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FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

RonnrJ oi

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

s.

MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY

(MANCHESTER MEMOIRS.)

Volume LXIV (1919-20)

MANCHESTER :

36, GEORGE STREET

1921

NOTE.

The authors of the several papers contained in this volume are
themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings
which they have offered. In these particulars the Society must
not be considered as in any way responsible.

2t^M^>V

CONTENTS

MEMOIRS.

1. A Discussion of the Theorems of Lambert and Adams on
Motion in Elliptic and Hyperbolic Orbits. By L. V.
Meadowcroft, B.A., M.Sc. With 2 Text-figs. .. pp. 1 — 5

(Issued separately, July 30th, 1Q20.)

II. Morphogenesis of Brachiopoda. I. Reticularialineata (Martin),
Carboniferous Limestone. By W. E. Alkins, M.Sc.

With 1 Plate and 2 Text-figs pp. 1 — 11

(Issued separately, December 30th, 1Q20.)

III. Latent Polarities of Atoms and Mechanism of Reaction, with
special reference to Carbonyl Compounds. By Professor
Arthur Lapworth, D.Sc., F.R.S. With 3 Text-figs. pp. 1— 16
(Issued separately, October 22nd, 1Q20.)

IV. The Conjugation of Partial Valencies. By Professor Robert

Robinson, D.Sc, F.R.S. With Text-figs pp. 1— 14

(Issued separately, March 22nd, 1Q21.)

V. Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad. By Major

Leonard Munn, R.E. With 1 Map pp. 1— "

(Issued separately, February 28th, IQ21.)

PROCEEDINGS

„ of the Chemical Section

Annual Report of the Council, 1920

Treasurer's Accounts

List of the Council (1919-20)

List of the Wilde Lectures

List of the Special Lectures

List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal.

List of the Presidents of the Society

pp. i. — xxvii.
pp. xxviii. — xxxviii.
pp. xxxix. — xlii.
pp. xliii. — xlvi.
p. xlvii.
pp. xlviii. — xlix.
p. xlix.
p. xlix.
pp. 1.— li.

INDEX. V.

INDEX.

M. = Memoirs. P. = Proceedings.

Accessions to Library. P. i., iv., viii., ix., xiii., xvii., xviii., xxiii., xl.

Accounts. P. xliii.

After Effects of Cannibalism, The. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xv.

Agriculture, The Origin of. By T. Cherry. P. xxiii.

Alchemy and Chemistry among the Chinese. By J. A. R. Henderson.

P. xxx vii.
Allans, W. E. Morphogenesis of Brachiopoda. I. Reticularia lineata (Martin),

Carboniferous Limestone. M. 2. P. x.
Allan, John. Engineering as Applied to the Buildings and Plant in Chemical

Works. P. xxxv.
Alpine Insolation Effects on Unprotected Wood. By E. Knecht. P. xiv.
Alterations to Society's House. P. xli.
Aluminium Wire Experiments. By W. Thomson and H. S. Newman.

P. xv., xxiv., xxvi.
Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad. By L. Munn. M. 5.
Annual General Meeting. P. xxi.

Chemical Section. P. xxxvii.

Report. P. xxi., xxxix.

Antarctic, The : Shackleton's Expedition of 1914-17. By R. W. James. P. xii.

Auditors. P. xix.

Awards of Dalton Medal. P. xli., xlix.

Barnes, C. L. On Einstein's Theory of Space and Time. P. xvii.

On death of C. G. Hewitt. P. xviii.

Barometer belonging to late Henry Wilde. P. i.

Behaviour of Amalgamated Aluminium. By W. Thomson and H. S. Newman.

P. xv., xxiv., xxvi.
Boddington, H. Gift of portrait of H. D. Pochin. P. xiii.
Boyd, J. Gift of Memoirs. P. i.

Brachiopoda, Morphogenesis of. I. By W. E. Alkins. M. 2. P. x.
Bragg, W. L. Sound Ranging. P. v.
Brain, The Functions of the. By T. G. Brown. P. xvi.
Brown, T. Graham. The Functions of the Brain. P. xvi.
Building Extensions and Alterations. P. xiii.

Calder, W. M. Geography and History in the Mediterranean. P. xiii.
Cannibalism, The After Effects of. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xv
Carbonyl Compounds. By A. Lapworth. M. 3. P. xx.
Chapman, S. The Lunar Tide in the Earth's Atmosphere. P. xxvii.
Chemical Section. P. vi. Officers of. P. xxx. Rules. P. xxxv. Annual
General Meeting. P. xxxvii.

Proceedings. P. xxviii, xli.

The Future of. By R. H. Clayton. P. xxxi.

Chemical Works, Engineering as applied .... By J. Allan. P. xxxv.
Cherry, T. The Origin of Agriculture. P. xxiii.

VI. INDEX.

Chinese Alchemy and Chemistry. By J. A. R. Henderson. P. xxxvii.

Clayton, R. H. The Future of the Chemical Section. P. xxxi.

Colloids, Record Work on. By R. S. Willows.- P. xxxiv.

Coloured Objects, The Photography of. By Sir W. J. Pope. P. xxviii.

Conjugation of Partial Valencies, The. By R. Robinson. M. 4. P. xx.

Corresponding Members, Election of. See Election.

Cotton Fibre, Transverse Section of. By R. S. Willows. P. xxiv.

Council, Election of. P. xxi.

Ex-officio Members. P. vi.

List of. P. xxi., xlvii.

Cramp, W. Wasteful Effort in Industry. P. ix.
Crossley, H. Gift of Proceedings. P. i.

Dalton Medal. P. xii., xlix.

Deputy Chairman, Election of. P. vii.

Discussion of the Theorems of Lambert and Adams on Motion in Elleptic and

Hyperbolic Orbits, A. By L. V. Meadowcroft. M. 1. P. x.
Dixon, H. B. Gift of Photograph of the late Henry Wilde. P. i.
Donations. P. i., xiii.

See Accessions to Library.

Einstein's Theory. By C. L. Barnes. P. xvii.
Election of Corresponding Members. P. xiv., xxi.

Deputy Chairman. P. vii.

Officers. P. xxi.

of Chemical Section. P. xxx., xxxvii.

Ordinary Members. P. ii., iii., vi., vii., ix., x., xii., xiii., xiv., xvi., xxi.,

xxii., xxiii.

President. P. vii.

Elimination of Wasteful Effort in Industry, The. By T. H. Pear. P. viii.
Engineering as Applied to the Buildings and Plant in Chemical Works. By

John Allan. P. xxxv.
Extensions and Alterations. P. xiii.

Functions of the Brain, The. By T. G. Brown. P. xvi.

Future of the Chemical Section, The. By R. H. Clayton. P. xxxi.

Society, The. By Sir Henry A. Miers. P. i.

Supplies of Motor Fuel. By H. Moore. P. xxxi.

General Meetings. P. ii., vi., vii., ix., x., xii., xiii., xiv.,xvi., xxi., xxii., xxiii.
Geography and History in the Mediterranean. By W. M. Calder. P. xiii.
Gifts. See Donations.
Gold and Pearls in Neolithic Times. By W. J. Perry. P. xviii.

Henderson, J. A. R. Alchemy and Chemistry among the Chinese. P. xxxvii.

Hewitt, C. G., On death of. By C. L. Barnes. P. xviii.

Historical Process, The. By W. J. Perry. P. xi.

Hornea Lignieri, One of the Simplest Land Plants. By W. H. Lang. P. vi.

Hyderabad, Ancient Mines and Megaliths in. By L. Munn. M. 5.

Incorporation of Manchester Chemical Club. P. iii.

INDEX. VII.

Jade Charm, Exhibition of Green. By F. E. Weiss. P. x.
James, R. W. The Antarctic : Shackleton's Expedition of 1914-17. P. xii.
Knecht, E. Alpine Insolation Effects on Unprotected Wood. P. xiv.
Kynurenic Acid in the Dog. By R. Robinson. P. xix.

Lang, W. H. One of the Simplest Land Plants, Hornea Lignieri. P. vi.
Lapworth, A. Latent Polarities of Atoms and Mechanism of Reaction, with

special reference to Carbonyl Compounds. M. 3. P. xx.
Latent Polarities of Atoms and Mechanism of Reaction. By A. Lapworth.

M. 3. P. xx.
Library. See Accessions.
List of Presidents. P. 1.
Lunar Tide in the Earth's Atmosphere. By S. Chapman. P. xxvii.

Manchester Chemical Club. P. iii.

Literary and Philosophical Society, The future of. By Sir Henry A.

Miers. P. i.

Meadowcroft, L. V. A Discussion of the Theorems of Lambert and Adams on
Motion in Elleptic and Hyperbolic Orbits. M. 1. P. x.

Mediterranean, Geography and History in. By W. M. Calder. P. xiii.

Miers, Sir Henry A. The Future of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society. P. i.

Elected President. P. vii.

Death of Hermann Woolley. P. xvii.

Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad, Ancient. By L. Munn. M. 5.

Moore, H. Future Supplies of Motor Fuel. P. xxxi.

Morphogenesis of Brachipoda. I. Reticularia lineata (Martin), Carboniferous

Limestone. By W. E. Alkins. M. 2. P. x.
Motion in Elleptic and Hyperbolic Orbits. By L. V. Meadowcroft. M. 1.

P. x.
Motor Fuel, Future Supplies of. By H. Moore. P. xxxi.
Munn, L. Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad. M. 5.
Nationalities, The Study of. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xi.
Newman, H. S. See Thomson, W.
Note on the Mechanism of the Production of Kynurenic Acid in the Dog.

By R. Robinson. P. xix.
Officers and Council. P. xxi., xlvii.

One of the Simplest Land Plants, Hornea Lignieri. By W. H. Lang. P. vi.
Ordinary Members, Election of. See Election.
Origin of Agriculture, The. By T. Cherry. P. xxiii.

Warlike States, The. By W. J. Perry. P. xxii.

Oxford University. Gift of Henry Wilde's Barometer. P. i.
Partial Valencies, The Conjugation of. By R. Robinson. M. 4. P. xx.
Pear, T. H. The Elimination of Wasteful Effort in Industry. P. viii.
Perry, W. J. The Historical Process. P. xi.

The Origin of Warlike States. P. xxii.

The Search for Gold and Pearls in Neolithic Times. P. xviii,

Photograph of Henry Wilde. P. i.

VIII. INDEX.

Photography of Coloured Objects, The. By Sir W. J. Pope. P. xxviii.

Pochin, H. D., Portrait of, presented by H. Boddington. P. xiii.

Pope, Sir W. J. The Photography of Coloured Objects. P. xxviii.

President, Election of. P. vii.

Presidents of the Society. P 1.

Recent Work on Colloids. By R. S. Willows. P. xxxiv.

Reticularia lineata (Martin), Carboniferous Limestone. By W. E. Alkins.

M. 2. P. x.
Robinson, R. Note on the Mechanism of the Production of Kynurenic Acid

in the Dog. P. xix.

The Conjugation of Partial Valencies. M. 4. P. xx.

Roots of Numbers. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. ix.

Rules of Chemical Section. P. xxxv.

Scrutineers. P. xxi.

Search for Gold and Pearls in Neolithic Times, The. By W. J. Perry.

P. xviii.
Shackleton's Expedition of 1914-17. By R. W. James. P. xii.
Society's House. P. xli.

Society, The Future of the. By Sir Henry A. Miers. P. i.
Sound Ranging. By W. L. Bragg. P. v.
Special Lectures. P. xlix.

General Meeting of Chemical Section. P. xxxv.

Stromeyer, C. E. Method of Obtaining Roots of Numbers. P. ix.

The After Effects of Cannibalism. P. xv.

The Study of Nationalities. P xi.

Study of Nationalities, The. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xi.

Thomson, W., and Newman, H. S. On the Behaviour of Amalgamated
Aluminium and Aluminium Wire. P. xv., xxiv.

Further Notes. P. xxvi.

Transverse Section of Cotton Fibre. By R. S. Willows. P. xxiv.

WTarlike States, The Origin of. By W. J. Perry. P. xxii.

Wasteful Effort in Industry. The Elimination of. By T. H. Pear. P. viii

Weiss, F. E. Elected Deputy Chairman. P. vii.

Exhibition of Green Jade Charm. P. x.

Wilde, H., Barometer of. P. i.

Photograph of. P. i.

Wilde Lectures. P. xlviii.

Willows, R. S. Recent Work on Colloids. P. xxxiv.

Transverse Section of Cotton Fibre. P. xxiv.

Wood, Alpine Insolation Effects on. By E. Knecht. P. xiv.
Woolley, H. E., Note on death of. By Sir Henry E. Miers. P. xvii.

ERRATA.
Memoir Page Line — — — - — —

No. 3 2 9 for " positive " read " negative."

„ 3 16 40 for " work " read " works."

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv (1920) No. 1

I. — A Discussion of the Theorems of Lambert and Adams
on Motion in Elliptic and Hyperbolic Orbits.

By L. V. Meadowcroft, B.A., M.Sc.

(Communicated by Professor Sydney Chapman, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.)
(Read Dec. 2nd, ipicj. Received for Publication, Dec. 2tyth, ipip.)

The theorem of Lambert* on the motion of a planet in an elliptic
orbit is usually enunciated as follows : —

" If / is the time of describing any arc PlP2 of an ellipse, and k is the
chord of the arc, then nt = (<f>1 — sin 0X) - (<f>2 - sin <p2), where

, l~T. + r, + i , u_, / rt + r,-k"

«nif,-ij ."-^,-r- sini^ = hj

a

rIt r2 are the focal distances of the points Plt P2, a is the semi-major
axis of the ellipse and n the mean angular velocity about the focus.

The most elegant proof is that due to J. C. Adams, f which will be
reproduced here in view of the interesting geometrical results to which
it gives rise.

Let fiv /u2 be the eccentric anomalies of Pz, P2,

. \ k* = a2 (cos /Xl - cos M2)2 + a2( 1 - e2) (sin ^ - sin /Ll2)2

= 4a* sin2 J (/ix-/i2)[i -*2cos2 J (/», + /«■)] .... (1),

r, + r2 = 23 - fltf cos ^j - «<? cos yu2

= 2rt[l -tf COS I f/i.+fla) COS J (/ii-/i2)] • • (2),

nt = fi1 - ^u2 — tf (sin ^ - sin fx2)

= O-^i - ^2) - 2 <? cos J (^ + /u2) sin J (Atl - ^3) . . . (3).

Since a, and therefore n, are given, it follows from (1), (2) and (3)
that r, + ?'2) £ and / are functions of the two quantities fAx — jiz and
e cos J (^I+/x2).

" Insigniores orbitse cometarum proprietates," 1761.
f British Association Report, 1877, or Collected Works, p. 410.

fuly 30th, I()20.

2 MEADOWCROFT, Motion in Elliptic and Hyperbolic Orbits

Let fxx - /u2 = 2a, t cos ^ (fdl + fji2) = cos fi
.'. k= 2a sin a sin fi ...

rz + ra + £=2a [i -cos (/3 + a)]
r, + r2 - £ = 2a [i - cos (fi - a)]
nt=2a — 2 sin a cos /3 .

(4),

(5),

(6),

(7),
(8).

If now we put /3 + a = 0„ /3 - a = <f>2, the equations (6) and (7) lead to
the required expressions for sin \ 0n sin \ <f>2, whilst (8) gives
«/=|j3 + o-sin (/3 + a)] -[{fi-a) -sin (fi - a)]
= (0I-sin (p,)-^ -sin <£2)

In the figure Qti Q2 are the points on the auxiliary circle which
correspond to the points P„ P2 on the ellipse, and N„ N2 are the feel
of the corresponding ordinates. Then | ACQx*=p» \ ACQ2 = /u2 and

2a= - I CxCO,

Now or cos \ (fiz + /u2)

= <r. C7V, if TV is the foot of the ordinate drawn from Q, the
middle point of QYQ2. Let Pbe the corresponding point on the ellipse
and r its focal distance. Thus a cos /3 = *. C7V, by (4), and in order
to obtain a geometrical representation for fi it is necessary to tranform

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv (1920), No. 1 3

the right hand side of this equation so that e disappears. Now in the
ellipse r = a — e. CN or e. CN=a-r. Now take a point N' on CA
such that CN' = a -r — e. CN, and let // be the eccentric angle of the
corresponding point P' on the ellipse. Then clearly /*' = j3. Hence
Adams' proof leads at once to a simple construction for a and /3. To
construct /3 + a and }3 - a (or <f>r and <f>2) let Q correspond on the
auxiliary circle to P' on the ellipse, and take two points Q\ and Q'2 on
opposite sides of Q and such that | Q\CQ'= \ QCQ2 = \ \ QZCQ2.
Then the angles ACQ\ and ACQ 2(/A and fx 2 say) are equal to <f>z and 02.

These results suggest that an independent proof of the theorem may
be given, based on geometrical considerations. Let P, P\, Py2 be
constructed as above. Then with the same notation as before we have
r, + r2 = 2a - ae cos lit - at cos ll2.

= 2(2-2 at cos i (^ +/x2) cos 5 (j*, - yu2)

= 2rt - 2 CA"' cos J (//x - ^u'2)

= 2a — 2 a cos J (fi'1 + p!2) cos A (/it — /i9)

= 2a — a cos ^u'j - a cos yu'2

= 2a-CN'I- CN\

= AN\ + AN'2 (9).

Again fr = 4a* sin2 \ (Hl - fx2)[i - 1* cos2 £ (/*! + /**)]
= 4«2 sin2 i (/»'x -/*',) sin2 J (/x/I+/x'2)
.*. ^ = 2fl sin i (/X'I - M'2) sin J (j/, + ,/,)
= fl cos ^'2 - a cos ^'1
= N\N\ (10).

Hence, from (9) and (10),

2 / =sin I M'I = sin J <£„ ^ / 2- — = sin \^'2 = sin ^2.

Also «/=(/*, - /jt2) -<?(sin yui — sin M2)

= Ui — ^2)-2 t sin Kjfa-jte) cos J (/xx + pt.)
= (</>i - </>2) — 2 sin J (<£x - </>2) cos J (<£x + </>2)
= (c/)1-sin </>,) — (<£2- sin </>2).

Although very different in form from the proof given by Adams the
preceding proof is not very different in substance, depending, as it does,
on expressing r + r, k and nt in terms of ^ - ^2 and e cos \ (^ + ^2).
It is, however, of some interest as placing the matter on a definitely
geometrical basis and for the immediate purpose for which it is here
used appears to be superior to the geometrical proofs hitherto given
c.f. C. Taylor's " Ancient and Modern Geometry of Conies," page 241.

4 MEADOWCROFT, Motion in Elliptic and Hyperbolic Orbits

Similar considerations may be applied to obtain corresponding
results for the hyperbola, but the results are necessarily more complicated
as the representation of points on the curve by means of a single para-
meter is not of so simple a character as in the ellipse. If the equation

of a hyperbola is — -"- = i the co-ordinates of any point can be

a? b2
represented by a single parameter, ^ by the relations x = a cosh fX,
y = b sinh M. If, in the figure, P is the point (*, y), corresponding to
the parameter ,M then CN= a cosh /A, PN=- b sinh /x, and it is easily
shown that the area of the sector CPA is equal to \ aim.

Adams'* theorem for the hyperbola may be enunciated as follows : —
" If / is the time of describing any arc PZP2 of a hyperbola, and k is the

chord of the arc, then / '— = - </>x + </>2 + sinh fa - sinh <f>2,
V a3

where sinh \ fa = \

\rx + r2 + k

sinh \ fa = h

_l /?'i + ^2 — k

j:

* British Association Report, 1877, or Collected Works, p. 4ro.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv (1920), No. 1 5

rx and r2 are the focal distances of P„ P2i a is the semi-transverse axis,
and {a is the acceleration at unit distance.

As before, let ^ ^ denote the parameters of Plt P3.
Then rx + r2 = ae cosh ^ + ac cosh ^2 - 2a

= 2 ae cosh J (^x + /*2) cosh J (^ - /jt?)— 2a.

Now let /* be the point whose parameter is J^ + tta) and iVthe foot
of the corresponding ordinate. P will not now be the middle point
of PXPV

. ". rT + r2 = 2 £. CiV COsh I (/xr - /x2) - 2a.

Let TV' be taken on the axis of x so that CN' = 0 + /- = a + *. C7V-
• *• fi + ^2 = 2 CiV ' cosh \ (/xj - ^2) - 2a.

If /*'„ /''a are taken on opposite sides of P so that their parameters
p'M M'2 satisfy the relations /x'i + //2 = 2//, //i — /x'2 = /xi— /x2,

we easily find rI + r2 = -4iV,I + ^4iVT,2 , (11)

JV'jyN '2 being the feet of the ordinates from Z3 '„ /> '2,

and A = N\N,a (12)

i /rI + r2 + ^_1 /2^/V', /2/cosh ■ T\-cinnl '-

.2 v— - *J—^- =ij Mcosh^-iJ-smhJ^-

sinh ^ (/>!,

/^ + r2 - £

and similarly J / — — = sinh J n'2 = sinh \ <f,2.

Hence ^'„ /x'2 are geometrical representations of <£„ <p2.

Now / / — = — /xi + /x2 + ^ sinh ^ - <r sinh iX*.

= -</>i + (/)2 + sinh c^ — sinh <£2, on reduction.

That the analogy between the two cases is complete will be more
fully appreciated when it is recollected that in the case of the ellipse,
tt, besides denoting the angle ACQ, is also a measure of the sectorial
area ACP. In fact the area A CP is equal to \ abu, both in the ellipse
and hyperbola. In the case of the ellipse the parameter of P is chosen
half way between those of Px and P2 and those of P\ P'2 are so chosen
that /a 1 — /a 2 = /xi - /X2> /A I + /A 2 = 2 jX ■

Routh's "Dynamics of a Particle," p. 226.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920) No. 2

Plate I.

3 c
5P W

>J p£

a

J pq

5 M

!•

Manchester Memoirs , Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 2

II. — Morphogenesis of Brachiopoda.
I. — Reticulata lineata (Martin), Carboniferous Limestone.

By W. E. Alkins, M.Sc.

( Communicated by Dr. George Hickling, F.G.S.)

( Read December 2nd, 1919. Received for publication February iyth, 1920.)

Introduction.

In view of the great amount of biometric research that has
been carried out during the last few years, it is somewhat
surprising that very few investigations along such lines deal
with Brachiopoda. The group is represented at the present time
by rather less than a hundred and forty species, few of which
occur in conditions such as would make them accessible in
sufficient numbers for purposes of measurement; but brachiopods,
except in the Tertiary rocks, constitute one of the most abundant
and most important groups of fossils. Interesting to the zoologist
not merely on account of the great age of the group, but also by
reason of the extreme variability often exhibited within a single
species, and of the prevalence of the phenomenon of heterogenetic
homceomorphy, they are of the highest importance to the strati-
grapher, since they occur almost world-wide, and frequently in
greater abundance than any other group. Hence an enquiry into
the variation and growth of a number of species may be of some
interest.

Previous Research.

Quantitative studies of variation in certain species of fossil
Brachiopoda have been published by Cumings and Mauck (1),
by Day (2), and by Mook (3). The first-named authors studied
Platystrophia lynx from the Upper Ordovician rocks at Vevay,
Indiana (Switzerland Co.). The data taken for study were:
Ratio of width to length of shell; ratio of depth to breadth of
sinus; number of plications on ventral valve; number of plica-
tions on dorsal valve; number of plications in sinus; number of
plications on fold. In the case of each of these quantities a
fairly regular, though slightly asymmetric, distribution curve was

December joth, ip20.

2 W. E. ALKINS — Morphogenesis of Brachiopoda

obtained; each rose abruptly, and fell off rather less abruptly,
showing a certain correlation of the different variants. The
correlation between number of plications in the sinus and number
of plications on the whole valve, stated in a precise form by Hall,
was found to be approximate rather than precise. Extreme forms
were small in size, and conversely forms near the modes were
large and robust. Finally, there was absolutely no character or
combination of characters that could be relied upon to separate
any large collection into distinct species, though several such
species or varieties had been described; these forms to a limited
extent differed in range.

No actual measurements were published. It is perhaps open
to criticism that the whole series of shells was not taken from a
carefully restricted area.

Day measured a thousand examples of Reticularia lineata
(Martin) from " one spot in the limestone near Peakshill Farm,
Rushup Edge Valley, Castleton." Remarkable variation in the
form of individual shells was found, but distribution curves for

Length T ,pn cf Ti

the ratios - — ^-r and ^ a, gave no indication of the presence
Breadth Depth to r

of two or more forms. Each of the ratios investigated was found
to decrease as the shells increased in size, and the degree of
correlation between variation in breadth and variation in depth
was found to be equal to about one fifth] of the whole variation;
apart from this, the variations in breadth and depth occurred
quite independently of one another.

Again, no detailed measurements were published. The varia-

, Length , Length . . . „

tion in the - — =-r and ——---- ratios as the shells increase m
Breadth Depth

size was only indicated qualitatively, without any attempt at a
quantitative treatment. Fortunately Day's series of shells is pre-
served in the Manchester Museum, and the writer has submitted
them to the method of investigation described below.

Mook investigated five mutations of Spirifer mucronalus,
Conrad, from the Hamilton beds near Thedford, Ontario, and
near Alpena and at other localities in Michigan. In the case of
each of the mutations studied — mut. alpe?iense, Grabau ms. ; mut.
muUiplicalus, Grabau ms.; mut. profundus, Grabau ms. ; mut.
thed jordense, Shimer and Grabau; and mut. altenuatus, Grabau
ms. — distribution curves were plotted for adult and neanic shell

indices, i.e., — -. ratios. From the results it was concluded

' Length

that alpenense is ancestral to profundus and thedfordense, whilst

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920) No. 2 3

attenuatus and multiplicatus are derived from some common form
similar to but somewhat more primitive than multiplicatus.

