of/^//6^

FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE V. ' /

a//

MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY.

(MANCHESTER MEMOIRS.)

Volume LIV. (1909-10.)

MANCHESTER :
36, GEORGE STREET.

191 1.

is.in^:^^^^--^^^

NOTE.

The authors of the several papers contained in this
volume are themselves accountable for all the statements
and reasonings which they have offered. In these par-
ticulars the Society must not be considered as in any way
responsible.

CONTENTS.

MEMOIRS.

I. On a New Binary Progression of the Planetary Distances,
and on the MutabiUty of the Solar System. By Menry
WiLDK, D.Sc.,D.C.L., F.R.S. With Plate. ... pp. i— ii

{Issued separately, October 2^t/t, i()og).

II. Some Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Common Mole.
By Lionel E. Adams, B.A. IVitk j Text-figs, and
Plate ... ... ... ... ... ... ... pp. I — 9

{Issued separately, NiK'eiiil'er ijth, igog).

III. A Note on the Slaminal Mechanism of Passtfiora Caeridea,

L. By T. G. B. OsBORN, B.Sc. With 3 Text-figs. pp. 1—7
(Issued separately, December yt/i, igog).

IV. A Preliminary Note on two New Genera of Upper Liassic

Plesiosaurs. By D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc. With 6 Te.vt-

figs. and Plate ... ... ... ... ... ... pp. i — 28

(Issued separately, December jJiid, igog).

\„
V. The Action of the a Rays on Glass. By Professor E.

Rutherford, F.R.S. p. 1

(Issued separately, December .24tk, igog).

VI. Production of Helium by Radium. By Professor E.

Rutherford, F.R.S., and Dr. B. B. Boltwood. pp. 1—2

(Issued separately, December 34.th, igog).

VII. The Development of the Atomic Theory: (i) Berthollet's
Doctrine of Variable Proportions. By Andrew Norman
Meldrum, D.Sc pp. 1—16

(Issued separately, February ist, igio).

VIII. Note on Radio-Active Recoil. By Sidney Russ, D.Sc.

With s Text-figs pp. i— 12

(Issued separately, February Jst, igio).

VI CONTENTS.

IX. Correspondence between Mrs. Hcmans and Matthew
Nicholson, an early member of this Society. By Francis
Nicholson, F.Z.S. Plates I.— IV. pp. 1—40

(Issued separately, February 22K(i, igto).

X. A Hypothesis as to the cause of the Autumnal Epidemic of
the Common and the Lesser Shrew, with some Notes on
their Habits. By Lionel E. Adams, B.A. With Plate

and Text-fig pp. i — 13

{Issued separately, March 31st, igjo).

XL Upper Liassic Reptilia. Part H. The Sauropterygia of
the Whitby Museum. By D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc.

8 Text-figs pp. I— 13

{Issued separately^ May bth, igio).

XH. On a new Octoradiate Coral, Pyrophyllia iufiata (new genus
and species). By Sydney J. Hickson, D.Sc, F.R.S.

4 Text-figs pp. I — 7

{Issued separately, May nth, igio).

XHL The Electrical Resistance of the Human Body. By Prof.
W. W. H ALDAN E Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., and F.

Brotherton. Plate and _5 Text -figs pp. I — 22

(Issued separately, July nth, rg/o).

XIV. The Physical Aspect of Time. By H. Bateman, M.A.

4 Textfigs pp. I— 13

(Issued separately, June 15th, igio).

XV. A Third List of the Adventitious Vegetation of the Sand-
hills of St. Anne's-on-the-Sea, North Lancashire (vice-
county 60). By Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S. pp. i — 11

(Issued separately, June 20th, igio).

XVI. Report on the Recent Foraminifera from the Bay of
Palermo, Sicily, 14-20 fm.«. (Off the harbour.) By
Henry SiDEBOTTOM. Plates I. — ///. pp. i — ^6

(Issued separately, June 24th, igio).

XVII. The Anatomy of Calamostachys Binneyana, Schimper. By

George Hickling, D.Sc. Plate zxi^ 3 Text-figs. pp. i — 16

{Issued separately, July 20th, ig'O.)

CONTENTS. VU

XVIII. Note on the Variability in the Colour of the Flowers of a
Tropseolum Hybrid. By F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.

IViik Plate - ... pp. 1—6

{^Issued separately, August 31st, iqio).

PROCEEDINGS ( ^F^V/^ ^ /•/ai'tf^) i.— xxv.

General Meetings iii-, v., vi., xxi.

^Vnnual General Meeting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxii.

Special Meeting for the delivery of the Wilde Lecture ... ... ... xxi.

Report of Council, 1910, with obituary notices of Dr. A. Dohrn,
Professor G. B. von Neumayer, Professor Simon Newcomb,
Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe, Dr. Ludwig Mond, Mr. Thomas
Worthington, and Mr. Thomas Windsor ... ... ...xxvi. — .xlii.

Treasurer's Accounts ... ... ... ... ... xliii. — xlv.

List of the Council of Members of the Society ... ... ... xlvi. — Ixi.

List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal Ixi.

List of the Wilde Lectures Ixii. — Ixiii.

List of the Presidents ot the Society Ixiv. — Ixv.

Vin INDEX.

INDEX.

M = Memoirs. P=Pioceedings,

Adams, L. E. Hypothesis as to the cause of the autumnal epidemic of the
common and the lesser shrew, with some notes on their habits. M. lo.

Some notes on the breeding habits of the common mole. M. 2.

Adventitious vegetation of St. Anne's-on-the-Sea. By C. Bailey. M. 15.

Aerial navigation. P. iv.

Aeronauts, exhibit of photographs of. I', iv.

Air, action of, on bleaching powder. By R. L. Taylor. P. xxii.

a rays, action of, on glass. By E. Rutherford. M. 5.

Atomic Theory, development of. By A. N. Meldrum. M. 7.

Autumnal Epidemic of Shrews. By L. E. Adams. M. 10.

Bailey, C. Third list of the adventitious vegetation of the sandhills of

St. Anne's-on-the-Sea. M. 15.
Bailey, Sir W. H. Mr. Hewitt Myring's discoveries of pre-historic pottery in

Peru. P. XV.
Bateman, H. Physical aspect of time. M. 14.
Berthollet, C.-L., biographical details of. By F. Nicholson. P. ix.
Berthollet's doctrine of variable proportions. By A. N. Meldrum. M. 7.
Bleaching powder, action of carbon dioxide on. By R. L. Taylor. P. xxii.
Bleriot, M. and Baron de Caters on aeroplanes. P. iv.
Bles, A. J. S., death of. P. ix.

Boltwood, B. B. and Rutherford, E. Production of helium by radium. M. 6.
Breeding habits of the common mole. By L. E. Adams. M. 2.
Brothers, Alfred. Halley's Comet as seen in 1835, compared with Donati's in

1858. P. xiii.
Brotherton, F. and Gee, W. W. H. The electrical resistance of the human

body. M. 13.

Calainostachys Binneyana, Schimper, anatomy of. By G. Hickling. M. 17.

Carbon dioxide, action of, on bleaching powder. By R. L. Taylor. P. xxii.

Colour, absence of, in frog. P. vi.

Colour of flowers, variability in. By F. E. Weiss. M. 18.

Comets. P. xiii.

Coral, a new octoradiate, Pyrophyilia injiata. By S. J. Hickson. M. 12.

Coward, II. F. The inflammability of gas-mixtures. P. xiv.

INDEX. IX

Dixon, H. B. Obituary notice of Dr. Ludwig Mond. P. xxxviii.

Dohrn, A. Obituary notice of. By S. J. II. P. xxix.

Donati's comet of 1858 compared with Halley's of 1835. By A. Brothers.

P. xiii.
Double hen's egg, exhibit and account of. By S. |. Hickson. P. v.

Earth, theories of internal structure of. By Sir T. H. Holland. \Title onIy\

P. xxi.
Electrical resistance of the human body. By W. W. H. Gee and F.

Brotherton. M. 13.

Flowers, variability in colour of. By F. E. Weiss. M. 18.
Foraminifera from Bay of Palermo. By H. Sidebottom. M. 16.
Frog, colourless, exhibit of. By H. S. eigh. P. vi.
Fungus, colour effect of. By T. G. B. shorn. P, xxiii.

Gas mixtures, inflammability or. By H. F. Coward . P. xiv.

Gee, W. W. H. and Brotherton, Y. The electricnl resistance ot the human

body. M. 13.
Glass, action of « rays on. By E. Rutherford. M. 5.

Halley's Comet of 1835 compared with Donati's in 1858. By A. Brothers.

P. xiii.
Helium produced from radium. By E. Rutherford and B. B. Boltwood. M. 6.
Hemans, Mrs., exhibit of letters, etc., relating to. P. vii.
Hemans, Mrs. and Matthew Nicholson, correspondence between. By F.

Nicholson. M. 9.
Heredity in plants. M. 18.

Hickling, G. Anatomy of Calamostachys Biiineyana, Schimper. M. 17.
Hickson, S. J. Exhibit of and note upon a double hen's egg. P. v.

Exhibit of piece of wood stained green by a fungus. P. xxiii.

Obituary notice of Dr. A. Dohrn. P. xxix.

On a new octoradiate coral, Pyrophyllia inHata (new genus and species).

M. 12.

Holland, Sir T. H. Recent contributions to theories regarding the internal

structure of the earth. [ Title only']. P. xxi.
Human body, electrical resistance of. By W. W. H. Gee and F. Brotherton.

M. 13.

Inflammability of gas-mixtures. By H. F. Coward. P. xiv.

Internal structure of earth, theories of. By Sir T. H. Holland. [Title only].

P. xxi.
Iron fence, magnetisation of. By G. P. Varley. P. xxiv.

X INDEX.

Jones, Francis. Exhibit of lantern slides of three granite monoliths from
Tormore, Shiskine. P. iv.

References to the deaths of Mr. Thomas Worthington, P. vii., and

:Mr. A. J. S. Bles, and Dr. Ludwig Mond. P. ix.

Lange, E. F. Exhibit of photographs of M. Bleriotand Baron de Caters

navigating the air. P. iv.
Leigh, H. S. Exhibit of a frog, devoid of colour, found near Tyldesley.

P. vi.
Lightning flashes, exhibit of photograph of. By H. Stansfield. P. ix.
Linnneus, exhibit of medal in commemoration of. P. vi.

Magnetisation of an iron fence in Lake district. By G. P. Varley. P. xxiv.

Medal commemorating Linnseus, exhibit of. P. vi.

Meldrum, A. N. Development of the atomic theory: (i) Berthollet's

doctrine of variable proportions. M. 7.
Mole (common), breeding habits of. By L. E. Adams. M. 2.
Mond, Ludwig. Obituary notice of. By H. B. D. P. xxxviii.
Monoliths from Tormore, Shiskine. By F. Jones. P. iv.
Morehouse Comet, exhibit of stereoscopic photographs of. P. xxi.
Mutability of the solar system. By 11. Wilde. M. i.
Myring, Mr. Hewitt, discoveries of preliistoric pottery in ! eru. By Sir W. H.

Bailey P. xv.

Neumayer, G. B. von. Obituary notice of. By H. M. T. P. xxxi.

New binary progression of planetary distances. By H. Wilde. M. i.

Newcomb Simon. Obituary notice of. By T. T. P. xxxiii.

Nicholson, F. Correspondence between Mrs. Hemans and Matthew Nicholson.

M. 9.
• Exhibit of letters and other objects relating to Mrs. Hemans (nee

Felicia Browne). P. vii.

Note on Claude Louis Berthollet. P. ix.

Obituary notices of Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe. P. xxxvi. T. Windsor,

P. xli. and T. Worthington. P. xl.

Presentation to the Society's Library of Angus Smith's "Loch Etive and

the sons of Uisnach.' P. viii.

Nicholson, Matthew, and Mrs. Hemans, correspondence between. By F.
Nicholson. M. 9.

Octoradiate Coral, new, Py70phy!Ha injiata. By S. J. Hickson. M. 12.
Osborn, T. G. B. Note on Feziza Aeruginosa. P. xxiii.

Note on the staminal mechanism of Passijlora caerulea, L, M. 3.

INDEX. XI

Palseobotany. Anatomy of Calamostachys Biiineyaua. By G. 1 Tickling.

M. 17.
Palermo, bay of. foraminifera from. By II. Sideboltom. M. 16.
Passiflora Caertilea,, stamina! mechanism of. By T. G. B. Osborn, M. j.
Peru, prehistoric pottery of. By Sir W. II. Bailey. P. xv.
Peziza Aeruginosa, note on. By T. G. B. O.sborn. P. xxiii.
Physical Aspect of time. By H. Bateman. M. 14.
Planetary distances, new binary progression of. By H. Wilde. M. i.
Plesiosaurs (Upper Liassic), new genera of. By D. M. S. Watson. M. 4.
Pottery, Prehistoric, of Peru. By Sir W. II. Bailey. P. xv.
Py7-ophyllia inHata (new genus and species). By S. J. Hickson. M. 12.

Radio-active recoil. By S. Russ. M. 8.

Radium, helium from. By E. Rutherford and B. B. Boltwood. M. 6.

Reptilia, Upper Liassic, II. By D. M. S. Watson. M. 11.

Russ, S. Note on radio-active recoil. M. S.

Rutherford, E. Action of the a rays on glass. M. 5.

and Boltwood, B. B. Production of helium by radium. M. 6.

St. Anne's-on-the-Sea, adventiti(;us vegetation of. By C. Bailey. M. 15.
Sandhills of St. Anne's, vegetation of. By C. Bailey. M. 15.
Sauropterygia of the Whitby Museum. By D. M. S.Watson. M. 11.
Sharpe, R. Bowdler. Obituary notice of. By F. N. P. xwvi.
Shrews, autumnal epidemic of. By L. E. Adams. M. 10.

, habits of. By L. E. Adams. M. 10.

Sidebottom, II. Report on the recent foraminifera from tlic Bay of Palermn,

Sicily. M. 16.
Solar system, mutability of. By H. Wilde. M. i.

Staminal mechanism of Passiflora Caeritlea. By T. G. B. Osborn. M. 3.
Stansfield, Herbert. Exhibit of lantern slide of a photograph of lightning

flashes. P. ix.
Steel immersed in hot caustic soda, exhibit of. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. xii.
Stromeyer, C. E. Exhibit of samples of mild steel which had been immersed

in hot caustic soda. P. xii.

Tattersa.ll, W. M. Obituary notice of G. B. von Neumayer. P. xxxi.
Taylor, R. L. A preliminary note on the action of carbon dioxide and of air

on bleaching powder and similar substances. P. xxii.
Thorp, Thomas. P'xhibit of stereoscopic photographs of the Morehouse

Comet. P. xxi.
-— Obituary notice of .Simon Newccmb. P. xxxiii.

[OVKR.

Time, physical aspect, of. By H. Bateman. M. 14.

Tormore, monoliths from. By F. Jones. P. iv.

Tropreolum hybrid, variability in colour of flowers of. By F. E. Weiss. M. 18.

Upper Liassic Plesiosaurs, new genera of. By D. M. S. Watson. M. 4.
Upper Liassic reptilia. Part 2. By D. M. S. Watson. M 11.

Variability in colour of Tropceolum hybrid. By F. E. Weiss. M. 18.
Variable Proportions, Berthollet's doctrine of. By A. N. Meldrum. M. 7.
Variation in plants. M. 18.

Varley, G. P. Observations on the magnetisation of an iron boundary fence
in the Lake district. P. xxiv.

Watson, D. M. S. Preliminary note on two new genera of Upper Liassic

Plesiosaurs. M. 4.
Upper Liassic reptilia. Part 2. The Sauropterygia of the Whitby

Museum. M. 11.
Weiss, F. E. Exhibit of a medal bearing a head of Linna'us. P. vi.
— - — Note on the variability in the colour of tlie flowers of a Tropa-olum

hybrid. I\L iS.
Whitby Museum, Sauropterygia of. By D. M. S. Watson. M. 11.
Wilde, II. On a new binary progression of the planetary distances, and on

the mutability of the solar system. M. i.
Wilde Lecture. Recent contributions to theories regarding the internal

structure of the earth. By Sir T. H. Holland. [7itU oii/y.] P. xxi.
Windsor, T. Obituary notice of. By F. N. P. xli.
Wood coloured by fungus, exhibit of. S. J. Hicksou. P. xxiii.
Worthington, T. Oliituary notice of. By F. N. P. x'.

Manchester Aleinoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 1.

I. On a new Binary Progression of the Planetary
Distances, and on the Mutability of the Solar
System.

By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L, F.R.S.

Received and read October Jth, igog.

1. In the paper which I read before the Society in
March last " On the Moving Force of Terrestrial and
Celestial Bodies in relation to the Attraction of Gravita-
tion,"* it was demonstrated that the moving force of
celestial bodies is as the square of the velocity, in
accordance with the experimental results obtained with
moving bodies at the surface of the terrestrial globe. I
further announced and demonstrated the new dynamical
law that the moving force of celestial bodies is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance, and correlatively
equal to the static attraction of gravitation. For if the
moving force were simply as the velocity, the attraction
of gravitation would require to be in the like proportion,
otherwise planetary bodies would either fall upon the
central body, or be projected into outer space. But it
has been demonstrated that the moving force and the
attraction of gravitation are alike inversely proportional
to the square of the distance to maintain and retain
celestial bodies in their orbits during their revolutions
round their primaries.

2. As some confusion of thought has arisen in the use
of the term " gravitating force " by various writers, it
cannot be too clearly stated that moving force and the static

*Matichester Memoirs, vol. 53, 19C9, Phil. Mag., (6), vol. 18, p. 523,
1909.

October 2§th, igog.

2 Wilde, New Binary Progression of Platietary Distances.

attraction of gravitation, although strictly correlated, are
as distinct properties of body as dynamic electricity is from
the static force of magnetism, as each of these forces
manifests itself and may be treated upon independently of
the others.

3. As the moving and attractive forces of planetary
bodies are correlatively equal, and are expressed by the
same numbers, the radius vector of Mercury appeared to
me the most natural, as well as the most convenient unit
to which the other planetary distances should be referred.
A farther reason for this selection was the fact that the
terrestrial unit is an obvious survival of the geocentric
system of the universe which has dominated science for
ages, and still retains its hold on ultra-anthropocentric
writers on astronomy and astrophysics.

4. An apparently adverse feature, however, of the
change of unit in the new table, was the excision of
the binary progression of the planetary distances known
as Bode's law, which, as Airy and Herschel have rightly
said, " is not founded upon any theory which connects it
either with Kepler's laws, the gravitating force, or any
other known physical law."

5. Notwithstanding the brilliant results which followed
the adoption of Bode's Law by independent thinkers, in
the discoveries of the minor planets and of Neptune, the
complete isolation of the law from all physical causes
(which admits only of a teleological interpretation),
appears to have created a strong prejudice, amounting to
hostility, in the minds of eminent astronomical writers to
disparage and obscure what they have been pleased to
term Bode's " supposed " or " so called " law of planetary
distances, ostensibly on account of minor differences from
the observations, and its discordance with the distance of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 1. 3

Neptune. So accustomed have these writers been to
viewing the more exact relations of Kepler's laws with
the law of gravitation, and the extreme refinements
involved in the measurement of these relations, that their
power of forming a just estimate of probabilities becomes
atrophied by disuse, to the great hindrance of the science
which they endeavour to advance. This habit of mind is
all the more deplorable in its consequences from the fact
of its being unsuspected, and associated with attainments
of the highest order in men occupying important positions
in observatories and seats of learning, where the influence
of their peculiar idiosyncracies makes itself felt through
a long course of years.*

6. Bode's law, briefly stated, is as follows : — The radii
vectores, or the relative planetary distances from the sun
proceed in multiple proportions, each one after the second
being double the one which precedes it, and, by adding the
constant 0'4 to each progression, we obtain approximately
the distances of the planets, as shown in Table i.

7. The parallelism of the discovery of new planets
through the law of multiple proportions of the distances,
and the discovery of new elementary substances through
the law of multiple proportions of the atomic weights, as
shown in my former papers,f will not fail to be evident to
serious investigators in the natural sciences.

8. The correlation of a series of nebular condensations,
represented by the planetary distances on the one hand,
and the further condensation of the nebular substance into

*The attacks made by astronomical writers on Bode's law have been
discussed at greater length in my paper publislied in the Manchester
Memoirs, vol. 39, 1895,

■^Manchester Memoirs, vols. 30, 39, 40, 46, 48, 52, 1878-1907, Chemical
■ Neius, vol. 38, pp. 66, 96, 107, 187S, FhiL Mag., (6), vol. 16, p. 824, 1908.

4 Wilde, New Binary Progression of Planetary Distances.

well defined series of elements, with their like series of
atomic weights and specific gravities, on the other, rendered
it imperative that the binary progression of planetary
distances should again appear in connexion with the
Mercurian unit of distance.

9. The solution of this problem is shown in the same
Table i, in columns 4 and 5, parallel with i and 2, con-
taining Bode's numbers, and expressed in astronomical
units of the distance of Mercury from the sun.

10. Taking the unit distance of Mercury = i 00, as a
plus constant, instead of the empirical number 0*4, as in
Bode's table, the binary progression now appears as, —
O'OO 075 1-50 3 6 12 24 48 96;
and the value of each term of the new series becomes- -
TOO 175 2-50 4 7 13 25 49 97.

11. The observation distances in column 2 are in close
accordance with those derived from Kepler's third law, as
will be seen by multiplying each of the terms in column 5
of the new table of distances from my former paper,* by
the terrestrial unit distance of Mercury, 0"387i. The
additional decimal place is brought in for greater accuracy
not required in the general tables.

12. A comparison of the sums of all the distances in
column [ of Bode's table with those of the observation
distances in column 2, shows that the difference between
the two sums only amounts to one fortieth part of the whole.

13. By the like comparison of the sums of the new
binary progression in column 4 with the distances from
the new table in column 5 (which are in strict accordance
with Kepler's third law), the difTerence between the two
sums is only one hundredth part, or two and a half times

"Manchester Memoirs, vol. 53, 1909, Phil. Mag., (6), vol. 18, p. 523, 1909.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. |. 5

less than that derived from Bode's table, and abundantly
establishes the validity of the binary progression of the
planetary distances of both tables as a law of nature.

14. The substitution of the Mercurian radius vector for
the terrestrial unit of distance, brings out several
variations in the tables, the most conspicuous of which is
the minus difference, 0"4i7, of the distance of Uranus in
Bode's table, and the plus difference, 0*550, in the new
table for the same planet, the plus difference being
accounted for by the attractive influence of Neptune.

15. The anomalous minus difference of Saturn, 0"36o,
column 6, between the plus differences of Jupiter and
Uranus is interesting as indicating the large amount of
attraction exercised by the enormous mass of the Jovian
planet on the outer side, and by the plus differences of
the Earth and Venus on the inside of his orbit from the
same cause.

16. The plus difference of Jupiter in the new progres-
sion, 0"437, column 6, is remarkable as showing the
attractive influence of the large planets, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptane.

17. Other differences will also be seen between the
observation and calculated distances in Bode's table and
in the new progression, the final effect of which is to
reverse the order of the plus and minus differences of the
total sums of the distances shown in columns 1-2, and 4-5,
of the table.

18. The smaller minus difference of Mars would
appear to be caused by his proximity to the intra-Martian
planets, together with the interruption of the binary
progression of a major planet revolving in the orbit of the
asteroids, of which Ceres is the chief representative.

6 Wilde, New Binary Progression of Plmietary Distances.

19. It will be further observed that, while the plus and
minus differences in the distances are irregular in amount,
they are rectified by the mutual attraction of the planetary
bodies among themselves, to effect an approximate ratio
of equality between the binary progression of the distances,
shown in columns i and 4, and those derived from
observation.

20. Turning now to the anomalous departure of the
distance of Neptune from the binary progression of
distances of the other members of the solar system ; it
will readily be admitted that, had the agreement between
the numbers of the binary progression and the observation
distances, as shown in the table, been absolute, the
outstanding minus difference of the distance of Neptune,
I9'4I0, would have still remained an exception to the law.

21. In my former paper on the multiple proportions of
the atomic weights, it was laid down as a general principle
of philosophic reasoning, that, when a number of recurring
instances was sufficient to establish the relation of cause
and effect, or, in other words, the general accuracy of a
law, the road to further discovery was in the direction
of explaining the anomalous departures from it, than in
challenging the truth of the law itself*

22. That the distance of Neptune, at the genesis of its
history', was the first and exact term of the binary
progression is an inference justly to be drawn from the
like progression observable in the distances of the other
planetary bodies, and it was on this same distance (38'4)
that Adams, in 1845, based his first determination of the
then unknown planet.

* Manchester Memoirs, vol. 39, p. 7 1, 1895.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. /iv. {igog), No. 1. 7

23. The Astronomer Royal (Sir George B. Airy) in his
historical review of the circumstances connected with the
discovery of Neptune says that " if the mathematicians,
whose labours I have described, had not adopted Bode's
law of distances (a law for which no physical theory of
the rudest kind has ever been suggested), they would
never have arrived at the elements of the orbit,"* or, in
other words, would never have discovered Neptune.

24. The most probable, as well as the most obvious,
cause of the anomalous minus difference in the binary
progression of the distance of Neptune is the outermost
position of the planet in relation to the other members of
the system, with the consequent conjoint attractions of all
the planets, acting through every part of their orbits, to
contract continuously and permanently his radius vector
to the amount shown in the observations. The large
amount of this contraction is strong presumptive evidence
against the existence of a planetary body beyond the orbit
of Neptune.

25. A further consequence of the outermost position of
Neptune is the small amount of the eccentricity of his orbit,
0009, or nearly six: times less than the eccentricities of
Uranus, Saturn and Jupiter, and, excepting Venus, 0007,
is the nearest approach to a circular orbit of any member
of the system.

26. It is not a little remarkable that the inevitable
effect of the outermost position of a planet, to contract
continuously its radius vector, has never presented itself to
Lagrange, Laplace and other writers on celestial mechanics,
who have elaborated the doctrine of the absolute stability
of the solar system. The conjoint attractions of all the

*Proc. Roy. Astron. Soc, Nov. 13, 1846, Phil. Mag., (3), vol. 29,
pp. 520, 537, 1846.

8 Wilde, New Binary Progression of Planetary Distances.

planets upon Neptune is easily demonstrated by the
accompanying diagram, whereon, from the exigencies of
space and clearness of definition, the intra-Jovian planets
are not included in the demonstration.

27. Reverting to the small amount of the difference
between the sums of the binary progression in column 4,
Table i, and the observation distances in column 5, it
will be seen that the latter is a plus quantity, as 104162 —
I03'25 =0912. Now as the amount of the contraction of
the radius vector of Neptune is i9'4io Mercurian units
(696,000,000 miles), as shown in column 6, the plus
difference, 0*9 12, between the two sums of the binary
progression and the observation distances may well be
accounted for as being the amount of the reciprocal
attractions of all the planets upon Neptune in accordance
with Newton's third law of motion, acting through periods
of time too immense for calculation in the present state
of our knowledge.

28. Assuming the future contraction of the orbit of
Neptune to be continuous, his radius vector will ultimately
coincide with that of Uranus, when the two bodies would
either revolve together about their common centre of
gravity in the same orbit, or coalesce to form a single
self-luminous planet, when the same operation would be
repeated in succession with other members of the system.

29. It is further postulated that all the planets would
ultimately coalesce to form one or more self-luminous
bodies revolving round the sun, as one of the binary or
ternary systems of stars, of which upwards of ten thousand
have been discovered and catalogued during the last
century.

30. The probability that the ultimate transformation of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 1. 9

the solar system will be brought about by the means, and
in the order herein set forth, derives further support from
the fact that one of the stars of long recognised binary
systems is itself a close double star, revolving about its
common centre of gravity, as instanced in ju Herculis
and 7 Andromedae.

31. Recapitulation. — (i) That the exact binary pro-
gression of the planetary distances is the primordial and
fundamental law (shining forth alone in the formless void)
from which the principal elements of the planetary orbits
have been derived ; (2) that the apparently irregular
differences from the law are the direct consequence of the
mutual attractions of the planetary bodies amongst them-
selves, but without affecting the validity of Kepler's laws,
as the distances and periodic times are necessarily
correlated ; (3) that as planetary systems have been
evolved in regular order from a nebular substance, so the
transformation of these systems will proceed in like order
to form the numerous binary and other revolving systems
observed in the immensity of the stellar universe.

lO

Wilde, Neiv Binary P,

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Manchester Mcmoiys, Vol. LIV. (No. 1).

Diagrammatic Representation of the Contraction of the
Radius Vector of Neptune.

Manchester Memotrs, Vol. liv. (1909J, No. %.

II. Some Notes on the Breeding Habits of the
Common Mole.

By Lionel E. Adams, B.A.

Received July loth, igog. Read October igth, igog.

Since the researches of Henry Lecourt no one seems
to have made any serious study of the life history of the
Common Mole, and as many of Lecourt's conclusions have
been incorrectly drawn, some from single instances and
others from his imagination, there is a wide field for
correction and research. But while thus criticising
Lecourt, we must not forget to give him credit for
furnishing most of the information found in the text-
bot)ks ; and the little work* by Cadet de Veau which
embodies Lecourt's researches, may still be studied with
profit by all interested in the subject.

Among the many remaining problems the following
important ones are yet unsolved : —

1. The length of life of the Mole.

2. Whether the male and female pair for life, or for a

season only, or if they couple promiscuously.

3. Whether the male and female inhabit the same

nest during any part of the year.

4. The period of gestation.

5. The length of time the young spend in the nest,

and their rate of growth.

With regard to the first, I believe the Mole lives at
least four or five years. I have examined fortresses for
three consecutive years, built on the same spot and closely

• " De la Taupe, de ses moeurs," &c. Paris, 1803.
November 13th, igog.

2 Adams, Breeding Habits of the Common Mole.

on the same lines ; and certainly the animal does not
come to its full growth till its second year.

As to the second one can only surmise, my opinion
being that they neither pair nor live together. It was
Lecourt who pointed out the difference between the
plan of the encampment of a male and that of a female,
the male's encampment having a more or less straight
main run, while that of the female is a mere network of
runs without any apparent system. That this is so I have
repeatedly found to be the case. Whether they occupy
the same nest during the pairing season is uncertain, but,
judging from the size of the dry nucleus of the nest, it is
probable that only a single individual occupies it.

Number 4 seems very difficult of solution owing to
the difficulty of observation and of keeping a captive the
necessary length of time, which must be about four weeks.

The present notes contain some observations on the
last of these problems.

Breeding nests. The females make special breeding
nests shortly before the young are born. These nests though
usually very slight and simple in construction, are some-
times as large and complicated as the winter fortresses.
The slight, simpler nests are often mere excavations under
the upheaved turf, and are, I think, the work of the young
does ; while the older and more experienced females
make the more elaborate preparations. There is one
almost constant difference between the winter fortress
and the breeding nest, and that is the absence of a bolt
run in the latter, and the persistence of it in the former.
I have, however, found two examples of breeding nests
with bolt runs ; and, of course, circumstances sometimes
prohibit the making of a bolt run in the winter fortress —
as in the case of the soil being waterlogged. On one
occasion I found two contiguous breeding nests in the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. %.

Fig. I.

A. Nest with 4 young.

B. Inhabited nest, but empty when fonnd.

a, Uy a, exits from A.

b, b, „ „ B.

Lou 0

Fi<r. II. {a).

N. Nest with 4 young.

D. Entrance to Downshaft.

e, e, e, Exits from nest.

Adams, Breeding Habits of the Common Mole.

Fig. II. [b). Vertical section of same.

N. Nest.

D. Downshaft 9 inches deep.
e, e, e. Exits from nest.
/, /, Ground level.
same mound, resulting, I think, from a coincidence in the
choice of a nesting place. On another occasion I found a
down shaft leading from the cavity of a breeding nest.

Time of Bleeding. The usual time for the young to
be born is about the middle of May, but this year (1909)
I have the evidence of a very reliable inole-catcher of a
nest containing three young being dug up on April 24th,
and I have myself found nests containing young on May
4th (young about seven days old), May 6th (about two
days old), May 8th (about seven days old), and May
24th (about 21 days old); none since then. The latest
time that I have seen young in the nest was June 25th,
1 90 1. They were quite ready to leave the nest, and were at
least three weeks old. I do not know if climatic changes
have any influence on their pairing early or late,* but
considering their subterranean existence, I should say
less than might be the case with most animals ; and I am
convinced, though I cannot prove it, that the actual
coupling takes place underground. During the pairing
* Lecourt asserts that this is the case.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. *ii- 5

season (March and early April) they may be heard to
squeak in the runs, and during this period I have re-
peatedly trapped them, bearing evidence of quite recent
coupling. Moreover, no one has ever recorded having
witnessed the act.

One annual litter only. In my first paper* I have
gone fully into the question of the number of litters pro-
duced annually by a single female, and I will only
mention here that subsequent experience has fully
confirmed the evidence then adduced to the fact that only
one litter is produced per year. I have always found that
in any given season all the litters have been born within a
period of three weeks, and sometimes less, and as the
young remain four weeks in the nest, there would not be
time for two litters to be reared ; besides which, dissection
shows that neither male nor female is in condition to
continue breeding.

Rate of groivtJi of the Young. In order to ascertain the
rate of growth of the young and the time they spend in the
nest I adopted the plan of taking one for measurement and
reference from each of several litters, and, after replacing
the nest as carefully as possible, repeating the process at
intervals of a few days. I found this quite practicable, and
it was an easy matter to calculate the daily increase and
to tabulate the result.f I was particularly lucky in finding
a litter that could only have been born the same day, of
which fact I was satisfied from the size (head and body
42 mm.), from the state of the remnant of the umbilical
cord, and from the extreme redness of the skin. I
have examined embryos, which were upon the point of
birth, measuring 37 mm., and allowing for those found in

*"A Contribution to our knowledge of the '^loXe," Mem. and Pioc.
of the Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc, vol. 47, Nu. 4.
tTableA,p. 8.

6 Adams, Breeding Habits of the Common Mole.

the nest being some hours old we may estimate that the
young at birth measure 40 mm.

In the following summary I give the measurements
of the head and body only as being the most useful ; in
Table B will be found other particulars.

May 10.
I. Litter of 4. Hd. & By. 95
a- >, 3- >, 105

May II.

3. Litter of 4. Hd. & By. 62

4- » 4- » 91

5- -> 3- M 42

May 12.
6. Litter of 3. Hd. & By. 76
7- >, 3- >. So

8. „ 3- .. 47

.'J/ajK 77. J/ay 21.
Deserted.

2a. Hd. & By. 118 Deserted.

Deserted.

4a. Hd. & By. 114 4b. Hd. & By. 117

5a. „ 70 5b. „ 88

Deserted.

Deserted.

8a. Hd. & By. 71

Deserted.

I regret being unable to carry the table further than
the 22nd day, as I think that the young remain in the nest
till the end of the fourth week, having found them in the
nest on former occasions slightly more advanced than the
oldest tabulated on pages 8 and 9, having the fur rather
thicker and darker, and the eyes quite open. On May 24th
I found two litters of four each in the same stage of de-
velopment as the oldest mentioned in the tables, all eight
individuals measuring 117 to 118 mm. At this limit the
young all seem to stop for some weeks, for I have never
found longer ones in the nests, and I have found young
ones which had left the nest to measure little, if any, more.
One of these, which I found dead in the road on June 7th,
measured head and body 119, tail 30, hind foot \'j\ mm.,
and though practically of the same length as those found
in the nests, was more thick set, with the fur of the colour

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. H. 7

and length of that of an adult, and with a development
of serviceable teeth, evidently capable of living an in-
dependent life. Leaving the nest is doubtless a gradual
process, which, I think, takes place at the end of the fourth
week, and ends about the end of the fifth week. The
specimen in question was five weeks old.

Desertion or Removal. I have shown in the summary
on the preceding page that on revisiting certain nests I
found them empty and deserted, and I was puzzled as to
what had become of the young, of which there were no
traces. I think that if the mother had eaten them, as is
the case when the young of many animals are disturbed,
some traces would have been left, especially as in two
instances the young were more than half grown and nearly
fully furred. If the mothers had simply deserted them 1
think the young would have been found dead in the nests,
as I have found nests containing dead young ones, whose
mothers had, for some cause, failed to return. There
remains the possibility of their removal by the mother,
when she fourd that the nest had been disturbed, though a
diligent search on my part failed to reveal their retreats.
It is possible, however, that the mother had placed them
in one of the many neighbouring tunnels leading from the
nests.

Folklore. There is a legend current among the
country people of Surrey to the effect that the mole has
only one ear. An old mole-catcher, to whom I mentioned
the legend, said he had often heard the story, but he had
proved it wrong. He said it arose from the fact that
when a mole is killed by knocking it on the head only
one ear will bleed, but once a mole that he had so killed
bled from both ears, and so he proved the story wrong.

8 Adams, Breeding Habits of the Common Mole.

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Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. ( 1 909), No. %.
Table B.

Days.

Head
and

body.

Tail.

Hind

Feet.

Colour.

Fur.

Remarks.

I

2

42
47

8
9

5
5i

Very red
Red

Umbilical cord

recently severed
Cord still unhealed

3

4

5

62

10

s

Pink

6

7

(70

(71

12

'5

9)

9i

Pink

8

76

15

10

Pink

9

80

15

1 1

Slightly lead colour on
back

lO

II

(88

16

'7

,2)
'I)

Lead colour above ;
belly pink

' 2

95

16

14

Do. do.

13

14

'05

'7

(6

Lead colour all over

Just
visible

15

16

17
18

114

23

16

1 Covered all over with
\ velvety lead-coloured
( fur

Ears open

^9

20
21
22

117
118

25
27

17
1 61

(Fur nearly normal
\ black, not quite of
( normal length
Fur of normal length
and colour

Eyes beginning to
open ; spot of
matter over eye

Eyes nearly open ;
spots of mattei
over eyes

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV, {No. %).

Plate.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 3.

III. A Note on the Staminal Mechanism of Passiflora

Caertilea, L.

By T. G. B. Osborn, B.Sc,

Lecturer in Economic Botany, The Victoria University, Manchester.
Received and read November 2nd, igog.

The greenhouses at present occupied by the Depart-
ment of Economic Botany, in the Victoria University,
contain several Passion flower vines (^Passiflora caerulea,
var. Constance Elliott), so that I have been afforded an
excellent opportunity of observing the flowers at all
stages of their anthesis.

As my own observations do not agree in all respects
with those quoted by Knuth in " The Handbook of
Flower Pollination," it has seemed well to bring them
together in this note.

Three references to observations on Passiflora are
given by Knuth; Sprengel (1793), Herm. Miiller (1883),
and Warnstorf (1896).

According to Knuth the latter says : " When the bud
opens the anthers have already dehisced, and are directed
outwards, in a line with the thick stiff filaments. As the
flower fully expands each anther rotates through an angle
of 180° in the vertical plane of its filament, so as to bring
its pollen-covered lobes towards the interior of the flower.
There is next a second rotation of 90° into a horizontal
plane cutting the first at right angles, so that the anther
finally comes to be at right angles to the tip of its fila-
ment with the dehisced surface facing downwards."

December J th, igog.

2 OSBORN, Staminal Mechanism of Passiflora Caerulea.

It thus appears that there are two movements of the
anthers recognised, and that they occur in the order
given : —

(a) A radial one of the anther (and presumably its
filament, for reasons given below) through i8o°.

(/3) A second of the anther alone, on its filament, of
90°, bringing the anther into a tangential plane.

The flower opens as follows. First, the sepals — which
are white on their upper surface— expand, leaving the

Fig. I. Diagrammatic view of stamen erect before the
petals open. The stout filament is seen, and the short
narrow connective which is attached to the anther
between two projecting knobs of tissue, x 4.

still closed petals upright in the centre. If the petals be
cut open at this stage the stamens are seen to be erect
with their anthers introrse. Dehiscence of the anthers
occurs shortly before the petals expand. Examined at
this time the stamen presents the following features
{Fig. I.). The filament has not yet attained its full
development, and the cells at the distal end are in a state

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 3. 3

of growth. This end narrows bluntly to the connective,
which is about -5 mm. long. The connective joins the
anther at a point on the major axis but below the
middle, so that, in the bud, the greater part of the anther
is above the connective. Just above this junction and on
either side of it, a rounded knob projects from the back of
the anther. The cells of these knobs are circular in

Fig. II. Diagram to show position of the stamen shortly
after the opening of the petals. The filaments are no
longer upright, but make an angle with the axis of the
gynophore. The anther has become extrorse, and hangs
vertically with power to swing about its point of suspen-
sion from the filament. x 4.

section and thick walled, forming a mechanical tissue, the
function of which becomes apparent later.

The pressure of the petals on the anthers being
removed as the former expand, the latter are left in an
unstable condition and move outwards to hang perpendi-
cularly downwards, thus becoming extrorse. As far as I
understand his account, Warnstorf neglects this movement
altogether, or, otherwise, I do not understand his state-
ment that the anthers "are directed outwards (which I

4 OSBORN, Staniinal Mechanism of Passifiora Caerulea.

take to mean extrorse) in a line with the thick stiff
filaments," when the flower first opens. The filaments
have already begun to move outwards, forming an angle
of about 30° with the axis of the gynophore, having by
now completed their full growth. The end is blunt, and
there is a tendency for the tissue on each side of the con-
nective to expand, forming, as it were, two shoulders.
The tissue of these has, also, thick-walled rounded cells.
The anthers now hang in the position shown in Fig. II.,
the knobs on their backs impinging on the shoulders of
the filament. This state of equilibrium is unstable, there
being a tendency to swing laterally, the four projections
serving as bearings. In the great majority of cases this is

i^

Fig. III. Side view of anther showing the way in which
the knobs of tissue on its b:ick are clasped by the distal
end of the filament. The distance between the anther
and the filament is exaggerated to show the connective.
X4.

what happens, and the second movement described by
Warnstorf occurs, viz., the anthers come into a tangential
plane by moving through 90'' about the connective. In
this position the knobs interlock, as shown in Fig. III.,
the end of the filament curling laterally, and clasping the
projections on the anthers. A very elementary knowledge
of mechanics will show that the anther would not
remain in this position but for the formation of the joint
that directs it there. That this direction does actually
occur can easily be proved by twisting an anther back into
a line with the filament, when after a little while it will of
itself resume the crosswise position. The swing of the
anther may be in either direction, and is apparently

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 3- 5

determined by chance. It is rarely in the same direction
on each of the five stamens in the same flower. I have
also noticed that in some cases no such rotation occurs,
especially in dull or cold weather. On those days in
June and July upon which we had bright sunshine and a
temperature of about /S'^F. in the greenhouse, the move-
ments above described from the opening of the petals
took place in about a couple of hours, and during this time
the filaments continued to move in a radial plane, so as
to make an angle of 90^ with the gynophore.

There appears to be a fairly obvious reason for the
second movement of the anther. Pollen is transferred to
the head of the insect visitor as it moves from ray to ray
of the outer circlet of rays around the circular opening of
the nectar chamber. Since the anthers are in a tangential
position, it follows that the insect's head will come into
contact with some portion of an anther at every stage
throughout its progress. The function of the locking
mechanism is also apparent, for, otherwise, the push of
the insect's head would tend to replace the anther in the
radial plane, but by the system of knobs, this must be
prevented to a large extent, or, should it occur, the
stamen would automatically return to the tangential
position.

At the conclusion of the first stage of anthesis the
stamens rapidly fall, thus completing a movement of 180°
for the filament and anther together, and the styles move
downwards, so that the receptive stigmas can dust the
pollen from the heads of the insect visitors (Sprengel,
Miiller, and Knuth). It is this movement of the stamen
as a whole through 180'' in the vertical plane of its
filament, that I take to be the first of the two movements
described by Warnstorf. If he meant that movement by
which the anthers become extrorse, I am at a loss to

6 OSBORN, Staminal Mechanism of Passiflora Caerulea.

know what meaning to attach to the words " directed
outwards." Moreover, it is certainly this movement of
the stamen as a whole that brings the " pollen-covered
lobes of the anther towards the interior of the flower."
I am bound, however, to state that I have not had the
opportunity of reading Warnstorfs paper, and have been
obliged to interpret his meaning as well as I can from
the reference in Knuth.

After this second stage the flower closes, and Knuth
suggests the possibility of autogamy at this period, since
the stigmas and anthers may be brought into contact in
the closed flower. I am inclined to think that this must
be rare, having examined a considerable number of
closed flowers, I have found the styles between the ring
of outer rays and the petals, the stamens inside the
coronae, and no pollen on the stigmas.

Summary.

The staminal movements to which I wish to draw
attention and to place in the order of their sequence
are : —

a. A radial movement of the anthers on the filament
of 1 80°, which occurs as soon as the flower opens.

j3- A second movement of the anther through 90°
into a plane at right angles to the first, i.e., into
the tangential plane, in which position a special
mechanism is called into play to retain it there.

7. The radial movement in two stages of the stamen
as a whole, so as to bring it from an erect to a
drooping position ; the first stage of this move-
ment being, in part, concurrent with j3, and
coextensive with the first stas^e of anthesis.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. ( 1 909), No. 3. 7

LITERATURE CITED.

Knuth, p. : " Handbook of Flower Pollination," vol. 2, p. 453,
igo8.

MuLLER, Hermann: "The Fertilisation of Flowers," p. 267,
1883.

Sprengel, C. K. : " Das Endeckte Geheimnis der Natur im
Bau und in Befruchtung der Bluinen," 1793.

Warnstorf, C. : " Blutenbiologische Beobachtungen bei Neu-
Rippen im Jahre 1896." — Schr. naturwiss. Ver. Werni-
gerode, vol. 11, p. 3, 1896.

Maticliester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), ISio. 4

IV. A Preliminary Note on two New Genera of
Upper Liassic Plesiosaurs.

By D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc,

Late Beyer Fellow of the Victoria University of Manchester.
Received and read November 2nd, igog.

In 1876 J. F. Blake gave in Tate and Blake's
" Yorkshire Lias " a resume of our knowledge of the
reptilia of the Upper Lias known from Yorkshire. In it
he records two Crocodiles, eight Plesiosaurs, and three
Ichthyosaurs. No other Plesiosaurs have been described
since.

Seven of these species are founded on more or less
complete skeletons, two of which I have been unable to
find

The species are : — -
'^ Plesiosaurus" hovialospondylus, Owen.

Founded on a complete skeleton in the British
Museum, which, however, shows neither girdle. Also
represented by a skeleton in the York Museum, and two
in the Manchester Museum ; this species is described
below, and made the type of the new genus Microcleidus.

Plesiosaurus inacropterus, Seeley.

Type specimen, a skeleton in the Sedgwick Museum,
Cambridge. Zone of D. commune, Lofthouse.

This species requires re(iescription, but the specimen
gives no evidence of the structure of the girdles.

December 22nd, igog.

2 Watson, New Genera of Upper Liassic Plesiosaiirs.

Eretinosaurus dubius, Blake.

Founded on a complete skeleton which was in the
possession of Mr. Brown Marshall, of Whitby. This
specimen can no longer be found. Blake's description is
quite inadequate, but he suggests that the species is
identical with Seeley's P. viacropterus. The pectoral
girdle was well displayed from the ventral surface, and is
certainly of the Eretmosaurus type, if Blake's figure is at
all accurate.

" Plesiosaurus " Crauipto7ii, Carte and Baily.

Lyddeker regards this species as belonging to v.
Meyer's genus Thauviatosaurus, which was founded on
some imperfect teeth and vertebrae from the Lower
Oolites. I think it is probably safer to use Seeley's genus
Rhomaleosauriis for this species until more is known of
the type of Thaumatosaurus.

The type specimen is a very large skeleton in the
Dublin Museum. The description is inadequate, details
of the vertebrae being wanting. The girdles are almost
completely concealed, and the arrangement of the limbs
is not natural, as Lyddeker has already recognised.

■" Plesiosaurus " prophiquus, Blake.

Type skeleton in the Whitby Museum.

Lyddeker regards this species as a Thaumatosaurus
in his definition of that genus.

The vertebrae have not been described in detail, and
are much obscured by matrix.

The girdles are only represented by fragments which
are, I think, not in the positions in which they were found,
the left fore limb is artificially arranged and the sup-
posititious right humerus is the femur of another species.
The arrangement of the ribs is conventional. This species

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), /V(). 4 3

is very different from P. Cramptom, and I think cannot
be included in the same genus.

" Plesiosaunis " Zeilandi, Phillips.

Type skeleton in the York Museum.

This species is quite unknown, no figures of it having
ever been given ; as I have not yet examined it in detail,
I do not wish to criticise Lyddeker's attribution of it to
the genus Thaumatosmirus.

" Plesiosaurus " longirostris, Blake.

This species was described from a somewhat restored
skeleton in the possession of Mr. Brown Marshall, of
Whitby. I have not so far been successful in discovering
its present whereabouts.

Blake's description is very slight, but he suggests that
it is the same as Owen's P. coelospondyliis.

It is possible that this species may include a some-
what fragmentary skeleton in the Manchester Museum,
which is described below as the type of a new genus and
species Sthenarosaurus Dawkiiisi.

Plesiosaurus coelospondyhis, Owen.

This species founded on a series of cervical vertebrae
in the Whitby Museum, which can no longer be found,
must rank as undefined, as it is quite impossible to recog-
nise the type from Owen's description. Several other
species do actually occur in the Upper Lias of Whitby,
but are only represented by small sets of vertebrae some-
times associated with other bones. Such remains in the
Manchester and Whitby Museums indicate at least three
other very distinct species.

From the above account it will be seen that our
knowledge of the Upper Liassic Sauropterygia is really

4 Watson, New Genera of Upper Liassie Plesiosaurs.

very slight, and that this lack of knowledge does not
depend on lack of material.

I hope shortly to redescribe all the Whitby reptiles,
and the present paper is to be regarded in the light of a
preliminary description of two interesting genera.

The New Genus, Microdcidus.

This genus is founded for P. homalospondylus, Owen,
which is represented by three excellent specimens from
the D. commune zone of the Yorkshire coast, and by a
fourth not so complete, but entirely free from matrix,
from the bifrons zone of Wellingborough, Northampton-
shire. The available material is sufficient for a very
detailed account of the osteology of the species ; a
naturally arranged hind limb being the only part lacking.

This species has been described by Owen, whose
account of the vertebral column is sufficient to characterise
it.

The Manchester Museum specimen, L. 7077, which
was collected by W. H. Sutcliffe, E.sq., F.G.S., from Whitby,
and presented by him to the Museum, show^s 40 cervicals,
5 " pectorals," 17 dorsals, and 15 caudals, the tail not
being complete, as the Wellingborough specimen has 22
caudals, and that at York 26. The chief characters are : —

1. The elongation of the centra of the cervicals.

2. The narrowness of the cervicals across the zygapo-
physes, and the fore and aft direction of the latter.

3. The constricted centra of the dorsal region.

4. The great height of the neural spines of the dorsals.

5. The lowness of the centra of the three sacral verte-
brae and the great strength of their zygapophyses.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 4. 5

6. The fact that the caudals retain a long rib tightly
fused on down to the end of the tail, showing that there
can have only been a very small fin, if any.

I shall discuss some interesting mechanical considera-
tions presented by resemblances between the pectorals
and sacrals in a complete osteology of the species.

Pectoral Girdle.

The Manchester Museum specimen, L. 7077, has a
beautifully exposed pectoral girdle lacking only part of
the right scapula and clavicle. The general plan of the
girdle is that of the genus Cryptocleidus.

Coracoids. The coracoids are not completely exposed,
and the shape of the postero-lateral angles is not shown.

The two coracoids meet in a very long symphysis.
This is usually only about a centimetre deep, but between
the glenoid ends becomes very thick, probably at least
six centimetres. As the lower surface forms a uniform
curve, this implies a great depression of the visceral
surface of the coracoids behind the inter-glenoid bar.

The glenoid part of the coracoid is about six centi-
metres deep : the facet for the scapula is seven centimetres
long, that for the head of the humerus being only five
centimetres.

The position of the right coracoid with regard to the
undisturbed dorsal vertebrae shows that it cannot have
the postero-lateral corner extended into a process similar
to that of Cryptocleidus, the width of the lower end given
in the figure is, in fact, the maximum possible.

Scapula. The scapula is a triradiate bone, the
posterior ramus of which articulates with the coracoid
and forms part of the glenoid cavity. This ramus is
triangular in transverse section, the upper surface being
flat, and, where it joins the dorsal ramus, six centimetres

6 Watsc~)N, New Genera of Upper Liassic Plesiosaiirs .

across : it is here of nearly the same depth. The proximal
end presents two triangular facets, both at their maximum
six centimetres deep, the inner seven centimetres long for
attachment to the coracoid, the other, which forms part of
the glenoid cavity, only five centimetres. The dorsal
ramus is a plate of bone 85 cm. long, 55 cm. wide in
the middle, and having a maximum thickness of just
under 2 cm. It rises from the joined posterior and
anterior rami at their outer edge, and is directed dorsally,
backward and outward, with its greatest breadth parallel
to the axis of the animal.

The anterior ramus is confluent with the posterior and
dorsal rami ; it forms a broad plate of bone joining its
fellow of the opposite side in the middle line, and passing
backwards as a strong bar to meet the anterior projections
of the coracoids ; this bar, formed by the two coracoids
and scapulae, is of triangular section, the flat dorsal face
being five centimetres wide, and the depth of the bar
being some six centimetres. The anterior rami of the
scapulae, are not in the same plane as the corresponding
coracoids, but are raised anteriorly so as to make the
whole anterior part of the arch convex from front to
back when viewed from below. The anterior rami, of
course, meet at an angle so that the whole girdle is
concave from side to side.

The two pre-coracoidal foramina are 10 cm. long by
6 cm. wide, and the plate of the anterior ramus of the
scapula in front of them is at least 8 cm. from front to
back.

Clavicles. The left clavicle is completely preserved
with the exception of its anterior edge, which is slightly
injured.

It is a thin bone with sharp edges, very tightly fitted
on to the visceral surface of the anterior ramus of the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 4. 7

scapula. In form it is roughly triangular, meeting its
fellow of the opposite side in the middle line, and ex-
tending outward and backwards as a point towards the
dorsal ramus of the scapula.

Fig. I. Pectoral Girdle of Microcliidtis hoinalo-
spondylus, viewed from'the dorsal surface, x \.
The right scapula and clavicle are restored.
The broken lines in the coracoids and left
scapula indicate fractures, and shew the
amount of restoration. The posterior width
of the coracoids is a maximum. Vide Text.
Manchester Museum, L. 7077.

Its anterior end, as shown in Text-fig I., has a sharp
bend where it reaches and crosses the anterior border of
the scapula, beyond this point it is broken away but
probably formed a narrow border to the scapula when
viewed from below.

8 Watson, New Genera of Upper Liassic Plesiosaurs.

There is no trace whatever of an interclavicle.

This girdle at once shows that P. homalospondyliis is
not a Plesiosaurus but belongs to the " Elasmosauridae."
The scapula and clavicular arch strongly resemble those
of Cryptocleidus, they present, however, many differences
in detail.

Viewed as a whole, the pectoral girdle of Microcleidus
differs from that of Cryptocleidus and most other Sauro-
pterygia in its great relative narrowness, which is rendered
still more striking by the lack of any lateral processes at
the hinder ends of the coracoid.

The only Liassic genus yet described with an Elasmo-
saurian type of pectoral girdle is Eretmosanms, Seeley,
founded on Plesiosaurus rugosiis of the Lower Lias, and
also including E. dubius, Blake, of the Upper Lias. In
this genus the two pre-coracoidal foramina are very small,
and the clavicular arch is unknown. Microcleidus is quite
well distinguished from Eretvwsaurus by the characters
of the vertebral column, particularly by the elongated
cervicals and the very long neural spines of the dorsal
vertebrae.

Pelvic Girdle.

The material existing for the description of the pelvic
girdle of Microcleidus consists of the displaced and some-
what mutilated pubes and ischia of the Manchester
specimen, L. 7077, and the naturally associated and well-
exposed girdle which belongs to the skeleton in the York
Museum.

These two specimens present some marked differences
in the pelvis ; so far as I could examine the York
skeleton, which, however, is fastened to the wall at the
back of a glass case which cannot be opened, all the
characters of the axial skeleton and of the pro-podial

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 4. 9

bones appear to be identical with those of the Manchester
specimen.

I cannot believe that the two specimens belong to
different species, and am inclined to attribute their
differences to a difference in sex.

I propose to describe the girdle of the Manchester
specimen first, and should state that the restoration here
given was made before I had studied the York skeleton.

Fig. II. V€'iS\c Qiix^t o{ Microcleidus Jionialospondyhis ;
lacking ilia. Viewed from the dorsal aspect, x \. Dotted
lines shew the existing fragments of the pubes. L. ^o"]"].

Pubis. The pubis is a thin plate of bone whose edges
are not well preserved. It meets its fellow of the opposite
side in a long median symphysis. It is thickest at the
acetabular end, where at the maximum it reaches 5 cm.
This end presents the usual two facets, which, however,
are not very distinct, for articulation with the ischium and

lo Watson, New Genera of Upper Liassic Plesiosaurs.

the femur. The contour of the bone in the figure {Text-
fig. II.) is so arranged as to include the smallest possible
area ; the rough lines inside the bones show the shape of
the existing fragments.

Ischia. The ischia are of the usual hatchet-shape,
thick at the proximal end, and forming thin plates of
bone where they join each other in a long median
symphysis. The acetabular end is remarkable for its
swollen character, it is not well exposed, but in one case
the usual three facets for the pubis, acetabulum, and ilium
are quite distinct. The neck of the bone is very slender.
The head is set on obliquely, so as to suggest that the
posterior ends of the ischia slope somewhat downwards,
and are not in the same planes as the pubes.

The ischia and pubes do not meet in the middle line,,
so that there is only one obturator foramen.

Ilia. The ilia are not definitely recognisable ; the only
thing which might be one is a mutilated bone lying on
the visceral surface of the coracoids. It is more than
15 cm. long, the shaft being round and about three centi-
metres in diameter ; the lower end is more than 7 cm.
across. Two fragments of a right ilium belonging to the
Northamptonshire specimen in the Manchester Museum
seem to agree closely with this bone. The shaft is at its
narrowest 27 cm. in diameter, and is very nearly circular ;
the upper part of the bone is thin, and 7*5 cm. from back
to front, and its upper border is at an oblique angle to
the shaft of the bone. The lower end is expanded, and
presents the usual two facets for the ischium and aceta-
bulum.

This girdle reminds one strongly of the pectoral girdle
of the same specimen in its great relative narrowness.

It differs markedly from that of Cryptocleidus, more
resembling that of Murcenosaurus : I believe, however,.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. liv. ( 1 909), No. 4. 11

that there is no anterior lateral process of the pubis as
there is in the latter genus.

The pelvic girdles most similar to those of Micro-
cleidus are those oi Elasmosaiirus, as described by Cope in
E. platyiims, and by Williston in E. iscJiiadiaciis ; these
two, especially the latter, are very like my restoration,
although they are relatively wider.

Fi§. III. Pelvic girdle of Microcleidus homalospondylus , dorsal surface.
X about \. From a photograph of the York skeleton.

The pelvis of the York specimen is well exposed
from the visceral surface, and has all the bones with the
exception of one ilium, naturally articulated. Its arrange-
ment and the outlines of the various bones will be
understood from the figure (7V,r/-_/?^. III.), which is founded
on a photograph.

12 Watson, New Genera of Upper Liassic Plesiosaurs.

There are many points of resemblance between the
two girdles, but the York specimen differs from L. 7077
in the following ways : —

1st. It is relatively much broader.

2nd. The ischia are much shorter.

3rd. There are two obturatores foramina separated
by a median union of the pubis and ischia. This
character may only depend on age.

One character strongly brought out by the York
skeleton is that there is an angle of nearly 30° between
the pubis and ischium of the same side ; this bend, the
occurrence of which was a matter of inference in the case
of the Manchester specimen, is to be seen at York.

The new genus Microcleidus may be defined as
follows : — Sauropterygia with a very long neck and small
sku.l' Cervical vertebrae elongated and narrow across
the zygapophyses, which have a fore and aft direction.
Dorsal vertebrae with constricted centra, transverse pro-
cesses wholely supported by the arch, and very high
neural spines.

Column composed of 40 cervicals, 5+17 pectorals
and dorsals, 3 sacrals and 20-|-caudals. (These numbers
are probably liable to individual variation.)

Cervical ribs double-headed and long, with a small
anterior projection.

