THE MICRO ANALYSIS OF POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS SCHNEIDER BY THE SAME AUTHOR Pharmaceutical Bacteriology. Second Revised Edition. 97 Illustrations. Octavo, x + 441 pages. Cloth, $4.00. Bacteriological Methods in Food and Drug Lab- oratories. 93 Illustrations. Octavo. 291 pages. Cloth, $3.00. The Microbiology and Microanalysis of Foods. 131 Illustrations. Octavo. Cloth, $3.50. P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO. PHILADELPHIA THE MICROANALYSIS OF Powdered Vegetable Drugs BY ALBERT SCHNEIDER, M.D., PH.D. 1 (Columbia University) PROFESSOR OF PHARMACOGNOSY IN THE COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, AND PROFESSOR OF PHARMACOLOGY IN THE COLLEGE OF MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN SECOND EDITION WITH 237 ILLUSTRATIONS PHILADELPHIA P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO. 1012 WALNUT STREET COPYRIGHT, 1921, BY P. BLAKISTON'S SON & Co. TJIK MAFLE FKESS Y O H K PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The first edition has been exhausted for some time, but a series of circumstances, in part incident upon the World War, made it im- possible to prepare the second edition at any earlier period. The book has been almost entirely rewritten and includes much new subject- matter. The drawings used with the first edition have been gone over carefully, making desirable changes and additions. Many new illus- trations have been added. The drug descriptions have been largely rewritten, making them more complete. There is now included a statement of the ash content and the more common adulterants of each drug. The keys to the identification of the simple vegetable powders have been carefully revised and many additions made thereto. Keys to the identification of the compound powders of the United States Pharmacopoeia (U. S. P.) IX and the National Formulary (N. F.) IV, have been added, also a chapter on quantitative micro- scopic determinations. The book is believed to be complete and up to date. It is intended to serve three distinctive though closely correlated purposes, as follows: 1. As a laboratory guide and text-book for students of pharmacog- nosy in all colleges of pharmacy. 2. As a companion book to that part of the U. S. P. dealing with the microscopic descriptions of vegetable drugs. 3. As a practical reference manual for the practising pharmacist, in determining the quality and purity of the vegetable drugs used by him. A. S. LINCOLN, NEBRASKA. December, 1920. 47-ioi 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS PAGE CHAPTER I. — THE MICROSCOPE IN MODERN PHARMACY 1 CHAPTER II. — GENERAL SUGGESTIONS ON THE EXAMINATION OF VEGETABLE POWDERS 10 1. Description of Colors and Color Standards 10 2. Tactile Sensations 11 3. Odor and Odor Standards 12 4. Taste and Standards of Taste 20 CHAPTER III. — THE QUALITY AND PURITY OF VEGETABLE DRUGS FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE PURE DRUGS ACT 27 1. The Pure Drug Laws 27 2. U. S. P. Standards and Definitions of Standards 40 CHAPTER IV. — CAUSES MODIFYING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF VEGETABLE POWDERS 45 1. Normal Variations 45 2. Parasites 46 CHAPTER V. — POWDERING VEGETABLE DRUGS 53 CHAPTER VI. — ADULTERATION OR SOPHISTICATION OF VEGETABLE DRUGS . 60 1. Adulteration as to Intent 61 (a) Unintentional or Accidental Adulteration 61 (b) Intentional or Criminal Adulteration 62 2. Manner of Adulteration 63 3. Substances Employed in Adulteration 64 4. The Detection of Adulterations 69 CHAPTER VII. — THE MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 70 1. Equipment and Methods 70 2. Tissue Terminology and Identification of Tissues 78 3. Occurrence and Distribution of Tissue Elements in Plant Organs ... 83 (a) Leaves 83 (b) Flowers "... 86 (c) Fruits and Seeds 87 (d) Barks 89 (e) Roots and Rhizomes 90 (/) Stems - 92 (0) Woods 93 (h) Other Plant Parts 93 4. Tabulation of Tissues and Tissue Elements 93 5. Illustrations, with Descriptions, of Plant Tissues 101 vii Vlil TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER VIII. — KEYS TO THE STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OP SIMPLE POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 115 1. Key Based Upon the Organoleptic Tests. Macroanalytical Key. . . 115 2. Key Based Upon Microscopic Structure. Microanalytical Key. . . 123 CHAPTER IX. — KEYS TO THE STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE U. S. P. AND N. F. COMPOUND POWDERS 132 1. Key Based Upon the Organoleptic Tests . 133 2. Key Based Upon Microscopic Characteristics .134 CHAPTER X. — MICROANALYTICAL STUDY OF CRYSTALS 136 CHAPTER XI. — QUANTITATIVE MICROSCOPIC DETERMINATIONS . . . . . .141 PART II DRUGS DESCRIBED AND FIGURED FlGUBE 1. Absinthium 1 2. Acacia 2 3. Achillea 3 4. Aconitum, Leaf 4 5. Aconitum, Root 5 and 6 6. Agar 7 7. Aloes 8 8. Althaea 9 9. Amygdala 10 10. Amylum , Rye starch 11 Wheat Starch 12 Corroded Wheat Starch 13 Barley Starch 14 Corn Starch 15 Sorghum Seed Starch 16 Oat Starch 17 Rice Starch 18 Bean Starch ; 19 Bean Starch (Polarized). v. .... 20 Pea Starch 21 Lentil Starch 22 Potato Starch 23 Potato Starch (Polarized) 24 Camra Starch 25 Banana Starch 26 ] Banana Starch (Polarized) 27 Queensland Arrowroot 28 Queensland Starch (Polarized) 29 Yam Starch 30 Sago Starch 31 Sago Starch (Polarized) 32 11. Angustura TABLE OF CONTENTS IX FlGUBE 12. Anisum 33 13. Anthemis 14. Apocynum cannabinmn 34 15. Apocynum androsaemifolium 35 16. Areca nut 36 17. Armoracia 18. Arnica Flowers 37 19. Arnica Roots 38 20. Asaf oetida 39 21. Asarum 40 22. Asclepias 41 23. Aspidium 42 24. Aspidosperma 43 25. Aurantium 44 26. Belladonna Leaves 45 27. Belladonna Roots 46 28. Benzoin 47 29. Berberis 48 30. Bryonia 49 31. Buchu 50 32. Caffea • 51 33. Calamus , 52 34. Calendula 53 35. Calumba 54 36. Cambogia 55 37. Canella 56 38. Cannabis 57 39. Cantharis 58 40. Capsicum 59 41. Carbo animalis 42. Carbo ligni 43. Cardamom 44. Carum 45. Carthamus 46. Caryophyllus 60 47. Cascara sagrada 61 48. CascariUa 62 49. Castanea 63 50. Caulophyllum 64 51. Cetraria 52. Chamselirium 65 53. Chelidonium 54. Chenopodium 55. Chicle 66 56. Chimaphila 67 57. Chirata 68 58. Chondrus 69 59. Cichorium 70 60. Cimicifuga 71 61. Cinchona.. 72 X TABLE OF CONTENTS FIGURE 62. Cinnamomum, Cassia 73 63. Cinnamomum, Ceylon 74 64. Cinnamomum, Saigon 75 65. Coca 76 66. Cocculus 67. Colchicum Corm 77 68- Colchicum Seed. 78 69. Colocynth 79 70. Conium 80 71. Convallaria 81 72. Coriander 73. Cornus 82 74. Goto 83 75. Crocus 84 76. Cubeba 85 77. Curcuma 86 78. Cusso * 87 79. Cypripedium 88 80. Dephinium 81. Dextrin 82. Digitalis 89 83. Dulcamara 90 84. Ergota 85. Eriodictyon 91 86. Eucalyptus 92 87. Euonymus 93 and 94 88. Eupatorium 95 89. Foaniculum 96 90. Foenum Graecum /. 97 91. Frangula 98 92. Galla, Aleppo 99 93. Galla, Chinese 100 94. Gambir 101 95. Gaultheria 96. Gelsemium 102 97. Gentian 103 98. Geranium 104 99. Glycyrrhiza 105 100. Gossypium 106 101. Granatum, Stem bark 107 102. Granatum, Root bark 103. Grindelia 108 104. Guaiacum 105. Guarana 109 106. Hsematoxylon 107. Hamamelis 110 108. Hedeoma 109. Helleborus 110. Humulus Ill 111. Hydrangea 112 TABLE OF CONTENTS XI FIGURE 112. Hydrastis 113 113. Hyoscyamus Leaf 114 114. Hyoscyamus Seed 115 115. Ignatia 116 116. Illicium 117 117. Inula 118 118. Ipecac 119 119. Iris Florentina 120 120. Iris versicolor 121 121. Jalapa 122 122. Juglans 123 123. Kamala 124 124. Krameria, Peruvian 125 125. Krameria, Savanilla 126 126. Lappa 127 127. Leptandra 128 128. Linum 129. Lobelia 129 130. Lupulin , Ilia 131. Lycopodium 130 132. Mace, true and false 131 and 132 133. Manna „ - 133 134. Matico 134 135. Matricaria 136. Mel 135 137. Menispermum 136 138. Mentha piperita 137 139. Mentha viridis 140. Methysticum 138 141. Mezereum 139 142. Myrica 140 143. Myristica 141 144. Nux vomica 142 145. Opium 143 146. Paracoto 144 147. Pareira 145 148. Physostigma 146 149. Phytolacca Fruit 147 150. Phytolacca Root 148 151. Pilocarpus 149 152 Pimenta 150 153. Piper, black 151 154. Piper, white 151 155. Podophyllum 152 156. Populus. 153 157. Prinos 154 158. Prunus serotina 155 and 156 159. PulsatiUa 160. Pyrethrum Flowers 157 161. Pyrethrum Roots. . 158 Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS FIGURE 162. Quassia 159 163. Quercus 164. Quillaja 160 165. Rheum 161 166. Rhus glabra Bark 162 167. Rhus glabra Fruit 163 168. Rosagallica 169. Rubus 164 170. Rumex. 165 171. Sabadilla 166 172. Sabina 167 173. Salix . . . . 168 174. Sambucus 175. Sanguinaria 169 176. Santonica 177. Sarsaparilla 170 178. Sassafras 171 179. Scilla 180. Scoparius 172 181. Scopola 173 182. Scutellaria 174 183. Senega 175 184. Senna 176 185. Serpentaria 177 186. Sinapis alba. . . 178 187. Sinapis nigra 179 188. Spigelia 180 and 181 189. Staphisagria 182 190. Stillingia 183 191. Stramonium Leaf 184 192. Stramonium Seed 193. Strophantus 185 194. Sumbul 186 195. Tabacum 187 196. Taraxacum 188 197. Thea 189 198. Theobroma 190 199. Tragacanth 191 200. Turnera 192 201. Ulmus 193 202. Uva Ursi 194 203. Valerian 195 204. Vanilla 196 205. Veratrum 197 206. Viburnum opulus 198 207. Viburnum prunifolium 199 208. Wintera 200 209. Xanthoxylum 201 210. Zingiber 202 PART I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER 1 THE MICROSCOPE IN MODERN PHARMACY The Federal Pure Food and Drugs Act went into effect June 30, 1906. The act is enforced by the Bureau of Chemistry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The Bureau has adopted the U. S. P. (United States Pharmacopoeia) and the N. F. (National Formulary) as the legal standards of the quality and purity of drugs. The U. S. P. IX contains the microscopic descriptions of the crude as well as of the powdered vegetable drugs and no pharmacist can use the legal drug standard intelligently unless he has had a thorough course in drug microanalysis in a well equipped laboratory. The language and terminology descriptive of the drugs and reme- dial agents mentioned in the U. S. P. and the N. F., constitute the "purity rubric." It soon developed that the legal descriptions and definitions were defective in many ways, as will be more fully set forth in Chapter III of Part I. Controversies have arisen as to the interpretations to be put upon some of the drug descriptions and as to what constitutes wholly negligible and unimportant accidental additions and admixtures. The introduction into the U. S. P. of the microscopic descriptions of vegetables has had the effect of greatly increasing the legal value of the drug descriptions. A very brief introduction into the history of the use of the compound microscope in pharmaceutical practice is not out of place. The progress in histological investigation, animal as well as vegeta- ble, has kept pace with the progress in the manufacture of lenses for simple and compound microscopes. In other words, histology had its birth with the discovery of the microscope and has become perfected in direct ratio with the improvements in the artificial aids to vision. The microscope in its earliest and simplest form consisted of a convex lens of some transparent substance. Magnifying lenses were known long before the discovery of glass. The wise Seneca (first century), who was apparently well versed in the properties of lenses, states that the ancients noticed that writing viewed through glass 1 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS globes filled with water appeared magnified, but this phenomenon was attributed to the water, which leads to the conclusion that glass lenses were unknown even after glass was in use. The first simple microscope of which there is any authentic record was made about 1300. and was known as vitrum pulicarium (flea glass). It consisted of a short cylindrical tube, at the upper end of which the lens was placed. The lower end carried two pieces of glass, just in focus, between which the object was held. The object to be inspected or marveled at was usually a flea, hence the name. The so-called x v "seed microscope" was similarly constructed. The sides of the tube were open for the admis- sion of light and the two glass plates at the lower end contained small seeds. These first simple microscopes were mere toys and no scien- tific use was made of them. It was not until about the year 1650 that scientists began to make use of the simple micro- scope. Their possible value in scientific investiga- tions being recognized, special efforts were made to increase the magnifying power of the instruments as well as their definition. Pere della Torre, of Naples (1776), andLebaillif made excellent glass globules with very high mag- nifying power. Ch. Chevalier in his treatise on FIG. 1. — Leeuwen- the microscope describes the conditions and re- hoek's simple micro- quirements for making good magnifying globules, scope (1670). He stated that the globules must have a perfectly a, lens; 6, adjust- spherical form, that the glass must be pure and ntirely free fr°m alr bubbles- The Dutch scientist, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, used highly perfected lenses with mechanical conveniences for focus- sing the object under examination. In 1677 he discovered a large number of fresh water animalculae as rotifers, vorticellae, etc. In 1673 he discovered the red blood corpuscles, which, he said, measured Ko40 of an inch. The diameter, as determined by the most perfect modern instruments, is ;Hj200°f an inch; the difference being due to the spherical aberration of these early magnifiers — a source of error then not fully understood. Stellati, the Italian scientist, employed excellent lenses in his study of the anatomy of the bee (1685). In 1740 Wilson improved the effectiveness and convenience of the simple microscope by supplying a stationary stand with foot and an adjustable mirror for illuminating by transmitted light. THE MICROSCOPE IN MODERN PHARMACY About the year 1800 the number of forms of simple microscopes was multitudinous. Spherical and chromatic aberrations were in a large measure corrected by employing combinations of lenses, as in modern simple microscopes. Cuff made a simple microscope which was capable of being converted into a compound microscope. The First Compound Microscope was made in 1590 by Z. Janssen, a spectacle maker of Middleburg, Holland. The exact construction of this instrument is apparently not known. It is said to have been an imposing affair, consisting of a copper tube, 6 feet long, with three lenses mounted upon brass dolphins. Janssen made several instru- ments, one of which is still preserved at Middleburg and of which Fig. 3 is a diagram. These micro- scopes were of no practical value, be- cause the image was greatly distorted and discolored. They were looked upon as curiosities rather than instru- ments of scientific precision. Even as late as 1821 such eminent authorities as M. Biot, of France, and Dr. Wollaston, of England, declared that "the compound microscope will never excel the simple one." According to Van Heurck, the oldest compound microscope of which there is any figure is that of R. Hooke (1665). It is evident that the size of the microscopes was greatly reduced FIG. 2. — Wilson's simple microscope about this time, the tube in the Hooke (1740). instrument being only about 18 centi- a> lens; &> glass discs f°r holding: metres (7 inches) in length; there were, obJects' c> adjustable mirror; d, foot , ,. , i T . , . . , i or base ; e, stand, however, four tubes sliding into each other capable of being drawn out to increase magnification. The field lens (middle lens) was removable. Illumination was vertical by means of a lamp, spherical and bull's-eye condensers. In spite of its complex mechanism it was far from being a satisfactory instrument. Grindelin (1687) made a compound microscope which showed considerable improvement. Chromatic and spherical aberration were in part corrected by the use of combinations of lenses. The field lenses were more generally used. While the arrangement of lenses in this instrument indicates considerable progress, the mechanical parts were defective. There were neither condensers nor adjustable mirror. Cuff's microscope, which was patented in 1714, was provided with a POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS movable stage capable of receiving various attachments, a mirror capable of being set in any direction, and a bull's-eye condenser. Dellabarre's microscope was, doubtless, superior to the preceding and more complete in its construction. The ocular was composed of six lenses, the objective of three lenses, a plano-concave adjustable mirror and a substage condenser. Dellabarre claimed achroma- tism for his microscopes, but that was, perhaps, only partially true. Later he reduced the number of lenses employed. Fig. 5 shows the mechanical parts, excepting the foot or base. A point worthy of note is that as the simple and compound micro- scopes increased in scientific value plainness of construction superceded the evidences of decora- tive fancies. Scrolls, conventional designs, etc., were omitted, and the mechanical construction was more effectually suited to the optical require- ments. During the last half of the eighteenth century some very ornamental instruments were made, of which Martin's Y 1780) compound micro- scope was a good example; but in spite of their highly artistic finish they were, as a rule, very de- fective optically. The highest magnification of the simple micro- scope possible with a maximum correction of spherical and chromatic aberration was not suffi- cient to enable scientists to carry on efficient histological investigations. Most of the com- pound microscopes in use up to 1800 or perhaps 1825, were in reality inferior to many of the simple microscopes. It is true they gave a higher ampli- fication, but this apparent gain was more than a ocular tube; b, neutralized by the increase in distortion and a de- ocular lens; c, outer , ... tube;d, diaphragm; e, crease m clearness of image due to chromatic and middle'slidingtube;/! spherical aberration. objective lens; Blower Good compound microscopes have been in use sliding tube; h, dia- for nearly seventy-five years, but they have not ragm; i, eye dia- been extensively employed by students of phar- macy for more than about thirty years. The reason why they were not used earlier is, doubtless, to be found in the fact that pharmacy as an independent science is of comparatively recent origin. In the United States it is only within a few years that FIG. 3. — Janssen's compound microscope (1590). ocular THE MICROSCOPE IN MODERN PHARMACY the courses of instruction in colleges of pharmacy have been based upon scientific principles, especially in the department of botany, with its various subdivisions, as vegetable materia medica, vegetable pharmacography and powdered vegetable drugs. In the United States, Dr. Frederick Hoffmann was, perhaps, among the very first to advocate the use of the compound microscope in the examination of vegetable drugs and their adulterants.1 Other authorities have risen sporadically to recommend the use of this in- strument. The important American work in the study of vegetable FIG. 4. — Hooke's compound microscope (1665). A, diaphragm of tube, showing eye-lens at a and objective lens at b; B, body or tube of instrument; c, spherical condenser; d, bull's-eye condenser; e, lamp;/, stage. drugs did not, however begin until many years after the work was begun in Germany and France. Berg's excellent Atlas illustrating the histology of drugs was published in 1865, and even at the present time no English or American author has produced anything equal to it in importance. Dr. Edson Bastin was among the first Americans to place pharma- ceutical botany upon a more scientific basis, and he did much in a quiet way to encourage work in the histological study of vegetable drugs. He was a very thorough and conscientious worker. 1 "American Journal of Pharmacy,'1 25; 45, 1853. 6 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS Since 1880 a number of American investigators, have been doing energetic work in the critical study of vegetable drugs. Of these we will mention only a few. Sayre and Dohme have made investigations on the histology of vegetable drugs, and the results have been pub- lished in the " Druggists' Circular" and the "American Journal of Pharmacy" and other publications. Most of the papers are accom- panied by illustrations from pen and ink draw- ings, which are as a rule poor and not in full harmony with the merits of the work done. There are a number of investigators who have done very excellent occasional work in the study of vegetable drugs. Of these we may mention Schlotterbeck, van Zwaluwenberg, -Denniston, Grace Cooley, Nelson, Breithaupt, and others. Within recent years several American in- vestigators have devoted special attention to the histological characteristics of powdered ^ n vegetable drugs and their adulterants. In speaking of the American work on the histology of crude and powdered drugs we must not forget the influence exerted by Re- search Committee "C" of the Committee of Revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia, of which Dr. H. H. Rusby, of New York, was the chairman. This committee selected a num- ber of investigators and gave them some finan- cial support in the investigation of specially as- FIG. 5 — Dellabarre's ^S116^ histological studies of vegetable drugs, compound microscope Much of the best work of recent years has been (1778). done under the auspices of this committee. a, body or tube; b, It has accomplished some very important re- stage, adjustable; c, sub- suits with reference to the special histology of stage condenser; d, dmgg and the detection of adulterants, and also has proven a very important educational factor. Let us consider very briefly the general results which have followed the use of the microscope in pharmacy. First of all it has caused a very marked reduction in the adulteration of vegetable drugs, of powdered drugs in particular. A properly trained and equipped mod- ern pharmacist can readily detect the sophistication of powdered drugs, of ground spices and of crude drugs. Sophisticators have gradually base or tripod. THE MICROSCOPE IN MODERN PHARMACY been forced to admit this fact, and, as a result, they have in many instances ceased their nefarious business, and in other instances they have met the trained scientist with almost equal shrewdness. The customary procedure of the former unscrupulous collectors, dealers, etc., was to adulterate crude drugs and powdered drugs with substances which were common, easily obtained, and which did not materially 1 — - *l 1 / -UOfiY IU6B- 4 i i __^fc OBJECTIVES 1: .1, i^S SHORT SLIDE ---- . ---- , STASE ------- ADJUSTABLE SPRING FINGER. CONDENSED MOUNTING OK DROP •Swmc LOWER IRIS DIAPHRASM- FOR STACE CENTERING SCREWS MIRROR. MHHMM MIRROR BAR HORSESHOE BASE FIG. 6. — A modern compound microscope. modify the gross characters of the drug. These substances were often added in large quantities and yet may have borne no histological resemblance to the drug itself. All kinds of vegetable tissues, starch and flour in particular, were used, also sand and clay, often colored artifically so as not to modify the normal color of the drug. History records the preparation of wooden nutmegs, clay coffee beans, cloves of pressed starch, etc. The wise modern sophisticator discards such 8 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS crude methods; he rejects the once popular use of starches, corn meal flour and wheat flour because these substances are very readily de- tected microscopically. If any of the starchy substances are employed, rice starch is chosen, because the granules are small and are not readily distinguished from the smaller granules of the drug itself. He is also careful not to add starch to a powdered drug which is normally free from starch. If a vegetable substance is added, tissues and organs of plants closely related to the drug are chosen, because they usually have similar histological characters and would, therefore, not be recog- nized so readily. Sand is frequently added to such powdered drugs as normally contain a little sand, as barks, leaves, roots and rhizomes. The use of the microscope in pharmacy has greatly developed the more exact knowledge of the histology of plants. Minutiae of histological structure are now recognized which escaped the notice of earlier investigators. Our knowledge of cell contents and their distribution in the different tissues and plant organs has become much more accurate. The student of pharmacy should have a thorough knowledge of vegetable physiology, gross morphology and histology in order that he may recognize the normal histological characters of plants used in medicine. This, coupled with a fairly good knowledge of microscopy, micro-technique and the use of micro-chemical reagents will make it possible for the practicing pharmacist to recognize the adulteration of crude drugs and powdered drugs. The following are a few of the classic German and French works treating of the microscopy of vegetable drugs. Berg,"Anatomischer Atlas," 1865. This book contains excellent full-page illustrations of the histology of the more important vegetable drugs of the German Pharmacopoeia. Considering the date of its production it is a remarkable work. Collin, " Guide pratique pour la determination des poudres officinales." 1893. An excellent little work illustrating the histological characteristics of the powdered vegetable drugs of the French Pharmacopoeia. The drawings are somewhat crude but quite accurate. Moeller," Anatomischer Atlas," 1892. A large royal octavo volume with full-page illustrations of the histological characteristics of the more important powdered vegetable drugs of the German Pharmacopoeia. Planchon et Collin, "Traite des drogues simples d'origine vegetales" (2 vols.), 1896. Two large octavo volumes treating of the histology and commerce of vegetable drugs and related plants. The most complete work of its kind and profusely illustrated. Tschirch und Oesterle, " Anatomischer Atlas der Pharmakognosie und Nahr- ungsmittelkunde." 1893. This work treats of the complete histology of vegetable drugs and related THE MICROSCOPE IN MODERN PHARMACY 9 substances. The illustrations are excellent and the subjects are comprehensively treated. Vogl, "Pharmakognosie," 1892. This work describes the histology of the vegetable drugs used in Austria. The histological descriptions are very accurate and complete. Only a comparatively small number of the drugs are illustrated. Of the American text books on vegetable pharmacognosy only a few deserve mention. Of the earlier American writers of texts on pharmacognosy that of Maisch contains illustrations of the histology of many of the vegetable drugs, but they are mostly diagrams of low magnification (2 to 15 diameters) and, hence, of little value in the study of tissue elements. This author also introduced micro-photographic reproductions of sections of vegetable- drugs, but these proved a total failure. Several recent American text-books touch on the microscopical characteristics of vegetable drugs, notably that by Sayre, and also the one by Wall. Prof. W. Mansfield of New York has done good work in the microscopical study of vegetable drugs. Dr. Kraemer of the University of Michigan has perhaps done more along this line than any other investigator. It was largely through his untiring efforts that the microscopical descriptions of vegetable drugs were introduced into the U. S., P. IX. CHAPTER II GENERAL SUGGESTIONS ON THE EXAMINATION OF VEGETABLE POWDERS I. DESCRIPTION OF COLORS AND COLOR STANDARDS The subject of the color of powdered drugs, as we'll as of other substances, is rather confused for several reasons. First, because there are no reliable standards of color, and second, because of the variable naming of colors. The artificial color standards used by teachers of the primary grades, artists, cloth manufacturers, furniture and house painters, etc., are very far from being accurate or uniform. No matter from what material the color scale is made, or how carefully it is prepared, it is subject to variation in intensity and quality. It is practically impossible to print color scales which are uniform through- out and which will not fade. It has been suggested that certain sub- stances having well recognized and comparatively permanent colors be used as standards of comparison, as the chocolate brown of choco- late, the brown of cassia cinnamon and the yellow of a standard solu- tion of Spanish saffron. Colors are simply the recognizable and distinguishable tints and shades of the primary colors red, green and blue, and the recognizable and distinguishable admixtures of these primary colors. Thus red and yellow makes orange; yellow and blue makes green; blue and red makes purple; etc. It would be possible to prepare a natural scale of colors by projecting the prismatic colors of direct sunlight upon a uniform screen. It would be necessary to adopt prisms of standard size and made of a uniform quality of glass. Any desired tint or shade could be produced by interposing varying thicknesses of milk glass and of smoked glass. By means of suitable and properly placed screens and shutters, com- parisons could be made with any one of the primary colors, or any combination of the primary colors or their admixtures. Perhaps the greatest obstacle to the recognition and comparison of colors is the confused naming of colors, or rather the use of terms which can only be comprehended by those who are familiar with the colors referred to. For instance such names as purple, royal purple, scarlet, indigo, violet, crimson, magenta, ecru, mauve, cerise, heliotrope, 10 EXAMINATION OF VEGETABLE POWPERS 11 lavender, marine blue, terra cotta, Pompeian red, canary red, Chinese yellow, etc., are devoid of meaning to the uninitiated. Form and texture greatly modify the color. This is true of drugs as well as of other substances. The same color on a rough and a smooth surface will present a markedly different tone, the rough sur- face producing a shade effect, hence the color will appear darker. In the case of powdered drugs it will be noticed that fineness greatly modifies the color, the finer powders producing tint effects as a rule. In some instances a difference in fineness may even modify the quality of the color entirely (licorice root). We need scarcely urge the necessity of good illumination in the inspection of powders. The color of the powder should be carefully compared with the description given in some standard text-book. In nearly every instance the student will find some slight deviations in the color and consistency observed as compared with that given in the book. An effort should be made to account for these differences. The student should make careful drawings of the microscopic structure of the powder. The value of this cannot be overestimated. In order to make a correct drawing it is absolutely necessary to study the powder carefully; furthermore, the act of making the drawing, as well as the visualization of the drawing itself, will impress the structural characters more firmly upon the mind. II. TACTILE SENSATIONS The sense of touch is the oldest of the senses in the order of evolu- tion, and the other sense, as taste, smell, sight and hearing, are but modifications or specializations of this primary sense. Touch, as it applies to the examination of drugs, is a tactile sensation appreciated by the hand and fingers, the tongue and mouth, rarely also the larynx. The touch of fingers and hands conveys to the mind conceptions of coarseness or fineness, fatty, oily or unctuous condition, crispness, of moisture, dryness, mucilaginous condition, tendency to lumpiness. etc. In many instances the sense of touch is merely an aid to the sense of sight — that is, touch verifies or assists the visual judgment. The tactile sense of the fingers may be greatly increased in delicacy by education and practice and by proper care. The most sensitive parts of the fingers are the tips; this sensitiveness is greatly enhanced by cleanliness of hands and nails. The nails should be carefully and evenly trimmed, but never very short, as that reduces sensitiveness. The clean, trimmed, free portion of the nail amplifies or magnifies the tactile sense by pressing upon the opposing delicate dermis when 12 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS the finger is brought in contact with an object. Cold reduces sensi- tiveness very rapidly; washing in warm water restores the normal activity promptly. Moisture greatly modifies the consistency or feel of powders. For instance, a powder which appears quite crisp or brittle when dry may become quite soft and somewhat fibrous in moist weather, indicating the presence of bast or perhaps elongated parenchyma cells (many barks) . Tactile sensations usually designated as tastes and odors will be explained later. We would advise students to depend largely upon the tactile sense of the hand and fingers, though lips, tongue and mouth are more sensitive. Frequent and promiscuous tasting and chewing of drugs is pernicious for several reasons. III. ODOR AND ODOR STANDARDS The olfactory apparatus is undoubtedly the least reliable of all the sense organs. There is no standard of odors, nor do we have any means of measuring odors. A number of individuals may smell the same odor, but they have no means of comparing either the quality or the quantity of the odor. This being the case, it naturally follows that there is no reliable odor nomenclature. Odors are variously clas- sified as agreeable or pleasant, indifferent, strong, faint, fragrant, aromatic, heavy, acid, pungent, sweet, etc., words which are variable in interpretation and in application. An odor is said to be strong or faint according to individual judgment. An odor may be " overpower- ing" to one person, while another will pronounce it moderately strong. A substance capable of stimulating the olfactory apparatus to functional activity must be in a gaseous state. The odoriferous gas or vapor must enter the anterior nares in a large and continuous cur- rent. If the nostrils are held shut, though the passages are filled with the odoriferous gas, no odor can be detected. Filling the nostrils with liquids holding odoriferous gases in solution will not produce any effect upon the olfactory nerves. It is also interesting to note that odors entering the nostrils by way of the posterior nares cannot be smelled. The olfactory nerves become fatigued very quickly, as is evi- denced by the readiness with which one becomes " accustomed" to an odor. Tenants of ill-ventilated rooms, in which the stench is often overpowering, do not complain of any bad odor. Those ad- dicted to the use of tobacco are unconscious of the strong odor which not only permeates the entire clothing, but also the entire system of EXAMINATION OF VEGETABLE POWDERS 13 the users of tobacco and the atmosphere about them. Consumers of alcoholic drinks are not aware of their alcoholic breath. Those who eat onions and garlic are not conscious of the sulphurous odor which is so annoying to others. Those affected with ozcena or bad breath, due to nasal catarrh, a disordered stomach or bad teeth, are not con- scious of the odor. The condition of the olfactory organs greatly modifies the apprecia- tion of odors. If the nasal passages are more or less occluded through catarrhal inflammations, pathological growths as polypoids, etc., the sense of smell may be very much reduced or practically zero. Those affected with chronic nasal catarrh have a weak and otherwise abnormal sense of smell. The sense of smell in different persons differs, not only by inheritance, but also by education. Savage races and many of the higher herbivora and carnivora have an exceedingly acute sense of smell for certain odors, while for other odors this sense is quite dull. Man is capable of educating this sense to a very high degree, as in " wine-tasters," and tea examiners, who are capable of detecting differences in aroma which wholly escape the inexperienced. In order that the sense of smell may be fairly delicate, the nasal passages should be unobstructed, the nasal membrane entirely free from inflammation and other abnormal conditions. The membrane should be quite moist with the natural secretion of the mucus cells, rather than comparatively dry. The nasal passages are also well supplied with nerve endings of common sensation, which will explain why many tactile sensations are mistaken for odors, as, for example, the so-called pungent odors. In contradistinction to the other senses, electrical, thermal and mechanical stimuli do not cause sensations of odor. The intensity of the odor is directly proportional to the concentra- tion and volume of the odoriferous gas and the rate with which it passes through the nostrils. The olfactory apparatus is extremely sensitive when in a perfectly normal state. According to some authori- ties, the odor of mercaptan is still quite marked when diluted 300,000,- 000 times, and becomes inappreciable only when diluted 500,000,000 times. The odor of chlorphenol is still noticeable when diluted 1,000,000,000 times. Certain drugs and chemicals will modify the sense of smell. Anodynes and soporifics will reduce it in activity while strychnin and some other substances will increase its activity, As regards the estimates of the quality of odors, there is even r,/ U Fig. 8. ALOES. The characteristic crystals as seen in alcohol mounts, a, Cape aloes; 6, Barbadoes aloes; c, Socptrine aloes. 