While the conclusions drawn by Mook are perhaps valid, the
more purely statistical portion of the work calls for certain
criticisms. Only 74 specimens of the form attenuatus were
measured; the curves for multiplicatus are based on the still
smaller number of 29 specimens. Yet in each case the percentage
of shells within any given range of index is returned to the nearest
one-tenth of one per cent., i.e., in the case of multiplicatus the
tacit assumption is made that the relations found for 29 specimens
would hold exactly for one thousand. A much more serious point
is that we are not told how the neanic measurements were ob-
tained. Mook appears to have regarded all his examples as
adult, however small they may have been; hence we find the
neanic measurements of various individuals exactly the same as
the adult measurements of other individuals; the latter therefore
would appear to be immature {e.g., neanic specimen no. 53=adult
no. 38, etc.). Again, the neanic width is always given as equal
to the adult width; thus, it is assumed that after the neanic stage
has been passed the shell grows longer but not wider, the length
of the hinge-line remaining unaltered. While the growth-lines
are certainly much more crowded towards the ends of the hinge-
line than they are near the anterior margin of the shell, increase
in length is always accompanied by increase in width, i.e., although

— — diminishes very considerably as the shell increases in size,

yet it is always appreciable. For these reasons the neanic curves
of Mook are of very little value.

The measurements of every specimen are published, and these
the writer proposes to use in order to obtain " growth-curves," so
far as the data will allow.

In a recent note (4) the writer showed that in the case of the
recent freshwater bivalve Unto pictorum, Linne, the ontogenetic
curve of growth for the ratio antero-posterior length/dorso-ventral
length, as determined by measurements from the growth-lines
of individual shells, was in complete agreement with the phylo-
genetic curve obtained by measuring a large series of shells in
all stages of growth and determining the mean value of the
major axis which corresponded with each given dorso-ventral
length. It is proposed to investigate the growth of various
Brachiopoda by the method employed for the Unio above men-
tioned.

4 W. E. ALKINS — Morphogenesis of Brachiopoda

The Present Research.

In the present paper the writer proposes to give the results of
a study of the series of Reticularia lineata (Martin) measured
by Day. The specimens preserved in the Manchester Museum
number nine hundred and forty-five (Day measured one thousand).
Day did not accurately define the position of the three axes,
Length, Breadth, and Depth, measured by him, and therefore no
attempt had been made to discover whether the results of the
measurement of the same series of shells by different observers

were in accordance. Indeed, the values of the two ratios -

and - — *— _ have not been determined, since the present investiga-
tion was undertaken with the object of studying the growth rather
than the variation of the species.

The history of the species was sketched by Day, who also
dealt at length with variations in certain characters less susceptible
of measurement — variation in size, and lateral twisting of the
ventral beak, ornament, etc. — as well as with variations in form.
It is therefore unnecessary to treat of these features here.

Measurement. The three axes Length, Width, and Depth,
were measured by means of an optician's sliding gauge, the
determination being in every case correct to the nearest millimetre.
The position of the axes may be defined as follows : —

Le?igth. From the brachial umbo to the anterior margin,
along the plane of symmetry of the shell. By measuring from
the brachial umbo, irregularities due to variation in the relative
size of the umbones — which are much greater in the case of the
pedicle (ventral) umbo — are considerably diminished.

Width. The greatest width, perpendicular to the length axis
and to the plane of symmetry.

Depth. The greatest thickness of the shell, perpendicular to
the axes of width and length.

All shells of the same length were now got together, the whole
series being thus divided up into a number of smaller series,
each comprising shells which had attained the same length. In
each of these small series width and depth distribution curves
were plotted, and these were utilised to construct skeleton solid
figures, in which the horizontal axes represent (i) length and (2)
width or depth, the vertical axis representing the number of
specimens The data on which these figures are based are given
in Tables I and II, while photographs of the skeleton figures are
shown in Figs. 1 and 2; the method adopted will probably be
evident from Tables I and II (in constructing the solid figures
outlying specimens have been disregarded).

TABLE I.

Comparison of Width with Length.

Length

Width

No.

Mean
Width

Length

Width

No.

Mean
Width

Length

Width

No.

Mean
Width

3

*

1

4

15
16

5
14

21
22

1
1

4
5

6
2

4

4"25

14

17

18

23
13

17-38

19

23

24

3

6

25-08

5

5
6

7

12
11

5 54

19
20

13

4

25
26

27
28

22

15
6
5
2

2

15
16
17

1
5
11

6

6

7
8

9

20
3

6-81

15

18
19

15
12

18-79

23

24

7
4

7
8
9
10

7

22
8
1

20

14

25

5

7

8'08

21
22

9
3

20

26

27

8
3

26*02

28
29
30
31

6
6
1

1

8

8
9

10
11

5

22
20
3

9-42

17
18
19
20
21

3

6
18
15
11

16

20-02

25

6

8
9
10
11
12
13

1

2
16
22
6
4

22

8

26

10

9

10 82

23
24

3

27
28

7
5

21

29
30
31

3

1
1

27-06

19

4

10
11
12
13
14

2
18
30
11
3

20

10

32

-

10

11-92

17

21
22
23
24
25

22
17
13
6

1

21 -64

33

1

25
26

1
3

11

11
12
13
14
15
16
17

3
7

20
20
9

1

13 48

18

22

27
28
29
30
31

2

6
5

28-47

18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

2
2
4
8
4
11
14
4
5
1

22-93

23
24

29
30
31
32

33

2
1

1
1

30 0

33

12

13
14
15
16
17

7
17
29
11
3

14 79

14
15

6
16

16

27

13

17
18
19
20

19
3
2

1

16-09

W. E. ALKINS — Morphogenesis of Brachiopoda
TABLE II.

Comparison of Depth with Length.

Length

Depth

No 1 Mean
" | Depth

Length

Depth

No.

Mean
Depth

Length

18

Depth

12
13
14
15
16
17
18

No.

3

22
19
9
2

1

Mean
Depth

13 80

3

2

1

2

12

7
8
9
10

2
34

28
3

8-48

4

2
3

1

7

2*88

13

8
9

10
11

7

47
18
2

9 20

5

3
4

15

!)

3 38

19

13
14
15
16
17
18

3
16
15
4

14(i2

6

4

5

27

5

4-16

14

8
9
10
11
12

1

9
32

28
2

10-29

7

4

5
6

7

29
2

4-87

20

14
15

16
17
18
19
20

6
12
13
9
2

1

15 84

8
9
10

5
6

7

6

7

6

7
8

25
21

4

33

18

10

49
5

5-58
6-35
6-92

15

16

10
11
12
13

10
11
12
13

7

48
11
4

5
16
33
11

11-17
11 77

21

15
16
17

18

6

7
13

8

16 68

17

10
11
12
13
14
15

1

2
27
26
14

3

12-81

11

6

7
8
9
10

22
31
5

7-72

22

16
17

18

3
6
10

1737

23

18
19
20

2

190

24

19

1

19

The solid figures show that Reticularia lineata presents a very
good example of a truly homogeneous species: the variation
shown is perfectly continuous throughout, and there is not the
slightest evidence of any tendency towards a differentiation into
two or more groups. Such solid figures may be taken as typical
of " good," simple, homogeneous species.

Ontogeny. We may now safely proceed with a mathematical
investigation into the ontogeny of the shell.

From the data necessary for the construction of the length-
width and length-depth distribution figures the mean value of
the width and depth respectively corresponding to each length
was calculated. These mean figures are included in Tables I
and II. They represent the average width and depth of shells

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920) No. 2 7

which have attained any given length, and have been utilised for
the construction of Figs. 3 and 4. In Fig. 3 the mean width,
and in Fig. 4 the mean depth, is plotted against the length. The
same figures show also the range in width and in depth which was
found amongst shells of each length — and again, the actual values
may be found by reference to Tables I and II.

It should be observed that this method is only applicable in
the case of species which show no tendency towards division into
two or more groups : any such tendency is at once brought out
by the solid distribution figures, and when evidence of a differen-
tiation of this kind is found the ontogeny of the species cannot
be directly studied by the method outlined above.

The remarkable smoothness of each of the ontogeny curves
provides a very striking justification for the method by which
they -have been obtained. The discrepancy between the actual
mean width or depth values and the corresponding points on the
mean curves upon which they appear to lie is throughout very small.
The two curves may now be considered somewhat more closely.

At the outset it may be remarked that the curves confirm

the statement of Day that the ratios TTT,fT and ^ , decrease
J Width Depth

throughout the life of the individual. But they show very
definitely that the relationship which exists between Width and
Length is by no means similar to that which is found between
Depth and Length — a feature that the purely qualitative method
used by Day could not be expected to bring out.

Fig. 3 shows that the width and length are related through-
out life by a linear function, which may be expressed: —

w=i-35 ('— i-o),
where /=length in mm., z£/=width in mm.

Two points of interest arise in this connection. Obviously,
the line corresponding with this function does not pass through
the origin : the width is directly proportional to a quantity which
is roughly one millimetre less than the length as measured, i.e.,
from the brachial umbo to the fold. Consideration of the form of
the shell affords a fairly simple explanation of this. The brachial
umbo projects to a slight extent behind the hinge-line; the ex-
tremities of the width axis lie in the plane of the hinge-line and
the anterior margin, not in that of the brachial umbo and the
anterior margin. Thus it appears highly probable that the width
is directly proportional to the length from the hinge-line to the
anterior margin. This suggestion is supported by the fact that
1 mm. is quite a fair average value for the difference between
the lengths as measured from the hinge-line and from the brachial
umbo respectively. No such correction for the length is neces-
sary in the case of the relationship between depth and length.

The average values of the ratio „T. f , are less than those

b Width

8 W. E. ALKINS — Morphogenesis of Brachiopoda

given by Day (lac. cit., Fig. 4) : it therefore appears likely that
Day took his length from the pedicle umbo to the anterior margin
— which would at once account for the fact that the rate of
decrease of the ratio during the growth of the shell does not agree
very closely with the rate which may (approximately) be deduced

Since w»i'35(/— 1), we have : ^r=i-35;

i.e., the width increases at a constant rate, which is equal to
1 »35 times the rate of increase of the length.

w ( l \ l '35

Also — = i-35(i_— j = 1-35— —

'(f)

i-35

dl

, . . . . . Width . ...

i.eh as the length increases, the ratio- — increases rapidly at

first and then more and more slowly, the increase being very
small when the length is great.

The relationship between depth and length is rather less
simple (Fig. 4). Over the whole range covered by the specimens
studied, the two dimensions are very well expressed by the relation :
D=o-6643/-|-oooii/2-|-o-ooo247/3; where D=depth, /=length,
in millimetres. The agreement between the experimental values
and the curve given by this equation is remarkably good (little
weight is to be attached to the last two or three points found,
on account of the relatively small number of such large specimens
in the series).

Since D = o-6643/-j-0,°c>i i/2-}-o-ooo247/3,

efD

'-tt = o 6643-i-o-oo22/+o-ooo74i/2;

i.e., the rate of increase of depth increases more and more rapidly
as the length increases.

Further, — = 0-6643-!- o-ooi i/-|-o-ooo247/2;

'(7)

— - — '- = o-oou-|-o-ooo494/;

i.e., the rate of increase of the ratio - — ^— — increases at a con-
Length

stant rate as the length increases.

It is therefore evident that the relation between depth and
length throughout growth is very different from that between
width and length.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920) No. 2 9

Summary and Conclusion.

It has been shown that : —

r. Length-Width and Length-Depth solid distribution figures
strongly confirm the view that Retlcularia lineal a (Martin) from
braohiopod-beds near Castleton, Derbyshire, is a perfectly bomo-
geneou.; species.

2. Throughout life the length (/) from the brachial umbo to
the anterior margin and the width (zu) are connected by the rela-
tion:— w=ct {I — c2), where cx and c2 are constants.

It is suggested that c2 is equal to the mean difference
between the length from the brachial umbo and that from the
hinge-line, to the anterior margin.

3 Simultaneously the depth (D) and length are related by
the expression : —

D =alJrbl2Jrcl3, where a, b, c are constants.

Finally, the writer would like to express his cordial thanks
to Dr. G. Hickling, F.G.S., and to Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S.,
for the kind interest they have taken throughout in the work;
to Mr. J. Harwood, B.Sc, to whom the author is indebted for
the photographs of the solid figures, and for considerable assis-
tance in checking many of the calculations incidental to the
analysis of the results; and to Professor Sydney Chapman, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.R.S., for the interest he has shown in the mathematical
side of the work.

LITERATURE.

1. E. R. Cumings and A. V. Mauck. — " A Quantitative Study of

Variation in the Fossil Brachiopod Plah 'strophia lynx." American
Journal of Science, Ser. 4, Vol. 14, New Haven, 1902 ; p. 9.

2. Henry Day. — "Variation in a Carboniferous Brachiopod — Retlcu-

laria lineata (Martin). Manchester Memoirs, Vol. 59, Pt. 1,
1915; No. 4.

3. C. C. Mook. — "Statistical Study of Variation in Spirifer mucronatus"

Annals , New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 26, June, 1915 ;
P- *1S'

4. W. E. Alkins. — " Notes on the Growth and Variation of Unto

pictorum, Linne. Read before the Conchological Society, May
14th, 1919 (not yet published).

Metallurgical Dept.,

The University, Manchester,
October 30th, 1919.

10 W. E. ALKINS — Morphogenesis of Brachiopoda

mm
34

Max Width
Mm. Width
Mean Widt

Fig. 3. Relationship between Length and Width.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920) No. 2 1

Max. Depth
Min. Depth

Fig. 4. Relationship between Length and Depth.

October Jtk, 1919.] PROCEEDINGS. i.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 7th, 1919.
Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. {Vice-President),

followed by

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. ( Vice-President),
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books on
the table. Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., drew attention to several
works, including: — "A Bibliography of Indian Geology and
Physical Geography ..." (Parts I. and II.) by T. H. D.
La Touche (8vo., Calcutta, 191 7, 191 8), presented by the
Director of the Geological Survey of India; and "Spencer
Fullerton Baird — a Biography," by W. H. Dall (8vo., Phila-
delphia, 191 5), presented by the Smithsonian Institution.

Gifts of a barometer, belonging to the late Dr. Henry Wilde,
presented by Oxford University; a photograph of Dr. Henry
Wilde, presented by Professor H. B. Dixon; thirty-two
volumes of " Memoirs and Proceedings" presented by Mr.
John Boyd; and volumes 2-9 of the Society's "Proceedings"
from Mr. H. Crossley; were also recorded and votes of
thanks passed to the donors.

An address on " The Future of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society " was given by Sir
Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Sir Henry Miers referred to the discussion which took
place on January 21st, 191 9, at which it was proposed to
make the Society more of a meeting place for persons
generally interested in Science, and to give an opportunity
for informal discussions. This was a work performed by
such societies in their pioneer days ; but with the increase of
scientific knowledge the tendency has been, for scientific
people to segregate into special groups. As a result of
this, the papers read at modern specialist societies are only
calculated to appeal to experts.

A reaction is indicated by recent attempts at co-operation
between the Humanities and Sciences, e.g., in conferences,
and the proposal for a common journal.

ii. Proceedings. [October 21st, 1919.

While nothing should be done to lower the tradition of the
Society as a learned body promoting original research, it can do
a great work by making the most recent advances in Science under-
stood by those who are not experts, and by promoting joint meetings
of various societies, at which new ideas can be expressed in language
intelligible to all. Special lectures for working class audiences
might also be instituted.

As the chief learned society in the district it is the natural
convener of such conferences, through which it can counteract
the present tendency towards specialisation of societies. There
is danger of a scientific hierarchy, and of a cleavage between
specialists and amateurs.

If investigators were encouraged in this Society to give
popular expositions of their own discoveries to a general audience,
in addition to the more severely scientific paper intended for
publication, something would be done which has net yet been
accomplished elsewhere.

The Society might also direct the attention of scientific
workers of all sorts to problems which await solution, especially
those which concern the Manchester district : and for this purpose
bring other societies into touch with each other and with the
University and College of Technology, and with the industries ;
acting as a sort of clearing-house by organising public lectures,
special investigations, and other activities. In this way it might
greatly assist the municipality by directing powerful intellectual

forces to useful purposes.

1

General Meeting. October 21st. 191 9.

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. ( Vice-President),
in the Chair.

Mr. FRANK LESLIE BARRETT. A. I.C.. Research Chemist, Messrs.
Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., and 15, Russell Road, Whalley Range,
Manchester ; Mr. JOHN HARRISON JAMESON. Engineer, o,' Wilton
Road. Chorlton-cun: Manchester; Miss Mary CUNNINGHAM,

M.Sc. (Lond.), D.Sr. (St Andrews 1. Research Chemist to the Fine
Spinners' and Doublers' Association, Manchester, 6. Si- James's Square,
Manchester ; Mr. HENRY STAFFORD GOLLAND. Dunstan, West-
minster Road, Eccles. Manchester ; Miss ALISON McK. CRABTREE,
Research Botanist. The Victoria University of Manchester, and 7,
Hague Road, West Bids': Miss M. L McCLATCHIE,

M.Sc. Research Botanist, The Manchester High School for Girls,
Dover Street, Oxford Rend, Manchester; Miss ELAINE DE STE C
FOGG, B.S taut Lecturer and Demonstrator in Botany in the

Victoria University of Manchester, The [ inchester ; Mr.

Frederick Charles Wood, B.Sc (Lond.), F.C.S., A.I.C.,
F.R.Met.S., Chemist, co Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., 56,
Oxford Street, Manchester; and Professor T. H. PEAR. M.A. (Mane),
I Lond.), Professor of Psychology in the Victoria University
of Manchester, The University, Manchester ; were elected Ordinary
Members of the Society.

October 2ist, 1919.] PROCEEDING:

111.

On the Incorporation of the Manchester Chemical Club the
following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members of the
Society : —

Mr. W. E. Alexander.
Mr. Marcus Allen,

M.I.Mech.E.
Mr. E. A. ALLIOTT.

B.Sc, A.M.I. Mech.E.
Mr. W. Andrews.
Mr. Thomas Aspinall. I
Mr. s. s. Austin.

Mr. Tames Baddiley.
Mr. H. J. Bailey.
Mr. David Baix.
Mr. T. E. BalmeR;
Mr. Percy Beax. F.C.S.
Mr. Erxest Beard,

Mr. A. W. BEXXIS.

M.I.Mech.E.. A.I.E.E.
Dr. W. H. BEXTLEY. F.C.S.
Mr. A. E. H. Blackburn.

Mr. TOSEPH BREWERTON.
Mr. J. H. BRIERLEY.

Mr. Rainald Brightmax.

M.Sc. F.C.S.. F.I.C.
Mr. James Bryaxt.
Mr. G. A. Buckley.

Dr. Thomas Callax.

M.Sc. F.C.S.
Mr. A. F. Campbell.

M.5:.. F.C.S.. F.I.C.
Mr. David Cardwell.

M.Sc. F.I.C.
Mr. C. W. Carpenter.

M.Sc.Tech.. F.C.5.. A.I.C.
Mr. Joseph Cauthery.
Mr. Howard Cheetham.
Mr. F. S. Choate.
Mr. W. H. Coleman.
Mr. J. A. Coombs.
Mr. W. T. Cooper,

F.C.S.. F.I.C.
Mr. C W. Crawshaw.

Mr. H. CRUSE.
Mr. P. CRYER.
Mr. J. B. CULLEN.

Mr. G. K. Davis.
Mr. H. E. Doughty.
Mr. John Downham. J.P.
Mr. William Duckworth.

Mr. William Finlay.

Dr. R. B. FORSTER.
Professor G. J. FOWLER,

D.5 F.I.C.

Lt-CoL Edward Garside,

B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E.
Mr. E. G. Gaul.

M.S F.I.C.

Mr. Percy Gaunt.

Mr. S. W. GlLLETT.

Mr. Tames Grant.

lff.Sc.Ted F.I.C.

F. N. Grant.

Mr.

Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Dr.

Mr.
Mr.
Sir

Mr

Mr

Mr

Mr
Mr

Mr
Mr

Mr.
Mr,
Mr.
Mr
Mr.

G. D. A. Hall.

B. H. HALSTEAD.

T. R. Hannay.

J. H. Hargreaves.

W. B. Hart, F.C.S.. F.I.C.
T. A. R. Henderson.

F.C.S.
D. M. Henshaw.

A. D. HEYWOOD.

Henry F. Hibbert, Bart.,
J.P.. F.R.G.S.. F.S.S.

Andrew Hoi

T. R. Hodgson.

M.A.. F.C.S . F.I.C.

G. E. HOLDEN.

P. F. HOLMES, M.I.Mech.E.

T. A. HOLROYD.

M.S:.. F.C.S. F.I.C.

A. L. HOLTON.

T. H. Hoseason. F
W. G. Hughes.
Henry Humphreys.
Harry Hurst.
T. E. Hurst.
T. W. S. Hutchins.

Mr. William Inge.-.

M.I.Mech.E.
Mr. J. M. Irving.

Mr. Frederick Jackson.
Mr. R. H. Tack;
Mr. I. R. Jones.

Mr. H. J. Edge.
Mr. James Edge.

Mr. W. E. Kay. F.C.S.
Mr. J. E. KEIRBY.

IV.

Proceedings. [October 2\st, 1919-

Mr. J. E. Lea, B.Sc., M.I.Mech.E.

Mr. J. H. Lester. M.Sc, F.I.C.
Dr. Herbert Levinstein,

M.Sc, F.C.S., F.LC.
Mr. K. H. LlVERSEDGE.
Mr. C. J. LOMAX,

M.Inst.C.E., M.Cons.E.
Mr. ERNEST LONG,

A.M.Inst.E.E.i
Mr. Cyril Lord.
Mr. J. E. C. Lord.

Mr. William McCl^ary, F.C.S.

Mr. X. G. McCulloch.

Mr. Tames McEwenv

Mr. W. II. MACHIN.

Mr. John Mackay.

Mr. T. G. Marsh.

Mr. William Marshall.

Lt.-Col. E. B. Martin,

M.Inst.C.E.
Mr. H. E. Mason.
Mr. J. W. Meldrum.
Dr. A. K. Miller, F.C.S., F.LC.
Mr. Harold Moore,

M.Sc.Tech.. F.C.S. , A.I.C.
Mr. H. N. Morris.
Mr. L. A. Moss.

Mr. W. J. S. Naunton,

M.A., M.Sc, F.C.S., F.I.C.
Mr. E. W. NORRIS.

Mr. Oswald O'Gorman.
Dr. W. R. Ormandy.
Mr. John Ormerod.
Mr. W. H. Ormerod.

Mr. J. DRUMMOND PATON,

• M.I.Min.E., A.M.I.E.E.
Mr. D. M. Paul, B.Sc, A.I.C.
Mr. J. PAYMAN.
Mr. R. H. Pickles.
Mr. Herbert Porter.
Mr. F. M. Prockter.

Mr. L. Guy Radcliffe,

M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C.
Mr. John Reid,-

Mr. G. F. ROBERTSHAW, F.C.S.
Dr. E. II. RODD,

A.C.G.I., F.C.S., F.LC.
Mr. W. D. ROGERS,

B.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.C.S., F.LC,
Mr. A. E. ROYSE.

Mr. Harold Sankey.

Mr. F. SCHOLEFIELD.
Mr. A. R. SCOTT.

Mr. W. E. Shelley.

Mr. R. des F. Shepherd, B.Sc

Mr. Stanley Smith. .

Mr. John Snowdon.

Mr. Charles Spackman,

F.C.S., F.LC.
Mr. C. R. Spackman.
Mr. R. A. Sturgeon.
Mr. J. W. Sutcliffe.
Mr. W. S. Sutton.
Mr. G. SYMONDS.

Mr.

W. SCOTT TAGGART,

M.I.Mech.E.

Mr.

F. H. Terleski.

Mr.

J. M. Wallwin.

Mr.

W. A. Walmsley,

B.Sc, F.C.S,

Mr.

Thomas Warburton.

Mr.

J. F. Waring.

Mr.

George Watson.

Mr.

J. A. Weil.

Mr.

J. W. Welch.

Mr.

E. E. WlELER.

Mr.

E. J. Wilkinson, F.C.S.

Mr.

A. F. Williams.

Mr.

H. E. Williams, F.C.S.

Mr.

T. R. WOLLASTON,

M.I.Mech.E.

Mr.

W. W. WTOODWARD.

Dr.

W. Wyler.

Ordinary Meeting, October 21st, 19 19.

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.S.C., F.I.C. (Vice-President),
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
on the table. These included :► "Rats and M ice as Enemies of
Mankind" (Brit. Mus. Econ. Ser., No. 8), by M. A. C.
Hinton (8vo., London, 1918), presented by the Trustees of
the British Museum (Nat. Hist.).

October 2\sts 1919.] PROCEEDINGS. V.

Professor \V. L. Bragg, M.A., read a paper entitled " Sound
Ranging."

A sound spreads from the point where it originates as a
spherical wave moving with constant velocity. If it is intercepted
by three or more stations whose positions are accurately known,
and if the time intervals elapsing between its arrival at the stations
are measured, a simple construction gives the position of the
source of the sound.

Soon after the commencement of hostilities it became clear
that the struggle was going to take the form of trench-warfare.
This gave rise to the idea of locating the enemy guns by sound in
the way described above. The French made experiments with
"Sound Ranging" in October, 19 14, and showed that it was
feasible, and the British Army was encouraged by their success
to send an experimental Sound Ranging Section to the front.
This section started operations in October, 191 5, taking up
its position opposite Wytschaete. At first the' results ob-
tained were poor, but they improved with experience and
better apparatus. The original section became a training
school for officers and men, and sufficient sections were
formed to cover the whole of our front.

Each section had six microphones, spaced along a base
opposite the German front line. The microphones were connected
to a chronographic instrument at a central headquarters, and
when the sound reached the microphone it sent an electric signal
recorded by the instrument. In front of the base there were two
observation posts so placed that the sound reached them a few
seconds before it reached the microphones. This gave time for
an observer at the post to press a key which started the recording
apparatus at headquarters. By studying the record the time
intervals could be measured and the position of the gun plotted
on the map. This was then telephoned to the artillery.