Pectoral girdle with reduced clavicular arch not con-
taining an interclavicle. Scapulae meeting each other and
the coracoids in the middle line. Postero-lateral angles of
the coracoids not produced. Pelvic girdle with long pubic
and ischiac symphyses and the ilia articulating only with
the ischia.

Pro-podial bones only articulating with two bones
distally. Radius and ulna long when compared with
their condition in later species.

Ma?ichester Memoirs, Vol. liv. {igog), No. 4. 13

Type species " Plesiosauriis " homalospoudyhis, Owen.
Zone of D. commune, Whitby, and H. bifrons, Welling-
borough.

Characters those of the genus, of which it is the only
known species.

A set of six or seven cervical vertebrae of this type in
the Jermyn Street Museum is said to have been obtained
from the Lower Lias of Gloucestershire.

The New Genus and Species, Sthenarosaurns
Dawkinsi.

The material on which this species is founded is in
the Manchester Museum. It was collected by W. H.
Sutcliffe, Esq., from the D. commune zone of the Upper
Lias of Saltwick, some 10 feet above, and lOO yards away
from, the specimen of Microcleidus described above.

The skeleton is scattered, although the girdles are
still nearly naturally arranged ; the bones present are 18
cervical vertebrae, 1 1 dorsal vertebrae, 4 caudal vertebrae,
complete pectoral and pelvic girdles, 2 humeri and 2
femora, both tibiae and fibulae and many tarsals and ribs.

The cervicals vary much in size, the smallest has a
centrum measuring 3'5 cm. in height, 3'5 in length, and
4"5 in width ; the corresponding dimensions of the largest
are 6 cm., 6 cm., and 7'5 cm. ; it is thus nearly twice the
size of the smallest.

The vertebrae preserve a very uniform character
throughout the neck. The anterior end of the centrum is
rather deeply cupped, the posterior end, although not
nearly flat, being much less so. The ends of the centra
are somewhat heart-shaped. Viewed from below the
centrum shows a very marked haemal ridge, on each side
of which is a deep depression in which and close to the
median line lie the usual two foramina for nerves and

14 Watson, New Genera of Upper Lias sic Plesiosaurs,

blood vessels. There are two very distinct facets for the
rib, these lie about halfway up the side of the centrum.

The arch is fused on to the centrum, but its line of
junction remains perfectly distinct. The arch is high and
very robust, the width across its narrowest point between
the prae- and post-zygapophyses being only slightly less
than the width of the centrum. The neural canal is
nearly circular in section ; it is, however, slightly broader
than it is high.

The prae- and post-zygapophyses are connected
together to form a platform from which the short and
comparatively feeble neural spine rises. The posterior
edge of the neural spine is above the corresponding end
of the same centrum, and its anterior end comes about
half way to the front of the centrum. The prae-zygapo-
physes are short, projecting little, if at all, in front of
the centrum ; the post-zygapophyses project strongly
backwards, and have a large articular facet. These
facets are so directed that a horizontal line drawn on
one is parallel to the long axis of the animal ; they
are inclined to one another at an angle of 105*^ in
one of the posterior cervicals. Between each pair of
zygapophyses in the middle line is a pit lying above the
neural canal, and presumably lodging the attachment of
an intervertebral ligament.

The most marked difference between the anterior and
posterior vertebra^ apart from size, is that in the smaller
specimens there is a very marked ridge running from the
prse-zygapophysis to the posterior point of junction of
the arch and centrum. This ridge becomes almost obso-
lete in the posterior cervicals.

Dorsal vertebrcB. The two well-preserved dorsals
which are free from matrix belong to the anterior part of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. ( 1 909), No. 4. 1 5

the back, and probably dififer in some respects from the
typical dorsals.

One of the most conspicuous characters of these
vertebrae is that the centra are very short, in one case
only 5 cm., where the breadth across the anterior face is
9 cm., and the height 7'5 cm.

The most striking character of the more anterior of
these two is that the neural spine leans so much back that
its summit is over the posterior surface of the centrum of
the succeeding vertebra. The spine is thick and narrows
at the top, where, however, it is much swollen laterally
its posterior surface has a deep groove for ligaments.

There is still a trace of the table joining the zygapo-
physes, but this is now contracted just before the
post-zygapophysis. The prae-zygapophyses are low and
amazingly solid ; they do not project before the centra.
The post-zygapophyses project entirely behind the centra :
they are very slim and deeply cupped.

The facet for the rib is single, placed high up and
largely carried by the arch ; below it is a pit, excavated
in the centrum, which is a centimetre wide and rather more
deep. There is no marked haemal ridge. The ends of the
centrum are nearly flat.

The caudals are only noticeable for a pit below the
facet for the rib, which is not fused on to the centrum.

The cervical ribs are very distinctly double-headed,
and show only faint traces of the characteristic hatchet-
shape ; they are long, slender, triangular bars.

The dorsal ribs are single-headed and slender, as are
also some abdominal ribs.

Pectoral Girdle.

The pectoral girdle is well preserved, although the
scapulae are slightly separated from the coracoids and the
clavicular arch lies below one of the coracoids. (See
Text-fig. III.).

1 6 Watson, New Genera of Upper Liassic Plesiosau

rs.

. , Manchester Metnoirs, Vol. liv. ( 1 909), IVo. 4. 17

Coracoids. The coracoids are short and very thick.
They are united in a long, median symphysis, which
forms a marked ridge when the girdle is viewed as a
whole. This symphysis is at least 6 cm. deep between
the glenoid cavities. The posterior portion of the cora-
coid is small, but the bone is never much less than 2 cm.
thick. The glenoid part of the coracoid is very thick,
and presents the usual two facets, one 6 cm. long facing
the scapula, and the other 1 1 cm. long forming part of the
glenoid cavity.

Fig, V. Right Scapula of Sfhejtarosauriis Dawkinsi, type
specimen, x \. Viewed horizontally from within. This view
shews the downward projection of the anterior ramus and
the dorsal ramus.

Scapula. The scapula is a trihedral bar with one of
the faces directed ventrally ; the dorsal ridge is produced
into the dorsal ramus, which is directed dorsally and to
the back.

The ventral surface is very strongly curved, so that in
side view the anterior ends of the scapulas project down-
wards below the level of the coracoids.

1 8 Watson, New Genera of Upper Liassic Piesiosaurs.

The posterior ramus is broad, lo. cm. across at its
widest, and nearly 7 cm. thick ; in section it is triangular,
the broadest face being directed downwards, the other
two faces are of nearly equal size, the outer being some-
what smaller than the other. The outer border of the
bone is a marked ridge, owing to the concavity of the
corresponding face.

The anterior ramus is a direct continuation of the
posterior one ; it also is of triangular section, but here the
ventral face is the smallest. The outer of the other faces
is nearly flat, whilst the inner is scooped out into a
roughened elliptical cup for reception of the clavicle. The
greatest height of the bar is over 6 cm., and its breadth
about 5 cm.

From the dorsal ridge of the anterior and posterior
branches rises the dorsal ramus ; this is some 10 centi-
metres long, 6 wide, and 2 thick ; it is of oval section, and
is directed upwards and backwards, its length making an
angle of about 60° with the under surface of the posterior
ramus. Its breadth faces laterally.

Clavicular Arch. The clavicular arch is seen from
below, and part of its right side is missing ; there is,
however, evidence for everything shown in the restoration,
including the width.

The whole forms a large arc of a circle, probably
nearly a semi-circle, when complete.

The interclavicle is a T-shaped bone, of which nearly
the whole stalk is bordered by the clavicles. Its anterior
border has a broad but shallow notch, and its posterior
border forms a rounded tag.

The clavicle is suturally united to the external edge
of the interclavicle. Its general form will be seen from
the figure, but the most interesting character is a dorsally-
directed portion which fits into the depressed area on the

Manchestgr Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No, 4. 19

•n 'V

1)

<u

»M

0

C

1)

4)

1)

Pi

4J

u

^

bD

X

c

ti

V

*J

«T3

^_;J tn Q^

S5

S Si

•Si 3

^

20 Watson, Nezv Genera of Upper Liassic Plesiosaurs.

inner side of the scapula. This tag is more than a centi-
metre thick ; of the thickness of the rest of the bone
nothing can be said.

Pelvis.

With the exception of the ih'a the pelvis is naturally-
articulated ; it is exposed from the ventral surface.

It is remarkably broad and sturdy.

Pubis. The pubis is a squarish plate of bone whose
thickness cannot generally be determined ; it meets its
fellow of the opposite side in a long symphysis. In the
region between the acetabula the symphysial face must
be very deep ; for there is in this region a pronounced
ridge across the bone.

The anterior edge is thin and shows a small notch,
of a type which is quite common in the Sauropterygia
and is apparently associated with some attachment of the
plastron.

The exterior border of the bone is not well shown but
cannot differ more than a {&\n centimetres from that given
in the figure {Text-fig. VI.). The acetabular face is large,
some lo cm. long and 5 cm. wide, the face opposed to
the ischium is however very small, being less than 5 cm.
long. The posterior border presents the usual concavity
to the obturator foramen, and at the median end is in
contact with the ischium.

Ischium. The ischium is of the usual hatchet-shape.
The head is obliquely set on so that the posterior end of
the bone must have pointed down during the life of the
animal. It has the usual three facets, that for the ilium
being somewhat obscurely marked off from the acetabular
face.

The blade of the bone is thin and there is no long
median symphysis in the middle line. Although the

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 4 21

animal was apparently quite adult at death the ischia are
noticeably short.

Ih'a. Both ilia are preserved although no longer
attached to the ischia.

The ilium, although really quite large, appears small
and weak when compared with the other bones of the
pelvis.

The acetabular end is of nearly circular transverse
section, it bears two faces, the larger for the acetabulum
and the other for the ischium.

This end passes imperceptibly into the blade of the
bone, which is flattened, some 10 or 12 cm. across at the
top and at the maximum 2 cm. thick. The lower edge
is straight, and formed by a sharp ridge, the upper is
smooth and strongly concave. The crest is flat and
pitted for a cartilaginous extension. The inner face of
the bone is flat or almost concave ; the outer side is
convex.

In the diagram the ilia are represented as much fore-
shortened and are accidentally reversed.

Discussion of the Determinatioji of the Specimen.

Only two Upper Liassic species have been described
to which the specimen I have just discussed could belong;
these are P. longirostris and P. coelospondylns.

There are no materials extant for determining what
Owen meant by the latter species, which must be
dropped.

The only parts of P. longirostris which can be com-
pared with my specimen are : the cervical vertebrse, the
length of the dorsal centra, and the relative and actual
sizes of the pro-podials.

Blake's description suggests that in P. longirostris the
cervicals are of similar size throughout the neck.

22 Watson, New Genera of Upper Liassic Plesiosaurs.

Blake gives a figure of a vertebra which, if really a
cervical, differs greatly from those of my animal ; it does,
however, present some slight resemblance to the more
anterior of the dorsals of the Manchester specimen. His
description states that the neural spines of the cervical
vertebrae lean back, so that their tips lie above the pos-
terior surface of the succeeding vertebrae, and thus agrees
with his figure.

Blake states that in P. lotigirostris, 25 dorsal centra
fill a length of 80 in., giving at least 3 in. for the length of
an average dorsal centrum. None of my dorsals, which
represent all parts of the back, approach this length.

In actual size and in relative length the pro-podials of
our specimen agree fairly closely with those of P, longi-
rostris, but the humerus has the anterior edge convex,
and not concave, as in the latter species. It is thus
impossible to refer our specimen to any known species.
It appears to be allied to the Longirostrate group of
Plesiosaurs, typically represented by P, rostratus, and also
including, y?^(? Lyddeker, P. longirost7'is.

The vertebral column shows many points of resem-
blance to that of P. rostratus^ the cervical centra being
very similar, although relatively somewhat longer. They
also resemble those of " Thaumatosaurus" carinatus^ of the
Kimmeridge clay.

The pro-podials are also very similar to those of
P. rostratus.

Of the girdles of P. rostratus nothing is really known.
If Lyddeker is right in referring R. 1315 of the British
Museum to an allied species, it differed considerably
from ours in the pectoral arch. The clavicular arch of
our specimen presents many resemblances to that of
" Thaumatosaurus " arcuatus, although it differs in having
the posterior border convex instead of concave.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iw. (1909), No. 4. 23

Our type also resembles in its pectoral girdle
P. Conybeari, as restored by Sollas.

The scapula of our specimen is, however, quite unique
in its fore and aft direction and its downwards slope in
front.

The characters of the vertebral column separate our
type from Plesiosaurns as typified by P. dolichodeirus
and from the reptiles placed in Thaumatosaurus by
Lyddeker.

There is no resemblance to any genus with the
Elasmosaurian type of pectoral girdle.

There is, in fact, no described genus which will hold
the species. I therefore propose to call it Sthenarosaurus
Dawkinsi from (jOevafjoc (strong) and Prof Wm. Boyd
Dawkins.

Sthenarosaurus may be defined as follows : —

Plesiosaurs with the neck tapering from back to front.
Cervical vertebrae with concave anterior face to the centra,
prae- and post-zygapophyses united, forming a table from
which the neural spine rises abruptly in the anterior, and
more gradually in the posterior cervicals ; anterior neural
spines weak and placed far back.

" Pectorals " with short stout neural spines leaning
far back.

Cervical ribs double-headed.

Pectoral girdle with short coracoids, strong scapulae
very widely separated anteriorally and pointing down-
wards. Clavicular arch robust containing an interclavicle,
with a wide anterior notch and a small posterior tag.

Pelvic girdle with large square pubes and short
ischia meeting medially so as to leave two obturatores
foramina.

Type species Sthenarosanms Daivkinsi, no v. sp.
Zone of D. Commune,
Saltwick near Whitby,

Manchester Museum L. 8023.

24 Watson, Neiv Genera of Upper Liassic Plesiosaurs.

Note added Dec. yth, 1909.

Dames in 1895 described an excellent skeleton of a
Plesiosaur from the Upper Lias of Germany. This species
Plesiosaurus Guilelnii Imperatoris^ he refers to Lyddeker's typical
group of the genus Plesiosaurus, i.e., to Plesiosaurus sensu strictu.

From his description and figures I much doubt the propriety
of this reference ; the animal presents many striking resemblances
to Microcleiilus ; although it certainly cannot be included in that
genus.

The resemblances are as follows : —

1. The head of P. Gidlelmi Imperatoris is small, and,
although damaged, appears to closely resemble that of Micro-
cleidus.

2. Both species have long necks. Microdeidus having 40
cervicals, the other species 35.

3. The shape of the posterior cervicals shewn in Dames'
small but very clear figure is very similar to that of similiarly
situated bones in the British genus.

4. The very high neural spines of the dorsal vertebrae of
P. Guilelmi Imperatoris are unparalleled in Plesiosauriis
sensu strictu, and are only to be matched in Microdeidus.

This character is, however, less pronounced in the German
species, in which, however, the neural spines of the posterior
cervicals are relatively longer than in Microdeidus.

5. The constricted dorsal centra are also similar in the two
species. The two types, however, differ in the following
characters : —

The cervical centra of the P. Guileifni Imperatoris are
shorter than those of Microdeidus. It is, however, noticeable
that the anterior cervicals of the latter genus are not much
elongated, the 6th or 7th being the first in which this character
becomes conspicuous. In the pectoral girdle of Dames'
specimen the scapulae do not meet in the middle line, and there
is a " furculum." Of this furculum only the right half is pre-
served, it shews no trace of an interclavicle, and Dames suggests
that the latter bone may have been connected by loose suture.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 4. 25

The shape of the clavicle reminds one of Microckidus,
particularly in the way in which the lateral angle fits into the
anterior ramus of ihe scapula. So far as I know, in all
Plesiosaurs except such Elasmosaurids as Microcleidus and
Cryptocleidus., the whole clavicular arch is fused into one solid
bone, and Dames' suggestion of an open suture in the clavicular
arch of P. Guiklmi Imperatoris confirms me in the idea
that it is on the way to become an Elasmosaurid, or more
probably has separated from a stock some members of which
will become Elasmosaurians.

The pubis of Dames' species is similar to that of the York
skeleton of Microcleidus homalospondylus.

A specimen in the Manchester Museum which shews
cervical, dorsal, sacral and caudal vertebrae, a pubis, femur,
and some other bones of the hind leg, resembles P.
Guiklmi Iviperatoris, in having somewhat shorter cervicals than
Microcleidus hofiialospofidylus, and in their having rather longer
spines. I have regarded this specimen as representing an un-
described species of Microcleidus, but it is possibly identical with
the German species.

This latter species appears to me to have some genetic con-
nection with Alicrocleidiis ; it is probably a conservative branch
from the Microcleidus stock which separated off after the high
dorsal neural spines had been acquired, but before the elongated
cervicals and Elasmosaurid arch were developed.

I do not think that it ought to be included in Plesiosaurus
S.S., for it is undoubtedly very different from such species as P.
dolichodeirus and P. Haivkinsi.

It cannot be included in Microcleidus, because that genus is
intended to include Plesiosaurs in this line of descent which are
sufficiently advanced to have the scapulae meeting in the middle
line. It therefore should have a new genus founded for it. I
refrain from suggesting a name until I have seen the specimen.

The set of caudal vertebrae figured in the same paper as P.
suevicus, resemble fairly closely the anterior caudals of J/.
homalospondylus . Many plesiosaur caudals are much alike, but

26 Watson, Netv Genera of Upper Lmssic Plesiosaurs.

it is probable that P. sueviais is a member of the group which
includes Microcleidiis and P. Gutlelmi Imperatoris.

The vertebrae figured by Dames as the type of P. bavaricus,
appear to me to be not definitely referable to the same species.

Fig. 1 is very like a cervical of my Sthe?iarosatirus Daickinsi,
but I do not believe that an isolated centrum of this type is really
identifiable ; there is, moreover, no indication in Dames' figure
of the ridge, connecting the anterior zygapophysis with the
posterior edge of the arch, which, in a cervical of Sthenarosaurus
of the same size, is quite conspicuous.

The smaller and more perfect cervical represented in Fig. 2,
differs from the original of Fig. i, in that the ridge along the
haemal surface does not widen out posteriorly into a fiat surface,

The arch represented in Fig. 2 differs from that of a similar
sized cervical of Sthenarosaurus, in having a larger neural spine,
much shorter posterior zygapophyses, and' in having the
zygapophysial table contracted before the postzygapophyses.

These vertebrae, however, appear to belong to the group of
Plesiosaurs, which includes Sthenarosaurus.

28 Watson, New Genera of Upper Lias sic Plesiosaurs.

PLATE.

A late cervical vertebra of Sthenarosanrus Datvkinst.
Founded on one almost perfect specimen, but some details
slightly restored by comparison with neighbouring vertebrae.

1. Left lateral aspect.

2. Anterior aspect.

3. Posterior „

4. Superior „

5. Inferior „

All \ natural size.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV. {No. 4). Plate.

Fig. I.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3-

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5-

Manchester Meuioirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. %.

V. The Action of the a Rays on Glass.

By Professor E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S.

Received and read November joth, rgog.

It has been shown by Joly that the pleochroic halos
observed in mica are to be ascribed to the action on the
mica of the a rays emitted by small inclusions of radio-
active material. The radius of the halo (about '04 mm.)
indicates that the effect is due in large part to the rays
from radium. I have recently reproduced the conditions
under which such halos would be formed by enclosing a
large quantity of radium emanation in a fine capillary
tube of soda glass. After the emanation had decayed,
the inner wall of the capillary was seen under the micro-
scope to be surrounded by an area of distinct colouration
extending about 04 millimetre from the walls. The
outer boundary of the coloured region was sharply
defined, and the depth of the colouration was equivalent
to the maximum distance of the most penetrating a par-
ticle from the active matter. This result strongly
confirms the correctness of the explanation of halos
given by Joly.

December 24th, igog.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1909), No. 6-

VI. " Production of Helium by Radium ,"
By Professor E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S.,

AND

Dr. B. B. BoLTWOOD.

Received and read November jolh, igog.

Since the demonstration by Ramsay and Soddy of
the production of heh'um by radium, it has been of great
importance to determine accurately the amount of hehum
produced by a known quantit}' of radium. It has been
shown by Rutherford, Geiger, and Royds that the
o particle emitted by radium and its products is an atom
of helium. In addition Rutherford and Geiger have
calculated by counting the a particles and determining
their charge that one gram of radium in equilibrium
should produce 158 cubic mms. of helium per year. The
first systematic measurements of the production of helium
by radium were made last year by Sir James Dewar.*
His experiments indicate that radium in equilibrium pro-
duces helium at a constant rate equivalent to 135 cubic
mms. per gram per year — a result in fair agreement with
the calculated quantity.

Another determination has recently been made by
the writers using a barium-radium salt containing about
2(X) milligrams of radium, loaned by the Vienna
Academy of Sciences. The salt, chemically treated
to remove polonium and radium D, was placed in
a platinum capsule which was in turn sealed in an
exhausted tube of hard glass. At the end of 83 days, the

♦ Pioc. Koy. Sor., A. 8 1, 280 (iqo8).
December 24/h, igog.

2 Rutherford, Production of Helium by Radium.

gases were completely removed by heating and exposed
to charcoal cooled in liquid air. The unabsorbed gases
were pumped out and repeatedly exposed to fresh cooled
charcoal. The residual gas consisting of essentially pure
helium was found to have a volume corresponding to the
production of helium at the rate of 163 cubic mms. per
gram of radium per year.

With the experience gained in these preliminary
experiments, it is hoped ultimately to determine the
value of this constant with considerable precision.

Other experiments which have been made to test
whether helium is produced by polonium have shown
conclusively that such is the case.

Manchester Meinoiis, Vol. liv. ( 1 9 1 o), No. y.

VII. The Development of the Atomic Theory : (i)
Berthollet's Doctrine of Variable Proportions.

By Andrew Norman Meldrum, D.Sc

{Carnegie Research Fcllozv).

( Communicated by Professor H. B. Z)ixoti, Jlf.A., P.J^.S.)

Received a)id read November ■^oth, igog.

Two of the burning questions in science, between the
years 1800 and 1810, were the theory of "mixed gases,"
and the fixed or the variable composition of chemical
substances. On each of these questions Claude Louis
Berthollet and John Dalton were leaders of thought on
opposite sides, and in each case Dalton's ideas were
ultimately triumphant. Yet his rights in these directions
have never received full attention, the subjects having
been treated in an inadequate manner by the historians
of science. The present paper shows in outline how the
doctrine of constant proportions developed.

The doctrine that chemical compounds have a con-
stant composition is not a discovery made in the XVIIIth
century by a certain man. Lavoisier, Wenzel, and
Richter were outstanding workers on the subject, and
other workers in the same field, and to much the same
general effect, were Cavendish, Bergman, Klaproth, Vau-
quelin, and Kirwan. Many more might be named, for
practically all chemists towards the end of the century
seem to have judged the doctrine to be a satisfactory
account of the facts of chemistry.

But no doctrine can be regarded as established, or
even as rightly understood, until it has been called in
question and successfully defended. The challenge puts
the defenders on their mettle and compels them to con-

Febrnary ist, igio.

2 Mkldrum, Devclopvicut of the Atomic TJicory.

sider, perhaps to realise for the first time, precise!}- what
their position is. Such was the case of the doctrine of
constant proportion. It seems to have arisen natnrall)'
and been taken for granted, assumed as a matter of
course, rather than considered and carefully defined.
Suddenly, about the beginning of the XlXth century, it
was called in question by Iierthollet.

Primarily his teaching was concerned with the pro-
blems of chemical affinity. He had ample leisure to
meditate on the subject during his stay in Egypt, where
he had gone as an honoured member of the famous
Napoleonic expedition. The first fruits of that leisure
appeared in papers, read in Cairo before the shortlived
Institute of Egypt in June of the year 1799, in which he
propounded the valuable and original ideas of " mass-
action " and chemical equilibrium. Berthollet was thus
the founder of cJicuiical statics. Resuming the subject on
his return to France, he developed his ideas into a system
of chemistry, which is explained in various Memoirs' and
above all in his " Essai de Statique Chimique," (2 vols.,
1803).

His teaching aroused interest everywhere, witness the
appearance of English and German translations of his
works, and the extent to which his ideas permeated the
scientific dissertations'" and books of the period. His
main contention that chemical change was very largely a
matter of two factors, affinity and mass-action, could
hardly be denied. The tables of affinity which in the
course of the XVHIth century had become more and

^ " Recherches sur les lois de I'Afiinite," MJni. de P Insliljit, vol. 3,
pp. I, 207, 228, 1801 ; vol. 7, 229, 1S06.

'^ Memoirs, in which Proust, Thenard, Gay-Lussac, Avogadro, Berzelius,
and Dalton take BerthoUet's ideas into consideration will be cited as occasion
requires. A supplementary list of memoirs not specially referred to in this
paper, will be found in an appendix.

Manchester Meuioirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 7. 3

more elaborate, were now seen to be obsolete, for they
had been drawn up in ignorance of the effects of mass-
action. Torbern Bergman, in particular, had prepared
mere numerous and more elaborate tables than any that
had previously appeared, and had also endeavoured to
extend the theory of affinity to the reactions of acids,
bases, and salts. Berthollet showed that affinity had
nothing to do with these reactions, which are governed
by mechanical considerations, such as the insolubility
and volatility of a substance. Von Meyer, in his "History
of Chemistry," advances the opinion that Berthollet's
teaching was neglected. " His principles were held to be

totally erroneous It was thus that Bergman's

doctrine, although based upon wrong assumptions, and
therefore leading its author to false conclusions, kept for
so long a time the upper hand." ^ Ladenburg is much
nearer the mark when he remarks that " tables of affinity
disappear soon after the appearance of Berthollet's
' Statique Chimique.'"^ The truth is that Berthollet's
ideas supplanted Bergman's with an ease almost un-
paralleled in the history of science. Karsten remarked
in 1803 that not a trace was to be found of our previous
ideas on affinity,' and as early as 1801, Fischer, who
translated Berthollet's "Recherches" into German, declared
that the new view of chemical phenomena was so con-
vincing that it was impossible to uphold the old theory.''
^ " Hist, of Chem.," Eng. trans., p. 551, 1906.

* " Hist, of Chem.," Eng. trans., p. 41, 1900.

* Allg.J. Cheiii., (Scherer), vol. 10, p. 137.

" Allg.J. Chem., (Scherer), vol. 7. pp- 507, 517. It is difficult here
to avoid overstating the truth, one way or the other. Of course the dis-
appearance of tables of affinity from the text-books of chemistry, in conse-
quence of Berthollefs teaching, was not absolute. Objections to his teaching
were urged by Pfaff ia 18 1 1 (see Appendi,\) and by Davy, " Elements of
Chemical Philosophy," pp. II7— 124, 1812 (see also Henry, "Elements of
Experimental Chemistry," vol. I, pp. 66 — 67, 1829). Nevertheless, Ber-
thollet's doctrine of chemical affinity, in its main features, was never seriously
challenged.

4 Meia^KUM, Deve/opineiif of the Atomic T/ieojy. *

The time was ripe for a new theory of affinity. That
is the explanation of how Berthollet's ideas were taken
up so eagerly as was the case. Chemical reactions had
been studied in the light of the old theory so thoroughly
that numerous anomalies had been discovered, which
only the new theory could explain. Even the effect of
mass in chemical change had been noted by Bergman.
In his "Dissertation on Elective Attractions " (§ lo, 1785)
he discusses the reaction, Ad-\-c-—Ac-{-d, where Ac is
precipitated. " It now remains to be examined, whether
the whole of d can be dislodged b}' a sufficient quantity
of r from its former union. It should be carefully noted
in general, that there is occasion for twice, thrice, nay
sometimes six times the quantity of the decomponent c,
than is necessary for saturating A when uncombined."
Bergman noted the effect, but could not explain the
principle, of mass-action. That principle, leading straight
as it does to the doctrine of chemical equilibrium, was
quite foreign to the theory of chemical affinity to which
he always adhered.

It seemed to be a necessary consequence of Berthollet's
principles that chemical combination takes place in in-
definite proportion. He had obliterated the distinction
between chemical and physical forces, and regarded solu-
tion as produced by affinity between solvent and solute.
Hence solutions were compounds.' In the ne.xt place,
indefinite proportion seemed to be an obvious corollary of
his "mass-action" theorem. In any chemical system the
state of equilibrium depends on the quantity present of
each of the re-agents involved. Hence the larger the
amount of a given constituent that might be present, so
much the more of this should enter into the composition

" " Essai de Slatique chimique," §§ 36, 39.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 7. 5

of the product. So he reasoned. For instance, if hydro-
chloric acid is added to a sokition of copper sulphate in
water, the copper is divided between the two acids. It
was natural to think that all the hydrochloric acid was
combined with its share of the copper, and all the sul-
phuric acid with its share.-

Berthollet's attitude is easily misunderstood. He did
not so much contradict as transcend the XVIIIth century
view. He did not assert that cases of constant composi-
tion were non-existent. He admitted, for instance, those
of water and ammonia and the oxides of mercury, and
was inclined to think that gases combine in constant pro-
portion.^ But he thought these instances arose from
exceptional circumstances, which he was perfectly pre-
pared to discuss. His standpoint was that constant com-
position was the exception, and variable composition the
rule.^"

On this matter his great opponent was Joseph Louis
Proust. The battle waged chiefly round the oxides of
the metals. In the case of a metal which forms more
than one oxide, Berthollet held that the oxide at
minimum can gradually increase its oxygen without
sudden change, till the oxide at maximum is reached.
Proust, on his part, while not denying that a metal
might yield more than two oxides, directed all his
efforts to the study of the two extreme oxides," and
showed that material of intermediate composition usually
consisted of a mere mixture of these two,'" and

■* Op. cit., §52. But the instance given above is not Berthollet's.

" Op. cit., §§ 206, 207.
^" [our. de Phys., vol. 6o, p. ,^47, 1S05.
■■ ' Op. cit., vol 63, pp. 438 — 440, 1S06.
'- Op. cit., vol. 55, p. 331, 1802.

6 Meldrum, Dcvelopincut of the Atomic Theory.

he maintained his point with great conviction and
persistence.''

The historians of chemistry have not been well inspired
in their estimates of the meaning and the result of this
controversy." They convey the impression that Berthollet
was a person who had " preposterous notions " about the
chemical composition of substances and was "deservedly
annihilated " ''' by Proust. Ladenburg''' says the controversy
was settled by the year 1809, Kopp'" and Clarke'" in 1808,

"^^ Proust's principal memoirs on tlie subject are :

(1) Recherclies sur le cuivre. Ann. dc C/iini., vol. 32, pp.

26-54, 1799.

(2) Sur quelques sulfures metalli<iues. /onr. dc Phrs. ,\o\. 53,

pp. 89—97, 1801.
{3) Memoir pour servir a Thistoire de rantimoine. Op. cit.,
vol. 55, pp. 325—344, 1802.

(4) Sur les sulfures metallif|ues. Op. ciL, vol. 59, pp. 260 — 265,

1S04.

(5) Sur les sulfures alcalins. C/. r//., vol. 59, pp. 265 — 273, 1S04.

(6) Sur les oxidations melalliques. Op. cil., vol. 59, pp. 321 —

343. 1804.

(7) Sur les muriates de cuivre verd et blanc. Op. ci!., vol.59,

PP- 350—354, 1804.
(S) Fails pour I'histoire du cobalt. Op. ciL, vul. 63, pp. 421 —
442, 1806.
In all probaljility Berthollet's ideas on afiinity and chemical composition
were first made known through his lectures at the Ecole Norniale and the
Ecoh Polytcchnique. In 1799, before the " Recherches sur les lois de
I'affinite '" had appeare I, Thenard published a paper in support of Berthollet,
and Proust- one against him. For Berthollet in rejily to Proust, see the
"Recherches"' and the " Statique Chimique,"' and also "Observations
relatives a differens memoires de VxowsX,'^ Jour, de Pliys., vol. 60, pp. 284 —
290, 347—351. 1805 ; vol. 61, pp. 352—362, 1805.

'^ I'^rom these strictures I must except P. J. Ilartog, who has given in
brief a perfectly just statement of the question at issue, see Nalure, vol. 50,
p. 149, 1894, and also/^V//. Ass. Rep.,^. 61S, 1S94.

^^ See Huxley on Descartes and Newton.
^^ "Hist, of Chem.," Eng. trans., p. 45, 1900.
■"' " Geschichte der Chem.," vol. 2, p. 369, 1844.
^■'' RIanchesler Meuioirs, vol. 47, No. II, p. 9, 1903.

Miuichester Memoirs, Vol. liv. {\g\o), No. H, 7

and E. von Meyer'" in 1807. x-\. Wurtz, putting the date
even earlier, says "the truth of the fixity of chemical
proportion was definitely established in the year 1806.""^
These writers do not adduce any evidence in support
of their statements. They seem to consider their case so
probable that proof is unnecessary. On the contrary their
case is not even probable. It depends on a fatal under-
estimate of the influence of BerthoUet. He occupied a
commanding position in the world of science, so that his
ideas could not fail to receive consideration in full. Not
only were his main ideas of the highest intrinsic value but
his teaching on the very subject of constant proportion,
in the light of the knowledge which was then available,
was extremely plausible. There are tw^o reasons for this.
First, chemists in the XVII Ith century had concentrated
their attention on the outstanding compound of each pair
of elements, and on this insufficient basis the doctrine of
constant composition had been founded. BerthoUet
raised a new problem by studying the relation between
the different compounds of the same elements. It has
already been suggested that his teaching did not so much
contradict Lavoisier's and VVenzel's and Richter's as go
beyond it. While holding in general that affinity tends
to unite substances in all proportions, he pointed out that
this tendency could be limited by physical factors such as
cohesion and insolubility and elasticity, in which case the
compounds would be produced on which the supposition
of fixed proportion had been based.

In the second place the wretched state of chemical
analysis only too easily afforded data in support of
variable proportion. BerthoUet's theory suited the exis-
tence of discordant analyses of the same substance by

''■> "Hist, of Chem.," Eng. trans., p. 194, 1906.

-" '• The Atomic Tiieory," Eng. trans., p. 9, 1880.

8 Meldrum, Development of tJic Atomic TJieory.

different workers and even by the same worker. He was
able to maintain his teaching by quoting able chemists
such as Vauquelin and Klaproth, whose results a priori
were as probable as Proust's."'

Proust had to maintain his own analyses in the face of
Berthollet's teaching and of the analyses of other
chemists. It is quite a mistake to suppose that his results
were specially accurate. E. von Meyer surmises that if
he had only " calculated the result of his experiments on
the composition of binary compounds otherwise than he
did, he would have discovered the law of multiple pro-
portions."" As a matter of fact he frequently ex-
pressed his results in a way that must have revealed the
law in question, supposing that he had known what to look
for, and that his data were approximately correct. For
the composition of black oxide of copper he gives copper
lOO and oxygen 25, and this is correct, and for the com-
position of the red oxide copper 100, and oxygen 17 — 18
instead of I2'5.'' These figures prove that for the deter-
mination of the composition of chemical substances it is
not sufficient to have good intentions and a strong con-
viction that substances are formed in invariable propor-
tions.

In truth the odds against Proust were heavy. He
had no principle of the same calibre as the doctrines of
mass-action and chemical equilibrium with which to
encounter Berthollet. He had to trust to the purely em-
pirical method, and there is no reason to think that it
was by means of this method that the doctrine of constant
proportion was ultimately established.

-' Jour, dc Phys., vol. 6o, p. 349, 1805.

-^ Op. cil., pp. 195 — 196; see also Airhenius to llie same effect,
"Theories of Chemistry," Eng. Trans., p. 16, 1907.

"" Journ. de Phys., vol. 65, p. 80, 1807.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (19 lo), No. 7. 9

E. von Meyer says that " none of the other leading
chemists of the day raised any objections." '* This puts
the matter too strongly, for Thenard, who had previously
been on Berthollet's side, showed signs of veering round
in 1805. " I ^'^ quite persuaded that the number of
oxides of the metals is much greater than the majority of
chemists allow, . . . but I declare that I am not yet con-
vinced that there are as many oxides as there are possible
degrees of oxidation ; and if theory allows of them,
experience seems to reject them."'" In this paper he
maintains that there are not two oxides of iron (as Proust
said) but three."'' Proust must have had some adherents,
but I do not know of any, unless Thomas Thomson be
one,'^ who gave him open support. Thenard does not
mention him. There is extremely little sign that he
was considered to have made out his case. Further, there
is every reason to think that the change of opinion, when
it came, was due to quite another influence than Proust.
What was effective was the working hypothesis which the
atomic theory supplied.

The influence of Dalton began to permeate chemistry
about the year 1808. For some years he had been
making endeavours, not very successful ones, to arouse
interest in his theory of chemical combination. In parti-
cular, Humphrey Davy,^* with all his powers of imagina-
tion, had failed to see anything in it. A much less

^* "Hist, of Chem.," Eng. trans., p. 194, 1906.

^^ Anil, de Chiiii., vol. 56, p. 62, 1S05.

^^ Op. lit., pp. 66, 77.

=2^ See Nicholson's Joiirn., vol. 8, pp. 280—281, 1804.

2 8 Davy must surely have heard of the atomic theory when Dalton was
lecturing at the Royal Institution of* London in 1803— 1804 (see Henry's
"Life of Dalton," pp. 47 — 50, and Dalton's " New System of Chemical
Philosophy," p. v., 1808). He certainly discussed it with Thomas Thomson
in 1807 and poured ridicule on it then. (See Thomson's " History of
Chemistry," vol. 2, p. 293.)

lo Meldrum, Dcvelopiiiciit of the Atomic TJicory.

brilliant man than Davy, Thomas Thomson by name,
happening to get an account of the theory from Dalton
himself in the year iSo4,'\vas wise enough to see its
immense importance, and in the year 1807 gave an
admirable sketch of it in the 3rd edition of his "System
of Chemistry." Then in 1808 Dalton gave his own
version of it in the first instalment of his " New System
of Chemical Philosophy." Confirmation of the theory
had already appeared. At the beginning of the year
Tiiomson had published work on the oxalates of strontium,
and William Hyde Wollaston on the carbonates and
oxalates of potassium, which they each regarded as
exemplifying and justifying Dalton's teaching. This
work was of great importance at the moment. As
Wollaston remarked afterwards, " Chemists were by no
means duly impressed with the importance of this
observation of Dalton, until the}' were in possession of
other facts observed by Mr. Thomson and myself." -'■*
The historians of chemistry have failed to perceive the
full significance of this work. It refuted BerthoUet in a
specially telling way, for, in illustrating his doctrine, he
had made much use of acid salts of the kind that Thomson
and Wollaston examined. He had found them to be of
variable composition,-'" and now, in the light of Dalton's
theor)-, they were found to be perfectly definite substances.

-'' Phil. Trans., y. 6, 1S14.

"'* " Essai de Slatique Chimique,"' §§ 201 — 203 ; Mem. de fliisliiiit,
vol. 7, pp. 230 — 252, 297, 1806. Not only so, but Torbein Bergman
("Dis.^ertation on Elective Attractions," § 9) and J. B. Richter (see report
by Karsten of a conversation with Kichtor, Allg.J. Chciiiic, (Scherer), 10,
1-38 — 143, 1803) thought that in many cases salts coulil be formed with a
decided superfluity of either ingredient. Further, it has been shown
recently (Joh. D'Ans, Zeilsch. anorg. Chein., 63, 225 — 229, 1909) that there
are four acid sulphates of potassium ; hence BerthoUet might well think that
these salts justified his belief in variable proportion: (see his Intro 'uction
to Riffault's translation of Thomson's " System of Chemistry," vol. i, p. 24.)

Manchester Mei>ioirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 1. 11

That Berthollet felt the weight of this refutation of his
teaching is shown by the fact that he thought it necessary
to repeat Wollaston's experiments."

Further, Gay-Lussac's Memoir on the combining
volumes of gases, published in 1809, afforded numerous
examples amongst gases of combination in fixed propor-
tion. Berthollet, however, had declared that this was
likely to occur amongst gases, a fact which greatly dis-
counted the possible effect on chemists of Gay-Lussac's
discoveiy — of tending to lessen their confidence in Ber-
thollet's doctrine of variable proportion. Besides, at that
stage of chemistry, Gay-Lussac was himself reluctant to
abandon this doctrine, and still held that, in general,
mass-action must produce compounds in all proportions.
He maintains the "great chemical law, that whenever two
substances are in presence of one another, they act in
their sphere of activity according to their masses, and
give rise in general to compounds with very variable
proportions, unless these proportions are determined by
special circumstances." "

Indeed, Dalton's doctrine of combination in definite
and multiple proportions was victorious only in process of
time and in conseciuence of the efforts of J. J. Berzelius.
Yet it is worth noticing how much less complete Proust's
answer to Berthollet was, than the answer tacitly con-
veyed by Dalton's doctrine. Berthollet held that affinity
tends to combine elements in all proportions, and that
the composition of the oxides of a metal at maximum and
minimum depended on accidental factors, physical con-
ditions opposed to affinity, such as cohesion and elasticity.
Dalton showed that a beautifully simple relation exists
between the composition of one oxide and another, so

"» Mem. a'Aicetiil, vol. 2, p. 470, 1809.
"2 op. cit., pp. 232—233.

12 Meldrum, Development of the Atomic Theory.

that the composition is not in the least a matter of chance.
Proust had no conception of the law which regulates
multiple proportions. Again, Berthollet believed that one
oxide could change into the other by continuous variation
in composition, while Dalton's theory not only allowed
for the existence of definite intermediate oxides, but
could even predict their composition with a considerable
degree of certainty.

The view taken here, that Berthollet's teaching on the
subject of chemical composition easily survived Proust's
criticism, and received a serious check from Dalton, can
be amply illustrated from the literature of the time.
William Henry treats the subject of chemical proportion
in that sense. " In opposition to the theory that chemical
affinity has a strong tendency to unite bodies in unlimited
proportions, an hypothesis has lately been proposed by
Mr. Dalton, which appears more consonant to the general
simplicity of nature." "^ John Murray pits the two doctrines
against one another, and actually, as late as the year
1809, expresses a strong preference for Berthollet's.'*
Indeed, Berthollet felt the challenge to himself implied in
Dalton's Atomic Theory; and showed this by criticising
it in the Introduction which he contributed to the French
translation of Thomson's " System of Chemistry," ^" in
which, it will be remembered, the theory is sketched.

If anyone, inclining to hold to the view of von Meyer
and Wurtz that Proust was successful against Berthollet,
should doubt whether the prestige of the latter was so
great as has been indicated in this paper, he might do
well to consider the chemical literature of the time. In

^^ " Elements of Experimental Chemistry," 6th ed., vol. I, p. Si, 1810.
"* "System of Chemistry," 2nd ed., vol. i, p. 627.
^* Riffault's translation, vol. i. pp. 21 — 27, 1809.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. X 13

addition to Gay-Lussac and Murra}-, who, as already
explained, adhered in the year 1809 to the doctrine of
combination in variable proportion, Friedrich Stromeyer^"
in 1808, and Amadeo Avogadro'''^ in 181 1, showed them-
selves under the sway and influence of Berthollet. What is
more, even after Dalton's doctrine of definite proportion
had become the foundation of chemistry, Berthollet's
main ideas were still held by chemists in the greatest
respect. The very opposite of this might be inferred from
E. von Meyer's statement that " his principles were held

to be totally erroneous the revival of his

principles was reserved for quite modern times,"'* and
Sir William Ramsay's conjectural remark that the " Essai
de Statique Chimique " was soon forgotten."^-'

Berzelius's " Essai sur la Theorie des Proportions
Chimiques," published in 18 19, contains an exposition of
mass-action and chemical equilibrium,*" and is dedicated
" a I'auteur de ' L'essai de statique chimique.' " Perhaps
the most interesting testimony of this kind is borne by
J. B. Dumas, who in his lectures on chemical philosophy,
delivered in the year 1836, expressed the highest admira-
tion for the " Statique Chimique." " It engrossed my
whole time for three or four years; from the age of 17

to 21 I read it, re-read it, and pondered it I

read it pen in hand, making extracts and reflections and
comments ; these efforts have been of the highest value
to me. As a student of chemistry I formed myself on
Berthollet .... and whatever right I have to raise

"*■' " Grundriss der Theorelischen Chemie," pp. 66, So.

"" Jour, ae ritys.. vol. 73, p. 76.

^=* Op. d(., p. 551.

■•» " Introduction to the Study of Phys'cal Chemistry," p. 43, 1904.

■'*' Op. ciL, pp 7 — II, 106 — 109.

14 Meldrum, Development of tJie Atoinie Theory.

my voice in this hall .... I owe it to the study I
made of Berthollet's ' Statics.' " "

l^^inally, on the establishment of these two doctrines,
which seemed to be incompatible with one another —
Dalton's of invariable proportions and Berthollet's of
mass-action — there remained the problem of reconciling
the one with the other. That the necessity of doing this
was present in the minds of the leaders of chemistry is
proved by Berzelius's " Essay on the cause of Chemical
Proportions," etc., which begins with a section " on the
relation between Berthollet's theory of affinities and the
laws of chemical proportions." He remarks that " some
chemists have affirmed that the existence of chemical
proportions is contrary to the principles of the theory of
affinities with which the illustrious Berthollet has enriched
chemistr}'," and proceeds to show that this is really not
the case. He takes the case of solution in water of
copper sulphate to which hydrochloric acid is added ;
" . . . . the part of the acid really combined with the
oxide is neutralised according to the laws of chemical

proportions This single example is sufficient

to show that the principles of Berthollet's theory are not
inconsistent with the laws of chemical proportions." ^-

Dalton, in his comments on this Essay, expresses his
full concurrence with the verdict. " The first division of
Dr. Berzelius's essay contains an admirable exposition of
those facts which Berthollet brought forward in so con-
spicuous a point of view in his chemical theory, and
which his zealous followers have magnified in a still
greater degree. A better explanation could, I think, be
scarcely given in fewer words." '^^

• *' " Lecons sur la Philosophic Chimique," pp. 379— 3S0

■'- Ann. of Phil., vol. 2, p. 443, 1 81 3.

*» Ann. of Phil., vol. 3, p. 174, 1814.

I'lancJicster JMcinoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. T. 15

APPENDIX.
List of Memoirs, in addition to those mentioned in the
paper, which show BerthoUet's influence.

1799.
L. J. Thknard, " Les differenls etats de I'oxide de I'anti-
nioine et ses combinaisons avec I'hydrogene sulfure," Ann. de
C/ii/n., vol. 2)2, [)\). 257-269.

iSoo.
(A note drawing attention to BerthoUet's work on the causes
of eiror in tables of affinity.) Alii:;. J. Cheinic (^Scherer), vol. 4,

\)^. 669-670.

1801.
" Ueber den Einfluss einiger unbeachteten
Umstande bei der Wirkung der Wahlverwandschaften," Chetn.
Ann. (Crell), vol i, p[). 111-114.

1802.
L. J. Thevakd, " Sur les differentes combinaisons du cobalt
avec I'oxygene, etc," Ann. de C/iini., vok 42, pp. 210-219.

1803.
A. B. Bp:rthollet, "Observations sur les precipitcs des
dissolutions metalliques," in " Essai de Statique Chimique,"
note 22.

E. G. Fischer, ''Vermischte Bemerkungen iiber die
brennbaren Grundstoffe, mit Riicksicht auf Berthollets Theorie
der Verwandschaft," Allg. /. Cheni. (Scherer), vol. 10, pp.
171-184.

L. W. Gilbert, Ann. der Fhys., vol. 13, pp. 158-159.
C. J. B. Karsten, "Revision der Chemischen Affinitatslehre
mit bestandiger Riicksicht auf Berthollets neuer Theorie,"
Leipzig, pp. 278.

L. SciiNAUCERT, " Untersuchung der Verwandschaft der
Metalloxyde zu den Sriuren. Nach einer Priifung der neuen
Bertholletschen Theorie," Erfurt (for BerthoUet's comments
on this, see Ann. de Chini., vol. 49, pp. 5-20, 1804).

1804.
Gay-Luss.ac, "Sur les precipitations mutuelles des oxides
metalliques," Ann. de Chim.^ vol. 49, pp. 21-35.

1 6 Meldrum, Development of the Atoviie Theory.

1805.
J.-M. Hausmann, "Sur roxidation," Ann. de Chim., vol. 56,

pp. 5-14.

1807.

C. F. BucHOLZ, " Die Verhaltnissmengen der Bestandtheile
im salzsauren Silber, und den salzsauren Neutralsalzen,"_/.///^r
Chem. (Gehlen), vol. 3, pp. 328-335.

A. F. Gehlen [notes accompanying his translation into
German of Berthollet's "Troisieme Suite de Recherches sur les
lois de I'affinite."] J-fiir Chem. (Gehlen), vol. 3, pp. 248-322.

H. F. Link, " Ueber Berthollet's Theorie der Chemischen
Verwandschaft,"y!////' Chem. (Gehlen), vol. 3, pp. 232-247.

Rose, "Die Verhaltnissmengen der Bestandtheile des

Schwefelsauren Baryts," /. fiir Chem. (Gehlen), vol. 3, pp.

322-328.

1808.

H. Y. Link, " Einige Bemerkungen iiber Anziehung und
Verwandschaft," Ann. der Fhys., vol. 30, pp. 12-22.

1811.

L. W. Gilbert, " Historische-Critische Untersuchung iiber
die festen Mischungs-Verhaltnisse in der Chemischen Verbin-
dung, etc.," Ann. der Fhys., vol. 39, pp. 361-428.

C. H. Pfaff, " Experiences et observations relatives au
nouveau principe d'action de I'affinite etablie par M. Berthollet,"
Ann. de Chim., vol. 77, pp. 259-288 (for Berthollet's comments
on this, see op. cii., 288-296).

G. K. L. SiGWART, "Ueber Berthollet's Chemische Masse,"
J.Jiir Chem. (Schweigger), vol. i, pp. 352-357.

1812.

P. L. DuLONG, "Recherches sur la decomposition mutuelle
des sels solubles et des sels insolubles," Ajin. de Chim., vol. 82,
pp. 273-308.

1815.

H. F. Link, " Ueber die Chemische Wirkung beim Zusam-
menreiben der Korper," y. fiir Chem. (Schweigger), vol. 14,
pp. 193-199.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. fipio), No. 8.

VIII. Note on Radio-active Recoil.

By Sidney Russ, D.Sc.

Read December 14th, igog. Received for prin'.iiig December i8th, igog.

It has been shown that when Radium Emanation is
condensed at the bottom of a tube, and the space above
it evacuated, particles of the Active Deposit are radiated
up the tube.*

This phenomenon has been attributed to the recoil of
the atom when an alpha particle is emitted from it.

If the emanation be allowed to remain condensed for
a time sufficient for it to attain radio-active equilibrium
with its products, it might be expected that Radium A
and Radium B would be projected up the tube in equal
numbers as the result of the expulsion of a particles
by the emanation and Radium A. The change from
Radium B to Radium C is only accompanied by the
emission of j3 particles, the recoil due to which is much
less energetic than in the above cases. Under certain
conditions, however, the recoil of Radium C has been
shown to take place, but in the phenomena under exami-
nation it will be seen that its effect is hardly appreciable.
A disc suspended above the condensed emanation will be
the recipient of active deposit particles, which adhere to
it. After an exposure for a suitable time the disc may be
removed, and the decay curve of its activity tested with
the aid of an electrometer by means of the alpha rays
emitted from it. The object of the present investigation

* Russ and Makower, Proc. Roy. Sac, A., vol. 82, 1909.
Februa?y ist, igio.

2 RUSS, Note on Radio-active Recoil.

has been to find the relative numbers of Radium A,
Radium B, and Radium C particles radiated away from
the condensed Emanation, by an analysis of the decay
curves of the active deposit collected on the aforesaid
disc for different times of exposure.

The method of experiment consisted in condensing
the Emanation from a few milligrammes of Radium at
the bottom of a glass tube by means of liquid air. After
waiting three hours, by which time the Emanation is in
equilibrium with its products Radium A, Radium B, and
Radium C, a disc was suspended about 7 cms. above the
condensed Emanation, and the system evacuated to a
pressure of about i/ioo mm. After a suitable exposure
the disc was removed and the decay of its activity tested
by means of an electrometer. During the course of these
experiments, a short account of which is given in the
paper referred to, the times of exposure of the disc were
10 minutes, 40 minutes, and 3 hours respectively, but for
the purposes of this analysis attention will be confined to
the 10 minutes and the 3 hours exposures. This selection
has been made owing to the comparative simplicity of
the analytical expressions under these conditions, at the
expense of no essential features of the phenomena.

The decay curve obtained for an exposure of 10
minutes is marked I in Fig. i, and it may at once be
seen, by inspection of its marked variation from curve
Ia, which is the well-known curve due to 10 minutes'
exposure to the Emanation, that a considerable amount
of Radium B was projected on to the disc as well as
Radium A, a result which might have been anticipated.

Curve II shows the decay curve obtained when the
exposure was 3 hours, and its deviation from the ordinary

3 hours exposure curve IIa is still more marked than for
the shorter exposure.

Manchester Monoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 8.

/CO-

0 /O xo 30 W ^O 60

Fig. I.

The question at once occurs in what proportions do
Radium A and Radium B exist on the disc?

Consider the supply of Radium B to the disc due to
the disintegration of Radium A.

If ;/ = number of particles of Radium A at the bottom
of the tube, then

..Q, = ^n{v - )

4 RUSS, Note on Radio-active Recoil.

where Q, = number of Radium B particles produced after
a time t, Aj and A2 being the radio-active constants of
Radium A and Radium B respectivel)% and ;/ being con-
sidered constant during the time of exposure.

The number of Radium B particles supplied to the
disc will be a fraction of this, depending on the solid
angle subtended by the disc, which will be considered
later.

At any time T after removal

As Radium V> is supplied to the disc it immediately
begins to form Radium C, the rate of increase of which
may be denoted thus : —

. .Ji, = — n[i - ae - + />e ■ |

K X.,

where rt = \ — hr and fi =

A, -A. K.-K

For a definite time of exposure the quantity within
the brackets is determinate, and may be replaced by AI,
whence

K

Since the decay curves were measured by means of
the alpha rays, we require to know the quantity of
Radium C on the disc at any time T after removal.

The quantity of C may be considered as made of two
part.s —

(i) That actually on the disc at the moment of
removal, which at any subsequent time T will be

— n Me '-^ .
A,,

JfaiiLhc'sk'r Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 8. 5

(2) That produced b}' the Radium B which was on
the disc at the moment of removal.

Let R' be the quantity of Radium C due to this cause
at any time T.

Then, b)- analogy with the case considered by Ruther-
ford*—

Hence the total quantity of Radium C present at any
time T after removal of the disc is R^ + R'^ due to the
Radium R projected from the Radium A at the bottom
of the tube.

There will, however, be some Radium C due to the
Radium A projected from the Emanation itself, and this
quantity ma\' be calculated ; the change of activity with
time due to the Radium A and Radium C together may,
however, be read off from the well-known decay curve for
the particular time of exposure.

This has been done for the exposures of 10 minutes
and 3 hours under consideration here.

Let w = number of Radium A particles at the bottom
of the tube.

Then the number obtained on the disc after a time /
will be proportional to n{i —c~^i'). The factor of propor-
tionality depends, as already stated, on the solid angle
subtended by the disc, and also, perhaps, on the nature of
the surface upon which the Emanation is condensed, for
it has been shownf that only about one-eleventh part of

• " Radio-activity," p. 331.

t loc. cit.

6 RUSS, Note on Radio-active Recoil.

the particles breaking up per second actually leave the
surface.

Since the factor due to the nrst cause will be the
same whether Radium A or Radium B is projected, and
probably also due to the second, we may for simplicity
take it unity.

After lo minutes exposure the number of Radium A
particles on the disc will be "9//, and that of Radium C
•I3«.

Hence at the instant of removal of the disc the initial
alpha ray activity will be these numbers multiplied by
the radio-active constants Aj, A„ of Radium A and Radium
C respectively.

It has previously been shown that the activity at the
instant of removal of the disc, due to the Radium C on it
which has been produced from the Radium B directly
fired on to the disc is given by R, where

R =

—-n{ \ -ae - + />e - ).

The evaluation of this expression shows that the
number of Radium C particles on the disc at the moment
of removal after an exposure of 10 minutes is ■34^, and
consequently its alpha ray activity will be '24.n\„.

We have then at the instant of removal of the disc
after 10 minutes exposure : —

(i) Due to the radiation of radium A an alpha ray
activity given by 'g/i\ Radium A particles and 'i^nX.^
Radium C particles, breaking up per second.

The variation of this activity with time may be read
from the graph referred to.

(2) Due to the radiation of Radium B an alpha ray
activity given by •34«A, Radium C particles breaking up
per second.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 8. 7

Table I.
CALCULATED ACTIVITY.

1

Reduced to fit

Time in

Due to Radiation

3ue to Radiation

Combined

experimental

Mins.

of Radium A.

of Radium B.

Activity.

curve at time
30 mins.

I

100

5-68

io5'7

136

2

81

6-44

87-4

"3

3

66

7*oo

73*o

94-5

4

58

7-96

66-0

85-4

5

53

. 8-43

6 1 '4

79-6

7

39'5

9-46

49 'o

63*4

10

29

IO-8

39-8

5^-6

15

24

12-3

36-3

47'i

20

23

13-2

36-2

46-9

25

23

.3-6

36-6

47 '4

30

23

136

36-6

47"4

35

22

i3"4

35-4

45-8

40

22

12"9

34'9

45-2

45

21

I2-3

33"3

43"2

50

20

11-7

317

41-1

55

19

io"9

29-9

387

60

17

IO"2

27*2

35'2

8 RUSS, Note on Radio-active Recoil.

The variation of this activity with time may be calcu-
lated from the expressions R,-\-R'.

If Radium A and Radium B are projected up the
tube ill equal quantities, the deca\' curve of the active
matter on the disc would be that obtained by adding the
activities due to (i) and (2) in the ratio in which they
stand, namely : —

r = I 7 "O

where \^= 3'85 x 10"'^ and \.,- 5*93 x 10^*.

This has been done and the results tabulated in
Table I. and reproduced graphically in the full line curve
in Fig. 2. It will be seen that the experimental points,

/}>. 2.

which are represented by small circles, do not lie exactly

MancJicster Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 8. 9

on this curve. Bearing in mind the possibility that
Radium A and Radium B may not be radiated up the
tube in equal quantities, the limits of any such an equality
can be found by varying the proportion in which the
quantities (i) and (2) are added together.

The dotted line in Fig. 2 shows the decay curve that
would be obtained if twice as much Radium B had been
projected as Radium A. Inspection shows that the
experimental points lie within the limits defined by the
two curves drawn.

Hence from the analysis corresponding to an exposure
of 10 minutes, it may be pretty confidently stated that
Radium A and Radium B are projected up the tube in
nearly equal proportions.

The case of an exposure lasting three hours admits of
comparatively simple treatment, for in this case Ruther-
ford has shown that a state of equilibrium exists between
the different short lived products obtained from the
Emanation.

Hence, owing to the direct firing of Radium A, we
have at the moment of removal the same number of
Radium C particles breaking up per second as Radium A
particles. If Radium B is radiated up the tube in an
equal proportion to Radium A. then a similar number of
Radium C particles will be breaking up per second on
the disc at the instant of removal due to this cause as
when the radiation is due to Radium A.

Hence the initial alpha ray activity due to the first
cause will be twice that due to the second.

The variation in the alpha ray activity of the disc due
to the Radium A radiated on to it corresponds to the well
known decay curve for an exposure of three hours. This
variation is tabulated in Table II., Column 2.

10

RUSS, Note on Radio-active Recoil.

Table II.
CALCULATED ACITVITY.

Time
in mins.

Due to Radiation
of Radium A.

Due to Radiation
of Radium B.

Combinetl
Activity.

I

100

50

150

2

93

50

143

3

88

49'9

r3y9

4

84

49'7

1337

5

80

49"5

129-5

7

75

49"2

I24"2

lO

69

48-3

II73

15

^Z

467

1097

20

59

44-2

103-2

25

55

41-8

96-S

30

52

39"4

91-4

35

49

36-4

85-4

40

■46

33"2

792

45

43

307

737

50

39

28-1

67-r

55

35'7

257

61 '4

60

32

23"4

55-4

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 8. ii

The variation in the alpha ray activity due to the
Radium B radiated to the disc has been calculated from
the expression Rt\- R\ where

K,=—!i(i—ae - +ve - )e ^

and R'^ . \ Q,{e ^^'^-e" ^-^ '''

) where (9, = J;/(i -e"^''^).

