and is 10 cm. in height. A short slender stem, originating from a small encrusting base, divides into two secondary branches, from one of the latter four ter- tiary branches are given off, namely, firstly a short branch passing towards the outer side, then two branches arising almost opposite one another, and lastly a fourth branch towards the inside. The one secondary branch, after giving off these tertiary branches as described above, is continued on for a short distance in an upward direction, the other secondary shoot is apparently incomplete, owing to its being covered by epiphytic barnacles. The branches are mainly in one plane, and have a fairly uniform diameter throughout, though they sometimes expand slightly at their apices, and some have a medianly situated pointed part at the extremity. The height of the central stem from the encrusting base to the origin of the first branch is 1.6 cm., the diameter of the same 2 mm. The tertiary branches (excepting those which are opposite one another) are separatee! by an interval of from Manchester Meiiioirs, Vol. Ix'i. (1916), No. I. 25 1.8 cm. to 2.4 cm. The encrusting base is small, 6 by 3 mm. in diameter, and the merest fraction of a millimetre in height, and is attached to a fragment of shell. The axis is brown near the base, and yellow at the apex, it is about a millimetre m diameter in the main stem near the base, and very narrow in the highest branches. The coenen- chyme is thin, rough and granular, with white spicules. The polyps are numerous, thickly distributed on all sides of the branches, and commence at a low level on the main stem ; they are sometimes separated from one another by an interval of I mm. The polyps and tentacles are brown, and have eight bands of needle-like spicules. The anthocodiae can be re- tracted within the calyces, which are white, and only slightly raised above the surface until there is only a slight brown swelling, bounded by the calyx. The detailed structure of the stem and axis is as described by Wright and Studer for the genus Euplexaura. The spicules of the" coenenchyme and calyx arc spindles, usually with two rows of warts, and a very few (juadriradiate forms. The spicules of the polyps are needles or rods, with simple processes. The spicules are smaller than those described by Wright and Studer for this species. The spindles are from 0.06 X 0.05 to 0.14 X 0.06 mm. The needles arc about o. 13 x 0.014 "^ro- This species was collected during the voyage of the " Chal- lenger," at two stations near Kobe, Japan, at depths of 8 and 50 fathoms. My specimen and its spicules are much smaller, but it otherwise agrees in all essential points with the " Chal- lenger" specimen, leading me to regard this as a young form of Euplexaura parciclados, W. and S. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 13,581. Stalwart Point, N.N.W., Q miles. Denth, 33 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, sand and shells. Date of collection, August 2gth, IQOI. Family, Primnoidae- Sub-family, Primnoin^x. StacJiyocles ca pen sis, sp.n. riaie III. The polyps are arranged in verticils of seven to nine usu- ally. In most cases there is an interval between the verticils. The oral openings face downwards. The branching is nearly dichotomous. Only rarely do the opercular scales of one verticil come in contact with the sclerites of the lower row of polyps. This species is represented in the collection by one speci- men and ssveral fragments. The axis of the complete specimen is 8 cm. in height, about 2.8 mm. in diameter near the base, and I mm. near the apex. It is horny, yellow and iridescent, its surface has small grooves running in a circular direction, and its interior has a few calcareous particles. One of the two primary branches into which the main stem divides is dichoto- 26 Thomson, South African dor gon-.icca. mous, the other not so regular. The verticils are closer to one another near the apices than basally ; generally 5 verticils occur in a length of 15 millimetres. A point about some of the verticils is that they do not run straight round the axis, but in an irregular or slightly spiral manner. The coenenchyme between the lower verticils, and covering the basal stem, has scale-like spicules of varying shape and size, which fit closely into one another; some of the larger are I millimetre in length. The base of the colony is large, namely, 8 mm. in height and diameter. An interval of about a millimetre occurs between the lower verticils, the upper verticils being closer to one another. The larger ])olyps are about 3 mm. in height, and 1.75 mm. in diameter. The body or dorsal surface is enveloped by three series of paired scale-like spicules, which overlap one another. The two ad-axials are thick, and hollowed out to form a hood- like part, those of right and left sides form a deep median, wavy, slightly oblique groove, where they meet one another. The median pair of sclerites is smaller, partly hidden by the ad-axials, and their outer borders are slightly sinuous but entire. The ab-axial pair is longer than the last, each sclerite slightly overlaps the other in the median line, and has an entire but slightly wavy margin, sometimes in contact with the polyp lying basal to it. The ad-axials only connect latcrallv with those of the polyps on either side. There are no sharp projec- tions or spines on any of those sclerites. The exposed parts of the ad-axials are about 1.2, of the medials .75, of the ab-axials I.I mm. in length. These three pairs of plates correspond to the basal, medial, and buccal sclerites of Versluys. At the base of the polyp, and partly hidden by the ab-axials, are the opercular spicules, which are generally seven in number, and have frequently a wa\y semi-triangular appearance; in some cases they almost come in contact with the upper spicules of the polyp beneath, but do not project beyond the ab-axial sclerites to any extent. The sclerites of the inner or ventral surface of the polyp and surrounding the axis are large, thick, and stone-like, they are very hard, and differ considerably in size. In one verticil of 8 polyps, 21 of these sclerites lay sur- rounding the axis. This layer of spicules is sometimes i mm. in thickness, and has i or 2 spicules at any one place, counting in a transverse direction. The spicules of the coenenchyme near the base form a well-marked layer, a little less than a millimetre in thickness. 1 hey differ in shape and size, being quadrilateral, oval, pear- shaped, etc. and ranging from about 0.270 x 0.234 to 0.720 x 0.576mm. At some parts they slightly overlap one another, at others there is a space on one side between them. The sclerites from the coenenchyme between the verticils are some- what similar to the last, but are slightly more irregular, and more frequently with spaces between them ; they range in size from about 0.270 x 0.324 to o.go x 0.54 mm. The opercular Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iqi6\ No. 1. 27 spicules vary in shape and size, some have a pointed, spear-like part projecting downwards ; the larger, which are situated to- wards the outer side of the polyp, are about 1.53 x 1.17 mm., the smaller about 0.5Q4 x 0.360 mm. This species belongs to Kinoshita's Group I. of the genus Stachyodes, but I have been unable to identify it as belonging to any of the species already described. 7'ext-/li;. 5. Sclerites of Stachyodes captnsis, sp. n., upper, from operculum o( polyp ; lower left, from tlie coenenchynie near the base ; lower right, from the coenenchynie covering the axis between the verticils in ihe iipyier jmrt. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faurc, No. I3,i5q. Cape }*lorgan, N., I W., lOo miles. Depth, yy fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks and broken shells. Date, July 26th, 1901. I have also identified some fairly large fragments as be- longing to this new species, which show a considerable amount of variation from the above. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 134QO. Sandy Point, N., \ E., 10 miles. By dredge. Depth, 05 fathoms. Nature of bottom, rocks. Date, August 14th. 1901. 28 Thomson, Sont/i Ajncaii Gorgonacea. Family Gorgoniidas. Leftogorg'ia africana, sp.n. Plate v., Fig. 7. The specimen is yellowish or brownish in colour, and has numerous, densely distributed polyps, usually with prominent calyces. From the colour of many of the spicules of the coenen- chyme, I am inclined to think that during life the colour was brighter, probably approaching red. The branching is mostly in one plane, and there is at one part a slight anastomosis.: The coenenchyme is fairly thick, finely granular, and has a line or groove on two' of the surfaces, which is more pronounced on the lower part of the colony. The axis, which is fairly cylindrical throughout, is brown near the base, and yellow at the apices. It is com]:)osed of very closely interwoven fibres, but also' gives a slight effer- vescence with hydrochloric acid. It is not perforated by canals, but the latter are present in the surrounding coenenchyme. In the centre of the axis of the apical branches, internal to the longitudinal fibres, there is a series of small oblong or square areas, arranged one beneath the other, in a vertical direction. No spicules occur in the axis. The main shoots are compressed in one plane, so that there are two broad and two narrow surfaces; the diameter of one chief stem near the apparent base is 1.5 by 2 mm. At this more basal part the polyps are disposed up each side of the broad surfaces, and abundantly along the narrow sides, leaving a fairly bare space in the centre. In the more apical branches, however, the polyps are thickly distributed on all sides. The apical branches are sometimes 1.7 by i mm. in diameter. The minor branches originate in a series from a central axis, and are either opposite or alternate to one another; they may have a slightly pinnate appearance. These minor branches varying considerably in length, some being half that of others, arise either at rieht angles or at slightly less than rieht angles, and do not terminate in a polyp, but in a small slightly pointed cone. The polyp consists of raised calyces, out of which extend white fentacles, and beneath the latter a part of the anthocodia with red spindles. In cases in which the tentacles are with- drawn, the red portion only is seen at the apex of the calyx, and on further contraction a mere slit is seen surrounded by the calyx, the latter having sometimes a slightly two-lippcd appear- ance. The calyces, which are usuallv prominent, being as much as three-quarters of a millimetre in height and diameter, give the specimen a slightly papillated appearance. It has, however, to be noted that thev are also sometimes very small, being then reduced to minute elevations of the surface coenenchyme. The long diarnetcr of the calvces in the contracted condition of the anthocodias is usually parallel with the long axis of the branch. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQiOj, No. I. 29 In my specimen the pulvps arc frequently expanded so that the tentacles are visible, and such zooids are about I mm. in height, and 0.8 mm. in diameter. They have on their external surfaces narrow, red spindles, which are placed longitudinally "en chevron" in eight groups. At about the centre of each of these eight groups there are four or five spindles, counting in a transverse or circular direction. At the bases *of these eight groups there is a ring of red spindles, pjlaced with their length at right angles to the length of the polyp, and forming a band round it. This ring consists of about 4 to 6 spindles at any one place, counting in a \ertical direction. It was not possible to count the number of pinnules in the tentacles. The distribution of the polyps varies in different parts of the specimen. As previously stated, near the base, where the stems are more flattened, the [X)lyps are more abundant on two sides. At this part also there is a tendency to an arrangement of the polyps in a row along each side of the broad surface, with some polyps situated medianly and irregularly between the two rows, but this arrangement cannot be traced any dis- tance. Near the apices there is a tendency towards a wide spiral arrangement, but it is rather irregular and indefinite. The coenenchyme is fairly thick on the surface of the axis, near the base it is sometimes slightly less than a millimetre in thickness.. It is slightly corky in texture. The spicules of the coenenchyme are (i) double spindles, (2) simple spindles, straight or curved, (3) irregularly shaped spicules, such as quadri-racliate forms (rare), (4) a larger form of spicule more or less oblong, slightly scale-like, and provided with processes (this form is too' rare to be taken into account, it may even be extraneous). The double spindles are from 0.032 X 0.030 to 0.102 X 0.047 mm; the simple spindles are from 0.095 ^ 0.040 to 0.164 X 0.051 mm.; the irregular spicules are about 0.06 .t x 0.037 "^ri''- The spicules of the calyces are of the same form and ap- proximate size as those of the general surface of the coenen- chyme. The red spindles or rods of the anthocodise are from 0.047 ^ 0.023 to 0.146 X 0.030 mm. The general dimensions are not given, as the specimen is incomplete. This species has some resemblance to Le-ptogorgia florcFy Verrill, and also with L. fulchra, Verrill; but is apparently dis- tinct from both. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 13,235. Cove Rock, N., 4 E., 5 A miles. Depth, 43 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, stones and broken shells. Date, August 2nd, igoi. Lepfogorgia alba, Verrill ; var. capensis. There is one specimen of this species in the collection which is 15 cm. in height, and 10 cm. in breadth. The branching is in one plane. A cylindrical stem, rising from an expanded base, 30 ThOMSOJN, South African Gorgonacea divides at a low level into two ])rimanes, both of which give rise to branches of a second, third, or even fourth order m an irregular pinnate manner; the secondaries may be almost as strongly developed as the primaries ; the branchlets may be opposite or alternate. The main stem is cylindrical and the two primaries also, but above those the .branches are clearly flattened in the plane of expansion, with the exception of the apical, which are almost round. The branches are generally not pointed at the apices, but are blunt or slightly rounded, and in most cases expand in diameter towards their apices. The secondary branches fre- quently arise from the primaries at angles of about 45°, and curve outwards, and then upwards and inwards, in a slightly sinuate manner. The secondaries are frequently separated from one another at their origin by intervals of about | of an inch. At various points on the secondaries there are short tertiaries only about 5 mm. in length, which have a stunted, almost club- like appearance. The upper branches are flexible, but the specimen has a certain rigidity towards the base. The axis is strongly developed, is brown or black near the base, and yellow towards the apex. The coenenchyme covering the axis is white and granular, but the colour of the axis shows through it. The coenenchyme on the lower main stem is i 'loth to I /20th of a millimetre in thickness, on the apical branches it is, comparatively speaking, thicker. The presence of longitu- linal lines or grooves is very clearly marked on most of the two flattened surfaces of the stem and branches except at the apices. Five or six of these grooves occur on each of the flattened sides of the basal stem, but higher up they gradually become reduced in number. The distribution of the polyps varies to some extent at different parts, but is mainly bilateral. On the lower stem and branches along each of the narrowed sides, there are usually two rows of polyps disposed in each of these, alternate to one another, but polyps also occur here and there on the flattened sides in a more irregular manner. The lateral polyps are separated from one another by an interval of \ to i mm. On the apical branches, which frequently have a slightly curved or twisted course, the polyps are irregularly distributed on all sides. The polyps are small, even when the tentacles are extended beyond the calyces, which is usually the case in my specimen ; when they are retracted the opening of the calyx has a slightl}- oblong, two-lipped appearance. The diameter of the basal stem is about 2.5 mm., that of a primary branch 2.5 by 1.2 mm., of an apical .5 mm. The spicules are mainly double spindles, with large ex- panded processes; their size is from about 0.054 ^ 0.027 to 0.081 X 0.036 mm. They do not appear to be so markedly Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (hji6\ Nc. 1. 31 sci)aratcd into two kinds as those described and figured by Verrill. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,164. Durnford Point, N.W. by N., 1 1 miles. Depth, 45 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, shells and stones. Date, February 28th,, 1901. Leptogorgia rigida, Verrill. Plate IV., Fig. 3. This form consists of (i) a large, basal, encrusting part, with a massive brown axis, (2) a short main stem, which divides at a height of 1 8 mm. into (3) two primary branches, the lattci giving rise to secendary and tertiary branches. The branching is in one plane. The specimen is reddish-yellow in the upper branches, but red in the main stem, and the branches immedi- ately above that. The calyces differ in shade from the general superficial coenenchymc, and the tentacles arc white, or pale yellow. The specimen has a slightly fleshy appearance, though the coencnchyme is not thick, as in such forms as (lorgonia -fiannnea. The height of the specimen is about 8.3, the breadth 6.5 cm. The basal encrusting part is 6.5 mm. in height- — resting on a stone, and is 1 1 by 8 mm. in diameter. The main stem is 3 by 2 mm., and its axis is 1.75 by i mm. in diameter. A branch about the middle of the colony is 2 by 1.2 mm. in diameter, and slightly larger at the apex. The main stem and branches are flattened in one plane, and this compression is specially well marked on the lower part, but towards the apices it is not so obvious. The branches are rather brittle, though fairly thick, and their apices are not pointed, but broad and almost straight at the extreme end. Three or four polyps generally occur near the apices of the branches. There is apparently no rule as to the mode in which the minor branches are disposed in regard to one another, they are not systematically cither opposite or alternate. There is no anastomosis in this specimen. The coenenchyme is about i /6th to i/ioth of a millimetre in thickness on the surface of the axis, but varies slightly ''n different parts, and appears to be thinner on the surface of the primary stem. The surface of the coenenchyme is studded with partially projecting spicules. The axis is horny, brown in colour throughout, and remains fairly thick, even at the apices of the branches. The calyces are fairly prominent, but vary according to the degree of contraction ; sometimes they are reduced to minute elevations of the superficial coenenchyme. The aperture at the apex of the calyx generally remains open, and is oval in shape. These openings are generally i mm. in length, and slightly less in breadth. In some cases the tentacles, which are white or yellow, are still .seen projecting beyond the calyx. 32 Thomson, South Ajncivi Gorgonacea. On all the lower parts of the colony, the polyps are dis- posed on the two narrower sides of the stem and branches, and a space free from polyps is thus left on the two broader and flatter sides, which is sometimes 2 mm. in breadth; on the latter two surfaces there is a faint longitudinal line or groove. Nearer the apices of the branches, the polyps tend to be dis- posed on all sides, though they are still mainly bi-lateral in arrangement. The lateral polyps are sometimes separated from one another by an interval of .5 to .75 of a millimetre. The spicules of the coenenchyme are small double spindles, with wart-like processes or tubercles. They are almost in- variably of this type, but exceptionally there are crosses and simpler forms of spindles. The size of the double spindles is from 0.05 X 0.04 to 0.08 X 0.054 n^ni. These spicules of the coenenchyme are usually red. The spicules of the calyces are also mostly double spindles, very similar to those of the coenenchyme, but with slightly more rounded processes, and yellow in colour. The spicules of the tentacles and anthocodire are narrow spindles or rods, with a few simple processes; they are about 0.08 X 0.02 mm. in size, and yellow^ in colour. Verrill has re- corded this species from the West Coast of America, near Cape St. Lucas. Locality, etc.- — Pieter Faure, No. 907. Off East London. Depth, 85 fathoms. By dredge. Date, January 2Sth, iSgg. Leftogorgi'i aurata, sp.n. Plate I., Fig. 5; Plate IV., Fig. 2. The colony is fairly flexible, and the branching in one plane. The main axis, which is expanded at the base, divides at a low level into two. The smaller of these two primary sub- divisions gives rise on one side only, firstly to simple non- divided branches, and then to a compound branch. The branches have two more or less rounded or blunt lobes, which may be due to regrowth after injury to the part. The second of the two main sub-divisions divides into two, each of which gives rise to simple and to forked or compound branches. The upper branchlets of this second part of the colony are connected with one another at rare intervals, by a simple anastomosis. The branching is neither dichotomous nor regular, as apparently any lateral offshoot may grow to greater dimensions than the others. The branches rarely arise opposite one another, they tend to originate mostly on one side towards vacant space. The axis is brown or black in colour, and cylindrical in that part of the colony immediately above the slightly expanded base, which is free from polyps. The axis of the colony is hard and horny, and its expanded base is light brown in colour. Above the main shoot the branches are slightly flattened but towards the apex of the colony the branchlets tend to become Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (i9i6\ No. I. '^J^ more cylindrical. On the lower branches the ix)lyps are mainly confined to two sides (the smaller or lateral sides), and thus there is a fairly large median area without polyps. Towards the apex of the colony, the polyps tend to become more uni- formly disposed on all sides, especially is this the case m the smallest terminal branches. Clearly defined grooves or lines (5 or 6) are present on the lower part of the colony, on those surfaces free from polyps. These grooves become much less obvious towards the apices of the branches, and there only one or two lines occur, or they may be absent. These lines are clearly visible tO' the naked eye, especially on the lower part of the colony. The colony is about 13.2 cm. in height, and 14.2 cm. in breadth. The height of the main axis previous to the origin of any branches is 2.65 cm., and its diameter at the middle 2.5 mm. The primary branches which originate from this have a diameter of 4 mm., including the polyps, and 2 mm. without the polyps. The bare areas without polyps on the lower branches are about 2 mm. wide. The apical branches are about 2 mm. in diameter, including the polyps. The distribution of polyps is as stated above, but even near the base polyps occur occasionally on the surface of the coenenchyme, which is usually free from polyps ; on the other two surfaces the calyces are slightly elongated in the direction of the long axis of the colony, and the openings are slightly slit-like in appearance. In most cases the polyps are not com- pletely retracted, and the tentacles may be seen in white, re- lieving the yellow ground colour of the calyces and coenen- chyme. The distance between the polyps varies, sometimes they are separated by an interval of i millimetre, at other times they are so closely adjacent as to be only a fraction of a millimetre apart. The polyps may measure 2 mm. in one diameter, 1.2 mm. in another, and 1.2 mm. in height. In the polyps situated on the apical branches the opening is easily seen lying longitudinal to the long axis of the branch. The longitudinal grooves or lines on the lower part of the colony are about i mm., and the slight elevations between them about .7 mm. in breadth. The encrusting base measures 1 1 mm. in diameter and 3 mm. in height. The coenenchyme covering the central cylindrical axis is about 0.1 mm. in thickness, and does not increase to any extent in the higher reaches of the colony. The surface of the colony is densely covered with small spicules. On close examination it is seen that the longitudinal grooves have a smaller number of spicules than the elevations between them. Two of the branches end in apical swellings, on which the polyps are thickly distributed ; one of the swell- ings is 7 by 6 mm., the other g by 6 mm. ; these may possibly be due to regrowth after injury. On that part of the basal column which has no polyps 34 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea. there is a curious cup-like swelling. This is 8 mm. m length, 6 mm. in breadth, and 4 mm. in height. The wall of the cup is fairly hard, and evidently an out-growth of the axis. The entire structure is probably an abnormality. The spicules of the cortex are as follows : — Spindles from the cortex with wart- like processes in whorls, from 0.075 x 0.041 to 0.090 x 0.036 mm. ; spindles from the cortex with wart-like processes irregu- larly disposed, from 0.072 x 0.037 to 0.090 x 0.037 mm.; smaller spindles with irregular wart-like processes, from 0.037 ^ 0.027 to 0.055 x 0.037 mm. The spicules of the polyps are fairly similar in size. The original diagnosis of the genus Leptogorgia, by Milne Edwards, was: — " Les especes a axe non calcifere, dont le coenenchyme est pelliculaire c'est-a-dire tres mince, et d'un tissu serre et dont les calyces n'ont pas les bords sai Hants. El les se distingue done des Gorgones proprement dites, par I'absencc de verrucs calci feres et s'eloigne des Plexaures par la disposition du coenenchyme; qui, ches ces derniers est remarquablement epars et d'une texture subereuse." Verrill (1867-71) defined the genus as follows: — " Spicula of the coenenchyma mostly small double spindles of two forms, longer and shorter. Branches usually slender, sub-dividing in various ways; often reticulate, pinnate or bipinnate. Cells usually prominent, sometimes flat, mostly m lateral rows or bands." In the " Challenger" Report Wright and Studer give the following definition of this genus: — "The colony varies greatly in form, but is more or less ramified in one plane. It often exhibits a net-like structure from an anastomosis of the branches. The polyps sometimes form short verrucas, and sometimes are completely retracted into the coenenchyma. They are usually disposed in two lateral rows, having between them the naked coenenchyma. Upon the surface of the latter the courses of the larger tubes are indicated by longitudinal depressions. The spicules are usually minute double spindles of variable length." Close on forty species of the genus Leptogorgia have been recorded, and I have felt reluctant to add another to the long list, but I hold this to be a new species. Thomson and Hender- son give a description of Leptogorgia ochracea which in some respects is similar to this species. The apices of the branches are, however, more pointed in Leptogorgia ochracea, the calyces are smaller, and the spicules are larger than in my form. Thomson and Henderson's description and figure are taken from a dried specimen, but on drying part of my example it is still obvious that it does not agree with their species. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,164. Durnford Point, N.W. by N., II miles. Depth, 45 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, shells and stones. I3ate, February 28th, igoi. Leptogorgia, sp., juv. A young specimen which belongs to the genus Leptogorgia. McDichestcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 6), No. 1. 35 The characters are those of the genus, but I hold that it would be a mistake to give this small specimen a specific name. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 10,880. Umhloti River mouth, N. by W., A W., 8A miles. Depth, 40 fathoms. Taken by large dredge. Nature of bottom, sand and shells (hard ground). Date, December i8th, 1900. Lophogorgij lit t kern, Wright and Studer. Plate I., Fig. 2. The specimen is not complete, but there is a main axis from which branches arise on two sides, some of which remain simple, and others divide and re-divide. There is a sinuous line running up the flat side of the mam stem and on most of the branches, but it is never very prominent, and on the terminal branches becomes indistinct or disappears. The polyps are situated on each side of this line, and v/hen re- tracted form a slit. The main stem and branches are flattened in the plane of expansion, but the terminal ones are more rounded, and the polyps tend to be distributed on all sides. On the flattened sides, the polyps frequently stand opposite one another. There is a slight anastomosis of the branches, and the terminal ones are slightly expanded at the tips, where two or more polyps are situated. The coenenchyme covering the axis is not thick, and it is finely granular. The axis is brown and flattened near the base, but yellow and more rounded in the upper parts of the colony. The main stem is not, but the upper parts are distinctly flexible. The branches from the main axis do not as a rule originate opposite one another. The main stem is not straight, but has a more or less sinuate form. The calyces are only very slightly raised above the surface of the coenenchyme. The spicules agree exactly in shape (even to the needles, with short processes in the tentacles) with these described for this species by Wright and Studer in the " Challenger " volume. The specimen is a more typical example oi Lophogorgia Inikeni than that described by Thomson and Henderson from Ceylon. The spicules are, however, smaller than in Wright and Studer's example. The smaller spindles are from 0.034 x 0.030 to 0.044 ^ 0.030 mm. The larger spindles are from 0.075 ^ 0.040 to 0.087 X 0.054. Ii^ Wright and Studer's specimen the spicules of the coenenchyme are from 0.2 x 0.04 to 0.34 x 0.02 mm. It IS necessary to give a further description, as the specimen essentially agrees with that of Wright and Studer. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 15,724. Off Gordon's Bay, 6-14 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks. This species has been previously recorded from Prince Edward Island, Zanzibar, Ceylon, and the Gulf of Kutch TKathiawar Peninsula). 36 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea. Gorgonia -fiavimea, Ellis and Solander. Flate /., Figs, j and 7; Plate IV., Fig. 6. The specimen is incomplete. The basal branches are flattened, the upper branches cylindrical, the white polyps occurring profusely on all sides. The branching is m one plane, and the branches do not as a rule stand opposite one another ; they arc flexible, and do not anastomose. The speci- men is well expanded, the mouths of the polyps are frequently open, and the tentacles and pinnules are well extended. The coenenchyme is thick, and this gives the colony a fleshy appear- ance. The surface of the coenenchyme is only very slightly granular. The horny axis is black near the base, but brown in the upper parts of the colony. The specimen is only part of a colony, and therefore general measurements are not given, but we know that this species may grow to an immense size. The coenenchyme is sometimes about 1.5 mm. in thickness. The distance between the expanded polyps varies slightly, in some cases it was about i mm. The apices of the branches are not pointed to any extent, but are more or less rounded, about four polyps usually occur at the apex of a branch. The polyps are apparently arranged in close-set spirals, and the openings through which the white polyps protrude are circular or oval in shape. There are, apparently, no spicules in the polyps, about ten pairs of pinnules occur in each tentacle. The calyces are only minute non-differentiated elevations of the surface coenenchyme, which cannot be distinguished with the naked eye. The horny axis apparently remains flat throughout the different parts of the colony. The spicules are double spindles, and their length is about 0.06 mm. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faurc, No. 706. Lat., 33° 53' 15" S. Long., 25° 51' 45" E. Depth, 26 fathoms, by large trawl. Nature of bottom, sand. December 6th, 1898. P. F., 18,381. Flesh Point N., f- W., 6^, miles. By large trawl. January 15th, 1904. As there are no really good figures of well-preserved examples of this species I have pleasure in using the beautiful sketches made by the late Mr. Davidson at the LTniversity of Aberdeen. Gorgonia albicans, Kollikcr. From Gordon's Bay. Depth, 6-14 fathoms. Collected by dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks. Date, October 20th, 1902. This species has already been recorded by Hickson from Port Alfred and Cape St. Blaizc. Gorgonia, sp. Plafc IV., Fig. J. A single incomplete specimen of a yellow Gorgonia. It Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 6), No. I. 37 has a soft, fleshy appearance, due to the thick coenenchyme. The tentacles are white, and are in some cases extended beyond the calyces. The lower main branches are slightly flattened, the upper are rounded, and with small apices. The axis is horny, and yellow or brown in colour. The calyces are prom- inent and very numerous, being scattered over the surface of the coenenchyme with little interval between them, except in the lower part of the colony. The base has unfortunately been broken away and lost, but a line or groove is seen in the centre of two' of the lower main branches for a short distance. The branching is mainly in one plane, and there is no anastomosis. As far as one can judge from the incomplete specimen, the mode of branching is as follows : — Two main primary branches give off secondary branches on either side, which may be simple and unbranched, or they may divide up and give rise to tertiary branches, the latter also- in some cases sending out quaternaries. The surface of the coenenchyme is yellow, and has a granular appearance produced by the yellow spicules. Any statement as to general size is in this case of little value, as the colony is obviously incomplete. The diameter of one of the two main stems is 3.5 by 2 mm. ; the diameter of a branch near the apex less than i mm. ; the calyces may be i mm. in height and 1.5 mm. in diameter. The calyces, are separated from one another by the merest fraction of a millimetre, the tentacles in some cases extend .75 mm. beyond the calyx. Ihe coenenchyme covering the horny axis near the base is about .8 mm. in thickness. The spicules from all parts of the colony are fairly similar, namely, double spindles, spicules of a club-like form, simple spindles (a few), and irregular spicules (rare). The double spindles range from 0.075 ^ 0.045 to 0.117 X 0.0396 mm. The club-like spicules of the coenenchyme from O.io X 0.065 fo 0.127 X 0.054 mm. The irregular spicules and simple spindles are about 0.099 x 0.081 mm. This species comes near Gorgonia diihia. Th. and Mac. These authors write, " There is no trace of anything resembling the ' scaphoid ' spicules described as characteristic of the genus Gorgonia. In this respect our genus comes nearest to Gorgonia oppositipinna, Ridley, and G. anstraliensis, Ridley, where the spicules are mainly whorled spindles, the scaphoids being only slightly developed." G. chibia resembles my species in the calyces occurring all over the stem and branches irregularly and in spirals, both are shallow water forms, but the coenenchyme of G. diibia is described as thin and white ; in my species it is fairly thick and yellow in colour. As my specimen is incom- plete, I do not give it a specific name, but as it w^as collected near Table Bay probably another example will be found later, and the doubt as to its identification will be settled. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 2,887. Robben Island, N.E., f N., 3 miles. Depth, 27 fathoms. By large dredge. Nature of bottom, coral, sand, shells and rocks. Mav 30th, 1900. 38 Thomson, SontJi African iiorgonacea. Eiigorgia Gilchristi, Hickson. At first I thought that these specimens belonged to the genus Euplexaura, but the absence of canals round the axis led me to revise my first identification. The specimens are yellow or orange red, they are branched in one j)lane, and are fairly fl-exiblc. A main stem, arising from a slightly expanded base, after a short upward course divides into two, and these in their turn give rise to branches, and the latter to branchlets. The branches are not straight, but irregularly curved or twisted, they would- be cylindrical except that the polyps originate on all sides, and give them a papillated appearance. The axis is dark brown near the base, and covered by a thin coenenchyme, higher up it is light brown or yellow, and covered by a thicker coenenchyme. The specimens vary in appearance at different parts, owing to the degree to which the polyps are contracted ; at some parts the branches appear papillated, owing to well developed calyces showing on all sides, with minute longitudinal slits at their apices, at other parts the surface of the coenenchyme appears much more uniform, owing to the calyces being more depressed, and in some such cases deep red blotches of colour 'may be seen, which are due to the red spicules of the tentacles. The polyps or calyces are crowded over the entire surface of the coenenchyme of the branches, and there is some indica- tion of a spiral arrangement, which is, however, of too close a nature to trace out. The coenenchyme is finely granular, and has apparently no lines or grooves on its external surface, but the calyces are so closely approximated that there is little free intervening space. The branches expand at their apices sometimes to quite a considerable extent, they do not end in a pointed manner, but are blunt or rounded. As previously stated, the calyces vary in size, according to the degree of contraction from minute almost imperceptible elevations to fairly prominent mound-like swellings; in the first case, their openings with the tentacles are about i/20th of a millimetre in diameter, in the second case their diameter is about 2 mm., and their height from \ to 1 mm. The larger specimen was about 8 cm. in height and 6.2 cm. in the plane of expansion. The diameter of a branch, includ- ing the calyces, near the centre of the specimen is about 2 mm. The horny axis is flexible, and its centre is of a different colour from the periphery. The axis of the main stem is i '20th of a millimetre m diameter, the axes of the terminal branches are thin and thread-like, and have a comparatively thick coenenchyme covering them. The second specimen is smaller, and pure yellow in colour, it is approximately 6 cm. in height. Majicliestcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQi6), No. I. 39 and 4 cm. in diameter; both of the specimens were to some extent concealed by a growth of Porifera and Polyzoa. Rough transverse sections through a branch show the yellow circular axis in the centre, and surrounding this, three or four cavities contaming the anthocodiae. These cavities are closely protected by spicules which extend inwards towards the axis, but do not invest the latter. The anthocodiae are completely retractile within the calyces, and the tentacles are marked out by prominent narrow, red spindles, which differ from those of all other parts of the specimen. The spicules of the outer and inner coenenchyme, and of the calyces, are similar m shape. They have the following forms and dimensions in millimetres: — (i) spindles, with five transverse rows of broad tubercles, about o. 12 x 0.04; (2) spmdles of about the same size, but instead of broad tubercles having simpler spines or i;)rocesses ; (3) spindles of the first kind, but with only two rows of broad tubercles, and measur- ing about 0.08 X o.oA: (4) double wheels (only a few), .04 x .06; (5) a few crosses or stars, and double crosses; (6) long, narrow spindles of the tentacles, with simple processes, about 0.26 x 0.02. The spicules of this specimen are difficult to classify, they vary so much. In spite of the difference in colour and some other points, I identify these specimens as young forms of Eugorgia Gil- christi, Hickson. They were found at the same depth, and in similar ground to those of Hickson. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 618. S.S.W., from Cajx" Recife, 52 fathoms. Taken by dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks and coral. Date, November 14th, 1898. Eugorgia line.ata , sp.n. Plate II., Fig. 3; Plate Y ., Fig. 2. This descri])tion is based on six white specimens. The branching is in one plane, but neither dichotomous nor regular. The axis is thick, horny, non-calcified, brown or black in colour, and the coenenchyme covering it is thin. Longitu- dinal slightly wavy lines occur on the surface of the coenen- chyme of the lower and chief shoots, which are only slightly de'veloi>ed on the upper branches. Anastomosis is rare, l^eing confined to only a few of the branches. The upper branches of the colony arc slightly flexible, and their axes when stripped of the white coenenchyme, yellow in colour. The calyces of the polyps occur only as very minute elevations, and the latter are not numerous near the base of the coloriy. The lower main branches arc slightly flattened, but the apical are rounded; on the flattened ones the polyps are slightly more numerous on the narrowed sides. On the more flattened basal In-anches, the number of longitudinal lines appears to be about £lvc in number, higher up this number decreases, and the polyps 40 Thomson, SoutJi African Gorgonacca. also become more equally distributed on all sides towards the apices of the colony. The axis of the colony expands into a basal attaching part, which is 7 by 7 mm. in diameter, above this it gives off later- ally disposed branches almost at once. The axis near the base is brown or black in colour, and extremely hard. Its surface IS very smooth, and shows very faint longitudinal lines or striae. In the flexible apical branches the axis is extremely thin, and has a thickness of less than i/ioth of a millimetre. There is no clear distinction into nodes and internodes. The branches vary considerably as to their mode of origin, their length, and the number of polyps. They may be simple or compound. One distinguishes in the colony several pre- dominant shoots, which give rise to simple and com[>ound branches, the latter giving rise to undivided branchlets, or to branchlets which may in their turn divide. There is also a rare anastomosis between branches which are fairly remote from one another in point of origin. The simple may come off opposite one another, or nearly opposite one another, or they may be alternate, and the same holds for the compound branches. The simple branches vary in length from 2 mm. up to 34 mm. The longer branches are not as a rule expanded at the end, but the shorter ones are, and thus ha\e a knob-like appearance at the apices. The dimensions of a colony may be 16 cm. in height by 10.5 cm. transversely. The polyps are very numerous and thickly distributed, the better expanded appear as oval (white) elevations (the calyces) whose long diameter is as a rule in the direction of the long axis of the branch or shoot on which they are situated, though this is not always the case; the opening surrounded by the apex of the calyx appears open in many cases, and the tentacles may be seen within as a whitish or yello'Adsh mass. The calyces project only very slightly beyond the general surface of the coenenchyme. The distance between adjoining calyces varies considerably, sometimes it is about I mm. A fairly well expanded polyp is about 2 by 1.5 mm. in diameter, and i mm. in height. The coenenchyme covering the axis is about o. i mm. in thickness. The entire surface of the colony is covered with small white spicules. The spicules of the polyp are spindles with tubercles, double wheels, rough stars, warted spheres, crosses, and some more irregular spicules. The spicules of the coenenchyme are similar, but there are not so many, or any of the longer narrow spindles. The long spindles are o.og x 0.02 mm. The double wheels are about 0.063 mm. in length, the stars or warted spheres are about 0.045 mm. This species is distinguished from Eugorgia Gilchristi by the calyces being here very much less prominent, by the basal branches being compressed, by a thinner coenenchyme, and other characters. It does not appear to agree with any of the Mancliestcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi6), No. I. 41 species of Eugorgia described by Verrill. Verrill's diagnosis of the genus is as follows: — " Coenenchyma composed chiefly of three forms of small spicula, which are naked at its surface. There are two kinds of warty double spindles — longer and usually sharper ones, and stouter and blunter ones. These are intermingled with numerous double-wheels, which are usually shorter; sometimes one of the wheels is shorter than the other, or rudimentary, frequently there are four wheels developed. The polyp-spicula are small, slender spindles. The axis is horny. Branches either round or compressed, vari- ously sub-divided, much as in Leptogorgia, surface finely granulous. Cells mostly m a band along each side of the branches, sometimes prominent, usually flat." Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 210. Cape St. Blaize, S.W. by W., i W., 6} miles. Depth, 15-18 fathoms. By dredge. Date of collection, July 15th, 1898. A large example of this species measuring 30 cm. in height and ii-i2cm. in breadth. The specimen is not complete, and shows that this species grows to a large size. The spicules agree with those from the Cape St. Blaize specimens. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 14,080. Nanquas Peak, N. f E., yl miles to Nanquas Peak, N.E. by N. f N., 7 miles. By large trawl. Depth, 50 fathoms. Bottom, mud and sand. Date, November 13th, igoi. Stoiogorgia capensis, sp.n. Pla/c I., Figs. ^ and y ; Plate /!'.. Fig. 5. This species is represented in my collection by two speci- mens from Algoa Bay. The axis is entirely homy, showing concentric layers of fibre in transverse section. The specimens are red or pink, with yellow polyps. The colony consists of a main stem, flattened near the base, which gives off branches on either side. In the larger specimen the primary branches are fairly equal on each side of the main stem, but in the smaller specimen they are much more developed on one side than on the other. These primary branches may be simple or undivided, but more usually they give off a series of second- ary off-shoots, the latter in a few cases giving rise to others of a third or fourth order. Polyos are situated on the main stem, but for about half its length these are chiefly confined to two sides, namely, those from which the branches arise, the other two sides remaining more or less free from polyps. In the upper part of the colony, however, the polyps are more uniformly distributed on all sides, the bilateral arrangement disapjjearing. The branches from the main stem do not, as a rule, arise opposite one another. The apices of the branches are frequently slightly pointed, several of the secondary branches, however, have rather a stunted appearance, and ter- minate in a lobe-like manner. In the lower part of the colony, 42 Thomson, South African (jorgonacea. the mam stem is flattened, but in the upper parts it tends to become more and more rounded. The lower primary branches are also flattened, but this flattening rarely occurs among the branches of the upper part of the colony. The calyces are prominent on all parts on which polyps occur, and their spicules arc redder and more abundantly dis- posed than on the rest of the surface. The polyps can be retracted almost entirely within the calyces, but in most cases, even when the opening is reduced to a small slit, a little of the tentacles can still be seen within the aperture. In the con- tracted condition the openings of the polyps are grooves, whose long axes are usually parallel to the long axes of the stem or branches on which they are borne. These grooves, when the })olyp IS contracted, are bounded by lip-like swellings. The polyi:)S vary in my specimens in the degree to which they are expanded, in the best cases the tentacles are not completely extended; they are dark yellow, brown, or red in colour. The polyps on the branches are fairly closely approximated to one another, especially near the apices. The branches are slightly flexible, the coenenchyme is thin, with a granular appearance, due to the spicules, which are easily seen with a lens lying scattered on its surface. The two specimens differ slightly in colour, one having white and the other red s{>icules. The spicules are large, and there are usually slight spaces between them. The dimensions of the specimens are as follows: — The larger colony, 8.5 by 6.5 cm.; horny axis near the base, 1.5 mm. m diameter; the calyx, from 0.5 to 0.75 mm. in diameter; the smaller colony, 6.8 by 5.0 cm. The spicules of the coenenchyme are spindles, clubs, and minute irregular spicules. The spicules of the tentacles are long spindles arranged in eight areas, giving the colour to the tentacles. The spicules of the calyces are double spindles, clubs, and small irregular spicules. The size of the spicules is as follows: — {a) The spicules of the coenenchyme: spindles, from 0.0756 x 0.045 to o. 11 70 x o.03g6mm. ; clubs, from o.io x 0.0658 to 0.127 x 0.054 mm.; irregular spicules, from O.ogg x 0.081 mm. {b) Spicules of the calyces and polyps : double spindles, from 0.054 x 0.027 to 0.126 X 0.03c} mm; clubs, from 0.081 x 0.054 to 0.121 x 0.054 mm.; simple spindles of tentacles, from 0.072 x 0.021 to 0.126 X 0.027 mm.; small irregular spicules, about 0.054 x 0.0342 mm. The type of this genus was described by Verrill under the name Stenogorgia casta. N. Lat., 31° 48' 50". W. Long., 7f 51' 50"- i'ive other species have been described, namely, Stenogorgia rosea, by Grieg, from Norway, in 1887; Steno- gorgia mtniata, Studer, from the Azores, in igoi — Syn. Gor- gonia rniniata, Valenciennes, 1855 — Syn. Gorgonia mtniata, Milne-Edwards et Haime, 1857 — Syn. Gorgonia miniata, Pourtales, 1868; this species has also been recorded by Nutting, Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 6), No. I. 43 from the Antilles, in igio. Stcnogorgia ceylonensis, Thomson and Henderson, from the Indian Ocean, in 1905; Stenogorgia Kofoidi, by Nutting (1Q09), from the Calif ornian coast, off Point Pmos Lighthouse ; Stenogorgia Siiideri, by Nutting (19 10), from the Siboga Expedition, Station 310-Lat., 8° 30' S. Long., 119° 7' 5" E., 7^ metres. Verrill's diagnosis of the genus is as follows: — " Axis horny, branched. Coenenchyme thin, con- sisting chiefly of small, warty fusiform spicula, with a few smaller, short, irregular, rougn, granule-like spicula next the outer surface, but not forming any regular layer. Calicles scattered or two-rowed, more or less prominent, eight-rayed at summit, and filled with spicula, like those of the coenenchyma. Tentacles filled with fusiform spicula and mostly incurved, commonly not retracted within the calicles, but capable of it." Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 608. Near Roman Rock, Algoa Bay. By dredge. November iith, igo8. Family, Gorgoncllidae. Yerrucella hicolor. Nutting. Plate v., Fig. 6. The specimens are yellow, orange yellow, or almost red in colour. The branching is nearly in one plane. The size varies from about 3.2 cm. by 1.5 cm. to 4 cm. by 4.5 cm. The s])ecimens expand at the base into an encrusting part, from which a short main stem ascends, and gives rise to primary branches, mostly m one plane; the primary branches give rise to secondary, and these to tertiaries, but the branching is not quite uniform in different specimens. The main stem is about 2 mm. in diameter, and has no polyps. The diameter of the upper branches is about the same as that of the primary stem. The branches usually originate at acute angles. The axis is expanded at the points at which the polyps originate, and when the latter are retracted, as is usually the case in my speci- mens, then the colony has a nodular appearance. The calyces have the shape of low' domes when the polyps are retracted, but are blunt cones when the latter are expanded. The jx)lyps usually originate on two sides, leaving two bare areas, which sometimes show two faint lines on the surface, the third side, however, sometimes has polyps. At the apices of the branches the calyces are closer together, and more thickly distributed on all sides than farther down, where they may be separated by an interval of i mm. ; the branches terminate bluntly. The larger calyces are about i mm. in height and diameter, in some cases the tentacles may be seen as an 8-rayed star projecting above the calyx. The polyps do not appear to originate quite perpendicularly from the branches. The axis, when treated with acid, effervesces very freely, and a white lamellar part is left behind, which consists of a darker coloured central and 44 Thomson, Sonth Afncan GorgouLJcea. a lighter external part, the latter showing a fine thread-like netted structure. The colony is slender and slightly flexible, and with a fairly thin coenenchyme. Anastomosis either does not or only rarely occurs. At the apices of the branches the polyps may lie opposite one another, but as a rule further down they are not so disposed. In the basal stem the axis is fairly thick, but in the apical branches it diminishes to a thin filament. The main stem is nearly cylindrical, but the branches are slightly compressed in the plane of expansion. The spicules are frequently of an ochre colour. They are after the same types as those figured by Kolliker for Verrucella guadelufensis, but differ in detail. It appears possible to re- cognise three types, but these are not sharply differentiated from another, and it seems possible to pass from one to another. In the cortex one finds {a) double spheres, {h) double spindles, {c) simple spindles, and {d) a few double stars. The same types of spicules occur in the polyps, but there is a greater predominance of the simple spindle. The double spheres are from 0.044 ^ 0.027 to 0.085 x 0.044 mm. The simple spindles are from 0.074 x o.oi to 0.129 x 0.027 mm. The double spindles are from 0.071 x 0.030 to 0.102 x 0.391 mm. My s]>ecimens were slightly dried during transit from South Africa, but apparently without causing much injury. I am convinced that the genus Verrucella is a very variable one, and that the eleven species which ha^'e been described are not all true species : the genus stands in need of revision. My specimens show affinities with T. gitadehipensis, Duch. and Mich., with V. guernei, Studer, with F. granifcra, Koll. and others. From the size of the spicules and other points, I might easily have constituted this a new species; several of the species described by other authors are probably only varieties of y. guadclu-pensis. It is unfortunate that Nutting gives no figures of the spicules of Verrucella bicolor from the Hawaiian Islands. Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 11,352. Tugcla River mouth, N.W. by N., i~N., 24 miles. Depth, 65 to So fathoms. Collected by large dredge. Nature of bottom, hard ground. Date, July nth, 1901. Pieter Faure. No. 11,586. Amatikulu River mouth, N.W., f N., 20 miles. By large dredge. Depth, 62 fathoms. Nature of bottom, rocks and sponges (hard ground). Date, January 30th, 1 90 1. I must in conclusion express my indebtedness to Miss A. Dixon, of Manchester University, who kindly made a number of preparations of spicules. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1916^ No. 1. 45 LITERATURE. BrOCH, Hj. (191 2). "Die Alcyonarien des Trondhjems — Fjordes II. Gorgonacea." Det. Kgl. Nors. V id ens. Selsk. Skr., Nr. 2, Trondhjem. DUCHASSAING ct MiCHELOTTI (1861). " Alemoirc sur les Coral- liaires des Antilles." Mem. R. Acad. Sci. Torino, 2nd Ser., XIX. Ellis and Solander (1786). "The Natural History of many curious and uncommon Zoophytes." London. ESPER, E. J. (1791-97). "Die Pflanzenthicre in x\bbildungen nebst Beschreibungen." Ntirnberg, 4 Vols. Gray, J. E. (1857). (i) " Characters of a new genus of Corals (Nidalia) " ; (2) " Description of a new genus of Gorgonidae {Acanthogorgia)!^ Proc. Zool. Soc. London, XXV. (1868). " Descriptions of some new genera and species of Alcyonoid Corals in the British Museum." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th Ser., II. ■ (1870). "Catalogue of Lithophytes or Stony Corals m the Collection of the British Museum." London. Grieg, J. A. (1887). " Bidrag til dc Norske Alcyonarier." Bergens Museum, Aarsher. HiCKSON, S. J. (1900). "The Alcyonaria and Hydrocorallin« of the Cape of Good Hope. Part I." Marine Investiga- tions in South Africa, Vol. I., No. 5. Cape Town. (1904). " The Alcyonaria of the Cape of Good Hope. Part II." Marine Investigations in South Africa, Vol. III. Cape Town. KiNOSHlTA, K. RigakushI (1908). " Primnoidae von Japan." Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. XXIIL, Article 12. KOLLIKER, A. (1865). "Icones Histiologicae." KUKENTHAL, W. (1908). " Gorgoniden der Deutschcn Tief see- Expedition. Die Gorgonidenfamilie der Melitodidse, Verr." ^5 Mitteilung). Zoologischen Anzeiger, Bd. XXXIII. , Nr. S/8. (1909). "Japanische Gorgoniden II. Tcil : Die Familien der Plexauriden, Chrysogorgiiden und Melitoden." Abh. der math. phys. l\l. der K. Bay-Akad. d. Wiss. I. Suppl- Bd., 5 Abh.," Miinchen. (1911)- "Alcyonarien von den Aru-und Kei-Inseln nach den Sammlungen von Dr. H. Merton." Abhandl der Senckenb. Naturf. Gesdlsch., Bd. XXXIII. Frankfurt-a-M. MilnE-Edwards ct Haime (1857-60). " Histoirc naturelle des Coralliaircs ou Polypes proprement dits." 3 Vols. 46 Thomson, Soutli African Gorgonacca. Nutting, C. C. (1908). "Descriptions of the Alcyonana col- lected by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries Steamer ' Albatross/ in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands, in 1902." Froc. US. Nat. M71S., Vol. XXXIV., Washington. (1909). " Alcyonaria of the Californian Coast." Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XXXV., Washington. (1910). "The Gorgonacea of the Siboga Expedition, VII. The Gorgonidas." Siboga-Expeditie, Monographic XIII., b. 4, Leiden. POURTALES, L. F. (1867). "Contributions to the Fauna of the Gulf Stream at great depths. ist and 2nd series." Bull. Mus. Com p. ZooL, Harvard. Ridley, Stuart O. (1884! " Zoological Collections of H.:M.S. 'Alert,'" London. Shann, W. E. (191 2). "Observations on some Alcyonaria from Singapore, with a brief discussion of the Classifica- tion of the Family Nephthyida?.'' Proc. Zool. Soc, London. Studer, Th. (1878). " Uebersicht der Anthozoa Alcyonaria welche wahrend der Reise S. M.S. ' Gazelle,' um die Erde gesammelt wurden." Monatsber. Akad. 'Wiss., Berlin. (1894). "Note Preliminaire sur les Alcyonaires: Report on Dredging Operations of Steamer 'Albatross.'" Bull. Mus. Conif. Zool., Harvard, Vol. XXV. (1901). "Alcyonaires provenant des Campagnes de I'Hirondelle : Resultats des Campagnes scientihques du Prince de Monaco." Fasc. XX. Thomson, J. A., and Henderson, W. D. (1905). "Alcyonana; Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries Report." Royal Society, London. (1906). " The Marine Fauna of Zanzibar and British East Africa, from Collections made by Cyril Crossland, M.A., B.Sc, F.Z.S., in the years 1901 and 1902 — Alcyon- aria." Proc. Zool. Soc, London. (1906). " An Account of the Alcyonarians collected by the Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship ' Investigator,' in the Indian Ocean, I. The Alcyonarians of the Deep Sea." Calcutta. Thomson, J. A., and Simpson, J. J. (1909). " An Account of the Alcyonarians collected by the Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship ' Investigator,' in the Indian Ocean. II. The Alcyonarians of the Littoral Area." Calcutta. Thomson, J. Stuart (191 1). " The Alcyonaria of the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. — Gorgonacea." Proc. Zool. Soc, London. Verrill, a. E. (1868-69). "Review of the Corals and Polyps of the West Coast of America, No. 6. Notes on Radiata." Trans. Conn. AcacL of Science, Vol. I. (1869-71). " Critical Remarks on the Halcyonoid Polyps in the Museum of Yale College, with descriptions of New Genera." Avier. Journ. Sci., 2 Ser., Vols. XLVII.-XLIX. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1916), No. 1. 47 Yerrill, a. E. (1878). " Recent additions to the marine fauna of the eastern coast of North America." Amer. ] oitrn. Sci., Vol. XVI. (1883-85). "Report on the Anthozoa and on some addi- tional Species dredged by the 'Blake,' in 1877-79, and by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer 'Fish Hawk,' in 1880-82." Btdl. Mus. Com-p. ZooL, Harvard, Vol. XL Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. Wright, E. P., and Studer, Th. (1889). "Report on the Scientific Results of the voyage of H.M.S. ' Challenger.' — Alcyonana." Vol. XXXI. INDEX. Ac ab aria, sp. Acanella eburnca, Pourtales Acanthogorgia armata, X'errill ... Acanthogorgia, sp. ... Anthothela -parvi flora, sp. n. Eugorgia Gilchristi, Hickson ,j lineata, sp. n. Eunicella fafillosa, Esper. Eu-plexaura farciclados , Wright and Studer Gorgonia albicans, Kolliker Gorgonia flanunea, Ellis and Solander Gorgonia sp. ... Lcptogorgia africana, sp. n. ,, alba, var. capensis ,, aiirata, sp. n. ,, rigida, Verrill ,, sp., juv ... Lophogorgia lutkeni, Wright and Studer Mclitodes Faurii, sp. n. ,, grandis, sp. n. Mopsella singularis, sp. n. Muricclla ramosa, Thomson and Henderson Stachyodes capensis, sp. n. Stenogorgia capensis, sp. n. Verrucella bicolor. Nutting Wrightella fragilis, sp. n. ,, jurcata, sp. n. sp- . ,, trilincata, sp. n. PAGE 12 19 21 21 3 35^ 39 24 24 36 36 11 28 29 32 ji 35 0? b 8 ID 22 27 41 43 15 17 19 13 48 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Plate I. Fig. I. — Aca7iella eb'urnea, Pourtales, 5 /6th nat. size. Fig. 2. — LofJwgorgia lutkeni, W. & S., part of, 5 /6th nat. size. Fig. 3. — Gorgonia Haunnea, E. & S., part of, 5/6th nat. size. Fig. 4. — Stenogorgia cafensis, sp. n., 5 /6th nat. size. Fig. 5. — Lcptogorgia aiirata, sp. n.. part of, 5 /6th nat. size. Fig. 6. — Gorgonia fuivimea, E. & S., part of, 6 times nat. size. P^S- 7- — SlC7Wgorgia cafcnsis, sp. n., jiart of, 7 times nat. size. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXI. {No. 1) 50 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea. Plate IL Uig. I. — Wrig/ifclla furcala, sp. n. part of, 5/6th nat. size. Fig. 2. — W right ella jragilis, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ^^^- 3- — Eitgorgia lineata. Fig. 4. — Mo f sella singular is, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, Fig. 5. — Anthothda farvifiora, sp. n., 5 /6th nat. size. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXI. {No. 1). Plate II 52 ■ Thomson, Sonth Alriau Corgonacca. Plate III. SiacJiyodes capensis, sp. n., nat. size. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXL, No, 1. Plate III. 54 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea. Plate IV. Fig. I. — W right dill trilineata, sp. n., spicules of. Fig. 2. — Leptogorgia aiirata, sp. n. Fig. 3. — Leptogorgia rigida, Verr. Fig. 4. — Acanthogorgia, sp. Fig. 5. — Stenogorgia capensis, sp. n. Fig. 6. — Gorgonia fLanunea, E. & S. Fig. 7- — Gorgonia, sp. Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. LXL, No. 1. Plate IV. > / ■ \ ' ? ■•* 6 H,-^ /' ^'^ -^^ '-^'-i C"V 4^ e^ ht 56 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea. Plate V. Fig. I. — VC right ell a fragilis, sp. n., spicules of Fig. 2. — Eiigorgia lineata, sp. n ,, Fig. 3. — Wrighiella trilineata, sp. n. ,, Fig- 4. — Anthothela farviflora, sp. n. ,, Fig. 5. — -Acaharia, sp. ,. Fig. 6. — Verrucella bicolor. Nutting ,, I'ig- 7- — Leftogorgia africana, sp. n. ,, Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXI., No. 1, Plate V. x" r^ "fr'^yp X-^^^ A C4 ',i¥ m i d V 5 ■- . 'g' ,/l V' 3 ^:^ ^ Manchester Mcuioirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 7), No. "Z- II. The "Mark Stirrup" Collection of Fossil Insects from the Coal Measures of Commentry (Allier), Central France. By Herbert Bolton, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., The Bristol /Ihtseit/n. {Received (7/id read November 28t]i, IQ16.) The collection of fossil insect remains from the Coal Measures of Commentry (Allier), Central France, which are now the property of the Manchester Museum, were presented by the late Mark Stirrup, and form the " Mark Stirrup Collection." They are representative of the largest insect assemblage known to occur in any of the Palaeozoic rocks of Europe, the late Charles Brongniart having recorded no less than 1,300 speci- mens, and to this number must be added many more discovered since his death. Brongniart's researches upon the fossil insects of Commentry resulted in the publication in 18Q4 of his now classical memoir, " Recherches pour servir a I'histoire des In- sectes Fossiles des Temps Primaires.'' x-\ll the important discoveries of insect remains in these Coal Measures of Commentry were made later than 1878. The late Mark Stirrup (Notes on the Carboniferous. Insects found at the Commentry Mines (Allier), France, Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc, Part IIL, Vol. XXI.) has given a brief description of the character of the coalhcld, from which it would appear that the coal seams and associated rocks were laid down in long narrow depressions formed in schistose and massively crystalline rocks of a much older period. Monsieur Henry Fayol, the director and engineer of the mines, has by observa- tion and experiment, satisfied himself that the coal seams arc made up of drifted vegetation. The rock in which the insects occur is a very fine grained mudstone, which may well have accumulated by the deposition of fine sediment in enclosed or lake-like waters. During the period in which Brongniart was actively en- gaged in his studies of the Commentry insects, and indeed until his death. Stirrup was one of his closest friends. The interest May nth, iQiy. 2 Bolton, " Mark Stimrp " Colic ct'wu of Fossil hi sects. of the latter found expression m the short papers^ which he contributed to the Transactions of t/te Manchester Geological Society, and in his review in the Geological Magazine of Brong- ni art's work. There can be little doubt therefore but that the collection of fossil insects now in the Manchester Museum was fonnecl by Brongniart himself, and given to his friend, Stirrup. Inasmuch therefore as Brongniart's researches, even more than those of Scudder or Goldenberg, served to establish the study and classification of Palaeozoic insects upon a firm basis, and the Mark Stirrup Collection having been brought together by him, it naturally possesses something more than an ordinary \'alue. That these fossil insects have found a ])crmanent home in the Manchester Museum is a matter for satisfaction. The Collection consists of nine specimens, of which five are blattoids. Brongniart in his first monograph, "Les Insectes des Temps Primaires," did not fully deal with the blattoid group, reserving them, according to .Stirrup, for a special and more exhaustive study in a later work. The early death of Brongniart m i8qq, when only forty years of age, prevented this design being carried out, and probably also accounts for the fact that the collection given to Stirrup included species not hitherto described. Later v^'orkers, especially Messrs. Leriche and Meunier, have added to our knowledge of the Commentry blattoids, but I do not know that they had access to the Stirrup Collection. All the insect remains occur in a compact and thin, flaggy mudstone, containing very little mica, and hnely laminated. The rock is one which was evidently deposited in quiet, or stagnant water. The only other fossils found in association with the insects in the Mark Stirrup Collection are fragments of Pecopteris. Megagnatha odonatifonnis. gen. et. s}). n. PL I ; hgs. I — 4. Generic diagnosis. — Antennae of medium length, thorax much elongated, wings broad and delicate, legs long, widely separated, and not adapted for leaping. Abdomen long and broad. 1. " The Fossil Insects of the Primary Rock?,'' by Charles Brong- niart of Paris, translated by Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society, Vol. XVIII., pp. 269-292. " Notes on the Carboniferous Insects found at the Commentry Mines (AUier), France," by Mark Stirruix Trans. Manchester Gcol. Soc, pt. Ill, Vol. 21. '' The Carboniferous Insects of Commentry, France," bv Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc.,_ pi. XXI., Vol. 22. " On the Fossil Insects of the Primary Periods," a review of M. Charles Brongniart's book, by Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. Trans. .Man- chester Geol. Soc., pt. v., Vol. 23. See also Geological Magazine, Decade IV., Vol. i ^, p. 233, iSo^. Manchcsler Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. i.igi/), No.%. 