13 194 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 8. (Fig. 9.) ALTHAEA. Althea, Marshmallow. U. S. Finely cut. Fine powder. Althee, Eibisch, G. Guimauve, Fr. The peeled roots of Althaea officinalis L., Malvaceae. Very light, nearly white, yellowish tinge. Faintly fragrant; recalling taraxacum. Sweetish, mucilaginous. Typical parenchyma cells and abundant mucilage cells, rather small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate and numerous elongated bast cells; and porous ducts. The bast cells are quite diagnostic. The mucilage bearing cells are larger than the normal parenchyma cells. The starch granules are simple, elliptical, to pear shaped, hili and lamellations indistinct; 5 to 18ju. The larger granules will occasionally show a transversely fissured hilum at the larger end. The unpeeled roots will show the brown to dark cork parenchyma cells. Ash of the peeled and unlimed root should not exceed 6.5 per cent. The ash of the unpeeled root should not exceed 10 per cent. Among possible adulterations, suspect flour and other starchy cereal meals. Old material may be used. VEGETABLE POWDERS 195 Fig. 9. ALTHAEA. a. Parenchyma with mucilage cells, starch and aggregate crystals. 6. Bast cells. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Starch granules and crystals. e. Tracheids. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 196 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 9. (Fig. 10.) AMYGDALA. Almond. Paste; fine powder or meal. Mandeln, G. Amandes, Fr. The seeds of Amygdala communis L. Rosaceae. Very light brown, nearly cream color. Faintly aromatic; almond odor when moist. Faintly aromatic; almond odor when moist. Bitter almond — Bitter, somewhat pungent. Sweet almond — Bland, sweetish, slightly pungent. Large, reddish brown sclerenchymatous epidermal cells; endosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules, but no starch; deep reddish brown typical sclerenchyma cells; vascular tissue very sparingly present. The reddish brown sclerenchyma cells are quite thickwalled, very porous and occur singly. The large sclerenchymatous epidermal cells are mostly broken. Concentrated sulphuric acid colors the pow- der a rose red. Ash 4 per cent. Almonds may be adulterated with a variety of drupaceous seeds, as those of the peach, the apricot, and the plum. The seeds of the bitter almond have been mistaken for the sweet almond and have actually been used as an adulterant of the sweet variety. Almond paste and macaroons are generally adulterated with cereal flour, and the almond face powder is frequently adulterated with starch. The adulterations are readily detected. VEGETABLE POWDERS 197 Fig. 10. AMYGDALA. a. Sclerenchymatous epidermal cells. b. Endosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules. c. Sclerenchyma cells of testa. d. Spiral duct. e. Cells from inner coat of testa, lateral view. 198 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 10. (Figs. 11-32). AMYLUM, Starch. U. S. Starke, G. Amidon, Fr. Corn starch is the official starch of the pharmacopoeia. There are however other starches of commercial value and interest with which the student should be familiar. The following more or less important commercial starches are described: Rye, wheat, barley, corn, rice, oat, bean, pea, lentil, potato, canna, banana, arrowroot (Queensland, Indian, Siam), yam, and sago. Ash should not exceed 0.5 per cent. All starches are similar as to chemical composition, the formula being C6Hio05, or some multiple thereof. The specific gravity is higher than that of water and the granules quickly settle out from water suspensions and it is upon this property that the commercial production of starch depends. The starch granule consists of granulose and starch cellulose, the former constituting the greater bulk. The skele- ton of cellulose may be obtained by digesting the granulose in saliva, when it will be found that it is colored yellow with iodine. The amylo- dextrine granules of mace, first described by Tschirch, consist largely of amylodextrine which is isomeric with starch but which colors reddish- brown with iodine, and contains only small amounts of granulose and starch cellulose. Purified starches are similar as to certain gross characters, namely snow white, odorless, tasteless (excepting the slightly sweetish taste which is due the action of the ptyalin which converts some of the starch into sugar) , and giving rise to a crisp crepitant feel when rubbed or pressed between the fingers, in a cloth or paper container. Boiling converts starch into a paste, and on boiling with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acids it is successively changed into soluble starch, dex- trine and dextrose. It is soluble in solutions of caustic soda or of potash and for which reasons these substances are used for the purpose of clearing up starch bearing sections of vegetable tissues. The diastases convert starch into maltose and other closely related sacchar- ine products. Although the starches are similar as to chemical composition, they differ considerably as to physical properties (optical, morphological, microscopical appearances) and in digestibility. Starches are not digested at the same rate in the saliva, intestinal tract, or by the plant diastases. Arrowroot starch (Mara*nta) is preferred for children and invalids, because of its supposedly greater digestibility. It is perhaps self-evident that the rate of digestion of starch also depends upon the size of the granules. Dishes prepared from rice starch are more easily or more quickly digested than are dishes made from potato starch or from corn starch. VEGETABLE POWDERS 199 FIG. 11.— Rye Starch. FIG. 12.— Wheat Starch. FIG. 13. — Corroded Wheat Starch. 200 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS Vegetable starches play a very important part in human economy. The starch of barley and of other cereals, of corn and of rice, figure in beer making, whiskey making and in sake making, respectively. Library paste, the fixative of court plasters, of stamps, and of labels, and of envelopes, is made from starch. Glucose is made largely from corn starch. The " karo " or " corn syrup " of the market is corn starch glucose to which a small amount of syrup is added to increase the sweetening power, as pure glucose is less sweet than is syrup (sucrose) . Glucose has a food value about equal to that of cane sugar or syrup, and is somewhat more readily digested, and is especially indicated in kidney troubles and in dropsy. Since the discontinuation of the brewing industry, in this country, some of the breweries are now making malt extract which is really a syrup containing from 70 to 85 per cent, of total sugars, largely maltose with some sucrose and small amount of dextrin and dextrose. It is of the consistency of thick honey, brown to reddish brown color and an agreeably sweet taste. Its food value is greater than that of sucrose syrup and equal to that of glucose and it furthermore assists in starch digestion, due to the presence of the enzyme maltase which is carried over from the malt in the process of manufacture. Malt syrup is considered an excellent food in wasting diseases as tuberculosis, and for infants. In pharmaceutical practice it is employed as an emulsifying agent and as a basis for cod liver oil. It is sweeter than glucose but less sweet than cane sugar. Its special value as a food for infants lies in the fact that it is less prone to fer- mentative decomposition in the intestinal tract than is cane sugar, and it also assists and regulates the normal bacterial activity of the intestinal tract. Because of its starch digesting power it is an ideal sweetening agent to be used with starchy foods, as pancakes, hot rolls, bread, etc. Starch* is used in the manufacture of dextrin (white and brown dextrin) and as a stiffening for cloth in the laundry. It is also much used as an adultrant in ' ice cream, confections and in sausage meats (starch and cereal fillers) , in pastes (vegetable as well as animal), in so-called egg substitutes, in spices, powdered drugs, etc. The microscopic appearance and the polariscopic behavior of the formed plant starches is most interesting and of the utmost importance to the microanalyst in the identification of vegetable substances as well as in the search for adulterations. The granules vary greatly in size, yet the largest (potato, canna, maranta) can hardly be recog- nized by the unaided eye. A thin mount of potato starch on a slide held between the eye and good light will reveal the individual granules to one possessed of undiminished normal vision. Under the high VEGETABLE POWDERS 201 FIG. 14.— Barley Starch. FIG. 15.— Corn Starch. FIG. 16.— Sorghum Seed Starch. 202 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS power of the compound microscope the starch granules stand out most clearly, revealing many highly diagnostic differences in structure. These structural differences are as follows. 1. Arrangement and Grouping. — Starch granules may be simple or compound, or they may occur in aggregates. The corm of Colchi- cum contains typical compound starch granules. The starch granules of the potato, of the arrowroots, of wheat and of rye, are largely simple. Rice and oats contain aggregates, also found in aconite and in other plants. 2. Form. — They may be polygonal (corn), round or discoid (wheat, rye, barley), pear-shaped (potato) , kidney-shaped (bean), bell-shaped (sweet potato), spherical (blood root, pepper, allspice), very irregular (sago), osyter shell form (some of the arrowroots), etc. The ends may be truncately cut (orris root, ginger, curcuma). 3. Position of the Hilum. — This may be centric or excentric. The excentricity may vary from slight (as in Phytolacca and Belladonna) to nearly 1-12, and higher, (as in Curcuma and in ginger). 4. Form of the Hilum. — In many starches the hilum is indistinct (as in wheat and barley), in others it is very prominent (bean, colchi- cum, orris root). It may be radiately fissured or star-shaped, X- shaped, linear, V-shaped, Y-shaped, or U-shaped. The excentric hili are as a rule not prominent, whereas the centric hili are generally very distinct (bean), although there are many exceptions (wheat, barley, and others). 5. Size. — The variation in size is extreme. The smallest granules occur in some of the spices (pepper, allspice) and in some of the grass family (rice), whereas the largest granules occur in some of the palms and in widely separated plant groups (Liliaceae, Solanaceae). 6. Polariscopic Behavior. — Under polarized light, two wedge-shaped (tapering from the outer surface toward the hilum) bands appear which always cross at the hilum, and the polarizer may be used for the purpose of locating the hilum in those starches in which this structure (or rather the absence of a structure) is indistinct. These bands may be very marked (as in potato, corn, arrowroots) pr quite indistinct (wheat, ginger, barley). In isodiametric starch granules with centric hili (corn, rice, pepper, cardamom) the cross bands are at right angles to each other, whereas in elongated granules, bean, pea, and in the starches with excentric hili, the cross bands are not right angled. The manufacture of commercial starches, or rather the obtaining of commercial starch, is comparatively simple. The starchy material (roots, stems, fruits, seeds, grains) is powdered or pulped, with or without previous soaking in water, and the starch washed out of the VEGETABLE POWDERS 203 FIG. 17.— Oat Starch. FIG. 19. — Bean Starch. 204 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS tissues on sieves. The starch grains quickly settle to the bottom of the vat or other container, and the supernatant liquid containing the tissue fragments and impurities is decanted off. The starch is again washed and purified and finally dried. Before packing and marketing, the lumps resulting from the drying may be coarsely broken, or the hard masses may be reduced to a fine powder, in which the individual granules become almost wholly separated. One of the methods for purifying starch, is to agitate it in a dilute alkali, which dissolves nitrogenous matter and other impurities. Unless this agent is very carefully used and again quickly and completely removed, the starch granules will also become partially dissolved and will show an alkaline reaction. In the manufacture of starch from wheat, the gluten may first be removed by a fermentation process, or the wheat flour is made into a dough and the starch washed out of the gluten on a sieve. The gluten is then used in making so-called gluten flour which is especially recommended for diabetics. In the microscopical examination of starches, the following should be looked for. 1. Corrosion Effects. — These may be due to the action of enzymes or due to the prolonged or excessive action of the alkaline purifying agent. If the corrosion effects are due to the action of bacteria (in wheat starch obtained by the fermentation process) or mold, then these organisms will be found in excess. 2. Organic Impurities. — These may be demonstrated by the addition of iodine solution which stains them yellowish brown. Starches with considerable organic matter usually also reveal bacteria and other foreign matter, including dirt, sand, mold, and tissue ele- ments, and such starches are brownish in color, and have more or less odor. 3. Admixtures and Adulterations. — The more expensive starches may be adulterated by adding a cheaper starch. Such practice is at once recognized under the microscope. The following is the botonical source of the more important com- mercial starches. 1. Rye starch, Roggenstarke, G. From the grains of Secale cereale L., Gramineae. The granules are very variable in size, the largest measuring 60ju, the smallest 5 to 8/x. Some of the largest granules with distinct fissured hili. 2. Wheat starch, Weizenstarke, G. Amidon de ble, Fr. From the grains of Triticum vulgar e Vill., Gramineae. The granules are similar to those of rye, excepting that the largest granules usually do not exceed 50/j in diameter, and that they lack a distinct hilum. VEGETABLE POWDERS 205 FIG. 20.— Bean Starch (Polarized). FIG. 21.— Pea Starch. FIG. 22.— Lentil Starch. 206 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 3. Barley starch, Gerstenstarke, G. From the grains of Hordeum sativum Pres., Gramineae. The starch granules resemble those of wheat excepting that they are generally somewhat smaller and some- what more irregular in outline. An admixture of barley and wheat starch would be difficult to detect. 4. Corn starch, Kornstarke, G. Maisstarke, G. Fecule de mais, Fr. From the kernels of Zea mays L., Gramineae. This is the official starch of the U. S. P. The granules are usually polygonal, though some of them are rounded or spheroidal. The hilum is distinct, fissured, and the polarizing bands are very distinct. The majority of the granules measure about 25ju in diameter, though some reach a diameter of 30 to 35ju. They are quite uniform as to size and form. 5. Rice starch, Reisstarke, G. Farina de riz, Fr. The starch obtained from the seeds of Oryza sativa, Gramineae. In form and other characters much like corn starch but much smaller; it is the smallest of the commercial starches; granules quite uniform; many aggregated; a few compound granules. (2 to 8/*.) 6. Potato starch, Kartoffelstarke, G. Fecule de pomme de terre, Fr. From the tubers of Solanum tuberosum L., Solanaceae. Granules small to large; irregularly oval or pear-shaped; hilum not very conspicuous, excentric, nearer the narrowed end; stratifica- tion distinct. (50 to 90ju.) 7. Maranta or Arrowroot starch, Marantastarke, G. Salep des Indes occidentalis, Fr. From the rhizomes of Maranta arundinacea L., Marantaceae. Granules resemble those of potato starch in general appearance, smaller, more uniform in size and hilum at larger end instead of the narrower end. (30 to 75/*). 8 Canna starch, Toulema starch, Cannastarke, G. Amidon de canne, Fecule de Tolomane, Fr. From the rhizomes of Canna edulis Ker., Marantaceae. In form and size not unlike potato starch, more variable in outline ; hilum mostly near the narrower end. (50 to 115;u.) 9. Brazilian arrowroot, tapioca or Cassava starch, Cassavastarke, G. Amidon de Cassava, Fr. From the roots of Manihot utilissima Pohl, Euphorbiaceae. Granules of about the size of corn starch; single granules spher- oidal; hilum quite distinct, somewhat radiate, centric; many granules compound in twos and threes, mostly separated, showing facets. (15 to 30/i.) 10. Sago, East Indian arrowroot, Sago, Palmenstarke, G. Sagou, Fr. From the pith of various palms — Metroxylon Sagu Rottboell, VEGETABLE POWDERS 207 Fio.r23.— Potato Starch. FIG. 24.— Potato Starch (Polarized). FIG. 25. — Canna Starch. 208 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS M. Rumphii Mart., Sagus farinifera Lam., Arenga sacharifera Lab., Palmae. Also obtained from Cycas roots. Granules somewhat larger than those of Cassava; irregular in outline; mostly compound as in Cassava, hilum excentric; stratifica- tion quite distinct. (30 to 75ju.) 11. Yam starch, Guiana arrowroot. From the tuberous roots of various species of Dioscorea of the tropics. The granules are elongated with the hilum at the extreme smaller end, markings distinct, broader end somewhat truncate. (30 to 50ju.) 12. Sweet potato starch, Brazilian arrowroot. From the tuberous roots of Batatas edulis Chois., Convolvulaceae. Roots from tropics are comparatively richer in sugar, while roots grown in temperate climates are richer in starch. Hili excentric, granules bell-shaped. (10 to 40/i.) Starches may be obtained from a variety of other plants but only exceptionally in commercial quantities. Thus starch may be ob- tained from the bean, the pea, the banana, from curcuma, from ginger, from Batatas edulis Chois., from the roots of the arucarias, from the roots of the zamias. Oat starch occasionally is found in the market. Upon examining the commercial products made from starch or from meals rich in starch, as pearl sago, tapioca, macaroni, spaghetti, etc., it will be found that some or many of the starch granules are more or less heat dextrinized. Such products may also contain an excess of impurities. In the Chinese and India puffed rice, the starch granules are so much disintegrated by the heat explosions as to be unrecognizable. This is also true of the puffed rice of the market. In " grape nuts," in the so-called malted milks, and in some other manufactured foods in which considerable starch and cereal is used, the starch is more or less completely dextrinized and no longer gives a blue reaction with iodine. The illustrations of the more common starches will serve to make clear their microscopic characteristics. The following key is based upon the microscopical examination, without the use of the micrometer scale or the polarizer. VEGETABLE POWDERS 209 FIG. 26. — Banana Starch. FIG. 27. — Banana Starch (Polarized). FIG. 28. — Queenland Arrowroot 210 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE MORE IMPORTANT STARCHES HILI CENTRIC . . Individual granules largely polygonal in outline .... Aggregates present Aggregates elliptical or rounded Granules larger Oat Granules smaller Rice Aggregates not rounded, linear or small groups. Buckwheat .... Aggregates wanting, hili very distinct Corn1 . . Granules not polygonal, rounded or more or less irregular .... Granules kidney-shaped, large fissured hili * Outline quite regular Bean Outline quite irregular Few or no aggregates or compound granules Pea .... Not kidney-shaped, rounded with facets • Cassava Some compound granules, very irregular Acorn . . Granules distinctly round, very variable in size . . . .Larger granules showing occasional fissured hili Rye .... Hili indistinct, barely perceptible Granules smaller Barley Granules larger Wheat HILI EXCENTRIC . . Granules ovoid, pear-shaped to elongated .... One end truncately cut Truncate end abruptly tapering, hili indistinct Ginger Truncate end not tapering, large V-shaped hili Orris root .... Not truncate • Hili usually at larger end, fissures Maranta Hili usually at smaller end, pin point Distinctly pear-shaped, lamellations very distinct One end with distinct projection Canna End projection usually wanting Potato Granules elongated and more or less curved Broad end more or less truncate Yam Broad end not truncate, irregular Banana Truncate narrower end with blunt tip Curcuma Bell-shape granules; some - compound granules Sweet potato . .Granules quite irregular as to shape and outline ....Hili usually at broader end; many small granules Horse chestnut .... Large fissured hili Chestnut . . Granules showing facets .... Hili transversely fissured Sago Hili radiately fissured Sweet potato JThe starch of broom corn, sorghum, of fox tail grass and of other grasses, is similar to that of corn. The starch of darnel resembles that of rice. -In a general way, the starch of related plants is similar as to form and structure. VEGETABLE POWDERS 211 b ° ' FIG. 29. — Queenland Arrowroot (Polarized). FIG. 30.— Yam Starch. FIG. 31.— Sago Starch. FIG. 32.— Sago Starch (Polarized). 212 POWDEKED VEGETABLE DRUGS 11. ANGUSTURA. Angustura. Bark. Fl. ex. 60. Augusturarinde, G. Angusture, Fr. The bark of Galipea Cusparia St. Hill., Rutaceae. Yellow brown Somewhat aromatic; musty. Bitter, pungent. Rather small, thin walled bark parenchyma with small starch granules and aggregate and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; numerous typical stone cells; no bast cells. Larger parenchyma cells with golden yellow resin and a few with acicular crystals of calcium oxalate (raphides). The bark of Strychnos nux vomica (false Angustura bark) has been mistaken for Angustura bark. There appears to be some dispute as to which is the true Angustura bark. According to Zornig and others, true Angustura bark is derived from Galipea officinalis Hancock, which differs from the above bark in that it contains bast fibers and crystal bearing fibers. The bark of Angustura brava or Evodia febrifuga St. Hil. is often mistaken for the true Angustura bark. 12. (Fig. 33.) ANISUM. Anise. U. S. Bruised. Meal. Anis, G. Anis, Anis vert, Fr. The seeds of Anisum vulgare Moench, Umbelliferae. Fine powder a dull yellowish brown. Fragrantly aromatic. Anise odor. Numerous short single celled trichomes, and externally warty, more or less bent and curved measuring from 25 to 150ju in length; endosperm tissue with proteid granules and oil globules; a reddish brown tissue enclosing the oil glands. Vascular tissue sparingly present. Should not contain more than 8 per cent. ash. May be adulterated with fruits of Conium maculatum. Also adulterated with various inert vegetable substances, fennel and flav- ored with star anise. If the seeds to which a strong solution of sodic hydrate has been added give off a mouse odor (odor of mouse urine) it indicates the presence of Conium fruits. VEGETABLE POWDERS 213 u^ ~^- — f Jf, JCA "J&k II nlii^nfa- > Fig. 33. ANISUM. a. Endosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules. b. Trichomes. c. Thin-walled parenchyma of testa. d. Epidermal cells of pericarp with trichomes. c. Reddish brown cells of pericarp. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 214 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 13. ANTHEMIS. Anthemis. Entire or bruised. Chamomile flowers, Roman or English chamomile, E. Romische Kamille, G. Camomille romaine, Fr. The flower heads of Anthemis nobilis L., Composite. Chamomile odor, somwhat camphoraceous. Quite bitter. Epidermal tissue with stomata. Single celled rather thick walled trichomes and some glandular trichomes. Pollen grains typical of the order Composite. Ash 5 per cent. Adulterated with flowers of Anthemis arvensis, Maruta Cotula, Matricaria chamomilla, Achillea ptarmica, and Pyrethrum parthenium. 14. (Kg. 34). APOCYNUM ANDROSAEMIFOLIUM. Dog'sBane. Fl. ex. 60. Dog's Bane, E. The roots of Apocynum androsaemifolium L., Apocynaceae. Light brown. Odor and taste as for preceding species. Histology like that of the species following excepting that numer- ous typical yellowish sclerenchyma cells are present. Compare also the resin bearing cells. Ash 12 per cent. VEGETABLE POWDERS 215 Fig. 34. APOCYNUM ANDROSAEMIFOLIUM. a. Parenchyma cells bearing starch. Starch granules simple, very rarely two compound, oval, hilum and stratification wanting or very indistinct. b. Granular substance (resin), nearly colorless. c. Sclerenchyma, very typical. Pores distinct, branching; color yellow. d. Deep reddish brown cork cells. e. Fragment of porous duct. /. Wood elements. 216 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 15. (Fig. 35.) APOCYNUM. Apocynum. Fl. ex. 60. Canadian hemp, E. Canadische Hanfwurzel, G. Chanvre du Canada, Fr. The roots of Apocynum canndbinum L., Apocynaceae. Light grayish brown. Faint soil odor (musty) narcotic. Very bitter. Parenchyma cells medium size with simple elliptical starch gran- ules from 3 to 12ju in long diameter; large and small porous ducts; cork tissue sparingly present. A few sclerenchyma cells are present, like those of A. Androsaemifolium. Ash 11 per cent. Canadian hemp and dog's bane are variously substituted for each other. Not generally adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 217 Fig. 35. APOCYNUM CANNABINUM. a. Parenchyma bearing starch. Granules similar to those of A. Andro- saemifolium. 6. Resin bearing cell, resin colorless and crystalline. These resin bearing cells are quite large, the one figured is one of medium size. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Deep reddish brown cork cells. e. Porous duct. /. Wood elements. 218 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 16. (Fig. 36.) ARECA. Areca nut. Fl. ex. 60. Fine meal. Charcoal, powdered. Betel nut, E. Betelnuss, Arekanuss, G. Noix d'arec, Fr. The seeds of Areca Catechu L., Palmae. Bright reddish brown. Nearly odorless. Characteristic when fresh. Astringent. Endosperm cells with very thick porous walls, containing fat and proteid granules; radially elongated conical reddish brown epidermal cells (palisade tissue). Large aleuron granules with well developed crystalloids. 17. ARMORACEA. Horseradish. The fresh and dried prepared roots of Cochlearia armor acia L., (Roripa armoracia), Cruciferae. Grated horseradish is of very light color, brownish. Faint odor. Hot, biting taste, when fresh. The parenchyma cells are thin-walled, elongated, loosely united containing numerous starch granules. Starch granules are simple, oval to elliptical; hili and lamella tions very indistinct to invisible; 5 to 10 microns in diameter; polarizing effects not appreciable. Elong- ated, thin walled loosely united otherwise typical parenchyma cells; porous and reticulate ducts. Ash should not exceed 6 per cent. Horseradish has been used as an adulterant of aconite root, and conversely aconite has been accidentally mixed with horseradish roots resulting in fatal poisoning. Horseradish has anti-scrobutic proper- ties. Drying and boiling dissipates the volatile oil to which it owes its^ pungent properties. VEGETABLE POWDERS 219 Fig. 36. ARECA NUT. a. Endosperm cells with fat. b. Cells with large aleuron granules. c. Crystalloids, prismatic, enclosed in proteid matter. d. Radially elongated reddish brown epidermal cells. 220 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 18. (Fig. 37.) ARNICA. Arnica Flowers. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 20. Wohlverleih, Fallkraut, Arnika, G. Arnique, Arnica, Fr. The flower heads of Arnica montqna L., Composite. Light brown. Fragrant, recalling gaultheria. Bitter, somewhat pungent. Pollen grains typical of the order Composite; simple, 4- to 6- celled trichomes; one-celled to four-celled glandular trichomes; numerous pappus remnants; epidermal cells with wavy vertical walls. The most characteristic elements are the glandular trichomes. Ash should not exceed 8 per cent. Adulterated with flowers of various Compositae as Calendula, Anthemis, Inula, Senecio. VEGETABLE POWDERS 221 Fig. 37. ARNICA. Flowers. a. Trichomes. b. Pollen grains. c. Pappus. d. Glandular trichomes. e. Epidermal cells. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 222 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 19. (Fig. 38.) ARNICA. Arnica. Roots, Rhizomes and some Leaves. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Origin and names as for the preceding. The roots and rhizomes are prescribed but the basal branches and leaves are generally included. Very dark brownish gray. Very faintly aromatic or fragrant, recalling odor of hay. Bitter, pungent. Trichomes, pollen grains and epidermal cells as for the flower but more sparingly present. In addition, the parenchymatous and vascular tissue of roots, leaf stalks and stems; parenchymatous cells typical, free from any characteristic contents; ducts and tracheids porous; some spiral vessels. Epidermal cells of leaf with wavy vertical walls. Ash about 9 per cent. Adulterated with roots and rhizomes, of other species and the roots and rhizomes of the strawberry. VEGETABLE POWDERS Fig. 38. ARNICA. Entire plant. a. Epidermal cells of leaf. 6. Trichomes. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Parenchyma, transverse view. e. Pollen grain. /. Trichome and epidermal tissue of root. g. Parenchyma of root. h. Porous ducts. i. Spiral ducts. j. Parenchyma. 224 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 20. (Fig. 39.) ASAFCETIDA. Asafetida. U. S. A gummy-resin obtained from Ferula Asafoetida L. and of other species of Ferula, Umbelliferse. Dull reddish brown to light brown. Marked garlic odor. Sticky, somewhat pungent, associated with the odor. Powdered asafcetida is generally adulterated with mineral matter and vegetable tissue (usually gramineous chaff), the adulteration rang- ing from 10 to 90 per cent. Pure (commercially) asafcetida contains some Ferula tissue, mostly bast cells, not to exceed eight per cent, and usually less. Pure gum asafcetida does not contain more than 4 per cent. ash. Powdered asafcetida may contain from 8 to 50 per cent. ash. It should not contain more than 10 per cent, ash, making allowance for the use of a diluent in grinding and for additions derived from the plants from which the gum is obtained. The most common adulterants are starch, cereal, corn meal, magne- sium carbonate, talcum, rice chaff, barley chaff. Ammoniac which resembles asafcetida very closely in color and general appearance is sometimes used as an adulterant. VEGETABLE POWDERS 225 Fig. 39. Asafoetida. Characteristic appearance of water mounts, a, a bit of the gum from which numerous minute globules are thrown off into the surrounding water, showing very active Brownian movement; 6, irregular globules of the gum; c, globules of the gum as they appear in a heated mount. The larger globules gradually take up (by positive surface tension and adsorption) the smaller particles. Some remain clear by virtue of not taking up particles. Gradually the globules become agglutinated and massed; d, bast cells, the most constantly present impurity in even the best quality. 15 226 POWDERED- VEGETABLE DRUGS CT: 21. (Fig, 40.) ASARUM. Wild Ginger. Fl. ex. 60. Syrup, coarse powder. Canada snakeroot, E. Hazelwurzel, G. Asaret, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Asarum canadense L., Aristolochioceae. Light grayish brown. Aromatic, recalling ginger; camphoraceous. Very pungent, somewhat bitter. Parenchyma of rather loosely united thick walled cells with compound starch granules and larger resin bearing cells; some cork tissue; tracheids; reticulate and spiral ducts. Outer parenchyma cells more or less collenchymatous. Powder turns a deep red with concentrated sulphuric acid. In 1897 Bicknell found that A. canadense represented two species, A. canadense and A. reflexum. Histologically the two species resemble each other closely. A. reflexum is apparently more deficient in resin and starch, parenchyma cells have thinner walls. Vascular tissue more deficient. Reaction with sulphuric acid less marked. VEGETABLE POWDERS 227 Fig. 40. ASARUM. a. Parenchyma with starch. b. Reticulate duct. c. Spiral duct. d. Porous ducts. e. Cork tissue. /. Resin cell. g. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 228 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 22. (Fig. 41.) ASCLEPIAS. Asclepias. Fl. ex. 60. Pleurisy root, E. Knollige Schwalbenwurzel, G. Racine d'as- clepiade tubereuse, Fr. The roots of Asclepias tuberosa L., Asclepiadaceae. Very light yellowish brown. Nearly odorless; nauseating when moist. Somewhat pungent and bitter. Numerous typical yellow, porous sclerenchyma cells; parenchyma cells rather thin walled containing compound starch granules and prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate; large and smaller reticulate and porous ducts. Roots of related species may be substituted. VEGETABLE POWDERS 229 Fig. 41. ASCLEPIAS TUBEROSA. a. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Prismatic and aggregate crystals. e. Parenchyma with starch and crystals. /. Starch granules. g. Reticulate ducts. 230 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 23. (Fig. 42.) ASPIDIUM. Aspidium. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Male fern, Male shield fern, E. Wurmfarn, Waldfarn, Johannes- wurzel, G. Fougere male*, Fr. The rhizomes and stipes of Dryopteris Filix-mas Schott, and D» marginale Gray, Filices. Light greenish brown. Old material brown. Nearly odorless, recalling taraxacum. Old material has a heavy, nauseating, rancid odor. Very astringent, sweetish, slightly bitter and pungent. Largely loosely united parenchyma cells with large simple elliptical starch granules, with lamellations and hili very indistinct; numerous large intercellular spaces with lemon colored resin; vascular tissue typical of the fern group, rather large scalariform ducts; some cork tissue ; the resin is of a bright yellowish lemon color. Ash 3 per cent. Powdered aspidium is frequently adulterated, the principal adulter- ant being chaff and refuse. The rhizomes of foreign species are frequently added. Clay, sand and dirt may be excessive. It is readily attacked by the usual drug parasites and the supply should be carefully watched. The greenish coloration of the freshly powdered article soon changes to yellowish brown. VEGETABLE POWDERS 231 Fig. 42. ASPIDIUM. a. Intercellular resin gland. 6. Resin of golden yellow color. c. Intercellular space. d. Starch bearing parenchyma cells. 232 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 24. (Fig. 43.) ASPIDOSPERMA. Aspidosperma. U. S. '/H Fl. ex. 60. Quebracho. E., G., Fr. The bark of Aspidosperma Quebracho Schlecht., Apocynaceae. Rather light cinnamon brown. Faintly aromatic, nearly odorless. Very bitter. Very large sclerenchymatous bast cells lined with parenchyma cells bearing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate ; larger and smaller typical sclerenchyma cells and sclerenchymatous tracheids; starch granules (simple to compound) sparingly present, 5 to 20ju; bark parenchyma cells rather small, thin walled with groups of phloem cells; prismatic crystals very numerous. Powder turns deep reddish brown with potas- sium hydrate solution. May be adulterated with the barks of related species; the wood tissue may be excessive ; old and worthless bark may be used. VEGETABLE POWDERS 233 Fig. 43. ASPIDOSPERMA. a. Very large bast cell, all lined with crystal bearing cells. b. Selerenchyma cells. c. Parenchyma with phloem group. d. Parenchyma. e. Sclerenchymatous tracheids. /. Prismatic crystals. g. Small celled parenchyma. h. Crystal bearing parenchyma and stone cell. 234 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 25. (Fig. 44.) AURANTIUM AMARUM. Bitter Orange Peel. U. S. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 30. Pomeranze, G. Orange amere, Fr. The rind of the fruit of Citrus Aurantium var. amara L., Rutaceae. Very light yellowish brown. Fragrantly aromatic. ; i <•? Pungent, bitter. Outer parenchyma of smaller thick walled closely united cells ; inner parenchyma cells very loosely united leaving large intercellular spaces; numerous rather large prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; epidermal cells small, with small yellow pigment granules, oil and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Oil glands destroyed in powder- ing. Vascular tissue deficient. Histologically similar to peel of sweet orange, lemon and lime. Ash should not exceed 6 per cent. Not generally adulterated. The rind of thex orange, lemon and limes may be substituted for the rind of the bitter variety. The rinds are often old and wholly worthless and perforated by insect larvae. VEGETABLE POWDERS 235 Fig. 44. AURANTIUM AMARUM. a, 6. Outer parenchyma with crystals. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. . d. Inner spongy parenchyma. e. Epidermis, vertical view. /. Crystal bearing fibers. 236 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 26. (Fig. 45.) BELLADONNA FOLIA, Belladonna Leaves. U. S. Tinct. 60. Belladonna, Tollkraut, Tollkirsche, G. Belladona, Morelle furieuse, F. Leaves and stems, inclusive of some immature fruits and flowers, of Atropa belladonna L., Solanaceae. No. 80. Non-characteristic feel. Rather dull green to brownish green. Somewhat fragrant; narcotic when moistened. Somewhat bitter and slightly pungent. Stomata on both surfaces of leaves; vertical walls of epidermal cells thin, wavy; comparatively few and rather large simple, 2- to 5- celled, thin-walled trichomes which are generally much broken in the powder. The trichomes are not pitted or warty as in Stramonium and a few are more or less distinctly branched. Calcium oxalate crystals (micro-crystalline) filling many of the leaf parenchyma cells; and single aggregate crystals. Glandular trichomes with one to many celled heads, few and indistinct. The non-glandular trichomes though sparingly present and the crystal bearing cells, are the most charac- teristic structures. Ash from 15 to 18 per cent. Impurities (sand, dirt, foreign vege- table tissue) should not exceed 10 per cent. Quite frequently adulterated. Suspect phytolacca leaves and stems (acicular crystals) ; scopola leaves and stems (histology closely similar to that of belladonna leaves and stems) ; chestnut leaves (single- celled, curved, rigid trichomes of the stellate clusters) ; mallow leaves (stellate trichomes), and other foreign leaves and herbs. In the American grown belladonna the stems are included. VEGETABLE POWDERS 237 Fig. 45. BELLADONNA. Leaf. a. Epidermal cells. b. Trichomes. c. Leaf parenchyma cells with crystals. d. Parenchyma. e. Tracheids and spiral duct. /. Glandular trichome. g. Bast cells. 238 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 27. (Fig. 46.) BELLADONNAE RADIX. Belladonna Root. U. S. Fl. ex. 40. Common names as for belladonna leaves. - The roots of Atropa belladonna L., Solanaceae. No. 60. Dry, starchy or mealy feel. Light brownish gray. Nearly odorless, slight soil odor, somewhat narcotic when moistened. Sweetish, somewhat bitter and pungent. Micro-crystalline calcium oxalate filling some of the parenchyma cells ; and abundant more or less spheroidal, simple to compound starch granules, with distinct somewhat excentric hili; single granules GM to 17/z in diameter; polarizing bands increasing in clearness in direct ratio to size of granules. The minute pyramidal crystals (micro- crystalline) polarize well. There should be comparatively little fibrous tissue (ducts, tracheids and wood fibers). There should be no true bast or sclerenchyma. Trichomes practically none and no acicular crystals. Ash about 8 per cent. Impurities should not exceed 5 per cent. Most common adulterants are, phytolacca root (acicular crystals) ; scopola rhizomes (brown color and larger ducts) ; roots of allied genera; of white clover, old roots and crowns with stem parts (excessively fibrous). Roots gathered too early are deficient in starch. VEGETABLE POWDERS 239 Fig. 46. BELLADONNA. Root. a. Parenchyma with starch and crystal sand. 6. Duct, end view. c. Porous ducts. d. Starch granules. e. Cork cells. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 240 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 28. (Fig. 47.) BENZOINUM. Benzoin. U. S. Gum Benjamin, E. Benzoe, G. Benjoin de Sumatra, Fr. The balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin Dryander, and of other species of Styrax, Styraceae. Brownish color. , Balsamic odor. Somewhat acrid. Pure gum benzoin is in mottled pieces. The poorer grades are in marbled masses, more or less crumbly and brittle and contain a high percentage of vegetable impurities. Dissolve a small amount in alcohol and examine the sediment microscopically for the insoluble impurities. A very small amount of the gum dissolved in hot acidu- lated water will show numerous rings of benzoic acid crystal by the micro-sublimation test. Ash should not exceed 2.50-per cent. j' Not generally intentionally adulterated. The impurities may be excessive. Vegetable impurities should not exceed 10 per cent. VEGETABLE POWDERS 241 Fig. 47. Gum Benzoin. The characteristic arrangement of the crystals of benzoic acid by the micro-sublimation test, as described in Part I. The crystal rings are never as close together as indicated in the figure. The test is very marked in the presence of 1-1,000 of the acid. 16 242 POWDEBED VEGETABLE DRUGS 29. (Fig. 48.) BERBERIS. Barberry. Fl. ex. 60. Sauerdorn, Bereberitzen, Saurach, G. Berberide, Epine-vinette, Vinettier, Fr. The root bark of Berberis canadensis (vulgaris) L, Berberidaceae. Brownish lemon yellow. Odorless. Bitter; colors saliva yellow. Sclerenchymatous bast cells and typical sclerenchyma ; numerous bark parenchyma cells with prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Suberized cells of the outer bark. Starch granules simple and two to three compound, 3 to 1(V in diameter. A bit of the powder mounted in dilute nitric acid (1 per cent, aqueous solution) will show clusters of acicular crystals of berberine. Ash 3 per cent. Related species of Berberis are substituted for the Canadian bar- berry. Likely to be attacked by insect parasites and the container should be kept closed with a little chloroform added from time to time. VEGETABLE POWDERS 243 Fig. 48. BERBERIS. a. Sclerenchymatous bast cells. b. Sclerenchyma. c. Parenchyma. d. Prismatic crystals. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. /. Outer cork cells. 244 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 30. (Fig. 49.) BRYONIA. Bryonia, Bryony. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Zaunriibe, Gichtriibe, G. Bryone blanche, Coulevree, Fr. The roots of Bryonia alba L., Cucurbitaceae. Very light brown. Slight odor, recalling taraxacum. Very bitter. Rather large thin walled parenchyma cells with compound starch granules; some collenchymatous parenchyma; large porous and reticu- late ducts; tracheids; small amount of cork tissue. Rarely adulterated. Related species may be substituted. VEGETABLE POWDERS 245 Fig. 49. BRYONIA ALBA. a. Parenchyma with starch. 6. Reticulate ducts. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Parenchyma. e. Porous duct. /. Collenchymatous tissue. g. Duct, transverse view. h. Starch granules. 246 POWDERED- VEGETABLE DRUGS 31. (Fig. 50.) BUCHU. Buchu leaves. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Buccoblatter, Buckublatter, G. Feuilles de bucco (booko, buchu), Fr. The leaves of Barosma crenulata Hooker, B. serratifolia Willd., Rutaceae. /Pale green'. Aromatic, mint-like. Bitterish, pungent. Epidermal cells with vertical walls straight, containing inulin; stomata on lower surface only; cuticle with warty elevations; trichomes very few, simple, single celled, short; no crystals. Ash 4.5 per cent. The histology of long buchu and false long buchu practically identical with that of short buchu. The cuticular markings are, however, less prominent. VEGETABLE POWDERS 247 Fig. 50. BUCHU. Short. a. Lower epidermis. J>. Upper epidermis. c. Lower epidermis, lateral view. d. Upper epidermis, lateral view. e. f. Parenchyma. g. Tracheids. h. Spongy tissue cells. i. Bast cells. j. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. k, Trichome. 248 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 32. (Fig. 51.) CAFFEA. Coffee. Roasted; in coarse powder. Kaffee, G. Cafe*, FT. The seeds of Caffea arabica L., Rubiaceae. Very dark brown. Unroasted, very pale green. Very aromatic. Coffee odor. Somewhat bitter and astringent. Seed coat consists of a very thin walled parenchyma and bast like sclerenchyma cells; endosperm tissue consists of thick walled porous cells bearing proteid granules and fat. Mount sections or a pinch of the powder in water, heat for a few moments and allow the water to evaporate and add a drop of benzol. On evaporation of the benzol, fine acicular crystals of caffeine will appear. Ash, unroasted bean, 5 per cent. Ash, roasted bean, 1.81 per cent. Ground roasted coffee adulterated with a great variety of sub- stances, among others roasted and ground chicory, beet roots, carrot roots, figs, prunes, and cereals. VEGETABLE POWDERS 249 Fig. 51. CAFFEA. a. Sclerenchyma cells of testa. b. Endosperm cells with fat and minute starch granules. c. dj e. Outer tissue cells. 250 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 33. (Fig. 52.) CALAMUS. Calamus. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Sweet flag, E. Kalmuswurzel, G. Acore vrai, Acore odorant, Fr. The peeled and unpeeled rhizomes of Acorus Calamus L., Araceae. The unpeeled article takes the preference. Unpeeled, light brown. Peeled, very light brown. Aromatic and camphoraceous. Bitter, pungent. Parenchymatous tissue with large intercellular spaces, cells thin walled containing very small, simple starch granules; a number of larger cells containing a brownish resin; vascular tissue of porous, reticulate, spiral and annular ducts; some cork tissue; parenchyma immediately below the cork tissue of closely united cells. Not generally adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 251 Fig. 52. CALAMUS. a. Parenchyma with, minute starch granules. 6. Oil and resin bearing cells. c. Spiral duct. d. Outer parenchyma and epidermis. e. Parenchyma from near periphery. /. Parenchyma as o. g. Reticulate ducts. 252 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 34. (Fig. 53.) CALENDULA. Calendula. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 20. Marigold, E. Bingelblume, Todenblume, G. Souci, Fleurs de tous le mois, Fr. The ray flowers of Calendula officinalis L., Composite. Bright, brownish yellow. Fragrant; narcotic. Slightly bitter and saline. Many-celled trichomes; a few pollen grains characteristic of the order; epidermal cells of petals with yellow coloring matter. Ash 5.40 per cent. The colored and rolled petals have been used as imitation saffron. VEGETABLE POWDERS 253 Fig. 53. CALENDULA. a. Epidermal cells of petal with yellow coloring bodies. b. Pollen grains. c. Trichomes. d. Parenchyma. e. Ducts. 254 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 35. (Fig. 54.) CALUMBA. Calumba. U. S. Fl. ex. 20. Tinct. 20. Columbo, E. Kolombowurzel, G. Colombo, Fr. The roots of Jateorrhiza palmata Miers, Menispermaceae. Pale brownish yellow. Slight odor, recalling taraxacum. Bitter, mucilaginous. Large-celled thin walled parenchyma with large simple starch granules having very distinct radiate hili; very large reticulate ducts; a few thin walled porous sclerenchyma cells and some corky tissue. Ash 7.5 per cent. May be adulterated with roots of Bryonia alba and Frasera Walteri. VEGETABLE POWDERS 255 Fig. 54. CALUMBA. a. Parenchyma with starch granules. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. d. Sclerenchyma cells. e. Reticulate ducts. /. Cork cells, lateral view. 256 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 36. (Fig. 55) GAMBOGE. Gamboge. U. S. The gum resin obtained from Garcinia Hariburii H., Guttiferae. Brittle, easily powdered. Bright yellow. Nearly odorless. Slightly acrid. The microscope reveals little that is characteristic. Fragments of vegetable tissue are sparingly present. There is no starch present. The emulsified particles resemble bacteria and show active Brownian movement. Ash should not exceed 1.5 per cent. Not generally adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 257 Fig. 55. GAMBOGE. Gamboge. Characteristic appearance of water mounts, a, bits of the gum. They appear to be made up of agglutinated bacteria; bj the emulsified particles resemble bacteria, showing Brownian motion, among which are found larger globules, some colorless and some containing adsorbed minute particles of the gamboge; c, globules from a heated mount. The general color tone is yellowish. 17 258 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 37. (Fig. 56.) CANELLA. Canella Bark. Fl. ex. 60. White wood, White cinnamon, E. Weisser Zimmt, Weisser Canel, G . Canelle blanche, Fr. The bark of Canella alba Murray, Canellaceae. Very pale brownish yellow. Aromatic, recalling cinnamon. Pungent, somewhat bitter. Isodiametric sclerenchyma cells with unequally thickened walls; bark parenchyma with numerous aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate and large cells filled with a bright yellow resin; some rather small spherical simple starch granules. Ash 6 per cent. Not generally adulterated. Winter's bark may be substituted for it. VEGETABLE POWDERS 259 Fig. 56. CANELLA. a. Sclerenchyma cells, walls unequally thickened. b. Typical sclerenchyma. c. Parenchyma. d. Resin bearing cells. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. /. Parenchyma with starch granules and crystals. g. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. h. Parenchyma, t. Starch granules. 260 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 38. (Fig. 57.) CANNABIS INDICA. Cannabis. U. S. Fl. ex. 20. Tinct. 40 The pistillate flowering tops of Cannabis saliva L., Urticaceae. Dry, somewhat resinous feel. Sticky and resinous to teeth on masticating. Dull green to dull greenish brown. Very heavy, narcotic. Slightly pungent. Epidermal tissue predominates. Vertical walls of lower epidermal cells wavy, of upper epidermis and of stems straight or nearly so; abundant, rigid, curved, tapering pointed, single-celled trichomes with basal cystoliths, varying from very short to comparatively long; resin particles are abundant; vascular tissue not very abundant and non- characteristic; multi-cellular glandular trichomes (gland 8-16 celled), also some simple glandular trichomes. Numerous very small aggre- gate crystals. Seed tissue present in more or less abundance (scleren- chyma, endosperm tissue rich in oil and proteid granules) . American and Indian hemps are structurally identical. Effervescence with dilute HC1. Ash 10 to 20 per cent. Impurities (including seeds) should not exceed 10 per cent. Seed often excessive (should not exceed 5 per cent.). Staminate tops may be added (pollen grains). Exhausted material (deficient in resin, more brown in color) may be used. Excess of stems may be suspected. VEGETABLE POWDERS 261 Fig. 57. CANNABIS INDICA. o. Lower epidermis of leaves. 6. Upper epidermis of leaves. c. Trichomes with cystoliths. e. Spiral ducts. /. Parenchyma with minute aggregate crystals. g. Phloem tissue. 262 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 39. (Fig. 58.) CANTHARIS. Cantharides. U. S. The dried beetles Cantharis vesicatoria De Geer, Goleoptera. Dark, brownish, bluish purple irridescent. Disagreeable animal odor. Pungently acrid. The various tissues more or less agglutinated will appear in a glycerin mount. The bluish irridescent fragments of the hard wing covers are diagnostic of the true blistering beetle (brown in the Chinese beetle, Mylabris cichorii). The chitinous spiculesare long, tapering and nearly colorless, whereas in the Chinese beetle they are much shorter and thicker and dark to nearly black. Ash should not exceed 8 per cent. The most common adulterant is the Chinese blistering beetle above mentioned. The Colorado potato beetle has been used as an adulterant and as a substitute. Rarely adulterated by vegetable tissues, corn meal and cereal. VEGETABLE POWDERS 263 Fig. 58. a, the chitinous spicules of the true blistering beetle (Cantharis vesicatoria) ; 6, the chitinous spicules of Mylabris dchorii. 264 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 40. (Fig. 59.) CAPSICUM. Capsicum. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. Cayenne, African or Pod Pepper, E. Spanischer Pfeffer, Schloten- pfeffer, G. Capsique, Piment des jardins, Piment rouge, Poivre de Cayenne, Fr. The fruit of Capsicum fastigiatum Blume, Solanacese. Bright yellowish red. Faint odor, characteristic. Exceedingly pungent. Epidermal cells of seed large with very thick porous wavy walls; epidermal cells of pericarp with moderately thick porous wavy yellow walls; endosperm cells containing proteid granules and oil globules, walls porous. Ash 6 per cent. The powder is adulterated with a variety of substances as fruit of allied species, red lead oxide, saw dust, bran, mustard, flour, starch, etc. May be moldy. VEGETABLE POWDERS 265 Fig. 59. CAPSICUM. a. Epidermis of seed. b. Endosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules. c. Peripheral endosperm. d. Epidermal cells of pericarp. e. Isolated epidermal cells. 266 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 41. CARBO ANIMALIS. Animal Charcoal. Coarse powder. Fine meal. Boneblack, Ivory black, E. Thierkohle, Knochenkohle, Bern- schwarz, G. Charbon animal, Noir d'os, Fr. The partially oxidized bones of animals. Lustrous black. Odorless. Tasteless. A careful microscopical examination will reveal an occasional frag- ment which shows traces of Haversian canals, lacunae and canali- culi, which unmistakably disclose the origin of the charcoal. Ash 85 per cent., by ignition. Vegetable charcoal may be added. 42. CARBO LIGNI. Charcoal. U. S. Coarse and fine powder. Wood charcoal, E. Holzkohle, Praparirte Kohle, G. Charbon ve*getble, Fr. Made from partially oxidized soft wood (willow and other plants). Dull black. Odorless. Tasteless. Brown wood fiber remnants are quite abundant, intermingled with the black coarser more oxidized cell groups. Crystals of calcium are also to be found. Numerous splintery fragments. The most distinctive fragments are those derived from the larger porous ducts. Ash should not exceed 3 per cent. Not generally adulterated. It is difficult to determine the source of the wood from which the charcoal is made. VEGETABLE POWDERS 267 43. CARDAMOM. Cardamom. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. Malabar cardamom, E. Cardamom, Kleine Kardamomen, G. Cardamomes, Fr. The fruit of Elettaria Cardamomum W. et. M., Scitaminaceae. Light brown. Aromatic, spicy, somewhat comphoraceous. Pungent, cooling sensation. Epidermal cells of pericarp of polygonal cells; parenchyma cells of pericarp thin walled containing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; endosperm cells containing oil, minute starch granules and proteid granules. Ceylon cardamom is distinguished from the Malabar cardamom by the presence in the former of thick walled, conical, simple trichomes. Ash 7 per cent. Adulterated with related species and varieties, with orange and lemon seeds. 44. CARUM. Caraway. U. S. Entire; bruised. Kiimmel, G. Carvi, Cumin des pre*s, Fr. The fruit of Carum Carvi L., Umbelliferae. Greenish brown. Aromatic, recalling coriander. Pungent; bitterish, sweetish. Parenchyma of pericarp of thin walled more or less collapsed yellowish cells. Endosperm cells contain fat and proteid granules; cell walls of endosperm cells are of uniform medium thickness, cells isodiametric, closely united. Vascular tissue very sparingly present. No trichomes or sclerenchyma. Yellowish resin particles or lumps. Ash 7.5 per cent. Not generally adulterated. May contain the fruits of other Umbelliferae. Should be free from Conium fruits. 268 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 45. CARTHAMUS. Safflower. Entire. African, False, American, or Dyer's Saffron, E. Saflor, G. Carthame, Fr. The florets (removed from receptacle or torus) of Carthamus tinctorius L., Composite. Deep red. Fragrant; faint odor of cured tobacco. Somewhat bitter; saliva yellow. Epidermal cells with red coloring matter soluble in water. Pollen grains quite large, exine with rather blunt conical projections and three very distinct pores. Ash 5.5 per cent. Much employed as an adulterant of and substitute for Crocus Sativus. Exhausted safflower may be found occasionally. 46. (Fig. 60.) CARYOPHYLLUS. Cloves. U. S. Ground, rather coarse. Gewlirznelken, Nagelein, G. Girofle, Ge*rofle, Clous aromatiques, Fr. The unexpanded flowers of Eugenia aromatica K., Myrtaceae. Deep dark reddish brown. Very aromatic; clove odor. Very pungent, benumbing. Pollen grains triangular mostly immature; very few, rather, short thick walled bast cells; outer parenchyma of closely united cells containing aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate; cuticle enormously thickened; inner parenchyma spongy. Numerous large glands con- taining oil and resin. No starch present but the parenchyma cells contain oil and small granules of tannin. A concentrated solution of potassium hydrate causes the precipitation of acicular and radiately aggregate crystals (eugenol reaction). Ash 6.5 per cent. Quite frequently adulterated; with clove stalks, mother cloves (clove fruit), exhausted cloves, roasted flour, etc. Accurate quantita- tive determinations (microanalytical) of the clove stem adulteration may be made by the methods given in Part I. This problem should be performed by the entire class. VEGETABLE POWDERS 269 Fig. 60. CARYOPHYLLUS. a. Parenchyma cells with oil and granules. b. Bast cells. 'c. Inner spongy parenchyma. d. Oil gland. e. Epidermal tissue, lateral view. /. Crystal bearing parenchyma. g. Pollen grains. i. Epidermal cells, vertical view. j. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. 270 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 47. (Fig. 61.) CASCARA SAGRADA. Cascara Sagrada. U.S. Fl. ex. 40. Sacred bark, Bearberry bark, E. Amerikanische Faulbaumrinde, G. The bark of Rhammus Purshiana D. C., Rhamnacese. Yellow brown. Nearly odorless. Bitter; saliva yellow. Numerous porous, mostly thick- walled sclerenchyma cells. Rather slender, but thick-walled and porous bast fibers, accompanied by numerous prismatic crystal-bearing fibers. Brown cells of the outer bark. Inner bark parenchyma, with small, simple, spherical starch granules and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Ash 5.8 per cent. Adulterated with the bark of related species (see Frangula). VEGETABLE POWDERS 271 Fig. 61. CASCARA SAGRADA. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Bast. c. Parenchyma with starch. d. Crystal bearing fibers. e. Parenchyma and medullary ray. /. -Medullary ray, tangential view. g. Outer cork. h. Parenchyma with aggregate crystals. 272 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 48. (Fig. 62.) CASCARILLA. Cascarilla Bark. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Sweetwood bark, E. Kaskarillrinde, G. Cascarille, Chacrille, Ecorce e*luthe"rienne, Fr. The bark of Croton Eluteria Bennett, Euphorbiaceae. Somewhat dull cinnamon brown. Aromatic, recalling cinnamon; somewhat musk-like when burnt. Bitter, pungent. Outer sclerenchymatous tissue with cells of unequally thickened walls; rather short, thick walled bast cells; bark parenchyma with prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate, small oval simple starch granules and fat. Adulterated with bark of allied species. VEGETABLE POWDERS 273 Fig. 62. CASCARILLA. a. Parenchyma cells, longitudinal view, with crystals and starch. Two bast cells enclosed. 6. Parenchyma with starch and resin. c. Bast cell. e. Outer sclerenchyma, vertical view. /. Prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. g. Parenchyma. h. Outer sclerenchyma, lateral view. is 274 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 49. (Fig. 63.) CASTANEA. Chestnut. Fl. ex. 30. Kastanienblatter, G. Fueilles de chataigener, Fuilles de marronier, Fr. The leaves of Castanea dentata (C. sativa) Miller, Cupuliferse. Bright green. Faintly fragrant. Astringent. Vertical walls of epfidermal cells somewhat wavy ; stomata on lower surface only; stellate trichomes and some glandular trichomes; leaf parenchyma with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Ash 5 per cent. Adulterated with other chestnut leaves and oak leaves. VEGETABLE POWDERS 275 Fig. 63. CASTANEA. Leaf. a. Lower epidermis. b. Upper epidermis. c. Stellate trichomes. d. Glandular trichome. e. Aggregate crystals. /. Spiral ducts. g. Bast fibers. h. Parenchyma. 276 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 50. (Fig. 64.) CAULOPHYLLUM. Blue Cohosh. Fl. ex. 60. Pappoose-root, Squaw-root, Blueberry-root, E. The rhizomes and roots of Caulophyllum thalictroides Mich., Berberidaceae. Rather light brown. Nearly odorless. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Rather large thin walled parenchyma with small simple spherical starch granules; some cork tissue; larger and smaller porous ducts; and tracheids. 51. CERTRARIA. Certraria. Entire. Iceland moss, Lungwort, E. Islandisches Moos, Islandische Flechte, Lungenmoos, G. Lichen (Mousse) d'Islande, Fr. The entire plant, Cetraria islandica Ach., Lichenes. Brownish when dry; bluish green when moist. Practically odorless; faintly musty. Slightly bitter and mucilaginous. The fungal portion consists of a pseudo-parenchyma and hyphal network. The algae (gonidia) are single-celled, spherical, green. Apothecia and spores are rare. Ash 7 per cent. Adulterated with various impurities as pine leaves, mosses and grass leaves. Other species of foliose lichens may be substituted. VEGETABLE POWDERS 277 Fig. 64. CAULOPHYLLUM. a. Parenchyma with starch granules. 6. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Cork cells. d. Large and smaller porous ducts. 278 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 52. (Fig. 65.) CHAMAELIRIUM. Starwort. Fl. ex. 30. Blazing star, Devil's bit, False unicorn-root, E. The rhizomes of Chamaelirium luteum Gray, Melanthaceae. Brownish gray. Nearly odorless. Bitter. Large sclerenchymatous bast cells; smaller tracheid-like sclerenchy- ma cells; isodiametric, rather thin walled sclerenchyma cells; tracheids; parenchyma with small simple spherical starch granules and raphides of calcium oxalate; outer parenchyma with reddish brown contents. 53. CHELIDONIUM. Chelidonium. Fl. ex. 40. Celandine, Tetterwort, E. Sehollkraut, G. Chelidone, Herbe a Phirondelle, Fr. The herb of Chelidonium majus L., Papaveraceae. Dark greenish brown. Fragrant when dry, recalling gaultheria; narcotic, heavy, when fresh or moist. Somewhat pungent, bitterish. Vertical walls of upper and lower epidermis wavy; stomata on lower surface only; simply, long, many-celled, smooth and thin walled trichomes above and below. Glaudum luteum (horn poppy) and G. corniculatum may be sub- stituted for Chelidonium. VEGETABLE POWDERS 279 Fig. 65. CHAMAELIR1UM. a. Reddish brown bast cells. 6. Sclerenchyma. c. Parenchyma with starch and raphides. d. Tracheids. e. Cells with reddish brown contents. 280 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS • 64. CHENOPODIUM. Chenopodium. Fl. ex. 60. American wormseed, E. Amerikanischer Wurmsamen, G. Anserine vermifuge, Fr. The fruit of Chenopodium ambrosioides L., Chenopodiaceae. Light brown. Very disagreeably and markedly terebinthine. Quite pungent and somewhat bitter. Vertical walls of epidermal cells wavy; simple trichomes with usually four basal cells, elongated curved end cell; glandular trichomes; numerous leaf parenchyma cells with crystal sand. Epidermal tissue of pericarp much like that of leaf but no trichomes ; spongy parenchyma. Deep bright reddish brown tissue of testa. Very thin walled endosperm tissue filled with proteid granules and fat. Ash 7 per cent. Adulterated with fruit of allied species. 55. (Fig. 66.) CHICLE. Chicle Gum. The gummy exudate from the evergreen tree Achras sapota L., Sapotaceae. Brown to light reddish brown. Brittle, crumbly masses in dry cold weather; soft, gummy in hot weather. Faintly aromatic, agreeable odor. Tasteless. Gum like. May contain bark tissues, and usually contains some dirt, sand and some tissue elements, and a trace of starch. Partially soluble in alcohol. Upon evaporating a droplet of the alcoholic solution upon a slide and examining under the high power of the microscope numerous globules of uniform size and spherical form will be seen ; resembling very closely a smear of a pure culture of some coccus and streptococcus form. Pouring the alcoholic solution into water, a whitish emulsion forms which rises toward the top portion of the water. The cork cells and cork cell fragments which are generally present are deep reddish brown in color with deep reddish brown cell contents. Ash 4.85 per cent. May contain an excess of sand, dirt and vegetable tissue. VEGETABLE POWDERS 281 Fig. 66. CHICLE GUM. a, globules of gum precipitated upon a slide from an alcohol solution. The globules resemble coccus and streptococcus forms very closely; b, undissolved bits of the gum; c, cork cells, the most constantly present impurity. 282 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 56. (Fig. 67.) CHIMAPHILA. Chimaphila. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Pipsissewa, Prince's pine, Wintergreen, E. Dodenbluthiges Harn- kraut, Wintergriin, G. Herbe de pyrole ombelle*e, Fr. The leaves of Chimaphila umbellata Nutt., Ericaceae. Grayish, greenish brown. Nearly odorless. Astringent, sweetish, bitterish. Vertical walls of lower epidermis wavy and nodular, cuticle much thickened; stomata on lower surface only; leaf parenchyma with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate; no trichomes. Some compound starch granules. Histology similar to that of Gaultheria. VEGETABLE POWDERS 283 ; Fig. 67. CHIMAPHILA. a. Lower epidermis. &. Upper epidermis. c. Upper epidermis, lateral view* d. Parenchyma with starch. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. /. Leaf parenchyma cells with crystals. g. Starch granules. h. Tracheids. 284 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 57. (Fig. 68.) CHIRATA. Chirata. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Chiretta, E. Ostindischer Enzian, Chiretta, G. Chirette, Fr. The herb of Swertia Chirata Hamilton, Gentianaceae. Dark grayish brown. Odorless. Extremely bitter. Leaves with stomata on lower surface only; vertical walls of epidermal cells straight; no trichomes; numerous tracheids and wood fibers. Some medium sized, spheroidal to elliptical, nearly smooth, yellowish brown pollen grains. Histological elements of leaves, and flowers rather indistinct. VEGETABLE POWDERS 285 Fig. 68. CHIRATA. a, b. Epidermal tissue. c. Pollen grains. d. Tracheids. e. f. Parenchyma. 286 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 68. (Fig. 69.) CHONDRUS. Chondrus. Coarsely granular powder. The dried plant of Chondrus crispus Stackhouse, or of Gigartina mamillosa Ag., Gigartinacese. Nearly white, yellowish. Seaweed odor when moistened. Saline, mucilaginous. The tissue elements of the seaweeds generally. Diatoms are gener- ally wanting, in that regard differing from agar. Mold hyphse are very frequently present, due to carelessness in drying. Ash should not exceed 15 per cent. Not generally adulterated but may be of very inferior or bad quality due to lack of proper attention during the drying process. VEGETABLE POWDERS 287 Fig. 69. CHONDRUS CR1SPUS. a, cells of the outer tissue of the thallus; b, cells from the inner portion of the thallus; c, a fungus very frequently present. The hyphse show numerous transverse septse. The spores are elliptical (one being shown in the figure). The diatoms so characteristic of agar are wanting in Chon- drus. 288 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 59. (Fig. 70.) CICHORIUM. Chicory. Succory. Roasted, coarsely powdered. Cichorie, G. Chicoree sauvage, Fr. The roots of Cichorium Intybus L., Compositse. Roasted — -Very dark brown. Unroasted — Light brown. Roasted — -Aromatic, characteristic. Unroasted — Nearly odorless, recalling taraxacum. Roasted—Sweetish, bitterish, astringent. Unroasted — Bitter. Parenchyma with inulin; tracheids; cork tissue; lacticiferous ducts. Woody tissue more abundant in the wild growing chicory. Roots of the cultivated plant fleshy; the parenchyma predominating. Used as an adulterant of coffee or added intentionally to modify the flavor. VEGETABLE POWDERS 289 Fig. 70. CICHORIUM. a. Parenchyma with inulin. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view, with inulin. c. Laticiferous ducts. d. Cork tissue. e. Parenchyma. /. Tracheids. 19 290 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 60. (Fig. 71.) CIMICIFUGA. Cimicifuga. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Black snakeroot, Black cohosh, E. Schwarze Schlangenwurzel, G. Racine d'acte*e a grappes, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Cimicifuga racemosa Nutt. Ramm- culacese. Ash gray. Nearly odorless when dry; heavy, narcotic when moist. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Parenchyma cells rather large containing minute nearly spherical starch granules. The starch granules measure from 6 to 13ju and the polarizing bands are indistinct and are limited to the peripheral por- tion of the granule. Some compound granules are present. The hili are rather large but quite indistinct. Some cork tissue and tracheids. Ash 10 per cent. Rarely adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 291 Fig. 71. CIMICIFUGA. a. Parenchyma cells with starch. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Cork tissue. d. Tracheids. 292 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 61. (Fig. 72.) CINCHONA. Cinchona. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Peruvian bark, Jesuit's bark, E. Chinarinde, G. Quinquina, Fr. The bark of several species of Cinchona, (C. Ledgeriana Moens, C. Calisaya Wedd., and hydrids), Rubiacese. Red cinchona — Bright reddish yellow. Yellow cinchona — Yellowish brown. Faintly aromatic; musty. Very bitter, astringent. Large sclerenchymatous bast cells; few sclerenchyma cells; bark parenchyma with simple starch granules and a few cells with micro- crystalline calcium oxalate. Histologically the powders of red and yellow cinchona are practi- cally identical. With potassium hydrate red cinchona forms a deep blood red coloration, while yellow cinchona forms a yellowish brown coloration. Ash 7.5 per cent. Various bark adulterations may be suspected. There are numer- ous varieties of cinchona and a number of so-called "false cinchonas." Various bitter barks having no botanical relationship to the true cin- chonas have been used as adulterants. The adulterants of cinchona barks are readily recognizable, because of the characteristic bast cells of the true cinchonas. The Grahe test is carried out as follows. Into a clean, dry test tube place about 0.5 gram of the powder and heat over a Bunsen burner flame. As the powder chars black, purplish fumes appear which condense on the sides of the tube. The distinct- ness and volume of the purple fumes are proportionate to the amount of alkaloids present. VEGETABLE POWDERS 293 Fig. 72. CINCHONA. Red. a. Large sclerenchymatous bast cells. b. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Bark parenchyma. d. Cells with crystal sand. e. Medullary ray. 294 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 62. (Fig. 73.) CINNAMOMUM. Cassia cinnamon. Coarse powder, as a spice. Chinese cinnamon, E. Chinesischer Zimmt, Zimmtkassia, G. Casse, Cannelle de Chine, Fr. The bark of several unknown species or varieties of Cinnamomum, Lauracese. Cinnamon brown (reddish brown). Fragrant, aromatic, very characteristic. Sweet, pungent, somewhat astringent. Rather short, thick walled bast cells; sclerenchyma with cell walls unequally thickened; parenchyma cells with compound starch gran- ules; cells with numerous small prismatic crystals; large resin bearing cells; cells of outer bark suberized and with reddish brown contents. Cassia bark contains relatively more starch than do the other varieties of cinnamon barks and relatively less bast tissue. Ash about 6.5 per cent. Cassia cinnamon in particular is likely to be adulterated with inferior cassia barks, clove bark, flour, inert vegetable substances. The quality of cassia cinnamon is proportionate to the number of bast cells present. The very inferior grades show few bast cells, which indicates that the outer older bark tissue predominates. Cassia cinnamons could readily be graded according to the bast cell count. The organoleptic tests, especially taste and odor, are also valuable guides to quality. VEGETABLE POWDERS 295 Fig. 73. CINNAMON. Cassia. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Bast. c. Resin cell. d. Parenchyma cells with starch. e. Crystal bearing cell. /. Outer cork cells. g. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. h. Cells with reddish brown contents. 296 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 63. (Fig. 74.) CINNAMOMUM. Ceylon cinnamon. U. S. Coarse powder, as a spice. Brauner canel, Zeylonzimmt, G. Cannelle de Ceylon, Fr. The rossed bark of Cinnamomum Zylanicum Breyne, Lauraceae. Rather light cinnamon brown. Delicately fragrant and aromatic. Sweet, pungent, slightly astringent. Histology much like that of Cassia Cinnamon; bast cells are more abundant and the cells of the outer cork wanting; starch less abundant. It is possible to distinguish this cinnamon from the other two by the larger sclerenchyma cells and the absence of outer cork and epidermal tissues. Ash 4 per cent. Adulterations as for Cassia cinnamon. VEGETABLE POWDERS 297 Fig. 74. CINNAMON. Ceylon. a. Sclerenchyma cells with unequally thickened walls. 6. Bast cells. c. Parenchyma cells with starch. d. Typical thick-walled parenchyma. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view, with starch and crystals. /. Resin and oil cell. g. Outer cork cells, sparingly present. 298 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 64. (Fig. 75.) CINNAMOMUM. Saigon cinnamon. U.S. Coarse powder. Tinct. 40. Zimmt. G. Canelle, Fr. The bark of Cinnamomum Saigonicum, Lauraceae. Rather dark cinnamon brown. Fragrant, very aromatic. Sweet, very pungent, astringent. Histology much like that of Cassia; bast cells somewhat larger. Starch and sclerenchyma cells much as in Cassia cinnamon. Numer- ous jsmall epidermal cells with thickened walls. Resin cells and crys- tals as in the other cinnamons. Ash 5 "per cent. Adulterations as for Cassia cinnamon. There are several com- mercial varieties of cinnamon which are botanically related to the saigon variety and they constitute the better grades of commercial cinnamons. The very best grades used by the Chinese in their medical practices do not reach the general market because of the high price placed upon them, which is from $15.00 to $75.00 per pound, and even more. The Chinese quality test is based upon the thickness of the oil bearing layer of the bark. VEGETABLE POWDERS 299 Fig. 75. CINNAMON. Saigon. a. Sclerenchyma. 6, c. Bast. d. Epidermis, lateral view. e. Epidermis, vertical view. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view with crystal bearing cell (g) resin cell (h) and starch. 300 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 65. (Fig. 76.) COCA. Coca. Fl. ex. 50. Cocablatter, G. Feuilles de coca, Fr. The leaves of Erythroxylon Coca Lam., Linese. Brownish green to bright green. Somewhat fragrant, tea-like. Astringent, slightly bitter and benumbing. Vertical walls of epidermal cells straight; stomata on lower surface only; outer walls of lower epidermal cells papillose excepting those of the neighboring cells of the stomata; prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; no trichomes. The above description refers to the powder of Bolivian coca. The Peruvian (Truxillo) coca and Brazilian coca are closely similar histologically; the papillose projections of the lower epidermal cells of the Brazillian variety are very distinct and nearly globose. 66. COCCULUS. Fishberry. Kokkelskorner, Fischkorner, G. Coque du Levant, Fr. The fruits of Anamirta paniculata Colebrooke, Menispermacese. Brown. Heavy, narcotic; becoming very fishy and rancid with age. Very bitter. Flattened epidermal cells; parenchyma cells with brown contents. Numerous sclerenchymatous, thick walled, porous wood fibers. Endo- sperm cells thin walled, filled with proteid granules and oil. Acicular and prismatic crystals and crystal aggregates. Ash 5 per cent. Rarely adulterated. The endosperm tissue may become rancid. VEGETABLE POWDERS 301 Fig. 76. COCA. 0. Upper epidermis. b. Lower epidermis. c. Upper epidermis, lateral view. d. Lower epidermis, lateral view. e. Parenchyma. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. g. Spongy tissue of leaf. h. Prismatic crystals. 1, j. Bast cells and crystal bearing fibers. 302 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 67. (Fig. 77.) COLCHICUM CORM. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. The corms of Colchicum autumnale L. Liliaceae. Dry, starchy or mealy feel. Grayish light brown. Odorless. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Large, thin-walled parenchyma cells filled with starch. Vascular tissue (spiral ducts) sparingly present. Some thick-walled porous "parenchyma. Trace of suberized tissue. Starch granules single, two- and three-compound, less commonly four-compound; 7ju to 21/*; hili very prominent, centric, radiately fissured; cross bands marked, right angled but becoming indistinct centrally because of the large fissured hili. Reddish yellow with concentrated sulphuric acid. Ash about 3 per cent. Impurities must not exceed 5 per cent. On account of the characteristic starch granules, adulterations are quite readily detected. None or only a small amount of the starch should be pasty (use of heat to aid drying) . VEGETABLE POWDERS 303 Fig. 77. COLCHICUM. Conn. o. Parenchyma with starch. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Thick-walled, porous parenchyma. d. Spiral ducts. e. Starch granules. /. Phloem tissue 304 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 68. (Fig. 78.) COLCHICUM SEED. U. S. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 50. Origin as for (67).- Hard, granular feel. Seeds very hard and not easily reduced to powder. Light brown to brown color. Odorless. Bitter, somewhat pungent. Rather large endosperm cells with greatly thickened large-porous walls, with granular contents, composed of some starch granules, abundant proteid granules and oil globules. Brown epidermal cells present. Starch granules sparingly present, 2/x to 6/*; cross bands quite distinct, right angled. Ash about 3 per cent. Impurities must not exceed 5 per cent. Adulterations easily detected. There should be no trichomes, bast cells or sclerenchyma cells. VEGETABLE POWDERS 305 Fig. 78. COLCHICUM. Seed. a. Endosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules. 6. Endosperm, longitudinal view. c. Brown epidermal cells. d. Hypodermal cells. 20 306 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 69. (Fig. 79.) COLOCYNTHIS. Colocynth. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct., coarse powder. Bitter apple, E. Koloquinten, G. Coloquinte, Fr. The fruit (peeled and freed from seeds) of Citrullus Colocynthis Schrader, Cucurbitaceae. Very light yellowish brown. Odorless. Extremely bitter. Parenchyma cells very large, thin walled; typical sclerenchyma cells; no characteristic cell contents; vascular tissue sparingly present. Parenchyma cells all broken and collapsed. Ash should not exceed 14 per cent. Powders made from fruits carefully peeled and freed from seeds should show only a very small amount of yellowish epidermal tissue and colorless sclerenchymatous cells of the seeds. VEGETABLE POWDERS 307 Fig. 79. COLOCYNTH. With seeds. a. Epidermal cells. b. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Parenchyma. d. Parenchyma. e. Parenchyma. /. Spiral ducts. g. Epidermis of seed. h. Small celled sclerenchyma. 308 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 70. (Fig. 80.) CONIUM. Conium. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 30. Hemlock, poison or spotted hemlock, E. Schierling, Gefleckter Schierling, G. Grand cique, Cique officinale, Fr. The fruit of Conium maculatum L., Umbelliferae. Yellowish brown. Nearly odorless; strong mouse odor when moistened with strongly alkaline solutions. Somewhat bitter. Endosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules; bast cells from fruit stalk and parenchymatous tissue from pericarp; no trichomes or sclerenchyma. Ash not to exceed 9 per cent. Said to be adulterated with anise fruit (see Anise) and other Umbelliferous fruits. The fruits macerated in a strong solution of sodic hydrate develop a very pronounced mouse (mouse urine) odor. VEGETABLE POWDERS 309 Fig. 80. CONIUM. Seed. a. Endosperm cells with oil and proteid granules. b. Bast fibers. c. Parenchyma. d. Endosperm tissue, lateral view. e. Parenchyma of pericarp. /, g. Parenchyma. 310 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 71. (Fig. 81.) CONVALLARIA. Convallaria. Fl. ex. 60. Lily of the Valley, E. Maiblumen, Maiglocklein, G. Muguet, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Convallaria majalis L., Liliaceae. Dull brown. Somewhat fragrant. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Parenchyma cells medium size, many of the nuclei still visible; acicular crystals present; tracheids; spiral ducts; some cork tissue. Epidermal cells (of rhizomes and leaf) elongated with nuclei still visible. Ash 9 per cent. May be adulterated with Polygonatum mulliflorum (European Solomon's seal) and Smilacina racemosa (false Solomon's seal). VEGETABLE POWDERS 311 Fig. 81. CONVALLARIA. a, b. Parenchyma with raphides and showing nuclei. c. Cork tissue. d. Tracheids. e. Spiral ducts. 312 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 72. CORIANDER. Coriander. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Koriander, G. Coriandre, Fr. The fruit of Coriandrum sativum L., Umbelliferse. Light brown. Peculiarly aromatic; recalling carum. Pungent. Some yellowish thin- walled parenchyma ; numerous groups of thick walled, porous, elongated bast-like cells. Endosperm of rather small cells; walls medium in thickness, filled with oil and proteid granules. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. No sclerenchyma. Ash 7 per cent. Adulterated with stem and leaf fragments. Frequently of inferior quality. 73. (Fig. 82.) CORNUS. Cornus. Fl. ex. 60. Dogwood bark, E. Grossbliithige Kornelrinde, Hornbaumrinde, G. Ecorce de carnouiller a grandes fleurs, Fr. The root bark of Cornus florida L., Cornaceae. Bright pinkish brown. Odorless. Bitter, astringent. Rather large porous and thick walled sclerenchyma alternating with smaller, less porous sclerenchyma containing a granular sub- stance; parenchyma with prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. VEGETABLE POWDERS 313 Fig. 82. CORNUS. a. Sclerenchyma, some with granular contents. b. Parenchyma, with crystals. c. d. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. e. Prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. 314 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 74. (Fig. 83.) GOTO. Goto Bark. Fl. ex. 60. Para bark, E. Cotorinde, G. Ecorce de Goto, Fr. The bark of some botanically unknown South American tree, perhaps belonging to the Lauracese or Anacardiaceae. Rather deep cinnamon brown. Aromatic, recalling cinnamon; camphoraceous. Very pungent, somewhat bitter. Very large elongated sclerenchyma cells; smaller, isodiametric sclerenchyma cells ; cell walls of all sclerenchyma cells greatly thickened and porous, some of them containing a granular substance ; parenchyma cells containing more or less spherical, granular reddish brown, oily bodies; numerous larger cells containing yellow resin; some starch granules, mostly simple. Goto bark is less common than paracoto and the latter is quite generally substituted for coto . Various other barks are also substituted for coto. (See Paracoto). Both coto and paracoto barks appear to have completely disappeared from the market within recent years. VEGETABLE POWDERS 315 Fig. 83. GOTO. a. Large, long sclerenchyma cells. b. Large rectangular sclerenchyma cells. c. Sclerenchyma cells with granular contents. d. Medium sized sclerenchyma cells. e. Thin walled sclerenchyma. /, g. Elongated sclerenchyma. h. Sclerenchyma with lamellar markings. i. Dark reddish brown granular resinous matter. j. Yellow resin. k. Parenchyma. I. Starch granules. 316 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 75. (Fig. 84.) CROCUS. Saffron. Powdered. Entire. Spanish saffron, E. Safran, Spanischer Safran, G. Safran, Fr. The stigmas and upper parts of the styles of Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae. Deep red. Should not be oily. Aromatic; recalling the odor of iodoform. Bitter, somewhat pungent; saliva a bright orange yellow. Cells elongated, thin-walled, filled with red coloring matter. Large, very thin-walled bladdery stigmatic trichomes. Pollen grains few, very large, spherical; exine thick, colorless; contents reddish, granular. Ash should not exceed 5 per cent. Adulterated with basal portions of styles, dyed floral parts, as stamens and petals. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) is frequently an adulterant of or substitute for crocus. Also adulterated with chalk, gypsum, colored emery, oil, glycerine, etc. VEGETABLE POWDERS 317 Fig. 84. CROCUS. a. Pollen grains. b. Tissue of style, cells with red coloring matter. c. Trichome of stigma. 318 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 76. (Fig. 85.) CUBEBA. Cubeb. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. Kubeben, G. Cubebe, poivre a queue, Fr. The unripe fruit of Cubeba Cubeba L. fil., Piperaceae. Deep dark brown; somewhat oily, granular. Characteristically aromatic; somewhat camphoraceous. Pungent, quite bitter. Thick- walled, very porous sclerenchyma cells; some sclerenchyma- tous tracheids; endosperm cells with minute simple spherical starch granules; larger, somewhat elongated cells, containing oil. Ash 7 per cent. Powder deteriorates rapidly. Adulterated with cubeb stems (indi- cated by the presence of small parenchyma cells and abundance of vascular tissue and tracheids); black pepper and other fruits of the Piperaceae; Rhamnus Cathartica fruit, Juniper communis fruit, allspice; powdered nut shells, etc. VEGETABLE POWDERS 319 Fig. 85. CUBEBA. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Endosperm, with oil globules and proteid granules. c. Cells of pericarp. d. Parenchyma of stalk. e. Epidermal cells, vertical view. /. Tracheids. 320 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 77. (Fig. 86.) Curcuma. Fine powder. As a spice. Turmeric. The Rhizomes of Curcuma longa L., Scitamineae. Dry feel. Bright orange yellow which disappears in the presence of alkalies. Aromatic but not strongly so, recalling ginger. Pungent, somewhat bitter. Typical parenchyma cells filled with the agglurinated pasty starch granules (due to placing in boiling hot water preparatory to drying), forming masses equal in size to lumen of cells. A few unchanged starch granules; simple, irregularly ovoid with the small hilum (a mere dot) at the extreme tip of the abruptly narrowing end ; 30/z to 40/x ; lamellation distinct, polarizing bands rathet indistinct. A few simple trichomes may be found. Yellow color prevails throughout. Ash 8 per cent. Impurities should not exceed 5 per cent. Not generally adulterated but very much used as an adulterant (in ground mustard, prepared mustard, etc.), and as a coloring sub- stance. An ingredient in curry powders; also forming a well-known test reagent in chemical laboratories. VEGETABLE POWDERS 321 Fig. 86. CURCUMA. a. Parenchyma with pasty starch. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Masses of pasty starch. d. Ducts. e. Parenchyma. /. Normal starch granules. 21 322 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 78. (Fig. 87.) CUSSO. Kousso. Fl. ex. 40. Brayera, Kusso, E. Koso, Kusso, Cusso, G. Kousso, Fr. The female (pistillate) flowering tops of Hagenia abyssinica Gmelin, Rosaceae. Rather light brown. Fragrant, recalling chamomile; somewhat heavy. Bitter, pungent. Epidermal cells with straight and wavy vertical walls; simple, somewhat twisted, single celled, trichomes; spherical pollen grains with three pores each; many celled glandular trichomes; typical aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Numerous pollen grains and parts of anthers filled with pollen indicates adulteration with male flowers. VEGETABLE POWDERS 323 Fig. 87. CUSSO. 0. Lower epidermis. 6. Upper epidermis. c. Trichomes. d. Glandular trichome. e. Parenchyma. /. Tracheids. g. Spongy tissue cells of leaf. h. Spiral ducts. 1. Pollen grains. 324 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 79. (Fig. 88.) CYPRIPEDIUM. Cypripedium. Fl. ex. 60. Ladies' slipper, American valerian, E. Gelbfrauenschuh, G. Valeriane americane, Cypripede jaune, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Cypripedium pubescens Wild., and C. parviflorum Salisbury, Orchidaceae. Light grayish brown (like aconite). Odor disagreeable, heavy, recalling valerian. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Parenchyma cells large, thick- walled, porous; raphides; some small, simple spherical starch granules; scalariform tracheids; porous tra- cheids; some cork tissue. May be adulterated with roots and rhizomes of other plants. 80. DELPHINIUM. Larkspur. Seed. Fl. ex. 40. Lark's claw, Knight's spur, E. Rittersporn, Lerchenklaue, Horn- kummel, G. Pied d'alouette, Fr. The seeds of Delphinium consolida L., Ranunculaceae. Very dark; somewhat oily. Disagreeable nauseous heavy odor; rancid when old. Bitter, pungent. Outer cells of seed coat quite large; black, indistinct collapsed, thin-walled parenchyma. Endosperm cells large, thick-walled very porous and somewhat collenchymatous, filled with granular proteid matter and fat. The seeds of related species are frequently substituted for the above. VEGETABLE POWDERS 325 Fig. 88. CYPRIPEDIUM PUBESCENS. a, c, d. Parenchyma cells and raphides. b. Cork cells. e. Parenchyma with starch granules. /. Tracheids. 326 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 81. DEXTRINUM. Dextrin. A dry fine powder. British gum, E. Dextrin, G. Dextrin, Fr. Derived from starches. (See starch.) Rather light brown, quite mobile. Nearly white, yellowish brown tinge, less mobile (white dextrin). Odorless. Sweetish. Outline of granules indistinct, quite irregular, hili and stratifica- tion quite distinct. The histological characteristics are still sufficiently marked to determine the kind of starch employed. (See starches.) In the United States corn starch is employed. White dextrin con- sists largely of unmodified starch granules; no high temperature is employed in its preparation. 82. (Fig. 89.) DIGITALIS. Digitalis. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Foxglove, E. Fingerhut, G. Digitale pourpre*e, Grand digitale, Fr. The leaves (second years' growth) of Digitalis purpurea L., Scro- phulariaceae. Dull green. Faintly fragrant when dry; heavy, nauseous, when moist. Bitter. Vertical walls of upper and lower epidermis wavy, those of the lower more so than the upper; stomata on lower surface only; simple, many celled, rather large trichomes with minute warty outer mark- ings; some glandular trichomes with two secreting cells; no crystal bearing cells. Ash 8.5 per cent. Adulterated with leaves of first year's growth; leaves of Verbas- cum Thapsus, (large, branched trichomes); Conyza squarrosa; Sym- phytum officinale; Inula Helenium; and common Comfrey. The his- tology of first and second year leaves requires further careful compara- tive study. The leaves of the first year plants contain fewer trichomes than the second year leaves and it is probable that a careful compara- tive trichome count will make it possible to detect admixtures. VEGETABLE POWDERS 327 Fig. 89. DIGITALIS. a. Upper epidermis. b. Parenchyma. c. Lower epidermis. d. Trichomes*. e. Glandular trichomes. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 328 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 83. (Fig. 90.) DULCAMARA. Dulcamara. Fl. ex. 60. Bittersweet, woody nightshade, E. Bittersussstengel, G. Tiges de douce-amere (de morelle grimpante), Fr. The young branches of Solanum Dulcamara L., Solanaceae. Light yellowish brown. Faintly heavy, recalling tobacco. Bitter, afterwards sweet which is very persistent. Typical parenchyma; tracheids; porous ducts; some cork tissue; a few small pointed simple trichomes; porous medullary ray cells. Many of the parenchyma cells filled with crypto-crystalline calcium oxalate. A few typical bast cells distributed through outer paren- chyma. Epidermal cells polygonal; stomata few. Said to be adulterated with stems of Humulus Lupulus and Loni- cera Periclymenum. Much employed as an adulterant of belladonna. VEGETABLE POWDERS 329 \ Fig. 90. DULCAMARA. a. Epidermis. b. Epidermis, lateral view. c. Tracheids or wood fibers and porous ducts. d. Parenchyma, with crypto-crystals. e. Medullary ray. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view, with crystals. g. Cork. h. Typical bast. i. Trichome. 330 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 84. ERGOTA. Ergota. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct., coarse powder. Spurred rye, blasted rye, E. Mutterkorn, Hungerkorn, Kornmutter, Zapfenkorn, G. Ergot de seigle, Ble" cornu, Fr. The mycelium of Claviceps purpurea Tuslane, Hypocreacete, dis- placing the seeds of Secale cereale L., Graminese. Dark ash gray tinged with purple. Somewhat musty; heavy, rancid, herring brine odor when old. Somewhat sweetish and pungent; nearly tasteless. Consists of a much intertwined hyphal tissue. The outer layers of a small-celled pseudo-parenchyma with dark cell-walls. Small fragments of hyphse only, no elongated elements visible. Abundant oil globules may be seen upon heating the slide mount. A small amount of rye starch will usually be found, traceable to the few normal rye grains which are generally present in the crude drug. >> . Ash should not exceed 4.5 per cent. The powdered article deteriorates very rapidly. Should be free from foreign mold elements and yeast cells. May be adulterated with corn smut. There should be no vascular tissue or any other true vege- table tissue or epidermal structures. 