There were between thirty and forty sections along the front.
They could locate batteries between 10,000 and 15,000 yards
away with a mean error of about 50 yards. An idea of the
number of locations obtained may be gathered from the fact that
each section sent in about one thousand results in the year.

The greatest difficulty was caused by adverse winds. If the
wind were blowing from our side of the line towards the German
batteries the sound never reached the microphones, being
deflected into the upper air. This meant that in westerly
weather Sound Ranging was of little assistance.

The results obtained by Sound Ranging and other means of
location were used in the preparation of maps showing the
positions of the enemy batteries. We did not always try to
destroy an enemy battery which had been located, it was often
advisable to find out as much as possible about it and leave it
alone until occasion demanded that its fire should be neutralised.

vi. Proceedings. [November ^thy 19 19.

Sound Ranging was a valuable means of getting information
about the hostile batteries, and a very large proportion of the
total number of locations were made in this way.

Towards the end of the war the sections were faced with the
problem of moving their bases quickly to accommodate them to
a front line which never remained in the same place for many
days consecutively. They became expert in doing this and were
able to give material assistance in the last stages of the struggle.

General Meeting, November 4th, 191 9.
Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S., in the Chair.
At this General Meeting, summoned in accordance with
the Articles of Association, an application having been
received and approved by the Council for the formation of
a Chemical Section of the Society, the following resolution
of the Council was submitted to the Society: —

" That the Chairman and Secretary of the Chemical Section of the
Society be added to the Council as ex-ojficio Members thereof."

This resolution was adopted.

Professor SYDNEY CHAPMAN, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Mathe-
matics and Natural Philosophy in the Victoria University of Manches-
ter, The University, Manchester ; Mr. W. H. PEARSON, M.Sc, A.L.S.,
1 8. Palatine Road, Manchester; Mr. PERCY McMlCHAEI.,- Science
Master, Central High School for Boys„ Whitworth, Street, Manchester,
Central High School, Whitworth Street, Manchester ; Professor W. J.
SEDGEFIELD, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of the English Language in the
Victoria University of Manchester, The University, Manchester ; Pro-
fessor MAURICE A. CANNEY, M.A., Professor of Semitic Languages
and Literatures in the Victoria University of Manchester, and Ingleside,
St. John's Road, Knutsford, Cheshire; Mr. NORMAN TUNSTALL,
M.Sc, Lecturer in Physics,, The Victoria University of Manchester, The
University, Manchester ; Professor A. J. TURNER, M.A., B.Sc, Pro-
fessor in Textile Technology in the College of Technology, Man-
chester, The College of Technology, Manchester ; Miss ALICE
TABERNER,*B.Sc, Research Student in Botany, The Victoria University
of Manchester, The University, Manchester ; Professor W. L. BRAGG,
M.A., Langworthy Professor of Physics in The Victoria University of
Manchester, The University, Manchester ; and Dr. J. N. PRING,
M.B.E., Lecturer and Demonstrator -in Electro-Chemistry in the Vic-
toria University of Manchester, The University, Manchester ; were
elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, November 4th, 19 19.
Professor F. E. Weiss, D jSc, F.R.S., F.L.S., in the Chair.

Professor William H. Lang, M.B., CM., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
gave a Lantern Demonstration on: "One of the Simplest
Land Plants, Ilomea Lignieriy

The Lantern Demonstration illustrated the further results
obtained by Dr. R. Kidston and Professor W. H. Lang in the
study of the silicified Old Red Sandstone plants at Rhynie,

Noveni&enStAyigig.] PROCEEDINGS. vii.

Aberdeenshire, now in course of publication by the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. Two species of Rhynia are now dis-
tinguished: R. Gwynne-Vaughani and R. ?najor. The latter
is larger in all its parts than R. Gwynne-V aughani and differs
in some details of the anatomy. These plants are rootless
and leafless and consisted of a subterranean rhizome* with
rhizoids, dichotomously branched cylindrical aerial stems and
large terminal sporangia.

Another equally simple plant, associated with these in the
Family Rhyniaceae, has been discovered and investigated.
This is named Hornea Lignieri and consisted of rhizomes,
branched stems, and terminal sporangia, without roots or
leaves. The rhizomes were lobed parenchymatous structures,
suggesting comparison with the protocorm of certain species
of Lycopodium. The stems branched dichotomously, and had
a simple central cylinder, cortex, and epidermis. No stomata
have yet been discovered in this plant, as they have in Rhynia,
but its organisation suggests a similar land-habit. The
sporangia are remarkable in the presence of a columella-like
central region making the spore cavity dome-shaped.

These simple Vascular Cryptogams suggest comparisons
with Bryophyta and Algae.

General Meeting, November 18th, 191 9.

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. {Vice-
President), followed by Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S.,
F.L.S. [Deputy Chairman}, in the Chair.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Vice-Chancellor
of the Victoria University of Manchester, was elected
President of the Society in succession to Professor G. Elliot
Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

Following an announcement by Mr. William ThomsOxN
that Professor F. E. Weiss had, at the request of the Council
consented to act as Deputy Chairman on such occasions as
the President could not attend the Society's Meetings, Pro-
fessor F. E. Weiss took the Chair.

Mr. ALFRED JOHN PENNINGTON, Research Chemist, Oakley,
Fallow field, Manchester ; Mr. JOSEPH WATSON LEWIS, B.Sc, Assis-
tant Physicist, Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd.,' 56, Oxford
Street, Manchester, and 1 3, Cawdor Road, Fallow field, Manchester ;
Mr. Alfred Charles Dunningham, D.Sc, F.C.S., F.I.C.y Chief
Chemist of the Electro-Bleach and By-Products Ltd., Middlewich,) and
Ashville, Middlewich, Cheshire; Mr. THOMAS LAWRENSON, Manager
of the 'British Dye Sjttiffs Corporation, Ltd., Middlewich Branch, Middle-
wich, and Plas Newydd, Croxton Road, Middlewich, Cheshire; and
Mr. JAMES BOOTH SHARP, Aniline Colour Manufacturer, Roohswood,
Old Hall Road, Broughton Park, Manchester ; were elected Ordinary
Members of the Society.

viii. PROCEEDINGS. [November l%th, 19 19.

Ordinary Meeting, November 18th, 191 9.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S. (Deputy Chairman),
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the, donors of the books
on the table. These included : " A Subject Index to the Poems
0} Edmund Spenser" by C. H. Whitman (8vo., New Haven,
1918), presented by the Yale University Press, New Haven,
Conn.

Professor T. H. Pear, M.A., B.Sc, read a paper entitled
" The Elimination of Wasteful Effort in Industry."

The lecturer pointed out that, it being impossible to dis-
tinguish sharply between physical and mental effort, in the
investigation of the problems of economising human energy
physiology and psychology must work side by side. While in
many industries improvement of the external conditions of
work such as temperature, ventilation, humidity, illumination,
was rapidly proceeding, less had been attempted in the direc-
tion of improving the methods of work themselves. Examples
of such efforts illustrated the importance of certain funda-
mental principles. The first was the adjustment, both in
total length and in distribution, of rest pauses. By intro-
ducing suitably chosen rest pauses and by modifying the
working attitude of girls who were engaged in folding
handkerchiefs, the output increased 300 per cent, while the
folders worked only 45 minutes in each hour and were less
fatigued than before. The second principle was the substitu-
tion of habitual movements for constant acts of decision.
By rearranging the method of "assembling" a braid machine,
so that the parts were not only put together in a more efficient
order, but were more easily found by the workman, 66 units
were assembled by a man in one day instead of 18. The
third was the elimination of useless movement. By this
meam the separate actions required to lay a brick had been
reduced from 18 to 5; the output increased from 120 per
man per hour to 350.

Insistence was laid upon the importance of teaching1 the
best methods of work first, before the worker had acquired
less efficient methods which were difficult to' unlearn, and
upon the necessity of such training being carried out by
persons who knew how to teach. By analysing the results
of motion study in a British munition factory during the
war and similar improvements elsewhere, it was shown that
" speeding up," fatigue, and the exploitation of the worker
are by no means necessary results of such modifications.
The question of the monotony alleged to be caused by such
" shorthand " methods of work was also discussed. The
fundamental confusion between the terms " monotonous "

December 2nd, 19 19.] PROCEEDINGS. ix.

and "habitual" was emphasised, and means were described
by which the more efficient methods may increase interest
in life both directly through their own nature and indirectly
through the increased leisure, husbanding of energy and
higher wages which they make possible.

In the discussion which followed, Dr. William Cramp,
M.I.E.E., pointed out the dehumanising tendencies of ex-
periments designed to achieve maximum output, and
questioned the desirability of extreme specialisation from the
point of view of the development of the individual. He
suggested also that it was better to encourage individuals by
lectures such as those of Professor Pear to take a pride in
finding their own most efficient methods than to attempt to
force upon them methods similarly deduced by the manage-
ment.

General Meeting, December 2nd, 19 19.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S. {Deputy Chairman),
in the Chair.
Professor GEORGE UNWIN, M.A. (Oxon.), Professor of Economic
History in the Victoria University of Manchester, and 47, Heaton Road,
Withington, Manchester; Mr. ALFRED ERNEST STEINTHAL, M.A.,
B.Sc, Treasurer of the Victoria University of Manchester, 19, Lady-
bam Road, Fallowfield, Manchester ; The Reverend F. G.
CHEVASSUT, M.A. (Cantab), F.R.A.S., Warden of St. Anselm's Hall',
St. Anselm's Hall, Victoria Park, Manchester ; The Reverend T.
NlCKLIN, M.A., Warden of Hulme Hall. Hnlme Hall, Victoria Park,
Manchester ; and Mr. A. E. HEATH, M.A., Lecturer in Education in
the Victoria University of Manchester, The University, Manchester ;
were elected Ordinary Members of the Socity.

Ordinary Meeting, December 2nd, 19 19.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Deputy Chairman),
in the Chair.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., drew attention to the following
book on the table : — " Che?nical Abstracts, Decennial Index Vols.
1-10 (1907-1916), Subject Index L-Z," published by The
American Chemical' Society (8vo., Easton, Pa., 1919), purchased.

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E., explained
a method by which roots of numbers can be easily and rapidly
found by division sums. Let A" be the number whose «th root
is to be found, let G be a convenient number near to the
probable value of A, then the approximate root is

(«+i) A" + (*-i)G*
^(« + i)G" + (n-i) A"

x. Proceedings. [Dece7nberi6th,\g\g.

As it is desirable to know the accuracy of the result as
measured by the approximate error E = (A - R)

«(R-G) (A" + G") - (A" - G") (R + G)
E " n{An + G") - (A" - G")

The two denominators are the same.

Example. J^\ LetG=i. R= \ = ,1*4.

7^96
Now let G=i'4. R=i*4 —7^0 — i'4i42i4.

Professor Sydney Chapman, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., read a
paper by Mr. L. V. Meadowcroft, B.A., M.Sc, entitled:
"A discussion of the theorems of Lambert and Adams
on motion in elliptic and hyperbolic orbits."

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Mr. W. E. Alkins, M.Sc, read a paper entitled " Mor-
phogenesis of Reticularia tineata."

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

General Meeting, December 16th, 1919.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. {President),
in the Chair.

Dr. JOHN KERFOOT WOOD, F.C.S., F.I.C., Lecturer in Physical
Chemistry in the College of Technology, Manchester, and, 31, Roivan
Avenue, Brooklands, near Manchester ; Professor ARTHUR GEORGE
GREEN, M.Sc, (Leeds), F.R.S. , F.C.S., F.I.C, Research Chemist.
Nottoway C tough, Arthog Road, Hale, Cheshire; Mr. FRANK
LASSEY, B.Sc, Manager of the Manchester Branch, British Fibro-
cement Works, 414, Corn Exchange Buildings, Manchester, and Nor-
ther)! Lea, Northenden Road, Sale, Cheshire; Mr. WILLIS OPEN-
SHAW HOWARTH, M.Sc. (Mane), Lecturer in Botany in the Victoria
University of Manchester, and Fairlands, 39, Edge Lane, Chorlton-
cum-Hardy, Manchester ; and Professor O. T. JONES, M.A. (Cantab.),
D.Sc. (Wales), Professor of Geology in the Victoria University of
Manchester, The University, Manchester ; were elected Ordinary
Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, December 16th, 1919.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. {President),
in the Chair.

Professor F. E.Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S., exhibited and
made a few remarks on a green jade charm made by natives
of New Zealand.

December \6th, 19 19.] PROCEEDINGS. xi.

Mr. W. J. Perry, B.A., read a paper entitled: "The
Historical Process."

The study of the geographical distribution of peoples! in
various stages of culture, and of the migrations of peoples,
suggests that the degree of civilisation possessed by any
community that has advanced beyond the pure hunting stage
is the result, direct or indirect, of cultural influences propa-
gated from some original centre. It seems as though the
fundamental arts and crafts of civilisation were invented in
one place, and that the knowledge of them was carried to
the outlying parts of the earth, thus producing the various
degrees of culture possessed by different communities. The
study of archaeological remains supports this contention.

If this conclusion be accepted, it becomes possible to
regard the study of human society from a point of view
different from that commonly adopted. We can examine the
effects of various social institutions on behaviour. The hunting
tribes, the most primitive men of whom we have direct know-
ledge, display a uniform type of behaviour: they are peace-
ful, truthful, monogamous, honest, kind to children and
animals, and thus presumably represent the normal type of
human behaviour. The people above them in culture have
adopted the institutions of civilised peoples to varying
degrees, and their modes of behaviour appear to correspond
to their historical experience. The wide range of culture
which exists in the world makes it possible to examine in
detail the effects upon human beings of various social
institutions, and thus to pave the way for the foundation of
a Science of Society, the ultimate aim of which will be to
determine which institutions are fitted to develop men to
the greatest possible extent.

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E., read a
paper on " The Study of Nationalities," in which he
pointed out that although structural peculiarities are very
useful for differentiating non-related species they are of little
use for the purpose of classifying branches of one species,
and it is necessary to study their characteristics. He pro-
duced a paper whicji showed very clearly that there are very
marked differences amongst the characteristics of different
nationalities, for instance the Semitic and Slavonic races have
wonderful memory gifts, and the Scandinavians are pre-
eminently inventive. The author then dealt with the
difficulties associated with the suggested study, pointing out
that our words for the several characteristics have no very
precise meanings, and he then dealt with the reagents which
might be employed for revealing the fundamental charac-
teristics of various nationalities.

xii. Proceedings. {January 6th, 1920.

General Meeting, January 6th, 1920.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. {Deputy Chairman),

in the Chair.
Mr. NORMAN S. HUBBARD, B.Sc., Metallurgical Research Depart-
ment of the Broughton Copper Co., and 228, Plymouth Grove, Man-
chester; Mr. John Allan, F.C.S., Technical Chemist, Chief Chemist at
Messrs. Joseph Crossfield & Sons, Ltd., and iS. Moor field Road, West
Didsbury, Manchester ; Mr. JAMES CHARLTON. Chemist, 40, Lea
Road, Heat on Moor, Stockport; Miss MARJORIE DRURY, Secretary,
Research Department, Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., cjo
Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., 56,' Oxford Street, Man-
chester ; and Miss AGNES CECILIA ALEXANDER, Physicist, Research
Department, Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., c/o Messrs.
Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., 56, Oxford Street, Manchester ; were
elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, January 6th, 1920.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. {Deputy Chairman),

in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books
upon the table.

Mr. R. W. James, M.A., read a paper on " The An-
tarctic: Shackleton's Expedition of 1914-17."

The aim of the expedition was to cross the Antarctic Con-
tinent. For this purpose, the main party was to establish a
base as far south as possible in the Weddell Sea. From this
base a sledging party was to cross the Continent, joining a
supporting party from a second base established in the Ross
Sea. The project could not be carried out, owing to bad ice
conditions in the Weddell Sea preventing a landing. The
" Endurance " was beset by ice in latitude 700 30' S., and after
a nine months' drift was crushed and abandoned in latitude
690 5' S. on October 27, 191 5. The crew formed a camp on the
ice, which continued to drift north, and, 5^ months later, were
able to take to the boats, ultimately reaching Elephant Island
in the S. Shetland Group on April 15th, 191 6. From Elephant
Island, Sir Ernest Shackleton, with a party of five, made a
remarkable boat-journey in a 22 ft. boat, reaching South
Georgia, nearly 800 miles distant, in 16 days, and was able
to obtain help, and relieve the Elephant Island party, all
well, on August 30, 19 16, after four attempts.

The peculiar conditions handicapped scientific work con-
siderably, nevertheless some valuable results were obtained.
Two hundred miles of new coast line were mapped; a chain
of soundings was extended across the Weddell Sea; and
much interesting work done on the natural histcpry of sea-ice

Slides illustrating the drift of the " Endurance," the
formation and decay of the pack-ice, the crushing of the ship
and the life on Elephant Island were shown.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No, 3

III. — Latent polarities of atoms and mechanism of
reaction, with special reference to carbonyl compounds..

Bv Professor Arthur Lapworth, D.Sc., F.R.S.

(Bead March 16th, 1920. Received for publication March 29th, 1920.)

The conception introduced by J. J. Thomson that the
conventional valency "bond" between two atoms corresponds
with the field between two opposite electrical charges situated
on the atoms has been utilised by Ramsay, Fry and many
other chemists to aid in accounting for phenomena of the most
diverse character, such as the laws of substitution in the'
benzene series and the decompositions of citric acid and of
aceto-acetic acid (Fry, Zeitsch. physikal. Chemie, 191 1 , 76,.
385, 398, 591; /. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1908, 30, 34; 1912, 34,
664; 1914, 36, 284, etc.; 1915, 37, 855, etc.; 1916, 38, 1323,
etc. Hancke and Koessler, /. Amer. Chem. Soc., 191 8, 40,
1726. Compare also Vorlander, Ber. d. Deutsch. Chem.
Gesellsch., 1919, 52 [B], 263.)

The writer has for a number of vears used for his own
guidance, and to a certain extent in teaching, a system of
representing the activities of carbon compounds which involves
the labelling of the atoms in the molecule with + and - signs,
and with results which do not at first sight differ greatly from
the figurations developed by Fry and others. In one very
important particular he is in agreement with Noyes, Fry and
others of this school in holding that the terms " positive " and
" negative" have in the past been widely misapplied to many
atoms and groups ; for example, it has been customary to-
term -NH2 a "positive" group, and acetyl CH3'CO- a
" negative" group, while in point of fact when these groups
are united, forming acetamide, CH3'CO-NH2, and set in
competition with one another for the components of the water-
molecule, it is the acetyl group which attracts the truly negative
hydroxyl and the -NH2 group which attracts the positive-
hydrogen,

H--OH I H OH

I and l
NHo CO.CH,

and
NH2— CO.CH

+ •

October 22nd, 1Q20.

2 Lapworth, Latent Polarities of Atoms

and every acceptable test of this kind leads to the same
inversion"of the customary application of the terms " positive "
and "negative" to these two groups. The writer would
propose the term " basylous " for such a group as -NH2
which tends to lower the acidity of a molecule of which it
forms but a part, and the term '"'acylous" for a group such
as CH3CO- which has the opposite effect. Thus -NH2,
-NHAlk., etc., are basylous, but almost invariably exhibit
positive polaritv when attached to carbon; -H is basylous
and usually positive; -CO-, -SOaH and -N02 are
strongly acylous but usually positive; while -OH, -OAlk.,
etc., are acylous and negative. Halogens are acylous and
normally negative, but are positive when contrasted with
-OH or -NHo.

CI — OH

and
CI — H

+

CI — NH2

and
HO — H

- +

CI OH

| and |
CI H

CI NE
| and |
HO H

Compounds containing positive acylous groups yield acids
by union with negative hydroxyl, and those with negative
basylous groups yield bases with positive hydrogen (or
+

H + H20). In the following pages the terms positive and
negative are restricted to the application above indicated.

The writer originally fell into the habit of labelling the
atoms in reactive molecules with + and - signs as the result
of his applications of the ionic theory to the reactions of
carbon compounds, and especially to those of ketones and
allied carbonyl compounds. Thus it was evident that the
addition of electrolytes to the carbonyl group invariably
proceeded as if the carbon atom were more positive than the
oxygen atom, and invariably selected the negative ion ; for
example,

+ -

c = o

>C — O

and

_>

i 1

CN— H

CN H

+

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 3 3

conveniently indicated the course of the well-known cyano-
hydrin formation. It must be emphasised, however, that in
attaching the - and + signs to the oxygen and carbon atoms
no hypothesis is invoked, nor is it necessary or even desirable
to assume that electrical charges are developed on these two
atoms (except perhaps at the actual instant of chemical
change). The signs are applied, in the first instance, merely
as expressing the relative polar characters which the two atoms
seem to display at the instant of the chemical change in
question. In this respect the writer's views differ from those
of Fry and others, and agree with those of Robinson.

The aldol reaction, in which compounds containing the
groups >CH-CO-,. >CH-N02, >CH - CN, etc., can
replace the hydrogen cyanide in the addition process pictured
in the paragraph immediately preceding, at once suggests
that the hydrogen atom in these groupings has an enhanced
positive polar character relatively to the carbon atom on
which it is situated, and accordingly the writer expresses this
by attaching a + and a - sign to these two atoms respec-
tively. Combining this with the expression alreadv developed
for the carbonyl group, there is obtained the scheme :

H I

I I
>C-C=0

It may now be noted that this fusion suggests a property
of the whole system which was not taken into consideration in
deducing the signs for the two parts, and which, if absent,
would render it impossible to justify the use of the scheme
as a whole ; this property concerns the two carbon atoms,
which are here necessarily shown as having opposite polarities
with respect to one another, and in the same sense as with
the hydrogen atom and the carbon atom on the left. Fortunately
there is plentv of evidence in favour of the existence of latent
polarisation in a pair of carbon atoms situated as in the above
scheme ; thus hydrolysis of such a complex usually if not
Invariably takes place as follows : —

I + - + - I

>CH - C = O +H-OH-* >CHH + HOC = O.

- + - - + -

Significant too are the properties of a/3-unsatu rated ketones,

1
c=

1 i

c-c=

■° 1

+

- +
and

1

CN

-H

4 Lap worth, Latent Polarities of Atoms

etc., where it is clear that the doubly linked carbon atoms
and the carbonvl group are to be labelled as in the scheme

I I I

-c-c-oo

I I

I I

CN H

As a considerable step in advance of this may be quoted
the fact, foreseen and established by the writer eighteen years
ago, that the hydrogen atoms of the y-position in ethyl crotonate
have properties precisely corresponding with those of the hydrogen
atoms in the a-position in saturated carbonvl compounds
{Trans. Chem. Soc, 1901, 79, 1273), so that the formulation
H-CH2CH :CHCOOEt must be adopted to express this.
+ -

Combining- this with the scheme developed immediately
above there results the extended form :

OEt
H - CH2 - CH= CH - C = O,

and although, at present, it is difficult to find direct justifica-
tion for the implied relative polarities of the two bracketed
carbon atoms, the weight of evidence in favour of the con-
clusion that the carbonyl group tends to develop alternate
- and + latent polarities in a chain of atoms is so considerable
that it seems reasonable to proceed with the further develop-
ment of the principle in the confident belief that this solitary
hiatus will disappear in due course.

The polar properties of crotonic aldehyde are no doubt
to be represented by a precisely similar scheme, and the
more recent work of Raper and of Mrs. MacLean on the
synthetic production, from aldol and crotonic aldehyde, of
compounds containing straight chains of eight carbon atoms
furnishes evidence of this, and suggests that the biochemical
synthesis of fatty acids is regulated by the principle of
alternating latent polarities,

2CH8-CH:CH-CHO->CH3"CH:CH-CH-CHo-CH :CHCH:0

I
OH

- +

It must now be evident from the cases already dealt with,,
that the whole order of alternating latent polarities is determined

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 3 5

by the oxygen atom or atoms, for the rest of the molecule
consists of carbon and hydrogen atoms only. The influence
of — N03, -S02-, and — CN when in attachment to carbon
differs, however, only in degree from that of carbonyl ; hence
it would appear that with the first two the effect of the group
on the rest of the molecule is again determined by the oxygen
atoms and in the last by the nitrogen atom. The analogy
between the four different groups may therefore be indicated
as follows, where in each case the "key-atom" is suggested
by addition of a " dot " to the sign used for its latent polarity.

c-c-c=o

C-C-N = 0:

+ - + -

+ - + -

c-c-s = o2

C-C-C=N

+ - + -

+ - + -

The writer has long held that certain atoms, and especially
divalent oxygen and tervalent (negative) nitrogen, tend to
produce such an alternation of latent polarities within the
molecules in which they occur. These two atoms are as a
rule much more effective than the halogens and, where they
are in competition, the influence of the oxygen usually appears
greater than that of the nitrogen. A perceptible influence of
the opposite kind appears to be exercised by hydrogen.
Carbon itself (in part no doubt because it is the standard of
reference) appears nearly indifferent, as also does quinque-
valent nitrogen.

The extension of the influence of the directing, or " key-
atom," over a long range seems to require for its fullest
display the presence of double bonds, and usually in conju-
gated positions ; consequently the principle must find
ample scope in the aromatic series where conjugation is the
rule. The ready substitution of the y-hydrogen atoms in
ethyl crotonate was shown by the writer in 1901 to provide an
exact parallel with the behaviour of the hydrogen atoms in the
methyl group of 0- and ^-nitrotoluene, and both were shown
to be cases of " meta-substitution." The scheme

CH=CH

/ \

H-CH2-C = C-CH = C-N = 02

+ - +|-+ -+-

H

+

6 Lapworth, Latent Polarities of Atoms

illustrates the far-reaching influence of the polarising " key-
atoms" on the properties of the hydrogen atoms both in the
meta position and in the methyl group of ^-nitrotoluene and
the relation between this arrangement and the less extended
one for ethyl crotonate strengthens the case for concluding
that the influence of any " key-atom " on a chain of other
atoms is to influence their latent polarities in the sense which
the writer attaches to the alternating + and - signs of the
preceding schemes.

