IMPROVING ACCESS TO MUSEUM SERVICES IN QUEENSLAND ALAN BARTHOLOMAI Bartholomai, A. 1991 08 01: Improving access to museum services in Queensland. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 355-372. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. For more than 20 years, the State-supported Queensland Museum has recognized its obligation to improve state-wide access to its services. It has decentralised its facilities, collections and expertize through development of branches. This will continue to expand through a range of outreach activities that includes direct and extension education services, specimen and kit loans, travelling exhibitions, and support for local museums including staff training, attachment of professional staff and administration of a project funding grants scheme. Alan Bartholomai, Queensland Museum, PO 22 May 1991, Queensland is the second largest Australian state, with an area of 1 .7 million kmL Its popula- tion of more than two million people is broadly decentralised but is generally concentrated along the eastern coastline and along three, major in- land rail and road accesses running from the State capital, Brisbane and from Rockhampton and Townsville. More than 47% of Queens- land's population lives in Brisbane and environs. Fifteen other centres have populations about 10,000 or more. Brisbane, in the southeast corner, is 1750 km from Cairns in the north and over 2000 km from Camooweal in the northwest, but less than 100 km from the well populated Northern Rivers district of New South Wales. Museum services in Queensland are provided through a variety of publicly and privately operated institutions. The largest of these, the Queensland Museum, was established in 1862. It covered natural sciences until 1970, when it was given the mandate to include the pure and applied sciences, history and technology. Opera- tion of the Queensland Museum is defined by the Queensland Museum Act 1970-1989 and Queensland Museum By-laws 1986 and is large- ly financed from state revenue. The Queensland Museum was redeveloped in an 18,000 m- Queensland Cultural Centre build- ing which opened to the public in October, 1 986. The Centre also includes the Queensland Art Gallery, the Slate Library of Queensland and the Queensland Performing Arts Trust as semi- autonomous statutory authorities and each is governed by specific legislation. The Centre is vested in The (Queensland Cultural Centre Trust, which has responsibility for building main- tenance, operation of common facilities and Box 300, South Brisbane 4101 , Queensland; provision of common services. Directors of con- stituent institutions form a majority of the Cul- tural Centre Trust. Each member body has State-wide obligations which each addresses dif- ferently. This paper defines the Queensland Museum’s approaches to provision of services and support away from its main facilities in Brisbane. This approach includes the following strategies: . developing Branch museums . improving community access . promoting outreach projects through .. direct education .. travelling exhibitions .. loan services . supporting local museums . providing training for regional personnel . appointing professional staff for local museums DEVELOPING BRANCH MUSEUMS The Museum’s Act includes: “25. Branches. (1) The Board either alone or by agreement and in conjunction with any other person or body may establish, maintain and control branches of the Museum within Queensland. (2) An agreement between the Board and any other person or body shall not be entered into for the purposes of this section unless the Governor in Council has first approved of the terms of the proposed agreement." This provision is an effective tool in estab- lishing permanent bases away from the main Museum. 356 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 1. “Woodworks” Branch. Gympie, the main reception and display building. Planning, in 1970, for the Bicentennial cele- brations to commemorate the discovery of the east coast of Australia by Captain James Cook included the suggestion that a display train might be developed to tour the State. A display train had been used in connection with the 150 year celebrations of Queensland's Statehood in 1959 and a similar suggestion for 1970 was a serious suggestion for the program. Unfortunately, a fully costed analysis showed that the tour would not be cost effective in a State as decentralised as Queensland, especially when hire and conversion of carriages, charges for use of locomotives, salaries and travelling allowan- ces for accompanying leaching/maintenance staff and display design and construction costs were taken into account. It was intended to stop at centres with a population of 1,000 or more for a few days in each. It would have taken more than a year to travel once over major State rail routes. Facilities at railway stations were fre- quently inadequate to serve the needs of the exhibition or of large numbers of visitors. Expenditure on such an enterprise, if adopted as a permanent feature of decentralised Museum services after the Cook Bicentennial year, would have been about the same as for a later alternative suggestion for permanent display and other facilities to be developed in regional centres every three or four years. Given some centralised support, it was expected that such facilities would generate income to offset most main- tenance and running costs. This proposal did not eventuate and further consideration of regional museum facilities did not occur until well into the 1970s. The Board of Trustees, established by the Act in 1970. considered that Branches chould be either general or specialised thematic facilities. Such classification blurred as the number of Branches increased and has been abandoned. The Board recognised the importance of the inland rail and road routes eminating from Bris- bane, Rockhampton and Townsville and the major national and international tourist destina- tion centred on Cairns. Accordingly, the Board set out to convince the Government of the ad- vantages of expanding services to regional Queensland by improving the situation of the main museum in Brisbane and by progressive development of Branches in Rockhampton, Townsville and Cairns. Proposals for Rock- hampton and Townsville each included exhibi- tion, education, collection storage and research facilities, while that for Cairns centred on display and educational aspects. The established Tertiary educational institu- tions in Townsville and Rockhampton in- fluenced these proposals. Universities and the then Colleges of Advanced Education not only IMPROVING ACCESS TO MUSEUM SERVICES IN QUEENSLAND 357 create the collections that might form the basis for continuing regional research projects and attendant storage requirements but would ob- viate the establishment of expensive libraries and laboratories. They would also provide the opportunity for academic interchange to satisfy the professional development needs of branch staff. “Woodworks” Branch, Gympie (Fig. 1) In the early 1980’s the Forestry Department sought the Museum’s assistance to establish a permanent display of Forestry activities and the timber industry that incorporated varied uses of timber and timber products. The Branch was established 3 km north of Gympie, 166 km from Brisbane, on the northern coastal highway. The Branch was established on the basis of an agreement and administrative arrangements that shared responsibility for the facility. The Forestry Department provided the land, the building, including the landscaping and the staff, initially attached personnel and later permanent Manager, administrative assistant and other sup- port staff. The Queensland Museum incor- porated and maintained the Forestry collection, produced the displays and audiovisuals, provided a legislative base, gave access to the Museum’s Trust Fund to accommodate income, grant and sponsorship monies and appointed ad- ditional temporary staff. The Branch was opened in March, 1984, with the name, "Woodworks”, chosen through a schools’ competition to define an appropriate title. It has been expanded subsequently by the addition of a blacksmith’s shop and a functional steam sawmill and now' comprises 1000m- of public display space. Further expansion is planned to include an administrative and sales area, a woodturner/cabinetmaker shop, an exten- sion to the area devoted to transport of timber and a storage building. The Board established a Management Com- mittee to be responsible to the Board in the first instance and Forestry for day to day running of the Branch and for policy, planning, support funding, exhibits and programs, to the extent of delegations defined by the Board. Committee membership reflects community (especially Local Government), Forestry and Museum inter- ests. A feature of the public program at “Wood- Works” has been the demonstrations on aspects of the timber industry. Retired timber workers living in Gympie operate a variety of hand tools and other equipment, including the steam driven sawmill, for organised groups and on special occasions. A more extensive range of Forestry skills is demonstrated on “open" days and such days have attracted more than 8,000 visitors. Branch visitor numbers (excluding open days) totalled 12.677 in 1989/90. A minimal entrance fee is levied and income received is applied to the Branch programs. Entrance on the first Mon- day each month is free to all visitors. Museum of Tropical Queensland. Townsville Developed in Townsville, this second Branch was initially the North Queensland Branch. A community group entitled the Great Barrier Reef Wonderland Association Inc. had proposed the creation of a major joint project involving Government at State and Commonwealth levels and private enterprise to develop an important tourist and public educational facility in Townsville. This development, initially to in- clude a w'orld-quality aquarium, an Omnimax theatre and commercial shop and office tenan- cies, was expanded at the suggestion of the As- sociation to invite the Queensland Museum to include a Branch. Total funding of $6M for the non-commercial elements was provided jointly by the Commonwealth and State Governments as part of Australia's 1 988 Bicentennial celebra- tions. The Queensland Museum Board commis- sioned a feasibility study through a Cairns-based consultancy group to ascertain the most ap- propriate location for the Museum's initial northern Branch; this study recommended Townsville. Not only was Townsville the largest population centre with a more diversified com- mercial base, but it also contained the James Cook University of North Queensland, the head- quarters of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and had the Australian Institute for Marine Sciences in close proximity. The Great Barrier Reef Wonderland Associa- tion offered SIM towards the Branch estab- lishment costs. This did not cover the total proposed building, and a tw'o stage development was suggested to the Queensland Government, the first to be built and opened with the rest of the Great Barrier Reef Wonderland and the second stage, of approximately the same size, to be completed in the mid-1990's. The GBRW Committee raised an additional $1M from local industry and the public. This was directed 358 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 2. “Museum of Tropical Queensland" Branch, Townsville, facade of the building from Flinders Street, showing the reconstruction of Muttaburrasaurus. towards completion of the exhibitions in the Aquarium. A shortfall of $124,000 in the fitout budget for the initial Branch component was met by the State Department of Works which, in addition, contributed expert advice on design and construction. Because of the complexity of the relationships involved in the Wonderland, the Board insisted on control over title for the land upon which the Branch had been built. This was excised from the overall parcel of land used for the total develop- ment, property which was controlled by the Townsville Harbour Board, later the Townsville Port Authority. It was then vested in the Museum Board as Trustees for a new Reserve for Museum Purposes. The site is close to the commercial centre of the city on the bank of Ross Creek. It is also close to the Breakwater Casino and ferry terminals for access to Magnetic Island and Bar- rier Reef cruises. The Board believed that the Branch should firstly serve the local population and that in achieving that end it would also serve tourists to the region. The latter were seen as critical in providing income to cover operating expenses. Initial exhibitions were a mixture of traditional systematic zoological, geological, anthropologi- cal and applied arts subjects, together with an ecological display of the Townsville Common and another on North Queensland rainforest. Also present was an audiovisually-based presen- tation on historic shipwrecks in the vicinity and display of the ship's tank in which the final chapter of the tragic Mrs Watson story was enacted in the late 1800's, after her escape from an Aboriginal attack on Lizard Island. Stage one included 880 m^, approximately half of which was devoted to collection storage, re- search and other staff facilities. All exhibitions were designed and produced in Brisbane, al- though the Branch now produces small, tem- porary exhibitions of local interest and others that supplement school holiday programs. Visitor numbers have grown steadily to 60,000 in 1989/90. A modest entry fee was introduced at the time of opening and, to encourage repeated use of the Branch by local residents, entrance to the facilities on the first Monday each month is free. At its opening in June, 1987, the building was staffed by a Curator, a Curatorial Officer, an Adminsistrative Assistant and three Museum At- tendants. This staff establishment was later sup- plemented by temporary appointments of Board officers, as opposed to Public Servants, and there has been wide community support through ap- IMPROVING ACCESS TO MUSEUM SERVICES IN QUEENSLAND 359 pointment of honorary staff, broadening the ex- pertise available. Further staffing has come from research and other grants and through second- ments, especially from the Queensland Depart- ment of Education. A Management Committee was established by the Board and given delegated authority for the day to day operations of the Branch. This Com- mittee has representation of the local business and academic community and of the Museum. The Committee has successfully introduced in- house and extension educational services and gained access to funds through local foundations and businesses. It has developed the brief for the second stage of the Branch and promoted ac- countability for the operation through Corporate Planning and associated performance indicators. The Branch has attracted an extremely sig- nificant collection of modern corals from as- sembled by AIMS as the basis for its reference collections and has growing marine invertebrate and vertebrate spirit collections. The staff, both permanent and honorary are publishing sig- nificant research results. The display space had been designed to enable rotation of displays from the main Museum to Branches with a minimum of modification. One of the most popular exhibitions in Brisbane, on dinosaurs, marine reptiles and other fossils from marine Cretaceous rocks inland from Townsville was transferred to the Branch in 1989. A model of the Queensland dinosaur, Muttaburrasaurus, was erected in the garden at the branch (Fig. 2). A joint ticketing arrangement with the Aquarium and Omnimax components of the Wonderland is part of a centralised marketing strategy for the whole complex; the attraction is promoted wide- ly both locally and interstate by the central agen- cy and by member bodies. Cobb AND Co. Branch, Toowoomba (Fig. 3) Following the death of Mr.W.R.F.Bolton, the owner of the transport company Cobb and Co., his family was attempting to place his major collection of horse-drawn vehicles and as- sociated items, including two original Cobb and Co. coaches, with an organisation that would maintain them in perpetuity. Following protracted negotiations, during which time ownership of the collection was transferred to another family owner, Banks Pty. Ltd,, the Cobb and Co. collection was donated to the Queensland Museum under the name of the “Cobb and Co. Collection of W.R.F.Bolton”. In accepting the donation the Board undertook to use its best endeavours to house the collection in the eastern Darling Downs area, the region from which much of it had been drawn. The collection had narrowly escaped destruc- tion by fire while in its original location and the Board was assisted by the Toowoomba City Council, which provided temporary accom- modation in a Council store until leased storage could be organised in Toowoomba. At this time, the Toowoomba Showgrounds were relocated from a central city site to the city outskirts. The original showgrounds reverted to Government use earmarked for extension of the Toowoomba Technical and Further Education College. On this site the existing Floriculture Pavilion, con- structed in cement block, was remodelled to become the Cobb and Co Branch. The Depart- ment of Works extended it at a cost of $775,000 to include secure outdoor display space, a black- smith shop, a woodwork shop, toilets and a paved car parking area. The Building was given an architectural appearance (colonial) in keeping with its proposed usage. The land was sub- sequently designated as a Reser\'e for Museum Purposes and placed under the Trusteeship of the Board. The Board provided permanent staff of a Curator and Curatorial Officer. Six casual staff, appointed since, are an Administrative Assistant and five part-time Interpretation Officers. At its opening in December, 1987 all major elements of the Cobb and Co, Collection were accommodated and several horse-drawn vehicles were added from the Museum in Bris- bane. Interpretive exhibitions and audiovisuals were developed in Brisbane. The Branch has a small lecture/meeting room, a sales area and lounge and an administrative area. The Branch occupies 1570m- of covered space, most of which is environmentally controlled. This Branch was originally regarded as a specialist facility. It has become evident that the Branch must provide broader programs if it is to continue attracting local visitors as well as tourists. A vigorous, in-house, educational pro- gram ensures a continuing value to different student age groups and avoids the “once only" visit approach from local schools. This is of paramount importance considering that Toowoomba is an educational centre. Further, the Curator has ensured involvement in a wide range of heritage events to advertise the Branch. School holiday activities assist in diversifying the subject matter covered and through a com- 360 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 3. “Cobb and Co.” Branch, Toowoomba, front entrance with an operating replica coach as a temporary attraction. bination of such approaches the Branch enjoys an increasing patronage to 15,977 in 1989/90. Research at the Branch concentrates on the transport industry; the historical account of the coaching company, Cobb and Co., in Queensland, has been a significant and popular achievement (Tranter, 1990). The Board estab- lished a Management Committee, to represent the Museum and the local community and delegated to it reponsibility for day to day opera- tion of the Branch. The Cobb and Co. Branch will need to expand in the future if it is to fully satisfy all of its potential as a community and tourist resource. Discussions have been initiated with the adjacent TAPE Council to determine ways in which the objectives of both organisations can be achieved on the available sites. CooMERA Branch In 1 985, the Government enacted legislation to transfer, to the Board, responsibility for “Queensland Transport and Technology Centre" which became the Queensland Museum Coomera Branch. This was a museum-type development that had been partially imple- mented on a site on the main highway between Brisbane and the Gold Coast. The site comprises a reserve for museum pur- poses of 33ha that includes two brick residences and an airstrip that could be used for light avia- tion purposes. It had been the intent of the Board of the previous body to have the airstrip used on open days for demonstrations of various aircraft, particularly vintage types. Apart from primary landscaping, some fencing and signage, little else had been achieved. Responsibility for repayment of a significant loan made by the Board of the Queensland Transport and Technol- ogy Centre was transferred to the Queensland Museum Board, with repayment fully supported by the Government. The Board has seen this Branch as an opportunity to develop facilities for display of industrial technology and other topics that cannot be covered adequately in the main Museum. No public function is currently conducted at the Branch and an independant study suggested that financially viable operation of display and other public functions could only occur at Coomera when there is a sufficiently large population base nearby to promote use of the Branch by regular as opposed to tourist patronage. The major tourist attraction, “Dream- world”, directly across the highway means that, for the Branch to compete, the development must IMPROVING ACCESS TO MUSEUM SERVICES IN QUEENSLAND 361 itself open as a significant and completed attrac- tion. It is unlikely that the Board will fully develop the Branch until the late 1990’s at the earliest. In the meantime, the Board established a storage facility for items of heavy technology in the form of a 945m“ building, built by the Department of Works, at a cost of $798,600, and opened in June, 1989. Both existing residences are leased and one of these is occupied by a tenant who, for a reduction in the rental, provides on-site supervision. Costs are minimal and are generally restricted to mowing, minor main- tenance and services to the storage building. An unoccupied storage building at the old main Museum site in Gregory Terrace, Brisbane is earmarked for relocation to Coomera by 1 993. This structure when in place will add a further 350m- of good quality storage space to the site. SCIENCENTRE. BRISBANE Early in 1989, a report by the Institution of Engineers Australia (Queensland Branch) iden- tified that declining interest in the pursuit of science and mathematics subjects at high school and in engineering and science courses at Ter- tiary level could be redressed, in part, by estab- lishment of a science centre. At the time, no firm proposals were made as to how such a facility might be developed or run. The Museum’s design policy since 1985 had been to incorporate interactive displays wherever possible. This approach recognised the need to include such new display techniques because inflexibility of traditional museums had resulted in establishment of new' competitor in- stitutions elsewhere in the world. The idea that the Queensland Museum might take up the recommendation of the professional body and foster a science centre as a Branch was in accord with the institution's mandate. The Board was made aware that, as part of the Government's program to restore many of its fine old buildings in the centre of Brisbane, the original Government Printery, was to be avail- able for reuse after renovation; the Government Printing Office having been relocated to a new, industrially designed building. Discussions had taken place with the Government Printer and, with the approval of Cabinet, the building was earmarked for occupancy by a Branch featuring communications, especially the printing in- dustry. The Board was convinced that a science centre had greater ramifications for the future economic well-being of the State and, for that reason presented the case to Government that the ‘'Old Printery" should become an interim home for the State's science centre. Containing only 1000 m- of space, ap- proximately 800 m2 of which could be used for interactive displays, it was obvious that the “Old Printery" w'ould not be a permanent long-term solution for the science centre needs of a Stale the size of Queensland. It could, however, serve the immediate function of establishing a facility that would begin to address the problems iden- tified by the Institution of Engineers Australia (Queensland Branch) and give a breathing space to allow' for assessment and planning for the longer term. Restoration of the "Old Printery" was under- taken by the Department of Works to extremely high standards. The three story structure was modified to accommodate air conditioning plant, a passenger, goods lift and improved fire escape capacity. Loading bay and official parking facilities were provided through basement ac- cess as part of adjacent Government work. Total expenditure on the building amounted to S2.1M. The challenge for the Museum designers w^as to merge a very upmarket function like interac- tive science into a heritage building. The budget for displays was only $120,000. Because of an extremely short lead time, the Museum had to reduce its involvement in production and pur- chased a limited number of standard treatments from other science centres. It also engaged out- side display consultants to produce some units. Most of the 80 or more intcractives in the open- ing exhibition w ere designed and produced in the main Museum's workshops. They were ex- ecuted using open, metal support structures so that visitors could see that there was no "black box" involved in the presentation. Maintenance has proven to be only a fraction of that expected from experience elsewhere. The Branch opened in October, 1989 as the “Scienccntrc". The Department of Education provided a senior science teacher on secondment to develop the educational exhibition com- ponents. A full-time position for a Curator/ Man- ager was established shortly afterwards and filled by the seconded officer. Two Museum Attendants were attached to the Branch from the main Museum and an Administrative Assistant, a Technician, three Interpretation Officers and two Shop Assistants were added; funding comes from the entry charge. The Department of Education continued its support by providing 362 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 4. “Sciencentre” Branch, Brisbane, showing a school group using the interactive “slippery air”. another seconded Teacher to assist with the use of the Branch by educational groups. An Advisory Committee was established under the Chairmanship of the Vice-Chairman of the Board, with membership drawn from a wide spectrum of community interests. The Ad- visory Committee was to investigate medium and long term needs of the Sciencentre and ad- vise the Board on how to ensure that the Branch would continue to meet the requirements of the community. It undertook to achieve this within 15 months of its inception. Shortly after opening, the Advisory Commit- tee became aware of the Government's desire to find a use for the much larger George Street printing building, adjacent to the “Old Printery”, that had been occupied by the Sciencentre. Fol- lowing extensive negotiations, the Government decided that the Branch would be relocated to the Printery as soon as its heritage building restora- tion was completed. An allocation of $4.5M has been committed by the Government towards this restoration work. It was estimated by the Com- mittee that more than $500,000 should be sought from industry and the community for displays in the larger accommodation and for an outreach service to take Sciencentre programs to other parts of the State. Transfer of functions to the 3,000 m- Printery is expected to begin towards the middle of 1992. More than 58 ,500 people attended the Branch in the first four months of operation (Fig. 4); an annual attendance in excess of 250,000 is ex- pected in the more spacious building. Success of the Sciencentre has been due in no small measure to the more than 100 trained, volunteer “Ex- plainers” who are rostered to assist visitors inter- act with the exhibits. Following submission of its Report, the Ad- visory Committee was disbanded and replaced by a permanent Management Committee to run the facility. Glenlyon Dam Display Centre, Near Stan- THORPE Work had been undertaken by the Museum in the area to be inundated by the Glenlyon Dam, near Stanthorpe, as a project for the Dum- aresque-Barwon Border Rivers Commission. A display was established at the dam site in 1976 to interpret the natural history of the area and to display the development models. In October, 1986, an Agreement was reached with the State Water Resources Commission and approved by the Governor in Council to have the display centre maintained in future as a Branch. Although establishment costs in an existing site IMPROVING ACCESS TO MUSEUM SERVICES IN QUEENSLAND 363 building were estimated at only $20,000 and, regardless of the fact that the Branch occupies only 80 m-, the dam is a popular camping and recreational area. More than 24,600 people visited the Branch in 1989/90. Maintenance of the unmanned facility is minimal and day to day attention is provided by the resident dam staff. Lands, Mapping and Surveying Branch. Brisbane Numerous historical items associated with the exploration and mapping of Queensland ac- cumulated over many years in the Department of Lands, Mapping and Surveying. When that Department transferred to its new building at Wooloongabba, it sought to display its collection for the public, especially school groups. The Surveyor General approached the Museum to consider development of a Branch that would enable the Department to have access to the museum's expertise, Trust Fund provisions and collections and to give permanent collection status to the Department’s holdings as part of the State Collection under the care of the Queensland Museum. A formal Agreement was achieved in August, 1988, with the endorsement of the Governor in Council. The Branch occupies 1 12 m^ of high quality, fully air-conditioned space and is manned by a Curator provided by the Department of Lands. A small Advisory Committee drawn from the Department and from the Queensland Museum, supervises Branch operations. Total running ex- penses are provided through the Department of Lands, with the exception of minor funding through the Museum’s Trust Fund. Visitor num- bers have been low and in 1989/90, the Branch was viewed by 2,300 persons. Lark Quarry Environmental Park. Near Winton In August, 1971, a joint field party from the Queensland Museum and the American Museum (Natural History), New York, was shown evidence of dinosaur trackways in the Late Cretaceous Winton Formation, to the south of Winton, central western Queensland. A sub- sequent Queensland Museum excavation revealed the trackways of a herd of small to medium sized ornithischian dinosaurs, stam- peded by a large carnosaur. A complete latex peel was made and the ex- cavated surface was duplicated in fibreglass for display in Brisbane. A small part was lifted as a permanent scientific record while the remainder of the site became vulnerable to weathering. It was declared an Environmental Park, jointly ad- ministered by the National Parks and Wildlife Service, the Winton Shire Council and the Queensland Museum. It provides protection for one of the most interesting relics of the “Age of Reptiles" anywhere. The QNPWS protects the site, the Museum provides the scientific inter- pretation and conservation of the trackways, and the Winton Shire Council provides access and site maintenance. A steel shelter has been erected by QNPWS and the area is fenced to keep stock and wildlife from using the shelter to the detriment of the trackway surface. Modifications to the structure continue to be made from time to lime to over- come problems identified with experience. The Lark Quarry Environmental Park attracts en- thusiasts to its remote situation, as evidenced by the several hundred new signatures that are added to the visitor's book each year. The Museum’s involvement amounts to at least one trip to the site annually to monitor and remedy deterioration and vandalism. Future Branch Developments The Queensland Cabinet decided in 1990 that any Government Department that wishes to develop a museum must first discuss the proposal with the Queensland Museum, with a view to making the development a Branch of the Queensland Museum. Also, Departments main- taining collections of objects that wish to dispose of them must now offer them firstly to the Queensland Museum for inclusion in the State’s official collections, if appropriate. The first proposal involves the Transport Department wishing to establish a Railway Museum for smaller items of memorabilia in a delightful building at Ipswich. This building, close to the city centre, already houses railways historical archival material, and is separate from the Transport Department's display of large, steam and steam-related rolling stock exhibited at Red- bank, half-way between Ipswich and Brisbane, a facility maintained in part by the Railways His- torical Society. Apart from possible branch developments in Rockhampton and Cairns , already mentioned as Board initiatives, there is a possibility that the Government itself might promote further developments in connection with tourism and environmental matters. 364 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 5. A range of popular Museum publications and other products. The Board considers that existing Branch in- frastructure is providing acceptable levels of ser- vice away from the main Museum. It is also aware that its activities through the Branches and the standards it promotes through the quality of its exhibitions, the interpretation of its collec- tions, the integration of its programs with the educational needs of local communities and the research bases it gives in the regions are having a marked influence on encouraging locally or- ganised museums to improve their services. IMPROVING COMMUNITY ACCESS Although display galleries in Brisbane are only conveniently available to residents of southeastern Queensland, the Museum provides a range of more widely available services. The public outside the southeastern corner of the State, obtains free advice and information from the Museum through correspondence and telephone to the extent of 1 0,000 units of ser\nce each year. Many enquiries include samples for identifica- tion and, in an area of the world where the “age of discovery" is still very much with us, it is not uncommon for the public to participate in finds that are new to science. The frequency of en- quiries on common subjects at particular times of the year led to a large series of popular Infor- mation Leaflets. When it becomes apparent that a large number of incoming enquiries relate to the same topic, a leallet is developed to merge the authority of the Museum's expertise with the flair of the educator and scientific journalist. Costs are offset by making the same leaflets available to public visiting the Museum, with an honour system at a nominal “donation". Com- pilations of related groups of leaflets are marketed, especially as project kits and to educators interstate. Income for the service has always far exceeded its costs. Staff members have also been encouraged to popularise the subject matter of their sections by writing books and booklets and through produc- tion of other items that help interpret the Museum's fieldsof inlerest(Fig. 5). The majority of such material is published or manufactured through the Museum and is distributed to the public through the Museum’s wholesale and retail outlets. The Museum has adopted a number of strategies to increase the reach of these products. For example, a large percentage of sales is achieved through mail orders from country and interstate patrons. This is en- couraged by media launches and by use of wide- IMPROVING ACCESS TO MUSEUM SERVICES IN QUEENSLAND 365 Fig. 6. Maori dancers with the Hon. Wayne Goss, M.L.A., Premier of Queensland at the O.T.C. sponsor's night for the international travelling exhibition, “Taonga Maori". ly distributed catalogues. Run-ons of covers, with ordering details on the reverse are sent to known interest groups and teacher librarians. Some publications are developed to meet specific curriculum needs and may be joint ven- tured with the educational authorities. In such cases, initial sales can be in excess of 40 000 copies, with the guarantee that the information will be distributed to every primary or secondary school in the State. Specialist publishing to ex- plain the subject matter of Branches is also en- couraged. Use of Branches in this way and as additional sales distribution points adds to the range and penetration of Museum publications and products. The collections of the Museum, whether housed in the main Museum or in Branches, provide an invaluable asset for use by specialists and the general public. Now that collection data are in the institution’s computerised data base, access is available without physically visiting the facilities. Commercial or extended enquiry and use of the data base are charged at a realistic rate but reasonable free access is encouraged by the general public. The Museum undertakes extensive field work projects around the State and every opportunity is taken to have staff involved in such work interrelate with individuals and groups in the communities visited. Talks to local service clubs are encouraged and. in the case of a particularly impressive excavation of a Cretaceous ich- thyosaur in central Queensland, many members of a small town and surrounding area visited the site and had the process explained to them. Community access is not initiated solely by the Museum. Groups and individuals use the facilities of the main museum and Branches to promote their interests to the community. The Queensland Museum has provided the facilities and assisted in the presentation of specialist lec- tures and temporary displays, some of the latter occupying in excess of 600m- for periods of 2-5 weeks. The topics displayed cover such subjects as industrial design and medical research from local universities; advances in scientific knowledge as a result of current research from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Re- search Organisation; historical collections of Queensland militaria by individuals, military units and groups; and displays from spinners and weavers, woodcraftsmen and other craft or- ganizations. Outback craft awards were recently presented in the Museum by the Australian Stockman's Hall of Fame and Outback Heritage Centre, which is located in Longreach. 366 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 7. The Museum’s fully restored Garrett steam traction engine and its portable Ransomes, Sims and Jefferies steam engine at an antique machinery show. Particular groups reflecting Queensland's cul- tural diversity are encouraged to participate widely in planning and activities that are as- sociated with major travelling and permanent exhibitions. The Museum hosted the exhibition “Ancient Macedonia" and the local Greek com- munity and club co-operated fully to add Greek music, dance, food and wines to the occasion. Similar involvement of the local and New Zealand Maori communities occurred in connec- tion with the cultural experience, “Taonga Maori" (Fig. 6), resulting not only in a better appreciation by the whole community of Maori culture but also increasing access by the Maoris themselves to their Taonga. Aboriginal advice and concurrence was sought and accepted in the presentation of the Museum’s major, permanent exhibition on the “Rainforest Aboriginals”. The Museum is extending this process by estab- lishing an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders Advisory Committee to advise the Board on policies relating to all aspects of maintenance, development and use of the Stale’s collections of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander anth- ropological and archaeological items. Several special exhibitions of contemporary Aboriginal Arts and crafts, at which the items displayed were available for purchase by visitors, were staged to increase awareness of the modern cul- tural expression of Aboriginal artists and to assist in the commercial development of their works. Opportunities that presented themselves for the Queensland Museum to increase access to particular parts of its collections have been taken up regularly in such events as antique, operating machinery shows and at the Royal National As- sociation Exhibition, an annual event that runs for 10 days in Brisbane. Items such as a 13 tonne, fully restored steam traction engine (Fig. 7) and smaller operating exhibits such as a hot-air en- gine have been used widely in both types of event. Until the recent cessation of the historical agricultural display component of the RNA Ex- hibition, exposure at such events ran to hundreds of thousands of viewers each year. Even the occasion of the relocation of the main Museum to its new building in the Queensland Cultural Centre allowed the institution an opportunity to relocate for several months the biplane, the Avro Baby in w'hich the famous Queensland aviator, Bert Hinkler, made many of his pre- 1 920 record breaking flights, to his home town of Bundaberg. It has always been the philosophy of the Museum that the institution exists for the public and that the staff are present to assist the com- munity in the care and interpretation of the IMPROVING ACCESS TO MUSEUM SERVICES IN QUEENSLAND 367 public’s collections. Because of this, the Museum was interested in the links and use that could be established through encouragement of the Queensland Museum Association Inc., a society that grew out of an earlier body, the Queensland Hall of Science, Industry and Health Development Committee. The Queensland Museum Association, of over 400 members, provides regular volunteer workers in many areas of the Museum. Honorary workers interact between the institution and the community and extend beyond the members of the Association to include eminent research workers often with grant support, persons with particular interests in field-based projects such as maritime archaeol- ogy, work-experience students and display gal- lery explainers. Altogether, the Museum has more than 250 such honorary staff. DIRECT EDUCATION The main Museum maintains a range of in- house, well-staffed, educational programs and each Branch is involved in direct programs. In- creasingly, direct educational activities in the main Museum concentrate on teaching teachers to maximise effectiveness of their use of the facilities and resources in connection with class visits to the public galleries. Visitors in the younger age groups are specially provided for during school holiday periods in all of the Mus- eum's venues where trained educators are employed. In the Sciencentre and Cobb and Co., the Curators are trained teachers and are well placed to promote direct educational programs. Even so, the Sciencentre is supported in its educational initiatives by a seconded teacher, which enables the Branch to cater for nine class groups, ap- proximately 270 students each day during school semesters. The Cobb and Co. Branch has a pro- gram that enables visiting groups to use the same material for a variety of curriculum purposes for different age groups, this being of paramount importance where repetitive use of the facility is necessary for its financial viability. The Museum of Tropical Queensland appointed an Education Officer using funds made available from the local Gluyas Trust. This enabled the Branch to develop educational group visit procedures and a variety of activities for different age groups. In all cases, the service and procedures for booking a visit are advertised each semester to all schools, both State and private. Other avenues for promoting the Museum and its Branches and their educational facilities, such as journals dis- tributed to teachers and schools, are provided with articles for publication and paid advertise- ments. Every effort is made to ensure that school visits are planned for maximum effectiveness and are no longer a holiday for students and teachers alike. Computerized scheduling of visits ensures that minimal overlap with other groups is likely to occur and that the density of school groups docs not spoil visits for members of the public. The Museum caters for 180 000 students each year in its formal educational programs and, of these, nearly 80,000 are served through the Branches. From 1979, the Museum trialled an education program to take objects and programs to schools in distant and disadvantaged areas. The Depart- ment of Education seconded out a teacher, each for a two year term, together with all allowances and travelling expenses, while the Museum provided a light van, specimens and other teach- ing aids and all running expenses. The program included private and church schools, preschools and kindergardens and even served adult groups in more remote centres. Initially, one unit operated and most visits were made to schools within 300 km of Brisbane; occasional trips were made to the far north, west and northwest. As a result of the outstanding success of the initial trial service in southern Queensland, the Educa- tion Department seconded a further teacher to operate out of the main Museum from the end of 1990. The Museum of Tropical Queensland success- fully negotiated a similar service through the Priority Country Area Program with the North- ern Regional Office of the Education Depart- ment in mid- 1990 to serve the Townsville hinterland, together with part-time support of an additional teacher to assist with organisation of the service. Funds to decorate the extension vehicle were given by a local milk company and the highly visible presence of the Branch in isolated communities quickly raised the image of the whole Museum in the region. Topics covered by the service include dinosaurs, Australian mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, Australian inventiveness, pioneer life. Aboriginal life, what is a museum?, Australian transport, coral reef ecology, rocks and minerals, observation skills, venomous Australians, life cycles, skeletons and many more. The sendee visited 190 schools in 1989/90 and reached in excess of 25,000 students. As with in-house education, the extension ser- 368 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM vice is widely advertised each semester and is virtually booked out wdthin weeks of notification in the educational literature. Visits are scheduled to accommodate similarity of subject matter re- quests and clumping of destinations. Extension Officers attempt to return home at least each weekend and to include vehicle servicing and other maintenance into their itinerary. Being members of the State's teaching service, they work to the school timetable, rather than to that of the Museum. The Museum has recently instituted training courses for teachers to link with curriculum- based booklet production. This was specifically intended to augment a Museum insect activities booklet that had been distributed by the Depart- ment of Education to all primary schools. Initial- ly, some 200 teachers attended a two-day training seminar at the main Museum, run on a cost recovery basis. So successful was the ex- perience that a similar program, presented by Curatorial, Education and Display staff, was run from the Cobb and Co. Branch in Toowoomba. Further workshops are now intended to be con- ducted in other regional centres to coincide with display in those centres of a travelling display on insects. TRAVELLING EXHIBITIONS The Museum acknowledges that the public visits museums because they present real objects that are otherwise only seen in publications or on television. Any travelling exhibition that con- centrates only on two dimensional reproductions or replicas is unlikely to have the same impact as evinced through access to the Museum's per- manent facilities. At the same time, travelling exhibitions of original works of art, especially paintings, are considerably easier to pack, move from venue to venue, install and dismantle than are the more aw'kward, traditional ‘‘museum" displays. The latter frequently involve bulky and fragile display cases as w'cll as the items that are the subject of the exhibition. The Museum's first attempts at circulating dis- plays in recent limes involved a wildlife photog- raphy exhibition, contained in a demountable, free-standing, aluminium panel system and financial support from the Arts Council of Australia. The Kern Corporation, which was in- volved in the construction and operation of major shopping centres in provincial cities, provided space and staff to erect, dismantle and supervise the display. Shopping centres, with their daily attendance of thousands of customers, proved to be ideal as temporary exhibition venues, especially w^here material of a non-criti- cal nature in regard to security is involved. More recently, the Museum established a major temporary exhibition in its main gallery spaces in Brisbane that was designed to travel to regional and interstate venues after its Brisbane showing. The exhibition resulted from a curatorial project to conserve and fully catalogue a collection of 126 watercolour paintings of Queensland w ildtlowxrs by the renowned artist, Ellis Row^an. A selection of 90 of the paintings became the core of the display, and was presented in the manner of a late i9th century exhibition with an anteroom containing a brief history of the artist, together with some of the zoological collections she had used to add other dimensions to her *‘in situ" botanical renditions. The paintings were organised in a stacked situa- tion. in keeping with the illustrations of the original presentations of her work. The majority of the Brisbane presentation went on tour with financial support from the Regional Galleries Association and the Arts Division of the Premier's Department. The ex- hibition was shown at the well-appointed art galleries at the Gold Coast, Rockhampton and Townsville. The exhibition's interstate tour commenced in early 1991 in Sydney and it will be shown later in the Northern Territory Museum and Art Gallery and the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery. This exhibition was accompanied by a w'cll illustrated, high quality booklet that covered the experiences of Ellis Rowan in Queensland and all of the Museum's holdings (McKay, 1990), a series of art prints based upon four of the paintings that were fully sponsored by the paper and printing industries, a range of letter cards and a series of post cards. The most recent intrastate travelling exhibition was the Dodd collection of butterflies and other insects, the material that made the reputation of “the butterfly man of Kuranda". The collection is extremely fragile, comprising thousands of dried and pinned in.sccts in glass-fronted boxes. Transportation was organised by road using air- cushioned art transporters but it w'as assessed that purchase of an enclosed van that would have been sold at the end of the tour w as an option that was almost as cost-effective. Again, the venues chosen were the regional art galleries, these having controlled environments and spaces that can be used much more conveniently than local museums or meeting halls. IMPROVING ACCESS TO MUSEUM SERVICES IN QUEENSLAND 369 Fig. 8. Queensland Newspapers sponsored loan kil showing the comprehensive range of objects and other material included in the “Australian Dinosaurs” kit. The Queensland Museum is aware that its cur- rent solutions to travelling exhibitions can only serve centres that have sufficiently large popula- tion bases to support high quality venues. It is addressing design of units that can be circulated to more widely available situations, such as local libraries or local government facilities. Such units should be capable of changing from transportation to display units and be able to link together to form limited thematic topics as well as stand-alone subjects. LOAN SERVICES Every museum has available a range of specimens that are not suitable for inclusion in the permanent collections for one reason or another. In some instances, such specimens are acquired by donation or collection, while others arc relegated through reassessment of existing collections to an educational role. In the mid- 1960’s, the Queensland Museum began loaning such items, especially to teachers. The service began in the Brisbane area and was required to be collected and returned by hand. These in- dividual specimens joined a small selection of boxed, mounted specimens of reptile, bird and mammal specimens that had been available for many years and which had been one of the Museum’s first extension initiatives. These specimens greatly extended the out- reach services. Certain materials, such as minerals or shells, could be linked to provide greater spread and depth of subject coverage; they could be packaged and sent to any part of the State. Standard, hard cardboard suitcases, fitted with foam plastic sheets cut to contain the particular items, met the key criteria of strength, portability and economy. Some items that did not normally reach the educational collections (e.g., Aboriginal implements) were purchased. Material, such as examples of adaptations for flight, was specifically prepared to augment the loan collection. Volunteers organised and registered into a separate system all the isolated specimens that constitute the bulk of the loan collection. Original arrangements were amended to reduce the overall cost of maintenance of the service by altering the system of free access to material sent by road or rail transport to have the Museum cover charges associated with outward movement and to require the borrower to meet the return costs. A further modification to the borrowing arrangements resulted from the developing relationship between the Museum 370 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM and the Department of Education. Collections of loan items were located in each of the Department's regional offices and access to the material within each region was organised by the regional staff. This obviated the Museum from any requirement to contribute to any part of the distribution beyond the initial location of the loan items to the regional offices. In 1989, Queensland Newspapers Pty.Ltd. sponsored a comprehensive suite of loan kits that met many more of the curriculum needs of teachers in the more inaccessible parts of Queensland. The three year sponsorship of $700 per month is matched on a $ for S basis by the Queensland Museum Board. The kits involve a major “diorama” mounted specimen or other key items, together with 35mm slides, specially prepared information cards, Museum booklets and information sheets, hands-on specimens, audio tapes, activities sheets, teacher’s notes and other aides (Fig. 8). The package is designed in a wooden crate that is part of the presentation. A fitted cardboard cover provides protection and advertising for the contents, extending the life and public knowledge of the kit. It is anticipated that more than 30 loan kits will be completed on the sponsorship; as they are completed they are immediately distributed. Kits are rotated from region to region each semester. Queensland Newspapers intend to publish a broadsheet page of educational information, prepared by the Museum, on each topic covered; this will be released through their major daily and its weekly education supplement. Run-ons of the sheets will be used for distribution to students using kits. In 1989/90, the service reached 118,500 stu- dents in 1 900 schools and involved 1 8,485 items and kits on loan. SUPPORTING LOCAL MUSEUMS Queensland is well served by a wide variety of smaller museums, some of which are privately owned but with the majority, more than 170, operated by societies and other community groups. The number is increasing at a rate of nearly one per month. Some now achieve stand- ards comparable with those of the Queensland Museum. For example, in 1988, the Stockman’s Hall of Fame and Outback Heritage Centre was opened in Longreach. This $6M display and events centre was funded from Commonwealth and State Bicentennial funds, with a large com- ponent donated and subscribed by the Australian community. Exhibition items were largely provided on loan from the Museum of Australia in Canberra and from the Museum of Victoria in Melbourne. Display work was undertaken by commercial contract. Most local museums, however, do not aspire to developments of this magnitude. Many are by-products of the activities of small historical societies that acquired collections of items and associated archival documents and photographs. Most grew in an unplanned way and there was overlap in collection coverage from one centre to the next. Curation was frequently almost non- existant as was any attempt to extend the life of the collection items through application of con- trolled atmosphere or materials conservation treatment. Few maintained storage facilities and all items held, regardless of condition or duplica- tion, were presented in minimally interpreted exhibitions. While there was financial support available to the arts community generally for both capital development and for annual programs, local museums were specifically excluded from such assistance. Direct help was provided through the permanent loan of excess display furniture and this became a significant contribution when the Museum disposed of its complete compliment of furniture from its old building in 1986. In 1982 the Board convinced the Government to introduce a granting scheme to assist local museums (that complied with the ICOM defini- tion of a “museum") to improve museum ser- vices in their area of the State. Funding support has been at a relatively low level and does not capital works. Currently, support is restricted to a maximum of $3000 in any year in response to a formal application and can only be applied towards non-recurring projects. Some funding can be provided tow'ards building modifications where these are needed to ensure better protec- tion for collections. Work to insulate a building or to reduce ultraviolet light values is acceptable but repairs to steps are not. Support for payment for professional planning or to permit attendance at conferences or work experience placement at the Queensland Museum or relevant tertiary in- stitutions can be accommodated by the scheme. Administration of the Grant Towards Local Museum Activities Scheme is undertaken by the Queensland Museum and technical advice is given freely to all local museums in the State. Funds currently reach more than 70 local museums each year and there has been an ap- preciable improvement in the quality of the ac- IMPROVING ACCESS TO MUSEUM SERVICES IN QUEENSLAND 371 tivities addressed by local museums since the scheme’s inception. This has not only been be- cause of the funding provided but also reflects the more regular contact with and advice from professional Queensland Museum staff. Further, community museums must now be incorporated under the Associations Incorporation Act and this has meant that the previously loosely com- posed constitutions under which they operated have been considerably strengthened in favour of the long-term protection of collections held in the public interest. Existence of Branches of the Queensland Museum in regional centres, presented as they are at the same standards as in Brisbane, has established a level that local museums must at- tempt to match. Certainly, there is an increasing tendency for local museums to identify what is unique or important in their areas and to present more specialised exhibitions that are increasing- ly more different from those in nearby centres. This in itself is bound to increase their viability in an ever more competitive field. An attempt is being made by the Queensland Museum to locate important material back to the areas from which it was drawn. With financial support from Kelloggs, the Museum duplicated the mounted skeleton of the ornithischian dinosaur, Muttaburrasaurus and erected it in a display centre in Hughenden. Similar assistance has been offered to the Richmond Shire Council in regard to display of marine reptiles collected for that area of the State. TRAINING REGIONAL PERSONNEL In May, 1978, the Queensland Museum or- ganised a weekend training seminar for local museums; it aimed to improve services by providing access for participants to a full range of professional and technical advice and exper- tise. This was supplemented by several specialist, practical training weekends on topics such as display planning and production. The Museum has consistently provided staff to par- ticipate in workshops organised by the Museums Association of Australia and more localised groupings of museums and like institutions. At the same time, a number of small, existing museums and some seeking to establish themsel- ves, sought and received approval to locate honorary staff in the Museum with a view to having them experience a range of training in curatorial andpreparatorial techniques. In-house work experience is also offered to a number of senior secondary students each year, together with tertiary students from museum studies cour- ses around the country. International links have been established in the same way through accep- tance of trainee workers for extended periods from Asian and Pacific nations, including Sarawak, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Niue and the Solomon Islands. The most recent project in the area of museological training was to bring together a group of interested Aboriginals from areas as far afield as Mt.Isa and Cairns. There has been a growing interest among the Aboriginal com- munity in the development of cultural centres and the Museum felt that it would be of benefit to those who may ultimately be involved to have first hand experience of the range of skills needed to successfully plan and run specimen based services for community and tourist use. SUPPLYING PROFESSIONAL STAFF The Australian Stockman’s Hall of Fame and Outback Heritage Centre recognised shortly after the opening that professional staff would be needed on site to oversee the collections, im- prove the information component of the initial displays and develop collection policies and col- lections from them. It was also recognised that, because of the isolation of the facility, any ap- pointee would be severely disadvantaged regarding professional development and main- tenance of standards. The Queensland Museum was approached to appoint a curatorial officer to the staff of the Museum for attachment to the Hall of Fame for two years. All costs associated with the appointment would be borne by the Hall of Fame and the officer would enjoy the same conditions of employment as Museum staff. The Museum considered that the proposal mutually beneficial. The arrangement provided the opportunity for a much closer relationship than could otherwise be achieved with the Hall of Fame, as the largest of the community-run “museums” in the State. It also encouraged co- operative ventures, especially in the public pro- gram area. From the Hall of Fame’s viewpoint, not only was a professionally linked officer present in Longreach but also, the Museum was available to oversee the Hall of Fame’s collec- tion documentation and development program and give expert advice on conservation and building modification needs. Now in its second year, it is unlikely that this type of arrangement could be readily duplicated 372 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM by other local museums because of their restricted income bases. CONCLUSION The Queensland Museum has progressively increased access to its services by as many of the residents of Queensland and visitors to the State as possible. While much remains to be done, the services now implemented are considered to ad- dress the problems of distance and decentralisa- tion to an extent that is significantly greater than most other medium- sized museums within Australia and elsewhere. By establishing a philosophy that identified the rights of access by all of the residents of Queensland to the material and information held in trust within the Museum, it has been possible to act both proactively and opportunistically to develop cost effective programs that continue to expand and that have high public acceptance. LITERATURE CITED McKAY, J.M. 1990. “Ellis Rowan - A Flower-Hunter in Queensland". (Queensland Museum: Bris- bane) 91p. TRANTER, D. 1990. “Cobb and Co. - Coaching in Queensland". (Queensland Museum: Brisbane) 159p. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS AT YIWARLARLAY I : SITE REPORT BRUNO DAVID, IAN MCNIVEN AND JOSEPHINE FLOOD David, B., McNiven, 1. and Flood, J. 1 99 1 08 01 : Archaeological excavations at Yiwarlarlay 1; site report. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 373-380. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. Yiwarlarlay 1, the Lightning Brothers site, was excavated by the authors in 1989. The site contained evidence of human occupation dating back to the last 700 years or so, although it is not until the last 150 years, after the arrival of Europeans, that there is any in situ evidence for artistic activity in the shelter. In this paper we record the Lightning Brothers Dreaming story as was recorded by the authors in 1989, and present complete lists of materials excavated at the site. □ Archaeology, Northern Territory, rock art, aboriginal site. Bruno David, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia; fan McNiven, Department of Archaeology, LaTrobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia; Josephine Flood, Australian Heritage Commission, P.O. Box 1567, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 260J, Australia; 24 November, 1989. YIWARLARLAY AND WARDAMAN SOCIAL LANDSCAPE 150km SSW of Katherine lies a Dreaming place important to the Wardaman people of the Northern Territory. This is Yiwarlarlay, the land of the Lightning Brothers. Yiwarlarlay itself contains an impressive sandstone outcrop jutting out of flat sandy plains. Amongst the outcrop are several rockshelters, many of which were, during various episodes in the past, painted and engraved. The engravings themselves generally (but not always) appear to be older than the paintings, as the former underlie the latter, and most of them are considerably patinated. Together, the plains, sandstone outcrop, rock- shelters and rock art consitute to the Wardaman people part of the Dreaming-scape of the Lightn- ing Brothers. It is the landscape itself which, to the War- daman people, expresses the essence of the local Dreaming. The art is part and parcel of this landscape; it is considered buwarraja (Dream- ing), as are the surrounding rocks, hills, etc., and the paintings and engravings are not believed to be the result of human actions (although humans may make them Took good’ by retouching) (Merlan, 1989). The paintings themselves are numerous, and have been undertaken in various styles, but the central images are two huge figures, one of which is over four metres tall, of human-like beings. These are the Lightning Brothers, Yagjagbula and Jabirringgi (Fig. 1). In the Dreaming Yagjagbula, the younger brother, is tall and handsome, whilst Jabirringgi is short and not so attractive. Both brothers are of the Jabijin skin. Yagjagbula has a wife, Gul- liridan, whilst Jabirringgi is married to Ganayan- da. Every day the brothers go hunting; one day Yagjagbula hunts for food, the next it is Jabirringgi's turn. One day Jabirringgi returns from a hunting trip to hear his wife whispering with Yagjagbula in a secluded break in the rock (Fig. 2). He immediately becomes suspicious and investigates to find them copulating. He throws a spear at Yagjagbula, who evades it. A fight breaks out, with each brother taking a posi- tion on the plains at Yiwarlarlay, whence they throw .spears and boomerangs at each other (Fig. 3). In the process they produce lightning, which FIG. 1. The Lightning brothers as they appear at Yiwarlarlay 374 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 2. Break in the sandstone where Yagjagbula and Ganayanda are caught at one stage strikes the sandstone outcrop and splits the rock in two. The frogs come up from the south to watch the fight, as does the rain {wiyan), who was heading up to the Yingalarri waterhole, but gets distracted as it passes near Yiwarlarlay (at the same time, the Rainbow Ser- pent, Gorondolni, flashes at the rain to warn it not to advance to Yingalarri). Eventually Yagjagbula hits Jabirringgi across the forehead with his boomerang, knocking off his headdress and winning the fight (Fig. 4). Some Wardaman people say that Jabirringi is decapitated across the forehead, whilst others say that only his headdress is knocked off. In the event, the headdress falls to the ground, where it is transformed into a conspicuous rock which, until it was stolen by Europeans recently, could be seen at Yiwarlarlay. ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS Yiwarlarlay contains what is perhaps the most reknowned Aboriginal rock art site in Australia. The site and its related Dreaming Story has been reported by a number of authors (e.g. Harney, 1943; Arndt, 1962), and was made famous to the non-archaeoiogica! public by Eric von Daniken (1971) who said that the main painted figures on the walls of the shelter were extra-terrestrials. It was not long after that J.P. White (1974) devoted a whole chapter of his book to the Lightning Brothers in his debunking of von Daniken’s rather fanciful flights of imagination. Yet despite the archaeological and public awareness of the art at Yiwarlarlay, until very recently very little was known about the antiq- uity and nature of occupation at the site. The first archaeological investigations there did not lake place until 1989, when the authors undertook Earthwatch-funded research in the region (Fig. 5). This paper reports on the excavations under- taken at Yiwarlarlay 1, being the rockshelter housing the paintings of the Lightning Brothers. Other shelters with signs of occupation occur at Yiwarlarlay, and these will form the subject of a separate study (see David cl al.., in press, for. further information on archaeological work in 1988 and 1989). Yiwarlarlay 1 was partly excavated by David, McNiven and Earthwatch volunteers in mid- 1989. A series of 16 contiguous 50cm x 50cm squares were excavated below the painting of Yagjagbula (Fig. 5) (David et al., 1990b). Ex- cavated squares were set as a four by four grid, referenced by an alpha-numeric system. Excava- tion of the outer 10 squares (C18, D18, E18, F18-21, E21, D21, C21) did not extend below Stratigraphic Unit (SU) 2, as these were ex- cavated solely to protect the main excavation from contamination by in-falling loose, surface sediments. By excavating the periphery squares down to compact sediments, such contamination FIG. 3. Place on the sandy plains where Jabirringi stands in his fight with Yagjagbula. YIWARLARLAY 1 SITE REPORT 375 FIG. 4. Jabirringi, with his head-dress knocked off. could be minimised. The maximum depth of excavation of the periphery squares was 6.6cm. All squares Avere excavated in bucket spits following the site’s stratigraphy (Johnson, 1979). All Slone artefacts, bones, shell, ochre, contact materials, and exfoliated wall cortex ob- served during the excavation were recorded in 3-D and bagged separately, whilst the rest of the cultural material was sieved in 3mm sieves and subsequently sorted. Sediment samples were taken from each spit (XU) from each square. Bedrock was reached at a maximum depth of 56cm below surface. Four well-marked stratigraphic units were identified (Fig. 6): SU 1 : loose surface material with much organic material present (e.g. leaf litter, macropod faeces). Cultural materials present include char- coal, stone artefacts, European objects, ochre, ash, bone and shell. Sediment is a greyish-red ashy sand. SU2: similar to SUl but more compact. In- cludes cultural materials, and there is significant- ly less leaf litter and macropod faeces than in SUl. European objects present. Compact greyish-red ashy sand. SU3: grey ash with similar range of cultural materials as SU2, although here no European objects were found. Interface between SU2 and SU3 is 1cm thick. SU3 contains three localised lenses (sub-units 3b-3d), where sediment colour and ash content differ from generalised SU3a. At base of SU3a, a well-defined thin, compact crust of ash appears (SU3b). It is up to 3mm thick where present. SU3c and SU3d are concentra- tions of white-grey ash. SU4: the change-over to SU4a is sudden. This unit is a yellowish-pink sand which gradually gives way to a white sand (SU4b). Numerous sandstone blocks appear in SU4. Some very localised termite-damaged areas were identified in situ, and these are well-defined, compact, crusty areas. They could be easily traced during the excavation, and were isolated from surround- ing uncontaminated sediments (Appendix 1). Radiocarbon Dates Two radiocarbon dates (David et al., 1990) will only briefly be recounted here. Wk-1549; Modern; a charcoal date from the basal spit of SU3 in Square D19 (XU7). R 11882, NZA860; 444 ± 87BP; a charcoal date, combining charcoal from Square D19 XUll and XU12b. Square E19 XUlOb and XUllb. and Square E20 XU 10b and XU14 (near base of SU4). Cultural materials were excavated from all stratigraphic units (Appendix 1). Deposition FIG. 5. Excavations at Yiwarlarlay 1. 376 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM West 1 FIG 6. Yiwarlarlay 1 section drawings. YIWARLARLAY 1 SITE REPORT 377 rates of the various cultural materials changes significantly immediately after European con- tact (beginning of SU3), when increases in all cultural materials are noted (David ct al., 1990, table 1). The post-contact period sees the first appearance of in situ ochres and of exfoliated painted wall cortex (five tiny fragments of ochre were found in spits immediately underlying SU3. These are likely to be post-depositional intrusions, as are the fine particles of charcoal in the upper spits of SU4). The ochres and the exfoliated painted wall cortex deposition rates continue to increase through the 19th century, and peak during the first half of the 20th century. Unpainted exfoliated wall cortex occurs throughout the deposits, implying that the sur- face of the rock wall has been unstable and exfoliating at least since humans first started camping al the site. The ochres and painted wall cortex only in post-contact levels imply that the paintings at Yiwarlarlay I arc a post-contact phenomenon. This is especially the case with respect to the paintings of the Lightning Brothers given that the excavation pit was located imme- diately beneath them (David ct al., 1990). A human burial occurs in eroding sediments in a crack in the rock situated towards the southern end of the shelter. Fragments of ochred bone, similar to those of the eroding burial, were found in situ in the excavated deposits, from SU 1 down to SU3 (inclusive). All such bones are very small fragments. It is likely that the burial which is currently eroding has been doing so since the beginnings of deposition of SU3, as fragments occur in the deposits since then. The burial is located in close proximity to the excavation squares, and slightly up-slope, although else- where the surface of the shelter floor is flat. Given the post-contact nature of SU3, the burial itself is also likely to have been deposited during post-contact times (no ochred bone fragments have been found in SU4). CONCLUSION Archaeologically, Yiwarlarlay 1 does not show in situ evidence of human occupation before approximately the thirteenth century A.D. Since then, low intensity occupation has prevailed until the arrival of Europeans some- time during the 19th century. In association with this event Aboriginal use of Yiwarlarlay 1 in- creased dramatically. This is expressed not only in a proliferation of stone artefacts, ochred bone (burial) and food refuse, but also in the begin- nings of painting at the site. Yet underlying the paintings on the walls of the shelter are numerous peckings and abraded grooves, most of which are highly palinated and therefore likely, though not necessarily, to have considerable antiquity. It is possible that such engravings were made al a time before people camped at the site itself; in other words, before the deposition of anthropogenic materials at the site. For this reason, in part, archaeological in- vestigations in other rockshelters at and around Yiwarlarlay could prove useful in understanding the antiquity of the rock art at Yiwarlarlay 1 and beyond. Such excavations will be published at a later date. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the many Wardaman people who showed us and allowed us to record and excavate some of their sites. Special thanks go to Ruby Alison, Riley Birdun, July Blutcher, Daisy Gimin, Lily Gingina, Queenie Ngabijiji, Tarpot Ngamunagami, Elsie Raymond, Oliver Raymond. Barbara Raymond, Michael Raymond, Lindsay Raymond and Tilley Raymond. The Lightning Brothers story recounted in the Introduction of this paper was told to us on-site in 1 989 by Elsie Raymond, with Tarpot, Lily, and Riley also present. We would also like to thank the 1989 Earthwatch team for helping with the excavation and sorting of Yiwarlarlay 1, and Earthwatch for financing the expedition. Thanks also to Fran- cesca Mcrlan and Robin Frost for useful discus- sions in the field, and to Sandra Cochrane, Tracey Barrett and Nicole Hayley for helping to sort the Yiwarlarlay 1 material. Last but not least, thanks go to the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies and the Australian Heritage Commission for funding of the radiocarbon dates. LITERATURE CITED ARNDT, W. 1 962. The interpretation of the Delamere lightning painting and rock engravings. Oceania 32:163-177. DAVID, B.. McNIVEN, 1., FLOOD, J. AND FROST, R. 1990. Yiwarlarlay 1: archaeological excava- tions at the Lightning Brothers site, Delamere station. Northern Territory. Archaeology in Oceania 25 (2): 79-84. DAVID, B., McNIVEN, I. AND FLOOD, J. in press. 378 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM The Lightning Brothers Project; 1988 and 1989 field seasons. Australian Archaeology. HARNEY, W.E. 1943. Taboo. (Australasian Publish- ing Company: Sydney). JOHNSON. I. 1979. ‘The getting of data’. Un- published PhD thesis, Australian National University: Canberra. MERLAN, F. 1989. The interpretive framework of APPENDIX Wardaman rock art: a preliminary report. Australian Aboriginal Studies 1989 (2): 12-24. VON DANIKEN, E. 1971. ’Chariots of the Gods: unsolved mysteries of the past'. (Transworld: London). WHITE, J.P. 1974. 'The past is human'. (Angus and Robertson: Sydney). List of materials retrieved from all excavation squares. Note that glass flakes are included in the “Stone Artefacts" columns. SU=Stratigraphic Unit (Layer); XU=Excavation Unit (spit). SOtJARFClS XU SLi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 y 10 11 12 1 1 4.8 0.30 1 0,08 9.U5 35.44 0.17 2 1,26 1 1 77 S 2 2 3.1 0.45 11,98 7.92 0.17 ]| l=BO\E (GM): :=MUSSEU SHEl.I. (GM): 3=OCHRE (#); 4=OCHRE (GM); 5=CHARCOAI (GM): 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM); 7=OCHRED BONE (GM): 8=OCHREO CORTEX (#); 9=OCHRED CORTEX (GM): 10=:UNOCHRED CORTEX (»); 1 UUNOCHRED CORTEX (GM); 12=STONE ARTEFACTS (#). SQUARE D18 XU SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 1 22.8 1,47 2 0,21 35.57 71.36 0.10 2 0.35 1 0.4 0 01 18 2 2 14.6 1,5 24.11 21.73 0,19 9 1,93 31 l = BONE (GM); 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3=OCHRE (#): 4=OCHRE (GM); 5=CHARCOAL (GM); 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM); 7=OCHRED BONE (GM); 8=OCHRED CORTEX (#); 9=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); 10=UNOCHRED CORTEX (#); lUUNOCHRED CORTEX (GM); 12=EGG SHELL (GM); 13=STONE ARTEFACTS (#). SQUARE E18 XU SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 1 20.4 2.16 1 O.Il 56.13 87.24 6.03* 0.78 2 17.0 1.18 3 0.24 33.43 30.83 0.07* • 0.82 3 0.11 0.04 UBONE (GM); 2=MUSSEl. SHELL (GM); 3=OCHRE (tf); 4=OCHRE (GM); 5=CHARCOAL (GM): 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM); 7=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM); 8=OCHRED BONE (GM); 9=OCHRED CORTEX (#); 10=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); 11=EGG SHELL (GM): 12=I.AND SNAM. (CM): 13»STONE ARTEFACTS (»), *=1 TIN LID + 1 FRAGMENT OF ALUMINIUM FOIL; FRAGMENT OF ALUMINIUM FOIL, SQUARE F18 XU SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 1 32.8 1.12 9 0.50 36.12 106.86 0.10* 0.36 4 0.17 0.07 21 2 2 5.6 0.30 2 0.19 9.83 24.62 0.I0*‘ 1,42 8 UBONE (GM); 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM): 3=OCHRE (#): 4=OCHRE (GM); 5=CHARCOAL (GM); 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM); 7=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM); 8=OCHRED BONE (GM); y=OCHRED CORTEX (#): 10=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); 1UIA.ND SNAIL (GM); 12=STONE ARTEFACTS (#), *=1 PIECE OF PAPER + I PIECE OF CLOTH; ••=2 FRAGMENTS OF ALUMINIUM FOIL, XU SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ] 1 12 13 14 1 I 8.4 0.21 8,59 38,29 0.76 4 0.13 1 0.05 6 2 2 5,3 0.22 1 0.05 12.06 15.63 0.05 1 0.04 8 3 2-»-3A 4.4 1.03 4 0.50 27,58 2.38 0.04 0.10 1 0,09 12 4 3 A 5.2 0.20 13.52 3.32 4 5 3A 1.4 0.19 1 0.16 5.12 2.81 3 6 3A+4 0.2 0.05 1.06 0.23 1 7 4B 0.U4 0.21 1? 0.047 0.23 3 8 4B 0.07 0.15 0.04 4 9 4B 0.15 11.60 4 10 4B 0,03 UBONE (GM); 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3=OCHRE (#); 4=OCHRE (GM): 5=CHARCOAL (GM); 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM): 7=OCHRED PAPER-BARK (GM); 8=OCHRED BONE (GM); 9=OCHRED CORTEX (#): 10=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); 1 UUNOCHRED CORTEX {#); 12=UNOCHRED CORTEX (GM); 13=TERM1TE NEST (GM); 14=STONE ARTEFACTS («). SQUARE D19 XU SU 1 2 1 1 12.4 0.83 2 10.3 0.72 3 2 22,9 2.68 4 2 26.5 2.95 5 2+3A 28.0 4.33 6 3A 21.9 1.90 3 4 5 6 6 0.16 6.80 132.23 2 0.13 20.62 36.59 45.62 8.65 5 0.20 59.52 8.48 3 0,12 90.98 0.04 1 0.04 47.49 7 8 9 10 0.U5 0.81 10 U.90 0.92 1 0,05 0.12 0,40 1 0.01 0.40 1 0,04 2.73 2 0.05 12 1,31 11 5 YIWARLARLAY 1 SITE REPORT 379 7 3A-t-3B 6.2 0.55 18.30 8 4A 0.2 0.03 1 0.04 0.53 9 4B 0.13 10 4B 0.2 2 0.15 0.14 1 1 4B 12A 4B 0.14 12B 4B 13 4B XU 1 SU 1 13 14 15 16 17 1 2 1 2 3 T 2.10 0.97 4 2 0,01 5 2+3A 0,44 0.04 0.01 6 3A 2.00 0.0! 7 3A+3B 0.01 8 4A 9 4B 10 4B 8.97 11 4B 12A 4B 5.69 12B 4B 13 4B 0.18 1.84 0.01 3.30 2 0.03 0.56 15,15 5 0.19 0.53 1 0.17 5.46 0.18 0.54 18 18 18 12 28 66 60 12 6 17 8 4 8 3 UBONE (GM): 2=MUSSEl. SHELL (GM); 3=OCHRE (#): 4=OCHRE (GM); 5=CHARCOAL (GM); 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM): 7=OCHRED PAPER- BARK (GM): 8=OCHRED BONE (GM): 9=OCHRED WAI.L CORTEX (#): 10=OCHRED WAl.I. CORTEX (GM); 1 UL’NOCHRED WAI.l CORTEX (#)• 12=L NOCHRED WALL CORTEX (GM); 13=P1ECE OF WOOD (GM): 14=BURNT EARTH BURNT STONE (GM); 15=EGG SHELL (GM); 16=LAND SNAIL (GM); 17=TERM1TE NEST (GM); 18=STONE ARTEFACTS (#). SQUARE E19 XU SU 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 16.0 1.68 2 0.07 107.41 2 15.0 0.99 19.35 3 2 17.4 1.53 10.00 4 -> 18.1 1.30 1 0.08 2.01 5 3A 27.3 3.92 1.66 6 3A 29.6 2.54 1 0.09 7.18 7 3B 10.7 1.14 2.55 8 4A 0.1 0.03 1.34 9A 4 1.06 9B 4... 0.16 lOA 4B“* 0.3 2,63 lOB 4B 0.23 llA 4B*** 3.74 1 IB 4B 0.01 12 4B*** 0.40 13A 4B*-' 1.64 13B 4B 0.09 14 4B 0.20 XU SU 13 14 15 16 17 1 1 5.79 1 0.99 27 n -> 0.61 1 0.44 16 3 2 9 4 2 0.04 17 5 3A 18 6 3 A 25 7 3B 0.27 1 0.09 37 8 4A 9 9A 4 5 9B 4... 1 9.99 lOA 4B*** 11 26.15 lUB 4B 2 llA 4B“* 7 1 0.01 1 70.72 IIB 4B 1 12 4B**« 2 0.06 5 140.28 13A 4B*«. 1 0.02 5 41.70 13B 4B 3 0.10 14 4B 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 0.04* 1.1 1 6.37 0.01 Til 0.19 31.81 2 0.02** 0.37 26.25 0.25’ 0.24 42.47 1 75.50 0.01 92.89 31.16 0.01 1 2.29 0.58 0.53 0.01 0,42 0.01 0.05 l=BONE (GM); 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3=OCHRE (#); 4=OCHRE (GM): 5=OTHER ORGANICS (GM); 6=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM): 7=BURNT EARTH BURNT STONE {GM):8=OCHRED BONE(GM): Q=CHARCOAl. (GM); 10=r.AND SNAII.(GM); 1I=EGG SHEL(.(GM): 12=OCHRED CORTEX (#); 13=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); 14=UNOCHRED CORTEX (#); 15=UNOCHRED CORTEX (GM); 16=STONE ARTEFACTS (#); 17=TERM1TE NEST (GM). *=2 PIECES OF ALUMINIUM FOIL; ••=! PIECE OF ALUMINIUM FOIL; *'‘*=XU DISTURBED BY TERMITES. SQUARE F19 XU SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 1 9.2 2.23 3 0.35 41.59 87.76 0.03* 2.37 3 0.15 T16 2 2 12.2 0.41 2 0.37 28.00 32.23 0.10* 0.05 4 1.62 0.08 7 UBONE(GM); 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3=OCHRE («); 4=OCHRE(GM):5 =CHARCOAL(GM); 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM): 7=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM); 8=OCHRED BONE (GM); 9=OCHRED WALL CORTEX (#); 10 = OCHRED WALL CORTEX (GM); 1 ULAND SNAIL (GM); 12=STONE AR- TEFACTS(#). • = 1 FRAGMENT OF ALUMINIUM FOIL. SQUARE C20 XU SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 1 8.4 0.31 10,27 36.51 0.22 7 0.19 0.05 1 0.04 4 2 2 9.6 1.00 8.10 21.17 0.16 5 0.09 0.01 9 3 2 11.4 0.32 16.89 6.35 0.15 0.14 1 0.02 10 380 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM 4 2 22.9 2.81 36.62 4.59 35.58* 0.47 ] 0,60 15 5 2-^3A 5,49 0.18 9.92 1.17 1 0.06 0.03 2 0,08 7 l=BONE (CM): 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3=CHARCOAL (GM); 4=OTHER ORGANICS (GM): 5=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM); 6=OCHRED BONE (GM); 7=OCHRED CORTEX {#): 8=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); 9=BURNT EARTH.'BCRNT STONE (GM); 10=EGG SHELL (GM ); 1 ULAND SNAIL (GM); 12=OCHRE (#); 13=OCHRE (GM); 14=STONE ARTEFACTS (#). •=CUT-THROAT RAZOR. SQUARE D20 XU SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 1 23.3 0.50 27.79 84.67 0.05* 0.64 4 2 2 20.9 1.39 24.02 36.80 0.05 •• 1.94 6 0.70 6.78 9 3 34.3 1.48 4 0.08 41.39 16.12 0.49 2 0.28 10 4 2 57.6 3.03 2 0.16 87.36 8.05 0.05 •• ■ 1.63 1 0.03 56 5 :+3A 51.4 13.32 9 0.28 98.19 1 1.67 6.74 2 0.03 2 0.22 38 6 :+3A 53.7 2.79 2 0.10 63.50 1.89 39 7 4A 10.5 1,21 2 0.17 23.31 0.93 47 8 4 0.15 0.35 2 7,81 9 4 0.01 0.04 0.06*‘ * ■ l=BONE(GM); 2*MUSSELSHELI.(GM); 3=OCHRE(#);4 =OCHRE(GM);5 =CHARCOAL (GM ); 6=OTHER ORGAN ICS (GM); 7=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM); 8=OCHRED BONE (GM): 9=OCHREl) CORTEX (#): 10=OCHREO CORTEX (GM); 1 U :UNOCHRED CORTEX (#); 12=UNOCHRED CORTEX (GM); 13=t.ARGE QUARTZ CRYSTAL (GM): 14: =STONE ARTEFACTS (^). ' = 1 PIECE OF ALUMINIUM FOIL + 1 MATCHSTICK: **=2 PIECES OF ALUMINIUM FOIL; • ••=1 PIECEOF ALUMINIUM FOIL- + 1 PIECE OF PLASTIC; * •••=1 PIECE OF PLASTIC SQL ARE £20 XU SU I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 1 7 0.29 28.62 4 0.68 3 1,05 0.94 21.09 70,41 2 19 O.Il 26.11 1 0.28 1.66 27.05 4 0.14 35.62 3 2 31 0.01 25,36 1 0,03 0.97 27,92 2 0.46 13.75 4 2 20 31.46 3.78 25.36 2,66 6 2 73 0.09 133.41 2 0.65 5.08 65.15 2,26 6 2+3 43 99.99 3.89 28.66 1 0.09 5.13 7 3A 56 37,08 3.32 23.39 6.60 8 4A 0.65 0.06 0.81 9 4B 0.29 1 0.08 0.24 0,60 lOA 4B* 2 0.18 lOB 4B 0.01 0.21 11 4B* 2 0.01 1 0.01 3.59 12 4B* 5 3 0.15 0.10 1.23 13 4B* 4 6.76 14 4B 0,01 0.78 l=STONE ARTEFACTS (#); 2= ^CONTACT OBJECTS (GM): ; 3=CHARCOAL (GM); 4= OCHRED CORTEX (#); 5= OCHRED CORTEX (GM): 6=UN- OCHRED CORTEX (#); 7=UNOCHRED CORTEX (GM): 8= :MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 9 = BONE (INCLUDING OCHRED BONE) (GM); 10=OCHRE (#); ll=OCHRE(GM); 12= OTHER ORGANICS . (GM). •‘=TERMITE DAMAGE, XU 1 ARE SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 12.4 0.65 1 0.92 38.71 118.19 0.97 16 2 2 6.9 1.04 11.15 32.81 0.13* 0.03 12 l=BONE (GM); 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3=OCHRE (#): 4=OCHRE (GM): 5=CHARCOAL (GM); 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM);7=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM);8=OCHRED BONE(GM); 9=STONE ARTEFACTS (#), *=1 PIECE OF ALUMINIUM FOIL, 4 0.03 5 6 10.71 35.12 6.86 26.47 7 O.IO* 8 9 0.24 7 0.28 10 II 12 0.32 9 0.02 9 1=BONE (GM); 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3=OCHRE (#); 4=OCHRE (GM); 5=CHARCOAL (GM); 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM): 7=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM); 8=OCHRED BONE (GM); 9=OCHRED CORTEX (#); 10=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); 1 1 = EGG SHELL (GM): 12=STONE ARTEFACTS (#). *=1 MATCHSTICK. SQUARE D21 XU SU 1 1 2 T 1 2 3 2L7 0,25 33.33 21.2 0.85 34.66 4 95.01 63.18 5 O.IT 6 7 0.78 11 1.96 5 8 9 0.67 3 0.17 10 II 12 0.32 0.01 15 10 l=BONE (GM); 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3=CHARCOAL (GM): 4=OTHER ORGANICS (GM); 5=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM); 6=OCHRED BONE (GM); 7=OCHRED CORTEX (#); 8=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); 9=UNOCHRED CORTEX (#); 10=UNOCHRED CORTEX (GM); 1 ULAND SNAIL (GM); I2=ST0NE ARTEFACTS(#). *=1 PIECE OF ALUMINIUM FOIL+ I MATCHSTICK. SQUARE E21 XU SU 1 2 1 1 19.0 0.61 2 2 27.9 2J3 3 5 4 5 2.70 32.29 40.48 6 7 63.40 1.50 25.41 1.54 8 9 9 10 3,77 0,54 3 11 12 13 22 0.60 0.05 33 UBONE (GM): 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3=OCHRE (#); 4=OCHRE (GM): 5=CHARCOAL (GM): 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM); 7=OCHRED BONE (GM): 8=OCHRED CORTEX (#); 9=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); 10=UNOCHRED CORTEX {#); I UUNOCHRED CORTEX (GM); 12=LAND SNAIL {#); 13=STONE ARTEFACTS (#). SnUARF F21 XU SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 1 19.8 0.75 1 0.17 29.90 63.29 0.10* 2.16 5 21.93 32 2 2 14.7 2,95 22.36 18.95 O.Or* 0.50 4.25 22 l = BONE(GM); 2=MUSSEL SHELL (GM); 3= OCHRE (#); 4= OCHRE (GM); 5=CHARCOAL (GM); 6=OTHER ORGANICS (GM); 7=CONTACT OBJECTS (GM): 8=OCHRED BONE (GM); 9= OCHRED CORTEX (#); 10=OCHRED CORTEX (GM); lUBURNT EARTH BURNT STONE (GM); 12=STONE AR- TEFACTS (#). "=2 CIGARETTE BUTTS; **=1 CIGARETTE BUTT. FAUNAL SURVEY OF NEW ENGLAND III. BIRDS. HUGH A. FORD AND DAVID MCFARLAND Ford, H.A. and McFarland, D. 1991:08:01. Faunal survey of New England III. Birds. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3);38 1-431. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-883.V The birds of the New England region were recorded between 1978 and 1982; distributions of the 296 species were mapped on a square grid. Maps are provided for 2 14 species; others were only rarely sighted and their distribution is described. The diversity of birds is attributed to a great diversity of habitats and location of the area near the boundaries of several zoogeographic areas. HughA. Ford and David McFarland, Department of Zoology, University of New England, Armidale, YSIF 2351. Present address of D.C. McFarland, Division of Conservation, Parks and Wildlife, P. O. Box 42, Kenmore, Queensland 4069: 28 May, 1991. In 1966 staff and students of the University of New England embarked on a faunal survey of the New England region (Fleatwole and Simp- son, 1986). Briefly, the area encompasses the Commonwealth Electorate of New England as it was in 1 975. This falls between latitudes 28° 50' S and 3r 40’S and longitudes 150° 00’ E and 152° 40’ E. New England has a diverse topography, rang- ing from 200 m above sea level to 1500 m asl. Habitat ranges from closed forests on the eastern escarpment of the Great Dividing Range to dry woodland on the western slopes. There are rapid- ly flowing streams with high waterfalls, sluggish meandering rivers and freshwater swamps, lagoons and lakes, but no sea coast. Extensive areas have been cleared for agriculture, or great- ly modified by logging and grazing. Data are available for relief, soils, climate, vegetation, geology and land-use (Figs 1,2; Lea el al., 1977; Heatwole and Simpson, 1986). Simpson and Stanisic (1986) described the distribution of gastropods. This paper presents the distribution of birds. The distribution of birds in Australia is now reasonably well known, through efforts of the Royal Australasian Orn- ithologists’ Union (1977—1981). Ranges were plotted at the scale of U squares of latitude and longitude (Blakers et al., 1984). Other atlases that pre-date the Australia-wide atlas are those in the Adelaide region (SAOA, 1977) and a section of the south coast of NSW (Disney, 1979). Atlases of Tasmania and Victoria have used the RAOU data base (Thomas, 1979, Emison el al., 1987). Morris et al. (1981) described the distribution of birds in New South Wales. Their Northern Tablelands region is wholly within New England, and their North West Slopes are mostly within the New England region covered by this atlas. MATERIALS AND METHODS Although the aim of the New England survey was to collect data at the level of 5 minute FIG. 1. Collecting grid, with main towns and water bodies: - 1. Copeton Dam. 2, Llangothlin Lagoon. 3, Mother of Ducks Lagoon. 4, Dangar’s Lagoon. 5, Keepit Dam. 382 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM RAINFOREST ^ WOODLAND OPEN FOREST Q] CLEARED/GRASSLAND FIG. 2. Vegetation of the New England region. squares, and gastropods were mapped on this scale, data for the RAOU atlas were collected on 10 minute squares. As we used the RAOU atlas data, distributions of birds in this paper are mapped on that scale. Richard Noske, at that time a postgraduate student in the Department of Zoology at the University of New England, was coordinator of the RAOU atlas for the region from 1977 to 1981. All atlas data were passed through the University of New England to the RAOU. Subsequently the RAOU queried un- usual records, which were checked locally, and later sent maps of each species to UNE. These maps are presented and interpreted here. A square is filled in when the species was recorded there during the atlas period. Breeding is indi- cated by a black dot in the centre of the square. Compass points and states are abbreviated to first letters. Australia is abbreviated to ‘Aust.’, New Guinea to ‘NG’, and New Zealand to ‘NZ’. The heading ‘RANGE’ = the total range of the species. RESULTS Bird distributions are shown, except where a species occurred in fewer than 10 squares, in which case individual localities are identified or the location of clusters described. Distribution data are from Blakersetal. (1984), unless other- wise stated. Emu Dromaius novaehollandiae RANGE; almost throughout Aust. HABITAT: Most, except for dense forests, waterless deserts and closely settled areas. N. ENG. RANGE; 9 squares, NW fringe. Great-crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus RANGE: E and SW Aust. and T, with a few records from the NW and centre. Also NZ, Europe, Asia and Africa. HABITAT; permanent freshwater lakes, sometimes on the sea. N. ENG. RANGE: 5 squares, most frequently Lake Keepit, Dangar's Lagoon. Hoary-headed Grebe Poliocephalus poliocephalus (Fig. 3) RANGE: almost throughout Aust. HABITAT: freshwater lakes, lagoons, swamps, salllakes, coastal waters. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly lagoons along the Great Dividing Range. Copeton Dam and Lake Keepit. Numbers fluctuate, with up to 100 being recorded at a single site (Gosper, 1973). Australasian Grebe Tachybaptus novaehol- landiae (Fig. 4) RANGE: Aust., (scarce T), NG, Indonesia and NZ. HABITAT: freshwater, occasionally saltwater. N. ENG. RANGE:all water, inch small farm dams. Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus (Fig. 5) RANGE: Aust., breeding in only a few, mostly coas- tal, sites. NG, as a vagrant in Indonesia and NZ. HABITAT: lakes, larger rivers, estuaries and the sea. N. ENG. RANGE; larger water bodies; one breeding record from Lake Keepit (Morris et al., 1981). Barter Anhinga melanogaster (Fig. 6) RANGE; E, N and SW Aust, S Africa, S Asia and NG, vagrant in T and NZ. HABITAT: freshwater. N. ENG. RANGE: most larger water bodies and many smaller ones, breeding record from Copeton Dam. Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo (Fig.7) RANGE: cosmopolitan, widespread in Aust., mostly breeding south of 20" S. HABITAT: freshwater and marine. N. ENG. RANGE: well distributed, breeding at Copeton Dam. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 383 FIG. 9. Litile Black Cormorant. FIG. 10. Little Pied Cormorant. FIG. 11. Pacific Heron. 384 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Pied Cormorant P. varius (Fig. 8) RANGE; Ausl., scarce T, and NZ. HABITAT: fresh and saltwater. N. ENG. RANGE: larger water bodies, though less common than other cormorants and no breeding records. Little Black Cormorant P. sulcirostris (Fig.9) RANGE: widespread in Aust., also Indonesia, NG and NZ. HABITAT: mostly freshwater. N. ENG RANGE: common on larger water bodies, single breeding record from Copeton Dam. Little Pied Cormorant P. melanoleiicos (Fig. 10) RANGE: throughout Aust. and the SW Pacific, some sub-Antarctic Islands. HABITAT: all water bodies, including small dams. N. ENG. RANGE; widespread, breeding at Copeton Dam. and probably elsewhere. Red-tailed Tropicbird Phaeton rubricauda RANGE: small islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, including Raine, Norfolk, Lord Howe, Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands and Sugarioaf Rock near Perth. HABITAT: pelagic outside breeding season. N. ENG. RANGE: rare vagrant, but in March 1978 the remnants of a tropical cyclone crossed the NSW coast and swept many tropicbirds inland (Morris, 1979). Red-tailed Tropicbirds were found in Ar- midale, Tamworth and Barraba on 21 March 1978. Others were found further west at Baradine, Bourke, Warrumbungles National Park and Dubbo. White-tailed Tropicbird Phaeton lepturus RANGE: small islands in Pacific Ocean, none in Australian waters. HABITAT: pelagic outside breeding season. N. ENG. RANGE: The same cyclone that drove Red- tailed Tropicbirds inland in 1978, led to five White- tailed Tropicbirds being found in Tamworth (Morris, 1979). Pacific Heron Ardea pacifica (Fig. 1 1) RANGE: throughout Aust., most breeding colonies inland, vagrant to NG and NZ. HABITAT: freshwater. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, but no breeding records and numbers tend to increase in late summer and autumn. White-faced Heron A. novaehollandiae (Fig. 12) RANGE: throughout Aust., small populations in NZ, New Caledonia and Indonesia, non-breedinc visitor to NG. HABITAT: all types of water body, sometimes pad- docks and grassland. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, breeding on the tablelands and SW. Cattle Egret Ardeola ibis RANGE: native to S Europe, Asia and Africa, and has colonized N and S America. The Cattle Egret probably colonized Ausl. in the 194Qs, though there had been previous attempts to introduce it. It is now widespread in N. E and SW Aust. HABITAT: wet pasture. N. ENG. RANGE; rare visitor to the Northern Tablelands at present, but their populations are ex- panding on the N coast of NSW, so they can be expected to increase in New England. Great Egret Egrelia alba {F\gA3) RANGE: almost cosmopolitan, widespread in coastal Aust. and parts of the inland with substantial bodies of water. HABITAT; freshwater, estuaries. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly tableland lagoons and W. Little Egret E. garzetta RANGE: almost throughout the Old World and in Aust. mostly in the E and N.. has expanded its range recently in S and SW. HABlf AT; freshwater. N. ENG. RANGE: few records from the tablelands and SW. Intermediate Egret E. intermedia {¥\g.\A) RANGE: patchy in Africa and Asia, and E and N Aust. HABITAT: freshwater. N. ENG. RANGE: most frequent egret on tableland lagoons, a few records from W. Rufous Night Heron Nycticorax caledonicus (Fig. 15) RANGE: SE Asia. Pacific islands and most of Aust. HABITAT: tree-lined lakes and creeks. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread and probably under- recorded, breeding near Bingara, just W of the region. Australasian Bittern Boiaurus poiciloptilus RANGE: SE and SW Aust., T and NZ. HABITAT: extensive reedbeds and swamps. N. ENG. RANGE: single record near Bingara. Black-necked Stork Xenorhynchus asiaticus RANGE; India, SE Asia, NG and N Aust., including NSW coast and NW Slopes. HABITAT: extensive swamps and lagoons. N. ENG. RANGE: one record, from Dangar's Lagoon. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 385 FIG. 18. Straw-necked Ibis. FIG. 19. Royal Spoonbill. FIG. 20. Yellow-billed Spoonbill. 386 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus {V\g.\6) RANGE: from S Europe to Aust., Africa and America. Widespread in Aust., mostly breeding in the Murray- Darling system. HABITAT: swamps, lakes and lagoons. N. ENG. RANGE: infrequent visitor, mostly to tableland lagoons. Sacred Ibis Threskiornis aethiopica (Fig. 17) RANGE: Africa, the Middle East, SE Asia, NG and N, E and SW Aust. HABITAT: lakes, swamps and flooded fields. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread in suitable wetlands, no breeding records. Straw-necked Ibis Th. spinicollis (Fig.18) RANGE: Aust., rare in T, vagrant in NG. HABITAT: dry pasture, wet grasslands and marshes. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout N Eng, except forested areas. No breeding records, the Macquarie Marshes probably being the nearest breeding site. Numbers tend to be highest in late summer and autumn. Royal Spoonbill Platalea regia (Fig. 19) RANGE: Indonesia, NG and NZ, E and N Aust. HABITAT: shallow waters, both inland and coastal. N. ENG. RANGE: small numbers on larger waters. Yellow-billed Spoonbill P. flavipes (Fig.20) RANGE; Aust., except deserts and T. HABITAT; all types of inland water bodies. N. ENG. RANGE: more widespread than previous species, even on farm dams. Plumed Whistling-duck Dendrocygna eytoni RANGE: N Aust., through Q and in Murray-Darling system. Vagrant in NG and NZ. HABITAT: swamps, lagoons, flooded grassland. N. ENG. RANGE; 6 squares, on several tableland lagoons and the western fringes of the region. Some- times moderate flocks occur. Black Swan Cygnus atratus (Fig.21) RANGE: most of Aust., scarce in far N and centre. Introduced to NZ, and occurs occasionally in NG. HABITAT: most larger waterbodies. N. ENG. RANGE: common on tableland lagoons and W, breeding success on lagoons depends on water level and degree of disturbance (White 1986). Australian Shelduck Tadorna tadornoides RANGE: endemic to SE and SW Aust. HABITAT: fresh and brackish water. N. ENG. RANGE; single record NE of Glen Innes, well outside normal range. Pacific Black \y\XQ\^ Anas superciliosa (Fig.22) RANGE: Aust., NG. NZ and the islands of the Pacific. HABITAT: permanent waters, creeks, farm dams and floodwater. N. ENG. RANGE: Widespread, many breeding records. More numerous on tableland lagoons during droughts (Briggs 1977. While 1987). Grey Teal A. gibberifrons (Fig. 23) RANGE: Aust.. NG, NZ, Indonesia, Andaman Islands HABITAT; Most wetlands. Nomadic, colonizing in- land waters when they flood, then dispersing in all directions when they dry out. N. ENG. RANGE: nearly as widespread as Black Duck, though less frequent on small water bodies. More numerous in autumn and during inland droughts (Briggs 1977, White 1987). Chestnut Teal A. castanea RANGE; SE and SW Aust., T, vagrant to NG. HABITAT: saline coastal waters as well as inland. N. ENG. RANGE: scarce, though regular, visitor to the larger water bodies. Australasian Shoveler A. rhynchotis (Fig.24) RANGE: NZ and SW and SE Aust., with records spread throughout Q. HABITAT: lakes, permanent swamps. N. ENG. RANGE: only in tableland lagoons. This accords with its preferred foraging behaviour of sur- face-filtering and upending to collect vegetation from the bottom. There are no breeding records though it could well breed on the larger lagoons, with dense emergent vegetation. Pink-eared Duck Malacorhynchus membranaceus RANGE: inland Aust. after good rains, coastal areas in droughts. HABITAT: lakes, extensive swamps and floodwater. N. ENG. RANGE: uncommon visitor, mostly to the tableland lagoons. Hardhead Aythya australis (Fig.25) RANGE: E and SW Aust., occasionally in NG, NZ and other Pacific islands. HABITAT; permanent and deep waters, but highly mobile. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, where suitable water bodies occur. Single breeding record. Numbers tend to be higher in autumn (Briggs 1977). Maned Duck Chenoneita jubata (Fig.26) RANGE: most of Aust., except far N and deserts. HABITAT: pasture near freshwater. Has almost cer- tainly increased with clearing of native vegetation and provision of farm dams. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 387 : n * •• • . • , , * • ■ * , : * • ■ . . . • * , • * • • • , , , • • * , • FIG. 21. Black Swan. , , * , • •• . * • .. , • • * * , 1 * • _ • E . . • * . • • • * * * • • ' • ’ • . • • FIG. 24. Australasian Shoveler. , , • , * •• • .. ■ • ^ 1 1 1 ‘ 1 • . n . . • I 1 1 1 * 1 ■ • • . 1 • '* FIG. 22. Pacific Black Duck. FIG. 25. Hardhead. ■ □ ■■■■■■ FIG. 23. Grey Teal, FIG. 26. Maned Duck. * . . ■ • FIG. 27. Musk Duck, FIG. 28. Black-shouldered Kite. FIG. 29. Black Kite. 388 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM N. ENG. RANGE; throughout, being common on improved pasture around farm dams, with many breeding records. Blue-billed Duck Oxyura australis RANGE: SE and SW Aust. HABITAT: large, deep and permanent water bodies. N. ENG. RANGE: Dangar's Lagoon, where breeding has been recorded (most northerly in the R AOU atlas), and Llangolhlin Lagoon. Musk Duck Biziura lobata (Fig. 27) RANGE; SE and SW Aust. HABITAT: deep lakes and permanent swamps. N. ENG. RANGE: tableland lagoons and larger water bodies in the west. Subsequently recorded breeding at Dangar's Lagoon (Ford, pers. obs.) Osprey Pandion haliaetus RANGE: North America, Europe and Asia, most of the coastline of Aust., but scarce in V and T. HABITAT: mostly coastal in Aust., but lakes and rivers elsewhere. N. ENG. RANGE; single record, from Lake Keepit. Black-shouldered Kite Elanus notatus (Fig.28) RANGE: Aust., breeding mostly in SE and SW. HABITAT: open country, has expanded with clearance of forest and woodland for farming. Num- bers fluctuate, migratory or nomadic. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, and sometimes com- mon on Northern Tablelands and W, but scarce in forested E and central N. Pacific Baza A V7cer/a subcristata RANGE: NG, N and E Aust., S to Sydney. HABITAT: forest. N. ENG. RANGE: 6 squares, in the densely forested E fringes. Sullivan (1931) recorded one E of Bingara and in 1986 it bred near Inverell (Ley 1990a). Black Kite Milvus migrans (Fig.29) RANGE: most of Old World. Widespread inland Aust., in some years more frequent near the coast. HABITAT: open country and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: infrequent visitor, mostly on tablelands and W, most observations in 1979. It bred near Armidale in 1965 (Morris el al. 1981). Square-tailed Kite Lopfioictinia isura RANGE: sparsely distributed through N, E and SW Aust. HABITAT: woodland and forests foraging at tree- tops. N. ENG. RANGE: records from only three squares, perhaps seen most often near Inverell (Baldwin 1 975). An earlier record from Mount Grattai (Mt Kaputar National Park, Cameron 1934). Recently seen Ben- demeer. Kingstown and Gibraltar Range National Park (S. Debus, pers. comm.). Brahminy Kite Haliastur Indus RANGE: N Aust. S to 32° S, and India, SE Asia, New Guinea and Pacific islands. HABITAT: coastal waters and occasionally inland rivers. N. ENG. RANGE: single record, from Gwydir River near Bingara. Baldwin (1975) recorded an immature at Copeton Dam in 1973. Whistling Kite H. sphenurus (Fig.30) RANGE; throughout Aust., except T. HABITAT: woodland and open forest, often near water. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though few records from the more forested areas, and it appears to have declined recently. Norton (1922) described it as ex- tremely common, with hundreds feasting on rabbit carcasses near Walcha in 1919-1 920. Cameron ( 1 975) noted flocks of 50 to lOOnearGlenlnnesinthe 1920s, but commented that it disappeared from the region during the 1960s. Baldwin (1975) found it common near Inverell, with 50 recorded al Copeton Dam. Pos- sible reasons for the decrease are a decline in food, poisoning or competition with the Little Eagle. There would still seem to be plenty food for a carrion-eater, for instance from road-kills. Brown Goshawk Accipiter fasciatus (Fig. 31) RANGE: throughout Aust., NG and islands of Indian and Pacific Ocean. HABITAT: forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, with several breeding records. Collared Sparrowhawk A. cirrhocephalus (Fig.32) RANGE; most parts of Aust. and NG. HABITAT: chiefly eucalypt woodland and forest. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though less common than Brown Goshawk. Grey Goshawk A. novaehollandiae RANGE: N and E Aust., T, NG and adjacent islands. HABITAT: breeds in forest, but often in more open country outside breeding season. N. ENG. RANGE: 9 squares, mostly in the forested E. Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus RANGE: rare endemic found from the Kimberley region around the N and E to extreme NE NSW. Possibly only a single pair now breeds in NSW (Debus, pers. comm.). NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 389 FIG. 36. Spotted Harrier. FIG. 37. Marsh Harrier. FIG. 38. Black Falcon. 390 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM HABITAT: lends to breed in riverine forest sur- rounded by open woodland or wetlands (Debus and Czechura 1988). Degradation of such habitats may have caused a decline in the species. N. ENG. RANGE: only records during atlas period were from Gibraltar Range and Washpool National Parks. These parks contain substantial areas of wilder- ness and should be extensively explored for Red Goshawks. Earlier records from Ben Lomond and Tilbusler, N of Armidale (Debus 1982). White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster (Fig. 33) RANGE: India, SE Asia, NG, Aust. HABITAT: coastal, major rivers and larger reservoirs. N. ENG. RANGE: scattered records on rivers and larger waters, a breeding record from Lake Keepit. Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax (Fig.34) RANGE: throughout Aust., most abundant in open areas w here sheep or rabbits are plentiful, also S PNG. HABITAT: most types of vegetation. N. ENG. RANGE: all parts, paucity of records in the N central region may reflect under-recording rather than absence. Clearing of forests and intensification of grazing has probably favoured Wedge-tailed Eagles, although persecution occurs in the closely settled areas. Little Eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides (Fig.35) RANGE: Aust., NG. HABITAT: woodland and open forest, but scarce in dense forest. N. ENG. RANGE: most abundant large raptor, though fewer records from N and extreme E. It may have increased recently as Hays (1920) recorded the species as a new one to the Bundarra area in 1920, and it was not listed by Norton (1922) from Boree, near Walcha. Such an increase may be related to rabbits making up a large part of its diet (Debus 1984). The cluster of breeding records around Armidale reflect the work of Debus (1983, 1984). Spotted Harrier Circus assimilis (Fig. 36) RANGE: Indonesia, Aust. HABITAT: open country. N. ENG. RANGE: patchy in W and cleared parts of the tablelands. Marsh Harrier C. aeruginosas (Fig.37) RANGE: most parts of Aust. and NZ. HABITAT: swamps and wet grassland and crops, though in a broader range of habitats in T and NZ (Baker-Gabb 1986). N. ENG. RANGE: in suitable habitat such as tableland lagoons. Black Falcon Falco subniger (Fig.38) RANGE: sparsely through inland Aust., scarce in W. HABITAT: open country, lightly timbered areas. N. ENG. RANGE: NW and tablelands, latter at least are vagrants. Peregrine Falcon F. peregrinus (Fig. 39) RANGE; most of the world, but has declined in Europe and North America, as a result of poisoning by chlorinated hydrocarbons and persecution (Newton 1979). Although Peregrines in Aust. may carry moderate pesticide residues, the country still supports one of the largest and most stable populations of the species (Emison and Bren 1981, Pruett-Jones et al. 1981a.b, Olsen and Olsen 1988). HABITAT: most areas, except heavy forest. N. ENG. RANGE; quite common, especially in the gorges, where it breeds (S. Debus, pers. comm.) Only breeding records for atlas from the extreme W. Lack of records in the N requires further investigation. Australian Hobby F. longipennis (Fig.40) RANGE: Indonesia as well as most parts of Aust. HABITAT: typically in open woodland, also in towns and cities. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, with most records coming from open country in W and tablelands. Brown Falcon F. berigora (Fig.41) RANGE; one of the most widespread birds in Aust. HABITAT: in all habitats except for closed forests. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout, though patchy in forested N and E. Australian Kestrel F. cenchroides (Fig. 42) RANGE: throughout Aust., Indonesia, NG, rare in T. HABITAT: open country. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded in all parts. Australian Brush-turkey Alectura lathami (Fig. 43) RANGE; E Aust. HABITAT: rainforest, but also thickets of Lantana and more open habitats inland. Birds spread inland when the prickly pear (Opuntia ) outbreak was at its worst, but retreated again as prickly pears were con- trolled. N. ENG. RANGE: closed forest in E. An isolated population near Bingara, which extends outside the region. The size and habitat requirements of this population would be worth investigating. Stubble Quail Coturnix novaezealandiae (Fig.44) RANGE: SE and SW Aust., sporadically elsewhere. It formerly occurred in T and NZ. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 391 FIG. 45. Brown Quail. FIG. 46. Painted Buiion-quail. FIG. 47. Dusky Moorhen. 392 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM HABITAT: woodland and grassland, including crops. N. ENG. RANGE: most records from tablelands and SW, the areas with mostextensivegrassland. Numbers fluctuate unpredictably. Brown Quail C. australis (Fig.45) RANGE: N, E and SW Ausl., T, Indonesia and NG. HABITAT: rank, moist grassland and low scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: several sites in central and NW New England. These do not necessarily reflect the distribution of favourable habitat and Brown Quail could well have been overlooked in other areas. Painted Button-quail Turnixvaria (Fig. 46) RANGE; E and S Aust. and New Caledonia. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland, heath. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded over a wide area, but appears to be common nowhere. Clearing, grazing and fragmentation of habitat are detrimental to the species, but birds have not been recorded from large areas of apparently suitable habitat. As a ground-feeding bird it may be vulnerable to introduced predators. Little Button-quail T. velox RANGE; moves erratically throughout inland Ausl. HABITAT: open habitats. N. Eng. range: three squares, near Tamworth and Manilla, in the SW, a single breeding record. Red-chested Button-quail T. pyrrhothorax RANGE: widespread, though scarce, inland E Aust. HABITAT: cryptic and easy to confuse with other button-quails; appears to fluctuate in numbers, so distribution, abundance and habitat hard to determine. N. ENG. RANGE; single breeding record, W of In- verell. Buff-banded Rail Rallus philippensis RANGE: coastal Aust., islands of Indian and Pacific Oceans. NG and Indonesia. HABITAT: dense, swampy vegetation, but also open habitats on islands. N. ENG. RANGE: only from the NW (near Inverell and Bingara), but fairly common on the N coast of NSW. Baillon's Crake Porzana pusilla RANGE: Europe, Africa, Asia, NG and Aust., prin- cipally in the SE. HABITAT: swamps and the edges of reedy lakes. N. ENG. RANGE: two records, both on the tablelands, undoubtedly an underestimate of range and abundance of this cryptic species. Australian Crake P. fluminea RANGE: mostly in SE and centre, scattered in WA. HABITAT: typically in small pools, lagoons and swamps. N. ENG. RANGE: two records, both from the tablelands. Like the last species, probably under- recorded. Dusky Moorhen Gallinula tenebrosa (Fig-47) RANGE: E half and SW of Aust., NG and Indonesia. HABITAT: fresh water surrounded by vegetation. N. ENG. RANGE; common and widespread, though patchily recorded from forested areas. Purple Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio (Fig.48) RANGE: S Europe, Asia, NG, Aust., NZ and some Pacific islands. HABITAT: swamps or lakes surrounded by lush vegetation. N. ENG. RANGE; widespread in the lagoons and swamps of the tablelands, several records from other parts of New England. Eurasian Coot Fulica atra (Fig.49) RANGE: from N Europe through Asia to Aust., N Africa. HABITAT: large, shallow water bodies. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly tablelands and SW, where suitable water bodies occur. Brolga Grus rubicundus RANGE; N and inland E Ausl. to W V and SE SA. HABITAT: swamps and grassy plains. N. ENG. RANGE: single record from extreme N, though Brolgas occur to the W and E. Bush Thick-knee Burhinus magnirostris RANGE: inland Aust. but has retreated from many closely settled or intensively grazed areas. Introduced predators have been blamed for this decline although it is still fairly common in some places where these predators are found. HABITAT; open scrub and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: single record during the atlas period, from extreme N. However, the species was previously more widespread (“used to be extremely common about here, but since the coming of the fox they have become very rare”- Norton, 1922, from near Walcha; “once common, now rare, last heard in March 1958" from near Inverell, - Baldwin, 1975). Painted Snipe Rostratula benghalensis RANGE: Africa, India, China, SE Asia, Pacific is- lands and chiefly E inland Aust. HABITAT: shallow freshwater. N. ENG. RANGE: single record from W of Bundarra. Seen near Guyra in 1991 (Tremont, pers. comm.) NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 393 FIG. .V, Pbcl;-\vinged Siilt. FIG. 55. Lailiam's Smpe. FIG. 56. Silver Gull. 394 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Masked Lapwing Vanellus miles (Fig.50) RANGE; E and N Aust., NZ, NG and Indonesia. HABITAT: short grassland, usually near water. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout, though scarce in heavi- ly forested areas. Banded Lapwing V. tricolor (Fig.51) RANGE: throughout Ausl. S of 20“ S. HABITAT: short grassland or bare areas. N. ENG. RANGE; tablelands, e.g. Armidale airport, and several sites in W. Lesser Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica RANGE: breeds in N Asia and N America and winters around the W Pacific including Aust. HABITAT: mudflats, saltmarsh, occasionally fresh- water. N. ENG. RANGE: single record near Armidale, also recorded from Armidale Sewerage Works in 1967 (Heron 1970). Red-kneed Dotterel Erythrogonys cinctus (Fig.52) RANGE: throughout most of Aust., except T, NG. HABITAT; edges of shallow muddy pools. N. ENG. RANGE; several records from tablelands, one of breeding, and three records from W. Red-capped Plover Charadrius ruficapillus RANGE: Aust., occasionally NZ. HABITAT: sandy or shingly beaches, flooded inland saltlakes . N. ENG. RANGE: single record, from near Uralla. Black-fronted Plover Ch. melanops (Fig. 53) RANGE: throughout Aust. HABITAT: edges of standing water, stony and sandy rivers and creeks. N. ENG. RANGE: most parts, where suitable habitat exists. Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus (Fig.54) RANGE: almost cosmopolitan, though absent from T and most arid parts of Aust. HABITAT: swamps, lagoons and edges of lakes. N. ENG. RANGE: tablelands and in W. Red-necked Avocet Recurvirostra novaehol- landiae RANGE; breeds in inland Aust., retreating to coast in droughts. HABITAT: flooded saltlakes, coastal saltpans. N. ENG. RANGE: two records from tableland lagoons. Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola RANGE: Palearclic, winters in small numbers in Aust. HABITAT: nests in open coniferous forests, other- wise on edges of fresh water. N. ENG. RANGE; recorded once in the atlas period, from near Armidale. Gosper (1 973) saw it at Dangar’s Lagoon in the 1960s. Greenshank T. nebularia RANGE: Palearctic, winter range to Aust. HABITAT: breeds in temperate bogs and moorland, otherwise freshwater lagoons, swamps, estuaries. N. ENG. RANGE: a few records from tableland lagoons (see also Gosper 1973). Marsh Sandpiper T. stagnatilis RANGE: breeds from Bulgaria to Mongolia and visits Ausl. in small numbers. HABITAT: inland waters and estuaries. N. ENG. RANGE: regular visitor to the tableland lagoons (Heron 1970). Latham's Snipe Gallinago hardwickii (Fig.55) RANGE: breeds in Japan, winters in E and S Aust. HABITAT: inland swamps. N. ENG. RANGE: most common in upland parts, specially on grassy edges of lagoons. Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica HABITAT: breeds in E Siberia and Alaska and occurs around the coast of Aust. in the non-breeding season. HABITAT: estuaries, beaches, rare inland. N. ENG. RANGE: single record from the atlas period, from near Uralla. (Heron (1970) and Gosper (1973) recorded the Black-tailed Godwit (L. limosa ), which was not noted in New England during the atlas, though it is more often found inland than the former species.] Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata RANGE: breeds in arctic Siberia and is one of the most common Palearclic migrants to Aust. HABITAT: tundra, coastal and inland waters. N. ENG. RANGE: regular in small flocks on tableland lagoons and occasionally elsewhere. Silver Gull Larus novaehollandiae (Fig.56) RANGE: S Africa. NZ, New Caledonia and around most of the coast of Aust. HABITAT: coastal, also inland in large numbers after heavy rain. N. ENG. RANGE: numerous records, mostly of one or two stragglers on tableland lagoons or W. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 395 FIG. 63. Common Bronzewing. FIG. 64. Crested Pigeon. FIG. 65. Wonga Pigeon. 396 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 72. Musk Lorikeet. FIG. 73. Little Lorikeet. FIG. 74. Australian King Parrot. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 397 Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida (Fig.57) RANGE: most of Aust., except T and deserts, also Eurasia and Africa. HABITAT; freshwater swamps and lagoons. N. ENG. RANGE: some tableland lagoons provide suitable breeding habitat, though no breeding records during the atlas. Several records from the W. Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica RANGE: almost cosmopolitan, most regular along E coast of Aust. and, after heavy rain, parts of the inland. HABITAT: coastal and inland swamps and lakes. N. ENG. RANGE; single record, from near Armidaie. Wompoo Fruit-dove Ptilinopus magnificus RANGE: NG and E Aust. S to NE NSW HABITAT; rainforest. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded once in the extreme NE Topknot Pigeon Lopholaimus antarcticus (Fig.58) RANGE: E Aust., from Cape York Peninsula to SE NSW. HABITAT: rainforest and, less often, eucalypt forest or exotic fruit-trees. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded in suitable habitat in the E third, with one outlying record near Inverell, White-headed Pigeon Columba leucomela RANGE: endemic to E Aust., from Cape York to SE NSW. HABITAT: rainforest, but tolerates partly cleared land with exotic fruit trees. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded from 5 squares in the NE corner. Feral Pigeon C. livia (Fig.59) RANGE: native to Europe, N Africa and parts of Asia, but introduced elsewhere including Aust., where now widespread. HABITAT: seacliffs, towns, farmland. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded chiefly in W and tablelands. Spotted Turtle-dove Streptopelia chinensis RANGE: native to S and E Asia, but introduced to Aust. and now in coastal towns or cities from Perth to Cairns. HABITAT: towns, cultivated land. N. ENG. RANGE: birds found near Tamworth could be first colonisers from Hunter Valley or escapees, recorded in Armidaie after the atlas (Ford, pers. obs.). Brown Cuckoo-dove Macropygia amboinen- sis (Fig. 60) RANGE; E Aust. to NE V, NG and SE Asia. HABITAT: rainforest and patches of exotic fruiting bushes along roadsides. N. ENG. RANGE: E edge. Peaceful Dove Geopelia placida (Fig. 61) RANGE: throughout Aust., except for SW, centre and T, also NG and SE Asia. HABITAT; woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: W and N, but absent from forested regions in the E and scarce on the tablelands. Diamond Dove G. cuneata RANGE: almost throughout inland Aust. HABITAT; woodland and open country. N. ENG. RANGE: only two records, near Tamworth and Ashford. Bar-shouldered Dove G, humeralis (Fig. 62) RANGE: S NG and N and E Aust. HABITAT: woodland and forest, particularly near water. N. ENG. RANGE; W parts, also common to E of the region. Vagrant in the tablelands, being one of the few species whose distribution correlated with altitude. Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica RANGE: SE Asia. NG, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and N and E Aust., S to SE NSW'. HABITAT; rainforest edges and disturbed land with undergrowth. N. ENG. RANGE: three records, in gorges E of Ar- midaie and in Washpool National Park. Common Bronzewing Phaps chalcoptera (Fig.63) RANGE: most parts of Aust. HABITAT: most vegetation, except for deserts and dense forests. N. ENG. RANGE: most common in the W. Clearing and habitat degradation may account for its scarcity on tablelands and dense habitat for its scarcity in E. Crested Pigeon Ocyphaps lophotes (Fig. 64) RANGE: Aust., except for some deserts, coastal areas and T: expanded range with clearing. HABITAT: open areas, farmland. N. ENG. RANGE: most of region except forested E fringes and parts of tablelands. Squatter Pigeon Petrophassa scripta RANGE: inland E Q and extreme N NSW. HABITAT: woodland near water. N. ENG. RANGE: records from near Bonshaw and near Warialda represent the S extreme of distribution, although it originally occurred further S (e.g. near Inverell in 1963 and 1964 - Baldwin 1975, Ashford and Bingara - Morris et al. 1981). 398 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG, 81. Blue Bonnet. FIG. 82. Turquoise Parrot. FIG. 83. Pallid Cuckoo. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 399 Wonga Pigeon Leucosarcia melanoleuca (Fig.65) RANGE: central Q to E V. HABITAT: rainforest and eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE: E and extreme S. Glossy Black-Cockatoo Calyptorhynchus lathami (Fig. 66) RANGE: E Aust. from central Q to NE V, with an isolated population on Kangaroo Is. HABITAT: woodland with Casuarina. N. ENG. RANGE: E half, particularly on or near the gorges. There is a single record from near Ashford, and the species also occurs W of the region. [Baldwin (1975) recorded the Red-lailed Black-Cockatoo C. magnificus near Inverell in 1963. Unconfirmed records were made of it during the atlas.] Yellow-tailed Black-Cockatoo C.funereus (Fig. 67) RANGE: central Q around to S SA, T. HABITAT: forest, heath and pine plantations. N. ENG. RANGE: more widespread and abundant than the former species, absent only from parts of N and W. Galah Cacatua roseicapilla (Fig.68) RANGE: Aust., except in heavily forested areas; ex- panded since European settlement into areas cleared for agriculture. HABITAT: woodland and farming areas. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout, but not in forested E fringes. Little Corella C. sanguinea RANGE: widespread in inland Aust., except for ex- treme deserts, and S NG. HABITAT: woodland, crops. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded in two squares, near Manilla and Tamworth. Sulphur-crested Cockatoo C. galerita (Fig.69) RANGE: N and E Aust. and NG, with introduced populations in NZ and some Indonesian islands. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and forest, rainforest. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded in most areas, though scarce in E and parts of tablelands. Birds inhabit rainforest on the E margin. Rainbow Lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus (Fig. 70) RANGE: E Aust. from Cape York to Eyre Peninsula. Also NG and Indonesian and Pacific islands. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland, urban areas. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly in N half and around Ar- midale. Scaly-breasted Lorikeet T. chlorolepidotus (Fig. 71) RANGE: Cape York to Melbourne. HABITAT: eucalypt forest, often with Rainbow Lorikeets. N. ENG. RANGE: scarcer than previous species, though recorded from many parts of region. Musk Lorikeet Glossopsitta concinna (Fig.72) RANGE: SE Q to Eyre Peninsula. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland, mallee. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly in central and W parts. Little Lorikeet G. pusilla (Fig.73) RANGE: S Cape York Peninsula to SE SA. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: most widespread lorikeet, absent only from SE and parts of tablelands. Australian King-Parrot Alisterus scapularis (Fig. 74) RANGE; E Aust., from N Q to central V. HABITAT: rainforest, eucalypt forest and woodland, occasionally crops. N. ENG. RANGE; found in both E and W, but scarce on tablelands, possibly because native vegetation mostly cleared there. Red-winged Parrot Aprosmictus erythrop- terus (Fig. 75) RANGE; across N and E Aust., from the Kimberleys to central NSW, generally inland of the previous species. HABITAT; woodland, especially near water, forests and mangroves in N. N. ENG. RANGE: NW, range overlaps slightly with King-Parrot. Cockatiel Nymphicus hollandicus (Fig.76) RANGE; throughout inland Aust., tending to move S in spring and N in autumn. HABITAT: scrub, woodland and agricultural crops. N. ENG, RANGE: W half, with a few records further E. The Cockatiel was the subject of a detailed study on the NW slopes (Jones 1987). Budgerigar Melopsittacus undulatus RANGE: widespread in inland Aust., rarely reaching E coast. HABITAT: semi-arid woodland. N. ENG. RANGE; recorded in four squares in NW. Mills (1986) recorded Budgerigars in Guy Fawkes 400 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM National Park, N of Ebor, in 1985, well outside their normal range. Swift Parrot Lathamus discolor RANGE; breeds in T, spending winter between SE SA and N NSW. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and forest. N. ENG. RANGE: single record near Bundarra is almost at the N limit of its winter range. Crimson Rosella Platycercus elegans (Fig.77) RANGE: the Crimson Rosella superspecies occurs from Kangaroo Is. to S Q. It shows a remarkable dine from crimson in most of its range, including Kangaroo Is. to orange near Adelaide, merging into yellow birds along the Murray-Darling system (Cain 1963). There is also an isolated population in N 0. HABITAT; eucalypt forests and rainforests. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout centre and E. An ap- parently isolated population around Mount Kaputar in the extreme W. Eastern Rosella P. eximius (Fig.78) RANGE: SE Aust. from SE Q to Adelaide. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland, including partly cleared land. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region. Pale-headed Rosella P. adscitus (Fig. 79) RANGE: NE Aust. from extreme N NSW to Cape York Peninsula. May interbreed with Eastern Rosella where ranges overlap. HABITAT: open woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: NW corner, hybrids common N of Inverell. Mallee Ringneck Barnardius barnardi RANGE: inland E Aust. from central Q to SE SA with an isolated population near Cloncurry, Q. HABITAT : open eucalypt and acacia woodland, mal- lee. N. ENG. RANGE: four squares in the extreme W. Red-rumped Parrot Psephotus haematonotus (Fig. 80) RANGE; SE Aust. HABITAT: grassy woodland and agricultural areas. N. ENG. RANGE: common, except in the forested east. Blue-bonnet Northiella haematogaster (Fig.81) RANGE; inland SE Aust., isolated population on Nul- larbor Plain. HABITAT: semi-arid woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: NW corner. Turquoise Parrot Neophema pulchella (Fig.82) RANGE: W of the Great Dividing Range from S Q to N V. Apparently more widespread at European settle- ment, then contracted its range and became very scarce early in the 20ih century. It has now expanded and increased again. HABITAT: grassy woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded from a wide area of W, with a few records from further E. The North West Slopes of NSW are a stronghold of the species, and it merits study to investigate its habitat preferences and the influence of clearing and habitat degradation on its populations. Oriental Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus RANGE: breeds in Asia and migrates to Indonesia in the non-breeding season and in small numbers to NG and N and E Aust. HABITAT: forest. N. ENG. RANGE: single record, near Walcha. Pallid Cuckoo C pallidas (Fig. 83) RANGE: throughout Aust., occasionally in NG and Timor. HABITAT: woodland and open habitats. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though patchy in more forested areas. Brush Cuckoo C. variolosus (Fig.84) RANGE: Kimberleys, N and E Aust. to S V. Other subspecies inhabit NG and SE Asia. HABITAT: forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly in E half. Fan-tailed Cuckoo C. pyrrhophanus (Fig.85) RANGE: from Cape York S to T and W to SW Aust. Also in NG and some Pacific islands. HABITAT: forest, woodland and mallee. N. ENG. RANGE: almost throughout region, though few records from NW and pans of the tablelands. Black-eared Cuckoo Chrysococcyx osculans RANGE: widely, but thinly, spread throughout inland Aust. HABITAT; woodland and shrubland. N. ENG. RANGE: 8 squares, mainly in W, with two breeding records. Horsfield’s Bronze-Cuckoo Ch. basalis (Fig.86) RANGE: breeds throughout Aust., some birds winter to N. HABITAT: woodland. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 401 FIG 84. Brush Cuckoo. FIG. 85. Fan-tailed Cuckoo. FIG. 86. Horsfield's Bronre-Cuckoo. ; [M2 - s - rtri • . •• ■ - n 7“ • ■ , • • N ' , • ■ D 1 » • ■ 1 m • mu . . • \ ■ 1 1 rr J 1 ■ • 1 J rr 1 . . 1 * . . .. .. FIG. 87. Shining Bronze-Cuckoo. FIG 88. Common Kocl. FIG. 89. Channel-billed Cuckoo. FIG. 90. Southern Boobook. FIG. 91. Barn Owl. FIG. 92 . Tawny Frogmouih. 402 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though few records from N and S. Shining Bronze-Cuckoo Ch. lucidus (Fig.87) RANGE: breeds in SE and SW Aust., migrating up the E coast to NG and Indonesia. Also breeds in NZ, the Philippines and other Pacific islands. NZ birds winter in the Solomon Islands, with some appearing in E Aust. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: most parts, with more records than previous species in SE. The NZ subspecies has been recorded from the tablelands. Little Bronze-Cuckoo Ch. malayanus RANGE: the Little Bronze-Cuckoo and possibly con- speci fic Gould ’s Bronze-Cuckoo (Ch. russatus ) occur in N Aust. from the Kimberleys to extreme NE NSW. Also SE Asia and NG. HABITAT: forest. N. ENG. RANGE: single breeding record from near Tenlerfield is most S in RAOU atlas. Common Koel Eudynamis scolopacea (Fig.88) RANGE: Asia, NG, the W Pacific islands, N and E Aust. HABITAT: rainforest, eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE; occurs continuously along the NSW coast and hinterland S to Sydney, with an iso- lated population on NW Slopes. Occasional records from the tablelands. Channel-billed Cuckoo Scythrops novaehol- landiae (Fig. 89) RANGE: breeds in N and E Aust., and possibly NG, and winters in Indonesia and NG. HABITAT : forest, especially where figs are abundant. N. ENG. RANGE: patchy distribution which is hard to interpret, but Channel-billed Cuckoos tend to be seen most often around Tamworth, where Ficus oc- curs on hillsides, and in the eastern gorges where other figs occur. They are highly mobile though, often being seen or heard elsewhere. Pheasant Coucal Centropus phasianinus RANGE: Timor, NG, N and E Aust. HABITAT: rank grass in woodland or swamps. N. ENG. RANGE: 2 records from extreme E, border- ing coastal populations; records from Armidale, Ash- ford and Bingara are outside normal range. Powerful Owl Ninox strenua RANGE: SE Q to W V. HABITAT: tall, moist forests. N. ENG. RANGE: single record, E of Tenterfield. Recorded in Gibraltar Range and London Bridge State Forest after atlas period (Debus, pers. comm.). Southern Boobook N. novaeseelandiae (Fig.90) RANGE: NZ. NG, partsof Indonesia, many islands in the W Pacific and most of Aust. HABITAT: forests and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE; most widespread owl. Barking Owl N. connivens RANGE; thinly spread in N. E and SW Aust. and NG. HABITAT: eucalypl.woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: 5 widely scattered squares. Barn Owl Tyio alba (Fig.91) RANGE: cosmopolitan, Aust. except T. HABITAT; all but desert and dense forest. N. ENG. RANGE: widely scattered records, including two of breeding. Sooty Owl T. tenebricosa RANGE; perhaps Aust.'s rarest owl, with populations in Atherton region of N Q and from SE Q to central V, also NG. HABITAT: rainforest and tall eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE: single record from near Tenter- field. Recorded subsequently from New England Na- tional Park on E fringes (P. Fleming, pers. comm.) and London Bridge State Forest (Debus, pers. comm.), and breeding recorded just SE of region. Tawnv Frogmouth Podargus strigoides (Fig.92) RANGE: throughout Aust., NG. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and all types of woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread and probably under- recorded. Australian Owlet-Nightjar Aegotheles cris- tatus (Fig. 93) RANGE; NG, most of Aust. HABITAT: woodland and forest. N. ENG. RANGE: patchy records probably underes- timate its distribution. White-throated Nightjar Caprimulgus mys- tacalis RANGE: E Aust. from Cape York to central V, also NG, New Caledonia and Solomon Islands. HABITAT: dry, open ridges in eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: three records from N half. Spotted Nightjar C. guttatus RANGE: inland Aust. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 403 FIG. 99. Rainbow Bee-eater. FIG. 100. DoHarbird. FIG. 101. Superb Lyrebird. 404 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM HABITAT: woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: single record from near Barraba, most E in NSW, White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus (Fig, 94) RANGE: breeds in Asia, non-breeding season in E Ausl- HABITAT: aerial, over most habitats. N. ENG. RANGE: widely reported, particularly in S and E. Fork-tailed Swift Apus pacificus RANGE: breeds in Asia and more widespread than previous species in Aust. in non-breeding season, though scarcer in E. HABITAT: aerial, over most habitats. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded from 7 scattered squares. Azure Kingfisher Ceyx azurea (Fig. 95) RANGE: Indonesia, NG, E and N Aust. HABITAT: streams and rivers. N. ENG. RANGE: in E and W, but virtually absent from tablelands, possibly because streams are poorly vegetated and polluted by fertilisers. Laughing Kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae (Fig.96) RANGE: E Aust., but despite scientific name, not NG. Introduced into SW Aust., T, Kangaroo Is and NZ. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and forest. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded nearly everywhere, with many breeding records. Forest Kingfisher Halcyon macleayii RANGE; NE Aust., Top End and NG. HABITAT: woodland and forest-edges, often near water. N. ENG. RANGE: 5 squares on E fringes, with one breeding record E of Tenterfield. Baldwin (1975) noted it as an uncommon migrant near Inverell. Red-backed Kingfisher H. pyrrhopygia (Fig.97) RANGE: inland Aust., in places reaching the coast. HABITAT: woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: W half, irregular on the tablelands (Courtney 1971). Sacred Kingfisher H, sancta (Fig.98) RANGE; Indonesia, NG, NZ, Aust. except T, and numerous Pacific islands. HABITAT: woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout, with many breeding records. Rainbow Bee-eater Merops ornatus (Fig, 99) RANGE; breeds in most of Aust., except T and near S coast, and locally in NG. Winters in NG and Micronesia. HABITAT: woodland and scrub, particularly where sandy. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though scarce on tablelands and SE. Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis (Fig. 100) RANGE: breeds from India and China through to SE Aust. Australian birds move N in autumn. HABITAT: woodland, roadsides and clearings in forests. N. ENG. RANGE; widespread. Noisy Pitta Pitta versicolor RANGE: NG, E Aust. from Cape York to Sydney. HABITAT: mostly rainforest. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded E of Tenterfield and Gibraltar Range National Park. Superb Lvrebird Menura novaehollandiae (Fig. 101) RANGE: SE Aust. from extreme SE Q to Melbourne. HABITAT: rainforest and eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE: reported widely from E part and extreme S. Rufous Scrub-bird Atrichornis rufescens RANGE; verv restricted distribution in SE Q and NE NSW. HABITAT: rainforest and ecotone between rainforest and eucalypt forest (Ferrier 1985). N. ENG. RANGE: only a few localities in New England and Gibraltar Range National Parks, on E margin. Singing Bushlark Mirafra javanica (Fig.102) RANGE: N and E Aust., Africa and S Asia. HABITAT: open grassland and crops. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly S and W, few records from tablelands. White-backed Swallow Cheramoeca leucosternum (Fig. 103) RANGE: central Aust., reaching coast in E and W. HABITAT; open areas, nesting colonially in sandy banks. N. ENG. RANGE: most frequent in N and W, though some records from elsewhere. Welcome Swallow Hirundo neoxena (Fig. 104) RANGE; S of Tropic of Capricorn, and along the Q coast. Colonized NZ recently. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 405 FIG. 108. Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike, FIG. 109. White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike, FIG. 110. Cicadabird. mm 406 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM HABITAT; open areas, often near human settlement. N. ENG. RANGE: everywhere in New England. Tree Martin Cecropis nigricans (Fig. 105) RANGE: breeds S of Tropic in Aust., further N in non-breeding season, also NG, Indonesia and New Caledonia. HABITAT; woodland and open forest. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, mostly summer visitor. Fairy Martin C. arid (Fig.106) RANGE: throughout Aust., except deserts, far N and T. HABITAT: more open country than Tree Martin, nests under bridges. N. ENG. RANGE: most parts, though patchy in E, summer visitor. Richard's Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae (Fig. 107) RANGE: Aust., NZ, many parts of Europe, Asia and Africa. HABITAT; grassland. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, wherever there is open grassland. Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike Coracina novaehollandiae (Fig. 108) RANGE: Aust., except deserts, India, SE Asia, NG. HABITAT: scrub, woodland, open forest. N. ENG. RANGE: present in all parts of New England. White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike C. papuensis (Fig. 109) RANGE: N and E Aust., NG. HABITAT: woodlands and forests. N. ENG. RANGE: patchily distributed, more common in W than E and tablelands. Cicadabird C. tenuirostris (Fig. 110) RANGE: far N of NT and along E coast and adjacent ranges to Melbourne, NG and other Pacific islands. HABITAT: rainforest and eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE; forests in the E half of New England, apparently outlying populations near In- verell and at Mount Kaputar. Ground Cuckoo-shrike C. maxima (Fig. Ill) RANGE: widespread through inland Aust. HABITAT: woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: SW, a few records from tablelands. White-winged Triller Lalage sueurii (Pig.112) RANGE: Indonesia, NG and Aust., except for T. HABITAT: woodland and scrub, but not forest. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, except for the forested areas. Varied Triller L leucomela RANGE: NG. N and E coasts of Aust. S to Port Macquarie. HABITAT: forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: single record from NE corner. White's Thrush Zoothera daiima (Fig. 113) RANGE: Since data were collected for the atlas, While's Thrush has been split into two species (Ford 1983). The Bassian Thrush, Z. hmidata , occurs on Kangaroo Island, the Mount Lofty Ranges, T and SE Aust. to the 0 border, with an isolated population in the Atherton Tablelands of N Q. The Russet-tailed Thrush. Z. heinei , occurs from NE NSW to NE Q. More information is required on their distribution where they overlap, but lumdata seems to occur in the highlands and heinei in coastal areas. The super- species is widespread from E Europe through Asia to NG. HABITAT: forest, more open country in autumn. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly from E half. Probably most birds are lunulata, but birds captured at Dorrigo, just to the E of the region, had measurements that agreed with heinei . Blackbird Tardus merula RANGE: Europe and Asia, introduced to Aust. in the 1 860s. Now spread through the temperate parts of SE Aust. HABITAT: mostly parks and gardens, but also native woodland and forest. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded from Armidale and Ural- la, where it seems established in small numbers. Cur- rent N limit of range. Rose Robin Petroica rosea (Fig. 114) RANGE: breeds in SE Aust. to NE NSW. In autumn moves N. HABITAT: forest, woodland after breeding. N. ENG. RANGE; occurs mostly in E half though some records from elsewhere. The species breeds in tall forest on E fringes of region (Fleming 1980), becoming more widespread in autumn and winter. Flame Robin P. phoenicea (Fig. 115) RANGE: breeds in SE Aust. between NE NSW and T. HABITAT: woodland, often at high altitude, in winter more widespread in lower, more open country. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout the SE half of region, typically breeding in grassy snow gum {Eucalyptus pauciflora) woodland (Fleming 1980). Many records from tablelands are non-breeding birds. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 407 FIG. 111. Ground Cuckoo-shrike. FIG. 112. White-winged Triller. FIG. 113. Whites Thrush. FIG. 114. Rose Robin, FIG. 115. Flame Robin. FIG. 116. Scarlet Robin. FIG. 117. Red-capped Robin. FIG. 118. Hooded Robin. FIG. 119. Eastern Yellow Robin. 408 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Scarlet Robin P. multicolor (Fig. 116) RANGE: breeds in SE Aust., including T, the Mount Lofty Ranges, Kangaroo Island and in SW Aust. HABITAT: eucalypt forest, with patchy underslorey. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, except in drier W and NW. An outlying population on Mount Kaputar. Red-capped Robin P. goodenovii (Fig. 11 7) RANGE; inland Aust., N to about 20*’ S. HABITAT: wide range of woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: W half, range complements that of Scarlet Robin. Records from tablelands mostly during drought at end of atlas period. Hooded Robin Melanodryas cucullata (Fig. 118) RANGE: throughout inland Aust. HABITAT: woodland and scrub. N* ENG. RANGE: widespread, except for forested E and SE fringes. Patchy on tablelands, perhaps because most suitable habitat has been cleared or degraded. Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis (Fig. 119) RANGE: E Aust. from the Atherton region of N Q to SE SA. HABITAT: rainforest, eucalypt forest and woodland, mallee. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region, though scarce in heavily cleared areas. Jacky Winter Microeca leucophaea (Fig. 120) RANGE; throughout Aust., except heavily forested areas, deserts and T. HABITAT; woodland of all types, partly cleared forest. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded in all parts of region. Pale-vellow Robin Tregellasia capita (Fig.121) RANGE: NE Q, SE Q to mid-N coast of NSW. HABITAT: warm temperate, sub-tropical and tropical rainforest. N. ENG. RANGE: E extremities. Crested Shrike-tit Falcunculus frontatus (Fig. 122) RANGE: Atherton region of 0 to the Mount Lofty Ranges of SA, distinct subspecies in Top End and SW Aust. HABITAT: woodland, open forest. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though patchy. Prefers eucalypts with peeling bark and appears susceptible to fragmentation and degradation of habitat. Olive Whistler Pacliycephala oUvacea RANGE: T and from SE SA to SE NSW, then patchily along the ranges to 0 border. HABITAT: rainforest in N, but wider range of forest further S. N. ENG. RANGE: E escarpment from New England N. P. to Mount Hyland, in temperate rainforest. Golden Whistler P. pectoralis (Fig.123) RANGE: SW and E Aust. from Eyre Peninsula to NE Q, T. Also on numerous Pacific islands. HABITAT: rainforest, eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region, though patchy in W half. Moves to more open habitats in autumn. Rufous Whistler P. rufiventris (Fig, 124) RANGE; Aust., except T and deserts. HABITAT: wide range of woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout, though typically breeds in more open habitat than Golden Whistler. Grey Shrike-thrush Colluricincla harmonica (Fig. 125) RANGE: throughout Aust., S NG. HABITAT: forest, woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: present in all parts. Little Shrike-thrush C. megarhyncha RANGE: NG, N and E Aust., S to NE NSW. HABITAT: rainforest. N. ENG. RANGE: single record, from Washpool Na- tional Park, in NE corner. Crested Bellbird Oreoica gutturalis RANGE: inland Aust., reaching S and W coasts. HABITAT: woodland, mallee and dry scrub in inland Aust. N. ENG. RANGE: several records from W , though scarce and patchily distributed. This represents E ex- treme of range. Black-faced Monarch Monarcha melanopsis (Fig. 126) RANGE: E coast and adjacent ranges of Aust. Migratory, spending winter from central Q to NG. HABITAT; rainforest and eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE: found in summer near E edge. Birds on tablelands probably on passage. Spectacled Monarch M. trivirgatus RANGE: breeds along E coast of Aust. to NE NSW, winters in NG. HABITAT: rainforest. N. ENG. RANGE; recorded from three squares on E extreme. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 409 FIG. 126. BlacK'faced Monarch. FIG. 127, l.eadcn Rycatchcr. FIG. 128. Saiin Fljcaiclier. 410 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Leaden Flycatcher Myiagra rubecula (Fig.127) RANGE: breeds in N and E Aust., and in NG and nearby islands. Winters in N Q and NG. HABITAT: forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though patchy, more common in E. Satin Flycatcher M. cyanoleuca (Fig. 128) RANGE: breeds in SE Aust. and T. Migrates N in autumn to N Q and N.G. HABITAT: eucalypl forest. N. ENG. RANGE: occurs in SE half, more restricted than Leaden Flycatcher. Both species may breed syn- topically, e.g. at Wollomombi. Restless Flycatcher Af. inquieta (Fig. 129) RANGE: throughout Aust. and S NG. HABITAT: woodland, agricultural areas where few trees remain. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though scarce in the denser forested areas. May co-occur with Leaden Flycatcher in grassy woodland. Rufous Fantail Rhipidura rufifrons (Fig.130) RANGE: N and E coasts of Aust. and adjacent ranges, NG and nearby islands. S birds migrate N in autumn. HABITAT: mostly understorey of eucalypt forest (Cameron, 1986). N. ENG. RANGE: E, migrants in Armidale in spring and autumn. Grey Fantail R. fuliginosa (Fig.131) RANGE: all parts of Aust. HABITAT: forest, woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout, declining in forests in winter (Cameron 1985). Migrants numerous on tablelands in autumn and spring. Willie Wagtail R. leucophrys (Fig. 132) RANGE: almost everywhere in Aust., except T. HABITAT: woodland, farmland, prefers more open country than two previous species (Cameron 1985). N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region. Logrunner Orthonyx temminckii RANGE: SE Q and E NSW S to Illawarra region. HABITAT: subtropical and warm temperate rain- forest. but also dense exotic undergrowth and small patches of rainforest (Howe etal. 1981). N. ENG. RANGE: 6 squares on E edge. Eastern Whipbird Psophodes olivaceus (Fig. 133) RANGE: E Aust. between Atherton region and Mel- bourne. HABITAT: dense understorey in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest. N. ENG. RANGE: E and extreme S parts. Spotted Quail-thrush Cinclosoma punctatum (Fig.134) RANGE: SE Aust.. between central 0 and W V. Isolated populations in T and Mount Lofty Ranges. HABITAT: eucalypt forest, typically on stony ridges. N. ENG. RANGE: patchy in E half, with an isolated population around Mount Kaputar. Grey-crowned Babbler Pomatostomus tem- poralis (Fig. 1 35) RANGE: N and E Aust., except deserts and highlands. HABITAT: eucalypt and acacia woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: W of Dividing Range. Also widespread in lowlands just NEof region. White-browed Babbler P. superciliosus (Fig. 136) RANGE: S and central Aust,, except near E coast. HABITAT: eucalyptand acacia woodland and mallee, often in stony areas. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly in rocky parts of NW Slopes. Absent from SW of region, tablelands and E of Dividing Range. Clamorous Reed- Warbler Acrocephalus stentoreus (Fig. 1 37) RANGE: E Aust. and parts of coastal WA, as well as Africa, Asia and NG. HABITAT: reed-beds in lagoons, larger farm dams and sluggish creeks. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, particularly on tablelands, but absent from forests. Birds were seen away from reed-beds in 1980-81 drought. Tawny Grassbird Megalurus tirnoriensis RANGE: Philippines, NG. N and E Aust., generally near coast. HABITAT: wet heathland, swampy grassland or edges of lagoons. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded from wet grassland near lagoons on tablelands.. The status of this isolated population is unclear. Little Grassbird M. gramineus (Fig. 138) RANGE: SW and SE Aust., some inland records, e. g. Lake Eyre drainage. HABITAT: edges of swamps, lagoons, larger farm dams. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 411 FIG. 135. Grey-crowned Babbler. FIG. 130. Wliite-browed Babbler. FIG. 137. Clamorous Reed-Warbler. 412 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM N. ENG. RANGE: widespread near wetlands on tablelands. Golden-headed Cisticola Cisticola exilis RANGE: N and E Aust. Also India, China, SE Asia and NG. HABITAT: swamps and rank grassland. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded from 9 widely scattered squares. Rufous Songlark Cinclorhamphus mathewsi (Fig. 139) RANGE: throughout Aust., except forested areas and T. Migratory, leaving most S areas in late summer or early autumn. HABITAT: open woodland, with long grass. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, except for E forested regions. Brown Songlark C cruralis (Fig.140) RANGE: throughout inland Aust., reaching coast in drier areas, but absent from far N and T. HABITAT: grassland, shrubland, open woodland and crops. N. ENG. RANGE: cropping areas of W, and S parts of tablelands. Superb Fairy-wren Malurus cyaneus (Fig.141) RANGE; SE Aust. from central Q to Eyre Peninsula, and T* HABITAT: forest, woodland and heath, with well- developed shrub layer. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout, inhabiting blackber- ries in heavily cleared areas. Variegated Fairy-wren A/. lamberti{V\g.\A2) RANGE: widespread in Aust., except SW, extreme SE and T. HABITAT: wide range of habitats, with dense under- storey. N. ENG. RANGE; parts of W, N and E fringes. The subspecies lamberti occurs in N and E and assimilis elsewhere. It tends to inhabit heathy vegetation on granite or other infertile rocks. Red-backed Fairy-wren Af. melanocephalus RANGE: N and E Aust. S to NE NSW. HABITAT: forest and woodland with a dense grassy understorey. N. ENG. RANGE; only Washpool NP, in NE comer, recorded on Sara River in 1990 (Debus, pers. comm.). Southern Emu-wren Stipiturus malachurus RANGE: T, SW and SE Aust., N to SEQ. HABITAT: heath and dense swampy areas. N. ENG. RANGE: confined to Washpool and Gibral- tar Range NPs in NE corner. This population is iso- lated from coastal ones. Large-billed Scrub-wren Sericornis mag- nirostris (Fig. 143) RANGE: E Aust. from Atherton to Melbourne. HABITAT: rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest. N. ENG. RANGE: E edge of region. Yellow-throated Scrub-wren 5. citreogularis (Fig. 144) RANGE: Atherton region and from SEQ to SE NSW. HABITAT: rainforest and adjacent eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE: E and extreme S. White-browed Scrubwren 5. frontalis (Fig. 145) RANGE: several well-differentiated sub-species along coast and neighbouring ranges of Aust. from NE Q to Shark Bay, WA, and T. HABITAT: forest, woodland, mallee and coastal heath. N. ENG. RANGE: most of region, though patchy in W. Birds in NE corner resemble sub-species laevigasier, whereas those in SW are frontalis. There is clinal variation between the two forms (Ford 1985). Chestnut-rumped HylacolaS. pyrrhopygius (Fig. 146) RANGE: SE Aust., SEQ to Mount Lofty Ranges. HABITAT: heath and forest w'ith a heathy under- storey. N. ENG. RANGE: series of isolated populations, most substantial ones being in Mount Kaputar area, Gibral- tar Range National Park and Nandewar Ranges. Other populations could exist in rocky ranges elsewhere. Speckled Warbler S. sagitlatus (Fig.147) RANGE: E Aust. from central Q to W V. HABITAT; woodland with bare or stony ground. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though patchy, avoid- ing forested and heavily cleared areas. Weebill Smicrornis brevirostris (Fig. 148) RANGE: widespread in Aust., not in T. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and mallee. N. ENG. RANGE: common in N and W, but patchy E of Dividing Range. Brown Gerygone Gerygone mouki (Fig. 149) RANGE: E Aust. between Atherton and E V. HABITAT: rainforest and eucalypt forest with dense understory. N. ENG. RANGE: along E edge of New England. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 413 FIG. 144. Yellow-throated Scrub-wren. FIG. 145. Whiie-b.owed Scrub-wren. FIG. 146. Chestnut-runiped Hylacola. 414 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Western Gerygone G.Jiisca (Fig.150) RANGE; inland E Aust., central and SW Aust. Some inland and N movement in autumn. HABITAT: woodland and mallee, also forest in SW. N. ENG. RANGE: W, with occasional individuals on tablelands. White-throated Gerygone G. olivacea (Fig.151) RANGE: N and E Aust., Mount Lofty Ranges. N-S migration. HABITAT; eucalypl woodland and forest. N. ENG. RANGE: almost throughout region. Brown Thornhill Acanthiza pusilla (Fig.152) RANGE : SE Aust. from SEQ to Mount Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island. HABITAT: rainforest, eucalypt forest and shrubs in eucalypt woodland. N. ENG. RANGE; widespread in E, rarely W of Dividing Range. Inland Thornhill A, apicalis (¥\g.\5y) RANGE; inland Aust. S of 20" S, to coast in SW. HABITAT: woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: W, distribution almost mirroring that of its sibling species, the Brown Thornbill. Buff-rumped Thornhill A. reguloides (Fig. 154) RANGE: E Aust., Atherton to Mount Lofty Ranges. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and forest. N. ENG. RANGE: more widespread in E than W. Yellow-rumped Thornhill A. chrysorrhoa (Fig. 155) RANGE: most of Aust. S of 20" S. HABITAT: woodland and other open habitats, except deserts. Common in farmland, towns and pine-forests. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region. Yellow Thornhill A. nana (Fig. 156) RANGE: E Aust. HABITAT: woodland, especially with native pines {Callitris ) or casuarinas. N. ENG. RANGE: more common in W than E. In E, birds tend to be in dry casuarina woodland in gorges or along rivers. Striated Thornhill A. lineata (Fig. 157) RANGE: coast and adjacent ranges of SE Aust. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland, sometimes rainforest. N. ENG. RANGE; widespread in E, more patchy W of Dividing Range. Southern Whileface Aphelocephala leucop- sis (Fig. 158) RANGE: throughout inland S Aust. HABITAT: open woodland and acacia scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: patchily distributed through NW Slopes and tablelands, being absent from areas of apparently suitable habitat. Varied Sittella Daphoenositta chrysoptera (Fig. 159) RANGE; most of Aust.. except for deserts and T. Five well differentiated subspecies, which hybridize where they overlap (Ford 1980, Short el al. 1983a). HABITAT; woodland and forest. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, most birds belong to subspecies chrysoptera, except in NE where a few birds show characteristics of subspecies leucocephala (Short etal. 1983b). White-throated Treecreeper Climacteris leiicophaea (Fig. 160) RANGE; SE Aust., also near Eungella in central Q. No treecreepers occur in T or Kangaroo Island. HABITAT: rainforest, eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region. Red-browed Treecreeper C. erythrops (Fig. 161) RANGE: SE Aust., mostly in ranges. HABITAT: extensive eucalypt forests, preferring trees with ribbons of peeling bark (Noske 1985). N. ENG. RANGE: E of or along Dividing Range. Brown Treecreeper C. picumnus (Fig.162) RANGE: throughout E Aust. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and mallee, including partly cleared areas. N. ENG. RANGE; most parts, except for heavily forested areas. Red Wattlebird Anthochaera carunculata (Fig. 163) RANGE: S Aust., from SE Q to SW Aust. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and forest, mallee and heath. N. ENG. RANGE: common, except for W part. An apparently isolated population in Mount Kaputar region. Little Wattlebird A. chrysoptera RANGE: S Aust. and T, mostly near coast. HABITAT; heathland, particularly with Banksia . N. ENG. RANGE: NE corner, with single record from nearTamworth. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 415 FIG. 153. Inland Thornbill. FIG. 154. Buff-rumped Thornbill. FIG. 155. Yellow-rumped Thornbill. 416 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Spiny-cheeked Honey eater A rufogularis (Fig. 164) RANGE: throughout inland Aust., reaching coast in S and W. HABITAT: wide variety of woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: W part, having a range that almost mirrors that of Red Wattlebird. Also a single record from near Ebor. Striped Honeyeater Plectorhyncha lan- ceolaia (Fig. 165) RANGE: inland E Aust., reaching coast in a few places. HABITAT: eucalypt, casuarina and paperbark wood- land and mallee. N. ENG. RANGE: W part, range very like that of Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater. Found in riverine casuarinas on W edge of tablelands. Noisv Friarbird Philemon corniculatus (Fig.166) RANGE: E Aust. from N Q to W V. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region, leaves tablelands in winter. Little Friarbird Ph, citreogularis (Fig.167) RANGE: N and E Aust., mostly inland in S. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and farmland. N. ENG. RANGE: W part, like Spiny-cheeked and Striped Honeyeaters. Scattered records elsewhere. Regent Honeyeater Xanthomyza phrygia RANGE; SE Aust. between Q border and SE SA. There has been a decline in abundance, especially in the S part of its range (Franklin et al., 1987). Now regarded as endangered (Brouwer and Garnett 1990). HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland, particular- ly flowering ironbarks. N. ENG. RANGE: scattered records from NW slopes, breeding near Inverell. Since the atlas it has been seen near Armidale, Bundarra and at New England Nation- al Park (Ley, 1990b; Hines, pers. comm.; Ford, pers. obs.; McFarland pers. obs.). The W slopes of NSW may now be the stronghold of this species, and there is a need for more detailed information on its distribu- tion and habitat requirements. Blue-faced Honeyeater Entomyzon cyanotis (Fig. 168) RANGE: NE Aust. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland, forest fringes and also farmland. N. ENG. RANGE: several records in NE, but most common in W. Bell Mxxxer Manorina melanophrys (Fig. 169) RANGE: SE Aust, from S Q to Melbourne. HABITAT: gullies in eucalypt forest, in ranges or foothills E or S of Great Dividing Range. N. ENG. RANGE: E, with single record from NW corner, far outside expected range. Noisy Miner M. melanocephala (Fig.170) RANGE: E Aust., from Atherton to Mount Lofty Ranges. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland, edge of eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout, associated with wood- land suffering from dieback. Yellow-throated Miner M. flavigula (Fig. 171) RANGE: inland Aust., extending to coast in WA. HABITAT: woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: NW, extensive overlap with Noisy Miner. Lewin’s Honeyeater Meliphaga levAnii (Fig. 172) RANGE: E Aust. from NE Q to Melbourne. HABITAT: rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest. N. ENG. RANGE; common in E, isolated population around Mount Kaputar (mostly outside New England). Yellow-faced Honeyeater Lichenostomus chrysops (Fig. 173) RANGE: E Aust. from N Q to Mount Lofty Ranges. N-S migration. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland, sometimes mallee. N. ENG. RANGE widespread, scarce in W, but breed- ing around Mount Kaputar. Many birds pass through in autumn and spring (McFarland 1984). Singing Honeyeater L. virescens RANGE: throughout WA and inland E Aust. HABITAT: mallee, acacia woodland, coastal heath, chenopod shrubland and mangroves. N. ENG. RANGE; SW corner, though also recorded near Inverell (Baldwin 1975) and in Armidale (H. Bell, pers. comm.). White-eared Honeyeater L. leucotis (Fig. 174) RANGE; E and SW Aust., SA. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland, mallee in W. N. ENG. RANGE; widespread, though less common in W. Typically in scrubby forest on rocky hillsides. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 417 I FIG. 162- Brown Treecreeper. FIG. 163. Red Wattlebird. FIG. 164. Soinv-cheeked Honeyeater. 418 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 168. Blue-faced Honeyeater. FIG. 169. Bell Miner. FIG. 170. Noisy Miner. FIG. 171. Yellow-throated Miner. FIG. 172. Lewin's Honeyeater. FIG. 173. Yellow-faced Honeyeater. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 419 FIG. 180. White-naped Honeyeater FIG. 181. Brown Honeyeater. FIG. 182. New Holland Honeyeater. 420 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Yellow-tufted Honeyeater L. melanops (Fig. 175) RANGE; SE Ausi. from central 0 to W V. HABITAT: eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly W half, usually in colonies either on rocky hillsides with scrubby understorey or in moist gullies. Records E of Dividing Range are probably of wandering birds. Fuscous Honeyeater L, fuscus (Fig. 176) RANGE: E Aust. between Cairns and W V. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: most parts, except for heavily forested areas. One of the most abundant birds in woodland on tablelands. White-plumed Honeyeater L. penicillatus (Fig. 177) RANGE: widespread throughout inland E Aust. and in the central part of WA. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) along creeks. N. ENG. RANGE; mostly reported W of Dividing Range. Where it overlaps with Fuscous Honeyeater it is found in river oaks (Casuarina cunninghamiana ) (Chan 1990). Black-chinned Honeyeater Melithreptus gularis (Fig. 178) RANGE; across N Aust. and inland SE Aust. HABITAT; eucalypt woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: subspecies gularis patchily dis- tributed W of Dividing Range. Also occurs just to NE of region. Brown-headed Honeyeater M. brevirostris (Fig.i79) RANGE: SE and SW Aust. HABITAT: eucalypt forest, woodland and mallee. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, except forested areas. White-throated Honeyeater M. albogularis RANGE: N and E Aust. S to NE NSW. HABITAT: eucalypt and paperbark forest and wood- land. N. ENG. RANGE; only in NE corner, but recorded Sara River in 1990. White-naped Honeyeater M. lunatus (Fig. 180) RANGE; SW and SE Aust. and in uplands to NE Q. N-S migration. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodIan 5 i. N. ENG. RANGE; widespread in centre and E, with isolated breeding population around Mount Kapular. There appears to be only slight overlap between White-naped and While-throated Honeyeaters. Brown Honeyeater Lichmera indistincta (Fig.181) RANGE: SW Aust. and N Aust. S to central NSW. HABITAT: mangrove, forest, woodland and heath. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly on W slopes, but a number of records from E fringes, which are continuous with coastal populations. Uncommon on tablelands. Painted Honeyeater Grantiella picta RANGE: scarce in inland E Aust., regular N-S migra- tion. HABITAT: associated with mistletoes in eucalypt and acacia woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: 5 scattered squares in New England, with additional observations to SW of region. New Holland Honeyeater Phylidonyris novaehollandiae (Fig. 1 82) RANGE: SW and SE Aust. and T. HABITAT: heath, dry sclerophyll forest and mallee. N. ENG. RANGE; E and extreme S parts of New England, in high forest with banksias (McFarland 1986). White-cheeked Honeyeater Ph. nigra RANGE: SW and E Aust. between NE Q and SE NSW. HABITAT: coastal heath and sclerophyll forest. N. ENG. RANGE: only from E fringes, an apparently sedentary population at New England National Park (McFarland 1984). Eastern Spinebill Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris (Fig. 183) RANGE: E Aust. between NE Q and Kangaroo Island, T. HABITAT: forest, woodland and heath. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread through the central, S and E parts, with an apparently isolated population around Mount Kapular. Most abundant bird in New England National Park in winter. Two birds captured there were originally banded near Nambucca Heads and Byron Bay. Scarlet Honeyeater Myzomela sanguinolenta (Fig. 184) RANGE: E Aust. between NE 0 and E V. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland and paper- bark woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded widely, though rare in W and tablelands. Birds most often seen near Armidale in spring and autumn. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 421 FIG. 189- European Goldfinch. FIG, 190. House Sparrow. FIG. 191- Red-browed Firetail. 422 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Mistletoebird Dicaeum hirundinaceum (Fig. 185) RANGE: Ausl., except deserts, T and other islands. HABITAT: mistletoes in forest, woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded throughout. Spotted Pardalote Pardalotus punctatus (Fig. 186) RANGE: E arid SW Aust. and T. Partly migratory. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: most parts, though patchy in W. Striated Pardalote P, striatus (Fig. 187) RANGE: throughout Aust. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and open forest. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region. Mostly or- nalus, though siibstriatus occurs in W and perhaps melanocephalus in NE. Silvereye Zosterops lateralis (Fig. 188) RANGE: E and S Aust. andT. HABITAT: forest, woodland, scrub, gardens. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region. Dark-flanked Tasmanian race lateralis occurs in winter. European Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis (Fig. 189) RANGE: introduced to Aust. in 1850s, now through SE Aust. and T. Native to Eurasia and North Africa. HABITAT: farmland, gardens and other highly modified habitats. N. ENG. RANGE: present in tablelands and SE. House Sparrow Passer domesticus (Fig. 190) RANGE: introduced to Aust. in 1860s and now found almost throughout E half from Gulf of Carpentaria to Eyre Peninsula. Native range is Eurasia and North Africa, but introduced elsewhere. HABITAT: human habitation and modified habitats. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, though absent from areas of native vegetation, Red-brow'ed Firetail Emblema temporalis (Fig. 191) RANGE: E Aust., between Cape York and Kangaroo Island. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: almost throughout region. Diamond Firetail E. guttata (Fig. 192) RANGE: E Aust. between central 0 and Eyre Penin- sula, generally inland. HABITAT: grassy woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: widespread, except for heavily forested E. Zebra Finch Poephila guttata (Fig.193) RANGE: inland Aust., reaching coast in W. HABITAT: wide variety of woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: patchily distributed in W and centre, often in Hawthorn (Cretacgus) scrub around Armidale (Kikkawa 1980). Double-barred Finch P. bichenovii (Fig.194) RANGE: N and E Aust.. S to NE V. HABITAT: woodland, forest and agricultural areas. N. ENG. RANGE: most areas, except SE and parts of tablelands. Plum-headed Finch Aidemosyne modesta (Fig. 195) RANGE: inland E Ausl. between central Q and S NSW. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland, especially in dense vegetation along creeks. N. ENG. RANGE: patchily distributed in W and centre. Breeding record near Armidale is outside nor- mal range. Chestnut-breasted Mannikin Lonchura cas- taneothorax RANGE: NG. N and E Aust. S to Sydney. HABITAT: swamps and farmland. N. ENG. RANGE: two records, near Tamworth and Ebor. Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris (Fig. 196) RANGE: introduced in 1 850s. now found throughout SE Ausl. between central Q and Nullarbor Plain. Oc- casionally beyond this region. Native range Europe and Asia, introduced N. America. HABITAT: farmland, will breed in neighbouring na- tive vegetation. N. ENG. RANGE: Widespread and increasing, but patchy in E forests. Common Mynah Acridotheres tristis RANGE: introduced in 1860, now occurs between Melbourne and Brisbane. Native range is Indiaand SE Asia. HABITAT: urban areas. N. ENG. RANGE: recorded S of Tamworth. Olive-backed Oriole Oriolus sagittatus (Fig. 197) RANGE: N and E Aust. S to W V. Also occurs in NG and adjacent islands. HABITAT: eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: widely, though patchily, dis- tributed. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 423 FIG. 192. Diamond Firetail. FIG. 193- Zebra Finch. FIG- 194. Double-barred Finch. 424 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Figbird Sphecotheres viridis RANGE: N and E Aust. S to Sydney. HABITAT: edges of rainforest and eucalypt forest, mostly near coast. N. ENG. RANGE: three records, in NE corner. Spangled Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus (Fig. 198) RANGE: N and E Aust. S to SE NSW; S Asia and NG. HABITAT: rainforest, mangroves, eucalypt forest and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: scattered records from E and centre. Probably only a passage migrant through tablelands. Satin Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus violaceus (Fig. 199) RANGE: Atherton region, N Q and from SE Q to central V. HABITAT: rainforest and eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE: E and extreme S. Regent Bowerbird Sericulus chrysocephalus RANGE: central Q to central NSW. HABITAT: rainforest, also in other overgrown habitats. N. ENG. RANGE: four squares on E fringes. Spotted Bowerbird, Chlamydera maculata RANGE: two well-defined subspecies, in inland W and central Aust., and in inland E Aust. HABITAT: dense vegetation in eucalypt and acacia woodland, often near figs. N. ENG. RANGE: confined to NW corner. Green Catbird Ailuroides crassirostris (Fig.200) RANGE: SE 0 and E NSW. HABITAT: rainforest. N. ENG. RANGE: E and extreme S. Paradise Riflebird Ptiloris paradiseus RANGE: SE Q and NE NSW. HABITAT: rainforest. N. ENG. RANGE: Washpool National Park and near Dorrigo. White-winged Chough Corcorax melano- rhamphos (Fig. 201) RANGE: E and S Aust., between central 0 and Eyre Peninsula. HABITAT; mallee, eucalypt woodland and grassy forest. N. ENG. RANGE; most areas, though scarce on parts of tablelands, possibly due to extensive clearing. Apostlebird Struthidea cinerea (Fig. 202) RANGE: N and E Aust., mostly away from coast. HABITAT: eucalypt and other semi-arid woodland, near water. N. ENG. RANGE: W third of region. Australian Magpielark Grallina cyanoleuca (Fig. 203) RANGE: throughout Aust., except T and deserts. HABITAT: farmland, open woodland and scrub. N. ENG RANGE: throughout region. White-breasted Woodswallow Artamus leucorhynchus RANGE: central, E inland and N Aust., between Shark Bay and Sydney. SE Asia, NG and many Pacific Islands. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and forest, mangroves and farmland, often near water. N. ENG. RANGE: scattered records across N. Masked Woodswallow A. personatus (Fig.204) RANGE: inland Aust., occasionally reaching coast. HABITAT: woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE; scattered records, including two of breeding. White-browed Woodswallow A. super- ciliosus (Fig. 205) RANGE: inland E Aust., some records from inland WA. N-S migrant, sometimes erupting beyond its normal range and even reaching the coast. HABITAT: woodland and scrub. N. ENG. RANGE: widely reported from W and centre. Large numbers arrive on tablelands about every second year in early November, breed and depart in late December. Black-faced Woodswallow A. cinereus RANGE: inland Aust. and near coast in W. HABITAT: open country, including farmland. N. ENG. RANGE: W edge of region. Duskv Woodswallow A. cyanopterus (Fig.206) RANGE: S Aust. to S Q. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and open forest. N. ENG. RANGE: most of region, except for heavily forested areas. A summer visitor to tablelands. Little Woodswallow A. minor (Fig. 207) RANGE: widespread in N and central Aust. S to central NSW. HABITAT: typically in rocky country. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 425 FIG, 207. Little WoodswaNow. FIG, 208, Grey Butcherbird, FIG- 209- Pied Butcherbird. 426 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 210. Australian Magpie. FIG. 211. Pied Currawong. FIG. 212. Australian Raven. _ ■ BSH i • •• I • □ • • ■ n □ n ■ 1 ■ n . 1 n 1 □ ■ * • • ■ ■ n 3 n 3 . . j * . T I • FIG. 213. Forest Raven, FIG. 214. Torresian Crow. N. ENG. RANGE: breeding in NW and also near Tamworth. Grev Butcherbird Cracticus torquatus (Fig: 208 ) RANGE: most of Aust., except N Q and deserts.- HABITAT; woodland and open habitats. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region. Pied Butcherbird C nigrogularis (Fig. 209) RANGE: throughout Aust., except SE. HABITAT: eucalypt and acacia woodland and mallee, can be common in farmland. N. ENG. RANGE: W and N, with a few records from centre and E. Also found along NE coast of NSW. Australian Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen (Fig.210) RANGE: Aust., except W T, extreme N and deserts. Also S NG and introduced to NZ. Three well-defined subspecies. HABITAT: woodland and open areas. N. ENG. RANGE: subspecies tibicen found throughout region. Occasional white-backed birds seen. Pied Currawong Strepera graculina (Fig.21 1) RANGE; E Aust. between Cape York and W Vic. HABITAT: eucalypt woodland and forest. N. ENG. RANGE: throughout region, moving into forest to breed and into more open habitat and towns in autumn and winter. Australian Raven Corvus coronoides (Fig.212) RANGE: most parts of S and E Aust. HABITAT: open country and woodland. N. ENG. RANGE: most of region, though scarce in NE. Forest Raven C. tasmanicus {Fig.2\3) RANGE: T, S V and SA and NE NSW. HABITAT: mostly eucalypt forest. N. ENG. RANGE: E and S. This population (boreus) is continuous with that around Barrington Tops and Myall Lakes, but isolated by over 1,000 km from any other population. NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 427 Torresian Crow C. orru (Fig. 214) RANGE: N Aust., further S in E and W. HABITAT: woodland and farmland. N. ENG. RANGE: mostly in E and N. DISCUSSION The New England region clearly has a diverse avifauna, with a total of 296 species recorded between 1978 and 1982, when the data for this atlas were collected. Whereas some species are non-breeding visitors, the majority of species are residents or breeding summer visitors. The main reason for the diversity of species is the variety of topography and vegetation found in the region. The latter ranges from rainforest, through a variety of eucalypt (open) forest and woodland to grassland. Woodland with Casuarina or na- tive pine {Callitris ), and heath, are other habitats that are represented. In addition, there are seasonal and ephemeral swamps, and more per- manent water bodies, including lagoons and man-made reservoirs. A further and related reason for the diversity of birds is that the region lies on or near the boundaries between several zoogeographical sub-regions. Kikkawa and Pearse (1969) clas- sified data on the presence of bird species in 121 sites around Australia to delimit regions of similar avifaunas. Their classification, based on species of landbird, is shown in Figure 2 1 5, onto which the boundaries of the New England region are super-imposed. New England falls within the Kosciuskan faunal area. This is sub-divided be- tween northern and southern components and one that falls in southeastern Queensland and northeastern New South Wales, all three of which occur in New England. In addition the Eyrean sub-region, with its arid-adapted species, is not far to the west of New England. An examination of the distribution of in- dividual species of landbird reveals that most fall into a small number of loose geographical categories (Table I). Many species, e. g. Kestrel, Welcome Swallow and Willie Wagtail occur throughout the area and indeed most of these are widespread in Australia as a whole. Another group of species is found west of the Great Dividing Range, e.g. Cockatiel and Spiny- cheeked Honeyeater. Several of these only occur on the western fringes of New England. These are widespread in inland Australia, in arid and semi-arid habitats, being typical Eyrean species. Quite a number of species occur in the west and centre, being absent from the more densely forested eastern parts. Examples are the Weebill and Red-rumped Parrot. A further group occurs in the centre and east, but is generally absent from the western third, such as Striated Thornbill and White-naped Honeyeater. A few of the species with a western distribu- tion in New England, e.g. Blue-faced Honey- eater and Pied Butcherbird, are also found in the coastal lowlands, although they are scarce in between, on the tablelands. This absence may be for climatic reasons or because the woodlands of the tablelands have been extensively cleared. A distinct group of wet forest species occurs on the eastern or northeastern fringes of the region, for example the White-headed Pigeon, Logrunner and Paie-yellow Robin. Very few species occur more commonly on the tablelands than they do to the east or west; possibly the two grassbirds fall into this category. A significant number of species do not show a clear geographical pattern, probably because they have more subtle habitat preferences than those species preferring wet or dry forest. In some cases this habitat preference is well known, as with the Southern Emu-wren and its association with heath. In other cases the distributions and habitat preferences of a species need further investigation. There are several pairs of sibling species whose distributions meet and cither do not over- lap or do so only minimally in New England. These include the Scarlet and Red-capped Robin, and the Brown and Inland Thornbill, with Throughout region 67 Western fringes 9 Northwest fringes 6 Southwest fringes 4 Western half 14 West and centre 22 Mostly centre 6 East and centre 8 Eastern half 14 Eastern fringes 24 Northeastern fringes 12 East and west but absent from centre 10 No clear pattern - specific habitat 8 No clear pattern 20 Vagrant 8 TABLE 1. Numbers of species of landbirds whose distribution falls into each geographical category. 428 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Wanderine Whistline Duck Dendrocygna arcuata Armidale Little Bittern Jxobrychus minutus All regions of NSW Black-breasted Buzzard Hamirostra melanosternon Copeton Dam Kine Ouail Cotiirnix chinensis West to Tenterfield Spotless Crake Porzana tabuensis All regions of NSW Common Sandpiper Trinm hypoleucos Keepit Dam Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos Northern Tablelands Curlew Sandpiper C. ferru^inea All regions of NSW Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus Guyra White-winged Tern Chlidonias leiicoptera All regions of NSW Superb Fruit-dove Ptilinopus superbus Wollomombi Rose-crowned Fruit-dove Pt. resina Northern Tablelands Gang Gang Cockatoo Callocephalon fimbriatum Ebor Double-eved Fig-Parrot Psittaculirosiris diophthalma Northern Tablelands Paradise Parrot Psephotus pulcherrimus North of Inverell Masked Owl Tyto novaehollandiae All regions of NSW Eastern Grass Owl T. lonsimembris Tenterfield Albert's Lyrebird Menura alberti Northern Tablelands White-fronted Chat Ephthianura albifrons East to Bingara Star Finch Neochmia ruficauda Namoi River, Inverell Black-throated Finch Poephila cincta N Tablelands, NW Slopes TABLE 2. Species not recorded in New England during the atlas, but recorded for the region by Morris et al. 1981. The site or region recorded is also noted. the former being the species associated with wetter habitat. North-south replacements are less frequent, though the Eastern and Pale-headed Rosella overlap in the northwest of the region. Also, in some species, two or more distinct sub- species occur in New England, for instance in the Variegated Fairy-wren, Varied Sittella and Striated Pardalote. A few species of bird were not recorded during the atlas but were recorded before this period. Those listed for the region by Morris et al. (1981), but not included in this atlas are shown in Table 2. Some of these were vagrants only. The Star Finch and the Black-throated Finch were recorded by Baldwin (1975) near Invercll in the 1 960s and the latter species was seen near Tenterfield in 1963 (Hall, 1974). Morris et al. suggested that the former record was of es- capees. The Paradise Parrot occurred in the northern parts of New England and now may be extinct throughout its range. The Fig-parrot, Albert’s Lyrebird and the two fruit-doves would have been present in the extreme northeastern corner of New England and the Rose-crowned Fruit-dove may still occur there occasionally. Other species were recorded during the atlas though their ranges have contracted since European settlement. The Bush Thick-knee has declined from being widespread to occur now only in the northern tip of the region. The Squat- ter Pigeon has probably also declined in the region, though its range may always have fluc- tuated greatly. Several rare species were recorded during the atlas in New England. These include the Red Goshawk, Red-chested Button-quail, Painted Snipe, Wompoo Fruit-dove, Glossy Black- Cockatoo, Powerful Owl, Sooty Owl, Rufous Scrub-bird, Regent and Painted Honeyeaters. Only the Rufous Scrub-bird has received detailed study (Ferrier, 1985), though work is currently being carried out on the Red Goshawk, Wompoo Fruit-dove and the owls. There are two main values in an atlas of this NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 429 FIG. 215. Zoogeographic regions of Australia, showing New England region overlapping with three sub-regions of the Kosciuskan region. type. First, it raises numerous questions for fu- ture study, such as why do species show par- ticular geographical distributions and why are all the species mentioned in the previous two para- graphs so rare, and are they declining and if so why? Secondly, it provides a data-base indicat- ing the distribution of species in one period of five years. Future atlases on the avifauna or indeed on particular species and groups can tell us which species have shown a contraction or expansion of range. With large-scale changes imposed on all natural habitats by human ac- tivities and also predicted changes in climate it is likely that many species will indeed change their distribution in future decades. We are now in a much better position to detect and quantify these changes, and if necessary take action to attempt to prevent or reverse declines in the species concerned. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank all those ornithologists that collected and analysed data for the RAOU Atlas, and especially to Dr Richard Noske for coordinating the collection of data in the New England region. We are also grateful to S. Debus, S. Tremont, P. Fleming and H. Hines for bird records after the atlas. Associate Professor H. Hcatwole and Dr Glen Ingram criticised the manuscript and the Worldwide Fund for Nature contributed to pub- lication costs. LITERATURE CITED BAKER-GABB, D. 1986. Ecological release and be- havioural and ecological flexibility in Marsh Harriers on islands. Emu 86: 71-81. BALDWIN, M. 1975. 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(eds), 'Birds of eucalypt forests and woodlands: ecol- ogy. conservation, management.’ (Surrey Beat- ty: Sydney). CAIN, A, J. 1963. ‘Animal species and their evolu- tion.' (Hutchinson: London). CHAN, K. 1 988. Habitat selection in sympatric breed- ing populations of the White-plumed Honcycaicr Lichenostomus penicillatus and the Fuscous Honeyeater L. fuscus. B. Sc. Hons thesis, Dept. Zoo!., Univ. of New England, Ar- midale. (Unpubl.) COURTNEY, J. 1971. Breeding of the Red-rumped Kingfisher at Swan Vale, NSW. Emu 71: 174- 175. DEBUS, S. 1982. Range and status of the Red Gos- hawk in New South Wales. Aust. Birds 16:41- 45. 1983. Behaviour and vocalisations of nesting Little Eagles. Aust. Bird Watcher 10: 73-78. 1984. Biology of the Little Eagle on the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales. Emu 84:87- 92. DEBUS, S. J. S. AND CZECHURA, G. V. 1988. The Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus: a review. Aust. Bird Watcher 12: 175-199. DISNEY, H. J. deS. 1979. Royal Australasian Ornithologists' Union Pilot Atlas Scheme. Corella 2: 97-163. EMISON, W. B. AND BREN W. M. 1981. Banding of Peregrine Falcon chicks in Victoria, Australia. Emu 80: 288-291. EMISON, W. B., BEARDSELL, C. M., NORMAN, F. I. AND LOYN, R. H. 1987. ‘Atlas of Vic- 430 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM torian birds.’ (Dept. Conserv. For. Lands & RAOU: Melbourne). FERRIER, S. 1985. Habitat requirements of a rare species: the Rufous Scrub-bird. 241-248. In Keast, A., Recher, H., Ford, H., and Saunders, D. (eds), ‘Birds of eucalypi forests and wood- lands: ecology, conservation, management.’ (Surrey Beatty: Sydney). FLEMING, P. 1 980. The comparative ecology of four sympalric robins. Hons thesis. Dept. Zool., Univ. New England, Armidale. (unpubl.) FORD. J. 1980. Hybridization between contiguous sub-species of the Varied Sitlella in Queensland. Emu 80: 1-12. 1983. Specialion in the Ground Thrush complex Zoothera dauma in Australia. Emu 83: 152- 172. 1985. Secondary contact between sub-species of the White-browed Scrub-wren in eastern Australia. Emu 85: 92-96. FRANKLIN, D., MENKHORST, P. AND ROBIN- SON, J. 1987. Field surveys of the Regent Honeyealer Xanthomyza phrygia in Victoria. Aust. Bird Watcher 12:91-95. GOSPER, D. G. 1973. Waterbirds on two tableland lagoons. Aust. Bird Watcher 5: 35-39. HALL, B. P. 1974. ‘Birds of the Harold Hall Australian expeditions’. (British Museum, Natural History: London). HAYS, R. G. 1920. The Little Eagle. Emu 20: 33-34. HEATWOLE, H., AND SIMPSON, R. D. 1986. Faunal survey of New England. I. Introduction and genera] description of the area. Mem. Qd Mus. 22: 107-113. HERON, S. 1970. Birds of the sewerage works at Armidale, NSW. Aust. Bird Watcher 2: 269- 272. HOWE, R. W., HOWE, T. D., AND FORD, H. A. 1981. Bird distributions on small rain forest remnants in New South Wales. Aust. Wildl. Res. 8: 637-651. JONES, D. 1987. Feeding ecology of the Cockatiel Nymphicushollandicus in a grain-growing area. Aust. Wildl. Res. 14:105-115. KIKKAWA, J. 1980. Seasonality of nesting by Zebra Finches at Armidale, NSW. Emu 80: 13-20. KIKKAWA, J. AND PEARSE, K. 1969. Geographi- cal distribution of land birds in Australia - a numerical analysis. Aust. J. Zool. 17; 821-840. LEA, D. A. M., PIGRAM, J. J. AND GREENWOOD, L. 1977. ‘An atlas of New England’. (University of New England: Armidale). LEY, A. J. 1 990a. Two breeding records of the Pacific Baza in inland New South Wales. Australian Birdwatcher 13:258-259. 1990b. Notes on the Regent Honeyeater Xan- thomyza phrygia. Australian Bird Watcher 13: 171-173. McFarland, D. C. 1984. Seasonal changes in the avifauna of New England National Park. Aust. Bird Watcher 10: 255-263. 1 986. Seasonal changes in the abundance and body condition of honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) in response to inflorescence and nectar availability in New England National Park, New South Wales. Aust. J. Ecol. 11:331-340. MILLS, K. 1986. Birds observed in the Guy Fawkes River Valley, northern New South Wales. Aust. Birds 20: 44-48. MORRIS, A. K. 1979. The inland occurrence of Tropic-birds in New South Wales in March 1979. Aust. Birds 13: 51-54. MORRIS, A. K.. McGILL, A. R. AND HOLMES, G. 1981. ‘Handlist of birds in New South Wales’. (NSW Field Ornithologists Club: Sydney). NEWTON, I. 1979. ‘Population ecology of Raptors.’ (Poyser: Calton, England). NORTON, S. P. W. 1922. Bird notes from Boree (New England Plateau). Emu 22: 39-44. NOSKE, R. A. 1985. Habitat use by three bark- foragers of eucalypt forests. 193-204. In Keast, A., Recher, H., Ford, H. and Saunders, D. (eds), ‘Birds of eucalypt forests and woodlands; ecol- ogy, conservation, management.’ (Surrey Beat- ty; Sydney). OLSEN, P. D. AND OLSEN, J. 1988. Breeding of the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus : I. Weather, nest-spacing and territory occupancy. Emu 88: 195-201. PRUETT-JONES, S. G., WHITE, C. M. AND DEVINE, W. R. 1981a. Breeding of the Peregrine Falcon in Victoria, Australia. Emu 80: 253-269. 1981b. Eggshell thinning and organochlorine residues in eggs and prey of Peregrine Falcons from Victoria, Australia. Emu 80: 281-287. SHORT, L. L., SCHODDE, R. AND HORNE, J. F. M . 1 983a. Five-way hybridization of Varied Sit- tellas Daphoenositta chrysoptera (Aves: Neosit- tidae) in central Queensland. Aust. J. Zool. 31: 499-516. SHORT, L. L., SCHODDE, R., NOSKE, R. A. AND HORNE, J. F. M. 1983b. Hybridization of ‘white-headed’ and ‘orange-winged’ Varied Sit- tellas, Daphoenositta chrysoptera leucocephala and D. c. chrysoptera (Aves: Neosittidae) in eastern Australia. Aust. J. Zool. 31: 517-531. SIMPSON, R. D. AND STANISIC, J. 1986. Faunal survey of New England. II. The distribution of NEW ENGLAND BIRDS 431 Gastropod Molluscs. Mem. Qd. Mus. 22; 115- 139. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN ORNITHOLOGICAL AS- SOCIATION , 1977. ‘A bird atlas of the Adelaide region’. (South Australian Or- nithological Association: Adelaide). SULLIVAN, C. 1931. Notes from north-western New South Wales. Emu 31: 124-135. THOMAS, D. 1979. ‘Tasmanian bird atlas.’ Fauna of Tasmania Handbook No. 2, Univ. Tasmania. WHITE, J. M. 1986. Breeding of Black Swans on two New England lagoons. Corella 10: 17-20. 1 987. The New England lagoons as drought refuges for waterbirds. Emu 87: 253-255. 432 A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE INTESTINAL FLAGELLATES OF THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN ANURA Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 5(?(3):432. 1991. This note follows the one previously published by Delvin- quier & Jones (1988) (Menu Qd Mus. 25(2): 333-334) on intestinal flagellates of Australian anurans. Between I988and 1989, 409 adult specimens of 50 species of anurans and 13 tadpoles of two species of frogs, repre- senting 9 families and from 26 localities in all four Provinces of South Africa and from Swaziland were checked for the presence of intestinal protozoans. Specimens have been lodged with the Queensland Museum (OM). The anuran nomenclature follows Frost, D.R. (ed.) (1985). 'Amphibian Species Of The World. A Taxonomic and Geographical Reference.’ (Allen Press, Inc. & The Association of Systematics Collections; Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A.) and Frost, D.R., and Savage, J.M. (1987). J. Herpetol. Ass. Africa 33: 24. Abbreviations are: N = number; Cc = Chilomastix caul- leryi (QM GL 13025); Ga = Giardia agiiis (OM GL 13028); Mb - Monocercomonas batrachorum (QM GL 13026, GL \'i029)\Se=Spironucleus etegans (OMGL13027, GL13035, GL13036, GL13038); Tb = Trichomitus batrachorum (OMGL13030, GL13032, GL13037, GL13039); Ta = Tritrichomonas augusta (QM GL 13031, GL 13040). HOSTS N Cc Ga Se Mb Ta Tb ARTHROLEPTIDAE Arthroleptis wahlbergi . . 1 BUFONIDAE Bufo angusticeps gariepensis garmani gutturalis maculatus rangeri Capensibufo rosei Schismaderma carens . . . 3 5 . . . . 1 . 4 20 ... . 14 . 11 33 . 1 . 18 . 6 . . . 9 3 . . . . 1 . . . . 1 9 . . . . 1 . 2 . 5 5 . . . . 2 16 ... . 6 . 3 12 HELEOPHRYNIDAE Heleophryne natalensis . . 2 (tadpoles) 7 . . 5 HEMISOTIDAE Hemisus guttatum 1 HYPEROLIIDAE Afrixalus aureus 4 . . . . 4 delicatus 5 . . . . 4 fornasinii 6 HOSTS . N Cc Ga Se Mb Ta Tb Hyperolius argus .... . 1 horstocki . 4 marmoratus . 42 . . 1 14 . 1 pickersgilli . 3 . . . . 1 9 pusillus . 1 ... . 3 semidiscus . 6 . . . . 3 tuberilinguis . 12 . . . . 3 . . . ... 1 Kassina maculata .... . 6 . . . . 2 . . . ... 3 senegalensis . 1 ... . 2 Leptopelis natalensis . . . 4 . . . . 2 . . 1 . 3 mossambicus . 4 . . . . 3 9 Semnodactylus wealii . . . 6 . . . . 6 . 1 ... 3 MICROHYLIDAE Breviceps adspersus . . . 1 Phrynomerus bifasciatus . 5 . . . . 3 . . . ... 3 PIPIDAE Xenopus laevis . 17 . . . . 13 . 1 ... 3 (tadpoles) . 6 . . . . 3 muelleri . 1 . . . . 1 RANIDAE Anhydrophryne rattrayi . . 1 Arthroleptella lightfooti . . 2 Cacosternum boettgeri . . 18 . . . . 8 . . . ... 4 nanum . 2 . . . 1 . 1 Phrynobatrachus mababiensis 2 . . . . 1 natalensis 12 ... . 7 . . . . . . 3 Ptychadena anchitae . . 3 . . . . 1 mascareniensis .... 3 . . . . 1 mossambica 2 oxyrhynchus 10 ... . 1 . 1 Pyxicephalus adspersus . 5 . . . 1 Rana angolensis 38 . . 1 29 . 1 . . . 7 fuscigula 17 ... . 12 . . 3 Strongylopus fasciatus . 1 grayii 3 . . . . 2 . . 1 . 2 Tomopterna cryptotis . . 19 ... . 8 . . . . . . 6 delalandii 14 4 12 krugerensis 1 ... . 2 . . 1 . 4 natalensis 6 . . . . 1 . . . . . . 1 RHACOPHORIDAE Chiromantis xerampelina . 5 2 B.LJ. Delvinquier and M.B. Markus and N.l. Passmore, Department of Zoology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa;25 February, 1991, 1 . . 1 ADDITIONS TO THE INDO-AUSTRALIAN REPRESENTATIVES OF ACARNUS GRAY (PORIFERA: DEMOSPONGIAE: POECILOSCLERIDA), WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FREERK HIEMSTRA AND JOHN N.A. HOOPER Hiemstra, F. and Hooper, J.N.A. 1991 08 01: Additions to the Indo-Australian repre- sentatives of Acarnus Gray (Porifera:Demospongiae:Poecilosclerida), with description of a new species. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 431-442. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. The poorly known species 4 car/iw.v tenuis from southern Australian waters is redescribed and illustrated for the first time. A new species from Sumbawa in Indonesian waters is described, bringing the total number of species known for Indo-Australian waters to seven, and a key for Indo-Australian species is given. 14 species of Acarnus are now recognized worldwide, and a brief synopsis of the genus is given. Phylogenetic relationships of the genus proposed by Hooper (1987) are re-evaluated and five species-groups are proposed. □ PoriferOy Demospongiae, Acarnus, /tew species, Australia, Indonesia. Freerk Hiemstra, Institute of Taxonomic Zoology (Zoological Museum), University of Amsterdam PO Box 4766 I009-AT Amsterdam, The Netherlands; John N.A. Hooper, Northern Territory Museum of Arts and Sciences, GPO Box 4646, Darwin, Northern Territory 0801, Australia; 10 February, 1990. Recent collections undertaken by the Snellius II expedition in southern Indonesia discovered a thinly incrusting, previously undescribed species of Acarnus, bringing the total number of species known for the genus to 14. Given the close proximity of the type locality (Sumbawa) to the north coast of Australia, it is possible that this new species may also be a part of the tropical Australian sponge fauna, since other species of Acarnus known to occur in Australian waters, recorded by Hooper (1987), have also been found in southern Indonesia (ZMA collections, van Soest, personal communication; van Soest 1989). In addition, the Snellius H collections in Amsterdam also contain specimens of A. souriei (Levi, 1952) from Indonesian waters, which ex- tends its known distribution further eastwards from Palk Bay, India (Hooper, 1987, fig. 39). Through the efforts of Miss Shirley Slone, type material of the poorly known A. tenuis Dendy from southern Australian waters was made avail- able from the BMNH collections, and the species is re-described here. Although ‘syntypes’ of the species held in the NMV were examined during a comprehensive revision of the genus (Hooper, 1987), no trace of the species was found on any of the incrusting sponge substrates. Acarnus tenuis was subsequently treated as a species in- quirenda, and its characters, as described by Dendy (1896), were declared circumspect until the remaining BMNH microscope slides (reported by Ayling el ai, 1982) became avail- able. In this paper A. tenuis is redescribed and illustrated for the first time. Its phylogenetic relationships with other members of the genus were merely speculated upon by Hooper (1987), but these are now re-evaluated. A key is also presented for identification of the seven Indo- Australian Acarnus species, and illustrations comparing these species are presented. METHODS Methods of collection, preservation and preparation of specimens for examination under light microscopy are described elsewhere (Hooper, 1986). Spicule measurements, based on 25 units, are presented as lower range-mean- upper range of lengths x widths. Preparation of material for scanning electron microscope ex- amination is described by Buizer and van Soest (1977). The following abbreviations are used in the text: BMNH, British Museum (Natural His- tory), London; MNHN, Museum National d’- Histoire Naturelle, Paris; NMV, Museum of Victoria, Melbourne; NTM, Northern Territory Museum, Darwin; ZMA, Zoological Museum Amsterdam. 