These numbers will be found in Column 3, and the
result of adding Columns 2 and 3 is reproduced as the
full line curve in Fig: 3.

1^

>-^

JO

fO 20 <30 UO JO 60

7/lcozLofeJ .

^ig' 3-

It^will be seen that the experimental points, indicated
by small circles, do not lie exactly on the curve.

Following the same procedure as for the short expo-
sure, and assuming that twice as much Radium B is
radiated up the tube as Radium A, we obtain the dotted
curve in Fig. 3.

12 RUSS, Note on Radio-active Recoil.

Inspection again shows that the experimental points
lie within the limits imposed by the two cases considered.

This result confirms the impression already obtained
that the numbers of Radium A and Radium B particles
projected up the tube are not very different.

It was thought unnecessary in the analysis to allow
for the difference in the ionisation produced by the r
particles from Radium A and Radium C.

Conclusion.

It has been seen that the experimental results obtained
may be explained on the supposition that Radium A and
Radium B particles are projected in about equal propor-
tions from the Radium Emanation when it is condensed
at the bottom of a tube from which the air has been
removed.

If Radium C were radiated in anything like the
same proportion the experimental decay curves would
be markedly different. Some recent experiments by
Dr. Makower and the Author have shown that the
number of Radium C particles which effectively recoil as
the result of the ejection of beta particles from Radium B
is a very small fraction of the number of Radium A and
Radium B particles which do so as a result of the ejection
of alpha particles from Radium Emanation and Radium A
respectively.

Manchester lireuioirs, Vol. LTV. (No. 9).

Plate I.

Matthew Nicholson,

OF RICHMOND ROW.
1746-1819.

From a ivatey-coloiir drawing in the posses.iion of Mr. Albert NicJiohon.

Manchester Memoirs, VoL liv. (1910), No. 9,

IX. Correspondence between Mrs. Hemans and
Matthew Nicholson, an early member of this
Society.

By Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.

Received and read November i6th, igog.

By virtue of my relationship with the recipient,^
I am possessed of a number of letters addressed by
Felicia Dorothea Browne and her mother and sister, to
Matthew Nicholson, of Richmond Row, near Liverpool.
Mr. Nicholson preserved these letters carefully, and also
drafts of many of his replies. In the course of the ninety
years that have elapsed since his death some of the letters
have been lost, but enough remain to throw much light
on the personal and literary history of Mrs. Hemans for
several years prior to her marriage.

Felicia Dorothea Browne, better known as Mrs
Hemans, though not considered one of our greatest poets
is recognised as one of the most distinguished natives of
Lancashire. She is acknowledged to have had the " true
poet's gifts of grace, sweetness, and tenderness." A few
of her poems are well known to everyone by reason of
their appearance in hymn books and school books, or
from having had the fortune to be set to good tunes. The
writer of " Casablanca," " The Better Land," and " The
Graves of a Household," is not likely to be consigned to
oblivion.

Felicia Dorothea Browne was the elder daughter of
George Browne, who was for some time a merchant in
Liverpool, but failed in 1793. He must have been in a
considerable way of business, as it took ten years to wind

Febriia7y 22nd, igio.

2 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Correspondence.

up the estate, the fourth and final dividend being paid in
1804. FeHcia was born on the 25th September, 1793,*
six months after her father's failure, in Duke Street,
Liverpool. The house has been identified by Mr. G. T.
Shawf as that formerly numbered 65, but in 1896
numbered 118.

Mr. Browne's failure reduced the family from affluence
to genteel poverty. They left Liverpool in 1800, and
went to live at Gwrych, near Abergele, where Felicia
spent a happy childhood amidst surroundings of great
natural beauty, which undoubtedly had their effect on
her imagination. Naturally enough, considering the
straitened circumstances of the family, the girls (for
Felicia had a younger sister) were educated at home.
Their mother, who had been a Miss Wagner, and was a
woman of considerable culture, trained her daughters her-
self They were both precocious children, much given to
rhyming, and their juvenile efforts, circulated in manu-
script, had met with the praise of many friends. One of
those to whom Felicia's poems had been submitted was
Lady Kirkwall. She expressed her " high and flattering
approval " of them, and caused the shabby manuscript to
be most elegantly bound before she returned it to the
author. At one time Mrs. Browne wished to send Felicia
to a boarding school to finish her education, but was
prevented from doing so by want of means. In this
difficulty it occurred to Mrs. Browne that the means for
Felicia's education might be provided by the publication
of the child's poems. Her reasoning seems to have been
that as the poems had obtained the approval of the

* This date appears in the mother's autograph, and I therefore think it
correct, although all the authorities do not accept it : H. F. Chorley, for
instance, gives it as 1794.

t Liverpool homes of Mrs. Hemans {Hist. Soc. of L. &= C. xlviii. 123 ;
liv. 207).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV. (No. »)

Plate II.

Face p.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. liv. {igio), No. 9. 3

aristocratic Lady Kirkwall they were good enough to
print, and that if printed they were certain to sell. Sub-
scriptions were solicited and the poems were sent to press.
The forthcoming book of poems, written by a juvenile
prodigy of Liverpool birth, was naturally a subject of
conversation in literary circles in Liverpool. Moving in
those circles, and intimate with William Roscoe and other
friends of the Brownes, was Mr. Matthew Nicholson.
Becoming interested in the young poetess, Mr. Nicholson
entered into correspondence with Mrs. Browne, and a
close friendship followed.

Matthew Nicholson, who was the first cousin of my
grandfather of the same name, was born at Liverpool in
June, 1746. He was educated at the then celebrated
school of the Rev. Philip Holland, at Bolton, and in 1762
became a student at the Warrington Academy, w^hich
filled amongst the dissenters of those days the place of
the universities, which were closed to them. Probably no
seat of learning had so large a proportion of distinguished
men on its teaching staff as had the Warrington Academy.
Amongst the tutors in Mr. Nicholson's time, or of his
acquaintance, were Joseph Priestley, F.R.S. (in whose
house he boarded), Dr. Aikin, John Holt, the mathema-
tician. Dr. Nicholas Clayton (Mr. Nicholson's brother-in-
law). Dr. John Taylor, author of the " Hebrew Con-
cordance" (to which all the English and Welsh archbishops
and bishops, with four exceptions, subscribed), and George
Walker, F.R.S., sometime President of this Society. In
1773 Mr. Nicholson became a partner in a mercantile firm
founded in Liverpool by his grandfather early in the i8th
century. In 1785 the business of the firm was divided, the
junior partner (my grandfather) remaining in Liverpool,
while the two other partners (Matthew Nicholson and his
brother Thomas) removed to Manchester as being a better

4 Nicholson, Hemans — NicJiolso7i Cor-respondence.

centre for carrying on the business of cotton and linen
merchants, in which they were engaged. Though Matthew
Nicholson was successful in business, it does not seem to
have been congenial to him. Having sufficient means to
supply his simple and inexpensive tastes, and being a
bachelor, he had none of the usual inducements to con-
tinue in business, and being also subject to severe head-
aches, he retired at the age of 43, and settled on a small
property he had inherited at Richmond Row, then a rural
locality near Liverpool. There he spent the remainder of
his long life, following his favourite hobbies of gardening
and reading, drawing and writing, nursing himself during
frequent illnesses, and occasionally taking tours to Wales
or Scotland. During his residence in Manchester he had
joined this Society, having been elected a member on
14th December, 1785. Doubtless he owed his introduction
to the Society to its founder, Dr. Percival, between whose
family and the Nicholsons there had existed for three
generations a friendship, which had been further cemented
by Dr. Percival's marriage with a connection of the
Nicholsons. Matthew Nicholson contributed one or two
papers to the Memoirs of the Society.

Mr. Matthew Nicholson was 61 years of age, when, in
1807, he became interested in the works of the young
poetess, Felicia Browne, then aged 13.

At one of the literary gatherings already mentioned
the discussion turned on the difficulty of writing a pre-
face to Felicia's forthcoming book. Mr. Nicholson, who
was one of the party, was tempted to try his hand at
this literary performance. So pleased was he with the
result that he submitted his preface to Mrs. Browne,
modestly hiding his identity under the pseudonym, " One
of the Subscribers." Availing herself of the privilege her
anonymous correspondent had allowed her, Mrs. Browne

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. {igio), No. \}. 5

made several alterations in the preface. Amongst these
was the omission of some of Mr. Nicholson's poetry.
" Your beautiful lines in the preface," writes Mrs. Browne,
"are justly entitled to high admiration, and have my
warmest thanks ; but my little votary of the muse has so
great an objection to any poetry in this part of the work,
that I hope your liberality will forgive my not adopting
them — she says it might be imagined that they were her
own production."

Several letters passed between Mrs. Browne and the
anonymous subscriber while the preface was being
drafted, and agreement as to details seemed to be
unattainable. One of Mrs. Browne's anxieties was that
the preface should bear witness to Lady Kirkwall's
interest in the publication. Her Ladyship was to have
honoured it by accepting the dedication, but an even
more exalted personage had expressed his willingness
to do so. To us George IV. may seem a strange patron
for a young girl's first book of poems, but in his own day
the following passage in the preface probably sounded
quite appropriate : " The distinguished and gratifying
patronage of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales,
and the favours of the highly dignified and very respect-
able subscribers in the annexed list, will naturally excite
gratitude and rouse to new exertion in the pursuits of
literature and virtue." Mrs. Browne was also desirous of
adding to the name of Mrs. Barbauld, who alone was
mentioned as having influenced the young writer, the
names of Mrs. Trimmer and Hannah More, "as I am a
great lover of their works, and as they have all been
equally in the hands of my girls." The correspondents
were still far from agreement as to the exact wording of
the preface when a way out was found. William Roscoe
undertook to write the preface. In favour of so great a

6 XlCHOLSON, Hcinans — Xicliolson Con-espojidettce.

star in the literary firmament, ^Ir. Nicholson promptly
withdrew his proffered preface.

" Since ]\Ir. William Roscoe had taken in hand the
writing of the preface," he says, '' I was so satisfied that it
would be so much better done, that I was only desirous
that my effort should be buried in oblivion." Neverthe-
less, he seems to have been rather proud of his own
production, and in the same letter he includes a final
copy of the meditated preface, " which I hope you will
find so altered that you could have had no objection to have
suffered the introduction of the second tetrastich amongst
the others. I myself would have chosen to leave out the
parenthesis respecting the ages of the young ladies.
These comments are now needless, and I have much
confidence that you will be perfectly satisfied with any
preface written by Mr. William Roscoe." In the spring
of 1807. Harriett ]\Iary Browne*, Felicia's younger sister,
then aged S^, wrote a little story of the Pleasures of
Willow-dale, and this and some poetical effusions were
shown to Matthew Nicholson by one of the girl's aunts.
The approbation he expressed, and the interest he took
in securing the publication of Willow-dale, reached the
young lady's ears, and brought forth a letter of grateful
acknowledgment (dated 28th January, 1808), and a
very pressing invitation to Gwrych. Though he did
not avail himself of the invitation, ]Mr. Nicholson
now thought it necessary to reveal his identity, which
had probably been known all along to ]\Irs. Browne.
Early in 180S Harriett visited her relations in St. Ann
Street, Liverpool, and while there was taken ill.
She met Mr. Nicholson, and there grew up a fondness

* Harriett always spelled her name thus, but her mother and sister
often omitted the last letter. We have followed her own spelling
throughout.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv (1910), No. 9. 7

between the sexagenarian bachelor and the Httle
girl such as one sometimes sees between a grandfather
and grandchild. The friendship continued for many years.
On the child's return to Gwrych her mother wrote — " I
should be very ungrateful indeed, my dear sir, if I did
not endeavor again by zvords to express to you how very
deeply I am impressed by your repeated acts of kindness
to my two girls, and to convince you that I am not
unmindful of them ; though nwrds are all I have to offer
in return — but I am sure you have your reward viost
amply in your own gratification, for I know from experience
how much more delightful it is to oblige, than to be
obliged. My little Harriett is all gratitude to you for
your constant goodness to her, and she has represented
to me in her own enthusiastic language, what unmerited
attention you have bestowed upon her, during her late
disorder, and how liberally the first fruits of your sweet
garden were devoted to cool her little heated mouth." In
the same letter !Mrs. Browne pressed Mr. Nicholson to
visit Gwrych, and as he had apparently declined a pre-
vious invitation because he was an invalid subsisting on a
milk diet, countered the excuse very smartly. " Be
assured," she writes, " that a cordial welcome would
receive you, and we would endeavour to make up in
sincerity, what we want in splendor — the most liberal
abundance prevails in the Dairy and I find it very conve-
nicfit to put all my friends upon a milk diet, from the
kind plea of it being so conducive to health and at the
same time so suitable to an exhausted pocket. Do not
you think I am very considerate to my friends ?"' In the
same letter (June 28th, 1808) she says "I anticipate the
pleasure of your sincere congratulations on the appear-
ance of Felicia's book, under such flattering auspices ; and
here again I am at a loss how to tell you of my sensations

8 Nicholson, Heumns — NicJwhon Correspondence.

of pleasure and respect, in the reflection of the great obliga-
tions which this publication has to your friendly zeal and
to the interest you have so long taken in its success, of
which I have been constantly informed, — but I believe
the less I say, the more grateful it will be to you, for true
goodness does not delight in a parade of words, therefore
I will say no more of obligation."

There was much work for Mr. Nicholson in connection

with Felicia's first book. Prior to its publication he was

often asked for advice and afterwards Mrs. Browne

depended on him to get things done in a business-like

manner. And truly there was need for a business man to

get things straight. A change of publishers had been

made after printing, but before publication, subscriptions

had been booked twice over, and no proper record had

been kept of subscriptions paid. Moreover Mrs. Browne

seems to have been annoyed by the lukewarmness of

Messrs. Cadell and Davies, the publishers. She would only

correspond with them through Mr. Roscoe and he seems

to have been too much occupied to attend promptly to

this business, so that eventually business arrangements

were made in a very roundabout fashion, Mrs. Browne

writing to Mr. Nicholson who saw Mr, Roscoe who wrote

to Cadell and Davies. The subscribers to the book were

so numerous that it ought to have paid well but some of

the subscribers were dilatory in paying and the sale

otherwise was disappointing. The criticisms were neither

numerous nor favorable.

The young poetess was not spoiled by the honour of
seeing herself in print. In June 1808 her mother wrote
" Felicia is most assiduously devoting herself to reading,
for the sole purpose of improvement, and I think her
mental powers improve every day — she has composed
many beautiful pieces lately, which appear to my partial

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 0. 9

mind to exhibit great progressive elegance and show that
her genius is not Hkely to lie dormant." In Septenriber
Felicia read and admired Roscoe's poem on the Park
Dingle and about the same time seems to have become
acquainted with the works of Burns, a copy in four
volumes having "been lent to her by Miss McAdam, a
Liverpool friend. In October, 1808, she was on a visit to
Denbigh.

Felicia Browne had about this time an attack of
patriotism. It was excusable in her case. Her country
had all her lifetime been engaged in a great Continental
struggle. All her brothers were or were hoping to be in
the army. In August, 1808, one of these brothers, Tom,
was on duty at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and another, George,
was embarking at Cork, in the fourth expedition for Spain
or Portugal, with Sir David Baird, " the service," writes his
mother, " which I am most pleased that he should be sent
upon." The young poetess had military news not only in
the newspapers, but in letters from her brothers at the
seat of war. During this period also Mrs. Browne read
aloud to her children Robertson's " History of Charles V."
The result of all this exciting reading is to be found in
Felicia's second book, which followed the first within a
iom months, and bore the topical title, " England and
Spain."' While the elder sister was writing patriotic
poetry for publication, the younger one was writing
poems not for publication, and making herself useful.
Writing to Mr. Nicholson, she says, " I must tell you that
I made two excellent apple dumplings the other day,
which is more than Felicia ever has done, but she desires
me to say, that she would be very happy to make her
first attempt on one for you."

Throughout 1808, Mrs. Browne was making full use
of Mr. Nicholson, very apologetically it is true. " I really

lo Nicholson, Hcmans — Nicholson Correspondence.

feel," she says (Oct. 3 ist), " great repugnance at giving you
such a continuation of trouble respecting this business,
but I have already said so much of the deep sense I have
of the kind interest you have taken to promote the
success of the cause, that I will not weary you with a
repetition of my obligations, but will only say, once for all,
that your philanthropy and incessant efforts in the cause
of infantile genius, are indelibly engraven on the minds
of myself and your highly favored }-oung friends."

Soon after completing " England and Spain," Felicia
was ill. Referring to her illness and to her poem,
Matthew Nicholson wrote to Harriett on 5th January,
1809, "we have all been saved much anxiety by not
knowing till we can rejoice on her recovery, that your
dear sister has been so very ill. She must be particularly
careful of herself this winter. I cannot help suspecting
that her fever may have been occasioned by too much
exertion, and some anxiety respecting the charming
poem she has lately written. I find the manuscript was
dispatched to London the same day it came to the hands
of Mr. VVm. Roscoe, and it was as quickly printed ; but
the motion of the French Emperor was quicker still !
The poem, however, will sustain its own fame whatever
may become of Emperors and their Thrones! And the
freedom of the mind is beyond the reach of the former
and more exalted than the latter ! Or, io pt osify the fair
poet's words — it is in vain to restrain the Soul of
Freedom." He followed with some very kindly criticism
and with a final verse of his own, and continued, " I am
not afraid that the author is in danger of being spoil'd
by any praise which may be bestow'd — such a mind must
be well poised as it is well stored ! " This letter to
Harriett and some previous criticisms drew a letter from
Felicia herself, the first she had sent to her elderly critic,

MancJicster Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. t>. ii

who has numbered it (i) and written on it the date of
receipt. It is dated,

'* Gvvrych, gth Jany. , 1809.
My Dear Sir,

Though I have hitherto delayed to express my sense of the
kindness you have shewn me, be assured I have ever felt most truly
indebted to your friendship, and flatter myself you will do me the
justice to believe, that my gratitude will be as permanent as it is sincere.
I do not share with Harriett the honor of your correspondence, yet I
hope a few lines from your tmkno7Vii yo\xng friend, will not be unaccept-
able, as they are the genuine dictates of a heart, which has been so
highly gratified by your approbation. Surely nothing can impart a
more exquisite pleasure, than to receive esteem and commendation from
the truly virtuous, may it ever be my aim to de serve \\\e.u ^xa.\se, by the
constant practice of every moral excellence ! The encomiums you
have so liberally liestowed upon my last poem, are delightful, because
I am persuaded they are sincere ; I am convinced \hz.tjlatte}y destroys
the germ and blights the promise of infant merit, but you will agree
with me that praise is calculated to rouse emulation, to inspire the
most noble enthusiasm, and to fix

'The gen'rous purpose in the glowing breast.'
Harriett is^ I believe, fearful lest I should supplant her in your regard,
but she must allow me to become a Candidate for a portion of your
favour, as I cannot expect to rival her, before I have the pleasure of
your acquaintance. She has informed you of our regret at the prospect
of leaving this dear retreat, but neither her pen nor mine could express
the sentiments with which I shall bid adieu to the scenes of my
infantine pleasures. The seclusion I have here enjoyed has afforded
me leisure to pursue my favorite studies ; the wild and romantic
prospects of the surrounding country, have inspired me with that
adoration for the beauties of nature, which I shall ever retain ; and I
have here imbibed a taste for the genuine pleasures of rural and
domestic life. I need not therefore attempt to describe the impressions
with which I shall leave a place endeared to me V)y every recollection.
A town-residence would at all times be unpleasant, but the contrast of
its hurry and gaiety, with this sweet retirement, will render it almost
insupportable. I am quite delighted with the recent victory of my
hero, the gallant Palafox, and shall certainly attempt to celebrate it in
a song of triumph by way of a supplement to 'England and Spain.'
Accept my best thanks for the additional lines you have favored me
with ; they are very appropriate, but from a tenacity which I hope you
will think pardonable, I cannot admit into the poem any idea or even
Tvord that is not my own. Do not imagine that this is the effect of my
presumption, as I am sensible how much might be improved, how
much is to be pardoned ; it is dictated by that Candour, which I should

12 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Correspondence.

wish to be ever my guide. As I am certain that I have nearly exhausted
your patience by this long letter, I will only entreat your farther
indulgence, whilst I beg you to accept, my dear Sir, the good wishes
and grateful esteem of your unknown, but sincere,
and much-obliged young friend,

Felicia D. Browne."

A few days later Mr. Nicholson received a batch of
letters from the Brovvnes enclosing a copy of one from the
soldier brother in Spain. Mrs. Browne writes

" the approbation you have bestowed upon my dear Felicia's last
production is truly grateful to her and to me and all the praises she
receives stimulate her most ardently to the improvement of her talents
that she may attain real excellence. She is most zealously devoting
herself to jo/?*^ reading and she says that her 'England and Spain'
shall soon be no more to be compared with what she is now meditating
than her first publication is to that. I pray God most fervently, that
she may ever preserve that simplicity of mind and manner and single-
ness of heart, which are now the chief ornaments of her character, and
that the commendations she daily receives may only prompt her to
devote her talents and genius to His glory and the cause of virtue."

In her letter, Harriett, referring to Felicia having
herself written to thank Mr. Nicholson, writes, " I must
express a hope, that she will not supplant me in your
regard, or that her writing to you, will not be the means
of depriving me of so valuable a correspondent." Of
public events she says, " We, who are so much interested
in every account from that country (Spain), open every
newspaper almost in fear and trembling, and read the
intelligence of every viclorious battle with peculiar
pleasure. Felicia is particularly delighted that her hero,
Palafox, has gained anotJier victory, and added another
laurel to his wreath." On February i, Mrs. Browne sent
a very long letter relating entirely to her son George,
whose regiment had suffered much at Corunna, and
during the retreat which preceded that victory. " He is
in most miserable plight, for he has lost all he possessed
in the world, and is worn to a skeleton." The delicate

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. <>. 13

task she imposed on Mr. Nicholson was to use his
influence with her mother, the wealthy, but evidently
stingy, Mrs. Wagner, to provide the money for the fresh
equipment of the soldier grandson. " Forgive my
entreating you to take the trouble of applying to her,"
she says, "but I think she cannot refuse you." The old
lady did refuse, however, " but," writes Mrs. Browne, in a
later letter, " I am as much indebted to your exertions as
if they had been successful."

In March, 1809, the Brownes removed from Gwrych
to Bronwhilfa. " I have taken," says Mrs. Browne, " a
little cottage in the neighbourhood of St. Asaph, where it
would give me and my daughters the highest gratification
to see you. It is pleasantly situated on the banks of the
Clwyd, and is ten miles nearer Liverpool than where we
now are, so that the journey would not be so serious an
undertaking, and your society would be an invaluable
acquisition to my two girls." In the same letter (4th
March, 1809) Mrs. Browne writes: "Felicia was much
gratified by the letter you had the kindness to write her,
and she bids me say that it made her heart glow with
pleasure, as she was convinced the sentiments of friend-
ship you profess for her, are sincere. She will write to
you herself after we are settled in our new habitation."
The promised letter was dated 1 8th April, and with it
was sent a copy of a letter from her eldest brother giving
an account of the taking of Martinique. The brother
had been wounded, but his spirit and enthusiasm were

unaffected : —

" Bronwhilfa, i8th April, 1809.
My Dear Sir, —

The letter which my Mother has transcribed for your perusal on
the other side, we received yesterday from my eldest Brother. You
may easily imagine what blended emotions of tenderness, pride, and
affection, it excited in our Bosoms. Deeply as I feel for the sufferings
my dearest Brother must have endured, still I can hardly regret that

14 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Corj^espondence.

he has received a wound in so glorious a cause, and as a trophy of so
brilliant a victory ; it will ever be his pride that he has bled in the
service of his Country, and, like the Soldier described in the
' Pleasures of Memory,' who ' counts o'er his scars, and tells what
deeds were done,' he will ever triumph in a recollection of the perils to
which he has been exposed. If, however, he had not written himself
to inform us of his convalescence, or if we had imagined he was in any
danger from his wound, how different would our feelings have been !
I agree with you that my poetic visions of Spanish Freedom are not
likely at present to be realized ; and I regret that the ardent
enthusiasm the cause excited, led my fancy to paint the Spanish people,
in colours, which (except in a few instances), have proved only
rainbow illusions. I feel highly indebted to you, my dear Sir, for
suggesting to my Muse, a subject which might well exercise the highest
powers ; but I fear it requires more knowledge of the world than a
youthful, unsuspecting heart, can pretend to have acquired; indeed, if
Experience only serves to blight the visions of imagination, and display
the depravity of which human Nature is said to be capable, I should
prefer to remain in total ignorance of life, and the manners of the world.
For this reason, therefore, I must, at present, decline a theme, which
perhaps my Judgment, when more matured, may select, for its variety
and excellence. I hope I need not assure you, my dear Sir, what
delight we should have in seeing you at our new abode ; it certainly
has more resemblance to a Cottage than a Palace, but you know Poets
make Cottages the dwellings of peace and Content ; Hospitality would
give you a most cordial welcome, and Gratitude would certainly meet
you in the person of your unknown

though affectionate young friend,

Felicia D. Browne.

Harriett unites with us in affectionate regards ; she will not
forgive me if I intrude any more upon her privilege of corresponding
with you, which she has reason to value as such a prerogative
deserves ! "

In May, 1809, Felicia again wrote to Mr. Nicholson
and this, like her previous letter, shows how an almost
first hand acquaintance with war and the Spaniards had
toned down her enthusiasm.

" Bronwhllfa, 4th May, 1 809.
My Dear Sir, —

I regret that you should imagine my 'hint for closing corre-
spondence,' had proceeded from any reluctance on my part ; as I
assure you it has hitherto afforded me very high gratification, and I
have no doubt, would continue to be productive of both pleasure and
improvement. I was Ifearful that you might consider my letters as

Manchestci- Memoirs, Vol. LIV. (A'o. <>).

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Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. {\gio), No. 9. 15

trespassing upon that time, which miglit be so much better devoted
. than in either reading or answ ering them. If I thought they could be
in the least interesting to you, I should feel myself highly honoured by
being admitted into the number of your regular Correspondents. Most
ungrateful should I indeed be, if I did not consider myself greatly
indebted for the notice of one whom I have so much reason to esteem.
I am happy to find that you have not given up the cause of Spain as
desperate ; had every Leader of the Spanish people acted like the
illustrious Palafox, and the brave defenders of Saragossa, they would
have deserved the praises and enthusiasm, their energies at first
excited, and Spain might have been called the Land of patriot-heroes.
Have you read Mr. Heber's poem lately published, on the subject of
the present war? It appears to me imbued with much of the
true Spirit of Poetry ; and, though it is certainly inferior to his noble
production, ' Palestine,' yet it is highly animated, and bestows the
most glowing encomiums upon the exertions of the Spaniards, in the
Cause of Liberty. If you have met with it, I should like to know
your opinion of its merits, and hope it will coincide with my own. We
are at length comfortably settled in our new habitation, but the
surrounding Country, tho' rich in the beauties of Cultivation, appears
very uninteresting after the wild mountain-walks, and rude, romantic
scenery of our former abode. The Sea, too, that constant picture
either of the Sublime, or the Beautiful, is far distant, and I regret the
privation daily. I thank you, my dear Sir, for your kind wishes
respecting my dear Brothers ; they are echoed by my own heart, and
I hope the anxiety and suspense we have endured on their account,
will never again be experienced. Nothing but a firm reliance on the
mercies of Providence, could sustain our spirits in such a situation,
and I hope that humble resignation to all its dispensations, will ever
attend your

Affectionate and sincere young friend,

Ffxicia Browne."

At the same time Mrs. Browne writes .• —

" I receive all the assurances of the friendly interest you take
in the success of Felicia's two publications, with peculiar gratification,
because you have evinced by deeds the sincerity of your words, —
and though, from her total indifference to all pecuniary objects, she
never bestows a thought upon the emolument which might have been
expected to be derived from these juvenile productions ; yet I cannot
entirely divest myself of anxiety on the subject, from the circumstances
in which I am placed by providence which make it an object of
importance to me and my children."

It appears that though " England and Spain " was on
a topical subject, the edition of 500 copies remained

i6 Nicholson, Heuians — Nicholson Correspondence.

unsold and unnoticed. Mrs. Browne thought the sale of
the copyright was the only way to induce the publishers
to push it, and Mr. Nicholson was requested to get an
offer from them. " I fear I am trespassing too much on
your time," she says, " by making you such a participatot*
in my concerns ; but it is natural for us to expatiate
where we find we are attended to." Mr. Nicholson's
health was then worse than usual, and he had just lost
two old friends, Mr. Kennion, the artist, and Mr. Rath-
bone. A letter of June 3 from Mrs. Browne enclosed a
copy of Felicia's stirring poem, " The Call of Liberty,"
afterwards printed in " Domestic Affections." In the
next letter from Bronwhilfa, 25th July, 1809, Mrs. Browne
has much to say about Felicia.

" Felicia would have availed herself of this opportunity to tell
you how much she admired the virtuous and grateful sentiments
expressed in the lines of Mr. Rushton, which you were so attentive as
to send her, but she is assiduously occupied in copying, or rather
writing oni fairly, a poem [' War and Peace ']she has lately composed,
and which I shall have the pleasure of sending to Mr. W. Roscoe, by
a private conveyance, the latter end of this week, when you may,
perhaps, take the trouble of perusing it. She was taken ill of the
scarlet fever (which has been very prevalent in this neighborhood)
about a month ago, and whilst she was confined by it, she planned and
executed this poem, which was but the work of thirteen days, though
I believe it contains more than eight hundred lines. It appears to me
a very spirited performance, but I will make no further comments
upon it, till I hear your sentiments and those of Mr. W. Roscoe.
When you read it, I am sure it will be with that candor which is due
to the work of a girl, who still wants two months to complete her
sixteenth year. She is every day more and more devoted to study,
and her mind certainly makes astonishing progress in the path of
literature ; so that I hope she may one day be an ornament to her
circle and have an influence in society in the cause of virtue and truth."

A fortnight later Mr. Nicholson was desired to
enquire if Mr. Roscoe had received the poem. In her
next letter Mrs. Browne enclosed two others from one of
her soldier sons, which she wanted her mother and sisters

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 9. 17

to read : " I entrust them to you," she says, "as they may
lose them, and I wish to have them returned." On
September 22nd she wrote to Mr. Nicholson : —

" As you always express an interest in Felicia's compositions, I
have copied for you a piece she lately made (' The Angel of the Sun ')
which is one of her great favorites. The subject is quite original and
I am sure its sentiments will accord with your own. Your approba-
tion of ' War and Peace ' is most grateful to its Authoress. I certainly
must think it a wonderful production, and I am anxious to hear from
Mr. W. Roscoe respecting its publication as he promised to take upon
himself the measures for that purpose."

In December, 1809, Mr, Nicholson had a visit from
George Browne, who had returned from the wars wounded
and disillusioned, and being temporarily out of conceit
with a military life, was looking for civil employment.
This gave Mr. Nicholson an opportunity of trying to
check Felicia's military ardour, or rather her expression
of it in poetry.

" What our young heroine will say [to her brother's change of
career], I cannot tell. But I think his measures and her own
disappointed hopes of victory will operate more powerfully than any
preaching to convince her that politicks are unworthy of her Muse. I
will explain my meaning. The ' England and Spain,' ' The Call of
Liberty,' ' The Wreath of Loyalty,' and the ' War and Peace ' are all
wonderful Poems, and especially in the first and last there are most
interesting passages which will always be admired and enjoyed ; but I
must own my fears that many of the personal and temporary allusions
will not add to their interest when the passing scenes are faded and
the charming Author is more known. In my opinion 'tis on the
cultivation and expression of the tender sensibilities of innocence and
nature — the sympathetic feelings and descriptions of afflicted virtue,—
and the conscious possession and glowing raptures of Affection and
Piety that her talents will still shine brightest and that her own delight
will be secure. ' The Silver Locks,' ' The Lamenting Mother and
Daughter ' in the ' War and Peace ' — and above all ' The Angel of
the Sun ' affect and interest me. There are very great beauties of
invention which happily introduce the finest ideas in most melodious
language. ' The Invocation to Futurity,' — ' The Address of Celestial
Mercy and Angelic Love' and that of ' The Angel of the Sun ' with
all the delicate moral and pious applications which result, will one day
meet with their deserved admiration. But 'tis as well perliaps that

1 8 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Correspondettce.

this for the present should be postponed. Meanwhile perhaps she will
think it best to avoid rousing the passions by declamation and to
persevere in interesting descriptions and undisputed Morals and in
captivating appeals to the heart and affections. She must make us
better before we can admire as we ought her best works. I don't
know whether I should allow any young man to say these things to
herself; yet she has deceived an old one if she is not out of the reach
of Injury."

At the same time Mr. Nicholson replied to one of
Felicia's letters which has not been preserved : —

•'I rejoice with you, my dear Miss Browne, that your brother
George is safe and well here, and that your anxiety on his account in
future is likely to be lessen'd. It was my intention when first I saw
him to write to you by him a long letter ; but the pleasures of his
society and other matters have put it out of my power. Not that I
perceive any irregular luxuriance ' to be temper'd in the wild enthusiasm
of fifteen ' now happily attained to sixteen ! or any ' improvement ' that
it is in my power to bestow. I have had a rich feast in your letter and
the productions of your Muse. Heber's Poems which you mention I
have not yet got to see ; and Mrs. Carter's Life I feel fresh desire to
read because of your warm admiration of her character."

Then he goes on to tell that he had recently read
* Coelebs', " a jumble of good things," though he deplored
the author's " degraded idea of human nature." Writing
to Harriett at the same time, Mr. Nicholson says : —

" As I have let your Brother into some of my secrets I may as
well tell you and get you on my side to plead forgiveness from your
Sister for having copied some of her Poems into a book of the same
size of her printed Works. I shall not suffer them out of my sight, and
if you do not gain forgiveness for me, I must some time lay the sacrifice
at the Author's feet."

The book to which Mr. Nicholson refers is now in
my possession.

When George Browne went to Bronwhilfa after seeing
Mr. Nicholson, he had fully resolved to break with his
military life. His mother reported to Mr. Nicholson that
" Our young heroine is amongst the first to rejoice in his
resolution, to avail himself of an opening for something

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 9. 19

more advantageous, than even the highest rank in the
army could promise, and her thoughts are now occupied
upon subjects very remote from the passing events of the
day." Mrs. Browne was of opinion that Cadell and Davies
were keeping back the sale of " England and Spain,"
as " it does not appear that they have disposed of a
single copy," and she urges Mr. Nicholson to help
her in disposing of the copyright of some of Felicia's
poems, and she also desires him to buy her the i6th
of a lottery ticket. Felicia, she says, "will tell you
herself .... how much she is gratified by your
good opinion of her, and how highly you honor her
effusions by thinking them worth taking the trouble
of transcribing. The more candid you are in your
remarks, the more valuable to her will be your corres-
pondence, and I only wish we were so situated, that
your young friends would be able to avail themselves of
your preceptive and practical lessons in morality and all
goodness, to a greater extent than can now be the case."
Felicia's promised letter is missing, but there is one from
Mrs. Browne, congratulating herself that George Browne
had, after all, decided to remain in the army. " I have
such a dread of mercantile undertakings, from having
experienced the horrors of a failure in them, that I own
1 should feel less anxiety from his continuing in the
army, than from his entering into large engagements.
These are my sentiments from conviction, though I own
I was, at first, a little dazzled by the offers made him."
On 15th January, 18 10, Mrs. Browne thanks Mr. Nichol-
son for sending her a copy of a criticism of one of
Felicia's works, and in March she was again asking his
services in connection with the sale of copyrights. There
followed an " obstinate silence " on Mr. Nicholson's part,
probably he was ill, which Mrs Browne tried to break

20 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Correspondence.

by sending him a short letter on 15th July, enclosing a
copy of Felicia's poem on " The Statue of the Dying
Gladiator."

Shortly afterwards followed a personal meeting between
Felicia Browne and Matthew Nicholson. Mr. Nicholson
had neglected many invitations to visit the Brownes, but
in 1810 he made up his mind to visit North Wales again,
and to call on the Brownes.

That he should so far depart from his accustomed
routine of life was due to the fact that his niece, Bessy
Hatfield, of Manchester, was ill, and was ordered to
Abergele. Mr. Nicholson escorted the invalid. The
visit was a long one. The journey from Manchester to
Abergele took four days. On the way to Abergele the
party called at Bronwhilfa, and found only Miss Wagner
at home. Early in August, Mr. Nicholson again went
there, " and found Mrs. Browne and Harriett got home,
but was again disappointed in not seeing Miss Felicia,
nor have I since heard if she be returned from her excur-
sion." Writing to his brother, he says, " It will be a great
mortification to leave the Principality without seeing its
greatest ornament ! Her situation at Gwrych was highly
favorable for the cultivation of the imagination, as well
as the mind and understanding. I have frequently walked
round it, almost with the devotion of a lover — nor have I
ever seen the windows of her study without painting on
my mind the ideal image of her person, old as I am ! "
He was not, however, to be disappointed. On August
13th he visited the Brownes, and saw Felicia. The
quotation just given will indicate the spirit in which
Mr. Nicholson was prepared to meet the poetess, although
he had not then seen her. When he had made her
acquaintance he seems to have fallen in love with Felicia,
but it was love tempered by more common sense than

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. t>. 21

one usually finds when an old man falls in love with a
girl in her teens. Whether he told his love to Felicia I
do not know, but he told his sister later that if he had
been twenty years younger he would have married Felicia.
Of his own impressions of Felicia we have no contem-
porary record, but his niece paid a visit to Bronwhilfa,
and has left the following account : —

"We were shewn into Mrs. B's Tea room which was ornamented
with drawings, there was a pedal Harp, and a Piano Forte, which was
open. Mrs. B — . first appear'd and received us in a very friendly
manner. Next came Miss W. and Miss Harriett B. and last of all the
lovely and interesting object of our visit, Miss F.D.B., came into the
room, and with perfect ease engaged in the conversation, which was
supported in a most lively strain by her Mother. Having heard of
Miss Browne's musical powers, we requested to participate in the
gratification our friends had received when they visited Br — a and after
my Brothers had arrived and Mrs. B. had tuned the Harp, — her
daughter F. vibrated its strings and accompanied by her sister on the
Piano, played delightfully. She complied with our request to sing, in
a voice remarkably sweet and powerful. Her countenance glowed with
an expression the most heavenly ; and to be in the presence of a figure
altogether Angelic seemed like a vision of fancy rather than reality, —
for it is impossible for the imagination to picture an earthly being half
so lovely. After having passed two delightful hours with this engaging
family we quitted Br — a with true regret, taking a friendly farewell
of all."

After Matthew Nicholson's visit to Bronwhilfa, there
was a break in the correspondence, which was reopened
by Felicia.

"Bronwhilfa, 4th Dec, 1810.

My Dear Sir, —

I know not whether I ought to begin in so affectionate a manner,
considering the reason I have to be justly offended at your neglect of
the promise you made respecting our future correspondence. I had the
vanity to flatter myself, after the few, but agreeable and instructive
hours I had the pleasure of passing in your society, that you would not
soon forget me ; but, alas ! I have the mortification of perceiving
this is not the case, and can only regret my want of power to make a
stronger impression on yonx fail hless memory. However, I am deter-
mined to make one effort at least, to refresh your imagination and my

22 Nicholson, Hejnans—Nic/ioisou Correspondence.

wishes will be fulfilled, if these lines recall to your mind one whom
you have honoured with your friendship. You may bs assured, my
dear Sir, that if 1 do not hear from you in a very short time, I shall
set you down in the list of inconstant swains ; and I think if this
terrible anathema has no effect, I must give up all hopes of success, so
I will say no more upon this subject.

I believe I must remind you of the eagle's quill you promised me ;
I have long expected it with impatience, and my Muse having been
rather languid for some time past, it would certainly be very a propos
at present, and I will send you the first poem I write with the/«^ Oi
Inspiration. I believe it is since your visit at Bronwhilfa, that I have
been delighted with the perusal of Scott's ' Lady of the Lake.' I have
the presumption to differ from many established critics in preferring it
to his former writings ; but it is, in my opinion, adorned with all the
striking beauties, as well as free from the leading faults, which dis-
tinguished those performances. It interests the heart, and appeals to
the feelings, much more forcibly, and its descriptive passages are less
obscured by those legendary allusions which fatigue the reader of
' Marmion' and the ' Lay.' It is much to be regretted that a Bard so
endowed with all the characteristics of true genius, with enthusiasm,
fancy, and tenderness ; should so far pervert those exalted gifts, as to
employ them only in the decoration uf some fantastic legend, some
obsolete tale of 'Border chivalry,' which only answers the purpose of
an hour's amusement, and leaves no impression tending to excite a
virtuous wish, or a noble emulation. When I speak of his perverted
powers, I do not wish to confound him with the Anacreons of the day,
who employ all the fascinations of elegance and talent, to array Vice in
the most enchanting colours, but surely all gifts, when not devoted to
their true end, are perverted, and therefore he is negatively guilty. I
have also read Campbell's ' Gertrude of Wyoming,' and was much
pleased with its beautiful simplicity, though I should have admired it
more had it been by any other Author, for we are led to expect so
much from the Poet who could write the ' Pleasures of Hope,' that the
reality must ever fall below our sanguine ideas. I am beginning to
think it is a great misfortune to have a too vivid imagination, as when
compared with its brilliant illusions, life with all the sad truths of
experience, appears a scene of the most monotonous insipidity. I
have learned, in theory at least, that it is necessary to prune the wings
of fancy, if we would prevent her excursions m.aking what is only
tame and uninteresting, appear insupportable. How I shall practise
this lesson, I cannot decide, as it is one very repugnant to the feelings
of your

much indebted and

affectionate young friend,

Felicia Browne."

Ma7icliester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), A^^. 9. 23

The reply was prompt. On 21st December, 18 10,
Mr. Nicholson wrote to " My dear Felicia," and made full
apologies for his neglect.

" You know not what a terrible thing it is to be overwhehiied in
debt — you who are in the habit of conferring favours ! When I look
back and find not a trace of one word written to you this whole year,
I can scarcely believe myself to have l)een so ungrateful and am quite
ashamed to plead the apologies which have at times satisfied my idle
inattention. But the gentleness of your rebuke has roused me to an
assertion of the truth in the main point of our quarrel. Indeed,
indeed I have never forgotten you, nor since the 13th of August has
a day passed without interesting recollections of what I then saw and
heard. The smartness of your raillery convinces me that you cannot
be seriously offended and that though you have nothing to be forgiven,
yet you have learned to forgive others. The next thing I can do
towards deserving your pardon is to fulfil, as well as I can, the
promise I believe I made to send you some account of the Exhibition
of Paintings, &c., upon the opening in August last of the Liverpool
Academy."

This he proceeds to do at considerable length. This
letter was "sent unfinished by Mr. George Bainbridge,
2 1st December, 18 10, with an Eagle's quill, and Lord
Byron's Satire on ' English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,'
both for F. D. B., and also a letter to Mrs. Browne, and
another to Harriett Mary B." A letter to Mrs. Browne
also refers to the visit.

" Permit me then to offer my best thanks for your civilities and for
introducing me to the acquaintance of your daughter Fehcia.

I have now distinct ideas of your domestic proceedings and your
surrounding scenery, and whenever I walk on the hill at Everton,
which I do almost daily, I have little but a mortifying distance to
intercept my sight of your sweet wood Nymphs which I think is a name
of your suggesting. The cordiality of Felicia's reception and Harriett's
very kind recollection of me have left very vivid images on my mind
and interest my best feelings. I was lately much grieved on hearing
that Robert I^oardman my Nephew had passed through St. Asaph to a
ship on shore near Rhidlan without my knowing it, and I was almost
angry when I found on his return that he had recollected your living
at Bronwhilfa and had not sent to know if you could acquaint me that
you were all well. ... I fear Messrs. C. & D. are not to be
roused in the cause of your publications. I do not often see Messrs.

24 Nicholson, Hevmns — Nicholson Correspondence.

Roscoes but I omit no occasion of introducing the subject to them.
They expressed great admiration of the poem on the Statue of the
Dying Gladiator, but Liverpool has been so convulsed of late by
mercantile derangements as very generally to allow no interest in
other subjects."

Then follows a copy of an " ill-natured criticism " of
Felicia's poems, which had appeared in the " Annual
Review " of 1808. The reviewer acknowledged that " the
flow of verse was admirable," that the writer had "an
excellent ear," but he thought that " for the present her
partial friends would do more wisely in exhorting her to
read than in tempting her to write." Mr. Nicholson was
grieved to think that this criticism had appeared in a
review of which the editor was Arthur Aikin, the nephew
of Mrs. Barbauld. But it made no difference to his
appreciation of Felicia's poems. " For my own part," he
says, " I receive fresh delight on every perusal of your
daughter's compositions. The melody of the verse capti-
vates on the first perusal, and it is only on often reading
them that one finds fresh beauties in the natural and
feeling flow of thought, and the correctness of epithet and
language, and their perspicuity is singularly characteristic.
If we are partial do we not admire the same sort of
beauties in some of the poems of Campbell, Rogers, and
Pope ? "

The unfinished letter to Felicia was completed on ist
January, 181 1.

"My Dear Felicia, —

Mr. Bainbridge would tell you he found me employed in writing
to you when he called to announce his immediate departure at least
from this neighbourhood, on as stormy an evening as I ever remember.
That circumstance induced me to trouble him then with conveying to
you even the progress I had made. So I bundled together, a letter to
your mother, and parts of two to Harriett and you along with a
catalogue of the Liverpool Exhibition of Paintings the whole surround-
ing and I hope safely guarding that Eagle's quill which I promised
you and which you have led me to hojie shall communicate the effects

Mandiester Memoirs, Vol.lh>.{\g\o),No.9. 25

of its inspiration. You should know, it fell from the wing of a free
American Bird ; and you will perceive that it was the choicest feather
which it had to send you : and for anything I know to the contrary it
dropped on the 25th September, 1793. 1 leave it to you to trace that
association of my ideas which induces me to tell you I have this day
read in the American President's Message to Congress on the 5th
December his recommendation that there be instituted at its seat of
government a National Temple of Science. Whilst the old world is
quarrelling about shades of difference the new one seems studying to
allay 'jealousy and prejudice, to beautify the features of national
character and to extend social harmony.' "

The remainder of Mr. Nicholson's letter relates to

recent publications of Byron, Campbell, and others.

Felicia was "much oppressed with a bad cold," and did

not immediately reply to Mr. Nicholson. Her mother,

in a letter to Mr. Nicholson on 26th January, 181 1, wrote

of the effects of the criticism which he had copied for her,

and which she had evidently communicated to the

daughter.

"An ill natured person might say it [the criticism] proceeded
from envy. It certainly has had the effect of checking Felicia's en-
thusiasm for poetry, which I rather regret, as 1 know her genius to be
equal to anything she might undertake. Mr. Heber, the author of
' Palestine,' has read her poem of 'War and Peace' the last week and
bestowed much unqualified praise upon it, even comparing it with the
' Pleasures of Hope ' of Campbell."

Writing to Harriett, 30th January, 181 1, Mr. Nicholson
says : —

"I have lately been honour'd by an addition to my poetical
acquaintances for which I am indebted to your sister. Her volume had
been ordered into our Lyceum circulating Library and merely from
similarity in size there was attached to it in order to save expence a
poem by the young Lord Byron and of a very different character
without his name to it. To gratify the zeal of my new friend for your
Sister's honour and to form a more appropriate connection I have
made interest to have the ' England and Spain ' put in the place of this
Lord's 'Epistle on Gas-lights'' ; which, however, is a witty production,
but calculated for a different class of readers."

The "poetical acquaintance" was Edward Ward, and
Mr. Nicholson enclosed with his letter to Harriett, a

26 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Correspondence.

" tribute to the genius of Felicia," anonymous, but written

by Ward. Felicia was evidently interested. Her letter in

reply is missing, but we get an idea of its contents from

the draft of Mr. Nicholson's reply.

" Liverpool, 23 I'ebruary, 181 r.
jMy Dear Felicia, —

I do not know why it should exclusively be termed feminine
curiosity to desire to know to whom we feel obligation, however in the
case to which I allude I think yours very natural. You are too
generous to make terms, or you might have conditioned that the author
of the Lines addressed to you should be intitled to a copy of your
charming ' Call of emulation to genius ' on permitting his name to be
made known to you. You solicit this communication from me, and it
is painful to keep you in suspense ; but I have not that liberty yet ;
and I will tell you probably why. As you say that the ' Call ' is part
of an unfinished poem (though I cannot perceive it to be so) it occurs
to me to ask you pieviously whether that is not a reason why you
should withhold the copy of it at present. I have other reasons for
not having obeyed your commands. The author of the Lines has
resolved and re-resolved to drop his acquaintance with the muse ; now
I am not a little fearful that this ' Call ' would overpower his resolu-
tion ; and above all as he has enter'd into the Army I should be sorry
to aggravate your anxieties. If these are frivolous objections, let me
know, when your orders shall no longer be delayed to be executed,
and your curiosity may probably be gratified. I understand that this
young gentleman was first intended for trade, then for the Church, and
now he is in the Army. He appears qualified to make a figure in any
profession he adopts — he has shown his literary taste ! That taste, and
your ' Call ' ! how could they be resisted ?

Your aunt has tantalised me by a sight of your three translations
from the Italian. She will tell you herself how highly she applauds
them and we all must admire them in their English elegance. Mr.
Koscoe also having translated the sonnet by Lorenzo I have annexed a
copy, which I don't believe you have seen. I suspect the Englisli
language is as musical as the Italian. Mr. Roscoe I see has arranged
the rhymes in the same order with Lorenzo's. I doubt, and I think
you do also, whether our language will bear such scattered tones.
Nay, my ear condemns that formal imitation. The sound of his
eleventh line was dead before the fourteenth was struck. I rejoice
with you on the return of Spring, yesterday was a delightful one here ;
but the times are dismal in the extreme and I lament they have
reached your neighbourhood. Harriett has made my curiosity very
anxious. Thank her for her well-filled slip of paper. Present my
kind regards to each of the ladies and reply immediately if in only
tliree lines to your friend and obliged humble servant."

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. ?>. 27

Felicia's reply to this letter, though missing from my
collection of letters, is fortunately not lost. It found its
way, no doubt after its recipient's death, into the papers
of my great-uncle, Dr. Shepherd, of Gateacre, and is now
the property of Manchester College, Oxford,

" Bronwhilfa, 2nd March, l8ll.
My Dear Sir, —

The certainty of a speedy private opportunity, has inciuced me to
delay my compliance with your request of writing immediately. You
will perhaps call me a little, or rather not a little, perfinacioiis, when I
reiterate my desire that the lines I last transcribed for you, should be
presented to the Author of the gratifying address to me. You have
yourself very kindly furnished me with an excellent excuse for my
inquisitiveness ; by saying that the desire of knowing to whom we are
under obligations, is very natural. Now, do you know, my dear Sir,
that I suspect you have delayed fulfilling my injunctions, ^.x\i\9.?i\.\s,iy'mg
my curiosity, to show yourself as great an Adept in the Art of teazing,
as we must all acknowledge you to be in that oi pleasing ! but let me
just give you a friendly hint, that the latter is so much more difficult
to attain, and affords a triumph so much nobler, when attained, that
those who have arrived at a certain degree of excellence in this
accomplishment, ought to look down upon the former with contempt.
This is not your case, I ninst say ; otherwise what occasion to inform
me the poetic Incognito was a Soldier; a circumstance, above all
others, calculated to increase my inquisitive spirit, as you know my
decided predilection for everything luilitary. But now, to be a little
serious, why should you he feaifiil that my lines might overpower his
resolution to desert the Muses? I by no means approve of his in-
gratititude, and as a Soldier must unavoidably have many leisure
moments, when not occupied by the duties of his profession, I
cannot imagine how they could be better employed than when devoted
tu the cultivation of a literary taste. This taste (setting aside the idea
that it improves the heart and meliorates the passions, whilst it refines
the understanding ;) may at least, preserve its votary from the
temptations which Dissipation offers to the vacant mind of Idleness.
You say to me ' that taste, and this ' Call,' how could they be resisted ? '
Now, my dear, provoking Mentor, let me know but one good reason,
why they should be resisted, and I will silently acquiesce in the
decrees of your superior discretion. But if this is not the case, and you
are obliged to confess that I am the victor, I shall expect your next
letter to be satisfactory, and to inform me that my mandates have been
as punctually obeyed, as those of the Grand Signior, or the Great
Mogul ! I thank you for transcribing me the sonnet from Lorenzo ;

28 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Correspondence.

it is elegant and correct, but I am of your opinion, and should prefer it
if Mr. Roscoe had deviated from the original in the arrangement of his
Rhymes. I am now reading his Lorenzo for the first time, and of
course I am highly gratified. With the poetry I am delighted, and
we may frequently pause in suspense, whether the palm of merit is
most due to the Bard or his Translator. I cannot entirely coincide
with you in the idea, that the English language is as musical as the
Italian — the former may be polished into harmony, the latter can never
deviate from it. But to compensate for its superiority in this respect,
I think we have greatly the advantage in energy, which is surely a
more noble characteristic than sweetness.

The late storms would have occasioned us much uneasiness on
George's account, if we had not had the satisfaction of a letter from
him dated Torbay, where the transports had been driven by the violence
of the weather. We are anxiously waiting to learn the arrival of our
gallant soldiers in Portugal. But ihe Spanish Campaign cured me of
my enthusiastic expectations, and I am not at all sanguine as to
the result of this. I hope you will favour me with a long letter by
!\Ir. Bainbridge whose return will then be highly welcome to
your much obliged

affectionate young friend,

Felicia Dorothea Browne."

To this letter Mr. Nicholson replied : —

"Liverpool, 13th April, 1811.
My Dear Felicia, —

Your orders I have more cheerfully executed than ever Eastern
Slave obeyed the Command of a Tyrant — for the service was volun-
tary. Your arguments are irresistable. But the fact is that you, my
new acquaintance, and myself, thought much alike on the subject — the
difference between us only arising from the terms of the proposition.
He maintained that he should have not a minute's leisure for the next
seven years from the immediate studies of his new profession — thus
warmly has he entered it ! However, the result, I hope, will be the
active cultivation of all those good qualities which you so charmingly
pourtray. For I could not secrete the possible influence of such
powerful pleadings ! An immediate consequence has been that the
gentleman has requested me to present you with copies of two odes
written in June last, on His Majesty's Birthday, and on Friendship,
with his name annexed. This gentleman, Mr. Edwd. Ward, now in
the 4th of Foot, is son to Mr. & Mrs. Robt. Ward of St. Ann St. here.
Mrs. Ward's name was Miss Eliza Chadwick whom possibly your
Mother and Aunt are acquainted with. She enjoys but delicate health,
and I lament, in spite of your heroism, any circumstance that must add
cither to her or your solicitude. To teaze you with expectation would
have been inconsistent with this sentiment, and I hope you acquit me
of such design.

Manchester Mejuoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. J). 29

Mr. Roscoe was greatly pleased with your translations and I should
be glad to hear that he had written to you on this subject. I believe
he did not think himself at liberty to ' deviate from the original in the
arrangement of his Rhymes.'

I should have written by Mr. Bainbridge the last time he was here
had I known his stay would be so short and now I have but little time
and can barely thank you for the two sonnets he brought me. That
by Angelo I suppose you allow is highly poetical and that of Carlo
Maria Maggi is finely moral ; but I do not see the propriety of the
epithet ' vain ' as applied to life, it does not suit our opinion that this
life is a school of education. Fearing to miss the opportunity I must
beg you to accept the thanks and good wishes of }ours,

M. N."
Two letters from Felicia are missing, but two of
Mrs. Browne's help to fill up the period and to illustrate

the financial aspect of juvenile poetry.
"My Dear Sir, —

When Felicia had the pleasure of giving you a few hasty lines by
Mr. Hobson, she promised you the copy of a poem she was then
beginning and I have now an opportunity of sending it. ('Domestic
Affections'). She has been much troubled with an ugly cough and a
pain in her side lately, which has given her friends a little anxiety ;
but a blister, and taking the Iceland ]Moss have been of great service,
and our good and dear friend Miss Foulkes came for her last week, to
breathe the pure air of Eriviatt, from which, under Providence, I am
sure she will derive ever}' advantage. I promised her, before she left
me, that I would copy this poem for you. When you have read it, if
you approve, it would be doing her a favor to show it to Mr. Roscoe,
and if he thinks it deserving public notice, it would be an act of great
kindness to Felicia and me, if he would interest himself to dispose of
the copy-right. I should think ' War and Peace ' with some uf her
best smaller pieces might be worth the attention of Cadell and Davies
or some other eminent liookseller, to be printed without her name. I
am very fearful of asking such a favor of Mr. Roscoe, but I am
quite a novice in such a business, and though I am convinced
her genius must, in time, shine forth and overcome every illiberal
attempt to keep it down, yet my circumstances are such, at this
freseitt tune, that they make Felicia very desirous to counteract
their depressing weight, by employing the talents she has been
endowed with, for the good of her family. She is surrounded
by admiring friends, to none of whom I can open my mind as
to pecuniary matters, and as I know Mr. Roscoe's philanthropy to be
great, I think he may be induced, through your representation, to
assist Genius in its laudable wishes. I cannot think Cadell and
Davies liave behaved with the least liberality, or made the least

30 Nicholson, Hcumns — Nicholson Correspondence.

exertion in the sale of her two first publications. The time is as
favorable now for ' England and Spain ' as ever it was, and I should
believe if they had only sent a copy to each of their correspondents,
another edition of each work might have been gone through, instead
of which a large property is lying like lumber in their hands. Do you
think they might be roused to any exertion, or induced to become
interested for Felicia? That they have the power I know very well,
and perhaps Mr. Roscoe might have great weight with them, if he
could be persuaded to be her friend with them. I know you will
forgive my opening my mind to you, which my circumstances have
induced me to. It is five months since I have had a line from Mr.
Browne at Quebec, when he promised me a comfortable remittance,
but I fear the calamitous times in England have spread their un-
propitious influence to that quarter of the world, and under this
impression, Felicia is anxious to evince that her genius has not been
bestowed in vain. She could wrile in the stile of Scott, who seems to
engross the public applause, but she does not like any subjects, but
such as have a moral tendency and may stand the test of time. What
strange people the reviewers are ! I had a letter from a person lately
who said she knew Dr. McKenzie, who reviewed one of Felicia's
works, and says that when he reviewed it, he had not read it, but
since he had perused it, and thought it delightful. I have sent you a
letter from Tom and two late ones from Geo. to read, and when you
have done with them, will you have the goodness to let my sister see
them and return them to me, when you have a good private oppor-
tunity ?

I am always giving you trouble, but your friendly zeal gives me
unlimited confidence and I know by experience, that you delight in
doing good ; which is certainly the only thing worth living for.

At your leisure it will be a great satisfaction to hear from you,
and with the united respects of all this family,
I remain, my dear Sir,

Your obliged friend,

F. D. Browne.
Bronwhilfa, 23rd May, 181 1."

In a letter dated loth July, 181 1, Mrs. Browne, after
thanking Mr. Nicholson for his " innumerable acts of
disinterested friendship," mentions that she has at length
received a letter, but no remittance, from Quebec. She
then discusses the sale of the copyrights : —

" If the arrangement you mention, of disposing of the copyright of
Felicia's productions, could be effected, it would be most acceptable to
me, and whatever sum you think fair I shall be perfectly satisfied with ;

Mandiester Aleinoirs, VoLlw.{\gio),No.9. 31

only I should like a few copies of each work for myself, to be allowed
me in the agreement. ;i^200, I would not object to, for ike whole,
though the number of lines is so great ; as the purchaser (who I should
much wish to be Cadell and Da vies) would take pains to establish the
authoress's name and that once done, her pen is so rapid and so
versatile, that I should then hope she might have the proud distinction
of devoting her talents to the honor and glory of the Giver of them,
by making them subservient to counteract the evil destiny of her
family. It is no more difficult to her to write a poem, than to me to
write a letter, and I do believe she could with ease, write twelve in a
year of the length of ' War and Peace.' I need not say, that the
sooner this arrangement takes place the greater will be the kindness,
and if Mr. Roscoe could be induced to interest himself, it must have a
good effect. I believe if he knew the anxious feelings of my mind, at
this moment whilst I am writing to you, he would derive satisfaction
from a successful interference in this cause. The poem called the
'Powers of Expression,' I know Felicia would not like to have
published, as she thinks very poorly of it, but all the others you have
pointed out are very proper for the selection and I have sent you
copies I had by me of some others which might he chosen and particu-
larly I could wish the 'Ode to cheerfulness,' 'The Memory of joys
that are past,' and the ' Address to Music,' from some circumstances
attached to the times when they were written. ' War and Peace,'
Felicia thinks much too redundant and when she comes home, I will
send you a corrected copy of it and I have now sent you another copy
of ' The Dying Gladiator,' in which you will find two more lines,
which she added when she copied it fairly out. One of the many
sources of my present anxieties is, that my youngest son, sixteen years
old and a very fine, spirited boy, was to have gone to his father in
Quebec, with the first Spring ships, but I had not the means of his
equipment, which almost appears a happy dispensation of Providence,
who orders all things for the best. The army seems now to be the
only path open to him and his oldest brother can get him a commis-
sion in a highly respectable regiment, if I can accomplish his outfit
and therefore I would press the sale of the copy-right, as this regiment
is now abroad and he is losing his time at home. Felicia does not
return home until Monday next, when she will have been eight weeks
receiving the affectionate attentions of all her inestimable friends at
Eriviatt, which have restored her to health and spirits. The Friday
in next week, she and Harriett go to Conway, to stay the remainder of
the summer, but they shall both write to you before they go. Miss
Foulkes will be my companion whilst they are away and if you, my
dear, kind sir, would come and stay a few weeks with her and me,
we should be so happy, and we would nurse you and let you follow
your own pursuits as if you were at home. Do gratify us and give
this plan a serious consideration.