It is this kind of influence which the writer considers to
have the greatest importance in the development of the prin-
ciple of latent polarities and which should always be expressed

in emploving it. The expression H+-C* , adopted by

Fry and other authors of this school, for formic acid (compare
/. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1914, 36, 1035) *s use^ by them to
express several, probably unrelated, properties of the acid
simultaneously. It is doubtless quite consistent with Thomp-
son's theory of a bond; but this theory provides no explana-
tion of the principle which the present writer desires to
emphasise and with which principle such formulae are incon-
sistent.

Formulae A and B indicate the application of the principle
of alternating latent polar influences as expressing the influ-
ence of the methin hydrogen atom and the hydroxylic oxygen
respectively in modifying the latent polarities of the other
atoms in the chain of four : —

H-Cf H-CC

+ _ xO-H - + xO-H
+ - - +

(A) (B)

There are possibly two isodynamic phases of the molecule or,
much less probably, the effects are superimposed, in which
case an expression

H-c<+ -

- + xo - H

- +

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 3 7

would make clear the two opposing, doubtless very unequal,
influences.

The arrangement of the molecule of formic acid may be
said to be heterogeneous from the point of view just elaborated ;
acetic acid on the other hand is wholly homogeneous, the sig-
nification remaining the same no matter which of the oxygen
or hydrogen atoms is imagined to act as " key-atom,"

V

+H-C-C

+

and the same is true of aceto-acetic acid (Hancke and Koessler,
loc. cit.).

In order to emphasise that aspect of the question of
polarities to which he attaches special importance the writer
would suggest terming it the " principle of induced alternate
polarities."

It is evident that the rule of MarkownikofT is at once the
most natural and elementary outcome of the principle in
question, as the addition processes

XrYi + C = C-X andX^Yj + C = C-Y

- + - + -- +

must give rise to

+

-C-C<

- +xx

and Xr

/Yl
-C-C<

+ _\Y

or, in words, to the accumulation of atoms or groups of like
polar character on the same carbon atom.

It would seem that, in general, the reversible reactions
are those which lead to the most homogeneous arrangements,
as in the aldol, acetoacetic ester and Raper-MacLean
syntheses ; heterogeneous arrangements appear usually to arise
as the result of depolarisation effects analogous to oxidation
or reduction : but this issue as well as that of variable valency
and consideration of amphoteric groups like -CN must for
the present be deferred.

S Lapworth, Latent Polarities of Atoms

The influence of one atom in a molecule in modifying the
polar character of another is well illustrated by the properties
conferred on halogen atoms by oxygen atoms yariously
situated with regard to them. For example, with the grouping

CI - C - C = O

+ •--+■ T

there is abundant evidence that the chlorine atom has an
enhanced tendency to act as a positive, and a diminished
tendency to react as a negative, component ; it is, for example,
frequently difficult to replace it except by positive hydrogen.
Thus, the a-chloroderivatives of camphor are not converted by
alkalies or silver hydroxide into hydroxycamphor, and in the
case of aa^ichloro-camphor alcoholic sodium hydroxide
actually causes replacement of one chlorine atom by hydrogen,
the product being monochlorocamphor. Again, the a-halogen
derivatives of ketones, and especially of i :3-diketones and
i :3-ketonic esters, react excessively readily with hydrogen
iodide in dilute solution (Kurt Meyer's test for enol forms),
and even with hydrogen bromide, free halogen being liberated

On the other hand the properties of halogen in the /3-position
in carbonyl compounds offers a striking contrast with this.
The a/?-dihalogen derivatives, when halogen hydride is with-
drawn, lose the halogen atom from the /3-position, which fact
indicates that the latent polarity of the /3-halogen in these
compounds is negative. Combining this result with that
above deduced for the a-halogen derivatives, it is seen that
the scheme

Br

I I l

_c-c-c=o

1+ I"" + -r

Br H

expresses all the data drawn attention to, and is one in which
the oxygen atom functionates as " key-atom." It is perhaps
doubtful whether the influence of the oxygen atom extends so

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 3 9

far as the /3-halogen atom and whether the lability of the latter
atom is not consequent on the induced polarity of the a-hydro-
gen atom ; such a question awaits further experimental
evidence. Space does not permit of discussion of possible
phases of, or effects in, the above arrangement of atoms when
the halogen atoms in their turn exercise functions as " key-
atoms."

It raav at this point be emphasised that while double (and
treble ?) bonds are highly effective when suitably disposed for
carrying on the influence of a " key-atom " over a long chain,
similar influences may often be traced, though as a rule less
clearly, in the entire absence of double bonds. Thus the
decided lability and latent " positiveness " of the hydrogen
atom noticed in the group

H-C-C=0.

+ - + -

is also discernible in the group

H-C-C-O-
+ - + -

for ethyl ether readilv yields a/3-d/chloro derivatives, and ethyl
alcohol condenses with certain aldehydes in virtue of labile
hydrogen in its methyl group. More evident is the combined
effect of two singly bound oxygen atoms homogeneously
arranged : —

H-C-C<

+ - + ^O-

for the a-hydrogen atom of acetals is very easily substituted.
It may with confidence be anticipated that the corresponding-
hydrogen atoms in amines will prove to be similarly reactive —

H-C-C-N<
+ - + -

In illustration of the wide application of the principles which
the writer conceives to be associated with atoms capable of
inducing or affecting intramolecular polarisation, reference

io Lapworth, Latent Polarities of Atoms

may be made to the three isomeric cresols. In these the
influence of the hydroxy lie oxygen as " key-atom " on the
hydrogen atoms of the methyl group will evidently be such,
if anything, as to increase their " positiveness " in the homo-
geneous m-cresol and to depress it in the heterogeneous p-
and 0-cresols. The influence of the methylic hydrogens,
acting as " key-atoms," on the hydroxy lie group, is as
indicated in the generalised scheme —

OHW

+
The enhanced degree of polarisation, — O — H, in the
hydroxyl groups of the homogeneous m-cresol contrasted
with the opposite effect in the other two isomers, indicates that
m-cresol is the most acidic of the three; in o-cresol the
proximity of the -OH group to the "key-atoms" suggests
that in this compound their depressant influence will be more
marked than in ^-cresol. This arrangement, m-, p-, and
o-cresol, in descending order of acidity, is precisely what is
found to hold good. (Dawson and Mountford, Trans. Chem.
Soc, 1918, 113, 987.)

Comparison of the cresols with phenol is not admissible, as
the general basylous effect of methyl as compared with
hydrogen would have to be taken into consideration, just as,
for example, would have to be done in comparing acetic acid
with formic acid ; in both cases methyl depresses the acidity.
Whilst the principle of induced alternate polarities serves
to group together a large number of otherwise apparently
disconnected data, it is likely to remain comparatively infertile
unless considered in conjunction with more purely chemical
features, and especially with the question of free, partial and
latent valencies and their interactions of which conjugation
may be specified as a type.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 3 11

In past years the writer endeavoured to develop schemes for
reactions of carbon compounds on the assumption that those
reactions were usually ionic in character. A mass of evidence
has accumulated during the intervening years which tends
to show that even those changes which in the main proceed
through the ions have a parallel non-ionic course also, and
that frequently the two proceed simultaneously and with the
same end results, polarity considerations evidently affecting
both identically. In seeking schemes to represent the course
of such changes the writer holds that it is most satisfactory
to seek first an explanation of the reaction in its ionic phase
and subsequently to deduce the scheme for the reaction between
the non-ionised components, the advantage of this course
being that in nearly all instances only one of the radicles (or
ions) of the electrolyte is chemically active and the ionic
reaction must involve this one only at the critical stage — for
example, OHr in alkaline saponification and CN; in cyano-
hydrin formation. These ions are weak in comparison with,
sav, N(V ; they have therefore less tendency to a stable
diffuse distribution of their valencies, and tend to lose
their ionic state by concentrating their diffuse valency on a
single atom of another substance, especially if that atom
itself has a decided polar character, inherent or induced. So,
for instance, HCN, HS03H, etc., do not unite with an
ethvlenic bond, unless this is polarised as in a/3-unsatu rated
ketones, and are thus distinguished from HO'Cl, ON'N02
and Br2, for example, which frequently attach themselves to
non-polarised ethvlenic bonds.

In order to indicate, necessarily very crudely owing to
considerations of space, how the writer conceives these various
aspects to contribute to the mechanism of chemical changes,
he has selected three cases to which he attaches special interest.
In the diagrams used he has followed Robinson in dividing
a distributed valencv into fractions, usually three, which total
to the exact value of the single undistributed valency. A
single valency is as usual indicated by an uninterrupted line
and the fractions by dotted lines. The "latent polarities >r
of the atoms are indicated by the signs + or -, so that a
molecule is electrically neutral when an equal number of free
valencies proceed from positively and negatively polar atoms,
while an ion has an excess of free valencies (which total to a
whole number) proceeding from atoms of the one kind.

The first case is that of the formation of acetonecyano-
hydrin which must be conceived as due either to the formation
of a complex ion, from cyanion and acetone, or by direct addition
of a metallic cyanide to acetone (compare Trans. Chem. Soc,

12 Lap worth, Latent Polarities of Atoms

1903,83, 100; 1904, 85, 1206. Zeitsch. Electrochem., 1904,10,
582). The cyanidion, Cy, in Fig. 1 is represented with a
diffused valency which passes into space, to the solvent or to
surrounding- kations. The reactive phase of the acetone mole-
cule is indicated with equal quantities of + and - partial free
valency and consequently as electrically neutral ; the arrange-
ment of free partial valencies by which it attracts agents is pre-
cisely as conceived by Thiele. "The stages (b) and (c) are inter-
mediate types of univalent negative ions with diffused valency
and lead to (d) which is the normal ion of the potassium
derivative (e). (The metal derivative has been shown to
be the intermediate compound in the formation of cyano-
hydrin from benzaldehvde and from camphorquinone.
Compare Trans. Chem. Soc, 1904, 85, 1208 and 12 10.)

{a) ^)

(C) U) (e)

ic')
Big. 1.

The expression (cr) in Fig. 1 represents the non-ionic
phase corresponding with (c ) and is consistent with the
tendency of powerful ions such as K* to exercise their valency
in diffuse form (compare Briggs, Trans. Chem. Soc, 1908, 93,
1564; 1917, 111, 253; 1919, 115,278). In the same connexion
it is worthy of note that most of the more powerful acids, and
possibly all acids, are those in which the structure of the anion
provides the possibility of such a diffuseness of valency.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 3 13.

O

H'CC

H

CHL-S

H

O
Formic acid. Methanesulphonic acid.

The formula for the carboxyl group, in the first of these,
is identical with that proposed by Hantzsch, and is for the
foregoing- reasons eminently acceptable.

In Fig. 2 are indicated the stages which the writer con-
ceives to represent the conversion of the ketonic group (i), into
the ion (vi) of the enolic modification by the influence of
hydroxyl ions. It can be shown that any view involving the
assumption of addition of hydroxylion to the carbonyl group
would not be helpful, as this occurrence would rather tend to
weaken attachment of the bond between the two carbon atoms
and to strengthen the attachment of the hydrogen atom ; this
course is doubtless what is followed during, for example, the
alkaline hydrolysis of acetoacetic ester. The dissolving in
alkali of the ketonic form of a substance (as the sodium salt of
the enol form), is easy to understand when the principle of
"induced alternate polarities" is considered in conjunction
with a very natural extension of Thiele's theory of partial
valencies.

\

>C-H

><t H ■■■Oh

Oii)

Ne— 6

>6".::: H-- & -_OH

y~oc-

X3 ~'4| ^:OH

s

(vi)

O-

>C &;

h'Oh

+ -

(vii)

&-.BItt

&P-' -

>C--->||:.::OH

Fig. 2.

H

Lap worth, Latent Polarities of Atoms

The ketonic form (i) is devoid of acid properties, or, in
other words, the hydrogen atom is not directly ionisable.
Under the influence of the " key " oxygen atom, however, it
is endowed with some additional positive polarity. In the
structure (ii) we have a rearrangement of the partial valencies
analogous in all fundamental respects to Thiele's expression
for conjugated systems, the relation between (i) and (ii) being
the same as between

.C = C

I :

.c=c

an<

I! :

In (ii) the hvdrogen atom attains only what may be termed
incipient ionisation (in other words, a polar character with
partially diffused valency), but in virtue of this is able to
attract the negative hydroxyl ion. The subsequent changes
leading to the formation of non-ionised water and the kation
of the enol form in (vi) are now obvious.

No difficulty whatever is found in figuring the non-ionic
analogue of any of these stages. Thus (vii) may be developed
as the non-ionic form of (iv) ; and here again the diffuseness
of the partial valencies of the metallic radicle and the acid
radicle is consistent with what has been emphasised in the
preceding paragraphs.

The formulas given in Fig. 3 illustrate as fully as can be
done within a limited space some of the applications of the
principles in the aromatic series.

&

(«)

+ .i.

X Y

h

M

Fig. 3.

- +

H

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 3

15

0

^Ojtl

HC

0

-6h

fie

-OH

Fig. 3 continued.

' The formula (a) is a type of mono-substituted benzene
derivative which gives mainly 0- and £-di-derivatives on

further substitution, and Y may be di-valent O, £<?r-valent N,
halogen, etc. On the other hand (6) is the type which mainly
yields larger quantities of m-di-derivative, and here Y may

be the di-valent O of >CO or >X02, the /er-valent N of

-CN, the halogen of quaternary ammonium salts,

-N(CH3)3.C1, or of -CHC12 or -CC13. In the case of
toluene it is not improbable that the hydrogen of the methyl
group is the " directive " or " key " atom, so that in addition
to (a) and (b) it may be necessary to add a third type with

- +
-Y-X, as side group with o- and ^-directive influence.

Schemes very similar to (a) and (b) have been used pre-
viously by Fry, Vorlander and others, but with less stress on
the influence of the "key" atoms as the paramount one;
moreover, when Fry attaches alternating + and - symbols to
successive atoms he does so on an ad hoc basis and is at no pains
to show that this alternation is so general as the present writer
has attempted to demonstrate. The principle of alternating
latent polarities does not appear to follow from Thomson's
theory of a bond, and Fry's formulas are often wholly at
variance with the principle in question.

The writer raises the case of raeta-substitution in some
.detail, as he drew attention to its connexion with the case of
a-substitution in the fatty series many years ago. Formula (c)
in Fig. 3 represents his conception of the reactive phase of the
benzaldehyde molecule preparatory to attack by a substituting
agent in the m-position ; comparison of this formula with (ii),
Fig. 2, will make the exact analogy clear.

The corresponding phase of nitrobenzene prior to attack

1 6 Lapworth, Latent Polarities of Atoms

by sulphuric acid is shown in (i), Fig. 3 ; any process of

+ +

normal substitution of H in this phase by S03H must give

rise to the meta-sulphonic acid. Formula (ii), Fig. 3, repre-
sents a hypothetical stage in the intermediate compound
which, by breaking down in the manner indicated, gives
nitrobenzenemcteulphonic acid and water. Attention may
be drawn to a figure which was developed by the writer in
1898 (Trans. Chem. Soc, 1898, 73, 456) in order to account
for mcta-substitution in nitrobenzene; the older figure is in all
essentials wholly consistent with the one given above. In (ii)r
Fig. 3, the identity of the intermediate stages involved in
direct sulphonation in the nucleus and in migration of the
SO3H from a hypothetical position on the O atom of the
nitro-group to the m eta-position, is most clearlv suggested ;
with the introduction of the conception of partial valencies,
however, the need of representing the raeta-carbon atom as
strictly doubly bound at any stage to each of two others as in the
earlier explanation no longer exists.

In the preceding pages the writer has endeavoured to
demonstrate the generality of the principle of alternate
latent polarities as set bv a " key atom." He has made no
attempt to account for the principle, which at least is certainly
not a consequence of Thomson's theory of the bond, but is
possiblv a mathematically necessary corollary of the mechan-
ism of chemical change as regulated bv the requirements of
constant valency. For the present he is content (1) to have
demonstrated that the generality of the principle is indepen-
dent of hypothetical considerations, and (2) to have indicated
a number of applications of the principle which may prove
fruitful in suggesting new lines of investigation.

In taking the present opportunity of outlining his views
on the questions of latent polarities and mechanism of reaction,
the writer is conscious that these views have to a large extent
been built up by the selection from many sources of ideas
which appeared to be helpful in developing the generalisations
to which he drew attention in 1898 (Joe. cit.) and 1901 (Trans.
Chem. Soc., 1901, 79, 1265 et seq.). Thiele's views have since
virtually determined the lines of development of the valency
aspects of organic chemical theory, but the writer has also
been greatly influenced from time to time bv the work of
Hantzsch and Fliirscheim. and of late by those especially of
Briggs and of Robinson, to each of whom acknowledgments
are due.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv (1920), No. 4

IV.— The Conjugation of Partial Valencies.
By Professor Robert Robinson, D.Sc., F.R.S.

(Bead March 16th, 1920. Received for publication August 9th, 1920.)

During the past five years the author has made use of a
hypothesis which has appeared to simplify the representation
of the possible mechanism of reactions in certain isolated
cases, and the object of the present communication is to
indicate some of the lines along which the theory may receive
more general application. The necessary condition precedent
to chemical change is assumed to be the " activation " of one
or more of the molecules taking part in the reaction; this is
followed by cohesion and rearrangement of valencies, most
probably synonymous with changes in position of electrons.
The result is either molecular rearrangement, the formation
of an additive product or of new substances by fission of the
complex. The activated molecules are further assumed to be
polarised and to contain partially dissociated valencies. Thus
H -CI is supposed to be chemically inert, the molecule absorbs
energy and becomes . . . . H . . . CI . . . which is the
reactive form termed partially dissociated because it is a stage
towards complete ionisation. In thus splitting a valency it
is always understood that the twTo or more dotted lines, though
not necessarily themselves of equal value, are quantitatively
equivalent in the sum to the normal unit valency from which
they have been derived and the polar character of all these
fractional valencies is identical. It is possible to allocate
definite signs to the partial valencies in most cases as the
result of a consideration of the relative polarities of atoms
evinced for example in the limiting case of true electrolytic
dissociation. A significant exception to the rule that partial
valencies of similar sign emanate from the same atom at the
same time exists in the case of those elements which exhibit
latent valancies such as trivalent nitrogen. A neutral nitrogen

atom is represented thus: — — N^

/
March 22nd I, IQ21.

2 Robinson, The Conjugation of Partial Valencies

and the loop, it is supposed, can be opened up in stages with
the result that two partial valencies of opposite sign are
produced. This condition of affairs may be expressed by the
svmbol : —

V

— N'

The chlorination of methane may be given as a simple illus-
tration of the representation of a reaction in accordance with
the above postulates : —

-(A). Reaction between two activated 7nolecwles.

CH.

CI

i

3

I + I
H CI

CH, CI

CH,—C1

CH,— CI

H

CI

H

CI

H

CI

{B). Reaction between an activated molecule and a neutral
molecule.

CH.

H

CI

CI

CH~

: +

CI CH3

CI CH3 "CI

: +

H

.XI H... .

: -> +

...CI H CI

In passing it may be remarked that the role of a catalyst must
very often be to produce activated molecules by the formation
and subsequent decomposition of additive complexes. Thus
in catalytic hydrogenation the hydrogen may be able to form
a loose addition compound with nickel or palladium by the
aid of a degree of dissociation so small that reaction with a
substance containing an ethylene linkage cannot be effected.
This compound on decomposition, however, may be assumed
to liberate a strongly polarised hydrogen molecule, which is
highly reactive and is capable of direct union with unsaturated
substances.

Hi i\ i H

H

H

H

H

H

H

(Catalyst
surface)

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixh. (1920), No. 4 3

The representation of the phenomena of conjugation and
addition to conjugated systems is much simplified by the use
of the theory of divisible and polar valency and the definition
of a conjugated system may be widely extended when the
matter is considered from this point of view. Conjugation is
the transfer of a free partial valency to an adjacent atom or
to the end of a chain of atoms — it is the explanation of action
at a distance in a molecule. The most elementary case may
be exemplified by the scheme B above where the disturbance
of the valency of a hydrogen atom of methane, due to the
proximity of" the reactive chlorine, involves the carrying-
through "of this effect to the carbon atom and the appearance
thereon of a negative free partial valency. There is clearly
no definite limit to this process, but it is certain that the larger
the number of saturated atoms in a chain the weaker will be
the effect which can be carried through. The facts in relation
to the azo-dyes which are substantive to cotton suggest the
existence of very long conjugated chains in which all the
atoms are unsaturated. A conjugated polarised complex
capable of taking part in reactions must clearly have free
partial valencies of opposite sign and the chain must accord-
ingly comprise an even number of atoms, the exception being
those systems which contain a nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur
atom in which part use is made of the latent valencies. The
even and the odd membered conjugations are shown below,
the examples chosen being butadiene and ethyl 0-amino-
crotonate.

CHo = CH-CH = CH, CH3-C = CHCOOEt

I

o

CH2"-CH— CH--CH2 c^-C^CH-COfi

It is convenient to classify as "primary " those conjugated
systems or partially dissociated complexes which take part in
reactions characterised by addition at the ends of the chain.
Thus, in reacting with bromine, butadiene undergoes a

4 Robinson, The Conjugation of Partial Valencies

primary conjugation of its partial valencies, and the same is
true of ethyl-iS-aminocrotonate in reacting with methvl iodide.*

\

CH3— C— -CH • CO O Et

Br-CH9-CH = CH-CHo-Br NHJ CE

It is important to notice that in the series : — initial compounds,
intermediate additive complex, final products, all the altera-
tions of valency are progressive. Take, for instance, the bond
connecting the two central carbon atoms of butadiene. In
the additive complex this becomes a sesqui-valency and a
double bond in the product, and a similar gradual change
will be found to be true of all the valency rearrangements
whether involving making or breaking of unions or the
transformation of single into double bonds and vice versa*
Therefore, by assuming the possibility of great subdivision
of valency, all these reactions could be represented as being
almost continuous and with many intermediate phases.

The recognition of primary conjugation is rendered
difficult when fission follows addition although analogies are
usually available to assist in the determination. Thus there
can be little doubt, in the author's view, that the facile reac-
tions of aromatic phenols and amines are due to primary
conjugations involving the latent valencies of the oxygen or
nitrogen in association with the unsaturated carbon atoms of
the nucleus. (Cf. G. M. Robinson and R. Robinson, Trans.
Chem. Soc, 191 7, 111, 964.)

In " secondary " conjugation addition does not wholly
occur to the ends of the system and the existence of the condi-
tion is usually recognised bv an orienting effect. This will
perhaps best be made clear bv means of an example, the
addition of hydrobromic acid to allyl bromide. (- = '■:•::;;;;;£}.

* This is an unpublished observation made in collaboration with P. W.
Denny and for further examples of this type of addition to a conjugated
system Cf.— Decker, Ber., 1905, 38, 2893 ; 'Hamilton and Robinson, Trans.
Chem. Soc. 1916, 109, 1029; Robinson, ibid., 1039; G. M. Robinson and R.
Robinson, ibid., 1917, 111, 958.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 4
CH2 = CH— CH2 ;CH2=CH::::7:CH2

Br::::::::H Br

Bi

H Br

CHJHE7CH— CH,

B]

H

(I)

B;

In the above scheme, the attack of the free partial valency of
the hydrogen of hydrobromic acid on the bromine of allyl
bromide induces a conjugation resulting in the appearance of
a positive partial valency at the other end of the chain. Ring
formation follows and the orienting effect is secured since the
bromine is already partly attached to the position which it
ultimately retains in trimethylene bromide. The further
rearrangements may be conceived in the following manner :

CH2. CH. CH2

CH9 CH CH.

I

Bi

H

Br

Bi

H

Br

= BrCH2-CrVCH2Br

On the other hand one of the hydrogen atoms of allyl bromide
might be attacked by the bromine of hydrobromic acid and
this leads to a different result as shown below : —

CH„=CH CH Br CH=CH~ "CH Br

H

Br

1
H

H

Br.

H

CH9— CH-ttttCH Br CH?— "CH— CH Br

H:

Br H

H

Br H

CH, CH CH Bi

H Br H

CH, CH Br -CH2Br

6 Robinson, The Conjugation of Partial Valencies

A. F. Hollemann and B. F. H. J. Matthes (Proc. K. Akad.
Wetensch., Amsterdam, 1918, 21, 90) have shown that in
bright light allyl bromide absorbs hydrobromic acid with
production of trimethylene dibromide, but that in the dark,
although the latter remains the main product, considerable
amounts of propylene dibromide are also formed. The
present writer, in view of the simplification in expression,
proposes to adopt the alternate labelling with + and - signs
to denote the existence of secondary conjugation, and in
accordance with Professor Lapworth's suggestion (this vol.,
Memoir No. 3, p. 5) the " key " atom may be indicated bv an
additional dot. Thus to follow out the examples already given,
the secondary conjugations involved in the production of
trimethylene bromide and propvlenedibromide from allvl
bromide are : —

+ - + - + - +.

CHa = CH'CHa-Br and CH2 = CHCHBr-H
respectively. Secondary conjugation is no doubt a wide-
spread phenomenon. It is concerned in meta substitution in
aromatic compounds and very frequently also reinforces the
effect of a primary conjugation.

e.g.

^>,„

and

jj Secondary.

