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	FOR THE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE
	LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

(Bound at\ I i •< .. . t

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

MANCHESTER %

Literary &f Philosophical

SOCIETY.

(MANCHESTER MEMOIRS.)

Volume LXIII. (1918-19.)

MANCHESTER:

36 GEORGE STREET

1920.

Zb- [O'un^jS^^^'^^-^'

-1

NOTE.

The authors of the several papers contained in this volume are themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings which they have offered. In these particulars the Society must not be considered as in any way responsible.

CONTENTS

MEMOIRS.

I. The Herbarium of John Dalton. By R. S. Adamson, M.A., B.Sc,

and Alison McK. Ckabtree ... ... ... ... pp. i — 46

( Issued sepa7-ately. May 15th, iqiQ.)

II. The Ancient Legend as to the Hedgehog carrying Fruits upon its

Spines. By Miller Christy, F.L.S pp. i — 14

( Issued separately^ May Ijt/i, iQlQ.)

III. On a New Middle Carboniferous Nauliloid ( Ccclonaiitilus trapezoidalis).

By J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S. With i Plate ... ... pp. i — 4

(Issued separately, July bt/i, iQiq.)

IV. On the Superposing of Two Cross-Hne Screens at Small Angles and

the Patterns obtained thereby. By S. Lees, M.A. With j Plates

and 10 Text-Jigs. ... ... ... ... ... ... pp. i — 26

( Issued separately, Sepleviher ^oth, iqiq.)

V, Henry Wilde. By Professor W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc.

M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I. E.E. With 4 Plates pp. i — 16

(Issued separately, June 3otIi, iqso.)

PROCEEDINGS

Annual Report of the Council, 1919 Treasurer's Accounts

List of the Council (1918-19)

List of the Wilde Lectures

List of the Special Lectures

List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal...

List of the Presidents of the Society

pp. 1. XX.

pp. xxi. — xxiv.

pp. XXV. — xxvii.

p. xxviii.

pp. xxix. — XXX.

p. XXX. p. XXX.

pp. xxxi. — xxxii.

INDEX.

M. = Memoirs. P. ^= Proceedings.

Accessions to Library. P. i., iii., xvi., xxiii.

Accounts. P. xxii., xxv.

Adamson,. R. S., and Crabtree, A. McK. The Herbarium of John

Dahon. M. 1. P. xi. Ancient Legend as to Hedgehog. By Miller Christy. M. 2. P. xiii. Annual General Meeting. P. xv. Annual Report. P. xv., xxi. Articles of Association. P. xiv., xvii.

Atomic Structure, Recent Evidence on. By Sir E. Rutherford. P. xviii. Auditors. P. xi. Awards of Dalton Medal. P. xviii., xxx.

Barnes, C. L. Remarks on a paper on " Mozart." P. x.

Biology and War. By D. M. S. Watson. P. iv.

Bird's Brain, The. By G. Elliot Smith. P. xii.

Brain, Simian Features in Human. By G. Elliot Smith. P. iv.

The Bird's. By G. Elliot Smith. P. xii.

Carr, F. H. The Post-graduate Training of the Works Chemist. P. xii.

Chemical Club. P. xvii.

Christy, Miller. The Ancient Legend as to the Hedgehog carrying

Fruits upon its Spines. M. 2. P. xiii. Ccclonautilus trapezoidalis. By J. W. Jackson. M. 3. P. xi. Committees. P. xxiv. Conversazione. P. xiii. Council, Election of, P. xv.; Number of, P. xiv.

List of, P. xxviii.

Crabtree, A. McK. See Adamson, R. S.

Cross-line Screens. By S. Lees;. M. 4. P. xiv.

Crystals, Some Features of the Growth of. By Sir H. A. Miers. P. xiii.,

xvi. Curator. P. xiv.

vi. Index.

Dalton Medal presented to Sir E. Rutherford. P. xviii., xxx.

Dalton, Medallion of. P. ii.

Dalton's Herbarium. By R. S. Adamson and A. McK. Crabtree. M. 1.

P. xi. Domestic Fires and ' Coal Saving ' Preparations. By M. W. Fishenden.

P. V. Donations. P. ii., iii., xii., xxiii.

Earth, Figure of. By H. G. A. Hickling. P. iii. Edwards, C. A. The Hardness of Metals. P. iv. Election of Officers. P. xv.

Ordinary Members. P. i., ii., iii., x., xi., xvi., xviii.

Electrolytic Iron Deposition. By W. A. Macfadyen. P. xiv. Extraordinary General Meetings. P. xiv., xvii. Eye, The Movement of the. By H. Lamb. P. v. Eye-piece from a German gas-mask, Exhibition of. By \\'. Thomson. P. xi.

Fires, Domestic. By M. W. Fishenden. P. v.

Fishenden, M. W. The Efficiency of Domestic Fires and I he Effects of certain ' Coal Saving ' Preparations. P. v.

Gee, W. W. Haldane. Henry Wilde, A Memoir of. M. 5.

Joule's Apparatus. P. viii.

General Meetings. P. i, ii., iii., x., xi., xvi., xviii. German gas-mask, eyepiece. By W. Thomson. P. xi. German gun, explosion in breach. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xi. Gifts. P. ii., iii., xii., xxiii.

Ilardcastle, E. Gift of model of a Voltaic Pile. P. xii.

Hardness of Metals, The. By C. A. Edwards^ P. iv.

Hedgehog carrying I-Vuits upon ils Spines. By Miller Christy. M. 2.

P. xiii. Herbarium of John Dalton, The. By R. S. Adamson and A. McK.

Crabtree. M. 1. P. xi. Hickling. H. G. A. Figure of the earth. P. iii. Human Brain, Retention of Simian Features. By G. Elliot Smith. P. iv.

Iron, r.lcclrolytic deposition. By W. A. Macfadyen. P. xiv.

Index. vii.

Jackson, J. W. Discovery of quartz-pebble beds at Caldon Low. P. iii.

Exhibition of leaf-shaped bronze sword. P. ii.

On a New Middle Carboniferous Nautiloid (Calonautiliis tra-

pczoiJalis). M. 3. P. xi. ' Shell-Pockets ' on Sand Dunes on the VVirral Coast, Cheshire.

P. xi. Joule Centenary Meeting. P. vi.

Joule's Apparatus, Exhibition of. By W. W. Haldane Gee. P. viii. Joule, Work and Influence of. By Sir E. Rutherford. P. vi. Jourdain, P. E. B. Gift of a large medallion of Dalton. P. ii.

Lamb, H. The Movement of the Eye. P. v.

Lees, S. On the Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens at Small Angles. M. 4. P. xiv.

Macfadyen, W. A. Electrolytic Iron Deposition. P. xiv.

Manchester Chemical Club. P. xvii.

Metals, The Hardness of. By C. A. Edwards,. P. iv.

Miers, Sir H. A. Some Features of the Growth of Crystals'. P. xiii.,

xvi. Movement of the Eye, The. By H. Lamb. P. v. Mozart, Remarks on a paper on. By C. L. Barnes. P. x.

On a New Middle Carboniferous Nautiloid {Ccelonaiitiliis trapezoi-

dalis). By J. W. Jackson. M. 3. P. xi. On the Mutual Relations of Natural Science and Natural Religion.

By H. Wilde. P. xi. On the Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens at Small Angles and

the Patterns obtained thereby. By S. Lees. M. 4. P. xiv.

Post-graduate Training of the Works Chemist, The. By F. H. Carr.

P. xii. Presidents of the Society. P. xxxi.

Quartz-pebble beds at Caldon Low. By J. W. Jackson. P. iii.

Recent Evidence on Atomic Structure. By Sir E. Rutherford. P. xviii. Rutherford, Sir E. Presentation of Dalton Medal. P. xviii. The Work and Influence of Joule. P. vi.

viii. Index.

Scrutineers. P. xv.

'Shell-Pockets' on Sand Dunes on the VVirral Coast, Chesihire. By

J. W. Jackson. P. xi. Simian Features in the Human Brain. By G. Elliot Smith. P. iv. Smith. G. Elliot. The Bird's Brain. P. xii. The Retention of certain so-called Simian Features in the Human

Brain. P. iv. Society, Discussion on Aims of. By F. E. Weiss and Others. P. ix. Some Features of the Growth of Crystals. By Sir H. A. Miers. P. xiii.,

xvi. Special Lectures. P. xxx. Speculations on the Perceptive Power of Vegetables. By F. E. Weiss.

P. i. Stromeyer. C. K. Effects of explosion in breach of a German gun. P. xi. Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens!. By S. Lees. M. 4. P. xiv. Sword, Exhibition of leaf-shaped bronze. By J. W. Jackson. P. ii.

Thomson, W. Exhibition of a celluloid eye-piece from a German gas- mask. P. xi.

Voltaic Pile, Gift of model of. By E. Hardcastle. P. xii.

Watson, D. M. S. Biology and War. P. iv.

Weiss, F. E. Means by which the Society may promote most effectively tht Advancement and Application of Learning in Manchester. P. ix.

On Dr. Percival's Paper, entitled " Speculations on the Percep- tive Power of Vegetables." P. i.

Wilde Endowment Fund. P. xxii., xxvii.

Wilde, H, A Memoir of. By W. W. Haldane Gee. M. 5.

— • — On tlie Mutual f'ielations of Natural Science and Natural Religion. P. xi.

Wilde Lectures. P. xxix.

Works Chemist, The Post-graduate Training of the. By F. PL Carr. P. xii.

Manchester Memoirs, fW. Ixiii. (1918) No. 1

I. — The Herbarium of John Dalton.

KY

R. S. Adamson, M.A., and Alison McK. Crabtree. Read February 4th, igiQ. Received for publication, February 4th, 1919.

This herbarium, consisting of eleven volumes of plants dried and mounted by John Dalton, has been in the possession of the Literary and Philosophical Society since 1886. For some reason, however, it seems to have been almost entirely overlooked since then, and had, unfortunately, been allowed to become exceedingly dirty, and to some extent damaged by insects and damp.

The collection was made between the years 1790 and 1828, at the time, that is, of the great outburst of interest and activity in systematic botany that followed on the work of Linnaeus and preceded the awakening of morphology and physiology.

Of Dalton's knowledge of botany, and its origin, little seems known. He apparently taught himself as he did in other branches. This., science probably brought him into touch with the well-known blind botanist, John Gough, whom Dalton knew during all the time of his. residence in Kendal, 1 781- 1793, and with whom he kept up an, intercourse long afterwards.

In his younger days Dalton was evidently much interested in plants and, as this collection testifies, attained a very considerable deforce of skill in distinguishing and determining species. That he left this subject for those sciences with which his name is more definitely associated is perhaps not to be wondered at when we remember the position of botanical science at the close of the eighteenth century. The science was completely under the influence of the Linnsean school, and derived its sole inspiration from the then recently published works of the master. Structural and physiological botany were wholly neglected, and geographical botany can hardly be said to have been born till 1805, when Humboldt and Bonpland's work appeared. Botany, indeed, consisted of exact floristic studies, that is to say, of identification and differentiation of species. Though the flora of this country and foreign regions was quite as much studied, if not more, then than nowadays, the result was merely the production of a

2 AliAMSON and CraI'.TRKi:, 77/r Ih-rlnviiDii of Jolni Dalton

catalogue. With the science in tliis conditiun, though we can at once understand Dalton's early enthusiasm for plants, it is not to be wondered at that so active and fertile a brain should turn in its maturer period to more fundamental and constructive studies. It was through his botanical studies tliat he discovered his colour l:>lindness. In a letter he gives a vivid account as to colour sensations wiien looking at a Cranesl)ill.

Dalton continued his interest in botany for many years, and through it made a number of friends who were distinguished as botanists. Chief among these is Edward Robson, from whom he received a very large number of the [)lants in the herbarium. Robson was a draper by trade in Darlington. He was a critical systematic botanist of considerable repute in his time, and though little of his work was original, his name is well known in the contemporary floras. He was a friend and correspondent of Withering, and supplied him with many of the records for the north of England. He also contributed notes and specimens to .Sowerby for the first edition of "English Botany."' Robson was not only an enthusiastic collector, but also a gardener. Dalton writing in 1798 to his brother,* mentions having spent some hours in examining Robson "s " Hortus Siccus"' and " Botanic Garden.' Many specimens in this collection are derived from this garden. Dalton and Robson continued to exchange plants for some considerable time, and some of these j)lants sent by Dalton are recorded in Withering's " Arrangement of British Plants," evidently sent through Robson. One of these, Couvolvuhis soldanella, from Walney Island, is definitely attributed to Dalton (Withering, Ed. 3., vol. ii., p. 240, 1796). Another, Thalictrum majiis (i.e., p. 502), though attributed to Robson refers, as we know from a letter, to plants collected by Dalton.

During his tour in 1797, Dalton refers more than once in his letters to botanical excursions and to botanists. Thus we know that he went to call on Withering, whom, on this occasion, however, he did not see. Also, when in London he visited Curtis, author of the " Flora Londifiiensis," and famous especially in con- nection with the "Botanical Magazine." Among numerous other botanical contributors only one other calls for mention : this is Dr. Hull, a native of Manchester, who published in 1799 a "British Flora," at that lime, apart from Witherings work which extended to four volumes, the only flora written in l'2nglish : certainly the first in a small size.

The herbarium itself would seem to have been started originally with a view to its becoming part of the museum of Mr. Crosthwaite, in Kendal, if we may judge from the following extract

* I'lic original letlcis in tlie Soiiuly's possfssioii are tliosc rcUried to.

Manchester Manoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1 3

from. Dr. Lonsdale's "Worthies of Cumberland" (p. 70). " Dalton informs Mr. Crosthwaite that he had 'dried and pressed a good many plants, and pasted them down to sheets of white paper, . . . this has induced me to think, that a tolerable collection of them, . . . would be a very proper object in the museum.' He afterwards writes, October 4th, 1791 : 'I have at length completed the book of plants and made an index both to the Linnaean and English names." There can be no doubt that this is the first volume of the herbarium now in the Society's possession, thc^ugh from the letters we know that Dalton sent plants to Crosthwaite. The first volume is dated 1790, and the plants therein come almost entirely from the neighbourhood of Kendal. The second (dated 1791) and third volumes were probably collected at, or about, the same time, and are also for the most part Cumberland and Westmorland plants. The fourth volume contains the first record from Manchester, while the fifth contains most of his Manchester specimens. This would place the dates of these volumes somewhere about 1793, probably between 1792-5. The seventh and part of the eighth volumes were collected during his tour in 1797, a tour which included London, Somerset, and the Welsh border counties. The specimens in the remaining volumes are nearly all contributed from friends and correspondents, and especially from Edward Robson, of Darlington.

Before considering the plants contained in the collection, a few words might be said about its history. The latest entry in the volumes is 1829. After this date tliere is an unfortunate gap in our knowledge of the collection. It was presumably disposed of after Dalton's death, but the next reference to it is in 1856, when Dr. Angus Smith in his memoir* says : " Eleven volumes of a ' Hortus Siccus ' are in the possession of a Mr. T. P. Heywood, of the Isle of Man." Of this gentleman and his possession of the collection, however, no information is forthcoming at the present time. The next certain date is 1864, when eleven volumes of a "Herbarium" formed by Dalton were entered in the catalogue of the Manchester Public Library as being in their possession. The Library was presented with the " Herbarium " by Canon Parkinson. Though no exact record of the date of the presentation is available it most probably took place some time before 1864, probably during the fifties ; Canon Parkinson died in 1858. The questions arise as to whether the " Hortus Siccus," possessed by Heywood, and the " Herbarium," presented to the Public Library by Canon Parkinson, are one and the same or different, and if the same how the transference took place. No direct evidence is available, but in the first volume of our collection, which is undoubtedly the " Herbarium," as it came from the Public Library, Dalton has written a somewhat elaborate

* Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Tlieory, up to his time, pubhshed as Vol. xiii., 2nd Ser. of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical .Society of Manchester.

4 Adamson and Crabtree, The HerbtxriiiDi of John Daiton

title page in Latin, commencing " Hortus siccus sue Plantarum diversarum . . ." Subsequent references do not clear up the matter. In 1874, Lonsdale speaks of a "Herbarium" in the Manchester Public Library, and a " Hortus Siccus " in the possession of Mr. Heywood. The former he had in all probability seen, while the latter entry may well have been copied from Angus Smith. In 1875, Leo Grindon describes ten volumes of the "Herbarium" in the Public Library, but in the Dictionary of National Biography it is stated (v. 5, 1908, p. 429) that "He (Daiton) compiled a ' Hortus siccus ' in eleven volumes, possessed a few years ago by Mr. T. P. Heywood, of the Isle of Man ; while his herbarium is still preserved in the Manchester Public Library." This last is the collection under consideration, and was presented to the Literary and Philosophical Society in 1886. Apart from these quotations there does not seem any evidence at all that Daiton made two collections, and considering the evidence that the collection itself affords, and the direct evidence of letters, we may safely conclude that, whatever its history during the period from 1844 till 1858, the " Hortus Siccus " and the " Herbarium " are one and the same.

The collection consists of eleven volumes of varying thickness, consisting of plain paper. The plants are pasted down on the right-hand pages, while the name, in Latin and English, with some- times, though not always, the source or locality are given on the left-hand pages. In a few cases further notes on points of interest are given. Each volume has at its commencement an index in Dalton's handwriting of the contents, and the first and second volumes, in addition, have a title page in copperplate writing. The last (eleventh) volume is less than half completed, and on some of the blank pages in this volume we have taken the liberty of mounting a small number of loose specimens, some of which were found in a contemporary journal, and some found in a volume in the library, with a slip of paper inscribed " Mr. Daiton." Except in the case of large specimens there are nearly always more than one to each page. Unfortunately this desire to fill each page not infrequently lessens the botanical value of the collection, as many of the specimens are rather small and incomplete.

In all there are 954 entries in the eleven volumes, of which seventy-two are non-vascular cryptograms which have not been studied carefully so far.* The remainder represent 864 different varieties of vascular plants. These, however, include a number of garden plants. The last volume especially consists largely of garden specimens.

The nomenclature employed is apparently that of Withering's "Arrangement of British Plants," at that time the only flora available which was written in English. The third edition of this work, issued

* It is hoped that a full examination of these may be made shortly.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1 5

in 1796, was, we learn from a letter, presented to Dalton in 1797. This edition was published in four volumes. Dalton's copy, consisting of the last three, which may have been all he possessed, is preserved in the Society's I^ibrary ; it contains a certain number of marginal notes in Dalton's handwriting. This edition is specifically referred to in a few entries, e.g., Verbascum thapso- nigruni, VI. 15 ; Gerattmm iancastriense, IV. 4.

Of the 864 different plants in the collection, though a certain number were left unnamed, only thirty-seven are wrongly identified, and three of these are misidentifications that were in all the floras of that date : Delphinium ajacis as D. consolida, Crocus nudiflorus as C. sativus, and Bryonia dioica as B. alba. This last one is certainly corrected in the third edition of Withering. Of the other thirty-four, thirteen were specimens sent by friends, whose identification Dalton probably accepted without question. When we consider the very meagre descriptions in the floras at his command and the impossibility of access to authoritatively named specimens, this very small number of errors, redounds the greatest credit to Dalton's botanical skill. His modest estimate, in reference to the first volumes, in a letter to Crosthwaite is amply borne out : " I am not so confident in my abilities as to maintain that I have given no plant a wrong name, but I believe the skilful botanist will find very few, if any, miscalled."

In addition to the names written in Dalton's handwriting, there are a few corrections and emendations in other hands in pencil. Those referring to the vascular plants were the work of the late Rev. W. W. Newbould, the friend and correspondent of Babington, who, we learn from Mr. Charles Bailey, examined the collection in the Public Library in 1885. Newbould, who died in 1886, prepared a manuscript list of the contents, which was given to Mr. Bailey, who was, however, unfortunately never able to make use of it.

The localities for the specimens in the collection are by no means all complete. In many cases, more especially in the later volumes, the records are quite vague or merely consist of the name or initials of the collector or donor. But many are fully localised. It is unfortunate that very few are dated. The first four volumes consist almost entirely of plants from the neigh- bourhood of Dalton's then home in Kendal, and should prove of the utmost value to anyone working at the flora of the north-west of England, though it is impossible here to consider in detail these records. The records from the Manchester district are not very numerous, and consist for the most part of common plants still to be found in the outer suburban regions. Of plants certainly lost from the neighbourhood there is Osmunda regalis (IV. 22), labelled as from " Moss Side, near Manchester." This fern has been entirely eradicated from the district. The collection contains a few

6 Adamson and Crahtrkk, The Hcrbarhnn of Johi Dalton

specimens from " White Moss, Blackley/' Some of the plants occur now in other mosses in the neighbourhood, but in the cases of Drosera a ng/ica and D. longifolia (1. 32) it is nect;ssary to travel con- siderable distances to obtain specimens. The White Moss, at Blackley, has now entirely disappeared ; indeed, in 1858 Leo Grindon writes of it as having been drained and cultivated for many years. It is not mentioned at all as a locality for the district by either Woods, in his Flora Maiicimiensis, in 1840, or by Buxton, in the Botanical Guide, in 1846. The only other local record, though not one of the Manchester District, which need be mentioned, is that of Sisymbrium Sophia (VII. 18), from Tarvin, in Cheshire, which is a station considerably further inland than any mentioned in Lord de Tabley's " Flora of Cheshire," or in Green's "Flora of Liverpool. ""

Apart from local records, however, the collection contains a number of interesting plants. Among these is a very fine specimen of the now exceedingly rare Ladies' SHpper, Cypripedium cakeolus (V. 14), from Arncliffe, Yorkshire. This specimen is undated, but as the volume contains most of the Manchester records, and as early in the next volume are plants dated 1797, it was in all probability before that date. If so, the record would antedate those given for this region in Lee's "Flora of West Yorkshire," where 1805 is given.

The collection contains examples of three plants which were at that date claimed as 'members of the native flora. These are Potentilla alba (I. 56), Helianthernutn ledi/olium (II. i5), under the name of Cistus salicifolius, and Euphorbia ^^ Characias" (VII. 230.). The specimens of the last named, though incomplete, are certainly E. amyi:;daloides, and not E. characias, which is a S. European species. The plants recorded for Staffordshire and Worcestershire at the end of the eighteenth century were ahnost entirely large examples (jf E. amxgdaloides. The other two, Potentilla alba and Helianihemutn Icdifolium, are both contributed by Robson, of Darlington, whom we know cultivated a "botanic garden." As the collection contains other plants labelled as coming from Robson's garden, no information can be gained about the plants.

The following list of the vascular plants is arranged in systematic order. In each case the generally accepted Latin name is given first, this is followed by that used by Dalton, if different. Then follows the linglish name used and the locality or source of the specimen and any other information in the herbarium. Any additions or remarks not in the collection itself are enclosed in square brackets [ ]. The references to the volume and page are given for each plant ; the number of the volume being first, in Roman numerals, and followed by tlie page number.

Main Jiestcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (i9i<S) No. 1

E(/uisefiifn »ia\i>nian arvense . . .

sylvaticum palustre . . .

lima sum

variegatiini . . .

Lycopodumi selago

imi?idatuffi.

clavaiu/n

alpiniiim

Selaginella selagiftoides —

Lycopodium selagiftoides.

Isoetes lacHStris

Osmunda regalis

Cysiopteris fragilis

Poly podium fragile

Phegopieris Dryopieris —

Polypodium dryopieris . . .

polypodioides —

Polypodium phegopieris. .

Neplif odium filix-mas —

Polvpodium filix-mas . . .

spill ulosum — • Polypodium cristatum . . .

Polystichum aculeaium —

Polypodium aculeaium . .

Blechuum spicant

Asplenium adiaiitum-nigrum

mariuum

viride

trichotn a nes — A. irichomanoides

Rut a muraria...

[Unnamed.] IX. 31.

Horsetail. In Mintsfeet, etc. II. 6

and XI. 2Q. IX. 31. [Found in

Society's Journal.] Common Horsetail. W . 42. Wood Horsetail, near Mostyn. IX. 25. Marsh Horsetail. Between Stand (?)

and the Bolton Canal. IX. 31. IV. 23.

IX. 31. [Included under ^. f/^t'^-'/.vf'.] IV. 18. IV. 18.

Wolfs Claw. IV. 41. IV. 18.

IV. 18.

Miss T. X. 39.

Flowering Fern. Moss Side, near Manchester. IV. 22.

Brittle Polypody. From E.R., of . Darlington. VI. 26.

From E. Robson. I. 116.

From E. Robson. I. 116.

Male Polypody. Male Fern. Woods, etc. Common. I. 117.

Crested Polypody. From \L. R., Darlington. IX. 37.

Prickly Polypody. Cliffwood. From

E. R., Darlington. IX. 7. Rough Spleenwort. In the vicinity

of Kendal. IV. 5. Black Maiden Hair. From E. R.

IX. 6. From E.R., Black Hills, Sunderland.

IX. 6. From E. R., Darlington. I. 118.

Common Maiden hair. Clefts of the rocks, Cunswick Scar. I. 118.

White Maiden Hair. On old walls, etc. VII. 7.

8 Adamson and Crabtree, The Herbarium of John Dalton

Celerach officinarum —

Asplenium ceterach ... Common Spleenwort. About Bristol,

presented me by T. Hoyle. Also on the N.E. side of the battlement of Troutbeck bridge, Westmor- land. VII. 15.

Scolopendrium vu/gare —

Asplfniufn SiOlopetidrti/rn Hart's Tongue. The two uppermost

in the Old Hall Garden ; the other two at Scout's Stile. III. 31.

Cryptografume crispa — Osmund a crispa

Pteris crispa

Pteridiiim aguilimtm — Pteris aquilina Poiypodiiim vul;::;are

Boirvchiiim lunaria —

Osminida lunaria

Ophioi^Iossum vulgatum ..

Tax?fs baccata

Juniperous communis ...

Tvp/ia iatifoiia ,

Spaygafiiutn ramosum —

.S". erectum

simplex ...

Pot a m ox'f ' to n iialatis

Stone Fern. Amongst rocks, etc.

Common. III. 19. Stone Fern. From E. R. III. 22.

I. 120.

Common Polypody. Old walls, etc.

I. 116.

Moonwort. Found betwixt Craw- shawbooth and Burnley. V. 32.

Adder's Tongue. Vicinity of Man- chester. V. 3.

^'ew Tree. About ("unswick Scar.

II. 5.

Juniper. Near Milnthorp, Westmor- land. IV. 17. Great Cat's Tail. IV. 40.

Bur-reed. IV. 34.

Burweed. In a ditch near Hullart (?)

Hall, with ramosum. IV. 10. Broad leaved Pondweed. In stagnant

waters. Common. V. 34.

Miss T. Miss T.

X. 58. X. 21.

heierophyllus —

P. iuce/is luce IIS

prcelongus —

P. Jluitans ... Miss T. X. 22. densus — /-*. de/isum . Frogs Lettuce. From E. R., Skern,

near Darlington. IX. 13. obtusifolius —

/■*. gramitifuvi . .Miss 1". X. 21,. pectinatus —

P. peetinatum . . l"\;nnclleaved Pondweed. From

IC. R., Hill Kittles, near Darling- ton. TX. 13.

Manchester Memoirs, VoL Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1

Potamo^eton (?) pectinatus —

P. marinum . . .

Zaniiichellia pains Iris Triglfli/iin palusire . . . A/i.s fna plantago

rauunculoides

Sagittaria sagittifo/ia Bntomus und^ellaius ...

Hvdrociiaris morsiis-ranae

Plialiiris arundinacea

Plile}{7n asperurn —

P. paniculatiim

prattnse

Agrostis tenuis — A. capii/aris ... Ai/imop/iiia arenaria

Calamagrostis arenaria.

Deschampsia ccespitosa

T?isetiim flavescens —

Avena piavescens

Phragmites comtnunis —

Arufido phragJtiites

Cynosurui crisiatus

echinaiiis

Koeleria cristata—I^oa cristata . . .

Molinia coerulea —

Festuca fliiitatis (?) Afelica nutans

Sea Pondweed. From E. R., Skern, near Darlington. Fresh-water R. IX. 13. [A small specimen with- out fruit, probably P. pectinatus.^

Horned Pondweed. From Kendal. By J. Gough. V. 5.

Arrow-headed Grass, {li) Near Tar- porley. {e) Per Miss 'X . IX. 39.

Gieat Water Plantain. I. 35. By Kent Side, etc. III. 8.

Less Water Plantains. From Winander- mere Lake, Westmorland. IV. 27.

Arrowhead. From Cheshire. By G. Crosfield. IX. 34.

Flowering Rush. In the river, by Lord Pembrokes, at Wilton ; also in some ditches between Leomin- ster and Ludlow. VIII. 2.

Frogbit. In a pond near Warring- ton ; in a pond half way from Whitchurch to Wem, Salop, foot road ; again in a pond one mile from Staines, on the Hampton Road. VII. 23.

Fol.var. Ladies' Traces. In gardens. VIII. 42.

[Specimen lost.] From E. Robson. II. 28.

II. 28. HI. 27.

Sea Matweed. Teesmouth. E. R. VI. 7.

III. 26. [Unnamed.]

Oat. Roadsides. V. 3.

Common Reed. About the margin of Cunswick Tarn. I. 7.

II. 28.

From E. R. II. 28.

Crested Meadow Grass. From E. R., Darlington. III. 27.

in. 25.

Mountain Melic. From E. R., of Darlington. VI. 24.

lO A DAM SON and Ckai;tki:i-:, '/"//,• llerhar'nim of Jolni Daltot

Ale lie a u u iflora —

Milium effusum . . .

Dactylis i:;Iomeni/a

Poa annua

nemoralis

compressa

Festuca hrornoides

ovina var. vivipara

Brotnus gigartteus

asper

sterilis -^- S*^-

(J) commutalus — Bromus III. 27

mollis ill. 3.

Brachypodiu fn sylva lieu m —

Festuca or Bromus sylvaticus \. t^'&.

.Millet Grass. In woods, etc. III. 25.

[Name changed in pencil.] Rough O^cksfoot. In pastures. II.

2S. \'. 20. [Unnamed.] From Iv Robson. \'. 13. From 1'-. Robson. V. 13. IV. 24. a and 0 from John Gough, Kendal ;

c from E. Robson, Darlington ;

from Lowdore, near Keswick.

IV. 35. Miss 'I". III. 10. Miss 'I'. X. 39.

Nardus slricta

Lolium perennc

/, ep III rus filform is —

Rot the Hi a iucurvata

Hordeum muriiiuin ...

Stipa penuata

Heleocharis palustris —

Scirpus palustris

Scirpus aespitosus

lacustris

maritif/ius

svlvalic us

compressus- Sihonus ioi/iprc-ssu \

Eri(pl/(iruiii alpinum .

Heaths, common about 1 )arliiigt()n.

E. R. 1.4. Rye Grass. Roadsides, etc. III. 3.

.Sea Hard Grass. Near Seaton, Co. Durham. E. R. III. 36.

Wall Barley. Roadsides about Lon- don, and in the S. Common.

VII. 15.

Downy P^athergrass. I-Vom James Blackburn's garden, Darlington.

VIII. 44.

Club Rush. I-roni Iv R., of Dar- lington. VI. II.

Dwarf Club Rush. White Moss, near Blackley. \'III. 35.

15ull Rush. In tlie Thame, near Oxford. VII. 12.

About Foulshey Moss. II. 38. [Also as ^. sylvatic'iis. W . ().]

Millet Cyperus Grass. Skern, near Darlington. E. R. VI. i 1 .

('(impressed Rush Grass. From

IC. R., Darlington. IX. 39. i'lom Dr. Hull.' \ 11. 5.

Manchester Me tiioirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1918) No. 1 Eriophorum vagi nai urn

I I

— angustifoliiim —

E. polystachion . . . RJnnchflSpora alba —

Schoenus albus C la dill III ma riscus —

Scha'NNS ffi a riscus Carex dioica

vulpina

echifia/a — C. piii/lifera ref/iota

- goode/tozni — Cunx

and C. caespitosa

- flacca (?) — C. flava

- digit at a

- pallescens — C. limosa

- panicea — C. flava

- t>endiila

strigasa

hirta — C. prcecox

pseudocy penes — C. pe/idula

Moss Crops. Birch Carr, near Dar- lington. E. R. VI. 28.

Cottongrass. In marshes. VI. 2.

I-3-

I. 6.

Small Seg. I'olam, near Darlington.

E. R. VI. 15. IV. 44.

Uncertain. VIII. 17. Remote .Seg. Polam, near Darlington,

E. R. VI. 32. [Unnamed.] VIII.

17- Miss T. VI. 6. Uncertain. VIII. 31. In meadows near Mostyn. VII!. 36. Fingered Seg. Hort. Bath. E. R.

VI. 31. Brown Seg. From H R., of Dar- lington. VI. 31. In meadows near Mo.styn. VlII. 36. Pendulous Seg. By the trees, near

Croft. 3 miles from Darlington.

E. R. VI. 31. Loose Seg. From E. R., (;f Dar

lington. VI. 31. Yellow Seg. From Dunham I'ark.

VIII. 17.

Carex (?)

Arum macu latum

Lemna minor . . .

polyrlm.a

Jutuus hufonius trifidus

... Pendulous Seg. Near Manchester.

In watery places. VI. 6.

XI. 15. [Found loose in Journal.]

Wake Robin. By the Turnpike,

Scout Scar; plentiful. II. 20.

Least Duck meat. In a pool. VII. 29.

Miss T. X. 2.

Toad Rush. Near Booth. VIII. 25.

[Specimen lost, seems to have been

right from impression.] Trifid

Rush. Dr. Smith, from E. R.,

Darlington. V. 4.

Mess Rush. On heaths, etc. \'. 4.

Miss T. X. 61.

Seaves. On heaths, etc. ; common.

VIII. 25. _/. glaucus (effusus IV) X. 26.

- Si/uarrosifs

- filiformis

- effusus . . .

12 Ahamson and CkAliTREK, The Hcrlmriitvi of Jolni Daltou

Juncus conglomeraius Miss T. X. iq.

maritinuis — J.inflexus... Hard Rusli. Uncertain. V. 4.

supinns — J. uliginosus... Miss T. X. 61.

ariiculatus Jointed Rusli. In meadows, etc.

VIII. 13. \_J. Iiimprocarpus.'\

sylvnticus —

J. acutiflorus (acuius). . Miss T. X. 26. Luznla pilosa — Juncus pilosus... Hairy Rush. In meadows. \'III. 43.

sylvatica —

/uncus sylvaticus ... Wood Rush. Kent Side Brow, o{)[)o- site Mints' Foot, etc. II. 9.

campesiris —

Juncus catnpestris ... I-'ield Rush. In pastures : common.

VIII. 12 and XL 29. [Found loose in Journal]

inultiflora —

Juncus campestris,

Far. 2 .. Tall Field Rush. Brought from the West of England. VIII. 16. Narthecium ossifragiwi —

Anthericum ossifragum Bastard Asphodil. Turf Bogs. I. t^-i,.

X. 63. [Found loose.] Toftt'ldia palustris —

Anthericum caiyculaium On the mountains west side Co.

Durham. E. R. I. 2,1. (?) Colchicum autumnale ... ... Meadow Saffron. From E. R., Dar- lington. II. 23. Cagca lutea —

Or?iithogalum luieum . \ellow Bethlehem Star. Cliffwood,

near Darlington. E. R. \ I. 15.

IX. 14.

AHium oleracfum Wild Garlic. In pastures, etc.

