pre, Ve ve Pie oh OO i Ne tipab L525 SNe 5 77H CONGRESS; SENATE. ; DocumMEntT Ist Session. No. 84. MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, TRANSMITTING A REPCRT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE IN RELATION TO THE FORESTS, RIVERS, AND MOUNTAINS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. DEcEMBER 19, 1901.—Read, referred to the Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, and ordered to be printed. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. es 1902. Thies ATE oe 57TH CONGRESS, SENATE. | DocuMENT Ist Session. No. 84. IMO S) Span Ga, FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, TRANSMITTING A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE IN RELATION TO THE FORESTS, RIVERS, AND MOUNTAINS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION, DecremBeR 19, 1901.—Read, referred to the Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, and ordered to be printed. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. rie a 1902. IAS IR OW A IR_AIN) SCIAP ah aw, To the Senate and House of Representatives: I transmit herewith a report of the Secretary of Agriculture, pre- pared in collaboration with the Department of the Interior, upon the forests, rivers, and mountains of the Southern Appalachian region, and upon its agricultural situation as affected by them. The report of the Secretary presents the final results of an investigation authorized by the last Congress. Its conclusions point unmistakably, in the judg- ment of the Secretary and in my own, to the creation of a national forest reserve in certain parts of the Southern States. The facts ascer- tained and here presented deserve the careful consideration of the Congress; they have already received the full attention of the scientist and the lumberman. They set forth an economic need of prime impor- tance to the welfare of the South, and hence to that of the nation as a whole, and they point to the necessity of protecting through wise use a@ mountain region whose influence flows far beyond its borders with the waters of the rivers to which it gives rise. Among the elevations of the eastern half of the United States the Southern Appalachians are of paramount interest for geographic, hydrographic, and forest reasons, and, as a consequence, for economic reasons as well. These great mountains are old in the history of the continent which has grown up about them. The hard-wood forests were born on their slopes and have spread thence over the eastern half of the continent. More than once in the remote geologic past they have disappeared before the sea on the east, south, and west, and before the ice on the north; but here in this Southern Appalachian region they have lived on to the present day. Under the varying conditions of soil, elevation, and climate many of the Appalachian tree species have developed. Hence it is that in this region occur that marvelous variety and richness of plant growth which have led our ablest business men and scientists to ask for its preserva- tion by the Government for the advancement of science and for the instruction and pleasure of the people of our own and of future genera- tions. And it is the concentration here of so many valuable species with such favorable conditions of growth which has led'forest experts and lumbermen alike to assert that of all the continent this region is 3 4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. best suited to the purposes and plans of a national forest reserve in the hard-wood region. The conclusions of the Secretary of Agriculture are summarized as eons in his report: ° ““{. The Southern Appalachian region embraces the highest peaks and largest mountain masses east of the Rockies. It is the great physiographic feature of the eastern half of the continent. and no such lofty mountains are covered with hard-wood forests in all North America. ‘*2. Upon these mountains descends the heaviest rainfall of the United States, except that of the North Pacific coast. It is often of extreme violence, as much as 8 inches having fallen in eleven hours, 31 inches in one month, and 105 inches in a year. **3. The soil, once denuded of its forests and swept by torrential rains, rapidly loses first its humus, then its rich upper strata, and finally is washed in enormous volume into the streams, to bury such of the fertile lowlands as are not eroded by the floods, to obstruct the rivers, and to fill up the harbors on the coast. More good soil is now washed from these cleared mountain-side fields during a single heavy rain than during centuries under forest cover. ‘*4. The rivers which originate in the Southern Appalachians flow into or along the edges of every State from Ohio to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Along their courses are agricultural, water-power, and navigation interests whose preservation is absolutely essential to the well-being of the nation. “*5. The regulation of the flow of these rivers can be accomplished only by the conservation of the forests. These are the heaviest and most beautiful hard-wood forests of the continent. In them species from east and west, from north and south, mingle in a growth of unparalleled richness and variety. They contain many species of the first commercial value, and furnish impor- tant supplies which can not be obtained from any other region. ‘*7. For economic reasons the preservation of these forests is impera- tive. Their existence in good condition is essential to the prosperity of the lowlands through which their waters run. Maintained in pro- ductive condition they will supply indispensable materials, which must fail without them. Their management under practical and conservya- tive forestry will sustain and increase the resources of this region and of the nation at large, will serve as an invaluable object lesson in the advantages and practicability of forest preservation by use, and will soon be self-supporting from the sale of timber. “8. The agricultural resources of the Southern Appalachian region must be protected and preserved. To that end the preservation of the forests is an indispensable condition, which will lead not to the reduction but to the increase of the yield of agricultural products. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 5 ‘©9. The floods in these mountain-born streams, if this forest destruc tion continues, will increase in frequency and violence and in the extent of their damages, both within this region and across the bor- dering States. The extent of these damages, like those from the wash- ing of the mountain fields and roads, can not be estimated with perfect accuracy, but during the present year alone the total has approximated $10,000,000, a sum sufficient to purchase the entire area recom- mended for the proposed reserve. But this loss can not be estimated in money value alone. Its continuance means the early destruction of conditions most valuable to the nation, and which neither skill nor wealth can restore. “10. The preservation of the forests, of the streams, and of the agricultural interests here described can be successfully accomplished only by the purchase and creation of a national forest reserve. The States of the Southern Appalachian region own little or no land, and their revenues are inadequate to carry out this plan. Federal action is obviously necessary, is fully justified by reasons of public necessity, and may be expected to have most fortunate results.” With these conclusions I fully agree; and I heartily commend this measure to the favorable consideration of the Congress. THEODORE ROOSEVELT. Wuirrt House, December 19, 1901. a ae } ay : wy i CONE INTS. Report of the Secretary, of Agricultures sesame eee eee see eee eee ee Naturejandiextentiof thisimvestigation=sss=ss=eseeee sees ceeeecee sree herp palachianyresgl ome seers eee ee ere aloes oe mctoels ihe} Southern—appalachiankresio ny = saa see eee ee eee eee ees ihetSouthernvAppalachiang Tountains ss =eeeeeee eee ee eee eeeseetensee MES fOnests = see esses eieito.s Scere este Cee ee cect ee See wie cise crenata Forest clearing and agriculture in the Southern Appalachians. ---....---- Horesticlearings athe miversandstloOdsasseeeee eee eeeeeeeeeee ee eeeeenee The climate of the Southern Appalachians ---..--..-.-.-----.----------- IslONY CAM WHEE) HOMES) |S ORESSIAICEL. « -S ae seeccssacensoucscecesuscdooese Conditions of purchase and management. --...--..-...----.1----------- Conclusions! pases eeean comes Heeb esis ios epoca stents suetioe Seekers AppEeNnpIx A.—Report on the forests and forest conditions in the Southern PAv Daa CIn an Stee pers een minis ae ee hated aera EA eas Ber Description of the forests and forest conditions by mountain groups. .----- HorestsrofatherB luewnid &e same seetem aaa we ciseeeee erect seen s ee Forests of the White Top Mountain region.........---.--.--....-.. Forests of Roan, Grandfather, and the Black mountains --_......--. Forests of the central interior mountain ridges. ........-..---------- Forests of the Great Smoky Mountains. ----....-.-.--..------------ Forests of the southern end of the Appalachians.--.-.....-.-------- Changes in forest conditions of the Southerr Appalachians .........----- Forests cleared for farming purposes ...-.--.----------------------- Horestspnjuredibyanreses-eeee seems cee ee aa ceeeeee beasweeouee Lumbering in the Southern Appalachians now and under Government @yna@slani Ayal PPA AMINOM .oncos cooasncooncondeccoccn cubscoccooeoe Application of conservative forest methods to this region by the Govern- Mentgprach cableandypnronitay)] Ceemeseeeeee eee ese se eee eee eae Some evils of the present system of lumbering ----..----..------------- Recent lumbering methods more profitable, but also destructive. -.-..---- Objects and policy of forest management under Government ownership- - Improvement in general forest policy necessary...---.------------------ Considerations that should govern in the management of the proposed fOTeStixeSselnVye reer oan cise See eel ae Sebago Saate eles wanceaseeccaate Description of the Southern Appalachian forests by river basins ---..---- INC WAR ere Basins -ciaace meee sce ee easioe eae eae enue tae Soe ee ee SouthyBonkwoteElolstoneRiveribasimeeeseeee= eee sees eee eee WratauraiRivertBasing jones ane ccc .cee ac toacicietee cctele batearsterticieates INGlichucky, River! Basiny sess ner ea = ree essen se eee ee ee eee eee er Hrenchybroadeniv ery basineeret er seee eee eer eer eee cere aes eae IBioshicconwRiver basilinssase ements seme mar aia: cavers siaieteisiel te erase Northwestern slope of Smoky Mountains...-.---...--.--------+---- ittle Mennesseey River Basin sass sere ences cine os ose elo niseecis ae 8 CONTENTS. Apprnpix A.—Report on the forests and forest conditions in the Southern Appalachians—Continued. Description of the Southern Appalachian forests by river basins— Continued. HMiwassee-River! Basin 225.5252 52 as saseeae eee eis sees aisiieee Mallulah-Chattoogaykiverntbasinisse=—eee eset eeeeeeeeeee = esse eeeeere Toxaway River Basins. {epics scat eeeel eee an meee ee See aeees Saluda River Basin}. 22222 J:0Se.cec ses eee e eee Gere eee ose Hirstiand!Second Broad:River Basinger e see eee eee eee Catawibaykiive rib asinie ane = sree aee eee eee eee eae eee eee Yadkin (River!Basin:2). 5222 ose oes see eee eee eee een aees Trees\ofithe|SouthernvAppalachians\=-seeeeeeeee eee seen eee eee eee ee List of shrubs growing in the Southern Appalachians ...-.-...---------- Apprnpix B.—Topography and geology of the Southern Appalachians - ------ Thesmountain' systems: 22s-s5222oo se eee cee oa eee eeeeee eee Dherrivenisystems pees ses ceeee cece eee eee eee ee Cee eee Chimaticieaturesiinithenountaingiseee tees eee eee reese eee eeeeeeeees Dheyeeolocicitormationsisese = eeee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee Relationtofsrocksitorsuntaceeeeseeeeree seer eee aera eee eee eee eae Protection ‘of thessoils;. oss seo se eae sees eee sae eee eee AppENDIx C.—Report on the hydrography of the Southern Appalachians. - --- physiographic featuresiofithesrerloneeee see eer ee esas eee eae eee Mhemaintal and un-offinethishresioneses sees ae eee eee ease aan eee Stream flow in the region and its measurement...........-.------------ ~ Value of these mountain streams for water-power purposes. ----.-------- AppEenpIx D.—Report on the climate of the Southern Appalachians -.------- Apprenpix E.—Report on the present status of the movement for the proposed AppalachianvhionestyReseny ee eerste eee eee ee tee rece eee eee ee ene Memorials and resolutions favoring the proposed Appalachian Forest IR Esenyeuere seuecits seas wee ee ee esee eA ee Sars hela rays obeys Memorial of the Appalachian Mountain Club ..--..-.-------------- Memorial of the Appalachian National Park Association -.....------ Resolution of the American Association for the Advancement of SGI ICC Seah ES ACUr ne Sane Han Gane ar OSE HESHaH SoD aSounaSeaaaacs Resolution of the American Forestry Association .......------------ Resolution of National Board of Trade ....--.---------------------- Resolutions passed by other boards of trade........---.------------ Preliminary report of the Secretary of Agriculture on the forests of the Southern Appalachian region, January 3, 1901 ...-.-....------------- Report on the creation of the Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve by the Senate Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game eHebruanyl2 e190 lee ee eet eee see eee eee ere asec Resolutions and acts by the legislatures of States whose territory otisndl into the region of the proposed forest reserve. .....------------------- Wirginial ees eee see ey oe at ee es ee see eee renee North Carolina.....-.-.-- Fad oe noe ei aie Sine SS OE ee eee te ets MNS ROE ooo dooce saed acodanaubuoneobaoooosaaeoosoudsenudaccoucs South Carolina ee = eee en eeeseec ee eee eee esate a aace (6210) 9 Eppa apace Cop RaC a SaSiROE ana sose cuba ghooddcoseoosobocadoEsas The press and the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve -..-..--.----------- Page. PLATE Tl, X. Yl XII. XIII. XIV. 4 OY XVI. XVII. XVIII. Y XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. ' XXIV. LIL STOR A TONS. (a) Land erosion on the cleared slopes of the Southern Appa- lachian Mountains. (b) Flood destruction of an Appalachian moun taimnvall eye eee ase ase ee Nae e ese era ce Sees eee ceiacacc . Relief map of the United States, showing location of the national TOLESHTESCECS Se se eae ee a sete epee ener oet cee reece (a) Valley of Virginia. (b) Piedmont Plateau in Virginia. ----- Relief map of the Southern Appalachian region, showing the dis- LRN UNAM Oe WAS HAO WIOUCNDA 3 do55 doccudssouneesodousesdascos a DoewRiverxGorgerhennessee Sc sme) sie eee ee eee ecieene Panorama from Grandfather Mountain, typical of Appalachian IVOUMTAIN SE eee sete sea cls en nine een te a ays emaiocte . Grandfather Mountain, showing sharp, rugged peak surrounded byghard-woodstorestsiaee ere Eee ee eeeee reese erent aee earn eee (a) Bald of Big Yellow Mountain. (b) Welchs Bald in the Greats molkys\lountains=eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeaeeeeeerereeee , (a) The southern end of the Appalachian Mountains near Car- “" tersville, Ga. (b) A mountain valley, northern Georgia-__..- Cesarspicads souuhi Carolinas sss nearer eee ener ree eee aaee Whiteside Mountain, southeast profile...............-----.---- Map of the Southern Appalachian region, showing forest area under consideration and hydrographic gaging stations -.-.---- An original Appalachian Mountain forest........-------------- Mixedthard-woodiandspineiorests-— sae ee asses eee eee eee Sprucemorests;atihi chvelevatlons=ssee=esseeeaen eee sees eee= The tops of the Black Mountains (colored) ..-..-.....--------- Panorama showing the unbroken forest of the Great Smoky Mountains ee aesee sas See eine sien eee Se ciesistcecee se beens Forest clearings for farming on the Southern Appalachian Moun- CATT SPs ey araye era foyar ares Slee cys nie SSRIS Eelam eine ae as emia Seca aeeane Soma Wouiayenin, mee AW, Cho ccoscoscossoccugsuseeessoees (a) Newly cleared mountain field planted in corn. (b) Recently cleared field impoverished and abandoned ---....------------ (a) Badly washed mountain field. (b) Mountain field com- pletelyeruimed oe ese eee one dace eine at eossaccmpenae (a) Washing of grass-covered soil, top of Roan Mountain. (b) Washing of abandoned pasture field -.-.......-----.----- (a) Unwashed valley lands surrounded by forest-covered moun- tains. (b) Badly washed mountain valley lands..--.-------- (a) Valley lands badly washed by recent floods and abandoned. (b) Valley lands completely ruined by floods -.-.-...-..---.-- Page. 14 20 10 PLATE XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXII. XXXIV. XOX - XXXVI. / XXXVIL. Y XXXVI. Y XOXOXTEX: V XL. XLI. XLII. y XLII. XLIV. XLV. DONA XLVII. XLVITI. XLIX. L. LI. LIL. LILI. ILLUSTRATIONS. Water-power development and cotton mills at Columbus, Ga-. (a) Water power at Pelzer, S.C. (b) Water power at Colum- | OTE rat Bis © ee a rs EE eh ie Cascades near head of Catawba River.....----.-----.-------- Mallulahwhalls\Georgiadieeseee ses sees ese eee eee eee eee eee Forest-covered slopes of Linville Gorge Forest regulating the flow of streams -.......-.-...---------- (a) A spring on southern slope of Mount Mitchell. (b) A mountain roo kee So ee ee ee say eevee eee arey ees (a) Landslide stopped by the forest, north slope of Roan Mountain. (b) Small landslide at a spot where no large treesswere crowinen snes. eae eee eee ee eee ee rere eee Large tree growing in mountain ravine ...--..--..----------- Flood damages on Catawba River: (a) Soil removed and white sand spread over the surface. (b) Layer of sand spread over the soillipya,floodie= ss see os seen eee eles (a) Flood damages in West Virginia. (b) Débris from floods on Nolichucky River, Hast Tennessee..-...---------------- (a) Flood damages to railway on Doe River, Tennessee. (b) Flood damages to railway on Nolichucky River, East Ten- Geuirg pee re eal cranny stench nena aye cre enuyey al ce (a) Slightly culled mixed forest. (b) White pine forest ex- cessively culled 3S. 5/2264 aceon ee eciec ose emi teeeeceseaciae (a) Wagon loaded with logs en route for the sawmill. (b) Wagon loaded with lumber en route for the railway station - Spruce forest near summit of White Top, Virginia.......----- Forests on the southern slopes of the Blue Ridge, about Mount RO RAW AY isos a Soaee sos Os ere Orc secre Meme eens estan Forests on the walls of Nantahala Gorge ........------------- Forests about the southeastern slopes of the Great Smoky Mountains, between cross ridges .._-.--------------------- Big chestnut trees, from the base of the Great Smoky Moun- PAIS) 5). me” 6 rusquéven wT =. BOURBON . on 6 Balsam CONE, MAS > rowren Se Beuaur | es) eowunrmno | al. Srancownee | See Se wane fm Snowe a Deusen am) mmc | My) reuowar, , 2 onconn mal Rau Sot) mtoMT un: | " cormmanio | tum” cAtadnantao arm GROMMETS ld aemumous > se. m cober we samo | s}— Sweet: an) BORuNMoe | aso) wronwat ton | Koonin | am) WO Pau Mepwreroe | lew magus | am | A ikraaneun Sutnccume | sm cmeminoowe | ep ‘ bo oe can oe Unetliage Rockingham rf le 2 otay as Nic aes edie xf 2 ang ic Wis att ada » a Daplingonyy, | 1] “ | A) { 7aRedbank mS ba aaiegion| 2 is Bae a | Washington _ Ce = \ . IS “1 co ) 3 S i = x | Fi PN x aug ~~ — Treen sboro D> a3" Payot) eagtgs ri : A Bere ur ia i eT ERL EP waif é 0 he ie it f {5 ey : Pay } + et phe oats ica valerie aha ee ae we SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. This general Appalachian system is usually separated into its northern and southern divisions in southern Vir- ginia by a line drawn nearly eastward from the most east- erly point of Kentucky, and where the New or Kanawha River breaks across the Appalachian Valley and the Alle- ghenies. New River rises on the Blue Ridge in North Carolina, flows northward and then westward through the Ohio into the Mississippi drainage. It thus violates the rule established by the James, the Potomac, the Susque- hanna, and the Delaware rivers, to the north, of rising about the Alleghenies and breaking eastward across the Blue Ridge into the Atlantic drainage; and it here estab- lishes a new rule that controls the drainage of the larger mountain streams to the south, which, following its exam- ple, rise on the western slopes of the Blue Ridge and flow across the mountain region to the northwestward and into the Mississippi drainage through the Tennessee. To the southwest of this line which separates the two systems of drainage lie the Southern Appalachians. Referring again to the maps (Pls. IV and XII), it will be seen that bordering these mountains on the east and south in Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama, is a region which is termed by the geographers the Pied- mont Plateau. From the base of the mountains, where it has an elevation of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet, the hilly, undulating surface of the plateau (see Pl. III) slopes gently seaward for a distance of from 100 to 150 miles, te where these hills give place to the sandy plains of the coast region. This Piedmont Plateau represents the finest agricultural and manufacturing portions of these States. Across its surface wind the rivers, fed by mountain streams, whose waters furnish power for large and rapidly grow- ing manufacturing interests, and whose bordering lands are among the most productive in the region. The future of these water powers and of these bordering lands depends upon the regularity of the mountain streams, and these in turn depend upon the preservation of the mountain forests. To the west of these mountains lies the Valley of East Tennessee, which constitutes the southern portion of the great Appalachian Valley. It has an elevation of 1,700 feet in southwestern Virginia and 1,000 feet at Knox- S. Doe. 8+ 7) 74 Division be- tween the north- ern and southern Appalachians. The Piedmont Plateau. Valley of East Tennessee. 18 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. ville, from which point it extends southwestward across portions of Georgia and Alabama. Into and through this valley drains the larger portion of the water which leaves the mountain region. Along the upper reaches of these streams are numerous valuable water powers, and along their lower courses through the valley are some of the finest farming lands in Tennessee. To the west of this valley lie the southern remnants of the Allegheny Moun- tains and the better defined Cumberland Plateau. Between this great valley on the west and the Piedmont Plateau on the east and south are the Southern Appala- chian Mountains, with which this report has especially to deal. THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. The accompanying maps (Pls. 1V and X11), show that the Blue Ridge, as it crosses Virginia southward, increases and holds its prominence and its individuality. As it passes into North Carolina it enlarges both vertically and later- ally, widening out into a complex zone or belt of moun- tains, with a maximum width of about 70 miles in western North Carolina and east Tennessee, and contracting again toward its southern end. These mountains show none of the regularity exhibited by the Northern Appalachians, but, on the other hand, are composed of massive ranges and cross ridges and more or less isolated mountains, often with rounded, dome-like tops (see Pl. VIII), in striking contrast with the sharp, regular, parallel, rocky ridges of the more northern Alleghenies. Pee ae Along the southeastern margin of this southern moun Unaka Moun- tain belt is the Blue Ridge proper, which, as it crosses North Carolina, is a fairly well-defined mountain range, standing more than 3,000 feet above the sea and rising in four peaks to more than 5,000 feet, and in one—the Grand- father—to practically 6,000 feet. Bordering this region on the northwest is a mountain range—the Unakas— somewhat higher, and in its southern portion more mas- sive, but less continuous, than the Blue Ridge; less con- tinuous for the reason that its course is cut across by half a dozen rivers, which rise on the Blue Ridge on the east, flow across this intervening mountain region, and cut through the Unakas in wild, deep gorges. (See Pl. V.) Between these river-gorges the segments of the Unakas are known by such local names as the Tron Mountains, Bald Mountains, and Great Smoky mountains. In southern Senate Doc. No, 84. PLATE V. DOE RIVER GORGE, TENNESSEE. (See p. 18.) The forests on the steep slopes of this beautiful gorge are being destroyed by the fire and the axe. PLATE VI, PART 1. Little Yellow Mountain. Roan Mountain. Senate Doc No. BA Black Mountains (lost in reproduction) ————— ) SOUTHWEST FROM GR FATHER Blue Ridge MOUNTAIN TYPICAL OUTHERN APPALACH| AN MOUNTAINS Spear Tops Mountains See pp. 18-20.) Little Yellow Mountain PLaTe VI, Part 1. Roan Mountain: PLATE VI, PART 2. DFATHER MOUNTAIN: TYPICAL So} | } | | Serate Doc. No. 84, oan Mou ry } Roen)sountala. = Hump Mountain Sugar Mountain Beceh Mountain Hanging Rock Mountain Rich Mountain and Elk Knob, PEATE UieAa TE We na PANORAMA, NORTH! AND WEST FROM GRANDFATHER’ MOUNTAIN: TYPICAL SOUTHERN’ APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN 1 L SoU APPALACHIA OUNTAINS. (See pp. 15-20.) SRE pS Pi a St arte "Yj SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Virginia the Unakas approach the Blue Ridge and prac- tically merge with the latter into one irregular mountain range; southward, the two diverge. The Unaka range has 18 peaks rising above 5,000 feet, and 8 of these above 6,000 feet. The Roan, toward its northern end, Mount Guyot and Clingman’s Dome, farther south in the Great Smoky Mountains, reach altitudes, respectively, of 6,313, 6,636, and 6,619 feet. Southwest of the North Carolina line these bordering mountain chains lose both in elevation and regularity. In northern Georgia they break up into several minor ridges, diminishing in size as they extend southwestward, sepa- rated by widening, irregular valleys. Near Cartersville, Ga., between the two principal tributaries of the Coosa River, the Southern Appalachians merge into the Pied- mont Plateau, with its low, isolated hills and ridges, rem- nants of former mountains. (See Pls. IX @ and XLV.) They rise again, however, in eastern central Alabama into the short, irregular ridge of the Talladega Mountains, which reach an elevation of 2,500 feet. The slopes of these ridges in north Georgia are still largely forest coy- ered, and along them are the countless springs which, with notable constancy, feed the great rivers of that State and Alabama. The scenery of much of this region is exceedingly picturesque, and its attractiveness is increased by the many cascades and waterfalls along the courses of these mountain streams, such as Tallulah Falls (see PI. XXVIII), with a descent of 335 feet, and the Dukes Creek, Minnehaha, and Ruby falls, with each a descent of nearly 300 feet in short distances. Extending out from the two great irregular mountain borders, the Blue Ridge and the Unakas, into the elevated region between them, and connecting them in places, are a series of more or less interrupted cross ridges, which have altitudes comparable to, and in one case (the Black Mountains) greater than, those of either the Blue Ridge or the Unekas. And these interior ridges are separated by high, but deep and generally narrow, irregular valleys. Standing on any of these elevated mountains, one may see stretching out in either of several directions an endless succession of mountain ridges and mountain peaks. A remarkable succession of these ridges and peaks is seen from the Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina, looking southwest, as shown in the accompanying panoramic view (Pl. VI). Hundreds of such vistas, from as many peaks, Southern ends of the Appala- chians. The crossridges of mountains. Variety of peaks and ridges. Magnitude of these mountains. Salient fea- tures. Mountain val- eys. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. open out before the traveler through this region. In every direction the splendid hard-wood forests cover and protect the mountain slopes and the countless springs of water which flow from them as the sources of great rivers. There is but one discordant fact—the calamitous destruction of the forests on these mountain slopes. Some of these ridges, like the Black Mountains, are short, but high and massive and terminate abruptly. Others are longer and lower and slope gradually down to the adjacent valley or rise froma lower gap to another still higher ridge. All are more or less irregular both in their courses and their elevation. Most of them have peaks rising from their tops; but not a few have fairly uniform crests. (See Pl. XVII.) Some of these peaks, like the Grandfather (Pl. VII), are sharp, rugged, and rocky; others, like the Roan or the ‘‘Balds” (Pl. VIII a), are rounded domes whose tops are covered only with grass and rhododendron, while still others, equally tall and massive, like the Blacks and the Great Smokies, are heavily forest covered to the summit. (See Pl. VIII2.) The haziness of the atmosphere, which has found expres- sion in the names ‘‘ Blue Ridge” and ‘‘ Smoky Mountain,” often limits the distance of distinct vision, but it combines with the forest cover to soften the details and to render this Southern Appalachian landscape attractive beyond comparison. This succession of ridges and peaks, seen through it from an eminence, rising one above and beyond another for 50 or 100 miles or more, impresses upon the observer in a manner not to be forgotten the vastness of this region of mountains. It has 46 peaks, a mile or more apart, and 41 miles of dividing ridges, which rise above 6,000 feet; 288 additional peaks and 300 miles of divide rise more than 5,000 feet above the sea. These are not only the greatest masses of mountains east of the Rockies; they are the highest mountains covered with hard-wood forests in America. This region, thus unique in its position, in its mountain features, in its forests, and in its climate, stands grandly out as the greatest physiographic feature in the eastern half of the continent. (See Pls. II and VI.) Between these groups of mountains and far below them, though still at an elevation of 2,000 feet or more above the sea, are the numerous narrow valleys of this region. They border the numberless streams and are generally more extensive nearer the sources of these streams, and PLaTE VII. Senate Doc, No. 84. | os eed GRANDFATHER MOUNTAIN, THE HIGHEST POINT ON THE BLUE RIDGE, SHOWING SHARP, RUGGED PEAK, SURROUNDED BY HARD-WOOD FORESTS. (See pp. 20, 1/4.) The forest in the foreground, which is being destroyed, has the hemlock spruce interspersed with oak hna other hard woods. About the higher peak (5,500 to 5,964 feet) the trees are mainly black spruce and balsam. Senate Doc. No. 84. PLaTe VIII (A) “BALD” OF BIG YELLOW MOUNTAIN, MITCHELL COUNTY, N. Cc. (See pp. 18, 20.) These bald mountain tops are coyered with grass, the tree line often being fairly sharp. ‘See also Pl. XXIIa.) (B) & COMMON TYPE OF SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN PEAK IN THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See p. 20.