32 Nicholson, Hemans — NicJwlson Correspondence.

We were very muck pleased with Miss Hobson, her manner and
appearance were such as to inspire me with great interest, and to
make me wish she and my girls could be friends. Will you give my
remembrance to all their party. Mr. Jones, who brought me your
letter, seems a very intelligent man, and I liked his physiognomy
much ; I was sorry Felicia was not at home, as he expressed a great
wish to see her. Harriett will be delighted with the sketch yoa have
sent her and will thank you for it herself when she comes home. She
is at Glan y mor, the little cottage close to the sea, near Gwrych,
staying a few days with a friend of mine, Mrs. Middleton, who was
much pleased with Miss Hobson, as was Mr. Jackson, the Vicar.

I had a very long and interesting letter from m)' dear George
dated the 28th May, containing a very clear and unadorned detail of
the sanguinary battle of Albuera and the subsequent operations of the
army. . . And now, my dear Sir, I would say a thousand things
expressive of obligation, esteem, gratitttde, and all ths feelings which
at this moment are predominant in my mind, whilst I write under the
deep impression I have of your unwearied assiduity and kindness to
me and miue ; but words cannot do me justice, and deeds are rot in
my power to show, so your own heart must tell you what a debt I
owe, and whatever it suggests as due to you, you may be assured I am
fully sensible of. I fear this letter will be hard to decypher but I am
in great haste, for I have other letters to write, and if possible, I
would also copy for you by this conveyance, ' The Dying Gladiator'
and ' Wreath of Loyalty.' With the assurance of my esteem and
gratitude, I remain,
my dear Sir,

Your deeply obliged friend,

and faithful servant,

F. D. Browne."

The next letter of Felicia's is one that wandered
from its companions, but coming into the market I was
able to purchase it.

"Bronwhilfa, 17th July, 1811.
I am much disappointed, my dear Sir, to learn that there is no
prospect of our seeing you this summer, as I had indulged the expecta-
tion so long, that it almost became a certainty in my mind ; and I am
compelled to give up the idea, with more regret than I can possibly
express. I am but just returned home, after a long visit in the Vale of
Clwyd, where the kind attentions of my friends, and the change of air,
have greatly contributed to the restoration of my health. I was for
some time much indisposed, so as to be incapable of any exertion, but
I am now quite recovered and intend to resume all my pursuits with
more application than ever. Harriett and myself are going to

Manchester Memoirs, J^o/. liv. (1910), No. 5>. 33

Conway next Friday and I shall take advantage of the picturesque
scenery by which we shall be surrounded, to improve myself in
drawing ; as I am convinced that the practice of taking views from
nature, is the principal way of acquiring that spirit and correctness,
which alone constitute superior excellence. I have been reading
lately the memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds, with his discourses to the
Royal Academy, and I am so enthusiastic an admirer of the beauties
of painting, that I derived both pleasure and instruction from the
perusal. Will you assume a very good, grave nientorial iz.c&, and give
me a long lecture, when I tell you I have also been guilty of reading a
Romance'/ It is the 'Scottish Chiefs' by Miss Porter, and though I
am by no means an advocate for Hisl07-ical novels as they bewilder
our ideas, by confounding truth with fiction, yet this animated
authoress has painted her Hero, the Patriot William Wallace, in such
glowing colours, that you cannot avoid catching a spark of her own
enthusiasm, as you follow him through the incidents of the narrative.
I am teaching myself Spanish, and find it much easier than I expected,
but I envy all Latin Scholars, for the great facility with which they
must acquire every new language, in consequence of an advantage
from which so many are debarred. I regretted much that I had not
had the pleasure of seeing the Hobsons as they passed through St.
Asaph, it would have been very interesting to me to have had a long
conversation about you ; I am so incensed at your not visiting Wales
this year that I am really half inclined to appear in person at jour
residence for the purpose of venting my displeasure, after which, I
shall run away with you to Bronwhilfa, where the kindest welcome
always awaits you. But I recollect that our approaching visit to
Conway must render this fine scheme impracticable for the present,
though you may depend on its being put into execution at some future
time. I have not any new poetry to transcribe for you at present, as
the only Pegasus I have mounted for some time past, has been a Welsh
Poney, whose quiet even pace has been of much greater service to me,
than all the vagaries of the former unmanageable steed. I do not
doubt but the romantic scenes of Conway will breathe Inspiration,
and from thence, my dear Sir, you shall receive the next poetic
effusions of your ever grateful,

and affectionate young friend,

Felicia Browne."

Meanwhile Mr. Nicholson was preparing a little

surprise for Felicia. The fugitive poems which he had

received from time to time were all carefully preserved

and copied out, and in 1811 Mr. Nicholson arranged that

they should be published for Felicia's benefit and without

any risk to her. Mrs. Browne was acquainted with the

34 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Correspondence.

scheme and was grateful. She also sent some further
poems, saying, " I always give j-ou discretionary power to
make what use you please of these productions." In the
same letter she writes, " Felicia has been studying the
Spanish language with great diligence, and has made
herself mistress of it, so that she can translate it and read
it equally well with the French and Italian, and she is
particularly pleased with it."

When Mr. Nicholson heard, probably from her
Liverpool relations, that Felicia and Captain Hemans
were engaged to be married, he sent his congratulations,
and apparently made some enquiries about the fortunate
man. He does not appear to have preserved a draft of
his letter. Mrs. Browne replied on February 7th, 1812 :—

"I must now, my dear Sir, expatiate with you upon a subject
very near my heart and which all your words and actions prove you to
have a most sincere interest in. I need not say that this relates to the
future hopes and fears for my beloved Felicia, whose youth and
peculiar frame of mind, make her naturally an object of my most anxious
maternal solicitations on the present momentous occasion of her life.
You will perhaps be surprised to hear that, young as she is, her present
attachment has been the cause of much anxiety to herself and the
object of it, for four years past ; and perhaps I may say it has, in a
great degree, alienated her mind from all delight in what the world
generally calls pleasure and from every wish but that of domestic
happiness. Though she is a child in years, yet her mind is so mature,
that I think her quite competent to decide for herself, on a subject
wherein she alone, is most deeply concerned ; and as splendor and
riches were never objects of any consideration with her (nor with me
for her) I trust she has as much prospect of happiness with the
man of her choice, and I hope, a competence, as can reasonably be
expected in this state of probation. He is a man whose morals and
manners are unexceptionable and in whom I feel an affectionate
interest, very little (if at all) less, than in my own sons.

This will, I know, have great weight with you in the judgment you
will form on this occasion, and I trust the progress of Felicia's genius
towards perfection vnll not be impeded by the additional motive she
will have to cultivate it and that the ' Domestic Affections,' beautiful
as some of its ideas are, is but a humble pledge of what we are to
receive from her future pen. She has been wishing to write to you

Manc/iester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 9- 35

herself, for some time past, but thought she could not do it without
mentioning this subject and it was too delicate for her to touch upon.
Now that you have spoken upon it, you will hear from her soor.
I saw in the paper some time ago, that two thousand pounds would be
given for the best translation of Lucien Bonaparte's poem of Charle-
magne. Could you enquire where information respecting this could
be had ? It is a work for which Felicia's perfect knowledge (jf the
French tongue and poetical genius make her quite competent."

Felicia's letter followed that of her mother, not
"soon " but a month later : —

" Bronwhilfa, I2th March. i8l2.

I must rely upon your indulgence, my dear Sir, to receive this
letter with a gracious aspect, as I feel conscious, when I look at the
date of your last, that my long neglect of it has forfeited all pretensions
to such clemency. I trust, however, you will not consider my excuse
as a superficial one, when I tell you, that I felt I should be deficient in
what I owe to a friendship so zealous and disinterested as yours has
been, if I wrote to you without mentioning a subject of the first
importance to myself, and yet too delicate for me to introduce first.
Now that this scruple is removed, I hope our correspondence will be
more frequent, and be assured no change of prospects or situation will
ever lessen the pleasure and improvement I shall always derive from
your letters. Vou seem to think, my dear Sir, in your last letter, that
my having ' concentrated my affections ' will interfere with the pursuit
of my favorite studies ; on the contrary, as the object of those affections,
(to whom they have been long devoted, with all the enthusiasm of a
first attachment and an ardent mind ;) will have delight in encouraging
my progress, and will know how to appreciate excellence if I should
ever attain it, I shall have in his approbation, an additional stimulus to
exertion. Were you fully acquainted with him (which I wish you
were, ) you would feel satisfied, that the happiness of your young friend
could not rest on a more secure basis than his worth and attachment ;
on which I rely with the most deserved confidence, for all that is to
cheer and illumine my future life.

I have a particular desire to attempt a new style of writing, and
think I should succeed in translation. Could you, or would Mr.
Roscoe, recommend any poem in French, Italian, or Spanish, which
you think would be desirable ? I ha\e so few books in any of those
languages, that though I have acquired the two latter without any
assistance, I am not sufficiently acquainted with their literature to
know if they possess any work of merit which has not yet had an
English dress. I hope I shall have the gratification of a letter from
you shortly, and that it will contain u more favorable account of your
health, and a free absolution for all my sins as a correspondent. We
have had three very interesting letters from George, in the last of

36 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Correspondence.

which he mentions you very particularly and desires his kindest
regards. When you see my Grandmother and Aunts, pray give our
united love to them, and believe me ever, my dear Sir, with the
sincerest esteem,

Your obliged and afiectionate

Felicia Browne."

As no answer to this letter was sent, Felicia's younger
sister wrote this note : —

" Bronwhylfa, 5th April, 1 8 12.
My Dear Sir, —

Having but a short notice of the present opportunity, I have only
time to say that my sister has sent two sketches of her own drawing,
which accompanied by her kind regards, she begs you to accept. She
hopes the bearer of this will bring her a letter from you in answer to
that which she wrote to you a short time ago, and pray do not think me
unreasonable in saying, that if you have leisure and inclination, I should
also be happy to receive a few lines, as it is now some time since I have
had that pleasure. I have only to add our united best wishes and to
assure you that I am, my dear Sir,

your affectionate and obliged,

H. M. B.

We have also sent one of my sketches, and a pencil drawing of
Felicia's."

Harriett's letter is endorsed " Ans. 8. April " and
probably at the same date Mr. Nicholson sent to Bron-
whilfa a dozen copies of the volume of Felicia's poems
"The Domestic Affections," for which he had made him-
self responsible, and which had just come from the press.
The gift brought an acknowledging letter from the author,
and a much longer one from her mother.

" Bronwhilfa, 25th April, 1812.
My Dear Sir, —

Accept my best acknowledgments for the twelve copies of the
poems, which were received yesterda}-. I am mucli pleased with the
appearance and execution of the book, which are both extremely neat,
and I think better chosen than those of the former publications. I feel
much indebted to your partiality for the approbation you so liberally
express, but as I have no sanguine expectations from readers or critics,
at any rate their censure will not disappoint me, and I have so little of
the passion for fame which renders authors so acutely sensible to the
public opinion, that I am secured from much anxiety respecting the
reviewers. I have always some fresh occasion to renew my thanks for

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 9- '^7

your zealous exertions in my favor and I beg you will believe me
sincerely impressed by them, and that you will also present my
acknowledgments to Mr. W. Roscoe for the active interest he has
shown in this undertaking. I regret much, my dear sir, that your
health is so different from what all your friends would wish it, and wish
you would try the experiment of a visit here in the summer. The
change of scene and air might perhaps contribute to your recovery, and
we should all exert ourselves to amuse you. When I tell you, that I
am just recovering from an illness, which the Doctor calls an ephemeral
fever, and which has left me very weak, and unfit for much exertion,
you will I am sure, excuse so short a letter, and believe me, my dear
Sir, with sincere respect and gratitude, your
much obliged and affectionate

Felicia Browne.

When you see my Grandmother and my Aunts pray i-emember me
affectionately to them all."

"My Dear Sir, —

Felicia's head not allowing her to fill up her letter, I must be her
substitute. She made us all very uneasy the beginning of this week,
for she was three days seriously ill, but thank God nothing now
remains of her complaint but debility, which good nursing will speedily
remove. Your noble present of twelve copies of the poems, was,
indeed a high gratification to her, and enables her to compliment those
friends immediately around her, from whom she has for years been
receiving constant kindnesses. The book is a most eligible size and is
printed with great accuracy ; for I discover no mistakes, except those
mentioned in the errata. I wish it may leave some profit and should
hope that with your and Mr. W. Roscoe"s kind exertions, this may be
the case. The selling price I think a very fair one. How many
copies have been printed ? I wish we could see a second edition soon.
I wish also that 20 copies might be sent to me here as soon as possible,
either from London or Liverpool. I can dispose of them if they
arrive soon and will you take the trouble to order them for me ? As I
do not communicate with Messrs. Cadell and Davies, I shall be much
obliged if you will, when you write, or through Mr. W. Roscoe, desire
them to send a copy to Miss Maynard, No. 6, Portland Place, Clifton,
near Bristol, carriage paid, with Miss Browne's regards, and also
another to Miss Blane, at Campbell Oliphant's Esqre., Cockspur
Street, Charing Cross, with Miss Browne's remembrance. These are
two very zealous friends, who can and will promote the sale. The
former has introduced many of Felicia's manuscripts amongst the
highest circles and will be very likely to have this work presented to
the Queen. I do not know whether I should write to Mr. W. Roscoe
to thank him for his exertions on this occasion. Perhaps it would be only
intruding upon him, as he has not written to me, or Felicia and I wish
to do what would be most proper, and I am sure my feelings would

38 Nicholson, Hemans — Nicholson Correspondence.

lead me to say a great deal to him. But I will not determine till we
hear from you again. And now, my dear Sir, let me express all our
regrets that your health is not so good as our best wishes towards you
would have it. Do think seriously of trying this air, when the warm
weather arrives. Every thing that grateful friendship could do, should
be exerted by me and your two young friends, to contribute to your
health and comfort and there is a certain young man of our circle, who
would be happy to unite his zeal, to that of our family party, in
showing kindness to Felicia's invaluable and highly valued friend.
Do give us some hope that this little plan might be practicable and you
will believe that it would delight us all.

From what you say of Lucien's ' Charlemagne," it must be a heavy
work indeed and Felicia would not like it. But I wish something
worth translating from the Spanish miglit occur. She has made herself
mistress of that language and likes it much. . . We are impatiently
expecting to hear from Quebec, after an interval of several months.
Accept the assurance of best esteem, and believe me, my dear Sir,
\'our deeply obliged and faithful

F. D. Browne."

Felicia recovered very slowly from her illness, but in
May, 18 1 2, she and Mr. Hemans were interesting them-
selves on the result of a joint speculation in lottery tickets.
The last letter I have of this correspondence is dated 5 th
July, 1812, and is from Mrs. Browne.*

" My Dear Sir,—

Felicia begs you to accept a copy of the lines she has lately
written to Lord Wellington and she hopes to hear from you by the
bearer. The long expected letters from Mr. Browne are at last arrived
and I suppose that a certain event will take place in about a montli, or
five weeks. On this occasion I am sure you will give your best wishes
for your young friend, and I hope the same regard you have hitherto
shown to her, will be continued y2);- £t'd?r. Your friendship has always
been a source of pride and gratification to lier. Of the young man of
her choice I can only say, that he has my perfect esteem and regard

* My brother, Mr. Albert Nicholson, has two letters written in 1 81 6
by Harriett Mary Browne, and addressed to Mr. Matthew Nicholson.
Apparently Mr. Nicholson had reopened the correspondence by writing to
Mrs. Hemans, commending her hymn ' Lord, from my Closet, when alone,'
and suggesting that it should be set to music. Harriett had taken the hint,
and, in replying for her sister, sent Mr. Nicholson a musical setting for the
hymn. His quick and critical eye or ear had detected the omission of
several C sharps, and he wrote to Harriett, who replied acknowledging the
justness of his observations, the marks having been accidentally omitted
from the copy. She mentions that Felicia "is much flattered" by his
approbation of her poem.

MancJicstcr ]\Ieinoirs, Vol. LIV. (No. !)).

Plate IV.

CM ^

o ^

Face p. 39.

Manchester Memoirs, ]^ol. liv. (1910), No. 0. 39

and that I know no f)ne whose disposition and peculiar turn of mind
are so framed to make her happy.

It was much my wish to have named you, my dear Sir, as tiie
trustee for her, in her Httle settlements, Init I feared your time of life
and delicate health, might make you object to it, otherwise such an
arrangement would have given me great satisfaction.

I think her genius develops itself every day and I hope we may see
it gradually attaining perfection. I have most gratifying accounts
from both my sons in Spain. Geo. is quite recovered and has again
joined the Army. Your little friend Harriett is taller than Felicia,
and is everything I could wish, devoting herself assiduously to the
cultivation of her mind and making herself universally beloved.
Should there be an American war Mr. Browne will send Claude to
Europe again that he may enter upon the profession of his brothers. I
liope in a little time, to have it in my power to remit you the seven
pounds for the twenty copies of ' Domestic Affections ' which you took
the trouble of sending me. My sister would tell you why I could not
do it before. Do you think Mr. W. Roscoe received my letter? I
never had the pleasure of an answer from him. We all unite in kind
regards to you and in our best wishes for your health and appearance
here, this summer. Believe me, my dear Sir,
\'our much obliged friend,

F. D. Browne.

Will \Tju have the goodness to give the packet to my sister.
I have sent you a little drawing of Bronwhilfa done by Captn.
Hemans, from nature."

Mr. Nicholson was a sensible man, and though he had
apparently fallen in love with Felicia, he knew he was too
old to be her husband. But it must have been a great
shock to him to be told that he was too old even to be a
trustee of her marriage settlement !

After all, Felicia would probably have been quite as
happy if Mr. Nicholson had become her husband, despite
his twenty years too many.

Felicia married her gallant Captain, and after a few
years parted from him for ever. She was only 41 when
she died. Matthew Nicholson died in January, 18 19,
aged Ji.

40 Nicholson, Hevmns — Nicholson Correspondence.

PLATES.

I. Matthew Nicholson, of Richmond Row. From a water-
colour drawing in the possession of Mr, Albert
Nicholson. To face p. i.

II. Gwrych. From a water-colour drawing by Jonathan
Hatfield, in the possession of the writer.

To face p. 2.

III. Mrs. Hemans's handwriting. Facsimile from an auto

graph letter in the possession of the writer.

To face p. 14.

IV. Bronwhilfa in 181 2. From a water-colour drawing by

Captain Hemans, in the possession of Manchester
College, Oxford. To face p 39.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 10.

X. A Hypothesis as to the cause of the Autumnal
Epidemic of the Common and the Lesser
Shrew, with some Notes on their Habits.

By Lionel E. Adams, B.A.

Received January 2Sih, igio. Read February 8th, igio.

The " autumnal epidemic " of the shrews has been a
standing puzzle to naturalists for a long time. It does
not seem to be generally known that, though the autumn
is the time when these little creatures are found dead in
the greatest numbers, their corpses may be found at any
season of the year. During the winter months they die
from hunger, cold, or attacks of enemies ; in spring sexual
conflicts lead to many deaths ; in summer drought is
often, I believe, the cause of much mortality, and also at
this season many inexperienced young die from various
causes. At the end of July, 1906, I found many dead
on the roads, and I supposed that a prolonged drought
accounted for the mortality. At this time the Shrews,
Bank Voles, and Long-tailed Field Mice all seemed to
have deserted a certain locality, near Reigate, where they
were usually plentiful. During this period there was
very little dew at night, and I think the little animals left
the place in search of water. Mr. J. G. Millais with
reference to this point says : * " Scarcity of food may
account for it, but not drought, for in places where Lesser
Shrews are abundant I have found many dead, while
pools of water lay around in every direction." This
instance, however, merely tends to show that these par-
ticular individuals died from some other cause, not that
• " Mammals of Great Britain and Ireland," vol. i., p. 147.

March 31st, igio.

2 Adams, Epidemic of the Coninwn and Lesser Shrew.

drought has no effect on shrews generally, and Mr.
Millais writing to me on the subject says : " I have
always thought that drought (creating absence of food
necessary to shrews) was often the cause of the mortality."
Such droughts, however, are only occasional and cannot
be the cause of the persistent annual mortality.

I have made innumerable post-mortems of corpses
found, and have often detected a wound, but in many
cases I could find nothing to account for death, all the
organs being apparently healthy.

It has been suggested that the corpses are those of
animals killed and left uneaten, but if this were the case
the killing would not take place in autumn more than at
any other season, and wounds would usually be in evidence.
So far as I know the wild animals which kill them also eat
them, and perhaps owls account for the greatest numbers
In a thousand pellets of the Brown Owl I found remains
of 344 Common Shrews, 27 Lesser Shrews, and 21 Water
Shrews, besides, of course, a multitude of mice, voles,
&c.* Kestrels eat shrews readily. Our tame Magpie
will eat shrews greedily if freshly killed, though it will
not touch them if dead more than a few hours, and it has
occurred to me that other scavengers find shrews — which
become terribly putrid in a comparatively short time —
too gamey for their tastes, and hence the numbers of
dead ones found. I have often seen Weasels carrying off
dead shrews across the country roads, and Mr. C. Oldham
informs me that he has found a dead Lesser Shrew in a
Weasel's nest.

Hedgehogs and Moles would probably eat them if
they could catch them, and when they find them freshly
dead ; and I have heard of them being found in the

* Details may be found in "A Plea for Owls and Kestrels": /outnal o;
the Northampton Nat. Hist. Soc, June, 1898.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), A^k 10. 3

stomachs of Adders. Dogs will swallow them, but vomit
them again, and cats are well known to kill but never to
eat them. The number found dead, hou-ever, cannot all
be put down to dogs and cats !

The male shrews fight fiercely, especially in the
breeding season, when nearly all that are trapped bear
wounds, notabh' on the tail. The females also show
signs of conflict, their tails and feet being often quite
denuded of hair and covered with bites. The fighting,
moreover, is by no means entirely due to sexual quarrels,
for the immature of both sexes bear the marks of teeth
upon their tails, often within a very short time after leaving
the nest. Immature individuals are found dead through-
out the summer and autumn, owing to their lack of
experience in obtaining nourishment and in escaping
from enemies. This mortality of the young helps to
swell the numbers found dead during the "autumn
epidemic."*

I have found that during the winter shrews are to be
trapped exclusively in the hedges, but after the beginning
of May they mostly leave the hedges and frequent the
long grass where they make their breeding nests. I may
mention that Mr. Millaisf was the first to draw attention
to the ancient error, perpetuated through all the text-
books, that the shrews spend the winter months " in
profound torpor." Though they may be trapped freely
during the hardest frost they have a great objection to
wet. Neither are they solely nocturnal in their habits ;
they may be observed during the day time in dry weather
at all seasons of the year.

* A similar loss of life may be noticed in the case of young Moles, many
of which are run over by carts or meet with other disasters on the country
roads and lanes.

t " Mammals of Great Britain and Ireland,"' vol. i., p. Ib4,

4 Adams, Epidemic of tJie Coiinnon and Lesser SJirezv.

Of course, shrews may be found in coppices all the
year round, though I think they often leave this cover to
breed in the open fields, as I find that during the breeding
season far fewer are caught in the coppices and hedges
than in the rough patches of coarse grass in the open.

It is not known how many litters a single female pro-
duces during the breeding season, but it is certain that
more than one are reared, as I have trapped pregnant
females which had evidently suckled previously. In the
case of the Common Shrew, I have examined four females
with 8 embryos, two with 7, and one with 4 ; of the
Lesser Shrew, one with 8, one with 6, and one with 5.
As the breeding season lasts from the beginning of May
till late in November, it would seem improbable that the
same individuals continue breeding during the whole of
this time ; and in fact there is every reason to conclude
that the breeding is kept up during the season by a
succession of breeders coming into use at different times,
since on July 5th and on November 21st of the present
year (1909) I captured females, which, though recently
impregnated, had not previously littered. The former
showed only slight traces of conflict and the latter none
at all, which immunity I have never observed with adults
earlier in the season, and which I account for by sup-
posing that adult competitors had died out — in which
supposition I am supported by the evidence in the
Table, column 3. (See pp. 12, 13.)

As winter draws on the survivors of the "epidemic"
seek the shelter of the hedges and live in burrows. I do
not think they often make burrows for themselves, but
make use of those of mice and voles. By the way, it does
not seem to be known exactly where they sleep in winter.
One would imagine that they make nests somewhere in
the burrows, but I have never been able to find any.

MancJiester Meuioirs, Vo/. liv. (191OJ, No. lO- 5

The Lesser Shrew may be trapped in the hedge
banks throughout the winter, and so far as my experience
goes, later into the spring than the Common Shrew. I
think the former species keeps more generally to cover
than the latter, though the presence of its skulls in owls'
pellets shows that it must come into the open pretty
freely. This species, though undoubtedly sporadic in
England, is not quite so rare as is supposed. I have
found it most plentifully in the neighbourhood of old
woods and coppices, but as farmers and gamekeepers do
not know it as differing from the Common Shrew, it is
difficult to obtain definite information. Moreover, the
Lesser Shrew is often overlooked by people who are aware
of its separate identity, because they mistake it for the
young of the larger species, especially when the tail has
lost most of its characteristic hairiness during the breeding
season. No mistake, however, need be made if measure-
ments are taken of the head-and-body and of the hind
foot.

The following Table may be of use. The measure-
ments are in millimetres.

Species.

Head-and-Body.

Hind Foot

Minimum

Maximum

Average

Minimum

Maximum

Average

Common Shrew-

60

83

71-3

12

14

13

Lesser Shrew ...

49

62

56

10

ii"5

II

As I have only found one Common Shrew so small
as 60 mm., and only one Lesser Shrew to measure so
much as 62 mm., the head-and-body measurement may
be considered sufficient, but as people hardly ever make

6 Adams, Epideniic of the Common and Lesser Shreiv.

their own measuring of this part agree with that of
another, the hind foot measurements, which never overlap,
may be reHed on to settle the question of identity. The
comparatively longer and more hairy tail is by no means
an infallible diagnostic character of the Lesser Shrew, as
the length varies considerably in both species, and the
tail of the young Common Shrew is as hairy as that of
the Lesser ; besides which, as I have mentioned, the tails
of both species are often denuded of hair in the breeding
season.

The Common Shrew is even when young a much
more bulky animal than the adult Lesser ; and the two
being placed side by side need never be confounded.

It seems to have escaped notice that the coat of the
young Common Shrew on quitting the nest is of the same
brown tint as that which the other carries through life,
but in a month or two this changes to almost black, first
on the middle of the back, leaving a surrounding line of
the original brown between the black and the light belly
colour, and finally the black extends to the head and the
whole of the upper surface. Thus young and old may
be separated at a glance. I have had, however, one
exception of an adult which retained the juvenile colour.*

The Lesser Shrew is supposed to be subject to the
" autumnal epidemic," and I have no doubt this is the
case.

For many years I have been in the habit of trapping
small mammals, and recording details of measurement
and anatomy. Glancing over these lists two years ago I
noticed some points with regard to the Common Shrew
which seemed to point to a solution of the problem of the

* Since writing the above I have seen the following remaik by Mr. D.
English m CassePs Nature Bk., p. 320 : — "The Pigmy and the immature
Common Shrew are often identical in colour."

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), /V(^ 10- 7

autumnal mortality, and since then I have devoted con-
siderable time to accumulating evidence for or against
the theory which presented itself.

The facts which I noticed were these.

1. During and after December all specimens of both the
Common and the Lesser Shrew were immature ; and that
from this time till early spring it was impossible to deter-
mine the sex of either species without dissection.

2. That during the same period all the females of
both species were without exception sexually immature —
the first exception not occurring till the middle of April.

As is the case with the Mole, immature female shrews
closely resemble the males in outward formation.)

3. That the genital organs of both sexes commence
to enlarge in February, and attain a remarkably large
size in May and June. In the case of the male the
development is relatively greater than even that of the Mole.

4. That the tails and feet of winter specimens were
always in good condition, being thickly covered with hair,
whereas the tails and feet of both species are often
denuded of hair during the breeding season — almost
invariably so in the case of the Common Shrew — appar-
ently by the continual biting during the fights between
the males and, perhaps, the capture of the females by the
males. Possibly a summer moult may account for some
of the loss of hair.

Now, what particularly struck me as curious was that
during and after December females that had already bred
should never be trapped, and that not a single adult male
should be recorded ; though I was prepared to find the
male organs atrophied, as is the case of the Mole after
the breeding season. I was at first disposed to regard
the hairiness of the tails as due to the acquisition of a
winter pelage, but considering the other evidence I am of

8 Adams, Epidemic of the Coniinon and Lesser Shreu>

the decided opinion that the original hirsuteness had
never been lost.

These points being noticed the question naturally
arose as to what had become of the adults. Clearly, if
my series was sufficiently representative, and if my
examinations of their internal anatomy were not faulty,
the adults must have all died ; and they must have died
off as soon as they had done their part in the breeding
season ; or to state the matter in another and more
startling form, — the autumnal " epidemic'' is due to 7iothing
more than old age ; old age in the case of the Common and
the Lesser SJirew being readied in, roughly, thirteen or
fourteen months.

Considering the novelty of this proposition it occurred
to me that, in spite of all my care, some at least of the
seeming winter juveniles might really have been adults,
that the hairy tails ivere clothed with a winter pelage,
that the vaginas of the females Jiad closed again after
breeding, and that the genitalia of both sexes had
atrophied practically to extinction.

Therefore, as a test that would either refute or confirm
the points in doubt, I have drawn up from my records the
following Chart showing the average size of the two
species throughout the cycle of a year, month by month.
In these I have taken the head-and-body measurements
only as being most useful, neglecting the tail measure-
ments which I found to vary independently of age, sex or
season, and it will be seen that, judging by comparative
size also, the winter specimens are immature.

In order to secure uniformity in the framing of the
Chart I have compiled it entirely from my own measure-
ments, as no two persons, unless accustomed to work
together and check each other's measurements can be
depended upon to give exactly the same results in

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), ^^o- ^0.

Jiiil

o U '='' ^ S ^ P

<y» "2. r^ -^ -^ to !«>

lo Adams, Epidemic of tiic Comiiion and Lesser SJircw.

measuring the head-and-body, — one stretching the speci-
mens more or less than another in the process.

I do not understand the low average of the Common
Shrew as shown by the Chart for February, nor the rise
in the average of both species in October, but probably
if my series were large enough to be representative and
taken from specimens from all parts of the country, this
irregularity would be smoothed away ; it may be that in
the district where I have trapped I happen to have taken
older individuals in January than in February, the older
and stronger securing the food before the younger, and so
getting trapped first.

But in considering the Chart with reference to the
autumn mortality the most important point is the decrease
in size as the breeding season progresses. Of course it is
not to be supposed that the individuals actually diminish
in length towards the end of the year, and it is plain that
this decrease can only be accounted for by the fact that
the young ones predominate more and more while the
parent generation becomes less and less, until by its
extinction the average is brought down to the level of the
adolescents.

Further consideration of the Table (Column 3,
Common Shrew), shows that the proportion of adults does
dwindle as the breeding season progresses ; the actual
numbers of adults, 13, 10, 6, o, 2, l are easily replaced by
their representative percentages, viz., 61, 45, 31,0, ii, :^.
In the case of the Lesser Shrew, the material is hardly
sufificient to be worth considering. Though, so far as it
goes, it bears out the statement.

It must be admitted, indeed, that the whole number
of examples collated is insufficient for a positive general-
isation, but, on the other hand, it will be noticed that the
chart lines of the two species run almost parallel, rising

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 10. 11

and falling together at the most (for the purpose of this
paper) important time of the year, i.e., the breeding
season ; and the fact that I have found no exception to
contradict the general conclusion is itself a most important
point in its favour.

By the kindness of Mr. Douglas English I am able to
reproduce a couple of his beautiful photographs of the
Common and the Lesser Shrew.

12 Adams, Epidetnic of the Common and Lesser Shrew.

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Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV. (No. 10). P/^rte.

The Pygmy or Lesser Shrk\v [Sorex miiuitus).

Fu;. 2.
The Common Shre\v {Sorex araneus).

Photos by Dotigliis EtigUsli.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (i9ro), No. 11.

XI. "Upper Liassic Reptilia. Part II. The Saurop-
terygia of the Whitby Museum."

By D. M. S. VVat.son, B.Sc.

Received and read .March Sl/i, rgio.

The most important of the Sauropterygian remains in
the Whitby Museum is the specimen which is the type of
Blake's species Plesiosaunis propinquus.

This specimen bears the number 581 and is a nearly
complete skeleton : it is unfortunately secured to the wall
of a narrow room at a considerable height, and despite
the facilities most kindl)- granted to me by Mr. T. Newbitt,
I had some difficulty in examining it and m}' measure-
ments are only approximate.

Measttreniejits 0/ Skeleton.

Skull

23 cervical vertebrae

5 pectoral „
28 dorsal „

2 sacral
31 caudal

57 cms.
100

26
138

9
1 10

440

The Skull.
The skull is large, more than one-eighth of the entire
length : it is considerabl\^ damaged, and no sutures are
visible. On the left side the Squamosal, Quadrate, and
Jugal to just behind the post-orbital bar are missing, and
on the other side even this is broken away.

May 6ih, igio.

2 Watson, The Saitropterygia of the Whitby Museum.

The anterior end is broken, but must have been
rounded. There is a sh'ght constriction of the muzzle,
some lo cms. behind the anterior end, behind which the
sides of the skull slope outwards as relatively straight

Fig. I. "SkviW oi ^^ Plesiosam-us'^ prophiqtius. Dorsal aspect. x i.

lines to the articulars of the mandible. The skull as a
whole is depressed, though this may be partially due to
crushing.

The surface is remarkably smooth, only a few rugo-

Manchester Memoirs, \^ol. liv. (1910) No. 11. 3

sities being visible between the orbits and on the muzzle ;
it is possible that this smoothness may be due to the
development the specimen has undergone.

There is a slight but definite ridge running down the
median line from between the orbits to the anterior end.

The cranium is strongly compressed from side to side
at the anterior end, but widens considerably posteriorly
to the parietal crest.

The pineal foramen is very conspicuous just behind
the post-orbital bar.

There is a well-marked septum separating the tem-
poral vacuities from the orbits.

The articular region and symphysis of the lower jaw
are well preserved ; no characters of interest are presented
by articular and angular, but the post-articular process is
short and stout.

The symphysis is expanded and spatulate, and bears
about four teeth on each side.

The very large teeth of the anterior end of the mouth
are all damaged. An upper tooth completely shewn by
the breakage of the premaxillae is over 7 cms. long, and
lacks a great deal of the crown ; the crown where broken
off is nearly 2 cms. in diameter. The crown is circular in
section, and is covered with well-marked ridges. There
are no visible carinae.

Measurcincnts of the Skull.

Length 57 cms.

Width at 7 cms. from anterior end 9'5 cms.
20 „ „ 17

35 „ ., 26 „

from middle line to squamosal.

Width of lower jaw across the articulars 38-5 cms.

4 Watson, TJie Sauj'opterygia of tJie WJiitby Museum.

Anterior end of anterior nares 20 cms. behind anterior
end of snout.

Bar between nares 4-5 cms. wide.

Posterior end of orbit 35 cms. behind snout.

Frontal width 7 cms.

Length of orbit 9 cms.

Width of articular facet of the articulars 8 cms.

Antero-posterior length of articular facet 4 cms.

Length of post-articular process 5 cms.

Vertebral Colniiin.

Cervicals. The atlas and axis are completely con-
cealed by matrix, but the rest of the cervicals are fairly
well shewn ; they are, however, set in plaster so as to
conceal the lower parts of the centra.

Fig. 2. '''■ Pksiosanriis'''' propinqnus 4th cervical, liglit lateral
and dorsal aspects, x 2-

4th Cervical. This bone is rather well exposed, and
is quite typical of the anterior part of the neck.

The centrum is 25 cms. long and 6 cms. wide, the
height cannot be seen. Only one rib facet is visible, but
a second is probably concealed by the plaster setting.

The ends of the centra bear a ring of roughened
ornament.

The neural arch is very high, the pedicels being tall

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol liv. (1910), No. H. 5

and rounded ; the zygapophyses are large, directed more
or less antero-posteriorly, and their articular facets are
inclined to one another at a considerable angle.

The overall length of the vertebra over the zyga-
pophyses is 4^5 cms., and the maximum breadth across
the anterior zygapophyses is 5 cms.

The zygapophyses unite together forming a table
similar to that of Sthcnarosajcrus. It is, however, less
flat, much narrowed before the posterior zygapophyses, and
shews a slight notch separating the anterior and posterior
zygapophyses.

The spine is about r5 cms. long, and i cm. thick. It
is broken off short in all the vertebrae in this region, but
was probably never very high.

Fig. 3. '•'■ Plesiosaunis''^ propinquiis. 23rd cervical, right lateral
and dursal aspects, x o.

6 Watson, TJic Sauroptcrygia of tJic WJiitby Muscuin.

The posterior edge of the spine lies some '5 cm.
behind the posterior surface of the centrum, and the
posterior zygapophyses project about V2^ cm. behind the
centrum.

23rd Cervical. The posterior cervicals differ from the
anterior ones in the following ways : —

1. The arch is not nearly so high, relatively, to* the
general size of the bone.

2. The neural spine is placed a good deal further
back ; it is also proportionally rather larger in all ways.

3. The only visible rib facet is higher on the centrum,
being touched by the neuro-central suture.

The dimensions of the 23rd cervical are : —

Maximum width of centrum

Maximum length of centrum

From lowest point of neuro-central suture

to top of anterior zygapophysis
Overall length

Breadth across zygapophyses
Minimum breadth across zygapophyses...

Minimum antero-posterior length of pedi-
cels

Height of spine (24th)

Breadth of spine ... ... ... ... 2 „

Overlap of zygapophyses .. . ... ... 37 „

The Pectoral vertebrae are not well exposed. They
shew a gradual change from the cervicals to the dorsals.

The centra of the Dorsals are entirely concealed, but
the neural spines and transverse processes are well shewn.

The 14th dorsal (the 42nd of the entire series) has a
neural spine 7 cms. high above the anterior z}'gapophyses,
2'5 cms, long at the bottom, and 3-5 cms. at the top ; it
appears to be of nearly circular transverse section.

The z}'gapophyses, which are not well displayed, are

10

cms.

4-2

>5

6

)l

78

>)

Tl

))

5

11

3

11

7

11

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv (1910), No. \\. 7

weak, and do not project much. The transverse process
is inclined sh'ghtly up. It is 4-5 cms. long and about
3 cms. in diameter.

The ribs are relatively slender, and are single headed.

The Sacrals are very badly shewn, but have a large
facet for the rib, apparently partly carried on the arch.

One of the sacral ribs is preserved ; it is a short stout
bone of nearly rectangular section. It resembles extra-
ordinarily closely that of Sthenarosaums Daiokinsi.

The Caudals all lack their neural arches ; they are
badly shewn, and the series lacks several centra in the
middle of the tail, the extremity of which, however, is
present, the centra being reduced to mere nodules of
bone.

The 1 2th caudal (70th vertebra) has a centrum
measuring 35 cms. in length and 7 cms. in width.

Fig. 4. ' riesjcsaiiru " frofitiquiis Lef coracoid. x\.

8 Watson, The Sauroptcrygia of tJic Wliitby Museum.

Pectoral girdle.

Of this girdle only the left coracoid is visible : it is
exposed from the visceral surface. The fragments of
which it is made are set in plaster and are probably
wrongly arranged.

The glenoid end is well preserved and the part joining
it to the median edge is genuine. The articular facet for
the scapula is 55 cms. long, that for the glenoid cavity
being 9 cms.

Fig. ^. '^ Piesiosaurus" propiiKjtuis. Leit humerus, dorsal aspect, x (•.

The anterior edge is certainly artificial ; it now forms
a uniform convexity of which the inner part (that from
the end of which the dotted line in the figure {Fig. 4)
starts) is probably original ; the other fragments compo-
sing it may belong to the posterior end of the bone. The
median edge is well preserved, it is practically straight,
and in the region between the glenoid cavities shews the
usual hump, the bone here being more than 4 cms. thick.

The posterior border is completely broken away.

]\[anc1icsicr Mcnwirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. II. 9

The ' scapula' will be described as an ilium.

The humerus is a very stout bone 35 cms. long, the
anterior border is slightly convex, the posterior is rather
strongly concave.

The width across the head is 8 cms., across the centre
of the shaft 10 cms., and across the distal end 16 cms.

The distal end forms a uniform curve and does not
show any distinct facets.

As the specimen is now mounted three bones of the
fore-arms of both sides are shown. No two of these bones
correspond, and none has the kidne}' shape of the Ulna
or Fibula.

I give drawings of all these bones, but it is impossible
to say which really belong to the specimen, and whether
they are Radii or Tibiae.

Fig. 6. "■ P/esiosaiD-us^'' propinqmts. The three bones
purporting to belong to the fore-arm. x ^-.

Pelvic Girdle.

Of this girdle only the Ilium is preserved at all com-
pletely.

The ilium is inserted in the pectoral girdle as a
scapula. It lacks some of the upper end, but so far as
preserved it is 17 cms. long.

The shaft, apparently nearly circular in section, is
slightly over 3 cms. in diameter, and the lower end is
7 cms. across ; although the articulating face is completely
concealed by plaster, there are traces of the usual two
facets.

lO Watson, TJic Sauropteiygur of the Whitby Mnseiivi.

The Pubis and Ischium of the left(?) side are partly
preserved. They He, however, at right angles to the
bedding, so that only their articular ends are really visible.

The visible part of the pubis shows the usual two
facets ; the posterior for the ischium 6"5 cms. wide and 45
cms. long, and the anterior 10 cms. long for the aceta-
bulum.

Not actually united with this fragment but stretching
away in front of it is a bone seen in section 15 cms. long
and I cm. wide. This is probably the anterior plate of
the pubis.

The Ischium shews its outer border, which is 15 cms.
long. The bone is so injured as to be quite indescribable.

Fi(^: 7. ^^ F/t'S!osaiir:ts" propiiiqints. Ilium, x ,;•

The two femora are preserved. They are 35'5 cms.
long, 17 cms. wide distally, 9"5 cms. across at 15 cms.
from the distal end, and 9*5 cms. across the head.

Both borders are concave, the posterior somewhat
more so than the anterior. The distal end is rounded,
and the head is a knob bearing a large trochanter some
5 cms. wide and projecting 3 cms. from the general level
of the shaft.

The posterior surface of the bone is much roughened
from the middle of the shaft to the proximal end.

Unless one of the bones purporting to belong to the
fore-arm is a tibia, no other bone of the hind limb is
preserved.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 11. 11

Syste»iat!c /position of the specimen.

As Owen and Blake recognized there is no doubt of
the specific distinction of the specimen from all other
described species. The specimen although apparently a

Fig. 8. " Plesiosaurtis" propinqiius. Left femur, dorsal aspect. y.\.

complete skeleton shews so few of its important characters
that it is very difficult to compare it with others. Practi-
cally speaking only the general proportions, the skull and
the arches of the cervical vertebrae, are available for
comparison.

In point of relative dimensions the species comes near
to " Thauntatosaurus" niegacephalus Stutchbury, of the
Lower Lias, and Rhomaleosaurus Craniptoni of the Upper
Lias.

12 Watson, The Saitropteiygia of the Whitby Museuvi.

The skull also resembles those of these two species
pretty closely.

Marked differences are, however, to be found in the
cervical vertebrae.

Those of P, megacephalus differ from ours in the
following characters : —

The centra are less shortened longitudinally, the
arches are much larger in proportion to the centra ; the
long axes of the zygapophyses are directed laterally,
whereas in P. propinqu/is they po\nt forward and backward.

These rather marked differences may indicate generic
distinction of the two species.

The cervicals of Rhouialeosauriis Craviptoni differ in
having much smaller zygapophyses, and in the position
of the neural spine directly over the centre of the centrum.

On the whole the cervical neural arches of P. propin-
quiis resemble shortened vertebrae of Sthenarosaurus
Dawktnsi more than those of any other plesiosaur with
which I am acquainted.

The whole problem of the large-headed Sauropterygia
is a difficult one, and I do not propose to discuss it until
I have examined the other species, both from the Lias
and the Lower Oolites ; meanwhile the species is probably
best referred to as " Plesiosauriis " propinqiins, Blake.

The other Sauropterygian remains in the Whitby
Museum are as follow : —

No. 854. A set of vertebrae bearing the following

label :—

14 Caudal Vertebrae

of

Plesiosaurus homalospondylus. Owen.

Upper Lias,

Saltwick.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Iw. (\g\d), No. II. 13

There are actually 16 vertebrae included under this
number, of these one is a caudal of Microcleidus hoiiia-
lospofidylus (Owen), the other 15 are cervicals of Sthena-
rosmcrus Dawkinsi, Watson. It is possible that these
vertebrae are the type specimen of Plesiosauriis coelospon-
dylus, Owen, which consisted of 16 cervicals, two of
which connected by matrix were cut through medially,
these cannot be found. As Owen's description is so slight
that it is impossible to check this conjecture by it, his
species cannot stand.

No. 854. Three lumbar vertebrae united together by
matrix. These belong to a type which in a former
communication I suggested might be identical with
Plesiosaurus Guilelini Iinperatoris, Dames.

Possibly Seeley's P. macropterns is identical with them.

No. 855. Two late cervicals resembling those of
Microcleidiis homalospondylHS, but somewhat longer and
more depressed.

No. 856. Four middle cervicals of Sthenarosauriis
Dmvkinsi, Watson.

No. 858. Two dorsal centra oi Microcleidus.

No. 859. The distal half of a small humerus.
Unnumbered.

Three ver}^ large short dorsals, with very short and
stout transverse processes,

A much weathered head of a very large femur.
These probably belong to Rluniialeosaurus Cramptoni.
The proximal end of a small and rather slender femur.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. \%

XII. On a new Octoradiate Coral, PyrophylHa inflata
(new genus and species).

By Sydney J. Hickson, D.Sc, F.R.S.,

Professor of Zoology in the University of Mancltesttr.
Read rgth April, and Received 21st Aprils rgio.

A few small corals were observed b)- Mr. Standen of
the Manchester Museum in a bottom deposit obtained by
Mr. Townsend at a depth of 156 fathoms in the Gulf of
Oman (Persian Gulf).

They were handed to me for examination and have
proved to be of extraordinary interest. At present I have
examined about forty specimens, but I have little doubt
that more will be found when the deposit has been
thoroughly overhauled. Many of the specimens are
broken and others waterworn, but there is a sufficient
number of nearly perfect specimens to determine the
important characters.

As the genus to which the corals belong has not, so far
as I can discover, been described, I propose to name them
PyrophylHa inflata (N, g. et s.).

The corals are solitary and unattached, slightly bent
and hornshaped, with an inflated base. The size varies to
some extent, but a medium-sized full grown specimen is
about 4 to 5 mm. in length and i mm. in diameter at the
margin of the calyx.

The most important character exhibited by this coral
is, that there are eight stout protosepta and eight slender

May iilh, igio.

2 HiCKSON, Nc7v Odoradiatc Coral, Pyrophyllia inJJata.

metasepta, and a laminate columella. It is important to
note, that at present I have found no specimen showing
either more or less than sixteen septa, and in every case
the eight protosepta are well defined in size and position
from the eight metasepta.

The septa and the columella have a regular undulating
course, they are not straight rigid calcareous laminae as
they usually are in other corals. It is for this reason —
the calyx having a fanciful resemblance to a cauldron
from which regular undulating flames arise — that I have
suggested the name Pj'rop/iyilia for the genus. Unfortu-
nately, although this is a recent coral, we have no specimens
preserved in spirit to enable us to study the structure of
the soft parts ; but the evidence afforded by the shell
suggests very forcibly that the bulk of the living tissues
were confined to the upper part of the corallum to a depth
of about I to 2 mm. from the margin of the calyx. As
the inflated base is so frequently unbroken it is possible
that some strands of living tissue extended throughout the
whole length, but of this there is no definite evidence. On
examining the coral from above with a dissecting micro-
scope and adjusting the focus on a plane just below the
margin, the eight protosepta and the columella can be
seen, and on focussing down a little further the eight
metasepta come into view. [Fig: i). At this level all the
protosepta are exactly equivalent and the metasepta are
also equivalent ; there is no one septum nor single pair of
septa that are more or less pronounced than others of
the same series. In other words if it were not for the
columella, which is definitely laminate or flattened, the
coral would be perfectly radially symmetrical. On
adjusting the focus to a still lower level, one or more
of the protosepta may be seen to be fused to the
columella, and sections of the lower part of the coral-

Manchester Meuioirs, Voi. liv. (1910), No. \%. 3

luin show that fusions of an irregular character between
protosepta and prntosepta, and between protosepta and
columella, occur throughout the corallum from the
plane of first fusion as far down as the upper part of
the inflated base. In using the expression "irregular," it
is only intended to signify that at present the order of
the fusions, if there is an order, has not been determined.
The general appearance of the contents of the lower part
of the corallum is that which is sometimes called vesicular
tissue, or " endotheca," so characteristic of the fossil corals
of the family Cyathophyllidae.

Fig, I.

Fig. 2.

Fig

Figs. 1-3. — Diagrammatic sketches of the septal arrangement of
PyrophyUia injlata. c columella, iii.s. metasepta, p.s. protosepta.
Fig. I. — Arrangement of the septa just below the margin of the
calyx ; Fig. 2, at the base of the calyx ; Fig. 3, in the lower parts of
the coral.

The septa, although sinuous in their course, are
smooth and without perforations, granulations, or synap-
ticulae.

In the lower part of the calyx the columella unites
with the protosepta. In some sections taken near the
base all the eight protosepta are fused with the columella
{^Fig. 3), but between that region and the upper or calical
end sections show a very irregular fusion of columella
with protosepta {^Fig. 2). There is no reason for believing
that, as in Guynia, the columella fuses with one locally

4 HiCKSON, .VtTc' Oitoradiatc Coral, Pyyophyllia iiifiala.

defined lari^er septum before it fuses with tlie others. In
the lower parts of the coralkim the arrangement is not
exactly like that shown in Fig. 3 throughout, but gaps
occur between protosepta and columella, bringing the
intcrseptal cavities into communication with one another.
The eight metasepta do not apparently fuse either with
the protosepta or with the columella. They can be traced
from the margin of the calyx to the upper part of the
inflated base. The arrangement of the septa in this
region has not yet been determined, but both septa and
thecal wall are here very much attenuated. The base is
not perforated, nor does it show any evidence of attach-
ment.

Fig. 4. — Side view of llie coral Pyyopltyllia iiiJJata. sliowini; the
costae, the annular ridges, and the inflated base x 8 diameters. From
a photograph by Mr. Jackson of llie Manchester Museum.

Of the external surface of the coral very little need be
said at present. There is no evidence of an epitheca — in
the sense this term was used by Dimcan — as distinct from
the theca. There are sixteen distinct costal ridges extend-
ing the whole length of the coral and there are 15-20
(according to the age of the coral) transverse annular ridges
marking successive growth periods. Wherever the
annular ridges meet the costae, the latter project as

Manchester Memoirs, Vol liv. (1910), No. \%. 5

short blunt spines. In a perfect specimen therefore there
would be sixteen rows of spines.

Although tnany of the water-worn specimens have
rows of holes between the costae there can be no doubt
that these are due to post mortem wear and that Pvro-
phyllia is an im{)erforate coral.

The zoological position of this interesting coral must
be considered fully when its structure has been more
carefully studied. All that can be said at present is that
there are only two recent corals that seem to approach it
at all in the system of Zoantharia. These are Guynia
aiiHiilala, Duncan, from the x'\dventure Bank, in 92 fathoms
of water, and HaplopJiyllia paradoxa, Pourtalcs, from off
the coast of Florida, in 324 fathoms of water.

Guynia annulata approaches most closely to Pyro-
pliyllia in its annulate surface and its small size, but
although in some specimens of Guynia there are eight
large septa and eight small ones, in others there is evidence
of a hexameral septal arrangement, and the columella is
columnar. I have found one specimen of PyropJiyllia
which, like many specimens of Gnynia, is adherent by
its side to a foreign bod)'.

Haplophyliia on the other hand is broadly adherent
by its base and shows no signs of annulation or
successive growth. It has eight large septa (protosepta)
connecting with the columella, alternating with eight
smaller septa (metasepta), as in PyropJiyllia, but another
cycle of septa is represented by rudiments in some of the
chambers.

Duncan* placed the two genera in the family Cya-
thaxoniidae of the otherwise extinct order Rugosa. He
said that " the great distinction between Guynia and
CyatJiaxonia is the absence of the septal fossula in the first-

* Phil. Iiuits, 1872.

6 HiCKSON, Neiv Octoradiate Coral, Pyrophyllia injiata.

named genus ; but its species has a large septum which
is a very marked Rugose peculiarity, and the replacement
of such septa by depressions or fossulae is common."
But PyyopJiyllia has neither a fossula nor a large septum
and is therefore less closely related to CyatJiaxonia
than Guyiiia is. There is another point of difference
between them which may be of less importance than
appears to be when it is set down in words. Giiynia is
said by Duncan to have no endotheca, according to my
account Pyrophyllia has an endotheca below the true
calyx. The absence of endotheca separates Gnynia from
the Cyathophyllidae and the presence of it would ac-
cording to the definitions separate Pyrophyllia from the
Cyathaxoniidae. According to Duncan the endotheca is

composed of " thin plate-like structures which unite

septa, close the loculi and enable the coral to grow in
height and strength and limit the growth downwards of
mesenteries and soft parts." If we accept this as the
definition of endotheca there can be no doubt of its
presence in Pyrophyllia, but some doubt may be ex-
pressed whether, judging from the figures and description,
there is not something corresponding with the endotheca
in Guynia also.

I am inclined however to agree with Gardiner* that
this character may not be one of any great importance,
and I regard Guytiia and Pyrophyllia as members of the
same family and probably closely related to one another.
The very regular radiate arrangement of the septa in
Pyrophyllia and their very definite and invariable number,
separate it very distinctly from both Giiynia and Haplo-
phyllia as a distinct genus, but by the same characters it
is also distinguished from their supposed palaeozoic allies.

^' Turbinoliid corals (jf S. Africa, 1904. Marine Iiiz^afiga/ioiis in
S. A/rii-a, \u\. III.

Manchester Mcmoiys, Vol, liv. (1910), No. VZ. 7

It cannot be denied that Pyrophyllia has some
characters reminiscent of the extinct Rjigosa, but it does
not seem possible at present to give it a resting place in
any of the families of these fossil corals.

I consider that Guynia and Pyrophyllia should be
placed in a distinct family, the Guyniidae, and that this
family should be placed next to the family Turbinoliidae.
The genus Haplophyllia appears to me to be quite distinct,
and it may possibly prove to be but a stage in the growth
of a form like Dtiiicania, with which genus Gardiner
considers it to be identical.

Manchester Metnoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. I;{.

XIII. The Electrical Resistance of the Human Body.

By Prof. W. VV. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc Tech.,

AND

F. Brotherton.

Read January 2^th, igro. Receivid J or publication April gth, igio.

In an investigation, which is in progress, relating to
Electrical Endosmose, tests have been made with organised
structures, and those relating to the human body have
been thought to be suitable for a separate paper, now
brought under the notice of the Society. The increasing
use of Electricity in Therapeutics and the revival of
Electrical Medication or Catopheresis makes a knowledge
of the electrical resistance of the body of importance. To
the general user of electrical energy the subject is also of
interest in connection with dangers associated with the
usual supply voltages.

In so complex a structure as the human body the
problem of determining its electrical resistance presents
unusual difficulties. First, there is the question of how to
secure a proper contact between the skin and the
electrodes. Evidently measurements made by the appli-
cation of dry metallic disks, etc., to the dry skin must be
of very questionable value, for the resistance will depend
on the firmness of the contact of the electrodes and the
state of the skin as regards texture, moisture, and tempera-
ture. In the larger number of our experiments it was
therefore thought advisable to make the measurements
with the skin immersed in salt solution. Again the

July 1 2th, igio.

2 Gee, The Electrical Resistance of the Human Body.

human body with its tissues immersed in fluids may be
regarded as an electrolyte of a very complex type.
According to the investigations of Dr. G. N. Stewart the
current passes almost wholly through the salt solutions in
the tissues. The effect of passing a current through the
body will then be like the charging of an accumulator
or rather a battery of cells arranged in parallel and series.
This view of the body has been advocated by Weiss * and
others, and more recently Nernst* has shown that many
electro-physiological phenomena may be explained by
considering the alterations in concentration of the electro-
lytes which occur at the surfaces of the membranes of the
body. A like explanation applies to the source of E.M.F.
in the electrical organ of the torpedo which Bernstein and
Tschermak' regard as a concentration battery acting by
osmotic forces. In the case of the Melapterurus^ Gotch
and Burch ^ find this E.M.F. as high as 200 volts.

Taking this view of the body the result of passing a
direct current through it will be to cause a series of
polarisation back-pressures giving an apparent resistance
much greater than the true one. The true value can be
more nearly approached by using alternating currents.
Both methods have been used in our measurements, for hi
many medical applications the value of the fictitious or
apparent resistance is that which must be considered.
This is the case where medicinal substances are passed
into the body by endosmose, and whenever direct currents
are applied.

Method of Measurement. Two circular stone-ware
vessels V, V^, 10 inches deep and 10 inches in width, were

' fournal de Physique, 1S97.

- W. Nernst. Sitz. Ber. Pretiss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, I, p. 3, 1908.

" Sitz. Ber. Pretiss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 8, p. 301, 1904.

* Pro. Roy. Soc, 65, p. 434, Jan. 1900.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 13. 3

nearly filled with y\y normal common salt solution.
Within each was placed a large porous pot, 8 inches deep
and 2i inches wide, containing ^^^ normal zinc sulphate

mm^mmmm
>0

JT

ic.

1

ya

Fis.- I .

solution. An amalgamated zinc rod placed in each pot
served as an electrode. The person under test, having
protected any abrasions or cuts in the skin by vaseline,
places a hand in the salt solution in each vessel, immersing

4 Gee, The Electrical Resistance of the Human Body.

the hands as a rule up to the wrist lines. The vessels
when short-circuited by a band of zinc had a resistance of
2"5 ohms.

Measurement with Direct Currents. The electrical con-
nections are shown in the diagram i^Fig. i). A potentio-
meter resistance of about 500 ohms and capable of carrying

Table I.

Cotton rope moistened

D.C. Measurement,

A.C.
Measure-
ment.

Pressure
(Volts).

Current
(Amperes).

Resistance
(Ohms).

Resistance
(Ohms).

with water

20-58
4*36

0-00172
•00250

12000

12400
1674

4 strands from rope wet
with salt solution...

1745

8-42

•00485

1735

12-36

•00726

1705

16-47

-00949

1735

20-58

•OII98

1715

24-92

•0145

1725

2900

-0168

1730

J 645

Wet rope with ends in

porous cells

20-58

-0029

7100

7360

Wet rope enclosed in

naner

20-58

•0029

7100

7360

r r

\ of an ampere was used to supply pressure up to 50 volts.
The type made by Snell and Tinsley with a sliding
contact, was found very suitable for the purpose, enabling
the change of voltage to be made very gradually and
without sudden variations. This is essential to prevent

Manchester Meiywirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 13

5

discomfort to the subject under test. The voltage was
measured by a standardised voltmeter V, and the current
by a standardised milliammeter A, the latter so placed in
the circuit that it did not include the voltmeter current.
A reversing switch was employed in order that the
current could be sent from the right to the left hand or
the reverse, as required.