VIII. 28.

oleraceum var. complan-

a/tiin — A.carinatum ... Mountain (Kirlic. Ufjon Sea- Maw

Crag, Winandermere Lake. \ 1. i.

ursinum Ramson. Hedges. I. 34.

Fritillarin meleagris Fritillary. I'Vom E. Atkinson's

garden. VII. 6. Scilla non-scripta —

Hyacinthus hon scriptus Hyacinth or Harebells. In fields.

('ommon. V. 19. Ornilhogalutn utnbellatum ... ("ommon Bethlehem Star. Near

Knaresborough. IC. R. IX. 14. pyrenaicum ... Spiked Bethlehem Star. Garden.

M. A. IX. 32. Erythroniutn dens-canis Dog Tooth N'iolet. 1'^. Atkinson's

(larden. XL g.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1 i Sparagus. In a garden. V. 2.

Asparagus officinalis Polygonaium miiltiflorum —

Convallaria multiflora. Solomon's Seal. A garden. VII. c;.

Lily of the Valley. A garden. VII. 8.

True Love. Bottom of Cunswick Scar, etc. II. 31.

May Snowdrop. Garden. IX. 28.

Daffodil. In Mintsfeet. 11. 2.

Pale Daffodil. From E. R., Dar- lington. X. 2.

From E. R., Darlington. X. 2.

Black Briony. Barrowfield Wood, etc. III. 4.

Near Manchester. Wild {a). (/;, c and d!') near Moston. MissT. V.42.

Stinking Flag. From E. R., Dar- lington. IX. 40.

Water Flag. About rivulet,s. VI. 2.

Corn Flag. In a garden. Cu7-a, M. Atkinson. XI. 6.

Ladies' Slipper. From the marshes about Arncliffe in Craven. Pre- sented to me by Nancy Wilson, of Thornton in Craven. V. 14.

Late Flowering Orchis. From

E. R. II. 12.

Dwarf Orchis. Baydales, near

Darlington. E. R. IV. 3.

Female Foot Stones. In Mintsfeet, etc. II. 12.

IX. 26. [Unnamed and no locality or source.]

IX. iz.

Bee Orchis. From P. Harrison, Darlington. VIII. 6.

Fly Orchis. P>om E. Rothweil's garden. Introduced from York- shire. VIII. 6.

Convallaria rnajalts . .

Paris quadrifolia

Leucojum (estivum

Narcissus pseudo-narcissus

Inflorus

poeticus

Tamus cotnnntnis

Crocus nudiflorus — C. sativus

Iris fxtidissirna — /. fa'tida

pseudacorus

Gladiolus communis

Cypripedium calceolus

Orchis pyramidalis

ustulata

morio . .

mascula

maculaia — Orchis

Ophrys apifera . . .

muscifera

Habernaria albida —

Satyriiim albidurn

viridis — Satyrium viride...

bifolia — Orchis bifolia

White Satyrion. From E. R., Dar- lington. III. 2.

Frog Satyrium. Kendal Fell, Scout Scar, etc. III. 2.

Butterfly Orchis. In meadows

Pretty common. IV. 3.

14 Adamson and CraI'-TRKE, The Herbarium of John Daltou

F.pipix<:ii<. latifolia —

Serapias latifolia

palustris— Serapias longifolia

Lisiera cordata — Opkrys cordata.

ovaia — Ophrys oiHxta ...

Afaiaxis paliidosa

Salix peuiavdrd

viminalis

caprea

herbacea

My r it a gale

Coryius avellana

Beiula aliia

■ nana

Fagus syh'atica

Quercus robur — Q.femina Hnmulus lupulus

Urtica dioica

pi III lifer a

Broad - leaved bastard Hellebore. Below ("unswick Scar, etc. I. 113.

White-flowered bastard Hellebore. Found plentifully in a vacant space between (^unswick Stile and Tarn at the bottom of the Scar and near the margin of the Tarn. 1. 112.

L'iast Twayblade. I'Vom E.R. I. 1 i i.

Twayblade. ('unswick Wood. 1. 111.

Marsh Twayblade. From E. R. Near Middleton, Durham. IX. 5.

Sweet Willow. From E. Rothwell's garden. \'II. 7.

Osier. In the common garden. Up Peat Lane, etc. W. 25.

Broad leaved Willow. By Kent

Side. n. 14.

1 lerbaceous \N'illow. (a) From E. R., Darlington, {b) From Skiddaw (?), the Summit, July 1828. II. 25.

Miss T. X. -:,:.,.

Hazle. Woods, etc. From .Miss Taylor. II. 13.

Birch Tree. In hedges, etc. \'I. 4.

l<>om Iv R. \T. 4.

("ommon Beech. In hedges and plantations. Durham. VIII. 11.

Oak. In woods, etc. VIII. 10.

Hops. In Gloucestershire, Mon- mouthshire, etc. VIII. T.

Common Nettle. Amongst rubbish, etc.: very common. I. 114. A [small diagram] is the sting of a Nettle magnified. It consists of a line tapering hollow Tube, with a Bag at the End containing a Liquid : when the pointed Tube has punctured the Skin, the Bag compressed at the Bottom squirts up a (^)uantity of Liquid into the I'uiicture, and thus occasions the disagreeable ICffect. Roman Nettle. I'>om IC. R., Dar- lington. \'\. 13. , Less Nettle, .\mongst rubbish. I. 1 1 >,

Ma7ichestcr Monoirs Pdrietarid officinalis

Viscitm album

Asarum europa'io/t

Aristolochia clematitis

Riimex londy lodes — R. acutus ... R.samri/infus

Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1

15

pukfier.

acetosella

Oxvria digyna — Riirnex dioy/n/.\

Polv;^onum convolvulus

aviculare

Jivdrofiipey

Polygonum. Fersicaria

P. lapathifoliuni- pallidum (?) ..

ampliibiufn

bis tori a . . vivipa?-um

Beta maritivia . . . Chenopodium album

A trip lex

glaucuin

bonus henria/s

Atrible.x littoral is

- patula. var. angustissima Buphleurum tenuis simum

Pellitory of the Wall. On the walls of Chepstow Castle, Monmouth. VII. 8.

.Missletoe. Some orchards in Lythe. II. 21.

Asarabacca. In gardens. Ill 37.

From E. R., Darlington. X. i.

Woods, hedges, etc. E. R. X. 4.

From E. R. IX. 16. [Too young for identification, but [)rf)bably R. tondy lodes. A^

Fiddle Dock. From E. R., Dar- lington. X. 5. [Probably this but too young.]

Sheep's Sorrel. Sandy giound. X. 4.

Mountain Sorrel. Kentmere Hills, to the right. 1S06. X. 6.

Black Bindweed. Gardens, etc. \. ^2.

X. 10.

Water Pipper, Arsmart, Lakeweed.

Rivulets and ditches. I. 4 r X. 16. Spotted Arsmart. Common. L 40.

Miss r. X. 34.

Perennial willow-leaved Arsmart. In the canal from Chester to the Mersey. VII. 18. 1. 39. [Un- named, the land form.]

Beetroot. In Mintsfeet. II. 22.

Small Beetroot. Near Carr End,

Wensleydale. II. 22. Sea Beet. Sunderland. E. R. IX. 14. Common Orach. Common on heaps

of rubbish. I. 28. X. 50. [Probably but specimen too

young.] Oak-leaved Goosefoot. From E. R.

I. 17. [Probably but not at all a

good specimen.] Mercury. About the Tan Pits by

the Meeting House Yard. I. 17. Grass-leaved Orache. Hartlepool.

E. R. IX. 19.

Least Thoroughwax. On the Banks of the Medlock. VIII. 29.

1 6 AUAM.SON and CrahtrEE, The Herbarium of John Dalian

Airiplex hastata I. 28. [Included under C/^(f;/6'/(?^////w

albuml\

hasiala, var. Deltoidea . I. 28. [Included with last under

Chenopodium albiim\

portulacoidts Sea Purslane. Isle of Walney, west

coast. V. ] 4. Salicornia hetbacea — S. fruiticosa Marsh Samphire. Frcjin the Isle of

Walney. V. 11. Suaeda mari/imn

Chenopodium maritimum Small Glasswort. On the Banks <jf

the Avon below Bristol. VIII. 12.

Salsola Kali Prickly Glasswort. From E. R. IX, 6.

Moniiafonlana Blinks. About the head of Peat

Lane (a), near Harrogate, {b) E.

Robson. III. 20. Stdlaria aijuatica

Cerasiium aqiiaticum. Miss T. X. 37.

fiemorum

media — Alsine tnedia holoslea

Zraminea

ulii:^i?iosa

Ceras/ium viseosum —

C. imhatiim

Broad -leaved Stichwort. Near brooks, etc. IV. 14.

Chickweed. Gardens, etc. Common. I. 29.

Greater Stichwort. In hedges. Com- mon. I. 46 and X. 1 3. See Vol. I.

Hedges, etc. Common. I. 47 and IV. 46. [Found loose.]

Bog Stichwort. From E. R , Dar- lington. IX. 27.

From

. . . Narrow - leaved Mouse-ear. E. R. IX. 20.

... Corn Mouse-ear I'rom 1']. R. \'III.5. From E. R. IX. 20.

... Woolly Mouse-ear. From I'^. R., Dar- lington. VIII. 5.

... Umbelliferous Mouse-ear. Suffolk. E. R. VI. 2.

... Mountain Chickweed. On mcjuntains.

I- 45- . ... Least Chickweed. Upon dry walls,

I. 45- Ltnum radiola —

Slellariai:;ratni}ieaQ). All seed Flax. Uncertain. From

S. At. VIII. 30. peploides Sea Chickweed. About Barrow, and

the Isle of Walney. V. 17. Sagina apetala Annual Pearlwort. From E. R.,

Darlington. III. 3 and VII. 28.

[Unnamed.]

(omeniosi/m

Holosteum urnbellatiim Are naria Iter na

serpylltfolia

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1918; No. 1 Sagina procumbens

17

Spergula arvensis

Chickweed Breakstone. Shannongate

Bridge, and other dry places. III. 5.

nodosa — Spergula nodosa English Marsh Saxifrage. Near the

wall to the N.E. of the Lime Kilns upon Kendal Fell, Brigsteer Moss. I. 48.

Spurry. Cornfields, etc. Pretty

common. I. 48.

Spergularia rubra —

Arenaria rubra

salina —

Are?iaria rubra

(vid. 17.) Spurrey. On the sandy hills near Runcorn. It differs much from that growing on the west. See page 17. V. 39.

Sea Spurry. Isle of Walney, West Coast. V. 17.

media —

Arenaria mariti?na,

media, sive marina. Miss T. X. 44.

Polycarpon tetraphylliim Corrigiola littoralis . . Scleranthus annuus . .

Azrostemma s'iihazo . . .

Silene cucubalus —

Cucubalus behen

Four-leaved Allseed. In E. Roth- well's garden. VIII. ig.

Sand Strapwort. From E. R., Dar- lington. X. 1 1.

Annual Knawel. On the wall bet- ween Mintsfeet Stile and Mints Bridge ; also on the wall to the left Sedbergh Road, about 1,000 yards from the town. I. 44.

Cockle. Road to Laverik Bridge,, in the field bounding the footroad along the river. III. 24.

White Corn Campion. Amongst corn. III. 10.

S. inflata, Cucubulus behen (?)

mariiima — S. am«na . . .

armeria

anglica . .

Langdale, Westmorland. Miss T.

X54- Sea Campion. Plentiful on the

Lancashire Coast. V. 16.

Common Catchfly. From E. R. V. 16.

English Catchfly. From E. R., Sun- derland. IX. II.

1 8 AUAMSON and Crabtree, The Herbarmm ofjolm Dalton

Silene nn^lica, var.

quinqiievulnera — S. quinqueviilnera . . .

conoidea

Lychnis dioica

flosciiculi

viscaria —

var. Flor. alba. simp.

Dianlhiis armeria

delioides carvophylliis

barbaius

Saponaria officinalis

Nuphar luieum —

Nyjnphcea hi tea . .

Nymphcea alba

Caltha paliistris

Trollius europceiis Helleborus falidus 7)iridis

Delpliiniian ajacis — D. consolida

Clematis vitalba

Thalictrum alpinum.

Variegated Catchfly. From E. R., Darlington. VI. 23.

Common Catchfly. In E. R.'s gar- den, Darlington. From the Cam- bridge Botanical Garden. VI. 23.

Campion. Hedges, etc. III. 16. (^uckou flower. In meadows. III. 16.

Red German Catchfly. From E. R. III. 16.

Deptlbrd Pink. Deptford, near Sun- derland. IX. 21.

iMaiden Pink. Castleton. IX. 21.

Common Pinks. Fountain Abbey. From E. R. IX. 43.

Sweet Williams. From E. R., Dar- lington. IX. 43.

Soapwort. Croft Bridge, near Dar- lington. E. R. VI. 8.

Yellow Water Lily, dermere Lake. V

From Winan- 8.

IV

Wet meadows. [Found loose in

White Water Lily. Marsh Marigold.

II. 8. XL 30.

Journal.] Locker gowlans. Up by the river

in Mintsfeet, etc. IV. 8. Bearsfoot. From E. Atkinson's

garden. Ardwick Green. V. t,^,. Wild Black Hellebore. About five

miles from Thornton in Craven,

and presented to me by Nancy

Wilson of that place. V. 25.

Larkspur. Rare except in flower gardens. I. 59.

Travellers' Joy. In Kent, Hants., Wills., Somerset, Gloucest., Mon- mouth., and Hereford it abounds in the hedges ; did not meet with it further north. VII. 21.

Mountain Rue Weed. Near Middle- ton, Durham. E. R. II. 34.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1 Thalictrum majus

19

flaviim . . .

Anemone Pulsatilla . .

nemorosa . . . ranunculoides apennina

Adonis autitmnalis . . . Myostirus minimus ...

Ranunculus heterophyllus- R. aquatilis

sceleratus

- parviflorus ...

- flanimula

- lingua

- acris

- huUwsus parviflorus ...

- arvensis — R. parviflorus.

- Fie aria

Berber is vulgaris Chelidonium maJus

Glauciu7ti fldvum —

Chelidonium glaucium..

Meconopsis cambrica —

Papaver cainbricum . . .

Lesser Meadow Rue. Going into Cunswic VVood, Horse Road 'mongst the wood to left. II. 34.

Meadow Rue Weed. In Warwick- shire, etc. VII. 12.

Pasque Flower. From E. R., Dar- lington. VIII. 41.

Wood Anemone. Woods, etc. II. 13. XI. 24. [Loose.]

Yellow Anemone. Uncertain, From E. R. VI. 4.

Mountain Anemone. From E. Atkin- son's garden. VIII. 37.

/Adonis. A garden specimen. V. 42.

Little Mousetail. Near Darlington. Very rare. E.R. VI. 9.

Various-leaved Water Crowfoot. In Kent plentifully. II. 24.

Round-leaved Water Crowfoot. From Foulshaw Moss, Westmorland.

IV. 35- Small-flowered Crowfoot. Uncertain.

Got in my tour, 1797. VII. 21.

[Very small specimen.] Less Spearwort. Edge of White

Moss, near Blackley. IX. 29. Great Spearwort. From Miss Astley's

garden, Duckinfield Lodge. IX. 35. X. 49- X. 41.

Small-flowered Crowfoot. From E. R.,

Darlington. VI. 23. Miss T. X. 41.

Lesser Celandine. In Hedges, etc.

Common. VI. 39. Barberry. I. 34. Celandine. In the lane to Bird's

Park. II. 19.

Yellow Horned Poppy. Sea coast, Ramside, near Ulverston. V. 15.

Yellow Poppy. In the lane leading to Bird's Park. I. 57.

20 Adamson and Crabtree, The Herbarium of John Dalton

Fapaver somniferum .

dubium

arzetnone

hybridtdn

Corydalis lutea-

Fumaria capnoides Fnmaria capnoides

clavuiilata —

Fumaria claviculata

Fumaria muralis — F. officinalis

Matthiola sinuata —

Cheiranthus sinuatus.

Wild Poppy. Gardens, etc. The juice of this plant inspissated by the Heat of the Sun in warm Climates is Opium. I. 58.

Long, smooth-headed Poppy. About Lancaster, Runcorn, etc. V. 37.

Rough podded Poppy. Near Sun- derland. E. R. VL 19.

Round, Rough-headed Poppy. Near Sunderland. E. R. VL 19.

A garden. Curd, M.A. VIIL 22. From Fountains Abbey. VIIL 43.

Climbing Fumitory. Castle Hagg, in the hedge, about two yards beyond the end of the N.E. wall. Found also in a hedge between the third and fourth milestones, road to Grayrigg, on the right. I. 79.

Fumitory. Cornfields. Gardens, etc. L 78.

Prickly-podded Gilliflower. From E R., Darlington. IX. 36. Miss T. X. 42. [An indeterminable specimen under this name.]

Nasturtium palustre —

Sisymbriu7n terrestre... III. 18 officinale —

Sisymbrium nasturtiurn aquaticum — sive

Sisymbrium nasturtium Arabis perfoliata —

Turrit is glabra

Watercress. Slow streams, I. 75. X. 26.

Cardamine amara

hirsuta

fiexuosa [?]

Sisymbrium thalianutn

Arabis thai tana . .

Tower Mustard. From E. R., Dar- lington. III. 33.

Bitter Cress. By the Skern, near Darlington. E. R. VL 9.

Ladysmock. In fields, roadsides, etc. III. 38.

Zig-zag Ladiesmock. Reeth. E. R. VI. 9.

Turkey Pod. On the Hedge side by the Canal near Cross Strur? VIIL 15.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1

21

Sisymbrium officinale —

Erysimum officinale Sophia

alliaria — Erysimum alliaria

Erysimum cheiranthoides . . .

orientale —

Br ass tea orien talis

Brassicn monensis [?]

Diplotaxis tenuifolia —

Brassica muralis

Draba incana

Hedge Mustard. Roadsides. I. 76. Flix Weed Water Cress. Near Tarvin, Cheshire. VII. 18.

Garhc Wormseed. In hedges, etc.

VIII. 19. From E. Robson. I. 76.

Perfoliate Cabbage. From E.R.,

Darb'ngton. VI. 18. Isle of Man Cabbage. From E. R.,

Darlington. \X.fi 19. [Poor

specimen with no fruits].

[Under Erysimum chciranthoides\. 1. 76.

Wild Rocket. Tinmouth Castle E. R. VI. 18.

Wreathen - podded Whitlowgrass. Found in going from Settle to Malham Coveover the hills. V. 19.

Early Whitlow Grass. Old walls,

etc. II. 5. Near the summit of the Kirkstone, Westmorland. 1829. III. 24. C. officinalis . Scurvy Grass. Below the summit of Hill Bell. X. 7.

Scurvy Grass. By the Mersey, below

Warrington. IV. 16. Danish Scurvy Grass. From Knout-

bery Hill, in Dent. V. 20. Horse Radish. In a garden. V. 31. Camelina sativa —

Myagrum sativum —

Moenchia sativa... Gold of Pleasure, vid. Withering 3rd Edit. From E. R., Darlington. VI. 9. Miss T. X. 37.

Cochlearia alpina — Cochlearia

danica

groenlandica

armoracia

Thlaspi arvense

alpestre var. occitamwi —

Th. montanum

Lunaria biennis

Teesdalia nudicaulis —

Iberis nudicaulis

Mountain Mithridate Mustard. About half-way from Settle to Malham Cove, over the mountains. V. 20.

XI. 8. [Named Lunaria in pencil, no source.]

Rock Cress. From Dr. Hull. VII. 5.

campestre —

Thlaspi campestre . . .

smithii —

Thlaspi liirtum Coronop7iS didymus —

Lepidum didymum . . .

procumbens — Cochlearia Coronopus

ikile.

22 Adamson and Ckabtrek, The Herbariun^ of John Daltoii

Lepidiiim latifoliion Dittander Pepperwoit. Seaton, Co.

of Durham. E. R. VI. 7.

rudera/c Narrow-leaved Dittander. From E.R.,

Darlington. Found this plant grow- ing plentifully near the bridge over the Wye at Chepstow. VI. 8.

Mithridate Mustard. Hedges and roadsides, pretty common. \'. 28.

From E. R., Darlington. \'. 28.

Procumbent Dittander. Near Sunder- land. E. R. VI. 8.

Swines Cresses. About the Brewry, Stockbridge, etc. III. 5.

Wild Woad. By the Wear, at Durham. E. R. VI. 25.

Sea Rocket. Rampside,nearUlverston. V. II.

Colewort, Sea Cabbage. Isle of Walney, Rampside, etc. V. 10.

Near S. Shields, Co. Durham. R. R. 1.52.

Wild Woad. About the Low Mills, etc. I. 51.

Mossy bogs. I. t^i.

Long-leaved Sundew. On the White Moss, near Blackley. An old specimen. I. 32.

From Miss Taylor, 1828. (Same place as D. loiigifulia.) I. 32. [Under D. iongifolia, but appar- ently recognised as distinct.)

Orpine. About houses, on walls, etc. III. 38.

Marsh Stone-crop. Carr end,\Vensley- dale. V. 30.

White-flowered Stonecrop. On the common towards Staveley, upon some Craggs about 100 yards from the Road to the right, following the Hedge on entring the common. I. 49.

/satis ti?Jctoria

Cakile maritiina — Bmiias c Crambe niaritima

Reseda hitea

luteal a

Drosera rotundifolia . . .

longifolia

anglica—D. longifolia.

Sedum telephium

villosum

album

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1918) No. 1

23

Sedum a?iglicum acre

reflexmn

rupestre

Sempervivum tectorum Cotyledon umbilicus . .

Saxifraga oppositifolia

stellaris

aizoides — S. autumnalis (aizoides).

tridactylites

graniilata . .

hypiioides .. )iiutata

Chrysospleiiiion opposififolinifi alfernifolii/i/i

[Included with S. allrum.\ 1. 49.

Wall Stonecrop or Pepper. Walls.

I. 49. Coniston Hall. Miss T. V. 29.

St. Vincent's Rock Stonecrop. From W. Fothergill's garden, Carr-end, Wensley Dale. V. 29.

Houseleek. On walls, roofs, etc. IX. 34.

Common Navelwort. Upon a wall at Everton, Liverpool, near Bees- ton Castle, and thence on the road to Whitchurch, Shropshire ; very abundant on the sides of the old walls and hedges. Observed it in a few other places in our tour through England and Wales, but not so plentiful. 1827. Found plentiful about Beaumaris and Bangor, Carnarvonshire, on the stone walls, particularly at some elevation. VII. 22.

From E. R., Darlington. VIII. 26. Heath-like Saxifrage. Ingle- borough. From P. Harrison. VIII. 42.

Hairy Saxifrage. On the hills about Dent. IV. 13.

Yellow Mountain Saxifrage. On the right of the road going down the hill to Boroughtbridge from Kendal, and everywhere in West- morland in high and stoney and wet situations. IV. 27.

Rue-leaved Whitlow Grass. On old walls, etc. II. 8.

White Saxifrage. Vicinity of Man- chester. V. 7.

Trifid Sengreen. On the mountains about Dent. V. 24.

A garden. XI. -tiZ-

Golden Saxifrage. Vicinity of Man- chester. A'. 5.

Golden Saxifrage. Alternate leaved. IV. 41.

24 Adamson and Crabtree, The Herbarium of John Dalton

Parnassia palustris

Ribes rubrum var. spicatum-

R. spicatum alpinum

SpircBa salicifolio

-hypericifolia .. -filipendu/a

-ulniaria ...

Rtihus fhaifuefnorus

friiticusus

saxatilis

Fragaria vesca . . Potent ilia ver/ia . .

(•recta —

Tormentilla erecta .

anserina

ari^mtea

Grass of Parnassus. In meadows, common. The advocates of the Linnean or Se.xual System may draw a strong argument from the economy of this plant in favour of their hypothesis. The Anthera. or Tips of the Chives are suc- cessively laid upon the aperture of the seed-bud, each continuing there a day or two, and then falling back quite shrivelled is succeeded by another, liil they have all discharged their dust and fertilised the seed- bud. 1. 30.

From E. R., Darlington. VI. 4. Sweet Mountain Currant. From E. R. VI. 4. IX. 8.

Betwixt Colthouse and Hawkshead. This has not hitherto been reckoned indigenous in Britain, but I found it plentiful in the hedges at the above-mentioned place, far distant from gardens. V, 9. Grasmere. Miss T. X. 59.

In E. Atkinson's garden. XL 21.

Dropwort. Going into Cunswick Wood. Horse Road. II. t^t^.

Queen of the Meadows. Meadows, etc., common. I. 53.

Knoutberries. Koutberry Hill, near

Lea-yeat. Dent and Pendlehill.

V. 31. Common Bramble, Bumblekites.

Hedges, etc., common. I. 54. Stone Braml^le. Bottom of Cunswick

Scar. II. 36. Strawberry. In woods and hedges.

HI. 38. Spring Cinquefoil. From E. R.,

Darlington. VIII. 15.

Septfoil. Hedges, etc., common.

11. 12.

Wild Tansy. Near foot-paths. I. 56. Silvery Cinquefoil. Plumpton, near Harrogate. E. R. VI. 22.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1

25

Poteniilla fruticosa

palustris —

Comarum pains tre.

alba

Dry as oc tope fa la

Geum rivalc

Agrimofiia eupatoria

Alchemilla arvensis —

Aphanes arvensis .

z'2/lgarls[va.r./>ratens/s] alpina

Poterium safisuisorba

officinale —

Sanguisorba officinalis .

Rosa spinosissivia

rubiginosa

— - — — arvensis ?

Pyrus aria — Cratcegus aria

aucuparia — Sorbus aucuparia

Cratcegus oxyacantka

Prunus padus

lusitanica

Shrubby Cinquefoil. A garden [a and b); (c)md.x Middleton in Teesdale, County of Durham. E. Robson.

V. 34.

Marsh Cinquefoil. From E. R., Dar-

hngton. IX. 37. White Cinquefoil. From E. R. I. 56. Mountain Avens. West side of County

of Durham. E. R. VI. 5. Water Avens, About Cunswick Scar.

I- 55- Agrimony. Road-sides, common.

III. 22.

Parsleypiert. In corn-fields. I'his specimen is imperfect. IV. i.

Ladies' Mantle. In pastures, common. III. 7.

Least Ladies' Mantle, (i) Old Hall garden; (2 and 3) upon the summit of Red Pike, opposite Buttermere, in Cumberland. III. 7. St. Johns Vale, Keswick. Miss T. X. 53.

Burnet. Malham Cove, Gordal Scar, etc., near Settle. ^^ 21. V. 7 [unnamed].

Common Burnet. Pastures, common.

I. 8. Prickly Rose. From Rampside. V. 12. Sweet Briar. Eglantine. IV. 36. White Rose. From Rampside, near

Ulverston. V. 12. Whitebean Tree. Opposite Arnside,

on the coast. V. 26.

Quicken Tree, Roan Tree. Found

near 3-mile stone, road to Shap.

XL 19. Hawthorn. Hedges. V. 6. A variety

with a red flower. From E.

Atkinson's garden, Ardwick Green.

V. 6. Bird's Cherry. About Spittal, in

several places. II. it. Portugal Laurel. Frequently planted

in pleasure grounds. XI. 22.

26 AdamSON and Craistrek, The Herbarium of John Daltoji

Genista anglica . . .

tinctoria

Ulex europceus

Cytisus scoparius —

Sparliiini scopariitin

laburnum

Ononis spinosa . . .

Medicago denticidata —

M. muricata . . .

falcata

Melilotus ojpicinatis —

Trifolimn melilotus officinalis.

Medicago bipjilina. 7 rifaliuni mediu/ii

squamosum — T. inaritimuiii

anwnse

striatum

scal'rum

suffocatum '! repens

fragiferuni . .

Needle Furze. Petty Whin. Found about 2 miles beyond Ouse Bridge, Road to Hesket. Middle of June. II. 26.

Dyers' Weed. Wood Waxen. Pretty common, particularly in pastures a mile distant to the S.E. I. 83.

Whins. Furze. Common. II. ii.

Broom. Plentiful to the E. of the Town. IV. 10.

Laburnum. A garden. XI. 21.

Thorny Restharrow. Uncertain, {b) From Somersetshire. Mr. S. (?) Taylor. I. 82. \(b) Placed under O. arvensis.^

Restharrow. In the meadow to the .S.E. of the Castle, near the Foot- walk. I. 82.

.VIedick. From E. R., Darlington.

IX. 38. I'Vom E. Robson. I. 81. [Doubtful,

no fruits on specimen.]

Melilot Trefoil. In a tour through the S. and W., uncertain where, but in several places. VII. 16.

Trefoil Medick. On Sunderland Ballast hills. From E. R. IX. 4.

Long-leaved Treft)il. From E. R., of Darlington. \T. 33.

Teasel-headed Trefoil. Near Wear- mouth. E. R. IX. 15. [Specimen rather young for identification.]

Hare's Foot Trefoil. From E. R., of Darlington. VI. ^^.

Soft Knotted Trefoil. From E. R.,. Darlington. IX. 38.

Hard Knotted Trefoil. From Sunder- land, E. R. H. 27.

Yarmouth, ]■;. R. IX. 15.

White Trefoil. Pastures. II. 27.

Strawberry Trefoil. Near Seaton, Co, of Durham. VI. 32.

Manchester Memoirs, /W. Ixiii. (1918) No. 1

n

Trifolimii procumhe?is —

Medicago lupulina

. Anthyllis vitliieraria

Lotus cortiiculatus

idigifiosus — L. i/iajoi

See vol. IX., page 4. Melilot Trefoil.

Miss T. X. 48. Kidney Vetch, Ladies' Finger. On

the high and dry pastures, Kendal

Fell, and amongst the stones about

Mints Feet. I. 81. Bird's Foot Trefoil. Hedges, pastures,.

etc., common. I. 88. Miss T. X. 43. [Specimens of this

included under L. corniculatus,

I. 88.] Ouohrychis viciccfolia —

Hedysarum onol>rychis.. Common Saintfoin. On the bridge,.

going out of Oxford, W. VII. 17. Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch. Cunswick

Scar. III. 21. Birdsfoot. By the road from the

Horn Cop (?) on Tenter Fell.

n. 35-

Hippocrepis coinosa . . Orfiithopus perpiisillus

Vtcia hirsiita —

Ervtnu hirsutiini cracca

ornbus —

Orobus syivaticits

svlvatica

sepiui/i . . .

lutea . . hybrida . . .

sativa . . .

■ iwgustifolia bithv/iica

Lathyriis Aphaca nisso/ia

hirsiittis pratensis

Wild Tare. Miss T. X. 47. Tufted Vetch. Hedges, common. I. 86.

Bitter Vetch. Gamblesby, near Pen- rith. From E. R. by P. Harrison. VIII. 42.

Tufted Wood Vetch. Over Laverick Bridge to the left by water side. I. 84.

Bush Vetch. Hedges, etc., very common. I. 85.

YellowVetch. I}thorto. E.R. IX. 10..

Bastard Vetch. From E. R., Dar- lington. IX. 9.

Common Vetch. Amongst Corn. III. I.

X. 24.

Rough Vetch. From E.R., of Dar- lington. I. 86.

Yellow Vetchling. From E. R., of Darlington. Vl. 21.

Crimson Grass Vetch. From E. R.,. Darlington. VI. 21.

Rough-podded Vetchling. IX. 2.

Tare Everlasting. Hedges, etc. I. 87 and XI. 26. [Loose.]

28 Adamson and CKAirrREH Lathyrus syh'estris

montanus —

Orobiis fiiberosiis . . .

Geranium saiij^iiiiieum

— sinti^uineHtn var. lan-

castriense —

Q. Idncastrii'inc . ..

>iod(>suni

— phce.iim

— sylvaticum —

G. nodosum

— pratcnse . . .

— pyrenaiiUm

— mol/e

pusillum—

G. malvcefoliiim pusilliivi —

sive malvcefolium columbinum

lucid urn rohcrtiamim

Erodium cicutarium —

Geranium cicutarium .

moschatum — Geranium moschatum .

maritinium — - Geranium maritimum .

Oxalis acetose/la

• — stricfa . . .

/.iuum catharticum perenuc . . .

The Herbarium of John Dalian

Narrow - leaved Vetchling. Near Scarboro'. From E. Robson. IX. 3.

Wood Pease. Hedges, etc. (com- mon. III. 6. Cranesbill. At Scoot Stile. IV. 4.

Specimen from the Isle of Walney (Lane). Withering, 3rd. Ed., Vol. III., p. 600. IV. 4.

Knotty Cranesbill. From E. R., Darlington. VIII. 34.

Spotted Geranium. A garden. V. 41.

Miss T. X. 57. Miss T. X. 56. Mountain Cranesbill. From E. R.,

of Darlington. VI. 34. Dove's Foot Cranesbill. Under

hedges. HI. 9.

Near Darlington. Prom E.R. IX. 24.

See Vol. IX. 24. Miss T. X. 45. Long-stalked Cranesbill. From E.R.,

of Darlington. VI. 35. l^>om

E. R. IX. 17. Shining Cranesbill. Not uncommon

on walls, etc. V. 40. Herb Robert. In hedges, etc. IX.

27.

Hemlock-leaved Geranium. Near Liverpool. V., 38.

Musked Cranesbill. I'rom a garden. V. 39-

From E. R. L\. 17.

Cuckow Bread. AVoods and hedges,

common. H. 7. H. 7. \\Jn\rjimtd, O. cornicu/ata spj

added later in pencil.] Purging Max. About Helsfieldnab.

1.31- Perennial Flax. Baydales, near Dar- lington. ¥.. R. ^'T. 12.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Lxiii. (191 8) No. 1

29

Poly gala vulgaris Mercurialis pereimis

Etiphorbia helioscopia

atnygdaloides — E. characias

E. characias

cyparissias —

E. amygdaloides

paralias peplus . . .

Callitrichc stagnalis —

C. Autunifialis

— hamulata (?) —

Pofamogeto?t pusilluni autumnalis

Biixus seinpervi?'e/is . . . Empetrum nigrum

Euonymus europcBus . . .

la tif alius . . .

Acer pseudoplatanus ...

Impatiens noli-tangere

Rhamnus frangula . . .

Ceanothus sp

Milkwort. Wet meadows. 1. 80.

Dog's Mercury. Hedges, etc., com- mon. II. 7.

French Mercury. Near Sunderland, E. R. II. 9. From E. R., Darling- ton. X. 7.

Sun-spurge, Wart Wort. Corn-fields, gardens, etc. The juice of this plant is very acrimonious. I. 52.

Red Spurge. On Melbury Heath, on

the road from Bristol toGloucester.

pr. Thos. Hoyle. VII. 11. In a wood on the Vjanks of the Wye,

4 miles above Monmouth, near the

mill. VII. 30.

Wood Spurge. In a garden. IV. 20.

[Name written in pencil.] Sea Spurge. Isle of Walney, West

Coast. V. 13. Petty Spurge. In gardens and rich

soil. III. 19. Dwarf Spurge. In corn-fields near

Hales Owen, Salop. IV. 20.

Autumnal Stargrass. In ditches, etc.. VIII. II.

In the ditches. Sales-moor. VIII. 22.

Miss T. X. 9.

Box. Garden. IX. 11.

Crowberries. b From Wliite Moss, May, 1828. Miss Taylor. IV. 31.

Spindle Tree. In E. Atkinson's garden, Ardwick Green. V. 26.

XL 10.

Sycamore Tree. In plantations, etc. VIII. 9.

Touch-me-not. In the Old Hall garden. III. 29.