434 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM SYSTEMATICS Order POECILOSCLERIDA Topsent Family MYXILLIDAE Topsent Acarnus Gray, 1867 Acarnus Gray, 1867:544 [type species and full synonymy given by Hooper, 1987]. Diagnosis Ectosomal spicules are tylotes; choanosomal spicules are smooth styles, with or without microspined bases, echinatcd by cladotylotes and sometimes by acanthostyles; microscleres are palmate isochelae and toxas, the latter usual- ly including a category which is thick and evenly curved, with recurved points (‘oxhorn' shaped). Remarks Species are easily recognizable as belonging to the order Poecilosclerida in having chelate microscleres, and as members of the genusAcor- nus by their possession of cladotylotes. The recurved apical spines or clads of these spicules show some similarities with some Raspailiidae (e.g. Ectyoplasia, Endectyon) and tetractinal spicules of the Tctraclinomorpha, but these are obviously analogous structures. Evidence for the origin of cladotylotes is conflicting. On the one hand (e.g. A. primigenius sp.nov.) the tetractinal modifications to cladotylotes \n Acarnus appear to be highly derived forms of normal acanthos- tyle stock. This is illustrated by the series of spicules described in Figure 2a. This situation is thought to be similar to the origin and modifica- tion of acanthoplagiotrienes (monact, diact, tri- act, tetract and pentad forms) in the Raspailiidae genera Cyamon and Trikentrion (Hooper 1991b). Conversely, there is also a sequence demonstrated in A, tenuis (Fig. la,b) which sug- gests that larger, smooth-shaft forms of cladotylotes at least may be derived from ec- tosomal tylotes. In this regard A. tenuis is atypi- cal of other species, and for reasons discussed further below, it may eventually be moved from Acarnus altogether. Another character which appears to be charac- teristic for the genus Acarnus is the possession of thick toxas with greatly rounded central cur- vature and reflexed tips, resembling a pair of “oxhorns” (e.g. Fig.2c), These sorts of spicules are shared by most, but not all species (absent in A. tenuis and apparently absent in A. bicladotylotus), but they are not unique to the genus, also occurring in some species of Clathria of the Microcionidae (e.g. C. (Axociella) cylindrical C. (Clathria) inancliorata; Hooper, in preparation). The family placement o( Acarnus is less easily decided. Van Soest ( 1 984) transferred the genus from its traditional placement with the Microcionidae to the Myxillidae, based on the possession of ectosomal diactinal spicules (tylotes), which are apomorphic for the family. Hooper (1987:72) summarizes the arguments presented by various authors in favour of each system, and he chose to include the genus with the Myxillidae on the basis that the possession of ectosomal tylotes provides the only consistent character and clear differentiation between the two families (Hooper, in prep.). However, it is true that there are many characters shared be- tween A C£?r/zM5 and the Microcionidae, especial- ly the geometry of microscleres. For the purposes of the present study the Microcionidae are considered to be an outlying sister-group of Myxillidae such as Acarnus. This argument is developed further below. Acarnus tenuis Dendy, 1896 (Figs l,3a,b) Acarnus tenuis Dendy, 1896:50-51. Hooper, 1987: 87-90, tables. Material Examined Lectotype: BMNH 1902. 10. 18.62 (RN974) (micro- scope slide): vicinity of Port Phillip Heads, Mel- bourne, Victoria, 38'’20’S, !44“42*E; date and depth of collection unknown, J.B. Wilson, dredge [NMV G2456 now consists only of a specimen of the sponge Plumohalichondria arenacea, upon which A. tenuis incrusted, and from which the BMNH microscope slide preparation w as made, but no trace of the incrust- ing sponge was found]. Paralectotype: BMNH 1902.10.18.375 (RN991) (microscope slide): same locality [NMV G2457 is a specimen of Tedania digitata, upon which A. tenuis incrusted. and from w hich the BMNH slide was made, but the incrusting species is no longer present]. Paralectotype: BMNH 1902.10.18.323 (RN1072): same locality [this BMNH specimen was not ex- amined, nor is there any material with Dendy’s RN number present in the NM\L supposedly incrusting on Clathria typica. Ayling et al. (1982) reported that the BMNH material consisted only of a microscope slide preparation, but this is unconfirmed, and it is still possible that the entire specimen is housed in the BMNH collection]. NEW SPECIES OFACARNUS 435 FIG. l.Acarnus tenuis. A,, cladotylotes, different growth stages and malformations. B,. ectosomal tylote. C,. choanosomal style. 436 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Description The only extant material seen of this species consists of two microscope slide mounts of whole pieces. Nevertheless, they were enough to make the species recognizable, whereas Hooper (1987) had to rely on Dendy’s (1896) brief and uninformative description. The specimens ap- pear as pale yellowish blobs, flattened under the cover glass. They contain no visible spongin, and as a consequence, their skeleton is very lax, composed of loose bundles containing a mixture of cladotylotes orientated parallel to the surface and tylotes of equal size. The skeleton may be described as confusedly isotropic. The megascleres are of three types: tylotes (96- 142 - 176|im X 2pm) which are dominant and for the most part lying in bundles consisting of 15-20 spicules, together with cladotylotes of similar size (80-122-1 52pm x 2pm), which seem to occur in all stages ranging from spicules resem- bling tylotes up to clear cladotylotes, and in this species at least they appear to be derived from tylotes. Cladotylotes arc also abundant, general- ly lying in mixed bundles, although not all with the cladome in the same direction. Many cladotylotes are situated just under the surface of the sponge, piercing through it. Styles are not frequent (152-184-205pm x 2pm). They do not occur in bundles, but are separately arranged in the skeleton. As noted by Dendy (1922), these spicules are stylote, strongylote, or sometimes subtylostylote, and in fact all these forms can be found in the preparations. Moreover, they seem to be modifications of one type, which is essen- tially a style. There are no microscleres. Numerous apparently unorganized spherical cells were also observed dispersed throughout the choanosome. Distribution Known only from the type locality of Port Phillip Heads, Victoria. Remarks Except for the possession of cladotylotes, this species would not have been assigned to the genus Acarnus, as it differs considerably from the other species in the genus. In fact Dendy (1922) suggested that a new genus might be created for A. tenuis. He considered that the key difference was the absence of chelate microscleres, but this is no longer considered of sufficient importance at the generic level (e.g. van Soest, 1984). However, other differences may vindicate his suggestion. For the time being we propose to keep this species in the genus Acarnus, if for nothing else than convenience, and with affinities to the other species indicated by cladotylotes, but the species is readily dif- ferentiated from other members of the genus. Acarnus primigenius sp.nov. (Figs 2, 3d,e,f, 4c) Material Examined Holotype: ZMA Por.7693: Bay of Sangara (Teluk Sengari). Sumbawa, Indonesia. 8“I7'S, IIS^IS’E, 18m depth, 21 September 1984, coral reef, coll. H.A. ten Hove, Snellius n expedition, sin, 1 14/V/05. Description The single specimen occurs as a thin hairy crust on the surface of a Seriatopora sp. (needle coral). In life it was bright orange, and in spirit it has a grey-purplish colour. The skeleton is composed of a basal plate of spongin with erect plumose spongin fibres aris- ing in microcionid pattern, and fibres are cored with styles and echinaled by acanthostyles and cladotylotes. Cladotylotes are of the same size as acanthostyles (54-62^-67pm x 5(.im at the base), and occur in all stages from true acanthostyles through all intermediate stages to true cladotylotes (Figs 2a, 3d,e). Apparently, the transformation from acanthostyles to cladotylotes starts with an increase in spine size at the tip of acanthostyles. The next step appears to be a progressive blunting of the pointed apex, resulting in a cladotylote. All cladotylotes, however, remain tapering from the base to the tip like regular acanthostyles, and these are as such readily distinguishable from other Acarnus cladotylotes which have a definitely tylote-iike basal form. However, the tylote base (swelling) of the present species, from which the clads sprout, remains relatively small. Styles are long (99-JL66-240pm x 4— 25-6^m), somewhat curved, and towards the tip they are slightly recurved. They possess a distinct base, which is heavily spined (Fig. 4c). Juvenile styles seem to be smooth and thin with a knob-like head. Acanthostyles arc of a single size category only (60-66-68pm x 5pm at the base). The head is provided with spines curved in the direction of the tip, whereas the spines on the shaft are curved in the opposite direction. They appear to have the same ftinction as the cladotylotes, since both are echinating. The ectosomal spicules consist of anisotylotes (137-i56-184pm x 2.5pm in size), P^^'»‘Senius. A, cladotylotes and acanthostyle, different growth stages. B, tylote and style. 438 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 3 A-C.Acarnus tenuis. A, cladotylotes protruding through the skin and the loose formation of round cells, not seen in other species of the genus. B, spicules of A. tenuis intermingled with those of its substrate Tedania\ C. bundles of cladotylotes and lylotes. FIG. 3D-F, Aca/'/Jw.v primigeniiis. D-E. different growth stages of the basal clads. F, microspined base of the lylote spicule. which appear smooth-based under the light microscope, but scanning electron miaoscopy (Fig. 3f) reveals microspines common to all Acarnus species (with the exception of A. tenuis). Microscleres palmate isochelae (14 -17.5- 21 .5pm ), toxas of a single type, having charac- teristic “oxhorn”-Iike shape common to the genus (14-3Q-46pm x 1.5-2-4pm in size) (Fig.2c). DrSTRIBLTION Known only from the type locality of Sum- bawa, southern Indonesia. Etymology For the many piesiomorphic character states. Remarks This new species is easily differentiated from NEW SPECIES OVACARNUS 439 FIG. 4. Comparison between spicules of Indo-Auslralian Acarnus species. A.B, cladotylote varieties with microspined shaft and basal clads (A, A. souriei), and smooth shaft and swollen base (B,A. lernatus). C— E, variation in microspination of the bases of styles, A. primigenius (C), A. tortilis (D,E). F,G. longer toxas, showing the centrally curved (F, A. innominatus) and the slightly V-shaped types (G,A. thielei). 440 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM other Acarnus in having only small cladotylotes in combination with acanthostyles. top- senti Dcndy, 1922 also has only small cladotylotes but lacks acanthostyles. Skeletal structure also differs, being plumose in A. primigenius and isotropic/plumo-reticulate in A. topsetui (Hooper, 1987, fig.37). It is speculated that the plumose skeleton may represent an on- togenetic growth stage, occurring in more ma- ture specimens, similar to the sequence found in A. souriei Levi, 1952. KEY TO THE INDO-AUSTRALIAN SPECIES 0¥ACARNUS la. No microscleres, spicule bundles consist of tylotes and cladotylotes only . . A. tenuis. lb. Microscleres present 2. 2a. Acanthostyles present 3. 2b. No acanthostyles present, larger cladotylotes usually with basal tylote swell- ing (Fig. 4b) 4. 3a. Only small cladotylotes present (<100 p.m) long A. primigenius. 3b. Both small (<100 pm) and large cladotylotes present (> 100pm), which have a cladome at their base (Fig. 4a) A. souriei. 4a. No small cladotylotes A. ternatus. 4b. Both large and small cladotylotes ... .5. 5a. With spined cladotylotes only . .A.tortilis. 5b. With both smooth and spined cladotylotes 6. 6a. Thickly incrusting sponge, with long toxas bearing pronounced central curvature (Fig. 4f) A. innominatus. 6b. Elaborate vasiform or flabellate growth form, course texture, long toxas slightly v- shaped (Fig. 4g) A. thielei. DISCUSSION Acarnus tenuis Dendy, 1896 differs from all other Acarnus species in lacking microscleres, in having a lax skeleton, apparently without spon- gin fibres, and in lacking basal spination on choanosomal styles. Acarnus primigenius dif- fers from most species in having only small cladotylotes. The acanthostyles distinguish it from A. lopsenti Dendy, 1922, together with the possession of a microcionid basal and dendroid choanosomal skeleton, an incrusting habit, larger tylotes, and heavy spines on the heads of styles (Fig. 4c). In having acanthostyles as well as cladotylotes echinating skeletal tracts, A. primigenius shows similarities with a group of species such as A. souriei (Levi, 1952). These species were previously referred to Acanthacar- nus Levi, 1952, but Hooper (1987) supported their merger into a single genus on the basis that acanthostyles are primitive, and as such could not be used to define a genus. Acarnus souriei and other members of the souriei-group (viz. A. bicladotylotus Hoshino, 1981, A. /■fl£/ovwn(Boury-Esnault, 1973), andA. tener Tanka, 1963) differ from other species in having cladotylotes of two sizes, both of which have spined shafts, a dendritic skeletal architec- ture, in addition to the presence of echinating acanthostyles. Within the soMnet-group, how- ever, the differences are less clear. The Japanese species A. tener has larger cladotylotes (>80fxm long) (whereas those of A. souriei are <80pm long). Similarly, A. bicladotylotus apparently has no large “oxhorn'^-shaped toxas, but it is otherwise poorly differentiated from A. souriei. These differences require confirmation through re-examination of the original Japanese material (which unfortunately has now become virtually unobtainable for loan, following the untimely death of our colleague Takaharu Hoshino in 1 988). Speculatively, however, it seems unlikely that the two species are distinct, since they are similar in most of their characteristics and they are only known to occur in restricted and ad- jacent localities in Japan. Conversely, A. souriei specimens reported from both sides of the Atlan- tic do seem to differ, and these may prove to be distinct species, in which case the species from the American shelf should be referred to A. radovani by priority. The tortilis-group differs from the souriei- group in lacking acanthostyles, and from the innominatus- group in having only spined varieties of cladotylotes and both smooth and microspined bases on styles, which are also more-or-less straight. Other than A. tortilis Top- sent, 1892, other species included in the tortilis- group are A. topsenti,A. roxearw.5Boury-Esnault, 1973, and A. polytylus Pulitzer-Finali, 1983. Acarnus topsenti is easily differentiated from NEW SPECIES OF ACARNUS 441 Other species in this group in having only small cladotylotes, whereas others have both small and large varieties of these spicules. The Brazilian^. toxeatus is distinguished in having its larger category of cladotylotes being very long and many-claded; the M^dii^rranc^nA. polytylus has polytylote examples of ectosomal and choanosomal spicules, but these may be merely malformations of normal ones found in A. tor- tilis, and the two species may prove to be con- specific. The innominatus-gronp differs from other groups in having generally smooth shafts on the larger variety of cladotylotes, which also have a smooth basal tylote swelling. In addition, all members (viz. A. erithacus de Laubenfels, 1927, A. innominatusQx3.y, 1867, A. thieleihty\, 1958, and A. ternatus Ridley, 1884) possess more-or- less abruptly curved styles which have smooth bases. Acarnus ternatus (which was not pre- viously included with this group of species, but was placed in a group with A. tenuis; Hooper 1987) has only a single, larger size of cladotylotes, whereas the other species have two size categories of these spicules; A. innominatus has centrally curved long toxas (Fig. 4f) whereas both A. thielei and A. erithacus have their long toxas slightly v-shaped (Fig. 4g). The latter two species differ mainly in shape: A. theilei has a flabellate growth form, whereas A. erithacus is more massive. PHYLOGENETIC REMARKS The genus Clathria of the Microcionidae and the genus Megaciella of the Myxillidae are chosen as outgroups of AcarnuSy representing both more-distantly and more-closely related taxa, and criteria for judging the apomorphic state of characters arc listed below. This system essentially follows the findings of van Soest (1984) and Hooper (1987), but the conclusions of those authors are developed further in the following analysis. Cladotylotes: small acanthostyle*Iike spined cladotylotes are plesiomorphic. Since the cladotylotes of A. tenuis seem to have a different origin, these are considered to be an apomorphy for this taxon, and it is speculated that its plesiomorphic state must have been the posses- sion of a dermal layer of tylotes only. In A. tenuis all stages from tylotes to cladotylotes can be found, both of which have smooth shafts, and it seems unlikely that spicules with spined shafts have ever been present. Acanthostyles: the possession of acanthostyles is considered to be plesiomorphic, since there is a tendency to lose acanthostyles (also throughout various groups of Poecilosclerida) and replace them with cladotylotes serving as echinating spicules. Styles: the presence of microspines on the bases of the choanosomal styles is considered here to be plesiomorphic; apomorphy is the oc- currence of smooth styles together with microspinedones, or completely replacing them. Tylotes: the possession of a dermal layer of tylotes is the plesiomorphic state for the genus, since the character is shared by all myxillids. No apomorphic tendencies of this character were recorded for the genus. Skeletal architecture: a reticulate or plumo- reticulate (dendroid) skeleton is considered to be plesiomorphic, and a plumose architecture is one of several possible derived conditions. Microscleres: toxas do not seem to be of great importance in defining groups; in fact there seems to be random distribution in the loss of toxa categories (which was also found for the Microcionidae; Hooper, 1991a, and in prepara- tion), whereas the most closely related advanced species seem to have kept all three categories of toxas. The loss of isochelae is probably a derived feature of the genus. Based on this analysis of characters, the four species-groups proposed by Hooper (1987) are modified as follows: GROUP I: A. tenuis - group has derived its cladotylotes from dermal tylotes, and is sup- posed to have lost the other spined spicules and microscleres. Acarnus tenuis is the only repre- sentative of this group. GROUP II: A. primigenius - group has a dendritic skeletal architecture, one category only of toxas, and styles with distinctly spined bases: Acarnus primigenius is the only representative of this group. GROUP III; A. souriei - group has retained the dendritic skeletal architecture, with echinating acanthostyles, and styles mainly with microspined bases. This group includes A. souriei, A. radovani, A. tener and A. bicladoty lotus. GROUP IV; A. tortiiis - group has an isotropic skeleton, both microspined and smooth styles, but it has lost the acanthostyles. Representatives are A. tortiiis, A. topsenti, A. polytylus and A. toxeatus. GROUP V: A. innominatus - group also has a derived isotropic skeleton but has lost the 442 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM microspined styles, whereas larger cladotylotes show a strong tendency towards a smooth shaft and a smooth basal swelling. This group is rep- resented by A. innominatus, A. erithacus, A. thielei and A. teniatus. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are indebted to Dr Rob W.M. van Soest (University of Amsterdam) for his assistance, dis- cussions, and for continually providing material from all corners of the ZMA collection. We are also grateful to Miss Shirley M. Stone (British Museum (Natural History)) and Prof. Claude Levi (Museum National d’Hisloire Naturelle) for providing access to type material, and to Dr H.A. ten Hove (Univer- sity of Amsterdam) for collecting the specimen of the new species, which made analysis of the genus so much easier. LITERATURE CITED AYLING, A.L., STONE, S. AND SMITH, B J. 1982. Catalogue of types of sponge species from Southern Australia described by Arthur Dendy. Rep. Nat. Mus. Vicl. 1:87-109. BOURY-ESNAULT, N. 1973. Campagne de la “Cal- ypso” au large des cotes Atlantiques de FAm- erique du sud (1961-1962). 1. 29. Spongiaires. Ann. Inst. Ocean., Paris. 49(Suppl.):263-295. BUIZER, D.A.G. and SOEST, R.W.M. VAN 1977. Mycale micracanthoxea nov. spec. (Porifera, Poecilosclerida) from the Netherlands. Nether- lands J. Sea Res. ll(3/4):297-304. DENDY, A. 1896. Catalogue of Non-Calcareous Sponges collected by J. Bracebridge Wilson, Esq., M.A., in the neighbourhood of Port Phillip Heads. Part 2. Proc. R. Soc. Viet. 2(8): 14-51. 1922. Report on the Sigmatotelraxonida collected by H.M.S. “Sealark” in the Indian Ocean. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Zool. In: Reports of the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Indian Ocean in 1905, Volume 7. 18:1-164. GRAY, J.E. 1 867. Notes on the arrangement of spon- ges, with description of some new genera. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1867:492-558. HOOPER, J.N.A. 1986. Revision of the marine sponge genus Axos Gray (Demospongiae: Axinellida) from northwest Australia. The Beagle, Occ. Pap. N.T. Mus. Arts Sci. 3(1 ): 1 67- 189. 1987. New records of Acanms Gray (Porifera; Demospongiae: PoeciIosclerida)from Australia, with a synopsis of the genus. Mem. Qd Mus. 25:71-105. 1991a. Character stability, systematics and af- finities between Microcionidae (Poecilo- sclerida) and Axinellida (Porifera: Demo- spongiae). Proc. 3rd Int. Conf Biol. Sponges, Woods Hole, USA. Smithson. Contrib. Zool. (in press). 1991b. Revision of the Family Raspailiidae (Porifera: Demospongiae). with description of Australian species. Invert. Tax. (in press). HOSHINO, T. 1 98 1 . Shallow- Water Demosponges of Western Japan, 1., II. J. Sci. Hiroshima Univ. Ser. B., Div. 1 (Zool.). 29( 1 ):47-205, 29(2):207-289. LAUBENFELS, M.W. DE 1 927. The Red Sponges of Monterey Peninsula, California. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9). 19:258-266. LEVI, C. 1952. Spongiaires de la cote du Senegal. Bull. Inst, fran^ais Afrique noire. 14:34-59. 1958, Resullats scienlifiques des campagnes de la “Calypso”. Fascicule III. V. Campagne 1951- 1952 en Mer Rouge. 5. Spongiaires de Mer Rouge recueillis par la “Calypso” (1951-1952). Ann. Inst. Ocean., Monaco. 34:3-46. PULITZER-FINALI, G. 1983. A collection of Mediterranean Demospongiae (Porifera) with, in appendix, a list of the Demospongiae hitherto recorded from the Mediterranean Sea. Ann. Mus. Civ. Storia Natur. Genova. 84:445-621. RIDLEY, S.O. 1884. Spongiida. In: 'Report on the Zoological Collections made in the Indo-Pacific Ocean during the Voyage of H.M.S. “Alert” 1881-2. British Museum (Natural History), London, 366-482, 582-630. SOEST, R.W.M. VAN 1984. Marine Sponges from Curasao and other Caribbean Localities. Part III. Poecilosclerida. Stud. Fauna Curasao other Carib. Is. (199);1-167. 1989. The Indonesian sponge fauna: a status report. Netherlands J. Sea Res. 23(2):225-232. TANITA, S. 1963. Report on the non-calcareous sponges in the Museum of the Biological In- stitute of the Tohoku University. Part 11. Sci. Rep. Tohoku Univ., Ser. 4 (Biol.). 29(2):121- 129. FIVE NEW SKINKS FROM QUEENSLAND RAINFORESTS GLEN J. INGRAM Ingram, G.J. 1990 08 01: Five new skinks from Queensland rainforests. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 443-453. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. Five skink species are erected in the Lampropholis delicaia complex. L. robertsi sp.nov. inhabits montane rainforests on high peaks in northeastern Queensland and is sympatric with L coggeri sp.nov. However, L. coggeri is widespread throughout montane and coastal rainforests in the northeast. L. adonis sp.nov. is known from two separate regions of rainforest in the mid-east and southeast of the State. In the south, it is sympatric with L. couperi.L. colossus spMOv. is only known from the rainforests and Bunya Pine associations of the Bunya Mountains, southeastern Queensland. A key to the Lampropholis delicata complex is provided. \f^cincidae, Lampropholis delicata complex, rainforests, Queensland. Glen J. Ingram, Queensland Museum, PO Australia; 28 February, 1991. Ingram and Rawlinson (1981) erected three species in the L. delicata complex from eastern Australia. At the time, we were aware of several other new taxa but chose not to describe them because of the difficulty of characterising the species. These taxa differed little morphologi- cally and most of the differences were in colour and pattern. Other workers have noticed the ex- istence of undescribed taxa (Czechura and Miles, 1983; Czechura, 1986; Wilson and Knowles, 1988; Mather, 1990). In particular, Mather ( 1 990) performed an electrophoretic and morphological comparison of the populations of L. delicata and concluded there were four dis- tinct taxa in eastern Australia: three undescribed taxa and L. delicata. In this paper, while agreeing with Mather’s taxa, I recognise two more un- described species, I distinguish the new taxa mainly by their different colour-patterns. In doing this, I am hypothesising that the colour- patterns are part of the Specific-Mate Recognition Systems (Lambert and Paterson, 1984) of the skinks. In this, I follow Paterson’s (1985) Recognition Concept of Species in preference to the Biologi- cal Species Concept. Lampropholis species are alert, diurnal lizards that use visual cues in their behaviour and breeding displays (pers. obs.). Thus, it is not unreasonable to assume that they are capable of recognising patterns. Even so, the proposed species are testable hypotheses that can be refuted by showing that colour-pattern is not part of Specific-Mate Recognition Systems in these skinks. With these new species, there are ten taxa in Box 300, South Brisbane, Queensland 4101, the L. delicata complex. A key to them is given at the end of the paper. Abbreviations, measure- ments and morphological characters follow In- gram and Covacevich (1988), except for supraciliaries and supralabials, which are counted on the right side only. All specimens are housed in the Queensland Museum. SYSTEMATICS Lampropholis robertsi sp.nov. (Figs 1-3) Lampropholis sp. (3). Wilson and Knowles, 1988, p, 291. photo no. 504. Material Examined HOLOTYPE J4391L Thornton Pk, via Daintree, NEQ (16*^10*8, 145^23’E), collected by S. Wilson, J. Covacevich and G. Monteith on 24 September, 1984. PARATYPES: Thornton Pk, via Daintree (J39856, 39857, 43912. 43964. 49648, 49659); Thornton Pk, boulder ranges (J43918): Thornton Pk, Summit (J43958); Pauls Luck, Carbine Tableland (J51948); Mt Lewis, via Ml Molloy (J47097, 48295); Mt Lewis, 25km along road (J51406); Bellenden Ker NP (J46 1 93); Bellenden Ker Ra, Cable Tower 3 (J39855); Mt Bellenden Ker Summit (J39490, 39491); Mt Bel- lenden Ker, summit, nr TV Tower & Stn (J40033, 40036- 9); Mt Fisher, Whiteing Rd, 7km SW Millaa Millaa (141706-41708); Mt Fisher, 7km SW Millaa Millaa (J40609. 40610): Mt Fisher, via Millaa Millaa (J31 194-31200): Mt Bartle Frere, EFace(J40041); Mt Bartle Frere (J47956, 47959); no data (J51405). Diagnosis A large (maximum SV 49), robust (maximum 444 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 1. Lampropholis robertsi (holotype J43911). Above: Dorsal view of head. Below: Lateral view of head. HW 17) Lampropholis with fused frontoparie- tals, a free interparietal, seven supralabials, seven supraciliaries, short hindlimbs (HL<40) and with darker upper lateral surface colouration distinctly demarcated midlaterally from lighter lower lateral colouration. The demarcation can be due to a sharp transition of dark to light pigments or be delineated by a pale brown to golden midlateral stripe or series of spots. Fur- ther distinguished from L. colossus and L. delicata by ventral colouration: grey with black- edged scales flecked with black: throat, chin, lower part of body and and tail usually heavily black spotted; under the tail, the black markings often coalesce to outline a longitudinal series of white chevrons vs bright yellow to cream (L. colossus) or white {L. delicata) with or without black flecking on throat and tail, which can coalesce into lines. Distribution Known only from rainforests of montane peaks from Thornton Peak south to Mt Bartle Frere, northeastern Queensland. Description SV: 21-49 (N=37). HW: 13-17 (N=30, mean 14.4). HL: 33-43 (N=25, mean 36.7). TL: 108- 139 (N=7, mean 123.4). Four supraoculars. Frontoparietals fused. In- terparietal distinct. Supraciliaries 7, rarely 8 (N =26, mean 7.1). Supralabials 7 (N=27). Nuchals contacting parietals 2 (N=27). Midbody scale rows 25-30 (N=20, mean 27.8). Mid-dorsal scales smooth with 3-4 striations or weakly tricarinated. Number of scales from chin to vent 54-63 (N=22, mean 58.5), Lamellae under fourth toe 22—27 (N=24, mean 24.3). Dorsal ground colour reddish brown to golden FIG. 2. Lampropholis robertsi Mt Bartle Frere, above L5km (Bruce Cowell). NEW QUEENSLAND RAINFOREST SKINKS 445 brown, sometimes with black longitudinal dashes. Upper lateral surface black to chocolate brown. Lower lateral surface light grey to brown with dark flecks and spots. Dorsolateral area golden to light brown tend- ing to form an irregular stripe. Upper and lower lateral colouration some- times separated by a golden to pale brown midlateral line, which can be broken into a series of spots. Ventrally, grey with black- edged scales flecked with black; throat, chin, lower part of body and and tail usually heavily black spotted; under the tail, the black markings often coalesce to outline a lon- gitudinal series of white chevrons. Remarks L. robertsi is sympatric with L. coggeri. Etymology For the Queensland naturalist Gregory Roberts. Lampropholis adonis sp.nov. (Figs 3-5) Lampropholis sp, (5). Wilson and Knowles, 1988; 292, photo no. 506. Lampropholis delicata Form B. Mather, 1990:570. Material Examined HOLOTYPE: J35097, 18km N of Dalrymple Heights, MEO (21°04’S, 148°36’S), collected by G.J. Ingram on 2 December, 1978. PARATYPES: Conway NP (149750,49563); Brandy Ck, Site 13 (J32754, 32793, 32795); Eungella NP, nr Vlasak property {J49591, 49597); Eungella NP (J46191, 49748, 49573, 49751); Thurgood Farm, 18km N Dalrymple His (J35104, 35122); Dalrymple Hts, 18km N (J35097); Credilon, Site 7 (J32644, 32652, 32701, 32706); Collaroy Holdings, Remnant Hut (J49746. 49753); Bulburin SF, Site la (J33604, 33607, 33609); Bulburin SF, adjoining Site la (J33701, 33717, 33718, 33720-33724); Bulburin, SF 67, via Lowmead (J23806-23808, 23805); Bulburin SF, 9km E Forestry Stn (J33736); Bulburin Barracks, FIG. 3. A, Distribution of Lampropholis robertsi (•) and L. adonis (▼). B, Distribution of L, colossus (■ ), L. coggeri (•) L. couperi ( t ). via Builyan (J51319, 51323); Bulburin SF, top of ra (J27822, 27825, 27833); Bulburin SF, Granite Ck, nr Bruce Hway Xing (J27820, 45297, 45298); Low- mead, 8-9. 6km S (J23867); Dundowran, via Hervey Bay (J35 1 98); Casy Ck, via Imbil (J27725); Cold Ck, via Imbil (J27732); Little Yabba Ck, via Kenilworth (J27721); Kondalilla NP (J49747). OTHER MATERIAL: Brandy Ck, Site 13 (J32753, 32755-6, 32759, 32764, 32765, 32773, 32789, 32796); Cathu SF, Muirs Rd, nr western end of SF (J45825, 45826): Eungella (J28809); Thurgood Farm, 18km N Dalrymple Hts(J35101, 35123, 35124); Dal- rymple His, 18km N (J35095, 35098, 35099); Finch Hatton NP, Site 9 (J34046); Finch Hatton NP, Site 9a (J34037, 34090); Eungella Schooihouse (J46173); Crediton. Site 7 (J32636-32643, 32646, 32647, 32649-32651, 32698, 32699, 32700, 32702-32705, 32731, 32741, 32742); Credilon, Site 7a (J32670, 32672); Collaroy Holding, S of Sarina (J49592); Bul- burin SF, Granite Ck, 13k SE Miriam Vale (J45775- 45784); Lowmead, 3.2-4.8km N (J23825-6, 23828); Bulburin SF, adjoining Site la (133699,33710-33716, 33719, 33722, 33725); Bulburin SF, forestry camp (J33648, 33688); Bulburin SF, Site la (J33608, 33611, 33637, 33638, 33683); Bulburin SF (J33616- 21); Bulburin SF, top of ra (J27823, 27824, 27826- 27829, 27834); Bulburin SF, Granite Ck, via Many 446 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 4. Lampropholis adonis (holotype J35097). Above: Dorsal view of head. Below: Lateral view of head. Peaks (J2781 7-27819); Brooyar Fire Tower, via Glas- tonbury (J28255); Cooloola, L6km E of L Cool- oomera (J24496); Marys Ck, via Gympie (J27744); Cold Ck, via Imbil (J27731); Borumba Dam area, nr Conondale Ra (J31867); Conondale Ra, Coonoon Gibber Ck (J36918); Kondalilla NP (J49572); Montville (J24499); Wootha, nr Maleny, ca.4km SW Town (J42425, 42428-42431). Diagnosis A large (maximum SV 5 1 ), robust (maximum HW 18) Lampropholis with fused frontoparie- tals, a fused interparietal, seven supralabials, seven supraciliaries. short hindlimbs (HL<40) and with darker upper lateral surface colouration grading evenly into lighter lower lateral coloura- tion. A midlateral light brown to white line or series of spots is never present. Distribution Known from two separate regions. Mid-east- ern Queensland: from near Proserpine south to the Collaroy, north of St Lawrence. Southeastern Queensland: from Bulburin State Forest south to the Blackall Range. Description SV: 17-51 (N=51). HW: 13-18 (N=l, mean 14.5). HL: 30-40 (N=45, mean 34.3). TL: 137- 148 (N=3, mean 141.7). Four supraoculars. Frontoparietals and inter- parietal fused to form one scale. Supraciliaries 7, very rarely 8 (N=:48, mean 7.1). Supralabials 7, very rarely 8 (N=48, 7.0). Nuchals contacting parietals 2 (N=49). Midbody scale rows 25-33 (N=42, mean 28.4). Mid-dorsal scales smooth FIG. 5. Lampropholis adonis Eungella National Park (David Knowles). NEW QUEENSLAND RAINFOREST SKINKS 447 with 3-4 striations. Number of scales from chin to vent 50-61 (N=37, mean 54.5). Lamellae under fourth toe 19-24 (N=44, mean 21 .8). Colour pattern is very similar to that of L. coggeri. However, the juveniles are heavily spotted with white on the lateral surface. Also, the males of L, adonis have breeding colours of red on the sides of the body and tail, cherry-red reticulations on the underside of the tail, and blue on the throat, chin and labial scales. Remarks Mather (1990) noted that there were two species of Lampropholis at Warro, the type locality of Mocoa delicata de Vis (1888). He contended that de Vis’s description was inade- quate for allocating the name to either taxa and, because the holotype was lost, he selected a neotype. The new name-bearing specimen chosen by Mather is an example of a taxon that most people would know asL. delicata because it is common in gardens throughout eastern Australia, However, there is doubt that his as- sessment of de Vis’s description was correct. De Vis wrote, ‘ interparietal incompletely separate....’ The other taxon on Warro is L adonis, which has the interparietal fused. More than likely, it was to this taxon de Vis referred because L. delicata has a separate interparietal. As well, L. adonis is common along riverine scrubs throughout Warro, while L. delicata is uncommon (pers. obs.). Despite the doubt, however, Mather’s decision is sensible. If he had selected an example of L. adonis as neotype, Leiolopisma hawaiiensis Loveridge (1933), based on an introduced population in Hawaii (Baker, 1979), would have become the available name for the other taxon. This would have been nomenclaturally incon- venient because it is unknown from where in Australia the Hawaiian population originated and whether or not this Polynesian population would continue to exist. With Mather's decision, Leiolopisma hawaiiensis became a junior synonym of Mocoa delicata and, for most pur- poses, nomenclaturally irrelevant. Of interest is the similarity between L. adonis and Carlia rhomboidalis, C. rhomboidalis is a rainforest skink that has breeding colours of red sides and a blue throat and, coincidentally, a fused interparietal (see Ingram and Covacevich, 1989). If L. adonis had four fingers instead of five, it would not be out of place in the genus Carlia. Further investigation is needed into the status of the two genera. Etymology For Adonis, the beautiful youth beloved of the goddess Venus. Lampropholis colossus sp.nov. (Figs 3,6,7) Material Examined HOLOTYPE: J49687, Bunya Mis National Park, SEO (26^^53'S 151^37'E), in rainforest nearTim Shea Falls, collected by K.R. McDonald on 26 January, 1974. PARATYPES: Bunya Mis NP, 0.5km S TV Towers (J46095-46097); Bunya Mts NP. Survey Site 56 (127549,27550); Bunya Mts NP (J30655-30657, 30659, 30660. 49689, 49692). Diagnosis A very large (maximum SV 56), delicate (maximum HW 14) Lampropholis with fused frontoparietals, a free interparietal, seven supralabials, seven supraciliaries, short hindlimbs (HL<40) and with darker upper lateral surface colouration distinctly demarcated mid- laterally from lighter lower lateral colouration. The demarcation can be due to a sharp transition of dark to light pigments or be delineated by a white midlateral line or series of spots. Further distinguished from L. delicata by large size (maximum SV 56 vs 45) and ventral colouration (bright yellow to cream vs white). Further distin- guished from L. roberisi by ventral colour pat- tern (see the diagnosis of that species). Distribution Known only from the rainforests and Bunya Pine associations of the Bunya Mountains, southeastern Queensland. Description SV: 40-56 (N=13). HW: 11-14 (N=13, mean 12.4). HL: 28-37 (N=13, mean 33.4. TL: 150- 189 (N=3, mean 172.8). Four supraoculars. Frontoparietals fused. In- terparietal distinct. Supraciliaries 7 (N = 13). Supralabials 7 (N=13). Nuchals contacting parietals 2 {N=13). Midbody scale rows 23-27 (N=13, mean 25.2). Mid-dorsal scales smooth with 3-4 striations. Number of scales from chin to vent 54-62 (N=13, mean 58.8). Lamellae under fourth toe 21-26 (N=13, mean 23.1). Dorsal ground colour reddish to olive-brown with light to golden brown dorsolateral stripes and black laterodorsal stripes; the latter may be broken into a series of black dashes. Upper lateral surface dark brown to black and markedly 448 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 6. Lampropholis colossus (paratype J30655). Above: Dorsal view of head. Below: Lateral view of head. separated from the light brown to grey lower surface; sometimes the separation is marked by a strong, white, midlateral stripe, which can be broken into a series of spots. Ventrally bright yellow to cream; tail with black speckling that sometimes forms longitudinal, black, broken lines. Remarks The specific status of L. colossus needs further investigation. It is very similar to L. delicata and may just be an isolated, large form of that species. Moreover, there are several other un- named. distinctly coloured populations of L delicata throughout eastern Queensland that warrant similar investigations. Undoubtedly, the taxon L. delicata is still a complex of species. Etymology Latin, colossus, a statue; refers to the skinks large size. Lampropholis coggeri sp.nov. (Figs 3,8,9) Lampropholis sp. (4). Wilson and Knowles, 1988: 291, photo no. 505. Lampropholis delicata Form D. Mather, 1990:570. MATERtAL Examined HOLOTYPE: J27I33 Shiptons Flat, Cape York Peninsula, Old (15^48‘S 145°16'E), collected by G. Ingram and J. Covacevich on 18 November, 1975. PARATYPES: Mt Hedlev (J25243, 25244); Mt Hartley (J2525 1-25255, 25271); Twelve Mile Scrub, Gap Creek (J25299, 25300); Home Rule (J25139, 25201-25203, 25230, 25241, 25285. 25330); Ship- tons Flat (J271 30-27134); Mt Finnigan (J25217. 26301, 40536); Windsor Tableland (J40663); Daintree area (J29622); Mossman Gorge (J21408); Bakers Blue Mountain. 1 7km W of Mt Molloy, 900m (J39872): Mt Molloy (J27008-2701 1); Cableway Base Station, Bellenden Ker (J39858, 39864); Crater, Atherton Tableland (J 12205); 20km N of Innisfail (J14092); 16km W of Innisfail (J18006); Walter Hill Ra, Charappa Ck drainage. Suttees Rd (J48170, 48172); Billy Ck Bridge SF 758, vicinity of bridge (J48210); Upper Boulder Creek via Tully, 650-900m (J42276, 42277, 42294); Paluma State Forest, 950m (J41733); Palm Island (J 14009, 14022). FIG. 7. Lampropholis colossus (holotype J49687) Bunya Mountains National Park (Gary Cranitch). NEW QUEENSLAND RAINFOREST SKINKS 449 OTHER MATERIAL: Ml Finnigan NP (J25269, 40542); Gold Hill, China camp (J33170); Table Mt, 10km S Cape Tribulation (J41722); Thornton Pk, Summit (J43901); Thornton Pk, via Dainlree (J43910); Windsor Tbid SF, survey peg TA213 (J48693); Windsor Tbld, 28km NNW Ml Carbine (J40658); Karnak - Devils Thumb, 8-I2km NW Mossman (J51566); Bakers Blue Mt, I7km W Mt Molloy (J3987L 49582-1, 51567); Mossman Bluff (J49580); Lamb Ra, Emerald Ck (J41 130); Lamb Ra, 19km SE Mareeba (J48557); Danbulla SF (J49739, 49740. 49743); Danbulla SF, Kauri Ck, Mt Haig Rd (J48277. 48278); Severin. Boar Pocket (J49614); Bei- ienden Ker NP, TV stn (J49593): Bellenden Ker Ra. Cableway Base Stn (J39865); Gadgarra SF (J49741); Upper Mulgrave R, below Gadgarra SF Tookeys Ck (J42308): Gadearra SF, Upper Bull Ck (J48691); L Eacham (J47096, 48425, 49619, 49620. 49622); Rus- sell R. cave site (J45916, 45918); Crater NP (J49576, 49613); near Herberlon-Ravenshoe Crater Junction (J43632); Majors Ml, N side (J48139); Majors Mt, via Ravenshoe (J31 1 12, 311 13,31133-31 137); Charmil- lan Ck (J41361, 41362, 47628); Walter Hill Ra, I Charappa Ck drainage, Suttees Rd (J48 171); Forestry I ’H' Rd, via Tully (J48244, 48245); Kirrama Ra, Bryce-Henry Logging Area (J51420); Kirrama Ra, Macks Logging Area (J51419, 51421, 51422); Kir- rama Ra (J48310): Kirrama Ra, Alma Gap Logging Rd (J48317); Cardwell Ra, Upper Broadwater Ck, Valley (J48305); Hinchinbrook Is, Gayundah Ck (J44I73. 44199): Wallaman Falls Rd (J48306, FIG. 8. LamprophoUs coggeri (holotype J27133). Above: Dorsal view of head. Below: Lateral view of head. FIG. 9. LamprophoUs coggeri Thornton Peak (Steve Wilson). 450 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 10. Lampropholis couperi (hololype J49575). Above; Dorsal view of head. Below: Lateral view of head. 48307); Curacoa Is, Palm group (J49610, 49644); Elk Is (J49635, 49653, 49665); Bluewater Ra, N of Townsville (J46777). Diagnosis A small (maximum SV 41), robust (maximum HW 18) Lampropholis with fused frontoparie- tais, a free interparietal, seven supralabials, seven supraciliaries, short hindlimbs (HL<40) and with darker upper lateral surface colouration grading evenly into lighter lower lateral coloura- tion. A midlateral light brown to white line or series of spots is never present. Further distin- guished from/.. coM/?er; by colour pattern: dorsal colour reddish to olive brown usually flecked with pale spots and black longitudinal dashes; the dashes can coalesce to form up to six dorsal lines; the outer two lines can delimit a paler brown dorsolateral stripe; lateral ground colour dark brown to reddish brown flecked with paler spots and, usually, black dashes vs dorsal colour uniform olive brown; upper lateral surface even- ly black; dorsolateral area pale brown, edged strongly in black below. Distribution Rainforests from near Cooktown south to Palm Island and Bluewater Range near Townsville NEQ, Description SV: 17-41 (N=40). HW: 14-18 (N=38, mean 15.4). HL: 30-39 (N=7, mean 33.8). TL: 140.6 (N=l). Four supraoculars. Frontoparietals fused. In- terparietal distinct. Supraciliaries 7, very rarely 6 or 8 (N=40. mean 7). Supralabials 7, very rarely 6 (N=40. mean 7). Nuchals contacting parietals 2, very rarely 3 (N=38. mean 2.0). Midbody scale rows 26-31 (N=38, mean 27.3). Mid-dorsal scales smooth with 3-4 striations. Number of scales from chin to vent 50-60 (N= 38, mean 53.8). Lamellae under fourth toe 19-25 (N=37, mean 21.6). Dorsal ground colour reddish to olive brown, usually Becked with pale spots and black dashes. The dashes tend to follow behind each other formingsix longitudinal lines. Thcoutertwo can enclose a poorly defined, paler brown, dor- solateral stripe. Lateral ground colour dark brown to olive brown Becked with paler spots and. usually, black dashes; on lower lateral sur- face. ground colour is light brown; sides of tail tend to have black and light grey blotching on a brown background. Ventral ground colour light grey to creamy yellow, sparsely spotted with black; on the tail, the spotting is denser closer to the body, usually becoming concatenated to form black reticulations on a white background; sometimes the black markings arc reddish brown on the edges. Remarks L. coggeri is common in rainforest leaf-litter. It is sympatric with L. robertsi in parts of its range. Etymology For Dr Harold Cogger, Australian Museum. Lampropholis couperi sp.nov. (Figs 3, 10,11) Lampropholis form A. Czechura and Miles, 1983: 95. Lampropholis sp. Czechura, 1986:63. Lampropholis sp. (2). Wilson and Knowles, 1988: 291, photo no. 503. Lampropholis delicata Form C. Mather, 1990:570. Material Examined HOLOTYPE: J49575, Kondalilla NP, SEQ (26*^4 1 'S, 152°52'E), collected by D.G. Crossman and K.R. McDonald on 28 August, 1974. NEW QUEENSLAND RAINFOREST SKINKS 451 FIG. 1 1. Lampropholis couperi Mt Nebo (Garry Cranitch) PARATYPES: Kroombit Tops,Ubobo Rd, campsite, ca.lSkm W, on rd (J40153-7): Kroombit Tops (J42156); Kroombit Tops, Upper TA47. 45km SSW Calliope (J43V56); Bulburin SF, Site la (J33605); Little Yabba Ck, via Kenilworth (J27723); Jimna SF, Griffith Logging area (J49660); Jimna SF (J49669); Conondale Ra, E Side (J30293); Conondale (J30827); Woolha. nr Malenv, @4km SW Town (J42426): Ml Nebo (J34162, J47950-1, J51663); Ml Glorious SF, Pine Shire, via Brisbane (J49752). OTHER MATERIAL: Byfield, nr Rockhampton (125741,25745). Diagnosis A large (maximum SV 49), delicate (maxi- mum HW 16) Lampropholis with fused fron- toparietals, a free interparietal, seven supra- labials, seven supraciliaries, short hindlimbs (HL<40) and with darker upper lateral surface colouration grading evenly into lighter lower lateral colouration. A midlateral light brown to white line or series of spots is never present. Further distinguished from L. coggeri by colour pattern (see the diagnosis of that species). Distribution In rainforests from near Rockhampton, central eastern Queensland, south to Mt Glorious near Brisbane, southeastern Queensland. Description SV: 18-49 (N=21). HW: 11-16 (N=18, mean 13.6). HL: 27-38 (N=17, mean 32.8). XL: 112- 141 (N=5,mean 124.2). Four supraoculars. Frontoparietals fused. In- terparietal distinct. Supraciliaries 7 (N=44). Supralabials 7 (N=2()). Nuchals contacting parietals 2, very rarely 3 (N=20, mean 2.0). Midbody scale rows 26-30 (N=20, mean 27.2). Mid-dorsal scales smooth with 3-4 striations. Number of scales from chin to vent 52-62 (N= 1 8, mean 55.5). Lamellae under fourth toe 20-24 (N=17, mean 22.4). Dorsal colour uniform olive brown. Upper lateral area black, grading evenly into grayer lower lateral surface, which can have paler speckling. Dorsolateral colouration is paler brown, lending to form a bright stripe strongly edged below with black. On the tail, the lateral colouration breaks up into black speckling on a brown background. Ventrally, grey with black flecking that can be well-defined dots on the chin and throat; on the tail, the black markings are well-defined and tend to coalesce and form black reticulations. Remarks The specific identity of the two specimens from Byfield, near Rockhampton, deserves fur- ther investigation. The locality is the only coastal lowland record of the species. I have tentatively allocated them to L. couperi but it is difficult to be sure because of their poor condition. The identification of Wilson and Knowles (1988) photo number 503 as this species is also tentative. The skink looks like L. couperi but the sides are not black enough. The population, which is from Carnarvon Gorge, needs to be 452 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM collected and the identity of the species con- firmed. L. couperi is widely sympatric with L. adonis in southeastern Queensland. Etymology For Patrick Couper, Queensland Museum. KEY TO THE L. DELICATA COMPLEX 1. Usually 6 supralabials; 3 supraoculars L. Caligula Usually 7 supralabials; 4 supraoculars 2 2. Usually 5 supraciliaries; midbody scale rows usually<23 L. amicula Usually 6 or 7 supraciliaries; midbody scale rows usually >23 3 3. Interparietal fused with frontoparietals to form one scale L. adonis Interparietal free 4 4. Usually 6 supraciliaries; dark vertebral stripe present L. guichenoti Usually 7 supraciliaries; dark vertebral stripe absent 5 6. Hindlimbs long, usually >45% of SV; subdigi- tal lamellae under fourth toe usually >27 L. mirabilis Hindlimbs not long, usually (<40% of SV; subdigital lamellae under fourth toe usually <27 7 7. Darker upper lateral surface colouration grades evenly into lighter lower lateral colouration. A midlaleral light brown to white line or series of spots is never present 8 Darker upper lateral surface colouration dis- tinctly demarcated midlaterally from lighter lower lateral colouration. The demarcation can be due to a sharp transition of dark to light pigments or be delineated by a golden brown to white midlateral line or series of spots 9 8. Dorsal colour uniform olive brown. Upper lateral surface evenly black. Dorsolateral area pale brown, edged strongly in black below. Maximum SV 49mm L. couperi Dorsal colour reddish to olive brown usually flecked with pale spots and black lon- gitudinal dashes; the dashes can coalesce to form up to six dorsal lines. The outer two lines can delimit a paler brown dorsolateral stripe. Lateral ground colour dark brown to reddish brown flecked with paler spots and, usually, black dashes. Maximum SV 41mm. L. cogger i 9. Overall: brown, black and gold, robust skinks (HW 13-16% of SV). Ventrally, grey with black-edged scales flecked with black; throat, chin, lower part of body and and tail usually heavily black spotted; under the tail, the black markings often coalesce to outline a lon- gitudinal series of white chevrons L. robertsi Overall; brown, black, grey and white, deli- cate skinks (HW 1 1-14% of SV). Ventrally, yellow to white with black flecking on throat and tail, which can coalesce into thin lines 10 10. Ventrally yellow. Maximum SV 56mm. Rain- forest dwelling L. colossus Ventrally while. Maximum SV 45mm. Open forest, woodland and heath dwelling L. delicata ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Patrick Couper for his drawings, Donna Case for her help with artwork and Gregory Czechura for his comments. Garry Cranitch prepared the photographs. LITERATURE CITED BAKER, J.K. 1979. The rainbow skink, Lam- propholis delicata in Hawaii. Pacific Science 33: 207-212. CZECURA, G.V. 1986. Distant exiles: Frogs and reptiles recorded from Kroombit Tops, south- eastern Queensland. Qld. Nat. 27: 61-67. CZECURA, G.V. AND MILES, J. 1983. Lizards. 80-99. In Davies, W. (ed.), ‘Wildlife of the Brisbane area.' (Jacaranda Press: Brisbane). DE VIS, C.W. 1888. A contribution to the herpetology NEW QUEENSLAND RAINFOREST SKINKS 453 of Queensland. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2)2: 811-826 INGRAM, G. AND COVACEVICH, J. 1988. Revision of the genus Lygisaurus de Vis (Rep- tilia, Scincidae) in Australia, Mem. Qd Mus. 25: 335-354. 1 989. Revision of the genus Carlia (Reptilia, Scin- cidae) in Australia with comments on Carlia bicarinata of New Guinea. Mem. Qd Mus. 27: 443-490. INGRAM, G.J. AND RAWLINSON, P. 1981. Five new species of skinks (genus Lampropholis) from Queensland and New South Wales. Mem. QdMus. 20:311-317. LAMBERT, D.M. AND PATERSON, H.E.H. 1984. On ‘Bridging the gap between race and species’ . The isolation concept and an alternative. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 107: 501-514. LOVERIDGE, A. 1939. A new skink {Leiolopisma hawaiiensis) from Honolulu. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 53: 1-2. MATHER, P.B. 1990. Electrophoretic and morpho- logical comparisons of Lampropholis delicata (Lacertilia: Scincidae) populations from eastern Australia, and a resolution of the taxonomic stalusof thisspecies. Aust. J. Zool. 37: 561-574. PATERSON, H.E.H. 1985. The Recognition Concept of Species. 21-29. In Vrba, E.S. (ed.), ‘Species and speciation. Transvaal Mus. Mon. 4.’ (Transvaal Museum: Pretoria). WILSON, S.K. AND KNOWLES, D.G. 1988. ‘Australia’s reptiles: a photographic reference to the terrestrial reptiles of Australia.’ (William Collins: Sydney). 454 THE EARLIEST RECORD OF THE ?E\TINCT PLATYPUS FROG Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30{y)‘A5 A. 1991 . The Platypus Frog {Rheobatrachus silus) was only recent- ly described by Liem (1973). He discovered the frog in a stream in Kondalilla National Park, 3km SW of Montville in the Blackall Range, southeast Queensland, on 1 7 May 1 972. Subsequently, it was also found in the Conondale Range (Czechura, 1975). The frog’s discovery caused a sensation because of its aquatic-adapted morphology. As well, the subsequent publication of its bizarre parental care of carrying the tadpoles in the stomach (Corben, Ingram and Tyler, 1974) met with incredulity (Tyler, 1983). Probably what is most amazing about the frog is that it had not been discovered earlier. It is very distinctive and, from Queensland Museum records, collectors were visiting the areas where it was found since the early part of this century. However, the frog had been collected before the date of Liem’s find, but overlooked. As part of the process of auditing the Queensland Museum’s vertebrate collections in the preparation of an atlas, all specimens of Australian frogs where re-identified. During this endeavour, an old specimen of the Platypus Frog, R. silus was discovered. The specimen, registration number J 12778. was a juvenile and measured: SV 20.0, TL 8.0, TUSV 40.0. HW 6.2, HW/SV 31.0, HWyTL 77.5. ED 2.5, ED/HW 40.3, EN 1.4, IN 1.6, EN/IN 87.5 (measurements and abbreviations follow Ingram and Corben, 1 990). Accord- ing to growth data in Ingram (1983), the specimen is a first year frog. Heber A. Longman (1880-1954), subsequently Direclorof the Queensland Museum (Turner, 1986), collected the specimen at Montville. There is no date of collection but Czechura (in press) said Longman was probably at Montville in May, 1915. Czechura was commenting on a series of specimens (J 12772-1 2777, 12779, 12780) of the ?extinct Southern Dayfrog {Taudactylus diurnus Straughan and Lee, 1 966) that w'ere the earliest known specimens of that species, but also overlooked. These w'ere collected at the same time by Longman along with the Platypus Frog specimen. As to the date of collection, the series 312772-12780 was probably collected at the same time as the reptiles J2315 and 2318 {Cacophis krefftii and Gonocephalus spinipes respectively). These have exactly the same data but were registered on 10 May. 1915. In the least, it can be said that the Montville specimens where taken before that date. This earliest known record of the Platypus Frog is impor- tant because the species is thought to be extinct or in danger of being so (Ingram, 1990). Czechura and Ingram (1990) noted that the last record of a wild frog was on 8 December, 1979. Interestingly, in the museum's register near the entry for the old Platypus Frog specimen is a pencilled annotation that was subsequently erased. It asks if the specimen is a new species. Ironically, 57 years passed before the species was formally described and then we were to know the frog for only seven years before it would disappear. The existence of the old Montville specimens of R. silus and 7. diurnus illustrates the value of museum collections in the study of biodiversity. Museums are repositories of his- torical information about species (Manning, 1991) and often have the only data that are known. With endangered species, the historical information is of great importance in making management decisions for conservation. It is a necessity for workers in biodiversity to examine museum collections in their research. Apparently, neither Liem (1973) nor Straughan and Lee (1966) did so and thus missed valuable data. As well, the species could have been discovered earlier by other workers and, by the present, we might have had enough information to save the frogs. Literature Cited CORBEN. C.J.. INGRAM. G.J. AND TYLER. M.J. 1974. Gastric brooding: Unique form of parental care in an Australian frog. Science 186:946-947. CZECHURA, G.V. 1 975. Notes on the frog fauna of Conon- dale Range, south east Queensland. Herpetofauna 7(2); 2-4. (in press). The Blackall-Conondale Ranges: frogs, reptiles and fauna conservation. In Werren, G.L. and Kershaw, A.P. (eds), ‘The rainforest legacy.’ Vol. 2. (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra). CZECHURA, G.V. AND INGRAM. G.J. 1 990. Taudactylus diurnus and the case of the disappearing frogs. Mem. Qd Mus. 29:361-365. INGRAM, G.J. 1983. Natural history. 16-35. In Tyler, M.J. (ed.), 'The Gastric Brooding Frog.’ (Croom Helm: Lon- don). 1990. The mystery of the disappearing frog. Wildlife Australia 27(3): 6-7. INGRAM, G.J. AND CORBEN, C.J. 1 990. Litoria electrica: a new ireefrog from western Queensland. Mem. Qd Mus. 28:475^78. LIEM, D.S. 1973. A new genus of frog of the family Lep- todactylidae from SE. Queensland, Australia. Mem. Qd Mus. 16:459-470. MANNING, R.B. 1991. The importance of taxonomy and museums in the 1990s. Mem. Qd Mus. 31:205-207. STRAUGHAN, I.R. AND LEE, A.K. 1966. A new genus and speciesof leptodactylid frog from Queensland. Proc. R. Soc. Qd 77: 63-66. TURNER, S. 1986. Heber Albert Longman. Mem. Qd Mus. 24:321-323 TYLER. M.J. 1983. Introduction. 1-4. In Tyler, M.J. (ed.), The Gastric Brooding Frog.’ (Croom Helm: London). Glen Ingram, Queensland Museum, PO Box 300, South Brisbane, Queensland 4101, Australia; 24 June, 1991. LATE CAMBRIAN (POST-IDAMEAN) TRILOBITES FROM THE HIGGINS CREEK AREA, WESTERN TASMANIA PETER A. JELL, NIGEL C. HUGHES AND ANTHONY V. BROWN Jell, P.A., Hughes, N.C. and Brown, A.V. 1991 08 01: Late Cambrian (post-ldamean) trilobites from the Higgins Creek area, western Tasmania. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 3Q(3): 455-485. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. Trilobites are described from nine localities on logging tracks between the Huskisson River and Bums Peak, NNE of Renison Bell, western Tasmania. The 1 8 taxa, 7 in open nomen- clature. indicate an age in the pre-Payntonian Stage (Queensland .scheme) or late Early to early Late Sunwaplan Stage (North American .scheme). Seven new species are described asLotagnostus tullahensis, Rhaptagnosfus mji. Cermatops thalasta, Asiocephalus latosug- grundus, Olenus apoxysomafus. Chekiungaspis concavus, and Wujiajiania distorta. This fauna is important as it represents an off-shelf assemblage, possibly with some shelf inhabitants mixed in, that is contemporaneous w ith one of the carbonate shelf assemblages of western Queensland. □ Late Cambrian, trilobites, Tasmania. Peter A. Jell and Nigel C. Hughes, Queensland Museum, PO Box 300, South Brisbane, Queensland 4101, Australia; Anthony V. Brown, Deportment of Resources and Energy, PO Box 56, Rosny Park, Tasmania 7018, Australia; 10 May, 1991. Tasmanian Late Cambrian trilobites have been recorded (Jago, 1 972, 1 974, 1 978, 1 987; and ref- erences in Jago, 1979 and Banks, 1982) from several different parts of the State and from several different horizons. This paper presents a further discovery, in the Huskisson Group, in the Higgins Creek area between the Huskisson River and^Burns Peak, 15 km NNE of Renison Bell, of a fauna of 18 trilobite taxa plus brachiopod and bradoriid elements; much of the fauna has not been previously described from Australia and has affinities with faunas from other parts of the world, in particular central China. The nearest occurrences of trilobites are those from the Hus- kisson River about 7 km NNE of Renison Bell (Jago, 1974) where the index fossil Glypiagnos- tus reticulatus indicates an early Idamcan age. A Late Cambrian fauna was described from the Climie Formation, Dundas Group (Jago, 1978) about 12 km south of Renison Bell. Jago (1978) favoured a post-ldamean age over the other pos- sibility, latest Idamean. Jago'sPe/rw/'a (?) sp. has a glabella with convex lateral margins and glabellar furrows that are almost straight in the two arms of the chevron and continuous across the axis; both are features of Wujiajiania distorta sp. nov. and we suggest that may be the more likely identity of Jago’s specimen. His Cerato- pygidae, gen. ct sp. indet (Jago, 1978, pi. 2, figs 16, 20) are indistinguishable from Procerato- pyge gordonensis Jago, 1987, a close rcla- tive/descendant of which is found in our fauna. His Trilobita incertae sedis, specimen 3 (Jago, 1978. pi. 2. fig. 18) is assignable to Cermatops thalasta sp. nov. as it has the same structure of furrows on the pleural areas as described for that species below. Moreover, we concur with Jago that his cranidial fragment (Jago, 1978, pi. 2, fig. 17) is conspecific with the pygidium but the possible assignment to Briscoia is revised. We suggest that both specimens belong to C. thalas- ta. Lotagnosius occurs in both faunas, with un- availability of features (through poor pres- ervation) on Jago's (1978, pi. 2, fig.l) specimen preventing specific comparison. Olenus occurs in both faunas, albeit as entirely different species; .some importance is attached to its generic range in Europe, but in China O, sinensis occurs w ith taxonomic relatives of some of our Higgins Creek fauna in horizons younger than those yielding the genus in Europe (Lu and Lin, 1989). Based on this series of observations we deduce that Jago’s Climie Formation fauna and our Higgins Creek fauna w'ere approximately contemporaneous. Jago (in Shergold et al., 1 985) reassessed the age of his Climie Formation fauna on the basis of the discovery of Hedinaspis in a correlative horizon in the Professor Range; on that basis he considered it late Late Cambrian but tabulated it (Shergold el al., 1985, chart 7, col. 53) as medial Late Cambrian with which we agree. Wc are unaware of this record of Hedinaspis being illustrated and suggest that it should be carefullv scrutinized to determine 456 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 1. Locality map for fossil localities mentioned in text. Area is situated between the Huskisson River and Burns Peak NNE of Renison Bell. whether it may be the similar Asiocephalus or not. Similarly the record of Hedinaspis from western New South Wales (Webby et al., 1988) could represent Asiocephalus-, distinctive fea- tures are unavailable on specimens illustrated. The fauna from the Singing Creek Formation of the Denison Range, southwestern Tasmania (Jago,1987) has in common with faunas descri- bed below MicragnostuSy Pseudagnostus, Aph- elaspis, Proceratopyge, but this does not in- dicate contemporaneity in itself. However, note that Jago (1987) compared his Leiostegiacean gen. et sp. indet. to families that are normally post-Idamean in China and described a species of Pseudoyuepingia, that genus being post- Idamean in China and interpreted as such in western New South Wales (Webby et al., 1988). Moreover, Jago (in Shergold et al., 1985) at- tributed a post-Idamean to pre-Payntonian age to this fauna. Comparison of elements of this fauna with the one described below also suggest a post-Idamean age with possible close proximity of the ages of both faunas. We accept Jago’s (in Shergold et al., 1985) assessment of its age. Geological setting and age of the Higgins Creek fauna indicate that it is buried in a turbidite sequence probably deposited on or at the base of the continental slope. Some of the taxa found in only one of the three faunas (Higgins Creek, Climie Formation, Denison Range) may have been shelf benthos, having been incorporated into the off shelf deposits by slump or flow at the shelf margin. Those taxa common to the faunas may have been off shelf benthos or inhabitants of the water column. We suggest that these three faunas were essentially contemporaneous, post- Idamean in age; discussion of this age is presented below. LOCALITY AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING During mapping for the Corinna 1:50,000 UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 457 Geological Atlas Map Sheet (Turner et al. 1 991 ), a small area containing a sequence of inter- bedded pebble to granule conglomerate, with dominantly siliceous clasts and matrix, graded sandstone and lithicwacke and siltstone was en- countered along the poorly accessible southeastern margin of the map sheet in the Higgins Creek area (Fig.l). Tn March 1990, during a reconnaissance traverse into this area, nine localities with fossiliferous lithicwacke and siltstone were found in cuttings along a new road west from the Murchison Highway towards the Huskisson River; the area is about 15 km NNE of Renison Bell and 12 km NW of Tuliah, both towns being on the Murchison Highway. Lithologically, the sequence is dominated by interbeddcd siltstone and well bedded lithic- wacke, with lenses and channel infillings of con- glomerate. The conglomerate units are of both clast and matrix supported varieties. The open framework conglomerate units have dominantly chert clasts whereas the closed framework units are dominated by rounded quartzite clasts. The thicker sand grade beds and conglomerate units have scour bases and, in places, contain rip-up siltstone clasts in the basal section. Sand grade beds are usually graded and consistently give an east facing (easterly dip). Some sand grade beds contain intraformational soft sediment deforma- tion and small cross-bedded channel infills. Siltstone beds are usually laminar but cross- bedded units are also present. Sedimentological features within this succession suggest a sub- marine fan environment of deposition. The rock sequence is considered to belong to the upper part of the Huskisson Group and a correlate of the upper part of the Dundas Group (as described by Brown, 1986). Rock sequences lithologically similar to those containing the fos- sil sites occur to the north and south of the area. To the north, the succession contains mudstone, quartzite, greywacke, and tuffaceous grey- wacke-mudstone with conglomerate and crystal- vitric tuff units (Collins et al., 1981). To the south, exposures were available in two locations during the early to mid 1 980s. The first of these were in roadside quarries made during the construction of the Lower Pieman Dam Road; however, these exposures have since been re-vegetated. The second location was in the Pieman River Gorge to the south of the road, but flooding the river to form Lake Pieman drowned these localities. Decription of the sequences in these areas can be found in Green (1983) and Brown (1986). The Higgins Creek sequence containing the fossils belongs to a belt of rocks formed during the latest Idamean, which is now thrust against Precambrian successions to the west and has Middle(?) Cambrian volcano-sedimentary suc- cessions thrust against it on the east. Due to discontinuous structures to the north and south of the Higgins Creek area and the unresolved structural complexity of the rocks to the east, it is not possible to give a structural relationship of this east facing sequence w'ith the Middle(?) Cambrian volcano-sedmentary sequences. The implication of structural complexity of the Higgins Creek area, the discontinuous structures both to the north and south of the Higgins Creek area, and the lack of knowledge as to the bound- ary relationship of this area w ith the sequences containing, the as yet undescribed, late Mid- dle(?) Cambrian faunas within the volcaniclastic sequences to the cast of Burns Peak (Corbett and McNeil, 1986; Corbett and Solomon, 1988: 101), and the tectonic significance of the new fauna, will be discussed wdthin the forthcoming Explanatory Notes to the Corinna 1 :50,000 Map Sheet (in prep.). FAUNA AND AGE We describe 18 trilobite taxa, with 7 of those in open nomenclature (Table 1). Proceratopyge gordonensis has been found in Australia in strata we consider approximately coeval with the col- lections described below but considered by Jago (1987) to be Idamean. Pseudagnostus sp. is compared with P, idalis Opik, 1967, although that is a dubious comparison; P. idalis is restricted to the Idamean in the rest of Australia. Apart from its record in the Climie Formation (Jago. 1 978) mentioned above, has been recorded in the Idamean of western Queensland (Opik, 1963), and the Olenus Zones of Europe are correlated with the Australian Idamean. Aphelaspis is now' widely known in Australia, but its greatest development is in North America; i\\Q Aphelaspis Zone of that continent is corre- lated with the early half of the Australian Idamean Stage. However, the range of this taxon is not certain and depends to large extent on better definition of this and related taxa currently assigned to separate but undifferentiated genera, as discussed in the sysycmatics below. Olentella for example ranges into the post-Idamean. These taxa could be used to suggest correlation with the latest Idamean (Shcrgold et al., 1990). However, the rest of the fauna is not obviously 458 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM TRILOBITES \ LOCALITIES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Acmarhachisl so. X Micra^ostussx). cf. M. intermedins Palmer, 1968 X Pseudagnostids X X Lotamostus tullahensis sp. nov. X Pseudamostus sp. X X Pseuda^nostus (Sulcata^nostus) sp. X Neoamostus clavus Shereold, 1972 X Rhapta^nostus conver^ens Palmer, 1955 X Rhapiasnostus mii sp. nov. Proceratopyse sp. cf. P. sordonensis Jaeo, 1987 X X X X X Cermatops thalasta sp. nov. X X X Asiocephalus latosussmndus sp. nov. X X Olenus apoxx'somatus sp, nov. X X X X X Chekiangaspis concavus sp. nov. X Wuiiaiiania distortus sp. nov. X X X X Aphelaspis sp. X X Conokcphalinidae indet. X Aposolenopleura sp. X TABLE 1. Distribution of fauna at the nine collecting localities marked on the locality map (Fig. 1). in accord with this date. Aposolenopleura and the nearest specific comparison of Lotagnostus tullahemis are to be found in the Hiingaia mag- nifica Faunule which was originally thought to be of late Trempealeau age (Rasetti, 1944); sub- sequently, Lochman and Wilson (1958) corre- lated it with the late Franconian (Sunwaptan) Ptychaspis-Prosaukia and Saukia Zones. Pal- mer (1968) accepted correlation with the late Franconian (late Early Sunwaptan)and erected Asiocephalus for trilobites from the same faunule. This genus is represented in our Higgins Creek fauna. In Kazakhstan, Hedinaspis (Asio^ cephalus) sulcata is the nominal species of a zone correlated with the Trisulcatagnostus trisulcus and Eolotagnostus scrobicularis Zones; Shergold et al. (1990) correlated these zones with the Saukia Zone {Saukiclla junta Subzone)of North America even though Saukiella does not appear in the Kazakh se- quence until two zones later in ihzHarpidioides- Platypeltoides Zone (Apollonov and Chugaeva, 1 983); Shergold (pers. comm. June, 1991) would now correlate those Kazakh zones with older horizons in the rest of the world thus coming closer to the suggestion made here . We suggest that horizon should be correlated with pre- Saukiella horizons in North America, i.e. with the late Early Sunwaptan (=late Franconian). Cermatops occurs in western Queensland in the post-ldamean Wentsuia iota-Rhaptagnostus apsis Zone (Shergold,! 