Examples of primary and secondary conjugations could be
indefinitely extended, but it is not the present purpose to
survey the field of organic chemistry from this point of view,
but rather to indicate the general principles applicable to the
symbolisation of the mechanism of reactions. There is,
however, one group of reactions which occupies a somewhat
special position, namely, those which involve molecular
rearrangement. A theory of partial valency obviously offers
scope for the explanation of such changes, which, it may
plausibly be assumed, are in all cases due to an initial ring
formation by the aid of fractional valencies. A generalisa-
tion of the transformation, of which the change of hydrazo-
benzene into benzidine is an example, has been discussed
elsewhere (G. M. Robinson and R. Robinson, Trans. Chem.
Soc, 1918, 113, 639), and it is of interest to note that the
benzidine-type change in the glyoxaline series discovered by

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 4

R. G. Farg-her and F. L. Pyman (Trans. Chem. Soc, 1919,
115, 217, 1015) is covered by" the general statement and could
perhaps have been predicted with its aid. All true intra-
molecular changes can be similarly generalised and the
number of distinct types may be comparatively small.
Reference may be made here to "the dehydration of "pinacone
to pinacoline and that of borneol to camphene, two apparentlv
dissimilar reactions which may nevertheless be brought under
the same heading. In the expression

ax y " R3

I 1/

R— C C^-R2

I
R1

R, R1, R2, R3 are neutral groups, e.g., alkyl or aryl groups.
a is a divalent atom or group and x, y, are monovalent atoms
or groups of such a character that there is a strong tendency
to form the compound xy. For purposes of convenience (and
because it usually is so) x will be assumed to have electro-
positive character and y is electronegative. If x and y
become attached by a partial valency then conjugation occurs
and we have at once the conditions : —

? •*— T #

s — cr-fc *fcf* or p—'c

1 ix-'V 1 "c\

R>

(A) (B)

since ring formation of the partial valencies is clearly impos-
sible unless there are an even number of atoms in the ring.
If now the process is continued in the same direction and the
compound xy is separated, the result will be in case B that
a three-membered ring will be formed : —

R a R2

\ / \ /
C C

/ \

R1 R3 .

This occasionally happens, but in most cases the structure is
unstable and undergoes ring scission under appropriate condi-
tions reverting to the original substance or another compound

8 Robinson, The Conjugation of Partial Valencies

resembling- it in essential respects. Separation of xy from
the complex A, however, involves the following- result :

a

R-C

R2
/
C— R3

R1 ,

that is, the group R1 is transferred to the adjacent carbon
atom. In the pinacone-pinacoline reaction, a is oxygen, x is
hydrogen and y is hydroxy 1. In the borneol-camphene or
Wagner rearrangement a is -CH2 — , x is hydrogen, and y
is hvdroxvl or a halogen atom. It will be found on inspection
that a verv large number of molecular changes, particularly
in the terpene series, can be brought under the above generali-
sation. In view of the complexity of the formulae the follow-
ing examples may be quoted : —

(a) CrL— H(x
I 2

(R») CH

Bomeol-Camphene.
<)

0H(y)

I!

CH2 H

CH.

CMe,

CH

\y

:0H

CH

CH,

CH'

CH2 H

II "

C\
CH

OH

CH;

CH2 C^cH.

CH

/CH
CHf I ^C=CH;

CH-

CH.

CMe.

CH

s

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), No. 4

Fenchyl Alcohol-Fenchene.

(a) CH2 — H(x)

C ^OH(y)

(R1) CH2 ^CH

CH, I

CH<

CMe,

'CH-

CH2----H

-C

OH

CH;

-CH

CH2 I
CH2 I ' CMe2

CH,

H
C^ "OH

CH;

CH2

CH.

Nh'"

CH
CMe,

/<iH\

CH2 I C=CH2
CMe.

CH<

CH.

NJ.<

io Robinson, The Conjugation of Partial Valencies

CH

Camp holy tic acid -> P-C amp holy tic acid (isolauronolic

acid).

COOH

Hi

CH COOH

CH

%

\

(

/

C Me

CMe

d.l H2S04

ch;

ch<

H(x) Nc^Me

(Woh

Me

Me(R'J

COOH

l

CH2 iS^v

I 1} CMe

COOH

i

<?H2 H %

CH2 OH

CMe

C-

Me

....'Me

CH,

OH

/

C-^Me
Me

i-Methyl-i-a-hydroxyethylcycfopentane -» 1.2-Dimethyl-A
cyc/ohexene. (H. Meerwein, Annalen, 191 8, 417, 255.)

CH

CH2-

CH? C — CH2 — H(x)

\ /\

CH2 CHMe-OH(y)
(R') I

t

«a ^~C Me
CH2 „

CH2 CMe

I

(in)

CH2

*,

CH,

CH.

CHp-CH-
Me

:CH2v
.QH"

"V-H

-CH2

I

C=CH2 ,H
CH2 J HO

NH-CHMe

(I)

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920;, No. 4 it

The product should therefore be the exocyclic hydrocarbon
(II), whilst Meerwein actually isolates A^dimethylcyc/o-
hexene (III). Under the conditions of the transformation
the change of position of the ethylene linkage would, how-
ever, be anticipated.

Before leaving the subject of molecular rearrangement, an
interesting recent observation of J. Meisenheimer (Ber., 1919,
52, (B), 1667) may be noted. Methylallylaniline N-oxide (IV)
on distillation with a solution of sodium hydroxide in a
current of steam is converted into the allyl ether of phenyl-
methylhydroxylamine (V). This reaction is interesting from
the present point of view because, however regarded, it
involves the formation of an odd-membered ring. This, as
shown below, is rendered possible by the circumstance that a
pentavalent nitrogen atom becomes trivalent in the course of
the process.

CK- -.0

CH, O P2 :| CH9 O

CH NMePh CH- _NMePh CH N Me Ph.

(IV.) (V.)

An almost inexhaustible subject for speculation is concerned
with the existence of partial valencies and cyclic conjugation
of partial valencies in normal molecules as distinct from those
which are considered only at the moment of reaction. It has
already been pointed out (G. M. Robinson and R. Robinson,
Trans. Chem. Soc, 1917, 111, 964; ibid., 1918, 113, 640;
Perkin and Robinson, ibid., 191 9, 115, 943) that the theory of
cyclic conjugation of benzene originated by Thiele, combined
with a consideration of the part use of latent valencies of
nitrogen, affords an explanation of the aromatic character and
degree of basicity of pyrrole, glyoxaline, harmine and other
heterocyclic types. The extension of such views to even more
complex compounds is well illustrated by the case of indigotin,
the usual formula of which is of course

C~=C

Vxnh/ \nh/V

12 Robinson, The Conjugation of Partial Valencies

This expression as a vehicle for the explanation of the
behaviour of the compound has grave defects, and, since the
interpretation of the properties of the carbonyl group is very
much a matter of opinion and relations of colour to structure
still more so, the criticism of the formula may be confined to
its failure to indicate the non-basic character of indigotin and
the anomaly of the non-existence of cis-trans modifications.
There seems to be no reason why the isomeride,

has never been isolated. All these and other objections are
completely met by regarding indigotin as a true indole deri-
vative. The series of formulas now suggested are : —

C-OH

Indigo White.

Indigotin.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1920), A'o. 4 13

On this view the oxidation of indoxyl with formation of indigo
white resembles the oxidation of /3-naphthol to dinaphthol, and
the extremely ready reduction of indigotin is well explained
by the peroxidic character of the substance. At the same
time the nitrogen atoms are not capable of forming stable
additive compounds and the possibility of cis-trans isomerism
is not indicated. The aromatic cyclic conjugation embraces
the whole molecule, the weakest link in the chain being the
partial bond connecting the oxygen atoms.

Of other partial valency formula? the following may be put
forward without further comment beyond the statement that
the majority represent efforts to indicate the absence of basic
properties in nitrogen compounds and that the formula for
triphenylmethyl represents the third valency of the central
carbon atom as taken up equally by the three nuclei each of
which becomes partially quinonoid. Similar formulae are
possible for the rosaniline salts.

* — x-^C ■' for acid amides and similar expressions for

-jyt/* the carboxyl group and derivatives.

^"T-^' — Cs% ) Q"d %'- m} for isonitriles and nitriles

respectively.

+/~*\ for carbon

~s#=£'"'%; , /""NiviVj; «r>d R-Th^N~R monoxide,
-<*-*..-'+ *„_.»' \_--\_-V---' /' ?+--'' mtrogen&

the azo-
compounds

*The decomposition, on heating, of ethyl oxalacetate into carbon monoxide
and ethyl malonate provides an analogy to the separation of nitrogen from so
many azo-derivatives.

14 Robinson, The Conjugation of Partial Valencies

. for
Q— triphenyl

methyl.

The explanation of the nature of loose additive compounds,
such as the picrates of aromatic hydrocarbons, on the basis of
the theory of divisible valency is so obvious as not to require
further elaboration. Water of crystallisation and the
ammonia of the metal-ammines no doubt involve the bipolar
partially dissociated forms

HoO'-"

and

H8N

with the aid of which it. is possible to construct formulae for
hydrated salts and the most complex of the compounds now
represented in accordance with Werner's co-ordination theory.
The author gratefully acknowledges the influence of the
writings of Werner, Thiele, Flurscheim, Decker, KaufTmann
and particularly Lapworth, with whom he has had the great
advantage of frequently discussing these and similar problems.

^Tf

'turf \ f

1 i /'

^•J/ -^?/f ^Hl

r r r r \\ n if r

I \\{ i lis

c*

-, ••• § «

abad.

: personal

ens, stone

H.H. the

ate, I have
observing'

s receiving
:al Society,
h any new
ached map
>wn up to
dus classes

ly, and the
the cairns,
le Bellary
River, will
; whole of
2,127 in
ddled with

ips, some-
ver certain
>ring cists,

preserved
d pottery,
hat of the

dish, and
rnelian or

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1921), No. 5

V. Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad.

By Major Leonard Munn, R.E.
(Communicated by Prof. G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.)

(Read February 5th, 1918. Received for Publication December 31st, 1920).

The object of this paper is to record some personal
observations relating- to the occurrence of dolmens, stone
circles, and ancient mines, within the territories of H.H. the
Nizam of Hyderabad.

In my capacity of Inspector of Mines to the State, I have
had an exceptional opportunity of touring- over and observing-
this country during the last 13 years.

The problem of the dolmens and stone circles is receiving-
the special attention of the Hyderabad Archaeological Society,
who will from time to time, in their journal, publish any new
discoveries ; so I will only attempt to plot on the attached map
the position of the various groups of tombs known up to
November 1915, and indicate the sites of the various classes
of old workings.

The State of Hyderabad is about the size of Italy, and the
dolmen remains, in comparison with the number of the cairns,
are probably relatively scarce. I believe that the Bellary
and Dharwar Districts, to the South of the Kristna River, will
be found to contain many more dolmens than the whole of
Hyderabad. Colonel Meadows Taylor reports 2,127 in
Bellary District alone. Both these districts are riddled with
old workings for gold, copper and iron.

The circled cairns, which are scattered in groups, some-
times numbering a few, sometimes thousands, all over certain
geological areas of the State, are always found covering cists,
containing uncremated and exceptionally well preserved
human remains — iron implements — black and red pottery,
sometimes of high finish but not decorated like that of the
Nilghiris, — occasionally a bronze bell or a copper dish, and
in rare instances, beautifully pierced beads of carnelian or
lapis lazuli.

February 28th, 1921.

2 Munn, Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad

The stone circles are frequently found around the base of
the " dome-shaped " protrusions of granitoid gneiss, which
form such a noticeable feature of the Deccan Plateau, and
apparently from all time have been held in reverence.

In all probability the cists, as Dr. Hunt observes, origin-
ally contained no filling- — the silt which they now contain, the
" Pandre-mutti " referred to by Colonel Meadows Taylor,
being, no doubt, the result of infiltration of mud during
successive monsoons. They are sometimes divided longi-
tudinally into separate compartments, each containing a body.

Personally I have never come across any instances of
burial such as Colonel Meadows Taylor found at Jewurgi,
which led him to infer that human sacrifices were sometimes
practised.

The manufacture of iron in the Deccan seems to have
immediately superseded the Stone Age, the general use of
high-class bronze and copper articles, some of which were
found at Jaggayapet, in a grave, mixed with the bones of a
horse, seem to be the product of a later age. The iron imple-
ments so far recorded, are spear heads, swords, sickles, iron
stands for pots, and lamps. A careful analysis of some of
these articles might afford an explanation why some imple-
ments have remained so wonderfully preserved, whereas others
have become entirely unrecognizable through oxidation,
though buried in the same grave.

In plotting the attached map I have classified all dolmens
(whether circled, or free standing cromlechs or kistvaens)
together, and used a separate symbol for cairns, whether with
single, double, or triple circles. Even with the knowledge at
present at our disposal, my map, I think, shows how closely
they are associated with the sites of ancient mines.

There is little doubt that the plough is fast removing all
these remains, and this perhaps explains why we generally
find them on unculturable land.

No further discoveries of dolmens in the Raichur or
Shorapur Districts have been recorded, though I am able to
plot various localities where I have noticed stone circles, but
which yet remain to be examined.

In 1904 I found a large group of dolmens of the open
cromlech type at Chintrala in the South-East of the State,
near the banks of the Kristna River, clustered around some
old copper workings which I was examining. I reported
them to the late Mr. Bruce Foote, and opening one, to find
pottery and ashes, I took no further steps ; and the group
remains to-dav untouched.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Lxiv. (192 1), No. 5 3

The local Brahmins raised no objection to my examining
these graves, which they said were the homes of Rakshasa
who were slain by Rama.1

Near the dolmens were what I took to be hut circles.

In the jungle near by, and all along the banks of the
Kristna, are old diamond washing tanks, and heaps of river
bed pebbles which had been carefully sorted in the method
described by Tavernier.2

Further in the jungle I found some old terraces, showing
previous long forgotten irrigation, of which there was no
record on the Putwari's books.

So far as we know at present we have the following types
of megalithic monuments : —

Dolmens. Free standing dolmens.
Holed kistvaens.

Circles. Circles around cairns with internal cists.

Circles around cairns with summit cist and inter-
nal cists.
Circles around dolmens.

Circles around menhirs or natural poised rocks.
Stone alignments.

It must not be thought that the attached map, in any way,
defines the limits of the megalithic remains, or the ancient
mining and smelting areas of the Deccan, save for spots I
have personally visited along the borders of the State, I have
confined myself to the area under my supervision.

1. My Brahmin clerk told me that one caste of blacksmiths still bury the
cremated ashes of their dead in stone cists.

2. From this spot the cruciform shape of the quartzite ridge on the south
bank of the Kristna below Mugetalah, mentioned by Tavernier, stands out
with great clearness, and should remove any doubt as to which village is
the Gani Kollur, to which he refers.

4 Munn, Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad

The geology of H.H.'s State can be divided into the
following five main groups, which alone I have shown on my
map ; and for the sake of distinctness I have not attempted to
outline the subdivisional groups.

6 -2

'-3
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t. *« 2 ^ '> -^ , ° "cS ^ "5

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S ? k x ^ ^ -^ .S » 5 ^ S o ^ o a d i^ 5
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Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (192 1), No. 5 5

Gold.

The area covered by the Dharwar Schists not only in
Hyderabad State, but from Shorapur in the North, to the
Wainad in the extreme South of India, is everywhere pitted
with the remains of ancient gold mining, and, as far as 1
personally have seen in Hyderabad, around or in the vicinity
of these workings, dolmens and circled cairns are to be found,
and in Dharwar and Bellary even greater quantities are
reported.

As far as Hyderabad State is concerned, the memory of
the ancient gold mines and their workers seem entirely lost.
I believe that this is true of the rock workings of Kolar,
Dharwar and Rhodesia goldfields, though desultory washing
for alluvial gold is recorded.

In Hyderabad one can obtain some idea of the possible
date only through a process of elimination.

It cannot be possible that any gold mines existed in the
days of the Vijjianuggur Kings, the wealth of whose king-
dom was extolled by Ferishta, for sufficient time would not
have elapsed to allow for the complete filling up and entire
obliteration of all surface indications, of the huge pits which
have since been unearthed, even if all memory of such an
industry could be effaced in such a relatively short period.
This is most unlikely, for the present inhabitant readily points
out the iron mines, which still remain open, and records prove
to have been worked at that period. Besides, the Raichore
Doab has not been without its European Chroniclers, and
neither Ferns Nunez or Paes ever mention the existence of
gold mining. Nor in the great store of copper plate — or lithic
records — which range through Mahommedan Chalukqan,
back to the newly found inscription of Asoka, carved on a
rock at Muski, in the middle of the auriferous band and
surrounded by old gold workings, do we find a single
reference.

Of folk lore there is none, else it must have come to the
ears of Colonel Meadows Taylor, a man so loved and respected
that his name yet lingers among the villagers and is recorded
in song, which may still be heard, croned by some Beydur
mother as she hushes her infant to sleep.

But beyond Professor Lassens' statement that the Sans-
krit words, used in the Bible, had a Deccan termination, and
on which he assumed that the land of Ophir was on the
Malabar Coast, and that apparently unsatisfactory process of
dissecting place names of the Doab, starting with the Sans-
krit " Hoon " and generally terminating with either Persian
or Canarese, no evidence of any gold industry can be found

6 Munn, Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad

save a casual remark in Pliny (" Nat. Hist.," Book VI,
chap. xx.).

It was, in fact, not until after 1888 that these old gold
mines were rediscovered, and the early efforts of the explorers
were watched with intense ridicule by the local Brahmin —
who never had had clearer proof of the Sahib's madness.
The difficulty which attended this prospecting was accen-
tuated by the fact that all the workings had been completely
filled up, and practically obliterated by the so-called black
cotton soil — an alluvial resulting from the decomposition of
the Deccan Trap. So that the surface indications were most
deluding and consisted of shallow depressions, associated
sometimes with chips of typical auriferous blue quartz, and
the remains of old metallurgical appliances on the adjacent
hard Trappoid rock. Costly excavations, therefore, alone
could tell whether the site chosen was a series of rabbit warren
workings, where the ancients followed some rich quartz
leader, or whether a valuable pay chute was going to be
disclosed.

The obliteration of all surface indications has been most
tantalizing, and although the industry is represented at the
moment by only one working mine, my confidence in the
future discovery of other payable gold mines hidden below
the black cotton soil plain is in no way shaken.

At Wondalli, Topaldodi, Oti Budini, Muski and Shora-
pur excavations of great age were opened up by the Hydera-
bad Deccan Company and its subsidiary companies. In each
instance the ancients had extracted all payable gold to a
considerable depth, and their methods of crushing were
evidenced in the large grinders or rollers of hard trappoid
or granite, which was rolled backwards and forwards in large
hollows or saucers in the trappoid rock.

One of these " Mullackers " at Wondalli nullah must
have weighed a ton, and was probably actuated by poles
lashed to it. Everywhere cup-like hollows, undoubtedly
nothing but small mortars found in the rock where the gold
quartz was pounded with stone pestles and occasionally small
crucibles have been found which, on crushing, gave an assay
for gold.3 Whether the miners possessed the knowledge of
amalgamation is a moot point.

In the Hutti gold mines, discovered by Mr. F. W. Grey,
we have the most extraordinary evidence of the skill of these
ancient workers. There was little surface evidence at Hutti —

3. I have often wondered whether some of the " cup markings " reported
by archaeologists are not identical with these, and originally used for the
same purpose. The Indian ryot recognises what they are, and even to-day
uses them if they happen to be near his field.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (192 1), No. 5 7

a slight series of depressions — and here and there a few
splinters of quartz which gave an assay — and the usual marks
of crushing on the hard trappoid rocks near the Hutti nullah.
Cross cutting exposed a long series of workings which were
not bottomed by means of a small exploratory shaft. The
Company was formed and deeper mining on a larger scale
was undertaken, but the first attempt failed to bottom the old
workings. Finally it was proved that the ancients had
excavated all payable quartz to an unparalleled depth of 640
feet. The presence of explosive gas — no doubt due to rotting
timbers — and the expense that spilling through the loose
material in the old slopes would have cost prevented any
extensive exploration of the old mine.

Sufficient evidence was found to state that the quartz reef
was extracted by fire-setting— and after it was loosened was
gouged out by iron-shod wooden levers. A great amount of
timber had been employed ; one piece might have been a
windlass and marks on the " hanging wall " suggested the
ore was raised by means of ropes. It was probably water that
finally stopped the old workers from going deeper, for at 640
feet a large quantity of broken " chatties " were found, which
suggested heavy bailing. No such instance of perseverance
and skill has so far as I know been ever discovered in the
other ancient mining centres at Kolar, Wainad, Dharwar and
Anantagiri. The development of this mine must have taken
a considerable period and employed a great number of people,
not only in the actual mining', but in the crushing of the
resulting ore.

I should like also to mention the ash mounds at Wondalli
and Machnur. For a long time speculation attributed them
to the slag, resulting from the refining of the gold or from
glass making. Captain Newbold, who noticed some others
near the so-called copper mountains, near Bellary, thought
they were the remains of funeral pyres, and Mr. Maclaren,
whose reports for the Geological Survey are so full of interest,
gives the following- assay, which he thinks upholds this theory.

%

Moisture 0.26

Loss by ignition ... 3.39

Si02 66.19

CaO 15.88

FeoOa and Al2Oa ... 8.19

P265 1.57

Undetermined ... 4-52

100.00

8 Munn, Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad

The Wondalli heap measures 150 ft. by no ft. by 25 ft.
high and must contain 375,000 cubic feet, and is smaller than
the one at Machnur. The mass is dull white to brownish in
colour and here and there shows a certain amount of fusion.
It is unnecesary for me to give references to the Aryan
habit of huge sacrifices, or to mention the custom of burning
the dead on the battle field, but these mounds are of such
enormous size that it is incredible that this could have been
their origin. A few stone circles exist in the vicinity.

Diamonds.

Diamonds seem to have been worked in the Deccan from
the earliest times, and it is only needful to mention the name
of the old Hindu Capital Golconda (Kala Kandar) to recall
the fame of the industry.

The diamond workings are of two classes — mines in the
quartzites, sandstones and conglomerates of the Purana
Group, and alluvial in the beds of rivers and streams which
traverse those rocks.

It seems to be generally acknowledged4 that India was the
original source from whence the diamond came to the west
and continued as the main supplier until the finding of the
Brazilian mines.

As regards the ethnology of the miners, there is nothing
to connect the earliest workings with Aryan influence ; though
in later times the Dravidian tribes became to a certain extent
merged into the Hindu caste scheme — the industry remained
in the hands of these outcasts to the present day.

On the accompanying map will be found most of the
places made famous by Tavernier; besides those are marked
some other spots where both alluvial and traces of pits,
probably sunk in search of diamonds, have been noticed.

Copper.

The large area of old copper workings, both in Hyderabad
State and bordering the State to the South, are scattered over
an area of apparently very low grade cupriferous slates.
These workings were always a puzzle to me, until I hit upon
the secret, by finding the village Dhobi at Chintrala beating
out his Dhotti's on a slab of practically pure melaconite.

The ancients (at any rate in my district) carried out most
extensive rabbit-warren-like workings in search of these
pockets of high-grade ore, the product of surface enrichment.

4. See B. Laufer's report on " The Diamond in the Field." Columbia
Museum (Chicago) reports.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (192 1), No. 5 9

I was able subsequently to find some of these pockets and
some beautiful specimens were sent to the Madras Museum.

I found no trace of any smelting furnace, but saw a con-
siderable amount of slag.

The copper mining in Hyderabad State in and around
Chintrala is certainly very early, and, as I have already
mentioned, so intimately associated with dolmen remains that,
even in 1908, I had connected the two things together and
never found them apart.

Iron.

Unless anyone has visited Hyderabad State, or in fact
Southern India, they cannot get even a slight idea of the
abundance, the extent, or the pureness of its iron ores. No
section of the geological sequence exists in which iron does
not occur. In the Archsen, magnetite most frequently occurs
in almost unparalleled magnitude, whole hills and ranges
being formed of the purest varieties ; specular iron and red
haematite are also found. The schistose area contains inter-
bedded layers of magnetite and hasmatitic schists. The
Purana Group contain veins of limonite and bedded magne-
tite. Nearly every group of rocks in the Gondwana system,
save the bottom glacial beds, contain one or more of the ores
of iron, in greater or less quantities. The disintegration of
the Deccan Trap supplies rich pockets of magnetic iron sand
that glisten in the beds of every stream that traverse that area.

Lastly the laterite is noted for its richness in this metal.

Each and all of these ores have been used for smelting
iron by the natives. In this area iron has been known from
earliest times, and the unintentional manufacture of steel
practised.

Iron being found in such abundance on the surface, I
cannot define any actual prehistoric mines, but the following
centres of the industry have been always famed throughout
India :— Nirmal, Hanumkonda, Warangal, Medak, Elgundal,
Anantagiri, Nizamabad, Mudgal, Dekarkonda. They are
indicated on my map. Of those I have mentioned, Nirmal is
undoubtedly the most famous. Here steel has been made for
unknown ages, and it has been a great trading centre for
" wootz," right up to the nineteenth century, when Dr.
Voysey found a Persian trader there from Ispahan purchasing
the steel.

"The ore of this locality," writes Malcolmson (Trans.
Geol. Soc, Vol. V), " must be of exceptional quality, as
otherwise it could not have retained its reputation as the best
material for Damascus blades." It is near this village that

io Munn, Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad

Fergusson notes some Christian crosses, lying- near the
dolmens. If he had only realized what a famous trading-
centre Xirmal District had once been he would have no
difficulty in accounting for them.

Paithan in this district is mentioned by Herodotus.5

The Gondwana Series is contained within a long strip of
country running parallel to the eastern boundary of the State.
Save for a portion around the modern coal mine of Singareni
it is almost unknown forest. Mr. Wakefield, the Director
General of Revenue to H.H. The Nizam, has told me of
wonderful old irrigation schemes, now out of use, within this
region, and I have found areas of slag, proving old iron
smelting sites, but I have never found any circles or dolmens.
As soon as the war is over the revision survey of this area
will be continued by the Government of India Survey, and it
would be a wonderful opportunity to get, if they exist, the
cairns and dolmens recorded, as well as those occurring in
the remainder of Southern India.