Alder Buckthorn. From E. R.,

Darlington. VII. 25 and Castle head (?) Wood, Keswick. Miss T.) X. 60.

From Mrs. Stephen's garden near Loughborough. XL 10. [Un- named. Locality in pencil.]

30 Adamson and Crautkki Tilia eiiropiBa ...

Althcea officinalis

Malva mosc/iata

sy Ives iris rofun iifolia — M. svlvestris

Hypericum androscemutn

Eupho7-bia lathyrus perforatinn

qnadra)i^^tiliim — • //. «/itadrafigi//a/r

fmmifitsiim

pulchriDii hirsutuiit

montanuin

elodcs . . ■

Tamarix Gallica

Heliantheniu77i canuvi —

Cistus marifolius

ca/iHt>i, var. vineale — Cistus ati^licus

— vulgare —

Cistus he Hun f/iciu uni .

— ledifolium—

Cistus salicifolius . . .

Viola palustris odor at a . ,

riic Herbarium of J oh 1/ Dal tat/

Lime Tree. In plantations. The ii[)per specimen preserved by M. A. V. 18.

.Marsh N[allow. Near the new ferry, Monmouthshire. A fine specimen, hut spoiled by long keeping. VIII. 10.

Mallow. Pretty common in fields and on road-sides. I. 77.

Common Mallow. IV. 39.

Miss T. X. 28.

Park Leaves. IV. 30.

I. 119.

Saint John's Wort. Hedges, common.

T. qo.

St. Peter's Wort. By the rivulet in the

meadow beyond the Spittal Wood,

near the hedge on the right hand.

L 89. Trailing St. John's Wort. In the

vicinity of Manchester. V. 35. I. 01. Hairy St. John's Wort. At Matlock

Bath, etc. I. 89. Mountain St. John's Wort. Cunswick

Scar. 1. 91. Marsh St. John's Wort. From Dr.

Fell, Ulverstone. VHI. 16. Tamarix. L\. 17.

Cistus. From E. R., Darlington. HI. 20.

Hairy Cistus. West side of Co. of Durham. E. R. VI. 10.

Sunflower. Kendal Fell and Cunswick Scar. III. 20.

From K. R., Darlington. ['I'his plant was reported to have been found in Somerset.] II. 16.

[ Unnamed under Hydj-ocotile vul- garis?^ Kersey Moor. IX. 4.

Sweet Violet. In hedges, vicinity of Manchester. VL o.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1

Viola hirta

riviniana, V. catiitia

tricolor

V. lutea

Passiflora coerulea

Daphne mezereum

Ly thrum salicaria

Peplis portiila

Epilobium ajigustifolium

[var. dr(uhycarpuni\.

hirsfdum

parviflorum mo?itanuni

Epilohiiim

tetraiTotJum

palustre

Circcea Ititetiana

Fuchsia triphylla (coccinea)

Myrtus com?nunis

Myriophyllnm spicaijim

■ verticillatum

Hippuris vulgaris

Hairy Violet. From E. R. IX. 9.

Dog's Violet. Hedges, common. II. 3. XL 27 [loose].

Heartsease, Pansies, Three Faces under a Hood. Road-sides, very- common. I. no.

Ill horto. From E. R. IX. 9.

Passion Flower. A garden. From E. R. XL 5.

Mezereon. In a garden. VII. 14.

Purple Spiked Loosestrife or Willow Herb. I. 50.

From E. Robson. I. 33. In the ditches, Sale's Moor. VIII. 20.

Rosebay Willowherb. In and about gardens. III. 14.

Great Flowered Willowherb. By a well above the Tenters, Fellside. I. 37. In a far corner of Mint's Feet. N.B. — Several leaves cut off by reason of their multitude. III. 15.

Miss T. X. 16.

Smooth-leaved Willowherb. Hedges, common. I. 38.

On Kentmere, High Street, at the spring below the summit. III. 14. [A small specimen, probably E. ?nontanuinl\

Narrow-leaved Willowherb. About rivulets, pretty common. I. 38.

Marsh Willowherb. In marshes. I. 38.

Enchanter's Nightshade. Moist hedge bottoms. I. 2. Bottom of Scout Scar, S. end. II. 37.

[Included under C. hite/iana.^ II. 37.

From E. Rothwells. XL 4.

XL 20. [Unnamed.]

Spiked Water Milfoil. From Dr. Hull. VL 20. Miss T. X. 52.

Whirled Milfoil. Polam, near Dar- lington. E. R. VL 20. X. 52. [Name in pencil only.]

Paddow-pipe. In ditches in Wood- stock Park, on the reach below Conishead Priory, and on Brigsteer Moss, by the road from Brathwaite Green. VII. 9.

32 A DAMSON and CkAin REE, The Herbarium of John Dalton

Hedera /leiix

Hydrocotyle vulgaris . .

Sanicula europcea Erytigium ■maritimum campcstre . .

Myrrhis odorata

Scandix odorata

Cfuerophylliwi temulum — Tordy- littfn anthrisius, Caitcaiis anthrisus

A nthrisius sylvestris —

Chcerophyllum sylvestre . .

Caucalis daucoides

C. leptophylla

antkrisius —

Tor dy Hum atithrisiiis.. . Coriandrum saiivjim

Conium maculaium . . .

Bupleurum rotundifolium .

Apium graveolens

nodiflorum —

Sium nodifiorum

Ivy. Woods, etc., common. V. i.

Marsh Pennywort. Near Darlington.

From E. R. IX. 4. Sanicle. Cunswick Wood. 11. i8. Sea Holly. Near Whitehaven. III. 39. Eryngo. Near Sunderland. E. R.

VI. 22. About Sunderland. E. R.

Vlll. 21.

Sweet Cicely. VIII. 37.

In orchards, etc.

See Vol. I. Hedge Parsley. X. \ 7.

Wild Cicely. In hedges, etc., common. VIII. 14.

Five-leaved Bustard Parsley. Camb.

Bot. Card. E. R. VI. 5. From E. R., Darlington. X. 10.

I. 27.

Coriander. A heap of rubbish below Stramongate Bridge. I. 24. The Involucrum universale in this specimen to be in some cases diphyllutn ; and as the fruit was not mattire when got, the classifi- cation is rendered a little doubt- ful ; it had a very strong pungent smell.

Hemlock. Orchards, etc., common. The whole plant is poisonous, but its virulence is not so great as that of some other British vege- tables, or as was formerly imagined: it is used as a medicine. I.21.

Common Thoroughwax. From E. R., Darlington. VI. 10.

Smallage. IV. 28. Miss T. X. 62.

I. 26. [A previous entry as '■'' Sium augustifolium. Upright Water Par- snip. Slow streams in meadows" has been crossed out by Dalton.] Miss T. See vol. I. X. t^T)-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1

33

Caritm carui

Sison amoyniim

Siiim augusiifolhan . . .

yEgopodium podagraria Fimpinella saxifraga

Famiculiim vulgare —

A net hum fmniculum [?] Crithmum maritimiim . .

CEnanthe fistulosa — O. fistiihi pimpinelloides

era cat a . .

^thitsa cynapium

Silaiis pratensis —

Peucedanum siiaus Meiim athamanticum —

^ihusa meum

Afigelica sylvestris

Pastinaca sativa

Peiicedanum ostruthium —

Imperatoria ostruthium

Heracleum sphondylium

Daucus carota

Common Carraway. From E. R., Darlington. X. 9.

Bustard Stone Parsley. Near Sun- derland. E. R. VI. 22.*

Upright Water Parsnip. In wet places. VII. 14.

Goutweed. IV. 24.

About Kendal. I. 19. IV. 46. [Loose specimen.]

Great Burnet Saxifrage. Woods, dry gravelly soil. I. 19.

Fennel. IV. 36.

Rock Samphire. Uncertain, got out of Pickle. IX. 21. [A very small scrap ; no flower.]

Water Dropwort. VIII. 5.

Parsley Dropwort. From E. R., Darlington. Also by the shore near Ulverstone. IX. 40.

Deadtongue. About rivulets. This plant, especially its root, is the most virulent poison of all the vegetables Great Britain produces. It may easily be distinguished from the other Rundle-bearing plants by the very conspicuous cups of its fiorets. I. 22.

Fools Parsley. Cornfields and gar- dens. I. 27.

Miss T. X. 36.

Bald Money. Docker Guards, near

Kendal. IV. 15. Wild Angelica. Wet meadows. Com^

mon. I. 23. Wild Parsnip. Common in gardens.

III. II.

Common Masterwort. From E. R.,

Darlington. X. 8. Cow Parsnip. Fields and hedges.

Very common. I. 25.

Wild Carrot. Bird's Nest. North end of the Inclosures, road to Cunswic Scar. This plant culti- vated is the well-known garden carrot. I. 20.

34 Ada^ISON and Crabtree, The Herbariuvi of Jolut Dalton

Cormis stolonifera [?] —

C. sanguinea Dogberry Tree. l"'roni a garden.

, V. 27. Pvrola minor — P. roiundifolia. . Common ^^'inter Green. Birch Carr,

near Darlington. E. R. VI. 12. .. [Under P. niitior. Name added in

pencil.] VI. 12. .. XI. 6. [Unnamed.] .. A garden. XI. 5. .. Wild Rosemary. Brigsteer Moss.

1.43- .. Strawberry Tree. A garden. E. Atkinson. VI. 3.

st'ci/nda

Phododendroti ferrugineum

ponticuni .

AfidromediX polifolin ..

Arbutus ii7iedo

Arctostap/iylos uva-ursi —

Arbutus uva-ursi

Bear berries. From Cronkley Fell. From E. R., Darlington. VI. i.

Red Whortle-berries. I\'. 29. Bilberries. IV. 29. Craneberries. IV. 19. Dutch Heath, All on the Hay Feel. Variety on Brigsteer Moss. I. 36.

cinerea Heath. I. 36.

Calluna vu/i^aris — Erica vulgaris Ling, and variety with white flowers.

I. 36. Primrose. In woods, etc. \TII. 23.

XI. 30. [Loose specimen.]

Cowslip. Dry limestone ground.

II. 10. Bird's Eye. In a moss. Foot-road to

Low Groves. II. 15.

WaterViolet. Brigsteer Moss. HI. 36.

From a garden. VI. 39.

Chickweed, Wintergreen. On Hamil- ton, Yorkshire. E. R. \l. 23.

Tufted r.oosestrife. From E. R., Darlington. IX. 42.

Yellow Willow Herb. I'rom E. Robson. 'IV. 45.

Moneywort. Between Chepstow and Tintiern Abbey, Monmouth. VII. 24.

Yellow Fimperntjl. About Hawsbridge. HI. 2.

Sea Milkwort. On the shore at Run- corn, etc. W. 14. (Unnamed.] X. 8.

Male Pimpernel, .\mongst corn.IW i.

V actinium vitis-idea . . .

myrtillus . . .

■ oxycoccus . . .

Erica tetralix

Primula vulgaris

veris

farinosa

Hottotiia palustris Cyclamen europce.um . . . Tricntalis curopcca

f.vsi mac Ilia thyrsiflora

vulgaris . . .

tii/m/nularia

■ — ncmorum

iiliuix maritima

Ana-'allis arvensis

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1918J No. 1

;5

Anagallis tenella

Lxsimachia tenella.

Samolus valerandi Statice limonium

Ligiistriim vulgare lasmiuum fruticans ... Blackst07iia perfoliata —

Chlora perfoliata

Ervthrcea centaurium —

Gentiana centai/riiun .

pulchella

Gentiana pneumonanthe ...

verna

amarella

campestris

Metiyanthes trifoliata

Villa rsia tiymphceoides —

Menyanthes tiymphoides.

Vinca major . .

Co7ivolviiliis sepiitm . . . soldanella

Polemonium coiruleum Symphytum ojficinale

A nchusa sempervireiis —

Borago officinalis

Purple Moneywort.

Formerly Brigsteer Moss, Kentmere

High Street. I. 14 and IV. 25.

[This name not in Dalton's writing.]

Round-leaved Water Pimpernel. Brig- steer and Foulshaw Mosses. II. 1 5.

Sea Lavender. About Barrow, on the coast near the Isle of Walney. V. 22. XI. II. [Loose specimen.]

Privet. IV. 16.

In a garden. From M. A. XI. 34.

Perforated Yellow-wort. By the Avon, at the foot of St. Vincent's Rocks. VIIL 3. XI. 31. [Loose.]

Lesser Centaury. IV. 38.

XL 10.

Calathian Violet. Miss T. X. 6.

Vernal Gentian. County of Durham. From E. R. VIIL 4.

Fellwort. Upon Kendal Fell about the Tenters and up towards tte Lime Kilns. I. iS.

Dwarf Gentian. Scout Scar. I. 18.

Buck Bean. In ponds. X. 13.

Fringed Water Lily. From Miss Astley's bot. garden, Dukinfield.

IX- .35- Perrywinkle. In the vicinity of

Manchester. V. 30. Perrywinkle. In gardens. II. 16. Bindweed. In hedges, common in

places. V. 35. Sea Convolvulus. Isle of Walney,

W. Coast. V. 10. XL T^2. [Loose

specimen.] Jacob's Ladder. III. 35. Comfrey. In the garden at the Old

Hall. IV. 7.

Borrage. Garnet House, S.E. side of the outbuildings. I. 13. Evergreen Alkanet. E. R.'s garden, Darling- ton. VI. 24.*

2,6 Adamson and Crahtkek, T/ie Herbarium of Joint Dalton

Lycopsis arvcnsis

Fiilmonaria aiigusiifo/ia

officinalis

Lithospermumpurpureo-cocruleum

officinale

Mertensia maritima —

Pubnonaria J7iaritima

Myosotis ccespitosa

palustris

arvensis

Echiiwi vuls:are

italicum

Verbena officinalis

Ajuga reptans

genevensis

Teucriuim scorodonia . . .

Scutellaria galericulata

Marrubium vulgare

Nepeta cat aria ...

hederacea —

Glecotna hederacea IWunella vulgaris —

J'runella vulgaris .

Small Wild Bugloss. Near Man- chester. V. 29.

Bugloss Cowslips. From E. R. IX. II.

Spotted Lungwort. Cliffwood, near Darlington. E. R. VI. 14. From a garden. VI. 42.

Creeping Gromwell. On the Banks of the Wye, 4 miles above Mon- mouth, on high rocky ground. VIII. 13. [Doubtful; a very incomplete specimen.]

Gromill. In the garden at the Old Hall. IV. 4.

Isle of Walney, Ram- V. 23.

Sea Bugloss. side, etc.

X. 25.

X. 25. See page 1 1.

X. II. XI. 25. [Loose specimen.]

Common Viper Grass. Cornfields, etc., about Stourbridge and in Kent. VIL 29.

Wall Viper Grass. From E. R., of Darlington. VI. 27. [A bad specimen, probably JE. vulgare.]

Sim pier's Joy. In the garden at Old Hall. III. 34.

Bugle. In wet pastures. Also a variety with white flowers. V. 27.

From E. R., of Darlington. VI. 26.

Wood Sage. Woods, hedges. Com- mon, particularly in the Lane beyond the Bird's Park. I. 66.

Hooded Willowherb, near Man- chester. V. 36. Miss Taylor. X. 14. XI. 13. [Incomplete loose specimen.]

White Horehound. Roadsides in the Midland and Southern Counties. VII. 16.

Cat Mint. From E. R., of Darling- ton. VI. 16. In tiie West of ICngland. VII. 25.

Ground Ivy. In dry hedges. \ . 32.'

X. 15.

Manchester Memoirs, Vo/. Ixiii. {\gi^) No. 1 37

Galeopsis angiistifolia —

G. Iadanu77i X. 24.

Lamium amplexicaule Great Henbit. From E. R. IX. 22.

hybriduni — L.dissectum. From E. R., of Darlington. VI. 29.

L. dissectum. From E. R. IX. 22.

purpureum Red Dead Nettle. In kitchen gardens,

etc., common. VI. o.

album White Dead Nettle. In ditches and

under walls about the low end of the town. III. 28.

galeobdolon —

Galeobdolofi luteum ... Yellow Archangel. Near Manchester.

VIII. 40.

Leonitrus cardiaca Common Motherwort. IX. 4.

Ballota nigra Stinking Horehound. Road-sides in

the S.W. of England. VII. 25. Stachys officinalis —

Betonica officinalis . . . Betony. Common in woods and

hedges. I. 67.

pahistris —

6'. sylvatica palustris . . . Clown's Allheal. Banks of rivers, etc.,

common. I. 64.

sylvatica Hedge Nettle. Hedges, etc. I. 63.

arvensis Upright Ground Ivy. Corn-fields.

I. 65.

■ lanata In a garden near Loughborough,

Leicestershire. XL 3.

Salvia verbenaca Wild Clary. In Oxfordshire. VII. 26.

Melissa officinalis —

Melitiis melissopkylliim. Bastard Balm. [Correction of name

in pencil.] About Bristol, place uncertain. VII. 26. Calamintha officinalis —

Melissa calamintha ... Calamint. Castle walls. III. 32. Origanum vulgare Wild Marjoram. Cunswick Scar. 1.68.

vulgare .,\ds.albiflor urn . [Included with above.]

Thymus serpyllum Mother of Thyme. On dry hills,

common. I. 70.

Lycopus europcBus Gypsie, Water Horehound. Below

Stockbridge. I. i.

Mentha rotundifolia Near Saltburn, Yorkshire. E. R.

I. 61.

aquatica Water Mint. About rivulets, par- ticularly in the field beyond Spittal Wood, foot-path to Grayrigg. I. 62.

ciirata — M. nondescripta. Burgamot Mint. From Ed. Robson.

XL 8.

gentilis fol.variegat. ... Red Mint. Garden. E. R. IX. 5.

38 Ada.MSOX and Crahtrke, The HcrbaiiuDi of Jolui Dalton

Mentha arvensis

pubescetis — AI. saliva

sv Ives iris

Clinopodiiivi vidgare

Atropa helladoiDia

Hyoscyain/fs ?tii^er

Solaniim dulcamara

nigrum

Datura stramofiiu/n

Vcrbascuin thapsus ,

Ixchnitis

}iis^rum

V. thapso-7iigruru

b I at t aria . . .

V / ;/ tirrhinuui in a; us

orontium

Linaria cymbalaria —

Antirrhinum cymbalaria .

e la tine —

Antirrhinum elatine

purpu7-c(i

Corn Mint. Corn-fields. I. 62. I. 60. [Unnamed.]

Curled Mint. By the rivulet running through the meadows S.E. of the Castle. I. 61.

Horse Mint. From E. R. IX. 5. '

Great Wild Basil. Hedges, etc., com- mon. I. 69.

Deadly Nightshade. Furness Abbey, and on the coast opposite Arnside Point. \'. 16. \. 25.

Henbane. \\. 31. XI. 28. [Loose specimen.]

Bittersweet. In moist hedges, etc. III. 18.

Common Nightshade. On the roads about London, Hackney, etc., common. VII. 20.

Thornapple. In a garden. Curd M. A. VIII. 8.

Great White Mullein. Castle and other high stony jilaces. I. 12.

Hoary Mullein. About Oswestry. From Mr. Wood, of Leeds. VII. 20.

Black Mullein. From E. R., Darling- ton. II. 16.

From E. R.'s garden, Darlington, via Withering. Ed. III., vol. 2, page 248. [This specimen is nearer V. nii;rum than V. thapso-nigruml\ VL 13.

\elIow Moth Mullein. In the com- mon garden up Peat Lane. The flowers were white, perhaps it is some variety. I. 16. [Flowers may be white.]

Great Snapdragon. On the rocks at Hawkston, Salop. VII. 27.

Snapdragon. From E. R. IX. 2.

Ivy-leaved Toad Flax. Dispensary Gardens. Cultivated there by the late apothecary, T. Parker. I. 73.

Sharp-pointed Snapdragon. From E. R. IX. I and 8. [Specimen on p. 8 named in Index only.]

X. 59. [Unnamed.]

Manchester JMctnoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1

39

Li7iari(t repens [?] — ■ Afiiiri'Jiinian

in onspessula n u m

vulgaris^

A ntirrhininn lirtaria

Aniirrhi?iuni

linaria var. Peloria — minor — Antirrhinum minus. . .

Scropliularia aguatica

nodosa —

Scrophidaria

scorodonia

vernalis

Veronica iiedercefolia . .

a^restis

saxatiiis spicata

Jiybrida

officinalis

chamccdrys

monfafia scutellata

anagallis beccabunza ...

Digitalis purpurea

Sweet smelling Snapdragon. E. R.'s garden, Darlington. VI. 27. [In- complete specimen without leaves.]

Common Toad Flax. Common in many fields. I. 74.

Garden E. R. IX. i.

Least Snapdragon. By the side of the Avon just below Clifton, at the foot of St. Vincent's Rocks. VII. 28.

Miss T. X. 35.

X. 18.

Balm-leaved Figwort. Garden. E. R. IX. 18.

Yellow Figwort. VIII. 27.

Small Henbit. Ditch Bank, etc. IV.

13-

Speedwell. In gardens, under hedges, etc. III. 12.

From Dr. Hull. III. 12. VII. 22. [Unnamed.]

From E. Robson. IV. 12.

Upright Spiked Male Speedwell.

From E. R., of Darlington. VI. 24.

Welsh Speedwell. From E. R. VIII.

38. Male Speedwell. High, barren pas- tures. III. 12 and III. 40. [Loose

specimen.] Wild Germander. In hedges, etc.,

very common. IV. 12. From E. R., Darlington. VI. 14. Narrow leaved Speedwell, Hill-close-

scarr ? near Darlington. E. R.

III. 12 and III. 13. [Unnamed.] Long-leaved Water Speedwell. IV. 43. Brooklime. In slow streams. X. 12.

II. 39. [Loose specimen.] Foxglove. Road sides, etc., very

common. I. 72.

40 AdamsON and Crartrek, The HerbariiDii of John Dalton Melampyjuin pratcnse

svlvaliiutn

Bartsia odontites —

Euphrasia odontites

alpina (1)

Euphrasia officinalis

Pedicularis palustris

sylvatica — P. palustris

Lathrcea squamaria

Orobanche major

Pinguicuhi vulgaris

Utricularia vulgaris

Plant ago major

media

lanceolata

maritima

coronopHS

Meadow Cow-wheat. In woods, etc., common. W. 17. [Ref. as above.] ^ X. 3.

Yellow Cow-wheat. I'roni E. R., Darlington. Rare. X. 3.

Red Eyebright. About soft, watery places. I. 71.

West side, county Durham. E. R. I. 72. [A poor specimen.]

Common Eyebright. In fields, com- mon. I. 71.

Miss 1'. X. \2.

Marsh Lousewort. In wet meadows. VIII. 30.

Great Tooth wort. Near Gairsford, Durham. E. R. VI. 14.

Common Broomrape. Raby Park, Co. of Durham. E. R. VI. 14.

Less Broomrape. On the grounds at the foot of the walls within Chep- stow Castle, plentifully. VIII. 27.

Yorkshire Sanicle. Wet, mossy ground. II. 23.

Hooded Water Milfoile. From E. R., of Darlington. VI. 20.

\Vay-bread Road- Limestone ground. Pastures.

psyllium

IJtorella lacustris Sherardia ar7.'fnsis

Great Plantain.

sides. I. 10. Hoary Plantain.

I. 10. Ribwort. Very common.

I. TO.

Narrow-leaved Plantain. N.B. — This specimen is a very small one. [Large specimen on op[)osite page added later.] IV. 30.

Buckshorn Plantain. Seaton. E. R. IV. 43. On the Coast, Ulver- stone. IX. 22. Miss T. X. 51.

In E. Rothwell's garden. Curd, Crowther. XI. 7.

[Pencil name only.] IV. 34.

Little Field Madder. On St. Vin- cent's Rocks, Bristol. Wy Saml. Taylor, {a) Basford, .Staffordshire I'.v' j. I). P.urton. (/') \TI. U.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol./xiii. (191 8) A^^^. 1

41

A spent /(J odor at a iVnanchica

Galium boreale ...

— cruciata —

Valantia cruciata ...

— TertrfU

— saxaiile — G. inonta^iuin .

— paliistre var. Witheringii G. Witheringii {;monta>iuni)

— iiliginositm — G. pa lustre.

Woodruff. Helsfellnab, Cunswick Wood, etc. II. I 7.

Squinancy-wort. Near Knares-

borough. E. R. II. 17. [Pencil name only] Miss T. II. 31.

Cross Wort Madder. From E. R., of Darlington. No 2 from Hill Ball, Westmorland. VI. i 5.

Crosswort. Hedges. Common. II. 29. Yellow Ladies' Bedstraw. Common in dry calcareous soil. VIII. it,.

apariue

Samdin'us nigra — S. niger...

ebuliis

Vihur)iinn opiiliis

Lonitera periclvineniim

xylosteiim

Adoxa moschatellina

Valerianella olitoria —

Valeriana locusta

Valeriana dioica

officinalis

Cetitrantlitis ruber —

Valeriana rubra Dipsacus sylvesiris — D.fullnnum

Mountain I-adies' Bedstraw. Cunswick Stile. II. 32.

About

See Vol. II. 32. Miss T. X. 29. White Ladies' Bedstraw. In ditches,

etc. VIII. 24. Catchweed. In hedges, common.

in. 30.

Elder. Hedges. I. 29. Dwarf Elder. Miss. T. X. 46. Water Elder. In some hedges. III.

39. III. 40. [I-oose.] Woodbine, Honeysuckle. Gardens,

hedges, etc. I. 15- Upright Honeysuckle. From E. R.,

Darlington. I. 15. Moschatel. Brow opposite church,

hedges and woods. II. 3. XI. 32.

[Loose specimen found in journal.]

Lamb's Lettuce, Corn Sallad. In the cornfields E. of river near Haws- bridge. IV. 2. Near Bunside Road, opposite to the Tenter Fell Gate. N.B. See another Specimen in the 4th vol. I. 5.

Small Wild Valerian. In the right- hand meadows, up the Peat Lane. III. 37. Miss T. X. 35.

Great Wild Valerian. Very common.

I- 5-

Flower gardens. I. 4. Wild Teasel. In the garden at Old Hall. IV. 5. D. sylvestris Miss T. X. 40.

42 AdAiMSON and Crabtrki:, The Ilerbariiun of John Dalton

DipsacHS pilosiis

Scabiosa siiccisa . . . coh{)nhari(

Bryonia dioica — B. alba Phyteinna orbicularis. . Cai?ipani//a trac helium — I at i folia . . .

rotiindifolia . . .

rapunailus patula . . .

Speciilaria hvbrida —

Campanula hvbrida

IracheliiDii ccrrnleum

Jasiojif moiitana

Lobelia dorli/ituia

Kiipatori 1(1)1 ianiiabimiiii . . . Solidago virgaiirea

virgaurea, var. cambrica — ^. catnbrica .

Shepherds Rod. From E. R., of Darlington. Found it also between Chepstow and Tintiern Abbey, Monmouth and on the Banks of the Wye between Monmouth and Whitchurch, on a rocky place .above a Mill in great plenty, i 797. VI. 17. See vol. VI. 17. Missel'. X. 44.

Scabious. Meadows, common. T. 9.

Lesser Field Scabious. Limestone

pastures, W. of town. I. 9. /Common Field Scabious. In fields, common. I. 9.

Wild Vine. In N. Cough's garden. II. 30.

Round-headed Rampion. From 1".. R. VIII. 39.

Canterbury Bells. At Hawkston, Shropshire. Sr. Rd. Hills. VII. 19.

Giant Throatwort. Pretty common, particularly on the road towards Laverick Bridge and places adjacent. I. 11.

Round-leaved Bell Flower. Road- sides, etc., common. I. 11.

Rampion. From E. R. IX. 23.

I*'ield Bell Flower. In Shropshire From J. Jackson, Ketley. \'II. 19.

Lesser Venus Looking-glass. Seeds

from I lort. Botan. Cantab. E. R.

\'L 22.* l""rom J. Mudwin, Liverpool. XI. 4.

[Unnamed. Source entered in

pencil.] Hairy Sheep's Scabious. High and

dry situations. VIII. 18. Water Gladiolc. From Winandermere

Lake, \\'estmorland. IV. 25. Henij), Dutch, (jv Water Agrimony.

Up the River Kent, etc. I. 94. Woundwort, Golden Rod. Woods,

etc., pretty common. L 106.

Mountain Golden Rod. On the high pastures between Settle and Malham Cove. V. 24.

Manchester Meinoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 8) No. 1

43

Bellis perennis . . . Aster tripolium . . .

Erif'eroti canadense . . .

Filago germavica

mituma —

GnaphaliuDi i/iiniiiuti/t . Aniennaria dioica —

Gnaphaliiim dioicum . . .

Gnaphatium uliginosum

Gn. rectum

Inula squarrosa —

Conyza squarrosa

helenium.

Pulicaria dysenterica —

Cineraria palustris . . .

Inula dysenterica

vulgaris —

Inula cxlindrica

Xanthium siruf>iariu//i Bidens cernua

tripartita

Anthemis arvensis

nobilis

Achillea millefolium ptarmica

Common Daisy. Common. IX. 20.

Near Seaton, Co. Durham. E. R. Two lower specimens from the side of the Avon, below Bristol. I. 10 1.

Canada Flea-bane. Near Sunderland. E. R. VI. 28.

Blue Flea-bane. From E. R., Darling- ton. VI. 28. On the walls of Worcester. VII. 17.

[Included under Gnaphalium uligi nosum.~\ VIII. 7.

Miss T. X. 45.

Catsfoot. County of Durham. E. R. VI. 5.

Black-headed Cudweed. Near Hamp- ton Court. VIII. 7.

Upright Cudweed. On the road to Grayrigg, 2 ]4 miles from Kendal. IV. 32.

Great Flea-bane. Cunswick Scar.

I. 107. Elecampane. In a lane going from

Mold to Holywell, Flint. VIII. 3.

Marsh Fleawort. Lancashire. From G. Crosfield, Warrington. IV. 21.

Elecampane. Fleabane. Near Man- chester. V. 36.

Small Fleabane. In Hampshire, on

the road from London to Salisbury.

VIII. 4. Less Burdock. From E. R. VIII. i. Nodding Double Tooth. In ponds,

etc. VI. 3. Water Hemp. In wet ground. VII.

10. Corn Chamomile. From E. R. VIII.

41. Sweet-scented Chamomile. In a

garden. III. 32. Common Yarrow or Millfoil. Very

common. I. 108. Sneezewort. Goose-tongue. Woods

and meadows. I. 108.

44 A DAMSON and Crabtree, The Herbarium of John Dalton

Very

Chrvsantheini/in se^etum

Matricaria i no dor a —

Chrysantheminn inodorum Field F^everfew. Roadsides.

common. I. 99. ... Corn Marigold. Cornfields, etc.

I. lOI.

leucanthemum Great Daisy. In pastures. I. 100.

partheniiim — Matricaria partlienium. Feverfew. About country farm- houses. III. 13.

... Sunderland. B. Hills. From IC. R. I. 100. [?]

... Tansey. Road to Benson Hall, in the fields to the left rising the hill. I. 105.

... Mugwort. East side of the river below the town. I. 104.

... .Sea Wormwood. From Witheral, near Corby Castle. (Cumberland. IV. 32. Field Southernwood. By the Avon at the foot of St. Vincent's Rocks. VII. 29. [Labelled also A. campestrisi]

italiciim

Tanaceti/m vidgare

Artemisia vulgaris

maritima

Petasites ova ins [ ? ]^

Tussiiago iivbrida

ovatus — Tiissilago liybrida (petasites)

Ties si /ago fa rfa ra

Dor OH icii m pa rdalia nc/ies

Sevecio vulgaris

svlvaticus

■ erucifolius —

S. ienuifolius

■ jacobira

■ ai/Katicus

- saracenicus — S. pallidas us

paliidosiis

Long-stalked Coltsfoot. Plentifu near Manchester. X. 6.

Long-stalked Butter bur. Mintsfeet etc. II. I.

(Coltsfoot. Mintsfeet, etc. II. 4.

Wolf's Bane. From E. R. VIII. 39.

Common Groundsel. Gardens, etc. I. 102.

Mountain Groundsel. ?>oni Stafford- shire. Miss T. X. 19.

Miss 1\ X. 32.

Ragwort. Pastures, etc. I. 102. Broad-leaved Ragweed. In marshy or watery places. III. 17.

Marsh Ragwort, Bird's Tongue. By the rivulets running under Stock- bridge, three fields above. Also about the mill in Preston Patrick, plentiful. [In pencil, "Remember \\. R. with a specimen.''] I. 103.

Biril's Tongue Groundsel. From IC. R. III. 17.'

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Lxiii. (191 8) No. 1 Carlinii yulmris

45

Arctium i/iinus — A. lappa.. Carditiis eriophoriis

Cirsium iieterophyllii?n —

Carduus helenioides

Wild Carline Thistle. Dry commons and pastures. I. 95.

Burdock. Common, road-sides. Miss T. X. 20.

Woolly-headed Thistle. P>om E. R., near Sunderland. IX. 12. From E. R., Darhngton. IX. 41.

Melancholy Thistle. In the garden at the Old Hall. IV. 6.

Corn Saw-wort. X. 28.

arvense — Serratula arvensis Serratula arvensis—

Carduus (?) arvensis Smith. X. 39 (?). [This specimen too badly damaged to be identified with certainty.]

Common Argentine. Found on the road from London to Bristol. This specimen from E. Rothwell's garden. VIII. 26.

Saw-wort. In the garden at the Old

Hall. III. 2>2>- Matsellon Knapweed. Pastures, etc,

common. I. 109. Bluebottle. In cornfields. VII. 13. Star Thistle. Near Gravesend, in

Kent. VII. 7. Wild Succory. In a garden. Found

it wild in Kent, Surrey, etc. III.

35- Dock Cresses. Ditch banks, etc.

I. 92. Yellow Succory. VIII. 14.

Common Ox Tongue. From E. Rothwell's garden. VIII. 21.

Stinking Hawksbeard. From E. R., of Darlington. VI. 36.

Smooth Succory Hawkweed. Walls, roadsides, etc. Pretty common. I- 93-

Onopordon acanthium

Serratula tine tori a Centaurea nigra

cyanus caleitrapa . .

Ciehorium intybus

Lapsana communis

Picris hicracioides

echioides

Crepis fcetida ...

cap ilia ris — C. tec torn m

- paludosa —

Hieraciumpaludosum . . . Near Darlington

Hieraciutn pi lose I la . . . aurantiacum

E. R. I. 98.

Creeping Mouse Ear. Dry pastures.

X. 5. Golden Hawkweed. Garden. An

exotic. IX. 30.

4-6 A DAMSON and Ckabtrki;, yV/c llerbayium of John Dalton

Hieracium boreale —

//. xiibaudiDfi

timbellatiim

Leontodofi hispidum

Ta raxaiii m oj]liin c i ie- — -

Leontodon officinale

Sonchiis oleraceus

a rvcnsis — .V. pa Ins iris S. amen sis

Lactuca virosa

mnralis — Prenanthes murali^

Tragopogon pro tense . . .

Ijioad - leaved Bushy Hawkweed. Hedges, etc. Common. I. 98.

Bushy Hawkweed. Near Sunder- land. E. R. IX. 18.

Dandelion. In pastures. W. 11.

(.Common Dandelion. In pastures,

etc. VII. 23. Sow Thistle. In gardens, etc. I. 97.

Miss T. X. 31. Sow Thistle. Banks of rivers. I. 97. Miss T. X. 30. Wild Lettuce. On the road-side from

Preston to Chorley. V. 39.

Ivy Leaved Wild Lettuce. Upon Kendal Fell among the Craggs. I. 96.