980), and the Welsh species of Hughes and Rushton (1990) is from the contemporaneous Parabolina spinulosa Zone, two zones younger than the Idamean. The Chinese Wujiajiania and Chekiangaspis occur together in the Lotagnostus punctatus Zone of western Zhejiang; this zone is numbered 14 in the scheme of Lu and Lin (1989) with Pseudag- nostus idalis occurring in x\\c,Proceratopyg€ fen- ghuangensis and Erixanum Zones (Zones 1 1 and 12 of Lu and Lin’s scheme) those zones being correlated with the third and second last zones of the Australian Idamean, respectively (Lu and Lin, 1989, table 8). Therefore, if Lu and Lin’s zone 13 (Pseudoglyptagnostus clavatus-Sino- proceratopyge kiangshanensis Zone) is equated with the last Idamean or an immediately post- ldamean Zone (J.H. Shergold (pers. comm. June, 1991) suggested equivalence with i\\t Irvingella Zone) then ihc Lotagnostus punctatus Zone (14) is post-ldamean. In so far as the base of the L. UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 459 pimctatus Zone of western Zhejiang is aligned with the base of the Maladioidella Zone of the North China Province and that Zone is shown by Shergold et al. (1990, fig.7)to be equivalent to the post-/m/ige//fl Zone of Queensland, we cor- relate the L. punctatus Zone, with the late Early Sunwaptan (=late Franconian). Therefore, 6 members of the Higgins Creek fauna suggest correlation with this North American horizon. Neoagnostus clavus is found in western Queensland in the penultimate and prepenul- timate zones of the pre-Payntonian. Shergold et al. (1990) also correlated this horizon with the Saukiella junia Subzone of North America but that correlation was based on conodont work which has been revised providing a different picture (Nicoll and Shergold, 1991). llscontem- poraneous horizons in the North American se- quence may be near the Early /Late Sunwaptan boundary (Ludvigsen and Westrop, 1985). Similarly, Rhaptagnostus convergens is asc- ribed an age (Shergold, 1977) in the Saukiella pyrene Subzone of Nevada; that horizon, imme- diately on top of the Ellipsocephaloides Zone (Longacre, 1970, text-fig. 5) indicates the Early to Late Sunwaptan boundary. These two species may therefore be added to those that suggest a Sunwaptan age for our fauna even if the sugges- tion is for a zone younger than suggested by the previous six species. The Higgins Creek fauna, therefore, contains 8 species that suggest correlation with horizons just below or above the Early/Late Sunwaptan (=Iate Franconian) boundary (3 or 4 zones post- Idamean) and 4 that suggest latest Idamean but much less strongly. In discussions of Wujia- jiania distorta dj\^Asiocephalus latosuggrundus we point out that they are probably ancestral to members of the respective genera found else- where in the world. Therefore, they may be interpreted as indicating a slightly older horizon in Tasmania. We initially considered that among the 9 localities, which could not be placed in stratigraphic sequence, some may have been late Idamean and others several zones posi-ldamean. However, careful examination of the collections show the reported associations to be valid with some of the unexpected co-occurrences on one piece of rock. Wc suggest that the age of the fauna may be post-ldamean within the Early Sunwaptan Stage, with which its constituents have been compared above; no zonal correlation may be substantiated with any other part of the world, not even with Queensland or other parts of Australia. As dis- cussed above approximate contemporaneity with Jago's (1978. 1987) Climie and Singing Creek faunas is suggested as the only speculation at a more specific level. The lower fauna in the Watties Bore section (Webby et al., 1988) resembles the Tasmanian faunas in containing Pseudoyuepingia, Proceratopyge, Pareuloma (close to Chekiangaspis as discussed by Webby et al. (1988, p.914)), ?iX\dHedinaspis sp. (may be Asiocephalus as discussed above); however, these similarities may be due to their occurring in the same off shelf environment where a num- ber of genera are beginning to appear to have quite long ranges as well as to proximity of age, if any. The significance of the fauna is its further revealing the oceanic fauna of eastern Australia in the Late Cambrian and providing more infor- mation for correlation within Australia and the Asian region. SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY The fossils described herein are housed in the Geological Survey of Tasmania (prefix GST). Descriptive terminology follows Moore (1959), where possible, with the notation for glabellar lobes and furrows following Henningsmoen (1957) (i.e. lobes termed LO, LI, L2, L3 etc. and furrows SO, SI, S2 etc from the occipital for- ward). Class TRILOBITA Order MIOMERA Jaekel, 1909 Superfamily AGNOSTOIDEA McCoy, 1849 Family AGNOSTIDAE McCoy, 1849 Lotagnostus Whitehouse, 1936 Type Species Agnosias trisectus Salter, 1864 from the Late Cambrian of Britain and Sweden. Lotagnostus tullahensis sp. nov. (Fig. 3G-I) Etymology Near the town of Tullah, western Tasmania. Material Holotype GST14375 and paratypes GST14373 and 14374 from Loc. 9. Diagnosis Cephalon with well-impressed preglabellar median furrow reaching border furrow, 460 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM scrobiculate cheek areas; anterior glabellar lobe large, subquadrate with slight anteromedial projection and rounded anterolaterally; S2 well- impressed, chevron-shaped over axis; glabellar node just behind S2; basal lobes large, triangular, extending well forward. Pygidium with wide, straight-sided axis finishing well forw'ard of bor- der furrow; first axial ring of two lateral lobes; second axial ring with high-rounded median node descending forward to articulating furrow and dividing first ring; cheek areas weakly scrobiculate; border flat but not wide, with pair of marginal spines posterior of widest point. Remarks Generic assignment is made using the diag- nosis of Ludvigsen et al. (1989) wherein the only point of possible disagreement could be the in- dication that the pygidial axis extends close to the posterior border furrow. In this Tasmanian species the axis does not appear to extend as far posteriorly (Fig. 31) as in cogeners. Variation in this feature is evident in other species. The Tasmanian cephalon is virtually indistin- guishable from that of L. americanus (cf. Rasetti, 1944, pi. 36, fig. 1; Ludvigsen et al. 1989, pi. 1, fig. 25-upper right). Anterior glabellar shape and strongly divided posterior glabellar lobe are distinctive. However, the pygidium of that North American species has a wide border constricted acrolobcs, axis reaching close to border furrow and differently shaped first and second pygidia! axial rings and tubercle thereon. In this last fea- ture, the furrow between the first and second pygidial axial rings is usually transverse and continuous in previously described species of the genus but in L. americanus as in our Tasmanian species (Ludvigsen et al. 1989, pl.l, fig.l5; Rasetti, 1944, pl.36, fig. 2) the tubercle interrupts that furrow', extending over the length of 2 seg- ments. Nevertheless, shape of the lateral parts of the first ring and shape of the tubercle distinguish these 2 species. Lotagnostus sp. of Palmer ( 1 968, pl.l 2, figs 3,4) has a pygidium almost identical with the Tasmanian (axial ring is longer, axis narrower, border narrower) but the associated cephalon is distinct (nonscrobiculate, wide bor- der furrow, poorly divided posterior glabellar lobe, posteriorly placed glabellar node), Acmarhachis Resser, 1938 Type Species Acmarhachis typicalis Resser, 1938, from the Dresbachian of Alabama, by original designa- tion. Acmarhachis ? sp. (Fig. 2A,B) Material GST14355 from Loc. 1 Discussion This specimen is too poorly preserved for taxonomic treatment but it is assigned io Acmar- hachis on the basis of glabellar shape with broad- ly rounded anterior and long anterior lobe, on lack of preglabcllar median furrow and on shape of the pygidial axis which reaches to the posterior border furrow. This may be slim evidence but Shcrgold (1980) showed that the genus ranges higher into the Late Cambrian in Australia and the features outlined are sufficient for tentative assignment of this poor specimen. Micragnostus Howell, 1935 Type Species Agnostus clavus Lake, 1906 from the Trem- adocian of Wales, by original designation. Micragnostus sp. cf. M. intermedins (Palmer, 1968) (Fig. 2G-I, K(right only) Material Three cranidia GST14359-14361 and one pygidium, GST14366 all from Loc. 1. Discussion These cephala are tiny and the pygidium is only a little larger. It is, therefore, difficult to compare them with material of the long-ranging M. intermedius (assigned to Micragnostus by Fortey (1980:21)) from Alaska (Palmer, 1968), Mexico (Robison and Pantoja-Alor, 1968) and Newfoundland (Ludvigsen et a!., 1989). How- ever, the pygidium is distinctive with its axis finishing well forward of the border furrow, and markedly narrow border for the genus or for agnostoids of this age. The latter feature in par- ticular, is distinctive oiM. intermedius among its contemporaries, but is shared with Tremadocian forms described by Fortey (1980, pl.l). The cranidia are less distinctive but comparison with the smaller eranidia from Mexico (Robison and Pantoja-Alor, 1968, pi. 97, figs 4,5) shows the anteriorly tapering glabella with well rounded UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 461 Fig. 2. All from Loc. 1 except L from Loc, 5. AyB^Acmarhachis? sp. internal mould and latex cast , respectively, of complete specimen GST14355, x8. C, Effaced pseudagnostid GSTI4356, x7. D-F, K{\cfl), Rhaptagnostus mji sp. nov. D, internal mould of small pygidium GST14357, xl4. E,F, latex cast and internal mould of small cephalon GST14358, xl4. K (left), internal mould of small cephalon GST14365, xl4. G-I, K(right), Micragnostus sp. cf. M. intermedius (Palmer, 1 968). G-I, internal moulds ofsmall cephala GSTl 4359-1436 1 , xl5, xl5, and xll, respectively. K(right), internal mould of pygidium GST14366, xl4. J, Pseudagnostid indet. internal mould of complete deformed specimen GST14362, x6. L, Pseudagnoslidindet. GST14363, x5. anterior, narrow border, and short but distinct basal lobes to be shared by both sets of material. Identification with this American species is necessarily tentative because cranidia of com- parable size to the larger Amer-ican specimens are not available from Tasmania as yet and be- cause the Tasmanian specimens are all internal moulds and therefore may prove to have dif- ferent external morphology. Family DIPLAGNOSTIDAE Whitehouse, 1936 Subfamily PSEUDAGNOSTINAE Whitehouse, 1936 Neoagnostus Kobayashi, 1955 Type Species Neoagnostus aspidoides Kobayashi, 1955 from British Columbia, by original designation. Neoagnostus clavus (Shergold, 1972) (Fig. 3M) Material GST14379, cephalon with first thoracic seg- ment articulated from Loc. 8. Discussion This cephalon resembles the western Queensland paratypc figured by Shergold (1977, pi. 16, fig. 14), particularly in outline, glabellar lobes and node arrangement, and waisted glabel- 462 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 463 la. Only the preglabellar median furrow on the Tasmanian specimen could be used to distin- guish it from the Queensland species but that is not sufficient in view of the other close similarities exhibited. This Tasmanian specimen has been tectonically compressed in the transverse direction so the glabella, border fur- row (laterally) and basal lobes appear narrower than in the undistorted Queensland specimens but the specific identity is not in doubt, although a pygidium will be necessary to make certain identification. Pseudagnostus Jaekel, 1909 Type Species Agnosias cyclopyge Tullberg, 1880 from the Late Cambrian of Sweden. Pseudagnostus sp. (Figs 4,5) Material GST14381-14388 from Loc. 2, GST14390- 14401 from Loc. 3. Discussion Agnostids are common in collections from Localities 2 and 3 but they are invariably dis- torted to some degree and cannot be identified with confidence because the parietal structures of the glabella, which are so important to taxonomy in this group cannot be observed. It is not even certain how many species are repre- sented (e.g. are Fig. 5J,I,L with blunter glabellar anterior and effaced accessory furrows con- specific with the rest of the material?). They arc apparently spectaculate agnostids, with a well- impressed preglabellar median furrow, wide deliquiate border furrows, subquadrate pygidium, accessory furrows in most specimens, accessory furrows not reaching border furrow, marginal spines situated posteriorly level with or behind the rear of the acrolobe. These features are consistent with the morphology of Pseudag- nosius idalis Opik, 1967 but we are reluctant to suggest such an assignment on the available material. Further discussion of these specimens seems fruitless because the features of the glabella are uncertain. Pseudagnostus (Sulcatagnostus) sp. (Fig. 3J,K) Material GST14376, 14377 from Loc. 7. Discussion The internal mould of a whole specimen is laterally compressed and damaged in some parts. Likewise the cranidium (Fig.3K) is strongly dis- torted. Therefore, features of the subgenus are the scrobiculate cranidium. long straight-sided glabella with poorly impressed transverse fur- row, well impressed preglabellar median furrow, small triangular basal lobes, truncated glabellar rear, elongate pygidiai medial node, accessory furrows not meeting posteriorly, wide border furrow, and distinct marginal spines. Features not fully in accord with Ps. {Sulcatag- nostus) are the apparent lack (it is not clear if the border is entire at this point and the mid posterior spine might be an external feature anyway) of the third pygidiai (mid posterior) spine and posterior position of marginal spines. Ps. {Sulcatagnostus) rugosus Ergaliev, 1980 also lacks the third pygidiai marginal spine. As Shergold (1977) pointed out this form is closely allied to the Ps. cyclopyge Group of Pseudagnostus and Ergaliev ‘s Kazakh species and this Tasmanian form could well belong to Ps. idalis if the mid posterior spine is considered subgenerically critical. However, the scrobiculate cranidium seems a distinctive feature of these 3 forms giving a basis for distinction. Rhaptagnostus Whitehouse, 1936 Type Species Agnostus cyclopygeformis Sun, 1924 from the FIG. 3. A-F, Rhaptagnostus mji sp. nov. from Loc. 9. A,B, internal moulds of complete specimens (A is holotype) GSTI4367, 14368, x8 and x5, respectively. C. latex cast of complete specimen GST14369. x9. D,E, internal moulds of pygidia GST14370, 14371, x9. F, latex cast of small complete specimen GST14372, xI2. G-I, Lotagnostus tullahensis sp. nov. from Loc. 9. G,H. laiex casts of small complete specimens GST14373, 14374, xl2. T, latex cast of larger articulated holotype GSTI4375. xlO. J,K, Pseudagnostus (Sulcatagnostus) sp. from Loc. 7. J, internal mould of cranidium GST14376. x9. K. internal mould of articulated specimen GST14377, x9. L, Pseudagnostid indel. interna 1 mould of cranidium and first thoracic segment from Loc. 7, GST14378, x5. M, Neoagnostus ciavus Shergold internal mould of cephalon and first thoracic segment from Loc. 8, GST 14379, x8. N,0, Rhaptagnostus convergens Palmer, latex cast and internal mould of articulated specimen from Loc. 8, GST14380, x7. 464 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Fig. 4. Pseudagnostus sp. from hoc. 2. A. latex cast of arliculaled specimen GST1438 1 , x8. B, G, internal mould and latex cast of articulated specimen GST14382, x 10. C,D, latex cast and internal mould of articulated specimen GST14383, xlO. E,F, internal mould and latex cast of articulated specimen GST14384, xlO. H, internal mould of pygidium GST14385, x5. L J, internal moulds of articulated specimens GST14386 and 14387, x6 and x8, respectively. K, L, latex cast and internal mould of articulated specimen GST14388, x6. UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 465 FIG. 5. Pseudagnostus sp. from Loc. 3. A, latex cast of arlicuiated specimen GST14390, xIO. B-D, in- ternal moulds of cephala GST14391-14393, xlO, xlO, x8, respectively. E. F. latex cast and internal mould of pygidium GSTI4394, xIO. G, internal mould of pygidium GST14396, xlO. H, L, internal moulds of articulated specimens GST14397, 14401, xlO. I-K, latex casts of articulated specimens GST14398-14400, xlO. 466 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Kaolishan Formation, Shandong by original designation. Rhaptagnostus mji sp. nov. (Figs 2D-F, K(Ieft), 3A-F) Etymology For M.J. Clarke, Geological Survey of Tas- mania, who facilitated completion of this paper. Matfrial Hoiotype GST14367 (Fig.3A) from Loc. 9. Paratypes GST 14357, 14358, 14365 from Loc. 1 and GST14368-14372 from Loc. 9. Diagnosis Glabella relatively narrow, short, anteriorly rounded, with angular posterior, with short anterior lobe isolated by transverse transglabel- lar furrow, with small anterolateral lobes separated by the elongate glabellar node and bounded posteroaxially by almost straight fur- rows running to the glabellar node. Basal lobes short, triangular. Borders narrow throughout (proportionally wider in juvenile pygidia), with pair of posterior marginal spines decreasing in size to almost nothing in largest specimens. Preglabellar median furrow and axial furrow well-impressed. Accessory furrows not im- pressed on pygidium, but terminal pygidial node present. Pygidial axis not segmented, with long prominent node extending almost to the ar- ticulating furrow and giving axis pentagonal shape as it extends posteriorly slightly beyond the extend of the axial furrows. Growth Several small (cephala about 0.7-0.9mm and a pygidium 0.5mm long) from Loc. 1 and a complete specimen 3.7mm long (Fig.3F) are referred to this species based on comparison with the grow'th series recorded for the related Pseudagnostus communis by Palmer (1955). Changes with growth are 1, the posterior border of the pygidium becomes progressively shorter; 2, the pygidial marginal spines become less and less prominent and their position becomes more and more anterior relative to the posterior of the acrolobe; 3, the accessory furrows on the pygidium are incomplete on the small specimens but disappear altogether with growth; 4, the glabella is straight-sided in the small specimens but develops slight bulges around the anterolateral lobes with growth; the anterior lobe becomes proportionally shorter with growth Discussion Generic assignment is based on the position of the glabellar node between the anterolateral lobes, the loss of accessory lobes in the pygidium and pygidial shape with tiny marginal spines well forward. There is distinct similarity with Pseudagnostus communis, particularly in the narrow border throughout, glabellar shape, and pygidia! shape (Rasetti. 196Lpl,23, figs 15-17) with only a marginal difference in position of the glabellar node and remnant accessory furrows to separate them. The latter feature disappears with growth in the Tasmanian species but may still be a species discriminator. Separation from /?. leitchi Webby ctal.. 1988 is difficult due to that species being sheared on the bedding plane. However, in the Tasmanian species the border is narrower and the anterior glabellar furrow is more transverse. It should be noted in passing that the ‘raised, median axial bar* described by Webby et al. (1988:914). in the articulating fur- row of the first thoracic segment is in fact the flange around the cephalothoracic aperture (Shergold et al., 1990, figs 3,4). R. gunnari Ludvigsen and Westrop in Ludvigsen etal., 1989 is a more effaced form with widerborder furrows and pygidia] border. R. obsolelus Lermontova, 1951 R. hifax Shergold, 1975 and R. papilio Shergold, 1972 are all effaced or semi-effaced. Rhaptagnostus convergens (Palmer, 1955) (Fig. 3N,0) Material GST14380, a complete specimen from Loc. 8. Discussion Tectonic deformation has shortened and dis- torted the axial furrow so that glabellar shape is difficult to determine with certainly. Neverthe- less, it definitely has a broad subangular anterior and lateral bulges at the anterolateral lobes with the glabellar node between the posterior half of the anterolateral lobes. These features align it closely with R. convergens (Palmer, 1955) and adding the shape of the pygidium (which seems far less distorted than the cephalon), tiny mar- ginal spines, narrow borders throughout, and pygidial axial expression including the posterior projection of the elongate node intruding on the ring furrow and the definition of the first ring furrow al the anterior of the median node there are many points of close similarity with R. con- vergens, As there arc no distinguishing features evident on the Tasmanian specimen we are UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 467 forced to make this specific assignment but we understand that future collecting may necessitate revision of this identification if degree of impres- sion of axial and preglabellar furrows becomes specifically important. In our opinion these fea- tures are not specifically important and may vary due to postdepositional history also. The im- pression as to their depth given by photographs may be misleading due to different lighting ar- rangements. For example the type cephalon as presented by Palmer (1955, pi. 19, fig. 14) was photographed with very low angle light as wit- nessed by the deep shadow on the right of the specimen; in that lighting the furrows seem ex- tremely shallow, while in Shergold, 1977 (pi. 16, fig. 1 ) vertical lighting suggests deeper axial and preglabellar furrows. The only feature that ap- pears different is the size of the basal lobes, but it is not clear on the Tasmanian specimen just how much of the posterior of the cephalon is curved down into the junction between it and the thorax. We suggest that the posterior of the glabellar and the basal lobes are not fully ex- posed in our specimen. Pseudagnostids indet. (Figs 2C,J,L, 3L) Material GST14356 and 14362 from Loc. 1,GST14363 from Loc. 5, and GST14378 from Loc. 7. Discussion These unidentifiable specimens are recorded because 1, GST14356 is the only effaced agnos- toid among these collections and since effaced forms seem to dominate in contemporary plat- form carbonates of western Queensland (Sher- gold, 1972, 1975, 1980) it may prove significant that one specimen be recorded; 2, GSTI4362 is a whole specimen apparently with the accessory furrows of the pygidium fully enclosing the deuterolobe which is laterally bulbous towards the posterior; this feature is unknown in other agnostoids described herein; 3, GST14363 is the only agnostid in the collection from Locality 5 and although it could be assigned to the species from Loc. 2 this identification is not certain on this specimen alone; and 4, GST14378 is the only pseudagnostid from Loc. 7 and could also belong to the same taxon as occurs at Loc. 3 but requires better material for assignment. None of these specimens is well enough preserved to be described taxonomically but their occurrence needs to be recorded. Order POLYMERAJaekel, 1909 Suborder ASAPHINA Salter, 1864 Family CERATOPYGIDAE Linnarsson, 1869 Subfamily PROCERATOPYGINAE Wallerius, 1895 Proceratopyge Wallerius, 1895 Type Species Proceratopyge conifrons Wallerius, 1895. Proceratopyge sp. cf. P. gordonensis Jago, 1987 (Fig. 6) Proceratopyge gordonensis Jago, 1987:222, pi. 26, figs 1-10; pi. 27, figs 1-8. Material Holotype UTGD88350a. Other material of this study GST14403, 14406, 14407 from Loc. 1, GSf 14408 from Loc 5, GST 14404 from Loc. 7, GST 14405 from Loc. 8, and GST 14402 from Loc 9. Discussion Jago (1987) described and discussed this species in considerable detail. Our specimens are tectonically deformed with considerable shor- tening (Fig.6B) in some and elongation (Fig.6D) in others. After accounting for this deformation the only distinction that could be drawn may be in the greater divergence of the anterior limbs of the facial suture, longer preglabellar length and more rounded glabellar anterior (in elongate specimens) in our material. These features are not sufficient for specific separation but at this stage the assignment is considered tentative until an objective assessment of all the species of Proceratopyge is carried out. The internal mould of a complete specimen (Fig. 6A) shows the median suture and numerous terrace lines on the doublure, which features were not evident on Jago's illustrations. Subfamily IWAYASPIDINAE Kobayashi, 1962 Cermatops Shergold, 1980 Type Species Cermatops vieta Shergold (1980, p.87, pi. 34, figs 3-1 1). 468 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Fig. 6. Proceratopygc gordonensis Jago, 1987. A. internal mould of whole specimen from Loc. 9, GST 14402, x6. B, latex cast of incomplete specimen without librigenae from Loc.l, gstl4403, x3.5. C, internal mould of incom- plete, articulated specimen from Loc.7, GST14404, x3. D. latex cast of articulated thorax and pygidium from Loc. 8, GST14405, x3. E, internal mould of a juvenile articulated specimen without librigenae from Loc.l, GST14406. xlO. F, internal mould of cranidium from Loc.l, GST14407, x4. G, latex cast of pygidium from Loc. 5. GST14408, x5. UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 469 Cermatops thalasta sp. nov. (Fig. 7) Etymology Greek thalao, bruise, crush. Material Holotype GST14412 from Loc. 4. Paratypes GST14413-14416, 14418 from Loc.4, GST 14417 from Loc. 8 and GST14409-1441 1 from Loc. 9. Diagnosis Glabella tapering forward; anterior margin evenly curved except for a slight medial projec- tion and suggestion of narrow plectrum; frontal area long and concave; anterior limbs of facial suture diverging strongly forward; librigenawith doublure more than half width, with median suture in doublure, and with short stout gcnal spine. Thorax of 10 segments. Pygidium with rounded anterolateral corners; propleural band extremely short and truncated laterally at or just beyond paradoublural line; doublural width c. 0.3 of pygidial width. Description Large (2 cm cranidial length, 2.5 cm pygidial length), smooth species of low convexity, with distinct furrows. Glabella tapering forward to rounded anterior, with crescentic almost exsagit- tal SI (typically ceratopygid) and more anterior furrows unavailable. Occipital furrow shallow medially, with short deeper crescentic depres- sions laterally but isolated from axial furrow. Frontal area 0.25 cephalic length, concave; bor- der not distinctly separated but a short marginal piece upturned, with small medial projection in margin and weak medial ridge running back to glabella. Palpebral lobe 1/2 cephalic length, flat, projecting strongly, and well rounded laterally. Posterolateral limb long, wide, with shallow bor- der furrow near posterior margin. Facial suture with anterior section diverging forward at c. 45°-60° to exsagittal line, widest point close to margin, in middle section running in a broadly rounded curve (convex adaxialiy), interrupted only by the prominent palpebral lobe, leaving a narrow fixed cheek in the middle 1/3 of glabella. Librigena with paradoublural line about halfway between eye and margin in transverse line through centre of eye; eye socle low; lateral margin weakly upturned but border not defined; genal spine stout, c. 1/2 length of cheek; doublure wide; sagittal medial suture anteriorly. Thorax of 10 segments (Fig.7J) smaller specimen with 9 segments (Fig. 7K) interpreted as last meraspid. Pleural furrows well-im- pressed. running from anterior at axial furrow to midlenglh and deepening in articulating line, then shallowing on free pleura; pleural tips with retrai curve, becoming more so on more posterior segments. Pygidium semicircular except for well- rounded anterolateral corners; axis of 6 rings plus terminus, reaching just above border fur- row, barely tapering, with rounded posterior in- distinctly extended posteriorly in lower decreasing ridge. Pleura! areas with well-im- pressed pleural and interpleural furrows proximally; propleural band extremely short and fading out at paradoublural line so that only ridge of the postpleural band extends out towards the margin. Border furrow broad, indistinct as con- cave trough. Doublure wide, 1/2 pleural width, with close spaced comarginal terrace lines. Remarks This species is known from a few fragmentary specimens, severely distorted by lectonism but the available features are enough to identify a new species. Generic assignment is based to large extent on the pygidium where comparison with C vieta is extremely close. Only the greater taper of the axis and fewer axial rings distinguish that Queensland species. In the cephalon, the Tasmanian glabella is more rounded anteriorly, the course of the facial suture is different, the anterior margin has a slight forward projection, glabellar furrows are better impressed and the free cheek has a wider doublure and less prominent border furrow. C. discoidalis (Salter, 1866) (Hughes & Rush- ton, 1990) is distinguished from the new species by the squared glabellar anterior (although a rounded anterior is possible (e.g. Hughes & Rushton, 1990, pl.l, fig.9) through tectonic dis- tortion), larger palpebral lobes, short genal spine, and excavated posterior pygidial margin. The two articulated thoraxes (Fig. 7J,K) with this type of pygidium, and with a ceratopygid cephalon, are assigned to this species on the pygidia but they do serve to confirm association of head and tail suggested by Shergold (1980) and Hughes & Rushton (1990) for this genus. Asiocephalus Palmer, 1968 Type Species Asiocephalus indigator Palmer, 1968 from 470 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM fpff wm. F?i UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 471 Franconian strata in the Hillard Peak area of east central Alaska. Remarks Although Apollonov and Chugaeva (1983) considered Asiocepahliis a subgenus of Hedinaspis Troedsson, 1951 we consider them genericaliy separate, in light of new information from the Tasmanian species and in particular because of the larger pygidium with 5 or more axial rings. Discovery of this species, which also occurs in Kazakhstan in older strata than other Asiocephalus QT Hedinaspis indicates a possible intermediate between the Iwayaspidinae (e.g. Cermatops) and the Hedinaspis group, par- ticularly in development of thoracic and pleural features. This lineage involves increasing num- bers of thoracic segments and decreasing num- ber of pygidial segments as well as specialization of thoracic segments. All of the changes are possible through A. latosuggrundus. Asiocephalus latosuggrundus sp. nov. (Fig. 8) Hedinaspis {Asiocephalus) sulcata Lisogar; Apol- lonov & Chugaeva, 1983:83, pi. 10, figs 2,3. Etymology Latin laius, broad and suggrunda eaves; refer- ring to the wide pygidial doublure. Material Holotype GST14419 from Loc. 1. Paratype GST14420 from Loc. 2. Diagnosis Cephalic doublure narrow laterally, expanded anteromedially to be as long as frontal area; distinct eye ridges oblique posteriorly away from axis, running to small kidney-shaped palpebral lobes. Cephalic surface (except glabella) caec- atc. Thorax of 13 segments; each segment with short propleural band and long postpleural band; pleural tips curved posteriorly, more so posteriorly. Pygidium semicircular; axis of 6 rings plus terminus; pleural bands as on thoracic segments; doublure wide (nearly 0.25 pygidial width at widest), with prominent comarginal ter- race lines. Description Subisopygous, gently convex. Cephalon semi- circular, with prominent fine caecal network ex- cept on glabella: major caecum running posterolaierally from eye on iibrigena has dis- tinct angle in it about halfway across genal field. Glabella subparallel sided, with rounded anterior; SI crescent shaped, S2 almost con- tinuous over axis but separated by high area bearing the prcoccipilal node; SO with deep lateral depression isolated from the axial furrow. Frontal area long, gently concave, with faintest suggestion of a plectrum; border short, upturned, poorly defined. Palpebral lobe short, at level of S2 and S3, kidney-shaped, elevated, defined by well-impressed palpebral furrow, connected to glabella via distinct eye ridge sloping forward to axial furrow. Facial suture diverging forward in pre-ocular part, curving gently adaxially towards margin; in central portion running in a wide curve, except where intcrupted by palpebral lobe, leaving narrow fixigena; postocular part running in sigmoidal curve to posterior margin anterior to a long wide posterolateral limb. Posterior border short, gently raised, uniform. Librigena with low eye socle, wide convex genal field and narrow^ border defined by shallow but distinct border furrow; genal spine c. 0.4 of cheek length to genal angle. Internal mould showing doublure on cephalon covered with prominent comarginal terrace lines; anteriorly doublure expands in length to be as long as frontal area medially, indicating a median suture and presumably conterminent hypostome. Al- though the hypostome is preserved beneath the glabella it is dislodged posteriorly away from the glabellar anterior and the only comment possible is its length of 60% of cranidial length. Thorax of 13 segments; articulating halfring extremely short providing virtually no angle for enrollment. Pleurae with extremely short propleural band and extremely long gently rising Fig. 7. Cermatops thalastus sp. nov. A-D from lx)c. 9; E-I, K from Loc. 4: J from Loc. 8. A, internal mould of iibrigena, GST14409, x5. B, latex cast of large librigena with a thoracic segment preserved beneath and pressed through the exoskelelon GST144I0, x2. C. D. latex cast and internal mould of anterior cranidial fragment GST1441 1, x2.5. E, internal mould of damaged cranidium GST14412, x2. F. latex cast of pygidial fragment GST14413, x3. G, internal mould of pygidium GST14414. x3. H, internal mould of damaged pygidium GST14415, x2. 1, latex cast of juvenile pygidium GST14416, x6. J, latex cast of incomplete articulated specimen GST14417, x4. K, latex cast of incomplete articulated specimen GST14418, x3. 472 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Fig. 8. Asiocephalus lattosuggnmdus sp. nov. A,B, latex cast and internal mould of articulated specimen from Loc. 1, GSTI4419, x3. C, interna! mould of articulated specimen without librigenae from Loc. 2, GST14420, x3. postpleural band. A second transverse furrow runs along the posterior margin to the articulat- ing line; pleural furrow deepest in articulating line close to anterior margin, then curving posteriorly on free pleura to posterior half of pleura and finishing at spinose retral termina- tion; articulating facet not developed as anterior part of free pleura is raised and bears 4-6 fine but distinct ridges parallel to the anterior margin. Exsagittal terrace lines on doublure of free pleurae. Pygidium semicircular, with axis of 6 rings plus terminus and low postaxial ridge running into posterior border furrow. Pleural area of 6-7 segments each with pleural, interpleural and posterior marginal furrows extending to para- doublural line then petering out distally before reaching margin. Anterolateral corner rounded, with small downsloping articulating facet. Bor- der furrow wide and shallow; border narrow, poorly defined. Doublure wide, bearing promi- nent comarginai terrace lines. Remarks The two articulated specimens are distorted in opposite directions so making it difficult to be certain of original dimensions. ii. UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 473 Generic assigment is based on the large multi- segmented pygidium, along with cephalic fea- tures of the Hedinaspis Troeddson, 1951- Asiocephalus group. This is essentially the dif- ferential diagnosis given by Palmer (1968:83). The Alaskan type species is distinguished by its shorter wider frontal area, transverse eye ridges, well-impressed occipital furrow, more prominent preocciptal node and narrower pygidial doublure. A. sulcata Lisogor,1970 is difficult to interpret because, two cranidia as- signed there (Apollonov & Chugaeva, 1983, pi. 10, figs 2,3) are identical with the Tasmanian species and are distinct from the cranidium of similar size figured earlier by Lisogor (1977, pi. 30, fig. 22) which represents sulcata as originally proposed (Lisogor, 1970). Therefore, we remove those two cranidia to our new species. The attitude of the eye ridges is distinc- tive in available material. Although adult pygidia associated with the known heads are not available we anticipate that they will have 6 or more axial rings and a wide doublure. Family OLENIDAE Burmeister, 1843 Olenus Dalman, 1827 Type Species Entomostracites gibbosus Wahlenberg, 1821. Olenus apoxysomatus sp. nov. (Fig. 9) Etymology Greek apoxys, tapering; somatos, body; refer- ring to strongly tapering thoracic pleurae (less spine) posteriorly through thorax. Material Holotype GST14427 from Loc. 1. Paratypes GST14421, 14423, 14425, 14428, from Loc. 1, and GST14422, 14424, 14426, 14429-14431 from Loc. 7. Diagnosis Moderately sized palpebral lobe; genal spine continuous with lateral margin; inner spine angle right angled. Thoracic of 20 segments, with axial spines, with long pleural spines becoming gradually longer to about segment 12 corre- sponding to a narrowing of the pleurae. Pygidium extremely small, transverse. Description Largest available cranidium with basal glabel- lar width of 4 mm. Exoskeleton flat, except for raised convex axis and tall axial spines standing above it. Entire surface smooth. Cranidium about as wide across palpebral lobes as long, gently convex but with anterior of glabella descending steeply. Glabella parallel sided to extremely gently tapering with bluntly rounded anterior. SI deep, chevron shaped, not continuous across axis, at slightly lower angle to axial furrow than S2 which is more transverse, as wide as SI; S3 narrower, still more transverse, not reaching axial furrow. LO of uniform length, with short geniculate median spine. Preglabellar field short (c. 20% of basal glabellar width); anterior border flat to gently convex near margin, strongly upturned, slightly elongate medially. Palpebral lobes of moderate length (c. 40% of basal glabellar width), elevated, kidney-shaped, convex, defined by shallow palpebral furrow situated only half glabellar width from glabella; eye ridge distinct, transverse, running laterally from axial furrow at level of S3. Preocular facial suture exsagittal, straight to gently convex laterally, curving adaxially near border to traverse border at extremely low angle and cross the margin near the midline; postocular suture running posterolaterally at c. 45% in slight curve to define a large triangular posterolateral limb. Posterior border furrow deep and short; posterior border short, convex, with sinuous curve to posterior in articulating line (i.e, exsagittally be- hind the eye), then gentle curve forward distally. Librigenae yoked, with low eye socle, wide genal field bearing well-developed caecal net- work; border furrow well- impressed just inside the inner edge of doublure; border narrow, flat to gently convex near margin, upturned; doublure with distinct terrace lines, elongate anteromedially over a glabellar width; genal spine slightly advanced, almost maintaining curve of margin, just directed a little laterally, 1.5 times length of rest of librigena, with border furrow extending a little way down dorsal sur- face of spine; angle between genal spine and posterior border 90-100°; facial suture reaching posterior margin a considerable distance from the genal spine. Thorax of 20 segments; each axial ring with prominent geniculate median spine. Pleurae nar- row, each about as wide as axis, becoming markedly narrower to posterior; pleural spine long, longer than pleura of same segment, be- coming progressively longer back to about seg- 474 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM ment 12, then progressively shorter to posterior, emanating from propleural band; well-im- pressed pleural furrow near anterior of segment throughout, running onto base of the spine laterally. Articulating facet short, wide. Pygidium tiny, transverse, with indistinctly segmented axis reaching posterior margin, no segmentation on pleurae, no border defined. Remarks This species is most simply distinguished by the strong taper of the thorax of 20 segments. Perhaps most similar is O. attenuatus (Boeck) (Westergard, 1922, pl.4, figs 15-19, pl.5. figs 1-9) which has 15 or 16 thoracic segments, spinose pleural tips and almost identical cephalon but that species has a relatively large pygidium. O. wahlenbergi Westergard, 1922 is similarly distinguished. Librigenae are interpreted as being yoked (Fig.9G) although one specimen (Fig.9E,F) sug- gests a median furrow. This is not the case though, because the fracture is to the right of the elongate part of the doublure indicating that it is not symmetrical. Chekiangaspis Lu in Chien, 1961 Type Species Chekiangaspis chekiangensis Lu in Chien, 1961 from the Late Cambrian, Sandu Shale, Yangiawen, Guizhou. Remarks Lu (in Chien, 1961) likened this genus to Olenus Dalman and Leptoplastus Angelin so it is difficult to understand why it was referred to the Agraulidae unless because of his comparison with Acrocephalina. However, that genus was originally and subsequently placed in the Solcnopleuridae, We agree with the comparison with the olenid genera mentioned and also with Parabolina. It differs from these genera prin- cipally in containing forms with diverging preocular facial sutures curving strongly across border area (Lu & Lin, 1989). Distinctive fea- tures of Chekiangaspis are found in various olenid species of Scandinavia, such as the long occipital spine in Parabolina mobergi Westergard, 1922, P. megalops Moberg & Moller, 1898 (Westergard, 1944); the advanced genal spine of most species of Leptoplastus; the excavated anterior margin as in L. norvegicus Holtedahl, 1910 or L. ovatus Angelin (Westergard, 1922, pi. 8. fig. 18); the triangular pygidium of many Leptoplastus; and the 12 thoracic segments of most of these olenid genera. However, no other olenid has the combination of features exhibitied by Chekiangaspis. Assign- ment of the Tasmanian species extends its dis- tribution considerably and although this species cannot be considered truly typical because it lacks the furrows running forward from anterolateral corners of glabella its correspon- dence in all other features makes this slight ex- tension of the generic concept necessary. Chekiangaspis concavus sp. nov. (Fig. 10) Etymology Latin concavus, arched concave; referring to anterior margin. Material Holotype GST14432; paratypes GST14433- 14437 all from Loc. 5. Diagnosis Pair of broad shallow depressions rather than distinct furrow running forward from anterolateral corners of glabella to anterior mar- gin. Anterior margin of cephalon strongly con- cave, posterolateral limb wide and short. Short palpebral lobe opposite S2. Thorax of 12 seg- ments, each with median tubercle and 8th seg- ment bearing long subhorizontal spine extending well beyond posterior of pygidium; pleural tips truncated, nonspinose. Pygidium subtriangular, transverse, with 3 axial rings plus terminus that reaches close to posterior margin. Description Moderately sized, wide, strongly convex in Fig. 9. Olenus apoxysomatus sp. now A, C, E, F, H. I, K from Loc. 1; B, D, G. J.L, M from Loc. 7. A, internal mould of articulated juvenile specimen GST1442L xlO. B-D, latex casts of series of o( small cranidium of increasing size GST14422, 14423. 14424, x7, x6, x6, respectively. E. F. latex cast and internal mould of librigenae GST14425, x6 and x5, respectively. G. internal mould of hypostome and rostral plate and external mould of librigena GST14426, x8. H, K, latex cast and internal mould of articulated holotype without librigenae GST14427, x9. I,J,L,M, latex casts of articulated specimens GST 14428-1 443 1 , x5, x5, x7, x4, respectively. UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 475 476 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Fig. 10. Chekiangaspis concavus sp. nov. from Loc. 5. A, damaged internal mould of holotype cranidium GST14432, x5. B, internal mould of damaged librigena GST14433, x5. C, latex cast of thoracic fragment GST14434, x6. D, internal cast of damaged pygidium and thoracic rear GST14435, x6. E, latex cast of damaged articulated specimen GST14436, x4. F,G, latex cast and internal mould of articulated thorax and pygidium GST14437, x3. anterior profile; axis with near vertical median spine stands above gently convex pleural areas. Cranidium wider across eyes than long. Glabella occupying large part of cranidium, straight to gently convex sides tapering gently forward to truncated anterior, with subangular corners; 3 pairs of lateral furrow, all discontinuous across axis and S3 barely more than a pit isolated from axial furrow. SO well-impressed, longer and deeper laterally; occipital ring with long median spine more than half glabellar length. Frontal area 16-20% of cephalic length, with flat anteriorly descending preglabellar field leading to border furrow; border strongly upturned, longest medially; anterior margin concave, markedly so in one specimen (Fig. lOA). Pal- pebral lobe short, raised, oblique, opposite S2 on glabella; eye line distinct, leaving axial furrow UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 477 forward of S3, running obliquely back to pal- pebral lobe; interocular cheeks 1/3 basal glabel- lar width. Preocular parts of facial suture diverging forward, convex laterally, curving adaxially anteriorly in broad arc; postocular sec- tion of facial suture concave just behind eye then running laterally at low angle to transverse and swinging sharply to margin distally to isolate large, wide posterolateral limb. Posterior border furrow well-impressed, shallowing distally; posterior border short, transverse to articulating line behind eye then curving sinuously back and forward in broad curve to facial suture. Surface of frontal area and fixed cheek with caecal net- work. Librigena wide, with advanced stout genal spine tapering strongly and extending laterally to disturb curve of margin. Thorax of 12 segments, of uniform width to about 8th segment then tapering back; axial rings with short halfring but long articulating furrow, with short vertical median spine on each of first 7 segments, large geniculate spine on 8th extend- ing back well beyond rear of pygidium and prominent tubercle on suceeding segments. Pleurae wide, with only 12th pleura equal to width of axis, anterior and posterior margins parallel throughout but extremity of segments 1-8 swung forward. Pleural furrow sharply im- presssed, running diagonally across pleura. Ar- ticulating facet wide and short. Pleural tips truncated, together forming smooth lateral mar- gin. Pygidium transverse to elongate triangular, with 3 axial segments and terminus reaching posterior margin; pleural areas poorly seg- mented; border indistinct; doublure narrow. Remarks This species is distinguished from C. chekian- gensis by its lack of distinct furrows forward from the glabella, more divergent preocular fa- cial sutures and wider posterolateral limbs. The few specimens available make complete under- standing uncertain but sufficient to make generic assignment and identify a new species. Wujiajiania Lu & Lin, 1980 Type Species Wujiajiania expansa Lu & Lin, 1980 from the Siyangshan Formation, late Changshanian - early Fengshanian, in western Zhejiang. Remarks This genus was distinguished from Wester- gaardites Troedsson, 1937 by its 16 rather than 1 9 thoracic segments, its narrower axis, and lack of marginal pygidial spines (Lu & Lin, 1989). The Tasmanian species fits with Wujiajiania on these features except for the number of thoracic segments which is closer to Wujiajiania than Westergaardites. In all respects, the Tasmanian W. distorta sp. nov. may be considered ancestral to W. expansa Lu & Lin, 1980 which in turn may be considered ancestral to Westergaardites. An ancestor for W. distorta is probably to be found within Paraholina where 12 thoracic segments is standard. This lineage may, therefore, be seen as being accompanied by an increase in number of thoracic segments. Cephalic features of the Tasmanian species are indistinguishable from those of W. expansa and so the diagnosis of Wujiajiania is amended to include a range in the number of thoracic segments. Wujiajiania distorta sp. nov. (Figs 11,12) Etymology Latin distorta, misshapen, deformed; referring to the ubiquitous tectonic deformation. Material Holotvpe GST 14442 from Loc. 9. Paratypes GST14440 from Loc. 2, GST14438, 14441, 14443, 14456 from Loc. 3, and GST14439, 14444-14455, 14457-14459 from Loc. 9. Diagnosis Glabella wide, with convex lateral margins and broadly rounded anterior. Thorax of 13 seg- ments. Pygidium transverse; axis of 3 rings plus terminus extending to gently excavated posterior margin. Description Exoskeleton gently convex in anterior view, up to 23 mm long in available sample, with smooth surface. Cranidium occupied mainly by large glabella. Glabella slightly wider than long; lateral margins convex (almost parallel-sided in some smaller specimens but this may be due to tectonic distortion), greatest width adjacent to lateral end of S2, with broadly rounded to trun- cated anterior at border furrow; SO well-im- pressed, transverse or curving forward laterally, SI and S2 slit-like, chevron-shaped, continuous across axis, S3 slit-Hke, parallel to S2 but iso- lated from axial furrow and extremely shallow across axis; LO longer laterally than medially, 478 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM with prominent median tubercle. Anterior border uniformly short, upturned; anterior border fur- row well-impressed. Prominent eye ridge run- ning a short distance posterolaterally into short upturned curved palpebral lobe well-defined by palpebral furrow that extends axially behind eye line. Fixigena narrow anteriorly, widening be- hind palpebral lobe into triangular posterolateral limb. Facial suture diverging forward in short preocular section; postocular section running al- most in a straight line posterolaterally at c.45° to exsagittal to posterior margin; posterior border angularly convex, with wide posterior facet beyond lateral articulating point which is less than the axial width away from axial furrow. Librigenae yoked by short doublure, with well- developed caecal network, low eye socle; border subrounded in section, with distinct comarginal terrace lines laterally; genal spine continuing lateral margin in exsagittal line, longer than cheek itself, with prominent longitudinal terrace lines dorsally and ventrally; narrow lateral and anterior doublure bearing terrace lines; facial suture meeting posterior margin well inside genal angle. Hypostome olenid, conterminent. Thorax of 13 segments; axis extremely wide anteriorly, tapering strongly to posterior, with median spine on each segment situated near the anterior of ring and curving backwards as it rises; articulating halfring large, occupying half seg- mented length. Pleura with articulating line /3 pleural width from axial furrow; propleural band extremely short at axial furrow, longer at lateral articulating point then of uniform length behind long wide steeply sloping articulating facet, with posteriorly curving pleural spine; pleural furrow deeply impressed in articulating line in mid- length of segment, running to lateral margin just behind pleural spine; poslpleural band long at axial furrow tapering strongly to articulating line then of uniform length to tip. Pygidium transverse; axis of 3 rings plus ter- minus reaching posterior margin medially at small distinct excavation in margin; pleural and interpleural furrows impressed; border furrow poorly defined, not depressed, poorly defining narrow border; doublure of moderate width, nar- rowing posteromedially, bearing distinct comar- ginal terrace lines; margin without spines. Remarks This species is most simply distinguished from Chinese (Lu & Lin, 1989; Chicn, 1961, Lin & Zhang in Zhu et ai 1979) by the number of thoracic segments. In the absence of articulated specimens, cranidia may be extremely difficult to separate if preserved in different matrix or if distorted after deposition. Only greater lateral inflation of the glabella and S4 in Chinese forms give a distinction but even these are not entirely reliable. Nevertheless, the number of thoracic segments, which is consistent through the 15 articulated Tasmanian individuals and through the available Chinese material is sufficient to distinguish species. Family PTEROCEPHALIIDAE Kobayashi, 1935 Aphelaspis Resser, 1935 Type Species Aphelaspis walcotti Resser, 1938. Discussion Palmer ( 1 960, 1 962, 1 965), Henderson ( 1 976); Shergold (1982), Jell in Powell et al. (1982) and Jago (1987) have commented on this genus. Aphelaspis sp. (Fig. 13A-E) Material GST14461, 14463 from Loc. 5, GST14461, 14462 from Loc. 9. Description Glabella with straight anteriorly converging sides, truncated anteriorly, angular anterolateral corners, without furrows. Preglabellar field con- vex, 15% of cranidial length. Anterior border, long, 19% of cranidial length, flat, tapering laterally. Palpebral lobes arcuate, long (30% of cephalic length), with their midlength opposite Fig. 11. Wujiajiania distortus sp. nov. A, D, F from Loc. 3. B, E, G-K from Loc. 9. C from Loc. 2. A, B, internal moulds of cranidia GST14438 and 14439, x8. C, latex cast of articulated specimen GST14440, x3. D, latex cast of hypostome and ventral surface of rostral plate and genal spines GST1444L x 10. E, internal mould of articulated holotype GST14442, x8. F, internal mould of articulated specimen GST14443, x6. G, internal mould of pygidium GST14444, x 10. H, latex cast of pygidium GSTI4445. xlO. 1. latex cast of three articulated specimens of different sizes GST14446— 1 4448. x3. J. internal mould of two articulated specimens GST14449 and 14450, x2.5. K, internal mould of two articulated specimens GST14451 and 14452, x2. UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 479 480 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Fig. 12. Wujiajianiadistortus sp. nov.D from Loc. 3 others from Loc. 9. A-C, latex casts of articulated specimens GST14453-14455, xlO. D, internal mould of articulated specimen GST14456, x6. E, latex’cast of damaged specimen GST14457, x5. F, internal mould of articulated specimen GST14458, x4. G, latex cast of articulated specimen GST14459, x9. UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 481 I F midlength of glabella, flattened on top but raised above interocular cheek. Facial suture with preocular part diverging strongly forward to midlength of border where it turns in a sharp angle to run at extremely low angle to margin; postocular part parallel to posterior margin for most of its course. Librigena with distinct eye socle, wide genal field, moderately wide convex doublure, strong genal spine curving adaxiaily. Pygidium small, transverse, highly convex; axis of 3 rings plus terminus that reaches ex- cavated posterior margin. Three inflated pleural bands descending to margin almost vertically; doublure convex, narrow, almost vertical. In posterior profile margin strongly upswept over sagittal line. Remarks This rare species is not fully exhibited in avail- able material but the unfurrowed, straight sided, tapering, trancated glabella, position and size of palpebral lobes and the anterior border are suffi- cient to allow generic assignment. Aphelaspis has been identified in Australia as two named species P. australis Henderson, 1976 and A. cantori Jago, 1987. Jell (in Powell et aL, 1982) compared western NSW material to A. australis and Shergold (1982) referred 2 cranidia as well as shedding doubt on Opik’s (1963) assignment of two cranidia \o Aphelaspis. Each of these Australian laxa may be separated from the form described here by the long, flat, tapering anterior border of our specimens. It may be allied with North American species such as A. haquei Hall & Whitfield, 1877 (Palmer, 1965) but al- though that species could not be separated except on the pygidium, our available material is too poor to make specific assignment. This taxon is similar to Olentella Ivshin, 1955 but at present no clear diagnoses exist to distin- guish the two genera. Olentella occurs in Kazakhstan, northern Siberia and Antarctica (Shergold et al., 1976) in late Idamean and post- Idamcan strata. The long flat anterior border, relatively longer palpebral lobes and course of the facial suture forward of the eye are the fea- tures we use to apply the generic name. Unless satisfactory discrimination can be achieved be- tween Aphelaspis, Olentella and several other similar genera there may be no point in maintain- ing the separate names now being employed without clear diagnosis of any of them. In our opinion the best comparisons are made with species currently assigned to Aphelaspis al- though it is acknowledged that no species of that genus has a pygidium quite like the one at- tributed here. No species of Olentella has been attributed such a pygidium either but pygidia attributed to each of these genera are remarkably similar (cf. Palmer, 1965, pl.9, fig.21 and Sher- gold and Cooper, 1985, fig.6L). Family CONOKEPHALINIDAE Hupe, 1953 Conokephalinidae indet. (Fig. 13G-J) Material GST 14465- 14469 from Loc. 9. Description Large cranidium (Fig. 13H). Glabella pyriform, anteriorly truncated at border furrow but with rounded anterolateral corners; SI run- ning a short distance from axial furrow before bifurcating into barely visible transverse anterior branch and deep posterior branch apparently reaching occipital furrow at high angle to transverse; S2 narrower, well- impressed, curv- ing slightly backwards adaxiaily. Anterior bor- der convex, elongate posteriorly in medial section. Palpebral lobe long (2/3 glabella) and narrow, convex, arcuate, situated close to glabel- la; palpebral furrow deep and broad; interocular cheek narrow, inllated. Preocular facial suture diverging forward from anterior of palpebral lobe just lateral to axial furrow, curving adaxiai- ly across anterior border and almost parallel to margin for considerable distance. Smaller cranidia (Fig. 13G,1,J). These two cranidia have more rectangular glabellae, glabel- lar furrows less distinct, anterior border not medially elongate, long geniculate occipital spine, and short wide posterolateral limb. In the large cranidium a piece of exoskeleton probably a thoracic segment lies beneath the anterior of the glabella and has been pressed through the cranidium during compaction. Remarks These cranidia are assigned to one taxon on the basis of the palpebral lobe and long truncated glabella but their assignment is by no means certain with the few internal moulds available. It is taken into consideration that internal moulds show a different morphology from external sur- face and the concept of this taxon could be different when its exterior is known. Therefore, 482 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Fig. 13. A-E, Aphelaspis sp. A,C from Loc.9, B,D,E from Loc. 5. A-C, latex casts of cranidial fragments ' GST 14460-1 4462, x6, x7 and x4, respectively. D,E. posterior and dorsal views of internal mould of pygidium GST 14463, xlO. V , Aposolenopleura sp. latex cast of distorted cranidium from Loc. 9, GST 14464, x20. G-J, Conokephalinidae indet. all from Loc. 9. G,I,J, internal moulds of small cranidial fragments GST14465, 14468, 14469, xlO. H, internal mould of larger cranidium and ventral surface of librigena GST14466, 14467, x3. only features considered unlikely to be sig- nificantly different are used in this discussion. Assignment is made to the Conokephalinidae on the basis of the pyriform glabella and pal- pebral structure. They may be compared to Lobocephalina pyriceps Opik, 1967 from the early Late Cambrian of western Queensland but differ principally in the long occipital spine. Opik (1967:247) considered this family and the Saukiidae as having common ancestry. The laterally bulging glabella of this taxon (not apparent in juvenile specimens (Fig. 131) but beginning to appear in others (Fig. I3J)) is evi- dent in many Dikelocephaloidea and Remoplcuroidea (Fortey & Chattcrton, 1988 as well as Idahoiidae (Ludvigsen & Weslrop, 1983, pi. 7, fig. 7 among others). If the librigena (Fig. 13H) with long forward extension of doublure is correctly assigned, a median furrow is a distinct possibility raising the question of whether or not one or more of the groups assigned to the Asaphida by Fortey (1990) may have had a separate origin via the Conokephalinidae. This suggestion would accommodate glabellar shape, UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES FROM TASMANIA 483 palpebral structure in the transition to Remopieuroidea better than the suggested route via the Auritamidae Opik, 1967 (Fortey & Chat- terton, 1 988) but the spinose pygidia of Auritama may have been more easily transformed into a kainellid pygidium. Certainly the long flat bor- der, palpebral lobes well away from axis and more rounded straight sided glabella of Auritama speak against its possible ancestral position relative to Remopieuroidea and Dikelocephaloidea. In passing there seems no good reason to separate the Ryssometopoidea of Opik (1967) from the Conokephalinidae except perhaps in terms of rostral structure but this remains unclear for both groups. The shape and depth of SI suggest similarity with Lorettina Shergold, 1972 but preglabellar structure, glabellar shape and palpebral structure argue against a relationship. Family Unassigned Aposolenopleura Raymond, 1937 Type Species Aposolenopleura dunbari Raymond, 1937 from the Gorge Formation at Highgate Falls, Vermont. Discussion The Chinese Onchonotina Lu, 1964 is here considered synonymous with Aposolenopleura, in particular because of the course of the facial suture across the anterior border being so oblique as to leave, on the cranidium, a border that is sharply pointed at each end and is little wider than the glabella. Aposolenopleura sp. (Fig. 13F) Material One incomplete external mould of a cephalon, GST14464 from Loc. 9. Description Highly convex cranidium with deep axial fur- row; glabella anteriorly rounded, reaching bor- der furrow; SI shallow, oblique; S2, S3 etc not impressed; SO well-impressed, transverse. Anterior border tapering laterally to be absent from cranidium before reaching facial suture; border furrow shallow, concave forward, Fixigena c.1/2 glabellar width. Palpebral lobe and other features unknown. Remarks The features of the anterior border furrow and border suggest Aposolenopleura but in the ab- sence of belter material it is not possible to make comparison with the North American species (Rasetti, 1944), Although several small Chinese genera have similar anterior borders (e.g. some Solenoparia, Solenopleura, Trachoparia and others (Lu et al., 1965)) none have it disappear- ing from the cranidium as \n Aposolenopleura. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Mike Clarke, Tasmanian Department of Mines, for facilitating this project in the early stages. We thank John Shergold, Bureau of Mineral Resources, for many con- structive comments on the paper. NCH acknow- ledges the NERC Postgraduate Research Fellowship during tenure of which this project was carried out. LITERATURE CITED APOLLONOV, M.K. AND CHUGAEVA, M.N. 1983. Some trilobites from the Cambrian-Or- dovician boundary, Balyrbaisai Valley, Maly Karatau. 66-90. In Apollonov, M.K., Ban- deletov, S.M., and Ivshin, N.K. 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WEBBY, B.D., WANG, QIZHENG AND MILLS, K.J. 1988. Upper Cambrian and basal Or- dovician trilobites from western New South Wales. Palaeontology 31 : 905-938. WESTERGArD, A.H. 1922. Sveriges Olenidskiffer. Sver. geol. Unders, Afh. Cal8: 1-188. 1944. Borrningar genom skSnes Alunskiffer 1941- 1942. Sveriges Geol. Unders. Avh. och Upps. ser. C, Arsbok 38(1): 1-45. ZHU, ZHAOLING, LING HUANLING, AND CHANG ZHIHENG 1979. Trilobites. 81-116. In ‘Atlas of the palaeontology of Qinghai.’ (Geological Publishing House: Beijing). NEW DISTRIBUTION RECORDS FOR ANTECHfNUS GODMAN! (THOMAS), A RESTRICTED RAINFOREST ENDEMIC K.R. MCDONALD McDonald, K.R. 1991 08 01: New distribution records for Antechinus godmani (Thomas), a restricted rainforest endemic. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 487-491. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. Antechinus godmanU a restricted rainforest endemic of the wet tropics of Queensland, is recorded from locations up to 55km south of the previously known range. The 36 specimens collected in the Kirrama and Cardwell Ranges are no larger in size than those from other \oc^\[X\^s. Antechinus godmani, distribution, biology. K.R. McDonald, Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service, Pallarenda, Townsville, Queensland 4810; 12 May, 1991. The Atherton Antechinus (A. godmani) was used to define the focal point for the Atherton Subregion, as determined by non-volant mam- mals, in the wet tropics region of Queensland (Winter et al., 1 984). Its distribution had a north- south dimension of c. 60km (Van Dyck, 1982; Laurance, 1990). Its documented northern and southern limits had no obvious habitat or topographical restrictions and W'inter et al. (1984), suggested the known range was probably an artefact of inadequate searching techniques. A. godmani is an upland species with an al- titudinal minimum of 600m (Laurance, 1 990); its distribution should be restricted by major low altitude features such as the Herbert River. This paper reports a southern range extension and suggests probable geomorphic limits to the range of the Atherton Antechinus. METHODS During fauna surveys of the southern Wet Tropics Biogeographic Region, several sites were searched for terrestrial vertebrates. The work was done to fill in known gaps between collection sites. Surveys were carried out in June and July, 1989, and January, 1990. Elliot type A traps were baited with PAL dog food (beef) mixed with bran to absorb excess moisture or rolled oats and peanut paste, the latter to specifically target Melomys cervinipes. Break-back rat-traps were baited with salami. Traps were placed 7-lOm apart along old log- ging roads, partly grown-over with vegetation, beside recently used logging roads and along paths cut through the rainforest understory. Traps were set beside logs, trees or in the open. Specimens are deposited in the Queensland Museum and the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service, Townsville. Measurements follow Van Dyck (1982). TRAPPING RESULTS AND NEW RECORDS Thirty-six A. godmani were captured at ten sites in the Cardwell and Kirrama Ranges at altitudes of 760-1000m (Table 1). Locations have a geology of undifferentiated Permo-Car- boniferous granite or rhyolites of the Glen Gor- don Volcanics supporting vegetation types of simple notophyll and complex mesophyll vine forests on gentle (<5°) slopes (Table 1). The mesophyll vine forests were mainly on slopes of <1°. All areas except two had been logged, the most recent being 1 986/87 when logging ceased. Rainfall would be similar to Koombooloomba c.50km to the north, which, at 720m, has median annual rainfall of 2760mm. Other small ground mammals captured in adjacent traps were An- techinus stuartii, Rat (us fuscipesUeucopus and in the same irapline, Melomys cervinipes. The 31 trap locations where A. godmani was captured were in the following positions: 1 1 base of tree; 10 near logs; 7 in the open; 1 near a stump; 1 in thick fern area; 1 near a tree and log. Released A. godmani ran into holes at the bases of trees, hollows in trees, logs or log piles. Large epiphytes were not a feature of the forest. Other sites, trapped without success, were areas of lower altitude but of the same geology and vegetation; of a similar vegetation, geology, and altitude, but with rain at the time of trapping; or areas which had the same vegetation and geology but had a windswept easterly aspect. Additional trapping sites within the northern 488 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG 1 . Antechinus godmani collection sites (stars) and other sites (squares) where trapping was carried out on the Kirrama and Cardwell Range and the Seaview Range. The 800m contour (solid lines) and rainforest (dashed line) are shown. The most southern previously recorded location near Koombooloomba Dam is shown as a +. Numbers refer to sites in Table 1. granite areas of Bryce-Henry and Macks Log- ging Areas where A. godmani was collected in July were trapped without success (Table 1). Locations on the Seaview Range in the Mt Fox/Wallaman Falls area, south of the Herbert Valley were trapped in late February, 1990. This survey extends the range of A. godmani c.55km from the previous southern limit which was Koombooloomba Dam (Van Dyck, 1982; Laurance,1990). Preferred habitat appears to be rainforests at high altitudes on the Atherton Tableland and the Kirrama and Cardwell Range in the Atherton Uplands block of Winter et al. (1984). A skull now in the Queensland Museum NEW DISTRIBUTION RECORDS FOR ANTECHINUS GODMANI 489 Site Latitude ±5" Longitude ±5" Altitude (m) Geology* Vegeta tion^ A.g. A.s. A.f. R.spp Umys Mel Year Loesed 1 18°0r50" 145°36’50" 980-1000 UG 8/9 X X X X Unloeeed -) 18°02’12" 145°36'43" 880-900 - 8 X X X 1987 3 18°02’27’' I45°36’47'' 880-900 8 1986/87 4 18°02‘55" I45°36'20" 760-780 8 X X X X 1986/87 5 Il°03*07'' 145^36 '18*' 760-780 8 X X 1986/87 6 18°03’58" 145“36'00" 760-780 8 X X X 1986/87 7 18°03*58" 145°36’44'’ 660-680 8 X X X 1965/69 8 18°04'37" I45°37'37" 720-740 8 X X 1965/69 9 18W57" I45°37’24" 740-760 8 X X X 1965/69 10 I8°05'42’' I45°37’52’’ 780-800 (« 8 1960/64 1 1 18°06'18'' I45°38'27" 640-660 (( 2a X X 1960/64 12 18WI4" I45°4r22" 620-640 2a X X X 1970/74 13 18°10*25'' 145°4r58" 640-660 6 X X 1980/84 14 18°12‘I2” 145“49'26" 580-600 “ 2a X X unloeeed 15 18°i2‘20" I45°46'50'* 820-880 “ 9 X 1980/84 16 18°13'05’' 145'’47’25‘’ 800-820 “ 2a X X 1976 17 18°14’10" I45°47’45" 880-900 GG 8 X X X X 1960/62 18 I8°15'17" 145°47’58" 840-860 8 X X X X 1958/62 19 18°15'18" 145°47'55'’ 880-890 8 X X X 1958/62 20 18°15’13" 145”48’05" 880-900 8 X X X X 1958/62 21 18°15’20’' 145“48'20" 880-900 8 X X X 1958/62 22 18°16’50" 145®48’35" 800-820 8 X X 1967 23 I8°16’58" 145''52'35" 80-120 UG la X X unloeeed 24 18°17’55" 145^48’50*^ 800-820 2a X X X unloeeed 25 18°23’42'’ 145°56’56" 80-100 2a X X unloeeed 26 18°25'15'’ 145^56*37*' 40-60 AL la X X X pre 1954 27 18°3r25" 145°45'50" 560-580 8 X 1970/74 28 18°35’03" 145°47'13" 540-560 “ 2a X X unloefied 29 18°36’15" !45"49’20" 580-600 GG 8 X X 1970/74 30 18°36'25" 145M9’45" 620-640 8 X 1970/74 31 18°39’30'’ I45°52’17" 600-620 8 X 1965/69 de Keyser et al. (1965), Richards (1980). 2. Tracey and Webb (1975), Tracey (1982). Numbers are those used by Tracey and Webb (1975). UG = Undifferentiated granites. GG = Glen Gordon Volcanics. AL = Alluvium. Ag = Antechinus godmani. As = Aniechinus stuanii. Af ^ Antechinus flavipes. R..spp = Rattus spp. Umys = Uromys candimaculatus. Mel - Melomys cervinipes. TABLE 1. Location, altitude, geology, vegetation and year logged for small rainforest mammals collected on the Kirrama and Cardwell Range in 1989 and the Seaview Range in 1990. All sites are within State Forests except for 24, 25, and 28 which are in National Parks. (JM6687) is an A. godmani collected from State Forest 185 near Tinaroo Dam in Septem- ber, 1 969. One specimen has been collected from Mt Bellenden Ker (J.W. Winter, pers. comm.). In light of these records, it seems reasonable to expect that, A. godmani would be on the Lamb Range on the northern end of the uplands. The species is more widely distributed than original- ly thought (Van Dyck, 1982; Laurance, 1990).A. godmani should be rated ‘rare’ according to the criteria in Thomas and McDonald (1989). It should not be rated endangered or vulnerable as there is no known threat to its habitat. The species is confined to pockets of upland, rain- forest habitat and appears not to have a con- 490 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Sex Mean SD Ranee N HB 9 122.33 5.3 112-130 12 c? 136.88 7.84 120-150 17 TL 9 97.83 5.49 88-106 12 c? 115.94 8.03 100-127 17 Ear 9 19.5 0.82 18-21 12 3 20.82 1.74 19-25 17 Pes (s.u.) 9 19.92 1.36 18-22 12 c? 21.76 1.35 19-24 17 Weight 9 57.9 53-73 8 6 90.0 81-101 5 TABLE 2. Measurements (in mm) of head-body (HB), tail (TL), ear, pes and weight (gm) of A. godmani from the Kirrama/Cardwell Range. tinuous distribution throughout the Atherton Upland block. A. godmani has been collected at 600m on the Atherton Tablelands (Laurance,1990) and 1500m on Mt Bellenden Ker (J.W. Winter, pers. comm.). The species is found at 760-1 000m on the. Kirrama Range (Table 1). Geology of the areas in the collection localities of A. godmani range through Permo-Carboniferous rhyolites and granites and Pleistocene basalts. The species does not appear to favour any geological type. The animal has been trapped in simple and complex notophyll vine forest, mesophyll vine forest and simple microphyll vine-fern forest (Table 1; Van Dyck, 1982; J.W. Winter, pers. comm.). The species occurs in all the dominant rainforest types in the Atherton Upland block as defined by Tracey and Webb (1975). A. godmani does not appear to be eliminated by selection logging. Locations in which the animals were found on the Kirrama Range were logged 2-30 years prior to the trapping pro- gramme (Table 1). The species has been found in Yamanie and Bellenden Ker National Parks. All other areas have been in State Forest. All locations are within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. MEASUREMENTS (Table 2) Eight females with developing or well developed pouches (HB 117-127mm) had weights from 53-73gm, mean 57.9gm. A female with six pouch young weighed 56gm. REPRODUCTIVE CONDITION Of four females caught in June 1989 only one showed pouch development. In July, all eight females caught, had developing (four) or well- developed pouches with one caught on 14 July having six young (crown rump length 6.1mm). All males, except for one, were caught in June. An internal examination of three females with well-developed pouches showed embryos in the uterus. Females had unequal embryos develop- ing in each uterine horn and totals greater than the number of teats (Table 3). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dr Ross Hynes supervised the fauna survey. Jeanette Covacevich and Dr J.W. Winter read the manuscript and gave helpful advice. Stephen Specimen No Uterine horn Pouch condition L R N36711 3 7 well-developed N36714 5 -> well-developed N36661 5 2 well-developed TABLE 3. Embryo number in each uterine horn for three female A. godmani in July 1989. Van Dyck assisted in identification with initial specimens and discussed his knowledge on field collection of A. godmani. Les Hawkes and staff of the Queensland Forestry Service and officers of the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service at Cardwell assisted in the field. Dr J. Miller gave advice on the embryology and Rus- sell Cumming drew the map. This assistance is gratefully acknowledged. LITERATURE CITED DE KEYSER, F., FARDON, R.S.H. AND GUT- TLER, L.G. 1965. Ingham Queensland 1:250,000 Geological Series Sheet SE/55. Ex- plan. Notes, Bur. Miner. Resour. Geol. Geophys. Aust. LAURANCE, W.F. 1990. Distributional records for two 'relict* dasyurid marsupials (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae) in north Queensland rainforest. Ausi. Mammalogy. 13: 215-218. RICHARDS, D.N.G. 1980. Palaozoic granitoids of northeastern Australia. In Henderson, R.A. and Stephenson, P.J. (eds), 'The geology and geophysics of northeastern Australia', (Geol. Soc. Aust. Qld Div.:Brisbane). THOMAS, M.B. AND MCDONALD, W.J.F. 1989. ■Rare and threatened plants of Queensland.’ 2nd ed. (Qld Dept Primary Ind.:Brisbane). NEW DISTRIBUTION RECORDS FOR ANTECHINUS GODMANI 491 TRACEY, J.G. 1982. ‘The vegetation of the humid tropical region of north Queensland’. (CSIRO: Melbourne). TRACEY, J.G. AND WEBB, L.J. 1975. ‘Vegetation of the humid tropical region of North Queensland. (15 maps at 1:100000 scale plus key.).’ (CSIRO Aust. Long Pocket Labs: In- dooroopilly). VAN DYCK, S. 1982. Status and relationships of the Atherton Antechinus, Antechinus godmani (Marsupialia:Dasyuridae). Aust. Mammalogy 5: 195-210. WINTER, J.W., BELL, F.C., PAHL, L.I. AND ATHERTON, R.G. 1984. The specific habitats of selected northeastern Australian rainforest mammals. (Unpublished Report to the World Wildlife Fund - Australia:Sydney). NEMATOTAENIID CESTODES FROM AUST- RALIAN AMPHIBIANS Memoirs of ihe Queensland Museum 30{3): 492. 1991. Hickman (1960) examined Tasmanian frogs for adult ces- lodes of the cyclophyllidean Nematotaeniidae Liihe, 1910. He described Nemaiotaenia hylae Hickman, 1960 (from Litoria ewingii and Ranidella signifera\ Cylindrotaenia crmmc(Hickman, 1960)Jones, l987(from/?. tasmaniensisU and Cylindrotaenia minor (Hickman, 1960) Jones, 1987 (from R. tasmaniensis and R. signifera). These cesiodes have been recognized (Jones, 1987) as distinct species. We examined 924 adult anurans from mainland Australia for intestinal parasites (Delvinquier and Jones, 1988). As well, we examined voucher specimens of Assa darlingtoni, Philoria loveridgei and Ranidella parinsignifera, from the Queensland Museum. Here we list the nematotaeniid ces- todes (Table 1) from all these frogs and from a specimen of Ranidella riparia (Coll. Dr. Mahoney, Australian Helmin- thological Collection. South Australian Museum; AHC 17750), and two specimens of Bufo marinus. (Coll. Dr. R. Speare). Cestodes collected by us have been deposited in the Queensland Museum (QM GL 4886-4888). Host N Cm Nh S I Loc. Mvobatrachidae y455£; darlingtoni 13 2 5 1 A Philoria loveridgei 4 1 1 1 A Limnodynastes ornatus 10 2 5 2 B,C Ranidella parinsignifera 20 7 5 2 D R. signifera 40 2 2 1 E R. riparia na 1 na na F Upcroleia rugosa 5 1 5 1 G Hvlidae Cyclorana novaehollandiae 6 2 2 1 H Litoria fallax 72 8 14 1 I L. inermis 26 6 2 1 j L. latopalmata 20 9 H L. pallida 21 5 4 K L. peronii 26 5 1 I Bufonidae Bufo marinus >767* 2 many 1 L TABLE 1. Anuran hosts of nematotaeniid cestodes from the Australian mainland. Abbreviations are : N=number of hosts examined; S^number of localities from which host was col- lected; I=number of localities in which host infected; Cm= Cylindrotaenia minor; T'fh = Nematotaenia hylae. Localities: A=Laminglon National Park, Qld; B=Road Atherton-Herber- ton, Qld; C=Seven Emu Lagoon, Qld; D=Brisbane, Qld; E= Rous, N.S.W.; F=Yudnamutana, Gammon Ranges, S.A.; G= Ban Ban, Qld; H=Road Eidsvold-Gayndah, Old; UMtNebo, Qld; J=Road Mossman-Mareeba, Old; K=:WestmoreIand Sta- tion, Qld; L=10 km north of Mundubbera, Qld. na= data not available; *- pooled data of authors and Dr R. Speare. Nematotaenia hylae is the most common nematotaeniid of Australian anurans (Table 1) occurring in water-breeding frogs and toads, which, with the exception of Cyclorana novaehollandiae and Bufo marinus. have a snoui-to-vent length of 50mm or less. Finding N. hylae in cane toads is interesting because we have examined over 260 specimens of Bufo marinus for nematotaeniid cestodes w ithout finding any adult cestodes. In his study. Dr R. Speare (pers. comm.) examined over 500 cane toads and found only two infected specimens. Nematotaenia hylae occurs in amphibians in Tasmania. South Australia and the eastern mainland slates, whereas the cane toad is restricted to Queensland, New South Wales and the Northern Territory. Members of Nemato- taenia have not been recorded from South America, where B. wflrmws originated (Jones. 1 987). Therefore, it is unlikely thalM hylae was introduced into Australia with B. marinus but rather that the native parasite has adopted the cane toad as a new host. Life-cycles of Cylindrotaenia from Africa and South America (Joyeux. 1924; Stumpf, 1982) suggest that Cyli- ndrotaenia has a one-host aquatic cycle, (i.e. adult or juvenile frogs become infected by eating ceslode eggs in water). No other information is available for nematotaeniid life cycles. The host range of Cylindrotaenia in Australian however, allows us to postulate on the life cycles of these parasites. Cylindrotaenia minor was found in two species of myobatrachid frogs (Table 1 ) which occur in isolated moun- tain forests in southern Queensland and northern New South Wales (Cogger, 1985). One species, A55a r/flWi/igro/j/, rears its young in small pouches on the flanks of the rear legs of adult males (Cogger, 1985). The other. Philoria loveridgei lays its eggs in moist tunnels on the forest floor (Cogger, 1985). Neither frog breeds in w'ater. Thus, it is likely that the life cycle of this tapeworm is completed on land. Two other species of Cylindrotaenia are known from the Australian mainland (Jones, 1987); both infect lizards which do not utilize bodies of water for breeding or drinking. In the light of these observations nematotaeniid life-cycles (Joyeux, 1924; Stumpf. 1982) need lobe further studied. References COGGER. H.G. 1983. Reptiles and amphibians of Australia. ( A.H. and A.W. Reed: Sydney) 660p. DELVINQUIER, B.L.J. AND JONES, M.K. 1988. A preliminary note on the intestinal flagellates of the Australian Anura. Mem. Qd. Mus. 25: 333-334. HICKMAN, J.L. 1960. Cesiodes ofsome Tasmanian Anura. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Series 13, 3: 1-23. JONES, M.K. 1987. A taxonomic revision of the Nematotaeniidae Liihe, t910(Cestoda,CyclophylIidea). Syst. Parasitol, 10: 165-245. JOYEUX, C.E. 1924. Recherches sur le cycle evolutif des Cylindrotaenia. Ann. Parasil. Hum, Comp. 2: 74-81. STUMPF, I.V.K. 1982. Ciclo evolutiva da Cylindrotaenia americana Jewell, 1916 (Cyclophyllidea: Nemato- taaeniidae) em Bufo iciericus. Acta. Biol. Paranaese 10/11:41-52. Malcolm K. Jones, School of Biological Sciences, Mac- quarie University, Sydney, N.S.W. 2109 and B.LJ. Delvin- quier, Department of Parasitology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4067; 1 March, 1991. THE RESHARPENING OF BEVEL-EDGED TOOLS FROM COASTAL SOUTHEAST QUEENSLAND IAN J. McNIVEN McNiven, I.J. 1991 08 01: The resharpening of bevel-edged tools from coastal southeast Queensland. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 493-504. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. Bevel-edged tools are a distinctive Aboriginal stone too! type from coastal southeast Queensland. To date, most research on these tools has focused on their morphology and use, particularly in relation to the processing of the plant food staple bungwall fern. This paper investigates the dynamic use-life of these tools through an investigation of working edge maintenance and resharpening at two sites recently excavated at the mouth of the Maroochy River. □ tools, aboriginal tools, SE Queensland, coastal. lanJ. McNiven, Department of Archaeology La Trobe University Bundoora Victoria 3083, Australia; 24 November, J989. The study of stone artefacts is a fundamental concern of prehistoric archaeology, reflecting the bias of the archaeological record towards these least destructible elements of past cultural systems. Traditionally under the culture history paradigm, research on stone artefacts focused upon the elucidation of temporal and spatial dimensions of static morpho-functional types. Over the last two decades however, increasing attention has been directed towards technologi- cal aspects of artefact manufacture, resulting in the recognition of stone artefacts as dynamic elements of cultural systems. At the heart of this paradigmatic redirection has been studies documenting changes in artefact morphology resulting from rejuvenation of worn or broken tools (Frison, 1968; Wheat, 1975; Cahen, Keeley and van Noten, 1979; van Noten, Cahen and Keeley, 1980; Dibble, 1984, 1987; Driskell, 1986; Hiscock, 1988a; Flenniken and Raymond, 1986). Australian archaeologists have long recog- nised the effects of resharpening upon stone artefact morphology, particularly in the case of the gradual reduction of tula adzes into ex- hausted tula slugs (Howchin, 1934; Mulvaney, 1975; McCarthy, 1976; Sheridan, 1979). The tula adze reduction model however, is largely derived from ethnographic observations of hafted tula adze resharpening (Horne and Ais- ton, 1924; Tindale, 1965; Gould, Koster and Sontz, 1971). Few studies have demonstrated directly from the archaeological record that prehistoric tulas were reduced to exhausted tula slugs by gradual resharpening of blunted work- ing edges (Gould, 1977; Hiscock, 1988b; His- cock and Veth, 1991). The only Australian study specifically aimed at demonstrating tool resharpening from the ar- chaeological record is Kamminga’s (1974) analysis of ‘unifacial pebble choppers’ from the Seelands site in northeastern New South Wales (McBryde, 1 974). It was found that the extensive use-wear on many of these tools was similar to truncated segments of use-wear found on a num- ber of small flakes also recovered from the site. As a result, Kamminga concluded that since: ‘...the flakes are found in association with the unifacial pebble choppers at Seelands, and since the morphology and distribution of the wear along the edges is the same on both artefact types, it is almost certain that the polished rejuvenation flakes are the retouch debitage from the unifacial pebble choppers ’(1974, p. 371). Although Kamminga’s ( 1 974) report was only preliminary, it does provide an analytical framework for investigation of stone tool reshar- pening. Of particular significance is the iden- tification of similar use-wear patterns on both tools and resharpening flakes. My paper at- tempts to elaborate Kamminga’s approach through an examination of bevel-edged tool resharpening from coastal southeast Queens- land. PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON BEVEL-EDGED TOOLS Jackson (1939) described stone artefacts he surface collected from shell middens on the Sun- shine Coast, southeast Queensland (Fig. 1). 494 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 1. Map of study area. Amongst these artefacts were implements he associated with the processing of starch-rich rhizomes of 'bungwalT fern {Blechnum in- dicum). Classing these artefacts bungwall chop- pers, Jackson described them as being ‘quartzite or some other suitable rock, flaked away on one margin after the style of a chisel, and possessing secondary chipping along its edge’ (Jackson, 1939, p. 292). Jackson’s functional inference appears to have been based upon early European observations of fern root processing by coastal Aboriginal people in the region, the morpho- functional potential of the implements and the identification of edge ‘rounding’ on some ‘cut- ting edge(s)’ (Jackson, 1939, p. 290-293). In the 1970’s Kamminga (1981) examined eleven artefacts from various locations in coastal southeast Queensland within the category of ‘bungwall choppers’ and identified a separate tool type called bevelled pounders. This new category was based on use-wear patterns, and was restricted to implements exhibiting inten- tionally ground flat bevels on their edges, some 3-13mm in width (Kamminga, 1981, p. 34). The remaining ‘chopper' implements were identified as worimi (McCarthy, 1941, p. 24; 1976, p. 25; McCarthy, Bramell and Noone, 1946, p. 22) or more generally east coast chopping tools (Kam- minga, 1978, p. 270-273), a separate class of implement exhibiting edge ‘rounding’ as op- posed to edge bevelling. Using both ethnohis- torical observations (e.g. Bancroft, 1894; Petrie, 1980) and the results of his own use-wear analyses, Kamminga (1981) associated bevelled pounders with the processing of bungwall fern root. In contrast, the wear on the choppers was consistent with ‘woodworking activities’ (Kam- minga, 1981, p.34). A subsequent morphological and selective use-wear analysis of 24 bevelled pounders from the Toorbul Point area adjacent to Bribie Island was undertaken by Gillieson and Hall (1982). Once again, the tools were associated with the processing of bungwall fern. Other results relevant to this study were, first, bevels tend to be quite narrow, with the majority (72%) less than 3mm in width. Second, bevelling can result from use-wear rather than purposeful grinding. Third, use -wear patterns indicate that the use of these tools also included chopping and scraping activities, not just pounding. As a result, the functional categorization of these implements as bevelled pounders was questioned. Although the term bevelled pounder has continued to be used in recent years (McNiven, 1985; Nolan, 1986; Hall and Hiscock, 1988; Hall, Higgins and Ful- lagar, 1989), this study will employ the more functionally neutral label of bevel-edged tool. Bevel Resharpening The chopping and scraping procedure employed by Gillieson and Hall (1982) in their experimental use-wear study was based upon descriptions by Bancroft (1894) and Petrie (1980) of bungwall processing by Moreton Bay Aboriginal people during the 19th century. For example, Bancroft (1894, p. 25) suggested ‘The bungwall stone is not unlike a stone tomahawk, the sharp edge being used to bruise the rhizome against a slab of bloodwood’, while Petrie (1980, p. 92) stated that the fern was ‘scraped and cut up finely with sharp stones on a log’ (see Fig. 2). Gillieson and Hall (1982, p. 59) found that removal of starchy material from the central part of the rhizome was ‘facilitated’ by the use of ‘sharp-edged’ implements, a finding consistent with the narrow bevels found on most ar- chaeological specimens of bevel-edged tools. Hall, Higgins and Fullagar (1989, p. 150) sug- RESHARPENING OF BEVEL-EDGED TOOLS 495 FIG. 2. Photo of Aboriginal man processing bungwall fern on Bribie Island circa 1890 (Queensland Museum Neg.# LH285/20a). gested that as the relative efficacy of bevel- edged tools to process plant foods gradually decreased with progressive bevel widening from continued use, a series of resharpening flakes may have been removed to rejuvenate the bevelled working edge. This suggestion appears to derive from the observation of flaking along some bevelled margins, which in some cases has removed large sections of the actual bevel (cf. Crooks, 1982, p, 86). To date however, no at- tempt has been made to demonstrate whether bevel flaking actually represents bevel rejuvena- tion (i.e. resharpening) and/or some other form of artefact modification. MAROOCHY RIVER MOUTH SITES Maroochy River mouth Sites 2 and 4 exhibit a range of shell and stone artefact remains, in- cluding bevel-edged tools, dating to the last 500 years (McNiven, 1989) (Fig. 1). They are located on low sand ridges (l-2m a.s.l.) in an area of seasonally inundated sedgeland swamps and tidal mangrove forests. Vegetation on the sites includes mixed eucalypt forest and casuarina woodlands. The bevel-edged tools analysed in this paper were from a series of surface excavations totall- ing some 184 m“ in area (see McNiven, 1989 for details). During preliminary analysis of all stone artefacts from both sites however, I noticed that many small flakes exhibited remnants of bevelled edges similar to the resharpening flakes described by Kamminga (1974) for the Seelands site. As a result, I decided that the sample of bevel-edged artefacts from Sites 2 and 4 would provide an excellent opportunity for the inves- tigation of bevel-edged tool resharpening. Bevel-edged Stone Artefacts Stone artefacts were classified as bevel-edged artefacts if they possessed one or more bevelled edges. A bevelled edge was defined as any edge with a flat facet exhibiting use-wear. Use-wear was identified by the presence of abrasive smoothing and/or impact cracking on the bevel- led surface and edge rounding along the margins of the bevel. This definition allowed differentia- tion from edges modified by rounding (e.g. east coast chopping tools) and/or percussion flaking (Kamminga, 1981, p.l7). All bevelled edges were examined using a Wild steroscopic micro- scope with a zoom lens (12-60x magnification). The 107 bevel-edged artefacts recovered from Sites 2 and 4, were broadly classified as 42 flakes, 35 cores, 2 1 broken flakes (missing initia- tion platform) and flaked pieces and 9 manuports after Hiscock's (1984, p. I29L) stone artefact fracture typology. For the purposes of this paper however, analysis was restricted to cores and flakes (n=77, 72%). Both these artefact types allowed more direct and precise inferences to be made concerning the manufacture and reduction of bevel-edged tools. In contrast, technological insights into the production of broken flakes and flaked pieces were limited by a lack of diagnostic flaking traits, while manuports, by definition, exhibit no evidence of flaking. Cores The 35 bevelled cores are represented by at least eight stone types with the majority (n=23, 66%) manufactured from arkose (feldspathic sandstone) and silcrete (Table 1). Artefact weights range from 33.4g to 1112.0g with a mean of 347. Ig (Table 1). The majority (n=32) of cores exhibit areas of cortex, most of which 496 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM TABLE 1: Bevel-edged artefact raw materials Raw Cores Cores Flakes Flakes material n % wt.(g) % n % wt.(g) % Arkose 12 34.3 4092.0 33.6 29 69.0 1080.2 75.8 Sandstone 2 5.7 571.7 4.7 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Silcrete 11 31.4 2760.0 22.7 7 16.7 314.3 22.0 Quartz 2 5.7 1250.5 10.3 1 2.4 2.8 0.2 Quartzite 1 2.9 207.4 1.7 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trachyte 1 2.9 595.7 4.9 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Rhyolite 1 2.9 343.9 2.8 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Igneous 5 14.3 2349.3 19.3 5 11.9 28.7 2.0 Totals: 35 100 12170.5 100 42 100 1426.0 100 * = unidentified igneous rock indicate the exploitation of river cobbles (n=3 1 ) (e.g. Fig. 3a). The length of a bevel was defined by the max- FIG. 3. Bevel-edged tools from Maroochy River mouth Site 4: A, bevelled core (S025); B, bevelled flake (S013) (bevels denoted by grey shading). imum extent of continuous or discontinuous bevelling along a single edge. The mean length of a bevelled edge is 32mm with a range of 6-1 10mm. In contrast, maximum bevel widths have a much more restricted range of l-18mm with a mean of 5mm (Table 2). The number of bevels on cores ranges from 1-5 with a mean of 2 . 6 . Most bevelled edges (n=59, 64%) exhibit some form of flaking modification. In some cases, flaking was initiated from the working edge using the bevelled surface as a striking platform. This activity resulted in the removal of a marginal section of bevel producing a local- ized reduction in bevel width (Figs 3a, 4a). In other cases, flaking was initiated immediately to the side of the bevelled edge using one of the lateral faces as a striking platform. The result was the removal of an entire segment of bevel thus producing a discontinuity in the bevelled edge (Fig. 4b, see also Fig. 3b). Flakes The 42 bevel-edged flakes were classified into the broad categories of either bevelled flakes (n=5) or bevel flakes (n=37). Bevelled flakes exhibit bevelling along the edge of the ventral or inside surface, indicating that the bevel was created after the flake was created (Fig. 3b). In contrast, bevel fakes exhibit bevels located on the dorsal or outside surface and/or platform with no encroachment onto the ventral surface. In all cases where bevels intersect the margin of the flake, the bevel has been truncated by the RESHARPENING OF BEVEL-EDGED TOOLS 497 TABLE 2: Bevel-edged artefact bevel characteristics Bevelled cores Bevelled flakes Type A Bevel flakes Type B Type C Number of artefacts 35 5 21 1 1 5 Number of bevels 92 10 24 11 5 Bevel length (mm) minimum 6 7 4 3 7 maximum no 37 25 15 32 mean 32.2 25.8 15.1 8.1 — Bevel width (mm) minimum 1 1 2 1 2 maximum 18 7 6 3 6 mean 5.2 3.6 4.0 1.9 NB. means calculated only for sample sizes of 10 or more ventral surface, indicating that the bevel was created prior to flake detachment. Bevel flakes were further subdivided into three types (Table 2). Type A bevel flakes (n=21) exhibit a single truncated segment of a bevelled edge located along the dorsal edge of the plat- form (Fig. 5) and were produced by the process of segment bevel flaking (Fig. 4b). Three of these flakes also exhibit small segments of a bevelled edge located on the distal half of the dorsal surface (Fig. 5d). Type B bevel flakes (n=ll) have a platform consisting of the marginal sec- tion of a bevelled edge with the actual edge of the bevel forming the dorsal edge of the platform (Fig. 6). They were produced as a result of mar- ginal bevel flaking (Fig. 4a). Type C bevel flakes (n=5) exhibit either a truncated segment or a marginal section of a bevelled edge running along a dorsal ridge oriented sub-parallel to the lateral margins of the flake (Fig. 7). Bevel-edged flakes are made from at least four stone types with the majority represented by arkose and silcrete (n=36, 86%) (Table 1). Flake weights range from O.lg to 595. 6g with a mean of34.0g. Testing the Resharpening Hypothesis The patterning of bevelling on bevelled cores and bevelled flakes demonstrates that these ar- tefacts were used as tools. That is, the artefacts were actually used to perform some activity that created a bevelled edge. In contrast, the trunca- tion of most bevelled edges on bevel flakes by dorsal negative flake scars and/or by the ventral surface indicates that the bevels on these ar- tefacts was created prior to detachment from a bevel-edged tool (i.c. bevelled core or bevelled flake). Most bevel flakes exhibit bevels located either along the dorsal edge of the platform (Type A) or on the actual platform itself (Type B) (n=32, 86%). These flakes would have resulted in local- ized, relative increases in working edge sharp- ness, raising the question as to whether such edge resharpening was the reason for the removal of these bevel flakes. Intentional Flaking or Use-wear? Implicit in the concept of resharpening is the notion of a conscious and deliberately planned course of action. Therefore, all identified reshar- pening flakes must be demonstrated to be the result of intentional removal by knappers. The problem of intentional flaking is not as simple as it may appear. Numerous bevel-edged tools have a series of cracks running through the surface of the bevel sub-parallel to the bevel margin. These cracks result from multiple im- 498 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 4. Bevel flaking types; A, marginal bevel flaking; B, segment bevel flaking. pacts of the bevelled edge against a relatively hard surface during use. In other cases, these cracks have continued through the artefact and intersected the lateral face of the bevelled edge forming a fracture and a partially detached flake (Fig. 8), It is apparent that if force had continued to be applied to these partly detached flakes, most would have been dislodged removing a marginal section of bevel on the flake platform. The morphology of these partially detached flakes is identical to Type B bevel flakes docu- mented above. Such an observation provides support for the hypothesis that Type B bevel flakes are in fact a use-wear phenomenon and not the result of intentional knapping (cf. “impact flakes” - Hayden, 1979, p. 65). It can be expected that if Type B bevel flakes are a use-wear phenomenon, then their relative abundance at the sites should reflect the relative scratch hardness and toughness of differing A CM FIG. 5. Type A bevel flakes: A, Site 4/1/18; B, Site 4/1/25; C, Site 4/1/15; D, Site 4/1/8 (bevels denoted by dark shading). RESHARPENING OF BEVEL-EDGED TOOLS 499 A CM FIG. 6. Type B bevel flakes: A, Site 4/1/25; B, Site 4/1/7; C, Site 4/1/11 (bevels denoted by dark shading). Stone types from which bevel-edged tools are manufactured. As noted above, the majority of bevel-edged tools at these sites are manufactured from arkose and silcrete. Silcrete is the hardest (Mohs 8.5) and toughest (8.2 on the Modified Los Angeles Abrasion Test) stone generally used by Aboriginal people in Australia, making it the most resistant to use-wear abrasion and fractur- ing (Kamminga, 1982, p. 27-29). In contrast, arkose, which largely comprises feldspar grains (Prinz, Harlow and Peters, 1978), is some 30% softer (Mohs 6) (Hurlbut, 1959) than silcrete and much less tough (pers. obs.). As a result, the working edges of arkose bevel-edged tools would be less resistant to use-wear damage, and the archaeological record should exhibit a posi- tive bias towards arkose Type B bevel flakes. Fig. 9 shows that there is such a major bias. It should be noted however, that this finding does not negate the hypothesis that Type B bevel flakes are the result of bevel resharpening. For example, given that the working edges of arkose bevel-edged tools are more likely to wear faster than those on silcrete tools, it would be expected that arkose tools would require relatively greater A CM FIG. 7. Type C bevel flakes: A, Site 2/12; B, Site 4/1/15; C, Site 4/1/18 (bevels denoted by grey shading). edge rejuventation. However, when this data is combined with the crack and fracture data docu- mented above, the overall evidence is more sup- portive of a use-wear origin for Type B bevel flakes. 500 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 8. Photo of cracks along margins of bevel on a bevel-edged tool (Site 4/2/2) (x8). The hypothesis that Type B bevel flakes are a use-wear phenomenon may also be complicated by differences in the use of silcrete and arkose bevel-edged tools. Examples include differential use of hardwood anvils, and differing tool func- tions, duration of tool use and amount of use prior to transportation and subsequent discard at sites. Despite these potential complications, the simplest explanation for the existence of Type B bevel flakes is impact of bevel-edged tools against a hard surface during use. This inference is consistent with ethnohistorical references documenting the use of ’bungwal! stones’ against a slab of hardwood (Fig. 2). Edge Resharpening or Edge Reshaping? The location of platforms away from the bevelled working edge on Type A and Type C bevel flakes suggests that these artefacts were a product of intentional knapping. Regarding bevel resharpening however, it is clear that the removal of Type A bevel flakes, in contrast to Type C bevel flakes, would have resulted in both a predictable and efficacious localized reshar- pening of the bevelled working edge. It can be predicted that if flakes were sys- tematically removed from more intensely use- worn (i.e. wider) bevels to resharpen the working edge, then the following two test implications would be expected. First, a high ratio of bevel “resharpening” flakes to bevel-edged tools on sites, and, second, bevels found on resharpening I flakes should represent the larger end of the bevel width range found on bevel-edged tools. The small ratio of Type A bevel flakes (n=21) to bevel-edged tools (n=40) recovered from Sites 2 and 4 contrasts with the expectations of the first resharpening test implication. The evidence shows that on average, less than one bevel “resharpening” flake exists for each bevel-edge tool discarded at both sites. When it is also considered that bevel-edged tools discarded on a site probably only represents a small proportion of the bevel-edged tools used at a site, it is clear that systematic resharpening of bevel-edged tools was not taking place at Sites 2 and 4. Similarly, it is doubtful that only an occasional resharpening flake was removed from a bevel- edge tool as such an isolated event would have little overall effect upon edge sharpness. Following the second resharpening test im- plication, a comparison was made of bevel toots flakes (n=40) (n=11) arkose I silcrete FIG. 9. Relative proportion of arkose and silcrete bevel-edged tools and Type B bevel flakes at Maroochy River mouth Sites 2 and 4. RESHARPENING OF BEVEL-EDGED TOOLS 501 FIG 10. Distribution of bevel widths located on Type A bevel flakes and bevel-edged tools from Maroochy River mouth Sites 2 and 4. widths on both Type A bevel flakes and bevel- edged tools. The width of bevels on Type A bevel flakes is remarkably representative of the lower half of the bevel width range recorded on bevel-edged tools (Fig. 1 0). No apparent bias was observed for the removal of wider bevels from bevel-edged tools. In fact the smaller mean bevel width on Type A bevel flakes (4mm) compared to bevel-edged tools (5mm) supports the view that a bias existed towards the removal of flakes from narrower bevelled edges. Clearly, the hypothesis that bevel resharpening was taking place at Sites 2 and 4 is unsustainable. The apparent targeting of narrower bevelled edges for flaking strongly supports the view that such modification was specifically related to a reshaping not resharpening of the working edge. Whether this reshaping was related to an actual change in tool function and/or the result of a localized rejuvenation of a damaged section of bevel is not known (Cahen, Keeley and van Noten, 1979, p. 666). Future resolution of this problem will centre upon a comparative use- wear study of variously sized bevels on both bevel flakes and bevel-edged tools, and the refit- ting of bevel flakes onto bevel-edged tools. In contrast to Type A and Type B bevel flakes, the most parsimonious explanation for Type C bevel flakes is that they represent reduction of bevel-edged tools unrelated to the modification of the bevelled working edge they exhibit. In such a situation, it would be expected that a number of flakes would inadvertently exhibit remnants of old bevels along dorsal ridges sub- parallel to flake margins. Whether such reduc- tion was actually aimed at increasing the general functional efficacy of the tool to perform similar and/or differing tasks is unknown. REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN BEVEL RESHARPENING The lack of supporting evidence for reshar- pening of bevel-edged tools at Maroochy River mouth Sites 2 and 4 does not negate the pos- sibility that bevel resharpening occurred at other sites in the region. In this regard, future inves- tigations of bevel-edged tool resharpening should consider regional variations in bevel- edged tool use and the effects of raw material proximity upon the nature of edge bevelling and edge maintenance. For example, many archaeologists argue that regional variations in the form and modification of stone tools is a product of the nature of as- sociated settlement-subsistence activities (Bin- ford and Binford, 1966; Binford, 1973; 1977; 1979; Lourandos, 1977; McBryde, 1977; Ebert, 1979; Schrire, 1982; Torrence, 1983; Jones, 1985; Shoit, 1986). Therefore, it is possible that bevel resharpening was only associated with cer- tain types of activities, and that such activities were not carried out at Sites 2 and 4. Similarly, bevel resharpening may only occur after a prolonged period of tool use, at the end of a particular blunting stage in the use-life of a bevel-edged tool. If Maroochy River mouth Sites 2 and 4 were visited immediately after a resharpening stage, then little evidence of bevel resharpening would be expected (cf. Keeley, 1982, p. 807). In both situations, evidence for resharpening may be present at other sites in the region which form the remainder of the annual settlement-subsistence system. The second potentially important issue con- cerning regional variations in bevel-edged tool resharpening is the effects of raw material 502 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM proximity. Such influences may manifest them- selves in two key areas. First, a corollary of the proposition that the physical properties of raw materials may influence the nature of bevel resharpening, is that any factor that influences the selection of raw materials for bevel-edged tools will also influence the potential nature of bevel resharpening. Of the numerous factors that influence peoples decisions concerning the selection of stone artefact raw materials, one of the most important is relative physical access to a stone source (Hayden, 1977; O’Connell, 1977; Byrne, 1980; Dibble, 1985; Hiscock, 1986; 1 988a; McNiven in press). Consequently, bevel- edged tools located on sites in close proximity to a certain stone source would be expected to be manufactured mostly from this stone type. If this stone type was not very resistant to bevel use- wear damage, then a greater proportion of bevel resharpening flakes may be expected to occur on these sites. The second potential effect of raw material proximity upon regional variations in bevel resharpening is relative costs of edge main- tenance. For example, a negative relationship often exists between the relative amount of tool retouching on sites and the proximity of those sites to replacement stone. That is, as sites are located further away from a stone source, people are more inclined to rejuvenate (i.e. resharpen) the edges of tools made from that raw material as opposed to discarding the artefact (Schiffer, 1975; Hayden, 1977; Byrne, 1980; Bamforth, 1986; Hiscock, 1988a). It should be noted how- ever, that the opposite effect may also take place. People may decide to increase the resharpening threshhold in situations where the cost of access- ing replacement stone is energetically and/or socially higher than the cost of decreasing ef- ficiency in tool function (Hiscock, 1988a, p. 1 1 3). Once again, both propositions can be tested by examining regional variations in the main- tenance of bevelled edges on sites. CONCLUSION This paper has attempted to create an analyti- cal framework for the investigation of bevel- edged tool resharpening in coastal southeast Queensland. It is hoped that this framework will not only aid future research in this area, but also stimulate researchers to explore other potential variables that may effect stone tool maintenance. Clearly, our ability to explore the dynamic use- life of stone artefacts within past cultural sys- tems is limited by poorly developed theoretical models, and even more constrained by a lack of methodological tools operationalizing these models. In this regard, future study of the nature of bevel-edged tool resharpening may provide new insights into these important areas. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Preparation of this paper was aided by helpful comments provided by Jay Hall, Bruno David, Peter Hiscock, Jo Kamminga, Scott Mitchell and Eleanor Crosby. Kathy Frankland kindly as- sisted with the preparation of Fig. 2. Errors in fact or interpretation are solely my respon- sibility. REFERENCES BAMFORTH, D.B. 1986. Technological efficiency and tool curation. American Antiquity 51(1):38- 50. BANCROFT, T.L. 1894. 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Aboriginal middens of the Point Cartwright district. Mem. Qd Mus. 2:289- 295. JELINEK, A.J. 1976. Form, function and style in lithic analysis. 19-33. In C.B. Cleland (ed.) ‘Cultural change and continuity’. (Academic Press:New York). JONES, R. (ed.) 1985. Archaeological research in Kakadu National park. ANPWS Publ. 13. (ANU: Canberra). KAMMINGA, J. 1974. Appendix 2 (7) Report on the edge wearon stone tools from the Clarence River sites. 371-372. In 1. McBryde ‘Aboriginal prehistory in New England’. (Univ. Sydney Press:Sydney). 1978. Journey into the microcosms: a functional analysis of certain classes of prehistoric Australian stone tools. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Sydney. 1981. The bevelled pounder: an Aboriginal stone tool type from Southeast Queensland. Proc. R. Soc. Qd 92:31-35. 1982. Over the edge: functional analysis of Australian stone tools. Univ. Qd Anthrop. Mus. Occas. Paps Anthrop. 12. KEELEY, L.H. 1982. Hafting and retooling: effects 504 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM on ihe archaeological record. American Antiq- uity 47(4):798-809. LOURANDOS, H. 1977. Stone tools, settlement, adaptation: a Tasmanian example. 219-224. In R.S.V. Wright (ed.) ‘Stone tools as cultural markers; change, evolution and complexity*. (Australian Institute of Aboriginal StudiesiCan- berra). MCBRYDE, I. 1974. ‘Aboriginal prehistory in New England’. (Univ. Sydney Press:Sydney). 1977. Determinants of assemblage variation in New England prehistory. 225-250. In R.S.V. Wright (ed.) ‘Stone tools as cultural markers: change, evolution and complexity*. (Australian Institute of Aboriginal StudiesrCanberra). MCCARTHY, F. D. 1941. Two pebble industry sites of Hoabinhien 1 type on the north coast of New South Wales. Rec. Ausl. Mus. 21(l):21-26. 1976. Australian Aboriginal stone implements. (Australian Museum Trust: Sydney). MCCARTHY, F.D., BRAMELL, E. AND NOONE, H.V.V. 1946. The stone implements of Australia. Mem. Ausl. 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Slone implement making among the Nakako, Ngadadjara and Pitjandjara of the Great Western Desert. Rec. S. Aust.. Mus. 15:131-164. TORRENCE, R. 1983. Time budgeting and hunter- gatherer technology. 11-22. In G. Bailey (ed.) ‘Hunter-gatherer economy in prehistory’. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge). VAN NOTEN, F., CAHEN, D. AND KEELEY, L. 1980. A Paleolithic campsite in Belguim. Scien- tific American 242(4):44-51. WHEAT, J.B. 1975. Artefact life histories: cultural templates, typology, evidence and inference. 7- 15. In j.S. Raymond, Loveseth, B., Arnold, C. and Reardon, G. (eds). ‘Primitive art and technology’. Archaeol. Ass., Dept. Archaeol., Univ. Calgary. FISHES OF THE BULLOO-BANCANNIA DRAINAGE DIVISION S.HAMAR MIDGLEY , MARY MIDGLEY AND STUART J. ROWLAND Midgley, S.H., Midgley, M. and Rowland, SJ. 1991 0801 : Fishes of the Bulloo-Bancannia Drainage Division. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum i^(y)\5Q5-5Q^. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. Fish were sampled from the Bulloo River in the Bulloo-Bancannia drainage division during 1986 and 1989. Seven indigenous species,in six families, were recorded: erebi, Neosilurus sp., Hypseleotris sp., Melanotaenia splendida tatei, Macquaria ambigua, Leiopotherapon unicolor and Bidyanus welchL Museum records added Mogurnda adsper- sa and the exotic Gambusia affinis. The depauperate fish fauna is probably due to the small size and ephemeral nature of the division. No species is endemic to the Bulloo Division, but five other species which occur in both adjacent drainage divisions. Lake Eyre and Murray-Darling, were not recorded; there has been no mixing of fishes between the divisions in recent limes. 5. Hamar Midgley and Mary Midgley, Willis' Road, Bli Bli, M.S, 1505, Nambour, Queensland 4560; Stuart J. Rowland, Eastern Freshwater Fish Research Hatchery, Grafton, New South Wales 2460; 20 February, 1991. More than 70% of Australia is arid or semi- arid (Barker and Greenslade 1982) so there is a paucity of permanent freshwater fish habitats in the internal drainage divisions (Fig. 1). Although the fishes of the Western Plateau, Lake Eyre and Murray-Darling divisions have been recorded (Lake 1971, 1978; Glover and Sim 1978; Glover 1979, 1982; McDowall 1980; Merrick and Schmida 1984) little is known of the fish fauna of the Bulloo-Bancannia division which lies between the Lake Eyre and Murray- Darling divisions. Lake (1971) presumed that- Nematalosa erebi, Ambassis castelnaui, Macquaria ambigua, and Leiopotherapon unicolour v/ere found in the Bulloo divison, and more recent reviews by Lake (1978), Llewellyn and Pollard (1980) and Merrick and Schmida (1984) added Neosilurus argenteus, Neosilurus sp. 2, Bidyanus welchi and Scortum barcoo. An extensive survey of the freshwater fishes of inland Queensland and the Northern Teritory has been conducted by S.H.M. and M.M. This paper reports the fishes sampled from the Bul- loo-Bancannia division in 1986 and 1989. Lim- nology of the Bulloo River is briefly described. MATERIALS AND METHODS This elongated drainage division (Fig. 1) has an area of c. 100,000 km^ and is comprised of two internal basins (Anon, 1967). The Bulloo River drains the northern part of the division after occasional periods of general runoff and ends in shallow ephemeral marshlands near the Queensland border. The river is normally a chain of widely separated waterholes, many of which are ephemeral. In the southern part of the division indefinite drainage enters several depressions; this area is the Bulloo Overflow. Evaporation rates far exceed rainfall; runoff oc- curs only after occasional periods of heavy rain, resulting in extensive shallow flooding. SAMPLING Fish were sampled during day and night using dip nets, gill nets (75 and 112 mm mesh) seine nets (5 and 12 mm), and hook and line. The relative abundance of each species was categorised as abundant, common or rare. The sampling effort was similar in both years. Sub- samples of each species were preserved in 10% formalin. Water quality variables were measured using a secchi disc, thermometer, ap- propriate meters and Hach titration equipment. 1986 Fish were sampled during September from a permanent hole (3 km x 40 m) in the Bulloo River, c. 50 km WSW of Thargomindah, 28“10'S, l43'’22'E(Fig. 1). The river had only recently stopped flowing after rains (100-150 mm) in May, June and July. 1989 Fish were sampled during September from the 506 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM <1: FIG. 1. Sampling sites in the Bulloo River (O); and the Boorara Creek (O). Inset showing internal drainage divisions of Australia. permanent “Como Hole” (1.5 km x 30 m) in the Bulloo River, appromixately 25 km N of Quil- pie, 26‘’23’S, 144‘'18’E (Fig. 1). The river had flooded during May, 1989, but when sampled was a series of widely separated waterholes. Museum Records Queensland Museum (QM): Neosilurus sp. (Q MI 20400), Melanotaenia splendida (QMI20398),Afnc^wnna ambigua (QMI14182, QMI20399, QMI20406, QMI20412), Mor- gurnda adspersa (QMI8002; a single specimen from the Bulloo River in 1955). Australian Museum (AM): Nematalosa erebi (AMI16006-001, AMI18928-001, AMI 19059-003), Neosilurus sp. (AMI19058-002, AMI 19059-002, AMI21690-002, AMI27071- 001), Gambusia affinis (AMI19059-001; from the Bulloo River Overflow, near Clifton Bore, in 1976), Melanotaenia sp. (AMI 18928-002), Macquaria ambigua (AMI 16006-002, AMI21690-001, AMI21694-001), Leiopo- therapon unicolor (AMIl 8927-001, AMI 18928-003, AMI 19058-001, AMI 19059-004). South Australian Museum (SAM): Melano- taenia sp., Hephaestus sp. (probably Bidyanus sp.). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Seven indigenous species, in six families and seven genera were recorded (Table 1). There is uncertainty about the taxonomic status of some fishes in inland Australia, par- tucularly the neosilurids and the eleotrids (Lake, 1978; Hoese et al., 1980; Merrick and Schmida, 1984) and major taxonomic reviews are under- way (R. McKay, pers. comm.). Although FISHES OF THE BULLOO-BANCANNIA DRAINAGE DIVISION 507 Family Species Name Common Name Relative Abundance* Remarks^ 1986 1989 Clupeidae Nematalosa erebi bonv bream A A occurs in WP, LE, BB Plotosidae Neosilurus sp. catfish R _ Eleotridae Hwseleotris sp. eudeeon R C 1st record in BB Melanotaenidae Melanotaenia splendida tatei desert rainbow fish R R 1st record in BB endemic to WP, LE, BB Percichlhvidae Macauaria ambisua eolden perch R C Teraponidae Leiopotherapon unicolor spanaled perch C _ occurs in WP, LE, BB Bidyanus welchi Welch’s grunter - R * A - abundant, C - common, R - rare. 1 WP = Western Plateau; LE = Lake Eyre; BB = Bulloo-Bancannia Drainage Divisions. TABLE 1. Fishes sampled from the Bulloo River ll Llewellyn and Pollard (1980) recorded Neosilurus argenteus from two bore tanks east of Milparinka in the catchment of the Bulloo system, this catfish is unlikely to beiV. argenteus (R, McKay pers. comm.). In the current study, M. splendida tatei was identified using the description of Allen and Cross (1982). There are no previously published records of melanotaenids from the Bulloo-Bancannia, but one specimen of Melanotaenia sp. was sampled from the Bulloo River Overflow in 1975 (AMI 18928-002) and Melanotaenia splendida was sampled from the Bulloo River in 1983 (QMI 20398). Substantial genetic differentiation be- tween M, ambigua in the Barcoo River (possibly a new species), the Murray-Darling and the Dawson-Fitzroy river systems (Musyl and Keenan unpubl. data) demonstrates the need for research into taxonomy and biogeography of inland Australian fishes. No species is endemic to the Bulloo-Bancannia drainage. A. castelnaui, and S. barcoo, have been reported in the Bulloo-Bancannia division (like, 1971,1978; Merrick andSchmida, 1984), but were not sampled during the current study and are not listed in museum records. This may be due to misidentification, inaccurate verbal reports, their absence from this division, their relatively low abundance and/or the limited sampling. Many Australian native fishes have patchy, irregular distributions, and it is likely that fishes in the Bulloo River and other internal drainage divisions undergo very large fluctua- tions in abundance in response to irregular flooding and long periods of drought that are characteristic of arid, inland Australia, Only N. erebi was abundant in both 1986 and 1989, and Neosilurus sp., L. unicolor and B. welchi were each sampled in only one year (Table 1.) The fish fauna of the Bulloo-Bancannia division is depauperate compared to that of the two adjacent divisions. Glover (1982) listed 26 indigenous species from 12 families in the Lake Eyre division, and there are approximately 24 native species from 12 families in the Murray- Darling river system (McDowall 1980). In con- trast, however, Glover (1982) recorded only seven indigenous species from six families in the vast, arid Western Plateauu divison. The low species diversity and abundance in the Bulloo- Bancannia and Western Plateau divisions are probably due to the ephemeral nature of both divisions and the relatively small size of the Bulloo-Bancannia. Although Lake (1971) and Llewellyn and Pol- lard (1980) stated that water from the Bulloo system reaches the Murray-Darling in times of major flooding, the Bulloo-Bancannia is con- sidered to be a separate drainage division (Anon 1967), and waters from the Bulloo cannot reach tributaries of the Murray-Darling river system even during extensive floods (K. Smith, G. Beaton pers. comm.). At least four indigenous species, Retropinna semoni, Craterocephalus eyresii, Craterocephalus stercusmuscarum, and Ambassis castelnaui, and the exotic, Carassius auratus, that have been recorded in both the Lake Eyre and Murray-Darling divisions (Glover, 1982; Merrick and Schmida, 1984) have not been recorded from the Bulloo, sug- gesting that there has been no mixing of fishes between the divisions in recent times. This is 508 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Water quality variable Sampling Site Thaigomin- dah Sept. 1986 “Como Hole” Sept. 1989 turbidity-secchi disc (m) 0.03 0.05 pH 6.6 7.4 total dissolved solids (ppm) 45 50 alkalinity (ppm) 51 51 Ca hardness (ppm) 17 34 Mg hardness 34 17 total hardness (ppm) 51 51 temperature (°C) at surface 18 19 Im 17.5 17 2m 16.5 14 4m - 13 dissolved oxygen (ppm) at surface 7.8 7.8 Im 7.8 7.8 2m 6.5 6.2 4m - 5.5 TABLE 2. Limnology of the Bulloo River supported by the relatively large numbers of Bidyanus bidyanus, R. semoni and the exotic Cyprinus carpio in Boorara Creek [a tributary of the Murray-Darling system close to the Bulloo division (Fig. 1)] in September, 1989 (Midgley and Midgley, unpubl. data). The high turbidity of the Bulloo River is char- acteristic of the surface waters of the internal drainage divisions. The water quality variables were at levels considered suitable for freshwater fishes. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Fieldwork by S.H.M. and M.M. in 1986 was partly funded by Australian Geographic, and the trip in 1989 was partly funded by the Queensland Department of Primary Industries; this support was greatly appreciated. We thank members of the Police Force and property owners and managers for their assistance and informatin, and Roily McKay, Jeff Johnson, Dr John Paxton and Terry Sim for providing museum records and specimens. We acknow- ledge Kevin Smith, Pastures Protection Board and Greg Beaton, Wild Dog Board, Tibooburra, for local information on the Bulloo-Bancannia Division. LITERATURE CITED ALLEN, G.R., and CROSS, N.J., 1982. “Rainbow- fishes of Australia and Papua New Guinea”. (Angus and Robertson: Sydney), 141p. ANON. 1967. Surface water resources. In “Atlas of Australian Resources" Second series. (Depart- ment of National Development: Canberra). BARKER, W.R. AND GREENSLADE, P.J.M., (eds) 1982. “Evolution of the flora and fauna of arid Australia”. (Peacock: Frewville), 392p. GLOVER, C.J.M. 1979. Studies on centra! Australian fishes: further observations and records. S. Aust. Nat. 53: 58-62 1 982. Adaptations of fishes in arid Australia. 241- 246. In Barker, W.R. and Greenslade, P.J. M. eds. GLOVER, C.J.M. AND SIM, T.C. 1978. Studies on central Australian fishes; a progress report. S. Aust. Nat. 52: 35-44. HOESE, D.F., LARSON, H.K. AND LLEWELLYN, L.C. 1980. Gudgeons. 169-185. In “Freshwater fishes of south-eastern Australia”. (Reed: Syd- ney). LAKE, J.S. 1971. “Freshwater fishes and rivers of Australia”. (Nelson: Sydney), 61p. 1978. “Australian freshwater fishes. An il- lustrated field guide.” (Nelson: Melbourne), 161p. LLEWELLYN, L.C. AND POLLARD, D.A. 1980. Eeltailed catfishes. 91-93. In “Freshwater fishes of south-eastern Australia”. (Reed: Sydney). McDOWALL, R.M., (ed.) 1980. “Freshwater fishes of south-eastern Australia.” (Reed: Sydney), 208p. MERRICK, J.R. AND SCHMIDA, G.E., 1984. “Australian freshwater fishes. Biology and management.” (J.R. Merrick: North Ryde), 409p.. A COLLECTION OF LARGE CORE TOOLS FROM LOWLAND PAPUA, WESTERN PROVINCE, PAPUA NEW GUINEA MONICA MINNEGAL Minnegal, M. 1991 08 01; A collection of large core tools from lowland Papua, Western Province, Papua New Guinea. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 509-515. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. Ten large core tools found at or near Gwaimasi village are described. The four waisted blades in the collection were generally somewhat shorter than the unwaisted tools, but no other attributes consistently distinguished these categories. Local people identified all these tools, irrespective of shape, as nut-opening hammers but this interpretation is doubtful, n Core tools, waisted blades, ethnoarchaeology, Papua New Guinea. Monica Minnegal, Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of Queensland, St Lucia 4067, Queensland; I June, 1990. In 1987 six large axe-like core tools, some waisted, were dug up at Gwaimasi (5'’54'S, 142“6’E; 100m ASL), a Papua New Guinean village on the west bank of the Strickland River just south of the Blucher Range foothills. Another four of these implements were found within a few kilometres of the village (Fig. 1). Similar artefacts have previously been recovered in mainland Papua New Guinea from ar- chaeological sites in the Highlands (Bulmer, 1964, 1977; White et ai, 1970), from lowlands just north of the central ranges (Gorecki, pers. comm.) and from Huon Peninsula on the north coast (Groube et at., 1986), A few have been found as isolates elsewhere (Swadling, 1983), but none have previously been reported from lowland Papua. This paper provides a description of the Gwaimasi blades. It discusses the context of the finds, their character, and possible interpreta- tions. Context Gwaimasi is the Kubo name of a waterfall where a small stream drops down to join the Strickland River. In February 1986 a longhouse was built near the top of the fall, on an old levee bank. Over the next 18 months several smaller family houses were built nearby, to form the village that became known as Gwaimasi (or Komagato). The site had been gardened some 15-20 years earlier. Six large blades made of flaked cobbles were found as ground was cleared within the village. Clearing entailed removal of all topsoil together with associated weeds, shrubs, tree trunks and roots. Soil throughout the 200m2 area was turned to a depth of 15-50 cm, and occasionally more. (This was not traditional practice but a response to government demands. It would not have oc- curred at this site before.) Stones larger than a few centimetres were tossed into heaps; some were to be used later as heat retainers in ovens. Four blades were discovered in these piles. The other tw'o were recognized as they were dug up. The top of the levee bank, where the village was built, was covered with several metres of coarse yellow-grey silt. Below this lay what ap- peared to be a cobble bed packed with clay, and then conglomerate rock. The blades were all found in the sill layer, which contained no ob- vious charcoal or bone that m ight be used to date the deposit. Apart from the blades themselves the only undoubted artifacts recovered from this layer were a few small chert flakes. No ground or polished artifacts were dug up, though these had been used at least in the recent past (some people still owned specimens). Another four blades were found up to 4 km from Gwaimasi (Fig. 1). One was at a recently abandoned garden house (IGJ), where it had reportedly been used to open nuts. Another was on a table at an abandoned mining exploration camp (IGP). The third had been placed on a stump in a newly felled garden (IGO), while the last was brought back by a woman who found it while tending pandanus at an old garden site (IGQ). All ten artefacts are registered in the Papua New Guinea National Museum. DESCRIPTION OF BLADES The Gwaimasi blades were all made from flat, 510 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM CORE TOOLS FROM LOWLAND PAPUA 511 FIG. 2: Four examples of core tools from Gwaimasi. (A = 87.89.7.IGL.5; B = 87.89.4. IGL.2; C = 87.89.LIGJ.1; D = 87.89.3.IGL.1) Scale is in centimetres. waterworn cobbles of indurated siltstone or mudstone; such cobbles would have been avail- able as a minor component of conglomerate out- crops in the foothills just north of the village, and in streams draining those hills (Francis, 1989). They have been flaked along three sides, on one or both faces, but generally retain much of the original cortical surface. None shows any sign of grinding (Fig. 2; Table 1). Flaked surfaces on all but one of the blades have a well developed yellowish-brown weathering patina. Eight of the blades were primarily unifacially flaked, with few flakes, if any, removed from the other face. All have a definite unflaked butt end and a convex edge at the distal end. They tend to have a plano-convex/subtriangular cross-sec- tion, with one face much more curved than the other, and an asymmetrical profile, with edges crescent- or s-shaped when seen end on. Four of these eight blades are distinctly ‘waisted’, with a pronounced indentation flaked on each side near the butt end (Fig. 2a, b). Another three are roughly similar to these in shape but lack the obvious waist; they have, at most, some narrow- ing towards the butt (Fig. 2c). The last of the unifacially-flaked blades is somewhat different in shape; it is the narrowest in the collection, despite being the third longest. This blade (87.89.6.IGL.4) was the only one found with flaked surfaces unpatinated, suggesting that it was manufactured more recently than the others or, perhaps, less exposed to weathering. Two blades were definitely bifacially flaked; they had flakes removed from both faces along all or most of three sides (Fig, 2d). Both fall within the range of sizes for the unifacially- FIG. 1: Location of Gwaimasi and sites where core tools described were found. Shaded area is land above approximately 200 m. 512 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM TABLE 1 : Dimensions of the Gwaimasi core tools. PNG National Museum Length Breadth Thickness Weight Catalogue No. mm mm mm gm Unifacially flaked waisted 87.89.7.IGL,5 136.3 83.5 46.0 568 87.89.12.IG0.2 113.2 57.9 36.0 290 87.89.4.IGL.2 117.1 68.0 25.5 295 87.89.5.IGL.3 109.5 70.6 30.0 255 unwaisted 87.89.1. IGJ.l 183 79.2 27.8 496 87.89,15.!GL.7 159 82.5 40.0 576 87.89.1 1.IGP.I 139.5 73.7 29.7 361 87.89.6.1GL4 145.8 57.4 34.8 297 Bifacially flaked 87.89.3.IGL.1 136.8 86.8 30.7 512 87.89.13.IG0.1 120.8 73.0 30.0 367 flaked blades, and like those blades their butt ends are unflaked (though one may have been broken). They differ from the unifacially-flaked blades, however, in that their distal ends are less convex and they are lenticular in cross-section. One is very symmetrical in profile. The other, made of coarser stone and more roughly flaked, is less so. In both, edges are straight when seen end on. Neither of these blades is waisted. Several of the blades have had small chips removed from the cortical face along edges. This chipping, possibly attributable to use damage, is concentrated at distal ends. Two blades have also had several large flakes removed from their cor- tical face at the distal ends (Fig. 2b). This may reflect attempts to rejuvenate worn blades; these are two of the three shortest blades in the collec- tion. Most attention in the literature on artifacts of this sort has focussed on waisted examples. Apart from the waisting itself, however, the only attribute that distinguishes waisted from un- waisted blades in this collection is length; the four waisted blades are also four of the five shortest blades found (Table 1; P.05). No consis- tent differences appear in either breadth or thick- i ness. Given that the two ‘rejuvenated’ blades mentioned above were both waisted, it may be that waisting somehow permitted continued use of blades that had been shortened beyond some critical point. Detailed measurements for the four waisted blades from Gwaimasi (Table 2; dimensions concerned are indicated in Fig.3), compared with waisted blades from other sites in Papua New Guinea (Table 3), suggests some basic patterns. The Gwaimasi waisted blades are, on average, slightly shorter and 10-20mm narrower than those from two highland sites, Kosipe and Yuku, but fall well within the general range of varia- tion. They are, however, 58mm shorter, and 63mm narrower on average than the rather older blades from Huon Peninsula; in fact, the Gwaimasi blades fall completely outside the range of breadths for the Huon blades. Relative to length and breadth the Gwaimasi blades are surprisingly thick. Average thickness is 11mm and 9mm greater than that of blades from Kosipe and Yuku respectively, and only 7mm less than that of the Huon blades. Finally, waists tended to be positioned nearer the butt on Gwaimasi blades than on those from the other sites. The actual positions fall within the range of those from Kosipe, but show only slight overlap with the range of positions on Huon and Yuku tools. INTERPRETATION The Gwaimasi blades appear to have been deliberately manufactured; they were not just cores that have been occasionally and oppor- tunistically used for other tasks. Some of their morphological features, in particular the shapes of cross-sections and edges, may have been ac- cidental consequences of the original shape of the cobbles and of whether flakes were removed from one or both faces. Other attributes, how- PNG National Museum L Li L3 B B: B3 Catalogue No. 87.89.7.IGL.5 136 29 82 84 48 54 87.89.12.IG0.2 113 24 75 58 41 51 87.89.4.1GL.2 117 30 61 68 49 57 87.89.5.IGL.3 no 38 51 71 38 47 TABLE 2: Dimensions of four waisted blades from Gwaimasi (mm). CORETOOLS FROM LOWLAND PAPUA 513 TABLE 3: Average dimensions of waisted blades from four New Guinea sites. Site (n) Length (mm) Breadth(mm) Thickness (mm) Position of waist L s (range) B s (range) T s (range) L 2 /L s (range) Huon*(39) 177 24.9 (110-221) 130.3 19.4 (101-167) 41.5 9.4 (26-65) 0.42 0.05 (0.34-0.50) Kosipe* (7) 126.6 32.1 (83-179) 93.6 30.6 (51-136) 23.1 9.6 (10-34) 0.33 0.11 (0.19-0.52) Yuku*(10) 127 41.7 (74-215) 81.3 22.0 (57-128) 25.4 12.0 (15-18) 0.40 0.06 (0.32-0.49) Gwaimasi (4) 119 11.9 (110-136) 70.0 10.5 (58-)84 34.4 8.9 (26-16) 0.26 0.07 (0.21-0.35) * Data from Muke (1984). ever, such as unflaked butt ends and the presence of waisting just below the butt, are more difficult to explain if the blades were simply a source of flakes. In addition, people living in the Gwaimasi area had ready access to much better stone in the form of chert cobbles from the same conglomerate outcrops that provided the stone for the blades; flakes of this chert were present in the levee bank soils where most of the blades were found. But for what were these implements used? The 25 people who lived at Gwaimasi in 1986- 87 were Kubo speakers. This was the western extreme of Kubo land; virtually all other Kubo lived east of the Strickland. Use of stone tools was still part of Kubo life at this time. Chert flakes were used daily to work wood, bone and fibre. Carefully shaped chert cores formed the heads of sago pounders. Stone anvils and ham- mers were stored at the base of many nut trees, ready for use. Steel axes and bushknives were being used to fell trees and for coarse woodwork but several men, late teens and older, could recall ground stone axes being used for these purposes. (Nomad, the nearest government patrol post at 4 days walk away, was not established till the early 1960’s, with regular patrols not reaching people in the Gwaimasi area till 1969.) Ground stone adzes had been used until even more recently for making canoes. People at Gwaimasi identified the blades im- mediately as hoi (chopping implements). When pressed, they elaborated asyw hoi (stone axes) or kogwai hoi (ancestor's axes). After some months - a delay imposed not by reluctance to talk but by lack of a common language - several men gave more information. Though questioned separately their stories were remarkably similar. All the blades, irrespective of shape, were classed together as a particular kind of hoi - hagagobi hoi - used, they said, only for opening haga nuts {Canarium sp.). They were not hafted; the blade was simply held in the hand and swung 514 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM as a hammer, with the side of the blade taking the impact. The men were adamant that the blades were not held as choppers, that the distal ends were not the utilized edges, and that the blades were not used for felling trees. There are several reasons for doubting the above interpretation. First, most of the blades were simply loo short to be used in the manner described without serious risk to knuckles. Stone hammers used by Gwaimasi residents to open nuts tended to be about 200mm in length. They were referred to as dobae and not hoi, were usually unmodified, had an oval cross-section and no obvious edge. Although one of the Gwaimasi blades (the longest in the collection; 87.89.1.IGJ.1) may well have been used in the previous twelve months to open Canarium nuts this observation is more likely to account for the proffered explanation rather than to substantiate it; the occurrence of palination on this blade implies that it had not been recently manufac- tured for the purpose. Secondly, the inner shell of Canarium nuts is very hard, and some use damage could be expected on hammers used to open them. Such damage was certainly evident on a hammer that was seen being used to open kose nuts (another Canarium sp.). The few signs of possible use damage seen on the collected blades tended to be concentrated at the distal edges, not the sides. Finally, when the first blade was found in the village one of the older men demonstrated to some youths how it would have been hafted - as an adze, not an axe. Later, the same man was one of the most adamant that such blades were not used with a haft. It seems likely that the interpretation Gwaimasi people gave of these core tools was not based on knowledge of original manufacture and use. Rather, their account was based on the recent casual use some people had made of one blade. As such it deserves to be considered a possibility, but not accepted unquestioningly. Definitive functional interpretations will require analysis of wear and damage patterns on the blades themselves. DISCUSSION Large axe-like core tools, many of them waisled, have now been recovered from scat- tered sites in the highlands, lowlands and islands of Papua New Guinea. The few dated sites indi- cate that these implements were first used at least 40,000 BP (Huon; Groube et aL, 1986) and con- tinued in use to at least 6,000 BP (Yuku; Bulmer, 1977). Flaked blades began to be finished by grinding during their final period of use at some sites, and their eventual disappearance from as- semblages may be related to introduction of fine- quality polished axe-adzes from highland quarries (Bulmer, 1964, 1977). Muke (1984) has argued that the size and weight of waisted blades has declined through time in Papua New Guinea. This would imply that the Gwaimasi blades are relatively young, and fit into the latter end of this sequence. The addition of grinding techniques to the stoneworking repertoire was probably of major significance in Papua New Guinea. Bulmer (1977:58) suggested that edge-ground blades were more efficient than their flaked counter- parts for many tasks. In particular, while flaked axes may have been adequate for small-scale clearing of trees (e.g. by ring-barking) associated with management of forest edge resources edge- ground blades may have been essential for sub- stantial clearance of forests for gardens. If this interpretation is correct then at the time the Gwaimasi blades were being used the surround- ing area may not have been being gardened; no ground implements were found in association with the flaked blades. This does not necessarily mean that the people who used those blades were not gardeners. PNG farmers still regularly make special camps to exploit forest resources, such as pandanus nuts or sago, that are only available in areas above or below the altitude range of their gardens. Kosipe, a highlands site with a stone assemblage dominated by large flaked blades, has been in- terpreted as a seasonal camp for exploitation of pandanus nuts. Perhaps Gwaimasi, too, was a seasonal camp to which people, based in foothills and mountains to the north, descended to procure certain other\v'ise unobtainable forest resources. One such resource may have been sago, which grows wild in the extensive swamps behind Gwaimasi but does not naturally occur in the hills. Given the limited amount of archaeological work done in interior lowland Papua New Guinea it is difficult to assess the merits of this suggestion. Interestingly, however, the only site in the northern lowlands where large numbers of flaked blades have been found (Yerem; Gorecki pers. comm.) occupies a situation almost identi- cal to that of Gwaimasi - on the banks of a river just where it emerges from mountains to flow through sago swamps. CORE TOOLS FROM LOWLAND PAPUA 515 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Pamela Swadling, of the Papua New Guinea National Museum, organized identification of the raw materials used for the Gwaimasi blades, and encouraged publication of this description. Peter Dwyer, of the Zoology Department, University of Queensland, organized the field trip. LITERATURE CITED BULMER, S. 1964. Prehistoric stone implements from the New Guinea highlands. Oceania 34(2): 246-268. 