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. hence nearer to the Blue Ridge than to the Unakas. (PI. TX.) Asa rule, they vary in width from a few hundred feet toas many yards. Some of the most notable of these valleys, reaching a width of 2 to 5 miles in places, are those on New River in Virginia, on the French Broad above Asheville, on the Tennessee River in southwestern North Carolina, and about the headwaters of the Coosa and other rivers in Georgia. As these streams approach and cut through the mountain borders of this region they rva in deep gorges, the full width of which is often occu- pied by the streams. (See Pl. X XIX.) The slopes of these mountains vary considerably in their steepness. The northwestern slopes of the Blue Ridge are usually gentle and in many places cleared. The south- eastern slopes are generally much steeper and usually forest covered. Ina few places these southeastern slopes are rocky and precipitous. Especially is this the case along the South Carolina border, as seen in Ceesars Head, Whiteside, and Table Rock mountains (see Pls. X, XI, and XLV), where the bare rock walls rise 600 to 1,000 feet in height. The slopes of the Unakas, like those of many of the interior ridges, are fairly steep on both sides, ranging generally from 20 to 50 degrees. About the inte- rior ridges there is still greater variation. Some of the rocky faces are precipitous, while elsewhere the slopes are gentle, ranging from 5 to 20 degrees. But taking the mountains and the valleys together, the land surface with a slope of less than 10 degrees is not more than 10 per cent of the whole. THE FORESTS. It is the forest covering of these great mountain slopes— a covering that should never be removed—about which interest centers in the present investigation. The re- sults of this examination during the past two years are given at length in a paper published as Appendix A (p. 41). They are stated separately for each of the larger river basins, following a somewhat general discussion of the forest conditions in the region as they exist to-day and ot how the forests may be economically protected and im- proved under Government control. These forests have been carefully studied and classified, and over much the larger portion of the area their density and distribution have been indicated on the excellent topo- graphic maps furnished for this purpose by the Depart- Steopness of the mountain slopes. Method and re- sults of the ex- amination. Forest maps. bo bo SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. ment of the Interior. The length of time required for engraving these detailed forest maps makes it impossible to issue them as a part of the present report, but copies of them in manuscript form are meanwhile available for examination at the Department of Agriculture and the Geological Survey. The distribution of these forests and the approximate relative proportion of the forest-covered and the cleared lands are indicated by the generalized map (Pl. XII). The scattered cleared fields on the mountain slopes are so small that it is impossible to indicate them on a map of this scale, and hence only the larger clearings, mainly those along the valleys, are shown. Considering the forests of the region as a whole, there isa striking uniformity about their general features, espe- cially in the valleys and along the lower slopes, and yet everywhere there is variety. This fact is well illustrated by the list (on p. 93) of 137 species of trees and a still longer list of shrubs growing in this mountain region. The forests on the southeasterly slopes are usually less striking, both in size of trees and density of growth, than those on the northwest, and they are usually more damaged by forest fires, because the slopes are steeper and are kept foNBtiations in drier by their more direct exposure to the sun. The sualamcbaoniaam neighboring forests on the northern and western slopes and in the westerly facing coves exhibit a greater variety of vegetation, a denser growth, and finer specimens of individual trees, because they have not only greater mois- ture, but greater depth and fertility of soil. Both are pro- tected by the humus which covers the surface and which contributes directly to the luxuriance of this growth. It is in such situations that we find the best examples of the superb hard-wood forests which abound in this region—the finest on the continent. (See Pl. XIII.) fonatiations in But the greatest variations in these mountain forests leventon. are observed in connection with the differences in eleva- tion. Thus along the southern foothills of the Appala- chians in Georgia one finds occasionally scattered colonies ‘ of the loblolly and long-leaf pines, trees which are charac- teristic of the South Atlantic and Gulf coast region, inter- mingling with the typical hard-wood forests of the Pied- mont Plateau and of the lower mountain slopes. (See Pl. XIV.) At the eastern foot of the Blue Ridge, in North Carolina, the typical flora of the Piedmont Plateau abounds, and follows up the river gorges into the mountain val- leys, where it associates with more characteristically Ap- PLATE IXA, Senate Doc. No. 84, THE SOUTHERN: END OF THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, NEAR CARTERSVILLE, GA., LOOKING NORTHEAST. (See p. PLATE IXB. Senate Doc. No. 84. A MOUNTAIN VALLEY, LITTLE TENNESSEE RIVER, RABUN COUNTY, GA. (See p. 20.) The mountains surrounding this fertile valley are forest covered, and the yalley itself is not being washed away Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE X (Photographed by Lindsa y-) CAESARS HEAD, SOUTH CAROLINA. (See p. 21.) The fires and the axe are destroying the forest growth on these steep, rocky mountain sides. Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XI. (Photographed by Seadin.) WHITESIDE MOUNTAIN, SOUTHEAST PROFILE, NORTH CAROLINA. (See p. 21.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. palachian species. Thence up to the tops of the higher peaks there is a constant succession of changes—an inter- mingling and overlapping of the lower species with those which belong to greater elevations or more northern latitudes. Thus in ascending any of the higher mountains, as Mount Mitchell, which, with its elevation of 6,711 feet, is the Joftiest of them all, one may penetrate, in the rich and fertile coves about its base, a forest of oaks, hickories, maples, chestnuts, and tulip poplars, some of them large enough to be suggestive of the giant trees on the Pacific coast. (See Pl. XLIV.) Higher up one rides through forests of great hemlocks, chestnut oaks, beeches, and birches, and higher yet through groves of spruce and balsam. Covering the soil between these trees is a spongy mass of humus sometimes a foot and more in thickness, and over this in turn a luxuriant growth of shrubs and flowers and ferns. At last, as the top is reached, even the balsams become dwarfed, and there give place largely to clusters of rhododendron and patches of grass fringed with flowers, many of them such as are commonly seen about the hills and valleys of New England and southern Canada. In such an ascent one passes through, as it were, the “changing of the seasons. Halfway up the slopes one may see, with fruit just ripening, the shrubs and plants the matured fruit of which was seen two or three weeks before on the Piedmont Plateau, 3,000 feet below; while 3,000 feet higher up the same species have now just opened wide their flowers. Fully amonth divides the seasons above and below, separated by this nearly 6,000 feet of altitude. Remote from the railroads the forest on these moun- tains is generally unbroken from the tops of ridge and peak down to the brook in the valley below, and to-day it is in much the same condition as for centuries past. (See Pl. XVII.) In the more settled portions of the region, how- ever, a different picture presents itself. Along the nar- row mountain valleys are the cultivated fields about the settlements, where they ought to be. When the valleys were practically all cleared the increasing demands for lands to cultivate led to clearings successively higher and higher up the mountain slopes, with a pitch of 20 and 30 and even 40 degrees. From some of the peaks one may count these cleared mountain-side patches by the score. They have multiplied the more rapidly because their fer- 23 Forests on Mount Mitchell. Seasons vary with elevation. General forest conditions. Unwise forest clearings for ag- riculture. 24 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. tility is short lived, limited to two, three, or five crops at most. They are cleared, cultivated, and abandoned in rapid succession. Out of twenty such cleared fields, per- haps two or three are in corn, planted between the recently girdled trees; one or two may be in grain; two or four in grass, and the remainder—more than half of them—in various stages of abandonment and ruin, perhaps even before the deadened trees have fallen to the ground. (See Pl. XVIII.) ereumberingop’ ~The Jumberman attacked this forest several decades ago when he began to penetrate it in search of the rarer and more valuable trees, such as the walnut and cherry. Later, as the railroads entered the region to some extent, he added to his list of trees for cutting the mountain birch, locust, and tulip poplar, and successively other valuable species. During the past few years he has cut everything merchant- able. He is now beginning to extend his operations to considerable distances beyond the main lines of transpor- tation by the construction of tramways and even cheap, short railways. Meanwhile his search for the more valu- able trees has extended in advance to most of the more remote mountain coves. inabanges Som In these operations there has naturally been no thought ations. for the future. Trees have been cut so as to fall along the line of least resistance regardless of what they crush. Their tops and branches, instead of being piled in such way and burned at such time as would do the Jeast harm, are left scattered among the adjacent growth to burn when driest, and thus destroy or injure everything within reach. The home and permanent interests of the Jumberman are generally in another State or region, and his interest in these mountains begins and ends with the hope of profit. There is, however, no evidence that the native lumberman has in the past exhibited any different spirit. whgstructve Forest fires have been one of the great curses of this ee country. From the days of Indian occupation down to the present time these Appalachian Mountain forests have been swept through by fires. Some of these have preceded the lumberman, others have accompanied him, and still others have followed in his wake, and the last have been far more destructive because of the tops and other rubbish which he has left behind him scattered among the remain- ing growth. (See Pl. Ld). The aggregate damage from these fires is great. Over some limited areas they have entirely destroyed the forests. Everywhere on the south _— SENATE DOC No 84 PIETY=SEVERTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION PLATE Xil MAP OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION Showing forest area under consideration and gaging stations of the division of hydrography U.S. Geological Survey Pm» Z | : tydend, > Bas, Pn Gaging stations inred aw. lant % i ( areas in green 3 } ris ' 7 v- : - 4 4 z a m™ ‘ 4 *)) pee ‘ f J $ iy Y , option : - wy : : : . 373 | Dy 5 ATA se Sy rn EAR Y, | BN es © ee r ae uN Tihs ape et ter] a Pe ) i a yore ~ + |} Alapaha y *« y SPL | os, ST Sa ENT Asrs — f = al =A tg a envi neg ‘mt ye ar arte Ui? > ~ io jane Oe > fob stir Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XIII. (Photographed by Seadin.) AN ORIGINAL SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN FOREST, TRANSYLVANIA COUNTY, N. Cc. (See pp. 21-28, 45.) Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XIV. 01} 04] INO Suruury} puv snumty auld ay] SoSpld puv sadojs ureyUNoU JaMOl OY} UO ‘SpOOM PIB OY} YILM poXTUt Udo 9. *O "N ‘ALNNOO NIVMS ‘YSAIN ALINIVNODO NO LSSYOS ANIid GNV GOOM-GYVH GaXxIW OVdBd SIT SULUOSSO[ PUR ‘[IOS OY} JO WOISOID OY} SUMNBITIOV] “|sar0J ay} JO ON[BA [BIOIAULUAOD oY Surysturmrp snyy ‘sa (-2@ “d v9g) puB YMOIsIApUN ay} SULAOASop o1¥ soy JUONbeaIy oY] ‘Soor} AU) JO oINyBU OY} JeADIRM ING *10]BM Surs04s roy 4 Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XV. SPRUCE FORESTS AT HIGH ELEVATIONS; ON WHITETOP MOUNTAIN, VIRGINdA. (See pp. 23, 47.) Seedlings of this black spruce abound in the moss under the trees. These and the humus and the roots hold the soils and help store the rains. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. ward slopes the damages have exceeded those on slopes toward the north or west. Trees have been burned near the roots, making their bases defective (see Pl. XLVI); the young growth has been burned down (see Pl. XLVI); the grasses and other wild forage plants have been tem- porarily exterminated, so that instead of pasturage being improved, as some have believed it would be, in the end it has been seriously damaged. This destruction of the humus has always resulted seriously both to the forests and to thesoils. In some cases, where the forests covering the steep, rocky slopes were thin, the loss of the humus has resulted in the washing and leaching away of the soils to such an extent as to destroy the forests entirely; and in all cases where the humus is thus removed the work of land erosion among the trees goes on as surely as though the forest itself were gone, though of course the process is far less rapid. Furthermore, the storage of water (in soils from which this humus has been removed) is far less perfect than in the original perfect forest. The rapid rate at which these lumbering operations have extended during the past few years and the still more rapid rate at which they are being extended at the present time, considered in connection with the destructive work of the fires and the clearing for agriculture, indicates that within less than a decade every mountain cove will have been invaded and robbed of its finest timber, and the last of the remnants of these grand primeval Appalachian forests will have been destroyed. Hence the very possi- bility of securing a forest reserve such as now contem- plated is a possibility of the present, not of the future. This great activity indicates, furthermore, in the most striking way possible, the growing anxiety as to the future supply of hard-wood timber. And indeed the time is now at hand when the great interests involved make it impera- tive that the Government take hold of this problem and inaugurate here in these great broad-leaved forests of the East a new conservative forest policy, as it is already doing for the pine forests of the West. FOREST CLEARING AND AGRICULTURE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. Ordinary farming on these mountain slopes can not exist permanently and should never exist at all. As stated above, not more than 10 per cent of the land of this region has a surface slope of less than 10 degrees (approxi- Injuries result- ing from the burning of the humus. Imperative need of new for- est policy. bo or) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. mately 2 feet in 10), while 24 per cent (see Pl. XII) of it has been cleared. In this region land with slopes exceeding this can not be successfully cultivated for any considerable time, because its surface is rapidly washed into the rivers below by the heavy rains, and the same agency rapidly leaches out and carries to the sea its more soluble and fertile ingredients. The valley lands have already been largely cleared, and the farmers are now following up the mountain slopes. In many cases their cleared patches have well nigh reached the mountain sum- mits. This process is going on with greater rapidity, because each short-lived hillside field must soon be aban- doned. The underbrush is destroyed, the trees are girdled, and for one, two, or three years such a field is planted in corn, then a year in grain, then one or two years in grass; then the grass gives place to weeds, and the weeds to gul- lies. (See Pls. XX and XXI1.) Agricultureon Sych a field has usually passed through its cyele in five mountain slopes short lived in its a 7 ma ¢ 9 > Q slear ake its ¢ short ved Ju, to ten years and another must be cleared to take its place. DONE TA jared A LOueSE which is the growth of several centuries perishes in less than a decade; a soil which is the accumulation of a thousand years has been cleared, cultivated, abandoned, and is on the downward road to the sea within less than a decade. Such is the brief life history of many thousands of small mountain fields in this Southern Appalachian region. But even the native farmer is beginning to real- ize that the clearing of these mountain slopes is producing floods that wash away the valley farms, and that the time must come when he will have successively cleared and destroyed all his available mountain land. (See Pl. XXXIV). psombmiserious Fortunately the intelligence of the country is awaken- forest clearing. ing to other and larger results that are following this pol- icy. The soil thus removed may stop long enough on its way to the sea to silt up the streams as they cross the low- lands or may fill up the harbors as the streams reach the coast. Every acre of mountain slope thus cleared is a step in the more rapid destruction of the forests, of the soils, of the rivers, and of the ‘‘ eternal mountains” themselyes— the destruction of conditions which the combined wealth, intelligence, and time of man can not restore in a region which now possesses infinite possibilities for the benefit of the whole nation. = <§ bs < fal, a N COUNTY, N. C. Senate Doc. No, 84 PLATE XVII, - Re Xe ‘ >, “a ~ > Fa Fe hace Oe me 5 ee - ~ - PANORAMA © UNBROKEN FOREST OF THE GREAT MOKY MOUNTAINS: FROM ANDREWS acne, COUNTY, N, ¢ ‘ Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XVIII. FOREST CLEARINGS FOR FARMING ON THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 26,57.) Already one-fourth of the total area of these mountain lands has been cleared; and additional areas are being cleared, cultivated, and abandoned in rapid succession, higher and higher up the mountain slopes. Wate es PLATE XIX. Senate Doc. No. 84. STONE MOUNTAIN, NEAR ATLANTA, GA. (See p. 26.) The ax and fire have removed the forest; and the heavy rains have removed the soil which once covered the larger part of this rocky knob. Senate Dec. No. 84. PLATE XX. (A) NEWLY CLEARED MOUNTAIN FIELD PLANTED IN CORN, RAPIDLY WASHING AWay. (See pp. 26-28.) These steep fields will be ruined and abandoned in less than a decade. (B) RECENTLY CLEARED FIELD IMPOVERISHED AND ABANDONED. (See pp. 26-28.) Such fields should be forever covered with forest. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. In the cool climate of New England the native grasses form a dense sod which holds the hillside surfaces in place so that even where the forests have been removed there is little erosion. In the Southern Appalachians, however, neither the grass, the legumes, nor the other forage plants have been able to prevent this land erosion, and their only safeguard for the future is the protection of the forests. Hundreds of these steep mountain fields where selected grasses were sown have been observed during the past few years, and the results, as indicating a means of per- manently holding these soils, have been generally unsatis- factory. (See Pl. XXII.) This washing away of the cleared mountain fields does not always manifest itself in the formation of deep gullies. The majority of these fields have slopes so steep that the water in its downward course can not always move later- ally to a sufficient degree for its concentration and the washing out of such gullies. Each drop of rain does its own work in battering and loosening the surface; and as it carries downward the particles of soil it has captured it is joined by only its closer neighbors. Hence frequently after a heavy rain the surface of such a field looks as though it might have been harrowed or even raked down- ward rather than plowed in larger furrows. From one of these cleared fields more soil is sometimes removed by a single heavy rain than during the preceding centuries while it was densely forest covered. But while the rains are removing the soils of the cleared mountain slopes the floods are removing the soils of the valley farms. This is notably the case in the valleys, where the bordering forests have been cleared to the largest ex- tent. Year by year the channels of the streams are widen- ing and encroaching upon the adjacent farms, and as the magnitude of the floods increases, these mountain streams, transformed into swollen torrents, leave their course and plow new channels across the fields. During the floods of the present year thousands of acres of the most productive valley lands in this mountain region have been damaged or destroyed by one or both of these processes. (See Pls. XXIII and XXIV.) It is, then, exactly true that the making of farms on mountain slopes is destroying the farms in the valleys, and that unless stopped by some external influence this process will proceed more rapidly as the population of the 27 Grass does not hold the soil on the mountain > slopes. Washing of mountain lands. Washing away of valley lands. 28 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. entwuiey, PS region increases. It is therefore only a question of time, to be measured not in centuries but in years, when, unless this policy is changed, there will be no forests in this region except on the small remnants—say 10 per cent of the whole—where the mountain slopes are too precipitous and rocky to make the cuitivation of the lands possible, even by an Appalachian mountaineer and his hoe. Fee eee If, on the other hand, the policy now advocated is ae man-adopted, and all these steeper mountain slopes are incor- porated into a forest reserve, owned and controlled by the Government, the valley lands will be protected from floods, and to the cultivation of these areas can be added that of the gentler slopes, the whole to be terraced and kept in a high state of cultivation by the native farmer, who will retain ownership thenasnow. (See Pls. 1X /and XXIIIz.) ciplein Goren, Lhe guiding principle of the Government in the creation ment manage-of this forest reserve should be to protect the farmer in his occupation and to insure the use of agricultural lands for agricultural purposes; but also,and primarily, to main- tain forever the forest cover of these great and beautiful mountains, which can be perpetuated in no other way. Under such a system the agriculture of this region will be maintained on a permanently satisfactory basis. Under the present policy it is advancing to certain ruin. FOREST CLEARINGS, THE RIVERS, AND FLOODS. ibis region 18 Probably no region in the United States is better watered many rivers. oy better drained than this; nor is there any other region which can boast of being the source of so many streams. (See Pl. XII.) From about its northern end the New River (Kanawha) flows northward and westward and becomes a prominent tributary of the Ohio; along its southeastern front the James, the Roanoke, the Yadkin, the Catawba, the Broad, and the Savannah reach the Atlantic; near its southern end the Chattahoochee and the Alabama flow directly into the Gulf of Mexico; along its western the Hiwassee, the Tuckaseegee, the French Broad, the Nolichucky, the Watauga, and the Holston drain westward through the Tennessee into the Mississippi. Each of these greater rivers as it crosses the Coastal Plain region toward the sea is navigable for light-draft vessels. Each throughout its lower course is bordered by fertile agricultural lands, which in the past contributed largely to the nation’s supply of corn, but during recent Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXI. (A) BADLY WASHED MOUNTAIN FIELD IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. (See pp. 26-28. ) (B) APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN FIELD COMPLETELY RUINED BY EROSION. (See pp. 26-28.) - t een Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXII. (A) WASHING OF GRASS-COVERED SOIL, TOP OF ROAN MOUNTAIN. (See p- 27.) About the tops of these higher Southern mountains the grasses grow more vigorously than at lower levels; but even there the sod is not strong enough to prevent the washing away of the soil. (B) WASHING OF AN ABANDONED PASTURE FIELD. (Sce p. 27.) This is a good illustration of the process by which these mountain slopes are going to ruin. Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXIII. (4) UNWASHED VALLEY LANDS SURROUNDED BY FOREST-COVERED MOUNTAINS. (See p. 27.) (See, also, Pl. IX), p. 21.) (B) BADLY WASHED MOUNTAIN VALLEY LANDS, BAKERSVILLE, N. C. (See p. 27.) The lower slopes of the mountains bordering this valley are largely cleared, Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXIV, ical | | | | (A) VALLEY LANDS BADLY WASHED BY FLOODS. (See p. 27.) These fertile valley lands in the Southern Appalachians will all be washed away ina few decades unless the forests on the mountain slopes are protected. (B) VALLEY LANDS RUINED BY RECENT FLOODS AND ABANDONED. (See p. As long as the forests remain on the mountain the valleys can be cultivated. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. decades have begun to suffer seriously from river floods. Each one of these streams along its course through the mountains and across the hill country beyond by its water power is already a contributor to the manufacturing in- terests of the country (Pl. X XV), and with improvement in the electrical transmission of power the possibilities of manufacturing developments in this direction are increas- ing rapidly every year. The measurements and estimates recently made by the Government hydrographer show the aggregate available undeveloped water power on the streams rising in this region to be more than a million horsepower. Onthese streams water-power developments are constantly in progress, but their value in the future will diminish as the forests disappear. In the mountains themselves these streams haye their sources at elevations from 3,000 to 6,000 feet, and before reaching a level of 2,000 feet many of them have reached considerable proportions. They subsequently flow across the mountain region for distances of from 20 to 50 miles before breaking through the border ranges onto the sur- rounding lowlands at elevations ranging from 1,000 to 1,200 feet. Along their courses stretches of smooth water are never long, and the descent is often accomplished by numerous rapids, cascades, and falls. (See Pl. X XVII; also Pls. LX X and LX XI.) Such cascades, with descent in short distances of from 10 to 50 feet, are abundant, while in some of the smaller tributaries beautiful falls of from 100 to 300 feet are to be found. I can not adequately describe the beauty and infinite variety of these mountain brooks and larger streams. Always clear, except immediately after the harder rains— for the forests hold back the soil—fed regularly from per- petual springs, they are among the important assets of the South. No gorges in eastern America can equal in depth and wildness those carved across the Blue Ridge and the Unakas by these streams in making their way through the marginal ranges of the Southern Appalachians. About the headwaters of the Catawba, the Linville River, after flowing for some miles parallel with the Blue Ridge, at an elevation of 3,800 feet, rushes down its eastern slope with a fall of 1,000 feet in less than 3 miles, through a gorge 1,500 to 2,000 feet in depth, a dozen miles in length, and with wall so steep and bottom so narrow and rugged that few persons have succeeded in following its course. bo We) Value of these mountain rivers crossing the low- lands for water power. Beauty of the mountain streams. Therivergorges of the region. 30 Irregularity of streams in re- gions largely cleared. Forests regu- late the flow of streams. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. (See Pl. LX XII.) Almost the same language might be used in describing the gorge cut by the Pigeon River across the Unaka Mountains southwest of Asheville; and there are a number of others cutting the Blue Ridge and Unakas at different points that are worthy of comparison with these. The same may be said of the gorges of the Tallulah and other streams in northern Georgia. But notwithstanding the steepness of the slopes of these gorges, even where the descent is almost precipitous, they are forest-covered except where the trees and shrubs have been destroyed by fire and the soil has been removed by the storms. (See Pls. XXIX and XLIL.) The perpetuation of the streams and the maintenance of their regular flow, so as to prevent floods and maintain their water powers, are among the prime objects of forest preservation in the Southern Appalachians. Nothing illus- trates the need of this more fully than the fact that on the neighboring streams, lying wholly within the Piedmont plateau, where the forests have been cleared from areas ageregating from 60 to 80 per cent of the whole, floods are frequent and excessive. During the seasons of pro- tracted drought some of the smaller streams almost disap- pear, and the use of water power along their course is either abandoned or largely supplemented by steam power. To-day the larger valuable water powers in the South Atlantic region are mainly limited to the streams which have their sources among the Southern Appalachian Mountains; and the waters of these streams show a striking uniformity of flow as compared with the streams lying wholly within the adjacent lowland country, where forest clearing has been excessive. While the rainfall is somewhat greater in the mountain region, it is a question of the regularity rather than the volume of flow, and this depends upon the water storage. The soil in the one region is as deep as in the other, and the slopes being gentler in the low country, other things being equal, the water would soak into it the more easily. In the mountain region itself the flow of the streams along which proportionately large clearings have been made has become decidedly more irregular, and the flood damages have greatly exceeded those along other streams where the forests have not been disturbed. The problem resolves itself into one of a forest cover for the soil. This is just what one would expect who has been, during a rainy season, in the heart of a mountain region where PLATE XXV. Senate Doc. No, 84. WATER-POWER DEVELOPMENT AND COTTON MILLS AT COLUMBUS, GA., ON THE CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER. The sources of this and numerous other importé river: be | re within tl ain forests. est reserve; and their va (See pp. : Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXVI. (4) WATER POWER ON SALUDA RIVER, AT PELZER, S. C. (See pp. 29, 141. (B) WATER POWER ON BROAD RIVER, AT COLUMBIA, S. C. (See pp. 29,141.) These streams have their sources within the limits of the proposed Appalachian forest reserve; and the perpetuation of these yaluable water powers depends on the preservation of these mountai forests. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXVII. CASCADES NEAR HEAD OF CATAWBA RIVER. (See pp- 29, 116.) are hundreds of cascades as beautiful as this in the Southern Appalachians. As long as these mountain sts are preserved these streams have a regular flow; united they furnish the water powers which operate the factories valued at increasing millions. Senate Doc. No. 84, PLaTe XXVIII. (Photographed by Hillers.) TALLULAH FALLS, GEORGIA. (See pp. 19, 28, 139.) There is here a succession of beautiful cascades which have within a short distance an aggregate descent of 335 feet. ake? SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. the lands have not been cleared nor have forest fires de- stroyed the humus cover from their surface. The rain- drops are battered to pieces and their force broken by the leaves and twigs of the trees, and when their spray reaches the ferns, the grass, and the flowers below, instead of running away down the surface slope it passes into the spongy humus, and thence into the soil and the crevices among the rocks below. As much of this supply as is not subsequently used by the growing plants emerges from this storehouse weeks or months later in numberless springs. (See Pl. XX XI.) The rain must be extremely abundant or long protracted to produce any excessive increase in the flow of the adjacent brooks. The rainfall in this Southern Appalachian region, as shownin Appendix D (p. 148), ranges from 60 inches for the year in Georgia to 71 inches in North Carolina. Heavy rainfalls during short periods are common. Even in an arid or semiarid region, where the rainfall for the year may be 10 inches or less, the absence of the forest cover results in a slow but sure removal of the soil from the mountain slopes. Much more ina region of heavy rain- fall, like that of these southern mountains, when the forest cover has been destroyed, will the soil removal be certainly and rapidly accomplished. In studying the streams of the more northern States it is seen that the numerous lakes and the deposits of sand and gravel spread over the hills and valleys of that region by the glaciers serve to store the water and to preserve the uniformity in the flow of the streams, and would ac- complish much in this direction even were the forests in that region entirely removed. In this southern region the preservation of the soil and the streams is a task which the forests alone must accomplish, and to that end they must be effectively protected. The proportion of cleared and forest-covered land in each of the great river drainage basins of the region is given on page 69, and as will be seen there, this proportion, though generally small, varies considerably in the different basins. Taking the region as a whole, at the present time about 24 per cent of the area has been cleared. (See PI. XII.) This proportion isan ever-increasing one—increas- ing the more swiftly for the reason that new fields are constantly being cleared and the abandoned fields are being eroded so rapidly that they are seldom reforested. (See Pl. XXL.) bl Heavy rainfall renders forest cover necessary. Soil protection and water stor- age here are both forest problems. Proportion of cleared land in Appalachian re- gion increasing. 32 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Landslides in- > , S . ] ia aiandslides J, Here and there among the Southern Appalachians a land rains in pastan’ slide extending over an acre, or several acres, has started, CLC bearing on its surface a section of the forest, but the larger trees. below have blocked its course within a few feet or a few yards of its original position. (See Pl. XXXII.) The trees on its surface were tilted, but the subsequent upward bending of their tops shows that the slip took place ten, fifty, or more than one hundred years ago. The abundance of such evidence shows that these rain storms among the primeval forests have been both frequent and heavy, but during the centuries these densely forest-covered slopes have not lost their soils nor the soils their fertility, nor fonzosion of the has a furrow been washed. ‘Trees of four centuries stand medneitslow, to-day in the very bottom of shallow ravines and minor depressions (see Pl. XX XIII), eroded before these forests covered the mountains. Had these forests been removed a few of these great rains that started these landslides would have cleaned the mountain slope of its recently formed soil, and would haye swept the valley below. Thefuturewill These mountains will continue to be the home of storms. have its storms. Rorestsalonecan Their heavy rains will continue to drench the slopes, if CON. cleared of their forests, with increasing violence. Whether in the future these rains shall be caught by fern and grass and humus, and received by a deep, porous soil, to be given out as needed to the vegetation above and the perpetual springs below, or whether it shall rush down bare, rocky slopes to fill the gorges and carry destruction through the valleys beyond, depends upon whether or not these forests are preserved. pobamages from The terribly destructive work of the heavy rains in wash- this region. ing away the farm lands on the mountain slopes and in the valleys of this region, especially where the clearings have been greatest, has already been described. It should be understood clearly, however, that the dangers from these floods are not limited to the region about the mountains. The floods from the May storm of the present year on the Blue Ridge, about the sources of the Catawba, swept the best of the farm lands along the course of that stream for upward of 200 miles, and cost the farmers more than a million and a half of dollars. An August storm in the same region added a loss of half a milion more by further destruction on the Catawba lowlands. (See Pl. XXXIV.) Similarly, the same May floods swept the valleys of the Yadkin in North Carolina, the New (Kana- wha) in Virginia and West Virginia, and the upper tribu- Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXIX. FOREST-COVERED SLOPES OF LINVILLE GORGE SEEN FROM BYNUMS BLUFF. If the forests on these steep slopes are once destroyed they can not be restored, as the soils will be quickly remoyed by the heayy rains. Senate Doc, No, 84. PLATE XXX FORESTS REGULATING THE FLOW OF STREAMS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 29-31; 137-142.) The leaves and branches above break the force of the raindrops; the shrubs, ferns, and humus below catch the water and pass it slowly downward into the soil and rock crevices; and from this great natural reseryoir, weeks or even months later, this water emerges in the numberless springs about the lower mountain slopes, and feeds the great rivers that cross the hill country below. Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXXI. (4) A SPRING ON SOUTHERN SLOPE OF MOUNT MITCHELL. These perennial springs are fed by water stored in the forest-covered slopes of these mountains. They maintain the regular flow of the many mountain streams of this region. (B) A MOUNTAIN BROOK IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. In the beautiful Sapphire country of North Carolina, Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXXII. (4) LANDSLIDE STOPPED BY THE FOREST, NORTH SLOPE OF ROAN MOUNTAIN. (See p. 32.) (B) SMALL LANDSLIDE AT A SPOT WHERE NO LARGE TREES WERE GROWING. li it were not for this forest growth the soils on many steep mountain slopes, when saturated from heavy rains, would either slide down like avalanches. or be washed down by the rushing water. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. taries of the Tennessee with resulting devastation, which, when added to that on the Catawba, sums up to more than $7,000,000 damage. Add to this the damages from floods on other streams rising in different parts of this region dur- ing the spring and summer, and the total this year approxi- mates $10,000,000. (See Pls. XX XV and XXXVI.) Such has been the story, on a smaller scale, of other similar but less violent floods about the sources of these mountain-born rivers during the past few years. If we are to continue the destruction of these mountain forests, this story will have to be repeated in successively larger editions in the future. THE CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. As shown in the accompanying paper by Professor Henry, of the Weather Bureau (p. 143), the climate of the Southern Appalachian region possesses distinctive fea- tures of its own, although it partakes somewhat of the main features of the climatic zones both to the west and to the east. Its distinctive features, due to higher alti- tudes, are a lower temperature, both summer and win- ter, a drier atmosphere, and at the same time a greater rainfall and snowfall, and higher wind velocity. There are of course local variations in the climatic conditions of the region, owing to its extremely varied topography, but the limited number of stations where observations have been made in this region makes it impossible to dis- cuss these local variations at the present time. It is in temperature that we might expect the greatest variations, but, unfortunately, with the exception of a few months’ observation on Mount Mitchell (elevation 6,711 feet), no observations are available at elevations greater than 4,000 feet. The highest temperature observed on Mount Mitchell during May, June, July, and August in 1873 was 72° in July; the lowest, 41° in June. At High- lands, N. C. (elevation 3,817 feet), the mean temperature of the summer is given by the Weather Bureau records as 65.7°, and the mean winter temperature as 35.4°. The extremes during a period of eight years (1893 to 1900) were 19° below zero in February and 86° above zero in June. The rainfall along the southern slopes of the Blue Ridge is the heaviest in the United States, with the exception of that on the northern Pacific coast, ranging from 60 inches *S. Doc. 84-—3 33 Temperatures in the region not extreme, Rainfall heay- iest in the East- ern States. 34 Special climat- ic features. Government control the only practical solu- tion. Protection of these forests be- yond the agency of private indi- viduals. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. in northern Georgia to 71 inches in western North Caro- lina. The precipitation for the year 1898 in western North Carolina at Highlands was 105.24 inches; at Horse Cove, 99.97 inches; Flat Rock, 78.39 inches, and Linville, 71.05 inches. The rainfall in the warm seasons is often torrential, while in the spring and autumn the rains often continue oyer several days in succession. During May 21, 1901, the rainfall in twenty-four hours was, at Highlands, N. C., 4.03 inches; at Hendersonville, N. C., 4.91 inches; at Flat Rock, N. C., 6.12 inches; at Marion, N. C., 7.25 inches; and at Patterson, N. C., 8.3 inches. Near Roan Mountain, North Carolina, a rainfall of 8 inches in eleven hours has been recorded. In August of 1901 the total rain- fall for the month at Highlands, N. C., was 30.74 inches. The tables which accompany Professor Henry’s paper show the temperatures, rainfall, and other weather condi- tions at practically all of the stations established within this region. They emphasize two facts of special impor- tance in connection with the present discussion, namely, that the climate is such as to permit travel and lumbering operations in all portions of this region throughout the entire year, while the rainfall, being heavy in the agere- gate and often excessive within short periods, renders it necessary to protect the forests in order to limit floods and prevent the washing away of the land. HOW CAN THESE FORESTS BE PRESERVED? Having given what I believe to be a fair statement of the conditions existing in the Southern Appalachian region, and considered the danger growing out of the policy and practice now in force, I pass on to inquire through what agency these forests can be preserved. After careful consideration I am able to suggest but one way to solve the problem, and that is for the Federal Government to purchase these forest-covered mountain slopes and make them into a national forest reserve. : Certainly, the lumbermen and the native farmers, who are now pushing the destruction of these forests, can not be expected of themselves to bring about their preserve tion. Nor can the perpetuation of forest conditions, upon which depend so many national interests, be left to the caprice of private capital, which has no interest beyond the profits in the Jumber industry. The restoration of forests already injured, and the reforesting of the steep PLATE XXXIII. Senate Doc. No. 84. LARGE POPLAR TREE GROWING IN MOUNTAIN RAVINE, ON THE WEST SLOPE OF THE GREAT (See p. 32.) SMOKIES. Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXXIV. (4) SOIL REMOVED AND WHITE SAND SPREAD OVER THE SURFACE OF THE CATAWBA RIVER LOWLANDS. (See pp. 32, 130.) The damages along this river from the floods of May and August, 1901, aggregated about $1,500,000. (B) LAYER OF SAND SPREAD OVER THE FERTILE LOWLANDS BORDERING THE CATAWBA RIVER BY A FLOOD IN MAY, 1901. (See pp. 32. 130.) Senate Doc, No. 84. PLATE XXXV. (4) FLOOD DAMAGES ON ELKHORN CREEK, IN WEST VIRGINIA, JUNE, 1901. The damages from floods along streams rising in this Southern Appalachian region, from April 30, to December 1, 1901, reached $10,000,000. Between December], 1901,and April 1, 1902, they reached $8,000,000 additional. (B) DEBRIS FROM FLOODS ON NOLICHUCKY RIVER, EAST TENNESSEE, MAY 21, 1901. This débris consisting of the wreck of farmhous furniture, lumber yards, bridges, cattle, and probably several human bodies, covered 6a res of fertile farm land near Erwin, Tenn. PLATE XXXVI. Senate Doc. No. 84. (A) FLOOD DAMAGES TO RAILWAY ON DOE RIVER, TENNESSEE. (See pp. 32, 130.) (B) FLOOD DAMAGES TO RAILWAY ON NOLICHUCKY RIVER, EAST TENNESSEE. The flood damages here illustrated eccurred in May, 1901. These and similar floods occurring during August and December, 1901, and January, February, and March, 1902, wrought damages to railroad property in and about this Southern Appalachian mountain region aggregating several million dollars. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. mountain slopes already cleared, are here properly national functions, for their results will be national in importance and extent. Furthermore, it is perfectly safe to assert that any satisfactory protection and development of these forests for the objects here contemplated is wholly beyond the agency of private individuals; and such persons would have no direct interest whatever in the protection and perpetuation of water-power, agriculture, and navi- gation along the lower courses of the streams whose head- waters they control. Nor can the States within whose territory these lands now lie be expected to convert them into a forest reserve. The land is not owned by the States, but by private indi- viduals. It is true that some of the wealthier States, like New York and Pennsylvania, are showing an intelligent and commendable interest in purchasing forest lands and establishing forest reserves for the protection of the sources of streams lying within their own boundaries and for the conservation of the forests. But the case is wholly different in the Southern Appalachian region. North Carolina can not, for example, fairly be expected to establish a forest reserve at great expense for the protec- tion of streams which though rising within her borders lie mainly in other States. Nor could Alabama be expected to purchase lands in the State of Georgia for the protection of her great river which reaches the Gulf in Mobile Bay. Nor could West Virginia be expected to purchase lands in North Carolina for the protection of the sources of the Kanawha River, the largest lateral tributary of the Ohio. Furthermore, eyen were these States willing to enter upon such a plan, their financial condition is not such as to make the undertaking possible. The combined income for a year of all the States within whose borders these lands lie would hardly be suflicient for their purchase. As shown, however, in the Appendix (p. 172), each of the States within whose borders these mountain lands are located has by legislative act expressed its hearty approval of this measure and its willingness to cede the control of these lands to the Federal Government. This is a national problem. The people of a number of States are directly interested. The dangers growing out of the policy now in force are national in their character, as are also the benefits to be obtained by the policy now advised. This propesal for a national forest reserve has already been discussed and commended by our ablest men 35 Ownership and control by State not practi- cable. Purchase the of these forests too CC ystly for States, but States willing for Federal control. these ne le the the Protection of ational om. forests a prob- 36 National forest reseryes in the West. Policy recom- mended not a new one for the Government. Forest reserve more important than a park, but the two not an- tagonistic. Cost of the mountain forest lands. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. of science, by practical lumbermen, by the forestry asso- ciations, by many of the business organizations of the country, and by both the technica! and the general press. IT earnestly hope that it will meet with favorable action at the hands of Congress during its present session. Congress has wisely provided for the setting aside out of the public domain, and thus withdrawing from sale, many thousands of square miles of valuable forest lands, with a view to protecting the streams and perpetuating the timber supply about the mountains in our western States and Territories. (See Pl. II.) And while the meas- ure now proposed involves a purchase instead of a with- drawal from sale of forest lands formerly purchased, the principle and purpose are the same. In both cases, even if judged simply as a question of finance, the Goyernment’s investment will ultimately prove a good one. As further illustrating the fact that the proposed pur- chase will not be a new policy or precedent on the part of the Government, attention may be called to the numerous purchases of lands for military parks, and to the purchase from the Blackfoot Indians in 1896 of more than half a million acres of forest lands at a cost of $1,500,000, which area was subsequently added to the Flathead Forest Reserve in Montana. As I stated in my preliminary report of January last, the early movement for the purchase and control of a large area of forest land in the East by the Government chiefly contemplated a national park, but the idea of a national park is conservation, not use; that of a forest reserve is conservation by use, and I therefore recommend the estab- lishment of a forest reserve instead of a park. If, how- ever, the present proposal for the establishment of a national forest reserve is favorably acted upon by Con- gress, and at some future time it should prove desirable that some considerable portion of this region be set aside and opened up more especially for use as a national park, T can see in advance no objection whatever to the carrying out of such a plan. CONDITIONS OF PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT. I stated in the preliminary report just referred to that lands in this region suitable for a forest reserve are now generally held in large bodies of from 50,000 to 100,000 acres, and that they can be purchased at prices ranging SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 37 from $2 to $5 per acre. Further investigations during the present year confirm the correctness of this statement. There are also many additional tracts of forest lands rang- ing from 1,000 to 50,000 acres each that are for sale at reasonable prices. Within the present year a few tracts of from 10,000 to 30,000 acres sold at less than $2 per acre. Within the past decade the larger portion of this area could have been purchased in large tracts at prices ranging from $1 to $2 an acre; but in view of the grow- ing demand for forest lands, prices have already advanced, and they may be expected to advance still more within the next few years. Within the past two decades the titles to many of the, Titles to the large tracts of land in this region have been much in ‘"- dispute, and the efforts to adjust them involved tedious processes in court; but I am informed by competent judges that in practically all of these cases adjustments have finally been reached. Any appropriation for the purchase of these lands should provide ample time for the searching of titles, although no serious difficulty is anticipated from this source. Referring again to my preliminary report, I may quote , joan name a statement which has been further confirmed by the re- 224, "i ult. sults of the present year that ‘“‘it is fully shown by the Prt — investigation that such a reserve would be self-supporting from the sale of timber under a wisely directed, conserva- tive policy.” Inthe case of many of the European forests under government supervision a net annual income is derived from the sale of timber and other forest products of from $1 to more than $5 per acre. I do net, of course, suppose that under the different conditions existing in this country a national forest reserve such as proposed would yield such a result, yet I confidently expect that the reserve now proposed in the Southern Appalachians will in the course of a few years be self-supporting, and that subse- quently, as the hard-wood timber supplies in other por- tions of the country become more scarce, the lumbering operations will yield a considerable net return to the Government. Meanwhile, the establishment of such a reserve will ae remedy many of the evils now threatened in this region, and under the efficient management of the practical for- esters now being trained in this Department its working Bnet ee will serve as a test and demonstration of the wisdom and torest reserve as > . 5 C an object lesson suecess of practical forest operations ona large scale; and will be great, 38 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. this will encourage both individnals and States to adopt such methods of forest management on their own lands as will not only protect the forests in existence, but also re- store them on lands which should never have been cleared. opment nora, 1 am informed by the geologists who are familiar with terfered with. this Southern Appalachian region that the development of its mineral deposits would neither interfere with nor be interfered with by the creation and proper handling of such a forest reserve. menxistingsettle’ The settlements now existing within the limits of the Heveel nla. proposed reserve would not be interfered with, nor would their existence there, nor their legitimate enlargement, interfere with the purposes to be accomplished in the establishment of the reserve. pamdage ners! It would not be wise at the present time to make public giver the exact location of lands which may be thought best adapted for incorporation in such a forest reserve, but the general boundaries of the region within which it is pro- posed to purchase these lands are indicated on the accom- panying maps (see Pls. Il, IV, and XII). I am of the opinion that the reserve should ultimately include not less than 4,000,000 acres. CONCLUSIONS. The results of these investigations of the forests and forest conditions of the Southern Appalachian region lead unmistakably to the following conclusions: 4. The Southern Appalachian region embraces the high- est peaks and largest mountain masses east of the Rockies. It is the great physiographic feature of the eastern half of the continent, and no such lofty mountains are covered with hard-wood forests in all North America. 2. Upon these mountains descends the heaviest rainfall of the United States, except that of the North Pacific coast. It is often of extreme violence, as much as 8 inches having fallen in eleven hours, 31 inches in one month, and 105 inches in a year. 3. The soil, once denuded of its forests and swept by torrential rains, rapidly loses first its humus, then its rich upper strata, and finally is washed in enormous volume into the streams, to bury such of the fertile lowlands as are not eroded by the floods, to obstruct the rivers, and to fill wp the harbors on the coast. More good soil is now washed from these cleared mountain-side fields during a single heavy rain than during centuries under forest cover. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 4. The rivers which originate in the Southern Appala- chians flow into or along the edges of every State from Ohio to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Along their courses are agricultural, water-power, and navigation interests whose preservation is absolutely essen - tial to the well-being of the nation. 5. The regulation of the flow of these rivers can be accomplished only by the conservation of the forests. 6. These are the heaviest and most beautiful hard-wood forests of the continent. In them species from east and west, from north and south, mingle in a growth of unpar- alleled richness and variety. They contain many species of the first commercial value and furnish important sup- plies which can not be obtained from any other region. 7. For economic reasons the preservation of these for- ests is imperative. Their existence in good condition is essential to the prosperity of the lowlands through which their waters run. Maintained in productive condition they will supply indispensable materials which must fail without them. Their management under practical and conservative forestry will sustain and increase the resources of this region and of the nation at large, will serve as an invaluable object lesson in the advantages and practica- bility of forest preservation by use, and will soon be self- supporting from the sale of timber. 8. The agricultural resources of the Southern Appala- chian region must be protected and preserved. To that end the preservation of the forests is an indispensable con- dition which will lead not to the reduction but to the increase of the yield of agricultural products. 9. The floods in these mountain-born streams, if this forest destruction continues, will increase in frequency and viaglence and in the extent of their damages, both within this region and across the bordering States. The extent of these damages, like those from the washing of the mountain fields and roads, can not be estimated with perfect accuracy, but during the present year alone the total has approximated $10,000,000, a sum sufficient to purchase the entire area recommended for the proposed reserve. But this loss can not be estimated in money value alone. Its continuance means the early destruction of con- ditions most valuable to the nation and which neither skill nor wealth can restore. 10. The preservation of the forests, of the streams, and of the agricultural interests here described can be success- 39 40 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. fully accomplished only by the purchase and creation of a national forest reserve. The States of the Southern Ap- palachian region own little or no land, and their revenues are inadequate to carry out this plan. Federal action is obviously necessary, is fully justified by reasons of public necessity, and may be expected to have most fortunate results. James WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Washington, D. C., December 16, 1901. JIE DING DIO A FORESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By H. B. Ayres and W. W. AsaHeE. LUMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By O.. W. Price. DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FORESTS, BY RIVER BASINS. By H. B. Ayres and W. W. AsuHeE. TREES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By W. W. AsHe and H. B. Ayres. LIST OF SHRUBS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By W. W. AsHE. 41 a LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Unirep Srares DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BureEat oF Forestry, Washington, D. C., December 18, 1901. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the forests and forest conditions of the Southern Appalachians, including a descrip- tion of them by mountain groups, an account of lumbering in the South- ern Appalachians, and a description of their forests by river basins, together with an annotated account of the trees of the region and a list of the shrubs. Very respectfully, GrrrorD PiyxcnHor, Forester. The Secrerary or AGRICULTURE. FORESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By H. B. Ayres and W. W. Ase. The Southern Appalachian Mountains extend from Vir- ginia southwestward into Alabama, and lie between the Piedmont Plateau on the southeast and the lowlands of East Tennessee on the northwest. That this is preemi- nently a region of mountains is well illustrated by the fact that the mountain slopes occupy 90 per cent of the total area; and probably the combined area of the valleys and gentler slopes (of less than 10 degrees—about 2 feet in 10) will notaggregate more than 15 per cent of the whole. Before the advent of man the entire region, save the tops ,,Entite moun- in region origi- of a few high mountains—the grassy ‘‘ balds”—was coy- Rally forest coy- ered with forest, mainly hard wood. (See Pl. XX XVII.) Then, as now, the forest varied as to density and vigor of growth, but a far larger portion of that existing then is resembled by the best of to-day on such tracts as are found in the most favored situations and have been pro- tected from fire and severe culling. A total area of 5,400,000 acres has been examined in connection with this investigation, and of this 4,050,000 acres, or 75 per cent of the whole, are still in forest. Of this total area in forest about 7.4 per cent, or 303,000 acres, is still in primeval condition, i. e., has never been culled at all. The remainder of this wooded area has been culled toa varying extent. (See Pl. XX XVIII.) A limited , Nature andex- portion of that near the railway lines has been robbed of ings. nearly everything of commercial value, while the remote areas have had only the walnut, cherry, and figured woods cut. From the intervening areas, far the larger part of the whole, a varying proportion of the most valuable trees have been removed, but large amounts of commer- cial timber still remain. The-clearing and culling of a century have made considerable inroads into these forests. The woodland connected with the farms has been largely 45 46 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. culled and is in part covered with trees of second growth. In many places, where transportation facilities are avail- able, the mills have gone into the heart of the mountain region and much of the choicest timber has been sawed there and hauled on wagons to the railroad. (See Pl. XX XIX.) agenerai, char’ As to composition, generally speaking, it may be said ests. that the forest below the 2,000-foot elevation consists of oaks, hickories, and pines; above that elevation are many hard woods, or hard woods associated with hemlock and white pine. Some spruce and balsam occur on the cold north slopes and around the tops of the larger and higher mountains. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST AND FOREST CONDI- TIONS, BY MOUNTAIN GROUPS. subdivision of For the sake of convenience in description the forest forest area. Og 2 area may be subdivided as follows: (1) The forests of the Blue Ridge. (2) The forests of the White Top Mountain group. (8) The forests of Roan, Grandfather, and Black moun- tains. (4) The forests of the central interior mountain idee (5) The-forests of the Great Smoky Mountains. (6) The forests of the southern end of the Appalachians. FORESTS OF THE BLUE RIDGE The Blue Ridge from Virginia to Georgia is, on the dryer slopes and crests, lightly timbered with small oaks, chestnut, and pines, while in the hollows mixed hard woods—oaks, chestnut, hickories, ete.—form heayy tim- ber. The forests are on the ridges and steeper slopes. The narrow alluvial bottoms and often portions of the adjoining slopes have been cleared and are under cultiva- tion or have been abandoned. But excepting these cleared valleys and hillsides, the forests are almost continuous from Virginia to Georgia. While the hharediroe forests have been culled alone. nearly the entire east slope, only the choicest trees of the lighter woods, among which are white pine, have been cut. (See Pl. XXXVIII a.) Before any of it was cut the white pine on the Linville River was probably the finest in the Southern mountains. A great part of this has been removed. It is being transported on a narrow-gauge rail- way via Cranberry to Johnson City. Millsat Hickory and PLATE XXXVII. Senate Doc. No. 84. ORIGINAL FOREST, NORTHWEST SLOPE OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 23, 45, 53.) There are no lakes or glacial gravels in this Southern Appalachian region. such as abound in the Northern States. Here the forest and the alone must catch the heavy rains and regulate the flow of the streams. If the forests are destroyed the soils will be rapidly washed down into the river channels; and the terrible floods will destroy everything along the great river valleys. (See also pp. 56, 133.) i=] abe ; a a 2 a re ae PLATE XXXVIII. Senate Doc. No. 84. (A) SLIGHTLY CULLED MIXED FOREST, NEAR LINVILLE, N. C. (See p. (B) WHITE-PINE FOREST EXCESSIVELY CULLED, SHADY VALLEY, TENNESSEE, (See p. 0.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Lenoir are cutting the pine in the Johns River Valley. The other smaller bodies of white pine have been culled of their finest trees. FOREST OF THE WHITE TOP MOUNTAIN REGION. This region embraces the northwestern corner of North Carolina, the northeastern corner of Tennessee, and the adjacent portion of southwestern Virginia. In this portion of the Appalachians, the Unaka (here represented by Iron Mountain) and the Blue Ridge ranges approach nearer each other, and the intermediate land retains more of its original character as a plateau lying between the great Appalachian Valley, drained by the Tennessee. River, on the northwest, and the Piedmont Plateau on the southeast. The White Top group comprises the mountains along the northern rim of the elevated mountain region. 47 To the irregular mountain ridge aaron in this more Topographic northern region forms the boundary line between North Carolina and Tennessee, the name of Stone Mountain is applied. Here and there this ridge rises into peaks of prominence. On one of these, Pond Mountain, which has an elevation of 5,100 feet, the boundary lines between North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia corner. Another of these, White Top Mountain, some 5 miles to the north- east, and a far more mmacsive and imposing mountain, rises to an elevation of 5,678 feet. Stillanother, Mount Rogers, on the Balsam Ridge, about 5 miles a little north of east from the White Top, rises to an elevation of 5,719 feet. The general course of this Stone Mountain ridge is to the northeast as far as Mount Rogers and then continues eastward as Iron Mountain to New River Gap. North- west of it, in Tennessee, is another less regular and less prominent ridge known as the Iron Mountains, reaching an elevation at intervals of from 3,000 to 4,000 feet; and 6 to 8 miles to the west of this latter, in Tennessee, is the Holston Mountain ridge, reaching a still higher elevation. These ridges are all approximately parallel, having in East Tennessee a general northeasterly course. To the northwest of these mountains lies the broad, fertile valley of the South Holston; to the southeast is the more elevated valley of New River, broken into an endless series of steep, round-crested hills, mostly cleared, and producing well in both grass and grain. Broad agricul- tural valleys lie between the Iron and Stone mountains feat 48 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. and between the Iron and the Holston mountains. There are many farms on the southeastern slope of the Stone Mountain, and its northwestern slope is dotted with clear- ings. Extensive clearings cover the southern foot hills of both White Top and the Balsam mountains. There is, how- ever, in this group an almost unbroken forest, at least 6 miles in width, extending along the mountains from Eliza- ‘ bethton east to Mount Ewine, a distance of more than 60 Extensive mountain for- ests. So ¢ miles. The portion of this forest to the southwest of Damascus coyers the slopes of the Iron and Holston mountains and much of Shady Valley, between them. It is largely com- posed of hard wood, with which white pine and hemlock are associated. For 8 miles east of Damascus the forest covers both slopes of Iron Mountain. It has been slightly culled, but much burned. It is lightly timbered with oak, chestnut, hemlock, and some white pine. A large area lying east of White Top Mountain, on the upper slope of the Balsam Mountains, is heavily timbered with spruce (see Pl. XL) on and near the summits, while hard woods, with some hemlock intermixed, occupy the lower elevations. From the eastern end of the Balsam Mountains the Tron Mountain extends almost eastward to Mount Ewing, a distance of 40 miles. Its summit is dotted with a few farms and pastures, but the forest on the slopes is almost unbroken. It is lightly timbered with small oaks, chestnut, hickories, and black pine. The forest has been severely burned over large areas. A railroad has been built from Damascus southwestward through Shady Valley, and some of the finest white-pine timber in the United States is now being cut there. (See Pl. XX XVIII2.) South of this large belt of forest are a few isolated mountains in the midst of the agricultural valley of New River which have their slopes well timbered. The largest of these are Phoenix, Three Top, and Elk mountains, which lie between the north and south forks of New River. Nearly 40,000 acres of this forest is unculled. There are six holdings of 10,000 to 50,000 acres each; the remainder is held in small areas of a few hundred acres. The farming region of both the New and Holston river valleys is dotted with wood lots sufficient to supply the needs of the resident population. Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXXIX. (4) HAULING LOGS TO THE MOUNTAIN SAWMILL. (See p. 46.) (B) HAULING MOUNTAIN LUMBER TO THE RAILWAY STATION. AR RNs Wes. PLATE XL. Senate Doc. No. 84, 7 MPH a as oT pee (See pp. 28, 48.) SPRUCE FOREST NEAR SUMMIT OF WHITE TOP MOUNTAIN, VIRGINIA. covered by a dense growth of moss, flowers, and shrubs, the forest growth and < Protected by a dense g dry seasons. eatch and store the heavy rains for use durin on the steep mountain slopes soils SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 49 FORESTS OF ROAN, GRANDFATHER, AND THE BLACK MOUNTAINS. Roan Mountain stands as a prominent figure in this, Topographic group of four similar large, isolated mountain masses— ‘7°: Beech, Grandfather, Roan, and Black mountains—in a region which is largely devoted to agriculture. These mountains are alike in the general character of the forests on their slopes, and the agricultural lands about their foothills and intervening valleys. They are all heavily timbered, and, though much of their forest has been par- tially lumbered, only occasional choice trees have been cut, causing no break in the forest and little change in its condition. Mixed hardwoods form the dominant element, and associated with them are small areas of hemlock. Limited areas of spruce are found on or near their tops. Beech Mountain is the lowest of these four. It has few coniferous trees about it except hemlock and white pine on its northern slope, while large areas on the sum- mits of Grandfather, Roan, Black, and Cragey mountains are occupied by spruce and balsam forests. These forests are virtually primeval, and trees of all sizes and ages are found intermingled, showing abundant reproduction and an undisturbed forest equilibrium. Along the drier por- tions of the summits and the ridges leading up to them, especially on the south slopes, fires have in some places done considerable damage. But areas entirely fire killed are small. (1) The Beech Mountain group, including Sugar Moun- , Forests and topographic tain and other smaller peaks near it, lies between Watauga featnres: about River and Banners Elk Creek and is the most northerly group. It has an area of about 70,000 acres (110 square miles), 20,000 acres (82 square miles) or about 30 per cent of which are cleared. It isthe lowest of the four groups, having an altitude of only 5,522 feet. It is separated from Grandfather Mountain, which is about 15 miles southeast of its summit, by the valley of the Watauga River and from Roan Mountain, which is about the same distance to the southwest, by the valley of Elk Creek, which is partly cleared. Although the south slope of the mountain is steep, the soil is deep and mellow and grass farms extend nearly to the summit. There are also a few farms on the northern slopes. The original forests of Beech Mountain are now largely confined to the deep hollows on the northern slopes. The *S. Doc. 84——4 50 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. greater part of them have been culled in degrees varying with their ease of access. Forests and 9) a P > iV 97 “7 aS Bays (alan Le decane se: (2) ne Grandfather Mountain group, including Grand tures about the father and Grandmother mountains, lieson the Blue Ridge, Grandfather ivorniniepi¥aL and is the highest point in that range, having an altitude of 5,964 feet. While it is situated on the Blue Ridge, its affinities, so far as its forests are concerned, are with the interior mountain areas and not with the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge. The agricultural lands of this region lie to the north of the Grandfather along New and Watauga rivers, to the west in the valley of North ‘Toe River, and on the low mountains and round hills, dotted with clearings, lying be- tween the Grandfather and Roan groups. This mountain group contains an area of more than 100,000 acres, only a small portion of which is cleared. The cleared land is located chiefly among the headwaters of Linville and Watauga rivers. The topography of the entire group is rough, with steep and often rocky slopes. Many of the farms are on land which is too steep for profitable agricuitural use. The eastern and southern slopes of the mountains are lightly timbered. The western and northern slopes haye been somewhat culled, but are still heavily wooded. A dense mixed forest covers the northern slope and extends across the valley of Boone Fork of Watauga River, which is yet uncleared for a distance of more than 5 miles from its head. (8) The Roan Mountain group, including Roan Moun- tain, Yellow Mountain, and Spear Top, lies on the bound- dary line between North Carolina and Tennessee, between Doe and Toe rivers. It rises from a base of 2,000 feet to a height of 6,313 feet. The area of this group is about 120,000 acres, over one-fourth of which, or 35,000 acres, is cleared. The slopes are slightly more gentle than on any other of the large mountains, and are well wooded, though dotted with clearings. The entire wooded portion of this area is well timbered. The north slope, being nearest to the railroad, has been more culled, but some timber has also been cut on the south slopes at the heads of Big and Little Rock creeks. Forestsand to- (4) [he Black Mountains, which lie just west of the Blue pography about | ei 5 iS : the Black Moun- Ridge, a few miles north of where the latter range is tains and the > = a 9 " 2 Craggies. crossed by the Southern Railway, are a series of short ridges. The most massive of these is that of Black Moun- tain proper, which diverges from the Blue Ridge and extends SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. northward 10 miles toa rather abrupt ending. The larger part of this ridge rises above 6,000 feet, and Mount Mitchell, the highest of half a dozen grand peaks, reaches an elevation of 6,711 feet. From near the southern end of the Blacks the Craggy Mountain ridge extends south- westward for a distance of nearly 10 miles, and from this same point the Yates Knob ridge extends northwestward in a less regular form toward the Unaka range. These mountains lie between Toe River on the north and the Swannanoa on the south. At the southern end of the Blacks they touch the Blue Ridge. They are from 15 to 30 miles south of Roan Mountain and 30 miles southwest of the Grandfather. The group has an area of more than 170,000 acres, about 20,000 acres of which are cleared. Forests cover nearly the entire area of the Craggy Moun- tains, though they are not so dense, nor so nearly in their original condition as are those on the Black Mountains, as more or less lumbering has been done along both the eastern and the western slopes. Some of these slopes, too, have suffered much from fire and are almost destitute of young trees and undergrowth. The densest and most primitive forests of the region lie on the west slope of the Black Mountains about the headwaters of Caney River. (See Pl. XIII.) Those on the east slope of the Blacks are much lighter and have suffered more from fires. FORESTS OF THE CENTRAL INTERIOR MOUNTAIN RIDGES. The Balsam Mountains make up the longest of the cross ridges in the Southern Appalachians, extending from Mount Guyot, the highest of the Unakas, on the Ten- nessee line, in a general southeasterly course to Mount Toxaway (Hogback) on the Blue Ridge, near the South Carolina line, a distance of 40 miles. They reach their highest point in Richland Balsam — 6,540 feet Northeast of and less prominent than the Balsams are the Newfound Mountains, which form another and shorter cross ridge, extending from Mount Pisgah northward to the Unakas. South of the Balsams, the Cowee and Nan- tahala mountains each form short cross ridges, rising to less than 5,500 feet, which extend from the Blue Ridge on the Georgia State line northwesterly to the Great Smokies of the Unaka Range. These cross ridges are in their general features all much alike, with frequent steep rocky slopes and sharp crests. There is very little land on them suited to agriculture, 51 Topography. Agriculture. 52 General forest conditions. Forests about the Newfound Mountains. Forests about the Balsam Mountains. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. except in the narrow valleys and coves. (See Pl. XLIII.) The soils are generally thin and light, in some places sandy, rarely clayey. These mountains, however, are surrounded by agricultural valleys, except near the north- west ends of the Balsam and Newfound mountains, where these join the Unakas. The forests on the northwestern portion of the Balsam Mountains are really a continuation of those of the Great Smokies, and resemble them in the species represented and in the general forest conditions. The forests on the east side of the Balsams and on the Newfound, Cowee, and Nantahala mountains are much alike, but the Balsam Mountains are much more heavily wooded than the others, especially on their northern slopes, and have more of the softer woods, like linn, buckeye, and ash. The southern slopes of all are lightiy wooded and have been injured by fire to some extent, so that in places the forest is open and young timber trees are scant. Much of the best timber has been culled from the Newfound and Nantahala mountains. The larger part of the forest land on the eastern spur of the Balsams (about Mount Pisgah) is under forest protection. The forests of the Newfound Mountains are formed of hard woods, largely oak and chestnut, associated with white pine. As they lie nearer the main line of the Southern Railway, and on account of the topography were easily lumbered, they have been more culled than those of the other cross chains. Some general lumbering has been done on Wolf and Shut-in creeks, and an attempt has been made to remove all the merchantable timber from some large tracts. At most, however, it amounts to only severe culling. The forests of the Cowee and Nantahala moun- tains are very much alike. They consist of hard woods, in which oak, chestnut, hickory, and maple form the largest element. There is almost an entire absence of coniferous growth, the hemlock, which is associated with the hard woods elsewhere, being almost wanting here. Much culling has been done in the forests at the north ends of these mountains, where they are nearer the Murphy branch of the Southern Railway. The Balsam Mountains are more heavily timbered than the other cross ridges. On both northern and southern slopes there are deep, cool hollows, or coves, with fertile soil, producing vigorous growth, and as there has been very little culling these forests are very nearly primeval. They consist of typical Southern Appalachian harp Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XLI. FORESTS ON THE SOUTHERN SLOPES OF THE BLUE RIDGE, ABOUT MOUNT TOXAWAY, IN THE SAPPHIRE COUNTRY, WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA. (Photographed by Seadin.) (See pp. 51, 52.) ato: diy Sie ¢ PLATE XLII. Senate Doc, No. 84, FORESTS ON THE SLOPES OF NANTAHALA GORGE, WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA. (See p. The soil on these slopes is thin and would be quickly remoyed by the rains if the forests were destroyed, PLATE XLIII. Senate Doc. No. 84. FORESTS AND CLEARINGS ABOUT THE SOUTHEASTERN SLOPES OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS, BETWEEN CROSS RIDGES. The clearings are small Indian farms on the Oconalufty River. (See p. 53.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. woods, associated with hemlock and spruce. On the north- ern slopes the softer of the hard woods form the dom- inant element, as linn, ash, buckeye, and yellow poplar, while the proportion of oak and chestnut is smaller. The hemlock is associated with these in the deep hollows, while spruce crowns the summits of the northern slopes. On the southern slope oak and chestnut form the larger proportion of the timber, and there are less of the lighter woods and of hemlock and almost no spruce. The eastern, or French Broad River slope about Mount Pisgah, is lightly timbered with oak and chestnut and has been much damaged by fire. At present, however, it is under forest protection, and a vigorous young growth is springing up. Railroads are now being built into the forests on both the north and south slopes in order to exploit the timber. The almost precipitous walls of the beautiful Nantahala Gorge, nearly 2,000 feet deep, are forest covered through- out their entire extent. (See Pl. XLII.) FORESTS OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. This segment of the Unakas is the largest mountain t=} a Topography nd forest con: mass in the Southern Appalachians, and it contains the ditions. largest area of continuous forest (see Pl. XVII), with the smallest number of clearings. It includes the Smoky Mountains from the Big Pigeon River on the northeast to McDaniel Bald on the southwest, and that part of the Balsam Mountains which lies west of Soco Gap, with their numerous spurs and subsidiary ridges. The region is rough and rugged on both north and south slopes, and rises from a low valley level of about 1,500 feet at the larger streams to more than 6,000 feet along the crests of the highest mountains. The wooded area begins on the western foothills of the Smoky Mountains in Tennessee, covers the northwestern and southeastern slopes of the Great Smokies (see Pl. XLIII) and the slopes of the Cataloochee Mountain. The broad agricultural valleys of East Tennessee lie against these mountains on the northwest, but elsewhere they are surrounded by a rough country of lower moun- tains, with narrow, intervening agricultural valleys. Less than 10 per cent of this area is cleared. The clearings are few and small, and lie chiefly some miles distant from the crest of the ridge. The forests are chiefly of hard woods, with a large amount ene of coniferous growth around the higher summits and in ®t. ture and ex- of the for- Topography. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. the deep, cool hollows. On the drier slopes, and especially on the south sides, oak and chestnut form the greater part of the timber, with some black and yellow pine on the ridges. The timber in the hollows is more varied and the stand is heavier, poplar, birch, linn, and buckeye being associated with the oak and chestnut. The finest and largést bodies of spruce in the Southern Appalachians occur here, along the crest of the ridge and the north slope of both the Cataloochee and Smoky mountains. There are about 20,000 acres of spruce and nearly as much hemlock. There is no spruce on the Smoky Mountains southwest of Silers Meadow. The forests of the north slope of the Smoky Mountains have been much culled and injured by burning and _ pas- turage. There is yeta great deal of fine timber, however. Fires have also done much injury on the south slope, especially to hard woods, and the growth is often very open on account of the suppression of young trees by burning for a great number of years. The valleys of Cataloochee and Big Creeks are heavily timbered, though they have been culled to some extent, and the ridges have often been burned. A railroad is now being built up Big Pigeon River in order to exploit the timber on these streams. A railroad is also under construction up Oconalufty River to remove a part of the timber from the east prong of that stream. FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN END OF THE APPALACHIANS. South of the Nantahala cross ridge the Appalachian Mountains no longer consist of two well-defined parallel ranges with prominent cross ridges, but break up into a number of small, low mountains, or small ridges, with broad, alluvial valleys or low hills between them, or in some places there are a series of low ridges which are separated by deep, narrow, gorge-like valleys. In north- western Georgia their identity is entirely lost, and they pass into the hills of the Piedmont Plateau. While only a few of these mountains have an altitude of more than 4,500 feet, the topography is rough, as the stream level is much lower than it is further northeastward, not being more than 1,000 feet. The resisting char- acter of the rock—quartzite, sandstones, and slates— which forms these mountains, which have eroded into sharp-pointed ridges with deep, narrow intervening val- Senate Doc, No. 84. PLATE XLIV. In Haywood County, N. C. In East Tennessee. ~ BIG CHESTNUT TREES, FROM THE BASE OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 238, 54.) PLATE XLV. No, 84. Senate Doc, FORESTS ON THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS; TABLE ROCK, SOUTH CAROLINA. 4 u - “ ore re apn eeen SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. leys, has added to the ruggedness of the region and its Ss al 7 » aa picturesqueness. Some of the largest of these mountains are the Blue, Flat Top, Shooting Creek, and Valley River mountains. The northern slopes and hollows are often well wooded , with hard woods, chiefly with oaks, chestnut, maples, and hickories. The southern slopes are lightly wooded with oaks, hickories, and black and yellow pines, which also form the forests on the spurs and foothills. In very many places the forest is open and thin, and many trees are defective. The undergrowth is often dense, consisting of numerous sprouts from young trees which have been killed by fires, and many shrubs which grow in the partial shade of the thin forest cover. In other places there is almost no underwood and no young growth. Repeated fires have injured much of the timber on the southern slopes and greatly impaired the general forest condition. These fires are far more frequent and severe than in the hard-wood forests northward, on account of the dryer climate and soil and the large amount of inflammable pine, and the resultant injury to the timber is more evident. On account of the thin, dry soil the trees are smaller and less vigorous than farther north, and the constant destruc- tion of the humus by the fires still further lessens their growth and keeps them small. The soils of the mountains are generally thin and sandy and not at all productive agriculturally. In many places they are very rocky, so that tillage would be impossible. The altitude is too low for grass. About three-fourths of the area is at present in forest. Some of it is second growth, but only a small part of it is such. There are occasional clearings, how- ever, around the base of the mountains and in the hollows. Lumbering has been in progress in many places and some of the choicest timber has been removed, especially along and near the Marietta and North Georgia Railroad. CHANGES IN FOREST CONDITIONS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. The three agencies that have wrought changes in the forests of the:Southern Appalachians are the fires, the lumbermen, and the clearer of lands for farming purposes. Fire has come as an oft-repeated scourge since the days of early Indian occupation. 55 Forest con- itions. Injury by for- est fires. More than 78,000 acres of the region examined have , Estentandna- of their recently been so severely burned as to kill the greater por- d2mages. 56 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. tion of the timber, but the greater aggregate damage has been done by lighter fires creeping through the woods year after year, scorching the butts and roots of timber trees, destroying seedlings and forage plants, consuming forest litter and humus, and reducing that thatch of leaves which breaks the fall of raindrops. Evidence of such fires is found over approximately 4,500,000 acres, or 80 per cent of the entire area. (See Pl. XLVI.) The effect of forest fires is seldom appreciated, espe- cially in this region, where so few timber trees are killed. The killing of mature timber trees is, in fact, from the nation’s point of view, the least damage of all; for were only the mature trees killed a dozen saplings would stand ready to fill the place of each, but the fires affect the sap- lings much more than the large, thick-barked trees, and, too, where spring tires are habitual seedlings can not grow, preproduction as they are killed when very small. A forest under such conditions can not reproduce itself. The timber trees die out and are replaced by brush that sprouts from the roots. One who studies these effects can see everywhere the dam- age by fire in dead trees, scorched butts, hollow trees, dead saplings and seedlings, in clumps of sprouts from roots of fire-killed trees, in the openings, the half-forested land, and in the annual weeds that occupy the burned areas, nature using their humble efforts to cover the nakedness of the misused land. , Fires increase The damage by fire causing a loss of the earth cover Heels, does not end with erosion, for it also prevents water from penetrating and being stored in the earth. The roots of trees penetrate deeply into the subsoil, and as they decay leave a network of underground water pipes. The mulch of forest leaves encourages numerous ground-boring worms and beetles that keep the soil of an unburned forest por- ous, not only favoring the absorption of water, but also retarding the capillary rise of moisture to the surface and its loss by evaporation. The mosses and humus of a well- conditioned forest form wet blankets, often a foot thick, the function of which is so evident that it need not be sohites mpover- explained here. The dissipation of the chemical elements of plant food into the atmosphere by fire and the rapid leaching away of the slight residue contained in the ashes is another injurious effect of the forest fires. _Hites in, this The experience of the older countries should serve us vented by Goy-sufficiently. to prevent our making a similar mistake of ernment super- 3 5 ° vision, policy concerning our mountain lands. That the same Senate Doc. No. 84, PLaTe XLVI. DAMAGES FROM FOREST FIRES IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. (See pp. 24, 55.) The fires do incalculable damage to the forests on the slopes of these mountains, injuring and often killing both the trees and the undergrowth. PLATE XLVI. Senate Doc, No. 84 (See pp. 24, 55.) (4) BASE OF PINE TREE BURNED BY FOREST FIRES. (B) SPROUTS FROM BASE OF AN OAK KILLED BY FOREST FIRES. Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XLVIII. (A) GRANITE KNOB FROM WHICH THE FOREST, AND LATER THE SOIL, HAS BEEN LARGELY REMOVED. (See pp. 25, 26, 56, 183, and Pl. XIX.) (B) HUMUS AND UNDERGROWTH DESTROYED BY FIRE; SOIL BEING WASHED FROM ROCK BY RAIN. When the fires destroy the undergrowth and the humus the soil loses its spongy covering, and the water from the heavy rains rushes down to the streams and causes floods, instead of being stored in the soil for dry-season supply. (See pp. 25, 56, 133.) Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XLIX. (4) DESTRUCTION OF FOREST ON MOUNTAIN RIDGES FOR PASTURING PURPOSES. (See pp. 26, 57-59.) (B) CORN PLANTED BETWEEN GIRDLED TREES ON APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN RIDGES. (See pp. 26, 57-59.) Many of these steep mountain fields are “cleared,” cultivated, badly washed, and abandoned, all within less than a decade, and before the girdled trees have fallen to the ground, SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. effects follow the careless policy of burning mountain land in this country as in Europe is proved by the already des- olate condition of large areas in the Rocky Mountains and the plainly legible signs of the coming consequences in the Appalachian region. 57 The lumberman has been increasing his activities at a The effect of somewhat rapid rate, and he is yearly going farther into the forests. The damages he causes come not so much from the trees he cuts in culling the forest as from the additional trees and seedlings of valuable species which he destroys in his lumbering operations, and the greater destruction from forest fires which follow him, fed by the tops and other brush he leaves scattered through the forest. By his irregular cutting, reducing forest condi- tions, he renders impracticable the inauguration of eco- nomic, conservative forest management. Following in the wake of the fire and the lumbering, lumbering. The effect of clearing steep and surpassing them both in the completeness and perma- ™ountain sides. nency of the damage done, is the man who clears for ordi- nary agricultural purposes mountain lands which should forever remain in forest. The clearing of lands in this region for agricultural purposes has progressed slowly but steadily during the past century as the population increased, until at the present time there are 1,200,000 Percentage of examined. (See Pl. XII.) When it is considered that the settlement of this region has been in progress for more than a century the extent of the area devoted to agriculture is small. The reason for this is found in the unprofitableness of cultivating lands with such steep slopes. The cleared lands are mostly limited to the allu- vial bottoms along the streams, the rounded valley hills, the lower mountain spurs, and the lower slopes of the larger mountains themselves below 4,000 feet elevation. In some localities, especially in the region around Roan Mountain and on the Blue Ridge north of Gillespie Gap, there are large areas of cleared land at an elevation of from 3,500 to 5,000 feet; but these are mostly grass farms, are not subject to continuous tillage, as are the corn lands below, and hence do not deteriorate so rapidly. Some of the slopes that are cultivated are very steep—from 30 to 40 degrees—some of them too steep even for the mountain steer and bull-tongue plow, and must be cultivated entirely by hand. . ee pA and acres (24 per cent) cleared out of a total of 5,400,000 acres cleared. already Method of clearing. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. The staple grain produced throughout this region is corn, which yields more heavily than small grain and is more easily managed on the steep slopes. On clearing the land for cultivation the standing trees are girdled to kill them, so that neither their shade nor their growing roots will injure the crops. Some of the trees thus killed are used for fencing and fuel, but the greater number of them fall in a few years and are then rolled into heaps and burned. Corn or buckwheat is usually grown on these newly cleared fields, between the girdled trees during the first season (see Pl. XLIX.) Following this corn may be planted one or two years more; then small grain, either wheat, rye, or oats, for one or two years; then grass for a few years; then follow worthless weeds, and then the gul- lies. When first cleared most of this mountain-side land is covered with a layer of humus several inches thick, and the soil below is black and porous, owing to the large percent- The process ofage of vegetable matter it contains; but on cultivation and erosion. Early aban- donment and ruin of these cleared moun- tain slopes. exposure to the sun and washing rains this organic matter is rapidly dissipated. In this process most of the soil is washed away; the remainder shrinks and consolidates, thus losmg much of its power to absorb water rapidly, and loses its fertility by the continued eroding and dissolving action of the rains. Hence these cleared mountain lands haye a short-lived usefulness, and new clearings are made to replace the fields which from year to year are abandoned because they cease to be productive. A few years of cultivation for fields on these steeper mountain slopes usually brings them to the end of their usefulness for agricultural purposes. This may be followed by a few years of pasturage, and then come abandonment and ruin. (See Pls. 1, XX,and X XI.) Over the eroded foothills, along the eastern base of the Blue Ridge and western base of the Unakas, young pines may slowly cover again the eroded surface of the moun- tain slope, but over the more elevated portion of the Appalachian Mountain region the erosion, whether it be in gullies, visible for miles, or in the more common form in which the whole surface moves downward, is so rapid that the hard-wood forests, slower to reproduce, do not readily regain their footing, and hence the work of land destruction continues. The limited alluvial or bottom lands in this region being the most productive and easiest cultivated, were naturally the first to be cleared, and these are now nearly all in cul- SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. tivation; but with an increasing population the demand for additional fields to cultivate has led to the clearing of these mountain-side patches successively higher up the slopes, until now the area of these clearings considerably exceeds the area of the bottom lands. This process has gone on the more rapidly because of the rapidity with which these steep lands have been worn out andabandoned. ‘There are yet many places where the gentler slopes might perhaps be cleared to meet the agricultural demands of the region, but unquestionably the steeper areas already cleared should be at once reforested in order to prevent their early ruin. All lands in this region remaining cleared for farming purposes should be kept in the highest state of cultivation, and those of even the gentler slopes should be carefully terraced, and as far-as possible kept in grass or orchards. The effect of exposing mountain lands to the full power 59 Fields now abandoned should be refor- ested. of rain, running water, and frost is not generally appreci-. ated. The greater part of our population lives on level land and does not see how the hills erode, and even in the hills nearly all the people go indoors when it rains and therefore do not half understand what is going on. In the dashing, cutting rains of these mountains the earth of freshly burned or freshly plowed land melts away like sugar. The streams from such lands are often more than half earth and the amount of best soil thus eroded every year is enormous. The individual owners are to a great extent helpless in preventing these unwise cuttings, clearings, and forest fires. Some of them can care for their own lands, but they can not, owing to their small holdings and small incomes, regulate the policy which controls adjacent areas. Only cooperation on a great scale, such as Government owner- ship could provide, can stop these forest fires, check this reckless clearing, and preserve these resources to the best advantage. The two great needs of this mountain region are: 1. The use of the land for the purpose to which it is best adapted, which would require the keeping of 80 to 90 per cent of it in forest, while the cleared land should be kept in the highest state of cultivation for farm products. 2. Efficient and cheap transportation for the forest products. A remedy sug- gested LUMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS NOW AND UNDER GOVERNMENT OWNERSHIP AND SUPERVISION, By Overton W. Price. The protection of the headwaters of important streams in order to prevent floods and perpetuate water powers, the preservation of a great natural health resort and of impor- tant agricultural resources, are perhaps the most valuable results tha* would follow the creation and management of the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve. The applica- tion of practical forestry in this region by the Federal Government would bear fruit also in the maintenance of a sustained supply of hard-wood timber, in the production of a steady and increasing income therefrom, and in pro- viding a forcible object lesson to show the advantages of careful and conservative forest management. Lumbering is one of the principal industries of the ,,fresynt meth: Southern Appalachians. The agricultural] resources of the 224thetr results. region must remain limited because of its ruggedness and the low percentage of arable land. Its development as a grazing country is hampered by the lack of winter forage and the temporary life of the grass covering in the lower slopes. Its main resource of the future will be its hard- wood forests, upon whose maintenance depends very largely the best and most permanent development of west- ern North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. The existing supply of merchantable timber bas already been seriously reduced, while repeated fires and unregulated grazing have in many localities greatly impaired the quality and health of the forest, as well as the chanee of its successful repro- duction. Although there is still enough wood left to fill the local demand, the cost of logging it is constantly growing with the increasing distance between the market and the source of supply. Around each settlement there is a rapidly widening area which has been stripped*of all merchantable timber under methods which too often render 61 62 Government Management would yield a profit. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. it practically valueless for the production of a second crop. In many localities serious harm has already been done, which only time and care can remove. A continu- ance of such methods will within the near future destroy this great natural resource of the Southern Appalachians— the lumbering of its valuable hard woods to supply a steady and growing demand. APPLICATION OF CONSERVATIVE FOREST METHODS TO THIS REGION BY THE GOVERNMENT PRACTICA- BLE AND PROFITABLE. The application of practical forestry to the proposed reserve would not only preserve the productive capacity of the forest within its boundaries, but it would also pro- vide a proof of the results of conservative forest manage- ment which would be of value in inducing private owners of forest land in this region to adopt the same measures. There is no surer or quicker way of convincing the lum- berman of the Southern Appalachians that conservative lumbering pays better than ordinary lumbering than by an experiment on the ground, based upon a thorough study and effectively carried out. The question of direct returns from the proposed reserve is, from the point of view of the Federal Govern- ment, a secondary one. Its highest benefit will lie in those indirect returns which are of so vital an importance to the best development of this region and its resources. Howeyer, that the forests of the Southern Appalachians can under systematic and conservative measures be made to yield a profit from their management is certain. Although local stumpage values are not sufficiently good to warrant the application of an elaborate system of forest management, they are high enough to make conservative lumbering a sound business measure. The pecuniary advantage of practical forestry depends naturally upon whether it offers better returns than those to be had from ordinary lumbering. Since it reduces present profits slightly in order to insure a second crop of timber upon the lumbered area, its superiority from a business point of view rests upon the safety and value of the second crop. Serious danger from fires, a poor market, excessive diffi- culties to overcome in logging, or any other adverse con- dition which seriously impairs stumpage values, may render*the probable future returns from a forest insufli- cient to justify conservative measures in lumbering it. Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE L. (A) WASTE IN SAWING AT A SMALL MILL IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. (See p. 63.) (B) TOPS LEFT AMONG THE TREES IN LOGGING. (See pp. 24, 57.) These feed the forest fires so effectively that they sometimes destroy everything in their path. Senate Doc. Ne. 84 PLATE LI. (4) SAWING LARGE TIMBER AT A SMALL MILL IN THE MOUNTAIN FOREST. (See pp. 62-64.) (6) BINDING POPLAR LUMBER FOR EXPORT, FROM THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Not only is there no unfavorable condition in the South- ern Appalachians which is sufficient to render practical forestry inadvisable as a business measure, but the oppor- tunity offered for good returns from careful and consery- ative forest management is a peculiarly favorable one. The forest contains valuable timber trees, which not only command a high price at present, but are rapidly increas- ing in value for the lack of satisfactory substitutes, notably in the case of Black Walnut, Cherry, Hickory, Yellow Pop- lar,and WhiteOak. ‘The transport of timber presents some difficulties, as in all mountain countries. These are, how- ever, seldom sufficient to impair seriously the profits from lumbering. Effective protection from fire is practicable without prohibitive expense, while in its rate of growth, readiness of reproduction, and responsiveness to good treatment the forest offers silvicultural opportunities which are seldom excelled in this country. SOME EVILS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF LUMBERING. Practical forestry in the Southern Appalachians must comprise those modifications of the present methods of lumbering which will not only insure a fair profit upon present operations, but will preserve the productive capacity of the forest and provide for the desired repro- duction of the timber trees. Unnecessary damage to the forest and total lack of provision for a future crop is characteristic of the lumbering now carried on in this region. Logging operations have generally shown an inexcusable slovenliness, as foreign to good lumbering as to practical forestry. A clean lumber job is seldom seen. There is great waste of good timber through poor judgment in gauging the log lengths and in cutting stumps much higher than is neces- sary. Butting off unsound portions of trees is not always done; trees not wholly perfect are sometimes left to rot where they fall. Care is seldom taken to throw trees where they will do the least harm to themselves and to others, and in consequence lodged and smashed trees are very common. Overlooked sound trees are also numerous. However, criticism of lumbering in the Southern Appa- lachians must take into consideration the circumstances which led toit. Almostall of the work has been done by the farmers of the region in order to supply their fuel and other household material and to add to the poor living 68 Conditions in this region favor- able for consery- ative forestry. Wasteful meth ods followed. 64 Nature of the damages. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. afforded them by their farms. These men are often ham- pered by lack of capital, are generally wanting in the knowledge requisite to good lumbering, and have had always to contend with the difficulty of obtaining expert loggers to carry out the work. Nevertheless, the near- ness of large bodies of merchantable timber, among which are valuable kinds, such as Cherry, Black Walnut, Hickory, and Yellow Poplar, has usually made a fair profit possi- ble under even the most thriftless logging methods. This desultory cutting has heen going on for years, and although the individual efforts have been small, they have removed the merchantable timber from the larger portion of the accessible forests. RECENT LUMBERING METHODS MORE PROFITABLE, BUT ALSO DESTRUCTIVE. When the waning supplies of timber in the North and East some fifteen years ago forced the loggers of those regions to the South, the application of skillful and systematic methods of lumbering began in the Southern Appalachians. The newcomers, through the investment of commensurate capital in logging outfits, the thorough repair and extension of logging roads, and the generally businesslike mode of attack characteristic of the trained lumberman, have reaped a profit from their operations entirely impossible under the slipshod, desultory lumbering methods of the settler. The harm done to the forest in both cases is very great in proportion to the quantity of lumber cut. This is due largely to the size of the trees and the fact that little care is taken in the fellings. The damage to young growth is increased by the absence of snow and by the fact that trees are often cut when they are in full leaf. The breaking downand wounding of seedlings and young trees by the snaking of logs to the roadside or the river is in some degree unavoidable; but the damage is often much in excess of what is necessary. (See Pl. LIII.) There are often, however, many more snakeways, or skidways, than are necessary, and the application of a little system in laying them out would save time and young growth on a lumber job. On the higher and steeper slopes it is often the habit— and one which ean not be criticized too strongly, except in those rare cases where it is absolutely necessary on account of the gradient—to roll the logs from top to Senate Doc. No. 84, PLATE LIl. TIMBER NEAR MOUNT ROGERS, VIRGINIA, WHICH SHOULD HAVE BEEN CULLED LONG AGO. (See pp. 64-67.) Under every system of forest management the mature timber should be cut and used. Otherwise it interferes with the proper development of the younger growth; and when it decays and falls it may feed fires so as to destroy the forest. a eon TD, i PLaTe LIll. Senate Doc. No, 84 64.) (See p. UNNECESSARY FOREST DESTRUCTION ALONG THE SNAKING TRAIL. PLATE LIV. Senate Doc. No. 84. , 68.) (See pp. 6 REPRODUCTION OF HARD-WOOD. FOREST IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. s have grown. The large trees have supplied the seeds from which the smaller one: SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 65 bottom, merely starting them with the canthook. A 16- foot log, 3 feet or more in diameter, can gain momentum enough in this way to smash even fair-sized trees in its path, and when it passes through dense young growth it leaves a track like that of a miniature tornado. The prac- tice is in line with others to be observed in the Southern Appalachians, such as the common habit, for example, of leaving to rot the ‘‘deadened” trees which stand over clearings. There are cases in which these clearings have been inclosed with fences built of rails split from prime black walnut, with no other excuse than that the walnut happened to be within easier reach than either oak or pine. Under such methods, in which there is not only an abso- lute lack of provision for a future crop but often a marked absence of that forethought, skill, and aversion to waste which go to make clean lumbering, most of the logged- over areas in the southern Appalachians are only saved from entire destruction of the standing trees by the gen- erally scattered distribution of the merchantable timber. OBJECTS AND POLICY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT UNDER GOVERNMENT OWNERSHIP. In the application of conservative forest management to that portion of the forests of the Southern A ppalachi- ans included within the proposed reserve, the first aim should be to protect them from fire. The safety of the forest from fire must form the foundation of any system of practical forestry which is to be permanently success- ful. Fire has done and continues to do enormous damage in this region. The chief cause lies not in malice or in carelessness of campers or of lumbermen, but in the ancient local practice of burning over the forest in the autumn, under the belief that better pasturage is thus obtained the following year. The fires are started by the settlers upon the area which aero tog biom is to serve as a sheep or cattle range the following season, tires. and are permitted to burn unchecked. The result is that, except where confined by roads, streams, or clearings, they often spread from the wood lots of the foothills, in which they are set, to the forests of the higher mountains, there to burn unmolested until rain, snow, or lack of inflammable material puts them out. *S. Doc. 84——5 Tnprovement of in method lumbering. SOUTHERN- APPALACHIAN REGION. The hard-wood forests of the Southern Appalachians are by no means so inflammable as the coniferous forests of the North and West. Forest fires in this region are seldom more than ground fires, and only under the influ- ence of exceedingly high winds in a dry season become uncontrollable. With an active and adequate force of ran- gers and a thorough system of trails, the protection of the proposed reserve would be practicable. The good results of its preservation from fire would be twofold. In addition to the evident benefits of efficient fire protection upon the forest would be the forcible example provided to prove that the forest untouched by fire yields in the long run better and more plentiful pasturage than if it be annually burned over. The modification of present methods of grazing in the Southern Appalachians, like the modifica- tion of present lumbering methods, will follow proof of its advantages much more rapidly than it would follow propaganda. The one is no less important to the best development of this region than the other. The advan- tages of both could in no way be better established than by their practical illustration in the proposed reserve. The mountain forests of the Southern Appalachians are silviculturally the most complex in the United States. They contain many kinds of trees, varying widely in habit and also in merchantable value, and the forest type is constantly changing with the differences in elevation, gradient, and soil. Their best management is difficult, because the lack of uniformity in the forest renders it necessary constantly to vary the severity of the cutting and to discriminate in the kinds of trees which are cut, instead of following only those general rules which suffice where there are fewer species represented and the forest conforms more closely to a single type. IMPROVEMENT IN GENERAL FOREST POLICY NECESSARY. In order to reproduce these forests successfully and to minimize the damage done by lumbering, first of all it will be necessary to have a radical improvement in the fellings. Such an improvement is entirely practicable without additional cost per 1,000 feet B. M. of timber felled. It often requires no more labor to fell a tree upa slope than down it, or upon an open space rather than into a clump of young growth; and it is in just such cases as these that unreasoning disregard for the future of the SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 67 forest is commonly manifested in the Southern Appa- lachians. In the selection of trees to be felled the small farmers, ,ou/ ng, he who for a long time were the only lumbermen in the **'*™ Southern Appalachians, have been governed by the same considerations that govern lumbermen elsewhere. They have taken the best trees and left uncut those of doubtful - value rather than run the risk of loss in felling them. Furthermore, the fact that they have lumbered generally on a very small scale and have often had great difficulties with which to contend in the transport of logs has led them to extremes in this respect. The result is that they have reduced the general quality of the forests in a meas- ure entirely disproportionate to the amount of timber cut. Asa rule, only prime trees have been taken, and those showing even slight unsoundness have been left uncut, except where the stand of first-class timber was insufficient. Diseased and deteriorating trees remain to offset the growth of the forest by their decay and to reduce its productive capacity still further by suppressing the younger trees beneath them, while in the blanks made by the lumbering worthless species often contend with the young growth of the valuable kinds. In other words, the lumbering has closely followed the selection system, but the principles governing the selection have usually been at variance with the needs of the forest. CONSIDERATIONS THAT SHOULD GOVERN IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE. In order to bring about successful reproduction of the desirable species and to maintain the quality and density of the stand, lumbering in the mountain forests of the Southern Appalachians must be governed by the following main considerations: (1) Remove all diseased, overripe, or otherwise faulty pu enerel & trees of a merchantable size where there is already suffi- = cient young growth upon the ground to protect the soil and serve as a basis for a second crop of timber. (See Pl. LIV.) In extreme cases, where the condition of the forest is seriously impaired by the presence of a large number of such trees or where they overshadow and seriously retard promising young growth, their removal may be financially advisable when the sale of product no more than pays the cost of the logging. (2) So direct the cuttings that the reproduction of the , Cut se astoen- P ge _ courage growth timber trees may be encouraged in opposition to those of of yaluable spe- Careful _ selec- tion of seed trees. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. less valuable kinds. This can not be successfully accom- plished in the Southern Appalachians by cutting a diameter limit merely. A limit will by all means be advisable for each species, based upon a study of its rate of growth and the proportion which different diameters bear to its con- tents in board feet. It will be frequently necessary, how- ever, to leave trees of a merchantable diameter where their removal would seriously impair the density or where seed trees are necessary. In the leaving of seed trees many considerations are involved, only a few of which can be mentioned here. The Oaks, Hickories, Walnuts, and Chestnut should be favored, since their seed is too heavy to be carried by.the wind, and much of it is eaten by animals. The marked tendency of the pines (see Pl. LV), Hemlock, and Yellow Poplar to reproduce by groups must be encouraged. On south slopes and in dry localities generally, where Dog- wood, Sourwood, and Scrub Oak contend with the timber trees, great care must be taken not to disturb the balance between them. The rich, moist soil of the Poplar coves is particularly likely to produce a luxuriant growth of weeds and brambles instead of tree seedlings if too much light is admitted to the soil, while the Ash, Cherry, and Basswood, which are only sparsely represented in the mature stand and are further handicapped among the young growth by their strong demands upon the light, will require an exceedingly conservative method of management. Pate LV. Senate Doc. No. 84. (See pp. 67, 68.) REPRODUCTION OF WHITE-PINE FOREST. White-pine saplings on cut-over land, Graham County, N. C. DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FORESTS BY RIVER BASINS. By H. B. Ayres and W. W. AsuHe. In order to present in more convenient form detailed information about the forest conditions in the Southern Appalachians, the following descriptions have been arranged by drainage basins, beginning at the northeast and moving around the mountains to the place of begin- ning, in the order given below. This arrangement will serve an important purpose in the consideration of water flow and also the question of transportation. The region has for this purpose been divided into the following fourteen drainage areas: New River, South Fork of Holston River, Watauga River, Nolichucky River, French Broad River, Big Pigeon River, Northwestern Slope. of Smoky Mountains, Little Tennessee River, Hiwassee River, Tallulah and Chattooga rivers; Toxaway River, Saluda River and First and Second Broad rivers, Catawba River, Yadkin River. NEW RIVER BASIN. [712,000 acres; 50 per cent wooded.] New River, a feeder of the Ohio through the Kanawha, Topography. drains the eastern portion of the Appalachian Plateau lying between the Blue Ridge on the southeast and Iron Mountain on the northwest. The sources of the tributa- ries are high, from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, but the river valley below the junction of the North and South forks has been eroded down to an altitude of 2,500 to 2,000 feet. The resulting topography is a system of deep, narrow valleys and ravines, among which area few isolated peaks (having an altitude of 5,000 feet and upward) and occasional flats, which are of two. classes—(1) in high altitudes remnants of the old plateau, and (2) along the larger streams, nar- row, sedimentary fiats. 70 Agriculture. Erosion. The forest. Topography. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. The greater portion of this area has been cleared, although mostly too steep to be arable. The hills are cleared for grazing, to which industry this land is better adapted than to agriculture, in view of the great erosion and the difficulty of maintaining roads in this remote and hilly region. Excellent crops of hay and grass are the rule on new land, and the custom is to crop and graze a clearing until it wears out, then clear a new field. Many of the old hill fields are now worn out by close pasturing and by the erosion of unprotected humus, and are being gullied to the underlying rock by every shower. The forests of large area are limited to the higher alti- tudes on the isolated peaks between the North and South forks, and on Balsam and Iron mountains which form the northwestern rim of the plateau. On the southeastern slope of Balsam Mountain is an almost unbroken forest, approximately 5 miles square; but the long, narrow strip of woodland on Iron Mountain is considerably broken by clearings and burns, while the portions of Pond Mountain and White Top draining into New River have on them only remnants of the old forest. Scattered among the clearings of the valley are wood lots, left usually on ridges and north slopes. Composition.—The trees of these forests are principally oaks and chestnut, with a mixture of white pine, hemlock, black spruce, black gum, cherry, poplar, ash, cucumber, buckeye, linn, maple, birch, and many unimportant species. Altogether there are about 80 species of trees. Condition.—All the forest is inferior in condition, being either culled, fire scarred, or full of old and defective trees, while a dense undergrowth usually covers the steep slopes. The condition of these neglected forests would improve readily under forestry, as valuable species are abundant and reproduce easily and grow rapidly wherever they have an opportunity. The outlying isolated wood lots, sur- rounded by cleared land and held by thoughtful farmers, are noticeably in better condition than the larger wild areas in the remote mountains. SOUTH FORK OF HOLSTON RIVER (SOUTHERN TRIBU- TARY BASINS ONLY). [238,000 acres; 80 per cent wooded.] This area comprises the northern slope of the mountains between Watauga and New rivers, and is principally a long, narrow strip of steep mountain side, having a north- SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. ward exposure and an altitude of 2,500 to nearly 6,000 feet. In addition to this uniform tract, this drainage sys- tem comprises the semicircular interrupted basin drained by Beaver, Tennessee Laurel, Green Cove, and White Top Laurel creeks, which join and cut through the moun- tains near Damascus. In this area are two distinct classes of land—mountain slopes and alluvial or sedimentary basins. The mountain slopes, steep and principally underlaid by quartzite, have light soil, with thorough drainage both on surface and underground, while the sedimentary valleys—as Holston River bottoms, Shady Valley, Laurel Bloomery, and others—have deep, loamy soils, remarkably fertile. On the Tennessee Laurel substantially all the arable land is under cultivation, but along Shady Valley and White Top Laurel onty a small portion of the arable land is cleared. The Holston River bottom is cleared to the foothills of the mountain. This ‘and is well adapted to diversified farming, but is now devoted principally to corn and grazing. Erosion is less marked in this area than in most others, a fact which is probably due to the larger proportion of wooded area. The Tennessee Laurel is, however, subject to sudden rises, endangering the narrow bottom lands and even the lives of travelers who must cross the numerous fords in the gorge. There is also much erosion of soil locally on the older neglected fields of the tributaries of the Tennes- see Laurel and on the poor portions of the foothills of Holston Mountain. Excepting a few mountain pastures, all the mountain ridges are wooded, and both east and west of Damascus are large areas of unbroken forest, covering both mountain and valley. The north slope of Holston Mountain also remains entirely wooded. The forest of this drainage varies, naturally, with the soil, altitude, and exposure, and has also been seriously modified by fires. The northward slopes of Holston and Iron mountains are lightly timbered with oaks, black pine, chestnut, gum, etc., with some hemlock and white pine in ravines, nearly all culled. The southward slopes of the same mountains, and especially the lower portions of these slopes, are better wooded, except as cleared or deadened for grazing, and have some heavy stands of hemlock and white pine, among which hard woods are freely distributed. Cal Soil. Agriculture Erosion. The forest. 12 Topography. Soil. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. The steep slopes west of Damascus and east of Como Gap are in a very inferior forest condition, owing largely to the long-continued prevalence of fires, which have not only prevented a vigorous growth, but have even driven out the most valuable species. The trees of the ridges and north slopes are short and crooked, and as a rule the land is very imperfectly stocked and also very brushy. The forests of some of the tribn- tary basins are in excellent condition, having more mois- ture and better soil and having been less injured by fire. Except on the driest portions, lands cut or burned over are quickly restocked with valuable species, while the dry ridges and summits are soon occupied by chestnut and oak sprouts or by black pine, gum, sourwood, or trees of similar value. Prevention of fire and judicious thinning would soon develop a valuable forest on these northern slopes, where now there is very little material that is marketable. WATAUGA RIVER BASIN. [441,000 acres; 66 per cent wooded.] This basin, tributary to the Holston, lies almost entirely within the Appalachian mountain region. The main source of the river is on Grandfather Mountain, a promi- nent peak of the Blue Ridge, while the last mountain gorge is passed near Elizabethton, Tenn., where the river leaves the mountains. The highest points of this basin are Hol- ston Mountain, 4,300 feet; Snake Mountain, 5,594 feet; Rich Mountain, 5,369 feet; Grandfather Mountain, 5,964 feet; Beech Mountain, 5,222 feet; Yellow Mountain, 5,600 feet; Roan Mountain, 6,313 feet, and Ripshin Mountain, 4,800 feet. These are on the borders. The interior por- tion is broken into many subordinate ridges, reaching an altitude of 3,000 to 4,000 feet, with deep, narrow valleys eroded down to an altitude of 3,000 to 2,000 feet. Derived directly from granite, gneiss, and schist, by decomposition, the soil of the mountains and ridges has been fertile, much of it very fertile loam of excellent physical as well as chemical composition. Washing, how- ever, has carried much of the desirable material down to the valleys and left the soil of the ridges inferior, espe- cially on southward slopes. The valley soil is of two general classes, (1) the red clayey loam of the lower foot- hills and (2) alluvial bottom land, some of which is too SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. porous or too stony, but mostly excellent farm land. Alto- gether, the newly cleared soil is very good, but many burned ridges and old washed fields are in a very poor condition, notably in the valley of Little Doe. Along Stony, Cove, and Roane creeks, Doe River, the main Watauga, and many minor valleys are excellent large farms, growing corn, wheat, rye, oats, grass, and vegetables. On almost every creek and in many of the mountain coves are families depending upon the farm for the greater portion or all of their living. While much has been cleared that would be better adapted to timber growing if a timber market were within reach, there is altogether a large area that is best adapted to farming. It is safe to say that a broad economic policy would have little or no more forest land cleared than is now under cultivation, and that attention should be given to keeping what land is cleared in good condition rather than to clear- ing more to be exhausted and washed until worthless. In this basin it is estimated that the average damage by erosion during the season of 1901 to farm land has been not less than $1 per acre. This amounts to over $200,000 for the whole basin. Damages to railroads amounted to $250,000, 19 bridges and about 25 miles of track being washed out. The damage to wagon roads can hardly be estimated. In many places entirely new roads were necessary. The damage was probably $500,000 altogether. Buildings and personal property destroyed swell the total loss to something like $2,000,000. Distribution.—The remaining forests are on the ridges and mountain ranges and spurs. These are somewhat dotted with clearings, especially in the granitic region south of the Iron Mountain Gorge and along the north slope of Beech Mountain and the Elk Creek Basin. The lowlands have been almost entirely cleared. Composition.—Vhe hard woods, in which the oaks and chestnut predominate, form a mixed forest on most of the area; some ravines carry hemlock almost exclusively, and on some of the ridges white pine is one of the prin- cipal timber trees. Spruce is found almost exclusively in some high mountain groups, while beech rules in zones on high mountains and on the crests of some ridges. Condition.—Nearly all of the forest has been or is being culled of its most valuable timber, and is rapidly becom- ing inferior by the predominance of old and defective Agriculture. Erosion. The forest. a Topography. Soil. Agriculture. Erosion. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. trees and undesirable species. Fires are preventing a good growth on large portions, although they are seldom so severe as to kill much timber. The few areas that are’ in good forest condition are merely enough to illustrate what forestry might do. Reproduction.—Vigorous sprouts, seedlings, and sap- lings abound on old cuttings and burns, and prevention of fire and some judicious thinning would soon develop a forest that would justify transportation companies in building railroads to haul its products to market. NOLICHUCKY RIVER BASIN. [269,920 acres; 76 per cent wooded.) h A large portion of this basin lies within the mountain region. Its three principal tributaries, North Toe, South Toe, and Caney rivers, as well as several creeks of large size, are entirely between the rims. Mount Mitchell, the highest peak east of the Rocky Mountains, and Roan Mountain, well known by ‘‘ Cloudland,” the highest hotel ot the East, are both on the borders of this basin. In the central part is a large portion of hilly agricultural land, and along creeks are many narrow strips of flat, alluvial bottom. In cutting through the northwestern rim of the plateau, however, the streams have worn long, deep gorges through the Unicoi and parallel mountain ranges, and the narrow tributary valleys of this portion of the basin have rapid torrential streams, very little bottom land, or none, and very steep and rocky mountain slopes. The soil is in general very good, especially that of the lower portion of the interior basin, which was evidently deposited as a sediment before the gorge was cut to its present depth. The mountain coves also contain deep, dark loam, which is very fertile. Some of the ridges, however, have a light, shallow soil, owing to erosion of humus and loose earth. . Twenty-four per cent of this basin is cleared land, most of which is grazed, although much of it is well adapted to diversified farming, which is unprofitabie now because of distance from market. A great drawback to agriculture is found in the cutting away of uncovered hill fields by the dashing rains and the deposition of the eroded material on other fields in the bottoms. The floods of the Nolichucky are well known. They may be partly due to the topographic configuration SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. of the area, by reason of which a rise of the three main tributaries at one time may cause a flood in the river. There is no room for doubt, however, that.the large amount of cleared land in this basin greatly increases the floods. Every resident who has known the river ten years or more states very positively that the volume of water is now much less constant than in former years. In Yancey County many of the steep slopes in the basins of Caney River, Bald Creek, and in the vicinity of Burnsville, which have for many successive years been planted in corn or small grain, are deeply eroded, and some such fields have been abandoned. The same statement will apply to much steep land in Mitchell County, on the waters of Cane and Big Rock creeks, and in the vicinity of Red Hill. The lands at higher elevations, which have been retained in grass, are less damaged. The alluvial lands of the Nolichucky were severely washed by several freshets during the spring and summer of 1901, the most severe being that of May 20 to May 23, which caused damage to land and other property in Mitchell County to the amount of $500,000 or more. All of the soil on the flood plain of Cane Creek, 9 miles in length, was removed, leaving only the large stones and rocks, and many fine farms on North Toe River were destroyed. More than twenty dwellings, several mills and dams, and many million feet of saw logs are known to have been washed away. In addition, the damage to the public highways was $50 or more per mile, aggregating $50,000, while the railroad sustained an equal loss in the injury to roadbed, bridges, and culverts. (See Pl. XXXV (b) showing wreckage from Mitchell County, lodged near Erwin, Tenn.) Although greatly broken by clearings, large areas of woodland remain on the Unicoi and parallel ranges on the northwestern border, on Roan Mountain, the Blue Ridge, the Black Mountain group, and the western tributaries of Caney River. In composition there is great variety. Spruce and balsam prevail on the highest portions of the Black, Roan, and Sampson mountain groups. Hemlock, birch, maple, cucumber, ash, buckeye, linn, and other moisture-loving trees line the ravines, while oak, chestnut, gum, and other hard woods cover the ridges of the higher altitudes. Oak and pine form a less dense cover, usually very brushy, on the ridges of lower altitude. The forest. 75 76 Topography. Soil. Agriculture. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. In forest conditions there is also great variety, dependent largely upon the prevalence of fire. Fires are freely set during autumn, winter, and spring, and great injury to timber, forest seedlings, and soil results. A large propor- tion of the timber trees are defective, and much of the woodland area is imperfectly stocked. The reproduction of trees is remarkably vigorous on — cuttings, burns, and old fields, and growth is rapid. The prevention of fire and the application of improvement cuttings would wonderfully increase the value of the for- est, which is the great natural resource of the mountainous portion of this basin. FRENCH BROAD RIVER BASIN (NORTH OF SKYLAND). [555,840 acres; 51 per cent in forest, besides wood lots.®] This tong and wide crescent-shaped valley heads on the tue Ridge, which it drains from Swannanoa Gap to Panther Tail Mountain (62 miles) and reaches entirely across the highlands, which it leaves near the Tennessee line, about 80 miles from its source. Around the borders of this basin are the Craggy Mountains, Swannanoa Mountains, and Estatoe, Panther Tail, Pizgah, and Max Patch peaks, all high, forest-covered mountains. In Madison County, where the river has cut through the northwestern rim of the region, is a large area of broken, mountainous ridges, with very steep and rocky slopes. A great portion of the interior basin, however, is smooth enough and fertile enough for grazing or farming. The soil is extremely variable, though in general very good. Thatof the lower hillsisa red clay, a fine sedimentary deposit. It is fertile and recuperates readily, but erodes rapidly when uncovered. The ridge land, as usual, is well adapted to grass, but if closely pastured erodes rapidly and soon becomes worthless. The best soil is found in the coves and on the broad alluvial bottoms which border. the river and its larger tributaries from the Blue Ridge in the southeast to the head of the gorge near Marshall. Substantially all the lowland is occupied by farmers, and many of the plantations are very productive and well adapted to mixed farming. ‘This is, in ract, one of the best agricultural valleys to be found in the East. The principal difficulties to be met are erosion of surface soil “These wood lots are small and seattered so as to make it difficult to estimate their aggregate area. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. on the hills and destructive floods on the bottoms. Much of the mountain region is also under cultivation. The cove lands are mostly cleared, and cleared mountain-side pas- tures dot the landscape, as viewed from every high point. This basin is no exception to the rule for the region. Tobacco-growing on the lighter soils of the hills exhausted field after field, and finally the whole industry was aban- doned, leaving large areas of desolate land exposed to the cutting action of raindrops and to gullying by running water. The same process has been in operation on old farm land and pastures. until on many small tracts, as on the southward slopes of Poverty Hollow, near Barnards- ville, there is but little soil left. There is hardly a farm in the entire basin that is not more or less gullied, although much care is taken by a few of the more thoughtful farmers to keep the earth covered by a vigorous crop. The inun- dations of the bottom lands are also seriously damaging, and the general testimony is that they increase as more land is cleared. There is evident need of every protection against ero- sion in this valley, where so many people and so much valuable property are concerned, and where sudden heavy downpours of rain are common. Distribution.—Vhe higher mountains are still forested, and the ridges and slopes above 3,000 feet are mostly covered, although some of the ridges, as Elk, Spring Creek, and New Found ridges have on them large proportions of cleared land, and the mountain sides are often dotted with clearings. Composition.—In this region we have a mixed forest, in which the oaks and chestnuts predominate, with a sprink- ling of white pine, hemlock, linn, gum, beech, birch, maple, ash, hickory, Shortleaf pine, poplar, cherry, wal nut, and many other species of less importance. Condition.— Besides the usual inferior condition of the natural forest, fires, grazing, and culling have greatly reduced its original quality. Bordering the farms are many fine stands of sapling second growth, but the remote mountains are full of defective trees and brush. Reproduction.—Sprouts and seedlings spring up readily. White pine, shortleaf pine, poplar, ash, walnut, and cherry all abound in the forests in the form of promising young trees. Sumac and locust here reproduce rapidly and are well adapted to cover and prevent erosion on the old fields. Erosion. The forest. Ot =I Topography. Soil. Agriculture. Erosion. The forest. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. The farmers need to be taught that to recuperate their lands, instead of letting them stand bare and idle ‘‘to rest,” they should grow clover and cowpeas on them, and always keep them covered as much as possible. BIG PIGEON RIVER BASIN. [845,440 acres; 79 per cent wooded.] Big Pigeon River rises among the Balsam and Pizgah mountains, cuts its way through the Unaka Mountains, and joins the French Broad on the Tennessee Plain. It drains an interior agricultura] basin which is oval in out- line, the longer axis northwest, parallel to the general course of the stream, and almost entirely within the Appa- lachian Mountain region. It is circumscribed by lofty mountains, with many peaks more than 6,000 feet in alti- tude. Many minor ranges, springing from the surround- ing mountains, converge toward the middle of the basin, dividing it into deep, narrow valleys, except near its upper end between the towns of Canton and Waynesville, where there is a broad, open valley of alluvial plains and rolling hills, dotted with low mountains. The soils are loams and sandy loams, mostly fine grained in texture, derived from gneiss and schists, though in the mountains they are more siliceous and coarser—there the product of decomposed sandstones, quartzite, and con- glomerates. This basin is eminently adapted to grass, except where very sandy, and grass is the chief product of the region. Corn ranks next in importance; while the cultivation of wheat is largely confined to the broad valley of the Pigeon, between Canton and Ferguson, and to the Richland and Fines Creek valleys. Apples are extensively raised and have a wide reputation for their quality, and truck farm- ing is yearly assuming greater importance. The alluvial valley lands have been little injured by freshets, and the soils of the uplands, with few exceptions, have not suffered severely from erosion, though a few badly gullied slopes, due to the continuous cultivation of corn, are to be seen in the older settlements. The scarlet, black, and white oaks, associated with black pine, formed at one time an extensive forest on the hills between Canton and Waynesville, but this land, where not under cultivation, is now in second-growth forest. The forests of the mountains are of typical mixed Appalachian SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. hard woods, with, in the Balsam and Pizgah ridges, a small amount of black spruce at high elevations, and some white pine in the lower part of the basin. These forests have been culled only of the most valuable timbers. All species reproduce excellently under the proper light conditions; and with exclusion of fire and a judi- cious system of lumbering there would be no difficulty in perpetuating this forest and increasing the proportion of valuable species in its composition. NORTHWESTERN SLOPE OF SMOKY MOUNTAINS. [254,720 acres; 91 per cent wooded. | This tract is a mountain side between altitudes of 1,500 and 6,700 feet, and is drained by Little Pigeon and Little rivers into Holston River, and by Abrams Creek into Little Tennessee River. The surface is eroded into fan- shaped basins, very steep, and often precipitous near the summit, with high, narrow ridges dividing the main drainage basins. There is no alluvial land of consequence except at Briar Cove, Gatlinburg, Tuckaleechee Cove and Cades Cove. In general the soil is light-colored and shallow, espe- cially on the ridges and steep slopes. In the coves, how- ever, and along the foot of the ridges where the slope is more gentle, humus has accumulated and the soil is fer- tile. In general physical quality the soil is loam or clay loam. Corn is the principal farm crop, and 50 bushels per acre are sometimes grown on the best lowlands. This land can not compete with the alluvial river bottoms, however. Most of it is farmed only because it is cheap land and affords a chance for a poor man to make a living (by hard work.) The higher altitudes are favorable to fruit, grass, and vegetables, and also to stock raising in a limited de- gree, as cattle may roam in the woods and subsist on seed- lings, shrubs, and weeds, and hogs in occasional years find abundant mast. In general, the earth is fairly well covered, and thus pro- tected from erosion, but the few old pastures are worn and gullied here, as elsewhere on hilly land. In this region streams heading in unbroken forest are notably clear and their banks show little fluctuation in volume of water, while those from cleared lands are muddy and inconstant. 79 Topography. Soil. Agriculture. Erosion. 80 The forest. Topography. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. While present erosion is limited, there is evidence that it would be very great if large areas of the earth were uncovered. Distribution.—With the exception of a few ‘‘ balds,” or grassy areas on the higher summits, and the alluvial lands of the lower coves and creek valleys, the forest of this great mountain side is practically unbroken. Composition. —The species of trees growing here num- ber over 100, an unusually large number for one locality. Northern and southern trees are close neighbors, and all may be studied in traversing the different zones of altitude from 1,500 to 6,700 feet, instead of the necessary 1,000 miles of latitude at an altitude of 1,000 feet. Almost every tree enumerated in the accompanying list (p. 93) grows here. Condition.—While some remarkably fine timber trees are here, the general average is far inferior to what might be grown with so favorable a soil and climate. Fire, graz- ing, and culling have reduced this forest considerably below its natural condition. Imperfect trees and inferior species are abundant, while some of the burns and cattle ranges are very deficient in stand. Reproduction.—Hardly any other forest in the country would respond so readily to the forester’s care and demon- strate so plainly that nearly all of this tract is best adapted to timber growing. LITTLE TENNESSEE RIVER BASIN. {1,018,054 acres; 91 per cent wooded.] Little Tennessee River with its tributaries drains a large area, extending from the Blue Ridge on the south to the Great Smoky Mountains on the north, including all of the territory between the basins of Big Pigeon and Hiwas- see rivers. Its larger tributaries are the Tuckasegee from the east, the Oconalufty from the northeast, the Cheoah from the southwest, and the Nantahala from the south, while the upper portion of the Tennessee drains the extreme southern portion, heading on top of the Blue Ridge. These waters pass through the Tennessee into the Ohio River. The upper or southern part of the basin lying on the northwest slope of the Blue Ridge is an elevated plateau region, having an altitude of more than 3,000 feet, with low, rounded granite knobs and few high summits, and broad alluvial flats, the deposit of the slow streams. The Balsam, Great Smoky, and Unaka mountains, with many PLaTte LVI. Senate Doc. No, 84, o Knob. feet). PANORAMA OF THE BLUE RIDGE, MOUNT MITCHELL, AND it Mitchell (6,711 SOUTHERN END OF THE BLACK MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 50, 114.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. crests more than 6,000 feet high, form the watershed on the north and west, and from these descend into the northern portion of the basin many swift streams, which have carved deep narrow valleys, leaving high intervening ridges with steep and rugged slopes. ‘The watersheds between several of these streams are high and rough mountains, especially in the Cheoah, Nantahala, and Cowee ranges. The lower part of the basin includes some of the most rugged land in the southern Appalachians, with only a very small part suited for tillage, and few alluvial bottoms; but in the upper part much of the mountain land is not steep, and there are several large and fertile valleys. The soils in the upper part of the basin are sandy, derived from granite, or in the Little Tennessee River, around and above Franklin, where most of the good farms are located, from schists, and are deep and fertile red loams. In the narrow valleys around the high mountains, where sandstones, quartzite, and conglomerates prevail, the soils are generally thin and sandy, and poor agricul- turally, but on north slopes and in hollows are well suited to forests. The alluvial bottom lands along many of the streams are also light and sandy, though those of the Little Tennessee are silts of the finest texture. All of the land available for tillage has been cleared. Corn is the staple crop on both alluvium and upland, the yield of small grain, grass, and apples being much smaller than in other mountain counties farther north. At high altitudes and on some of the stiffer soils grass thrives, but on the whole the soils are too light and too subject to drought for either grazing or forage grasses. Orchards have been planted, but are much neglected, and only a few apples are produced for market. Much of the best valley land has been badly washed, especially on Tuckasegee River and Scott Creek. There are also many badly worn steep slopes on these streams and elsewhere. In general, the mountain ranges and spurs, and also the ridge lands of the valleys, are still principally wooded, although many clearings are found in mountain coves and on mountain slopes. : The principal clearings, however, are on and about the alluyial lands, which appear on the map like broken chains along the larger tributaries. The largest unbroken forest areas lie on Oconalutty, *S. Doc. 84 6 81 Soil. Agriculture. Erosion, The forest. be Topography. Soil. Agriculture. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Cheoah, and Tuckasegee rivers, in the northern, north- western, and northeastern parts of the basin, though there are some areas of fine forest at the head of Nantahala and Little Tennessee rivers, in the southern part of the basin. At lower elevations the forests are of oaks and hickories, associated with black pine. On the thin soil of the slopes along the Blue Ridge small scarlet and white oaks, with occasional bodies of hemlock, form the forest, while else- where in the mountains typical Appalachian hardwoods prevail, with some few thousand acres of black spruce capping the highest summits of the Smoky and Balsam mountains. The best timber has been much culled for 20 miles from the Southern Railway, which crosses the middle of the basin. Repeated forest fires, started with a view to improve the pasturage, have destroyed much tim- ber on dry south slopes, and by continued suppression of the young growth have greatly reduced the density. Reproduction, however, is good, and if the open woods were protected there would soon be a fine young growth beneath the old trees. Proper distribution of species could easily be secured by judicious cutting while logging. HIWASSEE RIVER BASIN. [223,456 acres; 71 per cent wooded.] This drainage is tributary to the Tennessee River, which the Hiwassee joins above Chattanooga, and comprises the eastern tributaries of Hiwassee River above Murphy, equivalent to the western slope of the mountainous divide between Little Tennessee and Hiwassee rivers, which divide is across range between the Blue Ridge and the Smoky Mountains. The altitude of this tract ranges be- tween 1,500 and 5,000 feet. Spurs from 5 to 20 miles long reach from the divide toward the river, while deep valleys extend from the river far into the mountains. The mountain sides are steep and often rocky, while the creek valleys, of which there are six prominent ones, have considerable areas of alluvial flats and rolling foothills. Even the alluvial flats along the rivers and creeks have a large proportion of clay, and the foothills are almost entirely clay. The mountain sides are loamy, the coves very fertile, and the soils of the ridges light, often stony. Corn is the principal grain crop. Grass does well on low alluvial lands and in mountain coves, but burns out SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. on the foothills. There are some fine farms on Valley River, Peach Tree, Tusquitee, Shooting, Tiger, and High- tower creeks, but large areas of hill land are worn out and abandoned to broom grass. This basin, or part of it, seems unusually liable to floods, as is shown by the cutting of banks and the washing of fields. About the head of Peach Tree Creek, in 1900, several *‘waterspouts” are said to have occurred at one time, and the water from these joining formed a torrent that swept across fields and roads, doing great damage. Evidences of similar floods and of great erosion on old fields are to be found in almost every mile of travel. The uselessness of clearing the ridge lands has been dis- covered by the farmers, and no advances of cleared land have recently been made toward the mountains, but many old fields lie wasted and wearing away, scantily patched with broom grass, persimmon, and sassafras. Distribution.—The mountains and spurs are principally forest-covered, although here and there clearings have been made in coves and along the tributary creeks. The larger creek valleys and the river valley are principally cleared. Composition.—In this region is found a suggestion of the difference between the forest of the cool highlands and that of the southern slope of the Blue Ridge. In passing from the highlands we are leaving the region of most vigorous tree growth and approaching the piny regions. Oaks and hickories are more numerous, but shorter and smaller; hemlock and white pine are less abundant; the birches and hard maples become rare, and the southern red maple, pitch pine, and shortleaf pine more abundant. Condition.—In condition, too, there is a noticeable con- trast. Fires have been more prevalent and have kept decaying vegetation pretty thoroughly consumed. Fires have killed less timber, but have done no less damage by preventing that new growth which perpetuates the natural forest. On isolated wood lots and near clearings are many tracts of thrifty saplings, but the general forest condition, owing to fire and grazing, is inferior to that of the plateau. Reproduction.—The first and essential step toward the improvement of this forest would be the prevention of fire. Much of the stand is now so thin that thinnings need not be made at once. Erosion. The forest, 83 84 Topography. Soil. Agriculture. Erosion. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION, Sprouts and seedlings will start freely, and the forest would grow well as soon as the forest soil reached natural condition again. But few cattle are ranged in the mountains now, as the grazing has been too much reduced by repeated fires. TALLULAH-CHATTOOGA RIVER BASIN. [848,588 acres; 89 per cent wooded.] This tract covers the entire basin of these rivers above their junction and drains into the Atlantic through Savan- nah River. Lying on the southeastern slope of the Blue Ridge, the altitude varies from 5,500 feet on Standing Indian, 5,100 feet on Ridgepole, 4,769 on Scaly Mountain, and 4,931 feet on White Sides to 1,000 feet at the junc- tion of the Tallulah and Chattooga rivers. Many of the peaks and spurs are extremely bold, and there are numer- ous deep gorges and canyons. Along the creeks, espe-. cially along the Upper Tallulah and its tributaries, are alluvial bottoms of considerable area. Nearly all of the cleared land (11 per cent of entire tract) of this system is on creek bottoms. Derived from gneiss and granite, the soil is generally of good physical composition, except in the foothills, where a stiff red clay predominates, which erodes readily and is hard to cultivate. The bottom lands are loamy and fairly fertile, but the ridges have been so much burned and washed that on them the soil is light colored, thin, and poor. Corn is the principle crop. Grass, except in the higher altitudes, does not hold. Sweet potatoes, cane, and cotton are grown along the southern limit of this tract. Peaches do well in the lower altitudes, and apples are grown on the mountains. The impervious clays of the foothills are frequently found barren and gullied, because left uncovered. The mountain ridges, having many stones and pebbles in their soil, resist erosion much better than the clays, but this advantage is counteracted hy the steepness of their slopes, and the bed of every rivulet is eroded to the underlying rock. The creek bottoms are hardly less liable to damage. Sudden downpours of rain (11 inches have been known to fall in forty-eight hours) often cause such rises in the creeks as to cover the fields with gravel or cut them away. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Distribution.—All this tract is forest land except the creek bottoms and a few mountain coves, which have been cleared and together amount to 11 per cent of the area. The denser portions are in the coves at the higher altitudes. Composition.—There is a noticeable contrast between the forests of the interior mountain region and of those of this region about the headwaters of the Tallulah and Chattooga rivers. Here the oaks are in greater predomi- nance, and the hickories and Southern pines are more abundant, while beech, birch, maple, buckeye, and other lovers of cool air and abundant moisture are notably less. White pine and hemlock hold to the higher altitude, but are noticeably rare along the foothills. Condition.—In condition, also, the forest is inferior to that of the highlands. The injuries by fire are greater. The rate of growth is further retarded by drought, and probably by occasional spring frosts killing buds and young leaves. The greater portion is in the condition of natural forest, with many old, crooked, fire-scarred, and otherwise defective trees and inferior species, and with subordinate saplings, crooked and retarded. Because of prevalent fires the stand is imperfect, many spaces being covered with mere brush where a stand of good timber is possible. Along the line of the old railroad grade from Walhalla to Rabun Gap much burning was done at the time of grading, and now the portion then severely burned is covered with a dense stand of saplings, principally oaks and hickory. Reproduction.—Vhe absence of protection from fire on its dry slopes would be the main difficulty in bringing this forest into good condition, as sprouts and seedlings spring up quickly where fire can be prevented. : The effect of the no-fence law is plainly noticeable south of the Chattooga River, where the forest is more severely injured by fires, which are there fiercer because of more combustible material. TOXAWAY RIVER BASIN. [52,243 acres; 95 per cent wooded ] This basin drains into the Atlantic through Savannah River. The headwaters rise far back in and in fact have, by erosion, almost worked their way through the Blue Ridge. The principal peaks about the headwaters are: Sheep Cliff, 4,653 feet; Double Knob, 4,417 feet; Great Hogback, 4,700 feet, and Cold Mountain, 4,500 feet. The descent 85 The forest. Topography. 86 Soil. Agriculture. Erosion. The forest. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. from these peaks is rapid and amounts to 3,500 feet in 6 miles on the Toxaway. There are few prominent points within the basin, but the canyons are deeply eroded, and cascades are almost continuous along the Whitewater, Horsepasture, and other tributaries. Derived from gneiss, and in general well forested, the soil is fertile. It is usually a loam of good physical qual- ity. The ridge land is, of course, less fertile, yet is capable of growing valuable timber. The few clearings that have been made yield good crops of grass and corn, but the roughness and steepness of the surface will prevent any extensive farming in this portion of this drainage. So little of the land has been cleared that eroded fields are not a prominent feature of the landscape, as in many other localities, but enough has been cleared to show what the effect would be. The soil, having numerous pebbles in it, does not erode by rainfall as readily as clay or sand, but, on the other hand, the slopes are so steep and the torrents so fierce that it would be unwise to uncover any but the gentlest slopes and the most fertile soil. The forest of this tract is but slightly broken, only 5 per cent being cleared. The northern portion, lying well up on the Blue Ridge, has substantially the same species as the forest of the highlands. The oaks, hemlock, and white pine predomirate. Chestnut, ash, hickory and gum are also abundant. Lower on the slopes the oaks, hickories, and black and yellow pines become more prominent. The forests of this region are variable. They have been seriously injured by fires, and as a result have some large openings on the ridges. Rhododendron and kalmia con- stitute a dense undergrowth in the hollows. Defective trees are abundant throughout, but the stand of valuable species is poor. Improvement in forest condition may be rather more difficult here than elsewhere,, owing to abundance of brush and the liability to fire. White and shortleaf pine are the most promising species for a future forest. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. SALUDA RIVER BASIN. [80,796 acres; 94 per cent wooded.] AND FIRST AND SECOND BROAD RIVER BASIN. [44,400 acres; 80 per cent wooded. ]} The small portions of these two drainage systems exam- ined are so similar they may be described together. Both lie on the southeastern slope of the Blue Ridge, and both drain into the Atlantic through Santee River. The Blue Ridge at the heads of these basins is low— about 3,000 feet—and the lowest land covered by these descriptions is about 1,200 feet. The slopes drained by the Saluda are steep and often precipitous, and include Table Rock and Cesars Head, both bold rocky points, affording two of the grandest views inthe whole region. The cascades and falls through the glens of South Saluda and other creeks are very pretty. There is very little alluvial land on the creeks until they reach the plain at the foot of the Blue Ridge. The slopes drained by the Broad rivers are more moderate. The spurs here reach out long distances toward the plains, while between these spurs are rapid but seldom cascading creeks, with somewhat inter- rupted alluvial bottom lands. In both regions the soils are derived from granite, gneiss, and schists, which, when they remain in place, make excellent land, but when washed and the finer sedi- ments left in one place, the coarser in another, become less desirable, as the clays thus formed are too stiff, too imperyious to water, and too hard to work, while the gravels are too porous and too light. Corn and cane are the principal crops of this region. Some grass is grown on the small clearings in the higher altitudes, and some inferior orchards are seen. Sweet potatoes are grown on every plantation, and a few small cotton fields were found on the edge of the plain. The lack of grass on most of this area leaves the sur- face exposed to the cutting action of falling rain, and the eroding effect is so severe and so evident that, in the foot- hills, no one attempts agriculture upon the ridges. Even the gentler slopes on the border of the alluvial bottoms are often gullied until they have become not only worth- less themselves, but are a source of damage to the bottom 87 Topography. Soil. Agriculture Erosion. [o.6) The forest. Topography. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. lands below, which receive the material washed from them. (See Pl. LX VIL.) The slight protection furnished by the frequently burned forests does not prevent the washing away of the humus from the woods, and being so light, it is carried far down the stream to still waters before it finds a lodging place. Substantially all the ridges and steeper slopes are for- ested more or less densely, while the creek bottoms are cleared. The cleared area on the Saluda comprises 6 per cent of that basin, while 20 per cent of the area of the Broad basins is cleared. In composition these forests are principally oaks and hickory, with a sprinkling of nearly all other species men- tioned in the accompanying list (p. 93). In condition these forests are very inferior. There is very little log timber. Many of the trees are fire-scarred; many, though old, are small because fire and erosion of humus have retarded growth. Much of the area has a deficient stand, because fires have killed seedlings. To improve this forest it would be necessary to prevent fire and possibly to thin out defective trees and undesir- able species. The species to be favored here are poplar, ash, walnut, shortieaf pine, post oak, and white oak, and, in the higher altitudes, white pine. CATAWBA RIVER BASIN. [821,440 aeres; 82 per cent wooded.] This area, as here limited, includes the eastern or south- ern slope of the Blue Ridge, with its numerous spurs, from Blowing Rock southward to Edmondson Mountain, and is drained by the headwaters of the Catawba River, including Johnsand Linville rivers, and the north and south forks of the Catawha, directly through the Catawba River into the Atlantic. The elevated crest of the Blue Ridge, with few points on it at a lower elevation than 4,000 feet, and rising at Grandfather Mountain and Pinnacle to an elevation of more than 5,000 feet, forms the western and northern limits of the area; and from it extend steep, rugged spurs with a general north and south trend, grad- ually diminishing in altitude as they recede from the pa- rent range, dividing the region into numerous parallel, narrow, often gorge-like, valleys. This type of valley reaches its culmination in the gorge of the Linville River, the wildest and most picturesque stream of the southern PLATE LVII. Senate Doc. No, 84. GRANDFATHER MOUNTAIN, FROM NEAR LINVILLE, N. C., SHOWING TWO TYPES OF SUMMIT, RUGGED AND ROUNDED. (Se . 114-115.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Appalachians, in its descent of 2,400 feet in 20 miles, from the Linville Falls to the foothills. The alluvial lands in the valleys, except those along the Catawba for a few miles above Marion, are limited to narrow strips bordering the streams, or, as on the lower Linville and many tribu- taries of the Johns River, are altogether lacking. The soils of the uplands, derived from the decay in place of quartzite, slates, sandstone, and gneiss, are sandy, or sandy loams, and are thin and poor, with few exceptions. Along the larger streams the alluvia are silty and fertile; along the smaller they are sandy and often less productive. In the lower valleys corn and small grain are the com- mon crops on the alluvia; corn the exclusive crop of the steeper slopes. Corn, oats, grass, and apples form the staple crops in the elevated valleys and on slopes at high altitudes. The alluvial lands of the Johns River and the Catawbas have been severely damaged by recent freshets, which have in many places washed away the soil to a depth of several feet, leaving only the rock and gravel, while in other places the agricultural value has been destroyed by the deposition of beds of pure sand or coarse gravel above the alluvium. Soils on steep slopes which have been under tillage, especially those in corn, have also been badly dam- aged. The forests, except those of a few limited valleys at high elevation, are confined to the slopes, nearly all of the allu- vial bottoms having been cleared. Composition.—Vhey are formed of hard woods, chiefly oaks, associated with pines, white or black; or of mixed hard woods—oaks, chestnut, maple, birch, linn, ash, and poplar—associated with hemlock in the deep hollows and on some northern slopes. Condition.—Nearly all south and east slopes, especially at a low elevation, have been damaged by fires to some ex- tent. The best hard woods have been culled from much of the area, and the best white pine from the lower part of the valley of the Johns River and from a portion of the Upper Linville. There is yet much hard wood, largely oak, on the headwaters of the Catawbas, Johns, and Upper Linville rivers. ° Reproduction.—Reproduction of hard woods is free by stool shoots and seed, and of pine by seed. Protection from fire is greatly needed. This, with improvement cut- tings, would soon develop a valuable forest. ) Je) Soil. Agriculture, Erosion. The forest. Topography. Soil. Agriculture. Erosion. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. YADKIN RIVER BASIN. [253,120 acres; 54 per cent wooded.] The portion of the basin of this river examined includes the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge, with its outlyers from Bullhead Mountain southward to Blowing Rock, and is drained by the head streams of the Yadkin and all of its northern tributaries eastward to and including Roaring River. The crest of the Blue Ridge, with an average elevation of more than 3,500 feet, limits the area on the north; and from this numerous sharp and steep spurs penetrate the area, dividing it into a series of nar- row parallel northwest-and-southeast trending basins, from the southern ends of which the streams emerge and unite to form the Yadkin, at an elevation of about 1,000 feet. The topography is rough, the slopes of the ridges steep, and the intervening valleys narrow, showing unchecked natural erosion from a high plateau region to a lower base level, in a country with rock of varying hardness and an abundant rainfall. The alluvial lands in the valleys are narrow strips or small bodies, seldom more than a few acres in extent, of dark, sandy-loam soils, rich in humus, and fertile, or occa- sionally of coarse sand and poor. The soils of the uplands, produced by the decomposition of slates, sandstones, and gneiss, are highly silicious and often coarse and poor. On north slopes and in the hollows accumulated mold adds to the fertility and checks the removal of the finer clayey particles, while the poverty of the naturally infertile south slopes is augmented by repeated fires which destroy the litter and facilitate the removal of the finer particles of the soil by the heavy rains. Corn is the staple crop, both on the alluvial lands and on the slopes at lower elevations; while corn, grass, and some apples are cultivated on the shady north slopes at high elevations and in the deep, cool hollows that indent the face of the mountain. Some of the alluvial bottoms haye been damaged by being washed and gullied by freshets, or by the deposit of coarse sand and gravel brought down from the mountains. Many of the steep slopes, exposed to erosion by the naked cultivation required for corn, have been gullied to the bed rock, and their agricultural value is temporarily destroyed. Many such abandoned fields are being colonized by wind- SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. sown pine seedlings, which check further erosion and rebuild the soil. The forests, which are confined to the slopes, are formed of hard woods, chiefly oaks, associated with pine (black, rarely with white) on the drier south and east slopes; and of mixed hard woods—oaks, chestnut, maple, poplar, linn, and ash—associated with hemlock in the deep hollows and on north slopes. The better forests lie to the south of Mulberry Gap. East of this gap the oaks and pines are smaller and of poorer quality, and have suffered more from fires; but fires have also done much damage to the pines and oaks growing on the southward slopes. Culling has been carried on for many years, and much of the choicest timber has been removed from the bordering lands, even to the very sources of the streams; but much oak and some pine yet remain. The hardwoods reproduce freely from both stool shoots and seed, and the pines from seed. To prevent further deterioration of the forest and improve its condition, pro- tection from fire is necessary, while improvement cuttings are required in many places to remove worthless stock and to free young timber. The forest. 