3 Specific Diagnosis. — Head small, elongated; wings a little shorter than length of body. Sub-costa united with radius in outer third of wmg. SuJD-costa, radius and radial sector occupy outer third of wmg. Wing apex blunt. Median vein much divided, and occupying outer half of inner wing margin. Cubitus small. Anal area small. One of the most important insects in the .Stirrup Collection is an almost comi>lete insect which cannot be referred to any known genus. The insect lies upside down upon the stone, and has a total length of 3g mm. The head is elongated, rounded behind, and bears a jiair of diverging antennae, g mm. long. Within the antenna?, a pair of mandibular-like structures are discernible. These are 4 ram. in length. The prothorax is much elongated, and widest posteriorly, anteriorly it is marked off from the head by a slight constriction. The mesothorax IS much broader than the prothorax, and bears the remains of the wings. The right jjair of wings has been broken away near their base and lost, whilst of those on the right side, little more than the costal margin of the antenor wing is visible. Fragmentary traces of the chief veins of the wings of the left side can be made out by means of enlarged ])hotographs. All three pairs of legs are present, the fore and hind legs being well preserved, and the middle pair fragmentary. The abdomen is broad, well segmented, and about igmm. long. A short backward prolongation on the right side may represent a portion of the last segment, or one of a pair of cerci. Wings. — The venation of the wings presents considerable difficulty. Careful enlargements of the right forewing have been made, and every portion of a vein traced off. By this means, the course of the principal veins can be determined, and portions of the smaller twigs. The junction of most of the latter to the former is not clear. An exact analysis of the wing structure is thus no easy matter. Notwithstanding the fragmentary condition of the veins and associated twigs, cer- tain features are very evident, and I think the following con- clusions may be safely drawn. The costal margin is almost straight, and gently curves into a well rounded and broad apex. The sub-costa is a feeble vein, passing out parallel to the wing margin over two-thirds of the wing, when it joins on to the radius. The radius is a simple structure parallel to the sub-costa, and only separated from it by a very narrow area. It reaches the wing margin at the outer edge of the wing apex. The relations and character of the radial sector, median and cubitus are not so easily understood. Fragmentary portions of a few principal veins can be traced across the middle of the wing, and portions of a numer- 4 Bolton, "Mark SHrrup'' Collcciion of Fossil Insects. ous series of twigs are shown in the outer apical area, and between the middle Ihie and the inner margin. The precise relationship of all these is a matter largely of conjecture. A radial sector is undoubtedly present, and it may possess one to three sub-di\'isions. In any case the radial sector arises close to the base of the radius, and in all proba- bility gives off the median in the basal fourth of the wing. An important vein giving off three twigs in the middle of the apex of the wing is apparently the innermost division of the radial sector. The median vein bends inwards from its junction with the radial sector, and then passes along the middle line of the wing towards the apex, where it curves inwards and ends upon the margin. From the fragmentary portions of twigs which remain, it clearly gave off a numerous series of parallel and curving simple twigs, which occupied the whole of the outer third of the inner margin of the wing. The cubitus apparently consisted of two or more branches passing hrst inwards and then outwards in sigmoidal curves. A little beyond the middle of their length, the cubital veins fork, and end upon the wing margin in 8-9 twigs. Traces of a few anal veins arc present. The anal area appears to have been small. The chief features of the wing may be summarised as follows: — Outer and inner wings, mar- gins almost straight and parallel to each other. Apex of wing bluntly rounded. Sub-costa feeble, and joining on to the radius distally. Radius straight, and giving off radial sector low down. Intercostal and radial areas narrow, so that the sub-costa, radius and radial sector lie in the outer third of the wing. Radial sector consisting of two, possibly three, divi- sions, the innermost giving off a few simple twigs to the wing apex. Median vein large, much divided, and arising in union with the radius and radial sector. Cubitus of two-three branches. Anal area small. Legs. — The fore and hind pair of legs are fairly well preserved. The middle pair are represented iDy the femora only. The hind legs are the longest, and as they now lie, have the femora bent back close to the abdomen, and the tibiae are at right angles. The tarsal segment of the right hind leg seems, long, but it IS not well defined. That of the left leg is missing. The fore legs show the femora placed at right angles to the pro- thorax, whilst the tibiae are directed forwards, and the tarsi bent a little outwards. The tarsi are slender, and the femora show no trace of thickening, such as is characteristic of the' Locustidcc. Abdomen. — The general appearance of the abdomen has been already noted. Its segments are clearly discernible. The ventral surface of each bears two low ridges, disposed longi- tudinally, and placed midway between the middle line and the sides of the segments. It is not quite clear whether the sides of the segments were carried out into blunted tubercles or not. I Manclicster Memoirs, Vol. l.xi. (1917), No. *Z. 5 In two places something of the kind seems present. The cerci- likc termination of the abdomen may or may not be actual cerci, or the appearance may be caused by a surface film of the matrix being- broken away at this point. Affinities. — The salient facts of structure which need to be borne in mind in seeking to identify the insect are well marked, and distinctive, notwithstanding its fragmentary structure. I have already summarised the details of wing structure, and they need not therefore be repeated. The general details are as follows :—I"Iead small and bearing well-developed antennae, and powerful mandibles, thorax large and much elongated, especially the prothorax; legs well developed, wings long and delicate; abdomen long. This assemblage of characters is not unlike those of certain of the Proto-orthoptera, and it may be that better preserved examples will definitely settle the question of Proto-orthopteron affinities. Should the insect belong to this class, it will prob- ably be found closely related to the family Sfanioderidee, or that of the Sthenar o podiel cc . With the family Spanioderidie, the specimen agrees in its elongated prothorax, and legs not adapted for jumping. It is still more closely in agreement with SthenaropodidiC , in which the head and thorax are elongated, the legs slender, with the hind pairs the longest, and the wings have a broadly rounded apex. In this family also, the outer branch of the median unites with the inner branch of the radial sector, and separates again. The cubitus gives off many branches to the inner wing margin. Transverse veins are well developed. Whether the radial sector and the median unite in the Commentry specimen which we are considering is not actually demonstrable, owing to its fragmentary condition. Yet a close study of the vein fragments shows that it is quite likely, and we have assumed such to be the case. Before we, however, class the specimen as belonging to^ the Sthenaropodidce, it may be well to point out that this insect, and certain others classed with the Proto- orthoptera, may possibly yet jirove to be neuropterids, some- what nearly related to the family Perlidec. Brongniart has already shown (Insectes Fossiles, p. 407, 1893) that some justi- fication exists for the supposition that forms allied to. the Perlick-e existed in Coal Measure times, and has descril>ed a wing under the name of Protoperla Westuwodi. The existing forms of Pcrlidce have a well-developed and elongated thorax; four membranous wings, of which the hinder are the largest, and well-developed and widely separated legs. The venation of the wing in such a living form as Pteronarcys frigida is but little removed from that of the Commentry insect, whilst the latter also shows a close resemblance to the wing described under the name of Protoperla Westurood-i, by Brongniart. It differs from the latter in that the sub-costa is clearly attached at its distal end to the radius, and does not reach the costal 6 Bolton, "Mark S/imip" Collection of Fossil Insects. margin at all. The characters of the radial sector, median and cubitus are radically different from those of P. Westzvoodi. I am of opinion that the ncuro])tcroid evidences of struc- ture are more evident than any which may be considered proto- orlhopteroid, and therefore assign it to a new genus of the family Pcrlida\ under the name of ''''Mega gnat hc7 odonatiformis. \ Dr. A. D. Imms, who has kindly read my jiaper whilst in manuscript form, has suggested that the specnnen may pos- sibly come nearer to the SialidiC than to the Perlidassing down into two flattened postero- *This generic name has been substituted for that of " Pseudoperhi."" Avliich I first used. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. fiQi/), 'No. %. / lateral areas, whilst in the middle of the hinder border, the convexity of the surface is carried out into a short, blunt, peg- like prolongation, which just overhangs the prothorax. The prothorax is short, low, and slightly ridged from side to side. The mesothorax is large, its upper surface raised and slightly convex, and bearing three low boss-like elevations, arranged at the points of a triangle, the posterior one marking the apex of the triangle, and being the most prominent. A small portion of the flattened metathorax lies behind, in a triangular area not covered by the wings. The forewings are folded in a posi- tion of rest upon the body, and almost entirely overlap at their free ends. The wings are \cry narrow at the point of attachment, and broaden out rapidly to the wing apex. The length of the wings is () mm., and their greatest breadth about 4 mm. The principal veins of the right wing are the more perfect, those of the left wing, so far as they are discernible, being in agreement. For pur^50ses of description we have therefore selected the right wing. The wing structure of the insect is widely removed from that of all known Palaeozoic forms, the nearest approach to a similar wing structure that we know of being found amongst the recent Scorpion-flies (/^rt«6'//zV/rccl inter- calary venation, the cubitus is simple and less divided, and the anal area is larger, with more oblique veins. From the foregoing, it seems clear that Scudder's genus name of (loldcnhcr gia must be retained, and that the later generic names of Heeria, Microdictya and Sagenoptera be dropi)ed, and that Sagenoptera fonnosa must be transferred to the genus Cioldenber gi'i. Brongniart's "Heeria Vaillanti" (Insectes Fossiles des Temps Primaires, ]i. 380, ])1. XXXVII. . 22. fig. 12; pi. Manclicster Mrinoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi/). No. *i. 1 1 XXXIXX., fig. 1 and 2, i8g4), must also be classed as " Goldenbergia Vaillanti." Manchester Museum, Mark Stirrup Collection; Register Xo., L5.557. Horizon. — Stcphanian. Locality. — Commentry (Allicr), Central France. Necy///}'Ioc/'i.\- Metiuieri. sp.n. PI. II.; figs. 3 — 5. This specimen has becomcd entombed with the j)ronotum and wmgs still attached to the body. The latter is almost wholly concealed, and but few traces of the segments of the body can be distinguished. The ajiical portions of both tegmina have been broken away, and the venation is somewhat obscured by their overlapping in the middle line, and by a few veins of the hind wings showing \\\\ through the tegmina. The total length of the insect from the front edges of the pronotum to the broken edges of the v.'ing is 35 mm. About one-sixth of the wing apex is missing, so that the total length of the complete insect would be about 41 mm. The Pronotinu. — The pronotum at first sight is a most unusual structure. It appears to be sub-rotund in outline, and di\ isible into three parts, two stout reniform lateral areas show- ing a surface ornament of transverse and anastomosing wrinkles, and a somewhat circular central area, evidently much thinner and membranous, and now much wrinkled, possibly by crushing. The wing shoulders abut closely against the pronotum, the latter appearing to have a well-clehned groove, into which the wing bases fit closely. So closely are the wing bases apj)lied to the ridges upon the pronotum that it would appear impossible for them to be opened, except by thrusting the sides of the pro- notum bodily forward. As the lateral sections of the pronotum do not meet in the middle line, being separated by a short interval, into which the thinner and probably yiliable central j)ortion extends, this seems quite feasible. Nothing of this character is known in any blattoid, living or fossil, and I was wholly unable to regard this view of the structure as a correct one. I therefore submitted the specimen to Prof. E. B. Poulton, of the Hope Museum, Oxford, who, with his assistants, has kindly subjected the s]>ecimen to a critical examination. As a result of their examination and of experiments with the tegmcn of PcripLaneta americana, they are satisfied that the pronotum is complete with a rounded posterior border, which underlies the bases of the wings, and has been crushed down by them. The apparent socketting of the wings into the pro- notum has been brought about by the wings being first dragged backwards, and then thrust forward over the edges of the pronotum. upon which they have since become impacted. This certainly seems the most reasonable interpretation, and it is one with which I agree. The [ironotum is therefore normal in shape, 12 Bolton, ''Mark Shmip" Collection of Fossil lusecls. and traces of its hinder border can be seen across the anal area of the left tegmen. The Tegniina. — Of the two tegmina, the left is the most perfect, and has a length of 28 mm. The right tegmen has a length of 32 mm. The total length of the whole tegmen in each case is about 37 millimetres. The left tegmen is selected for detailed description. The costal margin is gently convex, and passes imperceptibly into the apex of the wing. The sub- costal vein is widely separated from the costal margin at its ba.se, and follows an oblique course outwards. Two-thirds of the costal margin are occupied by the sub-divisions of the sub- costal vein. These sub-cli visions arc few in number (6-7), the first four dividing into three twigs, whilst the hfth and sixth are single. The radius divides at the first fourth of its length into two equal veins. The outer branch gives off a forward twig, which divides twice by forking into four twigs, which reach the margin. About the middle of the wing, a single unbranched twig is given off, and two, possibly three, others further out. The inner branch gives off two long unbranched twigs, which })ass almost straight outwards to the wing apex. The divisions of the radius occupy the outer part of the wing apex. The median vein arises close to the radius, diverging inwardly as it passes onwards to the inner side of the middle of the wing apex, giving off three forward branches, which go to the wing apex parallel to the inner divisions of the radius. On its inner side, the median gives off a series of hve twigs, which go down to the inner wing margin. The first two fork once, whilst the third crosses the fourth, uniting with the latter for a very short distance, and then passing on in front of it to the margin, the fifth twig divides up into four branches. The anal furrow is strongly marked, and portions of eight anal veins are distinguishable. The anal area occupies one- third of the inner wing margin, the remainder of the margin being occupied by the inner divisions of the median. The ven- ation of the right wing agrees in general character with that of the left, but is simple and less sub-divided. The sub-costal is a little more sub-divided dn the wing margin, and the radius has a slightly smaller area. The median and cubitus have few sub-divisions. The anal veins are better shown, and no less than fourteen can be determined. The surface of the tegmina is somewhat coriaceous, and at first sight presents a scaly ap- pearance, owing to the well-developed intercalary venation, consisting of a reticulated meshwork, which becomes transverse where it crosses the divisions of the radius and median. Hind wings. — Clear traces are present under the tegmina. of the main stem of the (?) cubital element of both hind wings, and of a few of their more distal divisions, but nothing of a definite character can be determined. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1Q17), ISo. *J. 13 Body. — That the body of the insect still lies underneath the wing is clearly evident. The metanotum shows up through the thin anal areas, and there are also visible a few of the anterior segments of the abdomen. In enlarged photographs, at least two segmental furrows can be distinguished. The area occupied by the abdomen seems to be nidicated by a darker area of colour, which is also slightly elevated above the level of the tegmina. This dark area has a breadth of 14 mm. Affinities. — The salient features of the tegmina of this insect are very clearly marked. The sub-costal area is tri- angular, whilst the subsidiary twigs tend towards a pectinate arrangement. The radius takes little part in the wing apex. The median is an important vein, occupying most of the wing apex, and giving off all its twigs on the outer side. The cubitus is even more developed than the median, occupies the greater |)art of the inner wing margin, and gives off twigs on its outer and inner sides. Its extension to the wing tip is a strong feature. This assemblage of characters is in agree- ment with Scudder's genus, Necyviylacris,'^ and Handlirsch's genus Eiiniorphoblatta? Scudder's definition of the genus seems sufficiently good to warrant the retention of his genus. The specimen differs from yV. Lafittei, Pruvost, and N. Godoni, Pruvost, and appears to be more nearly related to N. heros, Scudder. It differs from the latter in the presence of a reticulated venation, in a more sub-divided median vein, and in the greater development of the outer branches of the cubitus. We do not know of any other species to which it can be referred, and therefore attach to it the name of Monsieur F. ]\Icunier. who has done so much good work upon the French fossil insects. Type. — Manchester ]\Iuseum, ]\Iark Stirrup Collection ; Register No., L5, 5 5 5. Horizon. — Stephanian. Locality. — Commentry (Allier), Central France. Necyniylacris Lcrichci, sp.n. PI. III.; figs. I — 5. The remains of this insect have proved to be of a most tantalising character. The greater part of the pronotum is present in a smashed up condition, the fore and hind wings are partially superposed upon one another, so that the venation can only be unravelled with great difficulty, whilst the hind legs and possibly a part of the abdomen lie beneath all the rest. Fronotiini. — The pronotum is circular, with a small rounded projecting lobe in the median line on the front margin. The 2. Necymylacris, Scudder, Palaeozoic Cockroaches, Mcui. Boston Soc. Sat. Hist., Vol. iii, part i, p. 52, 1S7Q. 3. Eumorphoblatta, Handlirsch, Proc. U.S. National Museum, Vol. 20, p. 273, 1Q06. 14 BOLTOX, " Mark Stirrup " Collection of Fossil Insects. ornament consists of a series of low irregular ridges running from the centre to the margin, becoming feebler as the margin is reached. Teguiina. — The tegmina are clearly distinguishable, that of the left side being almost ]>erfect, and 33 mm. long. The right tegmen has lost the basal third, owing to the matrix being broken away. Left Teguicn. — The costal margin is convex, and slopes inwards from the sub-costal area back to the wing ay)ex, the latter being more acutely rounded than in most blattoids. The sub-costa is a short vein passing obliquely forwards at an acute angle to the costal margin, and cutting ofi a triangu- lar costal held. The sub-costal vein is small, and breaks up into three branches, the first forking twice into three twigs, the second giving off two undivided twigs and then forking, whilst the third is long and remains undivided. The costal field occupies about one-third of the outer margin, and is triangular, being especially wide at the base. The character of the sub-costa, and the shape of the costal area are typically Necymylacrid. The radius is a large much divided vein, occupying the outer two-thirds of the costal margin, and reach- ing almost to the middle of the tip of the wing. It divides near the base into two main branches, both of which repeatedly fork, ultimately forming ten twigs each, so that the radius ends upon the margin in twenty twigs. The median vein with its sub-divisions lies along the middle of the wing, and ends upon its apex. Owing to the venation of the hind wing having become impressed upon the forewing, the ultimate branching of the median is very difficult to trace. The basal half of the vein is fairly clear, and it is possible to distinguish that it bends inwards along its course to the inner side of the wing apex, apparently giving off three branches, which pass straight out to the wing apex. The outer of the three branches seems to fork once, and the next, twice, so that the branch ends in three twigs. The third branch forks into two equal-sized twigs. The cubitus is a large vein, going in a long concave sweep from the base of the wing to the inward side of the wing apex. It gives off eight branches on its inner side, all of which divide, except the fifth and eighth. These all pass off obliquely from the main stem, the first, second, and third, forking several times, whilst the fourth, sixth, and seventh, fork once only. The whole of the inner margin of the wing beyond the anal area is occupied by these divisions of the cubitus. The anal area is large, and crossed by about eight-ten veins, two of which fork. The inner margin appears to have been more straight than rounded. Riglit tegmen. — The basal portion of the right fore wing being broken away, the course of only the distal divisions of the veins can be distinguished. These are substantially simi- Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1Q17), No. 'Z. 15 lar to those of the left wing. The divisions of the radius occupy the outer wing margin beyond the sub-costal area, the median ends upon the tip of the wing in nine twigs, whilst the cubitus has the same inner curve as that of the right. Hind 'Wing.':. — Our attempts to determine the structure of the hind wings have not been successful. A few twigs of what seem to be the sub-costa are shown in the left hind wing, to- gether with terminal twigs of the radius, median and possibly cubitus, the outer third of the radius, and a few twigs of the median. The radius would appear to occu])y the whole of the wing apex. Of the right hind wing, only a ])ortion of the radius is distinguishable. Legs. — Traces of the hinder pair of legs show up through the wing. The left hind leg exhibits the femur, tibia, and tarsus J the elements of the latter cannot, however, be made out. The femur is flat, the tibia more rounded, and only about half the diameter of the femur, and it is clothed with numerous short stiff bristles. The tarsus is attenuated, and appears almost claw-like. The right hind leg shows very little of the femur, whilst the tibia and tarsus add nothing further to that seen upon the right leg. The two legs evidently still remain at- tached to the iDocly, and a slight elevation at the junction of the legs probably marks the end of the abdomen. The latter appears like a broad flat structure, tapering from the sides to a central blunted end. The whole body of the insect did not exceed a length of 24 mm., measured from the front edge of the pronotum to the end of the abdomen. Thc^ width of the abdomen is 10 mm. Affinities. — Notwithstanding the fact that the sub-costal area of the specimen does not seem to extend over more than one half of the outer margin, in this respect disagreeing with the generally accepted condition in Necymylacris, I refer the speci- men to that genus. There is close agreement with the genus in the grouping of the branches of the sub-costa, and in their \'ery oblique direction. The radius forks near the base of the wing, the outer branch and its divisions going to the front margin, whilst the innermost divisions of the inner branch of the radius pass out in almost a straight line to the wing a]>ex. The median, the course of which can only be traced with diffi- culty, occupies the tip of the wing, and its inner border. In its position, and in sending off 3 — 4 horizontal and simi)ly divided twigs, it differs very little from .V. heros, Sccl. The cubitus, with its many divisions occupying all the inner wing margin outside the anal area, is essentially Necymylacrid. The divisions in the cubitus are more forked than in N. Villeti, Pru., or N. Lafittee, Pru., and somewhat similar to what obtains in .V. Godoni, Pru. From the latter, the w'ings differ m the simpler form of the sub-costal, and in the more numerous divisions of the radius, and in the basal branching of the latter. 1 6 Bolton, ''Mark Stirrup"' Collection of Fossil Insects. The species appears to be a new one, and we attach to it the name of Monsieur M. Leriche, who has added considerably to our knowledge of the insect fauna of the Northern French Coal Measures. Type. — Specimen in the Manchester }*Iuseum, Mark Stirrup Collection; Register No., L5,552. Horizon. — Stephanian. Locality. — Commentry (Allier), Central France. FJiylloblatta Brongniartu Handlirsch. PI. I\^. ; figs, i — 5. Etoblattina sp. Brongniart, Insectes Fossiles des Temps Primaires, t.48, Fig. 4, 1893. This specimen is one of more than usual interest, owing to the fact that a portion of the hinder pair of wings, as well as the tegmina are preserved. Usually the hind wings are absent, or so obscured by the overlying tegmina as to be impossible of elucidation. A circular area has been impressed upon the base of the tegmina, and may indicate where the pronotum lay. If such were the case, the pronotum was unusually large. The right tegmen and right hinder wing lie with their lower surfaces upwards, those of the left showing the upper surfaces. The hinder pair of wings appear to have been imperfect before en- tombment, whilst the tegmina have lost the apical portions since the specimen was found. This at least may be inferred from the presence of a broken edge w^hich cuts across the two tegmina, and still retains traces of cement. No definite portions of the body or legs are distinguishable, although an ill-defined mass lies in front of the right hind wing. Tegmina. — The right tegmen is 29 mm. long, and has lost its outer third, whilst of the left tegmen little more than the basal third is present. The latter shows but minor points of difference, the chief being in the proximal twigs of the sub-costa, two of which fork three times, whilst those of the right in the same region are undivided. It will be sufficient therefore if the right wing is described in detail. Right tegmen. — The costal margin is regularly and gently convex, merging distal ly into the blunted rounded apex of the wing. The sub-costa is a strong vein, widely separated from the costal margin, and parallel to it. It gives off a series of simple twigs, three of which are forked. The whole series of twigs, sixteen in number, pass obliquely outwards to the costal margin. The sub-costal, with its numerous divisions, occupies four-fifths of the outer margin. The radius arises close to the base of the sub-costa, and gradually diverges from it in its course to the middle point of the wing apex. It gives off two forwardly directed branches, both of which fork before reach- ing the broken edge of the wing. Whether additional forking takes place further out cannot be determined, owing to the absence of the apical portion. Manchester Meuioirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi/), No. % ij The median vein follows a course fairly parallel to that of the radius, and m the portion of wing preserved, gives off an inwardly directed branch, which soon divides by forking into two equal twigs. The divisions of the radius and median together occupy the whole of the wing apex. The cubitus is an important and well-developed vein. Enough of it is present to show that its final divisions must have occupied the whole of the inner wing margin outside the anal area. The main stem of the cubitus curves inwards, des- cending low down towards the inner margin, and then con- tinuing towards the wing apex. It gives off on its inner side, a series of long twigs, wliich pass obliquely inwards to the wing margin. Of these, all shown on the wing fragment are simple and undivided except the first, which gives off three short divisions on its inner side. The anal furrow is well marked, and forms an almost complete semi-circle. Seven anal veins are distinguishable, the second and third being forked in the middle of their length. The inner margin is almost straight. The intercalary venation consists of a fine reticulation, with a tendency to a transverse arrangement between the veins. Hind wings. — Both left and right hind wings are very fragmentary. As contrasted with the tegmina, they are ex- tremely thin and membraneous, so that the general wing struc- ture outside the veins is not readily determinable. The two wings are not alike, the left wing fragment being best pre- served, and the largest. Left hind iving. — The costal margin is straight. The sub- costal is a feeble vein, giving off a few twigs, which pass out obliquely to the costal margin. It lies somewhat close to the latter, so that the costal area is narrowly strap-shaped. The radius is a strong vein arising close to the sub-costal, and pass- ing straight outwards. Just before reaching the end of the wing fragment, it forks into two branches, both of which again fork. There can be no doubt from the direction in which the main stem continues, but that other divisions of the radius arose further out. The radial sector arises from the radius near its base,' and passes obliquely inwards, diverging some- what widely from it. Four twigs are shown arising outwardly from it, the first of which forks twice. The median divides near its base into two unequal branches, the outermost of which remains simple for a good portion of its length, forking into two twigs on the broken edge of the wing. The inner branch, by repeated forking, gives rise to live twigs. The cubitus follows a straight course towards the distal end of the inner wing margin. On its outer side, a single twig is given off, whilst on the inner side, six twigs arise at regular intervals, the third one of the series forking. The next two 1 8 Bolton, ''Mark Stirmp" Collection of Fossil Insects. veins may form part of the cubitus, but this cannot be deter- mined, as both the proximal and distal portions are missing. Outside these is a small rectangular fragment of the wing bearing a close series of five parallel veins, which are apparently anal in character. How much of the wing is missing it is diffi- cult to conjecture. The right hind wing differs from the left, and is not so easily understood. The sub-costal vein is much the same, as its fellow of the right side. The radius gives off a feeble twig outwardly, and a longer and more important one from its inner side, which forks. It diverges obliquely from the radius. The radial sector arises near the base of the radius, and diverges widely from it. It remains undivided for a length double that of its fellow of the left wing, and then gives off an outward twig which forks as it reaches the broken edge of the wing. The median vein seems to be united to the radius at its point of origin, but the wing area is partially obscured at this point, and the conditions are not clearly determinable. Unlike its fellow the left wing, there is no long undivided outer branch, the main stem remaining undivided for some distance before it gives off the first outer branch, which lies parallel to the main stem of the radial sector and forks. A second outer twig arises a little further out, following a course parallel to the first. The cubitus seems to consist of two separate parts : an outer stem giving off two forwardly directed veins, and three which pass down tO' the inner margin. In this respect it does not differ much from the cubitus of the left wing. Lying, however, inwards to the main stem just described, are a series of long veins which may have been given off from an inner division of the main stem of the cubitus, although proximally the two are somewhat widely separated now. This separation may be due to the same cause which has broken away the anal area, and folded two forked veins underneath the hinder branch of the cubitus. If our interpretation of the cubitus be correct, it must have occupied the greater part of the inner half of the wing, and have occupied a greater area than the radius and median veins combined. The intercalary venation consists of a fine reticulated mesh- work, similar to that of the tegmina. The hind wing frag- ments are 30 mm. long, and 20 mm. wide. Affinities. — Brongniart figured a somewhat similar form under the name of Etoblattina sp. (Brong. Insectes Fossiles des Temps Primaires, pi. XLVII (31), Fig. 4, 1893), and still more recently M. Pruvost has recorded wings of a similar type from the neighbourhood of Lens in the North of France. (P. Pruvost, " Les Insectes Houillers du Nord de la France," Annales de la Societe Geol. du Nord T. XLL, p. 323, igi2. Maiic/icstei- Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi/). No. *i. Kj pi. X., Fig-s. 5, 6 and 7). Alonsieur Pruvost has, and wc think correctly, placed the forms described by him in Handlirsch's genus PJiylloblatta. The genus was founded by Handlirsch in igo6 (Handlirsch, Revision of American Pal3?ozoic Insects, No. 1 44 1, Proc. United States Nat. Mus. p. 731) to hiclude many species previously recorded by Scudder under the names of Etoblattina and Gerablattina. Phylloblatta is one of the best defined genera of the Archimylacrid group, with the fol- lowing general characters. The wings are elliptical in form, two and a half times as long as wide. Costal area narrowly strap-shaped, and extending to three-fifths or two-thirds along- the outer margin. Radius in outer half of wing with few outwardly directed branches. Median vein curving down to inner apical margin. Cubitus extending over the greater part of the inner wing margin, and giving off a numerous series of straight twigs. Intercalary venation rugose-leathery, or more cross-wrinkled. x\ll these general characters are possessed by the tegmina of the specimen now under consideration, and there can be no doubt that the specimen is referable to the genus Phylloblatta. Of the nine species of Phylloblatta recorded from Com- mentry and Lens by Messeurs. Handlirsch and Pruvost, that of P. Brongniarti, Hancll., is so closely in agreement with our specimen that no difference of specific importance can be recog- nised, and we have no hesitation in assigning it tO' that species. Locality. — Commentry (Allier), Central France. Florizon. — Stephanian. Figured specimen in the Manchester Museum, Stirrup Collection; Register No., L5,554. Phylloblatta obsatra, sp.n. PI. III. ; figs. 6 — 8. Species diagnosis .