1977. Waisted blades and axes. 40-50. In Wright, R.V.S.(ed.). ‘Stone tools as cultural markers’. (Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies: Can- berra). FRANCIS, G. 1989. ‘Petrography of the Gwaimasi flaked blades’. (Unpublished Technical Note, Geological Survey, Department of Minerals and Energy, Papua New Guinea). GROUBE, L., CHAPPELL, J., MUKE, J. AND PRICE, D. 1986. A 40,000 year-old human oc- cupation site at Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. Nature 324; 453—455. MUKE, J.D. 1984. ‘The Huon discoveries: a prelimi- nary report on the stone artefacts and a compara- tive analysis of the distribution of waisted tools in Greater New Guinea’. Unpublished B.Lit. thesis, ANU, Canberra. SWADLING, P. 1983. ‘How long have people been in the Ok Tedi impact region?’ Papua New Guinea National Museum Record 8. WHITE, J.P., CROOK, K.W.A. AND BUXTON, B.P. 1970. Kosipe: a late Pleistocene site in the Papuan highlands. Proc. Prehistoric Soc. n.s. 36: 142-170. THE INDO-PACIFIC PILUMNIDAE VII. NOTES ON HETEROPILUMNUS SASEKUMAR! (SERENE, \97\) AND CRYPTOLUTEA WARD, 1936 (CRUSTACEA: DECAPODA: BRACHYURA) PETER K.L.NG AND PETER J.F. DAVIE Ng, P.K.L. and Davie, P.J.F. 1991 08 01: The Indo-Pacific Pilumnidae VII. Notes on Heteropilumnus sasekumari (Serene, 1971) and Cryptolutea Ward, 1936 (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura). Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 517-524. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. A redescnption of the poorly known pilumnid crab Heteropilumnus sasekumari (Serene, 1971) is provided, including the first known males of the species. H. sasekumari is only the second rhizopine species known to occur predominantly in mangroves, with a wide range from Peninsular Malaysia to Borneo and northern Australia. Cryptolutea lin- damenensis is redescribed and the genus rediagnosed. A primary diagnostic character is the denticulated plate produced from the coxa of each ambulatory leg. Serratocoxa Ng, is considered a junior synonym of Cryptolutea Ward. Cryptolutea now contains C. lin~ demanensis Ward, C. sagamiensis (Sakai), C granulosa (MacGilchrist), and C. teschi (Serene). □ Crustacea, Brachyura, Pilumnidae, mangrove-dwelling, fndo-West Pacific. Peter K.L. Ng, Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore 0511, Republic of Singapore; P.J.F Davie, Queensland Museum, PO Box 300, South Brisbane,. Queensland 4101, Australia; 25 January, 1991. The Indo-West Pacific pilumnid subfamily Rhizopinae Stimpson, 1858, is comprised of small, usually mud-dwelling crabs, that are often cryptic. Their taxonomy has been under exten- sive review in recent years (Ng, 1987) but some problems remain to be resolved. In particular Cryptolutea Ward, 1936, has been poorly known. It was included in the Rhizopinae for the first time by Ng (1987) but he was unable to adequately diagnose it, and expressed some doubts as to its validity. Heteropilumnus sasekumari was originally described on the basis of a single female from the mangroves of western Peninsular Malaysia under Rhizopa Stimpson, 1858, by Serene (1971). Ng (1985) queried the placement of this species in Rhizopa and refigured the species. He also added a new record (a female) from Labuan, northern Borneo. Davie ( 1 985) then recorded the species ^sRhizopa sasekumari in his checklist of mangrove crabs from northern Australia. He in- correctly recorded the species from Singapore. Ng ( 1 987) subsequently transfered the species to Heteropilumnus De Man, 1895, restricting Rhizopa to R. gracilipes Stimpson, 1858. Males of Heteropilumnus sasekumari have not previously been collected. In view of the impor- tance of the male gonoduct positions, form of the male first pleopod, and structure of the male abdomen in xanthoid and pilumnid taxonomy, opportunity is taken here to describe the first known males of Heteropilumnus sasekumari from Australia. This species is also unusual with regard to its ecology - all specimens have been recorded from mangroves and appear to prefer this habitat. This would make it only the second mangal rhizopine species known (see Ng, 1990). G1 and G2 indicate the male first and second pleopods, respectively. All measurements are of the carapace width and length, respectively. Specimens are deposited in the Queensland Museum (QM) and Zoological Reference Col- lection (ZRC), Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore. Heteropilumnus sasekumari (Serene, 1971) (Figs 1,2) IRhizopa sasekumari Serene, 1971 : 915-16, PI. 5A. Rhizopa sasekumari: Guinot, 1971: 1078; Ng, 1985: 631, Fig. 2; Davie, 1985: 261, 262. Heteropilumnus sasekumari: Ng, 1987: 73, 79, 96. Material Examined HOLOTYPE: ZRC 1969.12.2.7, 6, littoral zone, Port Swettenham, western Peninsular Malaysia, A. Sasekumar, 28 Oct. 1968. Other Material: ZRC 1965.11.23.49-50, 29 2 , Prai, Province Wellesley, western Peninsular Malaysia, Dec. 1938 (det. R. Serene, 1962). ZRC 518 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. \. Heteropilumnus sasekumari{S^rhw^,\91\).Md\^, 18.0 x 13.5 mm, Queensland (QM W4596). 1965.11.23.51, $, mangrove, Labuan, Sabah, Bor- neo, 1938 (del. R. Serene, 6 Dec. 1969). QM W4596, <5, (18.0 X 13.5 mm). Trinity Inlet, C. 2.5 km from mouth of Redbank Creek, Cairns, Queensland, R. Timmins, 13 Dec. 1974, QM W3852, porate a distal transverse node, forming an athe- , cate internode bearing most of the superior i nematothecae. ' Hydrocladia consisting first of a short athecate | internode lacking nematothecae and internodal ' septa, terminated by a more or less transverse node; thereafter, athecate and thecate internodes t alternate, ended respectively by oblique and | transverse nodes. Athecate internodes much the longer, without septa but with up to three mesial nematothecae. Thecate internodes also without internodal septa and generally with three nematothecae: one medio-inferior, not reaching base of hydrotheca, and a lateral pair, more or less reaching (but not overtopping) the thecal margin. Hydrothecae cup-shaped, squat and shallow, adnate for between one-half to two-thirds of vertical height; with walls more or less straight, widening gradually to margin; not flared. Without intrathecal septum. Margin at 45-50° to axis. Medio-inferior nematotheca two-chambered: proximal chamber long and probably immov- able, distal one short and scoop-like, without an adcauline wall. Lateral nematothecae on short, finger-like pedicel: two-chambered and mov- able, obconical, with distal chamber shallow, broad, and only slightly emarginate on mesial side. Gonothecae (probably female) on stem, each immediately below a hydrotheca: pyriform- ovoid, on pedicel of one segment, curving up- wards, tapering proximad and rounded distally; with two two-chambered nematothecae near base. Aperture circular and operculate. Variations The hydrocladial hydrothecae may have a minute one-chambered medio-superior HYDROIDS FROM FIJI 11 531 FIG. 4. Halopteris polymorpha. A, part of stem with hydrocladia. B, hydrolhecae and nematothecae. C, gonotheca. QMGL10296, Suva Barrier Reef. nematotheca located immediately behind the free adcauline wall. Measurements (p-m) Measurements are from QM GL10296 and Siboga Sta. 80 (Billard, 1913) respectively. Stem: internode length 475-570, -. Hydrocladia: thecate internode 140-200, 340-380; athecate internode 230-280, 380-470. Hydrotheca: ab- cauline length 110^140, 135-160; adnate ad- cauline length 135-150, free adcauline length 75-90, -; marginal diameter 175—220, 200-215. Gonotheca (probably female); length -, 594- 720; maximum diameter -, 342—414; opercular diameter 216-234. Remarks Both H, buskii (Billard, 1913; Vervoort and Vasseur, 1977) and H. polymorpha (Billard, 1913; Millard, 1975) are extremely variable in terms of internode length, shape and size of hydrothecae, and number, arrangement and structure of nematothecae. Moreover, they resemble each other very closely. Our specimens of H. buskii have shorter internodes than pre- viously described and do not have the abcauline “marginal tooth” depicted by Vervoort and Vas- seur. In terms of nematothecal arrangement they resemble those described by Billard (1913) and Hirohito (1974) in often having two pairs of lateral nematothecae; their structure, however, differs from Billard ’s description in that the dis- tal chamber is not goblet-like and deeply emar- ginate, yet it is not deep and even rimmed as shown by Vervoort and Vasseur (1977, fig. 30C). Ours are broad and shallow but show definite, though gradual, mesial emarginalion. In identifying our material as //. polymorpha we have been influenced by Billard's description of specimens from Siboga Sta. 80 (1913, fig. 14A) in terms of cup shape and relative internode lengths and by the fact that gonothecae have a one-segment pedicel, while those of H. buskii have two segments. The lateral nematothecae, used by Billard to separate the two species, are too variable to provide a good diagnostic char- acter. No record of a two-chambered medio-su- 532 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM perior nematotheca, axillary to a hydrotheca, has yet been made for H. polymorpha; they are al- ways minute and single chambered (cf. H. bus- kii). It seems to us that these two nominal species require comprehensive investigation. Occurrence tn Fiji Among sponge, forereef slope, Suva barrier reef, 0-20 m, with gonothecae, 19 Feb 80 (QM GL10296). World Distributton Red Sea, Africa, Seychelles, Indonesia (Bor- neo Bank, Rotti), New Caledonia. Plumularia Lamarck, 1816 Plumularia habereri Stechow, 1909 (Fig. 5) Plumularia Habereri Stechow, 1909: 77 Plumularia habereri Stechow (1909): Billard, 1913: 42 Plumularia habereri Stechow, 1909: van Gemerden- Hoogeveen, 1965: 60 Description Colony comprising erect stems arising from a mass of hydrorhizal fibres; stems thick, polysiphonic; reaching 82 mm; branching alter- nate and in one plane distally, though irregular and in many planes basally (branches arising from both peripheral and axial lubes of stem). Branches polysiphonic to a variable degree basally but monosiphonic distally. Axial tubes of stem and branches divided by slightly oblique nodes into internodes of irregular length, each with a variable number of alternate hydrocladial apophyses and nematothecae. Apophyses borne laterally, each typically with two latero-axillary nematothecae and one small mamclon on upper surface: occasionally also a superior nemato- theca. In the polysiphonic region of stem and branches, irregularly scattered nematothecae occur on peripheral tubes. Hydrocladia typically divided into regular the- cate internodes by slightly oblique nodes; hydrothecae on upper surface. No basal athecate internode. Distal region of thecate internodes occasionally (especially distally) cut off by par- tial or complete nodes into one or more short athecate internodes; these without nematothecae but with an internal, peg-like thickening of the perisarc, on the hydrothecal side, which may develop into a septum. Thecate internodes with three nematothecae: one medio-inferior on a prominent swelling, not reaching base of hydrotheca, and two lateral on indistinct projec- tions, overtopping the thecal margin. Typically without internodal septa but with up to five perisarcal pegs on the hydrothecal side capable of so developing: two pegs basally (one below and one above papilla of medio-inferior nematotheca), one distally, and one or two in between. Hydrothecae adnate for more or less entire vertical height, tubular, widening a little to mar- gin; abcauline wall more or less parallel to hydrocladial axis, the margin orthogonal to it. Intrathecal septum absent. Nematothecae all two-chambered, movable: distal chamber nearly as deep as proximal one, funnel-shaped and slightly emarginate on mesial or adcauline side: not scoop-like. Gonothecae not observed; described as bag- shaped, smooth, tapering proximally and rounded distally; borne at base of hydrocladium (Stechow, 1909). Measurements (fxm) Stem: internode length 380-1240. Hydrocladium: internode length 270-360. Hydrotheca: marginal diameter 70-85; ab- cauline height 155-195; adnate adcauline wall 140-165; free adcauline wall 10-25. Variations The hydrothecae at the base of hydrocladia are usually shorter and wider than those distally. The athecate internodes occurring sporadically along the hydrocladium rarely bear a nematotheca. Remarks This species has been redescribed in many varieties by Billard (1913) and van Gemerden- Hoogeveen (1965). Our material does not agree with the latter’s description of that from the Caribbean in that it lacks the short adcauline intrathecal septum at the base of the lateral nematothecae and, moreover, the adcauline cup margin is not developed into upwardly pointing cusps. Of the forms designated by Billard, f. subarmata and f. mediolineata can be eliminated on account of their excessive development of internodal septa, the broad internodes, and ovoid hydrothecae; the latter form also has an ab- cauline intrathecal peg: f. mucronata has too few internodal septa, and the lateral nematothecae are in distinct cup-like embayments; however, the medio-inferior nematotheca is supported on a prominent basal swelling. The differences be- tween f. attenuata and f. elongata are less clear HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 533 FIG. 5. Plumularia habereri. A, colony. B, part of stem with hydrocladia. C, part of B, enlarged. D, hydrotheca and nematolhecae, further enlarged. OMGL10297, Great Astrolabe Reef. and, though both are illustrated as having numerous internodal septa, a note was made of their absence in younger colonies. In our material the hydrothecae do not narrow distad and the margin is not angled as in f. elongata. F. attenuala was described as being much shorter and perhaps therefore younger than our material, but it still showed internodal septa. Differences shown by our material are insufficient to warrant a new form, so we assign it to f. attenuata. Occurrence in Fiji Herald Pass, Great Astrolabe reef, 27 m, 24 Jun 78 (QM GL10297; BM 1984.5.17.42). World Distribution Japan (Sagami Bay), Indonesia, Caribbean (Curasao). Plumularia pennycuikae Millard and Bouillon, 1973 (Fig. 6) Plumularia sp. Pennycuik, 1959: 183 Plumularia pennycuikae Millard and Bouillon, 1973: 85 Plumularia pennycuikae Millard and Bouillon, 1973: Millard, 1975: 398 Description Colony comprising erect stems arising from stolonale hydrorhiza; stems monosiphonic, reaching 8.5 mm, unbranched but bearing alter- nate hydrocladia in one plane; basal part without hydrocladia or nematolhecae, very short and subdivided proximally by one or more transverse nodes, without nematolhecae. Thereafter, stem divided by transverse nodes into regular inter- nodes, each bearing one long hydrocladial apophysis dislally and up to four nematolhecae: two axillary (one anterior, one posterior), one inferior and one inferior-opposite; a small mamelon present on the upper surface of the apophysis. Internodal septa absent. Hydrocladia, bearing hydrothecae on upper surface, consisting first of a short basal athecate internode, lacking nematolhecae but with proximal and distal internodal septa, terminated by a very oblique hinge-like joint. Thereafter, 534 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 6. Plumularia pennycuikae. A, part of colony. B, part of stem and hydrocladia. C, part of hydrocladium in profile. QMGL10298, Ngaloa. thecate and athecate internodes alternate, ter- minated respectively by transverse and oblique nodes. Athecate internodes shorter and with one nematotheca at mid-length; usually with proximal and distal internodal septa, though these may be represented by internal peg-like thickenings of the perisarc of the upper wall. Thecate internodes with three nematothecae: one medio-inferior, reaching about to the base of hydrotheca, and one pair lateral, not overtopping thecal margin; septa present or not. Hydrothecae cup-shaped, adnate for ap- proximately one-half vertical height; abcauline wall straight and free; adcauline wall concave, flared to margin; intrathecal septum absent. Mar- gin at 45-60'* to hydrocladial axis. All nematothecae two-chambered and mov- able. Medio-inferior and cauline nematothecae each with long proximal chamber and short, scoop-like distal one. Lateral nematothecae not on finger-like process; with shallow, broad distal chamber, slightly lower on mesial side. Gonothecae not observed but female ovoid to spherical and bearing one egg, borne on hydrocladial apophyses of stem (Millard, 1975); male unknown. Measurements (|xm) Stem: internode length 225-275. Hydrocladia: thecate internode 165-180; athecate internode 125-175. Hydrothecae: abcauline length 115- 125; adnate adcauline length 90-116; free ad- cauline length 60-85; marginal diameter 115-120. Variations Some specimens have been observed to have the first one or two basal internodes with op- posite hydrocladia. HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 535 Occurrence IN Fiji Ngaloa, on coral rock, 15 Jun 79 (QM GL10298). World Distribution Southern Africa, Seychelles, Great Barrier Reef (various localities). Plumularia strictocarpa Pictet, 1893 (Fig. 7) Plumularia strictocarpa Pictet, 1893: 55 Plumularia strictocarpa Pictet (1893): Billard, 1913: 34 Plumularia strictocarpa Pictet, 1893: Millard, 1975: 402 Description Colony consisting of erect stems arising from stolonate hydrorhiza. Stems monosiphonic, reaching 14 mm, unbranched but bearing alter- nate hydrocladia; basal part short, without hydrocladia or nematothecae. Thereafter, divided by oblique nodes into regular internodes, each bearing a short, antero-lateral hydrocladial apophysis distally, and up to three nemato- thecae: one axillary, one or two inferior-opp- osite; a small mamelon on the upper surface of the apophysis. Internodal septa absent. Hydrocladia, bearing hydrothecae on upper surface, consisting of a short basal athecate in- ternode, without nematothecae but with one sep- tum, terminated by a very oblique joint. Thereafter, thecate and athecate internodes alter- nate, terminated respectively by transverse and oblique nodes. Relative lengths of these inter- nodes variable. Athecate inlernodes with one nematotheca and proximal and distal septa. The- cate internodes with three nematothecae, one medio-inferior, never reaching base of hydrotheca, and one pair lateral, usually overtop- ping thecal margin. Two or three internodal septa present; proximal, distal, and occasionally a third at base of lateral nematothecae. Hydrothecae adnate for entire vertical height, cup-shaped, neither flared nor narrowed to mar- gin, abcauline wall more or less straight. Margin at 50-70° to hydrocladial axis. Intrathecal sep- tum absent. All nematothecae two-chambered and mov- able. Medio-inferior and cauline nematothecae with long proximal chamber and shorter distal one, with latter lower on adcauline side but not scoop-like. Lateral nematothecae on finger-like process, with shallow, broad, even rimmed, dis- tal chamber. Gonothecae borne below hydrocladial apophyses near colony base, distinctly annu- lated, barrel-shaped, often curved, narrowing slightly distad; aperture on a short collar. Measurements (p.m) Stem: internode length 320-390. Hydrocladia: thecate internode 240-280; athecate internode 85-170. Hydrothecae: abcauline length 80-95; adnate adcauline length 75-90; marginal diameter 95-100. Gonotheca: length 684-882; opercular diameter 234-342. Remarks In the absence of gonothecae, this species would be impossible to distinguish from P. setacea (Linnaeus,I758) and P. warreni Ste- chow, 1919. Since much of the material found on Fiji was in non-reproductive condition, and distributions of the three species overlap, it would be meaningless to discuss variability. However, since P. setacea and P. warreni are likely to occur around Fiji we mention the dif- ferences relating to gonothecae. In contrast to P. strictocarpa, the gonothecae of both the other species are dimorphic. In P. setacea from the British Isles (the material upon which the species is based was collected by Ellis (1755) in S.E. England) male gonangia occur below the female gonangia on the same stem but in smaller num- bers (Cornelius and Ryland, 1990). Whether through variability over a wide geographical range or perhaps because another species has become involved, the P. setacea described by Millard (1975) from South Africa is gonochoric. P. warreni is also gonochoric. The planulae of P. setacea develop within the gonothecae, while those of P. warreni complete their development in external marsupia. The male gonotheca of P. setacea is slender, smooth, with a small aperture; that of P. warreni is often slightly curved, smooth or with a vaguely irregular outline: these may not provide reliable separation. The female gonotheca of P. setacea is compressed, smooth, with a large aperture supported on a tubular neck, which may be curved slightly to one side. That of P. warreni is elongate, ovoid, with a smooth or slightly irregular outline, without a neck. In P. warreni var. pambanensis Gravely, 1927, from the Great Barrier Reef (Pennycuik, 1959; JSR, pers. obs. at Heron 1.) both male and female gonothecae are cylindrical and the planulae develop in external marsupia. 536 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 7. Plumularia strictocarpa. A, part of colony. B, part of stem and hydrocladia. C, basal portion of hydrocladium in profile. D, hydrotheca and nematothecae. E,gonotheca. QMGL10299, Great Astrolabe Reef. Occurrence in Fiji On coral rock, windward Great Astrolabe Reef, with gonothecae, 24 Jun 78 (QMGL 10299). A non-fertile Plumularia from Joske’s reef, 18 Sep 78, and other collections from the Great Astrolabe, cannot with certainty be as- signed to this species. World Distribution Warm water cosmopolitan. Plumularia strobilophora Billard, 1913 (Fig. 8) Plumularia strobilophora Billard, 1913: 35 Plumularia strobilophora Billard, 1913: Vervoortand Vasseur, 1977: 79 Description Colony consisting of erect stems arising from stolonate hydrorhiza. Stems monosiphonic, reaching 10 mm, unbranched but bearing alter- nate hydrocladia; basal part as remainder, with hydrocladia and nematothecae. Stem divided by transverse or slightly oblique nodes into regular internodes, each bearing a short, distal hydro- cladial apophysis without mamelon but with up to four nematothecae: one inferior-opposite (to the apophysis), two latero-axillary, and one on the upper surface of the apophysis. Internodal septa absent. Hydrocladia with hydrothecae on upper sur- face, consisting of a short basal alhecate inter- node, without nematothecae but with proximal and distal internodal septa (all the hydrocladial internodes similar). Thereafter, thecate and athe- cate internodes alternate, terminated respective- ly by transverse and oblique nodes. Athecate internodcs longer than thccate, and bearing mid- way one or two nematothecae. Thecate inter- nodes with three nematothecae: one medio- inferior, not reaching to base of hydrotheca, and one pair lateral, at base of free adcauline wall, overtopping thecal margin. mm HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 537 FIG. S. Plumularia strobilophora. A, part of stem with hydrocladia. B, basal portion of hydrocladium in profile. OMGL10300, Great Astrolabe Reef. Hydrothecac shallow; marginal diameter one and one-half to two times abcauline depth; near- ly completely adnate, with very short free ad- cauline wall and straight abcauline wall. Margin oblique, at 55-60“ to hydrocladial axis. Intrathe- cal septum absent. All nematothecae two-chambered and mov- able. Medio-inferior and cauline nematothecae with long proximal and shorter distal chambers, the latter slightly lower on adcaulinc margin but not scoop-like. Lateral nematothecae obconical, rim of distal chamber more or less even. Gonothecae not observed; but inserted in the axil of hydrocladia, conical with a truncated distal end (Billard, 1913). Measurements (p-m) Stem: internode length 220-285. Hydrocladia: thecate internode 160-190; athecate internode 220-230. Hydrothecae: abcauline length 25-50; adnate adcauline length 90-100; free adcauline length 15-20; marginal diameter 90-100. Variations Hydrocladia and stem frequently with renovated nodes; these producing short athecate internodes which tend to occur singly on hydrocladia but in succession on the stem: they may or may not have a ncmatotheca. The number of nematothecae in the hydrocladial axil is vari- able, apparently because of damage: their former presence is commonly indicated by a small pore in the perisarc. Internodal septa likewise of vari- able occurrence; if not observed then replaced by internal perisarcal thickenings of the abcauline wall. Remarks Our material differs somewhat from previous descriptions. The athecate are longer than the thecate internodes, agreeing with Vervoort and Vasseur(1977) but not with Billard (191 3); how- ever, as in other species, internode length is very variable. The lack of an observable mamelon on the upper surface of the apophysis accords with Billard, as does the non-conical structure of the 538 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM medio-inferior and cauline nematothecae. The hydrothecae, however, tend to be much broader than previously noted, at least eliminating pos- sible confusion with P. setacea (Linnaeus, 1758). Occurrence in Fiji On coral boulder, windward Great Astrolabe reef, 24 Jun 78 (QMGL10300). World Distribution Gulf of Suez, Malay Archipelago, French Polynesia; also Trinidad (Vannucci, 1951). Monotheca Nutting, 1900 M. obliqua (Saunders in Johnston, 1847) (Fig. 9) Minute Sertularia: Lister 1834; 372, pi. 8, fig. 5 Laomedea obliqua Saunders: Johnston, 1847: 106 Plumularia obliqua Saunders: Hincks, 1868: 304 Plumularia obliqua (Johnston, 1847); Millard, 1975: 396 Monotheca obliqua (Saunders in Johnston): Cornelius and Ryland, 1990: 152 Description Colony consisting of delicate stems arising from a thicker stolonate hydrorhiza. Stems monosiphonic, reaching 3 mm; unbranched but bearing alternate hydrocladia in one plane; divided by transverse or slightly oblique nodes into regular inlernodes, each bearing a short hydrocladia! apophysis and containing at least three internodal septa or peg-like perisarcal thickenings: one proximal, one in the apophysis, and a variable number distal. Upper surface of apophysis bearing a small mamelon and axillary and inferior-opposite nematothecae. Hydrocladia consisting of short basal athecate and longer, terminal thecate internodes; former usually less than half length of the latter, with proximal and distal septa; without nematothecae. Thecate internode with hydrotheca on its upper surface, narrowing be- side base of hydrotheca, then expanding and terminating below thecal margin; three nematothecae: one medio-inferior, reaching the base of hydrolheca, and one pair lateral, overtop- ping thecal margin. Two very distinct internodal septa: at base and at start of distal expansion. Hydrotheca cup-shaped, almost completely adnate, with smooth, convex abcauline wall, ex- panding slightly to margin; eversion variable but especially over end of internode; without in- trathecal septum. Nematothecae all two-chambered and mov- able: medio-inferior and cauline nematothecae with distal chamber slightly less deep than proximal one; lower on adcauline side but not scoop-like. Lateral nematothecae with deep, nar- row distal chamber that is distinctly lower on mesial side. Only female gonothecae observed. Borne at colony base, slightly annulaled, large, ovoid, tapering proximad and truncated distally; aper- ture broad, with distinct cap or operculum. Male gonotheca described as tapering at both ends, with aperture terminal, small (Gili i Sarda, 1982; Cornelius and Ryland, 1990). Measurements (p-m) Stem: internode length 230-280. Hydrocladia: thecate internode 135-160; athecate internode 25—40. Hydrolhecae: abcauline length 130-170; marginal diameter 100-130. Gonotheca (female); length 830-1005; width 640-800. Remarks The female gonotheca does not correspond well with that illustrated by Hincks (1868, Fig. 36, p.305), but agrees with Lister's (1834) original engraving. Also likely to occur around Fiji, having been reported from both New Zealand and Japan, are Plumularia pulchella Bale, 1882, and P. spinulosa Bale, 1882, which, having a single hydrotheca per hydrocladium, are also referable to Monotheca Nutting, used by Cornelius and Ryland (1990). The first species has a concave abcauline thecal wall and two nematothecae in the hydrocladial axil; the second has a distinct adcauline intrathecal sep- tum and the hydrocladium ends in a spine. Occurrence in Fiji On red algae, Ndeumba, LWST, 8 Jul 78 (BM 1984.5. 1 7.44); with female gonothecae, 9 Sep 79 (QMGL10301). World Distribution Cosmopolitan. Family AGLAOPHENIIDAE Millard (1975) maintained Aglaopheniinae as a subfamily of Plumulariidae; others (e.g., Rees and Vervoort, 1987) have done likewise. Other authors (e.g.. Bouillon, 1985; Cornelius and Ryland, 1989), whom we have followed, have preferred to confer family status. HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 539 FIG. 9. Monotheca obliqua. A,B, parts of colonies. C, stem internodes and hydrocladia. D, female gonotheca. QMGL10301,Ndeumba. Gymnangium Hincks, 1874 G. eximium (Allman, 1874) (Figs 10-12) Taxella eximia Allman, 1874: 179 Halicornaria bipinnata Allman, 1876: 279 Gymnangium eximium (Allman, 1874): Slechow, 1923: 236; Vervoort and Vasseur,1977: 81; Rees and Vervoort, 1987: 156 Description Colony erect. Stems reaching 1 10 mm or only 20 mm, depending on growth form (see Varia- tions); lightly polysiphonic; bearing subopposite branches in one plane, these redivided to a secon- dary or tertiary level. Final branches poly- siphonic basally; axial tubes of branches arising from the peripheral lubes of stem (or lower order branch). Axial tube of stem and branches bearing alternate hydrocladia and divided by slightly oblique, indistinct nodes which slope alternately left and right (imparting a vaguely geniculate appearance for the younger parts of the colony). Basal internodes of stem and branches without hydrocladia but with regularly-placed median nematolhecae. These typically conical, with ter- minal aperture, facing distad along branch axis. Thereafter all internodes with a midlateral hydrocladial apophysis and two nematothecae: antero-inferior and antero-superior; a minute mamelon on the apophysis. Cauline nemato- thecae broadly based, widening distally; gutter- like or open with a large aperture on the inner surface; or bifurcated, with tubular or scroll-like processes ending in two terminal apertures at 180“ to each other. Antero-inferior nematotheca on the hydrocladial apophysis, directed along hydrocladial axis; antero-superior nematotheca median but with aperture directed away from hydrocladium. Hydrocladia divided by slightly oblique nodes into regular, straightish internodes, with anterior hydrotheca and two internodal septa: one op- posite adcauline intrathecal septum and one at base of lateral nematothecae. Hydrothecae sigmoid in profile, deep, widen- ing only slightly to margin; abcauline wall vari- able, but convex in lower adnate region and concave above. A short adcauline intrathecal 0.2 mm 540 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 10. Gymnangium eximium, first form. A, part of colony. B, part of stem and basal portion of hydrocladium. C, hydrothecae and nematothecae. D, gonotheca. OMGL10302, Great Astrolabe Reef. FIG. 11. Gymnangium eximium, second form. A, part of colony. B, part of stem and bases of hydrocladia. C, hydrothecae and nematothecae. D, gonotheca. A-C, QMGL10307, Ndeumba; D, QMGL10306, Ndeumba. 0.25 mm HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 541 FIG. 12. Gymnangium eximium, third form. A, part of stem and hydrocladia. B, part of stem and basal portions of three hydrocladia. C, hydrothecae and nematothecae. D, gonothecae (? immature). A-C, QMGL10304, Great Astrolabe Reef. D, QMGL10305, Yanutha. septum above the hydropore, perisarcal thicken- ing below margin distinct. Margin facing away from internode at approximately 70“; smooth or with low-lying, broadly triangular teeth. With three nematothecae: one medio-inferior and two lateral. Medio-inferior nematotheca tubular, ad- nate to abcauline thecal wall for one-third to one-half of cup height, then free and divergent; with three apertures: terminal, on upper surface at beginning of free part, and opening into hydrotheca near top of adnate part. Lateral nematothecae tubular, with terminal and mesial apertures; overtopping thecal margin, directed antero-distad. Gonothecae forming double row on anterior surface of branches, one per hydrocladia! apophysis; flattened and lens shaped with dis- tinct pedicel. Variations Nodes are usually indistinct on the stem and branch base. Adcauline hydrothecal septa developed to a variable degree, indistinct. Colonies show tendency to reverse the orienta- tion of the stem several times throughout length. This species occurred in three different colony morphs. The first (Fig. 10), which corresponds most to the type from Ceylon, described by Allman (1874, 1876) as ‘attaining a height of upwards of a foot', reaches 110 mm in our material, and has branches of about even length. Its hydrocladia are of two types: those on the stem bear four or fewer (mean three) hydrothecae, those on the branches bear more than four but fewer than seven. Our second and rarest morph (Fig. 1 1) differs from the others not only in colony form but also in hydrothecal shape and ncmatothecal structure. Branches are of the same length throughout, long, widely spaced and orthogonal to the stem. Stem hydrocladia bear never more than three (mean two) hydrothecae, branch hydrocladia typically three or four; the nodes slope posterad (as opposed to anterad). Hydrothecae are similar in basic shape but taller, thinner and less sig- moid: medio-inferior nematothecae short and at 90° to the hydrolheca. Antero-superior cauline nematothecae distinct; broad, flat, adherent to axial tube, trifurcate; branches extending across width of axial tube, each with an aperture. Two 542 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM of the apertures opposite, conspicuous and directed laterad on rounded extensions; the third small, directed distad. The third and commonest morph in our collec- tions (Fig. 1 2), has flat, round, leaf-like colonies, up to about 20 mm in height and bright yellow when living; the middle branches are the longest, with hydrocladia bearing as many as 20 hydro- thecae or more. Vervoort and Vasseur (1977) obtained this form. The first and second forms were encountered together on the Great Astrolabe Reef. Despite the differences, which all involve features known to be variable, we believe that all three forms may be referred to the same species. Measurements (mu) Measurements refer to 1st (QM GL10302-3), 2nd (GL10305), and 3rd (GL10306-7) morphs respectively. Stem: internode length 160-250, 250-320, 150-230. Hydrocladium: internode length 175-210, 250-270, 165-220. Hydrotheca: vertical height, 210-215, 230- 250, 200-215; marginal diameter 95-115, 150- 180, 90-100; adnate adcauline wall 70-100, 110-123, 70-90; free adcauline wall 55-90, 110-123, 50-70. Mcdio-inferior nematotheca: length 45-60, 35-50, 50-650. Lateral nematotheca: length 100-120, 90-110, 90-105. Remarks Although Gymnangium gracilicaule (Jader- holm, 1903) bears a superficial resemblance to this species and has a similar distribution (Mil- lard, 1975), the abcauline intrathecal septum in G. eximium is distinctive. Occurrence in Fiji Found at LWST and below, in gulleys, in windward situations. First and second forms: Herald Pass, leeward Great Astrolabe Reef, 28 m, 24 Jun 78; north of Yanutha reef, Mbengga leeward barrier reef, 4-8 m, 7 Oct 79 (BM 1984.5.17.49-50, 56; QMGL10302-5). Third form: Suva barrier forereef off Nascse, 0-20 m, 19 Feb 80; Ndeumba, LWST, many occasions; Ngaloa, 15 Jun 79; windward Great Astrolabe Reef, 24 Jun 78, 1 1 Jul 80 (BM 1 984.5. 1 7.47^8, 51; QMGLl 0306-8). With gonothecae 24 Jun 78, 8 Jul 78, 20 Aug 78, 7 Oct 79, 1 2 Jul 80. Some colonies from the Great Astrolabe bore Anten- nella secundaria and Hebella parasitica. World Distribution Red Sea, tropical Indian Ocean (Wasini, Amirante I. (Jarvis, 1922)), Ceylon (Allman, 1876) and French Polynesia. Gymnangium hians (Busk, 1852) (Fig. 13) Plumularia hians Busk, 1852; 396 Halicornaria hians (Busk): Billard, 1913: 68 Gymnangium hians (Busk, 1852): Millard, 1975; 444 Description Colony with erect stems rising from a creeping hydrorhiza. Stem monosiphonic but thick and tough; reaching 150 mm; unbranched; divided by slightly oblique nodes, which slope alternate- ly left and right, into internodes of variable length. Each internode with two or three, alter- nate, fronto-lateral hydrocladial apophyses, the hydrocladia disposed in a shallow, abfrontally directed V. Basal part of colony without hydrocladial apophyses but with a variable num- ber of low-lying mesial nematothecae. Three nematothecae associated with each apophysis: antero-inferior, antero-superior, and postero- axillary; mamelon absent. Antero-inferior nematotheca small, narrowing dislally, not on the apophysis, directed along hydrocladial axis; antero-superior nematotheca widening distally and directed along stem axis; postero-axillary nematotheca weakly bifurcate, projecting away from stem or hydrocladium but with mesial aper- ture directed along stem axis. Hydrocladia bearing hydrothecae frontally, divided by slightly oblique, often indistinct, nodes into thecate internodes. Internodes more or less straight, of variable length; without inter- nal septa. Hydrothecae sac-shaped, rounded, widening to margin. Abcauline septum one-half to two- thirds distance up abcauline wall; exceeding half thecal width, straight at first, curled over at the end. Abcauline wall convex throughout. Hydropore protected by several small spines. Margin at 30—45“ to internode, with six lateral cusps. Adcauline and middle pairs prominent, abcauline pair low and rounded, all directed slightly laterally. Three nematothecae to each hydrotheca: the medio-inferior adnate for entire length of ab- cauline hydrothecal wall, then free and diver- gent, curving upward, with concave adthecal surface, pointed at end, upper surface open, no internal opening. Lateral nematothecae saccular, broad-based, narrowing little; gutter-like, with terminal aperture directed dorso-posterad. HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 543 FIG. 13. Gymnangium hians. A, part of colony. B, part of stem with gonothecae and bases of hydrocladia. C,D, hydrothecae and nematothecae. OMGL10309, Great Astrolabe Reef. Cauline nematothecae saccular, variably shaped, broad-based, gulter-like, narrowing little, aper- ture on inner surface. Gonothecae in distal half of colony; one per hydrocladial apophysis, forming a double series on the anterior stem surface; smooth, ovoid, truncated distally. Measurements (p-m) Stem: internode length 450-800. Hydro- cladium: internode length 50-270. Hydrotheca: vertical height 225-245; marginal diameter 150-180; adnate adcauline wall 210-220; free adcauline wall 30-50. Nematolheca; length of lateral nematotheca 60-80; length of medio-in- ferior nematotheca 40-60. Variations In tall colonies all hydrocladia are typically of equal length; if shorter, then leaf-shaped (Fig. 13A), with the mid-region hydrocladia the longest. Cauline nematothecae are very variable in form, often distinctly bifurcate, with two distal perisarcal extensions; never tubular. Lateral nematothecae only rarely overtopping the hydrothecal margin. Remarks Resembles G. haswelli (Bale, 1884, as Halicornaria) in shape and size, except that Bale’s illustrated specimen has a medio-inferior nematotheca which is not gutter-like but tubular, with two apertures: terminal, and on the upper surface at the beginning of the free part. It also resembles G. speciosa (Allman, 1877, as Halicornaria) in hydro- and gonothecal form; but that species has opposite hydrocladia in the plane of the stem. Occurrence in Fiji Not recorded from any Viti Levu reefs but abundant and conspicuous in the channels at the 544 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM windward edge of the Great Astrolabe Reef; with gonolhecae 24 Jun 78 (QMGL10309; BM 1984.5.17.52-3), 12 Jul 80 (BM1984.5. 17.54); colonies often supporting Clytia hemisphaerica, Hebella dyssymetra, Sertularella diaphana delicata, and Antennella secundaria. Also from north tip of Yanutha reef, Mbengga leeward barrier reef, 4-8 m, 7 Oct 79 (BM 1984.5.1 7.55). World Distribution Tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific: Red Sea, Africa, East Indies, Torres Strait, Japan, Hawaii, Kermadec Islands; also Caribbean. Lytocarpia Kirchenpauer, 1872 Lytocarpia Kirchenpauer (1872) has precedence over the more familiar Thecocarpus Nutting (1900) and in this respect (though with some misgivings on account of the similarity to Lytocarpus) we follow Rees and Vervoort (1987). Lytocarpia bathyalis sp. nov. (Fig. 14) Holotype QMGL10310-1; BM1988.il. 10.5. Found en- tangled in a prawn trap. Type Locality Off Suva barrier reef, about 450 m depth. 1 978. Description Colony tall and delicate, 130 mm, little branched, arising from a tangle of hydrorhizal fibres. Stem polysiphonic, branches lightly polysiphonic basally and monosiphonic distaily. Stem and branches bearing long, regularly alter- nate hydrocladia arising from axial tube; axial tubes of branches arising from the peripheral tubes of stem; divided by indistinct oblique nodes into regular internodes. Each internode with a mid-lateral apophysis, and antero-inferior and antero-axillary nematothecae; a small mamelon on the apophysis. Cauline nemato- thecae broadly based and either bifurcate or con- ical; if the latter, then with one terminal aperture which is often confluent and scroll-like with a second, smaller one, at inner base. Antero-in- ferior nematotheca orientated along the stem axis (not on hydrocladial apophysis), distinctly bifurcate, the apertures directed laterad. Antero- axillary nematotheca conical, aperture directed laterad. Hydrocladia divided into regular thecate inter- nodes by indistinct transverse nodes; internodes more or less straight, without septa; the hydrotheca in the upper half of the anterior sur- face. Hydrothecae deep, triangular; adcauline wall straight, abcauline wall diverging progressively from base to margin; narrowing below septum. Adcauline intrathecal septum above the hydropore, sigmoidal, of variable length; if com- plete then inserting two-fifths to one-half way up abcauline wall. Margin directed from internode at 70-80'*; with seven marginal cusps. Abcauline cusp more or less fused to the medio-inferior nematotheca, incurved and pointed. Lateral cusps low and rounded, the middle one pointed slightly and sweeping poslcrad; all upward directed. Medio-inferior nematotheca adnate to ab- cauline wall for entire hydrothecal height, then free for a short distance, curving over hydrotheca; bifurcate, scroll-like or slightly tubular to two terminal apertures, with a third at the base of the free part, opening immediately behind the abcauline marginal cusps. Lateral nematothecae tubular, narrowing distad, with two apertures, terminal and mesial; these some- times confluent and scroll-like, directed antero- distad, overtopping thecal margin. Corbulae numerous, borne on the stem, paral- lel to and in the plane of the hydrocladia; open, with pedicel of one hydrotheca-bearing segment followed by up to 40 segments carrying alternate paired ribs. Each rib with proximal hydrotheca (with two lateral but no medio-inferior nematothecae) above the blade base and a single nematotheca below; true perisarcal crest absent. Blade narrow, the edges bearing subopposite nematothecae. These long and tubular with ter- minal and basal apertures inclined along rib axis. Rib indistinctly segmented, typically with one or tw^o nematothecae. Rib inlernodes with a small mamelon and two opposed, conical nematothecae directed laterad. Gonothecae cor- date, somewhat compressed. Measurements (|xm) Internode length: 750-820. Hydrotheca: ab- cauline length 400-420; adcauline height 430- 480; marginal diameter 230-250. Nematotheca length: medio-inferior 80-95; lateral 175-190. Occurrence IN Fiji Off Suva barrier reef, about 450 m, with cor- bulae. 1978 (QMGL10310, 10311). HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 545 FIG. 14. Lytocarpia bathyalis sp.nov. All drawings are of the holotype (slides QMGL 1 03 1 0-1 ). A, part of main stem and a principal branch. B, part of a branch with hydrocladia and corbula. C, part of branch with bases of three hydrocladia. D,E, hydrotheca and nematothecae. F, phylactocarp. G, bract. H, gonothecae. Lytocarpia brevirostris (Busk, 1852) (Fig. 15) Plumularia brevirostris Busk, 1852: 397 Thecocarpus brevirostris Billard, 1913: 89 Thecocarpus brevirostris (Busk, 1852): Millard, 1975:454 Description Colony erect. Stems reaching 20 mm, lightly polysiphonic; unbranched or with subopposite branches, usually in one plane, redivided as stem to a secondary or tertiary level. Axial tubes of branches arising from the peripheral tubes of the stem and lower order branches; final branches lightly polysiphonic basally. Stem and branches with alternate hydrocladia from axial tube; this divided by slightly oblique, indistinct nodes, sloping alternately left and right, imparting a slightly geniculate appearance to the younger parts of the colony. Basal part of stem and branches without hydrocladia; latter with inter- nodes bearing a single nematotheca. Thereafter, all internodes with a mid-lateral hydrocladia! apophysis and two nematothecae: antero-in- ferior and antero-superior; a mamelon on the apophysis. Cauline nematothecae broadly based, widening distally; gutter-like or open with large aperture on inner surface. Sometimes bifurcating distally, with terminal apertures at 180“ to each other; then tubular or scroll-iike for a variable distance below the apertures. Antero-inferior nematotheca directed along hydrocladial axis; antero-superior nematotheca mesial, directed along internodal axis. Hydrocladia divided by indistinct oblique nodes into regular thecate internodes. Internodes slightly convex, with a bulge distally; generally 546 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM without internodal septa; hydrothecae on anterior surface. Hydrothecae sigmoid in profile, deep, widen- ing to margin. Abcauline wall convex and thick- ened in lower region, where adnate to nematotheca; then sharply reflexed. Adcauline intrathecal septum above hydropore, of variable length. Margin facing away from internode at 35-50’', with seven cusps. Abcauline tooth tall and pointed, may ap- proximate the end of medio-inferior nematotheca owing to curvature of upper ab- cauline wall; three pairs of pointed and outward- ly directed lateral cusps, middle pair broad, triangular. Medio-inferior nematotheca tubular, adnate to abcauline thecal wall for two-fifths to one-half cup height, then free and divergent, curving upward and away from hydrocladial axis; with three apertures: terminal, on upper surface at beginning of free part (these two usual- ly confluent), and opening to hydrotheca near lop of adnate part. Lateral nematothecae tubular and narrowing distally, gutter-like; with antero- mesial aperture; overtopping thecal margin, directed postero-Iaterad. Corbulae stubby; length 1. 5-2.5 times width, much shorter than hydrocladia. Corbula closed, with pedicel of one hydrothecal segment, fol- lowed by up to 10 segments carrying alternate paired ribs. Each rib raised proximally as a perisarcal crest supporting a single hydrotheca (with two lateral, but no medio-inferior, nematothecae), then continued as a broad blade with gutter-like nematothecae along outer edge and scattered irregularly on the distal upper sur- face; inferior edge fused to the superior edge of the preceding rib. Superior edge often with a leaflike outgrowth bearing one nematotheca be- tween hydrotheca and blade. Corbula terminated by up to three complete hydrothecae. Gonoihccae delicate, scarcely visible inside the pod-like corbula. Measurements (ixm) Inlernode length: 270-320. Hydrotheca: free abcauline length 45-80; adnate abcauline length 110-125; adcauline height 220-240; marginal diameter 70-110. Nematotheca length: medio- inferior 70-110; lateral 65-80. Variations Colony leaf-like, with a tendency to reverse stem face several times. Subopposite branches may be in slightly different planes from main stem, angled postero-Iaterad. Hydrocladial inter- nodes may have a small incomplete septum op- posite the adcauline intrathecal septum. Occurrence in Fiji Yarawa reef, Mba, under boulders, 8 Nov 78 (BM 1984.5. 1 7.65); Tailevu Point, on coral rock, 16 Sep 78, 14 Jul 79 (OMGL10314); Thangilai reef, 28 Apr 79 (QMGL10312-3; BM 1984.5.17.66); Ndeumba 18 Mar 79; Great Astrolabe Reef, with Hebella dyssymetra, 23 Jun 78 (BM 1984.5. 1 7.67), 12 Jul 80. World Distribution Tropical Indo-west Pacific. Lvtocarpia nicpenni sp. nov. (Figs 16,17) Holotype QMGL10315; BM1984.5. 17.68. Collected by Dr. N. Penn. Para TYPES QMGL10316, BM1984.5. 17.69 and 70. Type Locality Makuluva Pass (Sta.33), 15-20m, 2 May 1980. Description Colony a well-branched fan, reaching 90 mm. Stem bearing largely alternate branches in one plane, these once or twice redivided in same manner. Stem and primary branches typically lightly polysiphonic basally, monosiphonic dis- tally. Stem and branches with alternate hydrocladia from axial lube. Axial tubes of branches arising from peripheral tubes of the stem; divided by slightly oblique, indistinct nodes into regular internodes. Branch basal in- ternodes without hydrocladial apophyses but with regularly arranged mesial nematothecae, one per internode; thereafter, all intemodes bear- ing a hydrocladial apophysis laterally and two nematothecae, antero-inferior and antero-supe- rior; a large mamelon present on the apophysis. Cauline nematothecae bifurcate to a variable degree; tubular or scroIl-Iike to two terminal apertures, open on inner surface. Antero-inferior nematotheca directed more or less distad along stem axis, with apertures lateral, opposite each other. Anlero-superior nematotheca partly on the apophysis and directed more or less distad along stem axis. Hydrocladia bearing hydrothecae on anterior surface, divided into thecate internodes by indis- HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 547 FIG. 15. Lytocarpia brevirostris. A, part of colony. B, part of stem and bases of hydrocladia. C, part of hydrocladium in profile. D, corbula. A,B, OMGL10312. C, OMGL103 13, Thangilai Reef. D, QM GL10314, Tailevu Point. tinct transverse nodes; intemodes more or less straight, without internodal septa. Hydrothecae sac-shaped, rarely widening to margin. Abcauline wall thickened and convex where adnate to nematotheca; concave above. Adcauline septum above hydropore of variable length, usually long and sinuous, inserting below the free part of medio-inferior nematotheca. Margin at 55-70° to internode, with nine mar- ginal cusps. Abcauline cusp tall and pointed; remainder progressively rounded and low lying, upward directed, separated by rounded bays. Medio-inferior nematotheca tubular, adnate to abcauline thecal wall for one-half to two-thirds cup height, then free; with two apertures, ter- minal, and on upper surface at beginning of free part (the two sometimes confluent); no opening to hydrotheca. Lateral nematothecae tubular and bifurcate, with mesial and two terminal aper- tures; one part directed anterad and overtopping thecal margin, the other extending posterad across the width of the internode; the latter some- times absent. Corbulae numerous on stem and branches, in same plane as and paralleling the ordinary hydrocladia; open, with pedicel of one hydrothe- cate segment followed by up to 36 segments carrying alternate paired ribs. Each rib with a small mamelon and two associated nematothecae, one in axil and directed along the corbular axis, the other opposite the rib and directed away from it. Ribs without perisarcal crest, with a single nematotheca in angle of blade base and a hydrothcca beyond it; this with a pair of undivided lateral nematothecae but no medio- inferior nematotheca. Blades narrow, bearing subopposite nematothecae on edges (though the first blade unpaired); not contiguous with ad- jacent ribs (hence open). These nematothecae long and tubular, increasing in length along the blade, oblique to the rib edge and with terminal and basal apertures. Rib indistinctly segmented, typically with one or two pairs of nematothecae per segment. Gonotheca lens-shaped. Measurements (|xm) Internode length 250-280. Hydrotheca: free abcauline length 75-110; adnate abcauline 548 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 16. Lytocarpia nicpenni sp.n. All drawings are of the holotype (QMGL10315). A, part of colony. B, part of stem and bases of three hydrocladia. C, hydrothecae and nemalothecae in profile. D, corbula. length 160-185; adcauline length 230-260; mar- ginal diameter 140-170. Nematotheca length: medio-inferior 60-85; lateral (anterior part) 120-150; lateral (posterior part) 95-120. Variations Nodes at branch and colony base very indis- tinct. Free abcauline wall of hydrotheca showing a variable degree of concavity and height: if short then very concave with abcauline marginal tooth close to medio-inferior nematotheca, if long then straight and roughly parallel with the internode. Antero-superior cauline nematotheca may not be bifurcated but conical, with terminal aperture directed laterad from hydrocladium; on hydrocladia, lateral thecal nematothecae often lacking the posterior element, the pair on any hydrotheca even differing in this respect. Hydrothecae rarely develop along corbula ribs. A second corbula sometimes arises from the rib of an existing, undamaged one. Occurrence in Fiji No intertidal records. Makuluva Pass, 15-20 m, 2 May 80 (holotype); Suva barrier reef, 0-20 m, 19 Feb 81 (BM 1984.5. 17.69); north tip of Yanutha reef, Mbengga, 15-20 m, 7 Oct 79 (paratype, QMGL10316) and Pratt Reef, Mbengga, 4 m, 3 Nov 79 (BM 1984.5.17.70); all with corbulae. Lytocarpia phyteuma (Kirchenpauer, 1876) (Figs 18,19) Aglaophenia phyteuma Kirchenpauer, 1876: 23 Thecocarpus phyteuma (Kirchenpauer, 1876): Mil- lard and Bouillon, 1973; 95; Vervoort and Vasseur, 1977: 86 Description Stems arising from creeping hydrorhiza, monosiphonic; reaching 60 mm; divided by slightly oblique nodes into regular internodes. Basal internodes of colony without hydrocladia but with irregularly arranged distal nemato- thecae. Thereafter, each internode with a single lateral hydrocladial apophysis and three nemato- thecae: antero-inferior, antero-superior, and HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 549 FIG. 17. Scanning electron micrographs of Lytocarpia nicpenni sp. nov. A, B, lateral views of hydrothecae. The lateral nemalothecae are either bifurcate (b) or represented by only the anterior fork (a). C, part of stem. Between the hydrocladia are an inferior nematolheca (i), a mammelon (m), and a superior nematotheca (s). D, anterior view of hydrothecae. Some lateral nematothecae have both anterior (a) and posterior (p) apertures. Scale bar = 100 p,m. SEMS by Dr M. Fordy. 550 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 18. Lytocarpia phyteuma. A, part of colony. B, part of stem and bases of hydrocladia. C, hydrothecae and nematothecae. D, corbula. A, QMGL10319. B,D, QMGL10318, Great Astrolabe Reef. C, QMGL10317, Nukulevu. postero-axillary; a small mamelon on the apo- physis. Cauline nematothecae very variable, all broadly based and with gutter-like aperture on inner surface. Antero-inferior nematotheca median, below apophysis, directed along hydro- cladial axis, saccular, wider proximally or distal- ly. Antero-axillary nematotheca narrowing distally, directed along internode axis. Postero- axillary nematotheca sometimes weakly bifur- cate, projecting away from internode, with mesial aperture directed along the internode axis. Hydrocladia alternate, bearing hydrothecae anteriorly, divided by slightly oblique, indistinct nodes into thecate internodes; these more or less straight, without septa. Hydrolhecae variable, sac-shaped, delicate, widening to margin. Abcauline wall thickened, convex in lower adnale region and concave above. Adcauline septum above hydropore of variable length. Margin at 60-80° to internode, with nine marginal cusps. Abcauline, median cusp tall and pointed, remainder progressively more rounded and low lying; directed upward, separated by rounded bays. With three nematothecae, one medio-inferior and two lateral. Medio-inferior nematotheca tubular, ad- nate to abcauline thecal wall for one-half to four-fifths cup height, then free, divergent, and gutter-like; also opening to hydrotheca near top of adnate part. Lateral nematothecae likewise tubular and gutter-like, with antero-mesial aper- ture; overtopping thecal margin, directed posterad. Corbulae long, about two-thirds length of hydrocladia; closed, with a pedicel of one hydrothcca-bearing segment followed by 20-36 segments bearing alternate paired ribs. Each rib proximally bearing a tall pcrisarcal crest sup- porting a single hydrotheca (with lateral but no medio-inferior nematothecae); continuing as a I broad blade bearing a series of gutter-like nematothecae along the outer/superior edge and I having the inner/inferior edge fused to the inner face of the preceding rib. Ribs of the basal pair bear nematothecae on their inferior and superior || edges; inferior edge often developed as a leaflike |j HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 551 FIG. \9. Lytocarpia phyteuma continued. A, part of stem and bases of hycrociadia. B, C, part of hydrocladium. D, corbula. A-C, QMGL10320. B, QMGL10321, Ndeumba. outgrowth. Nematothecal apertures facing distad along the rib edge. Measurements (p-m) Internode length: 220-300. Hydrotheca: free abcauline length 70-120; adnate abcauline length 1 15-155; adcauline height 220-240; mar- ginal diameter 110-140. Nematotheca length: medio-inferior 50-65; lateral 95-140. Variations Colony leaf-like in appearance, with hydrocladia either close together or more distant. Sometimes the antero-posterior orientation of the stem is reversed several times. Free abcauline thecal wall of variable length; long, straightish and parallel to internode, or short and concave, the abcauline cusp close to the medio-inferior nematotheca. The greater the concavity, the more acute the marginal angle. Hydrothecal sep- tum may be complete, below the thecal opening of the medio-inferior nematotheca, or present only as a short extension of the adcauline peg at this level. In the corbula, the basal perisarcal crest of each rib may extend beyond its hydrotheca and bear one terminal and up to three disto-medial nematothecae. Occurrence in Fiji Nukulevu, on ascidian, 0.5-2 m, 27 May 79 (OMGL10317; BM 1984.5.17.63); Suva barrier reef, near harbour entrance, 0-13 m, 3 Jun 80 (BM 1984.5.17.64); Ndeumba, gulleys at LWST, 18 Mar 79 (QMGLl 0320-1 ; BM 1984,5,17.61); windward Great Astrolabe Reef, 24 Jun 78 (QMGL10318; BM1984.5.17.60), 11 Jul 80 (OMGL10319; BM 1984.5. 17.62), some with Hebella dyssymetra; Frigate Pass, Mbengga leeward barrier reef, 3-8 m, with H. 552 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM dyssymetra; 2 Nov 79. Corbulae present February, March, May, June, July, August. World Distribution Tropical Indo-west Pacific: Seychelles, In- donesia, Great Barrier Reef, Tonga, Tuvalu, and French Polynesia. Lytocarpia vitiensis sp. nov. (Figs 20,21) Holotype QMGL10322-4; BM1984.5. 