Table Ia.
Experiments zvith Wet Cotton Ropes.

No. of
Expt.

Time

(Minutes).

0

Pressure
(Volts).

Current
(Amperes).

D. C.
Resistance

(Ohms).

Time
(Minutes).

A.C.
Resistance

(Ohms).

I

1 20"o6

0-0390

5150

0

5340

2

I

5070

3

2

5090

4

3

5050

5

0

"

•0407

4940

0

4950

6

I

"

•0410

4890

I

4950

7

2

5)

•0410

4890

2

4953

8

3

5>

•0412

4880

3

4950

Measurement with Alternating Currents. For this
purpose a Kohlrausch Bridge with telephone, made by
Hartmann and Braun, was found suitable. The alternating
current was supplied either by a small induction coil I.C.,
or by a small alternator marked ~.

A throw-over switch enabled either of these methods
to be used at will.

6 Gee, The Electrical Resistance of the Human Body.

Preliminary Measjii'ejuents. In order to compare the
two methods it was thought to be advisable to make
measurements with materials such as cotton which could
be moistened with water or salt solution. In Table I.
comparative tests are recorded.

The instruments were then recalibrated and the bridge
method made more sensitive.

Table Ia. shows the results which were then obtained.

Table II.

W
I

o •

■r.'2

C-J3

I!i2
go

Current
Amperes.

0
cc oi ^

a .0
0

0

.2 c 0

<

D.C. Res.
.\.C. Res.

CS 0 "^i

A.K.

10-38

0-00510

2040

766

27

6-5

2

))

20-58

0-01310

1570

693

2-3

12-5

3

A.L.

20'70

0 01480

1400

837 ^

I 6

8-3

4

>>

20-58

0-01380

1490

870

17

86

5

T.H.

20-58

001 320

1560

950

17

8-1

6

-M.

20-58

o-oi 720

IT98

828

i"5

6-4

7

w.o.

2006

0-0I200

1670

993

17

8 I

8

J.O.

20-06

0-01400

1430

714

2-0

lo-o

These figures show that the results by the two methods
are in substantial agreement. This was also the case
when measurements were made with porous materials
and parchment membranes.

Measurements of Body Resistance.
We have applied the two methods in finding the

MancJiester Meuioirs^ Vol. liv. (1910) No. 13. 7

resistance from hand to hand and representative results
are shown in Table II.

In obtaining the above results the hands were kept
immersed in the salt solutions until the direct current
readings were approximately constant. The subjects
were all young men. Most of the tests were carried out

Table III.

Expt. No.

Age.

Maximum Volts.

Maximum
Milliamperes.

Average D. C.
Resistance in Ohms.

I

21

35

27

1300

2

21

35

25

1400

3

.39

41

29

I4IO

A

]6

42

36-8

I 140

5

19

39

Zl

I 180

6

25

43

35 "4

I2IO

7

22

40

26-0

1540

8

19

34

25-6

1330

9

40

32

256

1250

10

20

20

17

I 180

11

19

Zl

19-8

1670

at 20 volts, this JDeing the pressure at which discomfort
was usually produced. Average values of the resistance
to direct current with subjects of different ages are shown
in Table III.

The limits of the resistance recorded in the above
table are 1 140 and 1670 ohms, the highest voltage used

8 Gee, TJie Electrical Resistance of the Human Body.

being 43. This caused a very uncomfortable burning
sensation. It is important not to suddenly vary the
voltage, and especially not to break the circuit until the
voltage has been gradually reduced, for otherwise violent
shocks will be administered.

Tests were next made for the purpose of ascertaining
the change of resistance during the time the current was
passed. Here it was necessary to have the salt solutions
more nearly of the temperature of the body and to take
other precautions. Examples of the measurements are
given in Tables IV. and IVa.

Table IV.
Time Test with Direct Current.

Subject.

Time (Minutes).

Volts.

Amperes.

Ohms.

F. B. (Age 22)

0

10-35

o'oo63

1647

15

J)

•00392

2641

26

51

•00345

3000

34

IJ

•00370

2800

45

1)

•00390

2655

The results in two tests on the same person are
plotted in Fig. 2 which show that the apparent resistance
increases up to a certain point and then gradually
decreases and tends to become constant. These observa-
tions are important in establishing the production of
polarisation which takes time to reach a maximum.
Assuming that the true resistance of the body, R^ is that
measured by the A . C. method and that the apparent
increase of resistance is due to polarisation we have : —

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 13.

C =

E

K

E_e_
R R

(0

where E is the appHed and e the back E.M.F., C the
current. \{ E and R be regarded as constant during the
experiment, then the relation between C and e will be
expressed by the relation : —

C^A\-K„e (2)

where K^ and K.^ are constants.

Te

Suhjtct FB Age 5fl.

3000

2 aoM

(^

Ei[i;. 2.

Applying the first formula given in Table II. the
values from 65 to I2'5 volts have been calculated.

It is important to get direct verification of this
polarisation by cutting the supply voltage out of circuit
and immediately connecting the electrodes to a galvano-
meter.

This was done by charging the body for one minute
and then immediately discharging into a galvanometer.
After a small interval of time (necessary to read the

10 Gee, TJie Electrical Resis/ance of the Huvian Body.

galvanometer) a second charge for one minute was
given and a second discharge observed. This process
was continually repeated. Table V. gives the observations

Table IV. a.
Subject — -/. B. Age — 26. Voltage — 12.

Time
(Minutes).

Temperature of Bath
fC),

Amperes.

Ohms.

0

24

0-0073

1645

I

24

■0067

1790

2

24

•00630

1900

3

24

•00610

1970

4

24

•00595

2020

5

24

00590

2040

6

23

•00580

2070

7

23

■00575

2090

8

22-5

•00572

2100

9

22-2

•00570

2!08

10

22

•00567

2it8

II

22

•00565

2122

12

22

•00564

2127

13

22

■00560

2141

14

22

■00565

2125

15

21

•00566

2122

16

21

•00575

2087

MmicJiestcr Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 13. 11

and Fig. 3 the result of plotting the galvanometer deflec-
tions against current. The straight line obtained shows
that the formula 2 is verified.

It is important toconfirm the result of this approximate
method by diminishing the time of opening the circuit.
This was done by arranging a compensation method with
a galvanometer, G, for a zero instrument (see Fig. 4).

H\eLHTiOH S£Twe£N LyR«£MT and r^LARlSATloN

70

T

to

Q

50

\

T

\

s.

S

\,

s

\

\

,■?

N

K^

^i

£

» i

vo?

s

^^

\:^

*

s

\,

s

\,

\

H

'\

N,

\

oooso

By means of a rotating commutator, C, of a secohmmeter
driven by a small electric motor M, the interval of
opening the circuit was reduced to less than y^o^h of
a second. It was, however, soon discovered that the
rapid intermission of the current caused extreme dis-
comfort to the subject, a state of rigidity being soon
established. The maximum current attained has been

12 Gee, TJie Electrical Resistance of the Hiiviati Body.

about 0"0002 amperes. The continuance of this small
current for about five minutes was found to be quite
sufficient to give rise to a polarisation of about 0"85 volt.
It would therefore seem probable that a polarisation
of 5 to 6 volts may be attained with higher current

HHHHHHi--""----IHHH^

Fig. 4.

densities. In Table Va. results by the compensation
method are given.

Our observations confirm those of Chanoz^ who
obtained a maximum polarisation of about 075 volts for

^ Conipte Kendiis 147 p. 848, Nov. 9, 190S.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. \^. 13

an application of 32 micro-amperes for 30 minutes, but an

interval of time elapsed before the polarisation was

measured.

Table V.

Polarisation.

1
Subject.

Time.

m. s.

Pressure,

Volts.

Current.
Amperes.

Res.

(I>. C).

Ohms.

1
1

Res.
(A. C).

Ohms.

Deflection

after
I second.

observed
c after

I second.
Volts.

Calc. e

= E-CR.

Volts.

F. B.,

4 2t

6"oo

o'oo36

1660

850

31 divs.

O'lOO

2-94

age 22

4 22

)i

•0035

I7IO

»

52 „

o"i67

4 23

))

•0034

1770

))

58 „

0-185

4 24

))

•0033

1820

>)

62 „

0-198

4 25

))

•00325

1850

))

64 »

0*204

4 26

))

•0032

1875

5)

65 »

0"208

4 27

))

•00315

I9IO

)>

67 .

0^214

4 28

11

•C031

1940

))

69 ,.

0'22I

4 29

It

•00305

1970

)1

70 ).

0'224

4 30

)>

•0030

2000

.'J

72 „

0-230

3 45

4 31

>>

•0030

2000

)»

73 >.

0234

4 32

J)

•00295

2030

1)

75 M

0'240

4 33

)>

•0029

2070

))

75 '.

0^240

4 34

>)

•00285

2IIO

))

75 n

0^240

4 35

))

•00285

21 10

))

76 „

0-243

4 36

>)

■0029

2070

> J

77 >.

0^246

•

4 37

)j

•00285

2IIO

))

79 »

0-253

3-58

14 Gee, The Electrical Resistance of the Human Boay.

TABLE Va.

ij.xpt.

Subject.

Pressure.

in

Volts.

Current.

in

Amperes.

Time from

Start.

Minutes.

Interval

in
Seconds.

Polarisation
measured
in Volts.

I

w. o.

8-4

O'OOIO

.

Ath

0-478

Age 19

9-6

•QOIO

—

1

6 7

0-656

no

■0010

1
S3

0-705

15-5

•0010

—

1
100

0-757

17-0

0009

—

1
TTT

0-663

2

— M.

II 6

O'OOIO

I

Ttr^lh

0-717

))

J)

2

11

0-770

5>

)>

4

11

0793

J)

))

6

11

0-777

5J

11

8

11

0-732

11

11

10

11

0-702

11

11

12

11

0-651

11

!>

M

11

0-613

11

)>

16

11

0-57.S

11

5)

18

11

0-591

11

)>

20

11

0-567

3

J.B.

10

o'oooSo

—

xirth

0*522

Age26

11

•00105

—

1

0562

11

•00130

—

1

0 7

0-598

11

•00130

—

1

0-561

11

00130

—

1
iT

0563

11

■000505

—

1
142

0-544

11

•00037

—

1
17 5

0 602

11

•00160

—

1
13^

0-586

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. hv. (1910), A^(?. 13. 15

To determine whether higher values for this back
E.M.F. were hkely to be reached, the following experi-
ment was attempted.

A steady direct current of 21 milliamperes was first
passed through the patient for about two minutes, the
necessar)' pressure amounting to 30 volts. This current
was then quickly reduced to a safe value, and the
commutator-motor started. When rapid determinations

Taule VI.

Expt. No.

DC. Resistance.
(.\verage— Right and Left.)

Frequency

A.C.
Resistance.

D.C.
Resistance.

A.C.
Resistance.

I
2

3

4

5

Ohms.
^705

I2IO

1435
1490

1355

Periods
per sec.

300

15

300

300

15

300

15

300

Ohms.

1210
II52

1072
1070

990
840

797
837

719
733

I-4T

1-48

i'i3
1-13

i"45
171

1-87
178

1-88
184

of the polarisation were now carried out, considerably
higher values were attained.

Three consecutive experiments gave the numbers
0'833, I'oio and 1045 volts respectively.

SUidy of Effect of Change of Frequency. Whether
the frequency was low or relatively high, approximately
the same value of resistance was obtained with alternating
currents.

In the following table the lower frequenc}' was
furnished by a small motor-driven alternator, capable

1 6 Gee, TJie Electrical Resistance of the Human Body.

of supplying 6 amperes at 15 volts and giving a sine
curve. The higher frequency current was derived from
the secondary windings of a small induction coil with the
usual asymmetric wave.

The chief resistance of the body is at the skin. This

7?e/a?,oH

Vel:

jjeen.

A

r-ea

of

7at-^kict

and

7?es(s!b

nC£

^r-

;

50L^

f

I-

- E

QiAoi A^eo

-. at

A<^oJe a.A Kal

.oi

^
S.OO"

1

■

I-

- h

u^Miie A,

ea L

)ris/i

,lal

4rt,

5,0-1

1

M

■ - - 1

\«c-<J^

\

\

k

\

1

V

k.

^

1

\

K

"^-^

"^

^

h

^

^<:

^:»

'

-

—

0

i

Area, of Contc.ct tn sa'^cre Centimetre's

■P'ig- 5-

is verified by the observations of Stone, Leduc^ and others.
Leduc'^ has given a law connecting the relations between
electrode surface and electrical resistance which involves
the length of the periphery of the electrodes, and not their
area. It would seem more important to connect the resist-
ance directly with the area of contact. Measurements of

* S. Leduc, Coniptes Kendus, 137, p. 814, Nov. 16, 1903.
^ Archives d^ Eledriciti Medicak^ 13, p. 457, June 25, 1905.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. l3. 17

this kind we have only so far made with direct currents as
tabulated below : —

Table VII.

Relation between Area and Resistance.

Hand to Hand.

Subject— H. P. Volts— 20-6.

Exp.

Cathode Area.
Sq. cms.

Anode Area.
Sq. cms.

C.

Amps.

Resistance.
Ohms.

I

486

(up to wrists)

486

(up to wrists)

0'0C92

2240

2

180
(up to ends of fingers)

180

(up to ends of fingers)

000615

3350

3

20
(first finger)

20
(first finger)

o'oo30

6870

4

9
(i" of finger)

9
(i" of finger)

o'ooi6

12900

5

486

(up to wrist)

9
U" of finger)

©■0028

7360

6

9
(i" of finger)

486
(up to wrist)

o"oo295

6980

7

4S6

(up to wrist)

180
(ends of fingers)

0-0075

2750

8

180
(ends of fingers)

486
(up to wrist)

o'oo8o

2580

9

3
(tips of 3 fingers)

3

(tips of 3 fingers)

o'oo2g

71 10

These results when plotted give the curves shown

in Fig. 5.

Resistance zvith Metallic Cojttacts. In the cases when
ordinary metallic contact is made, as usually occurs in
practice, the values of the resistances will obviously be
very much higher. A number of measurements have been
carried out by the two methods, with a view to obtaining
results under conditions most likely to obtain in work-
shops. The nature of the numbers to be expected is
indicated by the following results :

1 8 Gee, TJie Electrical Resistance of the Human Body.

Exp. I. Dry contact on brass rods. Diameter = ^".
These rods were held in the hands.

A.C. Measurement.
£>j Ohms.

5080

T.S

JOO

D.C. Measurement.
Direction of Flow. Ohms.

Mean . .

Left to Right... 15000

4450 j Right to Left... 10900-13600
Mean

4765

12950

Ratio

27

Exp. 2. The hands were washed with soap and water,
and then dried on a towel. Contact made as before.

o^ Ohms, j Direction of Flow. Ohms.

3970 I Left to Right... 12800

15

300

546c

Mean ... 3715

Right to Left... 11500-12800
Mean ... 12150

3-3

Exp. 3. Hands wet with tap-water.

«>^ Ohms.
2050

15
300

Mean ... 1995

1940

Direction of Flow.

Left to Right...
Right to Left...
Mean

Ohms.
6310

5940
6125

D.C.

3'i

Exp. 4. Hands wet with Salt Solution.

fVJ

Ohms.

Direction of Flow.

ohms.

15 ••

1480

Left to Right...

6310

300 ..

• 13IO

• 1395

Right to Left...
Mean

59-10

Mean .

6125

D.C.
A.C.

4'4

Exp. 5. Hands immersed in Salt Solution to wrists.

D.C. Ratio

Mean 1 100 ohms.

Mean = 1775 ohms.

A.C.

1-6

Manchester MeJiioirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 13 19

Exp. 6. Dry finger tips on metal. D.C.
Resistance by galvanometer = 150,000 ohms.

Physiological Effects. The various types of electronic
effects known to physiologists were manifest during these
experiments. The muscular contractions were made very
evident by the movement of* the reflection images at the
surface of the solution. With the hands immersed in salt
solution 1-2 volts gave a sensation on closing the circuit
with a key, the effect with 30 volts causing great dis-
comfort and vigorous contraction of the muscles. In-
voluntary muscular contractions took place on making
the circuit, with a minimum of 8 volts at the cathode and
of 1 1 volts at the anode. By placing the muscles in a
strained condition these numbers were reduced to 4 and
6 volts respectively.

It was thought that the effect being greater at the
cathode this would furnish an easy method of dis-
tinguishing the polarity of circuit terminals. With dry
finger tips on brass terminals the following effects were
observed.

Table VII.a.

Voltage.

230 ... Smart shock to end.s of fingers. More marked

at the cathode.
150 ... Same effect.

no ... Less shock. Distinctly greater at the cathode.
50 ... No effect with dry fingers. With wet fingers
the cathode contraction is very distinct.

A number of observations concerning these interesting
sensation effects are appended in Table VIII. In the
following experiments the skin contact remained un-

20 Gee, The Electrical Resistance of the Human Body.

broken, the current being started and stopped by means
of an ordinary knife-switch.

Table VIII.

i

Applied
1 Pressure.

Currrent.

Sensations.

•Cathode.

Anode.

Volts.

Amperes.

Opening. | Closing.

Opening.

Closing.

I

O'OOOJ

—

—

—

—

2

•ooio

—

c

—

—

1

"0020

—

c

—

c

4

•0025

—

c

—

c

5

■0035

C

c

—

c

6

•0045

C

c

—

c

7

•0050

c

c

—

c

8

■0060

c

c

c

c

9

■0070

C

c

c

c

lO

■0080

C

c

c

c

In the preceding Table, " C " is used to represent a
considerable muscular contraction, and " c ", a smaller
contraction. The hands were as usual immersed in Salt
Solutions.

Human Telegraphy. The distinction between the
cathode and the anode effects suggested the application
for the purpose of telegraphy. The arrangement shown
in the accompanying Plate was found to be suitable.

A battery of from five to ten dry cells in series, was
connected through an ordinary " tapper " commutator

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 13. 2i

and formed the transmitting portion of the system. The
messages, which were sent in the Morse code were received
by the operator who placed the left-hand in a vessel con-
taining dilute salt solution in which was immersed a
zinc rod to serve as an electrode. In the right-hand was
held a pencil wrapped round with tin-foil or contained in
a metal pencil-case. The pencil was connected to one
end of the line whilst the other end was placed in con-
nection with the zinc rod. A " dot " was represented by
a shock in the right-hand and a " dash " by one in
the left-hand. After a little practice Messrs. W. B.
Smith (of the P.O. Engineering Dept.) and A. Hodgson
and T. Alston (of the Manchester Postal Telegraphs)
were able to send and receive messages at the rate
of from 7 to 15 words per minute: the lower speed
being when the receiving operator actually made his
own record in writing, and the higher speed when
he dictated the message as received. When the message
is dictated it is better to receive with the right hand
also immersed in salt solution. The method may prove
to be one of value in practice in case of emergencies
where receiving instruments are not available.

Dangers of Supply Ci)'ciiits. The resistance between
the hands wet with salt solution being with alternating
currents only about 800 ohms, the result of including the
body in an alternating supply of about 100 volts will be
excessively dangerous and probably will cause death. An
accident of this kind is recorded by A. Kolpen.*^

* Elcktrolech Z/sckr., 21, p. 133, Feb. I5t.h, 1900. The glow lamps of
some potash works near Prague were connected with one phase and the
neutral wire of a three-phase system giving I lo volts. A man standing on
an iron soda tank with his boots soaked with soda, accidentally touched one
of the bare wires of a lamp. Two of his lingers stuck to the wire and before
he could be released he was unconscious and all attempts to resuscitate
him failed.

22 Gee, Tlie Electrical Resistance of the Hiuiian Body.

With the application of alternating current, only
about 17 milliampere is required to produce muscular
fixation.

Zipp^ mentions the case of a man who was rendered
speechless for three weeks by coining into contact with a
120 volt circuit.

To so-called medical electricians the case that occurred
at Clothen may serve as a warning : —

The owner of a bathing estabUshment who knew little of tlie dangers
attending the use of electricity, had the idea of installing an electrical bath.

He arranged a pair of electrodes at the two ends of a slipper-bath, and
had them connected with a source of alternating current at 120 volts.

Trying the effect upon his own person, at the moment of entering he
received a violent shock which proved fatal.

The fatalities at the Fulham baths due to 200 volts
alternating current are yet fresh in our memory.

The Board of Trade has recently revised the regu-
lations relating to portable electric lamps and switch
lamp-holders so as to minimise the danger to users of
electricity in factories.'^

Our thanks are due to a number of students at the
Manchester School of Technology who have given assist-
ance in carrying out the experiments and especially to Mr.
A. K. Bentley.

'■> Electrical Review^ p. 295, 1 907.
^"Electrician, March 4th, p. 852, 1910.

Manchesicf Memoirs, Vol. LIV. {No. 13).

P/ate.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 14.

XIV. The Physical Aspect of Time.

By H. Bateman, ma.

Received Alay ^1 d, igio.

I. During recent j^ears mathematicians and philoso-
phers have been much occupied in analysing the
fundamental conceptions on which the different sciences
are based, with the result that many things which were
formerly regarded as quite simple and axiomatic can
no longer be regarded as such. The tendency has, of
course, been to make definitions as precise as possible,
and to make descriptions of phenomena approximate to
reality as we know it, and not to a preconceived idea of
what the description ought to be.

Many difficulties arise, however, in a careful examina-
tion of the fundamental concepts of any science, and this
is soon found to be the case when we commence to
examine the ideas of space and time which are fundamental
in all physical and metaphysical enquiries.

In the case of time, for instance, it is found that we
have to examine the connection between time as it is known
to us by the mind's experience, i.e., psychological time,
and time as it is measured by the course of physical
phenomena, i.e., physical time.

With regard to psychological time, it has been con-
tested that it is purely qualitative, in other words that
we are quite unable to decide intuitively whether two
intervals of time are equal or not.* This means that

*See for instance Poinccire, " La \'aleur de la Science," cii. II.
June i^ih, igio.

2 Bateman, The Physical Aspect of Time.

there is no fixed method by which two sequences of events
may be compared in the mind. The comparisons which
actually occur give a qualitative description of events,
inasmuch as the sequence of processes is generally
unaltered in direct perception and in memory, but the
lack of a standard set of units invariably connected
v/ith the method of comparison, prevents the description
from being a true quantitative one.

This being the case, we are met with a fundamental
difficulty when we try to analyse the idea of simultaneity
as presented to us by the mind.

If we could represent an event by a point on a line,
the idea of simultaneity would be quite simple, for two
events could be regarded as simultaneous when their
representative points were coincident. In reality such a
representation is not valid, there is no sensation of such a
simple nature that it can be represented by a point on
a line. If we adopt a representation by means of an
interval on a line, we obtain what is probably a truer
representation of an event as regards its duration ; but if
we suppose that two events are simultaneous when their
representative intervals have a common part, it is clear
that two events which are simultaneous with the same
event would not necessarily be simultaneous with one
another.

It will be realised after a little thought that we can
only obtain a satisfactory definition of simultaneity by
introducing the idea of the measurement of time ; we are
thus obliged to consider the physical aspect of time in
order to understand the idea of simultaneity.

An observer provided with an instrument for measur-
ing time, such as a clock or a pendulum, can attach a
definite number to each event that occurs. In some
cases he may find it difficult to decide as to which of two

Manchester Illejnoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 14. 3

consecutive numbers should be attached to an event ; but
we shall suppose that he has a consistent method of
avoiding the difficult)', as, for example, by always choosing
the larger number of the two.

A satisfactory definition of simultaneity for two events
which happen in the immediate vicinity of the observer
can be given as soon as events are numbered, for we can
say that two events are simultaneous when their corre-
sponding numbers are equal. The actual enumeration
may depend upon the personal equation of the observer,
but discrepancies may be eliminated as soon as a method
of comparing the observations of different observers has
been adopted.

We now require a method of comparison by means of
which we can decide whether the observations of time
made by two different observers are equivalent or not.
The criterion of equivalence must be such that if the
observations of A are equivalent to those of B, and also
to those of C, then the observations of B and C are
equivalent to one another.

It is clear that if two observers are situated at different
points of space a comparison of observations can only be
made by means of something which travels from one to
the other, and for the sake of simplicit)' it is convenient
to choose something which can be supposed to travel in
a straight line with constant velocity. It should be
remarked, however, that these terms have no meaning
until time and distance have been defined.

It is by no means obvious that a universal method of
comparing observations can be found which will lead to
consistent results, for this presupposes the existence of a
universal time, an entity which has sometimes been
regarded as the psychological time of an infinite mind
governing the whole of the universe. The latter point of

4 Bateman, The Physical Aspect of Time.

view is really not sound, because the universal time we
are endeavouring^ to define is essentially quantitative in
character. The best waj' of establishing the existence of
a consistent method of comparison is to give an example
of one, and so we shall consider Galileo's method of light
signals,* which was used in a first but unsuccessful
attempt to measure the velocity of light.

The way in which this method is applied is as follows.
An observer situated at a point A observes at time t an
event which has taken place at another point B. If r is
the time which light takes to travel from B to A, the
universal time to be associated with the event at B
according to ^'s measurements is / — r. As soon as A
has observed the event he makes a signal, and it is clear
that by a series of signals the two measures of an interval
of time may be compared.

By means of this rule the clocks belonging to a
number of observers A ^, A„,... can be regulated in a
consistent manner, provided light always takes the same
time to travel from an observer A^ to an observer A^.

Let us suppose that a large number of observers A,.
find that their observations of one another's experiences
give a consistent universal time as far as they are con-
cerned ; they can then regard themselves as being at
constant distances from one another, the distance between
two observers A,., A, being defined as Ct,., where r„ is
the time light takes to travel from A^ to A,, and C is a
constant called the velocity of light.

These observers may then form a standard system
for the measurement of time and distances at other points
of space. The measurements of four standard observers
should suffice to determine the position and time of any

* This method is used lor tlie purpose of studying the properties of time
by A. Einstein, Ami. der Physik, vol. 17 (1905).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 14. 5

occurrence, if space is of three dimensions. If there are
more than four observers in the standard system the
relations between all the different observations of an
event will depend upon the nature of space, and will take
a comparatively simple form if the space is Euclidean.

If the position and time associated with an object B
is always determined from measurements by a number of
standard observers A^,...A^, so that a consistent universal
time exists for each point of space, the following conclusion
may be deduced by elementary geometry for Euclidean
space :

If two observers B and C are at rest or in motion
relative "to the standard system, and their velocities are less
than that of light, there is only one instant* at which B
is able to observe an instantaneous event experienced by
C, but if one of the observers is moving with a velocity
greater than that of light this is not necessarily the case ;
in fact it may happen that B sees two or more pictures of
the same event.f

* An analytical proof of this result is given l)y Prof A. W. Conway.
jR/Ci-. London Math. Sac, Ser. 2, vol. i. (1903).

t If the times associited with B and A in two views of them are /| and
t„ respectively, B will be able to witness at time /j an event experienced by
B at time t„ if a sphere of radius ct-^ having the point B as centre is touched
internally by a sphere of radius ct^ having the point A as centre.

Now if B is moving with a velocity less than that of light, the spheres
associated w ilh consecutive positions of B surround one another in succession
as in Fig. i.

It is clear then that there is only one sphere of the series which is touched

Fiz. I.

6 Bateman, TJic Physicixl Aspect of Time.

In order that Galileo's method of comparing times at
different points of space may be suitable for a sober
world, it seems necessary to suppose that a body cannot
move with a velocity greater than that of light, and it
may be of interest to remark that this view is supported
by modern electrical theories.

Now let us suppose that a second system of observers,
B , B.-,,...B,,, find that their observations are in agreement,
and so can regard themselves as a standard system. It
may happen that according to their measurements the
first system of observers /} ^, A,,,... A,, are in motion, and
then it is easy to see that the specifications of position
and time as made by the J's and the ^'s will not agree.

iiiLcrnally by a given sphere associated will) A, or if \vemake/„=0 il is clear
that there is only one sphere of the series which passes through a given point
in space, provided the radii of the spheres associated with £ are all positive ;
the equivalent supposition in the other case is that /^ > /.,

If B is moving with a velocity greater than that of light, two of the
spheres associated with it may intersect, and so two of them may be touched
internally by the same sphere belonging to A, and then B is able to see more
than one picture of the same event. See Figs. 2 and 3.

Fz^. 2. F/^. 3.

Again, if .4 is moving with a velocity less than that of ligiit the spheres
associated with A lie within one another or surround one anotlier in succession,
and it is clear that there is only one sphere of the series which touches
internally a given sphere associated with B. Hence B cannot see two
different states of A at the same time. If A is moving with a velocity
greater than that of light two of its spheres may intersect, and then it is quite
possible for B to see two or more different positions of ^ at a given time.

If B and A are moving with \elocities less than that of light, and v\ e

Manclicster Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), .V('. 14- 7

For instance, if two observers /^,., A, pass an observer B
at different times, their distance apart as measured by B
is zero, while measured from ^^'s point of view it is not.

The relation between the two sets of measurements
may be obtained by taking into account the fact that the
analytical conditions that an observer P should be able at
time /"i to observe an event which happened at another
point Q at time /.,, ought to be of the same form in the
two S3'stems of coordinates.

If (.I'j, jj'i, ,c'i), (.ro,jJ'.,, r:^ are the coordinates of /^ and
Q, we have, in the first place, the necesssary conditions

(A- - x^- + O'l -y^' + {z, - cj- = r(/, - fj^ />/,.
These conditions, combined with the kinematical
character of the motion of the B's relative to the A's, are

establish a correspondence between the spheres connected with tlie diflerent
positions of B and ,-/ l^y associating together two spheres which toucli
internally, then since the two series of spheres are such that any sphere of a
series surrounds all the smaller ones of the series, it is clear that as the radius
of a. B sphere increases the radius of the corresponding A sphere also
increases. Fig. 4. This shows that B observes the events happening to .-1 in the

Fig. 4.

correct order. This is not necessarily the case if one or both of the observers
are moving with a velocity greater than that of light ; in fact under certain
conditions it would be possible for one observer to witness the other's
experiences in the reverse order. For instance in figure 3 if the four crosses
denote successive positions of B, it appears that the first and last positions
are seen by A at one instant and the two intermediate positions at another
instant. The two earlier positions of B are thus seen in the reverse order,
and the two later positions in the correct order.

8 Bateman, The Physical Aspect of Time.

practically sufficient to determine the relation between
the two systems of measurement in certain cases, as, for
instance, when the i5's are moving with a uniform velocity
relative to the A's*

It is found that in the case of uniform relative motion
the units of length and time in the two systems are
different, and that two events occurring at different points
of space may appear to be simultaneous according to
measurements made by the A's, and not appear to be
simultaneous according to measurements made by the i5's.
Also, the shape of a bod}' is theoretically different
according to the two series of measurements, but the
difference is so very slight as to be unnoticeable.

The fact that the electromagnetic equations have the
same form in the two systems of coordinates, indicates,
that as far as our observations of electromagnetic pheno-
mena are concerned, a uniform motion of a system of
observers would remain undetected. This, of course, is
in accordance with the view that position and motion are
purely relative, and that the term absolute motion is
meaningless.

* The transformation for the case of uniform velocity was given by
Voiyt, Larmor and Lorentz, it is

y'^y, z'^z, /■ = .

'' — / ^rs » J' —J' > - — - , ' — _

This transformation makes

{x\ - .r'„)2 + (v\ -y'„y- + (;\ - ='„)= - c-i/\ - /',)-^o,
a consequence of

{x,-s„_r- + {y,-y^J"+{Z;-z,r--c-H/,-f„y'=o.

It can be shown that any transformation of coordinates which leaves the
last equation unaltered is such that the electrodynamical equations are
unaltered in form. See papers by E. Cunningham and the author in the
Proccedivgs of the London Mathematical Society (1910).

Manchester lilginoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 14. 9

A. Einstein* has developed this theory of relativity
starting with the fundamental idea of the constancy of
the velocity of light, and has thus been able to present us
with a new kinematics which is apparently more con-
sistent with the modern theories of electrodynamics than
the approximate kinematics to which we are accustomed.
Some of the most interesting results of the theory are that
the resultant of two velocities, both of which are less than
that of light, is always a velocity less than that of light ;
the resultant of two velocities one of which is equal to
that of light is a velocity equal to that of light ; the resultant
of two velocities equal to that of light but of opposite
directions is indeterminate, and may have any value less
than or equal to that of light.

This theory of relativity is not based simply on
theoretical considerations ; it has received considerable
support from some very delicate experiments. It was
first put forward in an approximate form by Lorentzf
and Larmorj, following a suggestion made by FitzGerald§,
to explain the negative results of the Michelson-Morley
experiment. It was then found that it provided an
ample explanation of a number of other negative results
concerning the effect of the motion of the Earth on
double refraction li, the rotation of the plane of polarisa-
tionlT, the resistance of a piece of metal**, and other
physical phenomena. Also, the theoretical formula

*Ann. der. Physik, vol. 17 (1905). Jahrb. der Radioaktivildt (1907).

t " Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen und optischen Erscheinungen
in bewegten Korpern." Leiden. (1895.)

t Aether and Matter. (1900.) Ch. x., xi., xiii.

§ Public lectures in Trinity College, Dublin.

II D. C. Brace Phil. Mag., (6), vol. 7, p. 317, 1904.

ITRayleigh. Phil. Mag., (6), vol. 4, p. 215. Brace. Phil. Mag., (6),
vol. 10, p. 383, 1905. Ibid., p. 391.

** Trouton and Rankine. Phil. Tians. A. (1908), p. 420.

lo Bateman, TJie Physical Aspect of Time.

deduced for the transverse mass of a moving electron* is
in fairly good agreement with the results of Kaufmann's
experiments, and has been verified very closely in a recent
experiment made by Bucherer.

At present the theory is being widely used as a
working hypothesis, and is of great theoretical import-
ance, as it enables us to pass from the known analytical
specification of a phenomenon for a medium at rest to
the corresponding case of a medium in motion. It has
been used in this way by the late Hermann Minkowski to
obtain a scheme of electromagnetic relations for ponder-
able bodies in uniform motion, and has been shown by
Planck and \'on Mosengeil to provide a very useful
method of studying the properties of radiation in a cavity
in a moving body.

With regard to the ideas of time that have arisen in
connection with the theory, it may be mentioned that two
new terms have been introduced. The term local time is
used by Lorentz to denote time as it is measured by a
set of observers who are moving uniformly in a straight
line relative to a standard set of observers. The relation
between the local time and the standard time is a reciprocal
one, the local time for one set of observers being the
standard time for the other set, and vice-versa.

A second term, used by Minkowski, is Eigcnzeit or
the "proper time." It is defined for each particle and
may be regarded as the age of a particle. As a particle
moves from one point to another, the increase of age
depends upon the increase of the standard time, and also
upon the velocity of the particle. If the particle is moving

*This formula is in— ° where ;;/ is the mass which the elec-

y^

tron would have if it were at rest.

Manclicstcr Memoirs, Vol. liv. {igio), No. 14. il

uniformly, the increase in age is equal to the increase in
local time. The advantage of using the age of a particle
in forming the equations of motion is that there is a gain
in simplicity. The analytical methods based upon the
use of the age of a particle may be compared with
Lagrange's method of dealing with problems in hydro-
djMiamics, while the methods based on the use of a
standard time may be compared with the Eulerian
method.

When a particle is moving in an arbitrary manner it
is by no means certain that its age can be derived from a
knowledge of an initial position and the position at a given
time. It is to be expected, in fact, that the age of the
particle will depend upon the path from one point to the
other, and also upon the rates at which it describes
different parts of the path.

There is, at present, considerable uncertainty with
regard to the exact laws of the kinematics and dynamics
of a body whose motion is not uniform. Systems of non-
Newtonian mechanics and kinematics of a rigid electron
have been based upon the theory of relativity for the case
of uniform motion, but they can hardly be regarded as
satisfactory, and difficulties arise as soon as a uniform
motion of rotation about an axis is considered.*

If mechanics is to be based on the science of electro-
magnetism, we must make a complete study of the
transformations connected with the fundamental equations
of electromagnetism.

Now the general problem of determining the trans-
formations which leave the electrodynamical equations
unaltered in form, may be partially solved by simply
paying attention to the conditions which must be satisfied

*This difficulty was pointed out l)y Ehrenfesl, Phjsi/ca/. Zeitschr., vol. lO,
p. 918 (1909).

12 B AXEMAN, The Physical Aspect of Time.

in order that an observer P who is at a point (-I'l, J\, -i)
at time A may be in a position to record the effect of a
disturbance which issued from a point (a;, ;'., ;:.,) at time /,.

It should be remarked that the conditions given
above with regard to the possibility oi P seeing Q at the
given times are necessary, but not sufficient. This accounts
for the fact that the transformations for which the condition

{x^ - x^ + 0\ -y.y + (^. - s.)= = r{f, - ff
is invariant are limited to a certain group.

It is clear that P is able to see Q if there is a
flow of energy from P to Q. If {s„ s,„ s) denotes the
direction in which energy is flowing from Q at time/*,, and
we regard the differences -Vi—x.,, etc., as small, so that

x^- x.,^ dx, j»'i -ji'„ = ^v, z^-z., = dz, t^-/., = dt

we may consider transformations such that the equations

dx _dy __ dz

dx" + dy- + dz- - trdi' = O
are invariant. Since the flow of energy depends upon
the state of the electromagnetic field, the formulae of
transformation will depend upon the character of the
electromagnetic field, but it can be shown that if the
above equations are invariant, the fundamental equations
which describe the sequence of electromagnetic disturb-
ances are also invariant.* The description of any series
of phenomena is thus qualitatively the same in the two
series of coordinates.

It is interesting to compare the result just obtained
with some ideas with regard to the way in which
experience is interpreted by the mind.

If we suppose that some physical process taking place

* These are not the onl}' transformations which may be used to transform
a particular electromagnetic field into another, there appear to be man)-
different types of transformation which are suitable for this purpose.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 14. 13

in the brain is the physical adjunct of a sensation in the
mind, such as visual perception, we may regard the mind's
interpretation of the sensation as a transformation of the
actual physical process as it would be described by
external observers if observed directly by them.

If now the exact nature of this transformation depends
upon the physical process taking place as in the case of
the transformations just considered, but at the same time
leaves invariant the fundamental laws on which a descrip-
tion of the process depends, the description of the process by
means of the transformation will be a correct qualitative
description but will not be a true quantitative one, since
the transformation varies for each independent event and
so there are no fixed units of measurement. It is possible
that when the mind is concentrated on a subject the type
of transformation is practically constant, and so our
interpretations of sensations become clearer as they
become more of a quantitative nature, but it is dangerous
to speculate and so I shall leave the subject at this point.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 15.

XV. A third List of the adventitious Vegetation of the
Sandhills of St. Anne's-on-the-Sea, North Lanca-
shire, vice-county 60.

By Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S.

(of Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill, Gloitcesiershirc. )
Keceir'cd April 21 si, rgio. Read May ^rd, igio.

In previous communications to the Society* I have
reported the appearance of a considerable number of alien
plants which have occurred upon the sandhills of the
Lancashire coast at St. Anne's-on-the-Sea. Almost the
whole of these plants originate with poultry runs, which
are temporarily accommodated on the sandhills, until
such times as advancing building operations drive the
poultry further afield. Their removal from the released
land permits the growth of much of the foreign seed
upon which they are fed, and in the next following seasons
a curious admixture of native and alien vegetation
presents itself, when the hens are no longer on the ground
to consume it almost as soon as it germinates.

The area now to be reported upon was carefully ex-
amined some two or three seasons ago, and the additions
now recorded more than double the numbers in the pre-
vious lists, and bring up the total to more than a hundred
species. The majority of the plants included in the
present list were found in the area bounded by Beach
Road, St. Andrew's Road North, St. Leonard's Road,
and the North Drive, and this area is to be understood

* Manchester Memoirs, vol. 47, Nu. 2, 1902 ; and vol. 51, No. II, 1907.

Jutie 20th, igio.

2 V>Al'L\iN,Adventihous Vegetation of St. Aune's-on-f/ie-Sea.

where no reference is made to a locality. Thirty-one of
these fifty-four additions were communicated to Mr. J.
A. Wheldon, F.L.S., and Mr. Albert Wilson, F.L.S.,
F.R.Met.S., just in time to be included on the last page
of their admirable ' Flora of West Lancashire,' (East-
bourne, 1907, p. 511).

For help in determining the names of many of the
species about to be enumerated, I am indebted to the
authorities at Kew, and to Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., F.L.S.
The enumeration is in the order of the 'London Catalogue/
ed. X. (1908).

Adonis cEstivalis, Linn. This species has a south
European distribution, and was represented by a few
examples in 1909.

Delphinium orientate, Gay. A strong growing species
of Roumelia, Servia, Hungary, and southern Russia, which
occurred in small quantity only, its conspicuousness rarely
allowing it to reach maturity. It was usually accompanied
by D. Aj'acis, Linn.

Sisymbrium ColumncE, Jacq., var. stenocarpum, Rouy
et Foucaud. A widely spread European species which
occurred, in some quantity, on three different portions of
the area, and seemed a very likely plant to become per-
manent were it not for building operations.

Sisymbrium austriacjim, Jacq., was much less in
evidence ; only a few plants survived the toll of the flower-
gatherer.

Conringia orientalis, Andrz., was another frequent
plant in both 1908 and 1909. It is rather noteworthy

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 15. 3

how many cruciferous aliens make their appearance in
these Hsts.

Sinapis jnnccn, Linn. This is an unlocked for species,
although it has occasionally been reported in European
floras. It occurred in profusion over many portions of
the St. Anne's sandhills, and I had it under observation
for several summers, without being able to associate it
with any plant then known to me. It grew on a cinder
path on the south side of my old residence (Atherstone
House) ; other portions of the sandhills produced a more
fleshy plant, which I was a long time in connecting with
the plant of the cinder walk. Upon searching my herba-
rium for its counterpart, it seemed best to agree with
examples of ^. juncea, from Swinemiinde, in Pomerania,
collected there in August, 1889, July and August, 1890,
and August, 1892 — the latter under the synonym of
Brassica Willdenovii, Boiss. ; it has been reported at
Port Juvenal, in France, by Spach, and is one of the oil
plants of China and Japan. Doubt, however, attached to
this determination of the St. Anne's plant, on account of
its lacking the "ramis fasciculatis " of the 'Prodromus'
(vol. I, p. 218). In the summer of 1908 there reached
me a plant, which required a name, from Mr. James E.
Macdonald, of Heaton Norris, and the specimen sent
furnished the fasciculate branches given as one of the
characters in the ' Prodromus ' ; under the name of
S. juncea, Linn., I distributed numerous examples through
the Botanical Exchange Clubs. At the date of de Can-
dolle's work (1824) it is described as a Chinese plant
growing in Egypt in fields of Trifolitim Alexandrimnn.
It is right to add, however, that some British botanists
regard the St. Anne's plant as being only Sinapis nigra,
Linn., but in St. Anne's — where S. nigra is abundant —

4 Bailey, Adventitious Vegetation oj Si. Arme' s-on-ihe-Sea.

there is little difficulty in separating the two species ;
moreover, the authorities at Kew looked through a series
of more than twenty sheets of a full range of the plant,
and passed them all as S. juncea. Mr. Baker has also
seen an example or two, and considers the name correct.
The plant was not nearly as copious in the summer of
1909, but I have little doubt of its having been established
at St. Anne's throughout the seven years of my residence
there, but passed over for 5. nigra.

Eruca sativa, Lam., — an Iberian, southern French,
Italian, Croatian, and Greek species — was a frequent alien
throughout 1908, but was greatly reduced in numbers the
following summer.

Lepidium virginiannm, Linn. This American cress
was occasionally met with.

Neslia panicnlata, Desv., a common European plant,
was represented on the sandhills, and was quite typical.

Myagrwn perfoliatum, Linn. Three or four of this
widely distributed European species were collected.

Rapistrum Linneamun, Boiss. et Reut., a plant of the
Iberian peninsula and of Greece, was one of the striking
plants of the sandhills in 1907; it owed its preservation
up to the fruiting stage to its growing in dense masses of
Sinapis nigra. One plant furnished sufficient material
for ninety herbarium specimens, and another sixty-five.
This species makes the fifteenth belonging to the
Cr7icifercB.

Saponaria Vaccaria, Linn. — a frequent cornfield plant
of Britain furnished a few examples on the poultry area.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 15. 5

Silene dicliotoma, Ehrh., an eastern European species,
often found on waste heaps in Great Britain, occurred in
a solitary example.

Malva parvifiora, Linn., another Iberian plant, found
also in southern France, Dalmatia, and Greece, was
plentiful in 1908, but infrequent in 1909.

Linum usitatisswmm^ Linn. The common flax was
an occasional plant of stunted growth.

Lupinus liiteus, Linn., a Spanish and Italian species,
was found on the sandhills of the South Drive, and,
although I have not seen it in cultivation in the neigh-
bourhood, it may well be a garden escape, though found
on ground recently abandoned by poultry and now
covered with dwelling houses.

Trigonella polycerata, Linn., a French and Spanish
plant, was found quite fresh in my collecting book ; I was
unaware that I had collected it, as it was entangled with
the stem of another plant, and though it was derived
from the poultry area I could not re-find the species.

Melilotits indica. All., occurred in great abundance,
especially in an area in Devonshire Road now covered
with dwellings.

Coronilla varia, Linn., with a wide area of distribution
on the Continent, was represented by a single plant.

Vicia pannontca, Cr., var. purpurascens^ DC, an
Austrian and further eastern plant, and two undetermined
Vici'cs, were amongst the aliens recorded, but only in
small quantity.

6 Bailey, Advcuti/wns Vegetation ofSt.Aniies-on-ihe-Sea.

Lathyrus ciliatus, Guss., is a vetchling determined for
me by Mr. Baker, and widely disseminated in Europe
westward from central Spain. I met with but a single
example.

CEnotJiera sinuata, Linn., was determined for me at
Kew. A plant which I sent to Kew three years ago as
CE. simiata was then named Qi. Jmniifusa, and I cannot
separate it from simiata.

Bupleiiruvi rotiindifoliiim, Linn., accounted British ;
and B. protractum. Link et Hoffm., a plant with south-
eastern European distribution, were both frequent in 1908.
In the following year both species occurred sparingly.

Orlaya gnmdiflom, Hofifm. Only two examples of
this widely distributed species were noticed in 1908.

Caticalis daucoides, Linn., another widely spread
European species, was represented by a single plant.

Heliatitlms anmais, Linn., is a third species of this
large genus which has occurred on the sandhills in about
half-a-dozen examples. There is a fourth species which,
I think, belongs to this genus growing on the roads in
St. George's Gardens, and which I brought away with me
in the spring of 1909 to cultivate in my Gloucestershire
garden, but it flowers late and did not disclose itself in
that year. It has been named for me by botanical friends
as a Dahlia, and as a Scabiosa !

Matricaria CJiaiiwniilla, Linn., although growing in
cultivated fields in various parts of north Lancashire,
must be included in a list of St. Anne's aliens, as it was a
frequent plant in one portion of the poultry area.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 15- 7

Onopordon Accrnthmin, Linn., was a not infrequent
species, but it was rarely allowed to reach maturity.

Mariana lactea, Hill. This conspicuous milk-thistle
was represented by three or four examples and, though
occasionally seen in the St. Anne's gardens, I had no
reason to suspect its having been introduced other than
through poultry grain.

Centaurea Cyaniis, Linn., and C. melitensis, Linn.; the
first named frequent ; the last named, in few examples
only, is a south European species.

Carthavtus lanattis, Linn. {^KentropJiyUwn lanatum^
DC). The foliage only, but there is no doubt as to the
species. It ranges from Portugal to Crete, and from
Switzerland to the Adriatic, Greece, and Turkey.

Anagallis ca^rulea, Lamk. Only a plant or two oc-
curred ; but in an old fowl run at Birkdale, on the
opposite shore of the estuary it was most abundant, in
the summer of 1907, with many other aliens, as Cerinthe
minor, Salvia verticillata, Silene noctiflora, Delphinium
Ajacis, Silene dichotoma, Trifolium resupinatum, Bertcroa
incana, Anchusa officinalis, Chenopodium ficifolium, St achy s
italica, &c.

Benthamia lycopsioides, Lindl. {Amsinckia lycopsioides,
Lehm.) Beyond making out this plant to be a species of
Amsinckia, I found it so dimorphic that I sent a range of
seventeen sheets to Kew to assist in unravelling the
species, some of which I named A. lycopsioides, and some
A. angiistifolia. Of these sheets eight were returned
named lycopsioides ; the other nine were unnamed includ-
ing three which I bad thought to be angustifolia. All

8 Bailey, Adventitious Vegeiation ofSt.Annes-on-tJie-Sea.

the examples o{ lycopsioides had their anthers at, or below,
half the length of the tube of the orange-coloured corolla,
the typical example of the species having them much
below half that length. The nine unnamed sheets represent
some other species having a corolla with a shorter tube,
and in which the anthers are above half the length of the
tube. In 1907 these plants occurred in the greatest pro-
fusion and I was able to .send away more than 200 sheets
for herbaria. In the season following it was not possible
to collect more than a dozen examples, through the
building of a pair of houses and the levelling of the
adjacent land for roads and gardens, Devonshire Road,
and a new road exactly intersecting the locality. AJycop-
sioides has occurred in Europe, but the only examples of
this species in my herbarium are a stunted, unbranched,
form not exceeding four inches in height, from the neigh-
bourhood of Berlin ; whereas the St. Anne's plants are
luxuriant examples eighteen inches or more in height.
From a note in the 'Prodromus' (vol. x., p. 11 8) it would
appear that the native country of A. lycopsioides is un-
known, though thought to be north western America,
The species of Anisijickia must be spreading in this
country, as I have a third species collected by Mr. Jas. E.
Macdonald on waste heaps at Foynton, in Cheshire ; in
this example the stamens are in the throat of the corolla.
A. angustifolia, Lehm., if correctly named, was sent me
from Rouen in 1904.

Anchusa italica, Retz. A plant with a wide European
distribution, occurred in the middle of October, 1907 ;
few examples were seen, as by that date the traffic across
the sandhills did not permit the plants to mature.

Myosotis virginica (Linn.), B.S.P. This was one of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. hv. (1910), No. 15. 9

the very few American species which were noticed during
the summers of 1907 and 1908. The corolla is usually
white, but the St. Anne's examples were a faint blueish
pink.

Datura Stramoniuvi, Linn. A single example of a
widely-spread European species.

Verbasciun vi^'gntiun, Stokes. A plant in the British
lists, but adventitious at St. Anne's. V. tJiapsifornie,
Schrad. (named for me by Mr. Baker), occurred on the
sandhills within the area, but not associated with other
aliens.

Salvia verticillata, Linn., was another European species
of wide distribution which was fairly frequent at St. Anne's
in 1908 ; it was scarcer in 1907.

Salvia viridis, Linn. A few examples of this brightly
coloured species were met with ; it attracted too much
attention to escape destruction.

Salvia Andrzejowski, Blocki. A Transylvanian species,
the name of which I owe to Mr. Baker ; very difficult to
account for at St. Anne's. There were numerous examples,
but few reached maturity.

Stachys italica, Mill. A species with distribution from
southern Italy eastwards. Only a single example seen.

Dracocephalum parviflornni, Nutt. This plant gave
some trouble to the Kew authorities to name, anci it was
returned without a name, but Mr. Baker unravelled it for
me. It is an American species, and about half a dozen
examples were seen ; one, which I transplanted to my

lo Bailey, Adventitious Vegetatwn of St.Anne's-on-tJie-Sea.

garden at St. Anne's, developed into a stunted, starved
plant, quite unlike the naturally grown plants.

Cyclocoma atriplidfoliuvi, Coulter, (C platyphyllum,
Moq.). Another American species, which I could not
have made out without assistance from Kew. It is a
plant which affects the banks of streams in Manitoba,
Indiana, Nebraska, &c.

Chenopodium vmi'ale, Linn. A British species, but
considered a casual at St. Anne's. Mr. J. A. Wheldon
has found it at the Wyre Docks, Fleetwood.

Chenopodium hybridum, Linn. This species was
plentiful in one locality only, in 1907, growing with Rubus
ccBsins. It had not occurred at this spot during the five
previous years. It is a British species, not native at
St. Anne's.

Axyris amarantoides, Linn. A gigantic specimen,
from which I was in time to rescue two good examples
only ; one of these was presented to Kew, at the request
of the herbarium department. I have the plant from
Nertschinsk, and from between Omsk and Kurgau, in
Siberia, ivhere it is frequent. It is difficult to surmise how
it reached St. Anne's.

PanicHin niiliaceuui, Linn. A moderatelj'' sized colony
of this grass has been established in one of the hollows
of the sandhills, apparently for some years, but it did not
flower until 1907 ; little of it was left in 1908, as road
formation had begun.

PJialaris canariensis, Linn., and P. ininoi; Retz., were
not infrequent during the summers of 1907 and 1908.

Manchester Memoirs. Vol. liv. (1910), No. 15. ii

Bronius tectoruni, Linn., occurred sparingly, but always
in association with other aliens.

Secale cereale, Linn. In profusion, on one part of the
sandhills, close to Devonshire Road. The grasses escape
the depredations of flower-gatherers, and so reach
maturity.

During the latter part of my residence at St. Anne's a
good portion of this area was being broken up into paved
roads, and the sites of the houses which follow the roads
have greatly interfered with the locality ; but as the
poultry get pushed further north a similar alien flora may
be expected to follow in their wake. I can only regret
that my removal from the neighbourhood now prevents
me from continuincf these observations.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV. {No. UV).

CORRIGENDA AND ADDENDA.

Page 2 line 22 for incequilateralis, Schlumberger read affixa,
Terquem.
,,32 ,, 5 ,, intzquilateralis, Schlumberger read affixa,
Terquem.

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dilatata.

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Seguenza.

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baccillaris

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bacillaris.

n 17

2

after "one nearly

globular " ada

deep cells of which the walls are exceedingly
delicate ") ;

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 16.

XVI. Report on the Recent Foraminifera from the Bay
of Palermo, Sicily, 14-20 fms. (Off the Harbour.)

By Henry Sidebottom.

Received and read May jrd, igio.

Note.

The following note was printed at the end of my Delos
papers : —

" I hope next year to deal with the Foraminifera
from Palermo, describing and illustrating the species
that occur there, and not at Delos. This contribution,
taken in conjunction with my Delos papers, will give
a complete record for Palermo."

A full description of the species not described in
this work, will be found in my papers on the Delos
Foraminifera.*

The material was dredged by my brother-in-law,
C. H. Nevill, Esq., of Bramall Hall, Cheshire, in 1897,
from the harbour of Palermo, 14-20 fms. He went care-
fully through the material, and mounted type-slides of
the specimens, presenting them to me.

MILIOLID.E.

NUBECULARIN^.

Nubecularia, Defrance.

Nubecularia tibia, Jones and Parker. (PI. i. fig. i).
The tests are semi-transparent.

* Report on the Recent Foraminifera from the Coast of the Island of
Delos. Manchester Memoirs, vol. 48 (1904) No. 5., vol. 49 (1905) No. 5.,
vol. 50 (1906) No. 5, vol. 51 (1907) No. 9, vol. 52 (1908) No. 13, vol. 53
(1909) No. 21.

June 24ih, igio.

2 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraniinifera froiu the Bay of Palermo.
Nubecularia lucifuga, Defrance.
Nuhecularia bradyi, Millett. (^= N. inflata^ Brady).

MlLIOLININ^.

Biloculina, d'Orbigny.

Biloculina irregularis, d'Orbigny.

The tests are not typical, and may be the biloculine
form of Trilocidina ameata, Karrer. This remark refers
also to the Delos specimens.

Biloculina elongata, d'Orbigny.

Biloculina ringens, Lamarck, sp.

Good, but rather elongate, one nearly globular occurs.

Biloculina tubiclosa, Costa.
A single specimen.

Spiroloculina, d'Orbigny.
Spiroloculina planulata, Lamarck, sp.

Spiroloculina excavata, d'Orbigny.

Spiroloculina dorsata Reuss ( = Sp. linibata, d'Orb.).

Spiroloculina impressa, Terquem.

Spiroloculina nitida, d'Orbigny.

Spiroloculina grata, Terquem.

Very good examples of this species occur.

Spiroloculina incequilateralis, Schlumberger. (PL i, fig. 2).
Only three found, and they agree with Schlumberger's
figure.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol, liv. (1910), No. 16.

Sigmoilina, Schlumberger,
Sigvio'ilina tenuis, Czjzek, sp.
Only one found.

Sigmoilina costata Schlumberger.

Miliolina, Williamson, 1858.
Miliolina oblonga, Montagu, sp.

Miliolina bosciana, d'Orbigny, sp.

Miliolina rotundata, d'Orbigny, sp.

Miliolina circularis, Borneman, sp.

Miliolina subrotunda, Montagu, sp.

See Delos work, Manchester Memoirs, vol. 48 (1904),
No. 5, p. 8, for account of the two forms present in these
gatherings.

Miliolina suborbiciilaris, d'Orbigny, sp.

Miliolina marioni, Schlumberger, sp.

See remarks in Delos paper, Manchester Memoirs, vol.
48 (1904), No. 5, P- 9-

Miliolina schreiberiana, d'Orbigny, sp.

This species appears to be very closely related to M.
trigonula, Lamarck, sp.

Miliolina labiosa, d'Orbigny, sp.

As in the Delos examples no line of demarcation can
be drawn between Niibecularia bradyi { = N. injlata,
Brady) and M. labiosa, d'Orbigny, sp. ; and Mr. Millett
in his Malay work states that it ranges from N. bradyi to
M. valvularis.

4 SlTi'E^OTTO^l^ Foramznif era from the Bay of Palermo.

Miliolina reticulata, d'Orbigny, sp.

The examples are of the carinate and bi-carinate
variety.

Miliolina seminuhim, Linne, sp.

The flat variety, see Delos, {Manchester Memoirs, vol.
48 (1904), No. 5, p. 10, and pi. 3, figs. 13 — 15) is also
present, but is evidently rare.

miliolina auberiana, d'Orbigny, sp.

There are only two on the slide, and they are of the
elongate variety.

Miliolina cjivieriana, d'Orbigny, sp.

The specimens are small. The Q. seminuda of Reuss,
with the rounded periphery striate, is also present.

Miliolina boueana, d'Orbigny, sp.

These are all in the triloculine condition. (See Delos
paper).

Miliolina Icevigata, d'Orbigny, sp.

Miliolina undosa, Karrer, sp. (PI. i, fig, 3.)
The examples are finely striate.

Miliolina pygmcea, Reuss, sp.

They agree with the Delos forms of this species. One
of the specimens is much stouter than the rest.

3Iiliolina cantor ta, d'Orbigny, sp.

The tests are slightly roughened.

Miliolina sclerotica, Karrer, sp.

The tests are rough and much broader in proportion
to their length than M. contorta. They appear to be the
same as those figured by Schlumberger under the name of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. I (J. 5

Q. rugosa, d'Orb., in his monograph of the Miliolina from
the Gulf of Marseilles.

Miliolma stelligera, Schlumberger, sp.
See remarks in Delos paper.

Miliolina gracilis.^ d'Orbigny, sp.

Judging from the number on the slide, these must be
of very frequent occurrence.

Miliolina agghUinans, d'Orbigny, sp.

The specimens are rather small and similar to the
Delos examples.

Miliolina bicornis, Walker and Jacob, sp.

Very fine specimens are present of the form figured in
the Delos work, although some of the specimens are much
broader.

Miliolina disparilis, d'Orbigny, sp.

See remarks, Delos paper. The Palermo examples
are very fine.

Miliolina costata, d'Orbigny, sp.

This is a neat, elongate variety, the test is rather
finely costate.

Miliolina fernssacii, d'Orbigny, sp.

Only two specimens are on the slide, but there are
five good examples of the form referred to under this
heading in the appendix to my Delos work. I state there
that they are probably a feeble variety of the elongate
iorm oi M. ferussacii.

Miliolina valvularis, Reuss, sp.

The extent to which the valve fills up the orifice
varies very considerably. The biloculine form is also
present, but is evidently very rare.

6 SlT)Y.V,OTTOM., Foraniinifera Jrovi the Bay of Palermo.

Miliolina linncsana, d'Orbigny, sp. ^

Only one on the slide.

Miliolina pulchella^ d'Orbigny, sp.