—\ied\d.n vein dividing beyond the middle of the wing with few branches; diverging widely from the radius. Cubitus large, with 5 — 6 oblique undivided branches. Anal veins 6 — 7 in number. The body of this insect probably floated out upon the water almost whole, and was not completely broken up before it was silted over by mud. The specimen shows the greater part of the pronotum, the two tegmina, and traces of two, possibly three legs. The details of the specimen are more obscure than is usual with the blattoids found at Commentry, and the pronotum and tegmina have suffered loss. In the former, portions, of the surface have been carried away, and the latter have lost the outer portions of the wing margin. A few traces of the hind wings show up through the tegmina. The pronotum is thin, circular, and was apparently slightly convex, the hinder third covering the attachment of the fore- wings to the mesonotum. Little more than the marginal rim of the pronotum is left anteriorly, whilst the hinder edge has impressed a groove upon the anal area of the wing&. 20 BOI.TON, " Mark Stirrup " Collcctioi of Fossil bisects. Tegjiiiiia. — The base, and about one-quarter of the distal or free end of each wmg has been lost, and the outer and inner margins of the right tegmen are not defined. The portion of wing present has a length of 21 mm., and a greatest breadth of 14 mm. The complete tcgmina had a probable length of 29 mm. The costal margin is preserved in the left tegmen. It is gently convex. The sub-costa is widely separated from the costal margin, to which it sends about ten twigs, only one showing forking. The costal field is strap-shaped, and the sub-divisions of the sub-costa occupy the greater part of the outer margin. The radius in both wnigs is a relatively unim- portant vein, running parallel to the sub-costa. In the right wing, the radius forks about the middle of its length, each branch forking again before the broken edge of the wing is reached. The radius of the left wing divides about the middle of its length like its fellow, the outer branch forking again twice. The median vein passes along the middle line of the wing, diverging widely from the radius, and giving off two or more outward branches beyond the middle of the wing. Its final twigs ran out upon the apex of the wing. The cubitus is a large and important vein. Following a course but little divergent from the mam stem of the median, it passes down to the extreme end of the inner wing margin, giving off on its mner side, a series of 5 — 6 simple oblique undivided branches, followed by a branch which forks twice before reaching the margin. The cubitus of the left wing shows that a single outwardly directed branch is also given off at a point beyond the origin of the undivided inner branches. The course of this was probably parallel to the outer part of the median vein. The cubitus with its sub-divisions occupies the outer two-thirds of the inner margin of the wing. The anal area is well defined in each wing, having partially broken away along the line of the anal furrow, and iDecome pressed down upon the body of the insect. The anal veins are 6 — 7 in number, the fourth in each wing being forked. The intercalary venation is nowhere clearly marked. The pitted condition of the wirigs rather indicates a reticulate venation. Traces of the venation of the hind wings are present, more especially under the distal por- tion of the left wing. It is, however, too fragmentary for description, and the vein fragments cannot be definitely identi- fied. Legs. — Special interest is added to the specimen by the presence under the wings, of portions of the legs of the left side of the body. Remains of two, or of all three legs are present. The anterior leg lies under the main stem of the sub- costal vein, and has resulted in that structure being elevated into a ridge Lying between the fore and hind legs, are the tibia-tarsus elements of the middle one. Possibly a portion of the femur is present also, lying upon the basal part of the Manchester Mci/iotrs, Vol. Ixi. (iQi/), No. 't. 21 lemur of the hind leg. The tibia has short stout bristle-like hairs, and still remains attached to the tarsus, of which three segments can be disthiguishcd. Of the hind leg, the femur, tibia, and a small j>ortion of the tarsus are distinguishable. The femur is twice as l)road as the tibia, and is now flattened. The tibia appears to be a well-rounded structure, (if even diameter throughout, and clothed with numerous short stout bristle-like hairs. Affinities. — The general characters of the wings are clearly those of the genus Phylloblatta, and the relationship to V. reniforniis, Handl., is somewhat close. From that species how- ever, the wings differ in the character of the median vein. The latter vein does not divide until a point beyond the middle of the wing has been reached, and its branches arc few in number, whereas in P. rcuiformis, the median divides before the middle of the wing is reached, and the branches are at least twice as numerous. The character of the sub-costa, radius and cubitus is much similar. The anal veins are more numerous in F. reniforniis than in this specimen. As my work upon fossil Ijlattoids has increased, I have become impressed with the variability of the wing venation, and am convinced that when it is better understood, it will be necessary to merge several now recognised species into one. Whether this specimen must ultimately be classed as an example of I-Iandlirsch's species, P. reniforniis, it is not possible to say. For the present it seems desirable to mark its differences by the creation of a new species. We therefore style it P. obs citrus. Type. — Specimen in the Manchester Museum, Mark Stirrup Stirrup Collection; Register No., L5,553. Horizon. — Stephanian. Locality. — Commcntry (Allier), France. Phylloblatta Stirni pi^ nov. sp. PI. V. ; figs. I — 3. Species diagnosis. — Radius confined to outer half of wing, relatively feeble; radial sector large, much branched; branches of median occupy whole of outer half of inner margin. Anal area extending over one-third of length of wing. A thin dark grey slab of shale bears upon its surface two wings, the right underlying the left and destitute of the anal area. The right wing has also the underside uppermost. The U^ft wing, which is almost perfect, lacks only a little of the apical margin, and the inner end of the sub-costal lobe. It lies at right angles to that of the right, and overlies the inner third of it. The venation of both wings is clearly defined. The outer margin of each wing is gently convex, the apex bluntly rounded, and the inner margin almost straight. The general form is that of "an elongated oval. The length is 42mm., in both wings; the greatest breadth is across the left wing, just behind the anal area where it is ig.5 mm. 22 Bolton, '' Mark Stin-np " CoLlcctioji of Fossil Insects. Left tegiiicn. — The sub-costal vein is widely separated from the costal margin, and runs parallel to it along almost the whole of its length, its final twigs bending outwards and reaching the costal margin at a point near the beginning of the distal fourth of the wing's length. A considerable number of twigs are given off to the costal margin, the proximal ones being simple, whilst those in the middle and most distal por- tion are one, and in some instances thrice branched. The gene- ral form of the sub-costal is strap-shaped, a typical archimy- lacrid feature, whilst the multiple division of the distal twigs is suggestive of Necymylacris. The radius is undivided for the first fourth of its length, and then gives origin to the radial sector, beyond v^-hich it divides into two twigs, the outer of which forks just before reaching the outer margin, and the inner forks twice, ending upon the margin in three divisions. This portion of the radius takes but a small share in the wing apex. The radial sector passes to the outer half of the wing tip, forking three times during its course; two of the secondary twigs and two of the tertiary twigs also fork, so that this divi- sion of the radius ends u]:)on the margin in eight divisions. The main stem of the median vein curves inwards, and gives off four branches outwardly. The first branch divides intO' three twigs before reaching the wing apex, and the second divides into four. The remaining branches are undivided. The divisions of the median occupy the inner half of the wing apex. The main branch of the cubitus follows a parallel course to that of the median, giving off" inwardlv a series of 8 — lo twigs, of which the first, fourth, seventh and eighth again sub- divide. These divisions occupy the whole of the inner margin of the wing, outside the anal area. The anal area is best described as an oval, bluntly pointed at both ends. It is crossed by ten veins, one only of which is forked 1ruary 2jfh, 1^17. 2 Jones, Action of Hydrogen on SiiLphiuic Acid. acid heated to 250° C, whereas at that temperature the con- centrated acid was rapidly acted on. lie also found there was no reaction between hydrogen and sulphur dioxide heated either to 100° or 280° C. The last paper to which I will refer is one by Jaroslav Milbauer (Zeit. Phys. Chem., IQ07, 649) who maintains that impure hydrogen bubbled through sulphuric acid at the ordin- ary temperature contains appreciable quantities of sulphur dioxide, while pure hydrogen gives none. Further, the rate of oxidation of pure hydrogen by sulphuric acid was studied in detail at 174° C. at constant pressure. For a given rate of jiassage of the hydrogen the amount of sulphur dioxide per minute is constant for acid containing gi to 97 per cent, of Ho SO4. Also, that the amount of sulphur dioxide produced is increased by catalytic agents, notably by the presence of metals of the platinum group. These results are in close agree- Manchesler Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), No. \i. 3 iiicnt in so far as the action of nascent hydrogen is concerned, they chffer as to the action of free hydrogen on sulphuric acid particularly in two ways : (c?) as to temperature, ih) as to the effect of impurities in the gas. It seemed to me worth while to endeavour to dc\'ise an experiment that would settle the ponits at issue. The bulb A of the non-tubulated retort {see sketcli) con- tains strong sulphuric acid, and the rest is filled with pure hydrogen, tlic point dips under water in the test glass B, and the whole is left at the ordinary temperature for several days. If sulphur dioxide is produced, it will be dissolved by the water, which ought to rise slowly in the neck of the retort. This is exactly what occurs. The reaction is slow but steady. Even a slight impurity in the hydrogen would not account for the gradual diminution in the volume of the gas, which can only be accounted for by the supposition that hydrogen acts on the sulphuric acid at the ordinary temperature in the way suggested by the equation — The height of the liquid in the neck of the retort {see sketch) represents approximately the result of an experiment continued for twenty days. MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), iNo. 4. IV. An Egyptian Meteorite. By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. {Received and. read March 6th, igij.) In the month of October last year an interesting communi- cation was made to me by Capt. Cyril Norbury, of the 7th Manchester Regiment, respecting the fall of a meteorite which he observed in August, 1916, while engaged in military opera- tions in Egypt at the extreme north of the Sinai Peninsula. The fall occurred in the early afternoon, and was attended by a loud whizzing followed by a great thud. It was at once decided that the sounds were caused by an enemy bomb that had failed to explode, but on further search of the spot with a spade where the body had disappeared it was unearthed. That the body was an erratic was evident from the fact that no stones of any kind are found in that part of the track- less desert. Capt. Norbury noticed that a portion of the meteo- rite was missing, but although a careful search was made, the missing portion could not be found. He also mentioned in this connexion as a singular coincidence that a similar occur- rence took place at the same time 14 miles away, though the meteorite in that case was never found, but the 6th Manchesters heard a similar buzzing through the air. Capt. Norbury re- turned to England in the autumn of last year, when he kindly placed the meteorite at my disposal. I was able to confirm his statement respecting the separa- tion of its parts after entering the atmosphere from the irregu- larity of its natural lines of curvature. The weight of the meteorite is nearly 3.5 lbs., and the missing parts would be about the same weight. The thin pellicle on the surface of the stone (o.02in. deep) through which it becomes vividly incandes- cent during its passage through the atmosphere, is indubitable evidence of its identity with those in the collection of similar meteorites in the British Museum. The Egyptian Meteorite is an amorphous silicate, grey in colour, and contains microscopic particles of iron which are diffused throughout the mass, and cause a magnetised needle to adhere to any part of its surface. March 2^r(L 191 7. 2 Wilde, An Egyptian Meteorite. A spectroscopic examination of chippings from the meteo- rite was made with the arc light and the direct vision spectro- scope of five prisms with which I discovered the new lines of thallium* and oxygen. The following experimental results for some of the principal lines, in wave lengths, were obtained: — Iron. — 4414, 4404, 4382, 4250, 4186,4045. Magnesium. — 5183, 5172, 5167, 5527. The spectral lines of magnesium were probably derived from the resolution of olivine into its ultimates, silicon, oxygen and magnesium, as this crystalline mineral is frequently found in meteoric stones. * Proc. Roy. Soc, Vol. 53. April 20, 1893. Manchester Mcinoii'S^ Vol. Ixi. (iQl/J, No. 5. V. Oa the Contents of a Herbarium of British and foreign Plants for presentation to the Victoria University, Manchester. By Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S. {Received, and read March 20th ^ igij.) Every herbarium represents part of the autobiography of its founder. It will show his weakness and strength; his pre- ferences, idiosyncrasies, and fads. It will disclose his accu- racy, or otherwise, in the records which it includes ; his acumen, or the lack of it, in appreciating the facts and ways of nature. It embalms the friendships of his life, the botanical stimulus which he has received, the countries which he has visited ; it tells of hairbreadth escapes by land and water; it reminds him of threatened arrests for trespassing or poaching. Its accumula- tions testify to the life-giving and life-sustaining pursuits with which its collections have been brought together. It has un- doubtedly introduced him to a long roll of the most worthy and lovable of his fellow-creatures. The foundations of a good herbarium rest upon a thorough grounding in the main facts of structural and physiological botany. And of this particular herbarium it may truly be said to have been laid, more than sixty years ago, in the dingy lecture-room of the late Professor W. C. Williamson, in the old Owens College, in Quay Street, Manchester. My revered teacher was therefore its mainspring, and it is fitting, that when I have done with it, it should revert to the University of which Owens was the forerunner. Some particulars, therefore, of its composition will be of interest to future users of this herbarium. It consists of four portions : —(i^) British plants, with ex- amples of many non-native plants cultivated in this country; {b) native European and Mediterranean plants, with some plants cultivated on the Continent; U) mosses and lower cryptogams, British and foreign; and {d) American, East Indian, and exotic plants. During the course of its formation its ultimate destination had been the subject of frequent consideration with my friend. Dr. J. Cosmo Melvill, formerly of Manchester, now of Meole Brace Hall, near Shrewsbury, who possessed a like extensive herbarium. At one time we were in the habit of subscribing for the same sets of plants from botanists who were collecting in European and other countries, but as we had resolved to present our respective herbaria to the University of July i2th, igiy. 2 Bailey, Herbarimn of British and Foreign Plants. Manchester, it was needless for both to continue acquiring the same sets of plants; from that time, now many years ago, we resolved to work on different lines. Dr. Melvill's herbarium contained large numbers of type specimens of well-known botanists, collected in all parts of the world, of which details were given in " A Brief Account of the General Herbarium formed by James Cosmo Melvill, 1867- 1904," upon the occasion of its presentation to the Victoria University, Manchester, on the 31st October, 1904. It also containeci an extensive collection of British plants, many of which came from the same sources as my British herbarium. Dr. Melvill, therefore, decided that the British portion of his herbarium should go to Harrow School, on the understanding that my British plants would find their resting place in the Victoria University. As the other portion of Dr. Melvill's herbarium contained large collections from all parts of the world, while mine was mainly confined to the plants of European and Mediterranean countries, we resolved that any subsequent additions to our respective herbaria should be in the following directions: — That my additions should be confined to plants from Great Britain and Ireland, from the European Continent, and from the African countries bordering upon the Mediterranean ; while Dr. Melvill's additions should be restricted to plants from all countries other than European and North African. This course would obviate much overlapping, and increase the value of the two collections when they became united. In my own herbarium the method of housing the speci- mens has been to adopt a uniform size of sheet, measuring i/i X 11^ inches. The sheets are enclosed in boxes with wooden frames and pasteboard lids; the boxes measure, externally, 18 X 12 inches, and the lids are made as deep as the boxes. The boxes stand on shelves 13 inches above each other, and are enclosed in cupboards 10 feet in height; a separate room attached to the house at Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill, and measur- ing 42 feet by 25 feet, has been built to accommodate the her- barium. The cupboards stand seven inches from the walls, to admit a set of hot-water pipes, which runs, round the room ; a space of a quarter of an inch being left free from the floor, to admit a constant current of air between the walls and the cases. Only a small portion of the herbarium has been mounted, but ;£'500 has been offered to the University towards the cost of mounting the plants comprised in this herbarium. Every six or eight years the growth of the her- barium has necessitated the renumbering of the boxes, to pro- vide for the additional material which had accumulated in the interval ; the revision which it is now receiving (on the com- pletion of my 78th year) will be the last before it reaches its final destination. The herbarium has been in the course of formation since Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi/), No 5 3 the year 1861. The British portion is arranged according to the sequence of species adopted in Druce's " List of British Plants"; each box is labelled with Druce's numbers (Oxford, January, IQ08), and with the numbers in the loth edition of the " London Catalo'gue " ; the Continental portion follows the sequence of Nyman's " Conspectus Floras Europaeas " (Orebro, 1878- 1882), and its supplements (1883- 1890). The various numbers which occur on the labels, etc., of individual plants are the numbers of Natural Orders adopted in Balfour's "Class Book of Botany" (pub- lished in 1859); thus 28 stands for Caryophyllaceas, 74 for Leguminosas, 120 for Compositas, 161 for Labiate, 209 for Salicaceas, 273 for Lichenes, etc. Non-localised plants have generally been destroyed, but when any such are included it is either because their source was expected to be traced, or because they furnished good charac- ters of an infrequent form or species. Undated plants, though undesirable, could not always be deleted when such excellent examples as those issued in the " Flora Exsiccata Austro- Hungarica " were sent out without any record of the month or year of their collection. In the British portion of the herbarium a large use has been made of printed labels recording the localities where the plants were collected, and the surplus — often large — has been distributed to botanists and botanical exchange clubs, in this country and on the Continent. The principal aim sought was to get together, from as many different localities as possible, the common British and European species, rather than to accu- mulate the less frequent plants. At the close of each season, after supplying home wants, the rest of the plants were disr- p'^'tched to Continental exchange clubs, which returned me Continental species in exchange for British, lists of obtata, or desiderata, being rarely exchanged on either side. Besides this feature of the growth of the herbarium, it has been increased by purchase, especially of the published exsic- cata of special groups of plants, or of selected European coun- tries. When these exsiccata occur in the herbarium in duplicate or triplicate, it has generally been through presentation, or by purchase of other herbaria incorporated with my own. Some species were duplicated intentionally on account of their excel- lence; the scrappy character of others frequently necessitated a double or larger supply ; while there were some that promptly found their way to the fire for unreliability as to locality, or fraud, or other circumstance. The sources from which most of the plants have been drawn are summarised on pages ii to 16, but such summary does not profess to be a full record of its varied sources. The British species, and named varieties and forms, in Druce's "List," and the sequence of the sheets under each species, follows the order of counties, or vice-counties, adopted 4 Bailey, Herbariitm of British and Foreign Plants. by H. C. Watson, in his "Topographical Botany"; while the Irish localities follow the divisions of the Irish flora adopted by D. Moore and A. G. More in their " Cybele Hibernica." A nearly complete set of plates contained in the second edition of Sowerby's " English Botany," is included in the herbarium, as well as the plates of " Fryer's Potamogetons," " Hanbury's Hieracia," etc. Some attempt has been made to catalogue the contents of the British portion of the herbarium, but a busy life has not lent itself to furthering this intention. Whether I shall have the time to do so now is doubtful. One volume only has been compiled, bringing up the data to the end of the Caryo- fhyllacece. A record has been kept of every British plant which I have collected during the last fi.fty-fi.ve years, the entries being con- tained in two volumes, of foolscap size, lettered, " Dated Col- lections of British Plants," Vol. I. being from 1862 to 1898, and Vol. II. from 1899 to the present time. The plants have been entered in the exact sequence in which they were gathered, the use of a collecting book in place of a vasculum facilitating this arrangement. At the end of every year a systematic sum- mary is given of all the British gatherings of the year. In the Continental portion of the herbarium the species stand in the exact order of Nyman's " Conspectus," and their position is shown by the numbers stated on the outside of the boxes; thus, box 1,825 contains Achillea, species Nos. 18 to 20, on page 368, viz. : — Achillea Gerberi, M.B., A. micranthuy M.B., and A. le-pio-phylla, M.B. A copy of Nyman's " Con- spectus " is marked with the corresponding numbers of the boxes, and of their contents. Nyman's index of species would have been greatly increased in usefulness if the names of the authorities for the species had been given ; their absence necessi- tates the making of an independent index for all the larger genera. Nor does Nyman print at the beginning of each page the name of the genus indexed, a fact which often renders the references very irritating, and time consuming. When the species, native or cultivated, belong to a genus or species not included in the "Conspectus," a place has to be found, by intercalating such plants according to the position assigned to them in Bentham and Hooker's ''Genera Plantantin'^' (London, 1 862-1 883), as summarised in Th. Durand's "Index Generum Phanerogamerum " (Bruxelles, 1888). Use has also been made of De Candolle's "Prodromus"; Ascherson and Graebner's " Synopsis der mitteleuropaischen Flora " (Leipzig, 1896-1913); Richter and Gurke's " Plantas Europaeas" (Leipzig, 1890-1903); Boissier's "Flora Orientalis " (Geneva and Basle, 1867-1888); W. D. J. Koch's "Synopsis der deutschen und Schweitzer Flora" (Leipzig, 1890-1906); Rouy's "Flore de France," Vols. I.-XIV. (Asnieres, 1893-1913); Willkomm and Lange's "Prodromus Florae Hispaniae " (Stuttgart, 1870-1893); Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igiy), No. ;>. 5 Coste's "Flore de France" (Paris, 1901-1906); Battandier and Trabut's "Flore de I'Algerie" (Paris, 1888-igio); Gandoger's " Novus Conspectus Florae Europae " (Paris, 1910); and any other standard floras. Where no sufficiently comprehensive list of European species was available, a manuscript list has been compiled, especially of such polymorphic genera as Kiibus, Rosa, Hiera- ciuin, Salix, etc. Even these, however, require expanding when they do not include all the European and Mediterranean coun- tries professing to be represented in the herbarium, as also when new forms are described. To meet such cases, the most com- plete flora, or monograph, is made the basis of a manuscript linear arrangement of the species of the genus, and into it are dovetailed additional species in their approximate places. In many cases where the additional names occur in works where the arrangement of species differs from that of Ny man's funda- mental list, no special care hasi been taken to fix their exact places in the manuscript list ; the main point ensured being that the names are included and indexed, and are made readily accessible under the sequence of the numbers assigned to them in the manuscript index. Many of the additions consist of geographical forms which are practically endemic in their districts, and such names must be duly indexed if the full value of an alphabetical index is to be made available. Where no manuscript index has been made, the first box of each genus contains a rough alphabetical list of the species not contained in Nyman, and such lists indicate the positions of the intercalated species. The leisure of the past few years has been spent in putting the herbarium in the exact sequence of Nyman's species. The catalogue of the Continental portion of the herbarium was originally intended to have expressed, in a condensed form, the data furnished by the herbarium itself, by giving the coun- try, locality, published numbers of theexsiccata, date collected, and the collector's name. The time which this method of making records entailed was, however, more than could be found for it, and it was subsequently abandoned. It was, however, followed for all the families from RanuncidacecE to Ftimariacere, for the whole of the Cyperacece and Characece, and for the following genera: — Alyssum, Viola, Cerastium, Medicago, Trifoliiim, Symphytum, Primula, Alectorolophus, Euphrasia, Salvia, Teucrium, Ajuga, Thymus, Mentha, Statice, Cyperacece, and Equisetum. Altogether there are fifteen volumes of these indices, belonging to this herbarium, and there are others partially completed. In such catalogues the entries are made on alternate lines or pages, according to the size of the page, the alternate lines or pages being reserved for later entries. The rotation number adopted for the species precedes the name of the species and the synonyms follow immediately after. The collector's name. 6 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. when known, is given in the last column of the page, the next to it being reserved for the date when the example was col- lected. The column which precedes these two is reserved for the abbreviated titles, and published numbers, of such exsiccata as are included in the herbarium. When there is more than one sheet of a species, collected at the same station and date, the number of sheets in the herbarium, is expressed by a small figure in brackets, thus (2), (3), (4), etc. A shortened form of the larger size of catalogue was adopted for such extensive genera as Rubus, Rosa, and Hiera- ciiim, and may yet be carried out for Salix. Here the syste- matic list is first made out, and then the alphabetic list, but the other detailed information of collectors' names, dates, numbers of the exsiccata, are omitted. It will give some idea of the labour involved in preparing even this shortened form of catalogue, by stating that the number of entries of the m.ere names in my manuscript catalogues is, for — Kubus, 4,000, with 6,900 separate entries, occupying 377 pages. Rosa, 2,700, ,, 10,500 ,, ,, ,, 507 ,, Hieracimn, 5,200, ,, 17,600 ,, ,, ,, 663 Whether catalogued or not, with Nyman's marked " Con- spectus " at hand, the position of any box in the herbarium is found without loss of time. All the boxes are arranged sun- wise, and the numbers of the boxes in each compartment of the herbarium are painted on the doors of the cases which hold them. When the linear arrangement of the species has been com- pleted, an alphabetical list is drawn up of all the specific names which it contains, together with those of any sub-species, varieties, forms, and the like to which a separate number has been applied. Besides the usual binary names imposed upon the plants, the tertiary, quaternary, and quinary names are also included in the alphabetical arrangement. The inclusion of such varietal names very largely increases the length of the alphabetical list; thus, to take the instance of, say, Hieraciiim onosmoides, Fries — a sub-species of H. saxifragiim, fully stated it would stand as H. {saxifragum) onosmoides. Fries; and its variety siibnuda, Arv. Touv., or its sub-variety forfhyritce, F. Schultz, would require entering under the letters S, O, S, and P in their respective places, to meet the cases where the collect- ing botanist uses the shortened name, viz., H. forphyritce, F. Schultz. The only varietal names excluded from this index would be those of such frequent names as genuinum, normale, iypicum, vermn, and the like, which are not worth the labour of indexing alphabetically. In the alphabetical arrangement every individual name corresponds with the number given to it in the linear arrange- ment. This enables it to be immediately traced in the her- barium, as the external label on each box gives the name of Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), A^c. 5. 7 the genus, and the progressive numbers of the manuscript cata- logue. As new, or other unenumerated, forms come to hand, they are arranged a place in the serial list which belongs to them, when their relationships are known; failing this informa- tion they are put at the end of the section to which they appear to belong, and often in alphabetical order, their indexed number and name making them readily accessible. Every named form is not necessarily written up in the linear series; but each can be traced in the alphabetical list of the forms belonging to the genus. At whatever point in the linear series at which they are intercalated in the herbarium, they take the same numeral as the form which precedes them, with a, b, c, or other dis- tinguishing letter. The distinction between super- species, sub-species, race, variety, form and the like, although recognised in the catalogue, is not maintained in the index. All the names are thrown into one alphabetical order, designed to find quickly their position in the herbarium, and, as is explained further on, its representa- tion in the herbarium of the different areas in which the species occurs. The index includes the chief synonyms, but the indexing proper is, in the main, confined to the names under which the species is most generally circulated by collecting botanists. Its purposes are to ensure easy reference tO' the place of any plant in the boxes ; to record the geographical areas from which the examples in the boxes have been derived ; and to show at a glance what lacunae require filling up when any species is offered. Besides the sequence of species, a sequence of the geo- graphical areas has been observed throughout the entire her- barium. As has been already indicated, Watson's divisions have been followed for the British areas; and all Continental species are arranged in the like sequence. In such large genera as Rifbits and Rosa, where the number of boxes is considerable, it would take up too much time to hunt for any species sought unless the county areas were strictly followed ; in the British section alone there are 1 1 1 boxes of R?fbi, and 65 of Roses, and in the European section gi and 8g respectively. The same principle of maintaining a geographical sequence for all the species included in the herbarium has been followed in the Continental portion of the collection. Every species is marshalled in one geographical sequence, which is maintained throughout the herbarium. To effect this in the simplest man- ner, Europe and the Mediterranean countries have been broken up into sections according as their centres stand west or east of the nth degree of west longitude, and north or south of the 50th degree of north latitude, Germany and Austria being placed by themselves in a central group. Each area is repre- sented by a numeral, or letter, to economise space when index- ing the areas represented in the herbarium. 8 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. These areas stand in the following sequence, viz. : — NORTH-WEST GROUP. 1. Iceland. Arctic regions. 2. Norway (except Lapland). [3 to 5. The British Isles, in separate catalogue.] 6. Denmark. 7. Holland. Belgium. Luxembourg. NORTH-EAST GROUP. 15- 16. 17- Sweden. Lapland. White Sea. Finland. Russia. Poland. Crimea. Caucasus. Siberia. CENTRAL GROUP. 18. A. Schleswig, Holstein, Lauenburg, Hamburg, Altona, and Lubeck. B. Hanover, East Friesland, Osnabruck, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Lippe Detmold, and Lippe Schomburg. C. Westphalia, Waldeck, Hessen Cassel, Hessen Darmstadt, and Nassau. D. Rhenish Provinces, Palatinate-Rhenish Bavaria, Alsace, and German Lorraine — ^Lothringen. E. Baden and Wurtemburg. F. Bavaria. iQ. G. Mecklenberg Schwerin, and Mecklenburg Strelitz. H. Brandenburg. I. Saxony Province, Anhalt, Weimar, Coburg, Gotha, Meiningen, Altenburg, Schwarzburg, and Reuss — collectively, Thur- ingia. J. Saxony Kingdom — Leipzic, Zwichau, Dresden, and Bautzen. K. Pomerania. L. Prussia, West and East. M. Posen. N. Silesia, including, Siebenburgen (Silesian Bohemia). 20. O. Bohemia. P. Moravia. Q. Austria, Upper and Lower. R. Vorarlberg, and Tyrol. S. Salzburg. 21. Hungary. 22. Galicia, Bukowina, and Transylvania. SOUTH-WEST GROUP. 8. Switzerland. Q. F'rance, north of the Loire. 10. France, south of the Loire. 11. Portugal. 12. Spain, north and central. 13. Spain, east and south. Balearic Isles. 14. Corsica. Sardinia. 23- 24. 