Go to Bed at Noon. Near the foot- road to Helsfell Nab, in the field below the barn. III. 23.

Note. — The spelling, etc., of Englisii names and localities is that in the originals.

An alphabetical index has been prepared and is kept with the volumes in the .Society's possession.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. ( 1 9 1 9) No. 2

II. — The Ancient Legend as to the Hedgehog carrying Fruits upon its Spines.

By Miller Christy, F.L.S.

(Communicated by T. A. Coward, F.E.S., F.Z.S.)

{Read and received for publication nth March igig.)

I. — Introduction. — Everyone is familiar with the very ancient legend that the Common WitA<g€nog( Eritiaceiis eiiropaus) is accustomed to roll himself upon fallen apples, figs, grapes, and the like, and to run off home with them sticking on his prickly spines. This tradition has survived for at least two thousand years and is still current. It seems worth while, therefore, to enquire briefly as to the evidence (if any) in favour of its being based on fact ; for there seems, a priori., little or no reason to doubt its possibility, at least. In any case, a recent occurrence led me to devote some time to an investigation, and the following remarks are designed to elicit information sufficient to prove whether the legend is really founded on fact or not.

At the very outset, one should bear in mind that the question is one which must be, of necessity, very difficult to settle by observation ; for the Hedgehog is an almost-whoUy crepuscular or nocturnal animal, seldom coming abroad till it is at least dusk, when effective observation on such a point is not easy. Thus, even if the carrying of objects in this way were a common habit of the animal, that habit would almost certainly be witnessed very seldom by man, and still more seldom by a trained and reliable observer.

II. — Statements of the Old Classical Writers. — The earliest writer to give the story currency was (so far as I can learn) Pliny, who wrote about the year 75 a.d. He says : — *

" Hedgehogs lay up food for the winter. Rolling themselves on apples as they lie on the ground, the^ pierce one with their quills and then take up another in the mouth, and so carry them into the hollows of trees."!

* Nat, Hist., lib. viii., cap. 37 (English transl. by Bostock and Riley, ii., p. 308 : Bohn, 1855). Several writers attribute to Aristotle an earlier statement to the same effect ; but I can find nothing of the kind in his writings.

_t Praeparant hiemi et herinacei cibos : ac volutati supra jacentia pomaaffixa spinis, unum non amplius tenentes ore, portant in cavas arVjores.

2 Christ V, The Ancioit Legend as to the Hedgehog

Later writers have fathered upon riiny,and have themselves endorsed, the additional statement that Hedgehogs climb trees and deliberately detach and throw down fruit ; but of this Pliny himself says nothing. I regard it as utterly absurd ; for, so far as I know, the animal has never been known to climb among the branches of trees, though it is agile enough to scramble up an inclined tree-trunk.

Claudius ^■Elianus, another Latin author, who wrote about the year 250 A.D., tells much the same tale of the Hedgehog ; but he applies it to figs, instead of apples. He says : — *

" The Ingenuity of the Hedgehog. — The Land Urchmf is by nature neither stupid nor unskilled in providing for its own sustenance ; for, inasmuch as it needs food for the whole year and not every season provides fruits, he is said to wallow in places where they dry figs, many of which become impaled on his quills, when he easily carries them to his hole, where he lays them up, so that he can make use of his store when it is not possible to gather fruit from outside."!

HL — Evidence of Medl^val Writers. — After a very long interval, both in time and distance, we find Philippe de Thaun, an Anglo-Norman poet of the Twelfth Century, reviving this story of the Hedgehog carrying off fruit, but in connection with grapes: not apples or figs. In a "Bestiary" {circa a.d. 1120) by him, preserved in the British Museum, § we read that : —

■' In time of vintage, hedgehog climbs up the vine : There to the cluster he comes : the ripest he chooses. Then knocks down the grapes — very bad neighbour to do it. Then from the vine he cHmbs down ; on the grapes stretches himself. Then on top of them rolls himself, round as a ball. When he's well loaded, the grapes stick on him. Thus he carries food to his children, by nature. "||

* De Natura Animalium, lib. iii., cap. x.

t He speaks of it thus to distinguish it from the Sea Urchin (Echinus).

X Ennacei solertia. — Erinaceum terrestram nee imprudentem, nee imperitum parandorum in vit;e usum fructum natura reddidit. Quandocjuidem enim cibo, qui per annum duret, indiget, neque quodlibet anni tempus fruges producat, ilium in iocis, ubi iicus exciccantur, se volutari ajunt, et transfixas ficus, qua; non pauca; spinis inhoerent, facile portare, easque in caverna congestas servare, ut inde pomere queat, quum extrinsecus fructus coUigere non possit.

§Cott. MS. Nero. A.V. [fo. 63]. Tlie passage quoted is printed, but incorrectly, in Archieologia, xii. (1796), p. 304, and in Popular Treatises on Science -written durino the Middle Ages, edited by Thomas Wright, p. loi; (Hist. Soc. of Science, 1841).

II El tens de vendenger, lores munte al palmer,

La u la grappe veit, la plus meure seit,

Si'n abat le raisin, mult li est mal veisin ;

Puis del palmer decent, sur les raisins s'estent.

Puis desus se volup, ruunt cum pelote,

(^)uant est tres ben charget, les raisins embrocet,

Eissi porte puliure, a ses fiz par nature.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (19 19) No. 2 3

The Hedgehog and Apples Legend (as one may call it), was a very favourite subject with the compilers of the Bestiaries and other finely-illuminated Manuscripts of the Early-Mediaeval Period, scores of which depict the Hedgehog in the act of either climbing trees or running off with apples, grapes, or other fruits sticking on his back- spines. There are, preserved in the British Museum, in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and in Libraries at Oxford, Cambridge, and elsewhere, many such manuscripts, of the Thirteenth to the Fifteenth Centuries, in which this procedure (real or imaginary) of the Hedgehog is depicted.*

In the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, most writers on Natural History noticed the old legend, and few or none expressed disbelief in it.

Thus, John Maplet {d. 1592) saysf of the Hedgehog, that : —

" He is as good a meatesman and catour for him selfe as anything living is. For, when his vittayles be scant or nighe well spent, he getteth abrode to orchards and groaves, where he hunteth after vines and other the best fruite. At the vine (as, likewise, at the apple tree), he playeth his part thus : He goeth up to the boughes and shaketh them [/.(?., the grapes and apples] downe. When he hath perceived he hath shaken down inough, he cometh apace downe and gathereth the grapes or apples dispersed abrode togither ; and, when he hath done, he falleth heavily upon the heape and so, almost on everie prickle or brestle, he getteth an apple or grape, and home he goeth."

A few years later, Stephen Batman wrote : — \

"The urchin is a beaste of purveyance ; for he climbeth upon a vine or an apple tree and shaketh down grapes and apples. And, when they be felled, he walloweth on them, and sticketh his prickles in them, and so beareth meat to his children, in that manner wise. . . . And beside the apples that he beareth on his backe always, he beareth one in his mouth. And, after that he is charged [/>., loaded with grapes or with apples], if any apple or grape fall out of the pikes in any manner wise, then, from indignation, he throweth away off his backe all the other deal ; and oft turneth again to the tree, to charge him again with a fresh charge."

* See, for example, Roy. MS., 12, F. xiii., which is of about the year 1200. It contains (fo. 45) a drawing representing three apple trees, from which many apples have fallen. Among the latter are three Hedgehogs, two rolling on the apples, while the third, laden with eight or ten apples, runs off to his hole in an adjacent bank.

\ A Greene Forest or Natural Historie, by John Maplet, M.A., fo. 89 obv. (Lond., I5'57).

X Barthonte his Book, book xviii., sees. 62-63 (Lond., 1582).

4 Christy, The Ancient Legend as to t/ie Hedgehog

Again, in 1601, Robert Chester (1566-1640), a rhymester, wrote of the Hedgehog* that : —

"Apples, or pears, or graphs, such is his meate, Which, on his backe, he carries for to eate."

In 1620, Conrad Gesner, a Swiss naturalist, wrote in his well-known History of Animals : — t

" Hedgehogs, in the autumn, live chiefly in thorny thickets and vineyards. In winter, they hide themselves in hollow trees and live on the food (chiefly apples) which they have stored up during the summer. It is said that the Hedgehog can live for a year without food (Aristotle in his JVonders). They lay up food for the winter (like marmots), rolling themselves over apples (or apples and pears according to others, or even dried figs, as Philes says) and running off with them stuck on their spines, holding one only in the mouth, thus carrying them into hollows in trees (Pliny and others). "J

Of all the versions of the Hedgehog legend which appeared at about this period, the most picturesquely-worded and detailed is certainly that, published in 1607, of quaint old Edward Topsell. He writes of Hedgehogs § that : —

" In the summer time, they keepe neare vineyards and bushy places, and gather fruite, laying it up against winter.|| . . . His meate is apples, wormes, or grapes. When he findeth apples or grapes on the earth, he rowleth himself uppon them until he have filled all his prickles, and then carrieth them home to his den, never bearing above one in his mouth. And, if it fortun that one of them fall off by the way, he likewise shaketh of all the residue and walloweth upon them afresh, untill they be all setled upon his backe againe. So, forth he

* Love's Martyr, or Rosalin's Complaint, Lond. 4to, 1641 (or Dr. Grosart's ed., New Shakespeare Soc. , p. III).

t Hlsloria Animalium (Viviparous Quadrupeds) 2nd ed., p. 370 (Frankfort, 1620).

X Ilerinacei in srepibus dumosis et vineis per autumnum pr?e cipue diversantur. Conduntur in arbores cavas hyeme, et cibis (pomis prre cipue) per restatem congestis vescuntur. Echiuum aiunt ad annum usque sine cibo durare posse (Aristoteles hi Mirabilibus). Pra: parant hyemi et herinacei (ut mutes alpini) cibos ac volulati supra poma (mala et pira, ut ahj : vel etram ischadas, ut Philes) affixa spinis, unum amplius tenentes ore, portant in cavas arbores (Plinius et alienis).

§ History of Foure-footed Beastes, u. 278 (1607).

II This statement, like that with which Topsell closes, is, I believe, quite inaccurate. The Hedgehog, no doubt, carries home food to its nest, but this is not as winter sustenance. On this point, most authoritative modern writers are agreed (see post, pp. 12 & [3).

Manchester ATcjHoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1919) No. 2 5

goeth, making a noise like a cart wheele.* And, if hee have any young ones in his nest, they pull of his load wherewithal he is loaded, eating thereof what they please and laying uppe the residue for the time to come."

In 1637, Ulysses Aldrovandus (i 522-1 605), of Bologna, one of the most distinguished naturalists of his time, says : — f

" The method by which the hedgehog detaches apples from the trees and carries them off to its burrow, stuck upon its spines, has been observed by those who study the things of nature ; also that, if one falls off by the way, the animal, growing angry, throws off all the rest and returns again to the tree."l

Johan Sperling, a German naturalist of much the same period,

says : — §

" What is the food of the Hedgehog:, ? — Apples, pears, grapes, and other fruits. He climbs these trees, throws down the apples and pears, rolls himself upon them till they stick on to his spines. After this, he starts off and hastens to the hollows in trees in which he lives. If a single apple falls off, he immediately casts off all and returns to the tree, where he gathers a new supply. "||

Here, then, we have the testimony of many more-or-less reliable Mediaeval writers and illustrators to the effect that the Hedgehog carries home fruits of various kinds impaled on its spines. Their testimony is spread over many centuries and many countries, and relates to at least four different kinds of fruits (namely, apples, pears, figs, and grapes). Without doubt, however, most of these writers were mere copyists who adopted blindly the statements of their predecessors.

IV. — Recent Observations and Opinions. — But evidence on the point does not end here ; for many modern naturalists have expressed their opinions, and some have recorded cases in which Hedgehogs are asserted to have been actually observed in the act of transporting fruit on their spines.

* This is Topsell's description of the curious squeaky whining grunt to which the creature constantly gives utterance when foraging lor food in the woods and hedges at night.

t De Quadrupedibus Digitalis, lib. ii. (Bologna, ed. 1637, p. 467).

% Ratione pomarum, quns ab herinaceis decutiuntur ab arboribus et spinis affixa, ad cavernatn feruntur, observarunt rerum naturalium scrutatores ; si in itinere unum tantum cadat, animal ira ascensum ctetera abjicere, denique ad arborem revertit.

§ Zoologia Physica Posth., p. 281 (Leipzig, 1661).

II Quodnam niitrirtientum Eririacei sit ? — Poma, pira, uvgs, & fructus alii. Hinc

arbores ascendit, poma ac pira decutit, in istis sese volulat, ut spinis hrerant. Post

ad iter sese accingit & ad cavas arbores, in quibus habitat, properat. Pomum i.num si decidit, mox omnia adjucit, & ad arborem redit, novumque cibum requirit.

6 Christy, The Ancient Legetid as to the Hedgehog

At the end of the Seventeenth Century, the old Scottish naturalist, Sir Robert Sibbald, wrote* that the Hedgehog: — "feeds on mice [!], nuts, apples, and pears, which he sticks upon his prickles, and thus carries home to his burrow."!

In 1732, Mons. N. A. Pluche, a French naturalist, wrote: — +

" Le Herisson fait un autre usage de la conimodite deses piquants. II se roule sur les pommes, sur les grains de raisin, et sur tous les fruits qu'il peut rencontrer sous les arbres, et emporte sur ses crochets tout le plus qu'il peut. II mange ce qui presse le plus, et tache d'avoir des noix pour I'arriere-saison. II passe I'hyver a dormir.

In 1760, le Comte de Buffon, the great French^naturalist, wrote of the Hedgehog : — §

" Je ne crois pas qu'ils montent sur les arbres, comme le disons les naturalistes, ni qu'ils se servent de leur epines pour emporter des fruits ou des grains de raisin. C'est avec la gueule qu'ils prennent ce qu'ils veulent saisir ; et, quoiqu'ils y en air un grand nombre dans nos forets, nous n'en avons jamais v\l sur les arbres. lis se tiennent toujours au pied."

In 1794, the Rev. Patrick Russell, writing of Hedgehogs, says : — 1|

" I have never seen them on trees, but I have certainly seen them transporting grapes on their prickles, as likewise mulberries."

He then proceeds to give a reference to the statement of ^'Elian quoted at the outset. H His own observations (which are very much to the point) must have been made (judging from the context and the nature of his work) at Aleppo, in Asia Minor.

In 1800, George Shaw, M.D., wrote: — **

" It is commonly said that the Hedgehog, in order to trans[)ort apples and other fruit to its place of retirement, rolls itself upon them and thus conveys them upon its spines. Whether this be accurately true, I will not take upon myself to determine.

* Scotia Illustrata, sive Prodrotnus Histories Naturalis, p. Ii (not the duplicate p. 11), Edinh. , 1681.

I . . . Vescitur muribus, nucibus, malis, pyris, qure aculeis suis insignit et in domicilium suum reponit.

% Le Spectacle de. la Nature, i. (1732), p. 353 (Paris, 7 vols., 1732 51). There are many later editions and translations.

% Histoire Naturelle, viii. (1760), p. 30.

llA^aA I/ist. of Aleppo, 2nd Ed., edited by Rev. P. Russell, ii., p. 119 w. ; Lond., 1794.

1[ See ante, p. 2.

** General Zoolo,!^}', i. (iSoo), p. 544.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (19 19) No.'^, 7

In 1814, Johann F'riedrich Blumenbach (i 752-1840), a German naturalist of good standing, a Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the University of Gottingen, wrote of the "Hedgidog" (sic) that: — *

" It undoubtedly impales fruits on the spines of its back, and thus carries them off to its burrow. The ancients observed this long since. Modern writers have discredited the idea, but without any justification; for I have been assured of the fact by three eye-witnesses, whom I believe."t

Further, Capt. Thomas Brown, a Scottish naturalist of some standing in his day (he was a Fellow of the Linnoean Society of London and President of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh), recordsj that : —

"During the summer of 18 18, as Mr. I.ane, the game-keeper to the Earl of Galloway, was passing by the wood of Calscadden, near Garliestown, in [Wigtownshire], Scotland, he fell in with a hedgehog, crossing the road, at a small distance before him, carrying on his back six pheasants' eggs, which, upon examination, he found it had pilfered from a nest hard by. The ingenuity of the creature was very conspicuous, as several of the remaining eggs were holed ; which must have been done when [the hedgehog was] in the act of rolling itself over the nest, in order to make as many [eggs] adhere to its prickles as possible. After watching the motions of the urchin a short time, Mr. Lane saw it deliberately creep into a furze-bush, where the shells of several [other] eggs were strewed around, and which had, doubtless, been conveyed thither in a similar manner."

There is no clue as'to the time of day when this observation was made, but it must have been in the evening, between the time when the Hedgehog comes abroad and the time when it gets too dark for any observation of the kind to be possible. Further, this case does not refer (as do all those quoted above) to the transport of fruit, but to the transport, in exactly similar manner, of the eggs of the pheasant (which, for present purposes, we may regard not inappropriately as its fruit !). It is, however, entirely to the point.

Among the more miscellaneous modern English writers on the natural history of mammals, the majority are against the credibility of the old Hedgehog and Apples Legend. Among these are the

* Handb. der Naturgeschide, 9th ed. , pp. 8.9-90 (1814).

t Spieszt afferdings (wie die Alten sagen, von den Nevern hinzegehen ohne alien grand bezweiselt, mir aber nun schon von drey ganz zuverlassigen Augenzeugen versichert worden) Frtichte an seine Riicken : Stacheln um sie es in sein lager zu tragen.

X Anecdotes of Quadrupeds, pp. 101-102 (1831). The story appears to have been copied from some newspaper or natural history magazine, but there is no clue as to its original source.

8 Christy, TJie Ajident Legend as to the Hedgehog

Rev. W. l)ingley {Memoirs of Brit. Quadrupeds, p. 238: 1809); J. L. Knapp, y(y?/r«. of a Naturalist, 3rd ed., pp. 130-134: 1830); W. MacGillivray {^«V. Quadrupeds, p. 119: Naturalists' Libr., 1838); Capt. Thomas Brown {Anecd. of Quadrupeds, pp. 101-102 : 1831)*; J. H. Fennell, Nat. Hist, of Quadi-upeds, p. 39: 1843); Thos. Bell, {Brit. Quadrupeds, p. 108: 2nd ed. 1874); R. Lydekker {Roy. Nat. Hist., i., pp. 318-321) ; H. E. Forrest {Fauna of Shropshire, pp. 42-43: 1899); Sir Harry Johnston {Brit. Mammals, pp. 55-59: 1903); J. G. Millais {Mammals of Gt. Brit, and Ireland, i., p. 109-122 : 1904); and G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton {Brit. Mammals, ii., p. 68: 1911).

Among other testimony, I have that of Mr. J. Edmund Harting, F.Z.S., a leading authority on the habits of British Mammals, who writes me that he regards the old Hedgehog and Apples Legend as " wholly incredible."

A piece of testimony which points in a direction entirely opposite to most of that given above has been sent to me recently by Miss A. Hibbert-Ware, F.L.S., who is interested in the little Museum at St. George's-in-the-East, London. Writing on 21st November 1918, she says ; —

" I was busy this morning at the Museum, arranging bracken and leaves round a stuffed fox recently lent, when there came in a Russian- Polish peasant, who had left his own country thirty years ago. My occupation led him to tell me a great deal as to his recollections of the animals of Russia — foxes, wolves, bears, etc. Just as he was leaving, he caught sight of a stuffed Hedgehog in one of the cases.

" ' What do you call that animal ? ' he asked.

" When I had told him, he exclaimed to my astonishment (for I had heard of the Hedgehog and Apples Legend) : —

" ' How often, in Russia, have I seen those little animals walk away with apples or pears upon their backs.'

"What!" I exclaimed. "Would you mind repeating what you said, for it interests me ?

" ' They come,' he replied, ' to the apples lying on the ground, below the trees, and roll themselves up into a ball right on the top of them (imitating his meaning with his hands), and then they walk off v^^ith two or three sticking upon the prickles of their backs. I have never seen one content to carry off a single apple only : they always have two at least.' In his part of Russia (he added), ' there could be few or no people who had not seen it done many times.'

" When I asked what he supposed the Hedgehogs did with the apples, he said he had always supposed they took them to their young.

* He expresses entire scepticism as to the transport of/rMiVby the Hedgehog, but, somewhat inconse(iiiently, he cites (and clearly credits) a case (see ante) of one having carried off pheasants' eggs on his spines.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1919) No. 2 9

Anyway, he had never seen one eat an apple. In England, he added, he had never even seen a Hedgehog.

" The man's whole manner had every appearance of sincerity, and I do not doubt that he himself believed honestly in the truth of what he told me, whether it was in fact correct or not."

Finally, I have, within the last few weeks, come across a case which seems still more to the point, having talked with a perfectly-credible witness, in my own employ, who assures me (whether mistakenly or not) that he himself once actually saw a Hedgehog so engaged. The circumstances were these : — -

I have, in a wood which forms part of the grounds attached to my house, several large wild crab-trees. These usually bear heavy crops of crabs, from which, in most years, excellent jelly and "cheese" is made. Last season (19 18), the crop was unfortunately very light; but, in such an apple-less year, it was, of course, of special value. On i6th September, deeming that the crabs were sufficiently ripe to be gathered and that they were liable to be stolen if left longer, I ordered a ladder to be brought and I ascended into the tree. With me was an old farm-labourer, George Franklin by name, who has worked for me for six or seven years and is now over eighty years of age. Like many old men of the kind who can neither read nor write, he is remarkably intelligent in regard to matters which are within his cognizance. I know him well enough to be able to assert that, in a direct statement, I would as soon accept his word as that of an average Prime Minister ! With him (to help in picking up the crabs as I threw them down) was his grandson, aged about eight. We had nearly done, when, finding we had gathered less than a bushel, I urged them to search further for other crabs which might have become hidden among the grass and bushes.

"Why, master,'' [says Franklin in his broad Essex dialect] "you should leave a few for the poor Hedgehogs."

" Hedgehogs ! " said I, " what do they want them for ? "

"Why," [replied he] "they eat them. I once saw one carrying some home on his back."

Instantly the old legend flashed into my mind. I had not been even thinking of it previously, so could not possibly have put the idea into his head ; while probably he has never heard of (and quite certainly he has never read) Pliny. Feeling interested, I asked him for further- particulars. It was (he told me) one evening in the autumn of an extremely hot and dry summer five or six years ago— no doubt 1914 — and probably in October, as the crabs had fallen. He had been engaged all day helping in the threshing of a stack of beans, and was walking home through the fields about six o'clock, just as it was getting dusk, when, looking over a gate into a meadow, he saw, not more than three (and, possibly, not two) yards from him, a Hedgehog

ro Christy, The Ancient Legend as to the Hedgehog

shuffling along with some objects on its back. Looking more closely, he was able to make out that these objects were crabs, evidently stuck upon its spines. As the animal was within a few yards of, and was proceeding directly from, a large crab tree growing in a corner of the same meadow, he concluded, very naturally, that it had obtained the crabs from beneath this tree. I know the tree in question very well and have often seen it ; for it grows little more than half-a-mile from my house. Unfortunately he did not follow the Hedgehog to make further investigations, being (he says) anxious to get home to his supper. Thus, he missed an excellent opportunity of carrying further a very interesting observation.

V. — Summary and Conclusions. — Now, taking the foregoing statements, records, opinions, and observations, and proceeding to examine them critically all together, what scientific value, as evidence can they be said to have (if any) ?

In the first place, it is well to note that, although there are some twenty species of the genus Erinaceus distributed throughout the world, there is, in Europe, one single species only, and that it shows extremely little variation.

In the next place, it should be noted that the Hedgehog-and-Apples legend is at least two thousand years old — more, if it originated with Aristotle, as has been stated; also that it is prevalent throughout practically the whole of Europe. There must have been (one would think) some substratum of actual observed fact, renewed from time to time, to keep any legend of the kind alive so long and to cause it to become so widespread.

Moreover, it is noticeable that, in most cases, the writer of any statement on the matter ascribes to the Hedgehog a partiality for what- ever particular kind of fruit is abundant in the region of which he writes — apples and pears in England, France, and Germany ; figs in Italy ; grapes in Central France and Germany ; grapes and mulberries in Asia Minor ; and so on. This is a poor argument on which to base any evidence in support of the ancient legend ; but, so far as it goes, it is worth noting.

Again, the statement by ^lian that Hedgehogs "wallow in places where they dry figs "* has about it a considerable appearance of verisimilitude, being apparently based on actual observation.

One point which the foregoing observations seem to bring out clearly is that (assuming the Hedgehog really does transport fruit in the way stated), it does so less commonly in England than in Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe. The statements of Pliny and /Elian

* See ante, p. 2.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol, Ixiii. (1919) No. 2 1 1

among the Ancients, of several among the Mediaeval writers quoted? and of Patrick Russell, Blumenbach, Thomas 'Brown, the Russian Pole interviewed by Miss Hibbert-Ware, my gardener (George Franklin), and others among the Moderns, all seem to bring out this point clearly. If this surmise proves to be sound, it remains to be shown why the habits of the Hedgehog should differ so notably in different parts of Europe.

Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that most modern writers on Mammals, if they refer at all to the old legend, either dismiss it as too absurd to be worth a moment's consideration or, at least, show themselves decidedly sceptical.

But is the story really so incredible after all ? Are we not apt, in these highly-scientific days, to become too contemptuously sceptical in regard to all ancient legends of the kind, and to forget that, however absurdly improbable they may appear at first sight, not a few of them have been shown to have some genuine basis in fact — often slight, but sufficient to substantiate and justify them. In all such cases, a, cautious scepticism should be, of course, maintained up to a certain point; but I have never forgotten a dictum to which I remember hearing the late Prof. Huxley give utterance many years ago : — >^ " I have always felt [he said] a horror of limiting the possibilities of things."

Now I will go so far as to say that, on the evidence quoted above, I am ready to believe that the Hedgehog does sometimes carry home fruit stuck upon its spines. There seems to me nothing inherently impossible, or even improbable, about the story ; for animals have been proved capable of many much more extraordinary acts.

But, before accepting the old legend unreservedly, there is one point which requires first to be considered — Does the Hedgehog ever eat fruit ?

As to this crucial question, many contradictory opinions have been expressed. The truth seems to be that the creature undoubtedly affects, in the main, an animal diet, consisting chiefly of small reptiles, worms, snails, slugs, insects, beetles, birds' eggs, and the like. In confinement, it will readily eat meat, either cooked or uncooked, bread-and-milk, and many such substances as are usually given to cats and dogs. Its partiality for eggs has gained for it a very bad name among gamekeepers, poultry-keepers, and such people. Macgillivray says* that it will "occasionally even enter hen-houses for the purpose [of stealing them]."t In all probability, however, the robberies of

* British Quadrupeds, p. 1 19 (1838).

t Macgillivray does not say, however (as Millais asserts : Matiimals of Gt. Brit, and Ire I., i., p. 117), that the Hedgehog will steal eggs "from beneath the hens, but without otherwise molestine them."

12 Christy, The A?ident Legend as to the Hedgehog

eggs from the nests of game-birds and poultry which are usually ascribed to the Hedgehog are really the work of some other animal.

On the other hand, there is equally' little doubt that, on occasion, the Hedgehog will readily subsist on a vegetable diet. Knappsays : — * " In the autumn, crabs, haws, and the common fruits of the hedge constitute its diet." Macgillivray asserts! that it "eats fruits, especially apples that have fallen from the trees." On this point, Mr. Harting favours me with a very pertinent observation of his own . —

" From personal observation [he says], I know that they will feed on fallen fruit. On one occasion, late in September, some years ago, when partridge shooting in West Sussex, I was returning home in the evening and saw at a little distance a Hedgehog at the foot of a crab- tree, busily engaged in mouthing some object which, at the distance, I could not distinguish. I watched it for some time and then, slowly approaching, the Hedgehog scuttled away. At the spot, I found a partially-gnawed crab-apple bearing the marks of teeth on one side, which convinced me that the animal had been feeding on it. So far as I could see, the Hedgehog made no attempt to carry off the crab in its mouth, as a squirrel would have done."

Another observation bearing upon this point has been kindly supplied to me by Miss Gulielma Lister, F.L.S., in whose garden at Leytonstone grows an old medlar tree, beneath which are planted some small holly bushes. When sweeping up the leaves beneath this tree in winter, the old gardener has repeatedly found a Hedgehog rolled up asleep beside a little heap of fallen medlars, which apparently he had gathered together, both the animal and the medlars being deeply buried under a thick bed of leaves. Whether or no the medlars showed any signs of having been gnawed by the creature, I do not know.

Those statements among the foregoing which explicitly mention apples or crabs are of special interest ; for, of all fruits, these are those most commonly mentioned in statements, both ancient and modern, as to the Hedgehog transporting fruits on his prickles. On the whole, it seems clear that the creature does eat fruits of various kinds.

Yet another cognate point which has to be considered is ; — Does the Hedgehog lay up a store of food for the winter? Obviously, of animal food, he could not. Of vegetable food, however, he might, and some writers have stated explicitly that he does. J Yet others, of at

* Journ. of a Naturalist, 3rd ed., p. 130 (1830).

i Hril. Quadrupeds, p. 119 (183S).

J See, for example, the staleineiils of Pliny (p. i), .I'^lian {p. 2), Top.sell (ji. 4), and others quoted above.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (19 19) No. 2a 13

least equal authority, have stated that he does not* ; and I agree with them. I have seen many nests of Hedgehogs dug out of rabbit-holes when ferretting in winter ; but none (so far as I can recollect) has ever been accompanied by a store of winter food.f It is on this account, no doubt, that the animal's hybernation is by no means complete, and that he sometimes leaves his winter nest and comes abroad, even on cold days. Probably the fruit of various kinds which Hedgehogs have been seen carrying on their spines has been intended by them rather for immediate consumption than as winter sustenance.

Several friends and correspondents — some excellent naturalists among them — have advanced to me the argument that, as they have kept many tame Hedgehogs and have never observed them even attempting to transport fruit on their spines, the habit cannot be one they practise in a state of nature. This argument is, I think, entirely unsound. The habits of animals in nature and in confinement are often different ; and, in this particular case, it may be urged that a Hedgehog in confinement, being (in a way) at home, would hardly be likely to feel a need to carry food home.

From the foregoing, it becomes clear that there are, beyond doubt, not a few cases, both ancient and modern, in which a Hedgehog has been actually seen carrying objects impaled upon the spines upon its back — in most cases various kinds of fruit : in one case, eggs of the pheasant. Unfortunately, none of these observations (though made by persons whose bona-fides is in little doubt) can be regarded as wholly conclusive, all being to some extent second hand or made by persons of little education. Nevertheless, taking them in the mass and viewing them in conjunction with the very ancient and extremely- persistent legend relating to the matter, it seems to me impossible longer to doubt that, at times, at any rate, the animal really does transport fruit in the way asserted. Some will, no doubt, attribute this view to limitless credulity and lack of acute observing powers on my part. Be that as it may, I have confessed openly the view I take of the matter.

The whole question can be finally set at rest only by the production of further definite observations of the same kind as those quoted above, and made by naturalists of recognised standing or, at least, by persons of education.

Will any reader come forward and assert that he has himself seen a Hedgehog in the act of transporting objects stuck upon its spines, or at least draw attention to further existing records of its having been seen so to do ?

* See, for instance, Macgillivray : Brit. Quads., p. 1 19 (1838).

t Miss Lister's observation in reference to the medlars (see ante p. 12) looks, how- ever, like an exception.

14 Christy, The Ancient Legend as to the Hedgehog

[There is yet another legend pertaining to the Hedgehog (and ahnost as ancient and wide-spread as the fruit-carrying legend) — namely, that it sucks the milk of cows grazing in the fields.

Now, this statement, in the crude form in which it is usually made and understood, is a manifest impossibility. In the first place, no Hedgehog, by stretching up, would be able to reach the teats of any cow of ordinary stature ; and, even if it could do so, the fact remains that the Hedgehog's mouth is far too small to allow it to suck milk effectively from the teats of any such cow.

Nevertheless, the legend in question is probably true in a way, and there is, I think, a perfectly natural explanation as to its origin.

We know well, from the evidence of Hedgehogs kept in confinement, that • the animal, is exceedingly fond of milk ; and there can be no possible doubt that, in a state of nature, it would take every oppor- tunity to secure milk. Obviously it could do this only when a cow was lying down. In such case, as is well known, milk often runs from the teats of a milch cow; and there can be little or no doubt, I think, that the milk-sucking legend has originated in the fact of a Hedgehog having been seen sucking drops of milk from the teats of a recumbent cow or from the ground immediately after she has risen.]

For help and advice, I am specially indebted to the following, as well as to others already mentioned : — Dr. Andrew Clark, Mr. A. H. Cocks, Mr. J. Edmund Harting, and Mr. Charles Oldham.

JilanihesUr Memoirs, Vol. l.xiii, A'o. 3.

/

/'

'f

C'l'.I.ONAUTII.U^ 1 KAI'K/iilDAI.IS, Sp. nOV.

1-2. Lower Coal Measures, Townhouse, near Colne, Lanes. Nat. size. 3-4. rendleside Series, I'lilc Hill, Marsden. \'orks. Nal. size.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii (191 9), N^o. 3.

III. — On a New Middle Carboniferous Nautiloid.

( Ccelonauttlus trapezoidalis).

BY

J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S., Assistant Keeper, Manchester Museum. Read and received for publication, February i8th, i^i^.

In a previous paper " On MoUusca from the Lancashire Coal- Measures,"* I called attention to the fact that Mr. George Wild, in 1892,1 erroneously figured a Nautiloid from the " Roof of the Bullion Coal, Townhouse, near Colne," under the name of ''^Nautilus sul>sul- catus, Salter." Two figures are given by him (pi. II., fig. 5 ; pi. III., fig. 3) representing different views of the same specimen, which now forms part of the Wild Collection in the Manchester Museum.

So far as can be ascertained, Salter never described or referred to a Nautiloid under the name '''' subsulcatus" but Wild was in the habit of attaching Salter's name to species of other authors, for example, Nautilus cyclostomus Phillips ; Goniatiies striatus (J. Sow), etc., have Salter's name appended in Wild's " Reference to the Plates."!

Nautilus (now Ca'lonautilus) subsulcatus was founded and figured by Phillips in his " lUust. of the Geol. of Yorks. " pt. II., 1836, p. 233, pi. XVII., figs. 18 and 25, § on a specimen from the Carboniferous Limestone of BoUand, Yorkshire, and the type is now in the British Museum (No. C237, "Gilbertson Collection").

Wild's fossil, however, differs in several important characters, especially in the more depressed and greater relative breadth of the volutions, from Phillips' type-specimen, and, as stated in my previous paper {op. cit., p. 449), belongs to a new species.

Having the specimen with me when on a visit to the British Museum in 191 2, I consulted Mr. G. C. Crick as to its afifinities and position and he very kindly undertook to draw up a description of the species. He pointed out that its nearest ally appeared to be Fleming's Nautilus quadratus,\\ a. s^^ec\QS assigned by Foord ^ to his genus Calonautilus, and from the trapezoidal form of the transverse section of the whorl he suggested the name Ca'lonautilus trapezoidalis for the species under review.

* Geol. Mag., Dec. V., Vol. ix., No. 580, Oct. 1912, pp. 4-^9-453.

t Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc. , XXI., i£92, pp. 397 and 400, pi. ii. and iii.

J Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc, XXI., 1892, p. 400.