85. (Fig. 91.) ERIODICTYON. Mountain Balm. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Consumptives' weed, Bear's weed, E. The leaves of Eriodictyon Calif ornicum G., Hydrophyllacese. Light brownish green. Somewhat aromatically fragrant; recalling tea or hay. Sweetish, bitterish, sticky (resin). Upper epidermal cells comparatively large, thick-walled with linear cuticular markings, vertical walls straight. Lower epidermal cells similar in form, but much smaller, and not readily seen because of the numerous trichomes. Numerous simple, single-celled, thick- walled, elongated, wavy trichomes. Some sessile glandular trichomes. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Ash 7 per cent. Mixed with Eriodictyon tomentosum which has short trichomes. VEGETABLE POWDERS 331 Fig. 91. ERIODICTYON. a. Trichomes. b. Upper epidermis. c. Lower epidermis. d. Glandular trichomes. e. Upper epidermis, lateral view. /. Parenchyma with crystals, longitudinal view. g. Parenchyma. h. Crystals. 332 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 86. (Fig. 92.) EUCALYPTUS. Eucalyptus Leaves. U. S. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 30. Eukalyptusblatter, G. Feuilles d'eucalyptus, Fr. The older (sickle-shaped) leaves of Eucalyptus globulus Lab., Myrtacese. Bright green. Aromatic, camphoraceous. Pungent, bitter, somewhat astringent. Epidermal cells (upper and lower) polygonal, rather thick- walled; stomata on both surfaces but guard cells not visible because of the enormously thickened cuticle. Some sclerenchyma cells and scleren- chymatous fibers from petiole. Prismatic and aggregate crystals quite numerous. Ash 6.5 per cent. Adulterated with leaves of allied plants. The leaves from the young plant are dorsi ventral, stomata on lower surface only and guard cells visible because the cuticle is much thinner. VEGETABLE POWDERS 333 Fig. 92. EUCALYPTUS. a, 6. Epidermal tissues. c. Sclerenchyma cells. d. Parenchyma with crystals. e. Prismatic and aggregate crystals. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. g. Crystal bearing fiber. h. Epidermal cells. Profile view. i. Tracheid. 334 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 87. (Figs. 93 and 94.) EUONYMUS. Euonymus. Fl. ex. 60." Extract 30. Wahoo, Spindle tree, Burning bush, E. Spillbaumrinde, Spindel- baum, Pfaffenbluthen, G. Ecorce de fusain (de bonnet de pretre), Fr. The root bark of Euonymus atropurpureus Jacquin, Celastrinese. Light brown. Nearly odorless. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Rather thin-walled medium sized parenchyma with simple spherical starch granules and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Ducts and tracheids from the wood; cork tissue. Ash of stem bark 11 per cent. Ash of root bark 12 per cent. The stem bark (Fig. 93) can be distinguished readily by absence of starch; presence of typical bast fibers, and numerous larger crystals of calcium oxalate. Fig. 93. EUONYMUS. Stem Bark. a. Parenchyma with large aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. b. Typical thick-walled porous bast. c. Cork. d. Phlcem bast shown in transverse section (e). f. Crystal. VEGETABLE POWDERS 335 Fig. 94. EUONYMUS. Root Bark. a. Parenchyma with starch granules and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. b, c. Cork tissue, top view and lateral view. d. Cork. e. Ducts and tracheids. /. Parenchyma with starch, longitudinal view. g. Starch and crystals. 336 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 88. (Fig. 95.) EUPATORIUM. Eupatorium. Fl. ex. 30. Thorough wort, Boneset, Indian sage, E. Durchwachsdost, Durch- wachener Wasserdost, G. Herbe d'eupatoire perfoliee, Herbe a a" fievre, Herbe parfaite, Fr. The flowering tops and leaves of Eupatorium perfoliatum L., Compositse. Rather pale yellowish green. Somewhat fragrant, hay-like. Quite bitter, slightly astringent. Vertical walls of upper and lower leaf epidermis thin, wavy. Stomata on lower surface only. Many celled, rather thick- walled, simple trichomes; bladdery glandular trichomes with single large resin bearing end cell. Pappus fragments and pollen grains. Ash 7.5 per cent. Not generally adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 337 Fig. 95. EUPATORIUM. a. Lower epidermis. 6. Upper epidermis. c. Pappus. d. Trichomes. e. Glandular trichomes. /. Pollen grains. 22 338 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 89. (Fig. 96.) FOENICULUM. Fennel. U. S. Entire; bruished or fine meal. Fennel-fruit, Fennel-seed, E. Fenchel, G. Fenouil, Fr. The fruit of Foeniculum vulgare Miller, Umbelliferse. Dull yellowish brown. Aromatic, anise odor. Sweetish, pungent. Outer tissue of pericarp of colorless reticulate cells; middle paren- chyma of large brown cells. Reticulate tracheids. Endosperm cells colorless, medium size, rather thick walled porous, filled with fat and granular proteid matter. No trichomes. Ash 9 per cent. Compare histology of German or Saxon, sweet or Roman, and wild or bitter varieties. Compare with anise. VEGETABLE POWDERS 339 Fig. 96. FOENICULUM. a. Endosperm cells bearing a few oil globules and crenate proteid granules. 6. Parenchyma cells of pericarp. Walls peculiarly pitted, not shown in drawing. c. Deep reddish brown cells forming oil glands of pericarp. d. Thin-walled cells. e. Reticulate tissue. 340 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 90. (Fig. 97.) FOEUM GRAECUM. Fenugreek. Moderately fine. Bockshornsamen, G. Fenugrec, Senegrain, Fr. The seeds of Trigonella foecum graecum L., Leguminosae. Very pale yellowish brown. Very strong characteristic odor. Bitter, mucilaginous. Epidermis of vertically elongated cells with granular contents; semilunar hypodermal cells with outer convex walls much thicker, of yellowish color; some thin- walled parenchyma containing granular particles, followed by an inner dermal layer. Endosperm cells, rather thin-walled, filled with proteid granules and oil globules. VEGETABLE POWDERS 341 Fig. 97. FENUGREEK. a. Epidermis, lateral view. 6. Epidermis, vertical view. c. Hypoderm. d. Parenchyma. e. Endosperm, outer. /. Parenchyma. g. Outer tissue. i, j. Parenchyma. 342 POWDEKED VEGETABLE DRUGS 91. (Fig. 98.) FRANGULA. Frangula. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Alder, Buckthorn, E. Faulbaumrinde, G. Ecorce de Bourdaine, Bourgene, Fr. The bark of Rhamnus Frangula L., Rhamnacese. Yellow brown. Nearly odorless. Sweetish, bitter, somewhat mucilaginous; saliva yellow. Outer bark cells filled with deep reddish brown coloring matter. Inner bark cells without coloring matter, with a few small starch granules, some with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Typical thick-walled bast cells and prismatic crystal bearing fibers. Ash 4.5 per cent. Adulterated with barks of allied species. VEGETABLE POWDERS 343 Fig. 98. FRANGULA. a. Parenchyma with reddish brown contents. b. Crystal bearing fibers. c. Outer cork. d. Parenchyma with crystals. e. Parenchyma. /. Parenchyma. g. Bast. 344 POWDEEED VEGETABLE DRUGS 92. (Fig. 99.) GALLA. Nutgall. U. S. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 40. Aleppo galls, Galls, E. Gallen, Gallapfel, G. Galle de chene, Noix de galle, Fr. Warty (sub-globular) excresences upon Quercus infectoria Oliv., Fagaceae, caused by the punctures, eggs and larvae of Cynips Gallae tinctoriae, Insecta. Ash gray. Inodorous. Very astringent. Large celled, thin-walled parenchyma and some rather thick-walled parenchyma. Compound starch granules. Yellowish porous scleren- chyma with walls of medium thickness. Some parenchyma cells contain aggregate and prismatic crystals and oval or bean-shaped dark brown tannin bodies. Much adulterated, ground olive pits and nut shells being most commonly employed. VEGETABLE POWDERS 345 00,0 0<3 Fig. 99. GALLA. Aleppo. a. Sclerenchyma. 6. Parenchyma with starch and tannin bodies. c. Parenchyma. d. Parenchyma with crystals. e. Tannin bodies. /. Starch granules. g. Spiral duct. 346 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 93. (Fig. 100.) GALLA. Chinese Galls. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 40. Chinese galls, Japanese galls, E. Chinesische Gallapfel, Japanesische Gallapfel, G. Galls produced upon the leaves and leaf stalks of Rhus semialata Murray, by Aphis chinensis, Insecta. Brownish ash gray. Odorless. Very astringent. Numerous mostly single-celled trichomes, rather thick-walled, pointed ends recurved. Thin-walled parenchyma with a few mostly simple starch granules. Greenish yellow resin masses. The two galls are markedly different histologically. Compare with other varieties. The Japanese and Chinese galls are closely similar histologically. VEGETABLE POWDERS 347 Fig. 100. GALLA. Chinese. a. Trichomes. fc. Epidermis. c. Yellow resin bodies. d. Parenchyma. e. Spiral ducts. /. Parenchyma, with starch. 348 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 94. (Fig. 101.) GAMBIR. Gambir. Catechu. The dried extract from decoctions of the leaves and twigs of Ourou- paria Gambir Bail., Rubiacese. Brown color. Practically odorless. Bitter and very astringent. The gum particles gradually dissolve in the water mount, showing a crystalline structure, the fragments of which closely resemble bac- teria. True bacteria may also be present. Soluble in water as well as in alcohol. The diagnostic inclusions are the simple, mostly single- celled brownish rather thick-walled trichomes, some of which may be broken. Ash about 5 per cent. Vegetable tissue should be wanting excepting the above described trichomes. There should be no distinct angular resin particles, nor many larger prismatic crystals. Sand and dirt may be present in excess. VEGETABLE POWDERS 349 Fig. 101. GAMBIR. a, particles of the gum mounted in water, showing the fine somewhat striate irregular needle-like crystalline structure; I, the diagnostic simple, brownish rather thick-walled mostly single-celled trichomes. The thickening of the wall may extend entirely across the lumen giving the resemblance of a two- to three- celled trichome; c, larger crystalline fragments of the gambir. 350 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 95. GAULTHERIA. Gaultheria. Fl. ex. 40. Wintergreen, Teaberry, Partridgeberry, Boxberry, Chickenberry, E. Canadischer Thee, Bergthee, G. Feuilles de gaultherie, Th6 du Canada, Th6 de terre-neuve, Fr. The leaves of Gaultheria procumbenslj., Ericaceae. Greenish yellow brown. Very pleasantly fragrant. Slightly bitter, very astringent. Histology closely similar to that of chirnaphila (see Chimaphila) , excepting that each stoma is surrounded by two neighboring cells instead of four to five, and that crystals or calcium oxalate are few or practically wanting in the leaf parenchyma. 96. (Fig. 102.) GELSEMIUM. Gelsemium. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct., 60. Yellow jessamine or jasmine, E. • Gelsemie, Giftjasmine, G. Jasmin sauvage, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Gelesemium sempervirens Aiton, Log- aniacese. Very pale brown. Somewhat narcotic, heavy. Very bitter. Considerable cork tissue. Parenchyma cells rather small, with small spherical simple starch granules and prismatic crystals of cal- cium oxalate. Numerous tracheids and large porous ducts. Ash 2.5 per cent. Rarely adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 351 Fig. 102. GELSEMIUM. a. Parenchyma with starch. b. Epidermal tissue. c. Parenchyma. d. Tracheids and medullary ray. e. f. Tracheids. g. Porous duct. h. Parenchyma. 352 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 97. (Fig. 103.) GENTIANA. Gentian. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. comp. 40. Enzianwurzel, Bitterwurzel, Rother Enzian, Gelber Enzian, G. Racine de gentiane (de gentiane jaune), Fr. The roots of Gentiana lutea L., Gentianaceae. Dull yellow brown. Very faintly fragrant. Very bitter, sweetish. Beneath the brownish outer corky tissue is a layer of thick-walled collenchymatous tissue followed by the large celled, loosely united, collapsed empty parenchyma. Mostly typically reticulate and some porous yellowish ducts. No starch. Ash 3 per cent. Adulterated with roots of allied species. Said to be carelessly adulterated with aconite roots, belladonna roots, white hellebore and orris root. VEGETABLE POWDERS 353 Fig. 103. GENTIAN. a. Parenchyma. b. Collenchymatous tissue. c. Large reticulate ducts. d. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. e. Tracheids. 354 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 98. (Fig. 104.) GERANIUM. Geranium. Fl. ex. 30. Cranesbill, E. Fleckstorchschnabel, G. Racine de geranium macule, Bec-de-grue tachete, Pied-de-corneille, Fr. The rhizomes of Geranium maculatum L., Geraniacese. Rather dull grayish brown. Odorless. Very astringent. Some cork tissue; large loosely united typical parenchyma cells with rather large, simple, oval and somewhat irregular starch granules, hili and stratification indistinct. Some parenchyma cells bearing large aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Some thick-walled porous, somewhat elongated cells. Reticulate and porous ducts. Adulterated with roots of Potentilla Tormentilla and Polygonum Bistorta. VEGETABLE POWDERS 355 Fig. 104. GERANIUM. a. Parenchyma with starch and crystals. 6. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Thick-walled porous parenchyma. e. Cork. /. Starch granules. g. Ducts and tracheids. 356 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 99. (Fig. 105.) GLYCYRRHIZA. Glycyrrhiza. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Meal. Liquorice, Licorice, Spanish liquorice, E. Spaniches Sfissholz, G. Reglisse, Bois de reglisse, Bois douce, Racine douce, Fr. The roots and rhizomes (underground stems) of Glycyrrhiza glabra typica R et H., and G. glabra glandulifera R et H., Leguminosae. Bright, pale yellow. Nearly odorless, somewhat heavy. Very sweet, slightly pungent and somewhat mucilaginous. Parenchyma cells medium sized, typical, rather thin-walled and loosely united; filled with simple, small oval starch granules. Typical bast plentiful, accompanied by numerous crystal bearing fibers. Numerous parenchyma cells with prismatic crystals. Porous and reticulate ducts. The unpeeled licorice shows cork tissue. The ash of the peeled roots should not exceed 6 per cent., and that of the unpeeled roots should not exceed 8 per cent. There is no recognizable histological difference between the Spanish and Russian varieties. Cork tissue is of course wanting in the peeled article. Trimmings and milling refuse may be used as adulterants. VEGETABLE POWDERS 357 Fig. 105. GLYCYRRfflZA. a. Parenchyma. b. Parenchyma with crystals and starch. c. Bast. d. Crystal bearing fibers. e. Crystals. /. Ducts and tracheids. g. Cork tissue. 358 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 100. (Fig. 106.) GOSSYPIUM ROOT BARK, bark. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Cotton root Baumwollrinde, Baumwoll-Wurzelrinde, G. Ecorce de la racine de cotonnier, Fr. The root bark of Gossypium herbaceum L., Malvaceae. Light brown. Odorless. Slightly pungent, astringent and mucilaginous. Some large celled cork. Thin-walled inner parenchyma with simple and compound starch granules and aggregate crystals of cal- cium oxalate. Numerous long slender bast cells. Some tissue with reddish brown coloring matter. Porous tracheids and ducts. Ash 5.5 per cent. Rarely adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 359 Fig. 106. GOSSYPIUM. o. Bast. b Cells with reddish brown contents. c. Parenchyma. d. Cork, lateral view. e. Cork, vertical view. /. Tracheids and ducts. g. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. h. Starch granules. 360 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 101. (Fig. 107.) GRANATUM. Pomegranate. U. S. Root bark. Fl. ex. 60. Coarse powder. Bark of pomegranate, E. Granatrinde, G. Grenadier, Ecorce de balaustier, Fr. The root bark of Punica Granatum L., Punicaceae. The stem bark is also used. Very light yellowish brown. Odorless. Bitter, astringent. Outer cork tissue; middle parenchyma small celled, collenchyma- tous; inner parenchyma small celled bearing numerous aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate arranged in rows; some prismatic crystals. A few rather large, thick-walled, porous, more or less branching, color- less sclerenchyma cells. No bast. Ash 15 per cent. Histology of stem bark identical with that of root bark. Adulter- ated with bark of Buxus sempervirens and Berberis vulgaris. 102. GRANATUM. Pomegranate. Stem bark. Names and origin as for root bark. Very light brown. Odor and taste as for root bark. Histology identical with that of root bark. The presence of spores (of fungi and lichens) and hyphal remnants would indicate the stem bark, as spot fungi and lichens do not grow on the root bark. Ash 14 per cent. May be intermixed with root bark. VEGETABLE POWDERS 361 Fig. 107. GRANATUM. Root Bark. a. Sclerenchyma cells. b. Parenchyma and sclerenchyma. c. d. Parenchyma, longitudinal view, with crystals. e. Parenchyma. /. Medullary ray. g. Outer bark. h. Parenchyma. 362 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 103. (Fig. 108.) GRINDELIA. Grindelia. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Grindelie, G. Grindelie, Fr. The leaves and flowering tops of Grindelia camporum G. and G. cuneifolia Nutt., Composite. Pale yellowish brown. Somewhat fragrant, camphoraceous. Bitter, somewhat pungent; very sticky (resin). Vertical walls of upper and lower epidermal cells somewhat wavy; stomata on both surfaces. Rigid, many celled simple trichomes and some depressed sessile, many celled glandular trichomes. Prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Some pollen grains typical of the order compositae. Ash 6 per cent. Various related plants substituted for the above. Compare the two official species. The above description refers to the G. camporum. VEGETABLE POWDERS 363 J, Fig. 108. GRINDELIA. a. Epidermis. b. Trichomes. c. Glandular trichomes. d. Epidermis, lateral view. e. Pollen grains. /. Parenchyma cells with crystals. g. Epidermis, lateral view. h. Parenchyma. i. Parenchyma with aggregate crystals. j. Tracheids. 364 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 104. GUAIACUM. Guaiacum Wood. Fl. ex. 60. Rasped. Guajakholz, Pockholz, Franzosenholz, G. Bois de guaiac, Fr. The wood of Guaiacum officinale L., Zygophyllacese. Olive green. Faintly aromatic. Nearly tasteless, faintly pungent. Medullary rays of a single layer of cells, about six cells high. The predominating tissue consists of very thick-walled wood fibers through which are scattered large resin ducts with olive green, sometimes brown, resin. No starch; prismatic crystals are sparingly present. While the wood is rarely if ever adulterated, the resin obtained therefrom is frequently adulterated. 106. (Fig. 109.) GUARANA. Guarana. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Guarana, G. and Fr. The crushed, partially roasted and agglutinated seeds of Paullinia Cupana K., Sapindacese. Rather bright reddish brown. Faintly aromatic, recalling chocolate. Quite bitter, astringent. Medium sized to rather large typical, brown or brownish paren- chyma cells filled with pasty starch. Some rather small, brown sclerenchyma cells. Numerous lumps of pasty starch of the dimen- sions of the cell lumen. Ash 1.5 per cent. Said to be adulterated with starch (cassava starch) and occasion- ally with cocoa seeds. VEGETABLE POWDERS 365 Fig. 109. OUARANA. a. Parenchyma with pasty starch. 6. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Masses of pasty starch. d. Small sclerenchyma cells. 366 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 106. HAEMATOXYLON. Logwood. Fl. ex. 30. Rasped. Blauholz, Blutholz, Campechenholz, G. Bois de Campeche, Bois d'Inde, Bois de sang, Fr. The wood of Haematoxylon campechianum L., Leguminosae. Very dark purplish. Faintly aromatic or fragrant. Faintly sweetish, astringent, colors saliva pinkish red. Predominating tissue of deep brown, thick-walled wood fibers. Medullary rays mostly of one, also of two and three layers of cells, ten to fifteen and more cells high. Large resin ducts with deep reddish brown resin. Some small thin-walled cells bearing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. No starch. Compare the histology of the different varieties — Campeachy, Honduras, St. Domingo and Jamaica logwoods. The cell fragments turn blue in the presence of copper — a delicate copper test. 107. (Fig. 110.) HAMAMEUS. Hamamelis. Fl. ex. 30. Witch-hazel, E. Hamamelis, Zauberhazel, G. Hamamelis, Fr. The leaves of Hamamelis virginiana L., Hamamelidaceae. Dull green. Fragrant, hay-like. Quite astringent, somewhat bitter. Stomata on lower surface only, vertical wall wavy. Lower epider- mal cells somewhat smaller than upper, Large aggregate (stellate clusters) trichomes of six to eight thick-walled cells. Scattered through the leaf parenchyma are found a few peculiar branching sclerenchyma cells like those of tea. Prismatic crystals plentiful. Palisade cells and spongy tissue cells resin bearing. Ash 6 per cent. Rather rarely adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 367 Fig. 110. HAMAMEL1S. a. Lower epidermis. b. Upper epidermis. c. Sclerenchyma cell from leaf blade. c. Stellate trichome. d. Parenchyma with crystals. e. Parenchyma. /. Crystal bearing fibers. g. Prismatic crystals. h. Epidermis of leaf, upper. 368 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 108. HEDEOMA. Hedeoma. U. S. Entire in infusions. Pennyroyal, E. Amerikanischer Polei, G. Pouliot americain, Fr. The leaves and tops of Hedeoma pulegioides Pers., Labiatse. Brownish green. Mint-like, aromatic. Pungent, bitterish, somewhat cooling. Leaves with stomata above and below, vertical walls of epidermal cells thin, wavy. Simple trichomes mostly two celled, rather thick- walled, somewhat curved. Glandular trichomes typical of the mints (see Mentha). Stem tissue (epidermal, collenchyma, vascular, paren- chyma) more or less abundantly present. 109. HELLEBORUS. Hellebore. Fl. ex. 60. Black hellebore, Christmas rose, E. Schwarze Nieswurzel, Weih- nachtswurzel, Winterrose, G. Ellebore noir, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Helleborus niger L., Ranunculacese. Rather light brown. Somewhat disagreeable, rancid, recalling senega. Sweetish, quite bitter, pungent. Outer dark cork cells followed by a layer of dark olive greenish cells. Parenchyma medium sized, typical, containing fat and small simple spherical starch granules. . Numerous reticulate ducts and tracheids of small diameter. Helleborus viridis is histologically similar to the above. 110. (Fig. 111.) HUMULUS. Hops. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 20. • Hopfen, G. Houblon, Fr. The fruit scales (strobiles) of Humulus Lupulus L., Moraceae. Light yellowish brown. Peculiar, aromatic; valerian-like with age. Bitter, somewhat astringent. Vertical walls of the epidermal cells of strobile scales wavy; upper epidermal cells larger than lower; stomata on lower surface only. Scale parenchyma typically spongy, bearing small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Single celled, simple trichomes. Large bright, yellow glands (lupulin). Insect (aphidae) remnants are usually also found. Ash 6 per cent. Not generally adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 369 Fig. 111. HUMULUS. a. Gland (lupulin). b. Upper epidermal cells. c. Epidermal tissue with stomata. d. Trichomes. e. Parenchyma with crystals. /. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. g. Spongy tissue cells with crystals. 370 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 111. (Fig. 112.) HYDRANGEA. Hydrangea. Fl. ex. 60. Hortensie, G. The roots of Hydrangea arborescens L., Saxifragacese. Pale brownish gray- Slight odor; recalling taraxacum. Slightly sweetish and pungent. Some cork tissue. Parenchyma cells medium sized typical to rather small and elongated, some with bundles of longer and shorter acicular crystals (raphides) of calcium oxalate. Numerous porous tracheids; some bast and sclerenchymatous tracheids. VEGETABLE POWDERS 371 Fig. 112. HYDRANGEA. a. Parenchyma with raphides. b. Parenchyma with larger raphides. c. Cork tissue. d. Traeheids. e. f. Acicular crystals. g. Bast. h. Sclerenchymatous tracheids. 372 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 112. (Fig. 113.) HYDRASTIS. Hydrastis. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Golden-seal, Yellow-root, Yellow puccoon, Orange-root, Indian dye, Indian tumeric, E. Canadische Gelbwurzel, G. Racine orange, Sceau d'or, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Hydraslis canadensis L., Ranunculacese. Bright lemon yellow. Soil odor, peculiar. Very bitter. Outer rather dark cork tissue. Typical rather thin-walled pa- renchyma; outer parenchyma somewhat colenchymatous. The starch is not very abundant, mostly simple, also compound and a few ag- gregates. Simple granules measure from 5 to llju. Hili indistinct and no polarizing phenomena. Porous, not large, ducts and tracheids. Some parenchyma cells and most of the ducts contain a bright yellow resin. Ash 9.5 per cent. Said to be adulterated with curcuma, serpentaria, cypripedium and several other roots. Despite the high price of the drug it is com- paratively rarely adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 373 Fig. 113. HYDRASTIS. a. Starch bearing parenchyma. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Cork. d. Tracheids. e. Parenchyma. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 374 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 113. (Fig. 114.) HYOSCYAMUS. Hyoscyamus. U. S. Leaves. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Henbane, E. Bilsenkraut, G. Jusquiame noir, Fr. The leaves of the second year's growth of Hyoscyamus niger L., Solanacese. Dull grayish green. Narcotic, heavy, especially when moist. Bitterish, somewhat pungent. Leaf epidermis with stomata above and below; vertical walls thin, wavy. Large, simple, many celled, thin-walled, more or less collapsed trichomes. The glandular trichomes usually bear one secret- ing cell. The simple trichomes are externally pitted and some of them are branching. Typical spongy tissue. Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate quite numerous. The drug is usually quite dirty, with considerable sand but the total ash should not exceed 23 per cent. Adulterated with leaves of allied species, and leaves of stramonium, digitalis, belladonna and verbascum. VEGETABLE POWDERS 375 Fig. 114. HYOSCYAMUS. Leaf. a, 6. Epidermal tissues and trichomes. c, d. 'Parenchyma. e. Spongy tissue cells. /. Prismatic crystals. 376 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 114. (Fig. 115.) HYOSCYAMUS. Hyoscyamus. U. S. Seeds. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Names and origin as for 113. Ash gray. Odorless. Bitter, somewhat pungent. The outer layer of seed coat consists of large, irregularly rounded, brownish, thick-walled sclerenchyma cells, the outer wall being thin, pores not noticeable, filled with a granular proteid substance. Endo- sperm cells not very thick-walled nor porous, filled with granular proteid matter and fat. VEGETABLE POWDERS 377 Fig. 115. HYOSCYAMUS. Seed. a. Sclerenchyma cells of seed coat. 6. Sclerenchyma, vertical view. c. Outer endosperm tissue. d. Endosperm. e. Endosperm tissue with proteid granules and oil. /. Parenchyma. 378 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 115. (Fig. 116.) IGNATIA. Ignatia. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Bean of St. Ignatius, E. Ignazbohne, G. Feve de Saint-Ignace, Feve igasurique, Fr. The seeds of Strychnos Ignatia Lind., Loganiacese. Very light brown. Nearly odorless, smoky odor. Very bitter, mucilaginous. Histology much like that of Nux vomica buttons. Trichomes usually wanting, when present not expanded at base. Epidermal cells small, with granular contents. Endosperm tissues, thick-walled, cells filled with granular proteid matter. VEGETABLE POWDEKS 379 Fig. 116. IGNATIA. a. Epidermal cells, vertical view. b. Endosperm. c. Endosperm. 330 POWDERED VEGETABLE DftUGS 116. (Fig. 117.) ILLICIUM. Illicium. Fine powder. Star anise, Chinese anise, E. Sternanis, G. Badiane, Anise etoile*, Fr. The fruit of Illicium verum Hooker, Magnoliacese. Reddish brown. Fragrantly aromatic, like anise. Quite acid, sweet, pungent. Epidermal cells of pericarp polygonal, with stomata. Brown tissue; parenchyma with oil globules; numerous elongated, thick- walled sclerenchyma cells. Endosperm cells thin-walled, with fat and proteid granules. Adulterated with fruits of Illicium religiosum, known as Japanese star anise. The powder is of a lighter color. The sclerenchyma fibers of the endocarp are smaller, walls thinner. Boiled in dilute potassium hydrate solution the powder of Japanese star anise turns yellowish brown while the powder of true anise turns a deep blood red. Illicium floridanum differs histologically; compare epidermal sclerenchyma. VEGETABLE POWDERS 381 Fig. 117. ILLICIUM. a. Two stone cells from testa of seeds. 6. End view of a. c. Elongated sclerenchyma. d. Sclerenchyma. e. Oil bearing endosperm cells. /. Deep reddish brown cells of pericarp. 382 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 117. (Fig. 118.) INULA. Elecampane. Rather coarse powder. Alantwurzel, Helenenwurzal, G. Racine d'annee, Annexe commune (officinale), Fr. The roots of Inula Helenium Merat, Composite. Light brown. Camphoraceous, terebinthine, recalling calamus. Bitter, pungent. Some cork tissue. Outer parenchyma of typical, thin-walled, collapsed cells bearing inulin. Rather large or medium sized porous and reticulate ducts. Inner parenchyma of smaller, elongated cells. Resin ducts not noticeable in powder. No starch. Allied plants are Inula squarrosa, Pulicaria dysenterica and Carlina acaulis. VEGETABLE POWDERS 383 Fig. 118. INULA. a, 6. Parenchyma with inulin. c. Parenchyma free from inulin. d. Reticulate ducts. e. Cork. 384 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 118. (Fig. 119.) IPECACUANHA. Ipecacuanha. U. S. Fl. ex. 80. Very fine powder. Ipecac, E. Brechwurzel, Ruhrwurzel, G. Ipecacuanha, Racine bresilienne, Fr. The roots of Cephaelis Ipecacuanha A. Richard, and C. acuminata Karst., Rubiaceae. Brownish ash gray. Heavy, nauseous, recalling Indian hemp. Bitterish, somewhat pungent. Thin walled cork tissue. Parenchyma medium sized, typical; cells filled with compound starch granules, some with acicular crystals (raphides) of calcium oxalate. Porous tracheids. The starch granules of Rio ipecac are simple and compound, the compound granules pre- dominating (twos and fours largely) ; hili centric and distinct, polarizing bands distinct. The single granules measure from 4 to 12 fj. in diameter. The starch granules of Carthagena ipecac are like those of Rio ipecac excepting that they are larger measuring from 4 to 17 n in diameter. Six-compound granules may be found in both kinds. The Carthagena variety shows the greater percentage of simple granules. Ash should not exceed 4 per cent. May be adulterated with starches, flour, almond meal; also with roots of related species. The Carthagena ipecac differs from the above (Rio ipecac) in that the simple starch granules are larger; the end opening of the tracheids is oval in form instead of circular, differ- ences which are, however, not readily detected in the powders. Other false ipecacs are mostly quite different histologically; compare espe- cially ducts, tracheids, crystals and starches. VEGETABLE POWDEES 385 Fig. 119. IPECAC. a. Parenchyma with raphides. 6. Cork. c. Tracheids. d. Phloem parenchyma. e. Starch granules. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 25 386 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 119. (Fig. 120.) IRIS FLORENTINA. Florentine Orris. Tinct., coarse powder. Fine powder. Orris root, white flag, E. Veilchenwurzel, G. Iris de Florence, Fr. The peeled rhizomes of Iris florentina L., Iridaceae. Very light, brownish, almost cream color. Fragrant, recalling violets. Bitterish, pungent. Parenchyma cells large, thick-walled, loosely united, filled with rather large, simple, oval, irregularly pear-shaped starch granules, narrowed end mostly truncate, hili and stratification indistinct. Some parenchyma cells with large, long, rod-shaped prismatic crj^stals of calcium oxalate. Typically reticulate ducts. No cork tissue. Ash 1.5 per cent. Adulterated with Iris pallida, I. germanica, I. pseudacorus, and /. foetidissima. The first two are preferred in Germany and Austria. Histologically they resemble Florentine orris. VEGETABLE POWDERS 387 Fig. 120. IRIS FLORENTINA. a. Large crystals. 6. Parenchyma with starch. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Broken crystals. e. Reticulate ducts. /. Starch granules. g. Starch granules showing characteristic U-shaped hilum. 