25- 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. SOUTH-EAST GROUP. Italy, north and central. Calabria, Sicily, and Malta. Croatia, Slavonia, and Istria. Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herze- govina, Montenegro, and Servia. Moldavia garia. Albania, Wallachia, Bul- Thessaly, Mace- donia, and Roumelia. Greece. Crete, Cyprus, Cilicia, and Syria. North Africa, Madeira, and the Canaries. Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ixi. (igi/), No. 5. 9 To facilitate quick indexing these areas are thrown into a shortened alphabetical index of countries, provinces or other areas, as is shown in the following table, these numbers or letters being frequently used for the various areas named. All the geographical data belong to a period in use prior to the year igoo. ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF COUNTRIES, PROVINCES, OR OTHER AREA. .30 Africa, N. 27 Albania. D Alsace. I Altenburg. A Altona. I Anhalt. I Arctic Regions. Q Austria, Lr. Q Austria, Upr. E Baden. 13 Balearic Isles. E Bavaria. 7 Belgium. 0 Bohemia. H Brandenburg. B Brunswick. 22 Bukowina. 26 Bulgaria. 24 Calabria. S Carinthia. 5 Carniola. C Cassel, Hessen. 17 Caucasus. 2Q Cilicia. I Coburg. 14 Corsica. 2g Crete. 17 Crimea. 25 Croatia. 2g Cyprus. 25 Dalmatia. C Darmstadt, Hess. 6 Denmark. B Detmold, Lip. 16 Fennia. 16 Finland. Q France, N. 10 France, S. B Friesland. 22 Galicia. I Gotha. .28 Greece. A Hamburg. B Hanover. L Prussia, W. C Hessen Cassel. I ■ Reuss. C Hessen Darmst. D Rhenish Prov. B Hessen Schombg. D Rhine, Palatinate 25 Herzegovina. 0 Ricseng., Bohem. 7 Holland. N Rieseng., Silesia. A Holstein. 27 Roumelia. 21 Hungary. 17 Russia. I Iceland. S Salzburg. 25 Istria. 14 Sardinia. 24 Italy, Calabria. J Saxony, King. 23 Italy, Central. I Saxony, Prov. 23 Italy, North. B Schaumburg. S Krain. A Schleswig. ]6 Lapland. B Schomburg H. 16 Lapponia. I Schwarzburg. A Lauenburg. G Schwerin, Mk. B Lippe Detmold. 25 Servia. B Lippe Schom. 17 Siberia. 17 Livonia. 24 Sicily. D Lorraine. 22 Siebenbergen. A Lubeck. N Silesia. 7 Luxembourg. 25 Slavonia. 27 Macedonia. 12 Spain, N. & C. 24 Malta. 13 Spain, S. & E. H Mark Brandenb. S Steiermark. G Meckl. Schw. G Strelitz, Meckl. G Meckl. Strelitz. S Styria. I Meiningen. N Sudeten. 25 Montenegro. IS Sweden. P Moravia. 8 Switzerland. S Mountfort. 29 Syria. c Nassau. 27 Thessaly. 30 North Africa. I Thuringia. •7 Norway. 22 Transylvania. B Oldenburg. R Tyrol. B Osnabruck. R Vorarlberg. D Palatinate. C Waldeck. 17 Poland. 26 Wallachia. K Pomerania. I Weimar. 1 1 Portugal. C Westphalia. M Posen. 16 White Sea. L Prussia, E. E Wurtemburg. Explanation of Signs Used in Compiling the Index. The entry of a number, or letter, in its appropriate column indi- cates that the species is represented in the herbarium from the area 10 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. assigned to such number or letter. If the sign is not underlined it- means that there are specimens from i or 2 localities, or gathering's; if underlined once — 3 to 5 localities; if underlined twice, 6 to S locali- ties; if underlined thrice, g to 11 localities; and so on. These sections are by no means of equal area; in fixing their boundaries regard was had to the relative frequency with which plants from these areas would be likely to be available. Thus, nearly the whole of European Russia and Siberia is represented by a single number (17), whilst Germany and Austria, to which numbers 18, 19, and 20 are assigned were, from the greater accessibility of the plants therefrom, subse- quently broken up into smaller areas; Western Germany (18) into six divisions (A to F) ; Eastern Germany (19) into eight (G to N) ; and portions of Austria (20) into five (O to S). It would have been more symmetrical to have re-numbered the areas from 18 onwards, but so much use had been made of them, as originally planned, as to render it undesirable to change them, and it is immaterial whether letters or numbers are adopted, as they are merely symbols of the areas represented in the herbarium. In the index each of these 43 geographical areas has a separate column assigned to it, the columns being distinguished from each other by coloured ruled lines. When the herbarium contains a plant from any of the allotted areas, its presence is indicated by the symbol assigned to it, every symbol being entered under its own column in the index. If there are three sheets of examples from the same area, its symbol is under- lined once; when there are from four to six sheets from the same area, it is underlined twice, and so on, each underline representing three sheets. When an index of species has been made, it is used in two sizes; in one the page measures 8 x 5|- inches, in the other 12 X 10 inches, according to the length of the index, the octavo size being the one generally adopted. In the smaller size the species are entered in the first part of the index in systematic order on the left-hand page, the right-hand page being reserved for later additions. Then follows the alphabetical part, which is written up across both pages on alternate lines, so as to allow of any additional entries being made in their proper places. When the quarto page is used no detailed list is given of the localities from which the examples have been derived. But when the alphabetical list is made out, each page is indepen- dent of the other, and runs on continuously, the alternate lines being left for additional entries. It may be as well to put on record the principal sources from which the plants have been derived. They are arranged alphabetically, the British portion being separated from the Continental, and both these from the exotic section. The dates specified are either those of publication, or when they came into- my possession. The list does not profess to be a complete one. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), No. 5- i r BRITISH PLANTS. Andrews's Saxifrages, 1805 and later. Baker's Roses, 1865. Baker's North Yorkshire, 1866. Bailey's English, Welsh, Scotch, and Irish. Barrow's plants, 1879, and later. Bickham's cultivated plants, i8q8 — iqoo. Bladon's Pontypool, 1876. Bloxam's Roses and Rubi, 1866, and 1875 — 1876. Botanical Exchange Club, London, 1860 — 1878. Botanical Exchange Club of the British Isles, 187Q — 1Q17. Braithwaite's Sphagnaceae, 1877. Brody's Kent, 1892. Carrington and Pearson's Hepaticas Britannicas, Fasc. I. — V., 1878 — 1890. Cooke's Fungi Britannici, Cent. I. — VII., 1864 — 1872; Ed. 2, 1875 — ■ 1879. Crespigny's herbarium, chiefly of the southern counties (Cos. 15 — 17^ 20, and 21.) Fisher's Lancashire and Cheshire plants. Friedlander's Hepaticae, 1870. Fryer's Cambridgeshire plants, 1888 — 1889. Groves's Characeas, Fasc. I., 1892; II., 1900. Hardy's herbarium, mostly Yorkshire localities, 1884. Irvine's Middlesex, 1864. Kentish Orchids (L.C.'s), 1866. Leefe's Salices, Fasc. I.— III., 1869 — 1874. Lewis's herbarium, mostly from Lancashire and Cheshire, 1895. Lewis's Rubi, 1876; Fasc. I. — IV., 1891 — 1894. Linton's Hieracia, Fasc. I. — VII., 1896 — 1905. Linton's Rubi, Fasc. I. — IV., 1892 — 1895. Linton's V\ illows, Fasc. I — IV., 1894 — 1898. Supp. i — 2, 1912 — 1913. London Botanical Exchange Club, 1866 — 1868. Lucas's Derbyshire and other plants, 1868. Molincux's (Mrs.) Ipswich and other plants, 1864. Moseley's (Miss H.), about 1836 — 1844, per Mr. Spencer H. Bickham. Mott's herbarium, of flowering plants. Notcutt's herbarium, Fareham, Fakenham, and Cheltenham plants, 1844 to 1 87 1. Rimington's plants, per Mr. Spencer H. Bickham. Robinson's Frodsham and other plants, 1866. Science Gossip Exchange Club, 1878 — 1880. Sidebotham's Llandudno, 1865. Sole's Mints, about 1798. Stratton's Isle of Wight, 1S66. Tempere's plants, per Mr. Spencer H. Bickham. Thirsk Botanical Exchange Club, 1864 — 1865. Ward's herbarium, mostly Yorkshire plants in the early sixties, 1904. Waters's Cheshire, 1885. Waterfall's Britishj 1879. Windsor's Derbyshire and Settle, 1865. CONTINENTAL PLANTS. Ahlberg's Scandinavian, 1899 (per Dr. Boswell Syme). Austro-Hungarian exsiccata. Cent. I. — XXXV., 1885 — 1899. Baenitz's Dalmatian, 1899. Baenitz's European herbarium. Cent. I. — CXXIL, 1868 — 1900. Baenitz's Herbarium Dendrologicum, I. — XXX., 1906 — 1910. Baenitz's Juncaceae and Cyperacese, 1875. Bailey's Norwegian (1865), Rhenish (1872), and Swiss (1909). 12 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. Baker's Critical plants of Continental Europe, Fasc. I., 1865. Balducci's Italian, iSqo. Barrow's, 1879, and later years to i8qo. Becker's Violae exsiccata, Fasc. I. — VIII., iqco — igog. Berlin Botanical Exchange Club, 31st to 3Qth years, igoo — igoS. Billot's Flora Gallise et Germanioe, Fasc. I. — XLL, 1S68 — 1883. (Con- tinued by Bavoux, Guichard, Paillot, and Vendrely.) Bordere's Pyrenean, 1870, etc. Bornmuller's Anatolian, Asia Minor, Persian, Syrian and Trojan, i88g— i8g8. Boswell's Scandinavian, i8gg (chiefly Ahlberg's). Boulay's Ronces Vosgiennes, Livr. I. — VII., 1868 — 1880. Boulay's Rubi praesertim Gallici, Fasc. I. — III., i8g5 — i8g7. Bove's Algerian, i83g. Braun's Herbarium Rosarum, Lief. I. — X., 1882. Braun's Herbarium Ruborum, Fasc. I. — VII., 2nd Ed., 1877 — 1881. Brotherus's Caucasian, 1882. Bubela's Moravian, 1884. Burchurd's Canaries, igo4. Callier's Crimean, iSgs — igo2. Carrier's Arabian, Cicilian, European, Kurdistan, and Russian, 1876 — 1877. Charrel's Plantae orientales, 1876 — 1877. Chevallier's Plantae Saharae Algeriensis, Fasc. I.— V. , i8g7 — 1905. Conrad's Norwegian, 1884. Cornaz's Roses of Switzerland, i8gi — i8g3. Costa's Catalonian, 1864. Coste's Herbarium Rosarum, Fasc. I. — VI., i8g4 — igoo. Coward's Leguminosse (Hurst's herbarium), 1868. Crespigny's European herbarium, iSgs. Cuerca's Spanish, igoo. Dahlstedt's Hieracia. Dorfler's Herbarium Normale, Cent. XXXI.— LIV., 1894 — 191 1. Dorfler's Spitzbergen, 1896. Dulau's European Artemisiae, 1877. Du Parquet's French and Lazistan (named by Boissier), 1868. Durando's Flora Atlantica, 1852 — 1866. Duthie's Maltese, 1874. Enwald and Knabe's Flora Lapponica, Fasc. I. (1-50), 1881. Favrat's Swiss Rubi, 1883— 1884. Fontanesium, herb., about iS^q. Friderichsen and Gelert's Rubi exsiccati Daniae et Slesvigias, Fasc. I.— III., 1885—1888. Friediander's Cyperaceae and Juncaceae, 1874. Gandoger's European Roses, 1881. Gandoger's Tunisian, igoS. Gautier's Narbonne, 1878. Giraudias's, 2nd to 20th years, i8g2 — igio. Goiran's Plantae Veronensi, 1875. Haglund and Kallstrom's, Swedish, i8g7 — igo2. Hamond (The Misses Susan Maria Hamond, and Almeria Hamond), collected at Geneva, 1834 (90 sheets). Hamond (Miss Almeria), Madeira Plants, 1836 (50 sheets). Hardy's Californian, 1884. Hayek's Flora Styriaca, Fasc. I.-XIV. , igo6 — igo8. Heldreich's Greek, Cent. I. -XV., 1877— i8g8. Helvetique, Societe, 1892 — 1897. Herbarium Umkraute, 1882. Hohenacker's Cerealia, 1880. Hunt'3 Azores, 1846 — 1848. Hurst's Egyptian, 1876 — 1877. Hurst's Gibraltar, 1868. Hurst's herbarium of Leguminosae, 1878. Manchester Memoir s. Vol. Ixi. {igifj, 'No 9- 13. Hurst's Madeira ferns, 1S68. Hurst's Maltese, 1877. Huter's Adriatic and Dalmatian, iSGS, 1S72, 1876, and 1S86. Huter's ^gean, i8gi. Huter's Balearic and Dalmatian, 1886. Huter's European, 1868 — i8g8. Huter's Italian, 1S80. Huter's Spanish, 1880 — i8gi. Huter's Tyrolese, 1870, 1875, 1879, 1881 — i8q8. Huter's Venetian, iS/g. Huter, Porta, and Rigo's Spanish and other collections, 1878 — i88g. Hyltcn-Cavallius's Swedish (" Linnaea "), 1882 — i8g2. Irvine's South European, 1864. Jensen's Danish and Slesvvig Rubi, 1887. Jujuvensis, Horti, igog. Karo's Polish and Siberian, 1883 — ^i8g2. Kheck's Balkan, i8g2. Kheck's Centuria Normale, Cent. I. -XXX., i87g — i8g3. Kerner's Austrian Willows, Ease. I. -IX., 1863 — i86g. Kneucker's Carices exsiccatse, Lief. I.-X., i8g2 — igo2. Kneucker's Caricum Badensis, Lief. I. -VII., i8g2 — igoo. Kneucker's Cyperacese et Juncacea;, Lief. I. -VIII., igoo — 1903. Kneucker's Gramineae, Lief. I.-X., igoo — igog. Koehne's Herbarium Dendrologicum, Lief. I.-V.. i8g5— igos. Kronig's Algerian. (Ex H. A. Hurst. Reed. 13th Sept., i87g). Kuczynski's South European, i865 — 1867. Kumzerow's Russian, 1883 — igo8. Lerou's French and Algerian, 1855 — 1S61. Letourneaux's Egyptian, 1877 — 1878. Lewis's Continental herbarium, i8gs. Lindberg's Herbarium Ruborum, Ease. I., 1882. Lindbergh's Hieracia Scandinavise, Ease. I. -III., 1868 — 1878. Lindberg's Hieracia Scandinavise, Ease. I. -III., i8g3 (Ed. 2.). Lindberg's Norwegian, 1884. Linnasa, Swedish, 1882 — 1892. Lo Jacono's Plantse Siculaj, Ease. I. -VI., 1S80 — 1886. Loscos's Aragon, Cent. I., 1875. Lowne's Palestine, 1864. Mabille's Herbarium Corsicum, 1868 — 1873. Magnier's Elora Selectas, Ease. I. -XVI., 1881—1897. Magnier's Plantse Galliae et Belgii, i8g7. Malinvaud's Menthag, Ease. I-IV., 1881. Martini and Van Heurck's Belgian, 1866 — 1868. Munby's Plantse algerienses. Murray's Canary Islands, 1882 — 1898. Murray's Portuguese, i88g. Naegli and Peters's Hieracia, Cent. I. -IV., 18S4. Neuman, Wahlstedt, and Murbeck's, Violae suecica, 1886 — i8g3. Nurnberger Botanischen Tauschverein, igo4 — igog. Ohl's Holstein, Hamburg, 1907. Orphanides's, Greek, 1872 — 1887. Paillot's Flora Sequaniae, Ease. I. -III., 1861 — 1868. Paillot's Herbarium Eontanesium, 1868. Palmer's (Miss) South European, igo4. Payot's Mont Blanc plants. Phytological Society of Antwerp; Danish and Belgian, 1862 — 1867.. Pichler's Bulgarian, 1890. Pichlcr's Dalmatian, 1880— 1882. Pichler's Greek, 1876. Pons's Herbier des Roses de France, Ease. I. -VI., 1894 — igoo. Porta and Rigo's Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1868. Porta and Rigo's Spanish and Balearic, i8go. Pyrenean Association, ist to 20th years, iSgo- — igog. 14 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. Rabenhorst's Equisetaceje, Lycopodiacese, etc., i8q5. Ragowitz's Russian, iqoi. Reichenbach's Artemisiae. Reichenbach's Flora Germaniae, Cent. I. -XXIII., 1830 — 1843. Reineck's European, 1Q07 — igog. Reuss's Austrian, 1872. Reverchon's Algerian and Kabylie, 1896 — i8q8, igo/. Reverchon's Andalusian, 1866 — 1867. Reverchon's Balearic, 1885. Reverchon's Corsican, 1872 — 1873, 1878 — 1883, 1886. JReverchon's Cretan, 1883 — 1885. Reverchon's French, 1867 — 1907. Reverchon's Hautes Alpes, 1867 — 1871. Reverchon's Sardinian, 1881 — 1882. Reverchon's Spanish, 1883 — 1907. Richter's, K., Austrian, 1877 — 1880, 1887 — i8g2. Richter's, L., Algerian, Persian, 1881. Richter's Austrian and German, 1877 — 1880. Rigo and Porta's Abruzzi, 1875 — 1876. Ritter's Austrian, 1872. Rostan's Piedmontese, 1864, i86g, 1897. Ruhmer's Cyrenaican, 1884. Schemman's Hieracia, 1882. Schemman's Ronces Europ., 1882. Schemman's Ruborum Europ., 1882. Schemman's Salices Europ., 1882. Schonach's Tyrolese, 1886 — 1887. Schultz-Bipontinus's Cichoriacetheca, 1862 — 1866. Schultz's Herbarium Normale, Cent. I.-LIV. , 1855 — igii. (Continued by Winter, Khek, Scriber, and Dorfler.) Schultz's Flora istriaca, 1875. Schultz's F.T. Tauschvermettung, 4th and sth lists, igo3 — igo4. Schwoders Herbarium, 1883; chiefly Austrian and Moravian, ^ennen's Spanish, igo6 — 1914. Siegfried's Bormio, .Swiss, and Istrian, i8g6 — i8gg. Siegfried's Filices, Equisetaceae, and Lycopodiaces, igoo. Siegfried's Potentillas, 1893 — i8g8. Siehe's Cilician, igo2 — 1903. Silesian Botanical Exchange Club, i8th to 26th years, 1879 — i8go. Sintenis's Armenian, 1886, i8gg — igo2. Sintenis's Asia Minor, i88q. Sintenis's Cyprus, 1880 — 1887. Sintenis's Greek, i8g6. Sintenis's Mesopotamia, i8go. Sintenis's Paphlagonia, 1893. Sintenis's Thessaly, 1897, igo7. Sintenis's Transcaspia, Cent., I. -VI., 1901 — 1Q03. Sintenis's Trojan, 1884. Sintenis's Turkish and Armenian, 1892, i8g5. Steinitz's Hungarian, 1883. Stribny's Bulgarian, Fasc. I. -III., 1894 — 1903. Strobl's Flora Nebrodensis, 1874 — 1886, and Flora setnensis, 1875. Sudre's Batotheca Europaea, Fasc. I.-X., igo3 — igi2. Sudre's Rubi rari vel minus cogniti exsiccati, Nos. i — 140, igo8 — igio. Swiss Plants (unknown collector) (250 sheets). Syme's Scandinavian, 1899 (chiefly Ahlberg's). Taylor's (Miss) Icelandic, 1896. Tampere's French, about 1879 (ex herb. Rimington and Bickham). Thompson's French and Italian, igog. Thuringian Exchange Club, Lists 4 to 22, i8go — igog. Tiselius's Scandinavian Potamogetons, Fasc. I. -III., i8g4 — i8g7. Todaro"s Flora Sicula, Cent. I.-X.IV., 1879. Toepffer's Salicetum, Fasc. I. -VII., igo6 — 1912. Manchester Mejjioirs, Vol. Ixi. {igiy), No. 5. 15 Tccpffer's Silesian Exchange Club, 1S81. Toepffer's Tyrolean, 1884. Treffer's Tyrolean, Lists IX. -XXII., 1888— 1902. Tripet's Swiss, 1894 — i8q6. Uechtritz's Silesian, 1866. Van Heurck's Herbier des plantes de Belgique, F'asc. I. -VIII. , 1864 — 1867. Van Heurck's French, 1865. Van Heurck's Spanish and Italian, 1866 — 1870. Van Heurck's Tuscan, 1865 — 1866. Wagner's Rhodopean, 1893 — 1S04. Waters's Swiss and Italian, 1885. Weiss's European, 1883 — 1886. AViener Botanischen Taucshverein, 1895 — 1905. Wimmer's Salicetum Europaeum, 1858 — 1867. Winslow's Herbarium Rosarum Scandinaviae, 1880 — 1883. Wirtgen's Herbarium Mentharum Rhenanae, Fasc. I. -III., 1855, 1866, 1879, 1893. Wirtgen's Herbarium Rhenanorum, Edit. 2, Fasc. I. -XII., 1866 — 1873. Wirtgen's Herbarium Ruborum Rhenanorum, 1866, 1881 — 1882. Wittrock's Erythra:ae, Fasc. I. -IV., 1885, 1886. Zahn's Hieraciotheca Europaea, Cent. I. -VI., 1906 — 191 1. Zettersttedt's, Russian and Lapponian, 1S73. Zetterstedt's, Swedish and Norwegian, 1871. CRYPTOGAMIC PORTION OF THIS HERBARIUM. (British and Foreign.) Ahlberg's Scandinavian Characeae, Fasc. I.-IV. , 1899. Allen's American Characeas, Fasc. I.-IV., 1899. Austin's Hepaticae boreali Americanae. Baenitz's Characeae, 1890. Bauer's European Mosses, Series i — 16 (Nos. i — 800), 1906 — 191 1. Braun, Rabenhorst and Stizenberger's, Fasc. I.-V., 1857 — 1878. Brebisson's Algae of France, 2nd Series, 1865 (100 sp.). Brebisson's Mosses of Normandy, 1825 — 183^ Fasc. I. -VI. (150 sp.). Carrington and Pearson's British Hepatica;, Fasc. I.-IV. (i — 293), 1878 — 1890. Closter's New Jersey Hepaticas, 1873. Cooke's Fungi Britannici, 8vo. series. Cent I. -VII., 1865 — 1873. Cooke's Fungi Britannici, 4to series, with lithographed dissections. Cent. I. -VII., 1875—1879. Dietrich's Mosses, and other cryptogams, Jena, 1861 — 1864. Friedlander's British Hepaticae (136 sp.). Hardy's (John) Mosses, Sphagnaceas, and Hepaticae, 1884. Hardy's (J. Ray) Algae of the Pacific Coast of North America, 1872. Hcrpell's German Agarics, Fasc. I. -VI., N'os. i — (35, 18S0 — 1892. Hulme's Scarboro Algae, 1S42 (31 species). Jersey Algae (45 species, collector unknown). Larbalestier's Lichens of Jersey, Fasc. I. -II., 1867 — 1868 (100 sp.). Leighton's British Lichens, 1869, Nos. 1—380. Lewis's British Desmids. Migula, Sydow, and Wahlstedt's Characeae, 1889 — 1906. Mott's Lichens, British and Foreign. Mott's Mosses, 1908. ATott's Seaweeds and other cryptogams, 1908. Mudd's British Cladoniae, 1865 (80 sp.). Mudd's British Lichens, Fasc. I.-III. (300 sp.), 1861. Nordstedt and Wahlstedt's Characeae Scandinaviae, Fasc. I.-III. (i — 120), 1871 — 1874. 1 6 Bailey, Herbarhnn of British and Foreign Plants. (and 2 additional copies of 1854—1855, Lief. I.-IV. Pearson's British Hepaticae, 187S — 1904. Plowright's Sphaeriacei Britannici, 1873 (100 sp.). Frost's Mosses of the Lozere (260 sp.). Ralf's Marine and Freshwater Algae, Desmids and Diatoms, Vol. 1 (40 sp.). Schasrer's Lichenes Helvetic!, Bern, Fasc, i — 12, ]\os. i — 250, 1823 — 1836. Schserer's Lichenes Helvetici, Bern, Ed. 2, i — 26, 1842 — 1852. Schimper's Swiss and other Mosses, 1865. Schopke's Algae and Sphagna, 1886. Sydow and Migula's Characeas, 1892. Unknown collectors, British, 142 sp., 15 sp., 30 sp., 14 sp., and 108 sp. Vize's Fungi Britannici, Parts I. -II., 1873 — 1875 (3 copies of I., and 2 of II.). Vize's Microfungi Britannici, Fasc. I. -VI. I. -III.). Wagner's German Cryptogams, Bielefeld, Westwood's Algae of the Isle of Wight (49 sp. ). Wyatt's Algae of the Devonshire and Cornwall Coasts, Vols. I.-V. , and Index (236 sp.). AMERICAN, EAST INDIAN, AND OTHER EXOTIC SPECIES. Billing's Canadian, 1865 — 1S68. Calcutta Botanical Gardens, East Indian, 1884. Clarke's Australian, 1868. Crespigny's East Indian herbarium, 1895. Eggers's Argentine, 1880 — 1882. Hall and Harbour's Rocky Mountains, 1864. Hardy's Californian, 1884. Hurst's East Indian, 1878. Hurst's Indian Leguminosse, 1878. Kirk's New Zealand, 1884. Kuczynski's Cape and Swan River, 1880. Lewis's American, 1895. Lewis's Chinese, 1895 (Ex herb., Dr. Shearer). Lindstedt's East Indian, 1884. Lloyd's Cincinnati, 1884. MacOwan's South African, 1866. Maiden's (J. H.), Sydney, 1884. Port Elizabeth (East African), ex herb., F. T. Mott. Pringle's Arizona and Oregon, 1881 and 1884. Pringle's Californian, 1881 and 1884. Pringle's Mexican, 1885— 1888. Pringle's Pacific Slope, 1881. Ravenel's South Carolina, 1866. Richter's Cape and Australian, 1881. Richter's East Indian, 1878. Richter's North American, 1877 — 1878. Zeyher's Cape of Good Hope, 1866. SUMMARY OF BRITISH, CONTINENTAL. AND EXOTIC PLANTS, NATIVE AND CULTIVATED. British. Boxes Nos. Boxes. Boxes ( lontaining. Phanerogams . I to 714 . .. 710 .. . 72,699 sheets Mosses . 3,o6q to 3,088 . 20 .. • 7,735 packets or sheets Hepatics .. 3,116 to 3,122 7 .. 1,637 ,, 5, Lichens . 3,125 to 3,136 . 12 .. 1,814 Fungi . 3,144 to 3,150 . 7 •• 3,832 1, 1, Algae . 3,156 to 3,159 . 4 .. 760 .. 1,105 ,' 11 88,822 ,, •• Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), Islo. 5. 17 Phanerogams Mosses ... Hepatics Lichens ( + 3) Fungi Algae Continental, Boxes Nos. 716 to 3,068 3,o8g to 3,115 3,123 to 3,124 3,137 to 3,143 3,151 to 3,155 3,160 to 3,162 Boxes containing Swiss, Mont Blanc, Payot's French plants, and Dr. W'allich's East Indian plants oxes. Boxes containing. 353 • 26 . . 197,368 sheets 6,322 packets or sheets -> 729 10 . 1,177 5 • 9QO ,, ,, 3 • 1,431 18 580 2,417 208,597 Exotic. South African — General Cape of Good Hope East African ... Natal South-east African East Indian — Crespigny's herb. Calcutta Hurst's Leguminosje, etc. Himalayas South Indian & Ceylon 2,ogo 2,182 447 282 5Q3 481 3,985 Chinese — Lewis's herb. 495 Java, Sumatra, etc. ... 271 766 Australian — General 1,078 Swan River, Van Die- man's Land ... 621 New Zealand Q79 2,678 Canadian — General 742 North American — 742 Rocky Mountains 553 Mott's herb. 346 Pringle's Arizona, etc. 063 Pringle's Pacific Slope 171 Pringle's Mexico 508 South Carolina 315 North American, Contd, — Lewis's herb. Lloyd's Cincinnati Hardy's California, etc. Crespigny's herb. Utah Isthmus of Panama ... South American — General Argentine Jamaica, West Indies, Oceania, etc. (Parcels, 3, 164 to 3,267.) Summary. South Africa East Indies China Australia ... Canada North America South America Jamaica, Oceana, etc. Sheets. 2,816 7q8 1,04s 959 648 99 9,221 90s 17s 1,080 677 677 2,OQO 3,98s 766 2,678 742 9,221 1,080 677 (In 119 parcels, 3,174 to 3,267) General Totals. British Continental Exotic 21,239 88,822 208,597 21,239 318,658 Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill, near Cheltenham. 26th February, 1917. • 1 8 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. It may be as well to put on record what will become of the duplicates of this herbarium. All the duplicates of Continental plants, amounting to about 6,000 sheets, were sent to the Queen's University of Belfast, as per my letter to Professor R. H. Yapp, of the iQth June, 1917. By " deed of gift," dated 3rd of June, 1917, I have conveyed to the University of Manchester my British, Continental and other dried plants, library, microscopical slides, diagrams, models of plants, etc. The herbarium was dispatched to Manchester on the 3rd July, 1Q17, and three following days. Of the duplicates of British j^lanis there may be 20,000 sheets; some of which may, later on, be offered to the Universi- ties of Birrningham, Cardiff, Liverpool, Louvam, Oxford, etc. ; but there will still be a residue to be dealt with if strength permits. [Note added during the course of printing, 6th July, 1Q17.] Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), No. 0. VI. An Ethnological Study of Warfare. By W. J. Perry, B.A. (Coniiuiiiiicatcd by /'rofessor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.) (Received and read April 24.th, IQ17.) The world is accustomed to think that warfare is a normal feature of savage life. It is conjectured that the struggle for existence between human societies has been partly conducted by this means, the stronger aud better organised community enslaving, exterminating, or driving out the weaker. The earliest records of history tell of wars and conquests, and it is inferred that warfare was also a feature of pre-historic times. The assumption that warfare is the result of the natural pugnacity of mankind is made so universally and confidently that it may seem rash to endeavour to approach the study of human v/arfare from any other standpoint.-"^ Mr. William McDougall says, " the instinct of pugnacity has played a part second to none in the evolution of social organisation a little reflection will show that (pugnacity) far from being wholly injurious, has been one of the essential factors in the evolution of the higher forms of social organisation, and, in fact, of those specifically social qualities of man, the higher develop- ment of which is an essential condition of the higher social life."^ This is an authoritative and representative opinion re- garding the effect of human pugnacity on the development of society. Mr. McDougall also says, " The races of men cer- tainly differ in respect to the innate strength of this instinct."'^ In other words, the pugnacious instinct of certain peoples has led them to advance in culture, while races less endowed with this instinct have been left behind, and have not developed "specifically social qualities." The relations of savages to-day, according to Mr. McDougall present the phenomenon of " the uncomplicated operation of the instinct of pugnacity.'"* He 1. In dealing with the so-called instinct of pugnacity, I am not concerned with sporadic examples of personal combat, as iri the case of two males who struggle for the possession of a female, but with organ- ised conflicts into which the element of personal grievance does not necessarily enter. 2. "An Introduction to Social Psychology," Qth ed., London, 1015, pp. 27g, 281-2. 3. Op. cit., p. 27Q, 117, e.s. 4. Op. cit., p. 280. /?/ne 6th, igry. 2 Perry, An Ethnolo^cal Study of War jar e. speaks of " perpetual warfare, like the squabbles of a room of quarrelsome children."^ Many people still exist on the earth who do not indulge in the "uncomplicated operation of the instinct of pugnacity," or in "perpetual warfare." The negrito tribes of Africa live generally on friendly terms with their neighbours ; they are peaceful, and, when kindly treated, are very useful to their friends. Gifts of food placed by the sides of gardens will result in a strict watch being kept by these small people.^ The Bushmen of Africa, who formerly, with the Negritos, occupied vast areas of the continent, were peaceful i>eople.'^ The Lapps squabble, but do not use the knives which they carry ; the Eskimo, as a rule, are ignorant of warfare.^ Dr. Rivers records that warfare was unknown in the Polynesian islands of Tikopia.^ This was also the case in the Lu Chu islands south of Japan. The natives told the traveller Hall that they knew nothing whatever of warfare, and the sight of a Malay kns caused them great astonishment. ^° The warlike tendencies of New Guinea tribes vary greatly. Many of the peoples of the coast are cannibals, and exhibit extreme ferocity towards their cap- tives. But the British and German expeditions of 1896-8 found " intelligent, peaceful, and friendly tribes in the in- terior." Sir W. Macgregor found Papuans on Mt. Scratchley who, " showed themselves amiable and peaceful, and the state of their arms showed that they had not been engaged in any warlike undertaking for years."^^ Similar examples could be found in Indonesia. Therefore pacific peoples still exist in various parts of the earth, and it is possible that such peoples once occupied regions where only warlike tribes are now found. For example, the history of Africa shows that the group of peoples of warlike habits, called the Bantu, have swarmed over much of southern, western and eastern Africa, enslaving and exterminating weakex tribes, and driving others in front of them. It is curious that those tracts of the earth which are least touched by outside influences, central New Guinea, Greenland, and elsewhere, should be inhabited by unwarlike peoples. This distribution can be explained by the pressure exerted by warlike peoples, but it causes a definite question to be put : — How is it that some peoples are warlike, while others are pacific ? Why should branches of the same people differ in their pug- nacity ? Why should Papuans of central New Guinea be peaceful, while their kinsmen of the coast are truculent and 5. Ibid. 6. Keane, "Man, Past and Present," p. 117, c.s. 7. Haddon, " Races of Man," p. 32. 8. Letourneau, "Sociology," p. iqq; Joyce. "Handbook to the ethnographical Collections (British Museum), p. 248. 0. "History of Melanesian Society," Cambridge, ]gi4 I., 32Q. 10. Letourneau, loc. cif. 11. Keane, pp. 132-4. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), No. 6. 3 ferocious ? It is easy to say that races differ in pugnacity, but variations in the pugnacity of different groups of the same race present a difficult problem. Mr. McDougall discusses the variations in the pugnacity of different branches of the same people in Borneo : — " As one travels up any of the large rivers, one meets with tribes that are successively more warlike. In the coast region are peaceful communities which never fight, save in self-defence, and then with but poor success; while in the central region, where the rivers take their rise, are a number of extremely warlike tribes, whose raids have been a constant source of terror to the com- munities settled m the lower reaches of the rivers. And between these tribes at the centre and those in the coast region are others that serve as a buffer between them, being decidedly more belli- cose than the latter, but less so than the former It might be supposed that the peaceful coastwise people would be found to be superior in moral qualities to their more warlike neighbours ; but the contrary is the case. In almost all resj-vects the advantage lies with the warlike tribes Their houses are better built, larger, and cleaner, their domestic morality is superior ; they are physically stronger, are braver, and physic- ally and mentally more active, and in general are more trust- worthy. But, above all, their social organisation is firmer and more efficient, because their respect for and obedience to their chiefs, and their loyalty to their community, are much greater the moderately warlike tribes occupying the interme- diate region stand midway between them and the people of the coast as regards these moral qualities. " Yet all these tribes are of closely allied stocks, and the superior moral qualities of the central tribes would seem to be the direct result of the very severe group-selection to which their innate pugnacity has subjected them for many genera- tions. And the greater strength of their pugnacious habits, which displays itself unmistakably in their more martial bear- ing and more fiery temp)er, is probably due ultimately to the more bracing climate of the central region, which by favouring a greater bodily activity, has led to more frequent conflicts, and a stricter weeding-out of the more inoffensive and less energetic individuals and groups."^^ The statements of Mr. McDougall are clear and precise. The superior mental and moral qualities of the central tribes are ascribed to the " severe group-selection " to which the effects of their innate pugnacity have subjected them for many genera- tions. Since these words were written. Dr. Hose and Mr. McDougall have published a work on the Pagan Tribes of Borneo, where they describe a tribe called the Punan, who live " in the central highlands wandering through the upper parts 12. Op. cit., pp. 2.SQ-Q0. These statements are to be found in the ninth edition of Air. McDougall's work, published in 1Q15. 4 Perry, An Ethnological Study of Warfare. of the basins of all the large rivers."^^ The authors tell us that "From the point of view of physical development, the Punan are among the finest of the peoples of Borneo," yet, " the Punan is a likeable person, rich in good qualities, and innocent of vices. He never slays or attacks other tribes wantonly ; he never seeks or takes a head, for his customs do not demand it." In spite of this lack of pugnacity, " he will defend himself and his family pluckily .... courage is rated highest, and a woman looks, especially for courage in her husband." Morals are good ; " public opinion and tradition seem to be the sole and sufficient sanction of conduct. • . • • Marriage is for life, though separation by the advice or direc- tion of the chief, or by desertion of the man to another com- munity occurs. Sexual restraint is probably maintained at about' the same level as among the other peoples, the women being more strictly chaste after than before marriage." Sum- ming up, the authors say, " Yet, although in culture (the Punan) stands far below all the settled agricultural tribes, there is no sufficient reason for assuming him to be innately inferior to them in any considerable degree, cither morallv or intellectu- ally." The account of the Punan shows that a people physically " among the finest of Borneo " exist in the country at the head- waters of the rivers. These people have had no severe " group- selection," yet they are " rich in good qualities," intellectually as good as any tribe in Borneo, and harmless as long as they are treated properly. The warlike tribes, such as the Kayan, are therefore superior only in material culture, for the authors have demonstrated the high standard of physique, behaviour, and morality of the Punan. It consequently seems that " group- selection " has been inoperative as a civilising factor, since a peaceful nomadic jungle tribe has qualities, law-abidingness, courage, morality, all of them " specifically social qualities of man, the higher development of which is an essential condition of the higher social life." The Punan and Kayan live on perfectly friendly terms; the warfare of central Borneo is therefore not incessant, nor does the pugnacity of either people seem to cause strife. If the least advanced people of Borneo is pacific, how comes it that warfare ever began in Borneo? Most people are aware of the nature of the " warfare" of the Borneo tribes. It is head-hunting. This is the chief form of warfare among many peoples, including those of the Hima- layan region, Assam, Upper Burma, South-west China, the East Indian Archipelago, Formosa, New Guinea, and parts of Oceania. Heads are also taken in America, and the North American custom of scalping is akin to head-hunting. Not only are heads sought by these peoples, but slaves are some- times brought back from head-hunting expeditions. The 13. Op. cit.. II., pp. 178, e.s., for the quotations concerning tlie Punan. Manchesler Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), t^o. 0. 