The Deccan Trap contains no minerals of commercial
value. It stretches over the whole northern and western
portion of the State. At Tuljapur, Colonel Meadows Taylor
reports a group of cairns near a rock temple, all associated
with cremation, but beyond this I am unable to tell you of
anv other megalithic monuments situated within the geolo-
gical area. Once the border between the Archaean and the
Trap is passed the soil changes, and the black argillaceous
soil of the Trap country is unsuitable for irrigation, which in
this area is uncommon. The Trap area contains all that
wonderful series of rock-cut temples — Ellora, Ajunta, Aurun-
gabad, Nasik and Elephanta ; and although these are of a
later date than the monuments we are discussing, it is curious
to note the Buddhists and Brahmins have each in turn chosen
this rock in which to develop these marvels.

Before reading Professor G. Elliot Smith's and Mr. W. J.
Perry's memoirs (in the Memoirs and Proceedings of this
Society), having been so long accustomed to seeing terraced
irrigation everywhere in Southern India, I had always taken
it for granted that it was the natural product of a country
whose total rainfall is limited to a few months of the year,
whose surface contours make tank construction easy, and

5. About four years ago, the Taluqdar of Nizamabad sent to my office
some fresh water pearls, collected from a mollusc in the fort ditch of Nirmal.
I sent some of the shells to the Natural History Society of Bombay. I' have
never come across any other instances of fresh water pearls in the Deccan,
and wondered at the time whether they could have been imported there at
pome period,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixiv. (1921), No. 5 n

whose soil is specially suited to this class of agriculture. It
is true that I had realized that this practice is practically
unknown in Mahratwarra country to the north, but that is
due to unsuitability of the Deccan Trap soil. Beyond this
area to the north, where the Puranas and Archaean again
appear, the custom of tank irrigation is not so prevalent.
Irrigation is not a subject I am competent to discuss, but from
my own observations I can state that here and there in the
jungle are to be found remains of terraced irrigation of
unknown age, well away from any village sites, and yet in no
way differing from that still in use.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

DIAMONDS. Ain-i-Akmari, Gladwin's Translation.

Ball. " Manual of the Geology of India," Part III.

Ritter, Karl. " Erkunde Asie." Vol. vi, p. 343.

Kings, C. W. " Precious Stones, Gems and Precious Metals."

Bell and Daldy, London, 1865.
Jules, Col. " Marco Polo," Vol. ii.
" Mani Mala, a Treatise on Gems mentioned in Hindu Puranas,

etc." By Raja Sourindro Mohun Tajore. Calcutta,

1879.
Kern, H. Journ. Boy. As. Soc, Vol. vii, N.S., 1875. A

translation of Brhat Sanhita.
Foote. " Southern Mahratta Country." Mem. G.S.I. , Vol. xii.
" Ta vernier's Travels." Ball's Translation. 2 Vols.
Ball. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, Vol. 1, 1881.
Heyne's Tracts.
Voysey. Asiatic Besearch, Vol. xv; Journ. As. Soc. Bengal,

Vol. ii.
Walker. Madras Journ. of Lit. and Sci., Vol. xv.
Newbold. Madras Journ. of Lit. and Sci., Vol. iii.
Malcolmson. Trans. Geol. Soc. London, Vol. v, 2nd ser.
Pamphlet addressed to Earl Marshall the Duke of Norfolk

in year 16 — .
IRON. Foote. Mum. Q.S.I., Vol. xii. (Cont. illustration of furnaces.)

GENERAL, Buchanan. " Journey Through Mysore," Vols, i and ii.
Heyne's Tracts, pp. 218, 225.
Blandford. Becords G.S.I., Vol. iv, p. 114, and Vol. v, p. 20,

with description of furnaces.
Malcolmson. Trans. Geol. Soc. London, N.S., Vol. v.
Voysey. Jour. As. Soc, Bengal, Vol. i, p. 245; Vol. ii, p. 402,

with description of furnaces and smelting.
Indian Beview, Vol. vi, p. 563, gives description of furnaces,

etc., at Hanumkondah.
Walker. Madras Jour, of Lit. and Sci., Vol. xv, and Vol. xyi,

re. Medak, Elgundal, Warangal, Nizamabad, Lmgampully,

and other centres. M

Fergusson. " History of Indian and Eastern Archaeology.
Ball. " Manual Indian Geology," Part III.

January 20th, 1920.] Proceedings. xiiL

General Meeting, January 20th, 1920.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. {President),
in the Chair.

Mr. Thomas Horner, M.Sc.Tech. (Mane), A.I.C., Chemist, 9, Elm-
Bank, Humphrey Street, Crumpsall, Manchester; Mr. Samuel Kershaw.
L.D.S., Dentist, 167, Cheetham Hill Road, Manchester ; Miss Dorothy
Gladys Coward, M.Sc, Headmistress of the Broughton and Crumpsall
High School, Manchester, The Broughton and Crumpsall High School,
Manchester ; and Mr. Sydney H. Higgins, M.Sc, Chief Research
Chemist, The Bleachers' Association, Ltd., Manchester, The Research
Department, The Bleachers' Association, Ltd., 4, Norfolk Street,.
Manchester; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, January 20th, 1Q20.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. {President),
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books on
the table. These included " Cheap Steam," vol. 3 (4-to.,,
London, 1919), presented by Messrs. Edward Bennis & Co.,
Ltd.

A valuable gift by Mr. Henry Boddington, J. P., of Pownall
Hall, of a portrait of Henry D. Pochin, one time Mayor of
Salford, in his chemical laboratory, was exhibited at the Meet-
ing; and it w7as unanimously resolved that the best thanks of
the Society be accorded to Mr. Boddington for his generous gift.

Professor W. M. Calder, M.A., read a paper entitled
" Geography and History in the Mediterranean ."

Professor Calder described in detail the relation of the
Mediterranean as a whole to the series of great plains lying to
its north and south y and to the mountain systems known as
the " roof of the world," running from the north of India to the
Eastern Mediterranean, and reappearing in Greece, the Alps,
the Pyrenees, and the Atlas mountains in the north of Africa.

After explaining how the main geographical features of the
countries bordering the Mediterranean had influenced the
development of their communications and trade and the growth
of their states and institutions, Professor Calder showed that
the group of routes entering the Mediterranean area came from
the raw material producing districts in Central Asia and the
Monsoon Countries, and down the valley of the Nile from
Equatorial Africa. In the Mediterranean area these routes met
the great roads passing into Northern and Western Europe A
great deal of ancient history coincides with the varying degrees
of importance of these routes. In the eastern part of the

xiv. Proceedings. [February jrd, 1920.

Mediterranean la)- the greatest route in history, leading from
the Persian Gulf to the Levant, generally called the Cilician
Gates route. This route had western extensions which, passing
through the body of Greece, had raised to importance the cities
of Athens and Corinth, but which later, with the development
of sea-craft, left Greece alone, and passed straight from the
Levant to Italy and the West.

With the growth of European civilisation, the western exten-
sion of this route has swung round towards Western and Central
Europe, and it has recently caused the world a considerable
amount of trouble in the guise of the Berlin-Baghdad Railwa}*.
A railway running from Central Europe to the Persian Gulf is
enormousty important in itself, and its importance is increased
by the vast areas which will one day be " tapped " by its
extensions. Near Aleppo there already exists a raihvay junc-
tion whose political importance staggers the imagination, the
junction of the future for London, Berlin, Calcutta, Cairo, and
Cape Town. " Rail power " may one day restore the Levant
to its ancient pride of place as the centre of communications of
the Old World.

General Meeting, Februaiy 3rd, 1920.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (President),

in the Chair.

Mr. Albert Alfred Buss, F.R.A.S., Engineer. " Barrowdale," 22,
Egerton Boad, Chorlton-cum -Hardy, Manchester, was elected an
Ordinary Member of the' Society.

Mr. Charles W. Sutton, M.A. Chief Librarian of the Manchester
Public Libraries, 323, Great Clowes Street, Higher Broughton,
Manchester; Mr. William Salvador Curphey, F.I.C., Chief Alkali
Inspector, 87, Canfield Gardens, Ha?npstead, London, N.W.6.; and
Mr. J. T. F. Bishop, Retired Engineer, Honorary Secretary of the
Manchester Chemical Club, 1890 — 1916. Byways, Ayres End, Harpenden;
were elected Corresponding Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, February 3rd, 1920.
Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (President),

in the Chair.
Professor Edmund Knecht, M.Sc.Tech., Ph.D., F.LC, read
a paper entitled "Alpine Insolation Effects on Unprotected
Wood."

The author described a number of observations which he had
made on the effect of direct sunshine on the wood of the Alpine
log-huts or chalets, particularly in the vicinity of Villars sur

February jrd, 1920.] Proceedings. xv.

Ollon. A distinct change of colour in the exposed parts began
after about 3 years after which a rich brown began to develop.
This was followed after an average period of about 30 years by a
blackening of the surface. When exposure had lasted a hundred
years or more the whole of the exposed surface was sometimes
charred or scorched to a uniform black, which presented under
the microscope the appearance of coal, but the charring did not
penetrate far below the surface. The fact that the sun's action
was more marked on the western than on the eastern aspects
appeared to indicate that the changes were brought about more
by thermo-chemical than by photo-chemical action. The maxi
mum temperature recorded by the black bulb thermometer in
these Alpine altitudes was 66° C, which was very much below
the temperature of decomposition at present generally accepted
(1300 C). By prolonged heating of wood to 930 C. he had
succeeded in producing not only browning but even incipient
blackening of the surface. Further experiments in this direc-
tion were being undertaken but would require a long time for
completion. The temperature of decomposition of wood appeared
to have an important bearing on the question of coal formation.
Incidentally the lecturer mentioned that bleached cotton was
more or less profoundly altered by prolonged heating to a
temperature considerably below the boiling point of water.

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E-, F.I.C., and Mr. Herbert
S. Newman, M.Sc.Tech., read a paper entitled " On the
Behaviour of Amalgamated Aluminium and Aluminium
Wire."

This paper is incorporated with that read on May 18th, 1920.
(See Proceedings, 1919-20, p. xxiv.)

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, Mem.Inst.CE., M.Inst.M.E., read a
paper entitled " The After Effects of Cannibalism."

The author explained that cannibalism would not be indulged
in by people with vegetarian tastes nor by people who, having
a craving for animal food, could satisfy it, as was the case
with the North American Indians and the North Europeans.
Others who had this craving but who had no animals to eat, for
instance the Fiji Islanders whose largest animals were one rat
and five types of bat, would become cannibals. But no state in
which indiscriminate man-eating was indulged in could have
flourished unless cannibalism was controlled. Officials had
therefore to be appointed, and these would invent rites and
ceremonies for the protection of their craft. These ceremonies
would after a time become religious rites.

This state had been reached in Mexico when the Spaniards
arrived ; it seems also to have been reached in the Mesopotamian

xvi. Proceedings. [February 17th, 1920,

Empires when domesticated animals were first introduced
amongst them. Human sacrifices were to a certain extent
discontinued, but the rites were continued. The religious
animal sacrifices of the ancients were therefore an after effect
of human sacrifices. Even our practice of saying grace before
meat and not before drink, though water coming from the skies
is more of the nature of a heavenly gift than the meat of
animals which have to be killed, may possibly be one of the
after effects of cannibalism of 4,000 years ago.

General Meeting, February 17th, 1920.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. {President),
in the Chair.

Dr. W. J. Walker, B.Sc. (St. Andrew's), A.M.Inst.C.E., Lecturer in
Mechanical Engineering in the College of Technology, Manchester
Arbroath, Westcovrt Road, Ashton-on-Mersey, was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, February 17th, 1920.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (President),
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books on
the table.

Dr. T. Graham Brown read a paper entitled " The Func-
tions of the Brain."

The activity of an animal, as seen by an observer, consists in
movements of its limbs, changes of its attitude, changes in its
expression (movements of the face and of the hair, etc.), and
so on. This activity is usually called the " behaviour " of the
animal. In itself the action of the animal is a physiological
one. It may be analysed and described in terms of physio-
logical mechanism. But it is also used as an index of the
mental processes of the animal. These two manners in which
behaviour may be examined — as a thing in itself and as an
index of another sort of phenomenon — are not mutually antagon-
istic. They are complementaty, and the facts found by either
of them may assist research in the other.

The separate movements of the parts of the body are integ-
rated by the nervous system in the total behaviour. This
integration may occur at different levels in the central nervous
system At the lowest level — the " spinal level "—the integra-
tion is a comparatively simple one. At an intermediate level
the integration is a more complex one. The great brain must

March 2nd, 1920.] Proceedings. xvii.

be present if the animal is to exhibit all the finer shades of
behaviour which characterise the normal animal.

There are two general methods of examination which are
used in the investigation of the brain. Of these the first is that
of experimental removal of a part of it, and the observation of
any subsequent change in the animal's behaviour. The second
method is that of stimulation whilst the animal is under the
influence of a narcotic. The movements then brought about
are studied. The two methods were illustrated by experimental
observations ; particularly by observations on the physiology
of the cortex of the great brain.

When the great brain has been injured by experiment,
paralysis of a function often occurs. This is seen, for instance,
in the paralysis of a limb. A similar state occurs in man after
disease of the proper part of the cortex of the brain. A fact of
interest in this paralysis is its rapid disappearance in animals.
The recovery is not so often seen in the case of disease of the
human brain.

These observations on the brain have led to a theory of
" cerebral localisation of function " which in its present form
is open to criticism. It looks as if the cortex of the great brain
is not so essentially necessary to many of these functions as was
formerly supposed. It is perhaps possible that a more or less
complete mechanism of behaviour is present in lower levels of
the nervous system, and that the cerebral cortex is the place
where the most complex stimuli (sound, taste, smell, vision,
etc.) are compounded together. Their resultant then can affect
the lower centres which actually condition the behaviour. The
activity of the cortex would then be regarded as one which
directed the behaviour.

Ordinary Meeting, March 2nd, 1920.
Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (President),

in the Chair.
A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books on
the table. The Society now subscribes to Discovery and The
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

The President referred sympathetically to the death, on
February 27th, of Mr. Hermann Woolley, who was elected an
ordinary Member of the Society in 1918.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., made a short communication re-
lating to " Einstein's Theory of Space and Time " ; and The
President and Mr. C. E. Stromeyer took part in the discussion.

xviii. Proceedings. [March i6tht 1920,

Reference was made to a letter in Nature of February 12th,
1920, in which the space between the principal focus of a convex
mirror and the mirror itself was contrasted with the space out-
side. If the reflected images of human beings in such a mirror
were endowed with intelligence, volition, the ability to measure
lines, areas, and so forth, the principal focus, to them, would
be at infinity- Equal straight lines, as measured outwards in
the direction of a radius would have images of progressively
diminishing length in the direction of the focus, but the phan-
toms would be unaware of this, as their measuring instruments
would contract in the same ratio. Other consequences of the
distortion were pointed out, and their bearing on Einstein's
theory alluded to.

Reference was also made by Mr. C. L. Barnes to the death of
Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, Dominion Entomologist, Canada ; a
former Member of the Society, well known for his researches on
the House Fly, the diseases of trees, &c The President and
Professor Sir William Boyd Dawkins also referred to Dr.
Gordon Hewitt and his work.

Mr. W. J. Perry, B.A., read a paper entitled "The Search
for Gold and Pearls in Neolithic Times."

Further research on the distributions of early sites of civilisa-
tion and of the sources of gold and pearls has produced a mass
of evidence to substantiate and enlarge the thesis of a communi-
cation to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in
1915 on " The Relationship between the Geographical Distribu-
tion of Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines." The
evidence now suggests that not onty megalithic monuments but
early sites in general marked the settlements of seekers after
gold and pearls ; amber and purple having also played their
part in attracting strangers. These settlements are mostly
localised in the basins of rivers containing gold or pearl-bearing
mussels, and the distribution map shows that the early seekers
for these objects did not allow much to escape them.

Further inquiry will be necessary in order to determine the
precise age when this search began.

Ordinary Meeting, March 16th, 1920.

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S-E-, F.I.C. (Vice-President),
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table. These included " Oeuvres Completes de Thomas Jan
Stieltjes " (4*0, Groningen, 1918), presented 03^ the Societe
Mathematique, Amsterdam.

'larch 1 6th, 1920.] Proceedings. xix.

Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S., and Dr. R. S. Willows,
MA., were nominated Auditors of the Society's Accounts for
the session 1919 — 1920.

Professor Robert Robinson, D.Sc, F.R.S., read a " Note
on the Mechanism of the Production of Kynurenic Acid
in the Dog."

Kynurenic acid was discovered in the urine of dogs by J. von
Liebig in 1853 (Ann., 86, 125), and was identified by R. Camps
(Ber., 1901, 34, 2707) with a synthetically prepared 4-hydroxy-
quinoline — 3-carboxylic acid (I) melting at 266 — 267 QC. A.
Ellinger (Ber., 1904, 37, 1 801) discovered that the administration
of tryptophane (II) to dogs and rabbits resulted in an increased
production of the acid and was led to postulate a relation between
the two substances, which his further work soon proved to be
erroneous. A. Homer (J. Biol. Chem., 1914, 17, 509 — 518)
definitely proved that kynurenic acid melts at 288 — 2890, and
identified the acid with 4-hydroxyquinoline-2-carboxylic acid (III),
which substance, curiously enough, had also been prepared by
Camps (Ber., 1901, 34, 2712) by the action of aqueous alcoholic
sodium hydroxide on the product of condensation of o-aminoace-
tophenone and ethyl oxalate at 150 — i6o°C.

CH2.CHNH2.COOH

II.

Homer (J. Biol. Chem., 1915, 22, 391 — 405) considered that
the relation between tryptophane and kynurenic acid might not be
direct in the sense that the latter substance is actually derived
from the former, but that the metabolic processes induced by the
tryptophane might involve the synthesis of kynurenic acid in side
reactions. This conclusion was reached partly as the result of an
experimental study in which it was shown that the ratio between
the tryptophane ingested and kynurenic acid excreted was not a
simple one, but depended on the age and condition of the animal
and partly because the transformation would involve the enlarge-
ment of a five-membered ring. It appears to the present author

xx. Proceedings. [March i6th} 1920.

that the conversion of tryptophane into kynurenic acid is susceptible
of a simple explanation, and that the process is primarily one of
oxidation. The first product might well be the keto-acid (IV)
which then suffers further oxidation resulting in the fission of the
indole ring and the formation of the compound V.

/\ CCHo.CO.COOH /\ /CO.CH2.CO.COOH

I I I!

\/\ 7CH
NH

IV.

This hypothetical intermediate, if produced in the laboratory,
would beyond doubt be found to yield kynurenic acid when treated
with weak alkalies. The necessary changes being hydrolysis of
the unstable carbamic acid grouping and closure of the quinoline
ring by the aid of one of those reactions which are known to
proceed with the greatest facililty, indeed, in many cases,
spontaneously. The process is illustrated below.

/C°\

V. /\/ CH2

-* 1 1 1 -*

NH2 CO.COOH

+ co„

CO OH

\CH2

:.cooh

N N

keto form. enolform.

The foregoing suggestion was made by the author in a letter
to Professor George Barger, F.RS., in December 19 19, and in
February of this year Dr. Barger has informed me that Ellinger
has succeeded in preparing the keto-acid (IV) and finds that when
this is given to dogs the kynurenic acid formation is increased.
This result strongly supports the view which is expressed above.

A paper by Professor Arthur Lapworth, D.Sc., F.R.S.,
entitled " Latent polarities of Atoms and Mechanism of
Reaction, with Special Reference to Carbonyl Com-
pounds." was, in the author's absence, read by Professor
Robert Robinson.

Professor Robert Robinson, D.Sc, F.R.S., then read a paper
entitled "The Conjugation of Partial Valencies."

These two papers are printed in full in the Memoirs.

April 20H1, 1920.] Proceedings. xxi.

Annual General Meeting, April 20th, 1920.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (President),
in the Chair.

Mr. Reginald Felix Gwyther, M.A., Honorary Secretary of the
Society, 1888 — 1897, Hallcroft, Dufton, Westmorland, was elected a
Corresponding Member of the Society.

Mr. Robert Arnold Wardle, M.Sc, Lecturer in Economic Zoology
in the Victoria University of Manchester, 7, Hilton Crescent, Hilton
Park, Prestivich, Manchester ; Mr. Hubert John Patridge Venn,
B.Sc. (Lond. ) , A.I. C, Research Chemist, Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co.
Ltd., c/o Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., 56, Oxford Street,
Manchester, and Sunny Bank, Hill Lane, Blackley, Manchester ; Mr.
Frank Herbert Parker, B.Sc. (London), Research Physicist, Messrs.
Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co. Ltd., 33, Stanley Road, Whalley Range,
Manchester; Miss Dorothy Ashton, B.Sc, A.I'.C, Works Chemist, 18,
Randlesham Street, Hcaton Park, Manchester; Miss Marion Chadwick,
M.Sc. Tech., University Demonstrator in Applied Chemistry, Ingleside,
Didsbury Road, Stockport; Mr. Charles Cartwright, M.A., Accoun-
tant, Pannal, Brooklands Road, Higher Crumpsall, Manchester; Mr.
William Ernest Alkins, M.Sc, Assistant Lecturer in Metallurgy in
the Victoria University of Manchester, Stoneydale, Ookamoor, Stoke-on-
Trent; and Mr. Harold Stttcliffe, Assistant Manager, Kkovah Works,
Old Trafford, Manchester ; were elected Ordinary Members of the
Society.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was resolved : — That the
Annual Report , together with the Statement of Accounts, be
adopted, and that they be printed in the Society's Proceedings.

Miss Marjorie Drury and Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S.,
were appointed Scrutineers of the balloting papers.

The following Members were elected Officers of the Society
and Members of the Council for the ensuing year : —

President : Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents: Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S. E., F.C.S.;
R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C. ; William Thomson, F.R.S.E.,
F.I.C. ; R. H. Clayton, B.Sc

Secretaries : H. F. Coward, D.Sc, F.I.C. ; C. A. Edwards,
D.Sc.

Treasurer : W. Henry Todd.

Librarian : C. L. Barnes, M.A.

Curator : WT. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.ScTech.,
A.M.I.E.E.

Other Members of the Council : Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S- ;
Arthur Lapworth, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.I.C. ; Kenneth Lee,
LL.D.; C. E. Stromeyer, O.B.E-, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst, Mech.E- ;
W. M. Tattersall, D.Sc. ; Leonard E. Vlies, F.C.S., F.I.C, ;
F. W. Atack, M.ScTech., B.Sc, F.I.C; T. H. Pear, M.A.,
B.Sc ; Wilfrid Robinson D.Sc.

xxii. Proceedings. [May 4th, 1920.

Ordinary Meeting, April 20th, 1920.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.vS. (President),
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Mr. W. J. Perry, B.A., read a paper entitled :-- " The
Origin of Warlike States."

In a previous communication to this Societ}^, and elsewhere
("An Ethnological Study of Warfare," Mem. Mdnchr. Lit. and
Phil. Soc., Vol. 61, 1917; "War and Civilisation," Lecture at
Kylands Library, Sept. 13th, 191S : The " Megalithic Culture of
Indonesia," Manchester, 1918), the theory has been put forward
that, speaking generally, warlike states are those with a heredi-
tary military aristocracy. An examination of the ruling groups
of the chief historical peoples, Teutonic, Turko-Tartar, Semitic,
does not give any signs of their origin in a simpler form of
society. The facts suggest their beginning as small groups
claiming divine descent. These groups seem to have sprung
from the ruling families of a former stage of society which is
well known, that called " matriarchal," in which descent in
social groups, inheritance to property, succession to rank, went
through women, and the chief feature of religion was the cult
of the Great Mother. Just after the new groups of rulers had
been formed, the institutions had become patrilineal, and the
Great Mother was replaced by gods.

The practice of Heraldry is widespread among ruling classes
in all parts of the earth, and the study of it gives results which
go to verify the theoty which comes out of the study of ruling
groups ; namely, that, all over the world, dynasties have sprung
from former ruling classes, and have not sprung up sponta-
neously in various places. This law of M dynastic continuity,"
if true, leads to the conclusion that all ruling classes in the
world are derived from one original group. This result is in
harmony with the claim of Professor Elliot Smith, that all
civilisation originated in the Egypto-Sumerian region.

General Meeting, May 4th, 1920.
Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C. (Vice-President),

in the Chair.

Dr. Jean J. Bloch. Pharmaceutical Chemist, Manager of the Hollinwood
Chemical Co. Ltd.. Hollinwood. 400, Manchester Foad, Hollinwood;
Mr. William Smalley. Engineer, Springfield, Ca»tUion, near Manchester;
Mr. Frank William Bailey, Wood Pulp Mill Manager and Chemist.
Lee Mount, Glossop, Derbijshire; Mr. Frank Bamford. B.Sc. (Lond.),

May i8th, 1920.] Proceedings. xxiii.

Chemist, British Dyestuffs Corporation (Hudclersfield) Ltd., 42, The
Square, Fairfield, * Manchester ; Dr. Arthur Ernest Oxley, M.A.
(Cantab.), Head of Physical Department, British Cotton Industry
Research Association, c/o British Cotton Industry Research Association,
Shirley Institute, Didsbury. Manchester; Dr. John Charles Withers,
A. I.C., Chemist, British Cotton Industry Research Association, c/o
British Cotton Industry Research Association, Shirley Institute,
Didsbury, Manchester ; and Dr. Arthur William Crossley, C.M.G..
C.B.E., D.Sc. (Mane), LL.D. (St, Andrews). Ph.D. (Wiirz.), F.R.S..
Director British Cotton Industry Research Association, c/o British
Cotton Industry Research Association, Shirley Institute, Didsbury,
Manchester; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, May 4th, 1920.