388 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 120. (Fig. 121.) IRIS. Iris. Blueflag. Fl. ex. 60. Blue flag, water flag, E. Amerikanischer Schwertel, Verschieden- farbige Schwertlilie, G. Rhizome d'iris varie, flambe variee, Glaieul bleu, Fr. The rhizomes of Iris versicolor L., Iridaceae. Rather light brown. Odor of fenugreek. Sweetish, astringent, somewhat pungent. Epidermis of suberized cells. Hypodermal cell thick-walled. Parenchyma cells somewhat elongated. Many of the hypodermal and parenchyma cells filled with a deep brown resin. Mostly porous ducts; some reticulate and spiral. Iris virginica and 7. verna are related plants and have similar properties. VEGETABLE POWDERS 389 Fig. 121. IRIS VERSICOLOR. a. Parenchyma, resin cell. 6, g. Hypodermal cells. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Reddish brown cork cells. e. Reticulate duct. /. Porous duct. g. Hypodermal cells. 390 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 121. (Fig. 122.) JALAPA. U. S. Fine powder. The tuberous roots of Exogonium purga Benth., Convolvulaceae. Dry feel, resinous on warming. Light grayish brown. Smoky (faint creosote) odor due to method of drying tubers over open flame. Sweetish, pungent. Considerable brown suberized tissue. Small-celled outer paren- chyma with numerous aggregate crystals. The inner parenchyma typical, large-celled, filled with starch and resin. Fragments of large and smaller porous ducts and laticiferous ducts. Resin globules and fragments of resin bearing cells. Starch granules simple and com- pound (mostly twos), 14^i to 40/*, and some aggregates, also some pasty starch; hili quite distinct in the larger granules and slightly excentric; cross bands right angled and remarkably distinct, showing complete rotation on turning the analyzer. Ash 5 per cent. Impurities should not exceed 5 per cent. Among the likely adulterants are starches and flour, roots and rootlets of the same species (excess of fibrous tissue) ; tubers and roots of related species; .sand ancl dirt. VEGETABLE POWDERS 391 Fig. 122. JALAPA. a. Parenchyma with starch. b. Resin bearing cells. c. Cork, lateral view. d. Outer crystal bearing parenchyma. e. Starch bearing parenchyma. /. Large porous ducts. g. Starch granules. h. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. i. Outer cork tissue with reddish coloring matter. 392 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 122. (Fig. 123.) JUGLANS. Butternut-bark. Fl. ex. 60. Ex. 30. Butternussrinde, Graue Wallnussrinde, G. Ecorce de noyer gris, Fr. The inner bark of the roots of Juglans cincerea L., Juglandacese. Very dark brown. Somewhat aromatic. Bitter, pungent. More or less of the outer bark is usually present, which consists of suberized cells bearing granular dark brown coloring matter. Inner bark parenchyma of rather small, loosely united cells, many of which contain a deep brown resin or aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Typical long, thick-walled, finely porous bast fibers are plentifully present. The bark of Juglans regia (English walnut) and J. nigra (black walnut) is similarly used, but perhaps not often as an adulterant of the above. Fig. 123. o. Parenchyma cells with coloring matter and crystals. 6. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Bast fibers. d. Cork, profile view. e. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. VEGETABLE POWDERS 393 123. (Fig. 124.) KAMALA. Kamala. Naturally a rather coarse powder. Kamala, E., G., Fr. The stellate trichomes and glandular trichomes of Mallotus philip- pinensis, M tiller, Euphorbiaceae. Red, with brown. Odorless. Tasteless; sandy, gritty. Kamala consists of glandular and aggregate trichomes. The glandular predominate; they are deep red, multicellular. The aggre- gate trichomes consist of single celled, rather thick-walled, more or less bent, light brownish hairs. Indistinct epidermal remnants are present also, and some sand is normally present. Ash 6 per cent. Quite generally adulterated; usually with a fine sand and colored starch (a maranta-like starch). Adulteration very easily detected microscopically because the kamala elements are very characteristic. Fig. 124. KAMALA. o. Deep reddish brown glandular trichomes. b. Aggregate simple trichomes. c. Gland decolorized with a weak solution of potassium hydrate. 394 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 124. (Fig. 125.) KRAMERIA. Peruvian Rhatany. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Payta rhatany, E. Peruanische (Payta) Ratanhia, G. Ratanhia, Fr. The roots of Krameria triandra Ruiz et Pa von, Polygalacese. Bright red brown. Somewhat musty odor. Very astringent, saliva red. Outer bark of thin-walled cork bearing reddish brown coloring matter; some of the cells empty. Inner bark parenchyma cells with simple and compound starch granules, reddish brown coloring matter and small variable prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, not unlike those of cinnamon. Porous ducts and tracheids. Typical, rather short, mostly isolated bast cells with walls rather thick. Ash 4 per cent. Adulterated with roots of related species. VEGETABLE POWDERS 395 asTr^s^m Fig. 125. KRAMERIA. Peruvian. a. Bast. b. Crystal bearing cells. c. Outer cork, lateral view. d. Parenchyma with starch. e. Cells with red coloring matter. /. Crystals and starch granules. fir. Tracheids and porous ducts. 396 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 125. (Fig. 126.) KRAMERIA. Savanilla Rhatany. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Purple rhatany, E. Savanilla (Neugranada) Ratanhia, G. The roots of Krameria Ixina L., Polygalacese. Odor and taste as for Peruvian rhatany. Color of powder a deeper red. The general histological characteristics much like those of the Peruvian rhatany. Parenchyma cells larger; cork and parenchyma richer in the bright reddish brown coloring matter; starch is wanting; the bast cells are longer, larger and walls somewhat thicker. Porous ducts are larger. Ash 4 per cent. Adulterations as for Peruvian rhatany. VEGETABLE POWDERS 397 Fig. 126. KRAMERIA. Savanilla. a. Bast. b. Cells with red coloring matter. c. Outer cork, lateral view. d. Parenchyma with resin. e. Porous ducts and tracheids. /. Crystal bearing cells. 398 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 126. (Fig. 127.) LAPPA. Burdock. Fl. ex. 60. Klettenwurzel, G. Bardane, Glouteron, Fr. The roots of Arctium Lappa L., Composite. Light grayish brown. Somewhat heavy, nauseous. Sweetish, bitter, mucilaginous. Outer cork tissue of brown cells. Parenchyma cells thin-walled, rather loosely united, somewhat elongated, with inulin. Large and smaller porous and reticulate ducts. A few resin ducts. Starch and crystals wanting. Ducts and tracheids should be sparingly present; if abundant it indicates that the inert older roots are used. VEGETABLE POWDERS 399 Fig. 127. LAPPA. a, b. Parenchyma with inulin. c. Cork. d. Large porous duct. e. Smaller porous duct. 400 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 127. (Fig. 128.) LEPTANDRA. Leptandra. Fl. ex. 60. Culver's root, Culver's physic, black-root, E. Leptandra Wurzel, G. Racine de leptandra (de ve*ronique, de Virginie), Fr. The rhizome and roots of Veronica virginica L., Scrophulariaceae. Gray-brown. Odorless. Bitter, feebly pungent. Some cork tissue from the rhizome. Epidermal cells of rootlets, with outer walls dark and greatly thickened. Root parenchyma cells rectangular, elongated, with some very small simple spherical starch granules and smoky brown resin. Numerous tracheids, some spiral ducts. Larger, more typical parenchyma, with small spherical starch granules, of rhizome. Ash 6 per cent. Usually contains admixtures of other roots. VEGETABLE POWDERS 401 Fig. 128. LEPTANDRA. a, b. Parenchyma with resin and coloring matter. 6. Parenchyma with starch. c. Parenchyma. d. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. e. Spiral duct. /. Phlo3m tissue. g. Tracheids. h. Epidermal cells of rootlets. 26 402 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 128. LINUM. Flaxseed. U. S. Flaxseed cake (cake meal). Flaxseed meal. Linseed, E. Leinsamen,Flachssamen, G. Semence (Graine) de lin, Fr. The seeds of Linum usitatissimum L., Linacese. Light brown to brown. Linseed oil odor; rancid odor when old. Bland oily, bitterish, somewhat mucilaginous. Epidermal cells prismatic, with mucilage. A layer of elongated sclerenchyma fibers. A layer of small rectangular, deep brown cells. Endosperm cells thin-walled, filled with proteid granules and fat. No starch in ripe seeds. In the unripe seeds the perisperm paren- chyma cells contain simple spherical starch granules, mingled with the oil globules. Ash 6 per cent. The meal may be adulterated with flour, corn meal, starches and ground cake meal. 129. (Fig. 129.) LOBELIA. Lobelia. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Indian tobacco, E. Lobelienkraut, G. Herbe de lobelie enfle*e, Fr. The leaves and flowering tops of Lobelia inflata L., Lobeliacese. Grayish green. Fragrant; heavy, narcotic, recalling tobacco. Pungent. Vertical walls of upper epidermal cells of the leaf linear, thick, very porous; cuticle linearly marked. Lower epidermal tissue with stomata, vertical walls thin, wavy. Large, single celled, simple, rather thin-walled, conical trichomes, upper portion narrowed, with slight cuticular markings. Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Ash 10 per cent. The most common adulterant is the basal stems and leaves, in- dicated by an excess of fibrous tissue. VEGETABLE POWDERS 403 Fig. 129. LOBELIA. a. Epidermal tissue, lower. 6. Upper epidermis. c. Trichomes. d. Epidermis, lateral view. e. Bast fiber. /. Crystal bearing cells. 404 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 130. (Fig. Ill, a.) LUPULINUM. Lupulin. Moderately fine powder. Lupulin, Hopfenmehl, G. Lupuline, Lupulite, Fr. The glands from the strobiles of Humulus Lupulus L., Urticaceae. Dull reddish brown. Hop odor, recalling valerian. Bitter. The powder consists of the bright golden yellow, somewhat pear- shaped, many-celled glandular structures, one of which is shown in profile view in Fig. Ill, a. Ash 10 per cent. Lupulin should contain only a small amount of sand, vegetable tissue and insect (aphidse) remnants. It is frequently adulterated with sand. It deteriorates rapidly. Old material changes to an orange yellow and the odor becomes heavier, almost cheese-like. Impurities (sand, strobile tissue, leaf and stem fragments) are frequently excessive. 131. (Fig. 130.) LYCOPODIUM. Lycopodium. U. S. Fine powder. Vegetable sulphur, E. Barlappsamen, Streupulver, Hexenmehl, Blitzpulver, G. Lycopode, Saufre ve*ge*tale, Fr. The spores of Lycopodium davatum L., Lycopodiacese. Very bright pale yellow. Very mobile. Odorless. Tasteless. The powder consists almost wholly of the individual spores showing the facets of union with two other spores. Rarely two and three still united. Outer spore membrane delicately reticulate. Ash 2 per cent. Adulterated with spores of related species; talc, gypsum; starch, flour, dextrin; pollen grains of conifers; sulphur, turmeric. VEGETABLE POWDERS 405 Fig. 130 LYCOPODIUM SPORES. 406 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 132. (Figs. 131 and 132.) MACIS. Mace. Moderately fine. Muskatbliithe, Macis, G. Macis, Fleur de muscade, Fr. The arillode of the seeds of M yristica fragrans L., Myristicacese. Light yellowish brown; oily. Delicate nutmeg odor. Pungent, somewhat bitter. Epidermal cells elongated with diagonal end walls, cuticle very thick. In transverse view epidermal cells appear somewhat tangen- tially flattened. Parenchyma cells rather small and thin walled, closely united and filled with fat and granules of amylodextrin, no starch. Distributed through the parenchyma are much larger resin-bearing cells. Vascular tissue very deficient (reticulate ducts.) Ash 2 per cent. Adulterated with wild or false mace, which differs in that the epidermal cells in transverse view appear rectangular, somewhat elongated vertically, never tangentially flattened. Amylodextrin granules larger, more rectangular. With concentrated sulfuric acid or potassium hydrate solution, false mace turns deep red, true mace yellowish. VEGETABLE POWDERS 407 Fig. 131. MACE. True. a. Transverse view of epidermis, parenchyma' and resin cells (c) . profile view of epidermal cells, dextrin granules. 6. Longitudinal d. Vertical view of epidermal cells, e. Amylo- Fig. 132. MACE. False. a. Transverse view of epidermal cells, parenchyma and resin cell. 6. Longi- tudinal view of epidermis, parenchyma and resin cells, d. Vertical view of epider- mal cells, e. Amylodextrin granules. 408 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 133. (Fig. 133.) MANNA. Manna. U. S. The dried sugar-like exudate of Fraxinus Ornus L., Oleacese. Somewhat sticky, in gummed particles. Somewhat yellowish, dirty color. Faint odor. Sweet taste. Aggregates of prismatic crystals of mannose are present which gradually dissolve in water. Various impurities are quite gener- ally present, among them bein gbacteria, yeasts, molds, mold spores, vegetable tissue elements, moth and butterfly scales, etc. Ash should not exceed 2 per cent. Varies greatly in purity. The purer grades are less hygroscopic and sticky and contain less of the impurities above mentioned. VEGETABLE POWDERS 409 Fig. 133. MANNA, o, crystals of mannose; 6, impurities which are usually present, more especially in the less pure grades, represented by bacteria, yeast cells, mold, mold spores, d;rt and sand particles, vegetable tissue elements, moth and butterfly scales, etc. 410 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 134. (Fig. 134.) MATICO. Fl. ex. 30. Matico, E. G. Fr. The leaves of Piper angustifolium L., Piperacese. Brownish green. Faintly aromatic, recalling chamomile. Somewhat pungent and bitterish. Epidermal cells above and below polygonal; upper much larger, vertical walls thicker. Stomata on lower surface only. Simple, three to five celled, thick-walled trichomes, somewhat widened at the trans- verse septse. A hypoderm of a single layer of tangentially flattened cells. Resin glands in the leaf parenchyma. Adulterated with leaves of related species and leaves of other plants which all differ considerably histologically. Compare trichomes. 135. MATRICARIA. German Chamomile. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Kamillenblumen, G. Fleurs de camomille commune (d'Allemagne), Fr. The flowering heads of Matricaria Chamomilla L., Composite. Greenish. Fragrant, chamomile odor. Bitter. Epidermal cells with sinuate vertical walls; abundant collapsed parenchyma tissue; very porous tracheid-like cells. No starch. The pollen grains with prominent conical projections and three pores form the most marked microscopical characteristic of the powder. The glandular trichomes are usually so much collapsed as to be unrecog- nizable. Ash 10 per cent. Adulterated with flowers of Anthemis arvensis, Maruta cotula and other related plants. Compare with Roman chamomile. VEGETABLE POWDERS 411 Fig. 134. MATICO. a. Lower epidermis. 6. Trichomes. c. Leaf gland with resin, lateral view. d. Resin gland. e. Upper epidermis. /. Upper epidermis, lateral view. g. Hypoderm. 412 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 136. (Fig. 135.) MEL. Honey. A saccharine preparation deposited in the honey-comb by the bee, Apis mellifera L., Apidse. Syrupy consistency, to thick and granular. Pale amber to pale yellowish, to opaque when crystallized. Pleasing characteristic odor. Taste very sweet, slightly acrid. The fresh, uncrystallized honey shows no crystals, but the pollen grains and wax particles are present. The number and kind of pollen grains vary with the flowers from which the bees obtain the nectar. The number of pollen grains in one field of view under the high power varies from less than one to eight or ten. From a study of the pollen grains it is possible to determine the floral source of the honey, as alfalfa honey, clover honey, sage honey, furze honey, mixed honey, sweet clover honey, bumble bee honey, etc. The color of honey varies from nearly colorless to deep brown, and the odor from very pleasing to decidedly disagreeable. The honey obtained from poisonous plants may be poisonous, and the taste may be so disagreeable as to render it inedible. The crystallized honey reveals the prismatic scales of cane sugar and the needle crystals of Isevulose, the more or less spherical colorless wax particles and brown to deep brown irregular wax particles and the pollen grains. The microscope is absolutely indispensable in the study of honey. Ash should not exceed 0.3 per cent. Some varieties of honey are poisonous, obtained from the nectar of the flowers of toxic plants. Imitation honey made from glucose, syrup, honey flavor and added pollen grains, is^found upon the mar- ket. There may be partial substitution with glucose, etc. There may be false declaration of quality and grade and source. VEGETABLE POWDERS 413 Fig. 135. MEL. HONEY. The microscopic appearance of crystallized honey. a, Crystals of cane sugar; 6, crystal of laevulose; c, colored (usually brown) and color- less bits of wax which are constantly present in genuine honey; d, different kinds of pollen grains. 414 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 137. (Fig. 136.) MENISPERMUM. Menispermum. Fl. ex. 60. Canadian moon seed, yellow parilla, E. Canadisches Mondkorn, G. Menisperme du Canada, Fr. The rhizomes and rootlets of Menispermum canadense L., Meni- spermaceae. Ash gray. Faint soil odor; nearly odorless. Bitter. ^ Outer layer of suberized tissue. Rather small-celled polygonal hypodermal tissue through which are scattered a few sclerenchyma cells. Typical bast tissue; tracheids and very large porous ducts with medullary rays. Large-celled pith with some simple starch granules resembling those of corn. Some thick-walled very coarse parenchyma. VEGETABLE POWDERS 415 Fig. 136. MENISPERMUM. a. Bast. 6. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Large porous duct. d. Tracheids and medullary rays. e. Outer tissue with sclerenchyma cells (6). /. Parenchyma (pith) with starch. g. Thick-walled porous cells. h. Cork. 416 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 138. (Fig. 137.) MENTHA PIPERITA. Peppermint. U. S. P^efferminze, G. Mentha poivre*e, Fr. The leafy tops of Mentha piperita L., Labiatse. Green. Aromatic, somewhat fragrant. Mint odor. Pungent; very cooling. Leaves with stomata above and below, few above; vertical walls thin, wavy. Large, long, rather thick-walled, three to seven celled simple trichomes with short linear to warty cuticular thickenings. Large bladdery glandular trichomes with six to eight secreting cells. Small secreting trichomes with a single terminal secreting cell. Be- sides this there is present stem tissue, as epidermis, collenchyma, paren- chyma, tracheids and ducts. Ash 12.5 per cent. Adulterated with leaves of several varieties of M. piperita and with spearmint. 139. MENTHA VIRIDIS. Spearmint. U. S. Coarse powder. Griine Minze, Romische Minze, G. Menthe vert, Mentha romaine, Baume vert, Fr. The leafy tops of Mentha viridis L., Labiatse. Green. Very fragrantly aromatic. Pungent, less cooling than M. piperita. Vertical walls of upper and lower epidermal cells of leaves wavy. Upper epidermal cells somewhat larger with only comparatively few stomata. Simple trichomes rather thick-walled but fewer and shorter than in peppermint; cuticular markings less prominent and less decidedly linear, more warty. Glandular trichomes are similar to those of peppermint. Ash 12.5 per cent. According to several authorities the glandular trichomes of pepper- mint are distinguished at once by the menthol crystals, a characteristic which does not seem to be marked. May be admixed and adulterated with various species and varieties of mint. VEGETABLE POWDERS 417 I. |.. .TT....I.. .71. .. .!....!.. ..I.... I....1 Scale in Micron*. Fig. 137. MENTHA PIPERITA. a. Upper epidermal cells. b. Lower epidermis. c. Trichomes, simple, showing cuticular markings (a medium sized trichome). d. Gland, top view. e. Small glandular trichome. 418 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 140. (Fig. 138.) METHYSTICUM. Methysticum. Fl. ex. 60. Ava, ava Kava, Kava Kava. The roots of Piper methysticum Foarster, Piperacese. Light brown to very light brown. Somewhat fragrant. Pungent, bitter, somewhat astringent. Parenchyma cells typical, medium sized, filled with rather large compound starch granules, having distinct hili. Scalariform, retic- ulate and porous ducts. Brownish sclerenchymatous, porous, bast fibers; nearly colorless bast fibers. Sclerenchymatous, very porous, tracheids. Typical brownish, thick-walled porous sclerenchyma fibers Epidermal cells polygonal, walls porous, containing crystalline sub- stances. Elongated parenchymatous cells with deep brown resinous matter. VEGETABLE POWDERS 419 Fig. 138. METHYSTICUM. a. Bast cell. fe. Sclerenchyma. c. Parenchyma with crystals. d. Parenchyma with starch. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. /. Reticulate ducts. g. Tracheids. h. Starch granules. i. Scalariform duct. 420 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 141. (Fig. 139.) MEZEREUM. Mezereon. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Seidelbastrinde, Kellerhalsrinde, G. Ecorce de me*ze*reon, de garou, de laure*ole, de thymele, Fr. The bark of Daphne Mezereum L., and of other species of Daphne, Thymeleacese. Very light brownish gray. Odorless. Very pungent, develops very gradually. Brown to nearly colorless cork tissue and very numerous, very- slender, greatly elongated, thin-walled, bast fibers. Parenchyma cells large, thin-walled, collapsed, empty. Some smaller, thicker outer bark parenchyma with chlorophyll remnants and resinous matter. Ash 4 per cent. The bark of several other species is used. VEGETABLE POWDERS 421 Fig. 139. MEZEREUM. a. Bast. b. Cork, vertical view. c. Parenchyma. d. Cork, lateral view. e. Parenchyma. 422 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 142. (Fig. 140.) MYRICA. Wax-Myrtle. Fl. ex. 60. Very fine powder. Wachsbaum, Wachsgagel, G. Arbre a suif, Fr. The bark of Myrica cerifera L., Myricacese. Rather dull cinnamon brown. Faintly aromatic, not agreeable. Bitter, slightly pungent and astringent. Bark parenchyma of brown cells bearing some simple, spherical starch granules. Thick-walled porous bast fibers accompanied by crystal-bearing fibers. Sclerenchyma cells, variable in size; some not very greatly thickened, porous. VEGETABLE POWDERS 423 Fig. 140. MYRICA. Bark. a. Larger sclerenchyma. 6. Bast. c. Crystal-bearing fibers. d. Smaller sclerenchyma. e. Starch granules. /. Elongated sclerenchyma. g. Bark parenchyma. h. Prismatic crystals and starch granules. 424 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 143. (Fig. 141.) MYRISTICA. Nutmeg. U. S. Coarse powder as a spice. Muskatnuss, G. Muscade, Noix de muscade, Fr. The seeds (arillus removed) of M yristica fragrans Houtt., Myristi- cacese. Rather dull reddish brown; fatty, oily. Very aromatic; nutmeg odor. Pungent, bitterish and somewhat astringent. Endosperm cells quite large, thin- walled, of two kinds causing the marbled appearance of the interior of the seed. The colorless endo- sperm cells filled with compound starch, large proteid granules with distinct crystalloids, and fat; the fat causing the granules and proteid bodies to be indistinct. The reddish brown endosperm cells have very irregular walls and are empty or contain resin and volatile oil. The starch granules occur in twos, threes, fours, fives and even higher aggregates. The outer tissue consists of small, brown, tangentially flattened cells filled with reddish brown coloring matter. Ash 3 per cent. Adulterated (only rarely) with wild or false nutmeg (M yristica fatua). Poor quality of "grinding nutmegs'/ may be used. VEGETABLE POWDERS 425 Fig. 141. MYRISTICA. a. Parenchyma (endosperm) with starch and crystals. 6. Reddish brown parenchyma. c. Small-celled outer tissue with granular contents. d. Starch and crystals. 426 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 144. (Fig. 142.) NUX VOMICA. Nux Vomica. U. S. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 60. Poison-nut, Quaker buttons, E. Krahenaugen, Brechnuss, G. Noix vomiques, Fr. The seeds of Strychnos nux vomica L., Loganiacese. Light grayish brown. Odorless. Extremely and persistently bitter. The outer covering consists wholly of elongated, thick- walled, colorless trichomes, with widened, porous base. The wall is unevenly thickened, ridges extending nearly straight to long spirally from base to near apex. Most of these trichomes are broken in the powdering. Endosperm cells very thick- walled, colorless, filled with oil globules and granular proteid matter. Beneath the trichomatic layer is a tissue of flattened cells. Cell-contents turn bright brownish yellow with tinc- ture of iodine. Note color changes with strong acids (mineral) and alkalies. Ash should not exceed 2.5 per cent. Not generally adulterated. Ignatia beans may be substituted which are similar in structure and show similar reactions with acids, alkalies and with tincture of iodine. VEGETABLE POWDERS 427 Fig. 142. NUX VOMICA. a. Trichomes. b. Trichomatic fragments. c. d. Endosperm tissue. e. Outer endosperm, lateral view. /. Hypodermal tissue. 428 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 145. (Fig. 143). OPIUM. U. S. Granulated or powdered. The dried juice of Papaver somniferum L, Papaveracese. Rather granular feel, becoming somewhat sticky on warming and brisk rubbing. Nearly chocolate brown. Heavy, narcotic. The type of narcotic odors. Bitter. Contains fragments of poppy leaves, epidermal tissue of pods and usually some starch (added by collectors) ; besides such impurities as dirt, sand and the spores and hyphse of fungi. Ash 5 to 6 per cent. Impurities must not exceed 15 per cent.- Chinese smoking opium is a very dark, homogeneous, sticky to brittle (according to age) mass, which always shows abundant prisma- tic crystals which can readily be seen under the low power (No. 2 ocular with No. 3 objective) of the compound microscope. Similar crystals may be found in Persian raw opium. To test for opium (morphine), make a cold acidulated aqueous extract of the suspected substance (such as pills, powders, tablets, etc.), or take a small quantity (several drachms) of the substance if in liquid form, filter, slowly boil down (J^ to 1 drachm) to nearly dryness (using a porcelain evaporating dish), with constant stirring. When cool apply a drop of formaldehyde solution (40 per cent.) followed by a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid. If opium (morphine) is present a permanganate purple color is soon developed which gradually changes to very dark. (Sugar and gums interfere with this test somewhat.) Examine a bit of the boiled extract under the compound microscope and look for the crystals like those in smoking opium. Among the possible adulterants of raw opium are excess of poppy leaves and pods, excess of starch, sand and dirt. Mold and other fungi are frequently present. (A standard of moisture percentage for gum opium should be adopted.) VEGETABLE POWDERS 429 Fig. 143. OPIUM, a, Epidermal fragments of the pericarp are very abun- dantly present in Turkish opium; 6, epidermal cells of the poppy leaf which are likewise abundantly present in guin opium; c, mold hyphae are usually abundant as are also mold spores (d); e, bacteria are abundant;/, dirt particles and g, sand particles are present; h, cereal (wheat) starch is usually present in small amounts; t, crystals of the meconatet which are especially abundant in Persian gum opium and constitute the characteristic inclusions of the Chinese smoking opium. It is possible to determine the alkaloidal strength of the Chinese smoking opium by the numerical crystal count. 430 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 146. (Fig. 144.) PARACOTO. Paracoto. Fl. ex. 60. False coto, E. Para-Coto, G. Ecorce de paracoto, Fr. Origin, as for coto, unknown. Deep cinnamon brown. Aromatic, recalling cinnamon; camphoraceous. Very pungent, bitterish. Histology nearly identical with that of coto bark. Brown granular oil bodies are wanting. With concentrated or 40 per cent, nitric acid paracoto powder turns yellowish, which gradually changes into a dirty yellowish olive green, while coto turns a deep red. Paracoto is quite generally substituted for coto. Compare with coto and also with Winter's bark. Paracoto is no longer obtainable . VEGETABLE POWDERS 431 Fig. 144. PARACOTO. a, 6, c, d, e. Sclerenchyma cells. /. Parenchyma. g. Parenchyma with resin cells (/»)• h. Resin masses. i. Outer cork cells. j. Starch. 432 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 147. (Fig. 145.) PAREIRA. Pareria. Fl. ex. 30. Grieswurzel, G. Racine de butua, Fr. The roots of Chondodendron tomentosum Ruiz et Pavon, Meni- spermaceae. Light yellowish brown. Nearly odorless; somewhat musty. Bitter. Parenchyma cells medium sized to rather small, with compound starch; granules in twos and threes, rarely fours. Outer tissue filled with coloring matter. Typical, medium sized, porous sclerenchyma cells; bast fibers; porous tracheids and large porous ducts. Ash 4 per cent. Adulterated with roots of various more or less closely related plants and stems of the official plant. VEGETABLE POWDERS 433 Fig. 145. PAREIRA. a. Sclerenchyma. 6. Bast. c. Cells with coloring matter. d. Parenchyma with starch. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. /. Large porous duct. g. Tracheids. h. Starch granules. 434 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 148. (Fig. 146.) PHYSOSTIGMA. Physostigma, U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Calabar bean, ordeal bean, E. Calabarbohnen, Gottesurtheilbohnen, G. Feve d'e*preuve du calabar, Fr. The seeds of Physostigma venenosum Balfour, Leguminosae. Light brown; oily. Odorless; bean odor. , Almost tasteless. Outer brown hard layer consists of very long, slender, thick-walled, brownish, palisade cells, with brown granular contents. Irregular, thick-walled, somewhat porous, entirely colorless cells filled with bright red coloring matter. Endosperm cells very thin-walled, large, loosely united, filled with starch, fat and colorless granular matter. The starch granules resemble those of the bean, but are much larger, hili and stratification very distinct; only a few granules in each cell. Ash 2.5 per cent. Adulterated with seeds of Physostigma cylindrospermum, palm oil seeds and seeds of Mucuna. VEGETABLE POWDERS 435 Fig. 146. PHYSOSTIGMA. a. Epidermal palisade cells. b. Endosperm cells with starch granules (c). d. Hypodermal cells with red coloring matter. 436 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 149. (Fig. 147.) PHYTOLACCA. Phytolacca-Berry. Fl. ex. 20. Pokeberry, E. Amerikanische Kermesbeere, G. Raisin d'Amerique, Fr. The fruit of Phytolacca decandra L., Phytolaccaceae. Very dark; particles adhering, sticky. Odor peculiar; recalling roasted chicory. Sweetish, somewhat pungent. Epidermal cells of pericarp brown, polygonal, walls thin, trans- versely very finely porous; showing nuclei and proteid matter. Below this a layer of brownish cells with thin, delicately wavy vertical walls. Pericarp parenchyma of very thin-walled polygonal cells entirely filled with small spherical to prismatic granules. Outer layer of seed coat deep reddish brown vertically elongated thick-walled, porous, scleren- chyma cells. Endosperm cells rather small, containing oil globules and small spherical granules. VEGETABLE POWDERS 437 Fig. 147. PHYTOLACCA. Fruit. a. Epidermis of pericarp. 6. Cells of pericarp. c. Parenchyma of pericarp with small granules. d. Radially elongated epidermal cells of seed. e,f. Endosperm cells. 438 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 150. (Fig. 148.) PHYTOLACCA. Phytolacca Root. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 50. Pokeroot, E. Kermesbeerenwurzel G. Racine de phytolaque, Fr. Origin as for 149. Pale brown. Faint odor; recalling taraxacum. Sweetish, pungent. Brownish cork tissue; collenchymatous parenchyma. Parenchyma large celled, mostly tangentially flattened, walls collapsed and cells variable in size and thickness of walls. Tracheids and large porous to nearly scalariform ducts. Some simple and compound (in twos, the two granules not evenly united) starch granules. The hili of the starch granules are quite distinct and are somewhat excentric, in that regard resembling those of belladonna root, they measure from 10 to 25/z in diameter, the polarizing bands are distinct. The parts of the com- pound granules are easily separated, so that the simple granules appear to predominate in the powder. The eccentricity of the hili is some- what more marked in phytolacca than in belladonna. Some paren- chyma cells filled with short acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. Ash 14 per cent. Not generally adulterated, but is much used for the purpose of adulterating other roots, belladonna roots in particular. Until within recent years the adulteration of belladonna by means of pokeroot was the rule rather than the exception. The adulteration is very readily detected by means of the compound microscope because of the fact that the poke root contains numerous acicular crystals of calcium oxalate which are wholly wanting in belladonna. VEGETABLE POWDERS 439 Fig. 148. PHYTOLACCA. Root. a. Parenchyma with crystal bearing cell. 6. Outer parenchyma. c. Parenchyma. d. Parenchyma with starch. e. Cork, lateral view. /. Porous duct and tracheids. g. Collenchyma. h. Starch and crystals. 