5 method of gcttinj^ heads is similar among many of the head- hunting tribes. Small parties of warriors set oiit and either ambush people, men and women indiscriminately, or rush a village just before dawn. Little open fighting takes place, for directly a few heads are taken the party at once sets off for home. The Kay an of Borneo go out to seek heads on the occasion of the death of a chief, and sometimes they take revenge at the same time for some injury or insult. But they generally leave an injury unavenged for years, and wait until it IS necessary to procure heads for ceremonial purposes. The Kayan differ from the Punan m that they need heads for the funeral ceremonies of their chiefs., and formerly they sacrificed slaves on these occasions. The Punan have no here- ditary chiefs, they do not keep slaves, neither do they hunt for heads. A profound difference therefore exists between the social organisation of the Punan and that of the Kayan, and it is a striking fact that only the chiefly class of the Kayan should need heads and human sacrifices for their funerals. Some of the Kayan chiefs differ from the commoners in that they claim to be descended from people from the sky. Not only are Kayan chiefs distinguished from the commoners, but warriors who die fighting, and women who die in childbirth, go to live in the more desirable parts of the land of the dead, and become rich there without working. One Borneo tribe says that a frog told them first to get heads. ^"^ Many may consider this a frivolous reason, but it would not be so to some Indonesian peoples. Men have, according to them, been petrified for laughing at frogs.^^ The Borneo people therefore claim to have been taught their head-hunting, in which case it would not necessarily be due to innate pugnacity. This claim is not fanciful; the Bontoc of Luzon in the Philippines also say that they were taught war- fare by a being, Lumawig, who came from the sky and taught them many things in addition to warfare. The Bontoc say that the ghost of a warrior whose head has been taken goes up to the sky, and there has a head of flames; the ghosts of all others go tO' the mountains. In a tale concerning the first Bontoc man whose head was taken, the "children of the sun" are the authors of the deed. The Bontoc are therefore quite definite about the matter; they once had no warfare, and someone came who taught them to get heads. The two cases, Bontoc and Kayan, are similar in that a warrior is considered to go to a special home of the dead. Since Kayan chiefs are descended from the sky, and since the Bontoc got their knowledge of warfare from the sky, it would seem that the existence of a sky-born chieftainship 14. The Seboij, a Klemantan tribe. Hose and MrDougall. Op. cit.^ II., pp. 138-Q. 15. The story of the frog as an element of comparative religion has yet to be told, arid the telling w'\\\ reveal many curious things. 6 Perry, An Ethnological Study of Warfare. among the Kayan is of importance m relation to their head- hunting. Who are the "children of the sun" who took the first Bontoc head ? The traditions of Indonesia tell of the coming into various places of people who claimed to be descended from the sun. These "children of the sun" produced a tremendous cultural upheaval in Indonesia.^^ Our knowledge of Indonesia is still scanty, but such facts as we have show that the " children of the sun " formed a chiefly class in several places. The social organisation in these places consists of sacred chiefs, nobles who are warriors, commoners and slaves. These chiefs and nobles are descended from the sky, and they return there at death, while the commoners go elsewhere. It is an invariable belief in Indonesia that the descendants of these immigrants go to the sky, and the only commoners who can go to the sky after death are warriors. It is the prerogative of sky-descended people to return to the sky at death, and the fact that warriors alone of the commoners share this privilege is suggestive of the relationship between warfare and these immigrants. In referring their head-hunting to the sky people, the Bontoc are making a claim in accordance with the results of the examination of the influence of the "children of the sun" in Indonesia, for it can be shown that head-hunting has been introduced by these people into Indonesia. Such an explana- tion accounts satisfactorily for the pacific nature of the Punan ; they have not learned the practice of warfare because they have not acquired the requisite social organisation. It is now conceded that cultural influences have moved from Indonesia into Melanesia. Dr. Rivers, m his great work.^'^ has given good reason to conclude that migrations (not necessarily of any considerable numbers) have produced profound changes in the cultures of the peoples of Melanesia. In this region hereditary chiefs and slavery are found in those parts where warfare is constant: the western Solomons, Fiji, and New Caledonia. The social organisation of Fiji consists of sacred chiefs, war chiefs, commoners, and slaves. Only those who die a violent death can gain admittance to the land of the dead. Human sacrifices formerly were common in this island. ^^ In New Caledonia a sacred chief is found at the head of each tribe. He is a priest rather than a chief, and when he dies it is said that " the sun is set.'' Then comes a warrior aristocracy, then commoners and slaves.-^^ In the rest of ^lelanesia no hereditary chiefs are found, and there are no aristocracy or slaves. Dr. Rivers has found no record of any serious fighting in Tikopia, although the people have hereditary sacred chiefs. 16. I propose shortly to put forward a detailed examination of the effects of these people upon the indigenous cultures of Indonesia. 17. Op. cit. 18. Joyce, of. cit., pp. 127, 131. iQ. M.' Glaumont, Rev., d'ethnographie, VII.. 1S8S, pp. 75, 12Q. Manchester Memoirs, \ol. Ixi. (iQi/), No. i». / In the Banks Islands no definite warfare seems to be carried on.-^ The old communities of Polynesia, New Zealand, Tonga, Samoa, Tahiti, Hawaii, Nme, and so forth, were warlike. At the head of the community was a sacred chief; then came a nobility who governed and fought; then commoners, and some- times slaves. The nobility went to a special land of the dead, while the commoners usually died outright, and had no future lifc.'^^ Human sacrifices were common. The chief occupation of the men m New Zealand was. warfare, the more desirable parts of the land of the dead being reserved for great warriors, who spent their time in fighting, which was only interrupted by feasts.^" Students are agreed that the ancestors of the Polynesians were immigrants. Dr. Rivers has given good reason to believe that head-hunting and the institution of chieftainship were in- troduced into Melanesia by people who, he supposes, arrived there later than the previous immigrants, who had penetrated still more widely into Melanesia; also that the wave of culture which brought in head-hunting did not reach the New Hebrides or the Banks Islands. The conditions in the Pacific therefore suggest that the institutions connected with warfare, sacred chiefs, nobles who are warriors, and slavery, were brought into Oceania. This would explain the pacific nature of the peoples of the interior of New Guinea, for the migrants would have missed them; also that of the Tikopians, for they have no hereditary warrior class, and no war chiefs. The social constitution of Peru under the Incas was some- what similar to that of the Polynesians.. Ai the head of the State was the Inca, a sacred being, descended from the sun. He was the chief priest of the sun-cult, and also the head of the army. Then came nobles of royal blood, who held all the chief offices in the State, and the chief military commands. After death the Inca returned to the sun, and warriors went to the heavenly plains. Human sacrifices were made on the death of an Inca.^^ The Aztec of Mexico had a social organisation " similar in its principal features to that of ancient Egypt." The king was at the head of the State, as the representative of the sun- god. Then came the hereditary aristocracy, whose principal occupations were governing and warfare. Below them were the commoners, and finally slaves. HuiPxan sacrifices took place on an immen.se scale. 60,000 victims were slaughtered on the occasion of the dedication of a new temple to the war 20. Rivers, op. cit., 11., i:.p. 86, lod, 452: T., p. 320- 27. Letourneau, op. cit., p. 259. 22. Jo>'ce, op. cit.. p. 176; Letournenu, p. 250. 23. Letourneau, " Sociology," p. 470; Prescott, '" Conquest of Peru," Cha]:). I-III. ; Trior, •' Primitive Culture," II., pp. 301-2. 8 Perry, An EtJinologkal Study of Warfare. god, and 20,000 victims were sacrificed annually to the same god.^'^ The ghosts of Mexicans, high and low, went to Mictlan, the underground world ; but warriors and women who died in child-birth went to the sky, and accompanied the sun on his daily journey.^^ The same social hierarchy without the king was found in the states tributary to Mexico. Some of the less developed peoples of America had similar social organisations. For example, the Natchez of Louisiana had a solar hierarchy, headed by a great chief called the Sun. Then came a hereditary nobility, whose ghosts, together with those of warriors, went to the sun after death. Human sacri- fices accompanied the funerals of nobles.^^ The social organi- sation of the peoples of the north-west coast of America consists of hereditary chiefs, commoners and slaves. Sun worship is found among some of these tribes, and slaves were formerly sacrificed. ^'^ Agreement has not yet been reached with regard to the immigrant nature of the cultural influence which has been re- sponsible for the pre-Columbian civilisations of America, and the battle between opposing views is still being fought. But the similarity between the social constitutions of America and those of Polynesia is striking and suggestive. The constitution of the Japanese Empire was similar to those of other warrior peoples. The Alikado is at the head of the State. He is sacred, being descended from Jimmu Tenno, who entered Japan about 600 B.C., Jimmu Tenno l^eing descended from the sun-goddess. The Mikado is the high priest of the national religion. Then came a hereditary nobility, which governed and fought ; then commoners and slaves. Human beings were formerly sacrificed in Japan.^^ The caste system of India seems to have developed out during and after the struggles between the Aryan invaders of India and the peoples whom they found there. The chief caste was that of the Brahmans, who were priests; then came the Kshattriyas, rulers and warriors; then Vaisyas or traders, and finally the Sudra, who w^ere the descendants of the captives made by the conquer ors.^^ The Kshattriyas were descended from the sun; Manu, who gave the code of laws, was a Kshat- triya, and so was the Buddha. The history of Africa is one of conquest. On the arrival of the Europeans at the Cape of Good Hope, they found only Hottentots and Bushmen. '^° But further to the north, in 24. Prescott, " Conquest of Mexico," Chap. I. 25. Brinton, " Myths of the New World," 1806, p. 286. 26. Tvlor, ''Prim. Cult.," II., pp. 69, eoples and their social organisation are such as to suggest that the northern group at least learned the art of warfare and acquired their religion from the Gal la, who formed their hereditary fighting aristo- cracy, for Hamitic peoples have formed many of the fighting tribes of Africa. The southern group perhaps learned their fighting from those who originally introduced the methods of architecture represented in the Zimbabwe ruins. The possession of the knowledge of the art of warfare would explain the ability of the Bantu to conquer the greater part of Southern Africa, and to found in many ])laces warrior empires of similar social constitution.^^ The warlike nature of the Hamitic peoples of Africa thus seems to have effected immense changes in the ethnography of that continent. How comes it that such a powerful social ferment was at work in the north-cast, whence the Galla came ? Whence had the Galla peoples acquired their social organisa- tion ? From the headwaters of the Nile southwards we find a succession of warlike peoples who possess similar social organisations and religious beliefs, these peoples alone having such organisations. In the Nile valley the Egyptian ci\ili- sation persisted for thousands of years. The social organisa- tion of Egypt under the Pharoahs consisted of the king, who was descended from the sun, and was the high priest of the sun- cult; then came a military and governing aristocracy, com- moners and slaves. Have we any reason to believe that the Egy{:)tians taught the African peoples to fight and to overrun the continent with a military organisation similar to their own? Prof Elliot Smith has lately published evidence which puts the matter beyond doubt.-^"^ He has shown that some of the Bantu peoples who possess hereditary chiefs, i.e., the warrior peoples, subject the bodies of their deceased chiefs to a process of pre- servation, and the methods employed are directly copied from those practised in Egypt. Only hereditary chiefs are so treated in Africa, and, as the institution of hereditary chiefs is accom- panied so closely by the warrior nobility and a sky-cult, the presumption that the social organisation of the warrior peoples was ultimately derived from Egypt becomes very strong. Since the bodies of the chiefs of the Baduma and Barotse in Rhodesia are mummified, we have further evidence for the Egyptian origin of the civilisation of the builders of the Zimbabwe ruins, and therefore of the social organisation of the warrior tribes of the southern Bantu peoples. .35. " The Religion of the Xandi," Proceedings nf the hiteniatioiinl Congress of Religions, Oxford, iqoS, p. go. 36. See Sir H. Johnston, " The Opening up of Africa,'' p. i34- " A Sketch of the Ethnography of Africa." Jonrl. Roy. .Anth. Inst., XLTII. 37. "The Migrations of Early Culture,'' Manchester, IQ15. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. \1g17). No. 6. 11 The great kingdoms of West Africa, Bene, Dahomey, Ashanti, with sacred kings, a warrior nobility, commoners and slaves, and a sun-cult, were in a region which has most prob- ably been subjected to Egyptian influence, both directly and by sea round the west coast. Human sacrifices were common in these states. The evidence gained from Oceania, America, Asia, and Africa, affords support for the results obtained from the con- sideration of Indonesia. All over the world warfare is bound up with a social organisation consisting of sacred chiefs or kings, a hereditary governing and warrior aristocracy, commoners, and slaves captured in war ; it is also accompanied by a sun-cult or a sky-cult. In these communities slaves are sacrificed, often on the death of chiefs, and heads are sometimes sought for the funerals of chiefs, and for other purposes. Warfare among many of these peoples is also the means of entering a specially desirable home of the dead, generally situated in the sky. We have found that it is not possible to explain the warlike or pacific spirit of peoples by postulating an instinct of pug- nacity. We have now seen that a warlike spirit is associated with a military aristocracy. We also see that the social organi- sation connected with warfare was introduced into Indonesia, Oceania, perhaps America, Japan, India, Africa, by immigrants who, in India. Africa. New Caledonia, Indonesia, and perhaps America (native traditions tell of the coming of culture heroes), were called the " children of the sun." Warfare was introduced among the Bontoc and Luzon and other Indonesian peoples by the "children of the sun"; it was also introduced into South Africa, and probably elsewhere. The facts suggest, there- fore, that the practice of warfare was introduced into various parts of the world by peoples, sometimes claiming to be des- cended from the sun, and possessing a sun or sky cult, who introduced a form of social organisation consisting of sacred chiefs, a hereditary governing and warrior aristocracy, com- moners, and slaves, who also caused a special prestige to be attached to the practice of warfare.'^^ If these statements are true, it will follow^ that warfare IS not a natural thing among mankind. Before the arrival of the " children of the sun " savage peoples would be at the stage of the Punan, Bushmen, Tikopians, Eskimo, and others — peace- ful, without hereditary chiefs or warriors, nobles or slaves. The conclusion suggested by the facts is that a people will be warlike or peaceful, according as they have or have not a hereditary warrior aristocracy; if a warlike community loses its military aristocracy, it will become peaceful, and if a peace- ful community acquires a warrior aristocracy, it will become warlike. 38. It does not follow that the same people took the culture all over the earth. Doubtless different races acquired it and then in their turn influenced others. One of the tasks of the future will be to follow up these secondary movements. 12 Perry, An Ethnological Study of Warfare. The contrast between the Japanese and the Chinese illus- trates this. The Japanese are warlike, while the Chinese are pacific. The social constitution of the Japanese has already been described. The Chinese have for centuries been governed by successive dynasties ; but these dynasties have never estab- lished themselves, and in the course of time China has become a republic. China has no^ hereditary nobility; all the high offices of the State are reached by competitive examination. The difference in social constitution is accompanied by an en- tirely different attitude towards warfare ; what is an honourable thing in Japan is despised in China. The Chinese look down upon warfare and those who practise it, and their army was formed of Manchu Tartars, who are of a typical warrior race.'^^ Therefore the contrast between the two countries is still further emphasised ; the " children of the sun " have gained complete control in Japan, and have infused a warlike spirit into the nation; in China the "children of the sun" have not formed an aristocracy, and the people have remained peaceful, the fighting being done by the " children of the sun." India for centuries was ravaged by wars. Mr. ]\IcDougall says that, " the mass of the people have been subjected for long ages to the rule of the dominant castes The bulk of the people are deficient in the pugnacious instinct."'*'^ They may never have been warlike, and the pacific nature of the country may be due to the fact that " the warrior caste of Kshattriyas is conspicuous by its absence.""*^ Kings of solar descent still exist in the warlike states, Ne])al and so forth, '^^ and the Rajputs have succeeded to the Kshattriyas as a mili- tary caste. The Todas and other tribes of the Nilgiri Hills are peaceful. The Todas possess weapons, Vk'hich are now only used ceremonially, but there is evidence that they were once used for fighting. The culture of the Todas shows that they have been influenced by the " children of the sun," but the latter have not imposed a hereditary chieftainship or w^arnor caste, so the Todas have once again become peaceful.'^'^ An example from Europe will show the effect of the pres- ence of a warrior aristocracy upon a community. After the break-up of the Roman Emj)ire, Northern Italy was overrun by successive waves of barbarians; Lombards, Germans, Goths and Franks. Many of the noble Italian families became extinct, and cities such as Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Venice, freed from the incubus of a class whose sole profession was warfare, grew and prospered. These cities banded themselves together for protection against " the brigandage of the barbarian armies, which invaded their countries and treated them as enemies," 3Q. Letourneau, " Sociolotry," p. 200; Oldham, "The Sun and the Serpent," London, IQ05, p. 202. 40. Op. cit.^ 201. 41. R. Sewcll, ■■ [mp. Gaz. India,"' II., 1Q08, p. 323. 42. Oldham, op. c'lt., p. mcj. 43. A\'. H. R. Rivers, '■ The Todas,'" pp. 586, 716. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (IQI/), 'No. 0- 13 and also against the " robberies of the other barbarians who called themselves their masters.""*'^ The old Italian nobility which remained soon discovered that these cities were deter- mined to be left alone to develop their resources in peace. Nobles managed in time to gain a footing in some towns, but their turbulence caused the peaceful citizens to eject them. Sometimes they established themselves, and the contrast be- tween the towns which were purely republican and those which were governed by nobles is striking. Florence was republican and democratic at a time when Venice was governed by an aristocracy. Sismondi describes the difference between the two places. " Florence was the Athens of Italy. The genius displayed by some of its citizens — the talent and intelligence in business to be found in the men of the people — the generosity which seemed the national char- acter, wherever it was necessary to protect the oppressed or defend the cause of liberty— raised the city above every other." The Florentines " pursued for themselves the noble policy of opposing all usurpation or conquest by any who pretended to domination in Italy.'"^^ Sismondi then describes the effect of the superposition of an aristocracy, of who'm he says that " war was their sole occupation. '"^^ " The virtue and elevation of soul, which had done such honour to the Italian nation became obscured, even in the republics of Genoa, Lucca, Pisa, Sienna, Perugia, and Bologna. These republics, in the course of the fourteenth century, had all more than once fallen under the power of some tyrant; accordingly, the examples of cruelty, perfidy, and the success of these usurpers to whom they had been forced to submit, had had a corresponding effect upon their citizens. Neither had Venice presented the true Italian virtue; its citizens often gave proofs of an unbounded submission to its most severe ordinances, but it was a narrow-minded and jealous aristocracy, which, according to the spirit of that government, substituted national selfishness for patriotism. The Venetians took not into the least consideration any other people; they fancied they gave proofs of heroism, when the advantage of their republic was in question, in suppressing every human sentiment, in silencing every moral duty. Venice was governed by secret councils, where the voice of the people was never heard; its foreign policy was administered by the Council of Ten, which in its mysterious meetings took interest only for a guide.'"^^ If the warlike temper of a people depends upon the pres- ence or absence of a class which follows war as a profession, it is reasonable to suppose that warfare forms part of a system; 44. Sismondi, " Italian Rejiublics," London, p. 2;. 45. Op. cit., p. 130. 46. Ibid., p. 25. 47. Sismondi, op. cit., p. 185. The description of \'cnice under an aristocracy is strikingly similar to that of Germany at the present dav. 14 Perry, An Ethnological Study of Warfare. that it must perform some useful function. Why is war useful to certain forms of social organisation, and not to others? The social organisation of warrior peoples is such that one class — the nobility — is parasitic. It demands work from the lower classes, and commoners and slaves will supply the dif- ferent forms of labour needed. How did the Pharoahs of Egypt build their pyramids ? By slave labour. Whole popu- lations were enslaved by Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, in order to toil for their rulers, and the gigantic works of antiquity were only made possible by the fact that the Egyptians and others could wage war upon peoples and enslave them. If the savages of early times were pacific, it is easy to understand how the Egyptians and other peoples could have enslaved them. Does not this need of labour and wealth explain the utility of warfare to a governing class ? It is a means of ensuring their own luxury and ease. Much of the warfare of Africa and other continents has been of the nature of slave-raiding, and whole tribes have been made slaves by warrior peoples such as the Masai, so that such warrior peoples might be saved the trouble or working. Warfare formerly supplied another need. We have seen how constantly slaves were sacrificed by warrior peoples. Human victims were needed for the sun-cult, and for other purposes, and the existence of human sacrifices among warrior peoples is in keeping with the frequent presence among these peoples of the sun-cult. Head-hunting is therefore explicable on the hypothesis that it is a search for victims for the chiefs of the warrior peoples, and for their cults; that, in fact, it is a modification of human sacrifice. Head-hunting can indeed exist along wath human sacrifice, as among the Kayan of Borneo. Slaves are only found among peoples who practise war- fare. Unwarlike peoples have no hereditary chiefs, no slavery, and no human sacrifices; on the other hand, slavery and human sacrifices are associated with a hereditary warrior aristocracy. The hypothesis that warfare originated among a sun- worshipping aristocracy is therefore in accordance with the facts. The enslavement of humanity has not proceeded from any innately cruel motive, but from that powerful stimulant which, once at work, will drive men to extremes — greed. It can be shown that the motive which led the " children of the sun " to the ends of the earth, was that of the exploitation of wealth,'*^ and examples could be quoted of the manner in which they enslaved whole populations to work in their mines. The history of slavery is one of the saddest, and the motives at the back of the practice are still powerful to-day. The exploitation of human labour still continues, and only 48. " The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines," Proceedings of the Man- chester Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester, 1915. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), A^c". 6. 15 the gathering strength of the people is ameliorating the lot of industrial slaves. Human beings are never so cruel as when they are bitten with the desire for wealth and ease, and pos- sibly this desire has been the driving-force at the back of the movement towards civilisation. Man has not emerged from a state of savagery to civilisation and dropped his pugnacious habits; his pugnacious habits are rather the result of civilisation, of the exploitation of man by man, of the desire for wealth and luxury. The motives which gave rise to the wars of the Egyp- tians, Assyrians, and other nations of antiquity are still as powerful and active to-day as they were thousands of years ago ; perhaps they are more active. The desire to exploit humanity has not decreased with advancing civilisation. What is the bearing of all this upon the problem which now confronts Christendom ? The Prussian military aristoc- racy is waging war. This aristocracy supplies practically all the chief officers in the German army, and holds the principal offices in the State. At the head of the State is a king, who, if not sacred, claims to rule by Divine right. What is the history of this organisation, which is similar to that of the typical warrior state? Have the "children of the sun" also taught the Germans to fight, to seek for a " place in the sun " ? The old Teutons were sun-worshippers, and they had a social organisation consisting of a priest-king, supported by a military aristocracy. Slaves were kept and sacrificed. As among many other warrior peoples, warriors were specially honoured ; they only went to Walhalla ; " to the old Norsemen, to die the straw death of sickness or old age was tO' go down into the dismal loathy house of Hela, the Death-Goddess; if the warrior fate on the field of battle were denied him, and death came to fetch him from a peaceful couch, yet at least he could have the scratch of the spear, Odin's mark, and so contrive to go with a blood-stained soul to the glorious Walhalla.""^^ Captives of war were thrown into the graves of chiefs. The evidence quoted goes to show that the source of the social organisation of the old Germanic peoples was similar to that of the other warrior peoples; the German culture displays many of the typical traits : sun-cult, priest-kings, warrior nobility, slavery, human sacrifices, and a special home of the dead for warriors ; and it is possible that this organisation has been introduced. The Prussian warrior aristocracy, in re- garding war as a splendid thing, as a means of obtaining wealth and p)ower, are simply furnishing another example of a typical w^arrior state; and their Kaiser in claiming Divine Right is completing the picture. The warlike organisation of 4Q. Tylor, n-p. cit., II., 88. The introduction of warfare into the north of Europe is a matter of conjecture at present. Nilsson states that the cult of Odin and Walhalla was introduced among the Teutons of Scandinavia by the Asar, a princely priest-caste. '' The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,'' London, 1S68, p. 237. 1 6 Perry, An EthnoLogical Study of Warfare. the Prussians is deeply rooted in the past, and they are the latest, and one would like to hope the last, and most formid- able representatives of the warrior-state system. The Prussians may well claim that they are the bearers of a Kultur, but they are wrong in supposing that their Kultur represents an advance upon that of the rest of Europe. If the thesis of this article be correct, the truculence, perfidy, and other qualities which we ascribe to modem Germany are the direct outcome of the grow- ing power of the Prussian military aristocracy. Just as the nobility caused a degeneration in the character of the Venetian state, so the Prussian military and governing aristocracy has transformed the Germans. The military successes of the last century have enhanced the prestige and multiplied the power of the military aristocracy, and the present war is the outcome of the desire of that class for domination. This war is to be ascribed to the working of social processes, the roots of which lie in the past. But fortunately mankind is not faced wath a sittration that has been produced by a process of evolution, by the struggle for existence between various societies, the effects of which have been to produce " specifically social quali- ties."' The evidence brought forward here goes to show that warfare has nothing whatever to do with the development of the higher social qualities. It was in the beginning a means whereby one group of human beings exploited another, and far from producing good qualities, it has created mental appe- tites and ways of thinking and acting which have led to the death of millions. Fortunately other social forces have been at work. Countries such as France and England, once under the yoke of a warrior aristocracy, have freed themselves, and now direct their own destinies more and more for the profit, not of a class, but of the people. Great democracies are grow- ing up in all parts of the world — America, Africa, Australia — and these democracies, freed from the incubus of a sabre- rattling, war-desiring aristocracy, are devoting their entire ener- gies to peaceful advancement. These democracies are peaceful; they lack the presence of a class whose interest is warfare.^° The leaven of the "children of the sun" is working itself out. This war, let us hope, represents the last struggle of a system which has held mankind in its clutches for centuries. Once this system is shattered, once the leaven is dead, mankind will settle down to a new phase of development. Warfare as we know it will perhaps be absent, but the motives which gave rise to it will be present. Greed will always press men to exploit their fellow-creatures, and it is only possible to hope that mankind will learn the lesson of the past : that the ex- ploitation of a community for the sake of one class is fraught with grave and continual dangers. 50. Their behaviour in warfare is well exemplified in the case of the United States, who beat Great Britain, but neither made this a pre- text of aggression ; a contrast to the Prussian method. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQi/), '^'o- '^■ VII. Observations on the Nesting Habits of the Palm Swift, Tachornis parva (Licht.), made by Mr. Arthur Loveridge in German East Africa. By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S:, F.E.S. {Received and read April 24th ^ 1917.) A skin and nest of the Palm Swift, Tachornis parva, were recently sent to the Manchester Museum by Mr. A. Loveridge, who is serving with the forces in the country which a short time ago was German East Africa. A letter, telling me about the specimens, contained some interesting notes on the nesting habits of the bird, as observed at Morogoro, in January, 1917. Certain details observed by Mr. Loveridge are, I believe, new facts, whilst others confirm points in the extraordinary habits of the species, which have apparently been doubted by some writers on African birds. The Palm Swift has a wide range in Africa, occurring from Nubia and Madagascar to the Gold Coast, and southward to the Cape. It has long been known to nest in the leaves of the palms, but apparently, as the bird is numerous wherever it founds a colony, it has been sufficient for most people either to take for granted statements copied from book to book, or to omit any mention of habits which appeared to differ from those of other birds. The following are Mr. Lov^eridge's notes. "Nest and Eggs. — When out collecting this morning I came across a small colony of Swifts nesting in the banana palms which line the sides of the road. The lowest nests were 12 to 15 feet from the ground, and were attached to the frond of the leaf just below its union with the mid-rib of the leaf. The inner side of the leaf being concave, a few downy feathers are gummed to its surface over an area of 4A inches in length and 2 inches in width, which is the width of the frond. At the lower end of the patch the shallowest of cups is formed, and the two white eggs rest upon this and are gummed to the back of the nest. These eggs will not fall out though the nest be turned completely topsy-turvy, and the branch that bears it be roughly shaken. The eggs in the first nest could be seen whilst standing directly underneath. Incubation — The incubating parent grasps the back feathers of the nest with its claws, and presses itself against the eggs; May 17th, IQ17. 2 Coward, Nesting Habits of the Palm Sivijt. of seven nests examined to-day, in three cases it was the male incubating the eggs, and in the remaining four, females. There is always more or less of a breeze here, and frequently a strong wind, rising to a gale after sunset. As may be imagined, the fronds are swaying up and down nearly all the time, and the back of the brooding bird is often underneath. Young. — When hatched, the young cling tenaciously to the feathery wall, and on my disturbing two, they actually lowered themselves down, and as far as possible into, their old egg- shells, which, of course, continued to occupy the cup-part of the nest. The latter swarmed with bird-lice and several other species of minute parasites. Two youngsters, which were in the downy stage, could scarcely be distinguished from the feathers which comprised the nest. Contents of Nest — 1. Single egg, highly incubated. 