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C. {Vice-President),
in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table. These included "Slavic Europe, A Bibliography ..."
by R. J. Kerner (8vo., Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.), presented
by the Harvard College Library.

Mr. W. J. Perry, B.A., read for Major Thomas Cherry,
A.A.M.C, M.D., M.S., a paper entitled : — " The Origin of
Agriculture."

The author showed that the annual flood cycle of the Nile
provided perfect conditions for the growth of cereals. Since
none other of the great rivers on the banks of which civilisation
first appeared affords such natural possibilities for the growth
of cereals, it was claimed that man must have learned in Egypt
the lesson which the Nile was trying to teach him, that of
irrigation and the cultivation of cereals.

The author also discussed the origins of wheat and barley.
He claimed that the originals of our cultivated barley probably
evolved in the valley of the Nile, while those of our cultivated
wheats probably evolved on one of the islands of the Aegean
Archipelago.

General Meeting, May 18th, 1920.

Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C. (Vice-President), in the Chair.

Dr. Albert Frank Stanley Kent, M.A.. Director of the Department
of Industrial Administration, The College of Technology, Manchester,
The College of Technology, Manchester; Mrs. Elizabeth C. Agar,
16. Elm Road, Didsbury, Manchester; and Thomas G. Russell. Solicitor,
King Street, Manchester, and The Cottage, Lees Road, Bramhall,
Cheshire; were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

xxiv. Proceedings. [May 18th, 1920.

Ordinary Meeting, May iSth, 1920.
Mr. R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C {Vice-President), in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was passed to the donors of the books upon
the table.

Dr. R. S. Willows, M.A., exhibited and described a lantern
slide giving a transverse section of cotton fibre, magnified
20,000 times, showing Ball's daily growth rings.

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.CS., F.I.C, read the
following paper by himself and Mr. Herbert S. Newman,
M.Sc.Tech., containing further notes on their communication
read before the Society on February 3rd, 1920.

" On the Behaviour of Amalgamated Aluminium and
Aluminium Wire."

When aluminium wire (that used by us was 15/i oooth of an
inch in diameter) is brought into contact with mercury there at
once begins to grow from the wire a fine feathery7 substance
which may extend in an hour or two to as much as half an inch
or more ; this substance is hydrated aluminium oxide (alumina)
associated with a small quantity of mercury in the free state.

This observation has been made frequently by others ;
although we find scanty record of it, and none in the indices of
the Scientific Journals to which we had access. Carl Jehn and
H. Hinze (Ber., 7, 1498), on the nth November, 1874, refer, in
a note of a few lines, to aluminium as combining with mercury
and forming these curious growths. According to them, after
the piece of aluminium had been rubbed with wash leather
which had been in contact with mercury, the rubbed surface
became warm and dull; and almost instantaneously white tufts
began to grow from it to a final length of 3 cm. " These proved
to be A1203."

A reference is made to it in No. 15 of " The Model Engineer
Series,'' Third Edition, page 56, which is a work written to
provide " Scientific Amusement." In this the author, Aurel de
Ratti, says this phenomenon was discovered by him accidentally
in 1895. The aluminium he used was obtained by breaking off
a piece from an aluminium pen-holder, in order to obtain a
clean and rugged edge without which the experiment would not
succeed. He thoroughly moistened the piece and then dipped
it into mercury : in a minute or two afterwards small white
spots appeared on the sharpest corners and these rapidly grew
till they appeared like feathery growths about an inch long.

In his work entitled "The Evolution of Matter," Third
English Edition (1907), p. 405, Dr. Gustave Le Bon speaks of
" The Transformation of the properties of Aluminium " by its

May 1 8th, 1920.] Proceedings. xxv.

amalgamation with mercury. He observed that the tempera-
ture during oxidation rose to 102 ° C, that it was the hydrated
oxide of aluminium which was formed, that this oxidation took
place only in damp air or oxygen, and that an exceedingly
minute quantity of mercury effected the complete oxidation of
the aluminium. He mentions that he could find no reference
to the properties given to aluminium by mercury in any of the
most accredited treatises ; he consulted the eminent chemist
M. Ditte, Professor of Chemistry at the Sorbonne, the author
of the most complete and recent work on the properties of
aluminium, but he knew nothing of the facts Le Bon had
pointed out, who therefore assumed that he was the first to
publish anything about it.

We found that for these growths to take place both oxygen
and moisture must be present simultaneously. Thus, they will
not grow in damp hydrogen or carbon dioxide, nor will they
grow in air which has been dried by passage through concen-
trated sulphuric acid, nor at an elevated temperature of — say —
750 C. In damp air containing ether vapour the growths are
restricted. They are not formed at all in chlorine gas ; and a
trace of hydrochloric acid or of ammonia in damp air prevents
the growths. Much heat is evolved during the development of
the growths. We found the best results to be obtained by
amalgamating the aluminium with Nessler's solution, which is
an alkaline solution of mercuric chloride in potassium iodide.
In such a case 100 parts by weight of wire gave a growth
weighing 93.91 parts, the wire left weighing 67.76 parts, so that
32.24 parts of aluminium had become oxidised into alumina,
whilst the mercury left in the 67.76 parts of wire amounted to
0.62 part. A neutral solution of mercuric chloride answers this
purpose ; but the growths are not so profuse as when an alkaline
solution is used. If, after passing through the mercuric solu-
tion the wire be then passed through a drop of metallic mercury,
a still better growth is obtained.

It was observed that the growth never takes place over the
whole surface of the wire ; but tends to concentrate itself along
one side or sometimes two sides of the amalgamated wire when
this is lying on a flat surface ; whilst in the case of an amalga-
mated wire suspended freely or fixed upright, 3 lines of growth
at angles of 1200 from each frequently develop.

When an amalgamated wire is placed for two hours in dry
air the mercury originally present on the surface presumably
sinks into the aluminium and when the wire is afterwards
exposed to damp air no growth takes place.

When aluminium foil is amalgamated and put in water it
rapidly becomes converted into the hydrated oxide, which

xxvi. Proceedings. [May 18th, 1920

sometimes assumes a laminated structure exhibiting an irides-
cent effect resembling Mother-of-Pearl. When this oxide dries
it becomes dull white and loses its iridescence.

When exposed to air, amalgamated aluminium foil gives
rise to growths ; but these seldom assume fine feathery shapes
unless the degree of the humidity of the air be suitable. They
usually occur as very copious dense growths ; and a striking
effect is obtained by writing on aluminium foil with Nessler's
solution and allowing the growth to develop ; when it finally
forms white tufts along the lines of the letters.

It is very remarkable that no such growths could be obtained
from amalgamated magnesium although this metal undergoes
oxidation more readily than aluminium at the ordinary tem-
perature of the air.

" Further Notes on Aluminium Amalgam." 18th May,
1920, by the same authors.

On the 3rd . of Februaty last we showed examples of the
delicate white filaments which grew out from aluminium wire
which had previously been rubbed with metallic mercury or
otherwise amalgamated.

These filaments we found to contain mercury and wTe deter-
mined the quantity present in some of the growths from wires
amalgamated in different ways.

With a view to find whether the mercury associated with the
alumina which constituted these growths was a definite quantity
relative to the alumina, we submitted them to analysis and
herewith we give the composition of the growths in six different
experiments.

Percentage.

Composition of Filamentous Growths from Aluminium Wire
Amalgamated with Nessler's Solution from which the excess of
Mercury and liquor was : —

Wiped off and

the wire then

Wiped off with

a cloth.

passed through

a.

b.

dry mercury.

Mercury

4.55

4.54]

Hygroscopic water

(dried over strong

'. 70.8 67.5 5

sulphuric acid)

5.14 ^

Water (lost at 100° C.)

16.17 I 30.71

31.82

„ ( „ red heat)

9.40 )

J

Alumina (A1203)

64.74

63.64

29.2 32.5 !

Not wiped,
but washed
with alcohol
and then
with ether.

20.21

75.4

•61.30

24.6 18.49

100.00 100.00 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.00

* The cooling effect of the ether treatment probably had the effect of
condensing an excessive quantity of water on to the wire.

May 1 8th, 1920.] Proceedings. xxvii.

These results show that the alumina growths formed by the
presence of mercury on aluminium appeared to carry with them
mechanically a quantity of mercury depending on the amount
present in excess upon the surface ; and that they do not form
at all unless such excess exists on the surface.

With a moderate excess the growth is pure white, with a
large excess it appears grey, and the quantity of mercury
associated with the alumina formed depends on the excess
present.

The method of growth appears to be somewhat erratic but
in several cases quite interesting. In one experiment we made
by incorporating the amalgamated wire with a drop of mercury
which had afterwards a perfectly smooth surface, a growth
appeared over the whole of the top surface and none on the
sides ; this growth increased but gradually ceased around the
periphery, the central growth continuing till it appeared as a
truly-formed inverted cone supported on its apex on the drop
of mercury.

On repeating this experiment several times the growths
appeared as a profusion of filaments completely covering the
globule of mercury and extending for half an inch around it.

Neither pure damp ox3Tgen nor ozone had any effect in
accelerating or adding to the profusion of the growths.

The study of the action of mercury on aluminium is
extremely interesting as regards the character of this metal ;
if aluminium be put in water no action is observed, but when
amalgamated it immediately decomposes the water liberating
hydrogen ; when zinc is amalgamated, the mercury tends to
resist the action of the water on the zinc and this is still more
marked when the amalgamated zinc is immersed in weak acid.
Under these conditions it resists the action of the acid but if
immersed in its unamalgamated condition the weak acid attacks
it at once.

Professor Sydney Chapman, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., made a
few remarks on " The Lunar Tide in the Earth's
Atmosphere," in which he pointed out that the atmosphere,
like the oceans and the solid earth, is subject to the tidal
influences of the sun and the moon. The barometric pressure
shows a very minute tidal variation with the period of half a
lunar day, this variation being determined only by a difficult
process of averaging-out other regular and irregular variations
from long series of hourly barometric observations, so that data
from very few stations are available. Many questions sug-
gested by the data remain unanswered, but as further data
become available, and the theory of atmospheric tides is
extended, our knowledge of our atmosphere may become of
very great importance.

xxviii. Chemical Section. [October 24th, 1919.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

CHEMICAL SECTION.

Ordinary Meeting, October 24th, 1919.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Vice-Chancellor of
the Victoria University of Manchester, in the Chair.

At the Opening Meeting of the newly formed Chemical
Section of the Society, Professor Sir William J. Pope, M.A.,
D.Sc, LL-D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Cambridge, gave an Address on "The Photography o(
Coloured Objects.''

The ordinary photographic plate is sensitive only to blue
and violet light and not to red or yellow. The plate thus
receives much the same impression of a parti-coloured scene
focussed upon it as we should receive on viewing the scene
through deep blue spectacles. The livefy discussions concerning
the claims of photography as an artistic medium which were
fashionable some twenty years ago centred in reality about this
limitation of sensitiveness of the ordinary photographic plate ;
no method of pictorial reproduction which rendered the yellow
narcissus and the bright red General Mc Arthur rose as black,
whilst showing the violet as white, can be described as artistic.
The prime requisite of any photographic process for the repre-
sentation of parti -coloured objects is obviously that the photo*
graphic plate used should be sensitive to light other than the
blue and violet; given a plate which is acted upon by light
from any part of the visual spectrum many devices become
applicable for the production of a satisfactory presentment in
monochrome of the coloured object or for the reproduction of
the actual component colours.

The first truly scientific appreciation of this principle was
stated by Clerk Maxwell, the first Cavendish Professor in the
University of Cambridge, who in 1861 exhibited three photo-
graphs of a tartan ribbon taken through red, green and blue

October 24th, igig.l Proceedings. xxix.

colour-filters respectively, and pointed out that the component
colours could be reproduced by superposing the three images,
each illuminated by appropriately coloured light. Maxwell
remarked that " by finding photographic materials more sensi-
tive to less refrangible rays the representation of the colours
of objects might be greatly improved." Long after Maxwell's
day it was discovered that the ordinary photographic plate can
be rendered sensitive to green, yellow and red light by
incorporating certain dyestuffs with the material of the sensitive
film; previous to the war all the various methods of colour
photography — the first of which was devised by Professor Joly,
of Dublin — the modern processes of photographic colour-
printing, and the present-day panchromatic photographic
methods for obtaining a correct rendering in monochrome of
parti-coloured objects, were based upon the success which had
been attained in imparting sensitiveness throughout the visual
spectrum to the ordinary blue-sensitive photographic plate.
By staining the plate with erythrosine it becomes sensitive to
green and orange ; plates so treated are termed orthochromatic.
A number of dyestuffs belonging to the class of cyanine dyes
discovered by Greville Williams, in 1856, are capable, however,
of sensitising a photographic plate throughout the whole range
of the visible spectrum. These substances are difficult to make
and but little concerning their preparation and chemical
behaviour has been published ; their photographic applications
were carefully studied by several of the large German coal-tar
colour firms, and those most suitable for use in colour photo-
graphy were selected and put on the market under trade names
which disguised their chemical identity. At the outbreak of
war the Allies were entirely dependent on Germany for these
so-called photographic sensitisers ; such substances had never
been made in this country and but little information as to the
identity of the chief sensitisers and their methods of preparation
was available. A little acquaintance with scientific photography
suffices to show that this situation not only affects such aesthetic
industries as those of artistic photography and colour-printing
but is also vital to aeroplane photography.

Thus, a distant scene in bright sunlight is always seen to
be obscured by a slight haze ; this haze is enormously intensified
when the scene is photographed on an ordinary blue-sensitive
plate, intensified to such an extent that the photographic
reproduction of the haze may blot out the whole distant view.
The reason for this is that a clear atmosphere is less penetrable
by blue light than by light from the less refrangible end of
the spectrum. The blue-sensitive plate cannot see far into the
distance because of the comparative opacity of the clear

xxx. Chemical Section. [November 28th, 1919.

atmosphere to blue light ; the eye sees further because it is
more sensitive to red than to blue. Obviously, if a distant
scene could be photographed in red light only, the picture
would reveal much more detail because of the cutting off of
the haze owing to the greater penetrating power possessed by
red light in a clear atmosphere.

With these considerations in mind the experimental inves-
tigation of sensitising dyestufrs was instituted in the chemical
laboratories of the University of Cambridge by Dr. W. H. Mills
and myself at the end of 1914. Methods for producing the
ordinary sensitising dyestufrs on a technical scale were devised,
and all the sensitisers used by the Allies have been prepared in
the Cambridge laboratories since the German importation
ceased. Our photographic air-service was non-existent at the
outbreak of war; it was slowly built up until it ultimately
became of great magnitude and attained a high efficiency. It
started by using ordinary blue-sensitive plates, but at the date
of the Armistice some 80 per cent, of the plates used were red-
sensitive or pan-chromatic plates.

The best panchromatic plate made in pre-war days possessed
about one-third the sensitiveness to red as to blue light. At
the present time a very rapid panchromatic plate is on the
market which is much faster to red than to blue light ; the
rapidity of the plate to red light has been thus increased about
four-fold. The advantages to be gained by the skilful use of
the present highly-perfected panchromatised plates in our
photographic air service, in the circumvention of camouflage
colour schemes, and in the photography of distant scenes in
spectroscopically pure light, are among the most important
studies of the new service. The peace applications of pan-
chromatic plates will undoubtedly multiply rapidly. A number
of lantern slides were shown illustrating the points referred to
above.

The chief processes at present available for the photographic
reproduction of the colours of parti-coloured objects were then
explained and examples of each were exhibited.

General Meeting, November 28th, 1919.
Mr. R. H. Clayton, B.Sc, in the Chair.

It was resolved that the Officers of the Chemical Section be
as follows :— R. H. Clayton, B.Sc. (Chairman); J. H. Lester.
M.Sc, F.I.C. (Hon. Treasurer); F. W. Atack, M.ScTech.,
B-Sc (Hon. Secretary) ; and the Members of the Committee : -.-

December 18th, 1919. 1 Proceedings. xxxi.

Edward Ardern, D.Sc, F.I.C. ; H.J. Bailey; Percy Bean,F.CS. ;
W. H. Bentley, D.Sc., F.CS. ; Joseph Brewerton; David Card-
well, M.Sc., F.I.C; H. F. Coward, D.Sc, F.I.C,; J. B. Cullen ;
R B. Forster, D.Sc; W. B. Hart, F.C.S., F.I.C; H. G. A.
Hickling, D.Sc, F.G.S. ; Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
F.CS.; Arthur Lapworth, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.I.C.; T. G. Marsh;
S. E. Melling, F.CS., F.I.C; F. Lee Pyman, D.Sc, Ph.D.;
L Guy Radcliffe, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C. ; ' Rona Robinson, M.Sc,
A. I.C ; W. Scott Taggart, M.I.Mech.E- ; Leonard E- Vlies,
F.CS., F.I.C; J. A. Weil, and T. Roland Wollaston,
M.I.Mech.E.

It was decided that the Officers and the members of the
Committee should be disbanded in March next, and that the
present Committee should draw up the Constitution and Rules
of the Chemical Section for submission to the Council.

It was agreed that all members of the Society should be
entitled to attend meetings of the Chemical Section and should
receive notices, but any member of the Society desiring to be a
member of the Chemical Section should give his name to the
Hon. Secretary of the Section.

Ordinary Meeting, November 28th, 1919.
Mr. R. H. Clayton, B.Sc. {Chairman), in the Chair.

Mr. R. H. Clayton opened a debate on " The Future
of the Chemical Section;" and he outlined the scheme for
the extension of the Society's house to provide further accom-
modation.

Ordinary Meeting, December iSth, 1919.

Mr. H. N. Morris in the Chair.

Mr. Harold Moore, M.Sc.Tech., A. I.C, opened a debate
on " Future Supplies of Motor Fuel."

Mr. Moore said : — " In dealing with such a many-sided and
highly technical subject as the future supply of motor fuel, it
is only possible to give a brief outline of the subject in the
time available this evening. I therefore propose to limit myself
to giving a rough sketch of the present position.

Until the advent of the internal combustion engine burning

xxxii Chemical Section. [December i8th} 1919.

liquid fuels the lighter petroleum products were almost waste
products, and were used for heating stills, boilers, etc., and in
some cases were even allowed to evaporate away. The actual
separation of these volatile products was necessary on account
of the flash point regulations dealing with the storage, and
transport of the heavier petroleum products.

The demand for petrol for automobile engines was therefore
readily met in the early da}'S of the petrol engine, though it
was necessary to subject the volatile products to the acid and
alkali washes known as the refining process. The specific
gravity of motor spirit in 1905 was about .690 at 150 C, and it
was a highly volatile product. To-day some grades of "spirit"
have specific gravities as high as .760.

The import of petrol into this country in 1905 was 18,000,000
gallons, and in 1914, 120,000,000 gallons. The increased demand
has been met in the first place by extending the limits of the
M cut " for the petrol fractions to include higher boiling frac-
tions. As this produced heavier spirit, and the engines of that
day were only capable of utilising highly volatile fractions,
the demand would have exceeded the supply if the invention of
the jet carburettor had not saved the situation by allowing the
use of heavier spirit, and of spirit collected over wider ranges of
temperature. Following this development the temperature
ranges of the " cut " in the distillation were increased to
include both heavier and lighter products, and of recent years
the heavier constituents of natural gas have been condensed by
pressure and cooling and used as a " livening " agent.

These developments would have been insufficient to cope with
the increasing demand for spirit had it not been for the intro-
duction of cracking on a large scale. Cracking consists of
subjecting heavy petroleum oils (usually of higher boiling
point than kerosene) to heat and pressure, wmereby compounds
of lower molecular weight, and therefore lower boiling point
are produced. Cracked spirit is of higher gravity than
" straight " distilled spirit of the same boiling point. It is
slightly disagreeable as regards smell, but otherwise a good
fuel. Nearly all of the cracked spirit produced in the United
States is taken up by the home market, the straight distilled
spirit being exported. This process increases the possible yield
of spirit from an average of 5 to 10% on the crude oil to 50 to
80% of the crude oil, which alters the entire aspect of the motor
spirit problem.

In the present position there is little fear of a motor spirit
shortage until there is a shortage of all petroleum products.
The question now resolves itself into one of which product can
stand the highest price. Probably lubricating oils and medicinal

December 18th, 1919.] Proceedings. xxxiii.

products could command the highest prices. After these come
motor spirit, then illuminating oils, then heavy oils for oil
engines, and lastly furnace oils. Therefore the suppty of
furnace oils will suffer most by the introduction of cracking.

The majorit}- of the people engaged in the petroleum indus-
try do not expect any petrol shortage, at any rate for several
years to come, in spite of the rapidly increasing demand.

The shale oil supply is less than 'J, per cent, of the world's-
petroleum supply.

Benzol is at present the main petrol substitute. The principal
sources of benzol are coal tar and coke oven gas. Gray and
Mellanby estimate the possible 3'ield in the United Kingdom,
if all benzol were recovered from these sources, as follows : —

From coal tar 2 million gallons per annum.

From coke oven gas... 26 ,, ,, ,,

An enormous increase in the coal production does not appear
probable in the near future, and therefore benzol is not likely
to satisfy any large portion of the demand for motor spirit.

The actual production of benzol at the present time is about
10 per cent, of the quantity of petrol imported, and a large part
of this is taken up by industries which are in a position to
afford higher prices than are acceptable to motorists. At the
best, benzol will only make a slight addition to the motor fuel
supply. In the opinion of the speaker it will find its best
utilisation in the form of mixtures.

The most promising source of petrol substitute at the present
appears to be alcohol. Though it is low in heat value (12,697
B.Th-U. gross) it has the advantage of requiring a small amount
of air for combustion, and it possesses a high ignition point,
and is therefore able to withstand high compression pressures
in internal combustion engines. In a suitably designed engine
it yields about the same power per gallon as petrol. The
possibilities of production of fuel alcohol in this country are not
very promising. Dr. Ormandy, who has specialised on this
subject for many years, informs me that he considers the most
suitable method of preparation to be by the alcoholic fermenta-
tion of vegetable matter, and that the necessary vegetable
substances can be most economically grown in tropical or sub-
tropical countries. The calcium carbide process could not under
existing conditions compete with the fermentation process as.
regards cost of production.

There is one more point to which 1 should like to call atten-
tion, and that concerns the methods used in valuing motor
spirits. Hitherto motor spirit anatysis has consisted of routine

xxxiv. Chemical Section. [January 30th, 1920.

laboratory tests. These are, however, quite inadequate for this
object, and special tests are really required. Though for
ordinary commercial purposes the distillation test is sufficiently
accurate it is really only being used as a measure of the vola-
tality, which is correctly measured by the vapour tension. Also
in the past little notice has been taken of the importance of the
ignition pointy which is an indication of the maximum engine
compression permissible, of which the thermal efficiency is a
direct function.

The use of mixed fuels is yet in its infancy, but if maximum
economy is to be obtained it will be necessary to employ a
standard mixture as motor spirit for general use and to adjust
the engine compressions to the corresponding permissible value.
At present about 25 per cent, of the power available in benzol
is wasted by the use of fuel in engines which are primarily
designed for petrol.

Another advantage of the employment of mixtures is that
usually two chemically different bodies of approximately the
same vapour tension yield mixtures, the vapour tensions of
which are higher than those of either constituent. The use of
mixtures has already been initiated by the air forces, who have
adopted a 20 per cent, benzol and 80 per cent, petrol mixture
which possesses several advantages over normal petrol."

Ordinary Meeting, January 30th, 1920.

Mr. R. H. Clayton, B.Sc (Chairman), in the Chair.

Dr. R. S. Willows, M.A., opened a debate on " Recent
Work on Colloids."

For the purpose of the address colloids were denned as matter
in a fine state of subdivision, which consequently possesses a
very large surface area. E.g., if a cube of 1 cm. side is divided
into cubes whose sides are one-millionth of a cm. the total
surface is 60 sq. metres. With each sq. cm. of surface a definite
amount of energy is known to be associated, and the difference
between colloidal and other matter lies in the fact that the
possible changes of this energy may entirely govern the physical
and chemical behaviour of the colloid although they are negli-
gible for matter in bulk. If the presence of a solute lowers the
surface energy of a solvent, the solute will concentrate itself in
the surface, thereby causing a maximum energy decrease. This
excess concentration is called adsorption.

Instances of this adsorption effect which have important

February 2-th, 1920.] Proceedings. xxxv.

applications are : — The clearing of turbid solutions by running
them through an adsorbent such as charcoal; it is probably a
first step in many dyeing operations and catalytic reactions ;
bacteria are removed from water by filtration through sand.
McBain and others have shown in some instances that adsorp-
tion is followed by solution.

Sols are suspensions of very small particles in a suitable
liquid. The particles have an electrical charge whose sign
depends on the method of preparation, and not, as frequently
stated, only on the chemical character of the substance. By
the X-ray method they are found to be crystalline, although
from their optical behaviour they are known to be nearly
spherical in shape. Ellis has shown for emulsions that a small
reduction in the electrical charge produces precipitation. He
has also shown that surface tension has little effect in precipi-
tation. Smoluchowski's theory of precipitation was explained.

The work of Thomson, Harkins and Langmuir on polarised
molecules and their consequent effects (1) on the spreading of
oil films on liquids, (2) on wetting of solids, and (3) on lubrica-
tion, were briefly described ; as also Langmuir 's determination
of the length and section of molecules. Sulman's recent paper
on mineral separation was mentioned.

Finally, the necessity for the co-operation of chemist and
physicist was insisted on, and support was asked towards the
establishment of a Chair of Colloids at Manchester University.

Special General Meeting, February 27th, 1920.
Mr. R. H. Clayton, B.Sc. (Chairman), in the Chair.
The proposed Rules of the Section were approved for sub-
mission to the Council of the Society for confirmation in
accordance with No. 93 of the Articles of Association.

A copy of the Rules is available for inspection by any
member at the Society's House.