17.71. Collected by Dr. N. Penn. Paratype BM1984.5. 17.72 Type Locality Suva Harbour entrance, 12m(Sta. 25), 21 Nov 79. Description Colony a well-branched fan, reaching 60 mm, bearing irregularly alternate branches in one plane, these redivided as stem. Stem polysiphonic, branches typically lightly polysiphonic basally and monosiphonic distally. Stem and branches bearing alternate hydrocladia from axial tube. Axial lubes of branches general- ly arising from the peripheral tubes of the stem; divided by indistinct oblique nodes into regular internodes. Branch basal internodes without hydrocladial apophysis but each with a single mesial nematothcca; thereafter, all internodes with an aniero-lateral apophysis and two or three anterior nematothecae: one or two inferior, one superior; and a large mamelon on apophysis. Nematothecae of variable ^hape and size: broad based and widening distad, gutter-like with aper- ture on inner surface; usually bifurcate, tubular or scroll-like for a variable length to the terminal apertures; these at 90-180"' to each other. Lower antero-inferior nematothecae large, strongly bifurcate, apertures directed laterad, extending whole width of axial tube; orientated distad along stem axis. Upper antero-inferior nematothcca directed along the stem axis, dis- tinctly bifurcate. Antero-superior nematotheca weakly bifurcate, directed distad along stem axis. Hydrocladia divided into regular thecate inter- nodes by indistinct oblique nodes; internodes more or less straight, without internodal septa; hydrothecae on anterior surface. Hydrothccae sac-shaped, delicate, not widen- ing to margin. Abcauline wall long and slightly convex in lower adnale region: short and more or less straight above, slightly thickened. Usual- ly without intrathecal septum. Margin at angle of 50-60° to internode axis, with nine cusps. Ab- cauline cusp tall and pointed but cusps progres- sively rounded and low lying posteriorly; directed upward; separated by rounded bays. Medio-inferior nematothcca tubular, adnate to abcauline hydrothecal wall for one-half to two- thirds cup height, then free, rather straight, with concave upper surface; with three apertures: ter- minal, on upper surface at beginning of free part (these two usually confluent), and opening into hydrotheca near top of adnate part. Lateral nematothecae tubular and tapering distad, directed postero-distad, and overtopping the the- cal margin; with terminal and antero-mesial apertures. Corbulae numerous, borne on and in the plane of the branches, parallel with the ordinary hydrocladia; open, with pedicel of one hydrothe- cate segment followed by up to 36 segments carrying alternate paired ribs. Each rib with a small mamelon and two associated nematothecae, one in the axil and directed along the corbular axis, the other opposite the rib and directed away from it. Blade size decreasing distad. Each rib with a single nematotheca in angle of blade base and a hydrotheca beyond it; this with two lateral but no medio-inferior nematothecae; no pcrisarcal crest. Blades nar- row, the edges bearing subopposite nematothecae; these long and tubular, oblique to the rib axis, with terminal and basal apertures; their length increasing distad. Rib indistinctly segmented, typically with one or two pairs of nematothecae per segment. Gonothecae lens- shaped. Measurements (ixm) Internode length 230-260, Hydrotheca: free abcauline length 75-95; adnate abcauline length 150-180; adcauline height 220-250; marginal diameter 140-160. Nematothcca length: medio- inferior 65-80; lateral 150-170. Variations Shape of hydrothecal abcauline wall variable, more or less straight throughout and parallel to internode, or distinctly concave below and con- vex above; adnate region always longer than free part. Some specimens show a weak adcauline intrathecal septum above the hydropore. Lateral marginal cusps of similar size, or the second pair HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 553 FIG. 20. Lytocarpia vitiensis sp. nov. All drawings are of the holotype (slides QMGL 10323-4). A, colony. B, part of branch and bases of hydrocladia. C, hydrolhecae and nematolhecae. D, corbula. E, gonothecae. from the adcauline side taller. The lower inferior cauline nematothecae are often absent and all cauline nematothecae are variably (or even not) bifurcated. Remarks This species closely resembles Lytocarpia nic- penni, both in terms of general colony form and corbula structure, although the colonial fans of the present species seem a little smaller and less dense. The hydrothecae differ mainly in having non-bifurcated lateral nematothecae. However, in the previous species also, hydrothecae at the hydrocladial base frequently bear non-bifur- cated lateral nematothecae; but while the single element in L. niepenni is directed anterad, it is directed posterad inL. vitiensis. The hydrothecae in L. niepenni have a well developed intrathecal septum, those of vitiensis usually do not. The present species also differs from L. niepenni in sometimes having a third nematotheca as- sociated with the hydrocladial apophysis and in the medio-inferior nematotheca opening to the hydrotheca. Occurrence in Fiji Suva harbour entrance, about 12 m, with cor- bulae, 21 Nov 79 (holotype, QMGL10322-4; BM 1984.5.17.71). Frigate Pass, Mbengga leeward barrier reef, 3-8 m, 3 Nov 79 (BM 1984.5.17.72). Macrorhynchia Kirchenpauer, 1872 Macrorhynchia Kirchenpauer (1872) is the valid name for the genus more familiarly known as Allman, 1883, see Rees and Ver- voort (1987). Macrorhynchia philippina (Kirchenpauer, 1872) (Fig. 22) Aglaophenia (Macrorhynchia) Philippina Kirchen- pauer, 1872: 29 Lytocarpus philippinus (Kirchenpauer): Billard, 1913: 78 554 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 21. Scanning electron micrographs oiLytocarpia vitiensis sp. nov. A,B, lateral view of hydrothecae. The lateral nematothecae have only a posterior aperture. C, part of stem. Between the hydrocladia are either one or (at the top) two inferior nematothecae (i), a mammelon (m), and a superior nematolheca (s). D, anterior view of hydrothecae. Scale bar = 100 (xm. SEMs by Dr M. Fordy. HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 555 Lytocarpus philippinus (Kirchenpauer, 1872): Mil- lard, 1975:449 Macrorhynchia philippina (Kirchenpauer, 1872): Rees and Vervoort, 1987: 177 Description Colony reaching 160 mm. Stems bearing ir- regularly alternate branches in same plane, these redivided to a fifth order. Stem and main branches polysiphonic, final branches typically lightly polysiphonic basally and monosiphonic dislally; all bearing alternate hydrocladia from axial tube. Axial tubes of branches arising from peripheral lubes of stem or major branches; divided by oblique nodes into regular internodes. Basal branch internode long, without hydrocladial apophyses but with regularly ar- ranged mesial nematotheca; terminated by a very oblique articulated joint. Thereafter, all inter- nodes with one antero-lateral apophysis and two nematothecae, antero-inferior and antero-axil- lary; a small mamelon on apophysis. Cauline nematothecae broad-based, conical, with a ter- minal aperture and a second, smaller one, at inner base, never confluent, Antero-inferior nematotheca on hydrocladial apophysis and directed along its axis; the antero-axillary nematotheca directed disto-laterad. Cauline nematothecae at branch bases typically bifur- cate. Hydrocladia divided into regular thecate inter- nodes by indistinct transverse nodes; internodes more or less straight, with two internodal septa, opposite the small adcauline intrathecal peg and at the base of lateral nematothecae; bearing hydrothecae on anterior surface. Hydrothecae sigmoid in profile, widening to margin. Abcauline wall convex in adnate region, concave above. Perisarcal thickening below margin distinct, but variably developed; a small intrathecal peg on adcauline wall above the hydropore. Margin facing away from inlernode at 30-50°, with three cusps. Abcauline cusp very small and resembling a spine; two laterals low- lying with broadly triangular lobes. Medio-in- ferior nematotheca tubular, adnate to abcauline hydrothecal wall for approximately one-half the cup height; then free, divergent, sometimes up- ward pointing; with three apertures: terminal, on upper surface at beginning of the free part, and opening to hydrotheca near top of adnate part. Lateral nematothecae tubular, with terminal and mesial apertures; overtopping thecal margin, directed laterad and antero-distad. Phyiactocarps not observed (but described by Millard, 1975). Measurements (p.m) Internode length: 260-300. Hydrotheca: free abcauline length 45-60; adnate abcauline length 120-140; adcauline height 220-250; marginal diameter 100-1 15. Nematotheca length: medio- inferior 60-80; lateral 100-135. Variations Colony typically spindly, loosely spiralling, characteristically having a dark brown stem and white hydrocladia. Some specimens with very long, clubbed tendrils arising from the end of hydrocladia. Upper abcauline wall of hydrotheca variably concave, hence angle between the inter- node and the thecal margin also variable. Occurrence in Fiji Common along the fore-reef at Ndeumba, 0-2 m, many collections but never with phyiac- tocarps (QMGL10326-10328; BM1984. 5.17.58,59). World Distribution Pantropical. Macrorhynchia phoenicea (Busk, 1852) (Fig. 23) Plumularia phoenicea Busk, 1852: 398 Aglaophenia phoenicea Busk: Bale, 1884: 159 Lytocarpus phoeniceus (Busk): Billard, 1913: 74 Macrorhynchia phoenicea (Busk): Mammen, 1967: 313 Lytocarpus phoeniceus (Busk, 1852): Millard, 1975: 451 Description Colony erect; stem polysiphonic, reaching 30 mm; bearing irregularly alternate branches in one plane, these never redivided, lightly fas- cicled basally. Axial tubes of branches generally arising from peripheral tubes of stem; divided by slightly oblique nodes into regular internodes. Hydrocladia arising from axial tube. Basal inter- nodes of stem and branches without hydrocladial apophyses but with one medial nematotheca per internode; all distal internodes with one apophysis on antero-lateral surface, and antero- inferior and antero-axillary nematothecae; a small mamelon on the apophysis. Cauline nematothecae conical, variably sized, with ter- minal and smaller mesial apertures; the latter orientated along stem axis. Antero-superior 556 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 22. Macrorhynchaphilippina. A, part of colony. B, part of stem and bases of hydrocladia. C,D, hydrothecae and nematothecae. A, QMGL10328, off Magnetic Island, Queensland. B, QMGL10327, Ndeumba. C, QMGL10325 Lizard Island, Queensland. D, QMGL10326, Ndeumba. nematolheca with aperture directed laterad; antero-inferior nematotheca directed distad or along hydrocladial axis. Hydrocladia divided into regular thecate inter- nodes by oblique nodes; internodes more or less straight, with three septa: one opposite adcauline interthecal septum, one at base of lateral nematothecae, and a faint one in between these; hydrolhecae on anterior surface. Hydrothecae sac-shaped, widening to margin; abcauline septum below margin long, extending for more than half the thecal width, at first straight but distinctly curled over at the end. Abcauline wall thickened, long, parallel to medio-inferior nematotheca for nearly entire lower adnate region, then very short and concave above; with a small peg just above the hydropore. Margin broad, facing away from in- ternode at 30-40“; with nine marginal cusps. Abcauline cusp very small and pointed, laterals more or less equal in height, directed out and up. Medio-inferior nematotheca tubular, adnate to abcauline thecal wall for majority of thecal length, then free and divergent, extending well beyond thecal margin, directed out and distad. Apertures terminal and on upper surface at beginning of free part, without internal opening to hydrotheca. Lateral nematothecae tubular, long, directed latero-distad and slightly posterad; with two apertures, terminal and mesial. Phylaclocarps comprising a narrow blade with proximal hydrotheca replace every third hydrocladium. Blade divided by slightly oblique nodes into regular ’internodes’ bearing two or three long, tubular nematothecae with terminal and basal apertures. ’Internodes’ typically with opposite nematothecae on lateral edges, though alternate ’internodes’ to the distal end of the blade bear a third, much longer nematotheca on the outer surface, Phylactocarp curled around gonotheca which is lens shaped but not strongly flattened. Measurements (fim) Internode length:240-260. Hydrotheca: free abcauline length 20-30; adnate abcauline length 100-115; adcauline height 180-230; marginal diameter 120-160. Nematotheca length: medio- inferior 1 10-140; lateral 65-75. Variations The second pair of lateral cusps on the hydrothecal margin may be pointed and back- HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 557 FIG. 23. Macrorhynchia phoenicea. A, part of colony. B, part of stem with bases of hycrocladia. C, parts of hydrocladia in profile. D, part of hydrocladium in plan view. E, phylactocarp. OMGL10329, Suva Barrier Reef. ward sweeping. Those cauline nematothecae on the base of the stem and branches can be sac- cular, widening distad, and gutter-like. Remarks The hydrothecal shape resembles that il- lustrated by Bale (1884; from Port Molle) though the long medio-inferior nematotheca is more akin to the variety from Port Darwin. This is a very variable species in terms of hydrothecal shape, length of medio-inferior nematotheca, and orientation of lateral nematothecae. Con- trary to the description of Millard (1975), the gonotheca is borne on the second blade segment while the first bears a single nematotheca on its inner surface. Occurrence in Fiji Suva barrier forereef, opposite Nasese, 4-20 m, with phylactocarps, 19 Feb 80 (QM GL10329; BM1984.5. 17.57). World Distribution Tropical Indo-Pacific. Aglaophenia Lamouroux, 1812 Aglaophenia postdentata Billard, 1913 (Fig. 24) Aglaophenia postdentata Billard, 1913: 100 Aglaophenia postdentata Billard, 1913: Millard and Bouillon, 1973:90 Description Colony with small erect stems arising from creeping hydrorhiza, reaching 8.5 mm. Stems unbranched, unthickened, monosiphonic; bear- ing alternate, pinnately arranged hydrocladia; divided by slightly oblique nodes into internodes which bear one or two antero-lateral hydro- cladial apophyses. Three nematothecae as- sociated with each apophysis: antero-inferior, antero-axillary, and postero-axillary; a small 558 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM i i I FIG. 24. Aglaophenia postdentata. A, part of colony. B, part of stem and bases of hydrocladia. C, hydrothecae with nemalolhecae in profile. D, associated Hebella parasitica. QMGL10330, Great Astrolabe Reef. B-D, QMGL10331, Thangilai. mamelon on each apophysis. Proximal part of stem without hydrocladia, of variable length, and with one or two distal internodes articulating with each other and the stem above by means of very oblique, hinge-like nodes. Each of these internodes with one mesial nematotheca. Cauline nematothecae broadly based, conical and gutter-like, with aperture on the inner sur- face. Inferior nematotheca directed out and along stem axis; both axillary nematothecae directed laterad. Hydrocladia divided into regular, more or less straight, internodes without internodal septa; hydrothecae on the anterior surface. Hydrothecae sac-shaped, delicate, widening little to margin. Abcauline wall convex in adnate region, slightly concave above. Adcauline sep- tum above hydropore, of variable length, usually long and bowed up in the middle; often com- plete. Margin rarely facing away from internode, though this dependent on the degree of concavity of the free portion of abcauline wall; 10 marginal cusps. The ab- and adcauline cusps most prom- inent; the laterals also pointed, more or less of equal size, directed upward, separated by trian- gular bays. Medio-inferior nematotheca gutter-like, ad- nate to abcauline thecal wall for more than one- half cup height, then free and divergent. No internal opening to the hydrotheca at top of ad- nate region. Lateral nematothecae entirely on thecal wall, saccular and gutter-like, with antero- mesial aperture; not overtopping thecal margin, directed posterad. Corbulae not observed (see Vervoort, 1941 or Millard and Bouillon, 1973 for descriptions). Measurements (fim) Internode length:250-270. Hydrotheca: free abcauline length 45-95; adnate abcauline length 125-150; adcauline height 180-250; marginal diameter 120-140. Nematotheca length; medio- inferior 35-50; lateral 45-55. Variations Colony thin, with unfascicled stems; may have opposite hydrocladia at stem base. Cauline nodes, sloping alternately left and right, may impart a slightly geniculate appearance to younger parts of the colony, Internodal septum may be present. Free abcauline wall of theca variably concave and may be more or less paral- HYDROIDS FROM FIJI II 559 lel to hydrocladium. Adcauline marginal cusp variably developed, usually obvious but rarely as prominent as indicated in published descrip- tions. Some specimens have all the cusps tall and thin, imparting a very different appearance to the hydrothecae. Remarks The similarities between this species and juvenile colonies of A. pluma (Linnaeus, 1758) have been discussed by previous authors. Al- though the posterior marginal cusp is not dis- tinctly demarcated from the laterals in our material, its size and shape provide sufficient evidence to allow recognition of the species. Occurrence in Fiji Great Astrolabe Reef, 12 Jul 80 (QM GL10330). Thangilai reef, 28 Apr 79 (QM GL 10331); Suva barrier reef, 29 Mar 79 and, with Hebella parasitica, 27 Apr 79; Joske’s reef, 18 Sep 78 (BM1984.5.17.46); Ndeumba, with H. parasitica, 18 Mar 79. World Distribution Seychelles, Celebes, Moluccas. LITERATURE CITED ALLMAN, G.J. 1874. On the diagnosis of new genera and species of hydroids. Nature, London 11: 179. 1876. Diagnoses of new' genera and species of Hydroida. Journal of the Linnean Society (Zool- ogy) 12: 251-284. 1877. Report on the Hydroida, collected during the exploration of the Gulf Stream by L.-F, de Pourtales. Memoirs of the Museum of compara- tive Zoology at Harvard College 5: 1-66. 1883. Report on the Hydroida dredged by H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876. Part 1. Plumularidae. Scientific Results of the Chal- lenger Expedition. Zoology 7(20): 1-54. BALE, W.M. 1882. On the Hydroida of south-eastern Australia, with descriptions of supposed new species and notes on the genus Aglaophenia. Journal of the Microscopical Society of Victoria, 2: 15^8. 1884. Catalogue of the Australian hydroid zoophytes. Sydney: Australian Museum. BILLARD, A. 1913. Les Hydroides de Texpedition du Siboga. I. Plumularidae. Siboga Expedition 7a: 1-115. BOUILLON, J. 1985. Essai de classification des Hydropolyps-Hydromeduses (Hydrozoa- Cnidaria). Indo-Malayan Zoology 1: 29-243. BUSK, G. 1852. An account of the Polyzoa, and Sertularian zoophytes, collected in the voyage of the Rattlesnake, on the coasts of Australia and the Louisiade Archipelago, etc. In: Mac- Gillivray, J. Narrative of the voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, Vol. 1, Appendix I: 343-402. Lon- don. CORNELIUS, P.F.S. AND RYLAND, J.S. 1990. Hydrozoa. 107-158. In P.J. Hayward and J.S. Ryland (eds), ‘Marine fauna of the British Isles and north-west Europe’. (The Clarendon Press:Oxford). ELLIS, J. 1755. ‘An essay towards a natural history of the corallines’. London. FRASER, C.McL. 1944. ‘Hydroids of the Atlantic coastof North America’. (University ofToronto Press: Toronto). GIBBONS, M.J. AND RYLAND, J.S. 1989. Inter- tidal and shallow water hydroids from Fiji. I. Athecata to Sertulariidae. Mem. Qd Mus. 27: 377-432. GILI I SARD A, J-M. 1982, Fauna de cnidaris de les Hies Medes. Treballs de la Institucio Catalana d’Historia Natural. 10: 1-175. GMELIN, J.F. 1791. Caroli a Linne ... Systema Naturae... ed. 13. Vermes. 1(6): 3021-3910. Lipsiae, 3 vols (1788-1793). GRAVELY, F.H. 1927. The littoral fauna of Krusadai Island in the Gulf of Manaar, Hydrozoa. Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum (Nat. Hist.) 1: 7-20. HELLER, C. 1868. Die Zoophyten und Echinoder- men des Adriatischen Meeres. Verhandlungen der Zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien 18: 1-88. HINCKS, T. 1868. ‘A history of the British hydroid zoophytes’. 2 vols. (Van Voorst: London). 1874. On deep-water Hydroida from Iceland. An- nals and Magazine of Natural History, Ser. 4, 13: 146-153. HIROHITO, Emperor of Japan, 1974. Some hydrozoans of the Bonin Islands. (Imperial Household: Tokyo). JADERHOLM, E. 1903. Aussereuropaische Hydroiden im schwedischen Reichsmuseum. Arkiv for Zoologi 1 : 259-312. JOHNSTON, G. 1847. ‘A history of British zoophytes’, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Van Voorst: Lon- don). KIRCHENPAUER, G.H. 1872. Ueber die Hydroiden- familie Plumularidae, einselne Gruppen dersel- ben und ihre Fruchtbehaller: Aglaophenia Lx. Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiet der Nalurwis- senschaften, Hamburg 5: 1-52. 1876. Ueber die Hydroidenfamilie Plumularidae, 560 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM einselne Gruppen derselben und ihre Fruchtbehaller (II. uwd Nemertesid). Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiet der Naturwis- senschaften, herausgegeben vom Naturwis- senschaftlichen Verein in Hamburg 6; 1-59. LAMARCK, J.P.B.A. de 1816. Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres. Ed. 1,1. (Bailliere: Paris). LAMOUROUX, J.V.F, 1812. Extrail d’un memoire sur la classification des Polypiers coralligenes non enlierement pierreux. Nouveau Bulletin des Sciences par la Societe Philomatique de Paris 3: 181-188. LINNAEUS, C. 1758. Systema naturae.., Ed. 10. Hol- miae: Laurentii Salvii. LISTER, J.J. 1834. Some observations on the struc- ture and functions of tubular and cellular Polypi, and of Ascidiae. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 125: 365- 388. MAMMEN, T.A. 1967. On a collection of hydroids from South India. III. Family Plumulariidae. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. India 7: 291;324. McCRADY, J. 1857. Gymnophthalmata of Charles- ton Harbor. Proceedings of the Elliott Society of Natural History of Charleston, South Carolina, 1 (cover date 1859): 103-221; (pagination of reprint: 1-119). MILLARD, N.A.H. 1975. Monograph of the Hydroida of Southern Africa. Annals of the South African Museum 68: 1-513. MILLARD, N.A.H. and BOUILLON, J. 1973. Hydroids from the Seychelles (Coelenterata). Annales du Musee royale de TAfrique centrale. Sciences: Zoologiques 206: 1-106. NUTTING, C.C. 1900. American hydroids. Part I. The Plumularidae. Special Bull. US Natnl Mus. 4(1): 1-285. PENNYCUIK, P.R. 1959. Faunistic records from Queensland. Part V. Marine and brackish water hydroids. Papers Dept. Zool., Univ. Qd 1: 141- 210 . PICTET, C. 1893. Etude sur les Hydraires de la Baie d’Amboine. Revue suisse de Zoologie, 1: 1-64. REES, W.J. and VERVOORT, W. 1987. Hydroids from the John Murray Expedition to the Indian Ocean, with revisory notes on Hydrodendron, Abietinella, Cryptolaria and Zygophylax (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). Zoologische Verhan- delingen, Leiden, 237: 1-209. STECHOW, E. 1909. Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte Oslasiens: Hydroid-polypen der japanischen Ostkiiste. Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenshaften, Suppl. Bd. 1(6): 1 - 111 . 1919. Zur Kenntnis der Hydroidenfauna des Mit- telmeeres, Amerikas und andere Gebiete, nebst Angaben iiber einige Kirchenpauersche Typen von Plumulariden. Zoologische Jahrbiicher (Systematik Abteilung) 42: 1-172. 1923. Zur Kenntnis der Hydroidenfauna des Mit- teimeeres, Amerikas und andere Gebiete, 2. Teil. Zoologische Jahrbiicher (Systematik Abteilung) 47: 29-270. TOTTON, A.K. 1 930. Coelenterata. Part V. Hydroida. Natural History Report of the British Antarctic Terra Nova Expedition, 5: 131-252. VAN GEMERDEN-HOOGEVEEN, G.C.H. 1965. Hydroids of the Caribbean: Sertulariidae, Plumulariidae and Aglaopheniidae. Studies on the fauna of Curagao, 22: 1-87. VANNUCCI, M. 1951. Hydrozoa e Scyphozoa exis- tente no Institute Paulista de Oceanografia. Bolitim do Inslituto Oceanografico, S. Paulo, 2(1): 69-100. VERVOORT, W. 1941 . Biological results of the Snel- lius Expedition. XL The Hydroida of the Snel- lius Expedition (Milleporidae and Stylasieridae excluded). Temminckia, 6: 186-240. 1968. Report on a collection of Hydroida from the Caribbean region, including an annotated check- list of Caribbean hydroids. Zoologische Verhan- delingen, Leiden, 92: 1-124. VERVOORT, W. and VASSEUR, P. 1977. Hydroids from French Polynesia with notes on distribution and ecology. Zoologische Verhandelingen, Leiden, 159: 1-98. TAXONOMIC REVIEW OF THE VARANUS PRASINUS GROUP WITH DESCRIP- TIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES ROBERT GEORGE SPRACKLAND Sprackland, R.G. 1991 08 01: Taxonomic review of the Varanus prasinus group with descriptions of two new species. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 561-576. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. Examination of seven character systems, including skull morphology, scalation, external morphology, colour pattern, ecology, karyotype, and behaviour, provide the data for taxonomic rearrangement. The subspecies Varanus prasinus kordensis is placed in junior synonomy with V. prasinus, while the subspecies V. p, bogerti and V. p. beccarii are elevated to specific status. In addition, two new exiralimilal species are described, V. teriae, sp. nov., from Australia’s Cape York Peninsula, and V^. telenesetes sp. nov., from Rossell Island, Papua New Guinea. A model for tree monitor origin and dispersal is presented. The group is probably derived from Varanus indicus stock, having primarily invaded New Guinea and extended later into northeastern Australia. [^Varanus, taxonomy, zoogeog- raphy, cladistics. Robert George Sprackland, Department of Zoology, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83843, USA; Present address: Associate Curator of Herpetology, San Jose State Univer- sity, San Jose, California 95192, USA; 6 July, 1990. Tree monitors are a closely allied group of medium sized lizards that range across the lowlands of New Guinea (Boulenger, 1885; De- Rooij, 1915; Mertens, 1942c, 1950, 1959; Al- lison, 1982) and northeastern Australia (Cogger, 1975; Czechura, 1980). They are characterized by elongated body and limbs, and a fully prehen- sile tail (Greene, 1986), that is at least 1 .75 times snout-vent length. Most widespread of these lizards is the striking emerald, or green, tree monitor, Varanus prasinus. The adaptations for arboreality represent highly derived characters within the Varanidae (Greene, 1986). Mertens (1942a, c) assigned V. prasinus to the subgenus Odatria primarily on the basis of its round tail, but acknowledged that V. prasinus was unlike other odatrians. Mertens (1941, 1942a,c, 1950) placed four subspecies under V. prasinus: prasinus, kordensis, beccarii, and bogerti. My examination of a number of varanid species, including several Odatria and V. prasinus, suggests that the prasinus-gxonp is dis- tinct enough in habits, ecology, and morphology to warrant separation from Odatria. This paper reviews the tree monitors, and con- cludes that 1, two subspecies previously as- signed to V. prasinus be elevated to specific status, 2, the subspecies kordensis, representing normal variation within prasinus, be placed in junior synonomy with prasinus, 3, Australian and Rossell Island lizards represent new species, and 4, the prasinus group is directly descended from Varanus indicus -related varanids and not from Odatria. MATERIALS AND METHODS Forty six specimens of the V. prasinus-group were examined for skull morphology, scalation, external morphology, colour-pattern, ecology, and behaviour. Live specimens of V. prasinus and V. beccarii were examined in zoos and private collections. Fifty-seven derived traits were tabulated for 23 varanid species to determine relationships of the prasinus-group to the Varanidae in general (Ap- pendices 1 and 2). A character was assigned ancestral (0) status if it was common in related, non-varanid outgroups (helodermids, lan- thanotids, anguids) (Pregill et al., 1986). Thus, a round nostril condition, common to most lacer- tilians, is rated as ancestral, while a slit nostril is considered derived. McDowell and Bogert (1954) pointed out that in varanids, the elonga- tion of the snout is a secondary (=derived) con- dition that preceded the forward placement of the nostrils. Consequently, an ancestral varanid is expected to have an elongated snout with a posterior nostril (0) (i.e. V. griseus). In non- varanid outgroups, the adpressed limbs do not meet, so this was taken as the ancestral condition. Other traits were assessed similarly. 562 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM teienesetes bogerti ' terlae 1 beccarii ’ prasinus 1 indicus I Salvator I storri Irlstls 1 timorensis , varius 1 “ L komodoensis , I gouldii I I — panoptes 1 mertensi I — dumerilli — 1 rudlcollis I — olivaceus I I flavescens I bengalensis I exanthematicus I nlloticus griseus FIG. 1. PAUP produced cladogram for 23 varanids. Note that the geographic range for each taxon extends further east as one moves up the cladogram. Also note the implied relationship of the prasinoids (top 5 taxa) to both V. indicus and V. salvator. Character states and characters used given in Appendices 1 and 2. REVIEW OF VARANUS PRASINUS 563 Karyotype data were derived from Holmes et al. (1975), King and King (1975) and Auffen- berg (1981, 1988). Hemipenal data are from Branch (1982) and Bohme (1988). Some infor- mation on cranial morphology was taken from Mertens (1942b). Other data were taken from specimens at the institutions listed below. The cladogram (Fig. 1) was constructed from the Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony pro- gram (PAUP). Specimens examined were from the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), British Museum (Natural History) (BMNH), Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH), Florida State Museum (FSM), Queensland Museum (QM), United States National Museum of Natural History (USNM), University of Kansas Museum of Natural History (KU), California Academy of Sciences (CAS), Museum of Com- parative Zoology (MCZ), Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (MVZ), University of Texas at Ar- lington (UTACV), San Jose State University Vertebrate Museum (SJSU), and the author’s collection (RGS). A brief description of certain character states employed (Appendix 1) is warranted: 4. The area surrounding the nostril is either raised, forming a distinct mound along the line of the canthus rostralis ( 1 ), or else the region is undifferentiated from the canthus. 8. The tongue is short (0) if it extends no greater than the distance from the snout tip to the posterior border of the eye. 10. The snout is considered broad al the tip (0) if there is minor constriction anterior to the eyes, that is, if the dorsal aspects of the canthus rostrali are nearly paral- lel. 12. A blunt snout (0) is taken to mean the line of the mouth is nearly parellel to the line of the canthus. 21. Cranial surface is a character of overall texture. A rough (0) surface has deep sutures between individual scales. 22. A rounded canthus is an indistinct morphological line (0); a distinct canthus is an acute line formed at the junction of the dorsal and lateral aspects of the region between the eye and the snout tip (1). 23. If the snout is triangular (1) in section, the lower borders of the maxillary bones are further apart than their upper borders. 28. Neck length is moderate (0) if it is less than or equal to the distance from snout tip to posterior border of the eye. 53. Reserved for unpublished data. RESULTS In the Australia-New Guinea region, two major lines diverged: 1 , the primarily Australian monitors, characterized by small, pebbled cranial scales, comparatively shott tails, and ter- restrial habits, and 2, the Indo-New Guinean monitors that retain large, polygonal cranial scales, relatively long tails and arboreal/semi- aquatic habits. In the first group have been placed two subgenera (Mertens, 1942c). Var- anus includes varius, komodoensis, gouldii, panopies and mertensi (and probably rosenber- gi, which was unavailable for this study), all species >lm in TL. The other subgenus is Odatria, typically Leptogenys Roger (= Prionogenys Emery, N. Syn.)(Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae). General and Applied Entomology 20: 33-37. 1989. Australian ants of the genus Leptothorax Mayr (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Myr- mecinae). Mem. Qd Mus. 27: 605-610. TAYLOR, R.W. AND BROWN, D.R. 1985. Hymenoptera: Foimicoidea. 1-149, 306-348. In Zoological Catalogue of Australia, Volume 2. Australian (Govt Publ. Service: Canberra). VIEHMEYER, H. 1922. Neue Ameisen. Arch, fiir Naturgesch. 88A: 203-220. WARD, P.S. (1984). A revision of the ant genus Rhytidoponera (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in New Caledonia. Aust. J. Zool. 32: 131-175. WHEELER, W.M. 1919. The ants of the genus Metapone Forel. Annals Ento. Soc. Amer. 12: 173-191. 1935. The Australian ant genus Mayriella Forel. Psyche 42: 151-160. WILSON, E.O. 1957. The tenuis and selenophora groups of the ant genus Ponera (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harv. 116: 353-386. 1962. The ants of Rennell and Bellona Islands. Natural History of Rennell Island, British Solomon Islands 4: 13-23. WILSON, E.O. AND TAYLOR, R.W. 1967. The Ants of Polynesia. Pac, Insects Mons 14: 1-109. A NEW THERAPHOSID SPIDER FROM THE CAMERON HIGHLANDS, MALAYSIA RICHARD C. WEST West, R.C. 1991 06 01: A new theraphosid spider from the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 615-619. Brisbane. ISSN 0079-8835. Lyrognathus liewi sp. nov. is described from the rainforests of westcentral Malaysia. This is the first record of the genus outside its type locality of Assam, India. ^fJTheraphosid spider, Malaysia, rainforests. Richard C. West, Royal British Columbia Museum, 675 Belleville Street, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8V 1X4; 20 August 1990. Pocock (1895) described Lyrognathus crota- I lus, the type species, from a single female. L. I pugnax Pocock, 1900 and L. saltator Pocock, 1900 from North Khasi Hills and Shillong, respectively are the only other species assigned. Sex was not mentioned for these single speci- i mens. Gravely (1915) examinedL. crotalus, de- termined earlier by Hirst, from the Khasi Hills and L. pugnax determined by himself, from the Garo Hills and doubted whether they were dis- tinct species. Gravely (1935) considered the three species of Lyrognathus synonymous and the genus close to Selenocosmia with the excep- tion of the one character of leg IV being incras- sate. Gravely (1935) described two males from Khasi Hills as Selenocosmia pugnax but as- sumed they might belong to Lyrognathus. Pocock’s type material at the British Museum, Natural History is apparently too fragile to loan and examine therefore I offer no opinion on specific synonymies in the genus. I follow Raven (1985) in maintaining Lyrognathus and Selenocosmia as separate taxa. Between October 1986 and July 1988, I re- ceived eight ien)B.\e Lyrognathus from Mr. K.C. Liew, Taiping, Malaysia. This new species of Lyrognathus is a new generic record for Malay- sia and an extension of range for the genus. MATERIALS AND METHODS Measurements are in millimetres, except ocu- lar measurements are made at the same magnifi- cation and each unit is 0.055 mm. Measurements of the diameters of the median eyes are from above, those of the lateral eyes were made from the side. The width of the eyegroup refers to the distance between the two outer eyes but also includes the diameters of these eyes. The ratio of the eyes is expressed in units which are taken from the divisions of the micrometer scale. The eyes are measured across their greatest width and the distance between the eyes is measured along the shortest distance. The median ocular quad- rangle formed by the median eyes is measured to include the eyes and the ratios are obtained in the same way as the ratio of the eyes; AME — ant- erior median eyes; ALE-anterior lateral eyes; PME — posterior median eyes; PLE — posterior lateral eyes; MOO — median ocular quadrangle. Segments of legs are measured dorsally in a straight line from articulation to articulation. Claws are not included in measurements of tarsi. The leg formula expresses relative lengths of the legs from longest to shortest length. Spination patterns are recorded from the specimen accord- ing to the following conventions: v-ventral, p- prolateral, d-dorsal and r-retrolateral; spine pos- itions are reported from distal to proximal, un- paired spines are listed as 1, paired or a transverse series of 3 spines are listed as 2 or 3. Spermathecae were dissected out and the muscle coat removed with fine needles. Illustra- tions were made with the assistance of a squared eyepiece reticule. Lyrognathus Pocock, 1895 Lyrognathus Pocock, 1895:170, 175; Pocock, 1900: 187,202; Simon, 1903:954,956; Gravely, 1915a: 415; Gravely, 1915b:284; Gravely, 1935:83; Roewer, 1942:264; Bonnet, 1957:2675; Brig- noIi,l 983: 132; Raven, 1985:38,1 18; Platnick, 1989:105.. Selenocosmia {Lyrognathus) Gravely, 1935:83. Type Species Lyrognathus crotalus Pocock, 1895; by monotypy. Diagnosis All tarsi integral with tarsi IV divided by setae and tibia and metatarsus IV strongly incrassate. 616 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Prolateral surface of maxillae with numerous baciiliform lyra setae acting against a line of spike setae (strikers) on the retromargin of the cheliceral furrow. Remarks Lyrognathus differs from other Selenocos- miinae primarily by the tibia and metatarsi IV being strongly incrassate. With the exception of this character L. liewi is similar to female Coremiocnemis validus (Pocock, 1895) not only from the same locality but in color, size and possessing the same horizontally aligned peg- like setae on the intercheliceral face. Distribution, Habitat and Burrow L. liewi is known from the wet dipterocarp and montane rainforests of Cameron Highlands, Pahang, in the main range and from Baling, Kedah, and Grik, Perak, in the eastern range of west Malaysia. Female L, liewi make a silk- lined burrow averaging SO-lOOcm in length and 3cm in diameter enlarging into a small chamber distally. The burrow usually has a leaf-lined or twig debris collar that is flush with the ground on the rainforest floor; sloping ground on open for- est fringes or roadsides is preferred. When dis- turbed L. liewi will readily bite. ‘Orang Asli' people call these large mygalomorphs ‘Teifoo’ or Earth tiger and believe the bite is fatal. Lyrognathus liewi sp. nov. (Figs 1-11, Table 1) Etymology For Mr. K. C. Liew who collected the specimens and supplied the natural history infor- mation. Material Holotype 9 and seven paratype 9 9 Cameron Highlands, Pahang, West Malaysia, 4'’4rN; 10r52’E. Holotype 9 and two paratype 9 9 QM Nos 15460, 15461 and 15462, respectively; other five paratype 9 9 in author’s collection. Locations 3 9 9, off 24th mi. Road, Cameron Highlands, Pahang, Malaysia, Oct.-Nov. 1986, coll. K.C, Liew; 59 9, off 24th mi. Road, Cameron Highlands, Pahang, Malaysia, July 4- 12, 1988, coll. K.C. Liew; 2 9 9(dried) Baling, Kedah, and 1 9 (dried) Grik, Perak, Malaysia, Nov. 1980, coll. H. Wong. Diagnosis Large mygalomorph spider. Female with tibia and metatarsus IV strongly incrassate, metatar- sus IV tapering distally. Rctrolateral face of patella, tibia and metatarsus IV with dense brush of hair, tapering distally on metatarsus IV. Females with horizontally aligned short and long peg-like (thorny) setae on intercheliceral face. Spermathecae variable, bilobed on holotype female, both tri- and bilobed on paratype females. Males unknown. Description Holotype female. Carapace 18.54mm long, 15.40mm wide. Abdomen (slightly collapsed) 20.90mm long. 14.03mm wide. Total length 39.44mm. Colour. Carapace uniform brown; legs I, II and palp light brown, all femora dark brown, legs III and IV dark brown, longer red brown hairs on leg IV: chelicerae light brown on dorsal and lateral surface; abdomen entirely dark brown with longer red brown hairs on dorsal and lateral surfaces. In alcohol carapace, legs and chelicerae entirely dark red brown, abdomen and dense brush of hair on leg IV dark brown. Carapace, Fovea broad, closed, procurved; uniformly hirsute, cuticle almost obscured; eight long setae in group in front of AME, two long setae between ALE-PLE, ten long setae in a group between PLE, few short anteromedial bristles; clypeus about one AME diameter long; striae shallow; caput strongly arched; lateral margins with longer setae, anterior margin with many long bristle setae. Eyes, Tubercle rectangular, distinct, higher posteriorly, sloping in front to anterior margin; group occupies 0.26 of headwidth; group front width: back width: length, 49:49:21, ratio of AME:ALE:PME:PLE, 10:6:5:5; MOO front width: back width: length, 27:37:23; interspaces (as diameters of an AME): AME-AME, 0.5; AME-ALE, 0.4; ALE-PLE, 0.6; PME-PLE, 0. 1 ; PME-PME, 2.7. Chelicerae. Stout; rastellum absent; 14-16 closely set teeth on promargin of furrow, many granular teeth basomesally; long line of short and long spike setae (strikers) on the retromargin of the furrow; c. 25 modified horizontally aligned peg-like setae, short and stout, pointed apically. Labium. 2.64 long, 3.69 wide; rectangular, anteriorly slightly procurved; with dense group of over 300 cuspules on anterior third; labioster- nal suture consisting of deep groove with two lateral sigilloid elongate lobes, slightly raised, glabrous. A NEW THERAPHOSID SPIDER FROM MALAYSIA 617 FIGS 1 -1. Lyrognathus liewi, female from Cameron Highlands: 1 , Cephalothorax and chelicerae, dorsal view. 2, Sternum, maxillae, labium and chelicerae, ventral view. 3, Leg IV, dorsal view. 4, Leg IV, prolateral face. 5,7, Spermathecae of paratype females, dorsal view. 6, Spermalhecaeof holotype female, dorsal view. Scale line = 1cm (Figs 1-4), =lmm (Figs 5-7). Maxillae. 8.09 length behind, 6.38 length evident; maxillae and labium covered with long front, 3.74 width; broad; average 200 cuspules erect bristles and short hairs; prolateral surface on inner corner; anterior lobe distinct; serrula not 618 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIGS 8,9. Coremiocnemis validus Pocock,l895, female from Cameron Highlands, scanning electron micrographs. 8, Chelicerae, prolateral face showing peg- like setae. 9, Chelicerae, prolateral face showing peg-like setae enlarged. 10,11. Lyrognathus liewi, paratype female fram Cameron Highlands, scanning electron micrographs. 10, Chelicerae, prolateral face showing peg- like setae. 1 1, Chelicerae, prolateral face showing peg-like setae enlarged. Scale line = 1mm (Figs 8,10), 0.1mm (Figs 9,11). with distinct area of bacilliform setae forming a lyra. Sternum. 8.36 long, 8.09 wide; round; short brown prostrate hairs interspersed with erect short dark brown bristles obscuring cuticle, longer marginally; posterior sigilla oval, 1.16 long, 2.09 from margin; middle sigilla oval, 0.94 long, 0.66 from margin; anterior sigilla (barely visible) round, 0.39 long, 0.55 from margin; all sigilla glabrous. Legs. IV much thicker and longer than I, II and III; patella, tibia and metatarsi IV incrassate, thicker retrolaterally with erect brush of hair adding to the effect; ventral coxae with dense mat of short brown prostrate hairs interspersed with short erect dark brawn bristles as on ster- num; femoral setal mat obscures cuticle of dorsal and ventral surface and prolateral face of III and IV, femur I, II, and palp with wide glabrous band on 1/2-2/3 of prolateral face, IV with wide glabrous band on 2/3 of retrolateral face, narrow glabrous band on 1/2 to full length of retrolateral face of femur I, II, III and palp; all patellae with one or two narrow dorsal glabrous bands; all metatarsi with one proximal dorsal narrow glabrous band; patellae, tibiae, metatarsi and tarsi with short prostrate hairs interspersed with longer more erect hairs, IV much more hirsute than others obscuring cuticle; spines present on distal metatarsi. Scopula. Deep dense pile for full length of all tarsi, metatarsi I and II; equally dense but distally for 1/2 of metatarsi III and 1/3 metatarsi IV; metatarsi and tarsi IV divided by setae. Spines. Metatarsi I, vl; II, v3; III, v2d2; IV v3d2. Claws. Palpal and paired claws bare; unpaired claws absent; claws do not project beyond the scopula. Trichobothria, 4-5 in a single dorsal row of tibia I for full length; 2-3 irregular rows, each row proximally retrolateral, distally dorsal; A NEW THERAPHOSID SPIDER FROM MALAYSIA 619 TABLE 1. Leg measurements of Lyrognathus liewi holotype female. Legl Les2 Legs Leg 4 Palp Femur 14.02 11.72 10.78 14.69 9.08 Patella 9.02 7.87 6.99 8.80 5.67 Tibia 9.90 7.98 6.77 12.21 6.49 Metatarsus 8.42 7.70 8.91 15.40 Tarsus 4.95 4.57 4.40 5.50 5.94 Total 46.31 39.84 37.85 56.60 27.18 metatarsi and tarsi I trichobothrial zone marked also by short setae; 70-80 long filiform and short clavate on tarsi I in a broad band. Spermathecae. Variable; usually bilobed; branches confluent before vulval chamber; inner branch longer than outer branch. Spinnerets. Posterior medians 2.53 long; basal, middle, distal and total length of posterior lateral articles 3.41, 2.59, 2.81, 8.81 long respec- tively. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Dr. Robert J. Raven for encouraging me and commenting on this manuscript, Mr. K.C. Liew for bringing the spiders to my atten- tion, Mr. Lee Humble and Ms Leslie Manning for Scanning Electron Microscopy, Pacific Forestry Centre, British Columbia, Ms Karen Udall-Ekmann for the illustrations and Mrs Lynn West for carefully typing the manuscript. This work was funded in part by the Exline-Frizzell Fund for Arachnological Research, California Academy of Sciences, California, and the Royal British Columbia Museum, British Columbia. LITERATURE CITED BONNET, P. 1957. Bibliographia Araneorum. Toulouse, vol. 2; 1027-3026. BRIGNOLI, P.M. 1983. A catalogue of the Araneae described between 1940 and 1981. Manchester, British Arachnological Society; i-xii, 1-755. GRAVELY, F.H. 1915a. The evolution and distribu- tion of Indian spiders belonging to the sub-fami- ly Aviculariinae. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 10:41 1- 420. 1915b. Notes on Indian mygalomorph spiders, 1. Rec. Ind. Museum 11:257-287. 1935. Notes on Indian mygalomorph spiders, 11. India Zoo!. Survey, Rec. 37(l):69-84. PLATNICK, N.L, 1989. Advances in Spider Taxonomy 1981-1987: A supplement to Brignoli’s A catalogue of the Araneae described between 1940 and 1981. Manchester, Manchester University Press: i-vii + 1-673. POCOCK, R.I. 1895. On a new and natural grouping of some of the Oriental genera of Mygalomor- phae, with descriptions of new genera and species. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, 15: 165- 184. 1900. The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida. London, 279p. RAVEN, R.J. 1985. The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae (Araneae): cladistics and sys- tematics. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Flist. 182(1):1- 180. ROEWER, C.F. 1942. Katalog der Araneae. Bremen, Paul Budy Bd. 1, i-viii + 1-1040. SIMON, E. 1903. Histoire Naturelle des Araignes. Paris, Roret, 2 (4): 669-1080. SALTICIDAE (ARACHNIDA: ARANEAE) OF ORIENTAL, AUSTRALIAN AND PACIFIC REGIONS, VII. MOPSOLODES. ABRACADABRFJJA AND PSEUDOSYNAGELIDES GENERA FROM AUSTRALIA MAREK ZABKA Zabka, M. 1991 08 01 : Salticidae (Arachnida; Araneae) of Oriental, Australian and Pacific Regions, VII. Mopsolodes, Abracadabrella and Pseudosynagelides - new genera from AViS\T?i\\dL. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30(3): 621-644. Brisbane. ISSN 0079- 8835 TTree unrelated genera of Salticidae: Mopsolodes, Abracadabrella and Pseudosynagelides are described from Australia. Their relationships and distribution are discussed. Diagnoses and figures of 10 species are given, including 9 new species: Mopsolodes australensis, Abracadabrella lewiston, A. birdsville. Pseudosynagelides yorkensis, P. raveni^ P. australensis^ P. monteithi, P. elae and P. bunya. A key for identification of species of Pseudosynagelides is proposed. □ Salticidae, Mopsolodes, Abracadabrella, Pseudo- synagelides, taxonomy, Australia. Marek Zabka, Zaklad Zoologii WSR-P, 08~ According to Davies and Zabka (1989) at least 57 salticid genera have been recorded from Australia. Most of them are endemic for the continent and it seems that with further research the number of endemics will grow considerably. During the last 20 years substantial progress in taxonomic research of Salticidae of Australia and surroundings has been made. Papers by Proszynski, Wanless, Balogh, Chrysanthus, Zabka and others provided descriptions of many new genera and species and revisions of some taxa described earlier. Full bibliography of papers involyed is given by Zabka (1987a) and Davies and Zabka (1989). The present paper is the next in series that started in 1987 to deal with Oriental, Australian and Pacific fauna (Zabka 1987a, b, 1988, 1990). It provides descriptions of three new genera and of nine new species - all of them recorded from Australia only. Material and Methods The paper is based on material from several collections listed below. Mean (in brackets) and ranges are given in millimetres. Leg spination format follows Platnick and Shadab (1975). Details of terminology and abbreviations are presented for each genus. Dissected epigynes were digested in lactic acid for 10-30 min. or in 10% KOH for 12-48 hrs at room temperature, rinsed in distilled water, stained in ethanol solu- tion of chlorazol black E under control and mounted in glycerin. The drawings were made using grid system. lOSiedlce, Poland; / October, 1990. Collections Studied AMS Australian Museum, Sydney QMB Queensland Museum, Brisbane SAMA South Australian Museum, Adelaide ZMH Zoologisches Institut und Zoologisches Museum, Universitat Hamburg Abbreviations Used AEW — anterior eyes width, ag - accessory gland, AL - abdomen length, c — conductor, ca - retrolateral cymbial apophysis, CL - cephalothorax length, co - copulatory opening, CW - cephalothorax width, da - retrodorsal tibial apophysis, dca - dorsal cymbial apophysis, e - embolus, EFL - eye field length, ep - epigy nal pocket, f - femur, fd - fertil ization duct, fp - femoral process, id - insemination duct, m - metatarsus, ms - metatarsal spines, p - patella, PEW - posterior eyes width, s - spermatheca, sr - seminal reservoir, ta - retrolateral tibial apophysis, tg - tcgulum, tga - tegular apophysis, ti — terminal incision, tr - trochanter. Mopsolodes gen. nov. Type Species Mopsolodes australensis sp. nov. Etymology The generic name is a combination of names Sandalodes and Mopsus and it is masculine in gender. 622 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. Mopsolodes australensissp. nov. A , colour pattern of male.. B, dimensions of the body. C, abdominal pattern of female. D,E» genitalia. Diagnosis In comparison to related Sandalodes and Mop- sus internal structures of female genitalia much longer - especially insemination ducts, male’s cephalothorax without protruding, punk-like fringe. Description (Fig. 1). Medium to large-size spider, 6.50-9.10 mm in body length. Cephalothorax robust, high. Abdomen elongate. Chclicerac of unident pattern with one retromar- ginal tooth and two promarginal teeth. Legs long with numerous spines. Leg I the strongest and NEW SALTICIDAE GENERA FROM AUSTRALIA 623 longest, leg III longer than IV. Male palpal organ with thin embolus (e), tegulum (tg) bag-like, seminal reservoir (sr) not meandering, retrolateral tibial apophysis (ta) with small teeth. Female genitalia with long, membraneous in- semination ducts (id), spermathecae (s) large, strongly sclerotized, multichambered, accessory glands (ag) long. Relationships, Biology and Distribution Body form and genitalic structure suggest relationship to Sandalodes and Mopsus, ixoxxx Australia and New Guinea (Davies, Zabka 1989). Genitalia of Mopsolodes, however, are more complex, its internal structures elongate, especially insemination ducts and accessory glands. Protruding, punk-like fringe on male’s cephalothorax missing, while present in both genera mentioned above. According to Simon (1903) Mopsus and Sandalodes belong to Thyenae and Hyllae respectively. Petrunkevitch (1928) follows Simon’s division in general and puts Mopsus and Sandalodes into Thyeninae and Hyllinae. Both authors seem to be creating groups (subfamilies) of unrelated genera. In fact, Mopsus, Sandalodes and Mopsolodes are closely related and probably originated in separation from other generic groups. In comparison to Mopsus that occurs in rainforest or similar humid habitats, most Mopsolodes ausiralensis have been collected in dry Eucalyptus forest from Brisbane to Torres Strait (Fig. 3), mostly on understory vegetation. Only single individuals have been taken from nests in leaves and litter of oak forest and rainforest. Unlike Sandalodes no specimen has been found Eucalyptus bark. Mopsolodes australensis sp. nov. (Figs 1-3) Material Examined Queensland: Hololype: 6, Allotype: 9, Paratypes: 26, juv., Davies Ck., NEQ, Summer 1971-72, N. Clyde Coleman, QMB S479; 9 , Mossman, 2.11. 1 972, QMB S4782; 6, Thompson Lagoon, 7 miles E Ed- ward River Mission, sweeping grass, 8. VI. 73, V. Davies, QMB S4780; 2c?, Eureka Ck., 1 1.11.1972, N. Clyde Coleman, QMB S4787; \6, 29, Atherton Tableland, near Mareeba, nests in leaves, XIL1982, QMB S4791; 9, 7 km NE Musgrave Stn., sweeping grass, 4.VI.1973, V. Davies, QMB S4788; 9, Torres Strait, Horn Is., 24-29.1. 1 975, R. Raven, QMB S4785; 9, Springfield Stn., W Mt. Garnet, 1. IX. 1979, K. McDonald, QMB S4789; 9, Oak Forest, N. Clyde Coleman, 7.X.1971, QMB S4784; 3c?, 9, 2juv., FIG. 2. Mopsolodes australensis sp. nov.: male; palpal organ. Rochedale State Forest, sweeping, litter, 20. IX. 1979, 1 1 .X. 1 979, 7.Xn., V. Davies. R. Raven, QMB S4777- 9; 29, Molloy Rd., 18.11.1972, N. Clyde Coleman, QMB S4786; 49, Brisbane, Mt. Cooth-tha, dry Eucalyptus forest, sweeping grass, 15. VIII., 2LXI.1987, M. Zabka, ZMH A86/89. Northern Ter- ritory: Paratype: c?. Radon Ck., rainforest, 14- 16.Vn.l979, G. Monteith, D. Cook, QMB S4783. Diagnosis Same as for the genus. Male (Fig. 1A,B). Cephalothorax brown with lighter median part and sides, the last and fovea 120 135 150 165 FIG. 3. Distribution of Mopsolodes australensis sp. nov. 624 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 4. Abracadabrella elegans(L. Koch, 1879), 6 , general appearance and palpal organ. ai5 NEW SALTICIDAE GENERA FROM AUSTRALIA 625 FIG. 5 . Abracadabrella elegans (L. Koch, 1879), 9. A, dorsal aspect. B, lateral view of cephalothorax. C-E, genitalia. A-D, syntype. E, specimen from Brisbane. region covered with white hairs. Abdomen dark- grey with grey-yellow herring-bone median belt covered with numerous hairs. Spinnerets grey- brown. Clypeus and chelicerae brown, the last rather long. Maxillae and labium dark-brown with light tips, sternum orange, venter grey, darker centrally. Legs I brown with white hairs on ventral femora. Coxae, trochanters and femora of other legs yellow, distal segments brown, all legs with long spines. Dimensions. CL 3.16-3.96 (3.63), CW 2.50- 3.16(2,95), EFL 1.18-1.51 (1.40), AEW 1.78- 2.17 (2.02), PEW 1.78-2.17 (2.03), AL 3.49-5.14(4.48). 626 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 6. Distribution of Abracadabrella ■ A. birdsville sp. nov. # A. elegans (L.K.) n A. leviston sp. nov. Female. Cephalothorax as in male. Abdomen (Fig. 1C) also similar, but central belt more contrasting. Lateral surfaces light. Spinnerets long, dirty-brown, Clypeus yellow with similar long hairs, Chelicerae long, dirty-orange with a frontal projection. Pedipalps yellow, darker dis- tally, maxillae orange with yellow tips, labium long, darker laterally, sternum yellow, venter light, darker medially. Legs I orange-brown, darker distally, other legs lighter, spines as in male. Epigyne (Fig. ID-F) in a form of large depres- sion, internal structures translucent. Insemina- tion ducts long, membraneous, spermathecae strongly sclerotized, multichambered, accessory glands distinctive. Dimensions. CL 3.16-3.89 (3.51), CW 2.50- 3.03 (2.75), EFL 1.32-1.46 (1.37), AEW 1.81- 2.11 (1.95), PEW 1.84-2.24 (2.03), AL 4.42-5.28 (4.82). Abracadabrella gen. nov. Type Species Marptusa elegans L. Koch, 1879. Etymology The name is a random combination of letters and feminine in gender. Diagnosis Body form rather flat, similar to some species ofAfraflacilla-PseudiciusgroM^ but stridulatory organ absent. Female’s abdomen usually with terminal incision. The structure of epigyne similar to that of some Holoplatys species and to one undescribed genus, but body form and male’s palpal organs completely different. Description (Figs 3,4). Medium spiders, 3.50 —6.70 mm in length. The body slender, elongate and rather flat. In some species - especially in females - abdomen with terminal incision (ti). Chelicerae of unident pattern, promargin with 2 teeth, retromargin with 1 . Leg I the strongest, leg IV the longest. Male palpal organ with long embolus (e), bag-like tegulum (tg), retrolateral (ta) and retrodorsal (da) tibial apophyses. In- semination ducts (id) very long, --‘S’-shaped, spermathecae (s) one-chambered, their distal parts elongate, accessory glands (ag) distinctive. Remarks on synonymy. A. elegans (L. K.), the only previously known species, was described by Koch (1879) as Marptusa elegans and than wrongly transferred to Ocrisiona by Simon (1901), Relationships, Biology and Distribution The genus does not have any relatives among described salticid genera. Some similarities of female genitalia to one of undescribed Australian genera can well be convergence only. Body form and colour pattern similar to Afraflacilla-Pseudicius group but lack of stridulatory organs is a distinctive difference. The only data concerning biology of particular species come from labels. Some specimens were collected under Eucalyptus bark, others on vegetation. The genus has been recorded from Queensland and South Australia (Fig. 6). Abracadabrella elegans (L. Koch, 1879) comb. nov. (Figs 4—6) Marptusa elegans L. Koch, 1879: 1 1 19. Ocrisiona elegans: Simon, 1901: 602, 608. Material Examined. Queensland: Syntype: 9 , Peak Downs, (Mus. Godef- froy, 16529), ZMH; c?, Great Barrier Reef, Binslead Isl., 1 LXII.1979, R. Buckley, QMB S4593; 2 9, Bris- bane, Everton Park, in wasps’ nest, 6. III. 1973, M. Archer, QMB S4568. Diagnosis Embolus of male palpal organ shorter than in the species described below, retrodorsal tibial apophysis cone-shaped, abdominal pattern dis- tinctive. ai5 NEW SALTICIDAE GENERA FROM AUSTRALIA 627 FIG. 7. Abracadabrella birdsville sp. nov. A, general appearance of female. B,C, palpal organ of male. D,E, genitalia of female. 628 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. S. Abracadabrella lewiston sp. nov., 9, leg I, general appearance and genitalia. FIG. 9. Morphological characters of Pseudosynagelides. : A, general appearance. B-E, palpal organ and its comparison to Synagelides (G). F, genitalia of female. (O o. NEW SALTTCIDAE GENERA FROM AUSTRALIA 629 630 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM Male (Fig. 4A). Eye field dark-brown, thorax slightly lighter. Light hairs numerous along median part and laterally. Abdomen with black and light posterior spots firming cross-like pat- tern. Clypeus brown with white hairs and 3 strong bristles. Chelicerae rather long, light- brown. Maxillae orange-brown, labium and ster- num dirty-brown. Venter light-grey-brown. Spinnerets dark-brown. Legs covered with white and brown hairs, particular segments yellow to brown. Palpal organ (Fig. 4B-D), with small, cone- shaped retrodorsal apophysis on tibia. Legspination. tl: p0-l,r0-0;ml: pl-1, rl-1; til: pO-1, rO-0; mil: pl-1, rl-l. Dimensions. CL 1.59, CW 1.02, EFL 0.59, AEW 0.78, PEW 0.83, AL 1 .86. The male described for the first time. Female (Fig. 5A,B). Cephalothorax as in male, abdomen slightly different, with terminal in- cision. Spinnerets grey. Clypeus, chelicerae, maxillae, labium and sternum as in male. Venter grey centrally, lighter laterally. Leg I proximally yellow, distally darker, other legs lighter. Epigyne’s oval depression close to the epigastric furrow (Fig. 5C-E). Insemination ducts long, distal parts of spermathecae elongate. Leg spination. tl: pO-0 or 0-1; ml; pl-1, rl-1; ml: pO-1, rO-1. Dimensions. CL 1.76, CW 1.17-1.19 (1.18), EFL 0.62, AEW 0.83-0.87 (0.85), PEW 0.88- 0.90 (0.89), AL 2.69-2.75 (2.72). Abracadabrella birdsville sp. nov. (Figs 6,7) Material Examined. Queensland: Holotype: (3, L. Muncoonie via Birdsville, beating, 16. XI. 1976, A. Berg, R. Raven, QMB S14148; Allotype: 9, same data, QMB S14149; Paralypes: 2d, 9, 3juv. same data, QMB S14150. Diagnosis The species can be recognized by abdominal pattern, long embolus and round top of retrodor- sal tibial apophysis. Male. Cephalothorax brown, darker on eye field, covered with numerous whitish hairs. Ab- domen with characteristic pattern of brown, black and yellowish spots, covered with numerous brown and light hairs. Spinnerets greyish-brown. Clypeus brown with light hairs and 3 strong bristles in its median part. Chelicerae dark-brown, maxillae, labium and sternum lighter, the last with white hairs. Venter i light-grey, darker centrally. Leg I dark-brown, II brown, III and IV orange, darker laterally and around joints. All legs covered with numerous light and brown hairs. Palpal organ (Fig. 7B-C) similar to that in A. elegans but embolus longer, tegulum oval and retrodorsal tibial apophysis larger, rounded at the top. Legspination. ml: pl-l,r0-l; ml: pl-1 orpO-1, rO-0. Dimensions. CL 2.50-2.64 (2.57), CW 1.84, EFL 0.79-0.86 (0.84), AEW 1.15-1.18 (1.17), PEW 1 . 1 9- 1.25 ( I ;23), AL 2.90-3.63 (3.36). Female colour pattern (Fig, 7A) almost identi- cal to male. Pedipalps yellow covered with white lateral hairs forming flags. Legs generally lighter' I orange-brown, others yellow, all darker around joints. Epigyne and internal genitalia (Fig. 7D,E) al- most identical to previous species. Leg spination as in male. Dimensions. CL 2.44-2.64 (2.54), CW 1.66- 1.78 (1.72), EFL 0.79- 0.86 (0.82), AEW 1.12, ' PEW 1 . 1 8, AL 3.69-3.82 (3.75). Abracadabrella lewiston sp. nov. (Figs 6,8) Material Examined South Australia; Holotype: 9, Two Wells, Lewiston Park, bark of Eucalyptus (fallen trees), 29. VI. 1970, T.T.H. Szent-lvany, SAMA N 1988336. Diagnosis Body form more elongate, colour pattern and epigyne different from two previous species. Female (Fig. 8B). Thorax brown, eye field darker. Whole cephalothorax covered with numerous white hairs. Abdomen with small anterior scutum, and yellow and grey-brown pat- i tern darkening posteriorly. Clypeus brown, covered with numerous white hairs. Chelicerae dark-brown, pedipalps yellow with light hairs. Maxillae and labium brown, sternum lighter with dark margin. Venter beige. Leg I (Fig. 8A) light-brown, others yellow-orange. Spermathecae and accessory glands of female genitalia (Fig. 8C-D) of different shape than in other species. Leg spination. tl: pl-1, r I -1; ml: pl-1, rl-1; til: r0-l;mll; pl-1, rl-L Dimensions. CL 2.70, CW 1.78, EFL 0.89, AEW 1.19, PEW 1.25, AL 3.89. NEW SALTICIDAE GENERA FROM AUSTRALIA 631 FIG. 10. Pseudosynagelides yorkensis sp. nov.: genera! appearance of both sexes and genitalia of female. 632 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM FIG. 11. Pseudosynagelides yorkensis sp. nov.: male: palpal organ. NEW SALTICIDAE GENERA FROM AUSTRALIA 633 FIG. 12. Male palpal organs of Pseudosynagelidesyorkensis sp. nov. (A-D) and Pseudosynagelides raveni sp. nov. (E-G). Pseudosynagelides gen. nov. Type Species: Pseudosynagelides yorkensis sp. nov. Etymology Like Synagelides; masculine. Diagnosis Body form similar to Asiatic genus Synageli- des, but genitalia structure simpler and metatar- sal spines missing. Description (Fig. 9). Tiny to small spiders, ranging up to 2.90 mm in body length. Cephalothorax slender, its surface textured, posterior lateral eyes set on distinctive tubercles. Abdomen with scutum in some species, some- times with transverse light stripes forming pseudo-mimic pattern. Chelicerae with one or two small promarginal teeth and one retromar- ginal, unident tooth. Sternum large. Spinnerets rather long. Legs long and delicate, usually light, with longitudinal dark stripes, metatarsi I with four ventral spines (ms). Male palpal organ with fixed, vertical connection between femur (f) and patella (p). Retrolateral (ta) and, in some species, retrodorsal (da) apophyses on tibia present. Tegulum (tg) with large apophysis (tga) in its apical part, embolus (c) single or accompanied by conductor (c). Cymbium with retrolateral (ca) and dorsal apophyses (dca). Epigyne relatively simple, sometimes with anterior pocket (ep). Copulatory openings (co) cup-like. Insemination ducts (id) broad, accessory glands (ag) double. Spermathecae (s) large, fertilization ducts (fd) normal. 634 MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENSLAND MUSEUM 120 135 150 165 FIG. 13. Distribution of Pseudosynagelides O P. ausiralensissx>-^o\. ▼ P.monteithi sp.x\o\. n P.bunya s^.mv ■ P.ravenis^.x\o\. A Re/fli? sp. nov. # P.yorkensissx>.x\o\. Relationships Synagelides Bsenberg & Strand (Fig. 9D) seems the only relative of the genus (Boh- danowicz 1988). Both are highly specialized and distinctive for their body form and unique for their genitalic structure. Their subfamily status remains an open question. Petrunkcvitch (1928) puts Synagelides into Synagelinae - together with many other accidental genera. Proszynski (1976), on the other hand, creates 5y/t- emosyninae for some ant-mimic genera (includ- ing Synagelides) but also his decision seems controversial. Probably separate subfamilies for both discussed genera would be the best solution. Biology and Distribution All species were collected from rainforest lit- ter, mostly by pitfall trapping in tropical and subtropical Queensland; P. raveni has also been recorded from New South Wales (Fig. 13). Distribution of the genus, so distant from Asiatic Synagelides, looks mysterious. The more so as no related spider has eyer been found east and south of Viet-Nam (Zabka 1985) - perhaps because of lack of litter material from the area. At the present stage only hypotheses regarding real distribution and origin of both discussed genera are possible. The prob- lem should be cleared up because of its zoogeographical and evolutionary implications. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PSEUDOSYNA G ELIDES Males. 1. Conductor present 2 Conductor absent 3 2. Abdomen without scutum, with light lateral band, tegular apophysis knobby on the top, dorsal cymbial apophysis present, retrolateral tibial apophysis small P. yorkensis Tegular apophysis with apical collar (see arrow on Fig. 15C), retrolateral tibial apophysis large, spatular, dorsal cymbial apophysis missing P. monteithi 3. Tibial apophysis single, brush-like, oriented dorsal- ly P. raveni Two tibial apophyses present 4 4. Retrolateral tibial apophysis large, hooked, dorsal cymbial apophysis present P. bunya- Retrolateral tibial apophysis smaller, different in shape 5 5. Tibial apophyses small, embolus with very distinc- tive ridge P. elae Tibial apophyses larger, retrolateral one oriented apically, embolus without distinctive ridge P. australensis Females. 1 . Abdomen with scutum epigyne with anterior pock- et, spermathecae pear-shaped P. raveni Abdomen without scutum, with light pattern, epigyne without pocket, spermathecae elon- gated P. yorkensis Pseudosynagelides yorkensis sp. nov. (Figs 10, 11, 12A-D,13) Material Examined Queensland: Holotype: d, Thornton Peak, N of Daintree, 610 m, site 40, rainforest survey, litter, XI. 1975, M.R. Gray, AMS KS7653; Allotype: $, same data, AMS KS2 1 059; Paralypes: 5