91 TREES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By W. W. AsHe and H. B. Ayres. The following is a list of the trees growing in the Southern Appala- chians, with notes concerning their distribution, size, uses, and repro- duction. Accompanying this is a list of shrubs indigenous to that region. White Pine (Pinus strobus) reaches a height of 160 feet and a diameter of 40 inches and forms nearly pure groyes, or is associated with smaller hard woods. It prefers sandy or gravelly soils on northwest slopes lying between 1,700 and 4,000 feet elevation. It is the most important timber tree in the Eastern States, for its wood is light, strong, and durable, and is applied to nearly all uses. It makes rapid growth and reproduces freely. It is most abundant, attains its maxi- mum size, and makes most rapid accretion on the western slopes of the Smoky and Iron mountains, especially in Shady Valley. Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) in the Appalachians reaches a height of 80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, and is found only in the southern- most part of the area, below an elevation of 1,200 feet. It occurs chiefly as a second growth in old fields, and is of great value in restock- ing them and preventing erosion. Nearer the coast it is a timber tree of the first importance. Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata), reaching a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 36 inches, is frequent on well-drained soil below 2,000 feet elevation, becoming more common as the altitude decreases. The wocd is yellow, strong, and very durable, and takes a fine finish. It seeds freely and reproduces abundantly under full light, often restock- ing old fields and waste places. It is one of the most valuable of the yellow pines, and forms the chief building material over much of this region. Black Pine (Pinus rigida) veaches a height of 90 feet and a diam- eter of 28 inches. It is associated with the shortleaf pine, but it is the more abundant at higher elevations. Like that tree, it seeds freely and often, and restocks waste lands. It is not so large nor so valuable a tree, however, and the wood is coarser, more resinous, and not so free from knots. It is much used as a building material. 93 94 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Table-Mountain Pine (Pinus pungens) is 1 medium-sized tree, which reaches a height of 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It occurs on dry, rocky ridges between 1,500 and 3,000 feet elevation, and is most common along the Blue Ridge and on the Chilhowee and Holston mountains. It reaches its greatest size in the mountains of western North Carolina. It is not so large nor so valuable a tree as the short- leaf and black pines. Its wood is coarse and sappy. It will grow, however, on dry, rocky soil where the black pine does not. It seeds freely and makes rapid growtn, at least when young. Scrub Pine (Pinus virginiana) is a slender tree, seldom more than 80 feet in height and 18 inches in diameter, which is common on dry, sandy, or gravelly land below 2,000 feet elevation. It propagates freely and makes rapid growth. It is not large enough to be of importance as a timber tree, though it is occasionally sawn: Black Spruce (Picea mariana) is a slender tree reaching a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 30 inches. It is seldom found below 4,000 feet elevation, and only around a few of the highest mountains, where it forms dense forests of pure growth, or is associated with hemlock on cold northern slopes or along cold streams. It seeds at interyals_ of several years and reproduces freely if afforded the proper light and soil conditions, which are generally not produced in lumbering. The wood is light, but strong, and is largely used for lumber. It is the chief source of wood pulp for paper. It is one of the most valuable trees, and reaches its greatest individual development on the slopes of the Smoky Mountains. Red Spruce (Picea rubra) is here a small tree, seldom 30 feet in height, and unimportant. It occurs only in a few mountain swamps. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) is one of the largest of east American trees, attaining a height of more than 140 feet and a diameter of 5 feet, which is reached in the Southern Appalachians. It is common along streams and on cold, wet northern slopes above 1,500 feet eleva- tion. The bark is extensively used in tanning, and the trunk supplies much rough lumber. Seeds are borne frequently, but reproduction is poor, as good reproduction requires a delicate adjustment of light and moisture conditions, which are seldom furnished in lumbering. Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) is a smaller tree than the pre- ceding, and its distribution is limited to a few localities in the Southern Appalachians. The greatest size is attained in the mountains of North Carolina. It is one of the most stately of American conifers. Balsam (Abies fraser’) attains a height of 60 feet and a diameter of 2 feet. It is exclusively a Southern Appalachian tree, being confined to the summits of the highest mountains from Clingmans Dome north- eastward. The maximum development is attained on the high peaks of the Black Mountains. The wood is soft and brittle and of little value. A medicinal resin balsam is obtained from its bark. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 95 Arbor vite (Thuja occidentalis) is a small tree which occurs in the Southern Appalachians at only a few places, as on Cripple Creek and Linville River, on moist soil. Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) is a small tree, seldom more than 50 feet in height, which is frequent below 1,500 feet elevation in old fields and along roadsides, especially on limestone soil at the foot of the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is soft, but durable and valuable. It reproduces freely, but the rate of growth is slow. Butternut (Juglans cinerea) is a short-stemmed tree reaching a height of 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It is frequent on rocky soil along streams between 1,500 and 4,000 feet elevation. It yields a valuable light-brown cabinet wood. Seed is*borne at frequent and regular intervals, and reproduction is good. Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) reaches a height of 110 feet anda diameter of +0 inches, attaining its greatest size in the deep hollows of the mountains of North Carolina, where it occurs mixed with oaks and chestnut. The larger and most valuable trees have generally been removed. It seeds regularly and reproduces freely. The black, fine-grained wood takes 2 good polish, and is largely used in Europe for furniture. Bitternut (Hicoria minima) is one of the largest and most valuable of the hickories, often attaining a height of 110 feet and a diameter of 30 inches. It is frequent on lower moist slopes and along streams. Seed is borne in abundance at frequent intervals, and reproduction is good. The rate of growth is rapid. The wood is hard, heavy, and tough, and is much used for the handles of tools and in wagon manu- facture. Shagbark (ficoria ovata) is frequent along streams and on moist, rich slopes, where it attains a large size. It reproduces freely by seed, and small trees sprout from the stump. The tough, elastic wood is regarded as being second in quality among all the hickories. The large, edible nuts are extensively gathered and sold. Carolina Shagbark (Hicoria caroline-septentrionalis) is a smaller tree than the preceding, but its wood is of the same quality, and is used for the same purposes. It occurs on sandy soil at the south- western end of the Appalachians, below 1,200 feet elevation. Shellbark ITickory (Hicoria laciniosa) is a large and valuable tree which is found at only a very few places. It grows on alluvial lands at a low elevation. White Hickory (Hicoria alba) is the most common hickory. It is frequent on rich, warm soil at a low elevation, where it becomes a large tree, sometimes 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. The hard, tough wood is preferred to that of the other species for mechanical uses. It seeds and reproduces freely, and young trees are common in 96 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. culled woods at low altitudes. This and the other species are largely used for fuel. Red-heart Hickory (Hicoria odorata) becomes 120 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter, and is one of the most common species. In the Southern Appalachians it is second in value and importance only to the White Hickory. It prefers rich, warm soil at low elevations. Seed are borne often and in abundance, and reproduction is good. Pignut (Hicoria glabra) is a slender tree, exceptionally 100 feet in height, generally growing on dry soil, but is not common. The timber is inferior to that of the red-heart hickory. Hairy Pignut Hicoria glabra hirsuta) is like the preceding in size and in the character of its timber, but is not so common. Sand Hickory (Hicoria villosa) is a small, uncommon tree, yielding a wood similar to that of the pignut. It grows on sandy soil along streams and on dry ridges at low elevations. Black Willow (Salix nigra) is a small tree reaching a height of 50 feet, and is common along streams below 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is not used, but the tree is important, as its tough roots serve to protect from erosion the banks of the streams along which the trees grow. Silky Willow (Salix sericea) is a small tree 20 to 30 feet in height, with straight stems, which is common along streams and in wet mead- ows below 4,000 feet in altitude. It is too small to furnish useful wood, but as a protection against the erosion of the banks of small streams it is of more importance than the preceding. It seeds abun- dantly and reproduces freely. Largetooth Aspen (Populus grandidentata) is a slender tree reaching a height of 50 feet. It is not common and the wood is not used. Balin of Gilead (Populus balsamifera candicans) bas been exten- sively planted along streams, where it makes an excellent soil binder and protects the banks against washing. It is also useful in building up low areas along streams which are subject to flooding, as the deposit of earth around its stems during freshets does not injure the health of the tree. The collection and sale of the large resinous buds, which are used medicinally, is an industry of some importance. It is a tree of rapid growth, and soon reaches a height of 50 feet. . The wood is light, soft, and not durable. River Birch (Betula nigra) reaches a height of 70 feet and a diame- ter of 30 inches, and occurs only along the banks of the larger streams. Seeds are borne abundantly and reproduction is good. The wood is coarse and hard. It is chiefly valuable in protecting the banks of streams. Sweet Birch (Betula lenta) is found along cold mountain streams on northern slopes. where it reaches a height of 90 feet and a diameter of 3 feet. The timber is used to some extent in the manufacture of fur- SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 97 niture. Birch oil is obtained by distillation from the bark. It seeds often and reproduces freely. Yellow Birch (Betula lutea) reaches a height of 80 feet and a diame- ter of 36 inches, and is common in cold ravines and on northern slopes, especially at high-elevations. Many of the trees are curly and yield a valuable cabinet wood. It seeds freely and reproduces well on moist land among laurel brush. Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) reaches a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 12 inches, and is common along streams. The wood is very hard and firm. Tronwood ( Carpinus caroliniana) is a small tree, seldom more than 30 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter. It occurs sparingly on moist-soiled, shady slopes. The wood is very-hard and tough. Beech (Fagus americana) reaches a height of 100 feet and a diam- eter of 30 inches. It is common on moist lands along streams and in hollows, where it attains its greatest size, and on cold slopes at high elevations, where it forms dense groves of small trees. It seeds fre- quently and reproduces freely. The wood is hard, tough, and fine grained. Chestnut (Castanea dentata) is a large tree, which attains a height of 120 feet and a diameter 7 feet. It is common on nearly all soils above 2,000 feet elevation, but decreases in abundance below that, reaching its greatest development in deep hollows at about 3,000 feet eleva- tion. The wood is rather soft, but valuable and durable, is exten- sively used locally for building and fencing, and is largely sawn for shipment. The collection of the nuts forms an important industry. It regenerates well from stool shoots and from seeds, which are borne regularly and in abundance. The rate of growth is very rapid, being greater than that of any other hard wood of the region. Chinquapin ( Castanea pumila) is a small tree, seldom more than 40 feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. It is frequent on dry soil below 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is similar to that of the chestnut. White Oak (Quercus alba), reaching a height of 120 feet and a diam- eter of 5 feet, iscommon below 4,500 feet elevation, especially on rocky soil. The timber is regarded as superior to that of the other oaks and is largely used in the manufacture of farm implements and wagons, for furniture, and for interior finish. The barkis rich in tannin. Seed is borne abundantly and often, and reproduction is good. The rate of growth is rapid, though not so rapid as that of the red oaks. Post Oak (Quercus minor) is a small tree, seldom more than 60 feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. It is especially valued for wagon hubs. It occurs only on dry soils, generally associated with the yellow pine and black oak, and is uncommon except at low elevations, especially toward the southwestern end of the mountains. It seeds freely and reproduces well. The rate of growth is fair. *S. Doc. 84-7 98 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Swamp White Oak (Quercus platanoides) becomes a large tree, 100 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. It is found along streams, but is infrequent. The wood has the same qualities and uses as that of the white oak, though it is coarser and more brittle. Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus), reaching a height of 90 feet and a diameter of 40 inches, is common on dry and especially sandy slopes. The wood is harder and more durable than that of the other oaks of this region and is largely used for posts, railway ties, and insulator pins. The bark, which is rich in tannin, is extensively used in the manufacture of white leathers, thousands of trees being yearly stripped to supply the demand. It seeds frequently and in abundance, and reproduces freely. The rate of growth is slow, the large trees often being 250 years old. Yellow Oak (Quercus acuminata), reaching a height of 90 feet and a diameter of 24 inches, occurs rarely along the larger streams. The wood has much the same quality and uses as that of the white oak. Red Oak (Quercus rubra) is the largest oak in the Southern Appa- lachians, frequently reaching a height of 130 feet and a diameter of more than 5 feet. It is common above 1,500 feet, but attains its greatest size in deep, cool hollows, on fertile soil, where it grows with chestnut, linn, birch, and yellow poplar. It is extensively sawn, and the wood is largely used in the manufacture of furniture, for interior finish, staves, and in construction. It is a tree of rapid growth, seeds frequently and freely, and reproduces well. Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) is a small tree, seldom more than 50 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter. It is found only at a low elevation, along streams flowing from the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is coarse and porous, and even were the tree more common world be little used. Spotted Oak (Quercus texana) is a tall, slender tree, often 110 feet high and 30 inches in diameter, growing in the larger valleys below 1,200 feet elevation. It is not common, but reproduces well and makes rapid growth. Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea), reaching a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, but generally much smaller, is very common on dry soil, especially if stiff, below 4,000 feet elevation. The timber is not so valuable as that of the red oak, but is much used. It repro- duces freely and makes good growth. Black Oak (Quercus velutina), reaching a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, is frequent on good soil on well-drained slopes below 2,500 feet elevation. The timber has about the same uses as that of the red oak. It is a tree of rapid growth and reproduces well, he bark is rich in tannin. Southern Red Oak (Quercus digitata), reaching in the mountains a height of 80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, is common only below SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 99 2,000 feet elevation, where it occurs on dry soils generally with the shortleaf pine. It is a tree of rapid growth and seeds abundantly every few years. The bark is rich in tannin. Bear Oak (Quercus pumila) is generally a large shrub, sometimes becoming a small tree. Jt is unimportant as a timber tree, and not at all common except northeastward. Black Jack (Quercus marilandica) is a small tree, seldom more than 30 feet in height. It is found only on poor, dry soil below 2,000 feet elevation, and is infrequent except on the southern slope of the Blue Ridge. The wood makes an excellent fuel, but is valueless as timber. Water Oak (Quercus nigra) is a small tree, reaching a height of 50 feet and a diameter seldom greater than 20 inches. It is found occa- sionally along the larger streams around the southern base of the mountains. It is not sufficiently abundant to have any specific use in this region. The wood is similar to that of the shingle oak. described below. Shingle Oak (Quercus imbricaria) is a small tree, seldom more than 50 feet in height, which occurs in the valleys below 2,500 feet elevation. The wood is used for no specific purpose, but is coarse-grained and porous like that of the black and scarlet oaks, and is adapted to similar uses. It seeds freely, reproduces well, and makes rapid growth. White Elm (Ulmus americana), reaching a height of 80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, occurs only along the larger streams. It is not abundant enough to be generally used. The wood is hard and tough. Winged Elm (Ulmus alata) occurs only along the larger streams, especially toward the southern end of the Appalachians. It is seldom more than 50 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter, and is unimport- ant as a timber tree. The wood is hard and tough. Slippery Elm (Ulmus pubescens), reaching a height of more than 100 feet and a diameter of more than 30 inches, is occasionally found in rich hollows. It is too infrequent to have any commercial uses. Late Elm (Ulmus serotina) is a small tree occurring on the larger streams at the southern end of the Appalachian Plateau. Its timber is similar to that of the other species, but is not used. Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) is a slender tree, sometimes 90 feet feet high and 24 inches in diameter, which occurs along the larger streams. The wood is tough and strong, but is not used. It seeds freely and reproduces well. Mississippi Hackberry (Celtis mississippiensis) is a tree similar in size and in the character of its wood tothe preceding. It occurs along the larger streams, but is not common. Rough Hackberry ( Celtis crassifolia) is a smaller tree than the above, seldom more than 30 feet in height and 12 inches in diameter. The wood is tough and strong, but is not used. 100 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Mulberry (Morus rubra) is a small tree with a very short stem, sel- dom more than 25 feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. The wood is tough and very durable, and is used for posts, etc. It is found in rich hollows at low elevations, but is in general cultivation for the fruit.. It seeds regularly and abundantly, and makes rapid growth. Cucumber-tree (Magnolia acuminata) is a large tree, becoming 120 feet high and 5 feet in diameter. It frequents the base of the moun- tains, generally above 1,500 feet altitude. The wood is rather soft andi yellow, and is largely used in the manufacture of furniture, being marketed with that of the yellow poplar. Seed are not abundant and reproduction is scanty. The rate of growth is slow. Vellow-flowered Cucumber-tree (Magnolia acuminata cordata) is a smaller tree than the preceding and is confined to the lower elevations at. the southern end of the Appalachians. As a timber tree it is unimportant. Largeleaf Umbrella-tree (Magnolia macrophylla) is a small tree, seldom more than 25 feet in height, which occurs at only a few places along streams or on shady slopes. It is often planted as an orna- mental tree, but the wood has no uses. ; Umbrella-tree (Magnolia tripetala) is a small tree very similar to the preceding, but more common. Mountain Magnolia (Magnolia frasert) is a tree 40 to 60 feet in height, growing along cool streams. The wood is soft and white, and is put to no uses. The bark is gathered and used medicinally. Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) is the largest tree of the Appalachians, attaining a height of 140 feet and a diameter of 8 feet. It is common below 3,500 feet elevation, but is most abundant and reaches its largest size in cool, sheltered hollows on rich soil. The wood is soft and yellow, and is extensively used in the manufacture of furniture and for wood pulp. It seeds frequently and abundantly, but young trees are not very common, as a delicate adjustment of light and moisture condition is required for regeneration. It repro- duces freely on the partly shaded portions of old pastures. It isa tree of only medium rapidity of growth. Papaw (Asimina triloba) is a small tree, seldom more than 30 feet in height, growing on rich, moist soil at low elevations. It is uncommon. Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras), reaching a height of not more than 40 feet and a diameter of 24 inches, is common on dry, sandy soil. The red wood is hard and fine grained, and takes a beautiful polish. It is sometimes used in the manufacture of furniture. It reproduces freely in old fields on stiff soil by seed and suckers. Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) is a small tree, about 15 feet in height, or generally a slender shrub, common on moist soils up to 4,000 feet elevation. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freely. Extract of witch hazel is distilled from its bark. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 101 Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is found in this area only along the larger streams at a low elevation. It becomes a tree 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. The wood is red, hard, and fine grained, and is used for crates, shipping boxes, tobacco boxes, etc., and for flooring and furniture. Itseeds regularly, and seedlings are not uncom- mon near old trees. | Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) is a large tree, often 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter, common along the larger streams. The wood is hard and firm, with a beautiful grain, and is used for tobacco boxes, and to some extent in the manufacture of furniture. It seeds often and reproduces freely. Crab Apple (Pyrus coronaria) is a small tree, 15 to 20 feet in height, common in old fields and open woods. The wood is hard and tough, and is used to some extent inturnery. It seeds abundantly and repro- duces freely. Narrowleaf Crab Apple (Pyrus angustifolia) oceurs with the preced- ing and is very similar to it in its wood. Mountain Ash (Sorbus americana) is a small tree, seldom more than 30 feet in height, which is found around the summits of the higher mountains. The timber is not used. Service-tree (Amelanchier canadensis) is a small tree, seldom more than 45 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter, which is common above 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard and fine grained, and is sometimes used in turnery. It seeds abundantly, and young trees are common. Small-flowered Service (Amelanchier botryapium) is a tree with the same distribution and uses as the preceding. Cockspur Thorn (Crataegus crus-galli) is a small tree, seldom more than 25 feet in height, frequent along roadsides and in fields. The wood is not used. Blue Ridge Thorn ( Crategus multispina), becoming 25 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter, is frequent in fields and on roadsides along the Blue Ridge. It is unimportant as a timber tree. Black Thorn (Crategus tomentosa) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet in height, which occurs along streams. It is unimportant as a timer tree. Chapman Thorn ( Crategus chapman?) is very similar to the preced - ing in size and distribution. New River Thorn (Crategus neo-fluvialis) oceurs along streams in _the northern part of the plateau. It is not common and is unimportant as a forest tree. Washington Thorn (Crategus cordata) is very frequent on dry soil at low elevations. Unassuming in size, it is a most beautiful orna- mental tree. 102 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Spatulate Thorn (Crataegus spathulata) is frequent at low elevations around the base of the plateau on dry soil. Parsley Thorn (Crategus apifolia) is an infrequent tree, about 20 feet in height, occurring on dry soil around the base of the plateau. Tree Thorn ( Crategus viridis), becoming 35 feet in height and 15 inches in diameter, occurs along the larger streams below 1,500 feet elevation. Dotted Thorn ( Crategus punctata) is common along cold streams and around the summits of the high mountains. Golden Thorn (Crategus crocata) is very much like the preceding, and has the same distribution. Hill Thorn ( Crategus collina), becoming 25 feet high and 12 inches in diameter, is frequent in fields and in open, dry woods to the south of Asheville. Buckley Thorn (Crategus buckley?) is a slender tree, sometimes 30 feet in height, which occurs along streams at low elevations, especially in the valley of the French Broad River. Catawba Thorn ( Crategus catawbiensis) is a small, bushy tree occur- ring along streams on the east slope of the Blue Ridge. Pruinose Thorn ( Crategus pruinosa) is x small tree, seldom 20 feet in height, with a short trunk. It occurs on dry hills, especially along the Blue Ridge. Boynton Thorn (Crataegus boynton?) is seldom 20 feet in height. It is common on dry hills, especially in the French Broad Valley. Wild Plum (Prunus americana) is a small tree which is common in open woods and fields below 4,000 feet elevation. Its edible fruit is borne often and in abundance. The wood has no uses. It is the parent stock of many of the cultivated plums. Chickasaw Plum (Prunus angustifolia) is a small tree much like the above, and also the parent of many cultivated varieties. Fire Cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica) becomes 40 feet in height and more than 12 inches in diameter. It occurs in cold, damp woods around the high mountains, and often forms extensive groves of pure growth on burned spruce lands, where it prepares the soil for another growth of spruce. The wood is soft and brittle. Seeds are borne abundantly and frequently. The growth is rapid. Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina) along streams at a low elevation is a small tree, but on moist land at high elevations becomes a tree 100 feet or more in height and 3 feet in diameter. The red wood is hard and takes a fine polish and is extensively used for interior finish, and was used for furniture until it became too rare. The rate of growth is rather slow. It seeds often, but young growth at high elevations is uncommon. The best trees have generally been removed. Redbud (Cercis canadensis) isa small tree about 15 feet in height. It occurs along the edges of woods or on rocky banks of streams, seldom above 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is not used. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 108 Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) is a tree reaching a height of 60 or 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It was introduced into this region from middle Tennessee, but is thoroughly naturalized and propagates freely in old fields and waste places. The wood is not used, though it is tough, strong, and durable. Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus diocus) isa small tree, seldom more than 40 feet in height. It occurs in fertile valleys at the foot of the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is not much used. It repro- duces well. Yellow-wood ( Cladrastis lutea) is seldom more than 30 feet in height and a foot in diameter. It occurs in rich hollows at a low elevation at the southwestern end of the Appalachians. The hard, yellow wood takes a fine polish. Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) is a slender tree sometimes 100 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. It is frequent below 4,000 feet elevation on rather dry, yet shaded and deep soil. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freely by sprouts, suckers, and seeds. The hard, yel low wood is very durable in contact with the soil or on exposure, and is extensively used for fence posts, sills, bridge timber, and insulator and ship pins. A most valuable tree, but it is often attacked by a fungus which destroys the heartwood. Clammy Locust (Robinia viscosa) is a small tree, 20 to 30 feet in height, with a short stem, or generally a large shrub found wild in this area only in its southeastern part. It is highly prized as an orna- mental plant on account of the beauty of its flowers, and is extensively cultivated. Its wood has no uses. It seeds frequently and reproduces freely both by seed and suckers. Prickly Ash (Xanthoxylum clava-herculis), becoming 25 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, is frequent along streams. The wood is not used. An extract from the bark is used medicinally. It seeds abun- dantly and reproduces freely. Ailanthus (Ailanthus glandulosa) is an introduced Asiatic tree which reaches a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 10 feet. It is extensively naturalized along some of the streams, where it propagates freely by means of suckers, and forms dense thickets. The wood is hard, dura- ble, and valuable, but is not used. The growth is rapid. Staghorn Sumach (Rhus hirta) is a small tree, seldom 36 feet in height, growing along streams or in waste places, especially at high elevations. The bark yields a superior tannin for kids, but is not used locally. Holly (Ilex opaca) is a small evergreen tree, rarely more than 50 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, which grows chiefly in sandy flats along streams below 2.000 feet elevation. The wood is hard, white, and fine grained, and is used to some extent in cabinetmaking. It seeds often and abundantly, and reproduces well. It ismuch prized as an ornamental tree. 104 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Deciduous Holly (Ilex decidua) is a small tree, seldom 25 feet in height, with a short trunk and large, spreading crown, growing along streams below 1,500 feet elevation. The wood is hard and tough, but is not used. Mountain Holly (Ilex monticola), becoming 25 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter, is common on cold slopes at high elevations. The wood is not used. Mountain Maple (Acer spicatum) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet in height, often with several stems from the same root, which grows in cold, wet soil at high altitudes. It has no uses. Striped Maple (Acer pennsylvanicum), becoming 50 feet in height and 14 inches in diameter, is found frequently along cold streams above 3,000 feet elevation. ‘Fhe wood is put to no use. Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum), reaching a height of 120 feet and a diameter of 40 inches, is common north of the Cowee Mountains, above 2,000 feet elevation, on cold, moist soil. The hard, fine-grained wood is sawn for flooring; the figured wood for furniture stock. A small quantity of maple sugar is made from the sap. Seed is borne frequently and abundantly, and young trees are common in damp woods. The rate of growth is slow. Black Maple (Acer nigrum) is a tree similar in size to the preced- ing, but much less common, being largely confined to the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. Red Maple (Acer rubrum), becoming 110 feet in height and 36 inches in diameter, is common on moist soil, and the young growth in culled woods. The wood is softer than that of the preceding, and inferior to it. It seeds freely and reproduces well. ‘The rate of growth is slow. River Maple (Acer rubrum drummondii) is a smaller tree than the preceding, seldom more than 80 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, which is common along the banks of the larger streams. The wood is soft and white, and is not used. It seeds freely and young trees are common. Bou Elder (Acer negundo), becoming 40 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, is frequent along the large streams at a low elevation. The wood is not used. : Buckeye (désculus octandra) becomes a tree 120 feet in height and 4 feet in diameter. It is common in cold hollows, especially above 3,000 feet elevation. ‘The wood is light and soft, but is not generally used. It reproduces freely. The rate of growth is good. Purple Buckeye (d4sculus octandra hybrida) is a smaller and less common tree than the preceding, and is confined to the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood issimilar to that of the preceding. Buckthorn (Rhamus caroliniana) is a small tree, seldom more than 25 feet in height, found on open slopes near the larger streams. The wood is not used. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 105 Linn (Tilia heterophylla), becoming a tree 120 feet in height and 4 feet in diameter, is common along streams and in cool hollows. The wood is white, light, and soft, and is extensively sawn for lumber. It seeds freely, but seedlings are not common. It sprouts freely from the stump. Blue Ridge Linn (Tilia eburnea) is a tree similar to the preceding in size and quality of wood. It is confined to the Blue Ridge Mountains, or the region near them. Basswood (Tilia americana), reaching a height of more than 100 feet and a diameter of 3 feet, is confined to streams at the base of the western slope of the Smoky Mountains, but is by no means common. The wood is used with that of the linn without distinction. Dogwood (Cornus florida) is a small tree, seldom 30 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, common beneath the shade of other trees on fertile soil below 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard, heavy, and strong, and is used for shuttle blocks and a variety of mechanical purposes. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freely. The rate of growth is slow. Blue Cornel (Cornus alternifolia), a slender tree 25 feet in height, is common along cold mountain streams. Swamp Cornel (Cornus sericea), a bushy tree 20 feet in height, is common along the larger streams. Biack Gum (Nyssa sylvatica) is a tree sometimes 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter, but generally much smaller, which is common along streams at low elevations and on dry slopes at high elevations. The wood is hard and tough, but not durable, and is little used except as rails for tramways in logging. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freely. The rate of growth is good. Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), a tree 80 feet in height and 18 inches in diameter, is common on dry soil below 4,000 feet elevation. The red wood is hard and fine grained and takes a good polish. It is used to some extent in the manufacture of furniture. The seed are borne in abundance and reproduction is prolific. The rate of growth is fair. Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), a tree 40 feet in height and 18 inches in diameter, is found in fields and waste places. The hard, tough wood is used for shuttle blocks, shoe lasts, insulator pins, ete. It seeds freely and reproduces well, especially on old fields. Sweetleaf (Symplocos tinctoria) is a small tree, seldom more than 20 feet in height, which grows on dry soil. The bark yields a yellow dye. Peawood or Bell-tree (Mohrodendron carolinum) is common along streams, where it is a small'tree, seldom 70 feet in height, but becom- ing in the rich, damp hollows of the Black and Smoky mountains a tree 100 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. The reddish wood is hard and fine grained and takes a good polish, and on the western 106 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. slopes of the Smoky Mountains is sawn and sold as cherry. It seeds frequently and freely and reproduces well. The rate of growth is fair. Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra), a small tree not more than 30 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, grows in cold mountain swamps. It is found only in a few places, and is unimportant as a timber tree. White Ash (Fraxinus americana), becoming 130 feet in height and 40 inches in diameter, is one of the most common and important trees. The light brown, elastic wood is largely used in furniture, for handles of agricultural implements, etc. It seeds freely and reproduces well if proper soil and light conditions are afforded. The growth is good. Red Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) is a slender tree, seldom more than 110 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, which is frequent along the banks of the larger streams. The wood is similar to that of the White Ash, and is put to the same uses. Green Ash (Fraxinus lanceolata) is a tree with the same size and distribution as the above, but more common. Biltmore Ash (Fraxinus biltmoreana) is a tree 20 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, growing on the larger streams of the plateau. It is not common. Catawba Ash (Fraxinus catawbiensis) is a slender tree, 110 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. It occurs only on the banks of the larger streams at the foot of the Blue Ridge. Its growth is rapid and it reproduces freely. Fringetree (Chionanthus virginica), becoming 25 feet in height and 8 inches in diameter, is common along streams at lower elevations. Catalpa (Catalpa catalpa) is an introduced tree which has become naturalized along some of the larger streams. It becomes 40 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, and is a tree of rapid growth. The wood is durable and makes excellent posts. Black Haw (Viburnum prunifolium) is a small tree, 15 feet in height, frequent in fields and along small streams at low elevations. An extract from the bark is used medicinally. LIST OF SHRUBS AND SOME PLANTS WHICH ONLY UNDER THE MOST FAVORABLE CONDITIONS ASSUME ARBORESCENT FORM. By W. W. AsHE. Cane (Arundinaria tecta). Wild Sarsaparilla (Smilax glauca). Greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia). Hispid Greenbrier (Smilax hispida). Bristly Greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox). Juniper (Juniperus communis). Dwarf Willow (Salix humilis). Gray Willow (Salix tristis). Hazel (Corylus americana). Beaked Hazel (Corylus rostrata). Mountain Alder (Alnus alnobetula). Common Alder (Alnus rugosa). Dwarf Oak (Quercus prinoides). Mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens) . Sweet Fern (Comptonia peregrina). Oil Nut (Pyrularia pubera). Buckleya (Buckleya distichophylla). Dutchman’s Pipe (Aristolochia macro- phyla). Barberry (Berberis canadensis). Moonseed (Menispermum canadense). Sweet Shrub (Butnera fertilis). Spicewood (Benzoin benzoin). Mountain Hydrangea (Hydrangea arbo- rescens ). Showy Hydrangea (Hydrangea radiata). Syringa (Philadelphus inodorus). Itea (Itea virginica). Hop Trefoil (Ptelea trifoliata). False Indigo (Amorpha virgata). False Indigo (Amorpha fruticosa). Rose Locust (Robinia hispida). - Boynton Locust (Robinia boyntoni). Wistaria ( Wistaria frutescens). Red Root (Ceanothus americana). Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labrusca). Summer Grape (Vitis zestivalis). Le Conte Grape ( Vitis bicolor). Riverside Grape (Vitis vulpina). Frost Grape ( Vitis cordifolia). Bailey Grape (Vitis baileyana). Muscadine ( Vitis rotundifolia). Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus quin- quefolia). Sumach (Rhus copallina). Smooth Sumach (Rhus glabra). Poison Sumach (Rhus vernix). Poison Ivy (Rhus radicans). Poison Oak (Rhus toxicodendron). Beadle Winterberry (Ilex beadlei). Winterberry (Ilex verticillata). Southern Winterberry (Ilex longipes). Strawberry Bush (Euonymus ameri- canus). Burning Bush (Euonymus atropurpu- reus). | Wax Work (Celastrus scandens). | Bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia). | Gooseberry (Ribes cynosbati) . Mountain Gooseberry (Ribes rotundi- folia). Slender Gooseberry (Ribes gracile). | Mountain Currant (Ribes prostratum). Fothergilla (Fothergilla monticola). Ninebarks (Opulaster opulifolius). Meadow-sweet (Spirzea salicifolia). Hardhack (Spirea tomentosa). Mountain Spirzea (Spirzea corymbosa). Virginia Spirzea (Spirzea virginiana). Flowering Raspberry (Rubus odoratus). | Red Raspberry (Rubus strigosus). Black Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis). Mountain Blackberry (Rubus alleghani- ensis). Northern Blackberry (Rubus nigrobac- cus). Low-bush Blackberry (Rubus cuneifo- lius). 107 108 Thornless Blackberry (Rubus canaden- sis). Hispid Bramble (Rubus hispidus). Boynton Bramble (Rubus boyntoni). Great Bramble (Rubus clava-herculis). Watauga Bramble (Rubus wataugee). Appalachian Blackberry (Rubus argutoi- des). Common Blackberry (Rubus argutus). Wild Rose (Rosa carolina). Dwarf Rose (Rosa humilis). Red Choke-berry (Aronia arbutifolia) . Black Choke-berry (Aronia nigra). Dreaded Thorn (Crateegus crux). White-anthered Thorn (Crateegus ebur- nea). Edible Thorn (Cratzegus cibilis). Thick Thorn (Crateegus densa). Prolific Thorn (Crateegus farcta) . Discoid Thorn (Cratzegus discoidea). Light-green Thorn (Crateegus chlorina). Pendent Thorn (Cratzegus pendulina). Particolored Thorn (Cratzegus bicolor). Fleshy Thorn (Cratzegus carnosa). Three-angled Thorn (Cratzegus prismat- ica). Bloody Thorn (Crateegus cruenta). Three-seeded Thorn (Crategus perma). Curtis Thorn (Crateegus curtisi). Bractless Thorn (Cratzegus elracteata). Brown Thorn (Crateegus addisoni) . Roan Thorn (Cratzegus roanensis). Thin-leaved Thorn (Crateegus tenuifolia). Biltmore Thorn (Cratzegus biltmoreana). Small-flowered Thorn (Crategus uni- flora). Vail Thorn (Cratzegus vailiae). Lookout-mountain Thorn (Cratzegus ma- crosperma). Oconaluitee Thorn (Crateegus roribacca) . Wrinkled Thorn (Crateegus rugosa). Yellow-flesh Thorn (Cratzegus flayo-car- nis). Rosy Thorn (Cratzegus rubella). Red-flesh Thorn (Crateegus heemacarpa). Cullasagee Thorn (Crateegus callasa- gensis). Forest Thorn (Crateegus silvicala). Thorn (Crateegus sororia). Dwarf Cherry (Prunus cuneata). Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana). Mountain Stuartia (Stuartia pentagyna). tris- SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. St. Andrew’s Cross (Ascyerum hyperi- coides). Shrubby St. John’s-wort (Hypericum prolificum). Bushy St. John’s-wort (Hypericum densi- florum). Doubtful St. John’s-wort (Hypericum ambiguum) . Riverside St. John’s-wort (Hypericum nudiflorum). Buckley St. John’s-wort (Hypericum buckleyi). Table-rock Hudsonia (Hudsonia mon- tana). Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) . Spikenard (Aralia spinosa). Pepperbush (Clethra acuminata). Early Azalea (Azalea nudiflora). Downy Azalea (Azalea canescens). Yellow Azalea (Azalea lutea). Fragrant Azalea (Azalea arborescens). White Azalea (Azalea viscosa) Vasey Azalea (Azalea vaseyi). Winterberry (Gaultheria procumbens). Mountain Laurel (Rhododendron maxi- mum). Purple Laurel (Rhododendron cataw- biense). Small Laurel (Rhododendron puncta- tum). Menziesia (Menziesia pilosa). Leather-leaf (Chamzedaphne calyculata). Mountain Myrtle (Dendrium prostratum). Blue-ridge Myrtle (Dendrium hugeri). Sheep Wicky (Kalmia angustifolia). Kalmia (Kalmia latifolia). Dog Hobble (Leucothoe catesbeei). Common Leucothoe (Leucothoe race- mosa). Buckley Leucothoe (Leucothoe recurya). Fetter-bush (Pieris floribunda). Stagger-bush (Xolisma ligustrina). Tangle-berry (Gaylussaccia frondosa). Northern High-bush Huckleberry (Gay- lussaccia resinosa). Dwarf Huckleberry (Gaylussaccia du- mosa). Buckberry (Gaylussaccia ursina). Box Huckleberry (Gaylussaccia brachy- cera). High-bush Huckleberry (Vaccinium vir- gatum). SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Common Blueberry (Vaccinium corym- bosum). Mountain Huckleberry (Vaccinium pal- lidum). Dwarf Blueberry (Vaccinium vaccilans). Black Huckleberry (Vaccinium atro- coccum). Pale Deerberry (Vaccinium glaucum). Deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum). Sparkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum). Hairy Huckleberry (Vaccinium _hir- sutum ). Cranberry (Oxycoccus macrocarpus). Bearberry (Oxycoccus erythrocarpus). Styrax (Styrax americana), 109 Common Elder (Sambucus canadensis). Red-berried Elder (Sambucus pubens). Pubescent Arrow-wood (Vilurnum alni- folium). Arrow-wood (Viburnum acerifolium). Swamp Arrow-wood (Viburnum molle). Hobble-bush (Viburnum lentago). Swamp Haw (Viburnum cassinoides). Swamp Haw (Viburnum nudum). Black Haw (Viburnum rufomentosum). Coral-berry (Symphoricarpos symphori- carpos) . Yellow Honeysuckle (Lonicera flava) . Mountain Honeysuckle (Lonicera glauca). Woodbine (Lonicera sempervirens) . LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, Washington, December 13, 1901. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a letter from the Director of the Geological Survey, submitting brief reports on the topogra- phy and geology of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, by Arthur eith, and on the hydrography of the same region, by H. A. Pressey and E. W. Myers, of the Geological Survey, for use in connection with your report on the forest conditions of the region. Very respectfully, E. A. Hirencocr, Secretary. The SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, UnitEep Sratres GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, Washington, D. C., December 12, 1901. Srr: I send herewith for submittal to the Secretary of Agriculture, short reports on the topography and geology of the Southern Appala- chian Mountains, by Arthur Keith, and on the hydrography of the pale region, by H. A. Pressey and E. W. Myers, of the Geological urvey. These special reports, embodying the results of investigations in this region, extending over several years, have been prepared at the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, and will accompany his re- port to Congress on the forest conditions in the Southern Appalachian region. The results of the investigations made in this region show that the destruction of the mountain forests now in progress there is being followed by a consequent erosion of the mountain slopes and valleys, an increasing irregularity in the flow of streams, and a silting up of the river channels across the lowlands of the bordering States, which if continued will seriously and permanently injure the industrial con- ditions over considerable portions of these States. Yours, respectfully, Cuas. D. Watcorr, Director. The SeEcRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. 110 X12 Sl DIN DID ~ 183. MONPOEMRAIS EL JINID Cav OIOE SS Ola SQOUMMSUII SIN AUeIevalbvelOlel bans), BY ARTHUR KHITE, United States Geological Survey. THE 111 TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS, By ArtHur Kerra. That portion of the Southern Appalachian Mountains in which it is proposed to make a national park lies mainly in North Carolina, but comprises also small portions of South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Virginia. The area, as a whole, covers about 12,000 square miles, large portions of which are specially adapted to the purposes of apark. This region can be reached within a day’s jour- ney from the large cities east of the Mississippi, a measure of accessibility possessed by no other similar district in the United States. It is also nearer the center of popula- tion than any other mountain district. THE MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS. Although this region contains many large rivers and im- portant valleys, it is preeminently a region of mountains. It includes the largest areas of land over 5,000 feet in height east of the Mississippi. In all, 46 peaks a mile or more apart and 41 miles of divide rise above 6,000 feet, while 288 peaks and 300 miles of divide are 5,000 feet or more in height. From the southeastern foot of this mass the Piedmont Plateau stretches southeastward with small interruptions, finally merging into the coastal plain which borders the Atlantic. Past its northwestern foot sweep the valleys of Tennessee and Virginia, with their included ridges and smaller mountains. The great mountain mass thus limited is composed of a number of large and many lesser chains, forming a belt over 300 miles long. Between the chains are extensive plateaus, which are themselves mountains when compared with the lower valleys that dis- sect them. The Blue Ridge forms the southeastern and the Unaka Mountains the northwestern front of the moun- *S. Doc. 84——8 Magnitude of the mountains. 113 114 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. tains. Seventy miles apart in North Carolina, they inclose many other extensive ranges between them. In Georgia they approach within 30 miles of each other, and in lower Virginia they coalesce. (Pl. LXV.) The southeastern portion of the mountainous area is the Blue Ridge, a sinuous divide which parts the waters of the Atlantic and the Mississippi. The Blue Ridge stands above 3,000 feet in height, except in a number of deep gaps and a short stretch at the head of Broad River. The northern part of the Blue Ridge consists of ancient pla- teaus, whose summits are broad and gently rolling and rise to similar heights for long distances. From place to place these vary between 3,100 and 3,800 feet. Less regularity prevails in the southern part of the chain, upon which are situated a few individual peaks and ridges of commanding height. Chief of these are Grandfather Mountain, 5,964 feet, Pinnacle, 5,693 feet, and Standing Indian, 5,562 feet. Four other points exceed 5,000 feet in height. South of the Little Tennessee Basin the Blue Ridge becomes exceedingly irregular, both in height and direction, and finally merges into the Piedmont Plateau. The one feature which distin- guishes the Blue Ridge from other Appalachian Mountains is its steep slope on the southeast. Thisis so extreme as to be, in places, precipitous, and it fronts the adjoining foothills and the Piedmont Plateau likea rampart. (Pls. LVIII, LEX.) wee aine’** Roughly parallel to the Blue Ridge and bordering the Great Valley of Tennessee and Virginia lie aseries of high mountains which have many features in common and arise from the same causes, although they have separate names. These begin at the southwest with the Unaka Mountains and are continued in the Great Smoky, the Bald, the Unaka, and the Iron mountains. This northwestern front of the mountain mass is termed, collectively, the ‘‘ Unaka Mountains,” a name which is also applied to two of its parts. In the Smoky Mountains several points are but a few feet less in altitude than Mount Mitchell—for instance, Mount Guyot, 6,636 feet, and Clingmans Dome, 6,619 feet. From this maximum in the Smokies the Unakas have progressively lower summits in all directions. Cut apart as the segments of the chain are by the rivers, no average elevations can be stated. South of Big Pigeon River most of the summits are above 5,000 feet. North of that river few exceed 5,000 feet, but many are over 4,000. In all, 125 of its summits rise above 5,000 feet, and 10 exceed 6,000 feet. The body of high land in the Smoky Mountains is the greatest in the Appalachians. Blue Ridge. Senate Doc. No. 84. Ptate LVIII. “0 "N ‘MOO DNIAAONE YVAN WOYS LSSM ONIMOOT ‘NIVLNNOW HYSHLVSGNVYD GNV NV3LW1d 39GIM 3nd SHL CPrLL ‘d 009) PLATE LIX. No, 84. Senate Doc. EASTERLY FRONT OF THE BLUE RIDGE IN VIRGINiA, SOUTH OF ROANOKE. The untry to the left is the Piedmont (See p. 114.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 115 X O eile | me 7 ] Transverse Connecting the Unaka Mountains with the Blue Ridge ,T7@™syerse are a series of more or less interrupted chains, most of which have a northwest direction. Chief of these are Tus- quitee, Cheoah, Nantahala, Cowee, Balsam, Pisgah, New Found, Black, Yellow, Roan, Beech, and Stone mountains. Supporting and extending these are scores of smaller peaks and ridges. Here and there on these separate chains are many high points comparable with or exceeding those of the Unaka Mountains—for instance, Roan Mountain, 6,313 feet; Richland Balsam, 6,540 feet, and Mount Mitchell, 6,712 feet, the highest point east of the Rockies. As a whole they are much higher than the Blue Ridge, although they exceed the Unakas but little. One hundred and fifty- six summits are over 5,000 feet, and 36 rise over 6,000 feet. The Balsam and Pisgah mountains are the highest of the transverse ranges and form a maximum correspond- ing to the Smoky Mountains. (PI. UX1.) Thus, although the Blue Ridge is the watershed of this area, the highest points, excepting Mount Mitchell, are situated in the Unaka Mountains, where are also located the largest bodies of high ground. Accordingly the rivers flow northwest from the Blue Ridge in deeper and deeper channels, until their gorges are overshadowed by the peaks of the Unakas, a mile in height above them. Certain types of surface prevail throughout the moun- tain district. The mountains rest upon a low base, which varies from 1,500 to 2,500 feet in elevation. The rise of 2,000-5,000 feet up to the summits is made between nar- row limits, so that the slopes are steep for the most part. Narrow valleys follow the rivers, in places from 2 to 5 miles in width, and with moderate eminences. From their borders rise the mountains, with slopes abruptly chang- ing 20 degrees or more. These have a marked similarity throughout the mountains, whether high or low. The summits are usually rounded, and cliffs only here and there mar the smoothness of the slopes. The general aspect of these mountains is one of flowing curves, and their gran- deur is impressed on the observer by their mass rather than by outline. THE RIVER SYSTEMS. Probably no region in the United States is better watered or better drained than this. Most of the water passes into the Mississippi. through Tennessee River and its tributa- ries. Chief of these are the Ocoee, Hiwassee, Little ranges. Surface forms Direction flow in rivers. of 116 Radial drain- age. Grades Tivers. in SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Tennessee, Tuckaseegee, Big Pigeon, French Broad, Noli- chucky, Watauga, and Holston rivers. These all flow from the Blue Ridge northwestward through the Unaka Mountains and separate that chain into portions which have received individual names. In the northeastern por- tion of this region the New River, a branch of the Ohio, rises and flows northeastward. Southeastward from the Blue Ridge a large number of rivers flow into the Atlantic. These are the Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, Saluda, and Cha- tooga rivers. In the northeastern corner of Georgia rises the Chattahoochee, flowing southwestward into the Gulf of Mexico. Thus this region distributes its waters in all directions and is practically the apex of the drainage of many thousand square miles. From the Blue Ridge near Blowing Rock the waters may run through Watauga River into the Tennessee, through New River into the Ohio, or through the Catawba and the Yadkin into the Atlantic. From the Blue Ridge near the head of Hiwassee River they may flow through Chatooga River into the Atlantic, through the Chattahoochee into the Gulf of Mexico, or through the Hiwassee into the Mississippi. Into these large rivers flow hundreds of lesser rivers and creeks, which cover the country with a most intricate network. They are fed by myriads of springs which run from year to year with unceasing flow. (Pls. LX, LXII, LXII1.) Starting southeastward from heights of 3,000 feet or more, the streams tumble rapidly from the Blue Ridge and reach the Piedmont Plateau at heights from 1,000 to 1,500 feet. Rivers running in the opposite direction emerge upon the Appalachian Valley at heights from 1,000 to 2,000 feet, the highest points being at the northeast. Few of these rivers flow as far as 100 miles in the moun- tains, so that this fall of 1,000 or 2,000 feet makes a very high average grade. The stretches of smooth water are seldom long, and the descent is mainly accomplished by countless rapids and minor falls. On the larger rivers few falls exceed 10 feet. Falls of 25 and 30 feet can be found here and there upon the smaller rivers, while in places the creeks and branches have direct plunges as great as 300 feet. That the scenery along the streams is picturesque scarcely needs to be said. From rapid to fall, and then a stretch of placid depth, the courses of the streams are pictures of kaleidoscopic variety. Come to them where you may, the charm is there, and fresh beauties are viewed at every bend. PLATE LX. Senate Doc, No. 84. THE NARROWS OF THE LITTLE TENNESSEE RIVER EMERGING FROM THE SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 18, 116, and Pl. Y.) ey ee PLate LXI. Senate Doc. No. 84, Mount Pisgah. BALSAM AND PISGAH MOUNTAINS FROM JUNALUSKA, NEAR WAYNESVILLE, N. C. (See pp. 51, 115.) Oa tenerlnnsien Oe Ser sy Senate Doc. No, 84 PLATE LXIl. (1) FRENCH BROAD RIVER, AT PAINT ROCK, N. C. (See p. 116.) (B) OCOEE RIVER, IN UNAKA MOUNTAINS, TENNESSEE. (See p. 116.) cS) ae, Se BAR A PLate LXIll. Senate Doc. No. 84. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. From season to season the rivers vary in flow. Their least volume is in the early fall, when they have been reduced by the droughts and heat of summer. Only the smallest branches are ever entirely dried, however, and the severest droughts fail to stop any considerable stream. The greatest volumes are attained in the spring, when the snows melt rapidly and the winter’s accumulation of water is leaving the soil. The freshets are not limited altogether to the spring, however; a cloud-burst, for example, may swell a lesser stream tenfold, or a hard rain of four or five days may flood even the largest river. In the upper courses of the streams, where the grades are highest, floods produce exceedingly swift currents, which are able to destroy obstructions and barriers which at ordinary stages would seem insurmountable. The rapid delivery of the waters from the stream heads make a sudden con- centration where the branches have united and the grades are less, causing deep water and overflow. Thus, four days of hard rain recently raised Catawba River 30 feet and overflowed miles of bottom lands. The power of the upper and steeper streams at such times is almost incred- ible; bowlders tons in weight become mere playthings. On the lower reaches in deeper waters and slackened cur- rents no fragments larger than cobblestones are moved, but wholesale changes in the shapes of the .bottom lands are often accomplished. The same steep grades which cause the rapid floods are equally effective when the rains have ceased, so that the waters subside about as quickly as they rise. Aside from these temporary changes in vol- ume the flow of the rivers is very steady, dependent as it is upon the discharge of countless springs and the seepage of waters from the soils. CLIMATIC FEATURES IN THE MOUNTAINS. The region covered by this mountain mass possesses a climate which differs greatly from that of the surrounding regions. This is manifest first in lower temperatures and is due directly to the greater altitudes. The peaks, of course, are colder than the intermountain valleys, and both are colder than the adjoining Great Valley or the Piedmont Plateau. The- differences in temperature are greater in summer than in winter, so that the climate of the higher portions is more equable than that- of the valleys. ile Volume of flow in rivers. Speed of flow. Temperature. 118 Rainfall. Forest cover. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. In addition to the cold which it directly produces, the altitude also affects the climate of this region very decid- edly through the precipitation. The prevailing winds of the region are southwesterly and are heavily laden with moisture derived from the Gulf of Mexico. As these winds rise over the mountain slopes they become colder and less able to retain moisture, which comes within the mountain’s grasp as rain or snow. The birth of shreds of eloud in the uprising wind and their union into masses that shroud the mountains can be seen on eyery hand. Through them come glimpses of peak and forest, in a soft- ness and beauty far beyond words. The direct effect of altitude in chilling the winds is assisted by the cooling effect of the almost universal forests. The forests in turn are fostered by the rainfall and humidity, and the two processes go hand in hand. In the winter much of the precipitation is in the form of snow. This is protected from melting by the forest cover and accumulates so as to mantle the ground for weeks, or eyen months. In this way a great store of moisture is retained and finds its way into the soil, to be absorbed in part by the forests when growth begins in the spring. Snow sometimes falls on the higher mountains by the first of October, and the last snow may remain until the middle of March. Between the temperature of the highest tops and that of the larger and lower valleys included in the mountain region there is a great difference. This is expressed in nature most prominently by the great variety of trees, shrubs, and plants. There is probably no region in the United States containing more species than this, whieh is appropriately termed the ‘‘ botanist’s paradise.” During May and June it becomes a vast flower garden of unrivaled rarity and beauty. Rhododendron and azalea bloom mile on mile, or a score of blossoms are trodden ata step. In autumn the purple haze and the blaze of color in the foliage form a panorama that can not be surpassed. The amount of the forest is quite as striking as its variety, and is one of the most impressive features of the mountains. Owing to the warmth and humidity of the atmosphere the individ- ual trees attain great size. White pines reach heights of 200 feet and poplars are 25 feetin girth. Thus, the exist- ence of the forest cover as a whole and of the individual species that are favored by colder climates is dependent upon the altitude, which cools the air and brings moisture to the surface of the earth. Its favorable situation with Senate Doc. No. 84. PLaTe LXIV. STEEP FOREST-COVERED SLOPE OF HAWKSBILL MOUNTAIN, SEEN ACROSS THE GORGE OF LINVILLE RIVER. (See p. 118 and Pls. XXIX, LXXII.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. regard to the moist, warm winds trom the Gulf combines with a general altitude unequaled east of the Mississippi to pro- duce a unique and remarkable vegetation. (Pl. LXIV.) THE GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. The geologic formations which underlie this mountain district may be divided into four large groups. Each dif- fers widely from the others in age, and has very distinct features of its own. These broad differences have ex- pressed themselves in such major topographic features as the Appalachian Valley, the Appalachian Mountains, and the Piedmont Plateau. These differences are also largely responsible for the principal variations in the character of the surface in the mountain district itself. The Appalachian Valley is underlain by a series of lime- stones, shales, and sandstones, mainly of late Cambrian and Silurian age, forming the youngest of the four groups in this region. Small outliers of these formations are in- cluded within the area of the mountains near the border of the Appalachian Valley. The second group occupies the northwestern border of the mountain district, chiefly northeast of the French Broad River. It consists of a series of quartzites, sand- stones, conglomerates, and shales of Lower Cambrian age. A second large area of these rocks occupies the Blue Ridge and adjacent territory, nearly in the center of this district. The third group is of Cambrian age. It occupies the northwest border of the mountain mass, corresponding in position to the previous group but best developed south- west of the French Broad River in the Smoky and Unaka mountains. The group consists of conglomerates, gray- wackes, sandstones, schists, and slates, and is called the Ocoee group. This and the preceding two groups were composed of the waste from older rocks, which was de- posited under water. The thickness of the strata is ap- proximately the same in the Ocoee group and the formations of the Appalachian Valley. The Lower Cambrian quartz- ites and shales of the second group have only from one- fourth to one-third of the thickness of either of the preceding groups. The fourth group is much the largest of all, both in actual bulk and area. It consists in the main of formations of 119 Limestone group. Quartzite group. Conglomerate group. Gneiss group. 120 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. the Archean, or oldest known age. The different rocks include several kinds of granite, diorite, mica-gneiss, hornblende-gneiss, and various schists. A large number of these are of igneous origin, but the original nature of many of the gneisses and schists is unknown. Formations also included in this group are the ancient volcanic rocks. These are developed most prominently in connection with the Cambrian quartzites in the northeastern part of the mountain district. RELATION OF ROCKS TO SURFACE. rocks, °" “ Much of the surface of the Appalachian Mountains is exceedingly ancient. During the later geologic periods it has been subjected to the various natural agencies of destruction and has been worn down according as the rocks presented at the surface were susceptible to these influences. The materials composing these formations are attacked in varying degrees by solution and by chem- ical processes connected with atmospheric and under- ground water. Certain minerals—for instance, carbonate of lime—are readily dissolved by natural waters, and the rock in wasting away leaves behind only the less soluble portions in forms of clay. To this capability is directly due the reduction of the Great Valley below the mountain mass. Other minerals—for instance, feldspar—are in part dissolved and in part chemically altered and decomposed by natural waters, so that the coherence of the rock which contains them is largely destroyed. Two groups in this region have a large proportion of feldspar in their makeup, and their surfaces have been gradually lowered by its breaking down. These are the Ocoee group and the Archean group.