Hauerinin^.
Articulina, d'Orbigny.
A rticulina funalis, B rad y .

There is only a single specimen on the slide.

Articulina funalis, var. inornata, Brady.
Five good examples found.

Vertebralina, d'Orbigny.

Vertebralina striata, d'Orbigny.

Glancing through some of the material, this species
seems fairly common.

Massilina, Schlumberger.
Massilina secans, d'Orbigny, sp.

Hauerina, d'Orbigny.
Hauerina coinpressa, d'Orbigny.

I must draw my readers' attention to the remarks on
this form in my Delos paper {Manchester Me7)ioirs, vol. 48
(1904) No. 5, p. 19, and pi. 5, figs. 7, 8). It is a curious
fact that in the fourteen specimens on the Palermo slide
not one has the aperture showing the cribrate arrange-
ment, entire. Two specimens have partial indications of
it ; whereas, in the numerous examples from Delos, the
majority have the cribrate aperture complete.

Planispirina, Seguenza.
Planispirina schlumbergeri, Sidebottom.

There are three examples of this species on the slide.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 10. 7

but they have not fully reached the hauerine stage, and,
therefore, the outline of the test is oblong, instead of
nearly circular. For full particulars see the Delos paper
(1904).

Planispirina striata, Sidebottom.

See Delos paper (1904). This species must not be
confused with the hauerine form of Mil. suborbicularts,
d'Orb., which also has three chambers in the last whorl.

In P. striata the central chambers are exposed, but in
M. suborbicularis, at any rate in the Delos examples, this
is not the case.

Cornuspira, Schultze.

Cornuspira foliacea, Philippi, sp.
Fine examples occur.

Cornuspira involvans, Reuss.

Only one of them shows the microspheric condition.

Peneroplidin^.

Peneroplis, Montfort.

Peneroplis pertusus, Forskal, sp. var. d^.planatjis, Fichtel and
Moll, sp.

Peneroplis pertusus, Forskal, sp. var. c. arietinus, Batsch, sp.

Peneroplis pertusus, Forskal, sp. var. d.cylindraceus, Lamarck,
sp.

Peneroplis pertusus, Forskal, sp. var, g. laevigatus, Karrer.

Orbitolites, Lamarck.
Orbitolites duplex, Carpenter.

There are only two or three specimens on the slide,
and although on their peripheral edges the chambers
sometimes alternate and sometimes do not, still I think
they may be referred to this variety, viz., O. duplex.

8 'SilH^'EO'T'YOyi.Foranuniferafrom the Boy of Palermo.

ARENACEA.

ASTRORHIZID^
Saccamminin.'E.
Psammosphaera, Schultze.
Psammosphcsra fusca, F. E. Schultze. (PI. i, fig. 4).

Three were found. The test is composed of whitish
sand grains, cemented together with dark brown material.
They are very small and rough.

LITUOLIDyE.

LiTUOLIN/E.

Reophax, Montfort.
Reophax difflugiformis, Brady.

Reophax scottii. Chaster.

This flexible and curious species is well represented.

Reophax scorpiurus, Montfort.

Reophax bacillaris, Brady. (PI. i, fig. 5).

A single, rather distorted specimen. It answers well
to Brady's description of the species, except as regards
colour, which, instead of being the usual grey, is light
yellow-brown.

Haplophragmium, Reuss.

Haplophragmiunipsciidospirale, Williamson, sp. (PI. i,fig. 6).

The five specimens are more compactly built than is

usual with this species. They are brown in colour, and

the spiral commencement of the test is much smaller than

in the type.

Haplophragmiuni canariense, d'Orbigny, sp.
Frequent.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. IC. (

Haplophragnimin nanuui, Brady.

There is a single characteristic example on the slide.

Haplophraginium globigeriniforvie^ Parker and Jones, sp.

HaplopJiragmiuui agglutinans, d'Orbigny, sp.
A fragment.

TrOCHAMMININ/E.

Ammodiscus, Reuss.

Amviodisciis iiicertus, d'Orbigny, sp.

It occurs in two colours, yellowish-brown and white,
the latter is the smaller of the two varieties.

Ammodiscus gordialis, Jones and Parker, sp.
A solitary specimen.

Ammodiscus perversiis, n. sp. (PI. i, fig. 7).

There is only one specimen in fair condition on the
slide, and this is the one figured, the remaining two being
fragments. They are evidently adherent forms. The
test is composed at its commencement of a simple coiled
tube, but later on the tube is much larger, and is coiled
over the earlier portion with the last part of the tube
bent back irregularly. The test is rough, of a light brown
colour, and is built up of fine sand grains. The under
surface is flat.

Looking through some of the coarse material, I have
come across another specimen which is perfect ; but too
late to make a drawing of it, as the plates were already
set up. It only differs from the one illustrated in not
having the central portion of the test completely covered
up, and the end of the tube is not bent back on the upper
surface, but is doubled back at the side of the test.

lO SiDEBOTTOM, Foraminifera from the Boy of Palermo.

Trochammina, Parker and Jones.
TrocJiammina infiata, Montagu, sp.

Trochammina squamata, Parker and Jones.

The tests are very small, and the number of chambers
in the last whorl varies from three to five. In some of the
specimens the chambers are more inflated than in the
type.

Trochammina ochracea, Williamson, sp.

Carterina, Brady.

Rotalia, Carter (1877).

Carterina spiculotesta, Carter, sp.

There are seven small examples of this interesting
species on the slide.

TEXTULARID^.

TeXTULARIN/E.

Textularia, Defrance.

Texttdaria concava, Karrer, sp.
The specimens are typical.

Textularia agglutinans, d'Orbigny.

The form T. candeiana, d'Orbigny is also present.

Textularia gramen^ d'Orbigny.

Textularia trochns, d'Orbigny.

Two good examples are on the slide.

Textularia rhomboidalis, Millett.
Excellent examples occur.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 10. 1 1

Spiroplecta, Ehrenberg.

Spiroplecta sagittula, Defrance, sp.

One very good specimen is present.

Spiroplecta rosula, Ehrenberg. (Fl. i, fig. 8.)

This is a hyah'ne and perforate form of 5. biformis.
Brady reports it from the North East Coast of England.
There are seven specimens on the slide. They are quite
transparent and \t.xy small. The perforations do not
show quite so distinctly as tho.se in my illustration.

Gaudryina, d'Orbigny.

Gaudryina filiforviis., Berthelin. (PI. i, fig. 9.)

The tests are very small and of a light rusty-red
colour. They correspond to some of the specimens from
the Irish coast, and Mr. Wright of Belfast considers they
are rightly placed under this heading. Most of the tests
are nearly sharp at the commencement, and this may be
the microspheric form.

Verneuilina, d'Orbigny.

Verneuiltna polystropha, Reuss, sp.

Very large specimens are found in this material, and
they are of a rusty-red hue as a rule. Among the examples
on the slide are two which are short and stumpy.

Verneuilina spinulosa^ Reuss.
Evidently very frequent.

Clavulina, d'Orbigny.
Clavulina angularis, d'Orbigny. (PI. i, fig. 10).

Two very good examples are shown on the slide.
Brady in the Challenger Report states that it occurs in
the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.

12 SiDEEOTTOM, Foramiiiifera from the Bay of Palermo.
BULIMININ/E.

Bulimina, d'Orbigny.

Bulimina elegans, d'Orbigny.

Bulimina elegans, d'Orbigny, var. exilis, Brady. (PI. i, fig.
II).
A solitary specimen.

Bulimina subieres, Brady.
Frequent.

Bulimina elegant is sim a, d'Orbigny, var.

See Delos paper (1905) pi. 2, figs. 7-12, and pi. 3,
fig- I-
Bulimina elongata, d'Orbigny.

Bulimina marginata.

Excellent examples are on the slide and they are
frequent.

Bulimina aculeaia, d'Orbigny.

Present in two forms, one of which is short with the
earlier chambers very small, and the rest rather suddenly
increasing in size ; and the other is elongate with chambers
more or less inflated. Some of the latter might be brought
under B. elega?is if it were not for a i^m spines about the
base, and others under B. pupoides but for the same reason.

Bulimina pyrula, d'Orbigny.

Bulimina co?ivoluta, Williamson, var. nitida, Millett.
One of the specimens on the slide is very large.

Virgulina, d'Orbigny.

Virgulina scJireibersiana, Czjzek.

There are typical specimens on the slide, and also the
variant figured in the Delos paper (1905), pi. 3, fig. 4.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 10. 13

Virgulma sgua)nosa, d'Orbigny.
See Delos(i905) pi. 3, fig. 5.

Virgulma suhsqitamosa, Egger.

Bolivina, d'Orbigny.
Bolivina punctata, d'Orbigny.

Bolivina nobilis, Hantken.

The specimens vary a great deal as to the number of
striae ; in one case the strise are so numerous that the
chambers of the lower half of the test are completely
concealed by them. Most of the tests are broader at the
oral end than those figured by Brady in the Challenger
Report.

Bolivina textilarioides, Reuss.

The tests are small and transparent.

Bolivina tortuosa, Brady.

Bolivina dilitata, Reuss.

The specimens are typical.

Bolivina beyrichi, Reuss, var. alata, Sequenza.

Four large typical specimens are on the slide.

Bolivina plicata, d'Orbigny.

These agree with the British form of this species.

Bolivina liinbata, Brady ?

See Delos paper, p. 15 (1905) for particulars of the
specimens (line 10 from top of page).

Mimosina, Millett.

Mimosina Jiystrtx, Millett, var.

They agree with the Delos form of this interesting
species.

14 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraminifcra from the Bay of Palermo.

Cassidulina, d'Orbigny.

Cassidulina crassa, d'Orbigny.
The examples are small.

Cassidulina Icsvigata, d'Orbigny.

The tests of this species are of the usual milky hue,
and are much larger than the previous form.

Cassidulina bradyi, Norman.
Evidently very rare.

Chilostomellid^.
Chilostomella, Reuss.

Chilostomella ovoidea, Reuss.

There is a single specimen on the slide,

LAGENID^E.

Lagenin/e.

Lagena, Walker and Boys.

Lagena globosa, Montagu.

Globular and slightly elongate examples are frequent.

Lagena apiadata, Reuss.

A single specimen of the globose form.

Lagena botelliformis, Brady, var.

One example* see Delos (1906), pi. i, fig. i.

Lagena ampidla-distoma, Rymer Jones.

Both the forms illustrated in the Delos paper are
frequent, the smaller has the tubercles on the lower half
of the test better developed than they are shown in the
Delos illustration.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 10. 15

Lagena lineata, Williamson, sp.

Lagena variata, Brady.

Lagena l(2vis, Montagu, sp.
Frequent.

Lagena hevis, Montagu, van distoma, Silvestri. (Fl. i , fig. 1 2).
Both the globular and ovate forms are on the slide.

Lagena lyellit, Sequenza, sp. (PI. i,figs. 13, 14, 15, 17, 18?).
These range from the nearly globular form to the
ovate, and are frequent ; they nearly all have the neck
decorated and a phialine lip.

Lagena striata, d'Orbigny, sp. (PI. i, figs. 16, 19, 20, PI. 2,

fig- 0-

Besides the oval form, there are elongate (frequent),
and two or three somewhat club-shaped forms

I would here draw particular attention to the fine
" clusters " of Lagena found at this locality. They are
apparently composed of L. lyellii, L. striata and L. sevii-
striata. The lower portion of their tests springs from an
irregular chamber and is not embedded in it, the bases of
the L^agena being part of the irregular chamber. This
chamber is marked more or less by broken-up costae, and
small blunt spines or tubercles, and often has several
orifices besides the one that opens into the body of the
Lagena, which sometimes has three necks. The orifices
of the irregular chamber are, I think, simply nipples.
It looks as if this irregular chamber were the parent one.
In Fig. I, PI. 2, it will be noticed that one of the tests is
smaller than the other two, and has a short neck with
everted lip. Would it have expanded its test, and
increased the length of its neck as the others have done ?
The lowest test in this figure has its chief neck snapped

1 6 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraminifera from the Bay of Palermo.

off. In Fig. 17, PI. I, two tests appear to be joined
together. Is this a case of plastogamy ? In one example the
Lagena has evidently been broken off from the irregular
chamber, and has left a circular mark with the small
nipple orifice in the centre, the contour of the irregular
chamber remaining undisturbed.

There are nine other examples on the slide, but most
of them are smaller, and not in such good condition as
those chosen for illustration.

Lagena seinistrata, Williamson. (PI, 2, fig. 2).

Very good examples are on the slide, and they are
evidently of frequent occurrence. There is considerable
variety in the shape of the tests.

Lagena sulcata, Walker and Jacob, sp.
Two examples.

Lagena sulcata (W. and J.), var. interrupta, Williamson.
Three or four only.

Lagena acuticosta, Reuss.
Very rare.

Lagena gracilis, Williamson.

One test is exactly like fig. 12, pi. i in WilHamsdin's
"Recent Foraminifera of Great Britain " (1858). In the
other examples the number of costae varies from four
upwards,

Lagena clavata, d'Orbigny, sp.

Lagena gracillima Sequenza, sp.

Lagena distoma, Parker and Jones.
A single good specimen.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 16. 17

Lagena hexagona, Williamson, sp. (PI. 2, fig. 3).

Present in two forms, one nearly globular, and the
other very small. The hexagonal markings on the latter
are large in comparison with the size of the test, and it
also has a short neck with four very small wings running
up it from the upper part of the body of the test.

Lagena reticulata, Macgillivray, sp. (PI. 2, fig. 4).
A few good ones occur.

Lagena inelo, d'Orbigny, sp.

Only one example on the slide.

Lagena striatopunctata, Parker and Jones. (PI. 2, fig. 5).

There are thirty-seven specimens on the slide, of the
form that has its sides parallel. All the necks are bent
to one side, as was the case with the Delos specimens.
The bottoms of the tests are rounded off. One example
(see figure) has five costae, and the body of the test is of a
different form from the rest. The neck is apparently
broken off.

Lagena desviopJiora, Rymer Jones. (PI. 2, fig. 6).

A single, small specimen, of which the neck appears to
be broken.

Lagena hcvigata, Reuss, sp.

Lagena hevigata, Reuss, sp., var. acuta, Reuss, sp.

The form with the small ring at the base (which often
projects very slightly at the sides into a delicate point) is
also present.

Lagena lucida, Williamson, sp. (PI. 2, fig. 7).

The three forms present are those represented by my
drawings in the Delos paper (1906) pl. i, figs. 9, 10, (also
apiculate) and ii.

There is one example of trigonal form, see figure.

1 8 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraminifera from the Bay of Palermo.

Lagena quadraia, Williamson, sp. (PI. 2, fig. 8).

Besides the single specimen illustrated, there are
•solitary examples similar to those figured from Delos,

pi. I, fig. 22 (but without the frosted band), and pi. 2, fig. 2,

also many like pi. 2, fig. 3.

Lagena staphylleria, Schwager, sp.

Apparently rare. There is a single test like fig. 20 on
the Delos plate.

Lagena marginata, Walker and Boys.

The examples are small. There is a form present
which seems to me to be half way between L. viargmata
and L. marginata, var. semimarginata, Reuss,

Lagena marginato-perforata, Sequenza.

Occurs in five forms. One like the Delos figure 5,
pi. 2 ; another (the largest) approaching Z. qiiadrata in
contour ; a single specimen, circular, with a slightly
produced neck ; two or three approaching L. marginata,
var. semimarginata, Reuss, and two or three very small
ones of L. Icevigata form. All show the bare patch in the
centre of the test.

Lagena marginata (W. & B.) var. incsguilateralis, Wright.
Very rare.

Lagena fasciata, Egger, sp.

See Delos paper (1906) pi. i, figs. 15, 16. Only these
two varieties are on the slide.

Lagena lagenoides, Williamson, sp. (PL 2, figs. 9, 10, 11).

There is one large specimen agreeing with Brady's

Challenger figure, fig. 14, except that the test is twisted.

There are likewise eleven very small tests of this variable

species like the one illustrated, Fig. 9, PI. 2, and three of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 16. 19

the trigonal form in which the keel is split, Fig. 11. There
is a single example which is four-sided and has a neck
produced. A very handsome variety (Fig. 10, PI. 2)
also occurs, but very rarely, which I have placed under
this heading on the advice of Mr. Millett, as the band
between the body of the test and the keel is unornamented,
otherwise it would be placed under L. forniosa, Schwager.

Lagena lagenoides (Williamson) var. tennistriata, Brady.

A few like those figured in the Delos paper. They
are very small.

Lagena orbignyatia, Sequenza. (PI. 2, fig. 12, and fig. 13,
var.).

Occurs in various forms besides the following. Fig. 12,
PI. 2 is trigonal. Fig. 13 is a pretty variation.

Lagena orbignyana, var. ciathrata, Brady.

Lagena orbignyana, var. variabilis, Wright.

Lagena orbignyana, var. luamata. Burrows and Holland.
(PI. 2, fig. 14).

Lagena orbignyana, var. walleriana. (PI. 2, fig. 15).
Very rare.

Lagena finibriata, Brady.
Frequent.

Lagena alveolata, Brady.

They are like the Delos example of this species.
Very rare.

Lagena excnlpta, Brady. (PL 2, fig, 16).
One example of the compressed form.

Lagena protea. Chaster. (PI. 2, figs. 17, 18).

Fine and varied specimens are on the slide.

20 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraminifeva fvoiu the Bay of Palermo.
NODOSARINyE.

Nodosaria.

Nodosaria caloviorpha, Reuss.

Very frequent. Some have as many as seven
chambers, and are of similar form to the Delos figure,
pi. I, fig. 2 (1907).

Nodosaria communis^ d'Orbigny,

Nodosaria scalaris, Batsch, sp. (PI. 2, figs. 19, 20, 21).

A few good examples. There are about nine similar
to Fig. 19, PI. 2, and they are much larger than the
ordinary form present. It is possible they may be double
Lagenas, as the individual chambers bear a strong likeness
to some of the Lagenas on the slide, both as regards size
and markings.

Nodosaria chrysalis, Sidebottom.

About twenty good examples are on the slide ; they
are the same as those from Delos.

Lingulina, d'Orbigny.
Lingulina carinata, d'Orbigny.

Several of them are good examples of this species,
and have the aperture normal. Forms sirnilar to the
Delos figures 18, 19, pi. i (1907), are on the slide.

Lingulina carinata (d'Orb.) var. bi-carinata, Sidebottom.

There is one test with four chambers on the slide ;
the bi-carinate condition is well marked.

Lingulina pellucida, Sidebottom.

There are thirty-four typical specimens on the slide
and one with three segments. Their likeness to a pocket
brandy flask is remarkable. A full account of this species
is given in the Delos paper.

MancJ tester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. IC 21

Frondicularia, Defrance.

Frondicularia spatJmlaia, Brady, sp, (PL 2, fig. 22.)
A solitary specimen.

Marginulina, d'Orbigny.

Marginulina costata, Batsch, sp. (PI. 3, figs, i, 2, 3.)

Frequent ; see Delos paper for full account of this

variety.

Intermediate forms between Cristellaria, and the

genera Vaginuliiia and Marginulina. (PL 3, figs. 4 — 7.)
Fig. 5, PL 3, as Mr. Millett kindly pointed out, has

the characters of AnipJiicoryne.

Cristellaria, Lamarck.

Cristellaria crepidula, Fichtel and Moll, sp.

Typical and non-typical examples are fairly frequent,
and a few are of the ensiform variety.

Cristellaria rotnlata, Lamarck, sp.
The specimens are very rare.

Cristellaria variabilis, Reuss.

Four good examples, with the last two chambers
erect ; they are without the keel. There is, however, a
solitary one which is small, almost round in contour, and
with a narrow keel.

Cristellaria acutauricularis, Fichtel and Moll. (PL 3, fig. 8.)

Amphicoryne, Schlumberger.

Amphicoryne, sp. ?

They correspond to the Delos forms in every
particular.

22 SlDEBOTTOM, Fora7ui?iiyeni // ofH the Bay of Palermo.
POLYMORPHININ/E.

Polymorphina, d'Orbigny.

PolyviorpJiina lactea, Walker and Jacob, sp.

Polymorphina amygdaloides, Reuss.

The specimens on the slide are very good examples
of this compressed form.

Polymorphina lactea (W. and J.), var. oblonga, Williamson.

One or two specimens occur, but they are not quite
typical.

Polymorphina gibba, d'Orbigny.

Polymorphina communis, d'Orbigny.
Two examples only.

Polymorphina compressa, d'Orbigny.

Large examples ; fistulose forms also.

PolymorpJiina lactea, var. concava, Williamson.
A few small examples occur.

Polymorpliina sorroria, Reuss.

The tests are not quite typical. Some are round
at the base, approaching P. gutta, and others slightly
pointed ; all are small.

Polymorphina spinosa, d'Orbigny, sp.

See Delos paper (1907) for an account of these.

Polymorphina complexa, Sidebottom.

There are ten tests of this protean species on the
slide. They none of them correspond with the Delos
examples, but the aperture and colour are the same.

Full particulars are given on page 16 in the Delos
paper (1907).

PolymorpJiina, sp.

There are a few large masses of Polymorphina, which
are, no doubt, monstrosities.

MancJiestej- Menioiis, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 16- 23

Uvigerina, d'Orbigny.

Uvigerina angiilosa, Williamson.
fair examples.

Uvigerina, sp.

See Delos paper (1908), fig. 7, pi. i. The Palermo
specimens are better examples of what appears to be an
intermediate form, approaching W. porecta, Brady,

Uvigerina pygmcea, d'Orbigny.

There are three good ones on the slide.

Uvigerina auberiana (d'Orb.), var. glabra, Millett.

Very fine examples are present, and in considerable
numbers.

Sagrina, Parker and Jones.

Sagrina 7todosa, Parker and Jones. (PI. 3, figs. 9, 10).

Occurs in two forms as illustrated. In one case the
test is almost smooth, and in the other the striae are well
marked ; in both the striae are broken up into dots.

GLOBIGERINID^.

Globigerina, d'Orbigny.

Globigerina bulloides, d'Orbigny.

Globigerina triloba, Reuss.

See remarks in the Delos paper.

Globigerina rubra, d'Orbigny.

Globigerina incequilateralis, Brady.

Globigerina inflata, d'Orbigny.

These are in capital condition.

24 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraminifera fj'oiH the Bay of Palermo.

Orbulina, d'Orbigny. •

Orbtilina imwersa, d'Orbigny.

Besides the usual typical form, there is one specimen
which is double, the G. bilobata of d'Orbigny.

ROTALID/E.

Spirillinin^.

Spirillina, Ehrenberg.

Spirillina vivipara, Ehrenberg.

The largest examples on the slide are like the one
figured in the Deles paper (1908), fig. i, pi. 2. The
others are represented by Fig. 13, PI. i. The Palermo
examples of this form are composed of only two con-
volutions.

Spirillina obconica^ Brady.

This is a rare form. There are three specimens of
this small and delicate species. 'The swollen commence-
ment of the tube, referred to by Brady in the Challenger
Report, is well marked, especially in one of the tests, all
three of which consist of about three and a half con-
volutions.

ROTALIN/E.

Patellina, Williamson.

Patellina corrugata^ Williamson.
Frequent.

Cymbalopora, Hagenow.

Cymbalopora poeyi, d'Orbigny, var.

The tests are of the variety figured by Brady in the
Challenger Report, pi. 102, fig. 14.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv, (1910), No. 10. 25

Discorbina, Parker and Jones.

Discorbina globularis, d'Orbigny, sp. and varieties.

The type is evidently rather rare, but the variations
frequent. Forms Hke those figured in my Delos paper
(1908) occur, viz., pi. 3, figs. 3, 5, and pi. 4, figs, i, 2.

Discorbina rosacea, d'Orbigny, sp.

Large examples like the Delos specimens, pi. 4, figs.
3, 4, also fig. 5, which are rare, and one good test almost
identical with the Challenger figure, pi. Zj, fig. i.

Discorbina orbicularis, Terquem, sp.

Discorbina araticana, d'Orbigny, sp.

Discorbina vilardeboana, d'Orbigny, sp.

Discorbina tabernacnlaris, Brady. (PI. 3, fig. 12.J

I am much puzzled with these ; they appear to be
nearest to Brady's Challenger figure, pi. 89, fig. 7, but
they show no limbation, and the sutures are slightly sunk.
Some of the tests are tall, others much flattened, and
with three exceptions they are all in the state known as
plastogamy, that is joined together at their bases, and
there are in some instances as many as four pairs clustered
together. There are also cases of a tall cone-shaped test
joined to a flattened one, as in the illustration, Fig. 12,
PI. 3. The strise show on the inferior surface.

Discorbina tuberciilata, Balkwill and Wright.
Very frequent.

Discorbina parisiensis, d'Orbigny, sp.

In the Palermo examples the final convolution never
entirely covers the central portion of the test on the
superior side. There is a set present which has much

26 Sm'EV.OTTOU, ForajHinifera from the Bay of Palermo.

shorter and more inflated segments, these have the edge
of the test more rounded.

Discorbina mida, n. sp.

In the appendix to my Delos papers (1909) reference
is made to this species under the heading Discorbiha, sp.
p. 18 and figured on pi. 5, fig 11. On the Palermo slide
are numerous specimens and they are so unvarying in
their characteristics that I feel justified in giving a specific
name to them. They are transparent, and have from six
to eight segments showing on the superior surface, of
which four or five constitute the final convolution. The
pores can only be seen under a high power. The test is
convex on the superior surface, and on the inferior the
umbilical cavity is large and deeply sunk. The edge of
the test is slightly rounded, the segments arched, the
sutures sunk, and the margin of the test is lobulated.
The initial chamber is round and conspicuous.

Discorbina vesiciilaris, Lamarck, sp.

Beautiful specimens of this species are on the slide,
with well-developed astral flaps.

Discorbina berthcloti, d'Orbigny, sp.

Discorbina saulcii, d'Orbigny, sp. (PI. 3, fig. 11).

The specimens are in good condition and agree with
examples Mr. Millettsent to me from the coast of Algiers,
80 fms. Very frequent. Numerous in the Bay of Eleusis.

Discorbina riigosa, d'Orbigny, sp.

Planorbulina, d'Orbigny.
Plattorbulina inediterranensis, d'Orbigny.

Forms similar to the Delos specimens, figs, i, 2, pi. i,
(1909).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv, (1910), No. 10. 27

Planorbnlina acervaiis, Brady.

There is only a single specimen on the slide

Truncatulina, d'Orbigny.
Truncattilina lobatuln, Walker and Jacob, sp.

Trimcatiilina variabilis, d'Orbigny.

A small complanate specimen, and several large ones
like those figured in the Delos paper, where a full account
is given of them.

Truncatulina j^eticulata, Czjzek, sp.
One only on the slide.

Truncatulina tenuimargo, Brady.

I think it is right to bring the two examples on the
slide under this heading, although one of them has a very
strong likeness to D. rarescens.

Carpenteria, Grey.

Carpenteria, sp.

One ex;.am.pl£Lagreeing with the specimen figured in
the Delos paper (i909)"i«^l. 2, fig. 5.

Pulvinulina, ParkeKand Jones.

Pulvinulina lateralis, Terquem, sp.
Very good examples occur.

Pulvinulina oblonga, Williamson, sp.

There are on the slide some of the largest specimens

I have seen. ^

/
Pulvinulina oblonga (Williamson), var. scabra, Brady ?

See Delos paper (1909) forafijll account of this variety.
Frequent.

28 '^IDY^iOTTOlsl, Foraininif era from the Bay of Palermo.

Ptdvinulina concentrica, Parker and Jones.

The examples are not nearly so fine as those that
occur in the Delos material.

Pulvijmlina Jiauerii, d'Orbigny, sp.
See Delos paper (1909), p. 7.

Pulvimilina karsteni, Reuss, sp.

Ptdvinulina veruncuiata, d'Orbigny.

Pulviiiulina micJieliniana, d'Orbigny, sp.

All the tests are in beautiful condition, and are of
frequent occurrence.

Pulvimilina exigua, Brady ?

The Palermo specimens, which are small, agree with
the Challenger figure, pi, 103, fig. 14, both as regards the
number of segments and the contour of the test ; but
they do not show the lines of opaque-white shell-substance
on the superior face, mentioned by Brady.

Rotalia, Lamarck.

Rotalia beccarii, Linne, sp.

See Delos paper for description of the varieties
present ; they include the highly decorated form.

Rotalia orbicularis, d'Orbigny.
A single specimen.

TlNOPORIN^.

Gypsina, Carter.

Gypsina globulus, Reuss, sp.
One only on the slide.

MancJiester Monoirs^ Vol. liv. (1910), No. 16. 29

Polytrema, Risso.
Polytrema niineacemn, Linnc, sp.

Present both in the adult and embryonic states.

NUMMULINID^.

POLYSTOMELLIN/E.
Nonionina, d^Orbigny.

Nonionina depressnla, Walker and Jacob.

Several varieties occur, including the clear compressed
tests, and those that are opaque.

Nonionina stelligera, d'Orbigny.

Large examples are of frequent occurrence.

Nonionina scapha, Fichtel and Moll, sp. (PI. 3, fig. 13).

The one figured is commencing the linear manner of
growth.

Nonionina asterisans, Fichtel and Moll, sp. (PI. 3, fig. 14).
These Palermo specimens are nothing more than
A'', stelligera, with the stellate portion arrested.

Nonionina boneana, d'Orbigny.

These vary greatly as to their contour, and none of them
are stoutly built.

Nonionina turgida, Williamson, sp.

This pretty form is well represented in this material.

Nonionina nmbilicatula, Montagu, sp. (PI. 3, fig. 15).
Only five are on the slide.

Polystomella, Lamarck.
Polysioniella striatopnnctata, Fichtel and Moll, sp. (PI.
3, fig- 16).

30 SlxyTLBOTTO^l, Fora)nin2fera f rout the Bay of Palermo.

The form figured in the Delos paper (1909) fig. i, pi. 5,
is common. The one I have chosen for illustration is
opaque, and the pores do not show except under a high
power. It is the only one of the kind on the slide.

Polystornella crispa, Linne, sp.

Very frequent, the spinous condition of the small
tests is well marked.

Polystornella verriculata^ Brady.

Several well-marked but small examples are on the
slide.

Polystornella fnacella, Fichtel and Moll, sp.
Large and beautiful examples occur.

Polystornella suhnodosa, Munster, sp.

The examples of this foraminifer are good, and are of
the usual milky-blue colour.

Foraminifera. (PI. 3, fig. 17).

This fragment is the only example on the slide, and
as the initial part is wanting, it cannot very well be placed
under a generic heading. The test is built up of fine
sand-grains, and is of a light-brown colour, the surface
slightly roughened.

Foraminifera} (PI. 3, fig. 18).

Several specimens are on the slide. This is a doubtful
foraminifer. It appears to be built up of very fine sand-
grains, the test is thin, and its superior face varies in
convexity. The under surface is concave in the centre.
The orifice is small, round, and at the bottom of the cavity,
but it is not always apparent. The colour is a silvery-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 1ft. 31

grey brown, but I have twelve specimens from La
Liberstad, Salvador, West Coast of America, in which
the colour varies from silvery-grey to light-brown.

My friend Dr. Chaster, of Southport, whose lamented
death took place on May 5th, was greatly interested for
many years in the study of the Foraminifera.

His chief work on this subject is a " Report upon the
Foraminifera of the Southport Society of Natural History
District," which is a valuable addition to the literature of
the British Foraminifera.

Dr. Chaster was a very acute observer, a most genial
man, and personally I owe much to him, as he was the
means of my taking up the study of the Foraminifera. I
cannot let this opportunity pass without stating how
much his death is regretted, and especially by those who
had the good fortune to know him intimately.

32 SiDEBOTTOM, Foraminifera from the Bay of Palermo.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate L
Figs.

1. Niibecularia tibia, Jones and Parker

2. Spiroloculina itucquilateralis, Schlumberger

3. MiliolifJa iindosa, Karrer, sp.

4. PsammosphcEra fusca, F. E. Schultze

5. Reophax baccillaris, Brady

6. Haplophragmium pseudospirale, Williamson

7. Ammodiscus perversus, n. sp.

8. Spiropleda rosula, Ehrenberg

9. Gaudryina filiformis, Berthelin

10. Clavulina angidaris, d'Orbigny

11. Bulimina, d'Orbigny, var. exiiis, Brady

12. Lagena tcevis, var. distotna, Silvestri

13. 14, 15, 17, and 18. Lagena lyellii, Seguenza
16, 19, 20. Lagena striata, d'Orbigny, sp,

Page.

X

75 ■•

I

X

50 ..

2

X

50 ..

4

X

50 ..

8

X

25 ••

8

X

25 ••

8

X

50 ..

9

X

100 ..

1 1

X

75 ••

II

X

25 ..

II

X

75 ■•

12

X

75 ••

15

X

50 ..

15

X

50 ..

15,16

Manchester Meuioirs, Vol. LIV. {No. U\).

•2a
1

P/(r/e I.

II siUfhottom ili-J. ltd ,1

Foraminifera from the Bay of Palermo.

34 SiDEBOTTDM, Foraniinifem from the Bay of Palermo.

Plate II.
Figs.

1. Lagena striata, d'Orbigny, sp. x 50

2. Lagena semistriata, Williamson x 50

3. Lagena hexagojta, Williamson, sp. x 75

4. Lagena reticulata, Macgillivray x 50

5. Lagena striatoptmctata, Parker and Jones x 100

6. Lagena desniopkora, Rymer )ones x 100

7. Lagena lucida, Williamson, sp. x 75

8. Lagena quadrata, Williamson, sp. x 75

9. 10, II. Lagena /a^ifw^/^fi^, Williamson, sp.

X 100 X 50, 50

12, 13. var. Lagena orbignyana, Seguenza x 75 x 100

14. Lagena orbignyana (Seg.), var. lucunata, Burrows

and Holland x 75

15. Lagena orbignyana (Seg.), var. walteriana,

Wright x 100

16. Lagena exculpta, Brady x 75

17. 18. Lagena protea, Chaster x 50
19, 20, 21. Nodosaria scaiaris, Batsch, sp. x 50
22. Frondicularia spathulata, Brady x 75

Page
15,16

16
17
17
17
17
17
18

18,19
19

19

19
19

19
20
21

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV. {No. 1«.)

1 2 3

h

Plate 11.

8:t

5a

13n,

16a

10«

14re

12re

15fi

V xaaaR/

\ - •811

)

f»t^

^^1

II. Shh-jilttO}),, dfl. nil lint.

22a

Foraminifera from the Bay of Palermo.

^6 Sidp:bottom, Foramimfera Jrom the Bay of Palermo.

Plate III.

FiciS. Page.

I, 2, 3 Margtnuhna costata, Batsch, sp. ^ 50 ... 21

4, 5, 6, 7. Intermediate forms between Cristellaria
and the Genera Vaginulina and Marginulifta,

figs. 4, 5 X 50 ■ ^i

figs. 6, 7 X 75 ... 21

8. Cristel/aria (icu(auricu/ar!s,¥\c\\\.ii\2ind}Ao\\,s\). x 50 ... 21

9, 10. Sagriiia nodosa, Parker and Jones x 50 ... 25

11. Discorbina saulcii, d'Orbigny x 50 ... 26

12. Disior/nnci tabernacularis, Brady x 75 .. 25

13. Nonionina scapha, Fichtel and Moll, sp. x 50 ... 29

14. Nonionina asterizans, Fichtel and Moll, sp. x 50 ... 29

15. Nonionina umbilicatula, Montagu, sp. X50 .. 29

16. Polystomella striatopunctata. Fichtel and Moll, sp. x 50 ... 29, 30

17. Foramitiifera. A fragment x 50 ... 30

18. Foraminifera 1 x 75 ... 30

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV. {No. IC).
1 2 3

Plate III.

II. Shh-bottom, iM. ud nut.

roraminifera from tlie Bay of Palermo.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. H.

XVII. The Anatomy of Calanwstachys Birmeyana,
Schimper.

By George Hickling, D.Sc,

Lecture^- in Geology in the University of Manchester.
Read February Sth, igio. Received for publication June 14th, igio.

Notwithstanding the care with which this cone has
been repeatedly investigated, by Binney, Carruthers,
Williamson, Hick and Williamson and Scott (see under
"Literature"), our knowledge of its vascular anatomy
still remains very imperfect. Remains of the cone are
abundant, and in general very well preserved, in the
coal-balls of Lancashire and Yorkshire. The extreme
delicacy of its vascular tissues is the cause of our
imperfect knowledge regarding them.

It is now generally accepted that the cone was
characterised by a slender axis bearing, on alternate
nodes, whorls of 12 — 14 bracts or 6 — 8 sporangiophores ;
that the axis had a stele with a solid medulla, surrounded
by 4 or 6 endarch vascular bundles, each with a " pro-
toxylem-" or " carinal-" canal ; and that each bundle gave
off at alternate nodes traces which passed out more or
less horizontally to the bracts or sporangiophores respec-
tively. It is known that the bundles do not alternate at
the nodes. The peculiar masses of " nodal wood," and
the character of the tracheids have also been well
described.

The observations on which this note is founded have
been especially directed to the elucidation of such features
of the vascular organisation of the cone as would seem to

July 20th, igio.

2 HiCKLING, Anatomy of CalainostacJiys Binneycxiia.

throw light on its phylogenetic relations. It has been
found possible to add very little to what has already been
described, yet my investigations lead me to make such
amendments to the current interpretation of the anato-
mical structure as I think justify their publication. The
current view appears to me to require correction in two
important points. In the first place, I believe there is
ample proof that the so-called "sporangiophore" or
" fertile-" nodes should not be regarded as nodes in the
same sense as the true or" bract-" nodes at all. Secondly,
I believe the old descriptions were strictly correct (see e.g.
Hick, '92) which stated that the axis in the more common
cases contained three vascular bundles, not three pairs, as
now commonly interpreted. It is believed to be possible
to show that the sporangiophore-trace virtually arises at
the subjacent "bract-node." It is also shown that in one
and the same cone the conditions of 3, 4, and 6 vascular
bundles in the stele may coexist. In the course of the
work it has been proved possible to extend the method
of Prof Sollas for obtaining serial sections to histological
work, by slowly grinding down the petrified material and
taking microphotographs, by reflected light, of the suc-
cessively exposed surfaces (see Photo. 4 of P /ate).

Turning first to the morphological character of the
" sporangiophore-nodes," we have the following evidence :
In small vegetative stems of Calamites, the nodes are
characterised by a strong development of " nodal wood,"
and by the obliteration of the carinal canals of the
bundles. The medulla commonly persists in the form of
nodal diaphragms, composed of very short cells. In
impressions, the node always appears as a distinct
"joint." Precisely the same features mark the true or
bract-nodes of the cone, with just this difference ; that as
the whole medulla is persistent, instead of nodal dia-

MancJiestcr Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 11, 3

phragms we have a marked " shortening-up " of the other-
wise elongated medullary cells (see Photo. 2 of Plate).
On the contrary, none of these features are found at the
level of the sporangiophores, where, as Dr. Scott (William-
son and Scott '94, p. 906) long ago pointed out, there is
" scarcely any modification of structure as compared with
the internodes " — we may say none which is not absolutely
inevitable. There is no trace of " nodal wood," no
obliteration of the carinal canals, and no modification of
the medulla. In impressions of the closely-allied Calaino-
stachys Liidwigii, Weiss (Weiss '76, p. 41) states that
there '*'? no trace of jointing at that level (" von querg-
liederung an dieser stelle keine Spur"). These facts
appear to me to offer the gravest difficulty to the inter-
pretation of the sporangiophores as modified leaves.

In confirmation of the above, and passing to the next
point, it must be remarked that in the rare event of the
sporangiophore-trace being seen to part company with
the main vascular bundle, it merely separates from the
outside of the latter and causes no gap, whereas the bract-
trace clearly originates from the main protoxylem-mass at
the node and passes through the main bundle.

The true relations of the sporangiophore-trace are
extremely difficult to determine. This is largely due to
the great delicacy of the vascular tissues in the neigh-
bourhood of the insertions of the sporangiophores and
their consequent very imperfect preservation in nearly all
cases. The best example I have seen is a transverse
section (O. 291, Manchester Museum Coll.) in which
portions of four traces are seen just separated from the
stele, the remaining pair appearing as projections from
the other stelar bundle. By careful focussing, each of the
free traces can be made out to be slightly arched, ascend-
ing slightly from the stele and descending again towards

4 HiCKLING, Anatomy of CalamostacJiys Biniicyana.

the sporangiophore. Something of the same arching
may be made out in a few longitudinal sections (O. 295,
O. 308)' while others show the trace curving simply

Fic. I.

Sections (longiuidinal) showing passage of sporangiophore-trace from axis
into sporangiophore.

/;-. =sporangio[)hore-trace.
sp. = base of sporangiophore.
r. = cortex.
in. r= medulla.

All sections x 50.
\a. Trace here enters in cinvmvard direction. The manner in which
it follows the conformation of the surrounding cortical cells
renders it unlikely that this course is due to displacement.

"Cash" Coll., Manchr. Museum. (K 308.
\b. Trace curving upward into sporangiophore.

Manchr. Museum Coll. R. 13SA.
\c. Trace .sharply bent at right-angles, but with slight initial recurving.
Compare arrangement of tracheids at bend with that in \l>.

"Cash" Coll., Manchr. Museum. Q. 295.

downward from the base of the sporangiophore. It seems
undesirable to lay any stress on this point, as slight
displacement would readily cause considerable modifica-
tion.

There is no good evidence that the sporangiophore-
trace really arises from the stelar bundle at the point

Manchester Alenioirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 17. 5

where it parts company with it. On the other hand we
have the very strong evidence already detailed that this
point is not morphologically a true node, and further, the
absence of any indication that the main protoxylem-mass
was here connected with the sporangiophore-trace. I
have in no case been able to observe a true fusion of the
trace with the stelar bundle, while, on the contrary, in
one section belonging to Mr. Watson (A90) the trace can
be followed quite uninterruptedly almost half-way down
to the subjacent node. In some cases the traces may be
distinguished in transverse sections below the sporangio-
phores as more or less projecting masses of tracheids on
either side of the main bundles (see Photo. 3 of Plate),
reminding one of the condition of things in Palcso-
stachya. As in the latter cone also I have observed in
one or two instances what I believe to represent small
independent carinal canals belonging to the traces
(see Photo. 5 of Plate). In the great majority of cases,
however, any tracheids which may have separated these
canals from that belonging to the main bundle have
broken down, the result being a single tangentially
elongated canal, often broadly V-shaped in transverse
section. Indeed, the whole trace is commonly broken
down, leaving a space on either side of the mass of
tracheids representing the stelar bundle.

With a view to further investigating, among other
things, the relation of these traces, I obtained from Mr.
Lomax a block containing Calaniostachys and prepared
serial sections by the method already mentioned. One
part of this series shows very clearly the relations of the
traces in the manner just described, as represented in the
annexed sketches {Fig. 2, rt, b, c). The section is oblique,
and tangential to the bundle. The trace on the left has de-
generated and is represented by a space ; on the right, the

6 HiCKLING, Anatoi>i}> of Calauiostachys Binneyana.

trace itself still remains. One of the actual photographs
out of the series of 22 which were taken is reproduced in
Photo. 4 of the Plate, to illustrate the possibilities of this
method of obtaining serial sections. The sections are
about 0"2 mm. apart.

Fig. 2.

Three successive oblique tangenlial sections of a bundle with its caiinal
canal and the lateral canals presumed to represent the degenerated
sporangiophore-traces. On the right of the bundle the trace
appears to have more or less completely persisted. The lowest
section is a, the highest (•. The sections are about 0"2 mm. apart.
X 71; dia.
px. f. =carinal canal.

sp. c. = canal representing sporangiophore-trace.
phi. = position of phloem.

The various considerations stated above lead me to
believe that the sporangiophore-trace really has its origin
at the true or " bract-" node, merely rising in contact with
the stelar bundle through the internode above until it
bends outwards to the sporangiophore.

Closely connected with the relations of these traces is
the question of the number of bundles in the stele. As
already mentioned, it is now commonly accepted that there
are usually four or six, the bundles in the latter case being

Manchester Meuioirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 11. 7

in partially fused pairs. Two circumstances tend to
favour this view that the triangular steles have six
bundles, rather than three, as the earlier descriptions
stated. Firstly, there are really six distinct bundles in
some cases, though that is comparatively rare. Secondly,
the bundle, together with its carinal canal, is usually
tangentially elongated. This latter circumstance, as
already suggested, appears to me to be due to the fact
that each bundle is accompanied through a large part of
its course by a pair of sporangiophore-traces, one on either
side. The weight of evidence, however, appears to me
strongly in favour of the single nature of each bundle
in normal cases. Admittedly, most examples would
be so interpreted, apart from preconceived ideas ; but
the crucial sections are clearly those which are cut
above the level of the sporangiophores and below the
succeeding node. Such sections are not common, because
the nodal wood makes its appearance a very short distance
above the departure of the sporangiophore-trace Jn
several examples, however, the bundle is here seen to be
very definitely single. A very good example is seen
in Photo. I of the Plate (Manchr. Museum Coll. R. 801 A),
in which the tissues are completely preserved. This
section also illustrates the extreme delicacy of the vascular
tissues. Further evidence is afforded by many sections
in which the bundles are partially broken down. The
xylem mass is commonly detached from the medulla, and
more or less adherent to the cortex ; it is noteworthy
that in such cases the xylem invariably breaks away in a
single piece, and when this piece is attached to the cortex
it lies betiveeii the bases of the sporangiophores. A few
tracheids are commonly to be found separated from this
principal xylem mass on one or both sides ; these smaller
strands lie opposite the sporangiophores and must be

8 HlCKLING, Anatomy of Calaniostadiys Binneyana.

regarded as their traces. A further argument may be
derived from the analogy of the quadrangular steles with
four bundles. In these cases I have never seen any
indication of the bundle being double. Dr. Scott, in the
new edition of his " Studies," states that " there are
usually six, sometimes eight" bundles (Scott, :08, p. 51,
52), but I presume that he merely considers that in the
latter case there may be theoretically eight. In his well-
known monograph with Prof. Williamson (Williamson
and Scott, '94, p. 905), he says, of the quadrangular
steles, " There is no reason to suppose, in this case, that
more than one bundle was present at each corner." This
statement is certainly true of the great majority of cases.
Now, where there are four bundles there are always eight
sporangiophores. Hence it would be curious if, in cases
where the number of sporangiophores is reduced to six,
the number of bundles should be increased to six !

This last argument is considerably strengthened by
the fact that the same cone which has a quadrangular
stele with four bundles and eight sporangiophores in its
lower part, may have a triangular stele with six sporangio-
phores above. Together with the other evidence, this
leaves no doubt, in my mind, that the normal number of
bundles in triangular steles is three*.

The discovery that the number of sporangiophores
and of bundles in the stele was variable within the
individual cone, resulted from the preparation by Mr.
Lomax of a fine series of eight sections, giving serial
sections of four distinct cones. Three of the four series
show this change, the best cone being that marked A, which

* It appears to me that in any case the expression "partially fused
pairs," commonly applied to the bundles, is objectionable, since one feels
little doubt that tne change which was taking place in the evolution of these
cones was a gradual division of the bundles. The three groups of tracheids
are certainly not the result of the fusion in pairs of six primitive groups.

MancJiester ][Iemoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. II. 9

is well preserved in six successive sections. In two it has
definitely four bundles in a quadrangular stele. The next
section has a more or less triangular stele with six
bundles, while the remaining sections have triangular
steles which appear to have three bundles. One of these
latter shows six sporangiophores. The other two series
showing the change have only four sections each, and are
less well-preserved. Subsequently I found the same
change exhibited in a series of five sections cut from a
Halifax cone (Manchr. Museum Coll., O. 288 — 292).
Four of these have triangular steles, the fifth a quad-
rangular one. This series was formerly described by
Hick (Hick '93A), and this point was noted, but it seems
to have been entirely overlooked since that time. A
series of three sections in the Manchester Museum collec-
tion (R. 107, 109, 1 10) have each triangular steles, with six
bundles in two cases, and seven in the third.

In six sets of serial sections which I have examined,
therefore, the stele changes from the triangular to the
quadrangular type in four, and shows indication of a
change in a fifth (the last-mentioned above).

It is perhaps noteworthy that in the best series of
sections we have, between the part of the cone with four
bundles and the part with three, one section in which
there are distinctly six. Some indication of the same
thing is found in the series marked C. Hence it may be
possible that six bundles are produced in the readjust-
ment of the stele in this intermediate region. This would
explain the occurrence of a small number of sections in
which there certainly are six distinct bundles, and some
cases in which the bundles are irregular. I had hoped to
be able to determine this point by means of serial
sections made by the Sollas method, but have so far
been unable to obtain a block containing a suitable cone.

lO HiCKLING, Aiiatojiiy of CalainostacJiys Biniicyana.

The remaining point to be mentioned is the vascular
supply of the bracts. In one transverse section in the
Manchester Museum collection, this is extremely well
shown (R. 120), and it is interesting to note that the
traces do not come off quite symmetrically from the four

Fig. 3.

Transverse section through rode, immediately below bracts, showing
origin of bract-traces. Note that each bundle appears to give off
its traces somewhat unsymmetrically.
X 36 dia.

Manchr, Museum Coll. R. 120.

bundles present (of which three each supply three traces,
the other, four), as may be seen in the accompanying
figure {Fig. 3), where the traces appear as if dragged
round by a slight anti-clockwise movement. This slight
asymmetry is in agreement with what appears to me to
be the only possible explanation of a well-known difficulty
in the morphology of this cone — viz., the combination of
superposed sporangiophores and non-alternating bundles,
with alternating bracts. The relation of the sporangio-
phores with the bundles is very definite — each bundle
stands opposite a pair of sporangiophores ; and it appears

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. H, 11

to me in the highest degree probable that the primitive
position of the bracts was similarly opposite the bundles,
they having reached their present position by slight
lateral shifting of each whorl to right or left.

As it has been clearly pointed out before, no definite
relation can now subsist between the bracts and either
the sporangiophores or the bundles, since the number of
the bracts in a whorl is variable, and its variation bears
no definite relation to the number of bundles or spor-
angiophores. Thirteen appears to be the commonest
number of bracts.
PJiylogenetic Position of the Cone.

This question may be briefly discussed in the light of
the present communication.

Neglecting the doubtful types Bornia and Cingidaria,
we have three types of Calamitean fructification, Calaino-
stachys, Stachannularia, and PalcEostacJiya. The type
which Weiss (Weiss '76) describes as Stachaiiimlaria is de-
fined as having its sporangiophores inserted slightly above
the middle of the internode, and by the sporangiophores
possessing a wing-like-expansion on their upper side,
which, in some cases, appears united with the bracts of
the whorl above. It seems probable that this is really
the same type which Renault has described from structural
material as Briickniannia Grand' Eiiryi s.nd Bruckniannia
Decaisnei, in which the sporangiophores are similarly
adherent to the bracts of the next superior whorl. If so,
this type is essentially similar to Calaniostachys. Palceo-
stachya I have elsewhere fully described (Hickling, :07).

So far as is known, the successive whorls of sporangio-
phores in all types of calamite cone were superposed, and
from their constant relation to the primary vascular
bundles this raised a strong presumption that the bundles
were in all cases non-alternating. This was certainly the

12 HiCKLING, Anatomy of CalaniostacJiys Binncyana.

case in C. Binntyana. Renault states that the same was
the case in his cone of Annularia longifolia (Renault '73).
It was evidently so in Calajnostachys Ludwigii,^r\d Weiss
states that in impressions of C. sjtperba the ribs on the
axis do not alternate at the nodes. His figures show the
same condition in Stachanjiularia tiibercidata. The only
doubtful cases seem to be Renault's cones described in
his " Flore Fossile" ; regarding these neither the text nor
the illustrations are very satisfactory on this point, but as
a whole the evidence seems to favour superposition.

If the contentions in this paper are correct, we may
say that it is a further general characteristic of calamitean
cones that the vascular supply of the sporangiophores
arises from the same node which supplies the whorl of
bracts below. This is the case in PalcBostacJiya, Renault
shows it to be the case in Bruckuiaimia {Arthropifostac/iys)
Decaisvei and B. Grand' Euryi, as well as in Calaniodendro-
stac/iys Ze27/er2 (Renault 'g6), and 1 have endeavoured to
show that it is the case also in CalaniostacJiys Binneyana.
Hence it holds for all the principle types of calamitean
cone.

The point of insertion of the sporangiophores in the
internode is obviously very variable. In the PalcEostacJiya
type they are adherent to the bracts below, in the Stach-
annularia t\'pe to the whorl above, and in Calamnstachys
more or less in the middle.

The number of appendages in a whorl, and the
number of bundles in the stele are likewise very variable
features. All that can be said is that multiples of three
predominate.

There are two points of morphological importance in
which CalaniostacJiys Binneyana and its close ally C.
Lndivigii are contrasted with the other cones whose
structure is known (except, of course, C. Caslicana and

Manchester Memoirs, 'Vol. liv. (1910), No. IT 13

C. OldhaDiia) — the small number of appendages and of
primary vascular strands, and the solid medulla. I think
it will be generally admitted that in these respects, these
cones are more primitive than the rest, and I would
regard CalauiostacJiys Biiineyana as the most primitiv^e
calamitean cone yet known. One can scarcely believe
that the striking similarities of this cone, as here
interpreted, with the cones of SphenopJiylhim are purely
accidental. The stele is still characteristically triarch,
and the vascular strands non-alternating. As regards the
stele, I would suggest that in the Sphenophylls and
Calamites we have a course of evolution parallel with
that which Dr. Scott (Scott :o2) has so well described in
another group ; that in SpheiiopJiyllinn we have the
primitive type with entirely centripetal primary xylem,
that in CalainostacJiys Binneyana we have the centripetal
tissue reduced to a somewhat peculiar medulla and
centrifugal xylem replacing the old wood functionally,
while in the more advanced types of CalainostacJiys we
have the medulla still further degenerating, and the old
triarch condition graduall)' lost as the result of multi-
plication of the appendages in the manner suggested by
Lignier (Lignier :03). In all the cones of Calamites
the primitive direct course of the bundles appears to have
been maintained, that only vanishing in the less con-
servative veGfetative shoots.

14 HiCKLING, Anatomy of CalaviostacJiys Binncyana.

LITERATURE.

BiNNEY, E. W. ('68). " Observations on the Structure of Fossil
Plants found in the Carboniferous Strata. I. Calamites
2in^ Calatnode7idrony Palc^ontographical Soc.^ 1868.

Carruthers, W. ('67). '■ On the Structure of the Fruit of
Calamites." Seeman's Journ. of Bat., vol. 5, p. 349,
1867.

Hick, T. ('92). " Calamostachys Binneyana, Schimp." Rep.
Brit. Assn., Edinburgh, 1892, p. 776.

{'93a). " Calamostachys Binneyana, Schimp." Proc.

Yorks. Geol. &= Poly tech. Soc.^ vol. 12, part 4, p. 279-
293, 1893.

('93'^)- " The Fruit-Spike of Calamites." Natural Science,

vol. 2, p. 354, 1893.

and LoMAX, J. ('94). "On a new Sporiferous Spike from

the Lancashire Coal Measures '^Calamostachys Old-
hamia\" Manchester Memoirs, ser. 4, vol. 8, 1894.

HiCKLING, G. (:07). " The Anatomy of Palceostachya vera."
Atinals of Botany, vol. 21, p. 369, 1907.

LiGNiER, O. (:03). " Equisetales et Sphenophyllales. Leur
origine filicineene commune." EjiU. Soc. Linn, de
Normandie, s*" ser., 7" vol. Caen, 1903.

Renault, B. ('73). " Recherches sur I'organisation des Spheno-
phyllum et des Annularia." A7in. des Sci. Nat. Bot.,
ser. 5, vol. 18, p. 5, 1873.

('76). " Recherches sur la fructification de quelques

vegetaux." Ann^ des Sci. Nat. Bot., ser. 6, vol. 3, p. 5,
1876.

MaiicJiestcr Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 17. 15

Renault, B. ('96). " Flore fossile du bassin Houilleret Permien
d'Autun et d'Epinac." Pt. II. Paris, 1896.

ScHiMPEk, W. Ph. ('69). "Traite de Paleontologie Vegetale."
Paris, 1869.

Scott, D. H. (:o2). "The Old Wood and the New." Netv
Phytologist, vol. i, p. 25, 1902.

(:o8). "Studies in Fossil Botany." 2nd Edn. London,

1908.

Sykes, M. G. (:o8). "The Anatomy and Morphology of
T?nesipteris." Annah of Botany, vol. 22, 1908.

Weiss, C. E. ('76, '84). " Steinkohlen Calamarien." Ahhajidl.
d. geol. Specialkarte von Preusseu. Bd. II., Heft I.,
Berlin, 1876. Bd. V., Heft II., Berlin, 1884.

Williamson, W. C. ('71, '73, '80, '81}. " Organisation of the
Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures."
Pt. 1. Phil. Trans., ... ... 1871, p. 477.

V. „ 1873. p. 41.

X. „ 1880, p. 493.

XI. „ 1881, p. 283.

Williamson, W. C. and Scott, D. H., ('94). "Further Observa-
tions on the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the
Coal Measures." Part I. Phil. Trans., 1894, B,
p. 863.

1 6 HiCKLING, Anatomy of Calauiostachys Binneyana.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Photo, i. — T.S. axis of cone just above sporangiophores with
tissues complete, x 32 dias.

/jv-.f:. = protoxylem ("carinal") canal.
i.e. = inner cortex.
The two small protoxylem canals are very sharply
defined. Manchr. Mus. Coll., R. 801 A.
Photo. 2. — L.S. cone with well preserved medulla. Section
nearly median. x 18 dias.

nod. /«^^/. = nodal medullary tissue.
/;/. iiied. =internodal medullary tissue.
The contrast between the medulla at the level of the
bracts (''nodal') and that at the level of the sporangio-
phores ("internodal") is very well-marked. "Cash"
Coll., Manchr. Museum, Q. 295.

Photo. 3. — T.S., slightly oblique, just below sporangiophores on
right, slightly lower on left. x 32 dias.

Sp //-. =sporangiophore trace.
'Jlie traces project more strongly from the ste'e as the
plane of the section rises towards the sporangiophores.
Manchr. Mus. Coll., R. 139.

Pnoro. 4. — Section photographed by reflected light from a solid
block of material. This is one of a series of 22 sections
of the same cone, the entire series covering about two
internodes. The set was obtained by slowly grinding
down the block and photographing at intervals. The
one here reproduced is next but one in the series above
that from which Fig. 2 c is drawn. It is introduced only
to illustrate the method. x 15 dias.

Photo. 5. — Section of stele just above node, x 80 dias.

Sp. px. c. = Protoxylem canal of sporangiophore
trace.
The two examples marked seem fairly definite ; indica-
tions of similar canals are seen in one or two other
places. Manchr. Mus. Coll., R. 139.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV. {No. lH).

Plate.

sp. px.

sfi.px.c:

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 18.

XVIII. Note on the Variability in the Colour of the
Flowers of a Tropaeolum Hybrid.

By F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, FX.S.

Read [annary nth, icpio. Received for fuf>l!caiioii July 22nd, igio.

In the summer of 1908 my attention was attracted
to a plant among the Nasturtiums in my garden, which
bore flowers of different colours, some quite light yellow
with dark honey guide, while one was of red colour. The
plant was still young, so I potted it up and watched its
later developments. During the summer it produced a
large number cf flowers, apparently with complete irregu-
larity, as could be seen from a diagrammatic plan of the
different branches, on which the different coloured flowers
were indicated. It became apparent also that the flowers
were not all of two distinct types, but shaded off from
one extreme to the other. Thus, besides the completely
yellow flowers, some appeared with slight red blotches at
the edge of the petals, and these increasing in size and
extending to the base of the petals were found in every
stage until the whole petal was scarlet, the last part to
become scarlet being the little fringe at the base of
the expanded portion of the petal. In the autumn
brownish patches became frequent on the petals leading
to a darker coloured flower. But though this was the
case both in the autumn, and as long as the plant
remained alive during the winter, some yellow flowers
were always to be found among the parti-coloured ones.
The yellow colour of the petals is due to yellow chromo-
plasts, while the supervening red or brown colour is due
to coloured cell sap.

August jisf, igio.

2 Weiss, Coloiir of Flowers of a Tropceolum Hybrid.

As it seemed likely that this Tropaeolum was of
hybrid nature, and that its flowers partook in varying
degree of the character of the two parents, it seenned to
be of interest to find out what would be the result of self-
fertilising the various flowers and examining the resultant
offspring.