Ordinary Meeting, February 27th, 1920.
Mr. R. H. Clayton, B.Sc. (Chairman) , in the Chair.
Mr. John Allan, F.C.S., opened a debate on " Engineering
as Applied to the Buildings and Plant in Chemical
Works."

The expression " engineering " in the above sense involves
knowledge much beyond that of an "astute fitter," and some of

xxxvi. Chemical Section. [February 27th, 1920.

it is of so particular a type that it might well be required of an
exeeptionalh' specialized civil engineer. As applied to buildings
the nature of much of this knowledge is obvious, but again
there is much that is not so apparent. Thus, for instance,
knowledge as to the suitability of ground to cany the founda-
tions of heavy buildings is obvious, but the effect of the soil
upon metals which may be embedded in it or of diffused waste
waters which may find their way into it, is not on the surface
so apparently necessary as it actually is. In the construction of
the buildings the ordinary attention to lighting, ventilation and
so on is required, but consideration must also be given to the
material of which the building and roofs are constructed. Ferro-
concrete ma}r be an ideal material for warehouses and the like,
but in chemical plants in which the removal of vessels and pipe
lines is frequent, it is objectionable on account of the great
difficulty which it offers to such re-arrangements.

In the arrangement plant accessibility to all parts should
receive first consideration. It is bad policy to bury tanks or
pipe lines in the ground as leakages cannot be observed, and
repairs are only possible after much labour and difficulty.
Where it is necessary to have tanks or other portions of
apparatus below the ground level they should be placed in a
well with sufficient room for a workaman to move freely round
them, observation then becomes possible.

Although hard and fast lines cannot be laid down in the
matter, a study of the unit system of construction of plants is
frequently profitable. This system enables a plant to be erected
with the minimum cost in its erection so far as drawings,
patterns, etc., are concerned, and further^ if any portion of a
plant consisting of a number of units breaks down, the effect
upon the output of the whole plant is considerably less than
when the construction is that of one or two very large sections.
The adoption of standardization of construction materials would
greatly facilitate the employment of the unit system, and even
in other cases would simplify erection and extension. It would
be necessary, however, before adopting standards to have the
uses to which the materials are to be applied very carefully
thought out, thus, whilst it is common to use earthenware
drain pipes as conduits for gases in chemical works, these are
invariably much too heavy for the work they have to do, with
the result that supports are infinitely stronger than is necessary
and much labour is involved in erecting or renewing the pipe
lines. Such heavy pipes as are used in this country are rarely
seen in continental works where light earthenware specially
constructed for this purpose is employed.
The centralising of units of power, steam supply, etc., may be

April joth, 1920.] Proceedings. xxxvii.

economical or wasteful according to circumstances, and atten-
tion should be given wherever possible to the grouping of
buildings housing particular operations, so that solid materials
can be handled in buildings in proximity to each other and to
the means of transport. Operations involving the use of steam
should be carried on in buildings grouped round the central
steam supply, such arrangements involving the minimum of
losses which arise from radiation and other causes. A variety
of points connected with the construction of drying plant,
mixing apparatus, and the use of corrodible metals, were also
gone into.

Annual General Meeting, April 30th 1920.
Mr. R. H. Clayton, B.Sc. (Chairman), in the Chair.

The following Members were elected Officers of the Section
and Members of the Committee for the ensuing year : —

Chairman : J. H. Lester, M.Sc, F.I.C.
Vice-Chairman : R. H. Clayton, B.Sc.
Hon. Secretary : David Cardwell, M.Sc, F.I.C.

Other Members of the Committee : Edward Ardern, D.Sc,
F.I.C; F, W. Atack, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C. ; W. H. Bentley,
D.Sc, F.C.S. ; Professor Arthur Lapworth, D.Sc, F.R.S.,
F.I.C; Harold Moore, M.Sc.Tech., F.C.S. , A.I.C; Professor
F. Lee Pyman, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.I.C; Rona Robinson, M.Sc,
A.I.C; Leonard E. Vlies, F.C.S., F.I.C; and T. R. Wollaston,
M.LMech.E.

Ordinary Meeting^ April 30th, 1920.

Mr. J. H. Lester, M.Sc, F.I.C (Chairman), in the Chair.

Dr. J. A. Russell Henderson, F.C-S., read a paper entitled
" Alchemy and Chemistry amongst the Chinese."

Chinese alchemy is of great antiquity and is closely connected
with the religion of Tao, which is indigenous to China and
which dates back to the sixth century B.C., if not to the begin-
ning of the Chinese race. The alchemists in China had the
same objects in view as those in Europe at a much later time,
viz., immortality and the transmutation of base metals into
gold ; their writings are obscure and they failed in their great

xxxviii. Chemical Section. [April 30th, 1920.

quest as did the alchemists of the west. However, the studies
of the Chinese alchemists led to discoveries of practical impor-
tance in metallurgy, mineralogy and botairy. China abounds
in natural wealth and the Chinese have not been slow to avail
themselves of this and to use it to their own advantage. The
Chinese show great skill in metallurgy and in the manufacture
of pigments, lacquers, poreclain, paper, etc. They very early
discovered the explosive properties of gunpowder and made use
of it in their wars.

The great mineral and vegetable wealth of China gives
promise of a great chemical industry in the future. Methods at
present in use are primitive, but modern methods and
machinery are beginning to be employed and one can confi-
dently look forward to the time when the latest methods will
be used in the exploitation of the vast deposits of coal, iron
and other metallic ores, and in the production of oils, essential
oils and medicinal substances from vegetable sources.

Annual Report, xxxix.

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Annual Report of the Council, April 1920.

The Society had at the beginning of the Session an ordinary
membership of 143. Since then 200 new members have joined
the Society (146 of these becoming members by the incorpora-
tion of the Manchester Chemical Club). Thirteen members
have resigned, and four members (Mr. Marcus Allen, Mr. S. W.
Gillett, Mr. A. J. King and Mr. Hermann Woolley) have died.
There are, accordingly, at the end of the session, 326 ordinary
members of the Society. The Society has also lost by death six
honorary members, viz. : Professor W. G. Farlow, Professor
Ernst Haeckel, Ph.D., Professor J. W. Hittorf, Sir Robert H.
Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S., The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh,
O.M., M.A., D.C.L., Sc.D., F.R.S., and Dr. A. G. Vernon-
Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S.

On the nomination of the Council, Mr. J. T. F. Bishop, Mr.
W. S. Curphey, F.I.C., and Mr. C. W. Sutton, M.A., have been
elected corresponding members of the Society.

Twenty-one papers have been read at the Society's meetings
during the year ; six shorter communications have also been
made. In addition, five meetings and a soiree have been held
by the Chemical Section.

Sir Henry A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. , Vice-Chancellor of
the Victoria University of Manchester, was elected President in
November, Professor G. Elliot Smith having been compelled to
resign that office on his acceptance of the Professorship of
Anatomy in the University of London. At the request of the
Council, Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.R.S., consented to act
as Deputy Chairman when Sir Henry Miers could not attend
the Society's meetings.

A new honorary office of Curator has been instituted, and
the number of ordinary members of the Council increased from
six to nine. Further, the Chairman and the Honorary Secretary
of the Chemical Section have been made ex-officio members of
the Council.

Society's Accounts.

The cash account of the Society is appended to this report.
The net cash in hand at the close of the Session amounted to

xl. Annual Report.

^46 15s. gd. On the other hand, the General Account is debtor
to the Wilde Endowment Fund to the extent of ^381 19s. od.,
to the Joule Memorial Fund ^108 12s. od., to the Natural History
Fund ,£162 3s. 3d., and, in addition, has a total net indebtedness
of about j£i8o.

Society's Library.

The Librarian reports that during the Session 453 volumes
have been stamped, catalogued and pressmarked ; 415 of these
were serials. The total number of volumes catalogued to date
is 38,560-

The additions to the library for the Session amounted to 627
volumes : 579 serials, and 48 separate works. The donations
(exclusive of the usual exchanges) were 45 volumes ; 3 volumes
were purchased in addition to those regularly subscribed for.
During the year 150 volumes have been bound in 102 covers.
In the previous Session the corresponding numbers were 93
volumes in 92 covers.

The additions included " Chemical Abstracts, Decennial-
Index Volumes 1-10 (1907 — 1916), Subject Index A — Z," in two
volumes (8vo., Eastou, Pa., 1919), published by the American
Chemical Society. The Society now subscribes to Discovery
and The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. The
donations to the Society's Library during the Session include
gifts of books by Mr. C. L. Barnes, Messrs. Edward Bennis &
Co., Ltd., Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, the Trustees of the British
Museum (Natural History), the Patent Office Library, London;
the Director of the Geological Survey of India ; the Academie
Royale, Brussels ; the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten
en Wetenschappen, Batavia ; the Yale University Press, New
Haven, Conn., U.S.A. ; the Bureau of American Ethnology, and
the Smithsonian Institution, Washington ; and the Department
of Commerce, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The
Optical Society, London (Transactions), and the Royal Aero-
nautical Society (The Aeronautical Journal), have been placed
on the Society's list of exchanges.

The library continues to be satisfactorily used for reference
purposes. 434 volumes have been borrowed from the library
during the past year. The number of books borrowed during
the previous year was 2S3 and during 1917-18, 280.

The publication of the Society's Memoirs and Proceedings
has been continued under the supervision of the Editorial
Committee.

Annual Report. xli.

Donations.

The Society has received from Mr. Henry Bocldington, J. P.,
of Wilmslow, a valuable etched portrait of Henry D. Pochin,
P.vSc, J.P., Mayor of Salford 1866-68.

Other gifts to the Society during the year include a
barometer, which belonged to the late Dr. Henry Wilde, pre-
sented by the University of Oxford ; a photograph of Dr. Wilde,
presented by Professor H. B. Dixon, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. ; and
32 volumes of the Society's Memoirs and Proceedings, presented
by Mr. John Boyd.

Dalton Medal.

A Dalton Medal (struck in 1864) was unanimously awarded
by the Council to Sir Ernest Rutherford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
" in recognition of his brilliant researches in Manchester on
the constitution of the atom."

Formation of Chemical Section.

A Chemical Section of the Society was formed and elected
the following Officers :— Chairman, Mr. R. H. Clayton;
Treasurer, Mr. J. H. Lester; Secretary, Mr. F. W. Atack.
Meetings of the Section have been held monthly. On Friday,
March 26th, 1920, the Section held a Soiree by invitation of
Mr. R. H. Clayton.

Society's House.

In accordance with discussions which have taken place
during the last twelve months at meetings of the Society, the
Council have carefully considered what steps might be taken
to extend the utility of the Society as a centre for literary and
scientific intercourse in the Manchester district. Several
advances have been made already ; for example, a Chemical
Section has been formed, and in addition the Manchester
Astronomical Society and the Manchester Microscopical Society
are holding their meetings in the Society's house. Several
meetings of other scientific bodies have been held in the rooms,
and informal communications have been received from others
with reference to similar privileges.

A recent re-arrangement of two of the Society's rooms has
made it possible to provide a comfortable room, supplied with
writing-table and current copies of the scientific journals, for
the convenience of members. The opening of the premises in
the evenings has already been appreciated by a number of
members, especially those who are unable to make use of the

xlii. Annual Report.

Society's room during the da3Ttime. The Society's House is
now open to members from 9.30 a.m. to 9,30 p.m. on every week-
day except Saturdays, when it is open from 9.30 a.m. to 2 p.m.

Building Extensions and Alterations.

An appeal for funds has been issued to members of the
Society in which attention was drawn to the following points :

The Society's house contains no room capable of accommo-
dating more than about one hundred persons, a number which
is already exceeded at many of the meetings of certain local
societies, and it is clear that if the Society's house is to become
the meeting place for local literary and scientific societies, and
indeed even to provide for the needs of its own rapidly increas-
ing membership, the premises must be extended.

Fortunately, there exists a small plot of land behind the
Society's house which would be suitable for extension, and
which has been offered to the Society on acceptable terms. The
Council have therefore asked the advice of an architect with a
view to discovering whether their needs could be met by exten-
sion on this site, with some minor structural alterations to the
present building. Plans have been prepared, and a copy of
them circulated for the consideration of members. The exten-
sion and alterations will provide, amongst other benefits, the
following : —

(1) A library and meeting room capable of seating some two

hundred persons.

(2) A smaller lecture room for smaller meetings.

(3) Committee room and ladies' common room.

(4) Extended accommodation for books.

(5) Improved lavatory accommodation.

At the same time, there will be no interference with the
leading features of the existing house with their historical
associations, such as the room used by John Dalton.

It is hoped that members of the Society will appreciate the
advantages of the scheme, for its successful consummation will
require their active individual collaboration. The cost is
estimated at about ^8,000, and it is obviously necessary that
members of the Society should give the scheme their fullest
financial support. For this purpose ^1,046 17s. 6d. has already
been promised, by 53 members, towards the proposed building'
extensions and alterations.

Treasurer's Accounts. xliii.

NOTE. — The Treasurer's Accounts for the Session 1919-1920

have been endorsed as follows :

April 9th, 1920. Audited and found correst.

We have also seen, at this date, the Certificates of the follow-
ing Stocks held in the name of the Society : — ^1,225 Great
Western Railway Company 5% Consolidated Preference Stock,
Nos. 12,293, 12,294, and 12,323 ; ^7,500 Gas Light and Coke
Company Ordinary Stock (No. 8/1960) ; ^100 East India Railway
Company 4% Annuity Stock (No. 4032) ; and the deeds of the
Natural History Fund, of the Wilde Endowment Fund, those
conveying the land on which the Society's premises stand, and
the Declarations of Trust.

Leases and Conveyances dated as follows : —

22nd Sept., 1797.
23rd Sept., 1797.
25th Dec, 1799.
25th Dec, 1799.
23rd Dec, 1820.
23rd Dec, 1820.

Declarations of Trust : —

24th June, 1801.

23rd Dec, 1820.

8th Jan., 1878.

Appointment of New Trustees : —
30th April, 1851.

We have also seen Bankers' acknowledgment of the invest^
ment of ^300 in the 5% War Loan : — 2 Bonds for ^100 each,
Nos. 71827 and 366270; and 2 Bonds for £50, Nos. 131577 and
31358.

We have also verified the balances of the various accounts
with the bankers' pass books.

Wilfrid Jackson.

/o- jx CJ- Wilfrid Jaci
(S'^d> JR. S. WILLOWS.

xliv.

MANCHESTER LITERARY
Dp. W. Henry Todd, Treasurer, in Account with th\

£ s. d. £ s.

To Balance, ist April, 1919 25 10

To Members' Subscriptions : —

Half Subscriptions, 1918-19, 1 at £1 is. od. 1 1 o
» 1919-20, 13 „ „ 13 13 o

u 1920-2 1, I „ „ I I O

Subscriptions: — 1915-16, 1 at £2 2s. od. 220

» 1916-17, 1 „ . „ 220

1917-18, 3 „ » 660

„ 1918-19, 7 „ „ 14 14 o

„ 1919-20, 128 „ „ 268 16 o

„ 1920-21, I „ „ 220

„ 1919-20, 10 at £1 is. od. 10 10 o

(5 year) 322 7

To Life Composition Fee 26 5

To Manchester Chemical Club : —

146 Members at £2. 2s. od. 306 12

To Sale of Publications : —

Memoirs and Proceedings

Catalogues

To W. R. Halkyard, Donation towards Plates

To Henry Wilde's Executors, Cost of Setting up

Paper

To Transfers from Wilde Endowment Fund : —

Rent of Rooms ?.

Entrance Fees

Half Subscriptions

To Dividends : —

Natural History Fund

Joule Memorial Fund

Wilde Endowment Fund

To Special Donations : —

R. H. Clayton

F. W. Atack

To Soiree Donations : —

William Thomson

Council

To Loans from Wilde Endowment Fund

To Bank Interest

To Expenses of Meetings : —

Manchester Microscopical Society

„ Chemical Club

„ Section, Institute of Chemistry ...

To Wilde Portraits

To National Health Insurance Act deductions

22 18
0 18

1
6

23
60

16
0

5o

0

0

12

12

0

17

i7

0

80

9

(

42
*5

17
2

6
8

7

0

0

65

0

[OO

0

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20

0

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120

0

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7

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381

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19

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12

9

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462

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xlv.

ND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Kiety.from 1st April, ipip, to jist March, 1920.

Cr.

£ s-

1st April, 1919

9 o
3 17
11 o

10 1

O I

10 1 1

Overdraft at Williams Deacon's Bank,
Charges on Property : —

Chief Rent ... .'

Income Tax and Inhabited House Duty-
Insurance against Fire

House Expenditure : —

Coal. Gas, Electric Light, Water, etc

Tea, Coffee, etc., at Meetings

Cleaning, Washing, etc

Replacements

Repairs, etc

Carpet Cleaned, etc

Chairs Re-seated

Clock Cleaned

Busts Cleaned

Common Room Decorated ...

Blinds

Wilde Photos, etc

Herbarium Cabinet

Administrative Charges : —

Assistant Secretary's Salary

Acting

Caretaker and Housekeeper...

Servant

Extra Attendance at Meetings

Postages, Carriage of Parcels, " Memoirs " ...

Stationery, Cheques, Receipts, Engrossing etc.

Insurance against Liability

National Health Insurance Stamps

Miscellaneous Expenses

Publishing : —

Printing " Memoirs and Proceedings," and Illustrations

Circulars, etc

Library : —

Periodicals (except those charged to Natural Historv Fund)

Soiree Expenses

Institute of Chemistry Meeting

Setting up Wilde Paper

Manchester Chemical Club. Purchase of Stock

Bank Interest on Overdraft etc

Natural History Fund : —

(Items shown in Balance Sheet of this Fund) ..

Wilde Endowment Fund : —

Dividend Refunded (War Loan)

Balance at Williams Deacon's Bank, 1st April,

I02O

Balance in Treasurer's Hands

£ s. d.
164 14 10

23 18

* 5

3

35

22

3

/2

4
8

7
8

9
0

0

15

0

4

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39

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6

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7

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36

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XlVll.

THE COUNCIL and MEMBERS

OF THE

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

1919-20.

President.

Sir HENRY A. MIERS, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.

W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.

FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C.

WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C.

Secretaries.

GEORGE HICKLING, D.Sc., F.G.S.

H. F. COWARD, D.Sc, F.I.C.

Treasurer.
W. HENRY TODD.

Librarian.

C. L. BARNES, M.A.

Curator.

W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.

Other Members of the Council.

FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

E. L. RHEAD, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C.

F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.

ARTHUR LAPWORTH, D.Sc., F.R.S. , F.I.C.

KENNETH LEE, LL.D.

C. E. vSTROMEYER, O.B.E., M.Inst.CE., M.Inst.M.E.

W. M. TATTERSALL, D.Sc.

H. W. KEARNS, B.Sc, J.P.

LEONARD E. VLIES, F.C.S., F.I.C.

Ex-officio : The CHAIRMAN and the SECRETARY of the

Chemical Section.

Assistant Secretary and Librarian.

R. F. HINSON.

xlviii. The Wilde Lectures.

THE WILDE LECTURES.

1S97. (July 2.) " On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays." By
Sir G. G. STOKES, Bart., F.R.S. (28 pp.)

1898. (Mar. 29.) " On the Physical Basis of Psychical Events."

By Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., F.R.S. (46 pp.)

1899. (Mar. 28.) "The newly discovered Elements; and their

relation to the Kinetic Theory of Gases." By Professor
William Ramsay, F.R.S. (19 pp.)

1900. (Feb. 13.) " The Mechanical Principles of Flight." By

the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. (26 pp.)

1901. (April 22.) " Sur la Flore du Corps Humain." By Dr.

Elie Metschnikoff, For.Mem.R.vS. (38 pp.)

1902. (Feb. 25.) " On the Evolution of the Mental Faculties

in relation to some Fundamental Principles of Motion."
By Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S. (34 pp., 3 pis.)

1903. (May 19.) " The Atomic Theory." By Professor F. W.

Clarke, D.Sc. (32 pp.)

1904. (Feb. 23.) " The Evolution of Matter as revealed by the

Radio-active Elements." By Frederick Soddy, M.A.
(42 pp.)

1905. (Feb. 28.) " The Early History of Seed-bearing Plants,

as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora." Dr D. H.
Scott, F.R.S. (32 pp., 3 pis.)

1906. (March 20.) " Total Solar Eclipses." By Professor H.

H. Turner, D.Sc, F.R.S. (32 pp.)

1907. (Feb. 18.) " The Structure of Metals." By Dr. J. A.

Ewing, F.R.S., M.Inst. C.E- (20 pp., 5 pis., 5 text-figs.)

1908. (March 3.) " On the Physical xA.spect of the Atomic

Theory." By Professor J. Larmor, Sec.R.S. (54 pp.)

The Wilde Lectures. xlix.

1909. (March 9.) "On the Influence of Moisture on Chemical

Change in Gases." By Dr. H. Brereton Baker, F.R.S.
(8 pp.)

1910. (March 22.) " Recent Contributions to Theories regard-

ing the Internal Structure of the Earth." By Sir
Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.

SPECIAL LECTURES.

1913. (March 4.) " The Plant and the Soil." By A. D. Hall,

M.A., F.R.S.

1914. (March 18.) " Crystalline Structure as revealed by

X-rays." By Professor W. H. Bragg, M.A., F.R.S.

1915. (May 4.) " The Place of Science in History." By Pro-

fessor Julius MacLeod, D.Sc.

Awards of the Dalton Medal.

1898. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1900. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S.

1903. Prof. Osborne Reynolds, IX. D., F.R.S.

1919. Prof. Sir Ernest Rutherford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

List of Presidents of the Society.

LIST OF PRESIDENTS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of Election.

1781. PETER MAINWARING, M.D., JAMES MASSEY.

1782-1786. JAMES MASSEY, THOMAS PBRCIVAL, M.D.
F.R.S.

1787-1789. JAMES MASSEY.

1789-1804. THOMAS PERCIVAL, M.D., F.R.S.

1805-1806. Rev. GEORGE WALKER, F.R.S.

1807-1809. THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S.
1809. *JOHN HULL, M.D., F.L.S.

1809-1816. THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S.

1816-1844. JOHN DALTON, D.CL., F.R.S.

1844-1847. EDWARD HOLME, M.D., F.L.S.

1848-1850. EATON HODGKINSON, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1851-1854. JOHN MOORE, F.L.S.

1855-1859. Sir WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Bart., LL-D., F.R.S.

1860-1861. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.CL, F.R.S.

1862-1863. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1864-1865. ROBERT ANGUS SMITH,. Ph.D., F.R.S

1866-1867. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1868-1869. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.CL., F.R.S.

1870-1871. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1872-1873. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.CL., F.R.S.

1874-1875. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1876-1877. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1878-1879. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.CL-, F.R.S.

1880-1881. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1882-1883. Sir HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, D.CL., F.R.S.

1884-1885. WILLIAM CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

1886. ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A.,
F.G.S.

* Elected April 28th ; resigned office May 5th.

List of Presidents of the Society. li.

Date of Election.

1887. BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D, F.R.S.

1888-1889. OSBORNE REYNOLDS, LL.D., F.R.S.

1890-1891. EDWARD vSCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1892-1893. ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1S94-1896. HENRY WILDE, D.C.I*, F.R.S.

1896. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1897-1899. JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.

1899-1901. HORACE LAMB, M.A., F.R.S.

1901-1903. CHARLES BAILEY, M.Sc, F.L.S.

1 903-1905. W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1905-1907. Sir WILLIAM H. BAILEY, M.I.Mech.E.

1907-1909. HAROLD BAILY DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.

1909-1911. FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.

1911-1913. F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.L.S.

1913-1915. FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

1915-1917. SYDNEY J. HICKSON, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1917-1919. WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C.

1919. G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

1919- Sir HENRY A. MIERS, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Vol. 64 : Part L

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 1919-20.

CONTENTS.

Memoirs :

I. — A Discussion of the Theorems of Lambert and Adams on
Motion in Elliptic and Hyperbolic Orbits. By L. V.
Meadowcroft, B.A., M.Sc. With 2 Text-figs. ... pp. 1—5

(Issued separately July 30th, IQ20.)

II. — Morphogenesis of Brachiopoda. I. — Reticularia lineata (Mar-
tin), Carboniferous Limestone. By W. E. Alkins,
M.Sc. With 1 Plate and 2 Text figs. pp. 1— 11

(Issued separately December 30th, IQ20.)

Proceedings pp. i. — xii.

MANCHESTER :

36, GEORGE STREET.

Price : Four Shillings.

February 28th, IQ21.

Vol. 64 : Part II. (End).

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 1919-20.

CONTENTS.

Memoirs :

III. — Latent Polarities of Atoms and Mechanism of Reaction,
with special reference to Carbonyl Compounds. By Pro-
fessor Arthur Lap worth , D. Sc. , F. R. S. With 3 Text-figs.
(Issued separately October 22nd, 1920.)
IV. — The Conjugation of Partial Valencies. By Professor Robert
Robinson, D. Sc. , F. R. S . With Text-figs

(Issued separately March 22nd, 1921.)

V.— Ancient Mines and Megaliths in Hyderabad. By Major
Leonard Munn, R. E. With 1 Majy

(Issued separately February 28th, 1921.)

Proceedings

Proceedings of the Chemical Section

Annual Report of the Council, 1 920

Treasurer's Accounts

List of Council (1919-20)

List of the Wilde Lectures

List of the Special Lectures

List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal

List of the Presidents of the Society

Title Page and Index

pp.

pp.

pp. 1

16

pp. Xlll. — XXVll.

pp. xxviii. — xxxviii

pp. xxxix.— xlii.

pp. xliii.— xlvi.

p. xlvii.

pp. xlviii. — xlix.

p. xlix.

p. xlix.

pp.

pp.

ii
-viii

MANCHESTER :
36, GEORGE STREET.

Price Seven Shillings.

June joth , 7p27.

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