440 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 151. (Fig. 149.) PILOCARPUS. Pilocarpus. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Pernambuco jaborandi, jaborandi, E. Jaborandi, G., Fr. The leaflets of Pilocarpus Jaborandi Holmes (Pernambuco jabor- andi), and P. microphyllus Stapf (Rio jaborandi), Rutacese. Light yellowish brown; lemon tinge. Slightly aromatic and fragrant. Somewhat bitter and pungent. Epidermal cells polygonal, rather thick-walled, cuticle thick with linear markings. Stomata on lower surface only, surrounded by three to five arched neighboring cells. Simple single celled, slender trichomes sparingly present. Leaf parenchyma with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Some sclerenchyma cells and sclerchyma- tous tracheids. P. microphyllus contains resin bearing neighboring cells. Ash 6 per cent. Adulterated with leaflets of related species. Pilocarpus Selloanus; epidermal cells a third smaller. P. pennatifolius (Paraguy jaborandi), and P. spicatus (Aracati jaborandi), with numerous brown resin bear- ing leaf parenchyma cells and small granules and resin in epidermal cells. P. trachylophus (Ceara jaborandi) with curved sickle shaped trichomes. VEGETABLE POWDERS 441 Fig. 149. PILOCARPUS. a. Lower epidermis. b. Trichomes. c. Upper epidermis, lateral view. d. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. e. Upper epidermis. /. Tracheids. g. Sclerenchyma. 442 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 152. (Fig. 150.) PIMENTA. Pimenta. Coarse powder, as a spice. Allspice, E. Nelkenpfeffer, Neugewtirz. Englisches Gewiirz, G. Piment de la Jamaique, Touteepice, Fr. The fruit, nearly ripened, of Pimenta officinalis Lindley, Myrtacese. Dull reddish brown, somewhat oily. Aromatic; recalling cloves. Very pungent. Epidermis of pericarp of small cells; some short, simple, single celled, more or less bent and twisted, thick-walled trichomes. Paren- chyma cells with small, simple, spherical and compound starch gran- ules, rather small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate and resin bearing cells. Large resin reservoirs. Larger and smaller thick- walled, very finely porous sclerenchyma cells. Endosperm cells with starch and resin. Ash 4 per cent. Adulterated with various vegetable substances. VEGETABLE POWDERS 443 Fig. 150. P1MENTA. a. Sclerenchyma. 6. Trichomes. c. Parenchyma with starch and resin. d. Parenchyma. e. Gland, sclerenchyma and crystal bearing cell. /. Endosperm cells with starch and resin. g. Epidermal cells. 444 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 153. (Fig. 151.) PIPER. Black Pepper. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Coarse powder, as a spice. Schwarzer Pfeffer, G. Poivre noir, Fr. The unripe fruit of Piper nigrum L., Piperacese. Dark gray to mottled gray. Aromatic; pepper odor. Extremely pungent. Small epidermal cells (of pericarp) with dark coloring matter; be- low this radially elongated, reddish brown, rather small, thick-walled porous, sclerenchyma cells. Reddish brown pericarp parenchyma. One layer of seed coat of small, porous sclerenchyma cells with outer walls very thin; small celled pigment layer. Endosperm cells large, prismatic, very thin-walled and entirely filled with uniform, small, polygonal simple starch granules; some cells filled with resin. Ash 6 per cent. Ash of pepper refuse 10.25 per cent. Adulterated with flour, starches, mustard, husks, capsicum, flax- seed fruit of allied species. The most common adulterant is black pepper refuse (tailings and screenings from the milling). Poor grind- ing peppers are used. Mold may be excessive. (See white pepper.) 154. PIPER. White Pepper. Coarse powder as a spice. Weisser Pfeffer, G. Origin as for black pepper. The ripe fruits deprived of epicarp and mesocarp are used. Ash gray. Aromatic; pepper odor. Very pungent; less pungent than black pepper. Histology as for black pepper, excepting that the epidermis, outer sclerenchyma cells and most of the pericarp parenchyma cells are wanting. Ash 2 per cent. Adulterations as for black pepper. Long pepper (Piper longum) has no resin bearing cells in endosperm and cells are smaller. The ma- jority of adulterants differ very markedly histologically and are readily detected microscopically. Nut shells are also very extensively used as an adulterant of pepper. Further, winnowings and refuse, stems, date, olive and other seed shells and hulls. VEGETABLE POWDERS 445 Fig. 151. PIPER. Black. a. Sclerenchyma with unequally thickened walls. 6. Endosperm tissue with starch and resin. c. Epidermal cells. d. Typical sclerenchyma. e. Crystals of piperin. /. Starch granules. g. Pericarp parenchyma. 446 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 155. (Fig. 152.) PODOPHYLLUM. May Apple. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Mandrake root, E. Fussblattwurzel, G. Rhizome de podophyllum, Fr. The rhizomes and rootlets of Podophyllum peltatum L., Berberi- dacese. Light grayish brown. 'Nearly odorless. Sweetish, very bitter, somewhat pungent. Some brown cork tissue, Parenchyma cells thick-walled, loosely united, filled with compound (mostly twos and threes) starch granules and aggregates of granules. Some cells with quite large aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Reticulate, porous, and a few spiral ducts. Ash 4 per cent. Not generally adulterated. Leaf stalks may be added. May be gathered out of season. VEGETABLE POWDERS 447 Fig. 152. PODOPHYLLUM. a. Parenchyma with starch and crystals. 6. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Starch, simple, compound and aggregate. d. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. e. Cork. /. Reticulate ducts and tracheids. g. Spiral duct. 448 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 156. (Fig. 153.) POPULUS. Populus. Fl. ex. 60. White poplar bark, Silver poplar bark, E. Zitterpappelrinde, G. The bark of Populus tremelloides Mich., Salicacese. Bright pale yellow. Nearly odorless. Bitter. Some parenchyma and cork cells. Sclerenchyma cells with thick, finely porous walls and irregular sclerenchymatous fibers. Rather thick-walled, porous bast fibers and crystal-bearing fibers. Many layered medullary rays. VEGETABLE POWDERS 449 Fig. 163. POPULUS. a. Sclerenchyma. 6. Bast. c. Crystal bearing fiber. d. Bast and medullary ray (A) (tangential view). e. Parenchyma. /. Sclerenchymatous bast. g. Parenchyma. 29 450 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 157. (Fig. 154.) PRINOS. Black Alder. Fl. ex. 60. Winterberry, feverbush, E. Prinos, G., Fr. The bark of Prinos vertidllatus L., Aquifoliacese. Light brown, greenish tinge. Nearly odorless. Bitter, somewhat astringent and pungent. Outer bark of small, colorless, thick-walled, flattened cells. Middle bark of loosely united spherical parenchyma cells. Inner bark of elongated cells, with some small compound starch granules. Numer- ous typical, thick-walled porous sclerenchyma cells and elongated sclerenchyma cells. VEGETABLE POWDERS 451 Fig. 164. PRINOS. a. Outer bark cells. b. Middle bark cells. c. Spheroidal sclerenchyma cells. d. Elongated sclerenchyma cells. e. Inner bark cells with small compound starch granule 452 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 158. (Figs. 155 and 156.) PRUNUS SEROTINA. Wild- cherry Bark. U. S. Fl. ex. 20. Inf. 40. Wildekirschenrinde, G. Ecorce de cerisier, Fr. The bark of Prunus serotina Ehrhart, Rosacese. Bright reddish brown. Somewhat aromatic, recalling bitter almonds. Bitter and astringent. Numerous typical thickwalled, porous sclerenchyma cells. Bast fibers comparatively few; some branching, irregular, sclerenchymatous. Aggregate and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate abundant in bark parenchyma cells. (Fig. 156.) Ash 4 per cent. The bark of choke cherry (Prunus virginiana Miller) (Fig. 155) differs from the above in the absence of sclerenchyma cells; bast fibers normal and branching, are very abundant; aggregate crystals very numerous and some quite large; prismatic crystals are wanting; middle bark parenchyma cells small arid loosely united. Fig. 155. PRUNUS VIRGINIANA. (Choke Cherry.) a. Bast, simple and branching. 6. Parenchyma cells. c. Aggregate crystals. VEGETABLE POTOERS 453 Fig. 156. PRUNUS SEROTINA. a. Sclerenchyma. 6. Bast. c. Branching bast. d. Parenchyma with crystals. e. Prismatic crystals. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 454 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 159. PULSATILLA. PulsatiUa. Fl. ex. 30. Pasque flower, E. Klichenschelle, G. Pulsatille, Coquelourde, Fr. The flowering herb of Anemone pratensis L. Ranunculacese. Greenish. Fragrant; hay odor. Somewhat pungent. Vertical wall of lower epidermal cells wavy, of upper epidermis only slightly so. Stomata above and below. Some of the leaf parenchyma cells filled with crypt ocrystalline calcium oxalate. Long (500 microns) single celled, thick-walled, simple trichomes and some single celled. Indian club-shaped, thin-walled glandular trichomes. Some scleren- chymatous cells. 160. (Fig. 157). PYRETHRUM INSECT POWDER. Insect Powder. The partially expanded flower heads of Pyrethrum species. Com- positse. Fine powder. Non-characteristic feel. Yellowish brown. Somewhat aromatic. Somewhat pungent. P. ^roseum, P. Marshallii and P. cinerariaefolium are the official species as named by the U. S. Insecticide Board. The histology of the three species is closely similar. Vascular tissue, parenchymatous tissue, " T-shaped trichomes (basal cells usually broken and removed, leaving the tapering pointed end cell plainly to be seen). The pollen grains (spherical with incompletely developed conical projections on exine) should be abundantly present, though mostly immature. Some typical sclerenchyma cells (from torus) ; also aggregate crystals. A good quality of insect powder should show on an average at least 15 immature pollen grains in the field of the compound microscope (high power — No. 2 oc. and No. 7 obj.). Ash 6 to 7 per cent. Impurities (inclusive of pyrethrum stems) should not exceed 15 per cent. Very commonly adulterated. Most common adulterants are pyrethrum stems (excess of fibrous tissue and pollen grains few or none) also suspect old flower heads (few mature pollen grains, abundant seed tissue, sclerenchyma cells excessive); flower heads of related species, of calendula, of chamomile, etc.; sawdust, curcuma, mustard hulls, flour, corn meal, etc. A standard based upon the number of pollen grains present should be adopted. An insect powder showing less than an average of 3 to 5 immature pollen grains to the field (high power) of the compound miscroscope should be rejected. VEGETABLE POWDERS 455 Fig. 157. PYRETHRUM. Flowers. o. Epidermal cells. b. Epidermis, lateral view. c. Trichomes. d. Sclerenchyma. e. Pollen grains. /. Parenchyma with crystals. g. Tracheids. 456 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 161. (Fig. 158.) PYRETHRUM. Pellitory. U. S. Tinct. 40. Roman pellitory, E. Romische Bertramwurzel, G. Pyrethre, Sali- vaire, Fr. The roots of Anacyclus Pyrethrum D. C., Composite. Pale brown. Aromatic; recalling taraxacum. Extremely and persistently pungent. Some brown cork tissue. Rather large parenchyma cells, most of which contain inulin. Typical and somewhat elongated sclerenchyma cells. Lumps of yellow resin from the resin bearing ducts. Reticulate and some spiral ducts of medium diameter. Inner parenchyma cells elongated. No starch. Ash 5 per cent. Not generally adulterated. Taraxacum roots may be added. VEGETABLE POWDERS 457 Fig. 158. PYRETHRUM. Root. a. Parenchyma with resin. 6. Sclerenchyma. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Reticulate duct. e. Spiral duct. /. Cork. g. Resin mass. h. Resin mass. 458 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 162. (Fig. 159.) QUASSIA. Quassia. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Bitter ash, Quassia wood, Bitter wood, E. Quassienholz, Eliegen- holz, G. Quassie, Bois amere, Fr. The wood of Picrasma excelsa Planchon, Simarubacese. Very pale yellowish brown; pale straw yellow. Odorless. Intensely bitter. Great bulk of tissue consists of typical wood fibers. Short pris- matic crystal-bearing fibers. Medullary rays from one to four layers of cells, with simple spherical starch granules. Very large, finely porous ducts. Ash 2.5 per cent. Adulterated with wood and bark of allied species. Surinam quassia (Quassia amara) differs from the above in that the medullary rays consists of one layer of cells and furthermore sclerenchyma cells from the bark are present. (J VEGETABLE POWDERS 459 Fig. 159. QUASSIA. a. Wood fibers and medullary ray, tang. view. b. Wood fibers and med. ray, radial view. c. /. Crystal bearing cells. d. Large porous duct. • e. Medullary ray with starch. mg. Crystals and starch granules. h. Wood fibers. 460 POWDEKED VEGETABLE DKUGS 163. QUERCUS ALBA. White Oak. Fl. ex. 30. Oak bark, E. Eichenrinde, G. Ecorce de chene, Fr. The inner bark of Quercus alba L., Fagacese. Pale reddish brown. Nearly odorless. Very astringent and bitter. Numerous typical, medium sized, thick-walled sclerenchyma cells. Typical, rather large, thick- walled bast fibers, profusely lined with prismatic crystal-bearing fibers; aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate also abundant. Parenchyma cells rather thin-walled, and of a pale brownish rosy hue; some with brown resin. The bark of various related species is often substituted for the above. 164. (Fig. 160.) QUILLAJA. Quillaja bark. Fl. ex. 30. Soap-bark, E. Seifenrinde, G. Ecorce de quillaya, Fr. The inner bark of Quillaja Saponaria Fr., Rosacese. Very pale ash gray. Odorless; irritating, producing sneezing. Very pungent, astringent; saliva foamy. Numerous, rather large, thick- walled, porous bast cells; many of them irregular, nodular, bent and branching; some short and sclerenchymatous. Remnants of the outer brown cork tissue may be found. Inner bark parenchyma cells entirely colorless, elongated; most cells with single large elongated prisms of calcium oxalate. Not generally adulterated. VEGETABLE PONDERS 461 Fig. 160. QU1LLAJA. a. Bast. b. Crystals. c. Parenchyma with crystals. d. Branching bast cells. e. Sclerenchyma. /. Outer bark. g. Parenchyma. 462 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 165. (Fig. 161.) RHEUM. Rhubarb. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Fine powder. Rhabarber, G. Rhubarbe, Fr. The peeled older roots of Rheum officinale Bail., R. palmatum L. and of other species and varieties of Rheum, Polygonacese. Brownish yellow. Aromatic; not pleasant. Very astringent and bitter. Parenchyma cells rather large and thin-walled, loosely united, with compound starch granules (mostly twos and threes) and yellowish brown resin; besides very numerous large aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Reticulate ducts. Ash 9 per cent. Adulterated with roots of related species and varieties which re- semble the official very closely histologically. R. rhaponticum (Euro- pean rhubarb) and several other kinds are richer in starch, but other- wise similar. Also adulterated with curcuma, flour, starches, etc. VEGETABLE POWDERS 463 Fig. 161. RHEUM. a. Crystals of calcium oxalate. b. Parenchyma with starch, resin and crystals. c. Resin. d. Reticulate ducts. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. g. Starch. 464 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 166. (Fig. 162.) RHUS GLABRA. Sumach Bark. Fl. ex. 30. Sumach bark, E. Sumachrinde, G. Sumac, Fr. The bark of Rhus glabra L., Anacardiaceae. flight brown. Nearly odorless. Bitter, astringent. Brown cork tissue; most cells with reddish brown coloring matter. Bark parenchyma rich in compound starch granules; some cells with reddish brown resin; aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Wood fibers; sclerenchyma cells. VEGETABLE POWDERS 465 Fig. 162. RHUS GLABRA BARK. a. Bark parenchyma with compound starch, crystals and yellowish brown resin. 5. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Sclerenchyma cells. d. Cork, vertical and lateral views. e. Resin. /. Wood fibers, porous. 466 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 167. (Fig. 163.) RHUS GLABRA. Sumach. Fl. ex. 30. Sumach, E., G. Sumac, Fr. The fruit of Rhus glabra L., Anacardiacese. Rather dark reddish brown. Odorless. Acid taste. Epidermis of pericarp consists of thin-walled polygonal cells with red brown contents. Numerous bright red club shaped trichomes, some of a single row of cells, other many rows; also simple, slender, pointed, single-celled, colorless, thick-walled trichomes. Outer layer of seed coat of vertically elongated, thick-walled, irregular, colorless cells. Sclerenchymatous, porous cells. Endosperm cells thin-walled, polygonal with granular contents. VEGETABLE POWDERS 467 onoooooos Fig. 163. RHUS GLABRA FRUIT. a, 6. Deep red many celled trichomes. c. Colorless trichomes. d. Outer layer of seed coat, lateral view. e. Thick-walled porous cells of testa. /. Colorless crystal bearing layer of testa. g. Endosperm cells. h. Parenchyma of pericarp. i. Epidermal cells of pericarp. 468 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 168. ROSA GALLICA. Red Rose. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Essigrose, Sammtrose, Zuckerrose, G. Rose rouge, Rose de Provins, Fr. The petals of Rosa gallica L., Rosaceae. Light purplish red. Fragrant; rose odor. Very astringent, acidulous, bitterish. Upper epidermal cells vertically elongated, conical, with granules of purple coloring matter. In vertical view these cells appear thick- walled polygonal, indistinct in coarse powder, cuticle smooth. Lower epidermal cells larger, not elongated, vertical walls somewhat wavy, irregular; cuticle finely wavy, short linear striate; no "coloring matter. Parenchyma cells rounded, empty. Spiral ducts. Ash 3.5 per cent. Adulterated with the petals of various red roses or petals of the white or pink roses colored with red dye as fuchsin. 169. Fig. (164.) RUBUS. Blackberry. Fl. ex. 60. Brombeerrinde, G. Ecorce de rouce noir, Fr. The root bark with some of the wood of Rubus villosus Aiton, R. canadensis L., and R. trivialis Michaux, Rosacese. Very light brown. Odorless. Very astringent, bitter. Outer layer of brown cork. Inner bark parenchyma of thin-walled, closely united cells bearing simple spherical starch granules. Bast fibers with walls of medium thickness, porous, containing some starch; outer walls of bast appear shreddy. A few short sclerenchymatous tracheids accompany bast fibers. Numerous tracheids and porous ducts from wood remnants of roots. Compare the histology of the three official roots. May be adul- terated with roots and rhizomes of other plants. VEGETABLE POWDERS 469 Fig. 164. RUBUS VILLOSUS. a. Bast fibers, some starch and a few sclerenchymatous fibers. b. Parenchyma with starch. c. Cork. d. Ducts and tracheids. 470 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 170. (Fig. 165.) RUMEX. Rumex. Fl. ex. 30. Yellow Dock, E. Grindwurzel, Mengelwurzel, G. Racine patience frisee, Fr. The roots of Rumex crispus L., and other species, Polygonacese. Brown. Somewhat aromatic; nearly odorless. Very bitter and astringent. Thin-walled brown cork tissue. Parenchyma cells large; thin- walled, loosely united, filled with granular matter and simple, elliptical, oval and egg shaped starch granules. Rather large aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate abundant. Yellow brown sclerenchyma cells, somewhat variable in thickness of walls and in form. Bast, tracheids and reticulate ducts. Related species of dock (Rumex) are subtituted for the above. VEGETABLE POWDERS 471 Fig. 166. RUMEX. a. Parenchyma with starch granules and crystals. b. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Ducts and tracheids. d. Bast. e. Starch granules and crystals. /. Cork cells. 472 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 171. (Fig. 166.) SABADILLA. Cevadffla. Fl. ex. 30. Fine powder. Lausekorner, Sabadillsamen, G. CeVadille, Fr. The seeds of Asagraea officinalis Lindley, Melanthacese. Dull dark brown. Heavy, nauseous; very disagreeably rancid when old. Very bitter, pungent. Epidermal cells of seeds polygonal, vertically somewhat elongated, walls rather thin, brown; brown, thin-walled, collapsed hypodermal tissue. Endosperm cells collenchymatous with granular proteid matter. VEGETABLE POWDERS 473 Fig. 166. SABADILLA. a. Coilenchymatous endosperm tissue. 6. Epidermal and hypodermal tissue, profile view. c. Epidermal cells, vertical view. d. Hypodermal cells. 474 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 172. (Fig. 167.) SA^INA. Sabina. Fl. ex. 30. Sadebaum, Sevenkraut, G. Sabine, Fr. The terminal branches of Sabina officinalis Garcke, Coniferse. Rather light yellowish brown. Very disagreeably terebinthine. Bitter, resinous; Saliva greenish. Epidermal cells mostly elongated, walls rather thick, porous. Numerous stomata of leaf epidermis. Leaf and bark parenchyma of rather large cells, walls of medium thickness. Some simple spherical and irregular starch granules. Resin and granular matter in most cells. Bast fibers and tracheids with bordered pits. VEGETABLE POWDERS 475 Fig. 167. SABINA. a. Epidermis with stomata. b. Bast fibers. c. Tracheids with bordered pits. d. Epidermal tissue. e. Large parenchyma cells. /. Sclerenchymatous cells. g. Bark parenchyma cells. h. Starch granules. 476 POWDERED VEGETABLE DEUGS 173. (Fig. 168.) SALIX. Salix. Moderately fine. Willow-bark, E. Weidenrinde, G. Ecorce de saule, Fr. The bark of Salix alba L., and other species and varieties of Salix, Salicacese. Light pinkish brown. Odorless. Very astringent, bitter. Outer bark of cork cells with brown contents. Inner bark par- enchyma with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Numerous typical bast fibers with abundant prismatic crystal-bearing fibers; abundant medullary ray tissue. Some parenchyma cells with deep brown resin. VEGETABLE POWDERS 477 Fig. 168. SAL1X. a. Bast fibers. 6. Crystal bearing fibers. c. Medullary rays and fragments. d. Inner bark parenchyma with crystals and deep reddish brown resin. e. Cork tissue with deep brown coloring matter. 478 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 174. SAMBUCUS. Sambucus. Fl. ex. 30. Elder flowers, E. Fliederblumen, Hollunderblumen, G. Fleurs de sureau, Fr. The flowers of Sambucus canadensis L., Caprifoliacese. Pale brown. Fragrant: recalling chamomille. Bitter, mucilaginous. Prismatic epidermal cells with irregularly linear cuticular markings. Stomata nearly circular, distinct. Numerous pale brown, spheroidal pollen grains; exine faintly papillose or warty; pores distinct. Small celled parenchyma with granular particles and yellowish coloring matter. A few simple single-celled, rather large trichomes, with distinct wavy linear cuticular markings. Compare with flowers of S. nigra. 175. (Fig. 169.) SANGUINARIA. Sanguinaria. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Bloodroot, E. Blutwurzel, G. Sanguinaire, Fr. The rhizomes of Sanguinaria canadensis L., Papaveraceae. Bright brownish red. Nearly odorless. Very persistently acridly pungent, bitter. Outer large-celled dark brown cork tissue, some cells of which are filled with a very dark brown resin. Parenchyma cells large, with thin reddish brown walls, some resin-bearing parenchyma cells. Starch granules mostly single, nearly spherical, hili centric and quite distinct, 3 to ISn in diameter, polarizing bands distinct. Laticiferous ducts with brown contents. Ducts mostly reticulate. Ash 5.5 per cent. Not generally adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 479 Fig. 169. SANGUINARIA. a. Parenchyma cells, transverse view, with starch and resin. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Reticulate ducts. d. Cork cells, one with resin. 480 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 176. SANTONICA. Santonica. Fl. ex. 30. Levant wormseed, E. Wurmsamen, Zittwersamen, G. Semencine, Semen-contra, Fr. The unexpanded flowers of Artemisia pauciflora Weber., Com- positse. Light greensh brown. Very disagreeably terebinthine. Bitter, pungent, cooling. Elongated, thin-walled epidermal and parenchyma cells. Elon- gated, slender, thin-walled, single-celled trichomes and some many- celled glandular trichomes. Numerous irregularly prismatic crystalline particles. Numerous very small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Pollen grains in masses, some free, not mature, brown in color, pores distinct, but practically without the conical projection of the exine so characteristic of pollen grains of the composite. Ash 8 per cent. Compare with Barbary wormseed (Artemisia ramosa), Indian wormseed and American wormseed. 177. (Fig. 170.) SARSAPARILLA. Sarsaparffla. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Sassaparilla, G. Salsepareille, Fr. The roots of Smilax offidnalis Kunth, and of other known and unknown species of Smilax, Liliaceae. Light grayish brown. Soil odor; musty. Bitterish, somewhat pungent and mucilaginous. The following is the histology of Honduras sarsaparilla : Epidermal cells polygonal, brown, some of the cells developed into single-celled, usually short, thin-walled trichomes. Below the epidermis three to four layers of thick- walled, porous bast cells. Parenchyma cells elongated, cylindrical, filled with compound starch granules; some cells with raphides of calcium oxalate. Endoderm cells of uniform thickness, elongated, a very light brown color, porous. Woody tissue consists of tracheids and very large scalariform ducts. Ash 10 per cent. The histological differences of the different sarsaparillas, as seen in carefully prepared sections, is quite marked, but these differences are not so evident in the powders. Compare histology of the more important commercial varieties. VEGETABLE POWDERS 481 Fig. 170. SARSAPARILLA. Honduras. a. Parenchyma cells, longitudinal view, filled with starch, also showing ra- phides. b. Raphides. c. Epidermis, lateral view. d. Hypodermal bast or woody tissue. e. Epidermal cells, vertical view. /. Endodenn cells, longitudinal view. g. Scalariform duct. h. Tracheids. 31 482 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 178. (Fig. 171.) SASSAFRAS. Sassafras. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Sassafrasrinde, G. Ecorce de sassafras, Fr. The root bark (peeled) or Sassafras officinalis Nees, Lauracese. Bright reddish brown. Very fragrantly aromatic; recalling star anise. Sweetish, pungent, bitter, astringent. Some of the outer cork cells with bright red brownish contents. Inner bark parenchyma cells thin-walled, containing rather small compound starch granules, with very distinct hili, and many of them fat and oil. Thick-walled, comparatively short, porous bast cells. Sclerenchyma cells varying in size, form and thickness of walls. Ash 10 per cent. Adulteration infrequent. Bark may be gathered out of season and may contain an excess of adhering wood. VEGETABLE POWDERS 483 Fig. 171. SASSAFRAS. a. Inner bark parenchyma cells with starch and oily contents, transverse view. b. Bast fibers. c. Thick-walled sclerenchyma cells. d. Parenchyma cells, longitudinal view. e. Outer cork cells with bright red contents. /. Thin-walled sclerenchyma cells. 484 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 179. SCILLA. Squill. U. S. Fl. ex. 20. Tinct. 30. Squills, E. Meerzwiebel, G. Scille, Squille, Fr. The bulbs of Urginea Scilla Steinheil, Liliacese. Very pale yellowish brown. Odorless. Very mucilaginous, bitter, pungent. Very large, thin-walled, colorless parenchyma cells filled with mucilage, and many of them contain acicular crystals (raphides) of calcium oxalate. These crystals vary from short and fine, like those of ipecac, to very large, like those of Iris florentina. The greatly elongated cells with the large crystals are visible to the naked eye, appearing as glistening specks in a longitudinal section. Ash 4 per cent. Adulteration infrequent. 180. Fig. 172.) SCOPARIUS. Scoparius. Fl. ex. 20. Broom, Irish broom, E. Besenginster, Pfriemenkraut, G. Gen6t d balais, Fr. The tops of Cytisus scoparius Link., Papilionacese. Brown. Heavy, disagreeable, characteristic; when moist. Very bitter. Polygonal epidermal cells; neighboring cells of stomata small. Yellowish, simple, single-celled, thick-walled trichomes, with a few small warty markings on cuticle; basal ends broken off diagonally. Some bast and crystal-bearing fibers. Numerous small spiral ducts with delicate spiral thickenings; some annular and reticulate ducts and tracheids. Oval brownish pollen grains resembling a foot-ball in form. Some parenchymatous tissue and rectangular (in longitudinal view) hypodermal tissue. VEGETABLE POWDERS 485 Fig. 172. SCOPARIUS. a. Epidermal tissue with stomata. 6. Trichomes. c. Pollen grains. d. Bast fibers. e. Hypodermal tissue. /. Spiral ducts. g. Annular duct. h. Prismatic crystal bearing fiber. 486 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 181. (Fig. 173.) SCOPOLA. Scopolia. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. The rhizomes of Scopola (Scopolia) carniolica, Solanacese. Light grayish brown. Nearly odorless. Sweetish, bitterish, somewhat pungent. Histologically scopola is closely similar to belladonna root. Ducts of scopola are more typically reticulate and starch granules are some- what smaller but otherwise closely similar. There is a layer of distinct, rather thick-walled brown, polygonal epidermal cells; no cork. Paren- chyma cells large, loosely united; some with reddish brown resin and many with crystal sand. Some starch granules polygonal, and some in aggregates of five to seven. Compare with belladonna. May be adulterated with Scopola japonica, S. lurida, and roots of other plants. VEGETABLE POWDERS 4S7 Fig. 173. SCOPOLA. a. Parenchyma with starch and cryptocrystals (6). c. Parenchyma cells, transverse view. d. Reticulate ducts. e. Epidermal cell. 488 POWDEKED VEGETABLE DRUGS 182. (Fig. 174.) SCUTELLARIA. Skullcap. Fl. ex. 30. Hood wort, Madweed, E. Helmkraut, Schildkraut, G. Scutellaire, Fr. The leafy parts of Scutellaria lateriflora L., Labiatse. Deep, somewhat olive green. Fragrant; somewhat heavy. Sweetish and somewhat bitter. Vertical walls of epidermal cells wavy; delicate wavy cuticular markings; stomata on lower surface only. Simple many celled tri- chomes with warty cuticular markings. Large many celled glandular trichomes and smaller glands with two secreting cells. Some oval pollen grains. VEGETABLE POWDERS 489 Fig. 174. SCUTELLARIA. a. Lower epidermis. 6. Upper epidermis. c. Pollen grains. d. Trichomes. e. Glands, top view. /. Spongy tissue of leaves. g. Spiral ducts. h. Parenchyma. t. Small gland and epidermal cells, profile view. j. Parenchyma. 490 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 183. (Fig. 175.) SENEGA. Senega. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Senega, snakeroot, E. Senega wurzel, G. Poly gale de Virginie, (Fr. The roots of Poly gala Senega L., Polygalacese. Light yellowish brown. Peculiar, heavy, somewhat rancid odor. Sweetish, pungent. Parenchyma cells elongated; many of them collenchymatous ; phloem groups distributed through parenchyma. No cell contents excepting fat. Outer yellowish cork. Numerous tracheids and porous ducts. Ash 5 per cent. Compare with the western varieties with which the above is frequently adulterated. Other adulterants may also be suspected. VEGETABLE POWDERS 491 Fig. 175. SENEGA. a. Parenchyma with fat. b. e. Collenchymatous tissue. c. Cork. d. Collenchyma and phloem group, longitudinal view. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. g. Tracheids. h. Porous duct. 492 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 184. (Fig. 176.) SENNA. Senna. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Alexandriasenna, E. Sennesblatter, G. Feuilles de se*ne, Fr. The leaflets of Cassia acutifolia Delile, and C. augustifolia Vohl, Leguminosse. Light yellowish green. Somewhat fragrant. Slightly bitter; mucilaginous. Epidermal cells polygonal, cuticle quite thick with cuticular markings. Stomata on both surfaces. Simple, single celled, thick- walled trichomes with distinct cuticular markings. Crystals present. Ash 10 per cent. Ash of senna sif tings 17 per cent. Adulterated with leaflets of various related species and leaves of other plants. India senna is histologically closely similar to African. Trichomes longer and more numerous; as a rule each stoma is enclosed by two neighboring cells of unequal size, which is much less commonly the case in Alexandria senna. VEGETABLE POWDERS 493 Fig. 176. ALEXANDRIA AND INDIA SENNAS. a. Lower epidermis of India senna. 6. Epidermis of Alexandria senna. c, d. Epidermis, lateral view. e. Trichomes. /. Crystal bearing fibers from vascular tissue. g. Crystals. h. Bast of vascular bundles. 