This was done with a number of flowers, both of the
red and yellow, and also of the intermediate forms. The
plants grown from these seeds showed an interesting
series of forms, indicating a segregation of parental
characters in this (probably the f2) generation, but it was
at once noticeable that the colour of the flower of the
previous (fi) generation did not determine the floral
colour of the offspring, yellow flowers yielding both
plants which bore red flowers and also others with yellow
flowers.

A segregation of forms seemed to have taken place,
however, in this (f2) generation, both as to tallness and
as to colour. The parent plant, though purchased as
TropCBoluni minor, grew ultimately to fairly large size.
Of its offspring two were distinctly dwarf forms, while
eight were tall. Both the dwarf forms had red flowers,
one of them of a very dark shade, while of the tall forms
four were red and four were yellow, though these latter
were, as will be stated later, plants of two distinct types.

It would appear from this segregation, as is indicated
by other experiments on Tropceolum, that in this genus
dwarfness is recessive to tallness, as is the case in Sweet
Peas.

As regards the colour of the flowers of the ten plants
raised from the seeds of the original hybrid parent, as
indicated above, one of the dwarf forms had dark claret-
coloured flowers, which accounted probably for the brown
blotches in some of the later flowers of the hybrid parent.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 18. 3

This dark flowered offspring (F) remained dwarf, and
only produced a comparatively small number of flowers.
Both its stem and the ribs of its fruits developed antho-
cyanin. The other dwarf descendant (A) had small leaves
and anthocyanin developed in its stem. Its flowers were
red, but it ceased flowering in the first week of August,
and so produced very few offsprings.

Of the tall descendants, the four which produced red
flowers were all very much alike (D, E, H, I). Both
stems and peduncles developed anthocyanin, and, though
not very tall plants, were distinctly not of dwarf habit,
and produced an elongated main stem some two feet in
height The flowers were bright red, very fertile, but
some of them stopped flowering after the second week in
August, when cold wet weather set in.

The four yellow-flowered offspring (B, C, G, K)
agreed in their general vegetative characters, tallness and
absence of anthocyanin, but were of two distinct types, as
indicated by their flowers. Two of them (B and C) had
light yellow-coloured petals, with dark claret-coloured
honey guides, which were, however, slightly lighter in one
case (C) than in the other (B). They agreed also in the
fact that they remained practically sterile, as hardly any
of their stamens produced ripe pollen.

In the two other yellow-flowered forms (G and K) the
honey guides were bright red, not claret-coloured, and
these plants were quite fertile, maturing their pollen quite
freely. At the end of the first week of August, which
was hot and sunny, one of the plants (G) produced a few
parti-coloured flowers, and in the second week in August
some completely red flowers. Even though completely
red, an undercurrent of yellow was sometimes visible,
there being often a yellow fringe at the inside of the
petals. As in the parental form, the red colouring always

4 Weiss, Colour of Flowers of a Tropcsolum Hybrid.

commenced at the margin of the petal, and extended in
successive flowers more and more towards the base.

About the same time, second week of August, plant
K, which in other respects agreed with the above plant
(G), showed indications of a few parti-coloured flowers,
and a little later the flowers were completely red. As the
season progressed some of the flowers produced were
deeper coloured, almost claret, and in their later stages of
expansion practically brown. This change was not noted
in plant G, but its occurrence in K pointed to its retaining
more than any of the other plants the characters of the
original parental hybrid.

Towards the end of August, when the wet weather
had again set in, the plant went back to its original
yellow flowers.

Though the hybrid parent showed no marked periodi-
city in the bearing of differently coloured flowers, this was
apparent in those of its off"spring (G and K), which
inherited this variability, the red flowers coinciding with
the brightest and hottest weather.

This peculiar feature is in agreement with the
Tropaolum hybrid described by Ga;rtner, which at the
commencement of the flowering season produced orange-
coloured flowers like those of its male parent (T. majiis),
while towards the close of the season, with decreasing
temperature, yellow flowers, like those of the maternal
parent (7". minus) were produced. In the experiments
described above the plants, however, commenced with
yellow flowers, proceeded during the very short hot
weather of the beginning of August to produce red
flowers, and theu went back to yellow.

It would appear, therefore, that in the case of the
original hybrid and in two of its offspring we have not got
a segregation of parental characters in the flower buds

MancJicster Memoirs, Vol. liv. (1910), No. 18- 5

(a form of bud variation which is not infrequent in some
groups of plants) but that the flowers are potentially red,
and that a certain factor, or several factors, probably
dependent on the metabolic processes of the plant,
determine the formation or the non-formation of antho-
cyanin.

That we have no segregation of characters is borne
out by the observation of the offspring resulting from self-
fertilising the flowers of different colours, while the return
of the yellow-coloured flowers during the late autumn
seems to point to an external controlling factor.

It is interesting in this connection to remember the
experiments by Rawson on the effect of light of different
refrangibility on the colour of Nasturtium flowers.*

A variety of T7'opccolmu viimis and inajus is now on
the market, called " Chamaeleon," and 1 am at present
engaged in comparing the change in colour of this variety
with the hybrid described above. I am also continuing
the experiments with the later generations of the plants
referred to, so that the present communication must be
taken to be of a preliminary nature only.

* British Associatio)i Report, South Africa, 1905.

6 Weiss, Colour of Flowers of a TropcEolum Hybrid.

PLATE.

Three flowers from the same plant showing variability of
colour. The flower to the left was light yellow in colour with
dark claret honey guides. The flower to the right was dark red,
while the median flower showed the red colouration commencing
near the edge of the petals.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV., No. 18-

Plate.

¥

PROCEEDINGS

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 5th, 1909.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President, in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables. The following were among the recent
accessions to the Society's Library : " A Discussion of Australian
Meteorology,'' by W.J. S. Lockyer (fol., London, 1909), presented
by the Solar Physics Committee, South Kensington ; " Guide
to the Specimens of the Horse Family .. .in the British Afuseutn
{Natural History) " (8vo., London, 1907), " Guide to the
Elephants {recent a7id fossil) i/i the British Museum {Natural
Historyy (8vo., London, 1908), '" Guide to the Gallery of Fishes
in the British Museum {Natural History) " (8vo., London, 1908),
" Guide to the Domesticated Animals {other than Horses) in the
British Mtiseum {Natitral History)" (8vo., London, 1908),
" Guide to the Exhibited Series of Insects in the British Museum
{Natural History)'' (8vo., London, 1908), ^' Guide to the Speci-
mens illustrating the Races of Mankind in the British Museum
{Natural History)" (8vo., London, 1908), '^ Guide to the Whales,
Porpoises, and Dolphins in the British Museum {Natural
History)^' (8vo., London, 1909), '•'Introduction to the Study of
Rocks" by L. Fletcher (8vo., London, 1909), and ''Synopsis of
the British Basidiomycetes," by W. G. Smith (8vo., London,
1908), presented by the Trustees of the British Museum;

ii Proceedings. {October 5th, igog.

" Codex of Resolutions adopted at International Meteorological
Meetings i8'j2-igo'j,'' by H. H. Hildebrandsson and G. Hell-
mann (8vo., London, 1909), presented by the Meteorological
Office ; " Report on Tertiary Plants of British Colufnbia" by
D. P. Penhallow (4to., Ottawa, 1908), and " Preliminary Report
on Gozvganda Mining Division District of Nipissing, Ontario f
by W. H. Collins (Svo., Ottawa, 1909), presented by the
Geological Survey of Canada ; " Darivin atid Moderti Science,"
ed. by A. C. Seward (410., Cambridge, 1909), and ^^ Classified
Catalogue of Works on Architecture, etc., iti the Libraries of
Manchester a?id Salford,'" by H. Guppy and G. Vine (8vo.,
Manchester, 1909), purchased ; '■'■ Low-temperature Research at the
Roval Institution of Great Britain igoo-oy,^' by H. E. Arm-
strong (Svo., London, 1909), presented by the Royal Institution
of Great Britain ; " Precise Leveling in the United States
igoj-07" by J. F. Hayford and L. Pike (4to., Washington,
1909), presented by the U.S. Department of Commerce
and Labor ; " Third Annual Report on ... Bacteriological Exami-
nation of London Waters, igo8-og," and ^^ Fourth Report
on Research Work... on the Vitality of the Cholera Vibrio
in Attificially pifected samples of Raiv Thames, etc.. Water...''''
by Dr. A. C. Houston (fol., [London], 1909), presented by the
Metropolitan Water Board ; " Subfect List of Works on the
Laws of Industrial Property" (i6mo., London, 1909), pre-
sented by the Patent Office, London ; " Parallelbedriff va?i
Wisselstroommachines" door J. W. van Dijk (Svo., Rotterdam,
1909); '■'■Over Rietwas en de Mogelifkheid zifner techtiische
Gewinning," door A. Wijnberg (Svo., Amsterdam, 1909), and
" Bibliotheek der...Hoogeschool.. Lifst der Periodieken," 2" uitg.
(4to., Delft, 1909, presented by the Technische Hoogeschool,
Delft; '^History of the Geological Society of Glasgow, i8^8-igo8,"
by P. Macnair and F. Mort (Svo., Glasgow, 190S), presented
by the Society ; " Report of a Magnetic Survey of S. Africa,^'
by J. C. Beattie (fol., London, 1909), presented by the Royal
Society of London ; the following' S works by G. L. Raymond :
"■Art in Theory^' 2nd ed. (Svo., New York, 1909), ''The

October 5th, /pop.] PROCEEDINGS. iii

Representative Significance of Form" 2nd ed. (8vo., New York,
1909), '■'■Poetry as a Representative Art,'^ 5th ed. (8vo., New
York, 1909), '•'■Painting, Sctilpiure, and Architecture as
Representative Arts,'' 2nd ed. (8vo., New York, 1909), '■^ The
Genesis of Art Form,''' 3rd ed. (8vo., New York, 1909),
^'' Rhythfn and Harmony in Poetry and Music," 2nd ed. (8vo.,
New York, 1909), '■^Proportion and Harmony of Line and
Colour," 2nd ed. (8vo., New York, 1909), and ^'^ Dante and
Collected Verse" (i6mo., New York, 1909), presented by the
author; "■Report on the Waverley or Siberia District" (8vo.,
Perth, 1909), and '■'■Report on the Progress of Mining in the
Districts between Leonora and IViluna" (8vo., Perth, 1909), by
A. Montgomery, presented by the Agent General for Western
Aiistraha ; " 77/1? Figure of the Earth and Lsostasy from Measure-
ments in the United States," by J. F. Hayford (4to., Washington,
1909); '■^ The Libraries of London : a Guide for Students," hy
R. A. Rye (8vo., London, 1908), ^'Hand-catalogue of the
University of Lojidon" {^vo., Liondon, 1908), presented by the
University of London.

Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S., read a paper entitled: "On a
New Binary Progression of the Planetary Distances,
and on the Mutability of the Solar System."

The paper, which is printed in the Memoirs, gave rise to
an interesting discussion in which Mr. T. Thorp, Mr. C. E.
Stromeyer, Mr. W. H. Todd, Mr. G. Hickling, and Mr. H.
Bateman, and others took part.

General Meeting, October 19th, 1909.

The President, Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
in the Chair.

Mr. H. George A. Hickling, M.Sc, was elected Secretary
in the place of Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, who has been appointed
Entomologist to the Dominion of Canada.

iv Proceedings. {October igth, igog.

Ordinary Meeting, October 19th, 1909.

The President, Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

Mr. E. Y. Lange, M.I.Mech.E., exhibited photographs of
M. Bleriot and Baron de Caters navigating the air on aeroplanes
during the competition for the ;^2,ooo prize at Frankfort on
October loth. Baron de Caters, on a Voisin biplane, carrying
a 75 h.p. engine, won the prize after a flight of i hr. 7 min.,
during which he travelled at an average speed of 44 miles.
M. Bleriot, in a monoplane with a 25 h.p. Anzani motor,
remained in the air i hour at a speed of 47 miles.

The President exhibited lantern slides of three granite
monoliths situated in a peat bog near Tormore, Shiskine, in the
Isle of Arran, which were supposed to be the remains of a
former stone circle 60 feet in diameter. They are from 18 to
20 feet in height, and in the peat near them sepulchral remains
were found some years ago. The granite was stated to be
different from that found in the immediate neighbourhood,
and it was a point of interest how such large masses could
have been transported over the marshy ground.

Mr. D. M. S. Watson thought it probable that the stones
had been placed in position before the bog was formed, and
that if the age of the stones could be made out, it might provide
a clue as to the rate of formation of the peaty deposit.

Mr. T. A. Coward read a paper written by Mr. Lionel E.
Adams, and communicated by Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt,
entitled " Some Notes on the Breeding Habits of the
Common Mole." The paper is printed in the Memoirs.

Novejiiber 2nd, igog.] PROCEEDINGS. v

General Meeting, November 2nd, 1909.

The President, Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
in the Chair.

Mr. W. H. Lang, D.Sc, M.B., CM., Barker Professor of
Cryptogamic Botany in the University of Manchester, and
Sir Thomas Henry Holland, K.C.I. E., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor
of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Manchester,
late Director of the Geological Survey of India, were elected
ordinary members of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, November 2nd, 1909.

The President, Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

The President announced that Sir T. H. Holland, K.C.I.E.,
D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the
Manchester University, had agreed to deliver the Wilde Lecture
for 1 9 10.

Professor Sydney J. Hickson, D.Sc, F.R.S., exhibited a
specimen of a double hen's egg and contributed the following
note upon it.

A specimen of a double hen's egg was sent to the Man-
chester Museum on September 8th of this year. The outer
shell is approximately 80 mm. x 60 mm., the inner shell
50 mm. X 40 mm.

The inner shell contained yolk, with, probably, a little
albumen, and the space between the inner and outer shell
contained albumen only. I am, unfortunately, unable to say
whether there were two yolks or only one in the inner shell.
Both shells are well formed.

vi Proceedings. {November 2nd, igog.

Double eggs of this description have been frequently
recorded before, and the only point of real interest about the
specimen is that it was laid in the autumn. According to
Parker''' "double eggs, so far as the records go, are limited
exclusively to the winter and spring."

The egg was presented to the Manchester Museum by
Mrs. Nathan, of Didsbury.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., exhibited a medal
bearing in the centre of both sides a head of Linnaeus, and,
arranged round it, the names of the several orders, each having
an illustration of its classificatory character, into which Linnaeus
divided the vegetable kingdom.

Mr. H. S. Leigh exhibited a frog that had been found near
Tyldesley at the bottom of a hole which was full of water after
the recent heavy rains. The hole had been dug six months
previously for the planting of a tree. The frog was remarkable
for being devoid of colour, with the exception of one small
patch, which was slightly mottled, and also for the clear red
colour of the eyes.

Mr. T. G. B. OsBORN, B.Sc, read a paper entitled, " A
Note on the Staminal Mechanism of Passifiora ca'ruka"
The paper is printed in the Memoirs.

Mr. D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc, read a paper entitled "A
Preliminary Note on two new genera of Upper Liassic
Plesiosaurs." The paper is published in the Memoirs.

General Meeting, November i6th, 1909.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

Mr. Albert Malins Smith, M.A., Lecturer in Plant
Physiology in the University of Manchester, was elected an
ordinary member of the Society.

* The Ameriaiii Naturalist, vol. 40, 1906, Nu. 469.

November i6th,Tgog.'\ Proceedings. vii

Ordinary Meeting, November i6th, 1909.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in tlie Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the table.

The President made reference to the death on November
9th of Mr. Thomas Worthington, F.R.I.B.A., who had been a
member of the Society from 1S65.

Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., read a summary of
a paper entitled "Some early correspondence between
Mrs. Hemans and Mr. Matthew Nicholson, a former
member of the Society." The paper will appear in full in
the Me77ioirs.

Mr. Nicholson also exhibited several of Felicia Browne's auto-
graph letters, a manuscript collection of her poems in Matthew
Nicholson's handwriting, and two volumes of silhouettes made
by the same gentleman, all being in his own possession. He
also showed a drawing of Bronwhilfa made by Captain Hemans.

Mr. C. E. Stromever, M.Inst.C.E., read a paper on the
" Relative Periods of Revolution of Planets and
Satellites. "

Ordinary Meeting, November 30th, 1909.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables. The following were amongst the
recent donations to the Society's Library : " Chapters from the
Evolution of Plants" by F. E. Weiss (8vo, Manchester,

viii Proceedings. \November ^oth, igog.

1909), presented by the Manchester Museum; '' Aniiquiiies
of the Mesa Verde National Park" by J. W. Fewkes (8vo.,
Washington, 1909), and " Tuberculosis among certain Indian
Tribes of the United States," by A. Hrdlicka (8vo., Washington,
1909), presented by the Bureau of American Ethnology;
'■^Scientific Papers," by Sir W. Huggins (fob, London, 1909),
presented by the author ; "yi Barometer Ma?iual for the use of
Seamen" 6th ed. (8vo., London, 1909), presented by the
Meteorological Office ; and " The Coal-fields of Manitoba,
Saskatcheivan, Alberta afid E. British Columbia" by D. B.
Dowling (Svo., Ottawa, 1909), '■'■Reports on a Portion of
Algoma atid Thunder Bay Districts, Ontario," by W. J. Wilson
(Svo., Ottawa, 1909), ^'■Catalogue of Publications of the Geological
Su7-vey, Canada" (Svo., Ottawa, 1909), and " 77/^ IVhitehorse
Copper Belt, Yukon Territory," by R. G. McConnell (Svo.,
Ottawa, 1909), presented by the Geological Survey of Canada.

Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., presented to the Society'.s
Library a copy of a work entitled '' Loch Etive and the Sons of
Uisnach," by R. Angus Smith. New ed., 1SS5.

The thanks of the members were accorded to Mr. Nicholson
for his gift.

Professor E. Ruthkrford, F.R.S., read a paper entitled,
"The Action of the « rays on Glass."

Illustrations of halos were shown on the screen, and a
capillary tube was exhibited under the microscope.

Dr. B. B. BOLTWOOD read a paper, written in conjunction
with Professor Rutherford, entitled, " Production of
Helium by Radium."

Both papers are printed in the Memoirs.

Dr. A. N. Meldrum read a paper, communicated by Pro-
fessor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., entitled " Development of
the Atomic Theory : i. Berthollet's Doctrine of
Variable Proportions." The paper will be printed in the
Me7noirs.

December i^th, ipop.] PROCEEDINGS. ix

Ordinary Meeting, December 14th, igog.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.

The President made reference to the loss the Society had
sustained by the deaths of Mr. A. J. S. Bles and Dr. Ludwig
Mond, F.R.S. Dr. Mond had been a member from 1881 and
Mr. Bles from 1901.

Dr. H. Stansfield exhibited a lantern slide of a photograph
of lightning flashes. The photograph was taken in Bruges, with
a small camera held in the hand, during an August thunder-
storm in which the display of lightning took place after dark.
The principal photograph represented a vertical flash, a fainter
image produced by two inclined flashes being superposed upon
it. One of the two inclined flashes was recorded on the plate
by a double line, indicating that two discharges, separated by an
interval of time during which the camera moved appreciably,
had followed the same path.

Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., communicated the follow-
ing biographical details concerning the French chemist, Ber-
thollet :—

Claude Louis Berthollet, a chemist who made researches
in both theoretical and applied chemistry, was born gth November,
1748. In 1790 he was already distinguished enough to be
elected an Hon. Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society
of Manchester. He held official scientific posts under the French
Government, and in 1798, together with Monge, the mathema-
tician, and other scientific men, he accompanied the French
expedition to Egypt. Berthollet also accompanied the army up
the Nile, and was present at the battle of Chebreis. On this
occasion he is said to have filled his pockets with stones, so
that if he was killed, and the boats sank, he would remain below
water. He became a leading member of the Institute of Egypt,
which was founded during the French expedition of 1798, the

X Proceedings. {December iph,igog.

decree of institution being dated 3 Fructidor year VI. Bonaparte
had taken with him a corps of savants, who were to study on
the spot the antiquities, history, geography, and the physical
state of Egypt, a country then httle known in Europe. All the
savants who accompanied the expedition were not members of
the Institute, for Bonaparte wished membership to be a reward
for work done in Egypt. During the Cairo rebellion several
members of the Institution were killed. According to a foot-
note on p. I of the English translation of the " Researches into
the Laws of Chemical Affinity," * the reading of that treatise
was commenced in the Institution of Cairo, June, 7th year {i.e.,
1799). The sudden departure from Egypt of Bonaparte in the
following August put an end to Berthollet's connection with
Cairo. He and Monge accompanied Bonaparte to France, but
the Institute continued at Cairo until 1801, when, the French
having evacuated Egypt, its members were transferred to Paris,
where the work of publishing the results of their Egyptian
labours was continued until 1828. Of the work of the Institute
a modern Mohammedan writer (Haji Browne) says they " com-
menced the labours which were to give to the world the vast,
though unhappily incomplete, description of Egypt, which is
unquestionably the most marvellous work of the kind ever
undertaken. Of these men it may be said that they represented
all that is best and noblest in the French nation and the higher
aspirations of the revolution." From Napoleon Berthollet
received the title of Count, and on one occasion the gift of
200,000 francs for the equipment of a chemical laboratory.
When the monarchy was restored, Berthollet was made a peer
of France. He died in 1822.

Dr. Sidney Russ read a paper entitled "A Note on
Radio-active Recoil."

Mr. D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc, gave an account of his paper
entitled " A Preliminary Account of the Bibliography of
the Post-Triassic Sauropterygia.

• A copy of this work, translated by Dr. M. Farrell, and dated 1804, is
to be found in the Manchester Free Reference Library, King Street.

January nth, /pio.] PROCEEDINGS. xi

Ordinary Meeting, January nth, 1910.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the tables.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., read a paper entitled,
"Variability in the Flowers of Tropaeolum Hybrids."

The paper will be printed in full in the Memoirs.

Ordinary Meeting, January 2Sth, 191 o.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

Professor W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., read
a paper, written in conjunction with Mr. F. Brotherton, on
"The Electrical Resistance of the Human Body."

The paper will be printed in full in the Memoirs.

Ordinary Meeting, February 8th, 19 10.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables. The following were amongst the recent
accessions to the Society's Library : " Descriptive Sketch of the

xii Proceedings. \February Sth, igio.

Geology, and Ecotiomic J\Ii)iera/s of Catiada" by G. A. Young
{8vo. , Ottawa, 1909), and *''• Catalogue of Canadian Birds." [new
ed.] by J. IVIacoun and J. M. Macoun (8vo., Ottawa, 1909),
presented by the Geological Survey of Canada; " Catalogue du
Cabinet JVumisinatigue..." 2nd ed. (4to., Harlem, 1909), pre-
sented by the Fondation Teyler a Harlem ; " The Free Atmo-
sphere in the Region oj the British Jsles,'' by W. H. Dines and
W. N. Shaw (4to., London, 1909), presented by the Meteoro-
logical Office of London ; " The British Freshwater Rhizopoda
and Heliozoa" vol. 2, by J. Cash and J. Hopkinson (8vo.,
London, 1909), purchased from the Ray Society; "■Reports to
the Evolution Committee. Report F." (8vo, London, 1909),
presented by the Royal Society ; " Unwritten Literature of
Hawaii..." collected and translated by N. B. Emerson (8vo,
Washington, 1909), and *' Tlingit Myths and Texts," recorded
by J. R. Swanton (8vo., Washington, 1909), presented by the
Bureau of American Ethnology; ^''Catalogue of the Library of
the Atnerican Mathematical Society" (8vo., New York, 1910),
presented by the American Mathematical Society; '■'■ Die bauge-
schichtliche Entwickelung von Kamenz,^' von Dr. Lig. W. Scheibe
(4to., Gorlitz, 1909), " Geschichte der Rittergiiter u. Dorfer
Lomnitz u. Bohra^'' von P. R. Doehler (8vo., Gorlitz, [1909]),
'\ . . Friedrich von Uechiritz als dramatischer Dichter" von W.
Steitz (8vo., Gorlitz, 1909), and Codex Diplomaticus Lusaiiae
Superioris LLL. .." Hft. HI., von Dr. R. Jecht (8vo., Gorlitz,
£909), presented by the Oberlausitzische Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften, Gorlitz.

Mr. D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc, and Mr. J. H. Wolfenden,
B.Sc, were nominated auditors of the Society's accounts for
the session 1909-1910.

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.List.C.E., exhibited a few samples
of mild steel which had been immersed in hot caustic soda.
Those samples which were subjected to compression stresses
retained their ductility, whereas those which had been subjected
to tension stresses were of a brittle nature.

February 8th, igio?\ PROCEEDINGS. xiii

Mr. George Hickling, M.Sc, read a paper entitled, "The
Anatomy of Calamostachys Bin?ieyaiia, Schimper."
The paper will be printed in full in the Memoirs.

Mr. T. A Coward, F.Z.S., communicated and read a paper
by Mr. Lionel E. Adams, B.A., entitled "A Hypothesis as
to the cause of the Autumnal Epidemic of the
Common and the Lesser Shrew."

The paper is published in full in the Alemoirs.

Ordinary Meeting, February 22nd, 1910.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

Mr. A. Brothers read the following note on " Halley's
Comet as seen in 1835, compared with Donati's in
1858."

The numerous notices of Halley's Comet which have appeared
within the last few months have referred mainly to the time
when it might be expected to become visible without a telescope.
Now that there is the prospect of its being seen within a very
few weeks, it is perhaps natural to anticipate a little as to what
it will be like.

During some of its visits to our hemisphere it has been
spoken of as a brilliant object, but, as is usually the case in
the return visits of comets, the brightness has lessened with each
return. Good drawings or sketches of Halley's Comet seem to
be rare, I know of only two or three. Sir John Herschel saw it
at the Cape of Good Hope, and from his sketches it was not
very conspicuous, Struve in 1835 gives a sketch which shows

xiv Proceedings. {February 22nd, igio.

it to have been bright, probably when it was near the sun, but
as a brilhant object it must have been very inferior to several
which were seen during the 19th century.

I have a distinct recollection of seeing the Comet in 1835.
It was pointed out to me by my father. I was nine years old at
the time, and of couise old enough to remember an object so
remarkable as the one in question, remarkable that is, from the
fact that its return was expected. The sketch I give in the
accompanying plate is from recollection, and is only for com-
parison with Donati's, which I saw in 1858, when it was near
the bright star Arcturus.

From its position in the sky, I think the time when I saw
the Halley's Comet must have been in the Spring, and some
time before the perihelion passage, as the object certainly was
not so bright as Struve shows it to have been, and was still more
inferior to the Donati. It is generally spoken of now as likely
to appear as a brilliant object, but it seems to me that there is
very little evidence for the assertion.

The sky was dark when I saw the Comet, and it was com-
paratively bright. It now appears that its advent will be later
in the year, and if visible at all to the naked eye its brightness
will be lessened by twihght.

The earliest picture of the Comet is that shown in the
Bayeux tapestry, but there is very little more to be seen in it than
a figure which for some centuries seemed to be sufficient to
indicate an unusual object in the sky, such as a flaming sword
or other grotesque figure.

Dr. H. F. Coward read a paper entitled " The Inflam-
mability of Gas-Mixtures "

Hydrogen and Oxygen mixtures were shown to be capable
of inflammation at a much lower pressure than had been
imagined previously if the igniting spark were produced in the
most suitable manner. Minima for sparks of various nature
with electrodes of various kinds were given.

Manchester Memoirs, ]\il. LIV, {Proeccdiui

Plate.

1,

^^^^^^IHf^^^

f -

'J^HOW'f

^^^^^^^^^^^^H[^' ' '' *' Jn

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I^B^I^-' .'^"'hIII

^^^^^^^^H^H^''' '^'' -'^^J*^'^' J^^l

m

f

\

•

i^m^mA^

e^t4»KA4si4

/^tP

fPSf

(J^d^^M. *y^y

Manchester Meiuoirs, Vol LIV., Proceedings. Plate I.

u

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LIV., Proceedings Plate 11.

Chimu Musician.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LI V., Proceedings. Plate III.

Supposed Chimu Chieftain.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. LIV., Proceedings.

Plate IV.

Chimu Basin.
About 1 2 inches diameter x 4 inches deep.

March 8th, igio.] PROCEEDINGS. xv

Ordinary Meeting, March 8th, 1910.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the Members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

Mr. D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc, read a paper entitled " Upper
Liassic Reptilia. Part II. The Sauropterygia of the
Whitby Museum." The paper is printed in full in the
Memoirs.

Sir William H. Bailey read the following paper : — "Mr.
Hewitt Myring's Discoveries of Pre-Historic Pottery
in Peru."

Pre-historic man and his methods of life may be best studied
by his pottery ; it is one of the earliest and simplest of crafts, for
by means of baked clay, with his fingers and the most elementary
tools of wood or stone he could shape his cooking pots or gods,
his jugs, bottles and urns, and these have as much interest to the
archseologist and art student as earthenware fossil plants, and
those fossils of animal life which

"Through the ages lying
In the buried past of the earth "

have to the geologist and students of the botany of the ancient
world.

I have seen the pottery discovered by Mr. Hewitt Myring,
and he has been good enough, at short notice, to lend me many
photographs.

I hope that we may, before long, see some of his specimens
in Manchester.

Mr. Myring is a mineralogist and mine owner, and while
waiting for assistant engineers' reports, he, being in South
America, visited the Chucana Valley in Peru, and, seeing some
sand ridges, he there obtained assistance and explored them with
a view to finding something in the Inca graves. But the race

xvi Proceedings. {March Sth, igio.

before the Incas, the ancient people the Chimus, had used this
valley as a cemetery, and the result has been the discovery of
many hundred pieces of probably the most ancient pottery in
the world, the product of a lost civilisation and possibly 5,000
to 10,000 years old.

The pieces are in the best state of preservation, for there is
no rain in that part of Peru, and the silicates in the earth have
arrested decay ; even metals thus buried oxidize very slowly.

The climate in the valleys of Peru is similar to that of Egypt
and probably drier. It is an accepted fact that iron resists
oxygen except when damp, for moisture acts like glue : iron does
not rust in dry oxygen. Even sycamore planks and cases in the
Cairo Museum have no sign of decay although 4,000 years old.
There is an arm chair there nearly as good as new about 3,000
years old ; I saw it the other day.

All writers agree that the Chimus were the ancient rulers of
Peru until defeated about 500 or 600 years ago by the Incas.
The Spaniards conquered the Incas and destroyed their leaders
about 400 years ago. Sir Clements Markham says : " The
Chimus were a highly civilised people. We know this from the
remains of their systems of irrigation works, their vast and
elaborate palaces, factories, and places of sepulture, and from
their works of art ; but we know next to nothing of their origin
or history or their beliefs." Sir Clements Markhain, I may say,
has travelled in Peru ; he has written books on his travels and
on the antiquities of Peru, and probably he is the greatest living
authority on Peruvian lore.

No Chimu alphabet has yet been discovered, no language has
been found, and, in the absence of proof, opinions differ about the
age of this pottery. Symbolism is the parent of the alphabet,
and we owe much to China and Egypt, for there it took thousands
of years to blossom, and the supreme partnership between the
tongue, the eye, the ear, and the hand at last gives us the
written word that will, in scorn of time, for ever silently speak to
man.

When the Spaniards destroyed the Inca civilization and

March Sth, igio.\ Proceedings. xvii

their leaders, even then the native language was uncouth, and
calculations and accounts were kept by knotted cords.

It is difficult for us to believe that these people, with their
symbolism in this pottery, should have had no alphabet and no
method of record. They must have had some, unknown at
present, and that is the quest that should crown Mr Myring's
work, if his health permits ; then we shall hail him as another
Young, who discovered in the Rosetta stone the key to unlock
the doors of ancient Bablyon.

When looking at the Peruvian pottery we cannot escape the
feeling of Chinese and Indian influence, and then again, in
looking at the head gear of some, we feel an Egyptian bias ;
indeed, the Egyptian pottery of any dynasty is not equal to the
best of these Peruvian specimens, for the modelling of the human
face is human and startling in its art ; there we find dignity and
even laughter ; the muscles of the cheeks, and the wrinkles in
the skin, and the flexibility of the nostrils, all show great care,
skill and art.

The signs on some of the figures suggest Egyptian influence,
but the resemblance may be due to natural independent evolu-
tion : it makes us wonder, however, if Atalanta was not more
than a dream of Plato's, who wrote that beyond the pillars of
Hercules (Gibraltar) there was a large island in the sea.
Peruvian and INIexican art bear traces of evolution and progress
almost identical with early Egyptian work, but stopped half way.
Professor Zerffi, in "The Historical Development of Art," sa\ s ; —
" By some means Atalanta was separated from the East, and
the pyramids, temples and palaces of Central America remained
in the same relation to the pyramids, temples and palaces of
Egypt, as the tapir to the elephant, the alligator to the crocodile,
and the llama to the camel."

One of the gods discovered in Peru, carved from a lava
block, has a head strip like a sphinx and is also like the goddess
Isis. The word God is similar in the west to the Deus of the
east, for in Peru it is Teotl. Sepulchral mounds are similar.
Astronomy had made similar progress in both east and west.

xviii Proceedings. S^MarcJi 8th, igio.

As I have said, wood and clay were shaped by primitive
man before he began to use iron or bronze ; pottery is the easiest
handicraft, for few tools are required ; those who could mould
and shape clay were in the right way to make bronze statuary.
The artists of Samos were the first to run metal round a clay
model, probably about 600 years before our era ; but it may
have been anticipated by China, as they were far in advance of
the Greeks, and probably also the Egyptians, in pottery, and are
yet ; but the bronze age follows that of the clay if the right
metal is available.

This pottery discovered by Mr. Myring has one remarkable
and important quality — 710 two pieces are alike. We see that the
ancient moulders had made one great step in human progress,
for they did not copy each other. There is individuality in each
figure ; the serfdom of habit and custom and tradition did not
govern their work ; such workers must have had intellectual
liberty and original genius, which might have made a great
future, but from some unknown cause that progress seems to
have been destroyed, and has left little trace behind.

As I have stated, they did not copy each other, and they
did not make their plaster and clay ornaments from moulds, as
sometimes the Egyptians did, in producing the effigies of the
mummies which have the beautiful blue enamel. The artists
were the mere unconscious tools of the priests, and the Sphinx,
half brute and half human, symbolises the serfdom of their
art. The people were kept in obedience and terrified into
slavish subjection by huge stone monsters which filled them
with horror. Art was the exclusive property of the Machiavellian
priesthood, whose religion was the mere tool of tyranny, and
was divorced from all pretence of morality.

About one-third of the pottery discovered by Mr. Myring
has been secured for the British Museum, and may be seen any
day in the cases in the porcelain rooms.

The Sun God in Mr. Myring's private collection has a
helmet and a number of serpents with their heads at the outside
edge of the nimbus.

March Sth, ipio.] PROCEEDINGS. xix

These pots were buried with the dead and, like wreaths a
our funerals, are supposed to be evidences of love and respect
of friends and relations.

They vary in shape and size. Some are portraits, some are
animals, birds and fishes : the turtle, the owl, and men and
women are here. Some laugh and others are full of dignity ;
one is the face of a man winking with one eye, one face is asleep,
it may be the sleeping sickness, while others show signs of mis-
fortune and of disease ; it has been surmised that such indicate
the cause of death. Others seem to provide for the comfort of
the departed in the spirit world, some for food, others for water ;
others have copper and silver pellets, probably for fare money at
the ferry. No stamped coinage has been found. The copper
and silver is hermetically sealed in the false bottoms of the jugs
and vases, for the bottoms have been baked into position.

Some jugs have a whistle in the spout ; pandean pipes are
represented, and one is the figure of a man playing a flute, and
there are bugle horns made of terra cotta that make a pleasant
sound. One figure shows a man with cymbals.

Weapons are not much in evidence ; one man has a mace,
and the spear and shield seem to be the only weapons. Neither
bows nor arrows have been discovered. No horses are to be
found. There is a beast like a hornless antelope. Birds are
somewhat abundant with several owls and a bat-like beast, and
stags and frogs are imitated. The bugles end with a dog's head.
There is a walrus, and something like a Welsh heraldic lion is
biting a man. Parrots are represented, and also ducks and fish
are here. One head is a learned doctor with a plumed head
dress ; one — probably the finest — is believed to represent a
Chimu Chief or a wealthy law giver ; one represents a seal eating
a fish, and known and unknown effigies of the animal kingdom
are in this collection.

The faces represented are doubtless portraits, and look
English or German. Some would be taken as easy-going
Dutchmen sitting in the market place at Haarlem, waiting for
custom ; broad faces and intellectual, the workmanship being

XX Proceedings. \_March Sth, igio.

equal to any of the portrait jugs in vogue in this country in the
1 8th century, and in some cases better art. The vases and
dishes are beautiful specimens of ancient ware.

We can only guess at their meaning. Some are painted as
well as moulded, but all bear scarcely any indication of what
we call the hand of time.

The bars of silver that were buried with this pottery have
corroded nearly away. Some bars that were about an inch
square have dwindled down to about one eighth of an inch;
there was probably an alloy of copper in the silver. Comparisons
have been made with the corrosion of similar bars buried 400
years ago by the Incas in the same soil, which, being so full of
silicates, preserves metal : the silver is only slightly tarnished.
This and the utter disappearance of the baser metals give
reasons for assuming the age of the pottery to be anything
between 5,000 and 10,000 years old.

Mr. Myring compared the remains of the dead of this
ancient people with those of the Incas. The soil that preserves
precious metals from quick decay has very little influence on the
bodies of the Incas buried 400 or more years ago. It appears
to mummify them, but those of the Chimus, discovered with
this ancient pottery, were absolutely dust, with the exception of
the skulls and large bones. If the explorer had had some
gelatine with him in which such things could be preserved, he
would have been able to bring the remains to this country. He
informed me that he put two dozen skulls carefully into sacks,
but they were so decayed that, after going a few miles packed on
the backs of the mules, they became dust, and unfortunately he
could not bring any with him from which casts could be taken.

Mr. Myring has also discovered other Peruvian antiquities
of later date, a large silver god and a gold crown of one of the
Inca Kings and some jewellery.

All archaeologists and students of art and antiquity are
indebted to Mr. Hewitt Myring for his great and priceless work
in Peru, carried out single-handed, at great personal danger and
cost. He has contributed to our knowledge of ancient man and

March 8th, ipio.] PROCEEDINGS. xxi

a buried civilization, earning pur gratitude, and making a reputa-
tion which will cause his name to rank in history with those of
Layard, Rawlinson, Loftus, Young, Professor Flinders Petrie,
and other illustrious explorers.

Special Meeting, March 22nd, 19 10.

The President, Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
in the Chair.

The Wilde Lecture, on " Recent Contributions to
Theories regarding the Internal Structure of the
Earth," was delivered by Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I.E.,
D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the
University of Manchester.

General Meeting, April 5th, 1910.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

Geh. Prof. Dr. Walter Nernst, Director of the Physikal-
chemisches Institut in the University of Berlin was elected an
honorary member of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, April 5th, 19 10.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

Mr. Thomas Thorp, F.R.A.S., exhibited some stereoscopic
photographs of the Morehouse Comet, taken by Prof. E. E.

xxii Proceedings. {^April jth, igio.

Barnard, of the Yerkes Observatory, which showed very clearly
the peculiarly twisted form of the comet's tail.

Mr, R. L. Taylor read a paper entitled "A Preliminary
Note on the Action of Carbon Dioxide and of Air on
Bleaching Powder and similar substances."

Contrary to what is generally supposed, carbon dioxide, in
presence of moisture, liberates no hypochlorous acid from
bleaching powder, either solid or in solution, but only chlorine.
Similarly, carbon dioxide liberates nothing but bromine from a
mixture of a bromide and a hypobromite. When air, freed from
carbon dioxide, is passed through a solution of bleaching powder,
it slowly sweeps out hypochlorous acid, which is present in the
free state in the solution, being produced by the action of water
on the calcium hypochlorite. If, however, moist air containing
the usual small amount of carbon dioxide is passed through
bleaching powder, either solid or in solution, a mixture of
chlorine and hypochlorous acid is given off, the chlorine usually
largely predominating. In the case of the solid substance, after
the moist air has been passed through for a considerable time,
and the bleaching powder has thus become quite wet, there is
no hypochlorous acid produced, but only free chlorine.

When bleaching powder, mixed with about thirty times its
weight of water, is heated with boric acid, practically pure
hypochlorous acid is given off, no matter what proportion of
boric acid is used. This forms a convenient method of preparing
a solution of hypochlorous acid. Under similar conditions, a
mixture of a bromide and a hypobromite evolves nothing but
bromine.

Annual General Meeting, April 19th, 19 10.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was resolved: — "That the

April igth, ipio.] PROCEEDINGS. xxiii

Annual Report, together with the Statement of Accounts, be
adopted, and that they be printed in the Society's Proceedings^

Mr. H. E. ScHMiTZ, M.A., B.Sc, and Mr. Charles Leigh
were appointed Scrutineers of the balloting papers.

The following members were elected officers of the Society
and members of the Council for the ensuing year.

President: Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.

Vice-Presidents: Thoinias Thorp, F.R.A.S. ; Ernest
Rutherford, D.Sc, F.R.S. ; Arthur Schuster, Sc.D., Ph.D.,
F.R.S. ; Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.

Secretaries: R. L. Taylor, F.C.S., F.I.C. ; George Hick-
ling, M.Sc.

Treasurer: Arthur McDougall, B.Sc.
Librarian : C. L. Barnes, M.A.

OtJier Members of t/ie Council : Ernest F. Lange, F.C.S.,
M.IMech.E.; W. H. Todd ; Edmund Knecht, Ph.D.; William
Burton, M.A., F.C.S.; Sydney J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.;
Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Ordinary Meeting, April 20th, 1910.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables.

Professor S. J. Hickson, D.Sc, F.R.S., exhibited a piece of
wood stained green by a fungus that he had found at Lamplugh,
in Cumberland.

Mr. T. G. B. Osborn, B.Sc, said that the fungus was
Peziza Aeruginosa which is not infrequently to be found growing
as a saprophyte on dead oak wood. The wood thus stained was
formerly used in the manufacture of " Tonbridge ware."

xxiv Proceedings. [April 20th, igio.

Mr. G. p. Varley, M.Sc, gave an account of some interest-
ing observations he had made on the state of magnetisation of
the iron boundary fence on the ridge between Black Sail Pass
and the top of the Pillar Fell in the Lake district. The heavier
iron uprights which were firmly fixed in the rock showed a north
polarity below and south polarity above, while the floating
uprights used for spacing the wires had, with few exceptions, the
south pole below and the north above. The magnetisation of
the heavy fixed bars was what one would expect from the action
of the earth, but that of the floating uprights was not readily
explicable.

Prof. S. J. Hickson, D.Sc, F.R.S., read a paper entitled
"A New Octoradiate Coral."

The paper, which is printed in the Memoirs, was illustrated
with a number of lantern slides, and a specimen of the coral was
exhibited under a dissecting microscope.

An interesting discussion followed in which Dr. F. H.
Bowman, Mr. D. M. S. Watson and others took part.

Ordinary Meeting, May 3rd, 19 10.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., President,
in the Chair.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of the
books upon the tables. The following were amongst the recent
accessions to the Society's Library: '■^ Pi-ecessioii Tallies... in
connection with the third ten-year Catalogue iQio" (fol., London,
1909), and ^^ Second nine-year Catalogue of Stars for the Epoch
igoo'o'" (fol., Edinburgh, 1909), presented by the Royal Obser-
vatory, Greenwich ; '■'■ Bibliography : Papers and Records published
with respect to the Geology and Falceontology of N. of England
igo2-o8," by T. Sheppard (8vo., Hull, 1909) presented by the
author; ^^ Meridian-Beobachtungen von Sternen in der Zo7ie
dj'-yo" nordlicher Declination... /.", von H. Geelmuyden and J.
Fr. Schroeter (fol., Christiania, 1909), presented by the Univ. —

May jrd, ip/O.] PROCEEDINGS. xxv

Observatorium in Kristiania ; '■'■ Rapporteii van dc Commissie iii
Nederlaiidsck-Indi'e 7'oor Oiidheidkuiidigy 0/ide?-zoek... iQoy"
(4to., Batavia, etc., 1909), and " De Java-Oorlogvan i82j-jo'\..
Zesde Deel, door E. S. de Klerck (410., Batavia, 1909) presented
by the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen ;
" The Choctaw of Bayou Lacovib St. Tammaiy Paj-ish Loiiisia/ia"
by D. I. Bushnell (8vo., Washington, 190S) presented by the
Bureau of American Ethnology; "^ A Geohgicai Reco/niaissa/icc
of the 7-egioJi... between Lake N'ipigoii and Clay Lake., Ontafio"
by W. H. Colh'ns (8vo., Ottawa, 1909), presented by the
Geological Survey of Canada ; ^^Le Opere di Galileo Galilei" ed.
naz. vol. XX. (410., Firenze, 1909), presented by the Italian
Embassy ; " Foundei-s' Week Afemo7-ial Volume containing an
account of the 22jth Anniversaiy of the Founding of the City [of
Philadelphia\" ed. by F. P. Henry (8vo., Philadelphia, 1909)
presented by the Committee of Scientific Institutions, Phila-
delphia; '■'■ A Bibliography of Persius" by M. H. Morgan (8vo.,
Cambridge, Mass., 1909), presented by the Library of Harvard
University.

Mr. Henry Sidebottom read a paper entitled " Report on
the Recent Foraminifera from the Bay of Palermo,
Sicily, 14-20 fms. (Off the Harbour)."

Examples of the clusters of the genus Lagena were shown
under the microscope, and many carefully executed drawings
were exhibited.

The paper is published in the Memoirs.

Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., in the absence of the
author, read a paper written by Mr. Charles B.^iley, M.Sc,
F.L.S., entitled "A Third List of the Adventitious
Vegetation of the Sandhills of St. Annes-on-the-Sea,
North Lancashire, Vice County 60."

The paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

Mr. H. Bateman, M.A., read a paper entitled "The
Physical Aspect of Time."

The paper is printed in the Monoirs.

xxvi Annual Report of the Conncil.

Annual Report of the Council, April, 1910.

The Society began the session with an ordinary membership
of 161. During the present session three new members have
joined the Society. Fifteen resignations have been received,
and there have been three deaths, viz. : Mr. A. J. S. Bles,
Dr. LuDwiG MoND, F.R.S., and Mr. Thomas Worthington,
F.R.I.B.A., whilst one member has been removed from the Ust
for non-payment of his subscription. This will leave on the roll
at the end of the session 145 ordinary members. The Society
has also lost, by death, four honorary members, viz. : Dr. Anton
DoHRN, For. Mem. R.S., Professor G. Neumayer of Neustadt,
For. Mem. R.S., Professor Simon Newcomb, For. Mem. R.S.,
and Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe. Memorial notices of these
gentlemen appear at the end of this report.

The average attendance at the meetings was 21 as compared
with 30 for the session 1908-09.

The Society commenced the session with a balance in hand
of _;^278. IS. 6d., from all sources, this amount being made up
of the following balances : —

At the credit of General Fund jQ^^ 10 10

„ ,, Wilde Endowment Fund... 114 2 2

„ ,, Joule Memorial Fund 79 10 10

,, ,, Dalton Tomb Fund 37 17 8

The total balance in hand at the close of the session
amounted to ;^368. 3s. 4d., and the amounts standing at the
credit of the separate accounts, on the 31st March, 19 10, are
the following : —

At the credit of General Fund £^°'^ 9 9

„ ,, Wilde Endowment Fund... 179 9 7
„ ,, Joule Memorial Fund 86 4 o

Balance 31st March, 1910 ;^368 3 4

Annual Report of the Council. xxvii

The Wilde Endowment Fund, which is kept as a separate
banking account, shows a balance of ^179. 9s. yd. in its favour,
as against £11 A- 2s. 2d. at the beginning of the financial
year, there being a further increase of ten pounds in the receipts
from the invested funds as compared with the receipts for the
previous year.

The Joule Memorial Fund has this year incurred an expendi-
ture of one guinea by the provision of a silver plate with
inscription for Dr. Joule's chronometer-watch.

It will be observed that the Dallon Tomb Fund no longer
appears in the year's statement of accounts as a separate Fund,
it having been merged in the General Funds of the Society.
The Council have passed a resolution undertaking to use that
sum in keeping the tomb in a state of repair.

The Society has to thank Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S. for his
generous donation of ;^5o to the Funds of the Society for
general purposes.

The Librarian reports that during the session 829 volumes
have been stamped, catalogued and pressmarked, 761 of these
being serials, and 68 separate works. There have been written
317 catalogue cards, 213 for serials, and 104 for separate works.
The total number of volumes catalogued to date is 32,378 for
which 11,542 cards have been written.

Satisfactory use is made of the library for reference purposes.
During the session, 202 volumes have been borrowed from the
library, as compared with 175 in the previous session.

Further attention has been given to the completion of sets,
12 volumes having been obtained, which complete one set and
partly complete another. Of these, one volume was purchased,
and the rest were presented by the society publishing them.

A smaller amount of binding has been done this session,
207 volumes having been bound in 168.

xxviii Annual Report of the Council.

A record of the accessions to the library shows that, from
April, 1909, to March, 19 10, 762 serials and 95 separate works
were received, a total of 857 volumes. The donations during
the session (exclusive of the usual exchanges) amount to 90
volumes and 143 dissertations ; five volumes have been purchased
(in addition to the periodicals on the regular subscription list).

During the past session the Society has arranged to exchange
publications with the following : — Laboratorio di Zoologia
generale e agraria di Portici ; Illinois State Geological Survey ;
Royal Society of South Africa, Cape Town ; Liverpool Botanical
Society ; and the State University of Oklahoma, Norman.

The Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Anti-
quarian Field Club and the Fliartnaceutical fournal are no longer
received by the Society's Library, and the publication of the
Technology Quarterly, of Boston, U.S.A., has been discontinued.

The publication of the Memoirs and Proceedings has been
continued under the supervision of the Editorial Committee.

The Society is indebted to the following for the under-
mentioned gifts : —

Mr. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S., for a copy of Dr. Angus
Smith's " Loch Elive and the Sons of Uisnach."

Mr. Thomas Thorp, F.R.A.S., for a specimen of his new
silvered concave grating and for a case in which to
keep Dr. Joule's Chronometer-watch.

Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.LE,, D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor
of Geology and Mineralogy in the Manchester University, was
invited to deliver the Wilde Lecture for 19 10. The Lecture,
on " Recent Contributions to Theories regarding the Internal
Structure of the Earth," was delivered on Tuesday, March 22nd,
1 910.

The University of Cambridge celebrated the Darwin Cen-
tenary in June, 1909, and this Society was represented by the

Annual Report of tJie Council. xxrx

Hon. Secretary, Dr. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S., who presented the
following address which had been approved by the members : —

"The Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society
"sends cordial greetings to the University of Cambridge on
"the occasion of the commemoration of Charles Darwin.

"We honour Darwin as an investigator whose boldness
"and insight won from Nature answers to all his questions;
" whose achievements range so widely and on such diverse
" fields of knowledge, that each aspect of them increases
" wonder and lessens astonishment. We acknowledge him
"as the thinker whose modest appeal to the judgment of
" the laity has transformed that judgment and now governs
"the mode in which we conceive the problems and effect
"the conduct of life. And we look upon Darwin as upon
"one who, by his lovableness, endurance, and courage, has
" endeared himself to succeeding generations. Of Darwin
"it may be said, not only that all he touched he illuminated,
"but that his reflections have enlightened all other fields of
" knowledge.

"The bequest of Darwin to learning is assurance of faith
"in scientific method; his message to investigators, hope in
"the solution of vital problems; and his gift to his fellows,
" the long-suffering charity that triumphs over opposition.

" ' Qui autem docti fuerint fulgebunt quasi
splendor firmauienti.'"

Signed on behalf of the IManchester Literary and
Philosophical Society ;

FRANCIS JONES, President.
R. L. TAYLOR,

C. G.HEWITT, ' ^'^'■^'''-

Dr. Anton Dohrn who was elected an honorary member of
the Society in April, 1892, died in Munich on September 27th,
1909, at the age of 68 years. It is no exaggeration to say that
Dr. Dohrn raised for himself during his lifetime an endurinc

XXX Anmial Report of the Council.

monument which will be regarded as the most remarkable
achievement in biological science of the nineteenth century.
The foundation of the famous Zoological station at Naples was
entirely due to his energy, ability, and devotion to science, and,
although it has since received financial support from foreign
governments — among which the English government forms a
notable exception, — and from many scientific societies, it was
Dohrn's guiding hand that led the institution to the proud
position it now occupies djs, facile princeps of the zoological stations
of the world. It is almost impossible to estimate the value of
the work that has been done at the station since its foundation
in 1872. The thirty great quarto volumes of the series entitled
FaiDia jt?id Flora des Golfes von Neapcl and the nineteen
volumes of the Mittheilutigen aus der Zoologischen Station zii
Neapel represent only a part of the elaborate researches that have
been rendered possible by the facilities afforded at the station.
Zoologists, botanists, and physiologists from all parts of the
world have been attracted to the station, and have frequently
published the results of the researches they have carried out,
amid the invigorating intellectual surroundings that the station
provides, in the scientific journals of their own countries.

Such an achievement as that of Dr. Dohrn was only possible
for a man who combined in himself the qualities of great
scientific ability and strong administrative power. As a great
deal of bis time was necessarily occupied in the duties of
management and in missionary efforts to obtain the cooperation
and support of other countries, the amount of scientific work
that stands in his name is not large, but some of it, and in
particular his "Studien iiber Urgeschichte des Wirbclthier-
korpers," shows marked originality, and is of great scientific
value.

Dr. Dohrn was the son of a wealthy sugar-refiner of Stettin,
in North Germany, himself a well-known coleopterist, who
encouraged his son in his zoological studies. In 1870 he was a
private docent in the University of Jena, where he met and
cultivated the friendship of Gegenbaur, Haeckel, Kleinenberg,

Annual Report of the Council.. xxxi

Lankester, and others. It was there that he conceived the idea
of his great zoological station, which he fortunately lived to see
accomplished on such a magnificent scale. Lankester tells us
that at first his intention was to place the laboratory on the
south coast of France, but the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian
war necessitated an alteration of this plan, and after much
deliberation and endless difificulties the station was erected at
Naples.

Dohrn was a man of very charming personality, and he
gained the respect and admiration of those who worked in the
laboratory. Some few zoologists have perhaps gained a greater
reputation for their scientific work, but probably no one has
ever enjoyed so much personal esteem. Whereas all zoologists
of every nationality owe to him a debt of gratitude for the
valuable services rendered to the biological sciences, there are
several young Englishmen who have received at his hands the
timely help and generous hospitality which often turn the
scales of a man's career. If Dohrn had done no more for our
countrymen than he was strictly bound to do in response to the
meagre subscriptions he received from Great Britain, the history
of zoological research by Englishmen would have been much
less gratifying for us to read than it is. S. J. H.

Georg Balthasar von Neumayer was elected an honorary
member of this society on the 17th of April, 1894. He was
born at Kirchheimbolanden, in Bavaria, on the 21st of June,
1826, so that he was within a few weeks of completing his
eighty-third year at the time of his lamented death on May 24th,
1909. Attracted always by the sea and the many problems
which it presents to the scientific mind, he made a special study
of the practice of navigation and nautical astronomy, abandoning
his University studies at Munich in order to ship as a common
sailor before the mast, that he might gain practical experience of
seamanship. In 1856 he went out to Tasmania to devote him-

xxxii Annual Report of the Council.

self to magnetic work at the observatory which Sir John Ross
had started at Hobart Town, and in the next year, with the
assistance of King Maximilian of Bavaria, and Alexander von
Humboldt, he founded the Flagstaff Magnetical and Meteorolo-
gical Observatory at Melbourne, of which he remained Director
till 1864. In 1872 he was appointed Hydrographer to the
Imperial Navy, a post which he occupied till 1876, when he was
promoted to the Directorship of the Deutsche Seewarte, at
Hamburg, an institution the establishment of which, in 1868,
he had strenuously advocated. He remained at the head of this
observatory till his retirement in 1903, and its development to
its present unique position may be considered his life's work.
Keenly interested always in Polar exploration from the scientific
side, and recognising the importance of increasing our knowledge
of the physical and magnetic conditions at the poles, he exercised
his influence in promoting investigations in all parts of the
world, — in the international circumpolar expeditions of 1882-3,
in the fitting out of the German Antarctic expedition on the
Gauss — to mention but two of the many expeditions to which
lie devoted special attention. It is a pleasure to know that his
work has received the recognition and just reward which it
undoubtedly deserved. He was made a Privy Councillor of the
German Empire, and on his retirement was awarded the honour
of the ennobling title "von." The German Meteorological
Society unanimously elected him as its first president on its
foundation in 1883, and in 1899 he was president of the German
Association. Abroad, no less than at home, his great services
to meteorology were appreciated. He was elected an honorary
member of the Royal Meteorological Society of London in 1874,
and a Foreign member of the Royal Society in 1899. His
death will be mourned by a world-wide circle of scientific men,
to a very large number of whom he was known for his sterling
qualities, his genial urbanity, the warmth of his friendship and
his kindly disposition, more especially towards young men
entering upon a scientific career. His services to the German
Empire can scarcely be overestimated. During his Directorship

Annual Report of the Council. xxxiii

of the Seewarte he was indefatigable in his labours to introduce
the best scientific methods into all work performed in the
German naval and mercantile services, and to-day, thanks to his
guidance, both may be said to be second to none in the
accuracy and trustworthiness of their contributions to scientific
progress. W. M. T.

Simon Newcomb was born at Wallace, Nova Scotia, March
1 2th, 1835, his father being John Burton Newcomb, a country
school teacher. Young Newcomb was privately educated by his
father, and when about 18 years of age commenced to teach in
schools himself. Some four years later he received an appoint-
ment on the U.S. Nautical Almanac at Cambridge, Mass., and
at the same time attended the Lawrence Scientific School,
graduating B.Sc. at Harvard in 1S58. In 1861 he was appointed
Professor in the U.S. Navy, and Astronomer at the Naval
Observatory in Washington. Two years later he married Mary
Caroline Hassler (daughter of Dr. Charles A. Hassler, of the
U.S. Navy) who, with his three daughters, survives him.

Newcomb remained in the Navy till 1877, when he was
appointed Director of the U.S. Nautical Almanac, retiring from
that post, in accordance with the regulations, in 1897, at the age
of 62. During his Directorship of the Nautical Almanac in
1884 he accepted the Chair of Mathematics and Astronomy in
the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, retaining it until 1895.
After his retirement from office he continued to live and follow
his bent (which included not only IMathematics and Astronomy
but Political Economy and Psychology) at Washington. He
died on July nth, 1909.

His first publication was an answer to a " crank " theorist
on the Copernican doctrine. In i860 he published his first
elaborate work, " Secular Variations and Mutual Relations of
the Orbits of the Asteroids." In this work he applied to the
asteroids the theory of perturbations with a view to proving or
disproving Olber's explosion theory ; but although carried back

xxxiv Annual Report of the Council.

many thousands of years, no indication was found of any such
origin. Whilst Newcomb could not be said to have settled the
matter one way or the other by the investigation, he clearly
showed in it that grasp of the general principles of celestial
mechanics which was the keynote of his life's work.

Whilst engaged in the Observatory at Washington he appears
to have formed two plans for his future work, one being the
preparation of constants of astronomy, and the other the theory
of the moon's motion. In connection with the first he took up
the question of the sun's distance, which fiom observations of
Mars in 1862 he made out to give a parallax of 8""848. This,
however, he abandoned later for the value 8"79o, which is very
close to the latest determination by Hinks. His. paper on the
Asteroids was followed by " An Investigation of the Orbit of
Neptune" in 1867 and "An Investigation of the Orbit of
Uranus " in 1874.

In 1870 he took up the important subject of the Moon's
motion, and his results were published eight years later, some of
them being used in our own Nautical Almanac. In this year
he first visited Europe and was introduced to many eminent
Astronomers both in this country and on the Continent. The
Franco-German war was proceeding, but facilities were afforded
him for inspecting the Paris Observatory records of the moon's
motion, and much of this investigation was made within hearing
and sight of the guns around Paris.

In the period between 1861 and 1877 short notes from him
appeared on a variety of subjects — optics, finance, taxation,
social science, the labour question, copyright, political economy,
non-Euclidean geometry, besides numerous reviews and popular
articles.