§ Phillips in his " Reference to the plates " (p. 250) calls the species, N. suka- tuhis, " and Brown, " Foss, Conch.," 1849, P- 3^, pi- XXV., f. 8, describes and figures it again under that name.

il J. Fleming, "Hist. Brit. Animals," 1828, p. S'l.

IT A. H. Foord, Cat. Foss. Ceph., Brit. Mas., pt. 2., 189 1, p. 122.

2 Jackson, On a Xe7v Carbo)iiferous Nautiloid.

Since Mr. Crick furnished his description, I have discovered in the Manchester Museum another example of the same species from the Pendleside Series, Pule Hill, Marsden, which is in a more adult stage of growth. This has necessitated the drawing up of a revised description, as follows.

Description of the Species.

Calonautilus irapezoidalis, n. sp.

Nautilus siibsuiaitus, G. Wild, Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc, vol. XXL, 1892, pi. II., fig. 5 ; pi. III., fig. 3 (not of Phillips).

Sp. Char. — Shell of medium size, rapidly increasing, evolute, com- posed of about three whorls, rather widely umbilicated, and with a large central vacuity ; greatest width at the umbilical margin ; whorls only just touching, inclusion nil ; umbilicus wide, with steep, step-like sides, and a well defined sub-angular margin (umbilicolateral keel), which becomes somewhat rounded at the fully-adult stage. Whorls trapezoidal in transverse section, about one-fourth wider than high ; indentation nil ; periphery flattened, well-defined, with a distinct raised, broad and slightly concave, band down the centre, on each side of which there is a narrow and rather shallow longitudinal sidcus, limited by the periphero- lateral keel ; sides convergent, well defined both from periphery and umbilical zones, their outer half feebly conAve, their inner half moderately convex, a median longitudinal ridge being present in early stages and passing away later (see remarks below) ; umbilical zone well defined from the lateral area, almost at right-angles to the mesal plane of the shell. Body-chamber probably about a volution ; aperture trapezoidal in outline, about one-fourth wider than high ; peristome not present, but, judging from the lines of growth, with a well-marked sinus, on the inner half of lateral area, a prominent crest at the periphero-lateral angle, and a deep hyponomic sinus occupying the greater part of the peripheral area. Camerae not very deep; septa feebly concave; where the whorl has a transverse diameter of 15 mm. the sutures are 5 mm. apart, at 8 mm. diameter they are about 3 mm. apart ; in the young shell they are somewhat variable ; sutures with a moderately deep lobe extending across the lateral area and a shallow lobe across the peripheral area (in the young stage this lobe is central). Siphuncle close to the ventral surface. Test composed of two layers, the internal very thick, the external extremely thin; surface ornamented with very fine close-set stride, which are forwardly inclined and sigmoidally curved on the sides, forwardly projected at the periphero- lateral angle, and form a deep, broad, backwardly directed sinus upon the periphery, corresponding with the emargination of the aperture ; these transverse strire are seen (with a lens) to be crossed by extremely fine regular longitudinal wavy lines on both the periphery and the sides, especially at the periphero lateral keel ; along the middle of the lateral area there are traces of several fine longitudinal ridges on a portion of the largest example.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ixiii {i<^\()), No. 3. 3

Measurments : — I. II.

(Wild, VV669) (Marsden, L2827)

Greatest Diameter ... ... 35 ... 74*5 mm.

Height of outer whorl ... 15 ... 25*5

Thickness of outer whorl ... 18 '5 ... 36 (ca.)

Width of umbilicus (at margin) 13 ... 36

Do. do. (at suture) 12 ... 29*5

Greatest width of periphery ... i4"5 ... 26 (ca.)

REMARKS. — The present species is founded upon the specimen figured by Wild {ioc. fit), and a larger and more adult example from the Pendleside Series of Marsden, Yorkshire.

Wild's specimen, 35 mm. in diameter, consists of about one and a half whorls, entirely septate, and terminating anteriorly with a septal surface ; the external layer of the test has been entirely replaced by iron pyrites, leaving the thick internal layer in the form of calcite ; the surface of the casts of the septal chambers (camerse) is densely covered with minute punct^e. This specimen shows the position of the siphuncle in an excellent manner, owing to the weathering of the shell.

The Marsden specimen is 74^5 mm. in maximum diameter and possesses about three whorls ; it is somewhat crushed in places and almost the whole of one side is missing. One portion of the periphery shows several of the suture lines. Judging from the rounding off of the umbilico-lateral angle on the last whorl, and the crowding together of the lines of growth, the shell has evidently reached the adult stage of growth. On the greater part of the specimen the test is well preserved and exhibits the surface-markings in a perfect manner. This specimen illustrates the later life-history of the species, as Wild's example exactly fits the umbilicus.

Affinities and comparison with other species. — Compared with Phillip's type-specimen of Nautilus subsulcatus the present species is a more rapidly increasing and relatively broader shell, having its umbilical zone more nearly perpendicular to the mesal plane, and its siphuncle nearer the ventral surface.* Its nearest ally appears to be Ca'lonautilus quadratus, J. Fleming sp.,t a somewhat variable species from the Lower Limestone Group of the Carboniferous Series of

* The dimensions of Phillip's type-specimen, which is entirely septate and for the most part an internal cast, are : — greatest diameter of shell, 66 "5 mm. (100) ; height of outer whorl, 27 mm. (40) ; thickness of outer whorl, 25 mm. (37) ; width of umbilicus (at margin), 30'5 mm. (46) ; ditto (at suture of shell), 23 5 mm. (35) ; greatest width of periphery, 19 mm. (28) ; whilst at the diameter of Mr. \\ ild's specimen, viz., 35 mm. (100), its measurements are : — height of outer whorl, 14 mm. (40) ; thickness of outer whorl. 14 mm. (40) ; width of umbilicus (at margin), 19 mm. (54); ditto (at suture of shell), 14 mm. (40); width of periphery, 11 mm. (31) (Jide Crick).

t J- Fleming, Hist. Brit. Anim. , 1828, p. 231. See also A. H. Foord, Cat. Foss. Ceph. British Museum, part 2, 1891, p. 122.

4 Jackson, On a New Carboniferous Nautiloid.

Scotland, but in that form the whorls are more subquadrate in transverse section and usually bear distinct longitudinal lateral grooves (the edge of the umbilicus being separated by a shallow groove from the inflated part of the whorl), whilst the umbilical zone slopes towards the centre of the umbilicus, instead of being perpendicular to the mesal plane of the shell as in the present species. The same characters distinguish the present species from the form described and figured by J. de C. Sowerby* as Nautilus subsukatus var., from the Coal-measures of Coalbrookdiile, Shropshire.

Both C. subsukatus and C. quadratus occur in lists of Pendleside fossils from High Green Wood, etc. ;t also in lists of fossils from tlie Lower Coal-Mcasures.J Specimens in the Manchester Museum (Gibson Collection) hitherto labelled as C. subsukatus have turned out to belong to, at least two species, viz., Pkuronautilus pulcher Crick, and another probably new species. In like manner the Marsden specimen dealt with in this paper, was recorded and labelled as C. subsukatus by Barnes and Holroyd. It seems, therefore, desirable to expunge C. subsukatus Phil., and probably also C. quadratus Flem., from the lists of Pendleside and Coal-measure fossils until authentic specimens are obtained.

Horizons and Localities. — Lower Coal-measures (Roof of the Bullion coal). Townhouse, near Colne, Lanes. (E coll. Wild, W669). Pendleside Series, Pule Hill, Marsden, Yorks. (Ecoll. Holroyd, L2827) ; Dr. Wheelton Hind also possesses three specimens of this new species from the Lower Coal-Measures of Shibden, and one specimen from the Millstone Grit Series of Eccup.

* Trans. Geol. Soc. London, vol. V., part 3, 1840, p. 492, and Explanation of Plate xl., fig. 7.

t Davies and Lees, "West York.shire," 187S. p. 99; Barnes and Holroyd, Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc, XXIV., 1896, p. 90; Hind, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 57. 1901, p. 372, etc.

X Bolton, Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc, XXVIIL, 190^, p. 394 and p. 647 ; and Report of the Mollusca Committee to the Council of the Manchester Geologual Society, October, 1910.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ixiii. (1919) No. 4

IV. On the Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens at Small Angles and the Patterns obtained thereby.

By S. Lees, M.A.

(Read and received April ist, igiQ. )

§1. The following investigations were originally undertaken by the author at the suggestion of Mr. R. B. Fishenden, Director of the Printing Department, College of Technology, Manchester.

§2. In certain technical processes it is necessary to superpose two cross-line screens or other screens possessing a regular geometrical pattern. The result is to produce under certain conditions a character- istic pattern, and it is the object of this discussion to explain some of the phenomena produced.

One of the most interesting examples of the effect occurs in the half- tone process of photo-engraving. In this process, the picture to be reproduced is photographed through a half-tone or " process " screen, placed in front of the sensitive plate. The screen consists of two glass plates ruled with parallel lines in black placed at right angles to one another, so that the whole constitutes a series of equal sized small squares, in effect. From the negative a photographic print is made on to a copper plate which is afterwards etched. A print from the copper plate will consist of a series of black dots which increase in size with the depth of tone, until only white spaces remain.*

Several different types of cross-line screens are used in technical processes for photo-engraving ; for example, in the process of intaglio machine photogravure a screen consisting of thin white lines on a black ground is employed. In other cases a screen may be employed which consists of a "chess board" pattern of black and white squares. In this paper, the first type of screen will be described as a half-tone screen, the second type as an intaglio screen, and the third type as a chess board screen.

It is sometimes necessary to reproduce a print from a half-tone block or other picture consisting of dots possessing a regular geomet- rical pattern. If such a picture be photographed through a cross-line

* For technical details see a paper by Mr. Fishenden, Trans. Royal Photo- graphic Society, March 15th, 1915.

September jotk, igig.

2 Lees, On the Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens

screen, peculiar effects may be produced in the resulting negative. The effects depend on the angle which the lines of the cross-line screen make with the lines of dots (or other form pattern) of the original picture. If this angle be small, the effect on the negative is to produce in the reproduction a very coarse pattern of squares or other formation, and this may be so obtrusive as to be more readily observed than the subject.

§3. We shall now consider the effect of photographing through an intaglio screen a half-tone print, taken as consisting of a series of small square dots surrounded by white lines arranged in square pattern. The effect of the intaglio screen will be to produce in the final picture (after the copper plate has been made and used to make a print) a fresh set of white lines or bands forming a pattern of squares, and it is the resulting effect of this set superposed on the set due to the original half-tone print which brings about the result mentioned in the preceding paragraph. It is clear that what we have to analyse, in effect, is the result of superposing two intaglio screens, i.e., screens of transparent bands with dark square spaces ; for only those portions of the white bands of the original half-tone picture can affect a photo- graphic plate, if rays of light passing from them penetrate through the transparent bands of the intaglio screen. We shall therefore first discuss the patterns produced by superposing two intaglio screens of different rulings or pitches, and holding the pair up to the light. The geometrical problem involved is best treated in the following way : —

Let the two screens be denoted by S^ and S^. We may consider .9, as formed by making two sets (J^i and F,) of parallel transparent bands on a blackened plate, the two sets being at right angles to one another, and arranged to produce a series of dark squares. Similarly S^ may be considered as formed by two sets (A^, and K,) of transparent bands on a second blackened plate, the rulings of these sets not necessarily being the same as those of the first screen. We require the final pattern R of transparent spaces obtained by superposing 5, and S.., and holding the double screen up to the light. This pattern R can be obtained by the following operations : —

(/) Make two screens ruled respectively, one with set A'j only of transparent bands, the other with set X^ only. Superpose these screens and find the pattern P, of transparent spaces obtained on holding the double screen to the light.

{ii) Repeat operations (/) employing two screens ruled respectively with sets Fi and K only. Let the resulting pattern of transparent spaces obtained on holding the double screen to the light be denoted by (2.

{Hi) Repeat operations described above, using sets A'l and \\. Let the resulting pattern be denoted by Pj-

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ixiii. (1919) No. 4

{iv) Repeat operations using sets Y-^ and X^ pattern be denoted by Q^.

Let the resulting

{v) Let small pieces of white paper be cut out exactly corresponding to the transparent spaces of P^., Q^, F^, and Q.. Let these be arranged exactly as in their corresponding patterns ?„ Qi, P^^ Q^, and in their proper positions and superposed (i.e., pasted over one another) on a black background. The final effect will be pattern P, if it is under- stood that white patches correspond to transparent spaces in P.

Fig: I.

To prove the truth of the above constructions, we observe that (a) the whole of the transparent spaces of P„ Q^, P^, and Q^ must form part of P, whilst (/') the whole of the transparent spaces of P are included in those of P^, Q^, P2, and Q^.

We have thus analysed the composite pattern P into /our simpler patterns, viz., the results of operations (/) to (tv).

^4. We proceed to discuss the pattern P^, which is the result of superposing sets Xj^ and X^ of transparent bands, at some angle d (say). In P/g. I is shown the effect of superposing two sets of bands and it is seen that the pattern consists of a series of transparent parallelograms

4 Lees, On the Superposing of Tivo Cross-line Screens

of the type ABCD. We shall take the set of bands parallel to AB as being the set A",, whilst bands parallel to BC constitute the set A',. Let the width of a transparent band of A'l be a^ and the width of a dark band of X^ be b^. Let a^ and b., represent the corresponding widths for set X^. It is easily seen that

AB — a-, cosec Q, BC =«, cosec Q, ^ l\

A,A = B,B = {a, + b.) cosec Q, AA,' = BB,' == {a, + b,) cosec e.j ' ^''

The pattern B^ of transparent parallelograms of the type ABCD may be considered as built up of transparent patches arranged in a series of parallel rows. Thus the patches may be regarded as arranged in rows parallel to AA.^, or to AA^, or to AA., etc. The natural grouping of these patches for small values of S will be optically that corresponding to rows parallel to ^^n+i (say), where the point ^n+i has the least distance from A, of all the points A^, A^, etc. Since the distance A,An+i = nA,A2 = n {a, + b^) cosec 0, we find that

AA n + i I

= cosec^e[{a2 + b^Y + n^(a, + b,y — 2fi{a^ + b^) (a, + b,)cos 0]> . (ii) = E cosec^O (say). /

For a given value of ^, ^ is a maximum when

n = {a^ + b.^) cos e I {a,+b,). . . . {Hi)

Assuming that (a^ + b^) is not less than (a^ + bj^), we shall therefore get the best grouping, generally speaking, when the integral number n chosen is that nearest to (a^ + b^) cos 0 / (a^+bi). As most of the results we wish to investigate immediately become prominent when 0 is very small, it follows that, in such cases, we take for n the nearest integer to (a^ + A,) / (a, + b^). Thus if a^ + b^ = ai + b^, we should take the transparent patches in rows parallel to AA,.

To simplify the discussion, we shall now assume that {a^ + b,) is a multiple of {a^ + ^i), and we can conveniently denote the multiple by n. Li this case, for small values of $, the rows of patches are parallel to AAnJ^z- It is worth enquiring for what values of 0 this statement will hold.

Since AA\,+, = cosec^^ [n^ + ii" - 2«^ cos B\ («, 4- b,Y \ ,..

s,nd A A-'a^ cos&c-e[ff~ + {n- iY — 2n{n-i) cos ^]{a^+b,Y } ^

it follows that AA„^,< A A,,, \( cos $ >{2n - i) j 2«,) / .

;>., if sin 6* < (4"- 0''"7 2«- ) ' ' "< '

Thus when « is large, the range of values of 9 for which we can take the same row of transparent patches throughout {viz., AAn+,) becomes small.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1919) No. 4 5

1^5. We proceed to discuss the results of §4, when Q is small. When this is the case, the parallelograms typified by ABCD have their sides AB and BC elongated (see equations (/V) ) ; whilst assuming that {a^-^b^ is a multiple of (fli + ^i), the distance AA^^^ is given by {iv). But {iv) may be written

/i = ^^n+i = 2« (^i + ^i) cosec Q sin {e\2) = n{a, + b,) sec {e\2) . {vi)

Since AC approaches the value AB + BC={a^ + b^ + a^ + b^) cosec ^ = («+:) (a^ + z^j) cosec f^, as d diminishes; it follows that with diminishing values of 6, the ratio ^^„+i / AC approaches the limit 2n sin (el 2) I («+i). Thus the ratio of the pitch AAn+i of the patches along the row AAn+i to the length of a patch diminishes indefinitely with 0. It may be noticed that (vi) approaches the limit « (^i + ^,) = a2 + ^2. We can sum up these results by saying that the pattern B^ resolves itself into transparent patches arranged in rows parallel to AAn+i, the pitch p, in the direction AA^+i approaching the invariable value (a^ + b^), whilst the length of each patch {i.e., AC) increases according to the cosec 0 law.

The direction AA^+i clearly bisects the angle A^AA^\ i.e., it makes an angle (tt + 0) / 2 with AB. This is shown in Big. 2. Running parallel to the row of transparent patches given by AA^j^^, we shall have a parallel row of patches given by KA^. This row will be distant

(ai + ^i)cosec^cos(^/2) = (ai + 3i)/2sin (^/2) . {vii)

from AAn+i, i.e., this is the perpendicular distance between AAn+i and J^An. Obviously as d becomes small, the ratio of /a to/i rapidly increases. In the particular case when Oz + bz — a^ + b^, i.e., « = i we have

/, := 2(ai + b^) sin (6'/2) cosec $ = {a, + b^) sec {BI2) . {viiia) p-2 = ("^i + bi) cos {6\2) cosec 6 = ^{a, + b^) cosec (6*/2) . {viiib)

§6. We now come to operation (/;') of §3, i.e., we have to discuss the effect of superposing the sets of bands Y^ and Y^- But Y^ is exactly the same as X^ except that its bands are at right angles to those of X^. Similarly Y^ is the same as X^, except that its bands are at right aiagles to X^. Thus Qi is of precisely the same character as B^, but must be regarded as B^ rotated through 90°. Combining Qi with jPi according to operation {v) of §3, we see that for small values of 0 we shall get a network of squares of side /2 = («i + ^i)/ 2 sin {0I2), each square being bounded by the rows of small transparent parallelograms corresponding to B^ and Q^, and having a dark interior. Thus the pattern ttj corresponding to B^ and Q^ combined resembles in its general features the original half-tone plates, i.e., we have dark squares

6 Lees, On the Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens

surrounded by semi-transparent bands or sides. Obviously as 0

diminishes towards zero, the side p.^ of these squares increases

indefinitely, and this is the source of the practical trouble referred to towards the end of |:^2.

Fig. 2a.

§7. We have next to discuss the results F, of operation (m) of §3, i.e., the effect of superposing sets of bands A', and ¥,. The problem is clearly the same as that discussed in iii^4 ^.nd 5, except

Manchester Memoirs, VoL Lvui. {igig) No. At 7

that 0 must be changed to Oi = - + 6- Thus when 0 is small the angle

2

0, of intersection approaches 90°, and Fig. i must be amended accord- ingly. In this case, it is clear that of all the points A^, A2, . . , A^\ A^^, . . , the nearest point to A will be A^^* for small values of 0- Thus P^ consists of rows of transparent patches, these rows being parallel to AAi\ i.e., making an angle ^i ( = 90° + Q) with X^. The distance A2A^ ( =/i^) between adjacent patches in the same row is clearly (oj + <^i) cosec Oi, whilst the distance between adjacent rows, measured perpendicularly to them is />2^ = («2 + ^2) cosec Oi sin e, = (a, + ^,).

Thus ;^i^ = (^, + ^1) sec ^,)' /.v

A'= a2 + i>2. / • • • • ^'""^

§8. The result Q^ of operation (iv) of §3 is easily seen to be equivalent to rotating through 90^ the pattern P, described in §7. For Y^ is at right angles to X„ whilst X, is at right angles to K,. We can combine patterns P, and Q. following the method laid down in operation (v), §3, but as 0 is made small, there is no outstanding structure in the resultant pattern, as was obtained in §6. For /i^ tends to the limit ((7i+3i), as 0 becomes indefinitely small, whilst /a' has the fixed value (a, + (^2). Thus the combination tt, of P2 and Q2 is not coarser than the coarser of the two original half-tone screens.

§9. With regard to the pattern tti or network of squares described in §6 and resulting from the combination of F^ and Q^, we note that the axes of the pattern ttj, i.e., lines parallel to the sides of the squares, 'make angles f^/2 and (90° + Oj^) with the bands X^. The axes of the pattern resulting from the combination of P2 and Q2, however, make angles 0 and (90° -f- O) with the bands X^.

It has to be recognised that when the respective positions of the two superposed screens S^ and S2 are given, each of the patterns ^i) <2i> ^2, Q2 is exactly defined relatively to the others. Thus the pattern ir^ resulting from Fi andi(2i is defined relatively to the pattern ttz resulting from F2 and Q2. The effect of displacing the two screens ^i and ^'2 relatively to one another, keeping 0 constant is discussed later.

^10. The pattern F obtained by superposing two intaglio half-tone screens, for which («2 + ^^2) / («i + '^i) is an integer, is now got by combining the results of §§6 and 8, according to operation (v) of ^3. It is now seen that when 0 is small, the resulting pattern consists of a very coarse framework of squares, each square being bounded by semi- transparent bands or sides, whilst the interior is much darker and

* In Fi^. I but with 6 (here our d^), made slightly greater than 90".

8 Lees, On the Superposing of Two Cross -line Screens

consists of a sort of granulated structure as outlined in .^8. Further, the smaller the angle 9 is, the coarser the square framework becomes, and there is no limit to the size of the squares as 0 diminishes indefinitely. These results are illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4 (PI. I.), which exemplify clearly the above analysis.

It should be borne in mind that if {a^ + 1?^) / (a, + b,) is not an integer it is impossible to get the square framework of R of indefinitely great coarseness by making 0 become indefinitely small. We shall proceed to show this.

.^11. We shall assume that a^ + l?^ = {n + e) {a^ + b,)* where t is a positive or negative irrational fraction numerically iless than o"5, and n is an integer. For simplicity, we shall write

ai + bi=d^; a^ + b^^d^ . ■ . . {x)

so that d2 = d^{fi + f) . .... (xi)

In this equation, n is to be interpreted as the nearest integer to the fraction d^jd^, which is of course to be taken as having a value greater than unity. We can still use Fig. 2, and with the value of n just taken, the transparent patches must still be considered (for small values of fj) as arranged in rows like AAn+-i. Since now AA^ is not exactly equal to A^An+i, it follows that the direction AA,^^^ no longer bisects the angle A^AAi\ It is interesting to trace the variation of the angle A,AA,' ( = <^ say). Although AA, and AA,' are still given by (/), and thus vary with 0, yet their ratio remains continually the same. Thus for direction purposes, the lengths of the sides in Fig. 2 may be con- sidered as constant. Regarding A^A as a fixed line, the point A^^^ will lie on a circle having A^ as centre. If t be a positive fraction, the point A will lie outside this circle and the greatest value that 4^ can have will be attained when the line AA^+i touches the circle having centre A, and radius yi,/^,i+i- This will clearly be the case when

,, AA,' n , ..V

cos^=— -^= .... lyXll)

AA^ 71 + t

If we denote this value of 0 by 0^, we see that the corresponding value of ^ is 90° — ^,. We also see that as ^ diminishes down to ^i, ^ increases up to 90° - Oi] SLS 0 further diminishes, <p dimishes steadily, until when 0 = 0°, ^ also becomes 0°. When, however, £ is a negative fraction, <■/» increases steadily as 0 diminishes, and ultimately, when 0 = 0° f becomes 180°.

We shall now find the value of the pitch /. (i.e., the perpendicular distance between the lines AAn+^ and A^K). Denote by \) the length

The case of £ a simple fraction is discussed in § 20.

M an cJi ester Memoirs, J^o/. Ixiii. (1919) No. 4

Plate I.

The effect of superposing two "intaglio " screens (white lines on a Vjlack ground) at an angle of 2''2''. Pitch of screen 150 lines per inch.

Fig. 4. Same screens as in Fig. 3, but angle is now 5^

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 9) No. 4 9

of the line AA^^^. Whether i be positive or negative we shall have f sin^ Q = n'^d^^ + d^^ - 2nd^ ^. cos $

= «^^i^ + (« + (.y ^r - 2nd^^ {n + f ) cos 6* • • (■^"0

For small values of $ we can put cos (^ = i - (sin=6') / 2, and the above expression reduces to

f- sin^ ^ = «=^r [(I +^)sin^^ + ^]

Thus for small values of 0 we have

p sin ^ = £^, [i + ^sin^^ (1+^) J . • (xiv)

Also

Hence

sm^^_nd^ , whilst A = -^ sin ^ cosec sin 0 p sin 0 n

y..^ - ^^^ .... {xv)

£" + ^(«^ + c«) sin^^

and we see that this has the limiting value

p^ = ^ {xva)

£

when 0 becomes zero. Thus the pitch /. does not become infinitely ^reat when it reaches its greatest value at d = o\

The result for/2 can also be obtained by reference to Fi^. 2a, where A^A = (^2 + i>2) cosec 0, and AiA^^^ = n{a^ + b.,) cosec 0.

Clearly — p^ . AA^ = area of triangle AA^A^^^

2

= ^n {a^ + b^) {a^ + b.) cosec Q.

^, . (a, + b,) {a^ + b^)

Thus /o = -^— ^ ^4-^:

p sin d

Jri^ + (n + lY - 2n{n + e) cos $

, exactly . (xvi)

From this equation, the equations (xv) and (xva) can be easily deduced.

The results of this section are easily exemplified by taking two intaglio screens of nearly equal pitch, and superposing them at small angles. It will be found that ^ = o gives a finite pitch corresponding to equation (xva). It will also be found that as 0 passes through zero from positive small values to negative small values, the orientation of

lo Lees, On the Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens

the framework of coarse squares appears to change by nearly i8o*. This is easily understood from the discussion, already given, of ^.

§12. As a verification of the formula given in {viiib) for the pitch of the coarser framework arising when two screens for which e = o are superposed, a simple test was made. Two screens of equal rulings (loo transparent lines to the inch) were superposed at such an angle as to give a spacing of lo semi-transparent bands to the inch for the resulting coarse pattern of squares. The angle was found to be 575° (correct to a quarter of a degree). In this case we have

a, + ^2 = '^i + /'i = o'oi".

Also by {viiib), p^= — ^ cosec — = o"i"

2 2

Hence by calculation, cosec — = = 20 ; Q=<' 43'.

2 O'OI

§13. The effects obtained by superposing two ordinary half-tone screens, i.e., screens of transparent square spaces with black line boundaries, can be now dealt with. For this discussion, further diagrams are unnecessary. Let the two screens be denoted by iS,' and 6",'. We may suppose that ^'i' is the negative of S^ (in §3), and that S^^ is the negative of ^^2, without loss of generality. Thus for .SV, the width of the black bands is to be taken as a, whilst the sides of the transparent squares are to be taken as of a length b. Similarly for S^^, using dashed letters for a and b.

We consider S^^ as formed by making two sets (AV and \\^) of parallel black bands on a transparent plate, the two sets being at right angles, so as to produce a series of light squares. Similarly, S^ is regarded as formed by the two sets (A^' and F2') of parallel black bands, etc. The final pattern i?' of transparent spaces, obtained by superposing S^" andt 2', and holding the combination up to the light, can be obtained by he following operations (compare with v53) : —

(;') Make two screens ruled respectively, one with set AV of dark bands, the other with set X/ only. Superpose these screens and find the pattern /*,' of transparent spaces obtained on holding the combination up to the light.

(//) Perform opn. (/), using F,' and K,'. Let pattern be (2,'.

(m) „ „ X,^ and Y^\ „ ,, P,\

iiv) „ „ X,^ and F,^ „ „ Q^'.

(v) Superpose these Screens. Wherever light can penetrate through -^iS (?i') -^^2', C--' simultaneously, there is a transparent space of the final pattern R\ Notice that this operation is quite different from operation (v) of ?i3.

Ma)tchestcy Memoirs, \'ol. Ixiii. (1919) No. 4

Plate II.

Illustrates the effect of superposing screens with black lines on white ground.

Pitch of screens 100 to the inch ; angle 2^°. (Actually, the screens are

almost of the "chess hoard " type, but the general effect is clear).

* « %, *\

//.. o. Same as in J'ig. 5, but angle is now 5

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. /xiii. {igig) N'o.^ ii

§14. We shall now discuss the results of the operations just described.

The result /"i' of operation (/) can be inferred from §§ 4 and 5. The only difference, in fact, lies in the interchanging of the a's and b's. When Q is small, we shall get a series of parallel rows of transparent patches, and the distance /_, between two adjacent rows (the pitch of the rows) is still given by equation {vii), so that p^ = {a^ + b.,) / 2sin (^/2). Assuming that ^1/ (^i + <^i) is greater* than 0*5 (which is usually the case), the areas of the individual patches will be much greater than those discussed in §§4 and 5 ; for the same value oi'O.

§15. Operation (//') of §13 will give the same results as operation (/), but rotated through 90°. The results of superposing screens corre- sponding to /'i' and Q^\ and finding where light penetrates through the combination, will therefore be as follows : — Wherever a row of transparent patches of F^^ is superposed on a row of Q^^ there will be a semi-transparent square area formed. It must be remembered that these rows are themselves much broader than those discussed in §!^4 and 5. The net result of operations (/) and (/'/) together, following the procedure of operation {v), is therefore to give a series of semi- transparent squares, inside a black square framework.

>;i6. Operations {Hi) and (iv) of §13 give resuUs which can be obtained from operations {Hi) and {iv) of §3, by interchanging a's and b's. Confining ourselves to small values of 0, we see from equation {tx) that the pitch of the rows of patches in A' and Q^i' is «i + b^. This, however, will be much smaller than z^,, given by equation {vii).

§17. On carrying out operation (v) of 1:^13 completely, we see that the effects of P^"^ and Q^"^ will be to produce on the semi-transparent square areas described in §15, a sort of additional mottling, resulting in a further diminution of the transparent light. The general character of the pattern obtained by superposing two half-tone screens of the ordinary type is well shown in Figs. 5 and 6 (Fl.II.).\ It is clear that the resulting coarse framework of semi-transparent squares with black edge is an approximate replica (magnified) of the pattern involved in either of the original half-tone screens. This result can be compared with that obtained in gio. The size of the framework obviously varies with Q in exactly the same way as the framework described in §10. It is, however, important to note that the pattern R^ is not the negative of pattern R ; this is on account of the difference in the operations {v) of §3 and §13 respectively.

* See § 23.

t Owing to difficulties of reproduction, the effect desired has had to be shown by making use of what are practically " chess-board " screens (see below).

12 Lees, Oh the Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens

iJiS. In the above ^^.^13 to 17 we have assumed that (^2 + ^2) is a multiple of (a, +^,). It is easy to see, however, that when this is not the case, the formula given in {xv) must be used for /.• Thus with R\ as with A", the coarseness of the main pattern of squares does not become infinite, as (y approaches o'. The orientation of the pattern is also given by the angle ^ discussed in i$i i.

^19. It has been shown in v$.§io and 17 that the resultant pattern -R. or R^ resembles the original screens from which it was produced. The same is true of the pattern resulting when two process screens of the " chess board " variety are superposed. The argument is very

Fig- 7-

simple. Let Fig. 7 represent part of a " chess board " screen, the squares being of side a,. This screen may be regarded as either

(a) a square framework (of side a, ^2) of transparent lines like AB (of periodically varying width), surrounding a dark interior, or (/i) a square framework (of side a, J 2) of black lines like CD (of periodically varying width), surrounding a transparent interior.

On superposing two such screens, of sides «, and <r. respectively, 5jio shows us that the resultant pattern will follow («) in its features,

}[a)icJicsti'r Mi-i>ioirs, I ^ol. Ixiii. ( 1 9 1 9) No. 4

Plate III.

Fig. la.

Illustrates the effect of superposing " chess board " screens. Pitcli of screens

100 to the inch. Angle aj^". (Actually, the screens consist of Vjlack round

dots on a white ground.)

.Same as in Fi». 7«. but angle is now 5' .

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1919) No. 4 13

whilst §17 shows us that the pattern will also follow (/3). It follows that the resultant pattern must be of the " chess board " type. Assuming that rtj is an integral multiple of a^, the pitch of the resulting pattern as obtained from consideration (o) must be, from {vii), equal to rti J 2 j 2sin (^/2). A similar result would hold from consideration (/3). But this pitch for small values of $ is measured parallel to the diagonal of a square. Thus the pitch of the resultant " chess board " pattern, when measured in the ordinary way, viz., parallel to a side «„ is fli / 2sin (0I2), and increases indefinitely as $ tends to zero. This result should be compared with equation (vii).

The effect of superposing two chess board screens with equal pitches is shown in J^i'gs. ya and 7^ (F/. I//.)*

The case of a^ja^ not being integral (a2>ai) can be dealt with on lines exactly similar to those followed in ^$ 1 1 and 18. It is easily seen that generally the side of the " chess board " pattern square plays the part of {a^ + <^i) in §§ 4 to 18

§20. We can extend the results of §5 to the case where

ai + d^ = kd, a^ + d2 = /d . . . . (xvti)

k and / being integers prime to each other. The appropriate diagram for pitches / is shown in Fig. 8, which shows the points A of Fig. i relabelled. Referring to Fig. 8, we shall have

i/^i 2^1 = 2^1 3^1 = etc. = (<?, + /^2) cosec B, ^A, ,.4, = ^A^ ^A. = etc. = (a, +l\) cosec Q.

Now instead of grouping the transparent patches of which the A's are corners, according to rows like ^Aj ^A^ ^A^ (say), we can group them in rows parallel to ^A^ \^Ai. It at once follows from equations (xvii) that i^i i^i^i^^i kAi,= k/d cosec. 0. If we regard the four points i^i, iA\, \^A\, \,A„ as typical of a pattern of transparent squares, we see that the corresponding pitches are

Pz = i^i k^i = 2kid cosec 0 sin {0J2) = ^/d sec (0I2) . (xviii) p2 = kA\ N = kid cosec 0 cos {0I2) = hkld cosec {Oj^) . {xix)

It should be noticed, however, that we have rows of transparent spaces having directions parallel to LM, passing through every point A on the boundary of, or inside, the parallelogram ^At, ^A\ \JA\ \^A^. Thus, calling the results just obtained pattern F^ (as in §3), we shall find on superposing F^ and Q^f (according to operation (v) of §3), a whole series of parallel square networks, all having their sides of square given

* Owing to difficulties of reproduction, the two screens illustrated are not exactly chess-board types, but consist of black round dots on a white ground.

t<2 is, of course P^ rotated through 90'.

14 Lees, On the Superposing of Tico Cross-liiie Screens

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ixiii. ( 1 9 1 9) No. 4 1 5

by {xix). Each of these square networks will be of the type described in §6, but it is important to note that there will be kl distinct networks of this type, when account is taken of all the points A. These networks of squares of side /a can be again regarded as consisting of tivo parallel square networks only One network will have a side/a/'^j the other a side /,//. It is clear, however, that on account of the size of /2, with large values of k and /, it will be difficult for the eye to pick out the regularity of the pattern ; more particularly will this difficulty be emphasised on account of the presence of two sets of parallel networks of pitches ///^ and /// respectively. It must be emphasised, however, that the resultant pattern of P.^ and Q^ (according to operation iv) of §3) is periodic within squares of side />,, and this can be shown by making ^ very small, when the periodicity becomes recognisable.

The effects of adding patterns P., and Q^ to the pattern just described, can be obtained by the procedure given in §§7 and 8, and we have in no way to modify the above argument for the coarse framework of R.