2. Two eggs, one incubated or bad, the other almost fresh. 3. Two eggs, both highly incubated. 4. One egg broken and bad, and one newly fledged bird. 5. Two young birds only a couple of days old. 6. Two downy young. 7. Empty except for crushed eggshells, the young having flown. Though the palms bearing these nests were just outside the hut occupied by my boy, on having them pointed out to him he insisted they were the work of insects, and would not believe them to be the work of birds till he saw the eggs. Certainly at a little distance they appeared as a cobwebby mass. The bird, though of much the same colour as the English swift {Cypselns apns), is considerably smaller, measuring 6 inches over all, about half of which is due to the long tail. Morogoro, 13/1/ 191 7. Arthur Loveridge." Palm Swifts of the genus Tachornis, occurring in Africa, Southern Asia, and the West Indies, differ from the other Swifts — Micro-pus, Aeronaiites, and Panyphilia — in having their toes in pairs, " the outer and middle toe directed to the right, and the inner and hind toe to the left." Hartert. (" Catal. of the Ficarice in the Coll. of the Brit. Mns!' Birds, XVI., 1892, 462) says : " No doubt this has some relation to their habits, and probably to the manner in which they cling to the leaves of palm trees, or to grass roofs of the Naga houses in Cacha and Assam." It appears to me that it is more closely related to the clinging to the nests when affixed to an unstable foundation. Manchester Memoirs, Yol. Ixi. (191;), A^^. T- 3 •such as the wind-swayed palm leaves referred to by Mr. Love- ridge. The great interest of Air. Loveridge's observations lie in the statement that the two eggs are glued or cemented to the nesting material — " gummed to the back of the nest," he says. I would call special attention to the words " back of the nest." Stark, " The Birds of South Africa "— cont. by W. L. Sclater, Vol. III., 29, 1913) says: " Heuglin (Orn. Nordost- Afrika's, 1869, 145) gives a good account of the habits of this bird in the Upper Nile Valley ; he states that they build their nests in the leaf sheaths, or against the folds of the downward hanging leaves of the ' Dom ' palms {Hyphene thebaicd) They are untidy-looking objects, and sway about in the wind ; the cup of the nest is not very deep, and it is difficult tO' under- stand how the eggs are prevented from tumbling out. Brehm suggests that they are glued by the secretion to the nest." Stark's (or Sclater's) account seems to be taken entirely from Heuglin, but it is an error to say that Brehm " suggests " — Brehm {Jour. f. Orn., 1853. Extra. 95 — not 1854, as in Sharpe's B.M. Catalogue), makes quite a definite statement. " They " (the eggs) " stood on the point, and were likewise glued. In some nests young were found, and these also were cemented with the mucilage " (slime or mucus). " Truly the wind, which shakes the whole leaf to and fro, cannot shake them out of the nest. Whether the rest" (the attachment of the young to the nest) " only happens so long as the young carry the down feathers, or usually so long as they are incapable of clinging firmly, and how they later come loose I know not."* Comparing Mr. Loveridge's account with this, apparently the first and only accurate description of the nesting economy, and with the illustration Brehm gives of the shape of the nest, which he likens to a spoon, and the position within it of the two eggs — we see that his " stood on the point," and Mr. Loveridge's " gummed to the back of the nest " mean one and the same thing. The eggs are not lying in the shallow cup, but stand on end in it, and are fastened to the upright " back " of the long ladle-shaped nest. Brehm found young similarly fixed to the sticky nesting material, but Mr. Loveridge noticed them clinging to the feathers attached to the wall. Brehm's observations may have been of younger birds than those seen by Mr. Loveridge; he may have been mistaken, or the habit may vary. In any case it is most interesting to learn that these unattached young, when disturbed, actually made use of the fragile cup of eggshell which still remained in one of the nests Mr. Loveridge found. *My thanks are due to Miss Wigglesworth for this translation as literal as possible. Minic/ics/cr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQt/J. 'No. S. VIII. On the Atomic Weight of Tellurium in Relation to the Multiple Proportions of the Atomic Weights of other Simple Bodies/ By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. [Received May 22nd ^ irjij.) The recent determination of the atomic weight of tellurium by AI. R. Metzner (Comptes Rendus, 13th June, i8q8) affords me the opportunity of again directing the attention of savants to the present anomalous condition of theoretical chemistry, and to the obstacles that stand in the way of its future progress. The experiments made by M. Metzner show for tellurium an atomic weight equal to 127.9 as the mean of one series, and 128.01 for the second scries. These results indicate a nearer approach to the theoretical number 128, adopted by Dumas and other chemists, than any previously recorded. The classical memoir of Dumas^ upon the cqun'alents of simple bodies embodied all our real knowledge of the numerical relations among the atomic weights until the publication of my own memoir on the origin of elementary substances, "" wherein the triads and other multiple relations of the atomic weights revealed by the illustrious Dumas were greatly extended. I also found that the common numerical difference between the atomic weights of the oxygen series and the alkaline-earth metals observed by Dumas was exactly paralleled by a common difference in the atomic weights of the halogens and alkaline metals of half the amount shown in the series of oxygen and alkaline -earth metals. This new relation only became manifest after the work of Dumas by the discovery of rubidium and caesium, and by the adoption of the atomic weights of Canniz- zaro. The absolute ]:)arallelisni of the positive and negative series of elements Hn and H2n, as seen in my table (Comptes Rendus, 8th November, 1897), in their numerical, chemical and physical relations, leaves no doubt that, for these four natural and best known series, the multiple projiortions of their atomic weights represent the truth of nature. The small differences observable between the experimental and a few of the theoretical atomic weights, when distributed among the twenty-four numbers com- 1. Comptes Rendus De L'Academie Des Sciences, i8q8, tome 2. 2. Comptes Rendus, tome XLV., p. 70Q, XLVL, p. 051, XLVII., p. 1,1126. 3. Manchester Memoirs, 187S, 1S86, 1894. June iSth^ J 9 ^7- 2 Wilde, (7;/ //le Atoimc Weight of TcUur'iinii. posing the four series, only amount to 0.0046 of the actual determinations. The atomic weights are also in much closer agreement with expcrmiental results than is the fundamental law of atomic heats formulated by Dulong and Petit for these same series. No one doubts the general accuracy of this law, because it does not hold good for carbon, boron and silicon, or to fractional f|uan- tities throughout the whole number of the elements. Dalton's law of chemical combination in definite and multiple propor- tions was founded on approximations differing for the princi]:ial elements more than thirty per cent, from later determinations,"* and through the adoption of the atomic weights of Cannizzaro, these differences are largely increased. I would also emphasise the fact, hitlierto ignored by chemists, that as the atomic weights of the two positive series of elements, Hn and Fl2n, are the products of the large multiple numbers, 16, 23 and 24 respectively, correlated also by the common differences 4 and 8 with the large multiple numbers 46 and 48 of the two negative series of elements, the exact multiple proportions subsisting among these higher atomic weights have an immensely greater validity in determining the question of their being whole numbers of hydrogen, than when all the equivalents were compared directly with the unit or half-unit of hydrogen by Stas and the older chemists. I liaxe now the honour to bring before the Academic a new argument in favour of the exact multiple proportions of the atomic weights, which, while helpful to earnest students of the natural sciences, will be a permanent check to the pretensions of those chemists who set up their laboured approximations of the atomic weights as the absolute truth of nature and the measure of the power of future investigators. In the memoir referred to, Dumas formulated the proposi- tion that " in three simple bodies of the same natural family, the ^-quivalent of the intermediate body, is always half the sum of the equivalents of the two extreme bodies." This proposition, as will be evident, 'is the rigorous expression of the definite and exact multiple proportions of the atomic weights. The first example of this law givt^n by Dumas is the triad of sulphur, selenium and tellurium, with the old ecjuivalents, 16, 40, 64, e(]ual to 32, 80, 128 of the atomic weights of Cannizzaro. Now, in the geometry of solids, we have a triad of numerical proportions similar to those found in the atomic weights, since a cone, sphere and cylinder, of equal diameter and altitude, have the ratios of i, 2, 3, respectively, and the intermediate body is half the sum of the two extreme bodies, as in the triad of sulphur, selenium and tellurium. The mental attitude of those chemists who make their determinations of the atomic weights the absolute truth of nature, would therefore be strictly 4. Dalton's New S\ stem of Chemical Philosophy, Vol. II. )3. 35^ (lcS27). Mcjucliestcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. 'igi/), -Vi^. H. "-, paralleled by that of an ingenious artist who should endeavour to prove, by mechanical means, the ratios of the cone, sphere, and cylinder, but, Ending that after the expenditure of much time and labour the exact ratios, by weight and measure, could not be obtained, owing to the unequal density of the material operated upon and other causes, should set the results of his labours above the demonstrations of the geometer, and declare, in the hyperbolic ■ language used by Stas resi>ecting the multiple proportions of the atomic weights as modified by Dumas, that the exact ratios of the cone, sphere and cylinder are " a mere illusion, a pure hypothesis, absolutely contradicted by experience."^ Applying the foregoing reasonings to the determinations of the atomic weight of tellurium by M. Aietzner, and accepting the theoretical value of 128 as correct, it will be seen that M. Metzner, by taking the mean of the results of his first series of experiments with the sulphate, and making the final atomic weight 127.Q, has hardly clone himself justice, as the second series with telluric acid shows a mean atomic weight of 128.01. Moreover, three of the seven determinations made by M. Metzner show the actual theoretical atomic weight 128, which is the criterion of the experimental results. 5. Bull. Acad. Sci. Hcl.t^iquc, X., p. 212, i860. Manchester Me?noirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 7) No. 9 IX. Recent Work on Overvoltage. By Dr. E. Newbery. {C ommunicated by Professor A. Lapzvorth, D.Sc, F.R.S., F,I,C) Read May 8t/i, igiy. Received for Publication May 22nd, igij. Since the author's last communication to this journal, ^^ a considerable amount of further work has been carried out on the same subjecjt, and certain facts have come to light which neces- sitate some modification of the theory then proposed. This work has bieen done along three Unes — r. (Measurement of cathodic oyervoltages of metals and alloys i|n dilute acid ,and in alkali, under varying conditions of time and current density, hydrogen being liberated in all cases. 2. Measurement of anodic overvoltages under similar con- ditions, oxygen being liberated. 3. 'Measurement of " metal " overvoltages during electro- lytic deposition or dissolution of a metal in a solution containing a salt of that metal. Altogether about 12,000 measurements have been made partly with the objeqt of supplying a broad basis on which to found a theory of overvoltage, and partly to supply data which will be generally useful in edectrolytic work. In the following tables current densities in milliamperes per sq. cm. are given in the first column. Columns headed A. ghow the first sets of rteadings obtained witli the given electrodes immiediately after immersion in the electrolyte, whilst those 'headed B.: show the averages of at least four sets taken subse- quently. By comparing the two columns, the combined effect of tinae and subjection to a high current density may be observed, whilst further information as to the effect of time alone may be obtained from the later tables. T'he test electrode was in all cases a rod or strip of metal having an exposed surface of i sq. cm., and the secondary elec- trode was a sheet of platinum, 10 sq. cms. area, except when measuring metal overvoltages, when a similar sheet of the metal under examination was used. * Vol. 60 (1916), No. II. Decemder ijth, IQ17. 2 TSfEWBERY. Recefit Work oji Overvoltage. The standard electrodes used were— Hg. HgO. N . NaOH for alkali solutions. Hg. Hg^'SO^. N. H2SO4 for acid or sulphate solutions. Hg. HggClg. N . KCl for chloride or nitrate solutions. Cathodic (hydrogen) overvoltages are calculated on the basis of the hydrogen electrode as zero; anodic (oxygen) over- voltages, with the oxygen electrode as zero, the difference be- tween the two being taken as 1.13 volt. MetaJ overvoltages (during metal deposition) are all calcu- lated from the single poltential of the metal itself, taken as zero in the given electrolyte. For comparison 0(f results the following values were taken : — Hg. HgO. N. NaOH. ... N. NaOH. Hg ... 0.93 volt. Hg. HggSO^. N. H0SO4 ... N. H2SO4. H2 ... 0.70 „ Hg. HggCls. N. KCl. Hg. N. H2SO4 ... N. H2SO4. H, Absolute Absolute 0.56 0.27 Cathodic Overvoltages in Normal Sulphuric Acid. Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. density. Cu. Cu. Ag. Ag. Au. Au. Zn. Zn. Cd. Cd. Hg. Hg. 2 0.37 0.34 0.27 0.33 0.31 0.38 0.68 0.70 0.50 0.50 0.21 0.61 4 0.38 0.35 0.28 0.33 0.32 0.39 0.69 0.70 0.52 0.50 0.21 0.63 6 0.38 0.35 0.28 0.33 0.32 0.38 0.69 0.71 0.54 0.50 0.21 0.65 10 0.39 0.36 0.27 0.32 0.32 0.38 0,.69 0.71 0.55 0.50 0.21 0.66 20 0.40 0.35 0.25 0.31 0.31 0.36 0.70 0.72 0.56 0.50 0.21 0.66 50 0.39 0.34 0.24 0.30 0.31 0.36 0.71 0 74 0.55 0.50 0.21 0.66 100 0.38 0.33 0.23 0.29 0.30 0.36 0.71 0.75 0.54 0.50 0.36 0.53 200 0.37 0.33 0.23 0.28 0.29 0.36 0.71 0.75 0.54 0.50 0.38 0.46 400 0.35 0.32 0.23 0.25 0.28 0.34 0.72 0.75 0..53 0.50 0.30 0.37 1000 0.32 0.30 0.22 O.lfi 0.26 0.30 0.72 0.76 0.50 0.49 0.22 0.29 2000 0.30 0.28 0.11 0.10 0.24 0.24 0.72 0.75 0.48 0.48 0.19 0.26 Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B.. A. B. A. B. density. Al. Al. TI. Tl. CI. CI. C2. C2. Sn. Sn. Pb. Pb. 2 0.44 O.IS 0.53 0.55 0.38 0.33 0.44 0.32 0.62 0.44 0.74 0.45 4 0.48 0.14 0.53 0.55 0.42 0.37 0.44 0.34 0.66 0.45 0.75 0.46 6 0.49 0.13 0.53 0.55 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.36 0.67 0.46 0.73 0.46 10 0.50 0.11 0.53 0.55 0.48 0.49 0.43 0.35 0.66 0.47 0.71 0.47 20 0.49 0.12 0.53 0.55 0.54 0.56 0.42 0.35 0.66 0.48 0.67 0.46 50 0.49 0.15 0.53 0.55 0.60 0.62 0.40 0.35 0.65 0.49 0.64 0.44 100 0.48 0.19 0.54 0.55 0.67 0.67 0.39 0.35 0.63 0.49 0.59 0.42 200 0.47 0.22 0.54 0.55 0.71 0.71 0.38 0.37 0.60 0.48 0.58 0.39 400 0.40 0.20 0.54 0.54 0.75 0.76 0.38 0.40 0.54 0.41 0.54 0.35 1000 0.16 0.14 0.54 0.54 0.77 0.80 0.38 0.39 0.34 0.33 0.53 0.30 2000 0.11 0.08 0.53 0.53 0.76 0.78 0.38 0.39 0.30 0.29 0.50 0.28 CI gas carbon, C2 artificial graphite Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917) No. 9 Cathodic Overvoltages in Normal Sulphuric Acid — Continued. Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. density. Sb. Sb. Ta. Ta. Bi. Bi. Cr. Cr. Mo. Mo. W. W. 2 0.44 0.38 0.50 0.39 0.49 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.28 0.25 0.32 0.28 4 U.4.3 0.41 0.5;) 0.40 0.51 0.42 0.42 0.41 0.31 0.27 0.32 0.28 6 0.45 0.42 0.49 0.40 0.5^ 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.32 0.28 0.32 0.29 10 0.45 0.42 0.49 .0.40 0.53 0.44 0.42 0.41 0.33 0.29 0.32 0.29 20 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.40 0.54 0.44 0.42 0.41 0.33 0.30 0.32 0.28 50 0.44 0.42 0.46 0.41 0.53 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.33 0.30 0.31 0.28 100 0.43 0.43 0.45 0.42 0.52 0.42 0.43 0.41 0.32 0.30 0.31 0.27 200 0.42 0.42 0.45 042 0.51 0.37 0.43 0.42 0.32 0.30 0.31 0.26 400 0.41 0.41 0.44 0.42 0.49 0.32 0.43 0.42 0.31 0.29 0.30 0.26 1000 0.40 0 40 0.43 0 41 0.36 0.19 0.44 0.43 0.29 0.29 0.26 0.22 2000 0.38 0.37 0.42 0.41 0.12 o.os 0.44 0.43 0.28 0.28 0.20 0.19 Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A.. B. A. B. A. B. density. Mn. Mn. Fe. Fe. Ni. Ni. Co. Co. Rh. Rh. Pd. Pd. 2 0.60 0.58 0.27 <).24 0.16 0.29 0.27 0.23 0.03 0.01- -0.09 0.00 4 0.60 0.58 0.27 0.25 0.17 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.04 0.01- -0.07 0.02 6 0.61 0.58 0.27 0.26 0.17 0.31 0.28 0.24 0.04 0 01- -0.06 0.03 10 0.61 0.58 0.27 0.26 0.18 0.30 0.28 0.24 0.04 001- -0.05 0.04 20 0.59 0.58 0.28 0.27 0.18' 0.29 0.27 0.2.T (».03 0.02- -0.04 0.05 50 0.58 0.58 0.29 0.27 0.18 0.26 0.27 0.25 0.03 0.02 -0.02 0.06 100 0.58 0.57 0.30 0.27 0.19 0.24 0.26 0.26 0.03 O.Oj! 0.00 0.07 200 0.58 0.56 0.30 0.27 0.19 0.21 0.26 0.26 0.03 0.02 + 0.01 O.OS 400 0.57 0.55 0.31 0.28 0.18 0.18 0.25 0.25 0.03 0.02 0.08 0.08 1000 0.55 0.54 0.29 0.27 0.17 0.11 0.25 0.24 0.03 0.01 0.08 0.05 2000 0.53 0.52 0.27 0.26 0.15 0.06 0.23 0.20 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.02 Current A. B. .-/. B. density Ir. Ir. I't. Pt. 2 0.01 0.18 0.05 0.20 4 0.02 019 0.06 0.19 6 0.02 0.19 0.06 0.18 10 0.03 0.18 0.06 0.16 20 0.03 0.18 0.06 0.15 50 0.04 0.18 0.07 0.1:? 100 0.05 0.17 0.07 0.12 200 0.05 0.17 0.08 0.11 400 0.05 0.16 0.09 0.07 1000 0.05 0.14 0.08- -0.01 2000 0.08 0.12 0.01 0.02 Cathodic Overvoltages in Normal Sulphuric Acid. Time Experiments. Copper. Time in Minutes. Current density. 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.29 0.29- 0.29 10 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.27 0.27 100 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.26 0.26 1000 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.14 Silver. Current density. Time( in Minutes. ^\ 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1' 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.32 0.32 10 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.32 0..32 0.33 ■100 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.2.3 0.23 0.23 0.22 1000 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.16 Newbery, Recent Work on Overvoltage. Cathodic Overvoltages in Normal Sulphuric Acid. Time E.kperiments^C^«/2«?/^^. Afnalgamated Zinc. Current density. Time in Minutes. 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.88 10 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 100 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 1000 0.82 0.82 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 First series repeated 3 days later with same electrode. 1 0.78 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.82 Mercury. 0.83 0.84 0.83 0.83 Current density. Time{ in Minutes. ^\ 2 8 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.51 0.64 0.60 0.58 0.58 0.59 0.55 0.56 0.54 0.56 10 0.39 0.30 0.30 0.29 0.32 0.40 0.45 0.49 0.49 0.50 100 0.45 0.48 0.54 0.48 0.49 0.52 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.45' 1000 - -0.02 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.12 0.17 0.19 * Fell to 0.08 after further 30 minutes. Graphite. Time in Minutes. Current density. , 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 - -0.01 + 0.02 0.05 0.07 aiO 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.23 10 0.42 0.48 0.49 0.48 0.49 0:48 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 lOO 0.44 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.43 1000 0.41 0.45 0.47 0.49 0.50 0.60 Lead. Time in Minutes. 0.61 0.62 0.62 ()-6l Current density ^ ^1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.72 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.71 IQ 0.72 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.68 100 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.52 1000 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.36 First series repeated after the last, without cleanin! g electrode. 1 0.36 0.45 0.49 0.52 0.52 0.55 Tin. Time in Minutes. 0.54 0.52 0.52 0.54 Current density ^ ^\ 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.25 0.54 0.56 0.59 0.60 0.60 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 10 0.50 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.61 0.62 100 0.55 0.57 0.55 0.54 0.51 0.45 0.41 0.39 0.40 0.39 1000 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.31 Platiiiwin . Time in Minutes. Current , density 1 1 0.01 2 0.02 3 4 0.02 0.02 5 10 15 20 25 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 10 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 100 1000 0.02 0.03 0.03 0 03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.08 30 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.02 Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ix'i. (191 7) No. 9 5 Cathodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide. Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. density. Cu. Cu. Ag. Ag. Au. Au. Mg. Mg. : Zn. Zn. 2 0.50 0.43 i 0.43 0.35 0.44 0.38 0.56 ; 0.57 ( 3.59 0.56 4 0.52 0.46 i 0.44 0.37 0.46 0.39 0.57 ' 0.58 ( ).60 0.58 6 0.53 0.47 ■ 0.45 0.38 0.46 0.40 0.58 0.58 0.60 0.69 10 0.53 0.49 1 .0.4.5 0 39 0.47 0.40 0.5S 1 0.59 0.60 0.59 20 0.52 0.5C t 0.45 0.39 0.48 0.41 0.6] . 0.59 0.60 0.60 50 0.51 0.5C » 0.44 0.39 0.48 0.41 0.64 0.59 ( 3.59 0.60 100 0.51 0.51 0.43 0.40 0.48 0.42 0.67 ' 0.60 ( 3.59 0.60 200 0.50 0.51 0.43 0.40 0.48 0.42 0.6^ 7 0.59 ( 3..58 0.60 400 0.49 0.51 0.42 0.40 0.47 0.41 0.68 0.58 ( 3.57 0.59 1000 0.49 0.50 ' 0.41 0.39 0.4Y 0.41 0.67 0.58 ( 3.56 0.58 1200 0.48 0.50 0.40 0.38 0.45 0.40 0.66 0.57 ( 3.56 0.57 Current A. B. A. B. density. Cd. Cd. Hg. Hg. 2 0.51 0.55 0.92 0.67 4 0.53 0.60 0.96 0.67 6 0.54 0.62 0.97 0.68 • 10 0.54 0.64 0.98 0.69 20 0.53 0.65 0 99 0.69 50 0.52 0.66 1.02 0.69 100 0.52 0.66 1.05 0.70 200 0.51 0.67 1.02 0.71 400 0.52 0.67 1.01 0.79 1000 0.56 0.66 0.99 0.88 1200 0.61 0.65 0.95 0.95 Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. density AI. Al. Tl. Tl. CI. CI. 02.. 02. Sn. Sn. PI). I'b. 2 0.52 0.48 0.4.1 0.42—0.17 0.37- -0.31 0.42 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.58 4 0.52 0.49 0.4.-, 0.44—0.1,5 0.41- -0.28 0.47 0.57 0.60 0.5.7 0.64 & 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.45—0.12 0.46- -0.24 0.49 0.57 0.62 0.57 0.65 10 0.52 0.49 0.48 0.47—0.02 0.53- -0.17 0.54 0.57 0.63 0.57 0.67 20' 0.52 0.49 0..^0 0.49 + 0.19 0.62- -0.04 0.56 0.57 0.64 0.57 0.68 50 0.52 0.50 0.54 0.52 0.42. 0.66 + 0.64 0.60 0.58 0.65 0.60 0.69 100 0.52 0.50 0.56 0.53 0.65 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.59 0.65 0.61 0.69 200 0.51 0.50 0.56 0.54 0.74 0.72 0.69 0.G7 0.59 0.63 0.63 0.69 400 0.51 0.50 0.55 0.55 0.79 0.73 0.70 0.69 0.60 0.63 0.64 0.68 1000 0.51 0.49 0.54 0.56 0.78 0.77 0.71 0.71 0.61 0.63 0.64 0.67 1200 0.51 0.49 0.54 0.55 0.77 0.77 CI gas carbc C2 graphite. 0.71 )n. 0.71 0.61 0.62 0.65 0.67 Current A. B. A. B; A. B. A, B. A. B. A. B. density. Sb. Sb. Bi. Bi. Cr, Cr. W. W. Mn. Mn. Fe. I'e. 2 0.59 0.62 0.59 0.59 0.46 0.37 0.31 0.27 0.29 0.27 0.27 0.28 4 0.63 0.64 0.66 0.65 0.46 0.37 0.21 0.37 0.31 0.29 0.30 0.31 6 0.64 0.65 0.70 0.68 0.46 0.38 0.31 0.27 0.31 0.29 0.31 0.32 10 0.65 0.66 0.73 0.71 0.45 0.38 0.31 0.27 0.32 0.30 0.32 0.33 20 0.65 0.67 0.75 0.74 0.45 0.39 0.30 0.28 0.33 0.31 0.33 0.34 50 0.65 0.67 0.77 0.75 0.44 0.39 0.29 0.28 0.34 0.32 0.34 0.34 100 0.65 0.67 0.77 0.76 0.42 0.39 0.28 0.28 0.35 0.33 0.34 0.35 200 0.64 0.66 0.77 0.76 0.42 0.39 0.28 0.29 0.37 0.34 0.34 0.35 400 0.63 0.65 0.77 0.76 0.41 0.39 0.28 0.29 0.39 0.35 0.34 0.35 1000 0.61 0.63 0.77 0.74 0.40 O.o9 0.28 0.29 0.42 0.37 0. .33 0.34 1200 0.60 0.61 0.76 0.73 0.39 0.39 0.28 0.28 0.45 0.37 0.33 0.34 PCewbery, Rece7it W ork on Overvoltage. Cathodic Overvoltage in Nor.mal Sodium Hydroxide — Continued. Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. density. Ni. Ni. Co. Co. Rh. Rh. Pd. Pd. Ir. Ir. Pt. Pt. 2 0.18 0.23 0.25 0.48 0.0^ 0.01 0.25 0.38 0.43 0.46 0.16 0.21 4 0.20 0.28 0.27 0.53 0.03 0.05 0.27 0.43 0.43 0.54 0.17 0.22 6 0.20 0.21 0.28 0.56 0.03 0.05 0.28 0.45 0.43 0.59 0.19 0.24 10 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.61 0.04 0.06 0.31 0.47 .0.44 0.62 0.20 0.25 20 0.20 0.24 0.29 0.67 0.04 0.06 0.32 0.49 0.44 0.64 0.21 0.26 50 0.21 0.24 0.29 0.69 0.04 0.07 0.34 0.53 0.44 0.65 0.22 0.28 100 0.21 0.24 0.29 0.69 0.05 0.08 0.36 0.58 0.45 0.65 0.22 0.28 200 0.21 0.25 0.30 0.69 0.06 0.09 0.36 0.57 0.62 0.65 0.22 0.28 400 0.22 0.24 0.30 0.68 0.07 0.08 0.36 0.58 0.64 0.64 0-21 0-28 1000 0.21 0.24 0.29 0 6") 0.08 0.08 0-37 0.58 0.64 0.64 0.20 0.27 1200 0.21 0.23 0.29 0.64 0.08 0.07 0.39 0.57 0.63 0.63 0.19 0.27 Cathodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide. Time Experiments. Amalgamated Lead. Current density Time in Minutes. 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.73 10 1.09 1.08 1.05 1.00 0.96 0.87 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.72 100 1.10 1.06 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.76 0.72 0.70 0.71 0.72 1000 1.16 1.11 1.08 1.06 1.03 0.'95 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.76 Lead. Time in Minutes. Current density * '~l 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.42 10 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 100 0.53 0.55 0.58 0.61 0.63 0.67 0.70 0.72 0.73 0.73 1000 0.65 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 ► Nickel. Current density Time in Minutes. '~l 9 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 10 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.1i7 0.17 100 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 1000 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.20 Anodic < Overvoltage in Normal Sulphuric Acid. Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. den.sity. Ag. Ag. Au. Au. CI. Cl. C2. C2. 2 0.86 0.87 0.25 6.45 0.75 0.67 4 ■ — 0.87 0.87 0.32 0.53 0.84 0.69 6 — . — 0.86 0.88 0.37 0.57 0.88 0.71 10 — -^ 0.85 0.87 0.43 0.61 0.91 0.75 20 — — 0.84 0.86 0.52 0.66 0.94 0.81 50 0.75 0.73 0.81 0.84 0.71 0.77 1.00 0.88 100 0.75 0.74 0.80 0.82 0.85 0.83 1.05 0.92 200 0.76 0.74 0.79 0.81 0.'90 0.87 1.08 0.96 400 0.76 0.74 0.77 0.80 0.'91 0.91 1.12 1.01 1000 0.76 0.74 0.75 0.77 0.89 0.90 1.14 1.08 2000 0.76 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.88 0.88 1.14 1.10 Cl gas carbon. C2 artificial graphite. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 7) No. 9 Anodic Overvoi.tage in Normal Sulphuric Acid — Continued. Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. density. Pb. Pb. Fe Fe. Ni. Ni. Pt. Pt. 2' o.so 0.91 0.73 0.75 — 0.81 0.85 4 0.83 0.94 0.74 0.75 — — 0.83 0.85 6 0.85 0.96 0.74 0.76 — — 0.84 0.86 10 0.88 0.98 0.75 0.75 — — 0.85 0.86 20 0.91 0.99 0.74 0.75 — — 0.85 0.86 50 0.95 1.04 0.74 0.74 — — 0.86 0.86 100 0.98 1.05 0.73 0'.73 0,62 0.62 0.86 0.86 200 1.00 1.06 0.72 0.73 0.65 0.65 0.86 0.86 400 1.01 1.06 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.67 0.86 0.86 1000 1.00 1.05 0.68 0.(!7 0.68 0.68 0.85 0.86 2000 0.98 1.04 0.63 0.63 0.68 0.68 0.85 0^5 Anodic Overvoltage in Normal Sulphuric Acid. Time Experiments. Graphite. Time in Minutes. Current density. r 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.31 0.34 0.41 0.45 0.46 0.56 0.61 0.65 0.67 0.68 10 0.79 0.84 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.84 0.83 0.83 100 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.89 1000 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.9S Lead. 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 Current density. Time in Minutes. 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 ' - -0.09 + 0.44 0.59 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 10 0.93 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 100 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.06 1.06 1000 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 . Iron. 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 Current density. Time in Minutes. ^\ 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.26 0.28 10 100 1000 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.( 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.67 Anodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide. Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. density. Cu. Cu. Ag. Ag. Au. Au. Zn. Zn. 2 0.53 0.57 -— 0.71 0.96 ^ — 4 0.57 0.61 0.10 0.60 0.76 0.96 — 6 0.59 0.62 0.35 0.69 0.87 0.96 — — 10 0.61 0.63 0.36 0.70 0.91 0.96 — — 20 0.62 0.63 0.58 0.71 0.92 0.96 0.83 0.87 50 0.62 0.62 0.60 0.72 0.93 0.96 0.85 0.97 100 0.62 0.61 0.63 0^.72 0.94 1.01 0.91 1.00 20.0 0.61 0.60 0.65 0.73 0.94 1.16 0.94 1.00 40.0 0.60 0.59 0.70 0.72 0.93 1.20 0.93 0.96 1000 0.58 0.58 0.70 0.71 0.93 1.17 0.76 0.78 1200 0.58 0.57 0.69 0.60 0.93 1.16 — — Newbery, Recent Work on Overvo/tage. Anodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide — Contimied. Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. density. CI. CI. C-2. C± Sn. Sn. Ph. Ph. 2 0.05 0.26 0.53 0.52 1.17 1.22 0.60 0.86 4 0.11 0.34 0.56 0.54 1.27 1.27 0.64 0.93 6 0.1(5 0.38 0.56 0.56 1.34 1.31 0.66 0.94 10 0.24 0.47 0.60 0.58 1.34 1.35 0.69 0.95 20 0.32 0.54 0.62 0.60 1.35 1.37 0.82 0.96 50 0.4S 0.70 0.65 0.71 1.35 1.33 0.83 0.96 100 0.65 0.79 0.69 0.89 1.34 1.33 0.84 0.95 200 0.74 0.83 0.71 0.96 1.34 1.32 0.84 0.94 400 0.88 0.9U 0.83 1 00 1.29 1.30 0.86 0.93 1000 0.90 0.88 0.96 0.97 1.25 — . 0.84 0.92 1200 0.85 0.86 0.94 CI i 0.94 gas carbon. — — 0.83 0.90 C2 artificial graphite. Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. density. Fe. Fe. Ni. Ni. Co. Co. Pt. Pt. 2 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.49 0.58 0.54 0.56 0.85 4 . 0.46 0.46 0.48 0.53 0.60 0.55 0.57 0.86 6 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.54 0.60 0.56 0.59 0.87 10 0.49 0.49 0.51 0.57 0.59 0.57 0.62 0.87 20 0.49 (1.49 0.53 0.60 0.58 0 57 0.72 0.88 50 0.50 0.51 0.54 0.64 0.58 0.57 0.75 0.99 100 0.51 0.51 0.55 0.65 0.57 0.56 0.80 0.98 200 0.51 0.52 0.56 0.66 0.57 0.56 0.82 0.97 400 0.51 0.52 0.57 0.66 0.56 0.56 0.85 0.94 1000 0.51 0.52 0.57 0.65 0.54 0.55 0.86 0.90 1200 0.50 0.51 0.57 0.64 0.54 0.54 0.85 0.88 Anodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide. Time Experiments. Graphite. Current density. Time in Minutes. 1 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.55 0.57 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.59 0.59 0.60 0.60 0.60 10 0.93 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.98 100 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.95 1000 0.82 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.82 Lead. Current density. Time in Minutes. 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 10 0.65 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.70 0.75 0.84 0.90 0.92 0.94 100 0.75 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.97 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.03 1000 0.93 0.95 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 Iron. Current density. Time in Minutes. 1 9 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.5 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 10 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 100 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 1000 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 7) No. 9 Anodic Overvoi.tagk in Normal Sodium Hydroxide. Time Exprrimicnts — Cotithiued. A^ic/^el. Current density. Time in Minutes. ^^ 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 0.40 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 10 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.54 0.55 0.55 100 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.63 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.69 1000 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.71 072 0.72 0.72 Cathodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic Sulphates. Current Co pper. Zini Cad: iniuni. Thai Hum. den.^ity A. B. A. B. A. //. A. B. 2 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 4 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 6 0.03 0.02 0.03 002 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 10 0.03 0.02 0.03 0 02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 20 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 + 001 - -002 50 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 + 0.02 - -0.01 100 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 —0.02 0.00 200 012 0.03 0.04 O03 0.02 0.01 —0.03 0.00 400 0.12 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.03 <1.02 0.00 0.00 Current I ri^n. Nickt ^1. Nickel. * Cobalt. density. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. 2 0.30 0.23 0.58 077 0.45 0.45 0.50 0.34 4 0.30 0.24 0.62 0.80 0.63 0.55 0.49 0.35 6 0.30 0.25 0.63 0.81 0.68 0.62 0.48 0.35 10 0.30 0.26 0.65 083 0.72 0.66 0.48 036 20 0.31 0.28 0.76 0.83 0.74 0.72 0.48 0.37 50 0.32 0.29 0.79 082 0.77 0.77 0.50 0.40 100 0.34 0.30 0.80 082 0.78 0.79 0.51 0.46 200 0.34 0.30 0.80 0.81 0.77 0.78 0.51 0.54 400 0.33 0.32 0.80 0.81 0.75 0.75 0.49 0.52 * In nickel ammonium sulphate solution. Cathodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic Nitrates. Current Copper, density. A. B. 2 0.02 0.01 0.00 0 00 002 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.40 0.47 0.26 0.31 4 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.1.") 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.52 0.35 0.36 6 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.55 0.38 0.41 10 0.01 0.02 0.00 0 00 001 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.60 0.45 0.46 20 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.52 0.66 0.57 0.49 50 0.02 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.28 035 0.00 0.00 0.70 0.7^ 0.73 0.83 100 0.02 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.33 0.01 0.00 0.91 0.86 0.72 0.80 200 0.06 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.32 O.Ol 0.00 0.94 0.86 0.69 0.74 400 0.60 059 0.01 0.01 0.30 0.29 0.01 0.01 0.88 0 85 0.64 0.67 Silver. Zinc. Lead. Nickel. Cobalt. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. lo Newbery, Recent Work on Overvoltage. Cathodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic Chlorides. Current Copper. Zinc. Tin. Iron. Nic kel. c:obalt. density. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. . A. B. 2 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.25 0.71 0.80 0.31 0.23 4 0.06 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.27 0.72 0.84 0.31 0.24 6 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.34 0.28 0.74 0.87 0.30 0.25 10 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.34 0.29 0.75 0.90 0.31 0.26 20 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.34 0.31 0.77 0.92 0.32 0.27 50 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.34 0.33 0.81 0.94 0.35 0.28 100 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.36 0.35 0.87 0.96 0.38 0.29 200 0.11 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.40 0.36 0.95 0.96 0.44 0.32 400 0.14 0.14 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.41 0.40 0.96 0.96 0.53 0.47 Anodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic Sulphates. Current Co) 3per. Z inc. Cadmium. Thallium. density. A. B, A. B. A. B. A. B. 2 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 4 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.43 6 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.65 10 0 0!) 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.70 20 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.72 50 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 1.06 100 0.01 U.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 1.68 200 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 1.78* 1.78 400 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 — — Current I ron. N' icke'. Nickel, t Cobalt. density. A. B A. B. A. B. A. B. 2 0.02 1.66 0.15 1.60 0.04 1.56 0.02 0.02 4 0.05 1.71 1.61* 1.63 0.08 1.59 0.02 0.02 6 0.06 1.74 1.64 1.65 0.09 1.61 0.03 0.02 10 0.06 1.79 1.67 1.68 0.13 1.62 0.03 0.02 20 0.07 1.84 1.69 1.69 0.16 1.64 0.04 0.03 50 0.08 1.90 1.72 1.72 0.22 1.67 0.05 0.04 lOp 0.09 1.88 1.73 1.72 1.65=^ 1.68 0.06 0.05 200 0.12 1.87 1.74 L73 1.68 1.69 0.06 0.05 400 1.85^ 1.85 1.73 1.72 1.69 1.70 0.08 0.07 * Metal became passive. t In nickel ammonium sulphate solution. Anodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic Nitrates. Current Copper. Silver. Zinc. Lead. Nick el. Cobalt. density. A B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. 2 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.12 1.57 0.11 0.07 4 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.13 1.59 0.12 0.07 6 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.15 1.61 0.11 0.04 10 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.00 1.60* 1.62 0,09 0.03 20 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.00 o.oo 1.64 1.64 0.06 0.03 50 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.00 1.67 1.66 0.00 0.00 100 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.01 1.68 1.68 0.00 0.00 200 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.01 1.69 1.69 0.02 0.03 400 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.13 0.06 0.01 0.01 1.71 1.70 0.02 0.04 * Metal became passive. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 ?) No. 9 11 Anodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic Chlorides. Current Copper. Zinc. Tin. Iron. Nickel. Cohalt. density. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. 2 0.02 0.0;3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.06 4 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.()i2 0.09 0.08 0.02 0.07 6 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.03 0.09 0.08 0.00 0.07 10 0.03 O.Oi 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.04 0.09 0.09 0.00 0.06 20 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.06 0.08 0.09—0.02 0.06 50 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.10 0.08 0.08 0.10—0.03 0.05 100 0.02 - 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.10—0.02 0.05 200 — — 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.10 + 0.03 0.07 400 — — 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.07 0.09 Cathodic (hydrogen) overvoltage. It was previously suggested that overvoltage is due to four factors : — 1. Supersaturation of the electrode surface witih non-electri- fied gas under high pressures. 2. Formation of a series of alloys or solid solutions of the discharged ion, or a piroduct of the discharged ion. with the electrode surface. 3. Deficiency or excess of non-hydrated ions in the imme- diate neighbourhood of the electrodes. 4. Inductive action of the escaping ionised gas on the electrode. A study of thle tables given will soon show that the above theory is inadequate to explain all the observed phenomena. An amalgamated zinc cathode shows the remarkably high and constant value of 0.88 volt. If factor (i) above, were the true cause of overvoltage, we should have to assume pressures greater than vcr'^ atmospheres, in the soft surface of this alloy. Such pressures are incredible, and hence this factor cannot be the main cause of overvoltage. The remarkable constancy Of the values for certain electrodes, notably thallium and rhodium, shows that factor (3) can only exert an inappreciable effect upon the total, since the eff'ect, if any, must be proportional to the current density. Factor (3) may therefore be safely omitted from the general theory. The very small fall of overvoltage observe(d in most cases iat the highest current densit,ies also shows that factor (4) cannot in general reduce the values by more than 20 or 30 millivolts, and therefore, although the effect is real, it is of little import- ance, specially as these very high current aensitles are seldom or never used in practical work. We are left, therefore, with factor (2), or some modification of it, to account for all of the main facts of overvoltage. On examining the tables more closely, it is evident that in spite o!f the variations due to time and current density, certain 12 Newbery, Recent Work on Ovcrvoltage. metals show one, and only one, definite \alue in a given elec- trolyte, with small variations above and below this value. Thallium, chromium and rhodium in acid electrolyte show this property well. Others show two such values with rapid changes from one to the other. Thus, iridium, when first used, shows low values approaching zero, but on subjection to the highest current density employed, a rapid rise to about 0.18 volt occurs, and this value persists throughout the range of current density used, although a small fall is produced at the highest current densities. In alkali, again, this metal shows two very distinct values, with a sudden change from the lower to the higher when the current density is raised from 100 to 200 milliamperes per sq. cm., and a similar sudden fall when the current density again reaches a low value. By maintaining the current density at about 200 milliamperes per sq. cm., the overvoltage rises to 0.7 volt or higher. Thus iridium shows four quite definite values for the hydrogen overvoltage. By proceeding in this way with all the electrodes used, certain more or less definite average values for the cathodic hydrogen overvoltages may be assigned to all the Inetals. •When these values are placed with the metals in the periodic table a new law at once becomes evident — Ele?nents in the same group of the periodic systei7i show the same overvoltage. The following table illustrates this law : — Cathodic Overvoltage in the Periodic System. Carbor — 0.44 0.70 Mag- Alu- Sodium nesium minium 3 0.34? 0.70 0.50 <0.I0 Copper Zinc 0.34 0.72 0.60 Chro- Manga- mium nese Iron Nickel Cobalt 0.38 0.30 0.18 0.18 0 42 0.48 0.60 0.25 0.33 0.24 0.30 0.25 0.67 Moly- denum Rhodium Palladium 032 — — 0.19 0.05 002 0.34 0.65 Anti- Silver Cadmium Tin mony 0.30 0.66 ^— 0.45 0.42 0.06 0.50 0.66 0.66 Tantalum Tungsten Iridium Platinum — 0.41 0.30 — — 0.18 0.04 01 8 0.06 0.50 0.45 0.67 0.45 0.65 Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth II 0.32 0.70 0.52 0.46 0 43 0.50 0.00 0.72 e.52 Manchester Mejnoirs. Vol. Ixl. (191 7) No. 9 13, It is evident from the above table that each group has .what we may term a "typical overvoltage." Further than this, we may now explain the multiple values shown by most metals as merely due to change of valency. Thus, lead, which readily forms two series of compounds, in which it is divalent and tetra- valent respectively, can easily change its overvoltage from 0.72 to 0.46 volt. Almost without exception, all the multiple over- voltages will be found to correspond with definite changes of valency, which are indicated by the existence of compounds, in which the metal in question has the required valency. Since it is 'difficult, if not impossible, to conceive of valency apart from co-mpounds. we are forced*, to the conclusion that ovc\r- voKage is due to the presence of coinpounds of the electrode with the discharged ion. or some product of the discharged ion. The values approaching zero, observed with many metals are therefore due to the absence of these compounds, and it is noteworthy that the metals which most easily show these low values are the platinum metals. This is undoubtedly due to the well-known reluctance of these metals to form any com- pounds. The zero value may therefore be considered as typical of group o, which contains the inert gases. The followmg table shows the distribution of the metals in the groups, those which have the overvoltage of a group to which they do not properly belong being placed in brackets : — Cathodic Overvoltages of the Periodic Groups. Group o. — Typical overvoltage, 0.0 volt ; (silver), (mercury), (aluminium), (bismuth), (nickel), (rhodium), (palladium), (iridium), (platinum). Grottp I. — Typical overvoltage, 0.35 volt ; sodium, copper, silver, gold. Group II. — Typical overvoltage, 0.70 volt; magnesium, zinc, cadmium, mercury, (carbon), (tin), (lead), (antimony), (bismuth), (manganese), (cobalt), (palladium), (iridum), (platinum),- (copper). Group III. — Typical overvoltage, 0.50 vnlt : aluminium, thallium, (antimony), (tantalum), (bismuth), (gold). Group IV. — Tvpical overvoltage, 0.45 vf)lt ; carbon, tin, lead, (iridium), (platinum). Group V. — Typical overvoltage, 0.42 volt : antimony, tantalum, bismuth, (chromium). Group VI. — Typical overvoltage, 0.32 volt ; chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, (iron), (nickel). Group VII. — Typical overvoltage, 0.25 volt ; manganese, (iron), (nickel), (cobalt), (palladium), (platinum). Group VIII. — Typical overvoltage, 0.18 volt; iron, nickel, rhodium, iridium, platinum. 'The only metals in this table which do not appear in their proper groups are cobalt and palladium. Values for cobalt as low as 0.18 volt have not been obtained. Palladium shows values above and below the group value, but in the neighbour- hood of the group value the overvoltage is indefinite and changing rapidly. 14 Newbery, Recent Work on Overvoltage. Reviewing the table as a whole, a rise of overvohage of two equal steps is observed from Group o to Group II., followed by a gradual fall through the rest of the table. Anodic (oxygen) overvoltage. The overvoltages so far discussed have all been cathodic hydrogen overvoltages. Anodic overvoltages do not show so great regularity for two .reasons : — (i) It is impossible to obtain an aqueous electrolyte having only one .anion, whilst any dilute acid gives only one cation. (2) The true potential of the oxygen electrode is stilj doubtful, land further, it is not clear as to whether this poten- tial should be taken as the standard from which to measure anodic overvoltages, since in .any aqueous solution hydroxyl ions are far more plentiful than oxygen ions. Hence, anodic overvoltages calculated from an oxygen electrode as standard are abnormally high, compared) with cathodic overvoltages. Caspari, using an indefinitely low current density, obtained a value for the anodic overvoltage of platinum about 0.3 volt lower 'than the average of those given in these tables. Under the experimental conditions of Caspari's work, the oxygen ions piresent were probably sufficient to carry the small current used, whilst in the present work other ions certainly took part. If the anodic overvoltages are recalculated on the assump- tion that the potential of the normal standard is 0.3 volt above that of an oxygen electrode, we obtain a series of values which in many cases sh!ow a considerable resemblance to cathodic lovervoltages of the same metal. The parallelism is, however, very rough, and in many cases an anodic overvoltage measured in alkali only corresponds; with a cathodic overvoltage found in acid. A few of the best examples are given below, where column I. shows the average anodic overvoltage, generally in alkali, and column II. the corresponding cathodic overvoltage. I. Anodic. II. Cathodic. Metal. Volt. Volt. Copper 032 0-34 Silver 0.41 0.43 Zinc 0.63 0.60 Lead 0.64 0.67 Nickel 0.27 0^24 Cobalt 0.27 0.25 Palladium 0.35 0.34 Iridium 0.18 0.18 Platinum 0.60 0.65 Manganese 0.62 0.60 It may be noted here that the anodic overvoltage of lead Ciovered with peroxide corresponds with the cathodic over- voltage of a bivalent metal. According to Liebenou's theory of Manchester lUemoirs, Vol. (xi. (1917) j^o. 9 15 the lead accumulator, lead peroxide ionises 'directly, giving a PbOg" ion and forming plumbites in which the lead is definitely bivalent. Overvoltage iji different electrolytes. Generally speaking, anodic overvoltages measured in alkali are more ireliable than those measured in acid, since we only have two ainions, O" and OH" present, while in acid the four anions O", OH', SO4", and HSO/ may all take part. Similarly, cathodic overvoltages in acid, where only one cation is present, are more reliable^ than those in alkali where two 'exist. How far we are justified in assuming those in alkali , to 'be hydrogen overvoltages is somewhat doubtful, although in viiew taf the fact that in the greater number of cases the values are almost the same in both electrolytes, the assumption is probably correct in most cases. Mercury is certainly exceptional, owing to its affinity for metallic sodium. Hence mercury and amalgamated electrodes may show abnormally high values in alkali, due to the visible formation of sodium amalgam. Since the cathodic overvoltage of a given metal depends to some extent upon the electrolyte, the table of values g'iven must :n|ot be looted lipon as complete. There seems to be no reaso'n why jany metal should not acquire the typical overvoltage of any group if it is capable of showing the valency characteristic of that group. P'urther determinations under certain conditions, specially in difTercnt electrolytes, will undoubtedly supply new values for many of these metals. Nickel, for example, in nickel suJiphate solution, shows a hydrogen overvoltage of 0.7 volt, which is typical of a divalent metal, and it may be noted that the metal actually ha^s this valency in the given compound. Iron, again, in ferrous sulphate solution, shows the high value typical of a divalent metal, while in ferric sulphate solution the value 0.5 volt typical of a trivalent metal is shown. Metal overvoltages. Metal overvoltages arc remarkable as being generally so low that they might ble nearly all put down as approximately zero, compared with gas overvoltages. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are striking exceptions to the above rule, but in all three cases hydrogen is evolved in quantity at the cathodes, specially at hig^h current densities. ■With some of the other metals (copper, in copper sulphate solution, for example), if a very high current density is em- ployed, hydrogen is also liberated, owing to the inability of the copper ions to 'dififuse fast enough to carry all the current. At the same time the overvoltage rises to the high values shown (by divalent metals. This effect, is increased by further hindering diffusion of copper ions by the addition of glue, gum, etc. 1 6 Nevvber\\ Recent Work on Overvoltage. It as evident, therefore, that the liigh values obtained in such cases are true hydrogen over voltages, and are due^ to the formation of metallic hydrides on the electrode surface. The occlusion of hydrogen in almost all electro-deposited metals is a well-estabhshed fact. It is only reasonable, therefore, to conclude that the very small cathodic overvoltages usually observed during metal deposition, are due to the presence of small quantities of hydrides, wrhich form a dilute solid solution in the deposited metaJ. Similarly the small anodic overvoltages observed are probably due to the formation of traces of higher oxides on the electrodes. The large values obtained when the electrode becomes passive will be referrea to later. The mechanis?n of electrolysis. We are now in a position to attempt an explanation of the exact mechanism of electrolysis as far as the electrodes are con- cerned at least. When a current is passed between two electrodes in an •aqueous electrolyte, the ions carrying electrical charges are attracted towards the electrodes, and move at first with uniform velocity, owing to frictional resistance. When very close to the electrode, however, they must move very rapidly, and probably strike the electrode with! considerable force. The continuous rain of ions On the electrode will thus produce great pressure on the surface. Under the influence of this pressure the chemic- ally active discharged ion tends to combine with the electrode material, and the resultant compound dissolves in the solid — more easily in the amorphous cementing material between the crystals of the metal than in the crystals themselves. On releasing the applied pressure by cutting ofif the current, these compounds will tend to separate from the metal in two ways : — (i) By ■spontaneous decomposition within the electrode, liberating gas which forces its way through the surface and pro- duces the craters, photographs of which have been shown. (2) By direct ionisation, that is, by taking an electrical charge from the electrode and passing into the solution in exactly the same way as any metal does. It is the second action which gives rise t'o o\'ervoltage. We may therefore state more definitely than before that— (i) Overvoltage is caused by the high single potential differ- ences of hydrides, higher oxides, etc., formed on or in the electrode surfaces. (2) Variations of overvoltage are caused by changes (a) in the chemical constitution of the above co?n- pounds and (b) in the co7ice?itratinn of the solid solutions formed by these compounds in the electrode surfaces. Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917) No. 9 17 By careful search through the data obtained from the 12,000 measurements made, the author has been unable to find any point which is inconsistent with this theory. Further evidence of the existence of metallic hydrides, etc. Most of the metallic hydrides formed on the cathodes appear to exist only under the influence of the high pressures prevailing at the time. Their rapid and ready decomposition accounts for their high solution potentials, and the fact that they are good electrical conductors is e\adence in favour of the idea that they ionise like a metal. In all cases where a metallic hydride is capable of inde- pendent existence in presence of water, that hydride is formed at a cathode of the given metal in an iaqueous electrolyte. Thus the formation of arsine on a zinc cathode containing arsenic ha? long been utilised in the detection and estimation of arsenic Similarly, an antimony cathode liberates stibine, and a carbon cathode gives hydrocarbon mixed with the hydrogen in an acid electrolyte. A copper cathodq,, after use for a few seconds, acquires a difference of potential from an unused plate of the same metal which persists for many hours, and this is certainly due to the formation of copper hydride, which is but slowly decomposed by the acid present. Nickel behaves similarly. These hydrides also exist at high temperatures, a fact which gives additional support to the suggestion that they are endo- thermic compounds. Fowler (Trans. Roy. Soc, 1909, 2og, 447) proved the existence of magnesium hydride in an arc of mag- nesium in hydrogen, and Evans (Phil. Mag., 191 6 [VI.] j/, 55) showed the presence of cadmium hydride in a hydrogen-filled tube containing cadmium heated to 800° — 1,000° C. The higher oxides are frequently produced in quantity on certain anodes; for example, lead dioxide on a lead anode, and chromium trioxide on a chromium anode, and the ionisation of lead dioxide giving the anion PbOg" ;is proved by the existence of plumbites such as NagPbOa. The actual composition of these ■hydrides^ etc., is to some extent a matter of speculation at present, but suggestions have been made having a certain degree of probability ,(J. Chem. Soc, 191 6, lOQ, 1363). Passivity and valve action. The phenomena fof passivity find a jteady and complete explanation with Ithe aidi of the overvoltage theory. If the higher oxides formed fon an anode are good electrical conductors, and are also insoluble, ot nearly so, in the electrolyte, the metal itself will be protected from the action of the deposited anions, and plassivity will fee produced. At the same time the electrode acquires the liigh positive potential of these higher oxides. Passivity is more readily produced in alkali than in acid, partly 1 8 Newbery, RecenI Work on Overvollage. owing to the lesser solubility of most oxides in the former, and partly flbecause the presence of the hydroxylion is more favourable to oxide production. If the surface oxides are insulators, and also insoluble in the electrolyte, valve action is produced. Thus two electrodes of tungsten and platinum respectively in nitric acid will allow no appreciable cunent to pass if the tungsten is made the anode, although the cell conducts well when the platinum is the anode. No visible change occurs on the tungsten surface, so that the oxide film must fee a very good insulator, and may be only of molecular thickness. Stability oj the overvoltage compounds. The chemical stability of (t(he hydrides formed on cathodes is of great importance in certain types of electro-chemical reduction. A considerable amount of worlc is still to be done in this direction, since very iittle( is known on the subject, although for s*• fj r^OO 00 OS " O rJ- 1- 1 OS " o ^ 3 -C) O- O S f-i : -o --o : rt «J V. '^ f^ '^ O c .£.S -a — rt cd rt c W i; ca rt o, ' y y w o o o ■Q JS -.Ji^ ■u . r- V -^ c c oj CS 01 . ^ )-, ^J w 1^ O 3 3 3 U3 ,o .5 o c i5 : c M . : : fi . ts " o : : S •»-*-» TO «5 « 4> m ■" o „c^ '^ .a . 1) 1) . o! "^ : t/) =! S« „, *j ' •g S^.2 § c£W ►^ O' ^ c ^ o "o fq rams d Pro( loirs " O 13 lance ' nd (D eacon' ilton's Diag Memoirs an s for " Men J2 >> .y 2 I* — Agreements Natural History Fund (Iteins shown in the Ba Wilde Endowment Fu Balance at Williams D 0) : ^ ase for D ublishing rinting " lustration 2 o c U&hP^S ►-5PQ pa >> >. to t>~. >-, >. S-. Mpq PQ P3PQ ffi M PS o o o o o o ■* O vO O O N o •*\o •-. 1-, M N u^ O 00 o o o O M OS •tf OS O OS OS O S? s? m -a - - - •^ O f<^ lO o so I VO f^ Tj- irjvO t^^ O I V 7 V V 7 " "^ O\S0s0sOsOs0s0s a o o <:-^ « 3 'C •"■ ^ ^ aj 3 C xiin g <*H P3 SS - o - ., g 3 ii a, c; o u< u 1 ° «^ 3 -ji k- >~ O U 'Z! 3 -o S •• 3 rt w 3 5^ f^'* g o -j; ^ . to O O ^ 3 X! HH rS 3 ii -o O GOO Treasurer's Accounts. xxxm. TJ° o IT) to . O ■><■ „ ■-4 " N " iT u S e o D oi • C 3 rt t^ vO "rf ^ CTv ■ j^ •■• d VO o — " >> J_ •a a^ Cfi a. O C 0) r>. 0) 1 to < to ^^ .o.^ ^ 'o "o o rt o CJ 3 o c ONCfi 5 C M 3 ra CS c "ea 2 CO J esJW pq >. >% >^ M M fP '6 " n- lo . lo ON 'I- "■ ^? r^ VO Tt- VO s? „^ "">-, c n! a c o U c? & '5 -y c ' k> il 0) > J* I ^ h^ o o O S^cJS : 5 " W r« o o a s? -14 o o <; c rn >, „ -v 3 - s? o r^ M O N >H O lo N Tf 30 00 CO J. ; J. o o o lO o o CTv Ov Ov % ^ 3 a r<. o O u5 "V^ i£ o M c« Cfi c _o VO M Ov O o "o 03 O c O C/3 o tn 3 >-> 5 M CA! o C C3 o o O OplH o ^ ^ pa rt CQ C^ a ^ cS D C c '3 c c o to 3 cr c o c u 3 c in 03 , o c _ctf (I. , >^ >, >, >> >^ m M mm ry^ m (I] •v o VO o t~~ - ^ N cq lO ■* Tf tn i-i t-< •-< o Q s??r Tj-vo "i- o CO CN .y N Si (I] rt Q O. J o *—4 CJ ^ o U b^i^ vo^ :^ : &.^2 8 : S ^ o ■- -^ ^ > ii e mS »Sm o o o o HH HE- xxxiv. The Council. THE COUNCIL and MEMBERS OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Corrected to October 7.0th, 1917. Thie Council met 10 times. IPtesiOent. SYDNEY J. HICKSiONt M.^.,, D.Sc, F.R.S. ItJtccsprcsi&ents. FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S. G. ELLIOT SMITHS M.A.^, M.D'., F.R.S. T. A. COWARX>, F.Z.S., F.E.S. W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc., M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E. Secrctartes. R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C. GEORGE HICKLING, D.Sc, F.G.S. treasurer. W. HENRY TODD;. Xtbrartan. C. L. BARNES, M.A. ©tbec Members of tbe Council. R. F- GWYTHER, M,.A. W. M> TATTERSALL, D.gc. FRANCIS JONES, M,.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. MARY McNiCOL, M.Sc. D. THODAY, M;.A. asststant Secretary anJ) librarian. R. F. HINSON. acting assistant Secretary an& ILibrarian. A. McK. CRABTREE. Ordinary Members. • xxxv. ORDINARY MEMBERS. Date of Election 1911, April 4. Adamson, Arthur, M.Sc.Tech., A.R.C.S., Lecturer in Physics in the Municipal School of Technology, Man- chester. The Municipal School oj Technology, Sackville Street, Manchester. 1901, Dec. 10. Adamson, Harold. Oaklands College, Godley, near Man- chester. 1912, Oct. 15. Adamson, R. Stephen, M.A., B.Sc, Lecturer in Botany in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University, Manchester. 1914, Dec. I. Atack, F.W., M.Sc. Tech. (Mane), B.Sc. (Lend.), F.LC, Demonstrator in Chemistry, The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. 88, Claude Road, Chorlton- ville, Manchester. 1865, Nov. 14. Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L.S., Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill, S.O., Gloucestershire. 1916, Feb. 2. Balls, W. Lawrence, Sc.D., Research Botanist to the Fine Cotton Spinners' Association, St. James's Square, Manchester. Bramhall, Cheshire. 1895, Jan. 8. Barnes, Charles L., M.A., 151, Plymouth Grove, Manchester. 1903, Oct. 20. Barnes, Jonathan, F.G.S., South Cliff House, 301, Great Clowes Street, Higher Bi'oughton, Manchester. 1917, Oct. 16. Barwick, Fred Wilkinson, Manager of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce Testing House, Royal Exchange, Manchester. Parkfield, Woodville Road, Bowdon. 1 9 10, Oct.. 18. Beattie, Robert, D.Sc, M.LE.E., Professor of Electro- technics in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University , Manchester. 1895, Mar. 5. Behrens, Gustav. Holly Royde, Withington, Afanchester. 1868, Dec. 15. Bickham, Spencer H., F. L. S. Underdozvn, Ledbury. 1914, Nov. 17. Bohr, Neils, Ph.D. (Copenhagen), Reader in Mathematical Physics, in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University, Manchester. 1914, Dec. I. Bowman, Frank, B A. (Camb.), M.Sc.Tech. (Mane), Assistant Lecturer in Mathematics, The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. 21, Whalley Road, Whalley Range, Manchester. 1914, Feb 10. Boyd, A. W., M.A., F.E.S. The Alton, Altrincham, Cheshire. 1875, Nov. 16. Boyd, John, Barton House, il, Didsbury Park, Didsbury, Afanchester. 1915, Oct. 19. Bradley, F. E., M.A., M.Com., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Barrister-at-Law, Stormarn, IVilbrahatfi Road, Chorlion- cum-Hardy, Manchester, and Bank of England Chambers, Manchester. 1886, April 6. Brown, Alfred, M.A., M.D. Beech Hill, Hale, Cheshire. 1913, Qe.c. 2. Brown, T. Graham. M.D., D.Sc, Lecturer in Experimental Physiology in the Victoria University of Manchester, The University, Manchester. 1889, Oct. 15, Budenberg, C. F., M.Sc, M.LMech.E. Boivdon Lane, Marple, Cheshire. XXXVl. Ordinary Members. Date of Election 191 1, Jan. 10. 1906, Feb. 27. 1894, Nov. 13. Burt, Frank Playfair, B.Sc. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Bristol), Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester. 15, Oak Road, Withington, Manchester. Burton, Joseph, A. R.C.S., Dublin. Tile Works, Clifton Junction, near Manchester. Burton, William, M.A. , F. C. S. Carisbrook, Victoria Park, Manchester. 191 1, Oct. 31. Butterworth, Charles F. IVaterloo, Poynton, Cheshire. 1904, Oct. 18. Campion, George Goring, L.D. S. 264, Oxford Street, Manchester. 1899, Feb. 7. Chapman, D. L. , M.A., F.R.S., Fellow and Tutor of Jesus College, Oxford, lesus College, Oxford. 190 1, Nov. 26. Chevalier, Reginald C. , M. A.. Mathematical Master at the Manchester Grammar Schof)!. 3, Fort Road, Sedgley Park, PrestTdich, Manchester. 1907, Nov. 26. Clayton, Robert Henry, B.Sc, Chemist. I, Parkfield Road, Didsbitry, Manchester. 1906, Oct. 30. Coward, H. F.. D.Sc, Chief Lecturer in Chemistry in the Municipal School of Technology, .Manchester. 15, Great George Street, IVest/ninster, London, S.M^.i. 1906, Nov. 27. Coward, Thomas Alfred, F.Z.S., F.E.S. Rrentwood, Bowdon, Cheshire. 1908, Nov. 3. Cramp, William, D.Sc, M.LE.E., Consulting Engineer, 33, Brazennose Street, Manchester. 1916, Oct. 31. Craven, Mrs. M., M.Sc, Demonstrator in Chemistry, in the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. 10, Birch Grove, Rnsholme, Manchester. 1915, Nov. i6. Cutler, Donald Ward, M.A. (Cantab.), Scholar of Queen's College, Cambridge ; Assistant Lecturer and Demon- strator in Zoology, in the \'ictoria University of Manchester. 69, Mauldeth Road, Withington, Manchester. 1895, April 9. Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A. , D.Sc, F. R.S.. Honorary Professor of Geology in the Victoria University of Manchester. Fallozvfield House, Falloxvf eld, Manchester. 1894, Mar. 6. Delepine, A. Sheridan, M.B., B.Sc, Professor of Pathology in the Victoria University of Manchester. Public Health Laboratory, York Place, Manchester. 1887, Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold Baily, M.A., Ph.D., M.Sc, F.R.S., F.C.S. Professor of Chemistry in the \'^ictoria University of Manchester. The University , Manchester. 1906, Oct. 30. Edgar, E. C. , D.Sc, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University, Manchester. 1914, Nov. 3. Edwards, C. A., D.Sc, Professor of Metallurgy and Metallography in the Victoria University of Manchester. 26, Lyndhurst Road, Withington Manchester. 19 10, Oct. 18. Evans, Evan Jenkin, D.Sc (Lond.), B.Sc (Wales), A. R.C. Sc , Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Manchester. The University Manchester. 1914, Feb. 24. Evans, William David, M.A., Richardson Lecturer in Mathematics, The Victoria University of Manchester. 22, Chatham Grove, Withington, Manchester. Ordinary Membp:rs. xxxvii. Date of Election 1912, Oct. 15. Fairlie, D. M., M.Sc. 232, Burton Road, West Didsbury, Manchester-. 1914, Oct. 20. Field, Allan B., M.A., B.Sc, M.I.E E., Professor of Mechanical Engineering, The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Kingslea, Strines Road, Marple, Cheshire. 1912, Feb. 6. Forder, H. G., B. A. St. Olave's Grammar School, Tower Bridge, London. 1908, Jan. 28. Fox, Thomas William, M.Sc. Tech., Professor of Textiles in the School of Technology, Manchester University, Gledfield, 15, Clarendon Crescent, Eccles. 1912, Oct. 15. Garnett, J. C. Maxwell, M.A., Principal of the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. The Mtinicipal School of Technology, Sackville Street, Manchester, and Westfield, Victoria Park, Manchester. 1909, Mar. 23. Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc. M.Sc.Tech., A. M.I.E.E., Professor of Pure and Applied Physics in the School of Technology, Manchester. Oak Lea, Whalley Avenue, Sale. 1907, Oct. 15. Gravely, F. H., M.Sc. Natural History Dept., Lndian Museum, Calcutta. 1907, Oct. 29. Gwyther, Reginald Felix, M.A., Secretary of the Joint Matriculation Board of the Universities of Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield and Birmingham. 24, Dover Street, Manchester, and I-,ayately., May 20i/i, IQIJ.) II. The " Mark Stirrup" Collection of Fossil Insects from the Coal Measures of Commentry (AUier), Central France. By Herbert Bolton, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.. With ^ Plates pp. 1—32. (Issued separalety. May nth, IQIJ-) III. Note on the Acticn of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid. By Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. W,th 1 Text- fig- - - - PP- 1—3- {fssued sc/'arately, Vehriiary 2-jtJi, 1917.) IV. An Egyptian Meteorite. By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. pp. 1—2. {^Issued separately, Marrli. 2jn/, iqij.) Proceedings -----------pp. i.— xiii. MANCHESTER : 36, GEORGE STREET. Ipcicc Sij SbUliiiQS an& Sijpence. July lyth, igiy. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. Presented. Barnes, C. L. Parallels in Dante and Milton. Manchester, 1917. {Reed. Coward, T. A. Notes on the Vertebrate Fauna of Cheshire and S. Lan- cashire. Darwen, 1916. [KecJ. 26IX.J16). Crocker, E. Science as Enemy and Ally. Birmingham, 1915. {Reed. 7lxi./f6). Garnett, J. Maxwell. Part Time Secondary Education. Manchester, 191 7. {Reed. 22lin.li7). London.— British Museum (Natural History). Catalogue of the Cretaceous Flora. By M. C. Stopes. Part II. London, 1915. {Reed. 22Jxii.ji6). . — Guide to Insects Brit. Mus. (Special Guide, No. 7). By W. G. Ridewood. London, 1916. {Reed. 23Jxii.li6). . — The Louse and its Relation to Disease. (Econo- mic Ser. No. 2). By B. F. Gumming. London, 1915. (Reed. 22lx/i./i6). .—Meteorological Office. The Weather Map. By N. Shaw. London, 1916. {Reed. 27/xi.//6). Washington. — United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. 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By Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S pp. (Issued separately July I2th, IQIJ.) VI.— An Ethnological Study of Warfare. By W. J. Perry, B.A.... pp. {Issued separately June 6t/i, IQIJ.) VII. — Observations on the Nesting Habits of the Palm Swift, made by Mr. Arthur Loveridge in German East Africa. By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S. pp. {Issued si:parately May ijth, igij.) VIII. — On the Atomic "Weight of Tellurium in Relation to the Multiple Proportions of the Atomic Weights of other Simple Bodies. By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S pp. (Issued separately Jjine iSth, iQiy.) IX. -Recent Work on Overvoltage. By Edgar Newbery, D.Sc. (Issued separately December /^th, igij.) -18. -16. pp. I — 20. Proceedings pp. XIV. — XXIV. Annual Report of the Council, with Obituary Notices of Sir William Ramsey, K.C.B., Ph.D., Sc.D., M.D., F.R.S. ; Dr. Elie Metschnikoff, For. Mem. R.S. pp. xxv.- Treasurer's Accounts List of the Council and Members of the Society List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal List of the Wilde Lectures List of the Special Lectures List of the Presidents of the Society Title Page and Index pp- pp- XXXI XXXUl xxxiv. — xliv. p- p- p- p- xliv. xlv. xlv. xlvi. pp- 1. X. MANCHESTER : 36, GEORGE STREET. Price Six Sliillings and Sixpence. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. Presented, Barraclough, S. H, E. — The War Australia and the Engineer. Sydney, 1915. {Reed. 2^lix.li7.) Bolton, H. — Insects from the British Coal Measures. London, 1917. {Kecd. 28jvi. Ii'j. ) Breinl, Anton. ^Report of the Institute of Tropical Medicine, 1910. Sydney, 1911. {Reed, sjlix.!/"/.) Carslaw, H. S. — Teaching of Mathematics in Australia. Sydney, 1914. {Reed. 2jjix.li7.) Dean, B. — A Bibliography of Fishes. Vol. i. (American Museum of Natural History.) New York, 1916. {Reed. iSlvii.lij.) Elliot, D. 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