494 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 185. (Fig. 177.) SERPENTARIA. Serpentaria. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Virginia snakeroot, Serpentary root, E. Virginische Schlangen- wurzel, G. Serpentaire de Virginie, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Aristolochia Serpentaria L., Aris- tolochiacese. Grayish brown. Very strong odor of turpentine. Very pungent, bitterish. Some brown cork cells. Parenchyma cells more or less collenchy- matous, filled with compound starch granules, hili irregularly fissured, polarizing effects indistinct, the single granules measure from 6 to 1 Oju in diameter. Pith or central parenchyma cells thick-walled, porous. Numerous rather short tracheids; porous to reticulate ducts with greater portion of transverse septse still present. Ash about 9 per cent. Said to be adulterated with Spigelia marilandica, Aristolochia Serpentaria var. hastata, Cypripedium pubescens, C. parviflorum, Pale- monium reptans and Panax quinquefolium. VEGETABLE POWDERS 495 Fig. 177. SERPENTAR1A. a, b. Parenchyma cells with starch. c. Pith or central parenchyma. d. Tracheids. c. Porous duct. /. Cork cells. 496 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 186. (Fig. 178.) SINAPIS (BRASSICA) ALBA. White Mustard. U. S. Moderately fine. Yellow mustard, E. Weisser Senf, G. Moutarde blanche, Fr. The seeds of Sinapis alba L., Cruciferse. Light yellowish brown. Nearly odorless; disagreeable, somewhat alliaceous odor when moist. Very pungent. Epidermal cells large, polygonal, vertical walls very thin, contain- ing mucilage. Hypoderm of large collenchymatous cells. A layer of cells rich in proteid matter. A layer of peculiar mechanical cup shaped palisade cells with lower portions of walls very thick, upper part thin. Endosperm cells polygonal, very thin- walled, completely filled with fat and proteid matter. Ash 5 per cent. For adulterations see black mustard. VEGETABLE POWDERS 497 Fig. 178. SINAPIS ALBA. a. Epidermal cells with mucilage, vertical view. 6. Collenchymatous hypoderm. c. Proteid and oil bearing parenchyma. d. Mechanical cells, profile view. e. Mechanical cells, vertical view. /. Endosperm cells, entirely filled with fat and proteid matter. 498 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 187. (Fig. 179.) SIN APIS (BRASSICA) NIGRA. Black Mustard. U. S. Moderately fine. Schwarzer Senf, G. Moutarde noir (grise), Fr. The seeds of Sinapis nigra Koch, Cruciferae. Reddish brown. Odor and taste as for white mustard. Histology closely similar to that of white mustard. The mechanical cells (Fig. 179, 6), are however a bright reddish brown while they are colorless in white mustard. Collenchyma cells are wanting. Ash 6 per cent. Ground mustard is very frequently adulterated with flour, starch, curcuma, a small amount of capsicum; also with seeds of other species of Sinapis and Brassica. VEGETABLE POWDERS 499 Fig. 179. BLACK MUSTARD. Transverse section through the seed coat (testa). Compare with the seed coat tissues of the white mustard, a, epidermal layer; 6, hypodennal palisade cells (note the variation in length); c, dark colored layer of cells; d, beginning of the endosperm tissue. The seed coat tissue of rape seed is similar to that of black mustard. 500 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 188. (Figs. 180 and 181.) SPIGELIA. Spigelia. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Pinkroot, E. Marylandische Spigelie, G. Spigelie du Maryland, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Spigelia marilandica L., Loganiaceae. Light brown. Somewhat aromatic. Bitter. Outer suberized tissue containing dark coloring matter; parenchyma cells elongated containing some simple mostly spherical small starch granules; abundant porous tracheids and occasional spiral ducts. No true bast tissue excepting elongated non-porous tracheids. No sclerenchyma cells. Ash 10 per cent. Almost universally adulterated with the roots and rhizomes of Ruellia dliosa; also with other roots and rhizomes. Adulteration is the rule rather than the exception. Fig. 180. SPIGELIA MARILANDICA. a, outer cork parenchyma containing coroling substances; 6, elongated parenchyma cells bearing some starch; c, the porous tracheids are very abundant; d, spiral and reticulate ducts are sparingly present. VEGETABLE POWDERS 501 Fig. 181. Ruellia ciliosa roots and rhizomes. This constitutes the most common adulterant of Spigelia martiandica. a. Outer parenchyma, two cells with cystoliths. 6. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Parenchyma cells, longitudinal view. d. Cork tissue. e. Tracheids. 502 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 189. (Fig. 182.) STAPHISAGRIA. Staphisagria. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Stavesacre, E. Stephanskorner, Lausekorner, G. Staphisaigre, Fr. The seeds of Delphinium Staphisagria L., Ranunculacese. Very dark. Heavy, nauseous, rancid. Very bitter, pungent. Enormous epidermal cells, vertically elongated, thick- walled, brown, with warty to filamentous cuticular thickenings. Groups of longer cells alternate with groups of shorter .cells causing the pitted appearance of the seed. Below the epidermis a thin-walled parenchyma. Endosperm cells polygonal, walls moderately thick, not very porous, filled with granular proteid matter and fat. VEGETABLE POWDERS 503 Fig. 182. STAPHISAGRIA. a. Epidermal cell, vertical view. 6. Two epidermal cells, lateral view. c. Endosperm cells. d. Hypodermal parenchyma. 504 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 190. (Fig. 183.) STILLINGIA. Stillingia. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Queen's delight, Silver leaf, E. Stillingie, G., Fr. The roots of Stillingia sylvatica L., Euphorbiacese. Rather pale reddish brown. Somewhat heavy, musty. Bitter, pungent. Cork tissue with reddish brown coloring matter. Parenchyma cells filled with simple and compound irregular starch granules with quite distinct slit-like hill. Some parenchyma cells, usually smaller, with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Some typical bast fibers; tracheids and reticulate ducts. Medullary ray cells filled with starch. Ash 5 per cent. Rarely adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 505 Fig. 183. STILLINGIA. a. Parenchyma with starch, crystals and some brown resin. 6. Cork with reddish brown coloring matter. c. Bast fibers. d. Reticulate duct. e. Porous parenchyma, longitudinal view. /. Tracheids. g. Starch and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. 506 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 191. (Fig. 184.) STRAMONIUM. Stramonium Leaves. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Thornapple, E. Stechapfel, F. Stramoine, Fr. The leaves of Datura Stramonium L., Solanacese. Bright green. Heavy, nauseous. Bitter. Vertical walls of epidermal cells wavy, those of lower epidermis more markedly so. Stomata above and below. Simple, three to six celled, rather large and thin-walled trichomes with warty cuticular markings Glandular trichomes. Long palisade cells, spongy tissue cells with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Prismatic crystals are found in leaf stalk and vascular bundles. Ash 20 per cent. Compare with leaves of belladonna and hyoscyamus. 192. STRAMONIUM. Stramonium Seeds. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Names and origin as for 191. Very dark brown. Heavy, nauseous; rancid when old. Bitter. Epidermal cells quite large, somewhat rectangular in form, brownish in color, walls greatly thickened with numerous branching pores; outer walls wavy, producing warts and ridges as seen in lateral views. Endosperm cells polygonal, thick-walled, but not distinctly porous, bearing crenate aleuron grains and fat. Concentrated sulfuric acid colors the powder deep red. VEGETABLE POWDERS 507 Fig. 184. STRAMONIUM LEAVES. a. Upper epidermis. 6. Lower epidermis. c, Trichomes. e. Parenchyma cells of petiole. d, f, g. Epidermis, palisade cells and spongy tissue cells. h. Glandular trichomes. i. Crystals. 508 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 193. (Fig. 185.) STROPHANTUS. Strophantus. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 30. Strophantussamen, G. The seeds (awns removed) or Strophantus hispidus D. C., and S. Kombe 0., Apocynacese. Pale brown, somewhat oily. Heavy, disagreeable. Very bitter* Epidermal cells brown, elongated, outer and inner walls thin, vertical walls thick, of which the longitudinal ones are cylindrically thickened, as seen in transverse section. Simple, single-celled, thin- walled, brown trichomes. Endosperm cells thin-walled, polygonal, bearing oil, proteid granules, aggregate crystals and some compound starch. Ash 5 per cent. Strophantus Kombe and other species and varieties of Strophantus require further study. VEGETABLE POWDERS 509 Fig. 185. STROPHANTUS. a. Epidermis, vertical view. 6. Epidermis and trichome, lateral or side view. c. Trichomes. d. Epidermis, transverse view. e. Endosperm tissue, showing oil and crystals. /. Outer tissue with granular proteid matter and starch. 510 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 194. (Fig. 186.) SUMBUL. Sumbul Root. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. Sumbul wurzel, Moschuswurzel, G. Racine de sumbul, Fr. The roots of Ferula Sumbul Hooker jr., Umbelliferse. Light brown, resinous. Musk odor. Bitter, resinous (sticky). Rather abundant brown cork tissue. Very spongy parenchyma of thin-walled, loosely united cells bearing abundant, irregular masses of brownish resin. Below the cork a tissue of elongated brownish cells filled with brown coloring matter. Rather large brown ducts, varying in form from porous to reticulate and scalariform. Compare with the histology of the Russian and Indian varieties, and also with the roots of Dorema Amoniacum (false sumbul of India). VEGETABLE POWDERS 511 Fig. 186. SUMBUL. a. Parenchyma. 6. Cork. c. Tissue below the cork, bearing reddish brown coloring matter. d. Reticulate ducts. e. Resin masses. /. Very thin-walled, collapsed parenchyma. 512 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 195. (Fig. 187.) TABACUM. Tobacco. Fine powder, as snuff and insecticide. Tabak, G. Tabac, Fr. The leaves of Nicotiana tabacum L., and cultural varieties, Sol- anaceae. Dark brown. Heavy, characteristic; variable as to variety and manner of curing and preparing. Pungent, Stomata above and below; vertical walls, wavy and somewhat porous. Many-celled simple trichomes, thin-walled; most of them terminating in from one to many rather small secreting cells. No palisade tissue. Leaf parenchyma, with rather large cells filled with crystal sand of calcium oxalate. Ash 14 to 25 per cent. Numerous cultivated varieties. Extensively adulterated with a great variety of leaves from other plants, as those of cabbage, beet, chestnut, rose, cherry, peach, etc. Tobacco trimmings and tobacco stems are used as adulterants. VEGETABLE POWDERS 513 Fig. 187. TABACUM. a. Upper epidermis. b. Non-glandular trichomes. c. Glandular trichomes. d. Cells with crystals. e. Parenchyma (collenchymatous) from midrib. /. Leaf parenchyma with chlorophyll. 33 514 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 196. (Fig. 188.) TARAXACUM. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Dandelion, E. Lowenzahn, Pfaffenrohrchen, G. Dent de lion, Fr. The roots of Taraxacum officinale Weber, Composite. Light brown. Very peculiar disagreeable odor. Sweetish, somewhat bitter. Some brownish cork. Medium sized parenchyma bearing inulin. Laticiferous ducts. Typically reticulate ducts. No starch. No porous tracheids and no true bast fibers. Ash 10 per cent. Too plentiful to be extensively adulterated. VEGETABLE POWDERS 515 Fig. 188. TARAXACUM. a. Parenchyma with inulin. 6. Cork. c. Reticulate ducts. d. Laticiferous ducts. 516 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 197. (Fig. 189.) THEA. Tea. [Rolled leaves. Tea-dust. Thee, G. Th<§, Fr. The leaves (younger and older) of Thea sinensis L., Theaceae. Very dark green. Fragrant; tea-odor. Astringent, bitterish. Stomata on lower surface only, very numerous, nearly orbicular. Vertical walls of epidermal cells thick, somewhat wavy, with nodular thickenings. Simple, single-celled, thick-walled trichomes. A few large branching stone-cells, from leaf blade. Small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Leaf parenchyma cells thick-walled, with chloro- phyll and aggregate crystals. Ash 5.5 per cent. Adulterated with various leaves, as willow leaves, poplar leaves, etc. Exhausted leaves are dried, rerolled and mixed with good tea. Colored with Prussian blue and flavored with orange flowers and other fragrant flowers. Tea refuse and sweepings are used. , VEGETABLE POWDERS 517 Fig. 189. THEA. a. Upper epidermis. 6. Lower epidermis. c. Sclerenchyma cells. d. Trichomes. e. Leaf parenchyma. /. Crystals. 518 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 198. (Fig. 190.) THEOBROMA. Cacao. Paste, fine powder. Cocoa, E. Kakao, G. Cacoa, Feves du Mexique, Fr. The seeds of Theobroma cacao L., Sterculiacese. Deep reddish brown; chocolate brown. Mildly fragrantly aromatic. Bitter and astringent. Epidermal cells of seed small, polygonal, filled with deep brown coloring matter. A few multicellular deep brown trichomes. Thin- walled, collapsed parenchyma; selerenchyma layer. Endosperm cells thin-walled, polygonal, filled with fat and some compound starch. Hull remnants showing mechanical tissue of rather thick- walled, mostly elongated, porous cells. Spiral duct remnants and some crystals. Cocoa and chocolate are variously adulterated with ground cocoa shells, starch, rice, flour, cocoa butter, lard, and other substances. Shells should not exceed 3.5 per cent. Shell adulteration may be determined quantitatively by the method described in Part I. VEGETABLE POWDERS 519 Fig. 190. THEOBROMA. a. Epidermal cells of seed. b. Endosperm cells with fat and starch, longitudinal view. c. Trichomes. d. Mechanical cells of hull. e. Endosperm cells. /. Parenchyma. g. Sclerenchyma, top view. h. Sclerenchyma cells, profile view. i. Spiral ducts which are abundant hi the shell tissue. j. Mucilaginous substance characteristic of shell tissue. 520 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 199. (Fig. 191). TRAGACANTH. Gum Tragacanth. U. S. The dried gummy exudation of Astragalus gummifer Lab., Leguminosse. Snow white to light brownish. Odorless. Highly mucilaginous. In water mounts the particles immediately swell and become trans- lucent, showing lamellate lines and markings, with here and there groups of simple, nearly spherical starch granules, measuring from 4 to 8/* in diameter. Tincture of iodine reveals yellowish striae and groups of organic particles marking the interstices and lines of separa- tion of the lamellate particles. The quality of tragacanth is inversely proportional to the amount of starch present. In the crude drug (not powdered) the quality is also indicated by the color, the lighter and more translucent the article (as in the ribbon or vermicelli variety) the purer and better it is. The brown article (sorts) will show abun- dant starch. Ash should not exceed 3 per cent. The powdered article is likely to be made from the inferior sorts and refuse. It may be adulterated with India gum, cherry gum and other spurious vegetable gums. Gum tragacanth is much employed for adulterating purposes;, as ice cream and sausage meat fillers, as thickening agents, in egg substitutes, etc. VEGETABLE POWDERS 521 Fig. 191. GUM TRAGACANTH. A bit of the gum mounted in water and examined under a medium power, a, the gum presents a somewhat striated appearance, interrupted by organic matter which takes on a bright yellow colora- tion with tincture of iodine (c); 6, groups of simple starch granules are distributed through the gum. The better the quality of tragacanth the fewer the starch granules, but even the highest grade contains some starch. 522 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 200. (Fig. 192.) TURNERA. Damiana. Fl. ex. 30. The leaves of Turner a diffusa var aphrodisiaca Ward, and several other species of Turnera, Turneracese. Green; soon turning brown. Slightly aromatic. Somewhat pungent. Stomata on lower surface only. Vertical walls of epidermal cells somewhat wavy, thin; cuticle thick with linear markings. Simple, single-celled, somewhat bent and coiling, thick-walled trichomes with cuticular markings. Abundant tissue with deep reddish brown resin. Numerous aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Compare with T. diffusa, T. microphylla, and Aplopappus dis- coidea (false damiana). VEGETABLE POWDERS 523 Fig. 192. TURNERA. a. Upper epidermis. b. Lower epidermis. c. Epidermis, lateral view. d. Trichomes. e. Resin bearing tissue of leaf and petiole. /. Crystal bearing parenchyma. 524 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 201. (Fig. 193.) ULMUS. Slippery Elm. U. S. Moderately fine to quite fine. Elm bark, E. Ulmenrinde, Riisterrinde, G. Orme fauve, Orme Champetre, Fr. The inner bark of Ulmus fulva Michx., Ulmacese. Very light brown. Odor of fenugreek. Very mucilaginous ; tasteless. Bits of the outer bark are usually present, therefore brown cells may be found, no sclerenchyma. Inner bark parenchyma cells com- paratively small, thin- walled, rather closely united; porous, elongated sieve tube like elements, and medullary ray tissue plentiful. Numer- ous very characteristic prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; they occur in twos, each crystal having a hilum-like dot in the middle. Enormous mucilage cells. Starch deficient. Numerous bast fibers with thick walls. Very frequently adulterated with flour. Compare with U. cam- pestris and U. Americana. VEGETABLE POWDERS ' 525 Fig. 193. ULMUS. a. Inner bark parenchyma. b. Medium sized mucilage cell. c. Characteristic crystals (twin crystals) of calcium oxalate. d. Bast fibers. e. Porous, tracheid-like elements. 526 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 202. (Fig. 194.) UVA URSI. Uva Ursi. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Bearberry leaves, E. Barentraubenblatter, G. Busserole, Raisin d'ours, Fr. The leaves of Arctostaphylos Uvaursi Sprengel, Ericaceae. Greenish brown. Somewhat fragrant. Very astringent, bitter. Epidermal cells, polygonal, upper larger than lower; large orbicular stomata on lower surface only. Cuticle thick, yellowish. Leaf parenchyma cells with oil globules. Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Thick-walled parenchymatous tissue. Ash 3.25 per cent. Adulterated with leaves of cowberry, red whortleberry, sand myrtle, box, trailing arbutus, and Chimaphila. VEGETABLE POWDERS 527 Fig. 194. UVA URSI. a. Upper epidermis. 6. Lower epidermis. c. Parenchyma of leaf blade. d. Palisade tissue cells with oil globules and chlorophyll grains. e. Parenchyma from leaf blade. /. Crystals. g. Parenchyma with crystals. 528 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 203. (Fig. 195.) VALERIAN. Valerian. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60, Baldrianwurzel, G. Valeriane, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Valeriana officinalis L., Valerianaceae. Rather light brown. Disagreeable, characteristic valerian odor. Bitter. Some brown cork tissue. Parenchyma cells thick-walled, more or less irregular in form, tangentially flattened, and filled with compound (mostly twos) starch granules. Porous ducts and tracheids and some spiral ducts. Ash 15 per cent. Adulterated with other roots and rhizomes. Compare German and Engish valerian. VEGETABLE POWDERS 529 Fig. 195. VALERIAN. o. Parenchyma with, starch, transverse view. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Cork. d. Tracheids. e. Spiral duct. 530 POWDEKED VEGETABLE DRUGS 204. (Fig. 196.) VANILLA. Vanilla. U. S. Bruised. Powdered. Vanille, G., Fr. The unripe fruit of Vanilla planifolia Andrews, Orchidacese. Brown. Very fragrant, characteristic vanilla odor. Bitter. Epidermis of polygonal cells with porous walls, filled with granular substance, and each cell contains a prismatic crystal of vanillin. Hypo- derm of elongated somewhat collenchymatous cells. Parenchyma cells thin-walled collapsed, containing brown coloring matter, oil, and some cells, long acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. Numerous tracheids. (Numerous minute black seeds.) Ash 3 per cent. Not generally admixed with foreign tissue. There are a number of commercial grades of vanilla. The seeds of vanilla are very minute, barely discernible by the naked eye. They are globose in form, of simple structure. In the tropics where the pods are used for flavoring purposes, the seeds have been mistaken for the ova of intestinal parasites by inexperienced clinicians. VEGETABLE POWDERS 531 Fig. 196. VANILLA. a. Epidermal cells, vertical view, showing crystals of vanillin. b. Hypodermal cells. c. Epidermis, transverse view. d Parenchyma cells with crystals of calcium oxalate, longitudinal view. e. Crystals of calcium oxalate. /. Tracheids. 532 POWDERED, VEGETABLE DRUGS 205. (Fig. 197.) VERATRUM VIRIDE. Veratrum. U. S. Fl. ex. 60, Tinct. 60. American or green veratrum, American hellebore, Indian poke, E. Griiner Germer, G. Ve*ratre vert, Fr. The rhizomes and rootlets of Veratrum viride Aiton, Liliaceae. Light brownish gray. Odorless; somewhat disagreeable when moist. Very pungent, bitter. Epidermal cells brownish, rather thick- walled. Parenchyma cells medium in size, filled with compound starch granules; some raphides. Sclerenchyma cells with unequally thickened walls of endoderm sheath of rhizome. Tracheids; reticulate and spiral ducts. Ash 13 per cent. Compare with Veratrum album. VEGETABLE POWDERS 533 Fig. 197. VERATRUM V1RTOE. a. Parenchyma cells with starch. b. Raphides. c. Epidermal cells vertical view. d. Sclerenchyma cells of endoderm, transverse view. e. Ducts and tracheids. ./. Spiral duct. 534 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 206. (Fig. 198.) VIBURNUM OPULUS. Cramp Bark. Fl. ex. 60. Cranberry tree, E. Wasserholder, G. Obier, Fr. The bark of Viburnum opulus L., Caprifoliaceae. Pale brown. Odorless. Bitter, astringent. Outer bark of small-celled, thick- walled cork; middle bark of small cells bearing reddish brown coloring matter. Numerous bast fibers and crystal bearing fibers. Some isolated larger, irregular, bent, twisted and branching bast cells. Numerous inner bark parenchyma cells with prismatic crystals. Some larger parenchyma cells with larger crystals. Ash 5 per cent. May contain an excess of adhering wood fiber. VEGETABLE POWDERS 535 Fig. 198. VIBURNUM OPULUS. a. Normal bast fibers. 6. Inner bark parenchyma with crystals. c. Branching bast cells. d. Short bast cells. e. Parenchyma with larger crystals. /. Loose parenchyma of spheroidal cells. g, h. Outer parenchyma, t. Outer cork. 536 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 207. (Fig. 199.) VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM. Black Haw. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Sweet viburnum, E. Amerikanische Schneeballenbaumrinde, G. The bark of Viburnum prunifolium L., Caprifoliacese. Light reddish brown. Aromatic, valerian-like odor. Bitter, somewhat astringent. Outer rather large-celled cork. Outer portion of middle bark of tangentially flattened cells bearing some starch. Inner parenchyma bearing numerous aggregate and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Numerous yellowish, thick-walled, porous sclerenchyma cells, some of which are branching. No bast, but some wood fibers from the wood are to be found. Ash 7.5 per cent. Bark may be gathered out of season and may contain admixtures of other barks. VEGETABLE POWDERS 537 Fig. 199. VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM. a. Sclerenchyma. 6. Outer bark parenchyma, vertical view. c. Inner, smaller celled, parenchyma with crystals. d. Cork. e. Wood fibers. /. Crystals. 538 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 208. (Fig. 200.) WINTERA. Winter's Bark. Fl. ex. 60. Winter's Zimmt, G. Ecorce de Winter, Fr. The bark of Drimys Winteri Fcerster, Magnoliacese. Cinnamon brown. Aromatic, camphoraceous. Very pungent, somewhat bitter. Outer bark cells filled with reddish brown coloring matter. Inner bark parenchyma mostly empty; numerous larger cells rilled with a bright yellow resin. Sclerenchyma cells much as in coto and paracoto, pores large, some filled with brown granular matter. Confused with and substituted for coto, paracoto and canella. VEGETABLE POWDERS 539 Fig. 200. WINTERA. a, 6, c, d, e. Sclerenchyma cells. /, h. Parenchyma cells with resin. g. Outer bark cells with reddish brown coloring matter. 540 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 209. (Fig. 201.) XANTHOXYLUM. Prickly Ash. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Toothache tree, Angelica tree, Suterberry, E. Zahnwehrinde, G. Clava- lier, Frene e*pineux, Fr. The bark of Xanthoxylum Americanum Miller, Rutaceae. Light brown. Odorless. Very pungent, bitterish. Outer bark of cork with brown cell-contents. Collenchymatous middle bark. Inner bark of parenchyma, of mostly elongated cells, short crystal bearing cells and groups of phloem tissue; large yellow resin bearing cells. Both prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate abundant. Yellow sclerenchyma cells and some bent, twisted and somewhat branching bast cells. Ash 5 per cent. May be adulterated with bark of other species, Angustura and false Angustura. VEGETABLE POWDERS 541 Fig. 201. XANTHOXYLUM. a. Parenchyma with crystals and granular contents. b. Parenchyma and resin cells (c). d. Sclerenchyma. e. Bast. f. Collenchymato us tissue. g. Outer^bark parenchyma. 542 POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS 210. (Fig. 202.) ZINGIBER. Ginger. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40, As a spice. Ingwer, G. Gingembre, Fr. The rhizomes of Zingiber officinate Roscce, Scitaminese. Peeled — Light yellowish brown. Unpeeled — Darker. Aromatic; ginger odor. Very pungent. Polygonal, brownish cork tissue of the unpeeled or only partially peeled article. Parenchyma cells large, loosely united, filled with large, simple oval to elliptical starch granules; some cells with resin varying in color from bright lemon yellow to bright reddish brown. The starch granules are fairly uniform in size, measuring from 30 to 45ju in long diameter; the polarizing effects are not marked but delicately distinct. Some tracheids and rather large reticulate to nearly spiral ducts. Ash 4.5 per cent. Adulterated with starch, flour, chalk, capsicum, mustard, exhausted ginger, etc. Old ginger becomes yellowed and brownish in color. The powder of the unpeeled ginger is darker than that of the peeled rhizomes and will reveal the cork tissue cells. VEGETABLE POWDERS 543 Fig. 202. ZINGIBER. a. Parenchyma with starch and one cell with resin, transverse view. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Cork, vertical view. d. Tracheids. e. Ducts. GENERAL INDEX TO PART I Adulterants, common, 67 Adulteration, 61 accidental, 61 criminal, 62 detection of, 69 of drugs, 60 harmful, 42 harmless, 41 intentional, 62 manner of, 63 substances used, 64 Agar, test for, 152 Amylum, 198 Apparatus, 141 Ash determination, 43, 73 Bacteria, counting of, 142 Banda mace, 73 Barks, 84 Bast in, 5 Beaker sand test, 73 Benzoate of soda, 34 Benzoic acid test, 73 Bisulphide of carbon, 52 Black pepper test, 169 Bombay mace, 73 Breithaupt, 6 Broca's stain, 142 Carbon disulphide, 52 Cell contents, 102 Chamot, 154 Characteristic tissues, 172 Chloroform, 52 Chlorphenol, 13 Cinchona test, 73, 166 Cinnamon, test for, 161 Claims, false, 30 Clay, 67 Cloves, test for, 162 Cocoa, shells, 162 test for, 162 Coffee adulteration, 28 35 Color, of drugs, 10 standards, 10 Coloring substances, 68 Common adulterants, 67 Compound licorice powder, 170 Compound powders, 132 key to, 133 Condition powders, 163 Conium test, 73 Cooley, 6 Cork, 91 Council of pharmacy, 36 Counting chamber, 157 Crystals, study of, 139 types of, 139 Curcuma thread test, 74 Decomposition test, 144 Digitalis leaves, test, 168 Dirt, 67 Dohme, 6 Drug action compensation, 42 Drugs act, 28 Drugs, adulteration of, 60 ash, 43 color of, 10 commonly adulterated, 68 deterioration of, 38 exhausted, 65 fineness of, 42 inferior, 65 keys to, 115 moldy, 38 non-pharmacopoeial, 41 odorless, 18 old, 39 parasites in, 39, 46, 50, 52 for percolation, 42 powdering of, 53 purity of, 27 quality of, 27 store room for, 38 substandard, 36 545 546 GENERAL INDEX Drugs, tastes of, 22, 24, 25 variations in quality, 45 Eggs, imitation, 28 Ether, 52 Exhausted drugs, 65 Extract of malt, 200 Fineness of powders, 55 Flea glass, 2 Flowers, 76 Formaldehyde test, 74 Fruits, 87 Fungi, 47 Glucose, 200 Glycyrrhiza test, 169 Grahe's cinchona test, 73 Grinding drugs, 54 Guarantees, 37, 39 Hanausek, 154 Hand gluten test, 74 Hemacytometer, 142 Hoffmann, 5 Hooke, 3 Hypoderm, 85 Illustrations of tissues, 103 Inferior drugs, 65 Insect powder, 146 test for, 162, 168 Insecticide board, 33 Inspectors, 31 Iodine reaction, 74 Japanese tea, 28 Kaolin, 56 Karo syrup, 200 Key, to compound powders, 132 macroanalytical, 115 microanalytical, 123 simple powders, 115 to starches, 201 Konig, 154 Kraemer, 9 Laboratories, of Bureau, 33 equipment, 70 Lead, 69 Leaves, structure of, 83 Leeuwenhoek, 2 Lenses, 1 Lenticels, 89 Lichens, 49 Licorice powder, 170 Licorice test, 169 Lime, 67 Loeffler's stain, 142 Lloyd's reagent, 56 Mace test, 73 Macroanalytical key, 115 Maisch, 9 Malt extract, 200 Maltose, 200 Malt syrup, 200 Mansfield, 9 Mercaptan, 13 Meyer, 154 Microanalysis, 70 of crystals, 136 of flours, 147 - percentage determinations, 77 problems, 164 quantitative, 141, 154 report blanks, 76 of starches, 147 Microchemical reactions, 72 Microchemical reagents, 71 Micro-gluten test, 75 Micrometry, 142 Microscopes, 2 compound, 1, 7 Cuff's, 3 history of, 1 Hooke's, 3, 5 Jansen's, 3 Leeuwenhoek's, 2 in pharmacy, 1 simple, 2 Wilson's, 2, 3 Microscopical characteristics, 171 Microscopic examination, 71 Microscopic laboratory, 70 Misbranding, 30 Misstatements, 30 Mustard, 170 GENERAL INDEX 547 N. F. powders, 132 N. F. standards, 40 Neighboring cells, 85 New remedies, 36 Non-phannacopoeial drugs, 41 Notices of judgment, 27 Numerical counts, 142 Nutmegs, wooden, 28 Odor, 12 Odors, attraction for, 14 classification, 16 modification of, 19 persistence of, 14 standards of, 12 Olfactory nerves, 12 Opium, smoking, 151 Organoleptic tests, 75 Palisade tissues, 85 Pappus, 87 Parasites, 46 animal, 50 vegetable, 46 Pepper, 69 test for, 169 Pharmacognosist,s 31, 35 Phloroglucin, 73 Powdered drugs, 54 colors of, 58 examination of, 70 fineness of, 54 grouping of, 58 keys to, 115 mixing of, 55 percentage determinations, 77 preservation of, 57 Powdering drugs, 54 Preservation of powders, 57 Pure drugs act, 29 Purity rubric, 1 Pyrethrum powders, 146 Quantitative, estimation, 77 microanalysis, 141, 154 Reactions, microchemical, 72 Referee Board, 33 Refuse, 28, 65 Report blanks, 75 Rhamnus, test for, 167 Rhizomes, 90 Roots, 90 Rubric, purity, 1 Rusby, 6 Samples, taking of, 31 Sand, 66 beaker test, 73 Sayre, 6 Schlotterbeck, 6 Seeds, 87 Senna test, 167 Sieves, meshes of, 56 Sifting drugs, 54 Smell, sensation of, 13 Smoking opium, 151 Sodium benzoate, 34 Sophistication of drugs, 60 Spices, adulteration of, 68 Spore counts, 142 Stains, 142 Standards, 40 definition of, 40 Starches, 198 count, 148 key to, 210 morphology of, 202 percentage tables, 149 polarization of, 202 Stems, 92 Stomata, 85 Substitution, 63 Sulphur, 169 Sweepings, 28 Tactile sensations, 11 Taste, 20 aromatic, 21 classification of, 22 mixed, 21 standards of, 20 Tea, commission, 33 Japanese, 28 Tests, for agar, 152 beaker sand test, 73 benzoic acid, 73 boric acid, 74 butter fat, 152 cinchona, 73 548 GENERAL INDEX Tests, cinnamon, 161 cloves, 162 conium, 73 curcuma, 74 decomposition, 144 gluten, 74 Grahe's, 73 insect powder, 162 lignin, 73 mace, 73 organoleptic, 75 salicylic acid, 74 senna, 167 starch, 74 sublimation, 73 sulphurous acid, 74 Tissues, characteristics, 172 descriptions of, 101 distribution of, 83 epidermal, 84 identification of, 78 illustrations of, 78, 103 naming of, 78 Tissues, tabulation of, 79, 93 terminology of, 78 Torre, 2 Touch, 11 Trimmings, 28 Turmeric, 74 U. S. P., labels, 41 powders, 132 standards, 40 Vegetable powders, 58 Vogel, 154 Wall, 9 Weinzierl, 154 Winnowings, 65 Wood, 93 Yeast count, 142 Ziehl's carbol fuchsin, 142 Zwaluwenberg, 6 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON STAMPED BELO T DATE AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENT WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. (Bie>L©GY . LIBRARY) • ;; • . •• i NT^R«! JEfpAOv ' MT9-H I1'.'- |f^ * LOAN , MAr< b SWI MAR 1 9 1968 • > . . -, - - • APR Q ffl68 1 APR 7 ia41 .^j******" / ADR 91 1QA1 / Hrn wA iw*rl / .„... 2 1941 I APR U 1*42 IP/? 2 9 1942 OCT 13 1946 uA^FV^T £\-f* *-*V-*>^- ' '^DCT ^g 1|4|B 1UN 1 3 196^ 81 r*« ^ K 1^68 LD 21-100m-8,'34 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES . Yjuaau AiwaoiUAo TO rneaaviwu