The results given in this section can be obviously applied mutatis mutandis to the case of superposing two ordinary half-tone screens. Thus the two sets of square frameworks, consisting of dark boundaries with lighter interiors, will have pitches or sides given by p^lk and /,// respectively ; where p.. is given by equation {xix).

%2i. We shall now briefly discuss the average intensity of light after transmission through two ordinary half-tone screens [i.e., 5",' and .S^' of §13). The results here given must be taken as those averaged over large areas of each plate or screen.

Assuming the uniform intensity of the incident light to be /, the average intensity after passing through a screen ruled only with bands X^"- (§13) will clearly be I.b^ j {a^ +^i). Superposing two such screens at 90" gives us the effect of S^^ Thus after transmission through the half-tone screen Si\ the intensity of the transmitted light is

I,^^/i>rl(a, + d,Y (xx)

If the light had been passed instead through 6*2', the transmitted intensity would have been

I^'=I K^'lia. + hY {xxi)

The final intensity, after passing through both screen S^,"^ and 6",', is therefore

I.' = I b^^b^"" l{a, + lf,Y{a^ + b^Y. . . (xxii)

Similarly, if S^ and ^'2 be the negatives of 6V and ^'2^ the respective intensities of transmission are

(for S, alone), /^ = /—/,' = /. {2a,b, + a,y j (a^ + b,)'-. . (xxiii)

1 6 Lees, On the Superposing of Two Cross -line Screens

(for S._ alone), /, = /- Z^' = /. {2a^b._ + a,-) / {a^ + b^y. . (xxiv) (for Si and S2 combined), /, = /. (la^i/^ + a,^)

As I3' is not equal to /— I., it follows that ^' is wt*/ the exact negative of i? (see end of §17).

For a true half-tone screen, /j = /i' = 7/ 2. Thus

'^r/(«i + '^.)' = o-5, />., <^x/(«i+ '^i)=i/v/2_= 0-707, ) _ , 'Jfi/(«i + '^i)= I - i/s/2 = o-293. j

In these cases we should have, after passing two such screens, an intensity {/^ or /,') given by

I^ = /J = o'2^. I . . . . (xxvii)

§22. We have discussed at some length in the preceding sections the general origin of the coarse square frameworks to be recognised on superposing two half-tone screens of similar type. The question now arises : what variations will the patterns P^ and Q^ (of §3), or /I,' and Q.^ (of §13), produce on their respective final patterns Ji or J?\ as the two original half-tone screens are relatively displaced, keeping 0 constant?

It has to be recognised that when the respective positions of the two superposed screens are given, the pattern tt-, resulting from T'-. and Q. (or from P^^ and Q2') is defined relatively to the pattern tt^ resulting from Pj and Q^ (or from /'i' and Q^^).

Fig. 9 shows the centre lines of the transparent bands A', and A\ (inclined at angle d) which together produce pattern /*, of ii3. The corners of the double set of parallelograms here shown are clearly to be regarded as the centres of the transparent spaces of pattern P,. Fig. 10 shows similarly the spacing of the centres of the transparent spaces of pattern F^ (formed by bands A'l and Y^)- In superposing patterns F^ and F^ to form part of the final pattern F (according to the rules laid down in 5^3), obviously the bands A"*! in Fig. 10 must coincide with bands X^ in Fig. 9. One effect of displacing the two original screens 5 and S, keeping 0 constant, is clearly equivalent to sliding Fig. 10 over Fig. 9, still keeping bands A^, in both figures in coincidence.

We can similarly make diagrams for the centres of the transparent spaces of patterns \Q, and Q.. In superposing these diagrams the bands Y, in both diagrams must coincide {Figs. 11 and 12). Another effect of displacing the two original screens ..S", and 6\, keeping t)

X2

Fig. 9

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1919) A^^. 4 17

/■i;^. II.

Aj'^". 12,

1 8 Lees, On the Superposing of Tzvo Cross-line Screens

constant, is clearly equivalent to sliding Fig. 12 over Fig. 11, still keeping bands Kj in both figures in coincidence.

Either of the slidings of Fig. 10 over Fig. 9, or of Fig. 12 over Fig. II, may be zero in special cases of the relative displacements of S^ and S^^.

We also see that when the corners of the parallelograms shown in Figs. 9, 10 and 11 are fixed, owing to the mutual positions of S^ and S,, being absolutely specified, then also are the corners of the parallelo- grams of Fig. 1 2 specified. Thus the positions of the centres of the transparent spaces of Qr,, are defined, when those of the centres of the transparent spaces of P^, P^ and (2, are given. In other words, the spacing of the pattern Q^ is dependent on the spacings of the patterns P„ /'a, and (2i. More generally, the spacing of any one of these four patterns is determined uniquely by those of the other three.

However, if it is recognised that for small values of Q., the pitches // and p:^ of equation (ix) are small compared with p,,., it will be seen that the displacements referred to will not materially modify the main or coarse framework of squares, and this is readily verified by experiment (see also analytical discussion in Appendix).

§23. Conclusio?i. The author has discussed in this paper the general characteristics of the patterns obtained on superposing two half-tone plates of like type, at small angles. More particularly, the cases of (/) intaglio, (//) ordinary half tone, and {Hi) " chess board " screens have been discussed. In these cases, it is shown that the coarse square framework which arises is similar in type to that of each of the constituent screens. Formulae for the pitches of the coarse square frameworks are deduced, and it is shown that if the pitches of the original screens are to one another in the ratio of simple whole numbers, a coarse square framework arises, whose pitch varies as cosec {d\2), and thus become infinite when $ tends to zero. In other cases, it is shown that the pitch remains finite always.

It has to be remembered that all kinds of groupings of the transparent spaces forming the final pattern are possible tlieoretically, but the ones taken for consideration are those that force themselves on the eye.

An important point brought out in the paper is that the resultant pattern R of two intaglio screens S^ and ^2 is not the negative of the pattern R' which is the result of superposing screens .S",' and S^} which arc the negatives of 6", and S., respectively.

The important cases which arise when 0 is large are not discussed in this pajjcr. The questions of framing rules f(;r olitaining the best

. Manchester Memoirs, Vol, Ixiii. (1919) No. 4 19

resultant pattern R for photo-reproduction purposes, and the corre- sponding value of ^, are not investigated. Such work would seem to be largely a matter for experiment as well as theory, and is engaging the attention of Mr. Fishenden and the author.

Finally, the author would like to give his thanks to Mr. Fishenden for the assistance he has given in preparing plates, etc., and thus enabling the theory to be tested ; also for many suggestions in connection with the paper.

The author would also thank Mr. L. J. Mordell for valuable criticisms concerning the Appendix.

!0 Lees, On the Superposing of Tivo Cross-line Screens

APPENDIX.

The effect of such displacements, as are referred to in >;2o, can be discussed analytically as follows (see Fig. 13) : —

Let the centre of a black square of the screen .Si be denoted by O, and through O take two axes Ox, Oy parallel to the sides of the square (and therefore mutually at right angles). After superposing screen 6*2

Fig. 13.

on screen S„ let the centre 6>' of a black sfjuare of 5' have the co-ordinates («, (i) relative to Ox, Oy. Through O' draw axes O'l, O'ti parallel to the sides of the squares of S\ These axes will be mutually at right angles, and O'E can be taken as making the angle 0 with Ox. For simplicity in the following discussion, we shall put

«i + ^i = yi a

+ ^i = 7i, \

(0

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (191 9) No. 4 21

If a point P have co-ordinates (£, t]) relative to 0% O'r], then its co-ordinates {x,y) relative to Ox, Oy will clearly be given by

:x; = a-1-^ cos ^ — j; sin ^, \ ,...

y = /3 + ^sm d+ncos e,) ' ' ^"'

If the point P coincide with some point mOn, which is the centre of another black square of S\ and which has co-ordinates ^ = w/i, rj = ;/y„ where m and n are integers, then

x = a + yi (m cos 0~fi sin 6),} /•.•\

j>^ = /? + yi (''''^ sin 6* + ^^ cos ^).j ' " ' ^^^^^

We shall assume that y is a commensurable fraction //^ (where p and (7 are integers) of y^ ; also that cos 0 and sin 0 are commen- surable, and equal respectively to rjt, sjf, where r, s and / are integers. We can then write

X = a + -^ (mr - fis) = a + -^ yimr - ?is),

y = 13 + — {'ns + nr) = (3 + -^ y{ms + fir), t pt

It is, of course, assumed that the fractions p\q, rjt, sjf are expressed in their lowest terms. Since

{rltY + {s\tY=i . . . . (v)

we may take it from the theory of numbers, that / is always odd, whilst one of r and s is odd, the other even. Further ;' is prime to s.

We see from equations (w) that if m and n are multiples of pt (or if a common factor / is present in the numerator and denominator of (/ Ipt, we can take m and n multiples of////), then we can write

X = a + My \

y = (3 + Ny j ■ ■, ■ ■ ^^ where M and 2V are integers.

Thus relatively to a new origin having co-ordinates x = My, y — Ny, we find that x = a, y = f3, exactly as in Fi^. 9. From equations (I'v) we see further that every time either m or n is increased by pt\f, i; and ?/ are both increased by multiples o^ pty^ j/,. and we get new values of J/ and JV satisfying (vi). 'i'hus we have established the fact that with a square framework of lines defined by

S, = M.y.ptjf, {M,== ... -2,-1, o, I, 2, etc.), \

y] = N^y^pt\f, {N^= ... -2,- I, O, I, 2, etc), j

{vii)

the pattern R exactly repeats itself in each square, independently of (a, j8), and we need therefore only consider one square.

22 Lees, On the Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens

It may be noticed that if / exists, it is the factor common to q and t. If the G.C.F. of / and r be /', and of / and s be /", then we can reduce the framework given by {vii). For if /' and /"be other than unity, we shall have, on account of {iv), x increasing by a multiple of y whenever m is increased by f^j/f^ and similarly y increasing by a multiple of y whenever n is increased by p^ f//^^. Thus within the framework of lines given by

l = M^y,ptjff\ {M,^= ... -2, - I, O, I, 2, . . ), 1 ,...

„ = iv;>,/////", (^/= ...-2, -I, o, 1, 2,..),/ • ^""'^

the pattern Ji exactly repeats itself in each rectangle. Further, this framework is the least framework within which we have the whole of the pattern R represented.

It may also be observed that if the whole of the pattern R be divided up into rectangles according to the scheme (wVV), we shall have for each rectangle (Z"^)- //""/'/" points {x^y) of the general type ,„ On' (/>., centres of black squares of S^) to be associated with each rectangle. Boundary points can be settled by any convenient con- vention. Corresponding to each of these points there will be a point (a\ /30, where a} < y, ^' < y, satisfying

x^o}^M^yA ,..

where M^ and iV' are integers. The points {a\ (i^) clearly be within or on a square S given by x = o, x = y, y = o, y = y. These points may be termed representative points for the point (o, /:>'). We see that the representative points of those points ,nC?„', to be associated with each rectangle given by {viii), will cover every possible representative point for the given position of 6''.

Representative points (a", /a'') possess the property that any displace- ment of O^ from {x = a,y = ii) to (;v = a', j = /5'), keeping Q constant, produces the same pattern R in another part of the plane.

Further, of these {ptY\f~f'f'' points (a', /j'), no two (corresponding to two points mi<^'nii mii^Sui) associated with the same rectangle of the series {viii), can coincide. For if this were the case, a displace- ment of 5, so that „uC>iii was changed to m„(9„,i (still keeping B constant) would produce exactly the same pattern R in exactly the same place ; so that the pattern A' would be periodic in a framework of rectangles less than those given by {viii). This is, however, impossible. Thus there are (//)' \f'f^f^^ different representative points in ii.

We shall now discuss the representative points obtained when (9' coincides with (9, i.e.., when n = o, /J = o.

First, let us assume that the factors /' and /" are unity. In this case we have (//)" //* representative points to consider. Assume that

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ixiii. (1919) No. 4 23

y is made up of ////units (each of length yf\pt) ; then yi is made up of ^/// units. Taking any pt. {i,=fjiy-^, r) = vy^) where fx and v are integers, we see that the corresponding values of x and y in terms of the unit referred to, are

.T = ^ cos ^ - /; sin ^ = ^ - — ^ - = X {fxr- vs),\

f t J t f \ . {x)

Thus a' and ji' are given by whole numbers. On subtracting multiple of y (also whole numbers) to get the positions of the representative points, we again get whole numbers.

Thus the whole of the representative points will be on some or other of the points of intersection of the series of squares given by

pt pt

where ^i^ and v^ can have any integral values, positive or zero, less than pt\f. Associated with a square of side y there will be (^)

such points. As there are (^) separate representative points, it

follows that the points {xi) give all the representative points, in this case (when/'^ and_/" are unity).

By similar reasoning, we can show that when/' or/" is different from unity, the squares (.r;) include all the representative points. Further, whilst some of the points given by {xi) are fiot representative points, points of the form*

ffifii ff^f^'^

X = u" ■'J -^ . y V = ^'" -^-^ -^ y, . . (xii)

^ pt pt

are representative points ; where /.t" and »'" are either zero or any positive numbers less than /////'/"• Without being able to specify more directly the positions of the representative points, we can assert that they are not more widely spaced than the points given by (:v//).

If now we remove the restrictions on ^', /ri", v^ and v", so that they may now be any positive or negative integers (and zero), we easily see that in the general case when O^ does not coincide with O^ that the lines

X = a + ^^^ , J- = « + "111. , . . . ixiii)

pt ' pt

* Notice that since/' is prime to/", pi Iff ^/'^^ is an integer,

24 Lees, Oji the Superposing of Two Cross -line Screens

give a network of squares, the corners of which (when inside the square 2 of side y) include all the representative points of the point (a, /3). The points given by

pi ' pi

provided they lie in (or on) il, are all representative points.

Equations {xiii) define {pt\fY points, whilst {xiv) define {pt\ff^f^^Y of the representative points, the total number of which is {ptYlf^f f^^-

Considering then, only displacements of O'^ inside the square S, we see that if the pattern R is to remain unaltered in design, O' must always coincide with a representative point of the original position («, /i) of 0\

Equations {iv) show us that we still get periodicity of the pattern R within a rectangle, provided g cos 0\p and q sin 0\p are commensurable {e.g., glp= J 5> co^ 0 ^ 2 j J S' sin 0= i j J 5 ). Whenever this condition is not satisfied, there is no periodicity in the pattern, i.e., no finite displacement of S^ over S will produce the same pattern R in the same place. Thus any displacement of 0\ from one point in such a square to another point in the same square, will produce a pattern R totally different (i.e., it cannot be made to coincide with the original pattern by a finite displacement of R).

In such cases as these (and they are the most general) it is strictly impossible to talk of the pattern /? as being defined by 6* alone ; the relative co-ordinates of (9' to O should also be specified.

Disregarding all cases when {) = o, we can examine some simple cases where periodicity in pattern R exists. The coarsest set of representative points is obtained when

(these values of r and s can be interchanged). In this case, from equation (iv), we see that the pattern R is periodic in a square frame- work of size yi. Thus for a given position of 6>' within a square of side y, there is no other position for O' inside the square, which will reproduce R in any part of the plane. Similarly when

qlp^^-JmJ^V^ — = — ; f'h and n, being integers. The next

simplest case is where

Manchester Memoirs, Vol.lxiii. (19 19) No. 4 25

Here again r and s can be interchanged. In this case, f=f^ =/" = ij and equations {^xiv) show that the representative points for a given position (a, ^) of O^ within the square of side y are given by

a; = ct + /i"— , j = a+)'"-^, . . . iyxvii)

where /.i" and v" are integers chosen so as to malce the points {xy) lie in or on the square of side 7. Thus the side of the squares defined by {xvii) is of length y / 5.

In all other cases, the distribution of representative points will be finer than that given by {xvii).

These results show that where periodicity of the pattern R (or ^') exists, the representative points will be so finely distributed, except for the cases just mentioned, that we may for practical purposes discuss the pattern as depending only on ^.

The most general case is that in which either y^ \ y, or cos B and sin Q (or all of these) are incommensurable in such a way that there is no periodicity in the pattern R (or i?'). In this case for a given (a, /?) there will be a doubly infinite series of representative points (corre- sponding to the doubly infinite series of points mPn). We shall not attempt to discuss the distribution of these points, beyond the following : —

(/) To any point (o, /?) inside the square of side y there will be a doubly infinite number of representative points (a', ^^) inside the square.

(;V) A displacement of (a, /j)') to any of these points (o^, /^O will give exactly the same doubly infinite series of representative points, but of course the points mO^ to which these correspond, will have changed.

(///) If (a', /5') be a representative point of («, /i), then the point («",/3"), where „ii^ («'-«) ^ ^n = itA^ , N and N'

being integers, is also a representative point of («, /5). Thus the representative points inside the square of side y are infinitely crowded everywhere.

We are thus entitled to say that although we can never get, in such a case, exactly the same pattern R on displacing (9' from (a, ^) to («S^')) unless (a', /30 is a representative point of (a, /3) ; yet we can always find some part of the plane where the new pattern R will differ

26 Lees, On the Superposing of Two Cross-line Screens

as little as we please from the original pattern (suitably displaced). In this sense then, we can say that R depends only on 6-

In concluding this Appendix, it may be mentioned that periodic frameworks, of the kind we have been discussing, are well known in the Theory of Numbers and in the Theory of Doubly Periodic Functions, under the heading Zahlengitter. The author has not been able to find any evidence that Zahlengitter have been discussed from the optical point of view.

MancJtester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No. 5

Plate I.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No. 5

v.— HENRY WILDE.

Professor VV. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.

Henry Wilde, the eldest child of a working mechanic, was born in Manchester in 1833. When Henry was sixteen he was left without parents, and had the charge of a younger brother, Joseph, and a sister. The brothers were apprenticed to an engineering firm. Henry soon showed considerable skill, and before he was of age he obtained a position of some responsi- bility in the works. His leisure hours were devoted to study, especially of electricity ; and he constructed electrical machines and made experiments with electrical kites and the electro-deposition of metals. He soon realised the great possibilities of the indus- trial applications of electricity, and decided in 1856, when he was twenty-three, to set up in business as a telegraph and lightning-conductor engineer. He first had an office in Cross Street, Manchester; but in 1861 he removed to 2, Winter's Buildings, St. Ann's Church Yard.

An important fact in the life of Henry Wilde was the friend- ship of his brother-in-law, Mr. George Clifif Lowe, silversmith, of 26, St. Ann's Street, Manchester. They became partners, and the firm of Wilde and Co. was established, with a works in Mill Street, Ancoats.

Lightning Conductor Expert.

In 1 861 his attention was directed to the danger of having lightning conductors near water and gas pipes, especially when the pipes were made of lead, a metal that may be easily fused by side flashes. He advised that in all cases lightning conductors should be metallically connected with the pipes, which is now the general practice. Wilde established a local reputation as a lightning conductor expert, and in a Lancashire factory town was known as ■' t'thunder an' leetnin' mon."

Telegraphy. At the time that Wilde commenced business, commercial telegraphy was fast developing, and he saw tiiat an alphabetic system was likely to be adopted by works and business houses. He devoted five years to the design and manufacture of suitable transmitters and receivers worked by magnetos, and succeeded in producing an ingenious system, which was a rival to that of Sir Charles Wheatstone. The Universal Private Telegraph Com- pany, which used the Wheatstone system, brought an action against Wilde for infringement of its patents; but the action was dismissed with costs.

Ju}ie joth, 1^20.

2 H ALDAN E Gee — Hemy ]\l/dc

The use of Wilde's ABC system was so encouraging that it was decided to extend the sale of the apparatus by the forma- tion of a limited liability company. A prospectus was issued with the object of forming the Globe Telegraph Company, Limited, with a capital of i,' 100,000. The chief object of the company was to establish " a system of private telegraphic com- munication between Public Offices, Police, Fire and Railway S'tati'ons, Banks, Docks, Mines, Manufactories, Merchants' Offices, etc." Only about two hundred shareholders were ob- tained, and ^5 per share was called up. To carry out the intentions of the company it was necessary, in accordance with the Telegraph Act of 1863, to have an Act of Parhament. This was obtained in 1864, but the legal expenses were so heavy that the bulk of the called-up capital was required to settle them. About forty firms, including Messrs. Piatt Brothers of Oldham, Messrs. Strutt of Belper, Messrs. George Crossland & Son of Huddersfield, Messrs. William Jessop & Sons of Sheffield, and Messrs. Rylands of Manchester, used Wilde's instruments and found them easy to work and of considerable utility. The Tele- graph Act of 1868 enabled the Government to acquire, work and maintain electric telegraphs, and the Act as amended in the following year practically gave the Government a monopoly in telegraphic business. Against this Wilde petitioned, and in his evidence before a Select Committee, he claimed that his patent rights would be greatly depreciated, if not entirely de- stroyed, by the Act. He further urged that his new system of laying and working subterranean wires would have no chance of adoption. Much to his disappointment, the Committee decided against his claims, and the Globe Telegraph Company ceased'

its business.

Electric Generators.

An important consequence of Wilde's work in telegraphy was his patent of 1863, which related to an improved machine for producing electric currents. To understand the position of the inventor, it will be necessary to review very briefly the previous history of the subject. In 1831 Faraday rotated a copper plate between the poles of a permanent magnet and so produced induced electric currents. The effect was increased by replacing the permanent magnet by an electro-magnet. Faraday may therefore be regarded as the real first inventor of a machine for obtaining electric currents by the rotation of a copper armature in a magnetic field produced either by a permanent magnet or an electro-magnet. The immediately succeeding inventors, Pixii (1832), Sexton (1833), and Clarke (1834) used armatures with bobbins wound with wire and permanent magnets. All such macliines are called magneto- electric, or simply magnetos. The first great step in their im- provement did not come until 1856, when Siemens introduced the shuttle-wound armature.

Manchester Mevwirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No.'h 3

This type of armature (See J^/. I., Fig. i) Wilde adopted, and he described the details of his machine in a paper with the title, " Ex- perimental Researches in Magnetism and Electricity," which was communicated to the Royal Society by Faraday in 1866. The magneto is shown in the upper part of Fig. 2. Two blocks of cast iron D and D, and two pieces of brass of the same length were fixed together with brass bolts, so that a hollow cylinder — which he termed the "magnet cylinder" — was formed, having a hole of is/g in. in diameter. The armature core was of cast iron, on which was wound 163 feet of copper wire 0-03 in. diameter. The U-shaped steel magnets A were 8 in. long, i in. wide, and \ in. thick. Each magnet was about i lb. in weight, and able to support 10 lbs. The armature was rotated at 3,000 revolutions per minute by the belt M. Experiments were made ^vith a varying number of magnets, and what Wilde called " the quantity of electricity produced " was measured by a tangent galvanometer (see Appendix A). This magneto was used to excite electro-magnets, the largest having limbs 2 ft. long and 31/2 in. diameter. With four steel magnets in position on the magneto, 1,088 lbs. was required to detach the keeper of the electro-magnet, this being 27 times the weight that the combined, four magnets were able to support. This he regarded as a paradoxical phenomenon, which appeared to him to be a new principle in electro-magnetism.

The second part of the 1866 Royal Society paper is especially interesting and important in connection with the history of electrical generators. It relates to " A new and powerful gene- rator of dynamic electricity," and describes the construction of a new magneto and of three machines with electro-magnets. The magneto was fixed to the top of the electro-magnetic machine, and its electro-magnet B (see Fig. 2) was excited by the current from the magneto. The armature of the electro- magnetic machine was driven by the belt M^. Further details of the four machines are given in Appendix B. They are classified according to the size of the bore of the magnet cylinder, which in the three electro-magnetic machines was 2^, 5 and 10 ins. respectively. The lo-in. machine was provided with two arma- tures, one for "intensity" and the other for "quantity." With •this large machine, using the intensity armature, Wilde was enabled to produce a strong arc light. He used a Foucault arc lamp provided with a parabolic reflector 20 ins. in diameter. This was placed on the top of his works, and cast shadows of the flames of the street lamps a quarter-of-a-mile away on the neighbouring walls. He says: "When viewed from that distance, the light was a very magnificent object to behold, the rays pro- ceeding from the reflector having all the rich efifulgence of sunshine." A piece of photo paper exposed to the light for 20 seconds at a distance of 2 feet from the light was darkened as

4 H ALDAN E Gee— //<';/ rr IVt'/de

much as a piece of the same kind of paper when exposed for one minute to the direct rays of the sun at noon on a very clear day in March.

These electro-magnetic generators had a very serious defect. The eddy and other currents in the armature, being converted into heat, produced a rise of temperature of 30o°F. and upwards. Wilde found that the smaller generators ran cooler than those of larger size ; but even the former, during long runs, got so hot as to endanger the insulation. At a works where it was desir- able to run the machines for days and nights without a stop, water was passed round hollow brass segments forming part of the armature cylinder, and the hot water produced was used to feed the steam boilers. In order to obtain sufficiently large currents it was necessary to run a number of the small genera- tors in parallel. This led to a number of difficulties. Although the armatures of the machines were driven with equal-sized, pulleys from the same countershaft by belts, the want of perfect synchronism prevented efficient parallel running. Wilde tried gearing a pair of machines together, and he then made his most important discovery. He ran the machines as alternators. When the armatures were so clutched that the currents were in the same phase, the sum of the currents was obtained in the main circuit; but when they were clutched together so that the currents were in opposite phase, no current resulted. He found now that when the clutch was unfastened and the machines were run dis- connected from one another, the armatures were pulled into phase and they ran perfectly in parallel, so that no mechanical gearing was necessary. Wilde had thus discovered that alternators can run in parallel when synchronous. The full importance of this was not realised until electrical engineering was more developed. Subsequently, John Hopkinson showed that it was mathematically possible; and now the parallel running of alternators is in every- day use at supply stations.

With the threefold object of obtaining a generator that would heat less, that could be driven at a lower speed, and in which the pulsations of the rectified current would not be so marked, Wilde designed and constructed electro-magnetic machines of a type entirely different from those previously described. The details are given in a paper read before this Society in 1873. The shuttle-wound type of armature was abandoned, and he used one with 16 cylindrical bar magnets. The originator of this type of armature is claimed for King in 1846. //',?■. 3 shows the details of the machine. To each of the circular frames of cast iron are fixed 16 electro-magnets. They are wound with insulated copper wire and are joined up so that in the two circles the adjacent poles and those opposite are of different polarity. The armature bobbins are fixed on a heavy disc of cast iron. Four of the bobbins are connected to a comnuitator; the alternating

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No. 5

Plate III.

Fig. 3. Wilde's second type of Dynamo.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No. 5 5

current is there rectified and furnishes an exciting or minor current for the electro-magnets. The remainder of the armature bobbins supply an alternating current that is collected by the brushes on the slip-rings. This major current may, if desired, be rectified by replacing the rings by a second commutator. When driven at 500 revolutions per minute the machine melted 8 feet of iron wire 0-065 ^"- ii^ diameter or ran two arc lamps in series. At 1,000 revolutions per minute 12 feet of iron wire 0-075 "''• diameter could be fused. A comparison between the power of the new machine and that of the 10 in. old type showed that it was capable of giving a double amount of power with less than one-fourth of the weight of materials necessary to construct the 10 in. machine.

Henry Wilde had thus produced two commercial types of generator, which could be used to replace the primary batteries used in electro-chemistry, and for arc lighting.

Between 1866 and 1877 he sold machines for the following purposes : —

No. of Machines.

Electric light for lighthouses and searchlights ...

Electric light for photographic purposes

Electro-deposition of metals

Electrical bleaching of sugar and of linen

Electro-Che7nlcal Work.

The great demand for machines for electro -chemical purposes revived Wilde's interest in these applications of electricity, and he commenced experiments in his works. In 187 1 he secured a patent for the coppering of iron tubes so that they were protected against corrosion; and the firm did a considerable business in supplying coppered tubes. In six years (1871-1877), 25,726 iron tubes and 1,521 steel " doctors" were coppered.

In 1875 Wilde secured a patent of very considerable impor- tance, which became very remunerative. It was for the purpose of making the rollers used in calico printing. An iron roller is first coated with a thin layer of copper in a hot cyanide bath, and afterwards is mounted so as to be capable of being revolved vertically in a solution of copper sulphate. This enabled a much higher current density to be used and the rate of deposi- tion to be greatly increased; and yet a very good quality of copper could be obtained, which was of even thickness. The specification also included a screw propeller for keeping the electrolyte at a uniform density. The patent was applied in a number of works, and was ultimately sold to the Broughton Coppei* Company Limited in 1880, who extended its use for the coating of hydrauhc rams, etc. Two years previously, Henry Wilde had entered into an agreement with Sir Joseph C. Lee of Manchester for the use of the patent process of coppering.

6 Haldank Gke — Henry Wilde

After the Broughton Copper Company had taken over the patents, it was alleged that Sir Joseph Lee had infringed these patents. This led to a costly legal action, in which the defendant was defeated.

Dr. Wilde's association with the Elkingtons led to an impor- tant use of his machines. Richard Elkington may be regarded as the founder of the electro-plating industry in England. He and his cousin Henry opened a large electro-plating works in Birmmgham in 1841. They soon realised that dynamos must be substituted for primary cells, and they tried the primitive machines then available. In 1865 G. R. Elkington, junior, patented a process for the electrolytic refining of copper, which is iden- tical in principle with that used at the present day. He adopted the use of Wilde's machines, and his firm paid a royalty of ;^3oo per annum for a number of years to Messrs. Wilde & Co. Messrs. Elliott of Pembrey, near Swansea, who took over the refining process from the Elkingtons, also used Wilde's machines. One of these was capable of giving 900 lbs. of copper in 24 hours. As the electrolytic refining process extended, Wilde obtained other users of his machines abroad. These included the Mansfield Mining Company of Eisleben and Messrs. Stern of Oker.

Extension of Patents. Liii(^ation.

In 1877 Henry Wilde petitioned the Privy Council to extend his dynamo patents of 1863 and 1865. He had the advantage of the evidence of the eminent engineer, Y . ]. Bramwell, who made the claims of the patentee very clear. The result of the petition was that the patents were extended until 1884.

When the Gramme dynamo was introduced into this country, Wilde brought an action against the British agents for infringe- ment of his patent. The agents obtained the opinions of F. H. Holmes, who for twenty-five years had been engaged in design- ing and constructing dynamos, S. A. Varley, one of the first to use residual magnetism for the excitation of electro-magnets, and Fontaine and Werdemann, well-known inventors. Their evidence was so strong, and threw so much doubt on the priority of Wilde's inventions, that Wilde found it advisable to withdraw his action.

Henry Wilde's fondness for litigation grew with his years, and in 1902 he brought a regrettable action against the late Professor S. P. Thompson and the printers and publishers of Thompson's standard treatise on " Dynamo-electric Machinery." The plaintiff claimed an injunction to restrain the defendants from asserting that Henry Wilde " is not the inventor of the generator of dynamic electricity known as the Dynamo or attributing such invention to any person or persons other than the Plaintift," and claimed damages and costs. The report of

MancJiester Memoirs^ Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No. 5 7

the action will be found in The Electrician, vol. 50, 1902-3. It was brought before Mr. Justice Buckley in the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice, who ordered that the statement of claim be struck out on the ground that it disclosed no reasonable basis of action. The action was dismissed with costs against the plaintiff. Against this decision Henry Wilde appealed, but mthout success.

Electric Searchlights. One of the applications of Wilde's machines already mentioned was for the purpose of providing electrical energy for arc lamps. The lirst idea was to use arc lamps in lighthouses ; but when the buildings were isolated there was difficulty in providing motive power for the dynamos. Wilde supplied a machine to the Com- missioners of Northern Lighthouses for the purpose in 1866, and in the following year one to the United States Lighthouse Board. In 1873 Wilde directed the attention of the Admiralty to the advan- tages of electric searchlights for naval purposes. Experiments were made at Spithead, extending over a year. They were especially arranged so as to ascertain whether the searchlight would bei a useful protection against torpedo boats. The experiments were so successful that three warships, the Minotaur, the Alexandra and the Temeraire were fitted with Wilde's apparatus. The report of Admiral Sir Beauchamp Seymour stated that the searchlights were of very great value for navigation, signalling, and general naval manoeuvres. Wilde also introduced his inv^entions to the Mercantile Marine service, but the Admiralty claimed the exclu- sive use of the lights. After the loss of the Titanic, Dr. Wilde communicated two papers to the Society: "On Searchlights for the Mercantile Marine," and " On Searchlights and the Titanic disaster," in which he strongly urged the compulsory inter- national use of searchlights at sea.

Aerodynamics and Aviation.

The tenth volume of the third series of the Memoirs of the Man- chester Literary and Philosophical Society is of special interest in connection with the activities of Wilde in 1887. It contains five papers by him, two of which relate to the efffux of air through orifices. The first paper attracted the attention of Osborne Rey- nolds, who in the same volume has an article " On the Flow of Gases," in which he gives a theoretical explanation of the experi- ments of Wilde.

The experiments mentioned above were really the sequel of a number that he had begun as early as i860, with the view of finding some means of solving the problem of aerial flight. Numerous trials were made on the discharge of steam and of air at pressures from 10 lbs. to 120 lbs. per square inch directly into the atmosphere from orifices of various forms. He also experimented on the reactive force produced by the explosion of a mixture of coal gas and air contained in a cylinder of steel.

8 1 1 ALi )A N K Gee — Henry / \ llde

The result of his many tests made with a view to the possibilities of avaation showed that the solution of the problem was not to be found in the discharge of gases through orihces. He then turned his attention to screw propellers, and used vanes from i to 4 feet in diameter, driven at velocities up to 2,000 revolutions per minute ; but the results were not sufficiently encouraging to him. He remarked: "Although my experimental investigations on the possibility of aerial locomotion have so far been of a negative character, the confidence I have in the ultimate solution of the problem still remains unshaken."

Magnetic Researches.

On the e.xpiration of the patents relating to the dynamo in 1884. Dr. Wilde retired from business. He was then fifty-one years of age, and vigorous; and he decided to devote his time to scientific research. During twelve years (1885-1897) his experimental work chiefly related to magnetism.

He was a great student of the works of the early investigators in the subject of terrestrial magnetism, and was especially attracted to the theory of Halley, the astronomer and contem- porary of Newton, that the variation of the magnetic compass could be explained by the rotation within the earth of magnetic matter. This led him to design an apparatus that he called a " Magnetarium." It consisted of two concentric spheres, as shown in Fig. 4 (one half of the outer sphere being removed to show the inner). The inner sphere, which is 16 ins. in diameter, is wound over its whole surface with insulated copper wire. The outer sphere, two inches greater in diameter than the inner one, has its inner surface covered with iron wire gauze, over which is wound a magnetising coil. The spheres were mounted on axles as shown, and they could be revolved at difi"erent rates of speed by turning the handle, which operated gearing. The axles are supported on a semi-circular brass meridian mounted between rollers fixed to a vertical support. All observations of dip and variation were made by bringing the station under test beneath an upper small circular table on which a dip needle or declina- tion compass can be placed. The magnetising coils were con- nected in parallel to a small magneto, and by variable resistances the currents in the two circuits could be adjusted. In order to represent more accurately the distribution of the earth's mag- netism, it was found necessary to cover the spaces representing the oceans with thin sheets of iron and to fix the inner globe at an inclination of 23J degrees to the axis of the terrestrial sphere. The train of wheels was so arranged that the internal sphere lost 12° for each revolution of the terrestrial globe, and this was taken as equivalent to 32 years. It was found possible by this magnetarium to represent fairly Avell the distribution of mag- netism in time and place.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No. 5

Plate IV.