Whilst at the Naval Observatory he played a very important
part in connection with the 26 inch telescope, the then largest
instrument in the world, having to select and test the glasses.
Later he was also consulted by the Russian and Japanese
governments in a similar connection. In 1878 he published
his "Popular Astronomy," and in 1884 his "Measure of the

Annual Report of the Council. xxxv

Velocity of Light." His next published work was "The Stars"
in 1901, in which he discussed the construction of the Stellar
Universe, arriving at the conclusion that we must abandon the
idea of the infinity of our Universe. These conclusions did
not, however, take into account the fact of absorptive matter
which has been shown to exist by Kapteym and others. The
article on Astronomy in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" (1902)
was from his pen. His work "Astronomy for Everybody"
appeared in 1903 as also his " Reminiscences of an Astronomer."
All the investigations undertaken by him were extremely
laborious but they are of enduring value. In much of his work
he clung to his own methods, sometimes losing much valuable
time and assistance by not seeing what could be learned from
the labours of others, and in a letter to Professor Brown he
stated that he was always repelled by intricate algebraic ex-
pressions, and was simply tired out before getting to the end.
Many honours were bestowed on him for his labours in
the science of Astronomy. In 1872 he was elected an Associate
of the Royal Astronomical Society, and two years later the gold
medal of the Society was awarded to him. The gold Huyghens
Medal which is given only once in twenty years was presented
to him by the University of Leyden. Many Universities,
including Edinburgh, Heidelberg, and Padua conferred on him
honorary degrees. He was the first American to be elected as
an Associate of the Institute of France, and became a member of
the National Academy of Sciences of Washington in 1869,
being Vice-President from 1883 to 1889. In 1877 and 1878 he
was President of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science. He was elected an honorary member of this Society,
April 19th, 1887.

His reminiscences convey the impression that he never
really cared for Observational Astronomy, his work lying in the
comparison of observation with theory.

In his death science has lost a man of brilliant parts, an
indefatigable worker, and one who has left his enduring mark
on many branches of knowledge. T. T.

xxxvi Annual Report of the Council.

Richard Bowdler Sharpe, LL.D., F.L.S., F.Z.S., an
honorary member of this Society, died at his home in Chiswick,
on Christmas Day, 1909, at the age of 62 years, after a brief
illness, from pneumonia.

He was born in London, November 22nd, 1847, the eldest
son of Thomas Bowdler Sharpe, a well-known publisher in
London, and grandson of the Rev. Lancelot Sharpe, Rector of
All Hallows, Staining, London, and for many years headmaster
of St. Saviour's Grammar School, Southwark. At the age of
sixteen he took a clerkship in the establishment of W. H. Smith
and Son, and two years later entered the employment of
B. Quaritch, the eminent publisher and bookseller. At the age
of nineteen he was appointed Librarian to the Zoological Society,
which ofifice he held for five years, when in 1872 he accepted
the post of Senior Assistant to the Department of Zoology at the
British Museum, vacant by the death of that eminent ornithologist,
George Robert Gray: In November, 1895, he was promoted to
be Assistant-Keeper in charge of the Veitebrate section of the
Zoological Department, which position he held till his decease.
After taking up his ofificial duties as head of the Ornithological
Department of the British Museum his ability was so quickly
appreciated that he was entrusted with the preparation of the first
volume of the " British Museum Catalogue of Birds" published in
1874, which gigantic work (8vo., 27 vols., 1874-1898), the most
exhaustive undertaking of the kind in existence, employed the
chief part of his time and energies, apart from the official routine
of his curatorship, for a quarter of a century. The Catalogue
embraces not only a list of the specimens contained in the
Museum itself, but it gives a full description of every bird known
in the world at the time of publication, whether in the Museum
or in any other collection ; its changes of plumage and the
literature referring to its history and determination, together
with a brief record of the geographical range of each species,
and an enumeration of the specimens in the British Museum.
The stupendous character of the task may be realised, and it
says much for the extraordinary industry and power of work

Annual Report of the Cojincil. xxxvii

possessed by Dr. Sharpe that he prepared personally nearly
one-half of the 11,500 species contained in the entire work.

Following the "Catalogue" Dr. Sharpe was also responsible
for the "Hand-list of the Genera and Species of Birds" (8vo.,
5 vols., 1899), the last volume having been finished and issued
within a few weeks of his death.

These two undertakings, the "Catalogue" and the "Hand-
list " published during the thirty-seven years of his official life as
Curator of the British Museum Department of Birds, are only a
part, although a considerable part, of his ornithological output
during this long period, for he found time to complete the
unfinished works of several of his ornithological colleagues, and
to write a large number of special publications on birds which
alone might be considered a remarkable series to be produced
by a single author. His ornithological papers in scientific
journals, beginning in 1866, number nearly four hundred, and
some of them are of considerable length, while for fifteen years
he was the recorder for the Class Aves in the Zoological
Record. He also wrote and published various popular works
and delivered many courses of lectures on birds, all in addition
to his multifarious duties in the Bird Room of the British
Museum, involving among other things constant personal
attention to the many enquiries addressed to him and to the
numerous visitors to the Department who daily go there
seeking information.

" His remarkable success in building up the national
collection of birds, from 35,000 in 1872 to about 500,000 in
1909, despite the weeding out of many duplicates, is well known.
Many of the important collections that were transferred to the
British Museum by their donors, were avowedly contributed to
this institution in consequence of the presence of Dr. Sharpe
at the head of the Ornithological Department, as notably the
great Hume and Tweedale collections and others.''

" Those who only met Dr. Sharpe during the last ten years
of his life cannot realize the extraordinary energy he formerly
possessed, and the enormous amount of work he was able to

xxxviii Annual Report of the Cotmcil.

undertake and successfully accomplish. His immense and
almost boyish enthusiasm never failed him to the end ; but
during the last few years of his life one could not help noticing,
with sorrow, that his health was beginning to fail, and that the
strain of many years of unremitting labour at high pressure had
at last worn him out. Kind-hearted, almost to a fault, his
unfailing courtesy, good temper, and readiness to assist all those
who sought information and help endeared him to every one
both at home and abroad. The cares of life, which in his case
were many, and the deceitfulness of riches, which were few,
hardly affected his exuberant spirits, and he was always cheery
and full of good-natured chaff. His generosity was such that
he was always ready to offer pecuniary assistance in any case of
trouble that came under his notice, and it was, therefore, not
surprising that he was frequently imposed upon."

Dr. Sharpe's death is a great loss to science, and an almost
irreparable one to the British Museum Department of Birds,
which has acquired its pre-eminence among the great ornitho-
logical collections of the world mainly through his efforts ; while
his long series of contributions to the literature of ornithology
will be his enduring memorial to the end of time." F. N.

By the death of Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S., the Society is
poorer through the loss not only of a man of wide scientific
knowledge and of keen chemical insight, but of one whose
wealth, acquired by ability and perseverance, was used in the
promotion of far-sighted schemes for the advancement of science.

Born at Cassel in 1839, Ludwig Mond studied at Marburg
under Kolbe, and then at Heidelberg under Bunsen. Turning
to technical chemistry after his graduation he worked out a
process for the recovery of sulphur from the alkali waste pro-
duced in the Le Blanc method of soda manufacture. He came
to England to establish this process, which was adopted in many
works and with considerable success in South Lancashire. For

Annual Report of the Council. xxxix

a short time he went to Holland in charge of a Le Blanc soda
works, and it was at this period he examined and convinced
himself of the possibilities of the ammonia-soda process of the
brothers Solvay. Returning to England he persuaded Mr. J, T.
Brunner to enter into partnership with him to carrry out the
Solvay process. After a few years of engineering and experi-
mental difficulties the commercial success of the Winnington
works was triumphantly established, and it has since become
one of the largest alkali works in the world.

Dr. Mond's endeavours to recover the chlorine, run to waste
in the Solvay process, led to great improvements in the Weldon-
Pechiney "magnesia" method, and incidentally to the discovery
of nickei-carbonyl — a discovery which Mond elaborated into a
commercial process for the extraction of nickel from its ores
now carried out by the Mond Nickel Company at Swansea.

Another industry we owe to Dr. Mond is the production of a
cheap power-gas from coal, so effected that the nitrogen of the
coal is largely made available as ammonia.

Those who had the pleasure of Dr. Mond's friendship knew
him as a man of artistic tastes, of broad-minded and enlightened
views, and of a generous hospitality. His house near the Regent's
Park in London — adorned with splendid paintings by early
Italian masters — was a rendezvous for British and foreign men of
science. There are many in the ranks of pure chemistry, and of
chemical industry who owe their position to timely help given
them by Dr. Mond ; and his aid and encouragement were given
to many scientific institutions and laboratories, among which
may specifically be mentioned the laboratory erected in the Owens
College as a memorial to his friend. Professor Schorlemmer. But
the two benefactions which stand out as remarkable even among
Dr. Mond's generous gifts to science are the Davy-Faraday
Research Laboratory, which he equipped and endowed, and the
fund for completing the Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific
Papers. Dr. Mond never sought for honours, though he accepted
the distinctions awarded him by Universities and Scientific
Societies. Some years ago he was pressed to accept the

xl Annual Report of the Council.

Presidency of this Society, of which he had been a member
since 1881, but for reasons of health he could not accept ; for
the same reason he declined two years ago the Presidency of
the Chemical Society.

Dr. Mond died at his house in London on December nth,
1909, and was buried at East Finchley. Few men have lived a
fuller life : very few have been able to take so active a share in
the promotion of pure science as well as of its industrial
application. H.B.D.

Thomas Worthington, F.R.I. B.A., a member of the
Society for nearly 45 years (elected on 21st February, 1865),
was born nth April, 1826, at the Crescent, Salford, his father
being Thomas Worthington, merchant, a native of Nottingham.

He attended the well-known school of the Rev. J. R.
Beard, D.D., in Broughton, where so many Manchester men of
the last generation received their early education.

Mr. Worthington was articled in 1840 to Mr. Henry
Bowman, a Manchester architect (a member of our society),
joint author with his partner Mr. J. S. Crowther (also a member
of the Society) of "The Churches of the Middle Ages," in the
illustration of which Mr. Worthington assisted.

While a student Mr. Worthington won the Isis Gold Medal
of the Society of Arts. Having completed his articles he spent
a considerable time on the Continent, the year 1848 being
devoted to gaining a knowledge of Italian architecture. Inci-
dentally he had some interesting experiences in that year of
continental revolution.

In 1849 he began practice as an architect in Manchester,
and had a successful career, amongst his works being the
Overseers' offices m Fountain Street, the City Police Courts,
NichoU's Hospital, the Memorial Hall, the Manchester Albert
Memorial, and also the beautiful buildings of Manchester
College, Oxford. He designed many hospitals, and was one of
the first to introduce the " pavilion " method of hospital con-
struction, now universally adopted. Besides public buildings

Annual Report of the Council. xli

he designed many private residences. He was interested in
sanitation, and was amongst the few architects to devote atten-
tion to the housing of the working classes. He wrote Uttle, but
a few of his papers and addresses were printed in separate form.

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Institute of British
Architects in 1865, was President of the Manchester Society of
Architects from 1S75 to 1877, and a member of numerous
other societies.

His principal public interest was in connection with the
Royal Manchester Institution. He was its President for some
years, and to him was very largely due the transfer in 1882 to
the city of the Mosley Street building and its contents, which thus
became the City Art Gallery. To his death Mr. Worthington
remained a member of the Art Gallery Committee, as a repre-
sentative of the Governors of the Institution.

Mr. Worthington was twice married. His son, Mr. Percy
Scott Worthington, M.A., F.R.I.B.A., is the present President
of the Manchester Society of Architects. He died at his
residence, Broomfield, Alderley Edge, on 9th November, igog,
in his 84th year, and is buried at Dean Row Chapel. F. N.

Thomas Windsor, M.R.C.S. (England), 1853, L.S.A. 1854,
who died at his residence, Brownslow, Great Budworth, on
April 13th, in his 7gth year, and was cremated at the Manchester
Crematorium on'*April i6th, was elected an ordinary member
of this Society March 8th, 1864, and Honorary Librarian
October 4th, resigning his membership in 1866. In 1865 he
compiled an alphabetical Catalogue of the Books and Journals
in the Library which was printed.

Mr. Windsor had a most successful career as an ophthalmic
surgeon in Manchester, but retired from practice many years
ago. He held many important posts, amongst others he was
surgeon to the Salford and Pendleton Royal Hospital and
Dispensary, to the Manchester Eye Hospital, to the Southern
Hospital for Women and Children, Ophthalmic Surgeon to the

xlii A.nmial Report of the Council.

Manchester Royal Infirmary (1874), Lecturer on Ophthalmology
at the Owens College in 1875, author of numerous medical
papers, and one of the editors of the Ophthalmic Review,
1864-66.

He had a marvellously wide acquaintance with medical
bibliography, and it is to him more than any other man that
the Library of the Manchester Medical Society owes its
excellence. He became its Honorary Librarian in 1858, when
the Library contained 2,558 vols, and pamphlets, and resigned
in 1863 when their number was 12,594. He prepared a Cata-
logue of the Library in 1858 which was published. He was
again Hon. Librarian from 1879 to 1881, and was afterwards
for two years Chairman of the Library Committee.

Whether in office or out of it, Mr. Windsor was a most
enthusiastic worker for the Medical Society, and a very generous
donor to its Library. F. N.

Treasurer' s Accounts. xliii

Note. — The Treasurer's Accounts of the Session 1909-
1910, of which the following pages are summaries,
have been endorsed as follows :

April 13th, 1910. Audited and found correct.

We have also seen, at this date, the certificates of the following Stocks
held in the name of the Society: — ;i^ 1,225 Great Western Railway Company
5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,293, 12,294, and 12,323 ; ^258
Twenty years' loan to the Manchester Corporation, redeemable 25th March,
1914 (No. 1,564); ;^7,500 Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary Stock
(No. 6,389) ; and the deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde
Endowment Fund, those conveying the land on which the Society's premises
stand, and the Declaration of Trust.

Leases and Conveyance dated as follow ; —
22nd Sept., 1797.
23rd Sept., 1797.
25th Dec, 1799.

22nd Dec, 1820.
23rd Dec, 1S20.
Declarations of Trust : —

24th June, iSoi.

23rd Dec, 1820.

30th April, 1 85 1.

8th Jan., 1878.

We have also verified the balances of the various accounts with the
bankers' pass books.

p. M. S. WATSON.
(Signed) \

ij. H. WOLFENDEN.

Treasurer's Accounts.

Dr.

MANCHESTER LITERARY .M

Arthur McDottgall, Treasurer, in Account -vit'h.

£ s. d.

To Cash in hand, ist April, 1909

I'o Members' Subscriptions : —

Half Subscriptions, 1908-09, 2 3^. £1. is. od 220

,, ,, 1909-10, 15 ,, ,t •• •• -- •■ ■• 15 15 o

Subscriptions ; — 1906-07, 2 „ £2. 2s. od 440

,, 1907-0S, 4 ,, ,, ■■ •• .. .. .. 880

„ 1908-09, 8 ,, „ 16 16 o

„ 1909-10, 117 ,, ,, .. •• •• .. .- 245 14 o

,, 1910-11, I ,, ,, .• •■ .. .. .. z 2 o

To Transfers from the Wilde Endowment Fund

To Donation from Dr. H. Wilde, F.R.S.

To Transfer from Dalton Tomb Fund

I'o Sale of Publications

To Dividends : —

Natural History Fund 57 '6 '

Joule Memorial Fund 7 5 10

To Income Tax Refunded : —

Natural History Fund 3 3 10

Joule Memorial Fund .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0S4

Wilde Endowment Fund 17 19 7

To H. Sidebottom for plates

To Discount on Megson's a/c

£ d.
126 8

295

82

65 n

■21 1 (,

5 9

£lo-i 1 e

NATURAL

To Balance, 1st April, 1909 . .

To Dividends on ;^i,22s Great Western Railway Company's Stock

To Remission of Income Tax, 1909..

HISTC1

£ :d
7 J 3

57 1 «
3 °

£6% I a

JOULE MEMORII

;£ si,

To Balance, 1st April, 1909 79 i' a

To Dividends on ^258 Loan to Manchester Corporation 7 ,0

To Remission of Income Tax, 1909 o i4

£87 .0

WILDE

To Balance ist April, 1909

To Dividends on ;£7,50o Gas Light and Coke Company's Ordinary Stock

To Remission of Income Tax, 1909

I'o Bank Interest

To Discount on Newton, Chambers &^ Co.'s a/c

ENDOWMEl

£ ■

^463i£'.

I

Treasurer's Accounts.

ILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

•ty,jrom jst April, igog, to 31st March, igio.

xlv
Cr.

;£ s. d. £, s. d.

' Ihargcs on Property : —

'hief Rent (Income Tax deducted) .. .. 12 3 10

nsurance against Fire .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. iioo

I louse Expenditure : — 23 3 10

' ^oals, Gas, Electric Light, Water, &c. .. .. .. .. .. .. 41 19 4

Tea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 12 19 6

Cleaning, Sweeping Chimneys, &c. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4 17 9

ieplacements of mantles, crockery, towels, table cloths, dusters, etc. .. .. o '3 'oi

■ vdministrative Charges: — 60 10 5§

iousekeeper .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 66 5 o

'ostages, and Carriage of Parcels and of " Memoirs" .. .. .. .. 32 6 4^

itationery, Cheques, Receipts, and Engrossing .. .. .. .. .. 10 o 9

'rinting Circulars, Reports, &c. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..3166

£xtra attendance at Meetings, and during housekeeper's holidays .. .. 3 17 6

nsurance against Liability .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0120

tiedical advice and attendance for Mrs. Kelly .. .. .. .. .. 126

Jratuity to Mrs. Kelly .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 500

iliscellaneous Expenses .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 167

131 17 2^

1 'ublishing :—

'rinting " Memoirs and Proceedings " .. .. .. .. .. .. 134 9 6

llustrations for "Memoirs" (except Nat. Hist, papers) .. .. .. .. 5 16 o

Binding "^lemoirs" .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 200

(library: — — 142 5 6

I Jooks and Periodicals (except those charged to Natural History Fund) .. 77 o 3
Periodicals formerly subscribed for by the Microscopical and Natural History

Section .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3163

Tatalogue Cards .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. i 10 o

Katural History Fund :— 82 6 6

Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund below) .. .. .. .. .. .. 53 8 9

Ifoule Memorial Fund : —

Items shown in the Balance Sheet of this Fund below) .. .. .. .. .. .. iio

I iVilde Endowment Fund (Income Tax refunded) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 17 19 7

I Balance at AVilliams Deacon's Bank, ist April, igio .. .. .. .. 140 i o

,, in Treasurer's hands .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10 o o

Transfer from Dalton Tomb Fund .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 38 :6 2

isa 17 2

;^70T TO O

■ ND, 1909— 1910. (Included in the General Account, above.)

£, s. d.

Natural History Books and Periodicals .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 43 12 a

llustrations for papers on Nat. Hist, in "Memoirs " .. .. .. .. .. .. 9 16 7

: Jalance, ist .April, 1910 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15 3 S

£t'& 12 2

I'ND, 1909— 1910. (Included in the General Account, above.)

1 Inscription for Chronometer belonging to Dr. J. P, Joule
t balance, 1st April, 1910

£, s. d.

IIO

86 4 o

HND, 1909— 1910,

■ . , . ;{; S. d.

[Assistant Secretary's Salary, April, 1909, to March, 1910 .. .. .. .. .. .. 150 o o
Maintenance of Society's Library : —

Binding and Repairing Books .. .. .. .. .. .. ■• .. •. .. 23 15 9

I Repairs and Improvements to Society's Premises .. .. .. .. .. •• .. 297

1 Repairing Copper Urns .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ■• .. .. .. 113

1 New Grate and Fender 8 14 11

I Honorarium to Wilde Lecturer, 1910 .. .. .. .. •• ■. •. •. •• '5 '5 o

1 Transfers to Society's Funds .. .. .. .. .. .. •■ .• •• •• 82 ii o

1 Cheque Book 026

1 Balance at District Bank, ist April, 1910 .. .. .. .. •. •• •. •■ i79 9 7

A63 ^9 7

dvi TJie Counctl.

THE COUNCIL
AND MEMBERS

CF THE

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

( Corrected to Ajigiist ^th, igio.)
FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

THOMAS THORP, F.R.A.S.

ERNEST RUTHERFORD, D.Sc, F.R.S.

ARTHUR SCHUSTER, Sc.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.

FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

(Sccretavies.

R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C.
GEORGE HICKLING, D.Sc.

■^Eveasurcv.

ARTHUR McDOUGALL, B.Sc.

Pbirtiian.
C. L. BARNES, M.A.

(Dtltev JlUmbcrs oi the Council.

ERNEST F. LANGE, F.C.S.

W. H. TODD.

EDMUND KNECHT, Ph.D.

WILLIAM BURTON, M.A.

SYDNEY J. HICKSON, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Sir THOMAS H. HOLLAND, K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.

J^00i0taut (Sccretarii anb l;ibrarian.

A. p. HUNT, B.A.

Ordinary Metnbers. xlvii

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date oj Election.

1901, Dec. 10. Adauison. Hiuold. Oakiamis Cottage, Godley, near Man-

chester.

1902, Mar. 18. Allen, J. Kenwick. 147, Withington Rood, Whaiiey

Range, Alancheiier.
1870, Dec. 13. Angell, John, F.C.S., F.I. C. b, BeaconsfieUi, Derby Road,
With ino;lon , Manchester.

1865, Nov. 14. Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L. S. Hayniesgarth, Cleeve Hill

S. 0. , Gloncestershi7'e.
18S8. Feb. 7. Bailey, Alderman Sir William H., M.I.Mech.E. Sale

Hall, Sale, Cheshire.
1895, Jan. 8. Jjarnes, Charles L., M.A. 9, York Place, Chorlton-on-

Medlock, Manchester.
1903, Oct. 20. Barnes, Jonathan, F. G.S. South Cliff House, 301, Great

Clotves Street, Higher Broitghton, Manchester.
1908, Feb. II. Baleman, H., M.A., Reader in Mathematical Physics in the

University of Manchester. The University, Manchester.

1895, ^I'lr- 5- Behrens, Gustav. Holly Koyde, Withington, Afanchester.
1898, Nov. 29. Behrens, Walter L. 22, Oxford Stteet, Manchester.
1868, Dec. 15. Bickhani, .Spencer H., F. L.S. Underdoivn, Ledbury.

1896, Oct. 6. Bowman, F.H., D.Sc, F.R.S.E. 4, Albert Square,

Manchestei .
1875, Nov. 16. Boyd, John. Barton House, 11, Dtasbury Park, Didsbury,

Manchester .
1889. Oct. 15. Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S. Siinnyside, IVhalley Range,

Manchester.
1 86 1, April 2. Brogden, Henry, F.G.S., M.I.Mech.E. Hale Lodge,

A I trine ham , Ch esh ire.
1889, April 16. Brooks, Samuel Herbert. Slade House, Levenshulme,

/Manchester.
i860, Jan. 24. Brothers, Alfred. Handforth, near Manchester.
1886, April 6. Brown, Alfred, M. A., M.D. Sandycroft, Higher Brough-

ton, Manchester.

1889, Jan. 8. Brownell, Thomas William, F.K.A.S. 64, Upper Brook
Street, Manchester.

1889, Oct. 15. Budenberg, C. F., M.Sc, M.I.Mech.E. Boxudon Lane,

Marple, Cheshire.

xlviii Oidinayy Ulcmbers.

Date oj Election

1906, Feb. 27. Burton, Joseph, A.R.C.S. Dublin. Tile Works, CItf/on

function, jtcar Maiuhester.
1894, Nov. 13. Burton, William, M.A., F.C.S. The Hollies, Cliflon
Itiintion, tsear Maiichesttr.

1904, Oct. 18. Campion, (leoige (ioring, L.D.S. 264, Oxford Street,
Mancliesler.

1907, Jan. 15. Carpenter, H. C. H., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Metal-
lurgy in the University of Manchester, ii, Oak Road,
II 'ithiitgtoii, jMatichesler.

1899, Feb. 7. Chapman, D. L., M.A., Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford.
Jtsits College, Oxford.

1901, Nov. 26. Chevalier, Reginald C, M.A. , Mathematical Master at the
Manchester Grammar School. 103, Clyde Road, ll'est
Didshiiry, Manchester.

1907, Nov. 26. Clayton, Robert Henry, B.Sc, Chemist. Woodleigh,

Blackfield Laue, A'ersal, Manchester.
1895, April 30. CoUett, Fdward Pyemont. 8, St. John Street, Manchester.
1903, (let. 20. Core, William Hamilton, M.Sc. Groombridge House,

With ington, Manchester.
1906, Oct. 30. Coward, H. F., D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in

the University of Manchester. Municipal School of

Technology, Sackville Street, Manchester.

1906, Nov. 27. Coward, Thomas Alfred, F.Z..S. Brentwood, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

1908, Nov. 3. Cramp, William, M.ScTech., M.I.E.E., Consulting

Engineer. 20, Mount Street, Manchester.
189s, Nov. 12. Crossley, Sir W. J., M.I.Mech.E. Opetisha-w, Manchester.

1895, April 9. Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A., D.Sc, P". R.S., Honorary
Professor of Geology in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. Fallowfield House, Fallow field, Manchester.

1894. Mar. 6. Delepine, A. Sheridan, M.B., B.Sc, Professor of
Pathology in the Victoria Univeisity of Manchester.
7 he University , Manchester.

1887, Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold Baily, M.A., M.Sc, F.R.S., F.C.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria University of
Manchester. 77/ 1? University, Manchester.

1906, Jan. 30. Duiikerley, Stanley, D.Sc.

Ordinary Members. xlix

Date ej Election.

1906, Oct. 30. Edgar, E. C. , D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator

in Chemistry in the University of Manchester. The
University, Mattchesler.

1907, Nov. 26. Flatters, Abraham, F.R.M.S. Syddal Cottage, Bramhall,

Cheshire.

1908, Mar. 10. Fowler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Sale Lodge, Sale, Cheshire.

1908, Jan. 28. Fox, Thomas William, M.Sc. Tech., Professor of Textiles

in the School of Technology, Manchester University.
15, Clarendon Crescent, Eccles.

1909, Mar. 23. Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.,

Professor of Pure and Applied Physics in the School of

Technology, Manchester University. Oak Lea, Whalley

Aveime, Sale.
1908, Oct. 6. Gibson, A. fT., D.Sc, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., Professor of

Engineering in the University College of Dundee. West

Bank, AhercroDihy St)eet, Brozighty Ferry.
1896, Nov. 17. Gordon, Rev. Alexander, M.A. Stnnmerville, Victoria

Park, Alanchester.
1907, Oct. 15. Gravely, F. H., M.Sc. Natural History Dept., Indian

Miisenin, Calcutta.
1907, Oct. 29. Gwyther, Reginald Felix, M.A., Secretary to the Joint

Matriculation Board. 21, Booth Avenue, IVithington,

Manchester.

1902, April 29. Herbert, .Arthur M., B.A. Frankwyn, Hale, Cheshire.
1902, Jan. 7. Hewitt, David B., M.D. Grove Mount, Davenham ,

Cheshire.
1907, Oct. 15. Hickling, H. George A., D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer and

Demonstrator in Geology in the University of Manchester.

50, Lancaster Koad, Falloivfield, Manchester.
1895, I^Iar. 5. Hickson, Sydney J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of

Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. The

University , Manchester.
1884, Jan. 8. Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc. i^,St. fohn Street,

Manchester.
1909, Jan. 12. Hoffert, Hermann Henry, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.S.M., His

Majesty's Inspector of Schools. Lime Grove, Brooklands,

Sale.

1 Ordinary JSIevibe.'s.

Date of Election.

1909, Nov, 2. Holland, Sir Thomas H., K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University
of Alanchester, late Director of the Geological Survey
of India. IVesfwood, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1905, Oct. 16. Holmes, H. T,, M.A. (Cantab.). Easittor, 77, Wellington
Road, Heaion Chapel.

1905, Nov. 14. Holt, Alfred, M.A., D.Sc, Research Fellow of the Uni-
versity of Manchester. Crofto}i, Aigbtirth, Liverpool.

1898, Nov. 29. Hopkinson^ Sir Alfred, K.C., M. A.^ LL.D.,Vice-Chancellor
of the Victoria University of Manchester. Fairfield.
Victoria Park, Manchester.

1896, Nov. 3. Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Ferns,
Alderley Ed^e, Cheshire.

1909, Feb. 9. Howies, Frederick, j\I.Sc, Analytical and Research

Chemist. 20, Moxley Road, Crunipsall, Manchester.
18S9, Oct. 15. Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Director

of the Welsh National Museum, Cardiff. City Hall,

Cardiff.
1907, Oct. 15. Hlibner, Julius, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C., Lecturer in the

Faculty of Technology in the University of Manchester.

Ash Villa, Cheadle Hitlnie, Cheshire.

1S99, Oct. 17. Ingleby, Joseph, M.I.Mech.E. Summer Hill, Pendleton,
Manchester.

1901, Nov. 26. Jackson, Frederick. 14, Cross Street, Manchester.
1870, Nov. I. Johnson, William H., B.Sc. JVoodleigh, Altrinchatn.
1878, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Manchester
Grammar School, and Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,

Manchester.

1886, Jan. 12. Kay, Thomas. Moor field, Stockport, Cheshire.

1895, J^'ov. 12. Kirkman, William Wright. The Grange, Timperley,

Chtihire.
1903, Feb. 3. Knecht, Edmund, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the

School of Technology, Manchester University. Beech

Mount, Marple, Cheshire.
1902, Feb. 4. Kolp, Noah. Woodthorpe, Victoria Park, Manchester.

Ordi)iary Membets. li

Date of F.Uctio't.

1893, Nov. 14. Lamb, Horace, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, Sc.D., F.R.S., Pro-
fessor of jNIathematics in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. 6, Wilhraham Road, Falloiufield, Manchester.

1909, Nov. 2. Lang, William IL, D.Sc, M.B., CM., Barker Professor
of Cryptogamic Botany in the University of Manchester.

2, Heaton Koad, IVithington, Manchester.

1902, Jan. 7. Lange, Ernest F., M.LMech.E., F.C.S. Fairholm,

3, Willow Bank, Fallo'cv/ie/d, Manchester,

1904, Mar. 15. Lea, Arnold W. VV., RLD. 246, Oxford Koad, Manchester.

1903, Nov. 17. Leigh, Charles W. E., Librarian of the University. The

University, Manchester.

1907, Oct. 29. Leigh, Harold Shawcross. Brentwood, IVorsley.

1908, Oct. 20. Liebert, Martin, Ph.D., Managing Director of Meister

Lucius, and Brilning, Ltd. , Manchester. Szvinton House,
JVil'iislow A'oad, JVithiugto}i, Manchester.

1908, Jan. 14. Littlewood, J. E., B.A., Richardson Lecturer in Mathe-
matics in the University of Manchester. The University,
Manchester.

1902, Jan. 7. Longridge, Michael, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Linkvretten,
Ashley Road, Bo'vdon, Cheshire.

1857, Jan. 27. Longridge, Robert Bewick, M.LMech.E. Yew Tree House,
Tabley, Kmitsford, Cheshire.

1866, Nov. 13. McDougall, Arthur, B.Sc. Lyndhurst, The Park, Buxton.

1905, Oct. 31. McNicol, Mary, M.Sc. 182, Upper Chorlton Road,

Manchester.
1904, Nov. I. Makower, Walter, B. A., D.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer in Physics

in the University of Manchester. 214, Upper Brook

Street, Manchester.
1902, JMar. 4. Mandleberg, Goodman Charles. Redclyffe, Victoria Park,

Manchester.
1875, Ian 1 26. Mann, J. Dixon, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Lond.), Professor of

Medical Jurisprudence in the Victoria University of

Manchester. 16, St, /ohn .Street, Manchester.
1901, Dec. lO.^Massey, Herbert. Ivy Lea, Burnage, Didsbury,

Manchester

Hi Ordinary Members.

Date of Election.

1864, Nov. I. Mather, Sir William, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. Iron
Works, Salford.

1873 Mar. 18. Mel vill, James Cosmo, M. A., D.Sc, F.L.S. Meoh-Brace
Hall, Shretvsbury.

1894, Feb. 6. Mond, Robert Ludwig, M. A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. IVinning-

ton Hall, Norlhwich, Cheshire.
1902, Feb. 18. Moss, William E., B.A. Cjo Messrs. Davies, Benachi

cSr* Co. , 7> Rumford Street, Liverpool.
1908, Jan. 28. Myers, William, Lecturer in Textiles in the School of

Technology, Manchester University. Stone Edge, Marple.

1873, ^^^''' 4- Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. The Knoll, IVitidermere,

Westmorland,
1900, April 3. Nicolson, John T., D.Sc, Professor of Engineering in the

School of Technology, Manchester University. Nant-y-

Glyn, Marple, Cheshire.

1884, April 15. Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Overley, Langham Road,

Boivdon, Cheshire.
1907, Oct. 29. Osborn, Theodore George Bentley, B.Sc, Lecturer in

Economic Botany in the University of Manchester.

Windlehiirst, Anson Road, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1892, Nov. 15. Perkin, W. H., Sc.D., Ph.D., l\LSc., F.R.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester.
The University, Manchester.

1901, Oct. 29. Petavel, J. F^., B.A. , D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Engineering
in the Victoria University of Manchester. The Uni-
versity, Manchester.

1885, Nov. 17. Phillips, Henry Harcourt, F.C.S. Lynwood, Jurton,
nr. Bolton, Lanes.

1903, Dec. 15. Prentice, Bertram, Ph.D., D.Sc, Lecturer in Chemistry,
Royal Technical Institute, Salford. Isca Mount,
Manchester Road, Swinton.

1901, Dec 10. Ramsden, Herbert, M.D. (Lond.), M.B., Ch.B. (Vict.).
Stmnyside, Dobcross, near Oldham, Lanes.

Ordinary Llembers. liii

Date oy Election.

1888, Feb. 21. R^e, Alfred, Ph.D., F.C.S. 15, Maiddeth Road, With-

iuglon, Manchester.
1908, Nov. 3. Reekie, J. A., Manager of the Hayfield Printworks.

IVoodhoHse, Hayfield.
1869, Nov. 16. Reynolds, Osborne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

St. Deac/naiis, IVatchet, Somerset.
1880, Mar. 23. Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.P. (Lond.).

Ravenswood, BrotigJiton Path, Manchester.
1S97, Oct. 19. Rolhwell, William Thomas. Heath Brewery, Ne'utoti

Heath, near Manchester.
1907, Oct. 15. Rutherford, Ernest, M.A., F.R.S., Langworthy Professor

of Physics in the University of Manchester. 17, IVihns-

lotu Road, Withington, Manchester.

1909, Jan. 26, Schmitz, Hermann Emil, M.A., B.Sc, Physics Master at
the iVIanchester Grammar School, X2, Lime Grove,
Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester.

1873, Nov. 18. Schuster, Arthiir,Sc.D.,Ph.D.,F.R.S.,r.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics in the Victoria University of Man-
chester. Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1898, Jan. 25. Schwabe, Louis. Hart Hill, Eccles Old Road, Pendleton,
Manchester.

1908, Nov. 17. Schwartz, Alfred, A.K.C., M.Sc.Tech., M.LE.E.,

Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Electrical Engineering

in the School of Technology, Manchester University.

Monrne Lodge, Buxton.
1890, Nov. 4. Sidebotham, Edward John, M.A., M.B., M.R.C.S.

Erlesdene, Bo'cdon, Cheshire.
1903, April 28. Sidebottom, Jlenry. Woodstock, Braiithall, Cheshire.

1909, Nov. 16. Smith, Albert Malins, M.A., Lecturer in Plant Physiology

in the Manchester University. The University, Man-
chester.

1908, Nov. 3. Smith, Charles Frederick, M.Sc.Tech., M.LE.E., Lecturer
in Electrical Engineering in the School of Technology,
Manchester University. 10, Athol Road, Alexandra
Park, Manchester.

1906, Nov. 27. Smith, Norman, D.Sc, Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in
the Victoria University of Manchester. The University,
Manchester.

liv Ordinary Members.

Date of Election.

1895, Nov. 12. Southern, Frank, B.Sc. Moatfi&ld, Wash Lane, Tim-

perley.

1896, Feb. 18. Spence, David. Lowood, Hindkead, Haskmere, R.S.O.,

Surrey.
1901, Dec. 10. Spence, Howard. Audley, Broad Road, Sale, Cheshire.

1904, Nov. I. Stansfield, Herbert, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.I.E.E., Assistant

Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics in the University
of Manchester. The Umversity, Manchester.

1897, Nov. 30. Slromeyer, C. E., M.Inst.C.E. Steavi Users' Association,

9, Mount Street, Albert Square, Manchester.

1905, Nov. I. Sutcliffe, William Henry, F.G.S. Shore, Littleborou^h,

Lanes.

1895, April 9. Tatton, Reginald A., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer to the

Mersey and Irwell Joint Committee. Manor House,
Chelford, Cheshire.

1893, Nov. 14. Taylor, R. L., F.C.S., F.I.C. Municipal Stcondary School,
Wliitworth Street,znA^, St. U^et burgh's Road, Chorlton-
c. -Hardy, Manchester.

1906, April 10. Thewlis, Councillor J. H. Daisy HLount, Victoria Park,
Manchester.

1873, April 15. Thomson, ^YilIiam, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C. Royal
Lnstitution, ULanchester.

1896, Jan. 21. Thorburn, William, M.D., B.Sc. 2, St. Peter's Square,

iManchesler.

1896, Jan. 21. Thorp, Thomas, F.R.A.S. Moss Bank, Whitefield, near

Manchester.

1899, Oct. 17. Todd, W^illiam Henry. Rivint^lon, Lrlant L\oad, Flixton,
near Manchester.

1909, Jan. 26. Varley, George Percy, M.Sc. (Vic), Assistant Master in
the Municipal Secondary School, Manchester. 18, Vic-
toria Road, Whalley Ra7ige, Manchester.

1873, Nov. 18. Waters, Arthur William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Alderley,
McKinley Road, Bournemouth.

Ordinary Members. Iv

Date of Election.

1906, Nov. 13. Watson, D. M. S., B.Sc IVindlehurst, Anson Road,

Victoria Park^ Alanckeiter.

1892, Nov. 15. Weiss, F. Ernest, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Botany
in the Victoria University of Manchester. 30, Brunswick
Road, IVithington, Manchester.

1909, Feb. 9. Weizmann, Charles, Ph.D., D.Sc, Senior Lecturer in
Chemistry in the University of Manchester. The Uni-
versity, Ma7ichester.

1908, May 12. Welldon, Rt. Rev. J. E. C, D.D., Dean of Manchester.
The Deanery, Manchester.

1907, Oct. 29. Whitehead, Thomas, B.Sc, Chemist to the Manchester

Steam Users' Association. 89, Kenworthy Street,
Stalybridge,

1901, Oct. I. Wild, Robert B., M.D., M.Sc, M.R.C. P., Professor of
Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the Victoria
University of Manchester. Broome House, Fallowfiehi,
Manchester.

1859, Jan, 25. Wilde, Henry, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley
Edge, Cheshire.

1905, Oct. 31. Willis, Ethel G., M.A., B.Sc, Science Mistress, Man-
chester High School for Girls. The High School, Dover
Street, Manche-^ter.

1901, Nov. 26. Wilson, William, M.A. Carron Vale, 80, Fitzwarreu
Street, Pendleton, Manchester.

1907, Oct. 15. Winstanley, George H., F.G.S., M.I.M.E., Lecturer in
Mining Engineering and Mine Surveying in the Uni-
versity of Manchester. IVigshatv Grange, Culcheth,
near Warrington.

1909, Jan. 26. Wolfenden, John Henry, B.Sc (Lond.), A.R.CS. (Lond.),
Assistant Master in the Municipal Secondary School,
Manchester. 13, Pole Lane, Failsworth.

1903, Oct. 20. Wood, Harry Edwin, B.Sc, Assistant to the Government
Meteorological Department, Johannesburg.

1905, Oct. 31. Woodall, Herbert J., A.R.CS. ^2, Market Place, Stockport.
i860, April 17. Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.
1863, Nov. 17. Worthington, Samuel Barton, M.Inst.C.E., M.LMech.E.
Mill Bank, Bo'vdon, and 37, Princess Street, Manchester.

Ivi Ordinary Members.

Date 0/ Election.

1895, Jan. 8. Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Kirksiyks,
Diiffield, near Derby.

1S97, Oct. 19. Wyatt, Charles H., M.A., Chelfotd, Cheshire.

N.B. — Of the above list the following have compounded for their
subscriptions, and are therefore life members : —

Bailey, Charles, ]\I.Sc., F.L.S.
Bradley, Nathaniel, F.C.S.
Brogden, Henry, F.G.S.
Ingleby, Joseph, M.I.Mech.E.
Johnson, William H., B.Sc.
Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc.

Honorary Members. Ivii

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Date of Election.

1892, April 26. Abney, Sir W. de W., K.C.K., D.Sc, F.R.S. Rathmore

Lodge, Bohcn Gardens South, South Kenshigton, London,

S.W.
1892, April 26. Amagat, E. .H., For. Mem. R.S., Memb. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci,), Examinateur a I'^^cole Polytechnique.

Avemte d' OrUans, 19, Paris,
1S94, April 17. Appell, Paul, Membredel'Institut, Professor of Theoretical

Mechanics. Factdti des Sciences, Paris.
1892, April 26. Ascherson, Paul F. Aug., Professor of Botany in the Uni-
versity of Berlin. Universitdt, Berlin.
1889, April 30. Avebury, John Lubbock, Lord, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

High Elms, Down, Kent.

1892, April 26. Baeyer, Adolf von. For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Munich, i, Aicisstrasse, Llunich.

1886, Feb. 9. Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S., F.L.S. 3, Cumberland
Road, Kew.

1889, April 30. Carruthers, William, F.R.S., F.L.S. 14, Vermont Read,

Norwood, London, S.E.
1903, April 28. Clarke, Frank Wigglesworth, D.Sc. United States

Geological Suivey, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
1S66, Oct. 30. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pio-

fessor of Natural Philo.sophy in the University of Oxford.

3, Baraweil Road, Banbury Road, Oxford.
1892, April 26. Curtius, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry in the University

of Kiel. Universitdt, Kiel.

1892, April 26. Darboux, Gaston, Membre de I'lnstitut, Professor of
Geometry, Faculte des Sciences, Secretaire perpetuel de
I'Academie des Sciences. 36, Rue Gay Lussac, Paris.

Iviii Honorary Members.

Date of Election.

1894, April 17. Debus, IL. Ph.D., F.R.S. 4. Schlangenweg, Casse!,

Hessen, Germany.
19CX), April 24. Dewar, Sir James, M. A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.,
Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution.
Royal Instilulton, Albemarle Street, London, W.

1892, April 26. Edison, Thomas Alva. Orange, N.f., U.S.A.

1895, April 30. Elster, Julius, Ph.D. 6, Lessingstrasse, IVolfenbiittel.
1900, April 24. Ewing, James Alfred, C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. ,

Director of Naval Education to the Admiralty. Royal
Naval College, Greenwich.

18S9, April 30. Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany at Harvard College.

Harvard College, Cambridge, JSIass., U.S.A.
1900, April 24. Forsyth, Andrew Russell, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Sadlerian

Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of

Cambridge. "J'rinity College, Cambridge.
1892, April 26. FUrbringer, Max, Professor of Anatomy in the University

of Heidelberg. Universitdt, Heidelberg.

1900, April 24. Geikie, James, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Murchison Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. Kilmorle, Colititon Road, Edinburgh .

1895, April 30. Geitel, Hans. 6, Lessingstrasse, IVolfenbiittel.

1894, April 17. Glaisher, J. W. L., Sc.D., F.R.S., Lecturer in Mathematics.
Trinity College, Cambridge.

1894, April 17. Gouy, A., Corr. Memb. Inst. P'r. (Acad. Sci.), Professor
of Physics in the University of Lyons. Faculty des
Sciences, Lyons.

1900, April 24. Haeckel, Ernst, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Jena. Zoologisches Institttt, Jena.

1894, April 17. Harcourt, A. G.Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
St. Clare, Ryde, Lsle of IVight.

1894, April 17. Heaviside, Oliver, F.R.S. Homefield, Lower Warbeny,
Torquay.

1892, April 26. Hill, G. W. IVest Nyack, N. V., U.S.A.

1888, April 17. Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm, Professor of Physics at Miinster.
Polytechniciim, Miinster.

1892, April 26. Hoff, J. van't, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of
Chemistry. 2, Uhlandstrasse, Charlottenbiirg, Berlin.

Honor at y Members. lix

Date of Election.

1892, April 26. Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, G.C.S.I., C.B., O.M., D.C.L.,

F.R.S., Corr. Memh. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). The Camp,

Su>iiiiiigdale, Berks.

1892, April 26. Klein, Felix, Ph.D., For. Mem. R..S. ,Corr. Memb. Inst.
Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Mathematics in the
University of Gottingen. 3, IVilhehn Weber Sirasse,
Goltiiigeii.

1894, April 17. Konigsberger, Leo, Professor of Mathematics in the Univer-

sity of Heidelberg. Utiiversitiil, Heidelberg.

1892, April 26. Ladenburg, A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Breslau. 3, Kaiser Wilhebn Strasse, Breslau.

1902, May 13. Larmor, Sir Joseph, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., Sec. R.S.,
F. R.A.S. St. Joint's College, Cambridge.

1892, April 26. Liebermann, C, Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Berlin. 29, MatChiii- Kirch Strasse, Berlin.

1887, April 19. Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S,, Corr. Memli.
Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Science School, South Kensington,
London, S. IV.

1902, M.iy 13. Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. , Principal
of the University of Birmingham. The University,
Birmingham.

1900, April 24. Lorentz, Henrik Anton, Corr. Memb, Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.),

Professor of Physics in the University of Leyden.
Hooigracht, 48, Leyden.

1892, April 26. Marshall, Alfred, RLA., formerly Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Cambiidge. Balliol Crofl,
Aladittgley Road, Cambridge.

1901, Apri 23. Metschnikoff, Elie, D.Sc, For. Mem. R.S. /wj-Z/Vw/ /'aj/tfj/r

Paris.

1895, April 30. Mittag-Leffler, Gosta, D.C.L. (Oxon.), For. Mem. R.S.,

Professor of Mathematics in the University of Stockholm.
Djursholm, Stockholm.
1894, April 17. Murray, Sir John, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Challenger Lodge, IVardie, Edinburgh.

1910, April 5. Nern&t, Geh. Prof. Dr. Walter, Director of the Physikal-
Chemisches Institut in the University of Berlin. Am
Karlsbad 26a, Berlin IV. Jf.

Ix Honorary Members.

Date of Election.

1902, May 13. Osborn, Henry Fairfield, Professor of Vertebrate Palaeon-
tology at Columbia College. Columbia College, New
York, U.S.A.

1894, April 17. Ostwald, W., Professor of Chemistry. Groszbotheit, A'gt,

Sachsen.

1899, April 25. Palgrave, Sir R. H. Inglis, F.R.S., F.S.S. Henstead Had,

Wreniham, Suffolk.
1S94, April 17. Pfefifer, Wilhelm, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Botany

in the University of Leipsic. Botanischis Institute

Leipsic.
1892, April 26. Poincare, H., For. Mem. R.S., Membre de I'lnstitut,

Professor of Astronomy in the University of Paris.

63, Rue Claude Bernard, Paris.

1892, April 26. Quincke, G. H., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics
in the University of Heidelberg. Universitdt, Heidelberg.

1899, April2S. Ramsay, Sir William, K.C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of

Chemistry in University College, London. 12, Arundel
Gardens, Notting Hill, London, W.
1886, Feb. 9. Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Lord, O.RL, M.A., D.C.L.
(Oxon.), LL.D. (Univ. McGill), F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Terling Place,
IVtthain, Essex.

1900, April 24. Ridgway, Robert, Curator of the Department of Birds, U.S.

National Museum. Brookland. District of Columbia,
U.S.A.
1897, April 27. Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield, P.C, B.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.).
10, Bramham Gardens, EarPs Court, London, S. W.

1902, May 13. Scott, Dukinfield Henry, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

East Oakley House, Oakley, Hants.
1892, April 26. Solms, H., Graf zu, Professor of Botany in the University

of Strassburg. Universitdt, Strassburg.
1886, Feb. 9. Strasburger, Eduard, D.C.L., For. Mem. R.S., Professor

of Botany in the University of Bonn. Universitdt,

Bonn.

1895, April 3°- Suess, Eduard, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., For. Assoc. Inst.

Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Geology in the University
of Vienna. 9, Africanergasse, Vienna.

Awards of Dal ton Medal. Ixi

Date oy Eleciton.

1892, April 26. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A.,

Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Lately Director Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kevv. VVie Ferns, Witcombe,

Gloucester.
1895, April 30. Thomson, Sir Joseph John, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor

of Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge.

6, Scrope Terrace, Cambridge.
1894, April 17. Thorpe, Sir T. E., C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. ,

V.P.C.S. Government Laboratory, Clement's Inn

Passage, Strand, London, IV. C.
1894, April 17. Turner, Sir William, K.C.B., M.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

F. R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in the University of

Edinburgh. 6, Eton Terrace, Edinburgh.
1886, Feb. 9. Tylor, Edward Burnett, D.C.L. (O.xon), LL.D. (St. And.

and McGill Univs.), F.R.S., Professor of Anthropology

in the University of Oxford. Museum House, Oxford.

1894, April 17. Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A„ D.Sc, F.R.S., Sherardian
Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford.
Headington Hill, Oxford.

189}, April 17. Warburg, Emil, Professor of Physics at the Physical
Institute, Berlin. Physikalisches Institut, Neue Wilhelm-
strasse, Berlin.

1894, April 17. Weismann, August, Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Freiburg. Universitdt, Freiburg i. Br.

1888, April 17. Zirkel, Ferdinand, For.Mem.R.S., Professor of Mineralogy
in the University of Bonn. Kdnigstrasse 2a, Bon?! ant
Rhein.

Awards of the Dalton Medal.
1898. Edward Schunck', Ph.D., F.R.S.
1900. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S.
1903. Prof. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.

Ixii The Wilde Lectures.

THE WILDE LECTURES.

1897. (July 2.) " On the Nature of the Rontgen Rays."

By Sir G. G. STOKES, Bart, F.R.S. {28pp.)

1898. (Mar. 29.) "On the Physical Basis of Psychical

Events." By Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B.,
F.R.S. {46 pp.)

1899. (Mar. 28.) "The newly discovered Elements;

and their relation to the Kinetic Theory of
Gases." By Prof. WiLLiAM Ramsay, F.R.S.
{igpp.)

1900. (Feb. 13.) " The Mechanical Principles of Flight."

By the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R S.

{26 pp.)

1901. (April 22.) "Sur la Flore du Corps Humain."

By Dr. e'lie Metschnikoff, For.Mem.R.S.

1902. (Feb. 25.) "On the Evolution of the Mental

Faculties in relation to some Fundamental
Principles of Motion." By Dr. Henry Wilde,
F.R.S. (J///., J/'/.)

1903. (May 19.) " The Atomic Theory." By Professor

F. W. Clarke, D.Sc. {32 pp.)

1904. (Feb. 23.) " The Evolution of Matter as revealed

by the Radio-active Elements." By FREDERICK
SODDY, M.A. {42 pp.)

TJie Wilde Lectures. Ixiii

1905. (Feb. 28.) " The Early History of Seed-bearing

Plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora."
By Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. {32 pp., j pi)

1906. (March 20.) "Total Solar Eclipses." By Pro-

fessor H. H. Turner, D.Sc, F.R.S. {32 pp.)

1907. (February 18.) " The Structure of Metals." By

Dr. J. A. EwiNG, F.R.S., xM.Inst.C.E. {20 pp.,
5 pis., and 3 text-figs.)

1908. (March 3.) "On the Physical Aspect of the

Atomic Theory." By Professor J. Larmor,
Sec. R.S. {54PP-)

1909. (]\Iarch 9.) "On the Influence of Moisture on

Chemical Change in Gases." By Dr. H,
Brereton Baker, F.R.S. {S pp.)

1910. (March 22.) " Recent Contributions to Theories

regarding the Internal Structqre of the Earth."
By Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc,
F.R.S.

Ixiv List of Presidents of the Society.

LIST OF PRESIDENTS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of Election.

1781. Peter Mainwaring, M.D., James Massey.

1 782-1 786. James Massev, Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S.

1 787-1 789. James Massey.

1 789-1804. Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S.

1 805-1 806. Rev. George Walker, F.R.S.

1807-1809. Thomas Henry, F.R.S.

1809. *JOHN Hull, M.D., F.L.S.

1809-1816. Thomas Henry, F.R.S.

1816-1844. John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1844-1847. Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.

1848-1850. Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1851-1854. John Moore, F.L.S.

1855-1859. Sir William Faireairn, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.

1 860-1 86 1. James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1 862-1 863. Edward William Binney, F.P..S., F.G.S.

1864-1865. Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1866-1867. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1868-1869. James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1870-1871. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1 87 2-1 873. James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1874-1875. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1 876-1877. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1878-1879. James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1880-1881. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1882-1883, Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1884-1885. William Cr.'^wford Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S.

1886. Robert Dukinfield Darbishire, B.A., F.G.S.

1887. Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S.

* Elected April 28th ; resigned office May 5th.

List of Presidents of the Society.

Ixv

1888-1889. Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.

1890-1891. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1892-1893. Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1894-1896. Henry Wilde, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1896. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1897-1899. James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.

i899-[9oi. Horace Lamb, M.A., F.R.S.

1901-1903. Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S.

1903-1905. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1905-1907. Sir William H. Bailey, M.LMech.E.

1 907-1 909. Harold Baily Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.

1909-1911. F'rancis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.

Vor.. 54 : Part I.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 1909-1910.

CONTENTS.

Memoirs :

I. On a New Binary Progression of the Planetary Distances, and
on the Mutability of the Solar System. By Henry Wilde,
D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. With Plate. pp. I— 11.

{Issued separately, October 2Jt/t, iQOQ).

II. Some Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Common Mole. By

Lionel E. Adams, B.A. With j Text-Jigs, and Plate. - - pp. i — 9.
(Issiied sepatately, Novemhci' 13th, iQog).

III. A Note on the Staminal Mechanism of Passiflora CaeruUa, L.

By T. G. B. Osborn, B.Sc. With s Text-figs. - • - pp. 1—7.

(Issued separately , December yth, iqoq).

IV. A Preliminary Note on two New Genera of Upper Liassic

Plesiosaurs. By D. M. S. Watson, B.Sc. With 6 Text-Jigs.

and Plate. pp. i — 28,

{Issued separately, December 22nd, igog).

V. The Action of the a Rays on Glass. By Professor E. Rutherford,

F.R.S. p. I.

{Issued separately, December 24th, igog),

VI. Production of Helium by Radium. By Professor E. Rutherford,

F.R.S., and Dr. B. B. Boltwood. pp. 1—2.

(Issued separately, December 24th, igog).

Proceedings pp. i. — x.

MANCHESTER:
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price ^wo SbilKuGs anJ> Sijpence.

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Canada. — Geological Survey. The Coalfields of Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
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. The Whitehorse Copper Belt, Yukon Territory. By K. G.

McConnell. 1909.

. Reports on a Portion of Algoma and Thunder Bay Districts,

Ontario. By W. J. Wilson. 1909.

. Catalogue of I'ublications of the Geological Survey. 1909.

. — Descriptive Sketch of the Geology and Economic Minerals of

Canada. By G. A. Young. 1909.

Huggins (Sir W. ). Scientific Papers. By Sir W. Muggins. 1909.

London. — Meteorological Office. A Barometer Manual for the use of .Seamen.
6th ed. 1909.

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. Hand-catalogue of the Library. (1908.)

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Nicholson (Francis). Loch Etive and the Sons cf Uisnach. By R. Angus
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Raymond (G. L.). An in Theory. By G. L. Raymond. 2nd ed. 1909.

The Representative Significance of Form. By G. L. R. 2nd ed. 1909.

, Poetry as a Representative Art. By G. L. R. 5th ed. 1909.

Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture as Representative Arts. By G. L, R.

2nd ed. 1909.

The Genesis of Art-form. By G. L. R. 3rd ed. 1909.

Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music. By G. L. R. 2nd ed. 1909.

Proportion and Harmony of Line and Colour. By G. L. R. 2nd ed. 1909.

Dante and Collected Verse. By G. L. R. 1909.

Vol.. 54 • Pauv 11.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OK

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIF/FY, 1 909-1 910.

CONTENTS.

Memoirs:

VII. The Development of the Atomic Theory-, (i) Berthollet's
Doctrine of Variable Proportions. By Andrew Norman
Meldrum, D.Sc. ----- pp. i— 16.

(fssiu'd Sff'arately, February 1st. l()lo).

VIII. Note on Radio-active Recoil. By Sidney Russ, D.Sc. With

J Text-figs. --........ pp. I — 12.

(Issued separately, Fehruii^y 1st. igio).

IX. Correspondence between Mrs. Hemans and Matthew Nichol-
son, an early member of this Society. By Francis Nicholson,
F.Z.S. Plates l.—IV. -------- pp. 1—40.

(^Issued separately^ Ffb>iiary 22nd, igio).

X. A Hypothesis as to the cause of the Autumnal Epidemic of
the Common and the Lesser Shrew, with some Notes on
their Habits. By Lionel E. Adams, B.A. With Plate and
Text -fig. pp. I— 13-

{Issued separately, .March j/st, iqid).

Proceeding's PP- xi.— xiv.

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1909.

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Canada. — Geological Survey. Catalogue of Canadian Birds. [New ed.J By
J. MacfHin and J. ]M. Macoun. 1909.

. — A Geological Reconnaissance of the region ... between Lake Nipigon

and Clay Lake, Ontario. 1909.

Gbrlitz.— Oberlausitzische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Die bau-
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Kristiania.— Universitetets Observatorium. Meridian-Beobachtungen von
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undj. Fr. Schrneter. I. 1909.

London. — Meteorological Office. The Free Atmosphere in the region of tiie
British Isles. By VV. 11. Dines and VV. N. Sliaw. 1909.

Royal Society. Reports to the Evolution Committee. Report V. 1909.

Vol. 54: Fart III.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

or

THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPMICAL

SOCIETY, 1909-1910.

CONTENTS

Memoirs :

XI. Upper Liassic Reptilia. Part II. The Sauropterygia of the

Whitby Museum. By D. M. S. Watson, BSc. <? Text-^igs. pp. i— 13.
{Issued separm-tely. May 6th, igio).

XII. On a new^ Octoradiate Coral, Pyrophyllia injiata (new genus
and species). By Sydney J. Hickson, D.Sc. , F. R.S.
4 Text-Jigs. pp. I _7.

{Issued separately. May nth, igio^.

XIII. The Electrical Resistance of the Human Body. By Prof.

W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tech., and F. Brotherton.

Plate &\\d J Text -figs. - - - - - - - ■ pp. 1—22.

{Issued separately. July t2th. iqioi.

XIV. The Physical Aspect of Time. By H. Bateman. M.A. 4 Text-

figs- PP- I-I3-

(Issued separately, June 15th, igio)

XV. A Third List of the Adventitious Vegetation of the Sandhills
of St. Anne's-on-the-Sea, North Lancashire (vice-county 60).
By Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S. - pp. i— 11.

(Issued separately, June 20th. igio).

XVI. Report on the Recent Foraminifera from the Bay of Palermo,
Sicily, 14-20 fms. (Off the harbour.) By Henry Sidebottom.
Ptaies I. — ///. pp. 1—36.

(Issued separately, June 24th, igio).

XVII. The Anatomy of Calaviostachys Binneyana, Schimper. By

George Hickling, D.Sc. Plate &xA 3 Text -Jigs. - pp. 1—16.

{Issued separately July zoth, igid).

XVIII. Note on the Variability in the Colour of the Flowers of a
Tropaeolum Hybrid. By F. E. Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S.
With Plate pp. 1—6.

{Issued separately, August 31st, igio).

Proceedings pp. xv. — xxv.

Annual Report of the Council, with Obituary Notices of Dr. A. Dohrn,
Professor G. B. von Neumayer, Professor Simon Newcomb,
Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe, Dr. Ludwig Mond, Mr. Thomas
Worthington, and Mr. Thomas Windsor - pp. xxvi.— xlii.

Treasurer's Accounts PP- xliii.— xlv.

List of the Council and Members of the Society - - pp. xlvi.— Ixi.

List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal p. Ixi.

List of the Wilde Lectures PP- Ixii.— Ixiii.

List of the Presidents of the Society - - - pp. Ixiv.— Ixv.

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. — Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Constitutic van het Bixine. Door

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By D. E Bushnell. 190S.

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