Fig. 4. The jNIagnetarium.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No. 5 9

The influence of temperature upon the magnetic properties of iron, nickel, and cobalt was studied with the help of a specially- designed magnetometer, which is in the possession of jhe Society.

Wilde was interested in finding the limit of magnetisation as tested by the method of traction, and obtained the value of 2967 kilos per square centimetre.

Wilde's Use of Bode's Law. The German astronomer, J. E. Bode (1747- 1826) directed attention about 1776 to a remarkable empirical rule, now generally known as Bode's Law. The rule states that the relative values of the series of numbers : — o-]-4= 4

3+4= 7

6 + 4 = 10 i2-j-4 = i6 24 -j- 4 = 28 etc.

are the same as the relative distances of the planets from the sun.

Henry Wilde contended, in a paper before the Society about forty years ago, that a law of a similar kind should apply to the atomic weights. This early paper was followed at various times by twelve others; in that of 1913 he gave a revised table in- cluding all the more recently discovered elements, for which he found places in his table.

Tenacity of purpose 'was one o'f the most marked traits in Wilde's character. It is exhibited in an extraordinary degree in his obsession over Bode's Law. He regarded it as a great fundamental law of the universe, and devoted several of his astronomical papers to its advocacy. The last of all his papers, published by the Society when he was eighty-three, relates to the atomic weight of tellurium; in it he maintains that the atomic weight of this element must be exactly 128, as required by his tables.

Henry Wilde and The Literary of Philosophical Society. Wilde was elected a member in 1859 when twenty-six years of age; and in the following year he gave a short communication relating to the ABC telegraph of Sir Charles Wheatstone. It was not until his retirement from business in 1884 that he became actively associated with the Society. His means had become ample, chiefly owing to the success of his ielectro-chemical patents. When Sir Henry Roscoe and other members of the Society wished to raise a sum of money for the extension and improve- ment of the house, Wilde contributed /joo and in the following year ^400 for this purpose. He then undertook the cost of putting the old portion of the building into sound repair, and added a new portico and a storeroom. All the work was done under his direction, at a cost of ^1,500. In 1893 he wrote a letter to the Council in which he said: "As the Society is so

10 Haldane Gee — Henry Wilde

closely identified with the history of the method of generating" electricity ... I shall be pleased to defray the cost of wiring up and supplying the necessary fittings in the parts of the house where gas can be replaced with advantage by the electric light." This was followed by other gifts. For two years (1894- 1896) he was President of the Society. During this period " with the object of maintaining the high character which the Society has so long held in the estimation of the scientific world and to increase still further its means of usefulness," he had decided to endow the Society with ^8,000 to be devoted to the following and other purposes: — (i) to provide the salary of an assistant secretary and librarian; (2) to award a gold medal, a premium, and to provide an honorarium for a yearly lecture; (3) to com- pensate for the loss of income due to the abolition of an entrance fee; and (4) to remit half or the whole amount of the subscrip- tions of fifteen members.*

In 1902 he gave the Wilde lecture " On the Evolution of the Mental Faculties in relation to some Fundamental Principles of Motion."

Belief actions and Gifts.

In addition to Dr. Wilde s liberality to the Society, and in accor- dance with his resolve to dispose of the greater part of his capital during his life-tirne, he made important benefactions to other institutions. To the Paris Academie des Sciences in 1897 he gave ^5,500, the annual interest of which was to be applied as a prize for the author of a discovery or work in Astronomy^ Physics, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology or Mechanics. The prize was to be international and retrospective. In 1900 he con- tributed ^1,500 to the Benevolent Fund of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. The University of Oxford has most of all been favoured. In 1898 Wilde gave ^10,000 to the University to institute a Readership in Mental Philosophy, and a further sum of ^;3,ooo to establish a scholarship to be called the John Locke Scholarsliip for Mental Philosophy. In 1908 Wilde founded a Lectureship in Natural and Comparative Rehgion, the endowment being ^4,000. In the following year he provided ^600 for the purpose of founding an annual lecture on Astronomy and Terrestrial Magnetism, in honour and memory of Edmund H alley, sometime Professor of Geometry and Astronomer Royal. By his will Henry Wilde bequeathed the residue of his estate, after some bequests, to the University of O.xford : the sum amounted to about ;^ 1 0,000.

The full extent of his benefactions and gifts cannot be com- pletely recorded. He presented to the Science Museum, South Kensington, a magnetarium, a separately-excited and a multipolar dynamo, and a set of ABC instruments. To Oxford Uni- versity were given a Crossley gas engine, a Wilde's early type dynamo, and two multipolar machines and other electrical

• Some of tliese conditions are not now in operation.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No. 5 ii

apparatus. Owens College received the gift of a set of Wilde's machines; and the Manchester Grammar School was also pro- vided with two dynamos.

Personnel of the ]Vorks. Henry Wilde's association with Mr. G. C. Lowe, Silversmith, Jeweller, Chronometer and Watch Maker, and Electroplater, of St. Ann's Square, Manchester, has already been mentioned. It was the capital furnished by Mr. Lowe that enabled the firm of Henry Wilde & Co. to be founded, with works at yj , Mill Street, Ancoats, Here the ABC instruments were made. They needed careful and accurate construction with small tools ; the manufacture of the dynamos required much larger plant. After the death of Mr. Lowe, Wilde continued the business without a partner. He was faithfully assisted by his younger brother, Joseph. An .agreement was made betvv^een the brothers whereby Joseph received a salary and a commission. Joseph, unlike his brother, was not robust, and he died at a relatively early age. He was well Icnown in Sale, where he lived, as a reserved and intelligent man. An adopted nephew of Joseph's, W. F. Hobday, acted as bookkeeper to the firm. Another assistant was Robert Marsh. He served the firm for a long term of years, and became well-known in connection with the installation of the dynamos and with general experimental work. On Henry's retirement, Joseph went into partnership with John Hill, who was the works manager, and the Electric Engineering Company was formed; but this partnership was dissolved in 1884.

Ho flours. In 1886 Henry Wilde was elected to a Fellowship of the Royal Society of London; and in 1900 the degree of D.Sc. of the Victoria University was conferred upon him. Three years later he received from Oxford University the D C.L. In 1885 he was awarded by the Council of the International Exhibition held in London a gold medal for his inventions. The medal of the Royal Society of Arts and the Dalton medal of this Society he refused to accept, because he did not agree with the reasons given for these honours.

Photograph. Wilde had a strong objection to being photographed; but his personal friend Mr. Alfred Brothers, one of the best-known of the early photographers, overcame this objection. From the negative some prints were known to exist ; one was the property of Joseph Wilde, and it passed into the possession of Mr. J. W\ Winstanley of Sale, who has 'kindly allowed this to be reproduced. An- other one was given by Henry Wilde to Professor H. B. Dixon, who has presented it to the Society. The photograph is of Wilde when he was about fifty-six.

12 Haldane Gee — Hairy //7A/c

Conclusion.

Henry Wilde' s many inventions establish his position as a pioneer in Electrical Engineering; but it is not easy to give a just estimation of his scientific work. It must be remembered that he was a self-educated man. He was a great student of the earlier writers on science and philosophy, and his papers are full of quotations from them. He never realised the great advances that were being made in electrical science and the application of the laws of energy. Had his mental disposition been such as to tolerate guidance, his later work would have been of greater value, and he would have been saved from regarding as parado.xes experimental facts that could easily be explained. Although he cannot rank with Dalton and Joule^ yet in the history of the affairs of the Society he held a unique position, and his benevolence at a critical time must ever be remembered.

Henry Wilde married Miss Lowe, the sister of his partner. She died about eighteen years ago, and there were no children. Henry died on March 28th, 191 9, at the age of eighty-six, at The Hurst, Alderley Edge. He and his wife are buried at Bunbury in Cheshire.

Appendix A. Galvajionieter zised by Wilde.

The tangent and sine galvanometer used by Wilde in his experiments with his magnetos, whirh is in the possession of the Society, is a fine instrument of brass as des,igned by Pouillet. It was made by Ruhmkorfi of Paris. It has a compass box of 6^ ins. diameter and a brass hoop 125 ins. in diameter. As a sine galvanometer, its readings can be taken to 2 minutes by a vernier; as a tangent galvanometer, tenths of a degree can be estimated. There are two coils, each of 0-15 ohm. When in series, the constant as a tangent instruments in the field of the earth has been determined for me by Dr. A. Fergusoii to be about 0-13. Assuming (hat Wilde used the two coils in series, the maximum current obtained from his magneto when the lour magnets were in jilace was only about oiie-lillh of an ampere.

' Appendix B.

Details of Wilde's Early Machines.

{A) Magneto-Electric Machine {No 2). Bore of cylinder, i\ ins.; length; 12 ins. Armature wound with 67 feet of insulated wire 0-15 in. diameter. This gives an armature resistance of about o"027 ohm. The field con- sisted of 16 magnets 12 ins. long, each 3 lbs. in weight and capable of supporting 20 lbs.

(B) Electro-Magnetic Mar/iinc (Xo. 1). Bore and length of magnet cylin- der as in (a). Magnet limbs of boiler plate i2iX9X3/8in. Wound with 700 feet of insulated copper wire 0-15 in. diameter. (R=o-28 ohm.).

<{C) Electro-Magnetic Machine (jXo. 2). Bore and length of magnet cylin- der double that of (B), namely 5 ins. and 25 ins. respectively. Magnet wound with 1,170 feet of wire weighing 390 lbs. .\rmature with 84 feet of wire weighing 28 lbs.

(D) ElectrO'Magnctir Machine (No. j). Dimensions of bore and length of magnet cylinder double those of (C). Each limb of the electro-magnet was of rolled iron 48 X 39 X li '"s. Weight of electro-magnet exclusive

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1920) A^^ 5 13

of magnet cylinder, 1-5 tons. The magnet was wound with 13 wires of . 1/8 in. diameter in parallel. Total length of multiple cable 4.S00 feet. Total weight of coils i-_? tons. \^'eight of magnet cylinder i-i tons. Two armatures were provided, which were interchangeable: —

(I.) "Intensity'' Armature, wound with 376 feet of 13 wires of |- in. diameter in parallel. Total weight of wire, 232 lbs. Armature weight, 0-3 ton.

(2.) " Quantity " armature, wound with 67 feet of copper plate, each 6 ins. wide, 4 plates in parallel. Weight of copper, 344 lbs. Total weight of armature, 0-35 ton.

The total weight of the dynamo was 45 tons. It was 80 ins. long, 2 feet wide, and 5 feet high.

Wilde tested his machines by the length of iron wire of stated thickness that could be heated to redness or the thicknessi that could be melted. The following values of voltages, current, and output have been deduced by Air. A. Adamson for me from Wilde's experiments: —

^ (a) 3 ins. of iron 0-04 in. diameter heated to redness. Machine at 2,500 revolutions per minute. 15 amperes, 1-7 volts, 25-5 watts.

(B) 24 ins. of iron 0-04 in. diameter heated to redness. Excited by (A), both 2,500 r.p.m. 15 amperes, 13-6 volts, 204 watts. Excited by (A), both at 2,000 r.p.m. 8 ins. of wire of 0-04 in. melted. 30 amperes, total e.m.f. 20-5 volts.

(C) 15 ins. of iron of 0-075 "i- nielted by estimated current of 64-7 amperes.

(d) Armature at 1.500 r.p.m. No? i magneto with six magnets used to excite (C), and the current 'from (C) excited (D). Quantity armature: —

15 ins. iron i/4in. melted; 390 amperes.

15 ins. copper Vsi"- melted; 450 amperes. Intensity armature: —

21 ft. wire 0-065 in. heated to redness.

29 amperes, 105 volts, 3,045 watts, 4-1 horse-power.

7 feet iron 0065 in. melted; 52 amperes, 143 volts.

Appendix C.

List of the Chief Publicgtions of Henry Wilde.

" On some new and paradoxical Phenomena in Electro-magnetic Induction, and on a new and powerful Generator of Dynamic Electricity (The Dynamo-electric j\Iachinc)." Rov. Soc, Proc, 1886. Pliil. Mag., 1867. Phil. Trans., 1867.

" On the Electric Condition of the Terrestrial Globe, and on the Absolute Character of the Law of Qelinite Electrolysis." Phil. Mag., 1868.

" On a Property of the Magneto-electric Current to Control and render Syn- chronous the Rotations of the Armatures of a number of Electro- magnetic Induction (Dynamo) Machines."' Pliil. Mag., 1S69. Memoirs,* vol. 30, 1887.

" On the Influence of Gas- and Water-Pipes in determining the Direction of a Discharge of Lightning." Phil. Mag., 1872.

" On the Origin of Elementary Substances, and on some new Relations! of their Atomic Weights. " Manchester Proc, \o\. i"]., 1878. Memoirs, \o\. y^,

1878. • . . .

" On some Improvements in Electro-magnetic (Dynamo) Machines." Phil. Mag., vol. 45, June, 1873.

" On the Velocity with which Air rushes into a \'acuum, and on some Phe- nomena attending the Discharge of Atmospheres of Higher Densit\- into Atmospheres of Lower Density. " Memoirs, \o\. y:), 1885. Phil. Mag., 1886.

" On the Efflux of Air as modified by tlie Form of the Discharging Orifice." Phil. Mag., 1SS6. Memoirs, vol. 30, 1886.

14 H ALDAN E G'EE—Hefny Wilde

" On the Causes of the Phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism, and on some Electro-mechanism for exhibiting the Secular Changes in his horizontal and vertical Components." Noy. Sor. Proc, 19 June, 1890. (Complete paper was private/y printed. )

■" On the unsymmetrical Distribution of Terrestrial iMagnelism." Roy. Soc. Proc, 12 January, 1891.

■*' On the Influence of Temperature upon the Magnetisation of Iron and other Magnetic Substances." Roy. Soc. Proc, li June, 1891.

*' On the Influence of the Configuration and Direction of Coast Lines upon the Rate and Range of the Secular iMagnctic Declination." Memoirs, vol. 38, 1S94.

^' On the Relations of the Secular Variation of the Magnetic Declination and Inclination at London, Cape of Good Hope, St. Helena, and Ascen- sion Island, as exhibited on the JMagnetarium." Roy. Soc. Proc, I March, 1894.

" On a Magnetometer for showing the Influence of Temperature on the Mag- netisation of Iron and other Magnetic Substances." Alemoirs, vol. 39, 1895.

■*' On the Multiple Proportion of the Atomic Weights of Elementary Sub- stances in relation to the Unit of Hydrogen." Memoirs, vol. 39, 1895.

" On the Evidence Afforded by Bode's Law of a permanent Contraction of the Radii Vectores of the Planetary Orbits." J/ewoirj, vol. 39, 1895.

^' On Helium and its Place in the Classification of Elementary Subs,tances." Memoirs, vol. 40, 1896. PJiil. Mag., November, 1895.

" On the indefinite quantative Relations of the Physical and Chemical Forces." Me?7ioirs, vol. 40, i8q6.

" On the Spectrum of Thallium and its Relation to the Homologous Spectra of Indium and Gallium." Roy. Soc Proc, vol. 43, 20 April. 1803.

" On Aerial Locomotion." Me»ioirs, vol. 44, 1900.

" On the Evolution of the JMental P'aculties in relation to some fundamental Principles of Motion (the Wilde Lecture)." Memoirs, vol. 46, 1902.

" On the Atomic Weight of Radium and 01 her Elementary Substances." Phil. Mag., November, 1895.

■" On the Atomic Weights and Classificition of the Elementary Gases, Neon, Argon, Krypton, and Xenon." Memoirs, vol. 46, 1902.

" On the Resolution of Elementary Substances into their Ultimatcs and on the Spontaneous Molecular Activity of Radium." Memoirs, vol. 48, 1903.

" On some Points of Chemical Philosophy involved in the Discovery ;of Radium and the Properties of its Combinations." Memoirs, vol. 51, 1907.

" On the Atomic Weight of Radium." Memoirs, vol. ^2, 1907.

" On the Moving Force of Terrestrial and Celestial Bodies in relation to the Attraction of Gravitation." Memoirs, vol. 53, 1909. Phil. .Mag., October, 1909.

" On a new Binary Progression of the Planetary Distances, and on the Muta- bility of the Solar System." Memoirs, vol. 54, 1909. Pliii. Mag., April, 1910.

" On Celestial Ejectnmcnta: The first Ilalley Lecture, delivered before the University of Oxford in May, 1910." Clareniion Press, Oxford. 1910.

" On the Origin of Cometary Bodies and Saturn's Rings." Memoirs, vol. 55, 1910. Phil. Mag., November, 1911.

"On the Periodic Times of Saturn's Rings." Memoirs, vol. 55. 191 1. PJiil. Mag., November, 191 1.

"On Search Lights for the Mercantile Marine." Memoirs, vol. 56, 1912.

"On Search Lights and the 'Titanic' Disaster." Memoirs, vol. ^7. 1913.

" On some new multiple Relations of the Atomic Weights of Elementary Substances; and on the Classification and Transformations of Neon and Helium." Me))ioirs, vol. 57, 1913. Phil. Mag., October, 1913

* The word " Memoirs" refers to those of the Manchester Literary and Philosophica' Society.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiii. (1920) No. 5 15

■"An Egyptian Meteorite." Memoirs, vol. 6i, iqiy.

" On the Atomic Weight of Tellurium in relation to the Multiple Propor- tions of the Atomic Weights of other simple bodies;." Memoirs, vol. 61, iqiy.

APPENDIX \J.

Henry Wilde's Chief Patents.

1858.

293 Connecting the ends of lightning conductors and submarine telegraph

cables.

1861.

858 Electro-magnetic telegraphs, etc.

1994 Electro-magnetic telegraphs, etc.

Specifies several types of generators.

2997 Magneto-electric telegraphs.

The momentary currents may be used for telegraphing through uninsulated cables.

1862.

3246 Electro-magnetic telegraphs, etc.

Overhead wires are made by twisting several fine copper wires round a core of steel. To prevent the singing of the wires, they are connected to their supports by thongs of leather, etc., in such a way tliat the thong is maintained at the same tension as the line.

1863.

516 Electro-magnetic telegraphs.

Describes a. magneto with shuttle-wound armature. The poles of the U-shaped permanent magnets are uppermost. The alternating currents are produced with too great rapidity for use in telegrap'h lines, so tliey are turned in one direction by a com- mutator and then reversed by a more slowly revolving commu- tator before they are sent to the step-by-step telegraph instru- ments.

3006 Electric telegraphs.

Iron wires are varnished and placed within iron pipes. The wire are supported and separated by perforated earthenware cylinders. Special insulated joints are provided. To prevent the pipes from being Hooded, they are laid on an incline and drained by syphons. Junction boxes are provided where neces- sary.

The generator of No. 516 (1863) is used for signalling through uninsulated submarine conductors. Electro-magnets may be used in place of tlie permanent magnets and excited by a voltaic battery or a small magneto. The generators may be used for producing the electric light, etc.

1200 &

2764 Electric telegraphs.

^865.

141 2 Producing and applying electricity, etc.

The current may be used to produce the heat necessary for the working of metals, by connecting the terminals to the insulated rolls between which the bar or plate to be heated passes..

The machines may be used to prevent the fouling of ships' bottoms, a current being passed down the copper, etc., bottom oi the ship through water to insulated metal in the water

2762 Electric telegraphs.

Generator armature of cast iron with a slot extending through it for three-quarters of its length for the prevention of eddy- currents. Wound with ribbon sheet copper and sheet gutta- percha, and surrounded with strong bands.

i6 Haldane Gee — Hoiry Wilde

1866.

3209 Electro-magnetic and magneto-electric machines.

Relates to the new generator with a multipolar armature. A special type of commutator is described.

1867. S42 Arc Lamps.

1871. 151 1 Coating of iron \\\\\\ copi)er.

618 Producing and regulating electric light. Improvements on No. S42

(1867).

Arc Lamp. The carbons are made to approach or recede from each other by means of a right- and left-handed screw. Each screw can be actuated independently, so as to keep a fixed focus.

IIolop/iulc. A lens or parabolic reflector is mounted on a platform which carries the lamp. The platform may be revolved about a vertical spindle by the use of a worm gearing. The platform may be tilted as desired by a hinge and screw.

1874. 1554 Excavating coal, etc.

Transmission of electric power. A reciprocating electric motor is described, which may be used for cutting coal.

1875- 4515 Making printing rollers.

1878. 3250 Producing and regulating electric light.

Arc Lamp. Two vertical carbons near each other. One carbon holder is pivoted at its lower end, and by an electro- magnet the carbons are separated at the top and the arc is struck. When current is off an opposing s'pring brings the tops into contact. 5197 Electric light apparatus.

Improvements in previous patent. 1228 Induction coils.

1880. 500S Imi)roveincnts in dynamos.

18S2. 2256 & 3834 Arc Lamps.

(I am indebted to Mr. E. L. Sandbach of Messrs. Slater, Heelis & Co. for placing at my disposal a number of documents chiefly relating to Dr. Wilde's legal actions; to Mr. J. W. Winstanley for infor- mation about the brothers Wilde; to. Mrs. Marsh, of Longsight, for details relating to the association of her husband with Messrs. Wilde & Co. ; and to Miss Crabtree for assistance in the com- pilation of a list of Wilde's papers and apparatus.)

October \st, 191 8.] PROCEEDINGS.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

General Meeting, October ist, 1918.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair.

Dr. R. S. Willows, M.A., c\o Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co., Ltd., j(5, Oxford Street, Manchester, was elected an Ordinary Member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, October ist, 1918.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., drew attention to the recent accessions to the Society's Library, and a vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the table. The following were amongst the recent accessions to the Society's Library : — " Selections from the Prose, Verse and Sketches of the late Thomas Kay, of Stockport'' (Svo., Stockport, 1918), presented by the Trustees of Thomas Kay ; " Dece?inial J?idex to Chemical Abstracts — Authors, L-Z (8vo., Easton, Pa., 1918), purchased; and "^ Bibliography of Fishes," Vol. L, by Basford Dean, enlarged and edited by Charles R. Eastman (8vo., New York, 1917), presented by the Trustees of The American Museum of Natural History.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., brought to the notice of Members a number of copies of " Tlie Ladies' Diary " and " The Gentlemen's Diary" for 1794 and later years. These diaries, in the Society's possession, contain answers to mathematical questions written by Dalton whilst a teacher at Kendal.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S., drew attention to a paper read by Dr. Thomas Percival before the Society on February i8th, 1784, and published in Volume II. of the Memoirs (p. 114).

ii. Proceedings. {^October i^th, 191 8.

In this paper, entitled " Speculations on the Perceptive Power of Vegetables," Dr. Percival attempted to show by several analogies of organisation, life, instinct, spontaneity and self-motion, that plants, like animals, are endued with the powers both of perception and enjoyment. This paper attracted con- siderable attention both in England and abroad and a free trans- lation of it, accompanied by comments by an anonymous writer, was published in Franfurt in 1790 under the title : — '■'■ Also hdtten Pflanze7i Vorstelli/figen ii?id Beitmsstsein Hirer ExistefizT A copy of this translation is in the Library of the University of Manchester.

Professor Weiss gave a brief account of our present knowledge of some of the phenomena described by Dr. Percival and pointed out that the analogies between the perceptive powers of plants and animals indicated by Dr. Percival could be still further extended at the present time.

General Meeting, October 15th, 19 18.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., FT.C, F.C.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Edward Adolph Eason, Sione/eigh, Sale, and Mr. Hermann Woolley, Victoria Bridge, Alatichester, were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, October 15th, 19 18.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair.

A vote of thanks Avas passed by Mr. P. E. B. Jourdain for the gift to the Society of a large medallion of Dalton, formerly in the possession of his grandfather, Dr. Charles Clay, who was elected a member of the Society in 1S41. The medallion was exhibited at the meeting.

Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S., exhibited a beautiful example of a leaf-shaped bronze sword lent by Mr. W. J. Millner, the owner, through the kindness of Mr. H. P. Hornby. The sword was unearthed by the plough in April, 1 91 7, on Copthorne Farm, Pilling, Lanes. It is 27}, inches long and the flanged liilt-plate has twelve rivet holes, six down the centre, and three in each of the wings; five of

October 2gtk, igi^.] Proceedings. iii.

the rivets are still in position. The blade has a well- marked mid-rib and is ornamented on both faces by twelve finely engraved lines in two series of six, r'unniing the entire length of the blade on each side of the mid-rib.

Mr. Jackson also reported the discovery of quartz-pebble beds in the Carboniferous Limestone of Caldon Low, Staffs. These pebble beds form the dip slope of the Low on its N.N.W. side, overlooking Cauldon village. At the latter place, a large series of fossils, reminiscent of the " Brachio- pod Beds," of Castleton, etc., has been obtained by Mr. W. sE. Alkins. The beds here apparently follow the pebble- beds in true sequence. Specimens of the quartz-pebble beds from Caldon Low anid of the pebble-bed present in the Castleton district W;ere exhibited, and the relation of the latter tO' the local "Brachiopod Beds " was pointed out. The two pebble-beds differ greatly in composition, that of Caldon Low being made up almost entirely of rounded pebbles of veinstone-quartz with fragments of chert, while that of Castleton consists of carboniferous limestone pebbles. Quartz-pebbles are said to occur occasionally in the latter.

Dr. H. G. A. HiCKLiNG, F.G.S., drew attention to some of the more recent geodetic work in relation to the figure of the earth, more especially as bearing on the problem of isostasy. Some of the chief criticisms were cousidered in the light of the geological evidence as to movements of the earth's crust. i

General Meeting, October 29th, 1918.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair.

Miss Annie Dixon, Broadwater, 4J, Fine Road, Didsbury, Matichester, was elected an Ordinary Member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, October 29th, 191 8.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C, F.C.S., in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst. C.E , for the gift of his book, entitled " Unity in Nature — an Afialogy between Music and Life" (8vo., London, 191 1).

iv. Proceedings. \^November\2th,\<^\^.

Professor C. A. Edwakds, D.Sc, read a paper entitled " The Hardness of Metals."

The author gave an account of various methods of making hardness determinations, and described a new apparatus which was designed for making hardness tests at high temperatures. He also gave data showing that the hardness of pure sohd elements is a periodic function of their atomic weight.

Ordinary Meeting, November 12th, 1918.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S. in the Chair.

Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., conveyed to the Society his regret, that owing to illness, he was unable to be present to read his paper entitled ''The Retention of certain so-called Simian Features in the Human Brain."

The human brain retains in a definite and unmistakable form 'every feature which has hitherto been claimed to be distinctive of apes. Noit only soi, but it retains the specialised forms of these featui'es that are distinctive of the Anthropoid Apes, reproducing even quite trivial and apparently unessential details of the arrangements revealed in the brains of Chimpanzees and Gorillas.

Emphasis was laid upon the fact "that the retention of a large operculated sulcus lunatus (the so-called simian sulcus) was not necessarily an indication of defective brain development. Although such exact reproduction of the features of the occipital end of the Gorilla's brain is most often found in the poorly developed cerebrum of the more primitive peoples, it may persist even in brains of excep- tional development in European people of high cvilturc.

Captain D. M. S. Watson, R.A.F., spoke on "Biology and War." After referring to the use of much of the theory of natural selection in the apologies of militarism and pointing out the confusion always present in the minds of those who so use it, the speaker referred very briefly to the various types of evolutionary changes exhibited by phylitic series of animals known from palasontological evi- dence, and pointed out that such evidence of this kind as is available suggests that natural selection has only played a very limited part in the actual progress Avhich has occurred in animal structure.

Novetnber 26th,\(^l'^^^ PROCEEDINGS. v.

Ordinary Meeting, November 26th, 191 8.

The President, Mr. Willi.^m Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair.

Professor H. Lamb, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. read a paper entitled "The Movement of the Eye."

The theory of the movements of the eye, as developed by Helmholtz, includes some results of great interest to mathe- maticians as well as to physiologists. Unfortunately they have scarcely become familiar to mathematicians, who have been apt to regard the whole matter as outside their province. The analytical investigations of Helmholtz are moreover long and intricate, and have doubtless been an obstacle to mathematicians and physiologists alike.

The author had found that with the help of one or two propositions in the theory of rotation, now well known, the whole question can be treated in a simple and purely geometrical manner, without the use of a single mathematical symbol. The only difficulties which remain are those of ordinary spherical geometry. These (such as they are) are intrinsic to the nature of the subject, and cannot be avoided.

The paper consisted of an exposition of the subject from the above point of view. By the aid of diagrams, the classical theorems of Euler and Sir W. Hamilton on rotation were explained, and used to illustrate Listing's law, which governs the positions of the eye ball when the gaze is directed to various parts of the field. ,

Finally, the apparent distortion of straight lines, and the theory of those lines which are apparently straight were con- sidered. The eye is necessarily imperfect in these respects, and in obeying Listing's law effects a compromise, which is probably the best admissible.

Ordinary Meeting, December loth, 1918.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.LC, F.C.S., in the Chair.

Mrs. Margaret White Fishenden, M.Sc, (late Beyer Fellow of the Manchester University), read a paper on " The Efficiency of Domestic Fires and the Effects of certain ' Coal Saving ' Preparations."

vi. Proceedings. [Ja?i7iary yth, 191 9.

The experiments included determinations of:

(i) The "radiant efficiency," or the percentage of the total calorific value of the coal burned, which entered the room as radiation.

(2) The distribution of radiation.

(3) The volume of air passing through the room.

(4) The amount of heat passing away above the ceiling level in the hot flue gases.-

(5) The heating of the room air.

Three different grates gave radiant eft'ciencies of 21, 24I, 240/0 respectively; the radiant efficiency was not dependent upon the draught, even over such wide limits as from one to nine changes of air per hour. The maximum intensity of radiation was found (upwards) at an angle of about 60° to the horizontal through the centre of the fire. ;

The amount of heat contained in the hot flue gases passing up the flue above the ceiling varied from about 550/0 of the total calorific value of the fuel burned for draughts of about 20,000 cubic feet per hour (nine changes), to about 150/0 for one change per hour. The heat used in warming the room air was very small, generally below 10 0/0.

Certain advertised preparations, solutions of which were claimed when previously sprayed upon the coal, greatly 'to increase the efficiency of fires, had been analysed and found to consist chiefly of common salt. Their use was found to have no effect whatever either upon the radiant efficiency, th<i duration of burning, or the rise of air temperature produced by coal fires.

Ordinary Meeting, January yth, 1919.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair.

Joule Centenary Meeting.

(Dr. James Prescott Joule was born in Salford on the 24th of December, 18 18.)

Professor Sir Ernkst Rutherford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., gave an account of " The Work and Influence of Joule."

At the outset, the lecturer stated that the .Society had hoped to secure on this occasion an address from a distinguislied member of the Society who had known Joule well, personally. Unfortunately, this had not proved possible, and he had been asked at very short notice to fill the gap. In the short time

January yt/i, 1 9 19.] PROCEEDINGS. vii.

available, it was impossible to review the great series of researches made by Joule during his long and busy life but attention would be confined to the first five years (1838-43) of Joule's scientific career which began at the age of nineteen, and an endeavour would be made to trace during this period the gradual growth of Joule's power of experimentation and of philosophic insight. In this, he had been greatly assisted by the able memoir on the work of Joule published by the late Professor Osborne Reynolds in the Memoirs of the Society.

This period was in some respects the most fruitful and inspiring in Joule's lifetime for it included his remarkable researches on the transformations of energy in the voltaic cell, the dynamo and motor and his first measurement of the mechanical equivalent of heat.

A brief account was at first given of Joule's researches to improve the electromagnetic engine for the generation of power and of his investigations in electromagnetism. These investiga- tions had an important bearing on his later work, for his electro- magnetic engine, used both as a dynamo and motor, was an indispensable adjunct in his later researches, while the familiarity he had gained in the accurate measurement of the work done by his engine proved later of great value.

At this stage Joule had appreciated the great importance of accurate measurement of his electrical and mechanical magni- tudes. He had designed a special galvanometer for measure- ment of current in terms of the voltameter of Faraday and adopted definite standards of resistance. It was the use of these standards that made possible his later far-reaching deductions.

After completing his work on the electromagnetic engine. Joule attacked the problem of the laws of heating of the electric current and proved for the first time that the heating effect was proportional to the square of the current. In this research, he investigated the heat emission in electrolytes as well as in con- ductors and this led to a series of researches in which he traced the various factors to be taken into account to evaluate accurately the energy emitted in an electrolytic cell. He then proceeded to determine the total heat emitted by his voltaic battery for the consumption of one pound of zinc and compared it with the heat developed by the combustion of one pound of zinc in oxygen. After surmounting numerous difficulties, he was able to show conclusively the remarkable fact that the chemical heat of combination was equal to the heat developed by the same chemical change through the intermediary of the voltaic battery. At this early stage, he had thus proved the equality and con- vertibility of chemical, electric and heat energy, and had laid the experimental foundation for the great subsequent generalisation of the conservation of energy.

viii. Proceedings. [Jatmary yth, 19 19.

It is clear, however, that at this time Joule did not appreciate the full significance of his results, but was inclined to consider them as a proof of an electric theory of Davy and Berzelius, viz. : that the chemical heat of combination was a direct consequence of the combination of charged atoms. It was not until some time later that he modified this view and began to appreciate the underlying relation between these different forms of energy.

Then followed his research to prove the electric current generated by his electromagnetic engine obeyed the same laws of heating as the voltaic current, and his direct measurement of the heating effect produced by the magneto-electric current by the expenditure of a measured amount of work. This gave him for the first time an approximate measure of J — the mechanical equivalent of heat, and he was able to verify the relations between heat and work when his electromagnetic engine acting either as a dynamo or motor was placed in a battery circuit.

A brief reference was made to his subsequent elaborate investigations to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat by the compression of gases and by friction.

The lecturer drew attention to the remarkable experimental power exhibited by Joule in these early researches, and the refined methods he had introduced for the accurate measurement of current, heat and work. Few men, at the age of twenty-five, have exhibited such powers of accurate measurement and ability to overcome experimental difificulties, or have shown such a record of masterly pioneer researches.

A brief discussion was given of the reasons why the full recognition of the fundamental importance of Joule's earlier researches was so long delayed and of the difficulties experienced by Lord Kelvin in reconciling Joule's conclusions with the work of Carnot on " Heat Engines." Adjustment of views on both sides was necessary before the foundations of the new science of thermodynamics were securely laid, and before the great principle of the conservation of energy was generally recognised.

Professor Haldane Gee exhibited and described some of the apparatus used by Joule in his researches. These included his first electromagnetic machine, parts of his later engines, an electromagnet of great lifting power, a reading microscope used for the calibration of delicate thermometers, and a tangent gal- vanometer. Lantern slides of larger pieces of apparatus preserved in Manchester were shown. Special reference was made to the entries in Joule's laboratory note-books dealing with the discovery of the law of electric heating and the many thousands of measurements connected with the mechanical equivalent of heat.

January 2\st, 1919.] PROCEEDINGS. ix.

Included with the manuscripts and other Joule memorials that have been collected is a letter from James Clerk Maxwell expres- sing the following opinion of the labours of Joule : — " There are only a very few men who have stood in a similar position and who have been urged by the love of some truth, which they were confident was to be found though its form was as yet undefined, to devote themselves to minute observations and patient manual and mental toil in order to bring their thoughts into exact accordance with things as they are."

Ordinary Meeting, January 21st, 191 9.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., FT.C, F.C.S., in the Chair.

A discussion took place on "The means by which the Society may promote most effectively the Advancement and Application of Learning in Manchester."

The President, in introducing the discussion, referred to the great tradition of the Society, and the. important part which it had played in the history of Manchester during the past century, and especially to the very notable contributions to scientific knowledge which has been made by some of its members.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S.,in opening the discussion said that the Council had invited a number of representatives of the Industries of Manchester, in addition to those who were mem- bers of the Society, in the hope that the Society might have the benefit of their suggestions and criticisms in the effort which it desired to make to enlarge its sphere of public usefulness. As a member of the University he welcomed the opportunity of expres- sing the hope that the Society might prove of special value as a meeting ground where the members who occupied more academic positions might have the advantage of discussion with the business people of Manchester.

Among the suggestions put forward by various speakers were the following: —

I. That while the Society should retain its present ftijnc- tions as a learned Society, its members might meet with others interested in the advancement of Science for informal discussion in the rooms of the Society. Such gatherings might be held in the middle of the day or in the evenings, and light refreshments should be obtainable on these occasions.

Proceedincs. {^February \tli, iQfQ.

2. That special lectures, by eminent men, on scientific subjects of general interest should be arranged from time to time.

3. T.'hat addresses, on the practical applications of Science, by scientific men engaged in industry should be invited.

4. That the Presidents of the various scientific societies in Manchester might be made Associate or Honorary Members during their periods of office, and that such societies should be invited from time to time to hold special meetings of general interest in the Society's house.

5. That facilities might be arranged for Members 'to consult the library in the evenings, and that arrange- ments might be made whereby members of other Societies should be able on certain terms to use the library.

General Meeting, February 4th, 19 19.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Cliair.

Mrs. Kenneth Lee, The Old House, Ashley Heath, Hale, Cheshire; and Mr. Leonard E. Vlies, F.LC, F.C.S., Brant- wood, Wilhrahajn Road, Manchester, S. IV. ; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, February 4th, 191 9.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.LC, F.C.S., in the Chair.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A. drew the attention of members to a paper on "Mozart," which appeared in Volume XIIL (1770- 1775) of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, published in 1809. This paper, written by the Hon. Daines Barrington, F.R.S. and entitled "Account of a Very Remarkable Young Musician," describes several tests through which young Mozart was put dillfing a visit to England in 1764, when he was about eight years of age.

February i%i/i, 19 19.] PROCEEDINGS. xi.

The President exhibited a celluloid eyepiece from a German gas mask, the inner surface of which had been treated in such a manner that moisture would not condense on it and thus interfere with vision.

A paper by Mr. R. S. Adamson, M.A. and Miss Alison McK. Crabtrek, entitled "The Herbarium of John Dalton,"

was read.

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Ordinary Meeting, February i8th, 19 19.

The President, Mr William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair.

Dr. H. F. Coward, F.I.C, and Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S., were nominated Auditors of the Society's Accounts for the Session 1918-1919.

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst. C.E., made a short com- munication on a captured German gun in which a shell had exploded in the breach, the pressure of the explosion having produced ripple markings on the inner surface of the shell.

The Honorary Secretary read a paper by Dr. H. Wilde, FR.S., "On the Mutual Relations of Natural Science and Natural Religion."

Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S., read a paper entitled " 'Shell-Pockets ' on Sand Dunes on the Wirral Coast, Cheshire."

The paper consisted of a short account of " Shell-Pockets " in general, and contained remarks on the age of the buried land surfaces in the neighbourhood.

Mr. Jackson also read a paper entitled: "On a New Middle Carboniferous Nautiloid {Coelonautilus trapezoi- dalis.)'

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

General Meeting, March 4th, 19 19.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C, F.C.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Edward Hardcastle, Bj-atiiall Mount, Davenport, Stockport ; and Mr. Arthur Tindell Hopwood, g, Stamford Road, Chorlton-cuvi-Hardy, Manchester ; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

xii. Proceedings. ^March \th, 1919.

Ordinary Meeting, March 4th, 1919.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair.

The President exhibited a model of a Voltaic Pile — to be presented to the Society by Mr. Edward Hardcastle.

A paper by Mr. F. H. Cakr, B.Sc, F.I.C. entitled " The Post-graduate Training of the Works Chemist,"was read.

The author said that the comparative dearth in this country of highly competent technical chemists had frequently given rise to discussions, but these had as a rule been critical rather than constructive. He suggested that there was scope for Institutions devoted primarily to the post-graduate training of chemical students who intended to specialise in the applied aspects of their science. In such institutions, instruction would be given not only on a wide variety of technical processes for the manu- facture of chemicals, and in operations in each technical depart- ment, from the drawing office and the power house to the special chemical plants, but also in the whole question of economic and statistical control of works processes.

The chemicals produced should cover an extremely wide range, and should be such as might be required in relatively small quantities such as existing manufacturing firms would not find it worth while to produce. In this way the Institutions in question might, in course of time, accumulate stocks of chemicals com- parable in variety with those in the possession of certain German firms on whose resources research chemists in all parts of the world have had to rely.

Ordinary Meeting, March iSth, 19 19.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E.. F.I.C, F.C.S., in the Chair.

Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.I)., F.R.S., read a paper entitled " The Bird's Brain."

Professor G. Elliot Smith stated that it has always been an enigma that, in spite of their very scanty ecjuipment of obvious cerebral cortex, birds should display, in their powers of tactile, visual, and acoustic discrimination, their associative memory, and their ability to learn by individual experience, such outstanding evidence of functions such as are intimately associated in mammals with the activities of the cortex. The explanation of this apparent discrepancy between the morphology of the brain

March 24/^, 1919.] PROCEEDINGS. xiii.

and the bird's aptitude to profit by experience is provided by the fact that a great part of the structure usually called "corpus striatum " is cortical in origin and in its fibre-connections. The structures called by Edinger " hyperstriatum " (Kappers's "neostriatum") and " epistriatum " (Kappers's "archistriatum ") are composed of modified cerebral cortex ; and the former represents not only the neostriatum (nucleus caudatus and putamen) of the mammalian brain, but also the primordial neopallium or true cerebral cortex. The clue to the interpretation of these homologies is provided by the archaic reptilian brain that has survived in Sphenodoti, in which is displayed with diagrammatic clearness the formation of a great cortical ingrowth into the lateral venticle. The reason for this curious transformation is the expansion of the lateral edge of the pallium under the influence of a suddenly increased influx of sensory fibres (tactile, visual, and acoustic) from the thalamus. In virtue of the principle of neurobiotaxis (Kappers), this cortical overgrowth remains moored as near as possible to the incoming thalamic fibres: hence the development of the "dorsal ventricular ridge" (Johnston). In mammals, the whole of the newly modified cortex does not become drawn into the ventricular ridge : part of it remains upon the surface, free to expand and develop into the neopallium ; the rest becomes transformed into nucleus caudatus, putamen, and nucleus amygdalae. But in birds the whole mass becomes intraventricular, and represents not merely the neostriatum, but also the rudimentary neopallium.

Mr. T. A. Coward read a paper by Mr. Miller Christy, F.L.S., on "The Ancient Legend as to the Hedgehog carrying Fruit upon its Spines."

This paper is printed in full in the Alevwirs.

March 24th, 1919.

A Conversazione was held at the Society's House on the invitation of the President and Council. Cards of invitation were issued to Members and to others not directly connected with the Society.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Vice-Chancellor of the Victoria University of Manchester, gave a Demonstration of " Some Features of the Growth of Crystals."

The Exhibits included : — "Radio-active minerals, and some of the principal apparatus used in the investigation of Radio- activity," by Professor Sir Ernest Rutherford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. ; a " Collection of Dalton Apparatus and Manuscripts," by Professor W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E. ; and " Apparatus used in Psychological Investiga- tions," by Mr. T. H. Pear, M.A., B.Sc.

xiv. Proceedings. [April \st, 19 19.

Extraordinary General Meeting, April ist, 1919.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R^S.E., RI.C, F.C.S., in the Chair.

At this Extraordinary General Meeting, summoned in .accordance with the Articles of Association, the following resolutions of the Council were submitted to the :Society: —

1. "That a new honorary office of Curator be insti- tuted— the holder to be ex officio a member of the Council."

2. '■ That the number of ordinary members of the Council be increased from six to nine."

These resolutions were adopted.

Ordinary Meeting, April ist, 191 9.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair.

Mr. S. Lees, M.A., read a paper entitled "The Super- posing of Two Cross-line Screens at Small Angles and the Patterns obtained thereby."

This paper is printed in full in the Mevioirs.

A paper on " Electrolytic Iron Deposition " was read by Lieut. W. A. Macfadyen, M.C, B.A.

The investigations were carried out with a view to finding the best means of obtaining hard and adherent deposits of iron on worn steel mechanism parts, so that the latter could be returned to use, instead of being scrapped.

Deposition from dilute, cold, aqueous solutions of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate, containing 50 to 100 grams of the salt per litre, gave excellent results, but the process was very slow.

Solutions of intermediate concentrations gave poor results, but concentrated solutions of 300 to 400 grams of the salt per litre, gave results as good as those obtained in the dilute bath, and aboiit 7 times as rapidly. The acidity of the solution should be kept about -005 Normal with respect to Sulphuric acid; i.e., if concentrated Sulphuric acid of Sp.G. 1-827 be used, as addition, -1467 cc. per litre of solution must be added. Subsequent additions must be made at intervals, as the acidity diminishes under working conditions.

April 2(^th, \(^\(^?^ Proceedings. xv.

If the cold, concentrated solution be heated to 60 to 70 degrees Centigrade excellent deposits were obtained at current densities of from 60 to 160 Amperes per sq. ft., i.e., up to 50 times the r,a.te at which deposits can be ob- tained from the cold dilute solution.

The best acidity for the hot bath is from -oi to -02 Normal, obtained by adding up to -5867 cc. of the strong acid per litre of solution.

The addition of powdered wood charcoal to both hot and cold baths has a good effect on the deposits, in pre- venting deposition of hydroxides on the cathodes ; and on the solution, by largely preventing the oxidation of the iron salt.

Heat treatment of iron deposits on steel bases has a beneficial effect, the deposited iron being toughened and the adhesion greatly strengthened. Annealing at above 900° C. is necessary to produce this effect, and case- hardening and further heat treatment such as quenching and tempering may then be carried out if desired.

Annual General Meeting, April 29th, 1919.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C, F.C.S., in the Chair.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of Accounts were presented, and it was resolved : —

" That the Annual Report together with the Statement of Accounts, be adopted, and that they be printed in the Society's Proceedings."

Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson and Mr. J. .H. Wolfenden were appointed Scrutineers of the balloting papers.

The following members were elected Officers of the Society and Members of the Council for the ensuing year : —

President: G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents : W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E. ; Francis Jones, M.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.; R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C. ; William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C, F.C.S.

Secretaries: George Hickling, D.Sc, F.G.S. ; H. F. Coward, D.Sc, F.I.C.

Treasurer : W. Henry Todd.

Librarian : C. L. Barnes, M.A,

Ctirator: W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.ScTech.

Other Members of the Council : Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S. E. L. Rhead, M.ScTech., F.I.C. ; F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S. ; A. Lapworth, D.Sc, F.R.S. , F.I.C; Kenneth Lee; C E. STROMEYER,,M.Inst.C.E. M.Inst.M.E.; W. M. Tattersall, D.Sc. ; H. W. Kearns, B.Sc, J. P. ; Leonard E. Vlies, F.I.C F.C.S.

xvi. Proceedings. [/i//-// 29///, 191 9.

General Meeting, April 29ih, 1919.

The President, Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., in the Chair.

Mr Eric N. Allott, Balliol College, Oxford ; Dr. Edward Ardern, F.I.C, Chief Chemist to the Rivers Committee, Manchester Corporation, Priors Lee, Urmston, near Manchester : Mr. Lionel Blundell, Assoc. M.C.T., Aniline Dye Manu- facturer, Hillside, Prest^vich Park, Manchester ; Mr. Louis Anderson Fenn, B.Sc, Research Physicist to Messrs. Isaac Braithwaite & Son, Kendal, Dalton Hall, Victoria Park, Man- chester; Mr. Samuel Ernest Melling, F.LC, Public Analyst, County of Chester, Boroughs of Congleton, Wigan, etc., The Cliff, Higher Broiighton, Manchester ; and Professor Frank Lee Pyman, D.Sc, Ph.D., Professor of Technological Chemistry, The College of Technology, ^Manchester ; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, April 29th, 19 19.

The President, Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon the table. These included three papers : ''' Parallels in Dante and Milton'" (8vo., Manchester, 191 7), ''''Curiosities in the Divina Co?nmedia" (8vo., Manchester, 1918), and ^^ James Joseph Sylvester" (8vo., Manchester, 19 19), by C. L. Barnes, M.A. ; and " Marine Boiler Alanagement and Construction " (j//z edit.), (8vo., London, 191 9), by C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.C.E.

A paper entitled " Some Features in the Growth of Crystals '* was read by Sir Henry A. Mikrs, ALA., D.Sc, F.R.S.

The author stated that crystals not only change their form during growth by the development of new faces, but often display a tendency to appear first as needles and then in regular forms, seeming to pass through two stages. Experiments were made by the author many years ago in an attempt to determine the con- centration of the solution in contact with a growing crystal, the refractive index being measured by the method of total internal reflection. These experiments led to the conclusion that in a cooling supersaturated solution stirred in an open trough, a sudden change in refractive index takes place at a definite temperature and that this is due to the sudden appearance of new crystals or to th(j suddenly increased growth of the crystals already present. Enclosed in a sealed tube and shaken, the solution yields a shower of crystals at this tem[)erature alone, althougii, for example, in the case of sodium nitrate, it is about 10 degrees below that of

May \lth, 19 19.] PROCEEDINGS. xvii,

saturation. Further experiments on a large number of aqueous solutions and binary mixtures, such as salol mixed with betol, con- firmed the conclusion that a super-saturated solution passes at a definite temperature into a condition (the labile state) in which spontaneous crystallisation can be induced by mechanical means whereas above this temperature (the metastable state) crystals only grow by inoculation of the solution with crystalline germs.

Crystals only appear along the line of scratch made by a clean rod in a super-saturated solution if the solution is in the labile state : in the metastable state the crystals only appear if the rod is contaminated with crystal germs.

The complete freezing point diagram of a binary mixture therefore shows " supersolubility curves " or curves of spontaneous crystallisation, in addition to the ordinary freezing point curves and in the area between them the liquid is in the metastable state. Mixtures of Monochloracetic Acid and Naphthalene led to the determination of three supersolubility curves for Mono- chloracetic Acid corresponding to the spontaneous crystallisation of three different modifications of this substance.

The difference between the rapidly growing needle in the labile solution, and the slowly growing regular crystals when the solution becomes metastable, was illustrated by drops of crystal- lising solutions (especially potassium bi-chromate) viewed on the screen with a projection microscope.

Extraordinary General Meeting, May 13th, 191 9.

The President, Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., in the Chair.

At this Extraodinary General Meeting, summoned in accordance with the Articles of Association, the following resolutions of the Council were submitted to the Society : —

" The Council of the Literary and Philosophical Society welcomes the proposal of the Chemical Club 'by which the Club expresses its desire to become merged in the Society and cordially approves that proposal."

"To enable the Club to fulfil its present obligations to all its Members up to the close of their present session (March 31st, 1920) the Council would agree to all those Members having the use, during the current year, of the Society's rooms and library on the same terms as its own Members, and would give permission to Members of the Club to attend the Society's meetings, subject to the payment to the

xviii. Proceedings. [Maj' 17,^/1, 191 g.

Society of the existing balance of the current annual Subscription of the Club together with the effects of the club."

These resolutions were adopted.

While the Council could not at once proceed to the enlargement of the Society's House it would use its best efforts to promote such improvements in the near future.

General Meeting, May 13th, 191 9.

The President, Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., .M.D., F.R.S., in the Chair.

Miss Florence Seafield Grant, M.A., B.Sc, Geography Specialist, Whalley Range High School, jy, Gardne?- Road, Prestwich ; Miss Rona Robinson, M.Sc, Research Chemist, Moseley Villa, Miiford Road, Withington, Manchester ; and Dr. Alan Ferguson, Lecturer in Physics in the College of Technology, The College of Technology, Manchester ; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, May 13th, 1919.

The President, Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., in the Chair.

Professor G. Elliot Smith presented to Professor Sir Ernest Rutherford a Dalton Medal (struck in 1S64), awarded to him by the Council in recognition of his brilliant researches in Physical Science.

Professor Sir Ernest Rutherfc)RD, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., read a paper entitled " Recent Evidence on Atomic Structure."

On the nucleus theory of atomic structure, the atom is supposed to consist of a massive nucleus carrying a positive charge, surrounded at a distance by a compensa- ting distribution of negative electrons. For distance up to lo-i- cms., the nucleus is supposed to have such 'small dimensions that it may be regarded as a point charge. The careful experiments of Geiger and Marsden on the large angle scattering of a rays in passing through matter are in close accord with this theory and show that within the limit of experimental error the forces between the a particle and the nucleus vary as the inverse square of the distance. In addition, the variation of the number of scattered particles

May ilth, 1919.J PROCEEDINGS. xix.

with velocity is in good agreement with the inverse square law. On the nucleus theory, the collision of a swift atom, like an a particle, with a light atom of matter gives rise to very intense forces due to the close approach of the two nuclei in a direct impact. In a colhsion of a swift a par- ticle of mass 4 with a hydrogen atom of mass i, the hydrogen nucleus should be set in swift motion with a maximum velocity i -6 times that of the a particle. Marsden has shown that such swift H atoms can be detected by the scintillations on a zinc sulphide screen a,t a distance in hydrogen about four times greater than the Irange of the /a particle. Since in such collisions, the "nuclei must approach Avithin a distance of the order of io-i3 cms., the distribution and number of the H atoms set in motion should throw light on the dimensions of the nuclei and on the magnitude of the forces involved.

In order to examine these points, a metal disc coated with radium C. served as a powerful source of homo- geneous a radiation. The a rays after passing through a column of hydrogen were stopped by a silver plate and t,be scintillations observed on the zinc sulphide screen beyond were due to sw:ift H atoms set in motion by the a particles. If the nucleus of the a particle and H atom could be regarded as point charges at such small distances, the beam of H atoms should be very heterogeneous with regard to velocity and H atoms of low velocity and short range should preponderate. The distribution with velocity of the H atoms was found to be very different; for with a rays of range 7 cm. the H atoms appeared to be projected mainly in the line of the a rays and to be of nearly equal velocity. For a particles of lower velocity, the beam of H atoms became more heterogeneous with regard to velocity, but in all cases the actual number was greatly in excess of that to be expected on the simple theory. The results indicated that each a particle of range 7 cms. in air shot at a perpendicular distance of 2.4x10-^3 cms. from the H nucleus- set the latter in swift motion nearly in the direction of the a particle. The general results were in accord with the view that the a particle must have dimen- sions of the order of the diameter of the electron (3.6X IO-13 cms.), and thaJ: the forces between the nuclei aug- mented rapidly for distances less than 3.4x10-^3 cms. Such a conclusion is in accord with general ideas !of the nucleus structure of hehum which must be complex probably con- taining four H nuclei and two negative electrons.

The velocity of the H atoms were measured and found to be in good accord with the value expected from the theory of impact.

XX. Proceedings. [May i^t/i, 19 19.

General calculation shovv^s that the range of the lighter atoms set in swift motion by close collisions with a particles should be less than that of the a particle if the recoiling atom carries two charges, but should exceed the range of the a particle if the atom carries unit charge. A number of bright scintillations were observed in air and oxygen and carbon dioxide beyond the range of the a particles. The equivalent range of these recoil atoms was found to be about the same in air and oxygen and about 1-3 times that of the incident 0 particle. The same general effects were observed in these gases as in hydrogen. The recoil atoms appear to be projected mainly in the direc- tion of the a particles and are more numerous than is to be expected from the simple theory of point charges. The nuclei of the atoms of oxygen and nitrogen appear to have a radius almost twice the diameter of the electron.

An interesting effect was observed in passing a particles through dry air but not in dry oxygen or carbon dioxide. Not only were bright scintillations observed in air due to singly charged atoms of nitrogen and oxygen of range 1-3 times that of the a particle, but a number of fainter scintillations appeared whose range was about four Limes that of the a particle. These long range scintillations were of about the same brightness as H atoms produced under corres- ponding conditions and were observed for about the same distance. The number of these scintillations in dry air was about the same as the number of H scintillations observed when 6 cms. pressure of hydrogen is added to oxygen.

As a result of a series of experiments it was found that these long range atoms in air arise from the impact of a particles with nitrogen atoms and presumably are either atoms of hydrogen or atoms of mass 2 disrupted from the nitrogen nucleus. From general radioactive data, it appears probable that the nitrogen nucleus of mass 14 consists of three helium nuclei of mass 4 plus two hydrogen nuclei or one of mass 2. The general results derived receive an explanation if it l)e supposed that the H nuclei are satellites of the main nucleus of mass 12 extending to a distance about twice the diameter of the electron from the centre. It is hoped later to determine the mass and velocity of the large range atoms in nitrogen, but the ex- periments are difficult unless Very intense sources of radia- tion are used. Taking into account the great energ)^ of motion of the a particle, it is to be anticipated that under the intense forces brought into play in such close collisions the nuclei should be much deformed and under favourable conditions disrupted into two or more constituents.

Annual Report of the Council. xxi.

MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Annual Report of the Council, April, IQIQ-

The Society had at the beginning of the Session an ordinary membership of 145. Since then nine new members have joined the Society, seven members have resigned, and two members have died. There are, therefore, at the end of the session, 145 ordinary members of the Society.

By the death on March 28th of Dr. Henry Wilde, D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S., the Society has sustained the loss of its oldest member and most munificent benefactor.

Fifteen papers have been read at the meetings during the year ; four shorter communications have also been made.

A Joule Centenary Meeting was held on January 7th, 1919 when Professor Sir Ernest Ruiherford, gave an address on " The Work and Influence of Joule, "and Professor W.W.Hald.a.ne Gee described some of the principal pieces of apparatus used by Joule in his researches and exhibited some of his original manuscri[)ts and note books.

On January 21st, 191 9, a Special Meeting of the Society was held and a discussion took place on *'The means by which the Society may promote most effectively the Advancement and Application of Learning- in Manchester."

Among the suggestions put forward by various speakers were the following :—

1. That while the Society should retain its present functions as a

learned Society, its members might meet with others interested in the advancement of Science for informal discussion in the rooms of the Society. Such gatherings might be held in the middle of the day or in the evenings, and light refreshments should be obtainable on these occasions.

2. That special lectures, by eminent men, on scientific subjects

of general interest should be arranged from time to time.

xxii. Annual Report of the Council.

3. That addresses, on the practical apphcations of Science, by

scientific men engaged in industry should be invited.

4. That the Presidents of the various scientific societies in

Manchester might be made Associate or Honorary Members during their periods of office, and that such societies should be invited from time to time to hold special meetings of general interest in the Society's house.

5. That facilities might be arranged for Members to consult the

library in the evenings, and that arrangements might be made whereby members of other Societies should be able on certain terms to use the library.

On March 24th a Conversazione was held in the Society's House and was greatly appreciated by a large gathering. A short address was given by Professor G. Elliot Smith, and exhibits were provided by Sir Ernest Rutherford, Professor W. W. H. Gee and Mr. T. H. Pear.

The iSociety commenced the session, with a balance in hand, from all sources, of jQ"]^ 6s. id., the amounts standing at the credit of the various accounts on March 3rst, 191S, being as follows : —

At credit of Wilde Endowment Fund £'^-^2 13 10

„ „ Joule Memorial Fund 74 16 i

^57 9 II Bank Overdraft on Society's Fund -179 3 1°

Balance 31st March, igi8 £ 78 6 i

The balance in hand at the close of the Session amoimted to ;£6 5s. 6d., the amounts standing at credit of the various accounts on the 31st March, 191 9, being: —

At credit of Wilde Endowment Fund jC^l'^ o 4

,, ,, Joule Memorial Fund 93 9 4

264 9 8 Bank Overdraft on Society's Fund 25S 4 2

Balance 31st March, 1 91 9 /^ 656

The Wilde Endowment Fund, kept as a separate banking accoulnt, shows a balance due to the Fund of ;^i7i os. 4d. in its favoiu-, as against a balance in hand of .;£i82 13s. lod. at the end of the last financial year. ^350 of the Wilde Endowment Fund is invested in War Loan.

Annual Report of the Council. xxiii.

The Librarian reports that during the Session 271 volumes have been stamped, catalogued and pressmarked; 258 of these were serials, and 13 were separate works, 35 catalogue cards were written: 20 for serials', and 15 for separate works. The total 'number of volumes catalogued to date is 38,107 for which 14,100 cards have been written.

The library continues to be satisfactorily used for reference purposes. 2 S3 volumes have been borrowed from the library, during the past year. The number of books borrowed during the p4*evioius year was 280 and during 1916-17, 284.

During the year 93 volumes have been bound in 92 covers. I'n the previous Session the corresponding numbers were 207 volumes in 165 covers.

The additions to the library for the Session amounted to 270 volumes: 2 58 serials, and 12 separate works. The donations (exclusive of the usual exchanges) were 18 vohimes ; 3 volumes were purchased in addition to those regularly subscribed for.

The donations to the Society's Library during the Session, include gifts of books by the Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), the Meteorological Ofhce, London, and Mr. T. A. Coward, Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, and the Manchester University Press.

The Society has purchased Vol. xvi. of the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers.

During the Session the eleven volumes of Dalton's Herbarium have been renovated and catalogued by Miss A. McK. Crabtree and Mr. R. S. Adamson and a paper dealing with the history and con- tents of the herbarium and Dalton's botanical work was read before the Society on February 4th. A special case is to be provided for the housing of the volumes.

The Society is greatly indebted to Mr. P. E. B. Jourdain, for the valuable gift of a large medallion of Dalton which was previously in the possession of his grandfather, Dr. Charles Clay, who was elected a member of the Society in 1841.

Mr. E. Hardcastle has presented to the Society a model of Volta's Orig^inal Pile.

xxiv. Annual Rei^ort of the Council.

The Committees appointed by the Council during the year were as follows : —

House and Finance.

The PRESIDENT Mr. FRANCIS NICHOLSON.

Mr. C. L. BARNES. Mr. W. H. TODD.

Mr. FRANCIS JONES. Dr. II. G. A. HICKLING.

Mr. R. L. TAYLOR.

Editorial.

The PRESIDENT. Mr. T. A. COWARD.

Dr. H. G. A. UK KLING. Mr. R. L. T.VYLOR.

Prof. W. W. HAL DANE GEE. The ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Wilde Endowment.

The PRESIDENT. Mr. \W. II. TODD.

Mr. FRANCIS JONES. Mr. R. L. TAYLOR.

Dr. H. G. A. HICKLING.

Special Library Co»imittee.

The PRESIDENT. Mr. FRANCIS NICHOLSON.

Mr. C. L. BARNES. Prof. S. J. H ICKSON.

Prof. W. W. FIALDANE GEE. Mr. FRANCIS TONES.

Mr. R. L. TAYLOR. Dr. H. G. A. IIICKLING.

The ASSISTANT SECRETARY. Prof F. E. WEISS.

Publications Coynmittee.

The PRESIDENT. Mr. C. L. BARNES.

Dr. W. M. TATTERSALL. Dr. H. G. A. IIICKLING,

Treasurer's Accounts. xxv.

NOTE. — The Treasurers Accounts of the Session igi8-i(^ig have been endorsed as follozvs :

April 4th, 1919. Audited and found correct.

We have also seen, at this date, the Certificates of the following Stocks held in the name of the Society : — £\,2Z^ Great Western Railway Company 5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,294, and 12,323 ; ;^7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary Stock (No. 8/1960) ; ;i^ioo East India Railway Company's 4% Annuity Stock (No. 4032) ; and the deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde Endowment Fund, those conveying the land on which the Society's premises stand, and the Declarations of Trust.

Leases and Conveyances dated as follows : —

22nd Sept., 1797.

23rd Sept., 1797.

25th Dec, 1799.

25th Dec, 1799.

22nd Dec, 1820.

23rd Dec, 1820.

Declarations of Trust : —

24th June, 1801.

23rd Dec, 1820.

8th Jan., 1878.

Appointment of New Trustees :— 30th April, 1851.

We have also seen Bankers' acknowledgment of the investment of ;^6oo in the 5% War Loan : — i Bond for ;^200, No. 28787 ; and 3 Bonds for /loo each, Nos. 71826/7 and 366270; and 2 Bonds for £^0, Nos. 131577 and 3135S.

We have also verified the balances of the various accounts with the bankers' pass books.

J'J. Wilfrid Jackso.v. (Signea) \

\ H. F. Coward.

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The Council.

THE COUNCIL and MEMBERS

OF THE

MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

1918 - 19.

Iprc3t5ent.

WILLIAM THOMSON, F.K.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C.

Wice^iPresiDents.

T. A. COWARD, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.

SYDNEY J. HICKSON, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

Secretaries.

R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C. GEORGE HICKLING, D.Sc, F.G.S.

treasurer.

W. HENRY TODD.

Xibrarian.

C. L. BARNES, -M.A.

©t(3er /Iftembers ot tbc Council.

MARY McNICOL, M.Sc. FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

E. L. RHEAD, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C. G. ELLIOT S.MITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.L.S., F.R.S. K. S. ADAM SON, M.A., B.Sc.

Bssistant Secretary aiiD librarian.

R. F. HINSON.

acting assistant Secretary anD ^Librarian :

A. McK. CRABTREE.

The Wilde Lectures. xxix.

THE WILDE LECTURES.

1897. (July 3) " On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays." By

Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart, F.R.S. (28 pp.)

1898. (Mar. 39.) " On the Physical Basis of Psychical

Events." By 'Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., F.R.S., (46 pp.)

1899. (Mar. '28.) "The newly discovered Elements; and

their delation to the Kinetic Theory of Gases." By Professor William Ramsay, F.R.S. (ig pp.)

1900. (Feb. 13.) " The Mechanical Principles of Flight."

By the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. (26 pp.)

1901. (April 22.) " Sur la Flore du Corps Hiimain." By

Dr. Elie Metschnikoff, For.Mem.R.S. (38 pp.)

1902. (Feb. 25.) " On the Evolution of the Mental Facul-

ties in relation to some Fundamental Principles of Motion." By Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S. (34 pp., 3 pis-)

1903. (May 19.) "The Atomic Theory." By Professor

F. W. Clarke, D.Sc. (32 pp.)

1904. (Feb. 23.) "The Evolution of Matter as revealed by,

the Radio-active Elements." By FREDERICK SODDY, M.A. (42 pp.)

1905. (Feb. 28.) "The Early History of Seed-bearing

Plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora." By Dr. D. H. Scott. F.R.S. (32 pp., 3 pis)

1906. (March 20.) "Total Solar Eclipses." By Professor

H. H. Turner, D.Sc, F.R.S. (32 pp.)

1907. (February 18.) "The Structure of Metals." By Dr.

J. A. EvviNG, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (20 pp., 5 pis., 5 text -figs.)

XXX. The Wilde Lectures.

1908. (March 3.) " On the Physical Aspect of the Atomic

Theory." By Professor J. Larmor, Sec.R.S. C54 PP-)

1909. (March 9.) " O41 the Influence of Moisture on

Chemical Change in Gases." By Dr. H. Brereton Baker, F.R.S. (8 pp.)

1910. (March 22.) " Recent Contributions to Theones

iiegarding the Internal Structure of the Earth." By Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I. E., D.Sc, F.R.S.

SPECIAL LECTURES.

1913. (March 4.) "The Plajit and the Soil." By A. D.

Hall, M.A., F.R.Si.

1914. (March 18.) "Crystalline Structure as revealed by

yY-rays." By Professor W. H. Bragg, M.A., F.R.S.

1915. (May 4.) "The Place of Science in History." By

Professor JULIUS MacLeod, D.Sc.

Awards of the Dalto?i Medal.

1898. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1900. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, P'.R.S.

1903. Prof. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.

1919. Prof. Sir ERNEST Rutherford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

List of Presidents of the Society. xxxi.

LIST OF PRESIDENTS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of Election

1 78 1. PETER MAINWARING, M.D., JAMES MASSEY.

17S2-1786. JAMES MASSEY, THOMAS PERCIVAL, M.D., F.R.S.

1787-1789. JAMES MASSEY.

1789- 1 804. THOMAS PERCIVAL, M.D., F.R.S.

1805-1806. Rev. GEORGE WALKER, T.R.S.

1807-1809. THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S.

1809. *JOHN HULL, M.D., F.L.S.

1809-1816. THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S.

1816-1844. JOHN DALTON, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1S44-1847. EDWARD HOLME, M.D., F.L.S.

1848-1850. EATON HODGKINSON, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1851-1854. JOHN MOORE, F.L.S.

1855-1859. Sir WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.

1860-1861. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1862-1863. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1864-1865. ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1 866- 1 867. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1868-1869. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1 870- 1 87 1. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1872-1873. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1 874- 1 875. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1876-1877. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1878- 1879. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1SS0-1S81. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1882-18S3. Sir HENRY ENEIELD ROSCOE, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1884-1S85. WILLIAM CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.

18S6. ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.

1887. BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S.

* Elected April 28th ; resigned office May 5th.

XXXll.

List of Presidents of the Society.

Date of Election.

1888-1889. OSBORNE REYNOLDS, LL.D., F.R.S.

1890-1891. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1892- 1S93. ARTHUR SCHUSTER, rii.D., F.R.S.

1894-1896. HENRY WILDE, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1896. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1897-1899. JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.

1899-1901. HORACE LAMB, M.A., F.R.S.

1901-1903. CHARLES BAILEY, M.Sc, F.L.S.

1903-1905. W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1905-1907. Sir WILLIAM H. BAILEY, M.I.Mech.E.

1907-1909. FIAROLD BAILY DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.

1909-1911. FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.

1911-1913. F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.L.S.

1913-1915. FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

1915-1917. SYDNEY J. .HICKSON, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1917-1919. WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C

19 19. G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

1919- Sir HENRY A. MIERS, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Vol. 63. Complete.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 1918-1919

14

CONTENTS.

Memoirs :

I. — The Herbarium of John Dalton. By R. S. Adamson, M. A. , B. Sc,

and Alison McK. Crabtree pp. i — 46

{Issued separately May Ijth, Jgig.)

II. — The Ancient Legend as to the Hedgehog carrying Fruits upon

its Spines. By Miller Christy, F.L.S Pp. x-

{Issued separately May ijih, IQK) )

III. — On a New Middle Carboniferous Nautiloid ( Calottautilus

trapeioidalis). By J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S. With i Plate, pp. i-

{Issued separately July bth, iQig.)

IV. — On the Superposing of Two Cross line Screens at Small Angles and the Patterns obtained thereby. By S. Lees, M.A.

With 3 Plates and JO Text-figs. ... ... ... ... ... pp. i-

{Issueii separately September ^oth, 19'9.)

v.— Henry Wilde. By Professor W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc,

M.Sc. Tech., A.M.I. E.E. iVith 4 Plates pp. I— 16

(Issued separately June 30th, IQ20. )

Proceedings

Annual Report of the Council, 1919

Treasurer's Accounts

List of the Council (1918- 19)

List of the Wilde Lectures

List of the Special Lectures

List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal List of the Presidents of the Society Title Page and Index

-26

pp. 1. XX.

pp. xxi. — xxiv. pp. XXV. — xxvii. p. xxviii. pp. xxix. — XXX.

p. XXX.

p. XXX.

pp. xxxi. — xxxii.

pp. i. — viii.

MANCHESTER : 36, GEORGE STREET.

Price Twelve Shillings.

August 16th, jg20.

AMNH LIBRARY

100125085

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